ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics AT Cornell University Cornell University Library SF 61.I61P Principles of animal feeding, principles 3 1924 003 685 918 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003685918 JNTERNATIONAL LIBRARY OF TECHNOLOGY A SERIES OF TEXTBOOKS FOR PERSONS ENGAGED IN THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS AND TRADES OR FOR THOSE WHO DESIRE INFORMATION CONCERNING THEM. FULLY ILLUSTRATED AND CONTAINING NUMEROUS PRACTICAL EXAMPLES AND THEIR SOLUTIONS PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT MILK FARM BUTTER MAKING BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE i)' ,«( "7 A V SCRANTON: INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY 122 ^ SF T (oif 322644 Principles of Animal Feeding: Copyright, 1912, by International Textbook Company. Principles of Animal Breeding: Copyright, 1911, by International Textbook Company. Dairy Barns and Equipment: Copyright, 1912, by International Textbook Com- pany. Breeds o£ Dairy Cattle: Copyright, 1911, by International Textbook Company. Dairy-Cattle Management, Part 1: Copyright, 1911, by International Textbook Company. Dairy-Cattle Management, Part 2: Copyright, 1912, by International Textbook Company. Milk: Copyright, 1911, by International Textbook Company. Farm Butter Making: Copyright, 1911, by International Textbook Company. Beef and Dual-Purpose Cattle, Parts 1 and 2: Copyright, 1912, by International Textbook Company. Beef and Dual-Purpose Cattle, Parts 3 and 4: Cjpyright, 1913, by International Textbook Company. Copyright in Great Britain All rights reserved ^^Pd 2,5882 122 PREFACE The International Library of Technology is the outgrowth of a large and increasing demand that has arisen for the Reference Libraries of the International Correspondence Schools on the part of those who are not students of the Schools. As the volumes composing this Library are all printed from the same plates used in printing the Reference Libraries above mentioned, a few words are necessary regarding the scope and purpose of the instruction imparted to the students of — and the class of students taught by — these Schools, in order to afford a clear understanding of their salient and unique features. The only requirement for admission to any of the courses offered by the International Correspondence Schools, is that the applicant shall be able to read the English language and to write it sufficiently well to make his written answers to the questions asked him intelligible. Each course is com- plete in itself, and no textbooks are required other than those prepared by the Schools for the particular course selected. The students themselves are from every class, trade, and profession and from every country ; they are, almost without exception, busily engaged in some vocation, and can spare but little time for study, and that usually outside of their regular working hours. The information desired is such as can be immediately applied in practice, so that the student may be enabled to exchange his present vocation for a more congenial one, or to rise to a higher level in the one he now pursues. Furthermore, he wishes to obtain a good working knowledge of the subjects treated in the shortest time and in the most direct manner possible. iii iv PREFACE. In meeting these requirements, we have produced a set of books that in inany respects, and particularly in the general plan followed, are absolutely unique. In the majority of subjects treated the knowledge of mathematics required is limited to the simplest principles of arithmetic and mensu- ration, and in no case is any greater knowledge of mathe- matics needed than the simplest elementary principles of algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, with a thorough, practical acquaintance with the use of the logarithmic table. To effect this result, derivations of rules and formulas are omitted, but thorough and complete instructions are given regarding how, when, and under what circumstances any particular rule, formula, or process should be applied ; and whenever possible one or more examples, such as would be likely to arise in actual practice— together with their solu- tions — are given to illustrate and explain its application. In preparing these textbooks, it has been our constant endeavor to view the matter from the student's standpoint, and to try and anticipate everything that would cause him trouble. The utmost pains have been taken to avoid and correct any and all ambiguous expressions — both those due to faulty rhetoric and those due to insufficiency of statement or explanation. As the best way to make a statement, explanation, or description clear is to give a picture or a diagram in connection with it, illustrations have been used almost without limit. The illustrations have in all cases been adapted to the requirements of the text, and projec- tions and sections or outline, partially shaded, or full-shaded perspectives have been used, according to which will best produce the desired results. Half-tones have been used rather sparingly, except in those cases where the general effect is desired rather than the actual details. It is obvious that books prepared along the lines men- tioned must not only be clear and concise beyond anything heretofore attempted, but they must also possess unequaled value for reference purposes. They not only give the maxi- mum of information in a minimum space, but this infor- mation is so ingeniously arranged and correlated, and the PREFACE -V indexes are so full and complete, that it can at once be made available to the reader. The numerous examples and explan- atory "remarks, together with the absence of long demonstra- tions and abstruse mathematical calculations, are of great assistance in helping one to select the proper formula, method, or process and in teaching him how and when it should be used. The material presented in. this volume is intended to form a simple yet thorough treatment of the basic principles on which depend the successful feeding and breeding of farm animals. The various recognized breeds of dairy, beef, and dual-purpose cattle are described in detaU and illustrations of typical animals are shown. Sanitation as it relates to the health of animals and also as it affects the quality and healthfulness of mUk and butter is clearly and c()ncisely discussed. Other important matters treated are, the establishment of dairy herds, care of dairy cattle, approved methods of handling and marketing dairy products, bams and their equipment, and the establish- ment and management of beef-cattle herds. Because of the concise and practical treatment of the problems that present themselves to dair3rmen and stockmen engaged in raising beef and dual-purpose cattle it is believed that the volume will be extremely helpful to those who are interested in this phase of agriculture. The method of numbering the pages, cuts, articles, etc. is such that each subject or part, when the subject is divided into two or more parts, is complete in itself; hence, in order to make the index intelligible, it was necessary to give each subject or part a number. This ntimber is placed at the top of each page, on the headline, opposite the page number; and to distinguish it from the page number it is preceded by the printer's section mark (§). Consequently, a reference such as § 16, page 26, will be readUy found by looking along the inside edges of the headlines until § 16 is found, and then through § 16 untU page 26 is found. International Textbook Company CONTENTS Principles op Animal Feeding Section Page Introduction 25 1 Composition of Feeds 25 3 Functions of Feed 25 7 Functions of Feed Compounds 25 8 Digestion of Feed 25 11 Absorption of Feed 25 17 Factors Influencing Digestibility of Feed . . 25 18 • Classification of Feeds 25 22 Concentrates 25 22 Roughage 25 24 Selection and Use of Feeds 25 29 Balanced Rations 25 29 Miscellaneous Factors Affecting the Selec- tion and Use of Feeds 25 34 Feeding Tables 25 38 Principles op Animal Breeding Reproduction 26 2 Germ Cells 26 4 Reproductive Organs 26 6 Fertilization 26 9 Development of the Embryo 26 11 Birth 26 12 Abortion 26 15 Sterility 26 16 ' Laws of Breeding 26 17 Law of Heredity 26 17 Law of Variation 26 25 Breeding Operations 26 32 V vi CONTENTS Principles of Animal, Breeding — Continued Section Page Selection of Aniinal& for Breeding 26 32 Inbreeding 26 39 Breeding to Points and Improvement of Breeds 26 46 Castration 26 46 Determination of Sex 26 47 Breeding Records 26 49 Standard of Excellence 26 53 Dairy Barns and Equipment Dairy Bams 41 1 Location of Dairy Bams 41 6 Construction of Dairy Bams 41 8 Ventilation of Dairy Bams 41 15 Equipment for Dairy Bams 41 19 Stanchions and Stalls 41 19 Mangers and Watering Troughs 41 28 Carrying Devices 41 30 Rectangular Dairy Bams 41 35 Round Dairy Bams 41 57 Polygonal Dairy Bams 41 63 Basement Dairy Bams 41 67 Breeds of Dairy Cattle Dairy Type of Cattle 42 1 Dairy Breeds 42 4 Jersey Cattle 42 4 Guernsey Cattle 42 8 Holstein-Friesian Cattle 42 13 Ayrshire Cattle 42 19 Dutch Belted Cattle 42 24 Brown Swiss Cattle 42 28 Simmenthal Cattle 42 29 French Canadian Cattle 42 29 Devon Cattle 42 30 Shorthom Cattle 42 32 Red Polled Cattle 42 32 CONTENTS vii Dairy-Cattle Management Section Page Selection of Dairy Cattle 43 1 Selection of Dairy Cows 43 1 Selection of the Dairy Bull 43 17 Systems of Dairying 43 19 Miscellaneous Information 43 24 Management of Dairy Cows 44 1 Management of Calves 44 16 Management of Dairy Bulls 44 19 Registration of Dairy Cattle 44 22 Milk Secretion of Milk . . . • 45 1 Composition of Milk 45 3 Contamination of MUk 45 10 Bacteria in Milk 45 10 Preserved Milk 45 32 Milk Fermentations 45 32 Pathogenic Bacteria in Milk 45 39 Absorption of Odors by Milk 45 44 Market Milk ' 46 1 Profits in Milk Production 46 1 Weighing, Testing, and Keeping Records of Milk 46 8 Milk Standards of the United States .... 46 17 Milk Standards of Canada 46 32 Handling of Market Milk 46 33 Farm Butter Making Quarters for Farm Butter Making 47 3 Cream-Separating Equipment 47 8 Centrifugal Separators 47 8 Devices for Gravity Separation 47 15 Chums 47 19 Miscellaneous Equipment 47 24 Butter-Making Operations 47 35 Centrifugal Separation of Cream 47 35 Gravity Separation of Cream 47 37 viii CONTENTS Farm Butter Making — Continued Section Page Babcock Test for Cream, Skim Milk, and Buttermilk 47 40 Ripening of Cream . . .47 42 Determiaation of Acidity in Cream . . .47 47 Churning 47 49 Salting, Working, and Packing of Butter .47 55 Beef and Dual-Purpose Cattle Definitions and Explanations 48 1 Beef and Dual-Purpose Types of Cattle . 48 5 Beef Breeds of Cattle 48 9 Shorthorn Cattle 48 9 Polled Durham Cattle 48 16 Hereford Cattle 48 20 Aberdeen-Angus Cattle 48 28 Galloway Cattle 48 35 Sussex Cattle 48 40 Dual-Purpose Breeds of Cattle .... 48 43 Devon Cattle .48 43 Red Polled Cattle 48 46 Brown Swiss Cattle 48 50 Shorthorn Cattle . 48 52 Market Classes of Cattle 49 1 Beef Class of Cattle 49 4 Butcher Stock 49 12 Cutters and Canners 49 22 Stockers and Feeders . . . . 49 27 Veal Calves 49 42 Milkers and Springers 49 46 Baby-Beef Cattle, Distillers, and Texas and Western Ranch Cattle . . ... 49 47 Export, Shipping, and Dressed-Beef Cattle . 49 51 The Beef Carcass 49 54 Judging of Beef Cattle 49 60 Judging of Dual-Purpose Cattle 49 69 Equipment for Beef and, Dual-Purpose Cattle 50 1 Bams 50 1 Sheds 50 15 CONTENTS ix Beef and Dual-Purpose Cattle — Continued Section Page Feed Bunks and Miscellaneous Equipment . 50 25 Feeds for Beef and Dual-Purpose Cattle . . 50 40 Founding of a Herd 51 1 Selecting of Foundation Stock 51 2 Management of Beef and Dual-Purpose Cattle 51 8 Management of a Breeding Herd 51 8 Management of Cattle for Market ... 51 32 Fitting of Cattle for Exhibition . . . 51 43 Castration of Calves ... 51 48 Dehorning of Cattle .... . . 51 49 Branding of Cattle 51 51 Registering of Cattle 51 51 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING INTRODUCTION 1. The successful feeding of farm animals is based upon certain fundamental principles. These principles have to do with the chemical composition of feedstuffs, their mastica- tion, digestion, absorption, and assimilation in the aniraal body; with the feed requirements of different classes of farm animals for maintenance, growth, fattening, work, and milk production; and with the source and availability of feeds, their palatabiHty, cost, and physical properties. The principles of feeding discussed in the following pages are equally applicable for all classes of Hvestock. The sum of knowledge from which have been evolved the principles of feeding has been made up and contributed to by the observation of the results and methods of practical stock raisers and feeders, by practical feeding tests or experiments performed scientifically by the experiment stations, and by the discoveries of scientific investigators in chemistry and physi- ology. From these three sources of knowledge have been sup- plied such a large accumulation of facts that the principles are well supported. It is not possible to say that the experience of the practical feeder is more necessary to the beginner than a knowledge of the chemistry of feeds and the physiology of the animal body. Both are indispensable for the best success, and each supplements the other. To understand the princi- ples of feeding, a person must know what scientists teach, and to be able to put them into successful practice he must have COPYRIOHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ALL RIOHTS RESERVED §25 242—2 2 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 experience. To be successful the practical man must be a stu- dent, get down below the surface of things, and seek the reasons for good or bad results in the feeding yard. The scientist, or the person with only a book knowledge of feeding, must get experience and appreciate the necessity of close observation of the habits, characteristics, and peculiarities of animal life on the farm before he can be expected to feed successfully or to instruct others in the art. Successful feeding is, therefore, both an art and a science; it involves not only the method, or how to do, but also the reasons for those methods. The principles of animal feeding should be used as guides rather than as absolute rules in practice. They are valuable aids to experience, but they cannot take its place. The prin- ciple is general in its application, while the practice must be specific. Conditions of environment vary so widely in dif- ferent sections of the country, and from season to season; the individuality of the animals fed is so marked; and the price and availability of feeds are so changing that the practices of a feeder and his methods must be determined largely by his indi- vidual conditions and circumstances. A method that is suc- cessful with one class of animals may not give good results with another class, and what is considered to be a successful practice in one part of the country might give very unsatis- factory results in another. The value of a knowledge of the principles of feeding should, therefore, be apparent, for their application is universal. With a knowledge of the principles of feeding, the feeder himself is in a position where he is better able to solve his own problems than any one from without who is unacquainted with his particular conditions. He is also equipped to interpret intelligently and to use the results of experimental work. § 25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF FEEDS COMPOSITION OF FEEDS 2. It is a matter of common observation on farms that cer- tain feeds tend to produce growth — the formation of bone, mus- cle, etc. ; that other feeds tend to produce fat ; and that still other feeds tend to produce milk. The reason that different feeds produce different results is largely that of the difference in their composition; therefore, a knowledge of the composition of a feed is a valuable guide to the man that feeds livestock. In discussing the composition of feeds it is necessary to make use of the chemical terms element and compound. An element is a form of matter that cannot be separated by any method known to science into two or more simpler substances. Car- bon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron are ele- ments. The total number of elements that have been discovered by scientists is about eighty, which, so far as known, compose the whole matter of the universe. A oompoimd. is a chem- ical combination of two or more elements. For example, water is a compound of the two elements hydrogen and oxygen. Starches and sugars are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in definite proportions. Of the entire number of ele- ments, only about fifteen enter into the compounds of plant aijd animal matter, and many of these fifteen elements are found only in very small quantities. These fifteen elements are car- bon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, sodium, potassiimi, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, silicon, fluorine, and chlorine. These elements do not occur in a free form in feeds but make compounds, which in turn form the feeds. Chemists in analyz- ing feeds have made five classes or groups into which all com- pounds that are found in feeds are placed. These classes are PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 25 water, ash, protein, carbohydrates, and fat. The following tabulation shows the elements that make up the compounds of each class, and Table II, which appears at the end of this Section, shows the per cent, of each class of compounds in the common American feedstuffs. Water Ash. ( Hydrogen I Oxygen Oxygen Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Iron Manganese Sulphur Phosporus Silicon Fluorine Chlorine Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Protein \ Nitrogen Sulphur Phosphorus Iron I Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Fat. Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen 3. Water in Feeds.— All feedstuffs contain water, although the more water that a feed contains the smaller is its nutritive value. In young and growing plants the presence of water is readily apparent; it represents from 70 to 90 per cent, of the total weight of such plants. Air-dried feeds, such as the grains, corn, wheat, and oats, and well-cured hays, contain on an aver- age only from 8 to 15 per cent, of moisture, or water; but some of the succulent feeds contain a very large percentage of water. Thus, green Kentucky- blue grass contains 65.1 per cent, of water; green clover, 70.8 per cent.; com silage, 73.6 per cent.; potatoes, 79.1 per cent.; sugar beets, 86.5 per cent.; and mangel wurzels, 90.9 per cent. 4. Ash in Feeds. — The mineral matter, or ash, of a feed is the portion that is left after complete binning; it is, therefore the incombustible part. The common farm feeds contain but a small percentage of ash, although the percentage varies greatly in different feeds. § 25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 5 Thus, potatoes contain .9 per cent, of ash; rutabagas, 1.2 per cent.; com, 1.5 per cent.; oats, 3.2 per cent.; timothy hay, 4.4 per cent. ; Red clover hay, cut when the clover is in bloom, 6.6 per cent. ; and alfalfa hay, 8.6 to 10.6 per cent. It may be noticed that legumes are high in their content of ash. Although the mineral constituents usually represent a very small proportion of the dry matter of a feed, they are an impor- tant and essential part of every ration. At one time it was thought that almost all rations for domestic animals supplied sufficient mineral matter to meet the demands of the animals fed, but the conclusions recently reached by scientists indicate that the supply of these constituents is frequently lacking. The poor results from feeding only corn to young pigs are due largely to a deficiency of mineral matter in the ration. 5. Protein in Feeds. — All plant and animal compounds that contain the element nitrogen are grouped into a class to which the term protein is applied. This is a very general term and the number of compounds included in this group is exceed- ingly large. In addition to nitrogen, there are always found in protein the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and sometimes sulphur, phosphorus, and iron. jOwing to the fact that nitrogen is found in all the compounds included in this class, they are often spoken of as nitrogenous compounds. The percentage of protein in the different parts of plants varies exceedingly. Usually the seeds of plants contain a larger percentage of nitrogenous compounds than do the whole plants; and certain parts of the seeds are richer in these compounds than other parts. Thus, dry com fodder (ears on) contains only 4.5 per cent, of protein; shelled corn, about 10.3 per cent.; and gluten feed, a by-product in the manufacture of corn starch from shelled com, 25 per cent. Wheat straw contains 3.4 per cent, of protein; wheat grain, 11.9 per cent.; and bran, shorts and middlings, by-products in the manufacture of flour, contain from 12 to 17 per cent. Some of the by-products of slaughter houses are used as feeds and are usually very rich in protein. A few of the more highly nitrogenous feeds, which are sometimes referred to as protein feeds, and their per cent, of 6 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 protein are: blood meal, or dried blood, 84.4 per cent.; tankage, 53.9 per cent.; cottonseed meal, 45.3 per cent.; old-process linseed meal, 33.9 per cent.; soybeans, 33.5 per cent.; gluten feed, 25 per cent.; cowpeas, 20.5 per cent.; wheat middlings, 16.9 per cent. ; and wheat bran, 15.7 per cent. Most of the feeds ordinarily grown on the farm do not con- tain sufficient protein to satisfy the demands of the animals fed. Commercial protein feeds like those just mentioned are, therefore, widely used in connection with com, timothy hay, com stover, corn fodder, etc. The commercial feeds, which are sometimes called supplemental feeds, owe their value and extensive use almost entirely to their content of protein. A fact in connection with the use of protein feeds is that when they are fed to farm animals the manure voided by these ani- mals is rich in nitrogen, and is, therefore, of particular value in maintaining soil fertility. The fact that livestock must be depended upon generally as a very successful and economical means of maintaining and building up the productive capacity of soils makes this phase of the feeding problem increasingly important. 6. Carbohydrates in Feeds. — Like protein, the term carbo- hydrate is a general one and is the name of a large group of compounds. All carbohydrates are alike, however, in that they .contain only the three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The hydrogen and oxygen are present in the same ratio as they are in water, that is, 2 parts hydrogen to 1 part of oxygen. There are two general classes of carbohydrates, namely, crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract. Crude fiber constitutes the framework, or skeleton, of plants, such as the hard, woody por- tions of com stalks and of straws. The husks of grains, such as oat hulls and com and wheat bran, contain large quantities of this material ; wood also is an example of crude fiber. Carbo- hydrates of the nitrogen-free-extract class are much more val- uable as sources of feed than are those of the cmde-fiber class, because the former are more easily digested than the latter. Familiar examples of the nitrogen-free-extract compoiuids are § 25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 7 com starch and common sugar. There are many kinds of sugars and starches, but the feed values of all are very similar. Most of the more common feeds raised on farms contain a large percentage of carbohydrates. So large, in fact, is this propor- tion that most rations that are made from these feeds contain too large a proportion of carbohydrates. Corn contains 72.6 per cent, of carbohydrates; wheat, 73.7 per cent.; oats, 70.2 per cent. ; rye, 76 per cent. ; barley, 72.9 per cent. ; com fodder, 49 per cent.; com stover (without ears), 51.2 per cent.; and tim- othy hay, 74 per cent. 7. Fat in Feeds. — The term fat, as it is used in connection with feeds, applies to all true fats and oils, as well as to all other feed compounds that are soluble in ether, and because of this fact the terms ether extract and fat are used synonymously in tables showing the composition of feedstuffs. The ether extract, or fat, in seeds and other concentrates consists largely of true fats and oils; but the ether extract, or fat, of coarse fod- ders and straw consists largely of waxes and chlorophyl, which are compounds that have less feed value than the true fats and oils. Although all feeds contain some fat, the percentage of these compounds in feeds varies widely. Rye contains 1.9 per cent, of fat; wheat, 2.1 per cent. ; corn, 5 per cent. ; oats, 4.8 per cent. ; soybeans, 17.2 per cent. ; cottonseed, 19.9 per cent. ; sun- flower seed, 21.2 per cent.; flaxseed, 33.7 per cent.; and pea- nuts (with huUs), 35 per cent. FUNCTIONS OF FEED 8. Production of Energy. — The first function of feed is to furnish energy. All the physiological activities as well as the general and necessary movements of the animal body require energy for their support. The mastication of the feed, the beating of the heart, the circulation of the blood, and the movement of the feed along the alimentary tract all necessi- tate a constant supply of energy. In addition, cell changes, or vital activity in every organ and every gland of the body, represent the expenditure of energy. In a sense, the living 8 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 animal is an engine at work. The feed represents the fuel; the activities mentioned, the necessary work. Even in a state of apparent rest the body is burning fuel and using energy. But when any kind of exercise is taken, a large amount of energy is used. If more feed is consumed than is necessary to supply the immediate requirements for energy, an excess of energy is stored up in the form of fat, and this may be dra^n-n upon at times when there is too small a quan- tity of feed consumed to create the necessary energy. 9. Production of Tissues and Secretion of Fluids. — Another function of feed is to build up the various tissues and to secrete the fluids of the body. The growth of young animals, the production of fat, and the secretion of milk are exam- ples of this function. All parts of the animal body are tissues and are continuously being worn out and replaced. And the replacing, also the wearing out, of all tissues whether it be muscle, fat, bone, skin, hair, horn, hoof, wool, blood, nerve, cartilage, tendons, vital organs, or what not requires an expen- diture of energy, which in ttun requires the consumption of feed. The muscles, the vital organs, the blood, the skin, hair, wool, the horn and hoofs, and the cartilages and tendons are produced from feeds rich in protein, and for this reason they are sometimes called protein tissues. FUNCTIONS OF FEED COMPOUNDS 10. Fimctions of Water in Feed. — ^Water, although not a source of energy, is a necessary constituent of every tissue and its presence is fundamental to the activities of all living mat- ter. The active, living cell is more than 90 per cent, water; the animal body as a whole is more than 50 per cent, water; the digestive juices, the blood and lymph, and all the other fluids and secretions of the body, in most cases, contain from 85 to 99 per cent, of this important constituent of feed. Water is the vehicle, or means, that enables the digested feed to be absorbed, transported to the tissues, and the residue, or waste § 25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 9 material, to be conveyed from the tissues to the organs of elim- ination. It also performs the important function of aiding in maintaining the normal temperature of the body. The sup- ply of water is not limited to the feed eaten, and does not demand the same attention from feeders as many of the other feed constituents, a necessary supply of which is often lacking in many of the common farm feeds. 11. Functions of Ash in Feed. — One function of the ash, or mineral portion, of feed is to furnish material for the produc- tion of bone. The facts that strong bone in an animal is impos- sible without a plentiful supply of ash in its feed and that many feeds and rations do not contain a sufficient quantity of bone- making ingredients to meet the demands of growing animals make the supply of ash important to the feeder. Also, ash forms an essential part of the blood, the digestive juices, and, in fact, all the secretions of the animal body. Com- mon salt, one of the ash compounds, is particularly abundant in the animal body. Without the mineral constituents in feed animal life would be impossible, for all the important vital processes, such as digestion, assimilation, circulation, and res- piration, depend in part on the presence of ash for support. Another function of ash is to neutralize poisons. In the processes of ijutrition, which involve the changing of the feed into living tissue, the burning of the feed to yield energy, and the breaking down or wearing out of old tissue, compounds are produced that are poisonous to the animal system. Cer- tain of the ash ingredients then unite with these poisonous pro- ducts and destroy their injurious properties. 12. Functions of Protein in Feed. — The most important function of the feed constituent, protein, is to build protein tissue. Due to the fact that protein is the only class of com- pounds that can be used by the body in forming muscular tis- sue, its supply must be constant and sufficiently abundant if good results are to be obtained. Special attention should be given to the supply of protein in rations for cows giving milk and for growing animals, because of the large quantity of pro- tein required by these animals. The importance of this class 10 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 of compounds is emphasized, too, by the fact that the average ration, especially when com is the chief grain crop, is often deficient in protein. Another function of protein is to furnish energy. This func- tion protein, shares with the carbohydrates and fats. If the supply of protein is more than sufficient to satisfy the require- ments for growth or for nulk production, it is burned and the energy is used in the work of the animal and in the suppl5dng of heat. As feeds that are rich in protein are usually high priced, no more protein should be fed than is necessary to build new or to replace worn-out protein tissue. The energy and heat demands of the animal can be more economically met by the feeding of carbohydrates and fats. A possible function of protein is to btuld fat. However, authorities agree that under normal conditions fat production is never supported by this class of feed compounds. Experi- ments prove, on the other hand, that under some conditions the protein of the feed is capable of being used by the body in making fat. 13. Functions of Carbohydrates in Feed. — The carbohy- drates are the great energy and heat producers of the animal body. Their abundance in the common hays and grains guar- antees a plentiful supply in the rations ordinarily fed on farms to meet the demands of the animals fed. The second ftmction of these compounds is to build fat. It is a matter of common observation that feeds like com have a strong tendency to produce fat in the animal body. In fact, the heating and fattening qualities of com are so pronounced as to make it unbalanced, and when it is fed exclusively to pigs, for example, it promotes the development of fat at the expense of bone and muscle. 14. Functions of Fat in Feed,— The functions of fat are identical with those of the carbohydrates, that is, to produce energy and heat and to supply fat to the animal body. But for the production of energy and heat, fat has about two and one-fourth times the value of carbohydrates. That is, if the same quantity of both, carbohydrates and fat, are biuned sepa- § 25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 11 rately and the heat given off in each case is measured, it will be found that the fat liberates approximately two and one- fourth times the amount of heat that the carbohydrates do. In the same way digested fat is more efficient in producing body heat than are digested carbohydrates. DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FEED DIGESTION OF FEED 15. The process of digestion includes all the physical and chemical changes in feed that take place within the alimentary canal, which result in the feed being dissolved, or rendered capable of passing through the walls of the stomach or intes- tines into the circulatory system. In other words, it is the processes whereby the feed is made soluble and capable of being absorbed. 16. Digestive Changes in the Mouth. — The first and an important step in the process of digestion is mastication. By this action the feed is reduced to a more or less finely ground condition. At the same time, the feed is softened by the addi- tion of fluids that are poured upon it from the glands in the mouth and thus rendered capable of being more easily swallowed. In addition to the mechanical change in the feed, there are chemical changes that take place in the mouth. The digestive fluid, secreted by the salivary glands and known as saliva, con- tains a digestive ferment, or enzyme, called ptyalin, which acts on certain of the carbohydrate compounds, particularly starch, and tends to convert it into sugar. But, because of the fact that the feed is retained in the mouth a relatively short time, the action of the saHva in changing starch to sugar is Umited. 17. Digestive Changes in the Stomach. — ^When mastica- tion is complete, the feed passes down the esophagus into the stomach, where it is acted on by certain digestive juices. Before 12 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING §25 considering the digestive processes occurring in the stomach, attention should be given to the anatomy of this important organ. The stomach of an ox is divided into four compart- ments. In Fig. 1, the rumen, known also as the first stomach, or paunch, is illustrated at a and b, a being the left hemisphere and b the right hemisphere; the termination of the esophagus is shown at c; the reticulum, second stomach, or honeycomb, at d; the omasum, third stomach, or manyplies, at e; the abo- masum, fourth stomach, or rennet, at /; and the beginning of the small intestine at g. The stomach of the sheep and the Fig. 1 goat is similar to that of the ox and has four more or less dis- tinct compartments. The stomach of an ox holds from 40 to 60 gallons, and the rrunen, or patmch, holds about nine-tenths of this quantity, or from 36 to 54 gallons. The chief use, or function, of the rumen is that of a reservoir for the storing of large quantities of water and partly masti- cated feed. The large size of this compartment explains the wonderftil capacity of cattle for coarse, rough feeds like fodder, straw, and hay. After remaining in the paunch long enough to be softened and somewhat mixed by the rolling action given to the contents by the muscular walls, the feed is passed back § 25 PRINCIPLES OP ANIMAL FEEDING 13 to the mouth by a reverse process of swallowing called regurgi- tation. The feed is then remasticated and again swallowed, after which it passes directly to the third stomach. When ruminants, that is, animals that remasticate their feed, live mostly on rough, coarse feed, the amoimt of energy expended by them in chewing their feed is considerable, and, as the feed itself is the source of the energy, such animals fail to profit as much from coarse feed as from feed that is easily digested. The reticulum, or second compartment, is the smallest of the four. Its chief function appears to be that of catching and holding foreign objects, such as small stones, nails, pieces of wire, etc. that may be swallowed with the feed, and, probably, of supplying water to the paunch when that compartment is forming its contents into cuds, or boluses, to be regurgitated. The omasum, or third stomach, is a little larger than the reticulum, to which it connects. The contents of the third compartment of the stomach are usually rather dry. This is due to the grinding, pressing treatment given to the feed by the contraction of the strong muscular walls. In addition to the contraction of the walls, there extend from them leaf-like projections that aid in reducing the material to a finely ground condition. The function of the third stomach is, therefore, the mechanical preparation of the feed for the abomasum, or true stomach. In fact, nearly all of the changes to which the feed is subjected by the action of the first three compartments of the stomach is simply for the ptirpose of getting it ready for the true stomach, or abomasum, where digestion proper begins. On reaching the true stomach the feed is subjected to the action of the gastric juice, a digestive fluid that is secreted in large quantities by the walls of this compartment. This fluid contains three essential ingredients — hydrochloric acid, pepsin, and rennin. The pepsin and rennin are the real digest- ive agents, but their action is limited or impossible when hydrochloric acid is absent. Like the ptyalin of the saliva, pepsin and rennin are ferments, or enzymes. The protein compounds of the feed are the only ones affected by the pepsin and rennin. The action of the pepsin is to change certain of the nitrogenous bodies into peptones, which are sol- 14 PRINCIPLES OF ANIIMAL FEEDING §25 uble forms of protein. The rennin causes the protein of milk to coagulate and in yovmg animals that are fed chiefly on milk this ferment is very active. The action of rennin in milk is necessary, because not until the protein of milk is coagulated is the pepsin capable of changing it into peptones, that is, the final stage of the digestion of the protein of nulk. The stomach of the horse and of the pig consists of but one compartment. The stomach of a horse has a total capacity of from 2 to 4 gallons and that of a pig from IJ to 3 gallons. The stomach of a horse is illustrated in Fig. 2, in which the stomach end of the esoph^us is shown at a and the beginning of the small intestines at b. Digestion in the stomach of a horse or a pig occurs in much the same manner as in the true stomach of an ox; the protein compounds of the feed are rendered soluble by the digestive ferments and are then ia a form that they can be absorbed. Fig. 2 18. Digestive Changes in the Intestines. — ^Most of the work of digestion is accomphshed in the small and large intestines. Although the sma.11 intestines, which connect with the stomach, are of small diameter, certain portions of the large intestines expand into large compartments. In the horse, especially, a portion of the large intestines, known as the caecum, has an enormous development ; it is from 3 to 4 feet in length, and has a capacity of from 7 to 8 gallons. The function of the caecum is similar to that of the paunch in the stomach of an ox, that is, that of a reser\'oir for the storage of water and coarse feed. At a in Fig. 3 is shown the caecum of a horse; from a study of this illustration, which shows a ventral view of a horse with the abdominal floor removed to show the abdominal viscera, an idea of the relative size of the caecum can be gained. The feed, on passing from the stomach into the small intes- tine, comes in contact with two digestive fluids, the bile and §25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 15 the pancreatic juice. The bile is secreted by the liver and, although the bUe possesses no ferments, it performs a necessary part in the process of digestion. The first and probably the most important function of the bile is to change the acid con- dition of the feed as it comes from the stomach to an alka- line condition. This change is necessary because the contents Pig. 3 of the intestine must be alkaline before the pancreatic juice can work to the best advantage. The bile aids also in the digestion of the fat of feed and is credited with antiseptic properties that tend to lessen the production of gas, which, if produced, is likely to hinder digestion. The pancreatic juice possesses ferments that act upon all three classes of feed — the carbohydrates, protein, and fat. 16 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 When the material from the stomach has been changed to an alkaline condition by the bile, the ferments of the pancreatic juice act upon all the feed that has not been made soluble. The proteins are changed to peptones, the carbohydrates are converted into sugar, which is soluble, and the fats are split up, changed, and emulsified, in which finely divided condition they are capable of being passed through the walls of the intestines. The fifth and last digestive fluid with which the feed comes in contact in its passage along the alimentary canal is the intestinal juice, which is secreted by the walls of the intestines and is responsible for the final work of digestion. Its action is concerned mainly with the undigested protein and carbo- hydrate compounds, but some physiologists claim that it possesses also the power of further digesting the fat. Although authorities disagree as to the importance and the extent of the activity of the intestinal juice in digestion, it is beHeved by many that its action, in a way, supplements or completes the action of all the other juices, especially those concerned with the digestion of carbohydrates. 19. Water in Digestion. — The water that forms a part of feed or that may be drunk by an animal is not changed chemic- ally or physically in the process of digestion, but it is the mediimi in which the peptones, sugars, and emulsified fat compounds are carried into solution or suspension through the walls of the stomach and intestines. 20. Ash in Digestion. — The ash compounds of feed do not seem to be acted upon by the ferments of the digestive juices as are the protein, carbohydrate, and fat compounds. The various changes through which the ash compounds pass prior to their absorption and the agents responsible for these changes are not well understood. 21. Expulsion of the Undigested Part of Feed. — ^The portion of feed that is undigested, together with the residues of the digestive juices, are expelled from time to time by the animal as feces. The length of time required from the time a feed is eaten until the undigested residue is expelled varies § 25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 17 considerably with the different species of animal and- with the natiire of the feed eaten. According to some careftil investigators it takes on an average from 3 to 4 days with cattle and sheep, about 36 hours with pigs, and probably from 2 to 3 days with horses. ABSORPTION OF FEED 22. Absorption is the passing of the digested feed nutrients through the walls of the intestines and stomach into the cir- culation. As soon as the digestion of any particles of feed is complete, absorption begins. As parts of the feed, such as sugars and certain mineral compounds, are already soluble, their absorption begins almost immediately upon their enter- ing the stomach. Since some of the protein, carbohydrate, and fat compounds are more soluble than others, the process of digestion and absorption occurs simultaneously, both continu- ing while the feed passes almost the entire length of the ali- mentary canal. Absorption is accomplished chiefly in the intestines, where there is a fine network of blood and lymph vessels separated from the contents of the intestines by a very thin membrane. The liquid containing the solid feed compounds in the intes- tines being a denser fluid than that contained in the absorbing vessels, the feed passes through the intervening wall, or mem- brane, by the process of osmosis. This process is explained by the fact that when two liquids of unequal density are sepa- rated by an animal membrane a portion of the denser solution passes through the membrane into the lighter solution. Both the lymphatic and blood circulatory systems play an important part in the absorption of the digested feed and its transportation to the various tissues of the animal body. This is one of the important functions of the circulatory system, for before any of the feed nutrients can be used in furnishing energy to the body, in building fat, bone, or muscle, or in the formation of milk, they must be conveyed to the living tissue cells. The digested protein, the sugar from the digested starch, and the soluble mineral compounds reach the general circula- tion, mainly, by way of the blood in the venous capillaries 242—3 18 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 located in the lining of the alimentary canal. These capil- laries, or minute blood vessels, converge into the portal vein, which conveys the absorbed feed compounds to the liver. From the liver they are transported by the hepatic vein to the general circulation. The capillaries of the l5miphatic system lie alongside the capillaries of the blood vessels in the intestinal wall, but absorb only the digested fat and probably a part of the peptones. These capillaries converge to form larger ves- sels that unite with the main trunk of the lymphatic system, the thoracic duct, from which its milky-like contents are poured into the blood circulation. After reaching the circulation of the blood, the feed compounds are soon brought in contact with every living tissue cell of the animal body. Here is where the real processes of nutrition take place, and the feed yields up its energy by being oxidized or is deposited in the form of protein, bone, or fat tissue, according to the demands of the cell and the nature of the feed brought to it. FACTORS INPLUENCrNTG DIGESTIBILITY OP FEED 23. The digestibility of a feed or a ration is determined by subtracting the dry matter of the feces from the dry matter of the feed eaten. The difference represents the portion digested and absorbed into the circulation. Digestion experi- ments have been extensively conducted with the several classes of farm animals and from these tests the experimenters have been able to determine not only the percentage of total dry matter digested but also the digestibility of each one of the several classes of feed compounds in the separate feed- stuffs. Table III shows the total dry matter and the digestible nutrients in 100 pounds of most of the feeds commonly used in America. The value of a feed or ration depends on its composition and the completeness with which it is digested. The factors that influence digestibility are therefore important considerations for the feeder's attention. Among these factors are the character of the feed; the species of animal to which the feed is fed; the §25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 19 palatability of the feed; the preparation of the feed; the quantity of the ration; and the frequency of feeding. 24. Character of the Feed. — The chemical composition of a f^ed greatly influences its digestibility. Some feeds have as high as 90 per cent, digestibility; other feeds have as low as 40 per cent, and a few, perhaps, less. This difference is due almost entirely to the quantity of crude fiber that the feed contains. Corn stalks, wheat straw, and such feeds contain large quantities of crude fiber and are very imperfectly digested even by niminants. Concentrated feeds like corn, oil meal, etc., are much more completely digested because their content of crude fiber is very low. The digestibility of a feed can be very closely predicted by a knowledge of its composition. In fact, the digestibility of a feed varies indirectly with the quantity of crude fiber present. It is a well-known fact that the proportion of crude fiber in plants, especially grasses, increases with their mattirity, and because of this fact the stage TABLE I COMPARISON OP THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDS BY HORSES AND SHEEP Percentage of Digestibility of Kind of Animals Corn Oats Clover Meadow Hay Wheat ' Straw Horses Sheep 89 89 67 71 51 56 51 64 23 48 of growth affects the digestibility of the dry matter of plants. At one time it was thought that salt aided in digestion. Although common salt is necessary to meet the demands of the animal body, its presence in the ration seems to have no effect upon the digestion of the feed eaten. Condimental stock feeds, which usually contain a large percentage of salt, are claimed by many persons to promote digestion. Thorough experimental tests, however, indicate that under normal conditions digestion is not affected by these feeds. 20 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 25. Species of Anim al. — The different classes of farm animals do not differ materially in the completeness with which they digest concentrated feeds, because this class of feeds appears to be digested as thoroughly by pigs and horses as by cattle and sheep. Bulky, coarse feeds, however, are not so easily digested by pigs and horses as by cattle and sheep. Essential facts brought out in trials conducted by Doctor Wolff, an eminent German scientist, are given in Table I and furnish reliable data on this subject. 26. Palatability of Feed. — It is reasonable to believe that a palatable ration is more thoroughly digested than one that is not palatable. A ration possessing an agreeable odor or flavor starts the flow of digestive juices more quickly than one not having these quaUties. It is a matter of common experience that even the thought of food makes a hungry man's mouth water. However, there does not appear to be any digestion trials covering the effects of palatability of feeds on their digestibility. 27. Preparation of Feed. — The digestibility of such feeds as com, wheat, and oats is increased from 6 to 8 per cent, if they are ground before they are fed to horses or cattle; but their digestibility is not so affected by grinding if they are fed to sheep. It is the general opinion of feeders that the grinding of corn and other grains increases their digestibility for pigs. The practicability of grinding the feed on the farm depends upon the facilities for doing the work, the availability of the power, and the extent of the feeding operations. If the grind- ing costs more than one-tenth the value of the feed, the grinding is of very doubtful economy. Experiments uniformly condemn the cooking of feed for livestock. The digestibility is generally lowered instead of raised; the protein constituents are invariably rendered less digestible; cooking, however, sometimes improves the palata- bility of rations, and is practiced to some extent by feeders who are fitting animals for exhibition purposes. In such cases, however, the cost of the feed is not an important factor. Although the thoroughness of digestion is not appreciably § 25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 21 affected, some successful feeders claim that slightly better results are obtained by the cooking of hard, dry grain before it is fed to pigs than if it is fed dry. However, rations should usually be fed in a dry condition. Exceptions to this nile may be made as stated above and when fattening cattle are fed hard, dry corn on pasture. The use of sloppy feeds for all classes of livestock, even for hogs, is becoming less popular with practical feeders all the time. 28. Quantity of Ration. — ^A review of the results of experi- ments on the effects of the quantity of a ration on its digesti- bility indicates that a half ration is a little more thoroughly digested than a normal full ration, but that the difference is not great. However, this question is not of sufficient impor- tance to be considered practical by feeders. It would be poor economy and judgment, for example, to feed a fattening steer scarcely more than a maintenance ration in an effort to secure maximum digestion. Likewise, an experienced feeder will have more important reasons for not overfeeding than a^ possible saving in the feed itself. 29. Frequency of Feeding. — Frequency of feeding does not affect digestibility when natural limits, in regard to the quantity of a daily ration, are observed. 22 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDS CONCENTRATES 30. Feedstuffs can be conveniently divided into two gen- eral classes: concentrates and roughage. All grains, seeds, and by-products that are used as feeds are included in the general class known as concentrates. Feeds belonging to this class yield a larger proportion of digestible nutrients than the feeds of the other class and are an efficient source of feed for animals. The richness and high digestibility of concentrates make them the chief dependence of the feeder who is seeking rapid gains in the feeding pen, a large milk flow in the dairy, or spirit and working capacity in horses. The proportion of concentrate feeds that should be supplied in a ration depends upon the class of animal that is being fed, and on whether or not the ration is merely one for maintenance or is a full ration. About 73 per cent, of the composition of the cereal grains — com, wheat, oats, rye, and barley — ^is carbohydrates, as may be learned by referring to Table II. Another characteristic of the cereals is their low content of protein. Com, which is the lowest in this respect, has 10.3 per cent, of protein, and barley, which is the highest, contains but 12 per cent. These grains are excellent for fattening purposes, but if fed alone they are not well suited to produce growth or a large flow of milk. Cottonseed and flaxseed have more protein and less carbohydrates than have the other grains listed in Table II, but, due to the fact that they are used commercially as a source of vegetable oils, these seeds are seldom used whole as feeds. 31. By-product feeds are the by-products that occur in the manufacture of vegetable oils, glucose, com starch, flour, alcoholic liquors, etc. At one time all of these by-products were wasted, but since their value as livestock feed has been § 25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 23 demonstrated by experience and experiment they command a high price in the market. The chief characteristic of many of the by-product feeds is their richness in protein, for which reason they are often referred to as protein feeds. Another term that is commonly used in designating them is supplemental feeds, which is an appropriate term, because their chief fimction in any ration is to supplement other feeds. They are known also as com- mercial by-product feeds. As has been stated, corn is low in the percentage of protein that it contains, but when an equal quantity of shorts or middlings is added to the com the ration is much better balanced in its composition than the ration of com only, and on account of this fact the supplemental feeds are widely used and greatly needed wherever corn is the chief grain crop. Although some of the by-products are extremely rich in protein, others contain scarcely more than do the common grains. The most common by-product feeds that contain more than 30 per cent, of protein are: blood meal, or dried blood, 84.4 per cent. ; tankage, 53.9 per cent. ; cottonseed meal, 45.3 per cent. ; old-process linseed meal, 33.9 per cent.; gluten meal, 33.8 per cent.; dried distiller's grains, 31.2 per cent. Those that con- tain from 20 to 30 per cent, of protein are : malt sprouts, 26.3 per cent.; gluten feed, 25 per cent.; dried brewer's grains, 25 per cent. ; germ oil meal, 21.7 per cent. By-product feeds contain- ing less than 20 per cent, of protein are: wheat middlings, 16.9 per cent.; shorts, 16.9 per cent.; wheat bran, 15.4 per cent.; rye bran, 14.6 per cent.; rye middlings, 14.3 per cent.; com bran, 11.2 per cent.; hominy feed, 10.5 per cent. 32. All the feeds just mentioned except blood meal and tankage have their origin in the grains. Blood meal and tankage are by-products of the slaughter houses. Blood meal, the richest feed in protein, is simply dried blood. Tankage is tfie leavings of the grease tanks, scraps of meat, and bone waste, some blood, and the residue left after evaporating certain of the liquid wastes. This material is cooked under high steam pressure until it is thoroughly disintegrated, after which it is 24 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 dried and ground. Tankage is used extensively as a hog feed, but is not considered palatable for other classes of Uvestock. The value of commercial by-product feeds is determined chiefly by the quantity of protein they contain, and when they are intelHgently used as livestock feed they are a means of securing large and economical results. However, judgment must be exercised in their purchase and use; they are usually high priced and, therefore, the practical feeder should reduce his purchases of them to a minimum. In fact, he should dispense with their use whenever possible. This can often be done by growing protein feeds on the farm. With a liberal supply of such feeds as soybeans, cowpeas, Canada field peas, clovers, and alfalfa it is often possible to dispense with the use of by-product feeds. ROUGHAGE DRY ROUGHAGE 33. The three general classes of dry roughage used as live- stock feed are hays, straws, and fodders. As compared with the concentrates, all roughage feeds are more bulky in nature, less digestible, and, therefore, are not so efi&cient as fxunishers of materials for the production of energy, growth, fat, or milk. They usually are the stalks of the plants from which the seed has been removed. Their low digestibility is due to the large proportion of crude fiber, or woody matter, that they contain. Though ranking low in feed value, they constitute an essential and necessary part of every ration for all farm animals, except perhaps for pigs. A large part of the ration for ruminants must be in the form of roughage, for a certain degree of bulk in their feed is necessary to insure good digestion and to prevent the consumption by the animal of an excess of nutrients. The large digestive capacity of ruminants makes it possible, in many cases, for the ration to be made up largely of coarse feed. On account of the difference in the digestive capacity of the animals, less roughage is used for horses and pigs than for ruminants. The abundance and the comparative cheap- § 25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 25 ness of roughage on most farms make it highly desirable that the feeder use all such feeds as completely as possible on the farm. 34. Hays.— The hays represent the most valuable roughage for feeding purposes. They are of two classes, namely, legu- minous and non-leguminous. The leguminous hays have, on an average, a higher feed value, are more digestible and usually more palatable when properly cured, and contain a larger pro- portion of protein than the non-leguminous hays. The high percentage of protein in cowpea, in soybean, and in other leguminous hays is shown in Table II. As leguminous hays contain more protein and less carbohydrates than non- leguminous hays, the former are particularly valuable when fed with com or other feeds that contain small percentage of protein. The quantity of protein that leguminous hays contain guarantees a high fertilizing value to the manure of the animals to which the hays are fed. There can be no weU- directed or wise system of cropping established on farms that does not include some legume in the crop rotation, and experi- ence and scientific investigation both indicate that legu- minous hay should be fed on the farm where it is grown. Timothy hay and prairie hay are largely used for the feeding of horses. The freedom of these hays from dust makes them safer than most of the leguminous hays for this class of animal. Clover and alfalfa hays are very desirable feeds for breeding cattle, all classes of sheep, cows in milk, and fattening steers. When these hays are clean and free from dust, they are valu- able, also, for colts. Soybean and cowpea hays seem to be particularly suitable for fattening and breeding sheep and are valuable, also, in rations for milch cows. 35. Straws. — The straws are the lowest of the roughages in feed value. Their high content of crude fiber makes them hard to digest and reduces their palatability. However, straws are of some use as livestock feed. Rtuninants that are to be carried through the winter on merely a maintenance ration can make large use of straw. Idle horses can also be fed some of this material to advantage. 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 36. Fodders. — Most of the fodder available for livestock feed has its origin in the corn plant. Com fodder, or fodder com, is the entire com plant after dr3dng. Corn stover is com fodder minus the ears. Shredded com stover is com stover that has been passed through a com shredder. Due to the popularity of com as a farm crop, American stockmen depend on it largely for feeding all classes of stock. Field-cured corn fodder, when well cured, constitutes an extremely palatable and a fairly rich feed. For the fattening of steers it is given high rank by the practical feeder. Also, experiments indicate that cattle seem to do well when a portion of their grain is given to them in corn fodder. The leaves and the tips of the stalks are eaten with great relish. Com fodder loses a considerable part of its feed compounds, however, by weathering and fermentations. Tests by Woll, of the Wiscon- sin Experiment Station, indicate a loss of dry matter to the extent of from 15 to 20 per cent, of the original weight, and that this loss is of the more easily digested compounds. Com stover, whether in the shredded or whole condition, is of rather low feeding value, but, due to its abundance, is an important source of feed for animals that are being carried through the winter with little grain. At the Missouri Experi- ment Station thin steers were carried through the winter at a loss of only 33 pounds per steer. In these tests the whole stover proved a little more valuable than the shredded stover. Com fodder and corn stover are most profitably used when fed with clover or alfalfa hay. It has been found by experi- ment that 25 per cent, of the protein, 39 per cent, of the carbo- hydrates, and 15 per cent, of the fat of the corn plant is in the stover. The fact that such a large percentage of the protein, carbohydrates, and fat of the corn plant is in the stover is ample reason for utilizing the whole plant for livestock feed, although in some sections of the United States much com stover is not utilized as feed but is left in the fields unused. Other plants used extensively for fodder in many parts of America are millets and sorghums. Of these the saccharine varieties of sorghum, which are rich in sugar, make an unusually palatable feed when dried under favorable conditions. § 25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 27 SUCCUIiENT ROUGHAGE 37. Soiling Crops. — When soiling, that is, the feeding of soiling crops, is practiced extensively, the animals are kept in more or less confinement and the feed is carted or carried to them. Wherever there is an abundance of land that may- be used economically for pasture purposes, soiling as a general system of feeding is not common. However, with increased land values and the necessity of large rettmis from a given area, the feeding of soiling crops is becoming a poptdar method of feed- ing. Soiling crops, when given as a supplement to pasturage in the late summer and fall, are particularly useful for sustaining gains in young stock and for preventing a shrinkage in milk flow. The crops most valuable fpr soiling purposes are field corn, sweet com, sorghum, millets, rape, rye, oats, wheat, alfalfa, the clovers, cowpeas, soybeans, and vetch. It is desirable that these crops be fairly well matured before they are cut, as the immature plants are mostly water and often have an injurious effect on the digestive system of an animal. 38. Silage. — Silage may be defined as feed which has been stored in such a maimer that its green or fresh condition is preserved. Green clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, sorghum, and other forage crops have been stored successfully in the silo. But the great American crop preeminently suited for the making of sUage is the com plant. Recent tests have shown that it is usually unprofitable to make sUage out of a crop that can be successfully cured and stored in the mow without danger of excessive fermentation. The pithy stalk of the com plant prevents it from drying and being handled in the same way as the hollow-stalked hays and straws. The feeding value of com silage was first demonstrated by feeding it to dairy cows. For milk production, succulence in ithe ration is almost indispensable, and with com silage for ' winter feeding the good effects of the succulent pasture grass during the summer are extended through the winter. Experi- ments at the Purdue University, Indiana, and the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Stations have recently proved the 28 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 economy and value of com silage in the winter ration of fatten- ing steers. AU the tests so far conducted to show the safety and profit of feeding sUage to fattening lambs have been favorable to its use. Breeding ewes at the Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station farm have been largely main- tained during the winter on com silage and clover hay. A recent experiment at the Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station indicates that ■ sUage can be successfully fed to horses that are being fattened for the market. For the winter feeding ' of breeding cows and of calves, silage has proved a great boon. The value of com silage as a feed is largely due to its suc- culence, which is an essential quality of rations for most classes of farm animals. For yoimg stock generally which eat btdky rations, it promotes that sappy, thrifty condition which is associated with rapid growth and quick maturity. A second reason for the increasing popularity of this feed on the stock farm is its economiy, or cheapness. The feeding value of the com plant is preserved more fully in the sUo than when put up as shock com, or com fodder. The average loss in the feeding value of shock com by weathering and fermentation is about 20 per cent.; in the sUo the loss is usually no more than 15 per cent. The sQo makes it possible for the entire com plant to be preserved in a green, succulent condition, and as at least one-third of its feeding value is found outside the ear, the sUo is certain to remain a fixture throughout the changes to more intensive or careful methods of farming. 39. Root Crops. — The roots ordinarily grown for feed are mangels, sugar beets, rutabagas, and carrots. Horses prefer carrots; sheep, common turnips and rutabagas; and for cattle mangels are very appropriate. In England and Scotland, roots are largely depended on for aU classes of livestock, especially for cattle and sheep. In fact, in those countries roots constitute the greatest part of the daily rations for livestock; but in America roots are not grown extensively for the feeding of livestock. This is due chiefly to the amount of labor required to grow and harv^est a root crop ; and to the fact that com is so extensively grown and made into silage, § 25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 29 1 pound of the dry matter of which is practically equal in feeding value to 1 pound of the dry matter of roots. How- ever, professional herdsmen who are fitting stock for exhibition usually prefer roots to silage. A large percentage of all root crops is water and their chief value as feed lies in their cooling, succulent properties, to their palatability, and to the digest- ibility of the dry matter that they contain. According to experiments conducted in Denmark, 1 pound of dry matter in roots is equivalent in feeding value to that of 1 pound of dry matter in com, wheat, oats, or barley for feeding to cows in milk. SELECTION AND USE OE FEEDS BALANCED RATIONS 40. Feeding Standards. — The object of the study of the principles of feeding is to make it possible for farmers and stockmen to feed their livestock in a manner to satisfy all the physiological demands of animals and, at the same time, to do it economically. A feeding standard shows the experi- mentally estabHshed quantities of dry matter, digestible protein, digestible carbohydrates, and digestible fat that are necessary to satisfy the physiological requirements per day per 1,000 pounds of live weight of animals under specified conditions. Thus, the Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards, given in Table IV, show that a dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds and giving 22 potuids of milk should receive 29 pounds of dry matter, 2^ pounds of digestible protein, 13 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and J pound of digestible fat for each 24 hours. This standard is the result of experiment and scientific investi- gation, which has shown that a daily ration supplying the above quantities and kinds of digestible nutrients to a 1,000- pound cow will maintain on an average, a milk flow of 22 pounds a day. All the other standards in the table have been derived in the same manner. In actual practice, these feeding standards can never be used for more than general guides, because, even if the stand- 30 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 ards truly satisfied the physiological demands per 1,000 pounds of live weight of animals for 24 hours, which many of the original standards worked out by Wolff and later revised by Lehmann are not supposed to do, they take note only of the chemistry of the feeds, and do not consider the palatability or cost of the feeds, two very important points to the feeder. These feeding standards have been widely and generally used in America as a guide in practical feeding operations. They are the work of two German scientists, Wolff and Lehmann, performed at a time when facilities for accurate scientific determinations were extremely meager. Their labors deserve high honor and regard, but the findings of modern investigators in animal nutrition, as well as practical feeding tests, have shown that most of these standards are in need of further revision. However, they are the only comprehensive standards for the several classes of animals available for the student, and the standards will be of service in practical feeding operations if too much is not expected of them. 41. Nutritive Ratio. — A nutritive ratio is the ratio of the digestible protein to the digestible carbohydrates and fat in any feed or ration. In computing the nutritive ratio of a ration, the amount of digestible fat is multiplied by 2.25 and the product added to the amount of digestible carbo- hydrates, and the sum divided by the amount of digestible protein. The ratio of one to the quotient is the nutritive ratio. To illustrate: What is the nutritive ratio of a ration furnishing 2.5 pounds of digestible protein, 15 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and .5 poimd of digestible fat? The calculation is usually made as follows: .5X2.25 = 1.125; 1.125+15 = 16.125; 16.125^-2.5 = 6.45. The nutritive ratio is, therefore, 1 part of protein to 6.45 parts of carbo- hydrates and fat, or 1 : 6.45. Note. — Some authorities on feeding multiply the quantity of fat by 2.4 in computing a nutritive ratio, but recent experiments and investiga- tions show that 2.25 is a more nearly correct factor to use. The nutritive ratio is wide or narrow according to the pro- portion of protein that the ration contains. If the relative §25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 31 amount of protein in a ration is large, it is said to have a narrow nutritive ratio, and if the relative amount of portein is small it is said to have a wide nutritive ratio. A ratio of 1 to 5.5 or less is considered narrow; a ratio of 1 to 8 and above is con- sidered wide ; between these two the nutritive ratio is medium. Young growing animals generally and cows giving milk need a large amount of protein, and should therefore receive a ration that has a narrow nutritive ratio. Fattening animals thrive well on wide rations, but pregnant animals and horses at work should receive rations of a medium nutritive ratio. 42. Making Up a Balanced Ration. — By the aid of Table III, which gives the total dry matter and the digestible nutrients contained in 100 pounds of the different feedstuffs, and the number of pounds of each of the digestible nutrients, the nutritive ratio may be determined of almost any ration that may be fed. As the supply of digestible protein in the average ration in use, especially throughout the com belt, is usually below the requirements of the animal to which the rations are fed, it is frequently desirable and necessary to determine how closely a given ration comes to satisfying the feeding standards given in Table IV. For example, suppose cows that are giving about 20 pounds of milk daily are receiv- ing the following ration per day: 10 pounds of clover hay, 35 pounds of corn silage, 3 pounds of wheat bran, and 3 pounds of oats. How nearly does this ration conform to the standard? The standard ration for cows giving 22 pounds of milk daily is as follows: Dry Matter Pounds Digestible Nutrients Nutritive Ratio Protein Pounds Carbohydrates Pounds Fat Pounds 29 ' 2.5 13 0.5 I to 5.7 According to Table III, 100 pounds of Red-clover hay contains 84.7 pounds of dry matter, 7.1 pounds of digestible protein, 37.8 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and 1.8 pounds 32 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING §25 of digestible fat. Ten pounds of clover hay, therefore, con- tains one-tenth of these quantities of nutrients, or the foUow- ing: 8.47 poimds of dry matter, .71 pound of digestible protein, 3.78 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and .18 pound of digestible fat. One hundred potmds of com silage contains 26.4 pounds of dry matter, 1.4 pounds of digestible protein, 14.2 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and .7 pound of digestible fat. One pound of com silage, therefore, contains one-hundredth of these quantities and 35 pounds contains 35 hundredths, or .35. Dividing the amount of each nutrient, then, by 100 and multiplying by 35 gives 9.24 pounds of dry matter, .49 pound of digestible protein, 4.97 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and .245 pound of digestible fat, which are the nutrients contained in 35 pounds of com sUage. In the same way the nutrients contained ia 3 pounds of wheat bran and 3 pounds of oats are determined. All such data are set down in tabular form, as foUows, and the total dry matter and the total of each nutrient is deter- mined by adding the numbers in each column and the nutri- tive ratio is corriputed as explained in Art. 41. Dry Matter Pounds Digestible Nutrients Ffwis Protein Pounds Carbo- hydrates Pounds Fat Pounds Nutritive Ratio lo pounds clover hay . 35 povmds corn silage . . 3 pounds wheat bran. . . 3 pounds oats 8.470 9.240 2.643 2.688 .710 ■490 •357 •321 3.780 4.970 1.260 1-509 .180 ■245 ■075 .114 Total 23.041 1.878 "•5I9 .614 I to 6.86 43. As compared with the standard, the above ration is lacking in amoimt of dry matter and in total digestible nutrients. It is also deficient in the proportion of digestible protein con- tained, as the nutritive ratio is too wide. It may be noted that the quantity of fat is greater than is required by the ' standard, but as the function of fat and carbohydrates is the §25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 33 same, it is only necessary, in making up a balanced ration, that the sum of the carbohydrates plus the fat mtiltiplied by 2.25 be approximately the same as the sum of these nutrients, computed in a like manner, is in the standard ration. In fact, it is very difficult to make up a balanced ration from American . feedstuffs and not have the quantity of fat in excess of that called for by the Wolff-Lehmann standards. To correct the ration the totals of its dry matter and digestible nutrients are set down as in the foUowirig tabular form, and beneath them are placed, for trial correction, the quantities of dry matter and digestible nutrients of 5 pounds of Red-clover hay and 1 potmd of cottonseed meal. The totals of the dry matter and the digestible nutrients of the corrected ration are then found and the nutritive ratio computed. Dry Matter Pounds Digestible Nutrients Feeds Protein Pounds Carbo- hydrates Pounds Fat Pounds Nutritive Ratio Original ration 5 pounds clover hay . . . I pound cottonseed meal 23.041 4.235 •930 1.878 •355 •376 "•519 1.890 .214 .614 .090 .096 I to 6.86 Corrected ration. . . 28.206 2.609 13.623 .800 I to 5.91 The corrected ration, consisting of 15 pounds of clover hay, 35 pounds of com silage, 3 pounds of wheat bran, 3 potmds of oats, and 1 pound of cottonseed meal, conforms very closely with the standard. The above ration will, therefore, satisfy the daily demands of a 1,000-pound dairy cow giving on an average about 20 potmds of milk a day. 44. The same procedure may be followed in all deter- minations of this kind. The value of such calculations to the feeder is not only to acquaint him with the wide variations in the demands and requirements of the different classes of livestock, but to increase his knowledge of the chemical com- position of feeds. With a knowledge of feeding standards and of the chemical composition of feeds the stockman is enabled 242—4 34 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 to combine feeds so that they satisfy the needs of animals, or, in other words, to feed a balanced ration. This is the first and a most fundamental principle of feeding. The feeding standards given in Table IV shows the require- ments of 1,000 pounds live weight of animal or of animals. An animal weighing 1,500 pounds would naturally be supposed to require one-half more feed; but this is not the case, as has been proved by experiments. The smaller the animal, other things being equal, the greater is its demand for feed in pro- portion to its size. In the feeding of steers, the feeder should add, for each 100 pounds that a steer weighs over 1,000 pounds, about 5.6 per cent, of the quantity of dry matter called for by the standard. Thus, the feeding standard shows that a fatten- ing steer weighing 1,000 pounds should receive 26 pounds of dry matter. A fattening steer weighing 1,500 pounds should receive not 50 per cent, more than 26 pounds, or 39 pounds of dry matter, but 5.6 per cent, more for each 100 pounds that the steer weighs over 1,000 pounds, or a total of 28 per cent. more than 26 pounds, or 33.28 pounds of dry matter. MISCELLANEOUS FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION AND USE OF FEEDS 45. Although the chemical composition of a feed is a guide to its use, it is not the only factor that must be considered in selecting feeds and making up rations. The suitability and economy of any ration to produce growth or milk production is determined by its palatahility, its physiological effects on the animal to which it is fed, and its cost or availability, as well as by the balance of its chemical nutrients. 46. Palatahility. — Palatahility is one of the most essential quaHties of a good ration. The ration must be eaten with a relish or good results will not be obtained. If not palatable, sufficient feed wiU not be eaten for large jdelds in flesh, in milk, or in other respects, and large }aelds are essential to profit. As far as possible, the likes and dislikes of animals should be considered and catered to. § 25 PRINCIPLES OP ANIMAL FEEDING 35 Palatability of rations is secured in several ways, which are, briefly, by the rejection of feed that is dirty, moldy, musty, sour, or tainted by being left over from one feeding period to the next; by giving attention to variety of feeds in any ration; by supplying more liberally of protein and succulence than is ordinarily fed; by always feeding within the capacity of the animal, or in being careful not to overfeed; and by keeping the stables in a sanitary condition and the feed boxes clean. It is self-evident that good results cannot be secured when the feed is moldy, soured, or tainted, but failure in securing good results is often traced to a lack of appreciation of this one detail. Sickness and lack of appetite are often brought about by supplying feed that is not clean and sweet. It is folly to try to get animals to do well when their rations are not placed before them in a wholesome, attractive condition and free from any taint or objectionable odor. A combination of feeds is usually more palatable than a single feed and its effect on gains or in milk production is particularly noticeable. It has often been demonstrated by experiment that two feeds, equal and similar in composition, give better results when fed in combination than when either is fed alone. 47. A balanced ration is always more palatable than one lacking balance, other things being equal. The good results obtained by feeding rations that contain protein supplements are often due more to their effect on palatability than on the part they play in balancing the ration. Succulence increases the palatability of a ration, and observation indicates that many rations are not eaten with relish because they are dry and hard. The value of pasture grass, roots, and silage is partly due to this quality of succulence. The successful feeder is careful not to overfeed. He feeds no more at any one time than will be cleaned up in a reasonable time. He brings his animals up to full feed gradually and always regulates the amoimt fed by the appetite and behavior of the animal at feeding time. Feed always tastes best to an animal when it is hungry, and the secret of many a successful feeder is his ability so to regulate the supply of feed as to keep 36 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING § 25 the appetite on edge and the animals anxious for their rations at feeding time. Dirty feed boxes and damp, unsanitary quarters depress the appetite and taint the feed. The ration, to be palatable, must be supplied in clean troughs or boxes, and the environ- ment of animals must be such as to conduce to their comfort and contentment. Good feeding necessitates close observation and appreciation of all conditions that have an influence on the palatability of feed and the appetite of an animal. 48. Physiological Effects of Feed on Animals. — Feeds should be selected and rations made up with regard to their effects on the digestive system and on the condition of the droppings of the animals. The character of the droppings is an indication of the condition of digestion. When the digestive system is in a normal, healthy condition, the bowels are loose. Constipation, or the opposite condition, scours, is a sign that something has gone wrong in digestion. A fairly loose, open condition of the bowels reflects a healthy condition of the digestive tract and tone in the general system, and indicates the thorough and efficient use of the feed supplied. A thin, sour condition of the droppings usually indicates something wrong in the feeding or in the selection of the feeds and always results in a waste of feed and a weakening of the organs of digestion. Rations that are extremely dry in character and lacking in a variety of feeds are usually too binding, or constipating, to give good results. On the other hand, very immature green pastures early in the season cause a too loose, or laxative, condition for good restilts. The fact that some feeds tend to cause constipation and others tend to correct this condition by being laxative in their effects makes a knowledge of these properties important to the feeder. Many feeds are not pronoxmced in their effects either way. As a rule, cottonseed meal, wheat straw, very dry timothy hay, and com stover have a tendency to cause constipation. Linseed meal, flaxseed meal, wheat bran, good quality of clover and alfalfa hay, and succulence in the form of green grass, silage or root crops are § 25 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FEEDING 37 recognized as being laxative in their effects. Wheat bran and linseed meal, although normally laxative in their effects, seem to possess the property that will enable them to correct either constipation or a loose condition of the bowels. The importance of constant observation of the relation of indi- vidual feeds to the consistency of the droppings is a point in successful feeding demanding special attention. In a feed yard, many other conditions, independent of the kind of feeds sup- pHed, combine to cause scours. Overfeeding, irregular feeding, nervous disturbances, unaccustomed exercise, extreme heat, and bad water all may have a particular effect in causing scotirs. 49. Cost or Availability of Feed. — The matter of cost in the selection of feeds is of great importance in practical feed- ing operations. As a rule, livestock is kept as a meditmi for marketing the crops grown on the farm and the rations fed should be made up from this supply to as large an extent as is possible and consistent with good results. Other things being equal, the available and home-grown feeds should always be given the preference over purchased feeds. An expensive ration may give excellent results in gains or in the production of milk, but the results may not be profitable. To make a profit from feeding operations is the chief purpose of feeders, and many desirable feeds must often be excluded from the ration because their high cost makes their use prohibitive. The importance of the cost of feeds in determining profit must be considered in making up a balanced ration. Since it is the commercial protein feeds that most farmers need, to balance their rations of home-grown feeds, the cost of the commercial protein feeds must be considered of equal impor- tance with their composition. Because of their high cost, the purchase of such feeds should be reduced to a minimum; but because of the necessity of feeding a ration that is fairly well balanced, the average ration must be supplemented by the purchase and use of such feeds as oil meal, cottonseed meal, middlings, etc., or by an increase in the home production and consumption of leguminous crops like clover, alfalfa, soybeans, or cowpeas. FEEDING TABLES TABLE II AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN PBEDSTUFFS Composition Feedstuff Water Per Cent. Ash Per Cent. Protein Per Cent, Carbohydrates Fiber Per Cent. Nitrogen- Free Extract Per Cent, Pat Per Cent. Acorns Alfalfa, green Alfalfa hay, grown in Eastern U. S Alfalfa hay, grown in Western U. S Alfalmo Alsike clover, green . . . Alsike clover hay Apple pomace Apples Artichokes Australian salt bush, green Australian salt-bush hay Bagasse, sorghum Bakery refuse Bald barley hay Banana butts, dried . . . Banana tops, dried. . . . Barley and peas, green Barley and vetch, green Barley feed Barley fodder, green . . Barley, grain Barley hay, cut in mUk Barley screenings Barley straw Barnyard millet, green Barnyard millet hay. . . 55-3 71.8 6.4 6.8 9-1 74.8 9-7 83.0 80.8 79-5 75-8 9.2 1 1.4 13.0 6.9 13-5 6.4 80.0 80.0 8.9 79.0 10.8 5-0 12.2 14.2 75-0 14.9 i.o 2.7 8.6 10.6 11.2 2.0 8.3 0.6 0.4 1.0 5-8 21.7 2.9 lO.I 8.7 3-6 4.1 1.6 1.2 4.4 1.8 2-5 4.2 3-6 5-7 1-9 7-9 2-5 4.8 16.3 15-4 13-1 3-9 12.8 1.0 0.7 2.6 3-5 12.9 3-4 8.0 5-4 • 6.4 13.2 2.8 2.8 13-8 2.7 12.0 8.8 12.3 3-5 2.4 10.6 4-4 7-4 27.1 33-3 22.4 7-4 25.6 2.9 1.2 0.8 5-9 14.7 30.5 0-3 23.2 38.6 31-9 6.8 6.5 91 7-9 4.2 24.7 7-3 36.0 7.0 27.8 34-8 1-9 12.3 1.0 39-2 2.4 32.5 1.4 42.1 2.1 II.O 0.9 40.7 2.9 11.6 0.9 16.6 0.4 159 0.2 10.5 0-5 39-6 1-9 50.4 1.4 63.0 5-6 53-9 1.8 35-5 2.4 42.1 2-3 8.2 0.6 9.0 0.5 59-9 3-9 8.0 0.6 68.7 1.8 44-9 2.4 61.8 2.8 39-0 1-5 I3-I 0.6 37-1 1-7 Note. — Tables II, III, and IV are compiled largely from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding." 38 TABLE U— (Continued) Feedstuff Composition Water Per Cent. Ash Per Cent. Protein Per Cent. Fiber Per Cent. Carbohydrates Nitrogen- Free Extract Per Cent. Pat Per Cent. Bean, horse, green Bean, horse, straw. . . , Bean meal Bean, velvet, green . . Bean, velvet, hay. . . . Beans, cull Beans, horse Beech twigs, dried, gathered in winter . Beet leaves, sugar Beet molasses Beet pulp, dry Beet pulp, wet Beets, common Beets, sugar Beggar-weed hay .... Bermuda grass Bermuda-grass hay . . Blackstrap molasses. . Blood, dried Blue joint hay Bone-and-meat meal . ■ Bone, fresh Bone, raw, ground. . . Bran, com Bran, spring-wheat . . Bran, wheat, all anal- yses Bran, winter-wheat . . Brewers' grains, dry . Brewers' grains, wet . Broom-corn seed Broom-sedge hay Buckwheat bran Buckwheat feed Buckwheat flour Buckwheat, grain. . . . 84.2 9.2 10.9 82.2 1 0.0 10.9 II-3 153 88.0 20.8 8.4 89.6 88.5 86.5 9.2 71.7 6.9 22.4 8.5 6.9 6.0 34-2 8.0 9-4 ii.o 11.9 II-5 8.7 75-7 12.8 6.6 8.2 11.6 14.6 134 1.2 8.7 5-7 1.9 5-9 5-7 3-8 2.6 2-4 10.6 4-5 0.6 i.o 0.9 4-7 2.1 3-5 9-3 4-7 5-5 37-4 22.8 64.4 1.2 6.2 5-8 6.4 3-7 1.0 2.8 6.4 4-9 3-9 1.0 2.0 2.8 8.8 23.2 3-5 14.0 23.2 26.6 4.0 2.6 9-1 8.1 0.9 1-5 1.8 11.8 2.2 10.7 2.4 84.4 II. 2 39-5 20.6 23-9 II. 2 157 154 15-7 25.0 5-4 9-9 4-7 12.6 18.3 6.9 10.8 4-9 37-6 3-8 5-1 37-7 3-8 7.2 38.5 2.2 17-5 2.4 0.9 0.9 29-3 5-9 51-0 37-2 11.9 9-8 9.0 8.7 136 3-8 7.0 38.7 32.9 19.2 0-3 11.7 6.5 34-3 54-9 6.6 30.6 54-9 50.1 38.0 4.4 59-5 60.8 6-3 8.0 9.8 42.1 17-2 25.0 659 35-8 6.3 1-9 3-4 60.1 52-4 53-9 53-4 42-3 12.5 64-3 42.3 37-9 42.1 75-8 59-7 0.4 1.4 1-5 0.7 1.8 1-5 1.0 1.6 4.0 0.7 0.1 0.1 2-9 0.9 2-9 2.5 3-4 10.8 20.5 03 6.2 4-9 4.0 4-3 6.7 1.6 3-2 1.4 3-5 4-9 1.4 2.4 TABLE U— (Continued) Feedstuff Composition Water Per Cent. Ash Per Cent, Protein Per Cent. Carbohydrates Fiber Per Cent, Nitrogen- Free Extract Per Cent. Fat Per Cent. Buckwheat hulls Buckwheat middlings . Buckwheat straw Buffalo-grass hay Bur-clover, green Bur clover hay Buttercup hay Buttermilk Cabbage Cacti, cane, green Canada blue-grass hay Canada field peas, green Canada field peas, seeds Carrots Cassava Cassava starch refuse . . Chaff, oat Chaff, wheat Cheat hay Chufa Clovers and grasses, mixed, green Clovers and grasses, mixed, hay Cocoanut cake Colorado River hemp seed Colostrum Comfrey, prickly Common beets Common little sage . . . Common millet, green Common sage Com-and-cob meal. . . . Corn bran Com cob 13.2 12.8 9-9 15-0 73-8 9.0 9-3 90.1 90.0 78.5 14-3 84.7 150 88.6 66.0 12.0 14-3 14-3 8.4 79-5 75-0 12.9 10.3 9.2 74.6 88.4 88.5 35-0 80.0 49.6 I5-I 9-4 10.7 2.2 5-0 5-5 8.8 2-3 5-0 5-6 0.7 0.8 3-6 4-5 1-3 2.4 i.o 0.7 1.6 lO.O 9.2 6.9 0.4 1.6 5.5 5-9 3-3 1.6 2.2 1.0 4-3 1.0 3-6 1-5 1.2 1.4 4.6 26.7 5-2 4-9 5-5 13-6 9-9 4.0 2.6 1.4 7.6 2.8 23-7 I.I I.I 0.8 4.0 4-5 8.0 0.7 2.9 lO.I 19.7 31-7 17.6 2.4 1-5 13-7 1-5 4.6 8.5 II. 2 2.4 43-5 4.4 43-0 19.7 5-9 30.6 30.6 0.9 3-6 21.7 4.4 7-9 1-3 1.8 6.1 34-0 36.0 26.4 2.2 8.0 27.6 14.4 13-5 1.6 0.9 14-3 6.5 II-3 6.6 11.9 30.1 35-3 44-3 3,5-1 48.4 10.5 38.2 41. 1 4.0 5-5 12.3 49.0 6.3 50.2 7.6 30.2 78.8 36.2 34-6 48.3 10.5 11.7 41-3 38.7 37-9 2.7 5-1 8.0 30.3 10.5 20.3 64.8 60.1 54-9 I.I 6.8 1-3 3-2 2.0 3-6 3-5 I.I 0.2 0.6 2.9 0.5 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.7 1-5 1.4 2.0 6.6 0.8 2.6 II.O 4-3 3-6 0.3 O.I 2.4 0.5 10.5 3-5 6.2 0.5 40 TABLE U—iContinmd) Feedstuff Composition Water Per Cent. Ash Per Cent. Protein Per Cent. Carbohydrates Fiber Per Cent. Nitrogen- Free Extract Per Cent. Fat Per Cent. Corn, dent, grain Corn, flint, grain Com fodder, all varie- ties, green Com fodder, dent, ker- nels glazed, green . . . Com fodder, dent vari- eties, green Com fodder, ears on . Com fodder, flint, green Com fodder, flint ker- nels glared, green. . . Com fodder, sweet, green Com husks, dry Corn leaves and husks, green Corn leaves, dry Com meal Com plants, sweet, green, ears removed. Com, pop, grain Com stalks, stripped, green Com stover, ears re- moved Com, sweet, grain Cottonseed Cottonseed hulls Cottonseed kernels, without hulls.' Cottonseed meal Cottonseed, roasted. . . Couch-grass hay Cowpea hay Cowpeas, green 41 10.6 II-3 79-3 73-4 79.0 42.2 79.8 77.1 79.1 50.9 66.2 30.0 150 80.0 10.7 76.1 40-5 8.8 10.3 II. I 6.2 7.0 6.1 14-3 10.5 83.6 1-5 1.4 1-5 1.2 2.7 l.i 1-3 1.8 2.9 5-5 1.4 1.2 1-5 0.7 3-4 1-9 3-5 2.8 4-7 6.6 5-5 6.0 14.2 1-7 10.3 10.5 1.8 2.0 1-7 4-5 2.0 1-9 2.5 2.1 6.0 9.2 1.4 11.2 0.5 3-8 11.6 18.4 4.2 31.2 45-3 16.8 8.8 8.9 2.4 2.2 1-7 5-0 6.7 5-6 14-3 4-3 4-3 4.4 15-8 8.7 21.4 1-9 4-9 1.8 7-3 19.7 2.8 23.2 46.3 3-7 6.3 20.4 24.8 21.2 4.8 70.4 70.1 15-5 12.0 34-7 14.6 12.8 28.3 19.0 35-7 68.7 12.0 69.6 14.9 31-5 66.8 24.7 33-4 17.6 24.6 23-5 43-1 42.6 71 5-0 5-0 0.5 0.9 0.5 1.6 0.7 0.8 0.5 0.7 I.I 1.4 3-8 0.5 5-2 0-5 I.I 8.1 19.9 2.2 36.6 10.2 27.7 3-0 2.6 0.4 TABLE U— (Continued) Feedstuff Composition Ash Per Cent. Protein Per Cent. Carbohydrates Water Per Cent. Fiber Nitrogen- Free Fat Per Cent. Per Cent. Extract Per Cent. 14.6 3-2 -0.5 3-9 56.3 1-5 14-3 10.8 8.4 27-5 36.6 2.4 80.9 1-7 31 5-2 8.4 0.7 9.6 8.6 15-2 27.2 36.6 2.8 843 2.2 1.2 8.2 4.1 7.6 2.0 31.2 11.6 35-4 12.2 8-5 4-7 84.4 2.5 10.8 29.2 48.4 II.6 85-7 2.5 2.2 2.1 7.0 0.5 85.0 2.8 2.1 2.7 6.9 0.5 85.0 3-3 2-3 1.8 7-1 05 8.4 3-9 II-5 II. I 62.9 2.2 6.9 II. I 10.7 34-1 35-8 1.4 14.0 5-3 7-9 27.7 42.8 2.3 19.2 6.8 7.0 25-9 38.4 2.7 69.9 1.8 2-4 10.8 14-3 0.8 84.7 1-3 2.8 4.4 6.3 0.5 15.0 2.4 237 7-9 50.2 0.8 10.8 29.2 48.4 II.6 8.4 7-9, 22.9 26.2 314 3-2 9.2 4-3 22.6 7-1 23.2 33-7 lO.O 3-9 5-1 42.7 35-2 3-1 14.6 I.O 6.9 0-3 75-8 1.4 9-9 2.6 18.0 3-0 62.5 4.0 I3-I 0.7 6.7 0.4 78.3 0.8 12.4 0.4 12.0 74.0 1.2 10. 1 6.5 8.7 27.9 44-4 2-3 11.8 6.2 6.8 30.4 43-1 1.8 8.6 2.4 21.7 8.8 47-3 II. 2 9.2 2.0 25.0 6.8 53-5 3-5 Cowpeas, seeds Crab-grass hay Crimson clover, green Crimson-clover hay . . . Dandelion Distillers' grains, dry . Dried blood Dried fish Dwarf Essex rape, green Dwarf Essex rape, summer Dwarf Essex rape, winter Emmer, grain Emmer hay English hay Fescue, Meadow, hay. Fescue, Meadow, in bloom Field peas, Canada, green Field peas, Canada, seeds Fish, dried Flat-pea hay Flaxseed Flax shives Flour, buckwheat Flour, red dog Flour, rye Flour, wheat Fowl meadow-grass hay Gama-grass hay Germ oil meal Gluten feed 43 TABLE TL— {Continued) Feedstuff Composition Water Per Cent. Ash Per Cent. Protein Per Cent, Carbohydrates Fiber Per Cent. Nitrogen- Free Extract Per Cent, Fat Per Cent. Gluten meal Grasses and clovers, mixed, green Grasses and clovers, mixed, hay Greasewood Guinea-grass hay Hog millet, green Hominy feed, chop . . . Horse-bean fodder, green Horse-bean straw Horse beans Htmgarian grass Hungarian-grass hay. . Hungarian-grass seed . Italian rye grass, com- ing in bloom Italian rye-grass hay . . Japan-clover hay Japanese millet, green. Johnson grass Johnson-grass hay Kafir-corn forage Kafir-corn heads, ground Kafir corn, red, green . . Kafir-corn seed Kafir corn, white, green Kentucky blue grass . . . Kentucky blue-grass hay, all analyses .... Kentucky blue-grass hay, cut in milk Kentucky blue-grass hay, cut ripe 43 9-5 75-0 i2.g 4.6 7.6 8q.o 9.6 84.2 9.2 II-3 71. 1 7-7 9-5 73-0 8-5 ii.o 75-0 75-0 1Q.2 52.1 13.6 81.6 9-9 834 65.1 21.2 24.4 27.8 1-5 1.6 5-5 14.4 3-2 1.4 2.7 1.2 8.7 3-8 1-7 6.0 5-0 2.5 6.9 8.5 1-5 1.4 6.1 2.4 2.8 1-3 1.6 1.4 2.8 6.3 7.0 6.4 33.8 2.9 lO.I 19.8 5-5 1-5 10.5 2.8 8.8 26.6 3-1 7-5 9-9 3.I 7-5 13-8 2.1 1.2 7.2 2.5 9.2 1.8 1-9 4.1 7.8 6.3 5-8 2.0 8.0 27.6 24-5 28.2 6.5 4.9 4-9 37-6 7.2 9.2 27.7 7-7 6.8 30-5 24.0 7.8 8.9 28.5 21.0 8.0 4.8 2.7 4.6 91 23.0 24-5 238 46.6 11.7 41-3 34-2 54-6 10.2 64-3 6.5 34-3 50.1 14.2 49.0 63.2 13-3 45-0 390 I3-I 13.2 45-9 20.1 63.8 9-9 71-5 8.0 17.6 37-8 34-2 33-2 6.6 0.8 2.6 2.5 0.9 0.4 8.0 0.4 1.4 i.o 0.7 2.1 4-7 1-3 1-7 3-7 0.5 0-3 2.1 1.8 2.6 0.6 31 0.7 1-3 3-9 3-6 3-0 TABLE U— (Continued) Composition WatCT Per Cent. Ash Per Cent. Protein Per Cent. Carbohydrates Feedstuff Fiber Per Cent. Nitrogen- Free Extract Per Cent. Fat Per Cent. Leaves of trees, dried, gathered in July. . . . Linseed meal, new- process 16.0 9-7 9.8 7.0 9-5 80.0 21.2 90.9 19.2 69.9 6.6 6.0 10.7 12.8 8.8 11.8 II. 2 lO.O 87.2 86.9 81.3 91.0 90.6 90.4 80.8 750 14.9 1 1.0 80.0 80.0 750 7.0 5-5 5-5 6.8 6.1 1-9 6.1 I.I 6.8 1.8 9.8 37-4 4.1 50 4-5 1-7 4-4 3-2 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.4 0.7 0.7 I.I 1-9 7-9 8.1 1.0 1.4 1-5 10.5 37-5 33-9 6.8 26.3 30 10.7 1.4 7.0 2.4 9-3 39-5 71.2 26.7 16.2 14-3 16.9 19.2 3-6 3-7 6-3 2.1 31 3-3 6.2 2.4 10.6 11.6 1-5 1-5 2.1 14.2 8.9 7-3 26.5 11.6 5-8 24-5 0.9 259 10.8 32.3 4.4 71 2.4 6.2 3-2 7.0 27.8 26.8 6.5 6.5 7.8 49-3 36.4 35-7 51-2 44-9 8.9 33-6 5-5 38.4 143 38.9 6.3 0-3 44-3 56.5 66.9 56.2 59-6 4-9 4.4 4-7 5-3 5-3 4-7 4.8 131 37-1 40.2 10.5 10.2 I3-I 30 2.0 Linseed meal, old-proc- 7.8 1.8 1.6 Macaroni-wheat hay. . Malt sprouts Mammoth clover. 0.4 3-9 0.2 Mammoth-clover hay. Meadow-fescue hay . . . Meadow fescue, in bloom 2.7 0.8 Meadow-foxtail hay. . . Meat-and-bone meal . Meat scrap , ... 3-1 10.8 137 6.8 6.9 2.9 51 4.8 3-7 4.1 6 8 Middlings, buckwheat Middlings, oat Middlings, rye Middlings, standard, wheat Middlings, wheat flour Milk, goat's Milk, ewe's Milk, mare's I 2 Milk, skim, centrifugal Milk, skim, gravity . . . Milk, sow's 0.3 0.9 71 0.6 1-7 2.3 0.5 0.4 0-5 Millet, Barnyard, green Millet, Barnyard, hay. Millet, CattaU, hay. . . Millet, Common, green Millet, Hog, green .... Millet, Japanese, green TABLE 11— {Continued) Feedstuff Composition Water Per Cent. Ash Per Cent. Protein Per Cent. Carbohydrates Fiber Per Cent. Nitrogen- Free Extract Per Cent, Fat Per Cent. Millet, Pearl, green . . . Millet seed Millet straw Milo maize forage Milo maize head's, ground MUo maize, seed Milo maize, yellow, green Mixed grasses and clo- ver, green Mixed grasses and clo- ver hay Mixed grasses, hay Molasses, beet Molasses-beet pulp Molasses, blackstrap . Molasses grains Molasses, Porto Rico . . New corn product . . . . Oak leaves, dried, gath- ered in July Oat and pea hay.' Oat and vetch hay .... Oat chaff Oat dust Oat feed Oat fodder, green Oat-grass hay, tall. . . . Oat grass, tall, in bloom Oat hay, cut in milk . . Oat hulls Oatmeal Oat middlings Oat straw Oats and peas, green . . Oats and vetch, green. . 45 81.5 12. 1 15.0 40.9 97 9.0 83-2 75-0 12.9 15-3 20.8 7.0 22.4 10.4 25-9 5-4 10.5 15.0 14-3 6.5 7.0 62.2 14.0 69.5 14.4 74 7-9 8.8 9.2 79-7 80.0 1-5 2.8 5-2 2.9 2.7 2-3 1-5 1.6 5-5 5.5 10.6 5-5 9-3 6.5 6.3 4.1 9-7 7.1 7-4 lO.O 6.9 5-3 2.5 4.6 2.0 5-7 6.7 2.0 4-5 5-1 1.6 1.8 1.2 10.9 4.1 2.9 9.2 10.7 1-7 2.9 lO.I 7-4 9-1 9.6 2.4 17.1 2.7 5-2 9-5 10.3 12.8 4.0 13-5 8.0 3-4 6.4 2.4 8.9 3-4 14.7 16.2 4.0 2.4 3-0 6.2 8.1 34-2 19.1 6.5 3-0 5-5 8.0 27.6 27.2 16.1 11.9 31-9 25.8 28.3 26.7 34-0 18.2 21.5 1 1. 2 30.9 9-4 27.4 30.7 0.9 7-1 38.0 6.1 6.3 9-3 62.6 39-7 31.8 69-5 72.2 7-5 11.7 41-3 42.1 59-5 61.3 65-9 51-2 65.1 47-4 45-1 41.2 35-8 36.2 50.2 55-3 193 42.1 15-8 41.2 50.5 67.4 56.5 42.4 9.6 8.4 0-3 3-5 1.8 2.3 2.4 2.8 0.6 0.8 2.6 2-5 0.5 2.9 2.6 4-5 2.6 2-3 1-5 4.8 2.9 1.4 1-9 0.9 2.8 1-3 7-1 6.9 2-3 0.6 0.5 TABLE TL— (Continued) Composition Feedstuff Water Ash Per Cent. Per Cent. Protein Per Cent. Carbohydrates Fiber Per Cent. Nitrogen- Free Extract Per Cent, Fat Per Cent. Oats, grain Orchard grass Orchard-grass hay . . . . Orchard grass, in bloom Palmnut cake Para-grass hay Parsnips Pasture grass Pea and oat hay Pea bran Pea meal Peanut cake Peanut kernels Peanut vines, with nuts Peanut vines, without nuts Peanuts, with hull .... Pearl millet, green .... Peas and barley, green Peas and oats, green . Perennial rye-grass hay Potato pomace Potatoes Prairie hay Prickly comfrey Prickly pear Pumpkin, field Pumpkin, garden Purslane Quack-grass hay Ragweed, green Ramie, green Rape, Dwarf, Essex, green Rape, Dwarf, Essex, summer 10.4 3-2 73-0 2.0 9-9 6.0 730 2.0 10.4 4-3 7.6 3-3 90.5 0.8 80.0 2.0 10.5 7-1 II.O 2.7 10.5 2.6 10.7 -' 4-9 7-5 2.4 6.3 5-6 7.6 10.8 6.6 2.7 81.5 1-5 80.0 1.6 79-7 1.6 14.0 91-5 79.1 9.2 88.4 84.2 90.9 86.8 91.0 14-3 61.0 77-9 85-7 85.0 7-9 0-3 0.9 7.8 2.2 31 0-5 0.9 1-5 6.0 4-4 3-5 2-5 2.8 11.4 2.6 8.1 2.6 16.8 91 I.I 3-5 10.3 lo.o 20.2 47.6 27.9 12.6 10.7 23.2 1.2 2.8 2.4 lO.I 0.7 2.1 6.2 2.4 0.7 1-3 1.8 2-3 8.8 3-9 2.2 10.8 8.2 32.4 8.2 24.0 36.0 6.2 4.0 28.3 39-7 14.4 5.I 7.0 27.4 23.6 18.4 6.2 6.8 6.1 254 i.o 0.4 34-1 1.6 2.4 1-7 1.8 1.6 24.8 134 7-1 2.1 2.7 594 13-3 41.0 13-3 35-0 42.9 1.2 9-7 41.2 35-6 5I-I 237 15-6 34-0 42.7 14.2 9-3 8.2 9.6 40-5 6.4 17.4 39-9 51 9.0 5-2 7-9 34 43-1 15-2 8.4 7.0 6.9 4.8 0.9 2.6 0.9 9-5 I.I 0.2 0.8 2.6 1.0 1.2 8.0 39-6 14. 1 4.6 35-0 0-3 0.6 0.6 2.1 0.1 0.1 2.8 0-3 0-3 0.4 0.8 0.2 3-0 2.1 0.9 0-5 0.5 46 TABLE TL— (Continued) Feedstuff Rape, Dwarf, Essex, winter Rape-seed cake Raw ground bone Red clover, different stages, -green Red-clover hay, all analyses Red-clover hay, cut in bloom Red-dog flour Red Kafir corn, green Red-top grass, cut in bloom Red-top hay, cut in bloom Red-top hay, different stages Rhode Island Bent grass hay Rice bran Rice, grain Rice hulls Rice meal Rice polish Rice, rough Rowen hay Rutabagas Rye bran Rye feed, shorts and bran Rye flour Rye fodder, green Rye, grain Rye grass, coming in bloom, Italian Rye-grass hay, Italian 47 Composition Water Per Cent. 85.0 lO.O 8.0 70.8 15-3 20.8 9-9 81.6 65-3 8.7 8.9 7-1 9-7 12.4 8.8 10.2 10.5 n.2 14.0 88.6 11.8 12.4 I3-I 76.6 8.7 73-0 8.5 Ash Per Cent. 3-3 7-9 64.4 2.1 6.2 6.6 2.6 1-3 2,3 4-9 5-2 6.7 9-7 0.4 15-6 8.1 4.8 4-9 6.4 1.2 3-4 3-2 0.7 1.8 2.1 2-5 6.9 Protein Per Cent. 2.3 31.2 23-9 4.4 12.3 12.4 18.0 1.8 2.8 8.0 7-9 6.1 11.9 7-4 3-2 12.0 11.9 7-3 11.4 1.2 14.6 157 6.7 2.6 II-3 31 7-5 Carbohydrates Fiber Per Cent. 1.8 II-3 8.1 24.8 21.9 30 4.8 ii.o 29.9 28.6 31-9 12.0 0.2 36.2 5-4 3-3 8.0 23-9 1-3 3-5 4.1 0.4 11.6 1-5 6.8 30-5 Nitrogen- Free Extract Per Cent, 7.1 30.0 3-4 13-5 38.1 33-8 62.5 9-9 177 46.4 47-5 46.3 46.6 79.2 35-2 51-2 62.3 66.6 41-3 7-5 639 61.5 78.3 6.8 74-5 13-3 45-0 Fat Per Cent. 0.5 9.6 0.3 I.I 3-3 4-5 4.0 0.6 0.9 2.1 1-9 1-9 lO.I 0.4 I.O 131 7.2 2.0 30 0.2 2.8 31 0.8 0.6 1-9 1-3 17 TABLE TL— {Continued) Feedstuff Composition Water Per Cent. Ash Per Cent. Protein Per Cent. Carbohydrates Fiber Per Cent. Nitrogen- Free Extract Per Cent, Fat Per Cent. Rye-grass hay, Peren- nial Rye hay Rye middlings Rye straw Sage, Common Sage, Little, Common. Salt bush, Australian, green Salt marsh-grass hay. . Sand vetch, green Sanfoin, green Sanfoin hay Screenings, barley Screenings, wheat SerradeUa, green Serradella hay ; . Sesame oil cake Shorts Silage, apple ptmiace. . Silage, barley Silage, Barnyard millet and soybean Silage, brewers' grains, wet Silage, corn Silage, com, soybeans. Silage, com cobs, can- nery refuse Silage, com,, ears re- moved Silage, corn husks, can- nery refuse Silage, corn immature . Silage, cowpea Silage, cowpea and soy- bean 14.0 9-5 II. 8 71 49-6 35-0 75-8 10.4 85.3 75-0 15-0 12.2 11.6 79-5 9.2 74 11.2 85.0 75-0 79.0 70.3 73-6 76.0 74.1 73-7 83.8 79.1 79-3 69.8 7-9 5-7 1-7 3-2 3-6 4-3 5-8 7-7 2.1 2.1 7-3 3-6 2.9 3-2 7.2 8.8 4.4 0.6 2.6 2.8 1.2 2.1 2.4 0.5 1.6 0.6 1.4 2.9 4-5 lO.I 10.8 14-3 30 4.6 137 3-5 5-5 3-6 4.4 14.8 12.3 12.5 2.7 15-2 36.7 16.9 1.2 2.6 2.8 6.3 2.7 2.5 1-5 2.2 1.4 1-7 2.7 3-8 254 32.6 2.4 38.9 II-3 14-3 3-9 30.0 4.0 6.0 20.4 7-3 4-9 54 21.6 3-8 6.2 3-3 94 7.2 4-5 7.8 7.2 7-9 6-5 5-2 6.0 6.0 9-5 40.5 38.7 66.9 46.6 20.3 30.3 lo.S 44.1 4.6 11.6 39-5 61.8 65.1 8.6 44.2 17-3 56.2 8.8 94 7.2 15-6 12.9 II. I 14-3 151 7-9 II.O 7.6 II. I 2.1 2.7 2.9 1.2 10.5 2.4 0.5 2.4 0.4 0.9 30 2.8 3-0 0.7 2.6 26.0 5-1 I.I i.o i.o 2.1 0.9 0.8 1-7 0.9 1. 1 0.8 1-5 1-3 48 TABLE U— {Continued) Feedstuff Composition Water Per Cent. Ash Per Cent, Protein Per Cent. Carboliydrates Fiber Per Cent. Nitrogen- Free Extract Per Cent, Fat Per Cent. Silage, Durra-maize. . . Silage, field peas Silage, Kafir-corn Silage, millet Silage, Milo-maize Silage, peas, cannery refuse Silage, Red clover Silage, rye Silage, sorghum Silage, soybean Silage, soybean and Barnyard millet Silage, sugar-beet pulp Silage, teosinte Sorghum bagasse Sorghum forage Sorghum, green Sorghum seed Soybean cake Soybean hay Soybean seeds Soybean straw Soybean vines, green . . Spelt, grain Spelt hay Spring vetch, green — Spurry Standard wheat mid- dlings Starch feed, wet Starch refuse Sugar beets Sugar-beet leaves Sugar cane, green Sunflower seed Sunflower-seed cake . . . 49 242—5 79-7 50.1 67.2 74.0 74.6 76.8 72.0 80.8 76.1 74.2 79.0 90.0 66.8 11.4 41.7 794, 12.8 II-3 11.8 11.7 lO.I 75-1 8.0 6.9 85.0 75-7 II. 2 68.8 12.0 86.5 88.0 84.2 8.6 10.8 1.8 3-5 2.9 2.4 1.8 1-3 2.6 1.6 I.I 2.8 2.8 0.3 4.0 2.9 30 I.I 2.1 5-9 7.0 4.8 5.8 2.6 3-9 II. I 1.4 4.0 4.4 0.4 1.8 0.9 2.4 I.I 2.6 6.7 1.2 5-9 2.1 1-7 2.2 2.8 4.2 2.4 0.8 4.1 2.8 1-5 2.5 34 3-2 1-3 91 42.7 14.9 33-5 4.6 4.0 11-5 10.7 2.7 2.0 16.9 50 4.8 1.8 2.6 1.2 16.3 32.8 7.0 13.0 11.2 7-5 7-9 6.5 8.4 5-8 6.4 97 7.2 31 12.3 30.5 17.0 6.1 2.6 6.0 24.2 4-5 40.4 6.7 II. I 341 4-5 4-9 6.2 2.9 3-8 0.9 2.2 4.0 29.9 13-5 9-5 26.0 152 136 12.7 II-3 11.6 9.2 15-3 6.9 7.2 4-7 13-6 50.4 32.0 11.6 69.8 28.1 37-8 28.3 374 10.6 62.9 35-8 6.1 12.7 56.2 19.9 76.3 9.8 44 9.0 21.4 27.1 0.7 1.6 1.4 0.8 0.7 1-3 1.2 0-3 0-3 2.2 i.o 0.4 0.8 1.4 2.9 0.5 3-6 6.0 4-3 17.2 1-7 1.0 2.2 14 04 0.8 51 30 1-3 0.1 0.4 0.5 21.2 91 TABLE n— (Continued) Feedstuff Sunflower-seed kernels Swamp-grass hay Sweet clover, green . . . Sweet-clover hay Sweet potatoes TaU oat-grass hay . . . . Tall oat grass, in bloom Tankage Teosinte, green Texas blue-grass hay . . Timothy, different stages, green Timothy hay, aU anal- yses Timothy hay, ctit after bloom Timothy hay, cut in full bloom Timothy hay, cut near- ly ripe Turnips Velvet bean, green . . . . Velvet-bean hay Vetch and barley, green Vetch and oat hay Vetch and oats, green . Vetch and wheat, green Vetch and wheat hay . . Vetch hay Vetch, Sand, green . . . Vetch, Spring, green. . Wheat and vetch, green Wheat and vetch hay. Wheat bran, aU anal- yses Wheat chaff Composition Water Ash Protein Carbohydrates Fat Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Fiber Per Cent Nitrogen- Free Extract Per Cent Per Cent. 6.9 2.8 30.5 2.6 14-5 42.8 II.6 6.7 7.2 26.6 45-9 2.0 80.0 1-9 3-8 6-3 7-4 0.6 9-1 8.9 16.2 25.2 37-7 2.9 68.3 I.I 1-9 I.I 26.8 0.7 14.0 . 4.6 6.4 30.9 42.1 1-9 69-5 2.0 2.4 9-4 158 0.9 7.0 15-9 53-9 5-8 5-6 11.8 90.1 1.4 1.4 2.7 4.1 0.3 143 lO.O 91 27-3 36.1 3-2 61.6 2.1 3-1 11.8 20.2 1.2 13.2 4.4 5-9 29.0 45-0 2.5 14.2 4.4 5-7 28.1 44.6 30 15.0 4'5 6.0 29.6 41.9 30 14.1 3-9 50 3I-I 43-7 2.2 90.1 0.9 1-3 1.2 6.3 0.2 82.2 1-9 3-5 5-1 6.6 0.7 lO.O 5-9 14.0 37-7 30.6 1.8 80.0 1.2 2.8 6.5 9.0 0-5 15.0 7-4 12.8 26.7 35-8 2.3 80.0 1.8 3-0 6-3 8.4 0.5 80.0 1.6 3-4 6.4 8.1 0.5 15-0 6.8 14-5 27.2 34-4 2.1 II-3 7-9 17.0 25-4 36.1 2-3 85.3 2.1 3-6 4.0 4.6 0.4 85-0 1.4 2.7 4-5 6.1 0.4 80.0 1.6 3-4 6.4 8.1 0.5 150 6.8 14-5 27.2 34-4 2.1 11.9 5-8 15-4 9.0 53-9 4.0 143 9.2 4-5 36.0 34-6 1.4 50 TABLE U— (Continued) PeedstoS Composition Water Ash Per Cent. Per Cent. Protein Per Cent. Carbohydrates Fiber Per Cent Nitrogen- „ ^ , Free "^ Cent. Extract Per Cent. Wheat feed, shorts and bran Wheat flour Wheat-flour middlings . Wheat fodder, green. . Wheat grain, all anal- yses Wheat screenings Wheat, spring, grain . . Wheat straw Wheat, winter, grain. . Whey White-clover hay White-daisy hay White Kafir com, green White-top hay Wild-oat hay Yellow Milo maize, green 10.9 12.4 lO.O 77-3 10.5 11.6 10.4 9-6 10.5 93-8 9-7 10.3 83-4 14.0 14.1 83.2 5-6 0.4 3-2 1.8 1.8 2.9 1-9 4-2 1.8 0.4 8-3 6.6 1-4 6.0 3-8 1-5 16.3 12.0 19.2 2.4 11.9 12.5 12.5 3-4 11.8 0.6 15-7 7-7 1-9 11.2 5-0 1-7 7-5 3-2 5-9 1.8 4-9 1.8 38-1 1.8 24.1 30.0 4.6 24.4 25.0 5-5- 55-1 74.0 59-6 1 1.9 71.9 65-1 71.2 43-4 72.0 5-1 39-3 42.0 8.0 41-5 48.8 7-5 4.6 1.2 4.8 0.7 2.1 3-0 2.2 1-3 2.1 0.1 2.9 3-4 0.7 2-9 3-3 0.6 51 TABLE m TOTAL DRY MATTER AND TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN 100 POUNDS OF AMERICAN FEEDSTUFTS Feedstuff Acorns Alfalfa, green Alfalfa hay Alfalmo Alsike clover, green Alsike-clover hay Apple pomace Apples Artichokes Australian salt bush Australian salt-bush hay. . Bagasse, sorghum Bakery refuse Banana butts, dry Banana tops, dry Barley and peas, green .... Barley and vetch, green . . . Barley feed Barljcy forage Barley, grain Barley hay Barley screenings Barley straw Barnyard millet, green Barnyard millet hay Bean, horse, green Bean, horse, hay Bean, table, meal Bean, velvet, green Bean, velvet, hay Beans, horse Beech twigs, dry, gathered in winter Beet leaves, sugar- Beet pulp, dry Beet pulp, wet Beets, common Beets, sugar Total Dry Matter in 100 Pounds 44-7 28.2 93-4 90.9 25.2 90-3 17.0 22.2 20.5 22.0 90.8 88.6 87.0 86.5 93-6 20.0 20.0 91. 1 21.0 89.2 85-0 87.8 85.8 25.0 85.1 15.8 90.8 89.1 17.8 90.0 88.7 84.7 12.0 91.6 10.2 "■5 13-5 Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds Protein Pounds 2.1 3-6 11.4 9.8 2.6 8.4 0.6 0.8 1-3 2.0 3-8 0-5 7.0 2.1 4.4 2.1 2.1 II-5 1-9 8.4 5-7 9-5 0.9 1.6 5-2 2-3 4-3 20.2 2.7 9.6 23.1 0.9 1-9 4.1 0-5 1.2 1-3 Carbo- hydrates Pounds 34-4 12. 1 40.0 40.8 II.4 39-7 I3-I 16.5 14.7 8.5 28.8 52.2 55-5 37-1 36.6 91 6.5 60.3 10.4 65-3 43-6 49-9 40.1 14.4 38.6 7-3 39-5 42-3 8.4 52.5 49.8 21.8 50 64.9 7-7 7-9 9.8 Fat Pounds 1-7 0.4 1-3 0.9 0.5 I.I 0-5 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.7 4.8 0.9 0.8 0.4 0.3 2.9 0-3 1.6 i.o 2-5 0.6 0.3 0.8 0.2 0.8 1-3 0.4 1.4 0.8 0.6 0.2 o.i 0.1 62 TABLE m— (Continued) Feedstuff Beggar- weed hay Bermuda grass, green Bermuda-grass hay Blood, dried Bone-and-meat meal Bran, corn Bran, wheat, all analyses . Bran, wheat, spring Bran, wheat, winter Brewers' grains, dry Brewers' grains, wet Broom-corn seed Buckwheat bran Buckwheat feed Buckwheat flour Buckwheat, grain Buckwheat hulls Buckwheat middlings Buckwheat straw Buffalo-grass hay Bur-clover hay Buttercup hay Butterrmlk Cabbage Cacti, cane Canada field peas Canada field-pea bran .... Canada field peas, green . . Canada field peas, in bloom Canada field peas, in bud. Canada field peas, in pod Canada field-pea meal. . . . Carrots Cassava Cassava starch refuse Cattail-millet hay Chop, hominy Chufa Total Dry Matter in 100 Pounds 90.8 28.3 93.1 91.5 94.0 90.6 88.1 88.0 88.5 91.3 23.0 87.2 91.8 88.4 85.4 86.6 86.8 87.2 90.1 85.0 91.0 90.7 9-9 lO.O 21.5 85.0 89.0 15.3 13.0 15-0 16.0 89.5 11.4 34-0 88.0 89.0 90.4 20.5 Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds Protein Pounds 6.8 1-3 6.4 60.8 36.7 6.0 11.9 11.9 12. 1 20.0 4-9 4.6 5-9 15.6 5.9 8.1 1.2 22.7 1.2 3.0 8.2 4.8 3.8 2.3 0.9 19.7 7-7 1.8 2.3 2.6 1.9 16.8 0.8 0.8 0.4 7.2 6.8 0.6 Carbo- hydrates Pounds 42.8 13-4 44-9 5-5 52.5 42.0 43-1 37-1 32.2 7.6 42.2 34.0 38.2 63.0 48.2 28.6 37-5 37-4 42.0 39-0 40.7 3.9 5-9 II. I 49-3 41.6 6.9 5-3 6.8 7.0 51.7 7-7 28.9 74.0 41.6 60.5 9-1 Fat Pounds 1.6 0.4 1.6 2.5 10.6 4.8 2.5 3.1 2.6 6.0 1-7 1.5 2.0 4.4 1.2 2.4 0.5 6.1 0.5 1.6 2.1 1.8 i.o o.i 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.6 1.0 7.4 5.6 53 TABLE m— (Continued) Feedstuff Clover and grass, green, mixed Clover and grass, mixed, hay Cocoanut cake Colostrum Comfrey, prickly Common beets Common Little sage Common millet, green. . . . Common sage Corn-and-cob meal Corn bran Corn cob Corn, dent, grain Corn, flint, grain Corn fodder, ears on Com fodder, flint vari- eties, kernels glazed Corn fodder, green, all va- rieties Corn fodder, green, dent varieties Corn fodder, green, flint varieties Corn fodder, green, kernels glazed Corn fodder, sweet varie- ties, green Corn fodder, sweet, with- out ears, green Com husks Corn leaves Corn meal Corn stover, ears re- moved Corn, sweet, grain Cottonseed Cottonseed hulls Cottonseed meal Total Dry Matter in 100 Pounds Digestible Nutrients in lOO Pounds 25.0 87.1 89.7 254 13.0 II-5 65.0 20.0 50.4 84.9 90.6 89.3 89.4 88.7 57-8 22.9 20.7 21.0 20.2 26.6 20.9 20.0 49.1 70.0 85.0 59-5 91.2 89.7 88.9 93-0 Protein Pounds 2-3 5-8 154 17.6 1-7 1.2 3-2 0.8 1.2 4.4 6.0 0.5 7.8 8.0 2.5 I.I I.O 20.9 I.I I.I 1.2 0.7 0.8 2.8 6.7 1.4 8.8 12-5 0-3 37-6 Carbo- hydrates Pounds 14.6 41.8 41.2 2.7 51 7-9 19.7 1 1.0 14.1 60.0 52.5 44.8 66.8 66.2 54.6 o-o 11.9 12.2 11.4 15-0 12.6 11.6 33-8 37-8 64-3 31.2 63-7 30.0 33-2 21.4 Fat Pounds 0.5 1-3 10.7 3-6 0.2 0.1 0.9 0.2 3-8 2.9 4.8 4-3 4-3 1.2 ' 0.7 0.4 0.4 0-5 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.8 3-5 0.7 7.0 17-3 1-7 9.6 54 TABLE m— (Continued) Feedstuff Digestible Nutrients in lOO Pounds Cottonseed, roasted Cowpeas, green Cowpea hay Cowpea seeds Crimson clover, green . . . . Crimson-clover hay Dandelions Distillers' grains, dry Dried blood Dried fish Dwarf Essex rape Dwarf Essex rape, stim- mer, Southern States. . . Dwarf Essex rape, winter, •Southern States Emmer, grain Emmer hay English hay Field-bean hay Field-pea bran, Canada. . . Field-pea seeds, Canada . . Field peas, Canada, green . Field peas, Canada, in bloom Field peas, Canada, in bud Field peas, Canada, in pod Field-pea meal, Canada . . Fish, dried Flat turnips Flaxseed Flax shives Flour, buckwheat Flour, high-grade, wheat . Flour, red-dog Flour, rye Flour, wheat, middlings . . Fodder com, ears on Gama-grass hay Germ oil meal Gluten feed 55 Total Dry Matter in 100 Pounds Protein Pounds Carbo- hydrates Pounds Pat Pounds 93-9 7-9 25-5 19.9 i6.d 1.8 8.7 0.2 89-5 5-8 9-3 1-3 85-4 16.8 54-9 I.I 19.1 2.4 9.1 0-5 90.4 10.5 34-9 1.2 157 I.I 7-5 2.0 92.4 22.8 397 11.6 91-5 60.8 2-5 89.2 45-0 II.4 14-3 2.0 8.2 0.2 I5-0 1-9 8.6 0.2 150 2.0 8.1 0.2 91.6 lO.O 70.3 2.0 93-1 7.0 43-9 0.6 86.0 4-5 44.0 1.2 95-0 3-6 397 89.0 77 41.6 0.6 85.0 19.7 49-3 0.4 15.3 1.8 6.9 0.3 130 2.3 5-3 0.2 15-0 2.6 6.8 0-3 16.0 1-9 7.0 0.2 895 16.8 517 0.7 89.2 45-0 II.4 9-9 0.9 6.4 O.I 90.8 20.6 17.1 29.0 90.0 1.2 34-4 I.O 854 5-9 63.0 1.2 87.6 10.6 65.1 1.0 90.1 16.2 57-0 3-4 86.9 5-6 72.2 0.5 90.0 16.9 53-6 4.1 57-8 2-5 34-6 1.2 857 4.2 39-9 0.9 91.4 15-8 38.8 10.8 90.8 21.3 52.8 2.9 TABLE TH— (Continued) Feedstuff Grass and clover, mixed, green Grass and clover, mixed, hay Greasewood (3uinea-grass hay Hairy vetch, in bloom .... Hairy vetch, winter Hairy vetch, winter, hay . Hay from mixed grasses . . Hog millet, green Hominy feed Horse bean, green Horse-bean hay Horse beans Hungarian grass, green . . . Hungarian-grass hay Hungarian-grass seed Italian rye grass Italian rye-grass hay Japan-clover hay Japanese millet, green .... Johnson grass, green Johnson-grass hay Kafir com, grain Kafir corn, heads, ground. Kafir com. Red, green Kafir com. White, green . . Kentucky blue grass Kentucky blue-grass hay . Linseed meal, new-process Linseed meal, old-process Macaroni-wheat hay Malt sprouts Mammoth clover, green . . Mammoth-clover hay . . . . Mangels Meadow fescue, green Meadow-fescue hay Meadow-foxtail hay Total Dry Matter in 100 Pounds 25.0 Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds Protein Pounds 2.3 87.1 5-8 41.8 954 10.9 40.9 92.4 3-3 47.2 18.0 3-5 77 15-0 2.8 6.4 88.7 11.9 40.7 84.7 4.2 42.0 20.0 0.8 10.8 90.4 6.8 60.5 15-8 2.3 7-3 90.8 4-3 39-5 88.7 23-1 49.8 28.9 2.0 15-9 86.0 5-0 46.9 90.5 6.4 48.8 27.0 1-5 12.6 91-5 4-5 43-4 89.0 9-1 37-7 25.0 I.I 13-6 25-0 0.6 13-7 89.8 2.9 45-6 90.1 5-2 44-3 86.4 4.2 42.4 18.4 0.8 9-7 16.6 0.9 8.3 34.9 2.8 19.7 86.0 4.4 40.2 90.3 31-5 35-7 90.2 30.2 32.0 93-0 4.4 48.7 90.5 20.3 46.0 20.0 2.0 91 78.8 6.2 34-7 91 I.O 5-5 30.1 1.6 18.6 80.8 4.2 36.9 93-4 5-3 41.0 Carbo- hydrates Pounds 14.6 Fat Pounds 0.5 1-3 1.8 0-5 0.3 0.3 1.6 1-3 0-3 7-4 0.2 0.8 0.8 0.4 I.I 3-3 0.7 0.9 1.4 0-3 0.2 0.8 1.4 1.2 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.7 2.4 6.9 0.8 1.4 0.2 2.1 0.2 05 1-5 1-3 56 TABLE HI— (Continued) Feedstuff Total Dry Matter in 100 Pounds Digestible Nutrients in lOO Pounds Protein Pounds Carbo- hydrates Pounds Fat Pounds Meat-and-bone meal Meat scrap Middlings, buckwheat. . . . Middlings, flour, wheat. . . Middlings, oat Middlings, rye Middlings, wheat, stand- ard Milk, cow's Milk, skim Millet, Barnyard, green;. . MiUet, Barnyard, hay .... Millet, Common MiUet, Hog Millet, Japanese, green . . . Maiet, Pearl Millet seed Millet straw Milo maize, heads, ground Milo maize, seed MHo maize, Yellow, green. Mixed grass and clover, green Mixed grass and clover hay Molasses, beet, pulp, dry. . Molasses grains Molasses, Porto Rico Molasses, sugar-beet New com product Oak leaves, dry, gathered in July Oat and pea hay Oat and vetch hay Oat chaff Oat dust Oat feed Oat forage, in bloom Oat forage, in rmlk Oat grass, taU, green Oat hay 57 94.0 89-3 87.2 90.0 91.2 88.2 88.8 12.8 94 25.0 85.1 20.0 20.0 25.0 18.5 87.9 85.0 903 91.0 16.8 25.0 87.1 92.0 89.6 74.1 79.2 91.2 94.6 89-5 85-0 857 93-5 930 25.0 37-8 30-5 86.0 367 66.2 22.7 16.9 I3-I II.O i3'0 34 2.9 1.6 5-2 0.8 0.8 I.I 0.6 7-1 0.9 4.2 4-9 I.I 2-3 5-8 6.1 10.8 1.4 47 3-5 3-2 7.6 8.3 1-5 5-1 5-2 I.I 2.5 1.2 47 5-5 37-5 53-6 577 52-9 457 4.8 5-3 14.4 38.6 II.O 10.8 13-6 lO.O 48.5 34-3 45-0 44.8 9-3 14.6 41.8 68.7 48.0 59.2 54.1 397 34-6 41-5 35-8 330 32.8 30.1 12.4 18.2 157 367 10.6 134 6.1 4.1 6.5 2.6 4.5 37 0-3 0-3 0.8 0.2 0-3 0-3 0.2 2.5 0.6 I.I 1-3 0-3 0.5 1-3 1.6 1.6 1-5 1-3 0.7 2-3 2.6 0.5 i.o 0-5 17 TABLE HI— (Continued) Feedstuff Total Dry Matter in 100 Pounds Digestible Nutrients in lOO Pounds Protein Pounds Carbo- hydrates Pounds Fat Pounds Oat hulls Oat meal Oat middlings Oat straw Oats and peas, green Oats and vetch, green . . . . Oats, grain Oats, ground Orchard grass Orchard-grass hay Oxeye-daisy hay Palmnut cake Para-grass hay Parsnips Pasture grass Pea and oat hay Peanut cake Peanut kernels, without hulls Peanut- vine hay Peas and barley, green . . . Peas and oats, green Pearl millet, green Perennial rye-grass hay. . . Potato Potato pomace Prairie hay Prickly comf rey Prickly pear Pumpkin, field Pumpkin, garden Purslane Rape-seed cake Red clover, green Red-clover hay Red-clover hay, cut in bloom Red-dog flour Red Kafir corn, green Red-top grass, in bloom . . 92.6 92.1 91.2 90.8 20.3 20.0 89.6 88.0 27.0 90.1 89.7 89.6 92.4 9-5 20.0 89-5 89-3 92-5 92.4 20:0 20.3 18.5 86.0 20.9 8.5 90.8 13.0 15-8 91 13.2 9.0 90.0 29.2 84.7 79.2 90.1 18.4 34-7 1-3 11.9 I3-I 1-3 1.8 2.3 10.7 10. 1 1.2 4-9 3-7 16.0 5-5 i.o 2-5 7.6 42.8 25-1 6.7 2.1 1.8 0.6 6.1 I.I 0.4 30 1-7 0.4 1.0 1.4 2.0 25-3 2.9 7-1 7-7 16.2 0.8 1.9 38.5 65.1 57-7 39-5 10.2 lO.O 50-3 52-5 134 42.4 41.0 52.6 45-6 7.2 lo.i 41-5 20.4 13-7 42.2 9.1 10.2 lo.o 37-8 15-7 6.8 42.9 5-1 6.2 5-8 8.3 4-5 23-7 14.9 37-8 34-0 57-0 9-7 21.3 0.6 6.7 6.5 0.8 0.4 0.2 3-8 3-7 0-5 1.4 1-7 9.0 0.6 0.2 0-5 1-5 7.2 35-6 3-0 0.4 0.4 0.2 1.2 0.1 0.1 1.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.1 7.6 0.7 1.8 2.8 3-4 0.4 0.5 58 TABLE HL— (Continued) Feedstuff Total Dry Matter in 100 Pounds Digestible Nutrients in lOO Pounds Protein Pounds Carbo- hydrates Pounds Pat Pounds Red-top hay Rice bran Rice, grain Rice hulls Rice meal Rice polish Rowen hay Rowen, mixed, hay Rutabagas Rye bran Rye feed Rye flour Rye forage Rye, grain Rye-grass hay, Perennial. . Rye-grass hay, Italian. . . . Rye middlings Rye straw Sage, Common Sage, Little, Common Salt bush, Australian Salt bush hay, Australian. Salt-marsh-grass hay Sanfoin, green Sanfoin hay Screenings, barley Screenings, wheat SerradeUa, green SerradeUa hay Sesame oil cake Shorts Silage, apple-pomace Silage, Barnyard millet and soybean Silage, brewers' grains Silage, Canada field-pea . . Silage, corn Silage, corn and soybean . SUage, corn cobs, cannery refuse 91. 1 90.3 87.6 91.2 89.8 89-5 86.0 834 11.4 88.2 87.6 86.9 234 91-3 86.0 91-5 88.2 92.9 504 65.0 22.0 90.8 89.6 25.0 85.0 87.8 88.4 20.5 90.8 92.6 88.8 15-0 21.0 29.7 49-9 26.4 24.0 25-9 4.8 7.6 6.4 0-3 74- 7-9 7-9 8.0 i.o 11.2 12.6 5-6 2.1 9-5 6.1 4-5 II.O 0.7 1.2 3-2 2.0 3-8 3-1 2.9 10.4 9-5 9.6 2.1 11.4 33-0 13.0 0.7 1.6 4.6 34 1.4 1.6 0.3 46.9 38.8 79.2 19.9 48.3 58.6 42.2 40.1 8.1 46.8 56.6 72.2 14.1 69.4 37-8 434 52-9 39-6 14.1 19.7 8.5 28.8 39-7 II. I 36.5 49-9 48.2 8.9 38.6 10.9 45-7 9.6 9.2 25-5 14.2 13.2 137 1.0 7-3 0.4 0.1 11.9 5-3 1.4 i-S 0.2 1.8 2.8 0-5 0.4 1.2 1.2 0.9 2.6 0.4 3-8 0.9 0-3 0.7 0.9 0.5 2.0 2.5 1-9 0.4 1-7 234 4-5 0.5 0.7 1.8 1.0 0.7 0.7 0.9 59 TABLE m— (Continued) Feedstuff Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds Matter in 100 Pounds Protein Pounds Carbo- hydrates Pounds Fat Pounds 26.3 I.I 14.9 0.7 16.2 0.4 lO.I 0.4 30.2 2.2 12.9 0.8 20.7 1-5 8.6 0.9 49-9 34 25-5 I.O 26.0 0.2 I3-I 0.6 23.2 2.1 I3-I 0.8 19.2 0.7 9.0 0.2 28.0 1-5 9.2 0.5 23-9 0.1 13-5 0.2 25-8 2.7 9.6 1-3 88.6 0.5 52.2 0.7 20.6 0.6 11.6 0-3 87.2 4-5 61. 1 2.8 24.9 3-1 II.O 0.5 88.2 10.6 40.9 1.2 88.3 29.1 23-3 14.6 89.9 2.3 40.1 1.0 92.0 lO.O 70.3 2.0 93-1 7.0 43-9 0.6 15-0 1-9 6.6 0.2 20.0 1-5 9.8 0.3 88.8 13.0 45-7 4-5 31.2 3-7 12.4 2.6 88.0 2.4 70.6 I.I 88.0 0.4 74.0 0.6 13-5 1-3 9.8 0.1 12.0 1-9 5-0 0.2 79.2 4-7 54-1 15.8 0.5 9-5 0.3 91.4 14.8 29.7 18.2 89.2 295 233 8.0 88.4 4.0 38.9 0.7 20.0 2.5 8.4 0.4 90.9 11.9 36.7 0.5 91.2 8.8 63-7 7.0 28.9 0.8 22.9 0.3 89.1 20.2 42.3 1-3 Silage, corn, ears removed. Silage, corn husks, can- nery refuse Silage, cowpea and soy- bean Silage, cowpea-vine Silage, field-pea, Canada. . Silage, millet Silage, pea, cannery refuse Silage, rye Silage, Red clover. Silage, sorghum Silage, soybean Sorghum bagasse Sorghum fodder, green . . . Sorghum seed Soybean, green Soybean hay Soybean seeds Soybean straw Spelt, grain Spelt, hay Spring vetch, green Spurry Standard wheat middlings Starch feed, wet Starch refuse Starch refuse, cassava Sugar beets Sugar-beet leaves Sugar-beet molasses Sugar cane, green Sunflower seed Sunflower-seed cake Swamp-grass hay Sweet clover, green Sweet-clover hay Sweet corn, grain Sweet potatoes Table-bean meal 60 TABLE m— {Continued) Peedstufi Total Dry Matter in 100 Pounds Digestible Nutrients in lOO Pounds Protein Pounds Carbo- hydrates Pounds Fat Pounds Tall-oat hay Taiikage Teosinte, green Texas blue-grass hay Timothy grass Timothy hay, all analyses . Timothy hay, cut after bloom Timothy hay, cut in fuU bloom Timothy hay, cut nearly ripe Tree leaves, dry, gathered in July Turnips, flat Velvet bean, green Velvet-bean hay Vetch and barley, green . . . Vetch and oat hay Vetch and oats, green .... Vetch and wheat, green . . Vetch and wheat, hay .... Vetch, green Vetch, Hairy, in bloom . . . Vetch, Hairy, winter, green Wheat and vetch, green . . Wheat and vetch hay .... Wheat bran, all analyses . Wheat chaff Wheat feed Wheat flour, high-grade . . Wheat forage Wheat, grain Wheat screenings Wheat straw Whey White-clover hay White Kafir corn, green . . . White-top hay Wild-oat grass 86.0 93-0 9-9 85-7 38.4 86.8 85.8 85.0 85-9 84.0 9-9 17.8 90.0 20.0 850 20.0 20.0 85.0 15-0 18.0 15-0 20.0 85.0 88.1 85.7 89.1 87.6 22.7 89-5 88.4 90.4 6.2 90.3 16.6 86.0 85-9 3-3 50.1 0.9 5-1 1-5 2.8 2.5 3-4 2.1 3-5 0.9 2.7 9.6 2.1 8.3 2-3 2.6 10.6 1-9 3-5 2.8 2.6 10.6 11.9 1.2 12.7 10.6 1-7 8.8 9.6 0.8 0.6 0.9 6.8 2.9 41.4 4.9 36.3 19.9 42.4 39-2 43-3 40.1 30.4 6.4 8.4 52.5 6.5 35-8 10.0 10.3 36.8 6.6 7-7 6.4 10.3 36.8 42.0 254' 47.1 65.1 12.0 67-5 48.2 35-2 5-0 42 2 8.3 40.6 48.7 I.I 11.6 0.2 1.4 0.6 1-3 1-5 1.4 I.I I.I 0.1 0.4 1.4 0-3 1-3 0.2 0-3 1.2 0.2 0-3 0-3 0.3 1.2 2.5 0.6 4.0 i.o 0-4 1-5 1-9 0.4 0.2 1-5 0.5 1-5 1-7 61 TABLE IV TVOLPP-I.EHMANN FEEDING STANDAKDS Animal Oxen: At rest in stall At light work At medium work At heavy work Fattening cattle: First period Second period Third period Milk cows when yielding daily: ii.o pounds of mUk 16.6 pounds of milk 22.0 pounds of milk 27.5 pounds of milk Sheep: Coarse- wool Fine-wool Breeding ewes with lambs Requirements per Day per 1,000 Pounds Live Weight First period Second period Horses: At light work At medium work At heavy work Brood sows Fattening swine: First period Second period Third period Growing cattle — Dairy breeds: Age, 2 to 3 months; aver- age live weight, 150 pounds Dry Matter Pounds 18 22 25 28 30 30 26 25 27 29 32 20 23 25 30 28 23 Digestible Nutrients Crude Protein Poimds I 0.7 1.4 2.0 2.8 2.5 3-0 2.7 1.6 2.0 2-5 3-3 1.2 1-5 2.9 3-0 3-5 20 1-5 24 2.0 26 2.5 22 2-5 36 4-5 32 4.0 25 2.7 Carbo- hydrates Pounds 4.0 8.0 1 0.0 II-5 13-0 15-0 14-5 15-0 lO.O II.O 13.0 13.0 10.5 12.0 15.0 I5-0 145 9-5 II.O 133 15-5 25.0 24.0 18.0 130 Fat Pounds O.I 0-3 0-5 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.7 0-3 0.4 0-5 0.8 0.2 03 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.7 o-S 0.4 Nutritive Ratio I to II. 8 I to 7.6 I to 6.3 I to 5.3 I to 6.5 I to 5.4 I to 6.1 I to 6.7 I to 6.0 I to 5.7 I to 4.5 I to 9.1 I to 8.5 I to 5.6 I to 5.4 I to 4.2 I to 6.9 I to 6.2 I to 6.0 I to 6.6 I to 5.9 I to 6.3 I to 7.0 I to 4.4 62 TABLE TV— (Continued) Animal Growing cattle — Dairy breeds: Continued: Age, 3 to 6 months; aver- age live weight, 300 pounds Age, 6 to 12 months; av- erage live weight, 500 pounds Age, 12 to 1 8 months; av- erage live weight, 700 pounds Age, 18 to 24 months; av- erage live weight, 900 pounds Growing cattle — Beef breeds: Age, 2 to 3 months ; aver- age live weight, 160 pounds Age, 3 to 6 months ; average live weight, 330 pounds Age, 6 to 12 months; av- erage live weight, 550 pounds Age, 12 to 18 months; av- erage live weight, 750 pounds Age, 18 to 24 months; av- erage live weight, 950 pounds Growing sheep — Wool breeds: Age, 4 to 6 months; aver- age live weight, 60 pounds Age, 6 to 8 months; aver- age live weight, 75 pounds "03 Requirements per Day per 1,000 Pounds Live Weight Dry Matter Pounds 24 27 26 26 23 24 25 24 24 25 25 Digestible Nutrients Crude Protein Potmds 30 1.8 1-5 4.2 3-5 2.5 1.8 34 2.8 Carbo- liydrates Pounds 12.8 12.5 12.5 12.0 130 12.8 13.2 12.5 12.0 13-8 Fat Pounds 0-5 0.4 0-3 1-5 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.6 Nutritive Ratio I to 5.0 I to 6.8 I to 7.4 I to 8.5 I to 4.2 I to 4.6 I to 5.9 I to 6.8 I to 7.2 I to 5.0 I to 5.4 TABLE TV— (Continued) Animal Growing sheep — Wool breeds: Continued: Age, 8 to II months; av- erage live weiglit, 80 pounds Age, II to 15 months; average live weight, 90 pounds Age, 15 to 20 months; average live weight, 100 pounds Growing sheep — Mutton breeds: Age, 4 to 6 months; aver- age live weight, 60 pounds Age, 6 to 8 months; aver- age live weight, 80 pounds Age, 8 to II months; average hve weight, 100 pounds Age, II to 15 months; average live weight, 120 pounds Age, 15 to 20 months; average live weight, 150 pounds Growing swine — breeding stock: Age, 2 to 3 months; aver- age live weight, 50 pounds Age, 3 to 5 months ; aver- age hve weight, 100 pounds Age, 5 to 6 months; aver- age hve weight, 120 pounds Requirements per Day per 1,000 Pounds Live Weight Dry Matter Pounds 23 26 26 24 23 44 35 32 Digestible Nutrients Crude Protein Pounds 1.8 1-5 4.4 3-5 3-0 Carbo- hydrates Pounds 7.6 4.8 3-7 II-5 10.8 15-5 15.0 14-3 12.6 28.0 22.5 21.3 Fat Pounds 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.9 0.7 0-5 0-5 0.4 0.7 0.4 Nutritive Ratio I to 6.0 I to 6.7 I to 7.7 I to 4.0 I to 4.7 I to 5.1 I to 6.2 I to 6.5 I to 4.0 I to 5.0 I to 6.0 64 TABLE TV— {Continued) Requirements per Day per 1,000 Pounds Live Weight Animal Dry Matter Pounds Digestible Nutrients Crude Protein Pounds Carbo- hydrates Pounds Fat Pounds Nutritive Ratio Growing swine — breeding stock: continued; Age, 6 to 8 months; aver- age Kve weight, 200 pounds 28 25 44 35 33 -30 26 2.8 2.1 7.6 5-0 4-3 3.6 30 18.7 15-3 28.0 23.1 22.3 20.5 18.3 0.3 0.2 I.O 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.3 I to 6.9 I to 7.5 I to 4.0 I to 5.0 I to 5.5 I to 5.9 I to 6.3 Age, 8 to 12 months; average live weight, 2 "lO Dounds Growing fattening swine: Age, 2 to 3 months; aver- age live weight, 50 pounds .-. Age, 3 to S months; aver- age live weight, 100 Dounds Age, 5 to 6 months; aver- age Eve weight, 150 pounds Age, 6 to 8 months; aver- age live weight, 200 pounds Age, 9 to 12 months; average live weight. 65 242—6 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING INTRODUCTION 1. Animal breeding deals with an operation by which it is sought to render domestic animals more useful to man. The horse breeder endeavors to produce an animal that will surpass others in some desirable quality. Breeders of cattle, sheep, swine, and other domestic animals work with a simi- lar aim in their respective groups. From observation and experience, certain principles that are of assistance in pro- ducing desired results have been deduced, and a discussion of the more important of these is given in the following pages. In the science of animal breeding, however, there are many unsolved problems and numerous questions that cannot be answered definitely at the present time. .The breeder of domestic animals will find that a knowledge of the known principles will be invaluable to him in his work, and scarcely less helpful will be the ability to recognize the uncertainties of his vocation. In addition to a discussion of the funda- mental principles of breeding, attention is given, in the fol- lowing pages, to a brief consideration of reproduction, that is, the process by which animals multiply, or increase. 2. The farm* animals of the present time are descendants of certain wild forms that were taken by man from their natural environment at an early period in the history of the human race. This transfer from a natural existence to an existence controlled by man resulted from the fact that primitive man found that certain wild animals were capable COPYBiaHTXD BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL. LONDON §26 2 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 of serving him by doing work, supplying food, or in other ways. Animals that have been transferred from natural to artificial conditions, adapted to serve mankind, and bred for many generations under these conditions are known as domestic animals. Numerous classes of animals have been domesticated, but only horses, asses, cattle, sheep, goats, and swine will be considered in this Section. The work that these animals did for primitive man was practically the same as that they are doing for man at the present time. For example, the horse and the ass were adopted on account of their efficiency as beasts of burden; the cow, for the same service and also for furnishing meat and milk; the sheep and goat, for meat, milk, and fiber for clothing; and the hog, for meat. During the time of domestication special races or strains, known as breeds, have been developed within each of the classes of domestic animals. Breeds are so numerous that no attempt will be made here to give a complete list, but Percheron, Clydesdale, and Belgian horses and Shorthorn, Hereford, and Jersey cattle may be mentioned as examples that are well known. REPRODUCTION DEFINITIONS AND TERMS 3. The process by which animals multiply, or increase,* is known as reproduction. The term breeding is also used to designate this process as well as in the sense of improving domestic animals, as already defined. Reproduction is one of the most important functions of animal life, since it is by this means that species are perpetuated. The reproductive process is also of interest to the breeder from the fact that an understanding of it enables him to grasp and apply the principles of breeding. These considerations are of sufficient importance to warrant a description of the reproductive process. It should be borne in mind, however, that reproduction, in the higher § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 3 animals, such as are considered in this Section, is an exceed- ingly complex process and one that has engaged the earnest study and investigation of some of the best scientists. It involves many steps and processes that are but little under- stood, and to undertake a detailed description of all these steps and processes would require much space and be of little, if any, benefit to the breeder. In the following discussion, therefore, nothing but a mere outline of the reproductive process is attempted. 4. Among domestic animals, the male parent is com- monly referred to as the sire and the female parent as the dam. Grandsire and grandam, second sire and second dam, etc., are terms commonly used in breeding literature and scarcely require definition. Male and female breeding animals are distinguished by different names in the different classes of domestic animals. The male breeding animal of horses is known as a stallion, or stud; of asses, as a jack; of cattle, as a bull; of sheep, as a ram; of goats, as a buck; and of swine, as a boar. The names for breeding females in the same classes are, mare, jenny, cow, ewe, nanny or doe, and sow, respectively. Filly, heifer, and gilt are terms used by livestock men to designate a young mare, a young cow, and a young sow, respectively. A young pig of either sex is commonly called a shoal. No definite statement can be made as to the exact age at which a filly becomes a mare ^ r a heifer becomes a cow, etc., for the terms are more or less loosely used. 5. The domestic animals considered in this Section belong to the division of the animal kingdom known as mammals, so called from the fact that the females suckle their young. Examples of animals in which the young are not nourished in this way are birds, reptiles, fishes, etc. Reproduction in mammals differs somewhat from reproduction among other groups, and it should be noted that the statements in the following discussion, except where otherwise specified, apply to the mammal group only. PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 26 GERM CELLS 6. The cell is the unit of all animal life. The very lowest forms of animals consist of a single cell. Next above these forms come those that are made up of a cluster of cells. In succeeding forms in the scale of animal life the arrangement of this cluster of cells becomes more and more complex, but it is always made up of a larger or smaller number of individual cells. Hence the statement that the cell is the unit of all animal life. Almost all animal cells are so small that they cannot be distinguished with the naked eye. In order to see the cells in animal tissue, it is necessary to make use of . a microscope. A good idea of the manner in which cells enter into the formation of tissue may be obtained, however, by an ex- amination of a specimen of tissue from the vegetable kingdom, in which the cell is also the unit. In the edible part of an orange, for example, the cells are so enor- mously enlarged that they are easily distinguishable with the unaided eye, and an individual cell can be separated from the tissue and examined. In a general way, the arrangement of cells in some animal tissues resembles the arrangement of cells in the edible part of the orange. Fig. 1 7. A typical animal cell, highly magnified, is illustrated in Fig. 1. Its important parts are the cell body a, the nucleus b, the nucleolus c, and the cell wall d. These struc- tures are characteristic and can usually be found in all cells, although the cell wall is sometimes absent. In the animal body there is considerable variety in the size and shape of cells in different parts of the body. Under the microscope, some will be found that resemble very closely the one shown in Fig. I. Fat cells are usually globular; bone cells, very § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 5 irregular in outline; muscle cells, spindle-shaped; and nerve cells, very much elongated and threadlike. The germ cells are special forms of cells that play an important part in the process of reproduction. Each sex produces a characteristic type of germ cell and it is by a tinion of the male germ cell with a female germ cell that reproduction is accomplished. 8. Female Germ Cells. — A female germ cell is known as an ovum (plural ova.) The term egg is also used with ref- erence to the female- germ cell, and the eggs of birds are in reality germ cells that carry with them a large quantity of nourishment for the sus- tenance of the young bird until it is able to obtain its own feed. In the classes of animals under consideration, the ova are seldom more than •j-gVo iiich in diameter. They are developed in organs known as ovaries, from certain cells existing therein. A typical ovum, highly magnified, is shown in Fig. 2, in^ which the characteristic cell structures previously mentioned are easily distinguishable. The cell body is shown at a, the nucleus at b, the nucleolus at c, and the cell wall at d. The structure shown at e is merely a protective covering. Notwithstanding the fact that an ovum is exceedingly small, it is nevertheless large in com- parison with other cells of the animal body. 9. Male Germ Cells. — In somewhat the same manner as the ovaries develop the ova, certain male organs, known as testicles, develop the male germ cells, the spermatozoa. In general appearance they differ widely from the female germ cells, as will be seen by comparing Fig. 3, which illustrates a spermatozoon, with the ovum shown in Fig. 2. The male Fig. 2 6 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 germ cell is usually about g-jVo inch in length. Its important parts are a head, or nucleus, a, and a tail, or cilium, b. By ®a rapid motion of the latter, somewhat similar to the " swimming motion of fishes, the "spermatazoon is able to propel itself through a fluid or over moist surfaces. This power of motion plays an important part in bringing the male and female germ cells together, as will be pointed out in the discussion of fertili- zation. Myriads of spermatazoa are present in the thick, viscid fluid known as semen, which is secreted by the testicles and certain other glands. If a drop of normal semen is examined under a compound microscope, the germ cells are readily distinguishable. * This is a method sometimes used to test the semen of male animals to determine whether or not they are capable of reproduction. Semen devoid of living germ cells is inactive, and males from which it is obtained Fig. 3 are said to be sterile, or impotent, a condition that may be either temporary or permanent, as is explained under the heading sterility. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 10. , The numerous organs concerned with the process of reproduction are known as reproductive organs, or genital organs. Their functions are to bring the two reproductive elements — the spermatazoon and the ovum — together and to nourish and protect the young animal until it is capable of maintaining an independent existence. As it is on the female animal that the last mentioned functions devolve, it is to be expected that her genital organs will be more numer- ous and complex than those of the male, and this is found to be the case in nature. 11. Female Reproductive Organs. — In Fig. 4 is illustrated the general appearance of the reproductive organs of a mare. This illustration is somewhat diagrammatic and is intended to show the relative positions and relationships rather than Fig. 5 S PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 the actual arrangement. Fig. 5 illustrates similar organs removed from the mare. In this figure the organs are viewed from above, some of them having been opened to give a better idea of their structure. The names of the essential organs, shown in Figs. 4 and 5, are as follows: a, vulva; b, vagina; c, uterus, or womb; d, ovaries; and e, Fallopian tubes. The vulva, consists of a shallow cavity communicating with the exterior through a narrow slit-like opening. In Fig. 5, the upper portion, or roof, of the vulva has been divided and the organ laid open. In addition to the one external opening into the cavity there are two internal openings, one leading to the urinary bladder and the other to the vagina, the second important female reproductive organ. The vagina is a sheath-like organ communicating at one end with the vulva and at the other with the uterus. In Fig. 5 it is shown opened and spread out in the same manner as the vulva. Viewed in this manner it is possible to dis- tinguish its junction with the vulva at one end and with the uterus at the other end, points that are not distinguishable in Fig. 4. At the junction of the vagina with the uterus, the latter projects into the former, as shown at g, Fig. 5. This projection is known as the os uteri, meaning the mouth of the uterus. The uterus itself is a muscular sac in which the young animal is protected and nourished up to the time of birth. For descriptive purposes it may be divided into three prin- cipal parts, namely, the body c and two horns, or comua, h. At /, Fig. 5, the wall of the body is cut and turned back, exposing the cavity of the uterus, which is a continuation, through the os uteri, of the cavity of the vagina. The walls of the uterus are capable of great distension to accommodate the growth of a young animal, and the muscular structure of the walls is necessary for the expulsion of the young at birth. From the extremity of each cornu of the uterus a tube leads to the ovary on the corresponding side. These tubes are known as uterine, or Fallopian, tubes, and are shown at e in the figures. They form a continuation of the cavity of § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 9 the uterus but do not unite directly with the ovaries. Each tube ends in an expanded flower-like structure known as the pavilion of the tube, shown at i, Figs. 4 and 5, and the opening of the tube is into this paviUon. The latter is more or less in contact with the ovary, but its opening is into the abdomi- nal cavity. The ovaries are two kidney-shaped organs located as shown at d, Figs. 4 and 5. Their function is to develop ova, as already explained. When an ovum is fully developed, it bursts from the surface of the ovary and is grasped by the pavilion of the tube. From this point it passes into the tube and is carried along toward the uterus. Its further course will be traced in the consideration of the subject of fertilization. 12. Male Reproductive Organs. — The essential reproduc- tive organs of the male are the penis, and the testicles, and certain ducts and glands, the details of which it is not neces- sary to explain here. The penis is an erectile organ by means of which the semen is introduced into the female organs. Except during periods of sexual excitement, the penis is usually encased in a pro- tective covering called the sheath. The testicles are two in number, and are carried in a pouch known as the scrotum, and also as the cod and the purse. As has already been mentioned, the function of the testicles is to develop the spermatazoa and to secrete a fluid in Which the germ cells are suspended. This fluid is carried by ducts to a storage reservoir within the abdomen of the animal. Along the course of these ducts are certain glands that add their secre- tion to the fluid, the whole constituting the semen. PEBTILIZATIOSr 13. At certain more or less regular intervals a developed ovum is released from the ovary and passes along the Fallopian tube toward the uterus. The time of the ripening and passage of the ovum is marked by numerous disturbances in the female, the more noticable of these being irritability of temper, 10 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 restlessness, swelling of the vulva, and frequently a discharge from the latter. This condition is known as ovulation, heat, rut, and csstrum. Its first appearance in a young female, constituting the beginning of sexual life, is termed puberty. From this time on, heat reoccurs more or less regularly, except during pregnancy, until the time at which sexual activity ceases with the approach of old age. Heat usually occurs about every three weeks, although the period varies considerably, depending on the class of animal, climate, feed supply, and other factors. During the period of heat, the female usually gives off a characteristic odor by which the male is attracted. As a rule, it is only during heat that the female will accept the attentions of the male. 14. During copulation, the semen is ordinarily deposited in the vagina, but there is evidence that at least a small quantity may be thrown into the uterus. By the swimming motion already described, the spermatazoa penetrate into the horns of the uterus and on into the Fallopian tubes. If an ovum, in passing from the ovary to the uterus, encounters a spermatazoon, the two cells approach; the nucleus of the ovum moves to a position near the cell wall; the nucleus of the spermatazoon penetrates the protective covering shown at e. Fig. 2, passes through the cell wall, and unites with the nucleus of the ovum. This constitutes the process of fertili- zation, or impregnation. It may take place in the uterus or in a Fallopian tube, probably more often in the latter. In the case of animals that bear more than one offspring at a birth, several ova are fertilized. If, during its descent from the ovary to the uterus, an ovum is not met and fertilized by a male germ cell, the former passes out of the body and is lost. 15. The sexual act by which the semen is deposited in the female organs is known as copulation. Breeding, covering, and serving are other terms commonly used by livestock men to designate the same act. Horse breeders often find it an advantage to resort to what is known as artificial impreg- nation, a process by which the semen discharged at one service § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 11 of the stallion is utilized to fertilize a number of females. The details of this operation and a description of the instru- ments required for its accomplishment are given in another Section. DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO 16. In the uterus, the ovum, having absorbed the nucleus of the spermatazoon, undergoes a complex process of division, redivision, and folding, the result of which is the formation of the embryo. The latter is the name given to the young animal in its earliest stages, before definite structures and body appendages can be distinguished. Later, wh^n the limbs and other appendages are recognizable, the term fetus is used in place of embryo. As the fetus grows, it gradually takes on a resemblance to the parental form. Its nourish- ment is absorbed from the maternal blood as it circulates in the walls of the uterus. 17. The time from the fertilization of the ovum to the delivery of yotmg is known as the period of gestation. The average length of the period of gestation in different domestic animals is as follows: Horses and asses, 336 days; cattle, 285 days; sheep and goats, 147 days; hogs, 112 days. It should be noted that these figures are simply averages. Ordinarily there is considerable variation in the length of the period not only among different animals but also in the same animal under different conditions and it is not unlikely that the actual date will fall short of or exceed by several days the time mentioned. Gestation tables, consisting of an arrangement of dates by which it is possible to determine at a glance the approximate date at which the young will be born, are commonly used and will be given in the various Sections that treat of different classes of domestic animals. In using a gestation table, the breeder simply finds in one column the date on which the female was served. Opposite this date, in a parallel column, appears the date on which the birth of the young may be expected. 12 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 26 BIRTH 18. The expulsion of the fetus from the maternal body- marks the close of the gestation period and is known as birth, or parturition. In the various groups of animals, special terms are used to designate the birth of young. With mares, parturition is commonly called foaling; with cows, calving; with sheep, lambing, or yeaning; and with pigs, farrowing. There are certain indications by which the breeder is apprised of the approach of parturition. He may, by observing these indications, make preparations for taking care of the mother and offspring during the critical period. Among the prom- inent indications of approaching parturition may be men- tioned a waxy secretion at the ends of the teats, a swelling of the udder and of the vulva, together with a dropping of the abdomen and a hollowing of the flank. Shortly after the § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 13 appearance of these symptoms, or some of them, acute con- tractions of the muscles of the uterus, known as labor, or straining, may be expected to begin. Under ordinary con- ditions this activity will result in the birth of the fetus within the next few hours. In the delivery of the fetus from the womb the usual position of the former is with the head and forefeet first, as shown in Fig. 6 (a) . This is known as a normal presentation. The presentation shown in (b) is also a common one. With a fetus of average size, there is usually no difficulty in the delivery of such presentations, but it sometiraes happens that an abnormal presentation makes the delivery of the fetus difficult or impossible. An abnormal presentation may con- sist in a twisted, inverted, or other unnatural position of the fetus or a peculiar position of its legs, thus obstructing its passage through the genital openings. A similar difficulty may result from a swollen or bloated condition of the fetus due to abnormal development or to its death and decompo- sition within the womb, etc. In the case of an abnormal presentation, it is often possible, by manipulation, to alter the position of the fetus and thus permit of its deUvery. To accompUsh this, in the mare or cow, the breeder should first thoroughly clean and disinfect his hand and arm to the shoulder. The utmost care is neces- sary in this matter, to avoid the introduction of infection into the organs, where it may result fatally to the animal. The arm is then lubricated with vaseline, unsalted lard, or oUve oil, and, in an interval between labor pains, introduced through the vagina to the fetus. This work should be per- formed with the utmost care and gentleness. It is important also to avoid undue excitement of the animal by hasty or violent movements, by the presence of too many assistants, and, in fact, by any condition that may unnecessarily disturb the animal. When the hand has reached the fetus, it is usually possible to determine by careful feeling what its position is. If the presentation is found to be abnormal, it may be possible to change the position of the fetus by bringing pressure to bear on it between periods of straining. 14 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING §26 19. It is not the intention to give here explicit directions for dealing with the great variety of abnormal presentations that may occur. In general, the efforts should be directed toward getting the fetus in one of the positions shown in Fig. 6. To do this, it is usually necessary to force the fetus back into the womb before its position can be shifted. To assist in forcing the fetus back, a forked instrument known as a repeller, which is shown in Fig. 7 (a), is sometimes used. As an aid in turning the fetus within the womb, an instru- ment known as a rotater, shown in (b), is sometimes used. A cord is passed through the eyes of the instrument, forming a loop as shown. The end is then introduced into the womb and the operator, with his hand, adjusts the loop of cord to the fetus in such a way that when the handle of the instru- ment is rotated there will be a tendency to turn the fetus in the desired direction. In some extremely complex cases it becomes necessary to sever one or more of the limbs of the fetus or even to dissect the body in order to accomplish its removal from the dam, the life of the young animal being sacrificed to save the mother. This operation is also fre- quently required in cases of a distorted or a bloated fetus. For the dissecting operations within the uterus, an embryotome. § 23 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 15 shown in (c), is of great assistance, as the blade may be guarded by the finger at such times as it is desired to avoid cutting. Other instruments, such as hooks, forceps, and chisels, are sometimes employed by professional veterinarians in difficult labor cases, and in all but the most simple operations it is doubtless well to call a qualified veterinarian, particularly if the animal is a valuable one. Fig. 8 With sheep and swine, few of the preceding manipulations are possible on account of the smaller size of the genital organs of these animals. In cases of difficult lambing or farrowing, an instrument known as lamb and pig forceps is commonly used. There are several forms of this instrument, one of which is shown in Fig. 8. The instrument may be introduced into the womb and utilized to a certain extent in the same way as the other instruments described. ABORTION 20. Occasionally it happens that the fetus is delivered prematurely — ^that is, before the expiration of the normal period of gestation. When such a premature delivery occurs late in the gestation period, say at a time when the fetus is sufficiently developed to permit of its being saved, the event is commonly referred to as a premature birth. If delivery occurs earlier, say, at a time when the fetus is so imperfectly developed as to be incapable of living, the act is referred to as an abortion. Abortions are frequently caused by injury or undue mus- cular exertion of the dam. Blows, kicks, slipping on ice or wet ground, crowding throtigh narrow doors or gateways, piling up in sleeping quarters, and drinking excessive quan- tities of ice-cold water, are some common circumstances 242—7 10 PRINCIPLES OP ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 that result in abortion. Certain pasture weeds and fungus growths, particularly the smut of rye, known as ergot, are also responsible for abortion. Abortion due to the causes mentioned is spoken of as non-contagious abortion, to distinguish it from a form due to the infection of the female genital organs with germs. The latter is referred to as contagious abortion, and is espe- cially prevalent among cattle, although it affects also sheep and swine and will be discussed more fully under a Section devoted to animal diseases. STERILITY 21. Occasionally animals are found that are incapable of reproduction. This condition is known as sterility, and may be due to various causes. Overfeeding, resulting in an excess of fat, together with lack of exercise, are perhaps among the common causes. In the female, sterility is frequently due to closure of the os uteri, which prevents the entrance of the semen, as well as to the presence of acid secretions, which destroy the spermatazoa. If the sterile animal is not of special value on account of purity of blood or pedigree, it is perhaps well to discard it for breeding purposes. In the case of valuable animals, however, a veterinarian should be consulted, as it is often possible to correct the condition. § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 17 LAWS OF BKEEDING liAW OF HEREDITY 22. In the reproduction of animals there is a force or a tendency operating to keep offspring like their parents. This force or tendency is known as heredity, and its applica- tion as the law of heredity, or the law of inheritance. Like produces like is a brief and pointed statement of this same law. The tendency of offspring to resemble the parents is so strong and so constant that it is natural to suppose that there is some physical basis for it — ^that is, some actual substance existing in the ovum and spermatazoon that carries the characters of the parent to the offspring. Scientists are generally agreed that there is such a physical basis for this transfer, but there is a wide difference of opinion as to just what this basis is and how it performs its work. Many theories have been advanced and may be found expounded in works on evolution, but they are at present nothing more than theories. It is important to note that the law of inheritance may apply not only to the organism as a whole but also to any peculiarity of form or function. The .older works on animal breeding devote a great deal of space to illustrating the law of inheritance by pointing out instances of the transmission of minute and often insignificant peculiarities from parent to offspring. This application of the law is not so important to the breeder, however, as is the broader application that refers to the transmission of the general characters of the individual as a whole. It is this latter, rather than some unimportant point of form or structure, that chiefly concerns the man who is seeking to improve his domestic animals. 23. Direct Heredity. — The most common action of the law of heredity is that which results in offspring closely 18 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 resembling the immediate parents, and is called direct heredity. When it continues from generation to generation, heredity is said to be strong, the type is said to be fixed, and the animals are said to breed true to type. If the history of a certain type for several generations back is known and the fact is estab- lished that all the individuals of these generations have been uniform, there is reasonable assurance that this uniformity will continue. Such a continuation is a demonstration of direct heredity. Three factors operate to affect direct heredity. In other words, the probability of offspring closely resembling the parents depends on three conditions. These are: 1. The purity of the blood of parents; that is, freedom from an admixture of other blood for a considerable number of generations. 2. The similarity of the parents, or, in other words, the degree to which the parents resemble each other. 3. The degree of relationship of the parents, which is a question of the blood relation of one parent to the other. From the preceding it is evident that parents of com- paratively pure blood, closely resembling each other and closely related, are much more likely to transmit their char- acters to their offspring than are parents lacking one or more of these requirements. 24. Indirect Heredity. — The appearance in the offspring of characters not found in the immediate parents but in the more remote ancestors is called indirect heredity. This form of heredity usually manifests itself in some particular trait or character rather than on the animal as a whole. The unexpected appearance of an ancestral character is called atavism, reversion, harking back, or striking back, and it is fre- quently the cause of considerable annoyance to the breeder who is trying to get rid of some character or quality. He may have apparently succeeded in eliminating the unde- sirable point, only to find it reappearing unexpectedly in later generations. It is not known how long a character may § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 19 lie dormant, but there are instances of the occurrence of atavism after many years of direct heredity. As a rule, however, after the first few generations the chances of the appearance of atavistic characters are rather remote. Indi- viduals that show atavistic characters do not, as a rule, transmit these characters to their offspring, the latter being more likely to possess the characters of the grandsire and grandam. Some authorities consider that the case of a male parent, for example, transmitting to his female offspring the charac- ters or qualities of his dam, is a further example of indirect heredity, but others are inclined to regard this as direct heredity. Among dairy cattle, there have been numerous conspicuous examples in which sons of a particularly good milch cow have transmitted this quality to their female offspring. In the same way, a daughter of a sire possessing certain strong masculine traits may transmit them to her male offspring. These are cases of the transmission of charac- ters that depend on sex itself being transmitted strongly by the opposite sex. This may also apply to characters that are not distinctly sexual. Thus, a bull may stamp his female offspring with a certain color mark that is absent from his male offspring. 25. Inheritance of Disease. — The question of the inherit- ance of disease is an important one, and in the literature of breeding it will be found that almost every disease in the whole list of animal ailments has, at one time or another, been considered to be hereditary. It is undoubtedly true that in many cases certain diseases pass from generation to generation with a good deal of regularity, and there is reason to believe that this is sometimes due to the hereditary transmission of the disease to the offspring by the parent. The study of disease has, however, brought about a niarked modification of early views regarding the inheritance of dis- ease. It is now known that many diseases are the direct result of the presence of bacteria in the animal body. In the case of such diseases, the infection is rarely passed directly 20 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 from parent to offspring by heredity. This statement, how- ever, has nothing to do with the infection of offspring from parent by other means than heredity. A cow affected with tuberculosis, for example, is not likely to infect her offspring with the disease as long as the fetus is in the uterus, but after birth, if the calf is kept with the dam, infection is almost sure to result from their intimate association. There are, however, certain general constitutional diseases, particularly those affecting the structure and conformation of the skeleton, that are still generally recognized to be more or less hereditary, and animals suffering from any such diseases should not be used for breeding purposes. For example, the cow affected with tuberculosis may not transmit the actual disease germs to her calf by heredity, but she may transmit a weak constitution and certain other defects that are favorable to the development of the disease in the calf, which defects the cow has inherited from her parents. 26. Inheritance of Malformations and Mutilations. — In the course of breeding operations there are occasionally born individuals in which some organ or structure is abnormally developed, greatly modified, or supernumerary. In other cases, an organ or a structure may be imperfectly developed or absent. Such abnormalities are referred to as malforma- tions. Examples of malformations are : limbs of tmusual size or shape ; an extra limb ; a small, imperfectly developed limb ; or the entire absence of a limb ; however, the malformed part is not of necessity a limb; it may be almost any other body structure or almost any body organ. Mutilations may be described as malformations due to accident or design, and usually consist of cut, broken, or injured parts or parts that have been purposely removed, such as the horns, tail, etc. If an animal having a malformation or a mutilation is to be used for breeding purposes, a question arises as to whether the offspring will inherit these imperfections or alterations. There is a well-established popular belief that these departures from the normal are transmitted to offspring of parents § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 21 possessing them, and numerous examples are cited in support of this belief. On the other hand, the best authorities on breeding incline to the belief that malformations and mutila- tions are not transmitted and point out the fact that the examples cited are largely traditional and that undoubtedly many of the remaining ones may be attributed to mere chance. There are a few apparently authentic cases on record in which a malformation or a mutilation has been transmitted to ofEspring, but it may be safely said that the probabiUty of this occurring is very remote. A striking instance of the non-transmission of mutilations is in the case of docking — ^that is, removing the tails of animals. Notwith- standing the fact that docking has been practiced for many years upon sheep and certain breeds of horses, the character shows no tendency to diminish or to disappear. 27. Inheritance of Acquired Characters. — Probably one of the most controverted questions relating to evolution in general and animal breeding in particular is the question as to whether acquired characters are transmitted to the off- spring of parents possessing them. It seems likely that at least some of this controversy has arisen from different under- standings or interpretations of the term acquired character. In the sense here used, an acquired character does not signify an entirely new character acquired suddenly by an individual and not appearing in its ancestors. It has reference, rather, to a character or quality that is highly developed or specialized in an individual as compared with its development in the ancestors. It is not, therefore, the quality itself but its unusual development or specialization that is acquired. A cow may develop the quality of increased milk production, which may be regarded as an acquired character, though the character of milk production has, of course, been possessed by her female ancestry for countless generations. The disputed point is, will such an acquired character be transmitted to the offspring of the parent possessing them? In other words, will the female offspring of the cow exhibiting the acquired character of increased milk production inherit 22 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 this character from her ; or will they possess merely the average of the ancestors? It should be carefully noted that this question has no reference to inherited characters or to char- acters that may appear as the result of a variation or atavism. Many good authorities hold strongly to the idea that the parent does not transmit to its offspring any qualities or characters that it, the parent, may have acquired during its life. On the other hand, equally distinguished investigators maintain that such characters are transmitted to the off- spring, and it should be stated that practical breeders, without exception, base their operations, and particularly their selections, on the idea that~acquired characters are inherited by offspring. In other words, they hold that an animal possessing the quality of increased production of milk, flesh, wool, or speed transmits to its " off spring a tendency to the same increased production. Obviously, the work of the breeder is greatly facilitated if this is true. It is not possible, with the knowledge available at the present time, to state positively that the proposition is true or untrue, and breeders will do well to take this fact into consideration 9,nd conduct their operations accordingly. 28. Mendel's Law of Hybrids. — Certain characters of off- spring are the result of a combination, or blending, of the characters of the parents. For example, if, among cattle, a pure-bred red male of one breed is mated with a pure-bred white female of another breed, the offspring may be roan in color, provided the colors, red and white, are equally strong in hereditary influence. If one color — the red, for instance — is much stronger in hereditary influence than the other — white — the offspring are likely to be red or at least a very dark roan. In either case, the offspring are hybrids. If, now, a considerable number of these hybrids are produced from the same parents or from parents exactly similar in regard to the characters mentioned, and these hybrids are interbred, the resulting progeny will tend to be red, roan, and white, in accordance with a definite law known as Men- del's law of hybrids, so named from its discoverer. § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 23 The first application of Mendel's law was to the breeding of plants, but it has been found to hold true also in the breeding of animals. It should be noted, however, that in the following description the simplest possible case is chosen for the sake of making the theory clear. In actual practice, there are may factors that will enter and complicate the working out of the law. Suppose that a herd of red and a herd of white animals similar to the first two individuals just described are isolated from all other cattle and allowed to interbreed. Two cases must be taken into consideration. L The first case to be considered is that in which the two colors, red and white, are equally effective in determining the color of the offspring. In this case, the offspring will be roan in color, which represents an equal blending of the colors of the parents These roan animals constitute the first generation. If, now, these roan animals are interbred, the offspring, representing the second generation, will, according to Mendel's law, exhibit a variety of colors : One- half of them will be roan, similar to their immediate parents ; one-fourth will show the red color of the one grandparent and the other one-fourth will show the white color of the other grandparent. Thus, if from the herd of roan hybrids of the first generation one hundred calves are produced, fifty will be roan, twenty-five will be red, and twenty-five will be white. If now all of these groups are isolated and interbred, that is, the whites bred to whites, the reds bred to reds, and the roans bred to roans, an interesting result is observed. The whites will produce pure whites and the reds will produce ' pure reds. In other words, the mixture of red and white blood that occurred to produce the first generation has had no apparent effect on these animals. This result will hold true throughout all succeeding generations of these animals, provided there is no subsequent admixture of foreign blood. But the offspring of the fifty roan animals will continue to show mixture : one-half of them will be roan, one-fourth red, and one-fourth white. This constitutes the third generation. As before, the red animals, if interbred, will produce pure reds, and the whites, if interbred, will produce whites; but 24 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 the roans will again split up into one-half roans, one-fourth reds, and one-fourth whites. Thus the process will go on indefinitely. 2. Suppose, now, that another case be taken in which conditions are exactly the same at the beginning as detailed in the first case, except that, instead of being equally balanced, one of the colors, say red, is much more influential than white in determining the color of offspring. Under these con- ditions the red is said to be a dominant character and the white is said to be a recessive character. In the first generation, the offspring, instead of being roan, will be red, for the red color is predominant over the white. In the second genera- tion, if one hundred animals are produced, there will be twenty-five white and twenty-five red animals, these repre- senting the pure forms ; but the remaining fifty, which in the first case were roan, will now be red on account of the pre- dominance of the red color. Therefore, the second generation will contain one-quarter white and three-quarters red animals. Now, although the one-quarter that are pure red and the half that are red because the latter color is dominant over the white may look exactly alike, the latter are nothing but hybrids. When the pure reds are bred together, the result will be pure red offspring; but when the fifty red hybrids are bred together, one-quarter of the offspring in the third gen- eration will be pure white, one-quarter will be pure red, and one-half will be red hybrids, due, again, to the dominance of the red color, and the succeeding generations will be in accordance with the same principle. This, in exceedingly brief form, is Mendel's law, stated in its simplest terms and illustrated by means of an imaginary herd of animals. In practical breeding operations, it is difficult to obtain the results set forth. Many factors, such as vari- ation and atavism, would be likely to have an effect in determining the final result. In case the hybrids are of the same color as one of the pure-bred divisions, it would be diffi- cult, if not impossible, to separate the two. Furthermore, it is likely that the red color would be partly rather than completely dominant over the white, which would further § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 25 complicate the experiment. However, the preceding discus- sion serves to illustrate the principle, which has been demon- strated to be true, and notwithstanding the complications that are encountered in actual practice, progressive breeders are beginning to take Mendel's law into account, endeavoring to make it serve a useful purpose. LAW OF VARIATION EXPLANATION OP THE LAW 29. In addition to the law of heredity, which operates to produce offspring that resemble the parent forms, there is another law constantly active that tends to produce offspring that are unlike the parents. This second law is known as the law of variation. By its operation, the production of exact duplicates is prevented. Not only are differences evident between parents and offspring, but also between individual offspring of the same parents. Thus, although the law of inheritance is that offspring tend to resemble their parents, the law of variation is that they tend, to differ from them ; and, notwithstanding the apparent contradiction, both laws hold true. Likewise, both are so familiar that a moment's consideration demonstrates their truth. The two laws are closely associated and should be considered in their relation- ship to each other in breeding operations. Both play an important part in the work of animal breeding. If the law of inheritance were fixed and inviolable, there would, of course, be no possibility of bringing about an improvement by animal breeding. On the other hand, if there were no law of inheritance, types, breeds, and families would cease to exist as such, and there would be only a heterogeneous mass of individuals instead of species, varieties, breeds, and families, many of which have existed from prehistoric times. The law of variation tends to the production of slight rather than violent changes, and, moreover, it applies to all 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 characters — not simply to certain ones. Consequently, there is said to be a slight but constant tendency to vary. In this connection, however, it is important to note that different kinds of animals show different degrees of variation. For example, certain families or individuals may show few and small variations, and other families or individuals may show numerous and great variations. The former are referred to as 'fixed types and the latter as variable types. DEGREES OF VARIATION 30. Variations are, in a sense, departures from the general forms and characters of the parents. These departures may be very slight or very radical or intermediate between the two extremes. Hence, it may be stated that there are different degrees of variation, considered from the standpoint of the extent to which the variation departs from the parental form. The degrees of variation commonly recognized by breeders are: normal variations, discontinuous variations, abnormal variations, malformations and monstrosities. It will, of course, be understood that these are arbitrary divisions and that forms intermediate between these different divisions may occur. The first two degrees mentioned are of such nature as to be of assistance to the breeder, but the remaining ones are so extreme as to interfere more or less seriously with the usefulness of the animal possessing them, and are there- fore of little interest except as examples of the principle of variation. 3 1 . Normal Variations. — Variations that constitute just a sufficient departure from general type as to make it plain that variation exists, are called normal variations. Normal varia- tions, particularly in animals that are of a uniform type, are so small that it often requires a minute examination or an intimate acquaintance with the individual in order to recog- nize them. Familiarity with a flock or herd is, of course, a great aid in recognizing normal variations in the domestic § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 27 animals. The herdsman, for example, detects at a glance minute variations that would not be apparent to one unfamiliar with the herd. It is his ability to recognize these differences in individuals that gives the breeder a large part of his skill in the improvement of domestic animals. 32. Discontinuous Variations. — Variations that are so marked or peculiar as to be unusual, yet not radical enough to be classified as abnormal variations, malformations or monstrosities, are referred to as discontinuous variations. A discontinuous variation may affect the color, form, size or any particular character of an individual, and is sufficient to mark the latter at once as distinct from its parents and from the general mass of the breed. At the same time, the individual is not so radically different from its breed that the relationship is not at once recognized. Breeders commonly refer to discontinous variations as sports. Ordinarily the departure from normal shown by a sport disappears in the next generation ; that is, the sport does not transmit its pecu- liarities to its immediate offspring. In fact, it has often been found impossible to perpetuate a spor-t, even when every effort is made to do so. On the other hand, in occasional cases, sports occur and perpetuate themselves, thus giving rise to new types that remain practically permanent from the start. 33. Abnormal Variations. — Variations that are more radical than a sport but not so radical as to affect the vital parts of organs sufficiently to interfere with the life function are considered to be abnormal variations. An extra limb or other structure or an extremely peculiar marking of the hair or skin may be given as illustrations of an abnormal variation. 34.' Malformations. — Variations that are of a still greater degree than abnormalities and are sufficient to interfere to some extent with the vital function of the animal but not so much as to make it impossible for the animal to live, are called malformations. 28 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 35. Monstrosities. — To the class of variations comprising still more radical forms than the foregoing and of such a nature as to make life impossible for more than a compara- tively short time after birth, the name monstrosities is given. EXTERNAL CAUSES OF VARIATION 36. Environment. — Perhaps one of the most important external influences causing variation in domestic animals is environment, which has reference to external conditions of life, such as climate, food, care, etc., to which the animal must adapt itself. Considering climate, it is, of course, well known that there is a certain relation existing between animals and the climate in which they live. All sorts of animals are found in all sorts of climates, but the same class of animals existing under different conditions of climate will exhibit certain characteristics that are more or less directly due to climatic influences. These characteristics are, in general, those that affect the size and the external covering of the animal. As a general rule, animals inhabiting cold climates are smaller 'than those of the same species living in warm climates. The free working of this principle, however, is interfered with among domestic animals owing to the fact that man, by furnishing shelter, modifies the effect of climate to a greater or less extent, and in this way is able to move animals from one climate to another without deterioration. Ordinarily, it will be found that animals that have been developed in cold or severe climates are hardy and vigorous, although this is not always true. There are many examples of domestic animals that have been transplanted from their native country, or the country in which they were developed, to other countries widely different in climate, and have still continued to thrive, in some cases even showing improvement over the original types. As an example, the Merino sheep may be cited. This breed was originated in the dry climate of the table lands of Spain, where the sheep attained a high degree of development in the production of wool of great fineness and § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 29 softness. In the latter part of the 18th century, animals of this breed were exported in considerable numbers to Germany, France, and the United States, and in each of these dissimilar climates they not only maintained their vigor and general characteristics, but in each case increased in development in some one particular character. Another example is the Jersey and Guernsey cattle of the Channel Islands. These cattle have been brought in large numbers to the United States, where they have spread through the whole country, in no part of which are the climatic con- ditions at all like those of their original habitat. Never- theless, they have shown no loss of vigor, have become thoroughly acclimated, and many individuals have shown as great or greater productive capacity than the original animals imported. So far as adaptability to climate is con- cerned, there seems to be no reason why any useful breed may not be transplanted to a climate widely different from that in which it was developed. 37. The effects of the care given to domestic animals by man are seen in various ways. It is generally admitted that because of it many of the females deliver their yotmg in a less mature state, less able to take care of themselves, than was the rule under natural conditions. This, it is believed by some authorities on animal breeding, follows as a direct result of the shortening of the gestation period. This is nota- bly the case in the domestic pig, and amounts to as much as 4 days as between the improved domestic swine and the wild hog. It has often been remarked that the young of highly bred animals are apparently weak ; from this it is argued by some that animals of this kind are commonly weak in consti- tution. This, however, is not accepted by breeders of pure- bred stock. The young of highly bred animals, being born in a less mature state, require from man more care and bettei protection, but it is pointed out that at an equal period of development they are just as vigorous and able to care for themselves as their unimproved relatives that were born more fully developed. 30 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 38. The environment of domestic animals is also influ- ential in the development of certain traits or instincts and the loss of others. For example, the instinct to protect its young is undoubtedly one of the strongest forces in wild animals, but through the influence of man's care, in certain of our breeds of domestic animals, this maternal instinct has been almost ' entirely obliterated. This is particularly the case in certain of the dairy breeds in which, when a cow drops her calf and the calf is removed from her presence, she does not appear to miss or mourn for it. 39. Another factor to be considered in connection with environment is that of feed supply, and it is undoubtedly one of the most important ones. As a matter of fact, the first cause of all improvement may be said to be an increase in the quantity, quality, and regularity of the feed supplied. The question of the maintenance of the quality of improved animals depends on the care and skill with which they are fed. If an improved animal is to maintain itself and produce young that will be as good or an improvement on it, it must constantly have all the good feed that it can use. Improved animals not only consume more feed than ordinary animals but they make better use of it. If the feed supply of such animals is cut off or reduced, it is generally admitted that they will still make better production in a broad sense than unimproved animals on the same supply of feed, but rever- sion and deterioration are almost sure to follow such reduction. 40. Telegony. — A second external cause to be mentioned as giving rise to variation is known as telegony, which is the influence of the sire of one offspring on the succeeding off- spring from the same dam and a different sire. An incident that is commonly used in support of the belief in telegony is the following : More than 100 years ago an English breeder, Lord Morton, is said to have crossed a thoroughbred running mare with a quagga and in time a zebra-striped foal was produced. In the succeeding year the mare was not covered, but the second year after was covered by a thoroughbred running sire, and from this union a foal marked with stripes § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 31 was produced. Similar instances, it is claimed, have been observed in numerous cases with other classes of animals. Extremists even claim that a female that has produced young other than that of her own breed is thereby reduced to the class of a grade animal and can never be depended on to breed true when mated with males of her own breed. Several very ingenious theories have been brought forward to account for such occurrences, but none of them are entirely satisfactory. On the other hand, it has been claimed that none of the sup- posed cases of telegony are authentic and that even Lord Morton's mare was a myth and that there is no such thing as an influence of this sort. The experiment of crossing a quagga on an Arabian mare has been repeated with negative results as to telegony. Some of the recorded cases of telegony are apparently so authentic as to demand recognition, but the present view of those on whose judgment most dependence can be placed is that cases of telegony, if such a thing does exist, are extremely rare, and that telegony as a factor in variation need not be taken into serious considera- tion by the breeder. 41. Prenatal, or Intra-Uterine, Influences. — There is a more or less prevalent belief that the color of the offspring may be influenced by presenting the desired color before the dam at the time of copulation, or by confining her during the period of gestation in enclosures in which the desired color predom- inates. Along somewhat the same line is the belief that a deformity or mutilation presented unexpectedly to the sight of the dam during the period of gestation is likely to result in the appearance of a corresponding abnormal condition in the offspring. Prenatal, or intra-uterine, influences is a term used to designate the causes that bring about such results. The belief is that the mental impressions of the dam are transmitted to the young within the womb and the develop- ment of the young affected thereby. Many examples are cited by believers in this theory, and some of them are apparently authentic. Scientists are, however, practically agreed that there is no such transmission 242—8 32 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 of impressions, and that the seemingly authentic cases are accidental rather than the operation of such influences. It should be noted that the preceding does not apply to influ- ences that the dam may exert on the fetus through a diseased condition of her reproductive organs, lack of nourishment, violent exercise, etc. There is no question but that the fetus is affected by the latter influences. BREEDING OPERATIONS SELECTION 42. The number of young produced by animals, both wild and domestic, is ordinarily much in excess of the number that can mature, live, and breed. Under natural conditions, this excess results in a struggle among the individuals, in which the weaker ones are overcome and only the strong survive to perpetuate their species. This struggle is known as natural selection. Among domestic animals the struggle is much modified or entirely eliminated. Man chooses from the total those animals that he desires to use for breeding purposes and makes some other use of the remainder. This operation of choosing animals desired for breeding purposes is known as artificial selection, and is perhaps one of the chief factors utilized by breeders in improving their herds. The practical breeder bases his selections on certain qualities, and the degree to which these qualities are present determines whether or not a particular animal is to be used for breeding purposes. 43. Individual Merit. — One of the first qualities required of a breeding animal is individual merit, by which is meant the degree to which it approaches perfection as a representa- tive of a breed or a type. The object of breeding is improve- ment, and it is therefore to be expected that the breeder's interest lies in making use of the most meritorious forms available. § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 33 44. Pedigree. — As commonly used, the term pedigree signifies a record of the ancestry of an animal extending back through a variable number of generations. If the ancestry shows a strong line of individuals having no admix- ture of inferior or outside blood, the pedigree is said to be good. If, on the other hand, the record shows numerous inferior or unknown individuals or mixture of other strains, or if it does not extend back far enough to show what the parentage has been, the pedigree is said to be weak or poor. From this it is evident that pedigree is an important con- sideration in the selection of animals for breeding purposes. 45. The question often arises as to whether the individual merit or the merit of the ancestors, that is, good pedigree, is of most importance in determining the character of off- spring. It is unfortunately true that many individuals of surpassing excellence fail to beget offspring of equal excellence with themselves. The reason for this is that, no matter what the individual merit of the individual animal may be, unless it has inherited these meritorious qualities from its ancestors it cannot be expected to transmit these qualities with any degree of uniformity or certainty. It is often stated that a good individual that has no pedigree or a poor pedigrtee cannot beget offspring of equal excellence, but this is not exactly true. It may accomplish this in some cases, but it cannot be depended on to do so with certainty. The offspring of such an animal are not uniform. 46. It is perhaps equally unfortunate that an individual having a marked deficiency, but descended from good ances- tors, may transmit to its offspring not its own deficiency but the excellence of its ancestors. Among breeding animals, it is not an uncommon occurrence to find an animal of medi- ocre or poor quality that uniformly begets offspring of a much higher quality than itself. The power to do this is ascribed to the high quality of its ancestors. In this case the animal is said to breed better than itself because of the excellence of its pedigree, and the inexperienced breeder makes the mistake of supposing that such an animal, which can 34 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 often be purchased at a low price, can be used as a means of improvement. The fallacy of this is almost sure to be apparent when the offspring of such an individual are used for breeding purposes. It will be seen at once that they are of the kind described in the preceding paragraph. They may be excellent individuals, but their immediate parents were inferior and they cannot be depended on to transmit their qualities to their offspring. Hence, the statement that it is unfortunate that an animal with a marked deficiency may transmit to its offspring not its own deficiency but the excellence of its ancestors. There is perhaps one condition under which the use of such an inferior animal for breeding purposes may be of advantage. When it is discovered that this individual begets offspring of uniform excellence and it is desired to produce only market stock, such an animal may be of value because succeeding generations need not be thought of and it is only the imme- diate offspring that need be taken into consideration. 47. Prepotency. — The ability of an individual to transmit its characters to its offspring is called prepotency. A sire or a dam having this power is said to be prepotent. As an illustration, the case of a bull having certain distinct or peculiar color markings may be cited. If the progeny of this bull are practically all marked with the same color character, the bull is said to be prepotent with reference to this character. Prepotency may vary from a slight preponderance of the characters of one parent to an almost complete resemblance to one parent and the almost complete exclusion of resem- blance to the other parent.. Prepotency is not confined to sex, for either the male or the female parent may be prepotent in respect to any or all qualities. It very frequently happens also that one parent is prepotent in respect to one character, or set of characters, and the other parent is prepotent with respect to different characters. Prepotiincy as a factor in the selection of animals is often extremely puzzling to the breeder, because it may be of either § 26 PRINClt'LES. OF ANIMAL BREEDING 35 advantage or disadvantage. It is, of course, evident that when a parent shows prepotency with respect to an undesir- able quality such prepotency is a disadvantage. Further- more, prepotency may not always be of advantage when, it is shown with respect to a desirable quality, as will be explained later. It is generally recognized that prepotency is likely to be found in animals having a long line of pure-bred ancestors. But prepotency is also an inherent character of the individual. In the history of livestock breeding, many individuals have been bred in which this quality of individual prepotency was so strong as to give them great fame for the uniform resem- blance of their offspring to each other and to their parent. 48. Most domestic animals are polygamous, that is, the males mate with numerous females ; therefore, the advantages of prepotency are most apparent when the desirable prepotent quality exists in a well-developed, vigorous male of a desirable type, who, by reason of this quality, begets a large number of uniformly good offspring resembling himself. Prepotency in a male is often an aid in this way to increase desirable qualities and uniformity of a herd or flock. When pre- potency is thus utilized in the production of offspring for market purposes alone, there can be no question of its great usefulness. But prepotency may be a disadvantage when a strongly prepotent animal is selected to mate with females lacking in this respect and often of mediocre or inferior merit. The immediate offspring may show a great degree of improve- ment and uniformity, but they are not likely to prove pre- potent; and when, in turn, they are used for breeding pur- poses they are likely to show in their offspring at least some of the inferior qualities of their dams. In other words, the use of a strongly prepotent male on females inferior in quality to him is much the same thing as using a pure-bred sire on common or mixed-bred females in the production of grades. In the latter case, it is often of no advantage, and may be a distinct disadvantage, to use a very prepotent animal in the production of animals that in turn are to be used for breeding purposes. 36 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 20 49. Constitution. — The successful breeder must take con- stitution into account in making his selections. Constitution refers to all those factors which have to do with the life processes of an animal. These include the digestion and absorption of feed, the circulation of the blood, breathing, the appetite, etc. Naturally, an animal, no matter what other characters it may possess, must be endowed with a strong constitution in order to be of the greatest value to its owner. There are two points that are of value in determining whether or not an animal possesses a good constitution. These are size and symmetry. Considering first the question of size, it may be said that an animal endowed with a strong constitution and given an abundant supply of feed will almost invariably develop to more than the average size of its fellows that have not had these favorable conditions. On the other hand, an under- sized animal usually means that it is either lacking in con- stitution or that its feed supply has been deficient. In this way size may to a certain extent be taken as an indication of constitution and an undersized animal avoided for breeding purposes. It should be noted, however, that a few indi- viduals in almost all classes of animals develop to such a size that, as compared with the average of their race or breed, they may be considered as overgrown. They are in effect giants, which seldom have strong constitutions, and are therefore as undesirable for breeding purposes as are under- sized animals. From the preceding remarks it will be seen that the best indication of strong constitution is, in regard to size, found in animals above the normal but still under the extraordinary. The second character by which to judge constitution, namely, symmetry, refers to an even and uniform develop- ment of all parts of the animal. A decidedly symmetrical animal is one that presents nothing striking to the eye at first, but on closer examination is seen to possess general superiority, or at least to excel in characters of form and feature. Attention is often drawn to an animal by reason of some very striking character, as a very large udder, a very § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 37 prominent eye, or a very long tail. Such animals are unsym- metrical, and although the characters in question may be desirable and useful in themselves they are the marks of a somewhat unbalanced animal. Symmetry, as an indication of constitution, is to be regarded in much the same manner as size. It is the symmetrical animal — that is, the one that is good in all but not strikingly superior in any single char- acter — ^that is likely to have the best constitution. The idea of symmetry is, of course, modified according to the group of animals under consideration. For example, the body form that is considered symmetrical for the trotting horse is quite unlike the form that is considered symmetrical for the draft horse. 50. Fecundity. — Another factor to be considered in the selection of animals for breeding purposes is fecundity. This term has reference to the activity of an individual in the production of young. Animals that bring forth young fre- quently, regularly, and, in the case of those that bear more than one offspring at a birth, in large numbers, are said to be fecund. This quality is of great importance in domestic animals, and it is one that appears to run strongly in hereditary lines; that is, it is capable of being inherited. Increased fecundity manifests itself in numerous ways. First, the parent begins to bear young earlier and continues to be prolific for a longer time than is the general rule ; second, the parent gives birth to young regularly during the prolific period ; third, in the case of certain groups of animals, swine, for example, more young are produced at a birth. In wild animals, the capacity for reproduction is held in check by unfavorable conditions of environment, and large numbers of young fail to reach maturity, so that the rate of natural increase is small. When, through domestication, conditions of environment are made more favorable, the possibility of reproduction is enormously increased, and it is found that all domestic animals reproduce more freely than their wild relatives. This increase, however, does not occur until the full effect of domestication has had time to operate. 38 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 The captive wild animal often fails to breed or breeds only with great difficulty, and in the newly domesticated animals the habits of reproduction are among the last to change. But there is another feature of fecundity that must be taken into consideration, namely, that of reduced fecundity due to certain conditions of domestication. The extreme development of some of the improved breeds of animals, notably the meat-producing breeds, which are often kept fully fattened, more or less seriously interferes with capacity for reproduction. As a result of this, many highly developed individuals are either shy or rare breeders. It is with this class of animals in particular that the skill of the breeder is taxed to the utmost to produce a high development of the individual without serious loss of fecundity. 5 1 . Mating. — In the selection of breeding animals, mating, that is, the suitability of two animals to be bred together, must be given attention. It should be explained at this point that various names are given to the offspring of different matings. When individuals of two different breeds, species, or genera mate, the offspring, if any is produced, is known as a hybrid. The mule, resulting from the union of a jackass and a mare, is a familiar hybrid. In many cases the crossing of individuals of different species does not result in the pro- duction of offspring. When an individual of one breed is mated with an indi- vidual of a different breed of the same species, the offspring is sometimes referred to as a cross-breed. Unfortunately, this same term is frequently used with reference to the result of mating two individuals not of different breeds but of differ- ent families of the same breed. It must therefore be borne in mind that the term cross-breed has these two meanings. A pure-bred animal is one whose parents for several genera- tions back show no admixture of outside blood. The off- spring of one pure-bred parent and one parent of mixed or unknown breeding is termed a grade, and when both parents are of mixed or unknown breeding the offspring is known as a scrub. The term native is used synonymously with scrub, ^ 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 39 although the former should be limited to scrubs that are native to a given locality. 52, Mating is one of the most important operations in breeding and it therefore merits the careful consideration of breeders. Offspring tend, in general, to resemble the parents ; but, since no two individuals are alike, and every offspring must have two parents, it follows that, while resembling its parents in a general way, it must differ more or less from each of them. In comparing an offspring with its parents, there are three possibilities in respect to the resemblance: first, a perfect combination of the qualities of both parents; second, a preponderance of the qualities of one or the other parent; third, none of the characters of either parent. In the first case, the offspring will represent a blending of the qualities of two parents in such a way that each individual character in the offspring is the sum of what it was in the two parents. This perfect balancing is, however, seldom encountered in practice. It is most nearly approached in animals that are the offspring of parents that closely resemble each other and have inherited their qualities from their ancestors. In other words, it is most frequently seen in pure-bred animals that are closely alike, and is often spoken of as breeding true. The condition in which the offspring resemble one parent more than the other is perhaps most common of the three mentioned. Certain individuals possess a power of transmitting their own characters to their offspring and overcoming those of the other parent. This is the quality known as prepotency, which has already been explained. INBREEDING 53. The term inbreeding, or incestuous breeding, is generally used to describe the practice of mating together animals that come within certain degrees of blood relation- ship, as, for example, mating a sire to one of his female offspring or a dam to one of her male offspring, or a male to his full sister. By some breeders the term in-and-in breeding 40 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 is used to signify the same operation, but by others it is applied only to a repetition of the operation throughout a number of generations. Close breeding and line breeding are terms that signify the mating together of more or less closely related animals, but not animals so closely related as to con- stitute inbreeding. For example, a breeder may, starting with only two animals, a male and a female, establish a small herd by inbreeding. If, now, he avoids mating sires and dams to their ofEspring and brother to sister, but continues to interbreed the herd, he is then practicing close breeding, or line breeding. 54. There are probably no practical breeding problems that have been more discussed than the advisability or inadvisability of inbreeding, and the subject may still be considered as unsettled. It is generally recognized that the practice of inbreeding tends to strengthen general heredity and to make more certain the transmission of the characters possessed in common by the related animals, even increas- ing or accentuating them. On the other hand, weakened constitutions, dwarfed size, and lessened fecundity have been frequently noticed to follow in the practice of inbreed- ing. Many breeders have not hesitated to state that the practice of inbreeding will in itself bring about these undesirable results, but there is considerable question as to this being an invariable rule. The modem ideas of the inadvisability of inbreeding are undoubtedly founded on the prohibition of marriages between certain related persons by Biblical authority, but it is of importance to note that not all of these are blood relatives. Some opponents of inbreeding have pointed out the elaborate provisions found in some blos- soms to prevent self-fertilization in support of their position. But here again the evidence is not conclusive, for there are many blossoms in which the provisions of nature prevent cross- fertilization, so that these blossoms are practically always self-fertilized, which is equivalent to inbreeding in animals. A justification of inbreeding is found in the life of wild animals similar to most of our domestic animals. For § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 41 example, in the case of the buffalo, the wild horse, and some species of wild sheep, goats, and deer, the ordinary life of a herd or flock is almost sure to result in inbreeding to a fairly close degree. Such flocks are dominated by a single male, who rigorously excludes all other males from its vicinity and becomes the sire of all the young born. The young females remain with the herd and reach maturity during the life of their sire, and are almost certain to bear offspring by him, thus giving rise to inbreeding. When, through the decreasing vigor of such a sire, he is deposed, it is quite likely to be by one of his own sons, which will take his place. This new sire, coming to the head of the herd, finds in it a considerable number of his sisters, and as a matter of course mates with them, thus bringing about further inbreeding. There is no doubt but that at the present time a large majority of practical breeders look on the evils likely to follow inbreeding as greater than the benefits that may be derived from it, and consequently they hesitate to practice it. There can be no question, however, that skilful inbreeding is one of the most useful methods in the hands of the breeder in strengthening the power of inheritance and bringing about a greater degree of uniformity and improvement. 55. Inbreeding as a practical method of improving domestic animals did not come into use until after the middle of the 18th century. Previous to that time all improvement in domestic animals was sought by crossing; that is, constant infusion of new blood. One man is credited with the intro- duction of the practice of inbreeding. This man was Robert Bakewell, an English tenant farmer, born in 1726, and living at Dishley, Leicestershire, England. Although Bakewell left few, if any, written records of his practice, it is known that he selected animals for mating wholly on the basis of the degree to which they possessed the desired characters and without regard to relationship. He often mated together animals very closely related and continued this practice for many years until he greatly improved all the animals that he handled on his farm, more particularly the Dishley or 42 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 Improved Leicester sheep, the English cart horse, and the Longhom cattle. Since Bakewell's time, inbreeding has been successfully used by a large number of breeders, and it has been an important factor in the improvement of nearly all of our modem breeds of domestic animals. 56. Many illustrious instances of successful inbreeding might be cited, but a few will suffice to show what has been accomplished. Perhaps no men were more successful in the practice of inbreeding than Charles Colling and Thomas Bates, early improvers of Shorthorn cattle. Pedigrees of many animals bred by them show the closest kind of inbreeding. Favorite, one of the most famous of the early Shorthorn bulls, was an inbred animal, resulting from the mating together of Bolingbroke and Phoenix, themselves nearly full brother and sister, as shown by the pedigree illustrated in Fig. 9. {Foljambe f Dalton Duke Young Strawberry I I Lady Maynard ("Foljambe Phcenix i I Lady Maynard Fig. 9 Favorite, a vigorous, prepotent, and long-lived animal, was bred on his own ofEspring time without number, in one case, tradition says, for six generations, culminating in the pro- duction of the famous cow Clarissa, as shown in the diagram of her pedigree in Fig. 10. fr Favorite Comet i I Favorite L Young Phcenix •{ I Phoenix 6 f Favorite Wildair] I Granddaughter Hubback {Favorite r Favorite 5th cow I r Favorite 1 4th COW'! f Favorite I 3d COW I f Favorite L 2d COW i I Favorite list cow i Fig. 10 § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 43 But in no case was close inbreeding carried to a greater extent than in the production of the full brothers Comet and North Star. In this case, the inbred bull Favorite was bred to his dam, Phoenix, to produce Young Phoenix, who, in turn, being bred to her sire, produced the bulls Comet and North Star, as shown in the diagram, Fig. 11. {Favorite r Bolingbroke r Favorite] Young Phoenix] I Phoenix I Phoenix Fig. 11 The two bulls, Comet and North Star, further illustrate the principles of selection that must accompany successful inbreeding. Comet undoubtedly stands second only to Favorite in desirable individual qualities, in fecundity, and in prepotency. North Star, on the other hand, seems to have had no power to impress his qualities, and left very few descendants. That Colling had the sagacity to select Favorite and to discard North Star illustrates the sort of rigid selection that must always accompany inbreeding. No family of animals was ever more famous than the Duchess Shorthorns developed by Thomas Bates on founda- tions laid by Charles Colling. The foundations of the family in Bates' hands were Duchess 1st and Ketton 1st. The latter was a full brother of the dam of Duchess 1st, and it will Duchess , 1st {Favorite r Favorite Young Phoenix i L Phoenix '■Duchess I Duchess f Favorite r Favorite I f Dairy Bull] {Favorite f Hubback Duchess J I Duchess Fig. 12 be seen from Fig. 12 that Duchess 1st was a closely inbred animal. From this foundation, with practically no infusion of other blood, Bates bred more than one hundred animals. 44 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 26 practically all of which were excellent individuals in them- ' selves and had the power to transmit their qualities to their offspring. Other instances of successful inbreeding are shown in Figs. 13 and 14, which are diagrams of the pedigrees of animals f Saturn [Rhea Mercury' f Tupiter-J ll Polonius Sarpe-^ don Europa {Saturn Rhea f Saturn Jupiter-! I Rhea f Jupiter i Leda Alphea f Saturn Rhea {Saturn Rhea Europa Pig. 13 Jupiter I f Saturn Rhea {Saturn Rhea Two Hundred Per Cent. One Hundred Per Cent. r Stoke Pogis |- Stoke Pogis Fifth i I Marjoram r Stoke Pogis Leclair's Marjoram Marjoram {Stoke Pogis Marjoram Fig. 14 belonging to the Alphea and the St. Lambert families of Jersey cattle. 57. These illustrations of successful inbreeding make clear the principle that rigid selection must accompany inbreeding, § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 45 and that when the selection is rigid, the degree of relationship has little to do with success or failure. Breeders who propose to practice inbreeding must disregard relationship entirely and rigidly exclude any individuals that show lack of con- stitution, fecundity, or size. Those who are inclined to urge the dangers of inbreeding are often equally inclined to urge the benefits of crossing, and history shows that it was through introducing fresh blood that improvement was usually sought by early breeders. There is no question but that the intro- duction of a fresh strain of blood tends to increase constitution and fecundity, but the fresh blood so introduced must come from a common source not too far back for, as has already been shown, violent crossing — ^that is, mating together very unlike breeds — is liable to give rise to reversion. With care and skill in selection, a new desirable character may be intro- duced into a breed as a result of a cross, but it is not an easy thing to do, and comparatively few breeds of domestic animals have been formed by the direct crossing of well- established separate breeds. Very many crosses are undoubt- edly made with the hope that the desirable qualities of the parents may be combined in the offspring to the exclusion of the undesirable qualities. That such hopes so frequently result in failure is not to be wondered at when it is called to mind that the chances are just as favorable for the combina- tion of undesirable qualities to the exclusion of desirable ones. To use a common illustration. Jerseys are often crossed with Holsteins with the hope that the offspring may give as much milk as the Holstein and that the milk will contain as much fat as that of the Jersey. The exact opposite is just as likely to occur. There is one condition under which crossing may result in advantage. Very many breeds nick, or blend, well together in the first generation, certain useful characters in either breed being dominant. In this way it is often easier to pro- duce a more satisfactory and uniform type of market stock than it is to keep strictly within the limits of the breed or to depend on grade animals. 46 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 BREEDING TO POINTS AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 58. In all breeds of animals there are particular structures, colors, forms, etc. that are considered to be characteristic of the breed. For example, in the Dorset sheep, a white face, large nostrils, small horns curving forwards, and other definite body structures must be possessed by a typical animal of the breed. These specific characters are known as points, and by their presence or absence the breeder judges of the excellence or deficiency of an animal as a representative of the breed. By training, environment, inbreeding, and selection the form may be modified and the relative value of the various points or characters changed so as better to suit the use or the fancy of the breeder. All Dorset sheep, for example, do not possess proper development of the essential points of the breed. A given flock may depart from the standard by the presence of a considerable number of indi- viduals having spotted faces and horns curving outwards instead of forwards. But by some or all of the breeding operations mentioned it is possible to modify these poihts and bring the flock to a condition in which it will approach the ideal form very closely. The operation by which this is brought about is termed breeding to points. It is possible that by a continuation of the process, the breeder can develop the points to the extent that they will excel those of the animals that were considered typical of the breed. Such a procedure is known as improvement of breeds. CASTRATION 59. In the course of breeding operations, it is customary to select from the total number of males produced those that are of sufficient merit for use as sires. These sires may be used by the breeder himself, jor he may sell them to other breeders. The remaining males — those that are considered as inferior or unsuitable for use as sires — are usually castrated, § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 47 that is, they are deprived of the power of reproduction by the removal of the germ-bearing organs, which, in this case, are the testicles. There are several reasons why this opera- tion is desirable. The meat of male animals that is used for human food is improved in quality if the animals are castrated when young; horses that have been castrated are more easily handled and more applicable to various kinds of work than are stallions; castrated males can be allowed to range freely with other stock and the energy that in the uncastrated male would go to the development and use of the sexual organs may be directed to other and more profitable ends. To some extent these advantages will also apply to the castration of females, which operation consists in the removal of the ovaries and is commonly known as spaying. In general, however, the spaying of females, being a more difficult opera- tion than the castration of males and the advantages not so marked, is not so commonly performed. The details of both of the preceding operations will vary slightly with the different groups of domestic animals; hence, specific directions in regard to them will be reserved for con- sideration in connection with each particular group. Among horses, a castrated male is known as a gelding; among cattle, as a steer or stag; among sheep, as a wether; among pigs, as a barrow. The castrated female of the same groups is usually referred to simply as a spayed mare, spayed cow, etc. DETERMINATION OF SEX 60. In the breeding of domestic animals, the sex of the offspring produced is usually an important consideration. Under some conditions, male offspring are greatly preferred and under other conditions females are desired. In either case, a preponderance of the desired sex means an increased profit for the breeder. This being true, it is but natural that breeders should have sought from the earliest times to discover a means by which the sex of offspring could be controlled. 242—9 48 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 Determination of sex is the term commonly used to designate this problem. Notwithstanding the effort that has been made to accomplish the desired result, no method has been found by which either sex or even a majority of either sex can be produced at will. On the contrary, it has been proved that, as a rule, taking into account a sufficient number of animals or a sufficient length of time, practically equal numbers of both sexes are produced. Frequently, one sex will predominate for a limited time or in the case of a few animals, but the general rule holds, nevertheless. With the great amount of attention and study that has been given to the problem of the determination of sex, it is not strange that a large number of so-called rules have been brought forward as a means of controlling the sex. Some of these have enabled unscrupulous persons to reap considerable financial reward from the ignorant and unwary, but none of these rules have stood the test of actual practice. A brief review of some of the more important of these rules or theories may be of interest to the student of breeding. Since the essential organs of reproduction — that is, the ovaries and testicles — are double, it is quite natural that the idea should have arisen that one organ is concerned with the production of one sex and the other with the other sex, but this idea was long ago disproved by observation and by actual experiment. The relative vigor of the parents, particularly the sexual vigor, has been supposed to control the sex of offspring, but curiously enough this idea has been applied in both ways. It has been claimed by some that the most vigorous parent begets a larger percentage of offspring of its own sex and by others that it begets a larger percentage of the opposite sex, and examples have been produced to support both claims. This being true, it is evident that this theory of sex deter- mination is untenable. A theory that has been very widely held is that sex is determined by the degree of maturity of the ovum at the moment of fertilization, and that the earlier the ovum is fertilized the more likely the resulting offspring is to be a § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 49 female. The application of this rule was to have the male serve the female as soon as the period of heat appeared if females were desired, and delay service until the latest possible period if males were desired. This theory has had a wide circulation, but it has long since been abandoned so far as any definite results secured from its application are concerned. The rule that has had the widest notoriety has been applied only to domestic cattle. It is the so-called alternate heat rule, and is based on the idea that the alternate ova, as they mature, will produce, if carried to full development, offspring of opposite sexes. For example, if a cow has produced a male calf and it is desired to secure a female the next time, she must be served on the first, third, or any odd number of heats. If a male is desired, it would be secured from service on the second, fourth, or any even number of heats. If the last offspring had been a female, males would be produced from service on the first, third, fifth, etc. heats, and females from service on the even numbers. Many breeders have tried to carry out this rule, but failures from it have been more numerous than successes. BREEDING RECORDS AND STANDARDS BEEEDING RECORDS 61. One of the important considerations in breeding operations is that of keeping careful records of individual animals. This applies not only to the work of the individual breeder, but also, and perhaps with more force, to the develop- ment of the breed as a whole. In the selection and mating of animals, the individual breeder is greatly aided by a knowledge of their ancestry. Moreover, the value of those he sells to other livestock men for breeding purposes will, to a very large extent, be determined by the same factor. The permanence of breeds, as such, depends to a large extent on the maintenance of an accurate and detailed record of the 50 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 individuals therein. It is very evident that, in order to meet the preceding requirements, methods by which authentic and systematic record may be kept are essential. The methods by which individual breeders may keep their records will be discussed in detail under the different groups, but mention will be made here of the system of livestock records by which important facts pertaining to the different breeds are recorded. 62. For the purpose of maintaining records and the accomplishment of other ends advantageous to their respect- ive interests, breeders of a given class of animals usually organize what is known as a breeders' association, a record association, or pedigree-record association. Various names, derived usually from the name of the particular breed, are given to these bodies, as, for example, the American Short- horn Breeders' Association, the National Delaine Merino Breeders' Association, the Standard Poland-China Record Association, etc. Each association usually compiles and publishes an annual volume containing records of the ancestry of animals that are accepted for registry during a given period preceding the issuance of the book. Record books relating to horses are usually known as stud books; cattle record books, as herd books; sheep record books, as flock, or record, books; and swine record books, simply as record books, although in the case of the last two classes there is considerable variation in the terms used by different associations. At the time of the organization of an association an effort is usually made to collect all important existing records extending back to the formation of the breed. To these are added the names of animals of merit from succeeding genera- tions. The process of enrolling an individual on the records is known as registration, and is regulated by certain rules or requirements of the association. For example, it may be stipulated that an animal possessing seven-eighths pure blood of the breed is eligible to registry. However, most associa- tions will accept no animal to registry that does not show pure-bred parents ; that is, both the sire and the dam must be registered animals in order to admit the offspring to registry. ftmerlcan Short-Horn Breeders' Association Certified Copy of Pedigree Accepted For Entry in the American Short-Horn Herd Boole Bred by. .... P.O.... „ Mate ... I. 0. _Siat, •(Vol. p. 1 Oct ty..... tMt tMM Wol... 'by. by. ty by. ..bu. . bu «K bv. _..»». it. In. „ Sif ._ it »H. by ^B___ . _ tn , _ ty. iy 'Hiyi That the above pedigree haa been aceeptedfor record in Vol. . In Testimony Wbereot l have affixed the teal of the AiicoiaUon. Chieato, III.,. .A. D. 1911 51 Fig. 15 52 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING § 26 63. On the admission of an animal to registry, the owner is usually furnished with a certificate of registration, in which is stated the name of the sire and dam of the animal, together with other essential facts regarding date of birth, sex, color, owner, etc. A name is usually given to the animal by the owner, and to this name the association usually adds a num- ber, the two usually being necessary to its complete designa- tion. Another work of the association consists in furnishing a pedigree on application. A pedigree is a document record- ing the ancestry of a given animal for a variable number of generations. Few pedigrees go farther back than eight or ten generations. Pedigrees that go back to the ancestors that were first admitted to the breed record are referred to as complete pedigrees. Two general forms of pedigrees are in common use. One form is by means of a blank similar to the one shown in Fig. 15. Spaces are provided for recording the name and other facts as to color, age, breeder and owner, of the animal whose pedigree is being written. Following these are spaces for recording the name of the sire, the name of the dam and her sire, the name of the second dam and her sire, the third dam and her sire, etc. In this form of pedi- gree no record is given of the parentage of the sires, and in this respect it is somewhat incomplete. The other form of pedigree gives the name and number of both the sire and the dam and the sire and the dam of each of these, and in this way traces the record back for a variable number of generations. A pedigree of this form is customarily written in the form of a diagram, illustrations of which are shown in Figs. 9 to 14, inclusive. On account of the differences that exist in the matters of registration and pedigree among the different breeds, a detailed description will be reserved for discussion in the consideration of those groups. § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 53 STANDARD OF EXCEIiLENCE 64. The application of the foregoing principles of breeding must be along a definite line in order to accomplish results. Unless the breeder has a goal toward which he is working, no material improvement can be brought about. To meet this condition most breeders' associations make a statement of what is considered the ideal animal for their breeds. This state- ment is known as a standard of excellence, and usually con- sists of a printed enumeration of the qualities that go to make up an ideal animal of the breed, although in some cases no printed standard exists, the ideal being carried in the minds of the breeders. Standards of excellence are of two kinds. The first relates to the characters of an animal that may be determined by an inspection or an examination. Form, color, size, etc. are qualities that are taken into consideration. A score card similar to that of the accompanying score card for Berkshire swine is one form of such standard. A value is given to each important point or character; for example, a value of 3 points out of the total 100 is given to color. In comparing an individual with the ideal, an estimate is made as to how nearly the color of the individual approaches the ideal and an allowance is made on the score card accordingly. As an illustration, if the color is considered good, 2 points may be allowed; if it is only fair 1 point may be allowed. Other items on the score card are taken up in the same way, and the sum of the points allowed is determined. This is referred to as the score qf the animal, and the operation of determining it is called scoring, or judging. Some breeding associations issue for the guidance of their members what is known as a standard scale of points. As a rule, the latter differs from a score card only in the omission of blanks for recording the score of a particular animal. In addition to the score card, there is another form of standard of excellence based not on external appearances but on performance. In dairy cattle, for example, individual cows that are able to yield above a certain quantity of milk score card tor berkshire swine Standard of Excellence Adopted by the American Berkshire Association Perfect Judge's Score Score Color — Black, white feet, face, and tip of tail, but skin and hair occasionally showing tinge of bronze or copper color. An occasional splash of white not objectionable; lack of either of white points admissible 3 Face and Snout — Face well dished and broad between eyes. Snout short and broad 7 Eyes — Prominent, clean, clear, large, dark hazel or gray 2 Ears — Medium size, setting well apart, carried fairly erect, inclining forward, especially with age 3 Jowl — Full, firm, not flabby or hanging too low, running back well on neck 3 Neck — Full, short and slightly arched; broad on top; well connected with shoulder 3 Hair — Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and covering the body well. Free from bristles. . 3 Skin — Smooth and mellow 3 Chest — Deep, full and wide, with good heart girth 6 Shoulder — Smooth and even on top and in line with side 6 Side — Deep, smooth, well let down; straight side and bottom liftes 6 Back — Broad, full, strong, level or slightly arched; ribs well sprung 10 Flank — Extending well back and low down on leg, making nearly a straight line with lower part of side 5 Loin — Full, wide and well covered with flesh .... 6 Ham — Deep, wide, thick and firm, extending well up on back and holding thickness well down to hock 10 Tail — Well up on line with back; neither too fine, short nor tapering 2 Legs and Feet — Straight and strong, set wide apart, short in pastern, with hoofs nearly erect, capable of carrying great weight 10 Size — Size all that is possible without loss of quality or symmetry, with good length. Weight in good condition, boars at 12 months, 350 to 450 pounds; at 24 months, 500 to 700 pounds; sows at 12 months, 350 to 400 pounds; at 24 months, 500 to 700 pounds G Appearance and Character — Vigorous, attract- ive, of good disposition, firm and easy move- ment 6 54 Total 100 § 26 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING 55 for a prescribed time are admitted to what is known as advanced registry, which constitutes the second kind of standard of excellence. Other classes of animals are admitted to advanced registry when evidence of superior excellence along other lines is presented. DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT DAIRY BAKNS GENERAIi REQUIREMENTS 1 . The chief purpose of a dairy bam is to shelter the dairy herd. Inasmuch as the dairy cow is a highly specialized ani- mal and is, as a general rule, thin in flesh, particularly during the lactation period, she is perhaps more susceptible to cold than any other domestic animal. Therefore, if she is to pro- duce a maximum quantity of milk, it is imperative that she be sheltered from inclement weather. Obviously, the problem of providing shelter for dairy herds will vary considerably, depending on the climate of the region in which the dairy is located. Thus, a bam that is suitable as a shelter in southern latitudes will not as a rule answer the purpose in Canada and the northern part of the United States, and vice versa. Of course, the idea of shelter is not the only thing to be considered in coimection with the planning and building of dairy bams. The health of the animals demands attention, and considerable thought must be given to the equip- ment and its arrangement, in order that the work of caring for the animals can be done without unnecessary waste of time and energy. 2. An important requirement in cotmection with dairy bams is an adequate system of ventilation. Of cotu-se, all domestic animals require fresh air and are likely to suffer if they are confined in a bam in which no provision is made for COPYRIGHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ALL RIOHTB RESERVED §41 2 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT § 41 ventilation, but dairy cows seem to be especially susceptible to disorders that result from insufficient ventilation. It has been determined by experiment that a cow requires about 60 cubic feet of fresh air per minute; an adequate system of bam ventilation, therefore, must provide for the admission of a sufficient quantity of fresh air to meet this requirement and also for the removal of a similar quantity of foul air. It is essential, though, that the fresh air be admitted in such a manner as to avoid direct drafts on the cows and also that vitiated air — not the fresh air — ^be removed from the bam. 3. Means of providing light and heat demand attention in planning a dairy bam. A bam with a dark interior is objec- tionable for several reasons, one of the most important of which is the fact that such a bam is very likely to be unsanitary. Other things being equal, disease germs thrive best in dark enclosures. Moreover, dirt and filth are likely to accumulate and escape notice in bams that are not adequately lighted. The work of feeding, cleaning, and milking the cows, the remov- ing of manure, and other routine operations about a bam can be much more easily and quickly accomplished in a well- lighted interior than in one that is dark and gloomy. Light in a dairy bam is supplied by windows, which should be sufficient in ntimber to insure a well-lighted interior. Win- dows so placed as to admit direct sunlight will also aid materially in keeping the interior of the bam at the proper temperature in winter. Therefore, in planning a dairy bam it is advisable to include plenty of windows, particularly on the sides that will be exposed to the sim during some part of the day. A rule sometimes followed in this connection is to pro- vide 4 square feet of window space for each cow of average size, but at best this is only an approximation that may be modified as conditions warrant. A bam built according to the general plan outlined in Fig. 1 and placed so that the main axis indicated by the line a b extends southeast by northwest — the compass shown in the illustration suggests the degree of inclination of this line to the true north and south line — is favorable, in northern latitudes, §41 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT to the admission of a maximum quantity of sunlight. How- ever, if the slope of the ground on which a bam is to be built is toward the southeast, much excavating at one end and high foundation walls at the other end may be required. Of course, the plan suggested may not always be feasible, in which cases it will be necessary to devise another one that takes into consideration the local conditions. If electric current is available, the installation of electric lights in a dairy barn will greatly facilitate the work of feeding and milking during winter months. Such a system of lighting is not only more efficient and convenient than oil lamps and lanterns, but also lessens the danger of fire. IVesf £osf Mem/hgSu/rA^Af Fig. 1 The interior of a dairy bam will usually be kept sufficiently warm by the heat that is given off by the animals and by the sunshine that enters through the windows. A uniform tem- perature of from 55° to 60° F. is about right for a dairy cow, and if a bam is properly constructed the temperature of its interior will seldom fall much below the lowest figure men- tioned. Dairy bams are sometimes equipped with steam-heat- ing plants. In exceptional cases, it is possible that the outlay involved in such an equipment is justified; these cases are, how- ever, so unusual that it is unnecessary to consider them here. 4 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT § 41 4. The requirements thus far considered have to do mostly with the health and comfort of the dairy herd. . Next in importance to these requirements in planning a dairy bam is the interior arrangement. It should be the aim to reduce to the lowest possible limit the labor required to take care of the herd. A poorly planned bam may require many imnecessary steps and much unnecessary labor every day, and when it is considered that this goes on practically every day in the year, the aggregate waste becomes enormous. In connection with the interior arrangement, the storage of feed, the water supply, and the arrangement of stalls are important items. Besides these, there are many labor-saving devices, such as nulk, feed, and manure carriers, mangers, water troughs, etc., that should be given attention. A detailed discussion of these devices appears in subsequent pages. 5. Good authorities advise against the storing of hay and grain feed directly over the compartment occupied by cows; nevertheless, most dairy bams have a second floor that serves as a haymow and storage room for feed. This arrangement is considered objectionable for the reason that dirt, dust, chaff, etc. are likely to sift through the floor into the compartment occupied by the cows, and also because in bams so constructed there is a tendency to make the ceiling of the first floor too low. If the latter objection is guarded against and the ceiling over the cows is made dust-tight, it is permissible to store hay and concentrated feeds on the floor above the cows and pro- vide chutes through which these materials may be conducted, as desired, to a feed room on the first floor. This arrangement obviates the necessity of giving up valuable space on the bam floor for storage. If the bam is to be rectangular in form, a silo may be placed at almost any point that wiU be convenient. Round and polygonal bams are usually built with a silo in the center, which is perhaps the most satisfactory arrangement from the standpoint of convenience and economy. The chutes leading from the feed room, the silo, and the hay-storage room should be so placed that the distribution of feed can be made with the least expenditure of time and energy. § 41 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT 5 6. A water supply from an elevated tank or reservoir is a convenience that should be installed when practicable. Such a system is not only useful in watering cows, but also makes it possible to flush the gutters in the bam and to wash down the walls, ceiHng, and fixtures with a jet of water delivered through a hose. Various methods of supplying drinking water to cows are employed. Individual drinking troughs are often pro- vided, but many dairymen object to them because each trough must be cleaned before watering the animals and emptied after watering them. A more satisfactory plan is to provide a con- tinuous trough extending along the entire length of a row of stanchions. At watering time, an attendant with broom can easily and quickly remove the dirt, hay, and litter from such a trough. Water is drawn into a trough of this kind from a penstock, and when the cows have finished drinking the trough is drained by opening a vent at one end. A continuous trough may also be used as a manger for silage and concentrated feed, but, as pointed out elsewhere, this arrangement is somewhat objectionable. 7. The arrangement of stalls in a dairy bam has an impor- tant bearing on its convenience. Most bams have at least two rows of stalls, and experienced dairymen are generally agreed that the most desirable plan is to place these stalls so that the cows will face away from one another when standing in them. If such an arrangement is followed, it will be possible to have a driveway between the gutters behind the stalls. Such a driveway, provided it is made wide enough to accom- modate a cart, a wagon, or a manure spreader, will greatly simplify the work of cleaning out the gutters. It will also pro- vide a convenient place for weighing milk and distributing bedding to the stalls. Another point of favor in this plan is that cows may enter the bam through a door in the end and pass along the alley between the gutters to their respective stalls ; whereas, if the cows are made to face toward each other, either two entrances must be provided or the herd must be divided after it enters the bam. Moreover, in the latter plan, the pas- sageways behind the stalls will usually be close to the walls, 6 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT § 41 which will be splashed with iirine and soiled with maniire as the cows enter and leave the bam. If the cows face away from one another, this difficulty is obviated. Some dairymen claim that in bams in which the stalls are placed so that animals face away from one another, the same number of cows may be cared for with one-half the work required in a bam in which the stalls are placed so that the animals face one another. 8. It is desirable from a sanitary standpoint to remove milk from an enclosure occupied by cows as soon as it is drawn. A good idea is to build a milk room in the bam; but if this is done, it is imperative that this room be separated from the remainder of the bam by walls that wiU exclude bam odors. For the same reason, the entrance to the rmlk room should be from the exterior — ^not from the bam. Some of the bam plans shown later illustrate how this may be accomplished without serious inconvenience. LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF DAIRY BARNS DAIRY-BAKN SITES 9. In the selection of a site for a dairy bam, certain gen- eral requirements shotdd be taken into consideration. It is likely that in most cases one or more of them will have to be sacrificed, to some extent at least; nevertheless, it is advisable to bear them in mind. The more important of these reqtdre- ments are the elevation and exposxure of the site, the nature of the soil, the proximity of the site to other buildings, and the convenience of the site to water supply and pasttires. 10. Elevation and Exposure of Site. — In general, a site that is somewhat higher than the siuTounding ground is pref- erable for dairy bams, for the reason that such a location is favorable to good natural drainage. An elevation that will expose a bam to cold winds, however, is objectionable in cold climates. Rather than select such a site, it will, in most cases, be advisable to choose a lower and more protected location and provide surface drains and underdrains to carry off sur- § 41 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT 7 plus water. So far as drainage is concerned, almost any site can be made satisfactory by the proper arrangement of these details. Steep hillsides should be avoided if possible, on account of extra work involved in hauling loads to and from the bam, and also because of the likelihood of such hillsides becoming slippery when muddy or covered with ice. If possible, the exposure of the site should be toward the south or southeast, rather than toward the southwest. A bam plan that extends the main axis of the structure somewhat to the southeast as shown in Fig. 1 is good, because in this way the greatest possible amount of sunlight is admitted to its interior. If the exposure is such that there is no natural windbreak to protect the bam from both north and west winds, it is advi- sable to plant trees to serve that purpose. 11. Soils for Dairy-Bam Sites. — ^Almost any soU is suit- able for a dairy-bam site, except one that contains an excess- ive quantity of vegetable matter or refuse. A foimdation placed in such a soil is likely to be unstable, and as a result a building erected on it may be thrown out of plumb by unequal settling. A further objection is that soU of this nature is likely to be mucky in wet weather, when the decaying organic matter contained in it may give rise to unsanitary conditions. Probably the most desirable soil for a dairy-bam site is a sandy or gravelly loam with a subsoil of the same nature. SoUs of this kind are favorable to good drainage; also the filter- ing action of the sand and gravel tends to ptirify water that passes through it, thus avoiding the contamination of wells and streams into which it may find its way. 12. Proximity of Site to Other Buildings. — From the stand- point of convenience, it is usually desirable to place a dairy barn close to other farm buildings; but there are serious objec- tions to grouping such buildings too close together. A fire is liable to destroy all buildings if they are grouped, whereas only a single structure might be lost if the bams are separated from one another. Farm buildings grouped together are also favorable to the spread of contagious diseases and insect para- sites. Fireproof construction and an adequate supply of water 242—10 8 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT § 41 under pressure may overcome the first mentioned objection to some extent, but as a general rule it will probably be best not to build a dairy bam very near other livestock quarters. 13. Convenience of Site to Water Supply and Pastures. Not infrequently the location of a well or a spring is a factor in selecting a site for a dairy bam. It is, of course, an advan- tage to have a water supply close to the bam, but unless the site that permits this is acceptable from other standpoints it will usually be advisable to pipe the water to the bam rather than build the bam ia an undesirable place merely for the sake of having it close to the water supply. There are several methods by which water may be raised to a higher level in case a well or a spring is lower than the site on which a bam is erected. Among these may be mentioned the hydraulic ram, a pump driven by a windmill, a gasoline engine, or a hot- air engine. If a permanent pasture is available on the dairy farm, it may be advantageous to erect the bam for the cows conve- niently near this enclosure. It is also well to choose, if pos- sible, a site containing space that may be fenced off into small yards in which the cows may be turned for exercise in winter. CONSTRUCTION OF DAIRY BARNS 14. Foundations. — The foundation of a dairy bam should rest either on firm soil at a point somewhat below the frost line, or on solid rock. Foundation walls are usually built from 8 to 24 inches thick, depending on the size of the barn they are to support, and it is customary to make the base of such a' wall from 8 to 12 inches thicker than the upper part in order to spread the weight over a greater area. This style of construction is shown in the foundation for a small dairy bam illustrated in Fig. 2. The materials commonly used for dairy-bam foundations are brick, stone, concrete, and cement building blocks. In Fig. 2, the foundation wall consists of brick resting on a con- crete base. Of the four materials mentioned concrete is usually the least expensive. §41 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT Three methods of constructing concrete foundations are shown in Fig. 3. In the method shown in view (a), the walls Fig. 2 of the excavation serve as the form for the concrete, which is simply poured into the trench. If the bam is to be built on a slope, it may be advisable to excavate as shown in view {b) and use a form of lumber for one side of the concrete wall. Dimensions of lumber siaitable for making the forms are indi- cated in the illustration. In the method shown in view (c), Surface " o iiSvS 6. ° WB \.«Qi. Fig. 27 the curvel c, along the cable d e, and around the curve /. A switch near the curve/ is then opened, and the carrier is pushed along the track gh to the dumping point. 34. Milk Gamers. — In order to convey milk from a dairy barn to a milk room or a milk house, partictdarly, if the latter is located some distance from the bam, use is sometimes made of an ordinary hand truck. A more satisfactory device for this purpose, however, is a carrier that runs on an overhead track similar to that used for manure carriers. Fig. 28 shows two styles of carriers used for conveying milk from a dairy bam. The one shown in view (a) consists of a carriage from which is suspended a platform for receiving milk cans. The carriage runs on an overhead cable or track, which should extend along the alleys behind the cows and to 34 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT §41 the milk house. So far as the carriage is concerned, the milk carrier shown in view {b) is similar to the one shown in view (a). Instead of a platform for the cans, however, this carrier is pro- vided with a bar and hooks from which the cans are suspended. In many cases it is possible to operate a milk carrier over part of a manure-carrier track. §41 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT 35 EXAMPLES OF DAIRY BARNS RECTANGULAR BARNS 35. The type of dairy bam most commonly seen is the rectangular, or square-angled, bam. Bams of this class may be square or oblong, or they may be made up of two or more units combined, the whole forming an L-shaped or a U-shaped structure. 36. Rectangular Bam for Twenty Cows. — ^A simple form of rectangular bam suitable for housing twenty cows is illus- Fig. 29 trated in Figs. 29 and 30. Fig. 29 shows an exterior view of the bam from the silo end, and Fig. 30, a floor plan and side and end elevations. Hay is taken into the bam through the large doors on the second floor, and if a storeroom for feed is provided on this floor, bags of feed may also be hoisted and swung into the barn at this point. For convenience in getting Ma^e^er FFFm^ Guifers H . H B H ^^w — w~^ (d) Fig. 30 30 § 41 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT 37 loads of hay and grain directly under these doors, it would, perhaps be better to place the silo at the side of the bam rather than at the end. On referring to the floor plan shown in Fig. 30 (a), it will be seen that the bam contains a double row of ten stalls so arranged that the cows will face away from each other. Between the gutters behind these stalls, that is, through the center of the bam, is a driveway, which makes it possible to drive a wagon or a manure spreader in behind the cows and load the manure directly from the gutters. The interior arrangement is also satisfactory for the installation of a manure carrier such as has been described. The dimensions of this bam are as follows: Length, 56 feet; width, 32 feet; height at eaves, 18 feet, of which 10 feet of space is given over to the first floor. The feed room and the milk room, which are located in the front part of the bam, are each 11 feet wide and 14 feet long, but they may, if desired, be reduced sufficiently to make room for two or more additional stalls. This bam makes no provision for the stabling of calves nor for a box stall for a bull, but a builder can easily provide for these by adding a shed or increasing the length of the structure. The side and end elevations of this bam are shown in views (b) and (c). Bins for the storage of feed may be constructed on the second, or mow, floor directly over the feed room on the first floor and connected with the latter with chutes. In (d) is shown the arrangement of timbers for one bent of the bam. This construction affords an unobstructed space from floor to roof in the center of the mow, thus facilitating the handling of hay. The framework of the bam may be entirely of 2-inch stuff, which material is inexpensive and easily handled. 37. One-Story Bam for Twenty Cows. — ^Another plan for a bam suitable for housing twenty cows is illustrated in Fig. 31, in which (a) shows the floor plan and (b) an end elevation. In this bam, as will be observed, the stalls are arranged so that the cows will face one another, thus bringing the mangers adja- cent to the central driveway. As pointed out elsewhere, such 38 §41 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT 39 an arrangement is somewhat objectionable, but some dairymen seem to prefer it. A feed room and a milk room are arranged in a lean-t'o shed, as shown. The plan for the structure, however, makes no provision for the storage of hay ; never- theless, a mow could be arranged for by increas- ing the height of the building. The length of the bam is 44 feet and its width is 36| feet. A box stall for a bull and a calf pen or a double row of calf stanchions could be added by increasing the length about 10 feet. The feed room commu- nicates directly with the interior of the bam, but the imlk room is sepa- rated from it by a solid wall, which should ex- clude bam odors to a large extent. The en- trance to the nulk room is from the passageway between it and the feed room. 38. Bam for Twenty- Four Cows.— In Fig. 32 is shown the floor plan and an end elevation of a dairy bam arranged to accommodate twenty- fotu cows. This bam (b) Fig. 32 242—12 40 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT § 41 also contains a few features not heretofore shown. According to the floor plan (a) , provision is made for twenty-four stalls which are arranged so that the cows will face one another, a milk room a, a feed room b, three box stalls c, and a calf pen d. If it is desired to stable more than twenty-four cows, the calf pen and the box stall adjoining could be omitted and the space thus gained used to stable about eight more cows, thus increas- ing the capacity of the bam to thirty-two cows. The feed room b communicates with the silo, and hay is dropped into this room from the mow floor through a chute. The end elevation referred to is shown in (&). The height of the structure is sufficient to provide for a haymow, and, if £NO CLCWmOM Fig. 33 desired, a room for storing feed could be placed directly over the feed room of the first floor. Hay can be taken into the mow either through the doors shown in the end elevation or through an opening in the mow floor in the center of the bam, directly over the driveway. An opening of this kind, however, is somewhat objectionable on account of the dust and litter that is usually scattered in the bam while hoisting hay, and also on account of the difficulty of making the overhead open- ing into the mow dust-tight. Tight-fitting trap doors are sometimes placed in such openings, but if they are not pro- vided, more or less dust from the mow will continually sift down into the part of the bam occupied by the cows. 4TI 42 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT § 41 39. Bam for Forty-Six Cows. — In Fig. 33 is shown the end elevation of a dairy bam containing sufficient stalls to accom- modate forty-six cows. These stalls are arranged as shown in the ground-floor plan, Fig. 34; that is, so that the, cows face away from one another. In addition to the cow stalls, there are two box stalls, eight calf stalls, and a feed room on the ground floor. If desired, a milk room could be substituted for one of the box stalls. As will be seen, an overhead track for a manure carrier is placed between the rows of stalls, and over- head tracks for a feed carrier run along each feed alley in front of the mangers. These tracks cross the manure-carrier track in the center of the bam, a section of the latter track being removable to permit the passage of the feed carrier. Hay is delivered into this bam by driving the hay wagon directly into the mow over a bridge shown in the second-floor plan and in the end elevation. Fig. 33. Feed also may be taken into the mow in the same manner and stored in the second- floor feed room, which is connected with the feed room on the first floor by chutes. 40. Model Bam for Eighteen Cows. — Two views of the exterior of a model dairy bam located in Northeastern Penn- sylvania and owned by T. J. Foster are shown in Figs. 35 and 36. Connected to the bam, as shown in the side eleva- tion. Fig. 35, is a feed room with a silo partly enclosed in it, and alongside of the feed room, extending to a manure shed, is an overhead track for a manure carrier. On the opposite side of the bam, as shown in Fig. 36, is a combination ice house and mUk house. The interior arrangement of this bam, feed room, and silo, as well as their dimensions, is shown in Fig. 37. As will be seen in the ground-floor plan, two rows of stalls sufficient in number to accommodate eighteen cows face a central feed- way, and in one comer is a box stall for a bull. This floor plan also shows the arrangement of the overhead tracks for the manure carrier and the feed chutes leading from the feed bins on the second floor. Hay is stored on the second floor of the main part of the barn, and, as shown in the second-floor 43 ' C^ rou/-/lir Ducf — [H ]-^ ~>' ^ J tore ff com .J_.i.l<:t t!?!^'£^C!?I.tr?PA^—^ / Fresh-Air Duct Uf7i^er r/oor C^ rou/y^/rPuct ~~^-l/p ^. ^>i secomnogs. -B'-O " •!' 6-0 CROSS-iS£CTION c/fosj 3fcr/o/i/ /ir /frM rNO 45 Fig. 37 46 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT § 41 plan, provision is made for a hay-carrier track. This plan shows also a store room and a hay chute, through which hay is delivered to the first floor of the feed room. This dairy bam is equipped with a ventilation system that is a modification of the King system already described. The arrangement of the ventilator ducts is clearly shown in the cross-sectional views. Fig. 37. Only one fresh-air inlet is pro- vided. It is located near the ground level, directly below the hay doors, as shown in Fig. 36. Fresh air admitted through this opening, which is fitted with a screen, passes up to the ceiling of the first floor inside the bam through the air duct shown in the ground-floor plan and the left-hand cross-sectional view. This duct extends under the floor of the second story of the bam, as shown by the dotted lines in the second-floor plan, and a series of 1-inch auger holes in the lower surface of this duct permit fresh air to enter the bam without creating any objectionable drafts. In Fig. 38 is shown a view of part of the interior of this dairy bam. This illustration shows the type of stalls and stan- chions used, as well as a section of the overhead track for the manure carrier. 41. A Wisconsin Dairy Barn. — In Fig. 39 is shown in .side elevation a Wisconsin dairy bam erected with the idea of pro- viding ideal sanitary conditions for the production of certified milk. As shown in the floor plans. Fig. 40, the bam is built with its largest dimension extending east and west. How- ever, the owner of the bam advises that if he were to build another such bam he woiild place the axis in a north-and- south direction if possible. A system of removing manure from the gutters by means of a shovel or a scraper device has been added since the bam was completed. The gutters have been extended to the exterior of the bam, ending at an exca- vated driveway, as shown at the right in Fig. 39, in which a manure spreader is placed. The removal of the maniire from the gutters behind the cows is accomplished by drawing a scraper along each gutter and out through an opening in the end of the bam to the manure spreader. The scraper is drawn 48 L'tWWMiWJOT^ I I I (a) rcj Fig. 41 50 tLD/ATION AT D ^joists-^ ae:cr/o/\/ or WALL beloiv D ■secTioN or wall above o ^3-2'JIS'Pur/m Fig. 42 51 52 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT § 41 by a horse hitched to a rope that is attached to the scraper and extends out through the opening for the extension of the gutter in the end of the bam. The arrangement of ventilation flues and inlets for this bam is shown by dotted lines in Fig. 39. By referring to the first- floor plan, Fig. 40, the flues and inlets will be seen in cross- section, the former being 'marked vent and the latter marked fresh air. Two rooms for a herdsman are provided on the second floor of this bam, on which floor are also located two bins for stor- age of feed. Feed to be stored in these bins is hoisted to the level of this floor and taken in through double doors, shown in the side elevation, Fig. 39, that open into a small enclosure near the feed bins. Hay is taken into the mow through hay doors shown at the west end of the second-floor plan, Fig. 40. In Fig. 41 (a) is shown the foundation plan of this dairy bam. The foundation wall extends around the entire structure, and through the center is a double row of cement supports. Cement gutters extend about three-fourths of the way through the bam, and at the upper right-hand corner are located cement footings for the support of the outside stairway of the bam. In view (b) of this illustration is shown an east-end elevation, and in view (c) , a west-end elevation. View (d) shows a detail of the construction at the eaves. Additional details pertain- ing to the construction of this dairy barn are illustrated in Fig. 42. However, a full discussion of the numerous details shown here is scarcely required for the present purpose. They should be self-explanatory to any builder, and in case it is desired to construct a bam on this plan they should be placed in the hands of the builder for his guidance. Aside from this use they have no important bearing on the general subject of dairy bams. 42. Bam of the South Dakota Agricultural College. — The dairy bam erected at the South Dakota Agricultural College is of interest, inasmuch as it is a model structure of its kind. It includes some features that would not be required in an ordi- nary dairy bam, but these could easily be omitted or altered. Fig. 43 553 54 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT § 41 if desired. A side elevation and a ground plan of this build- ing are shown in Fig. 43. As will be seen, the ground floor of part of the bam is utilized for maternity, or calving, stalls, bull stalls, feed rooms, calf pens, a milk-machine room, and a box stall. The loft above these rooms and stalls is used for the storage of hay and feed. As shown, there are stalls for fifty cows in an adjoining part of the barn, and on the floor above these stalls there is additional mow room. Particular atten- tion is directed to the manner in which stalls of different length are secured. In one row, the first stall is 5 feet 2 inches long and the last stall is 4| feet long, with a gradual taper between the two extremes. The other row of stalls tapers from 5 feet at one end to 4 feet at the other end. It is thus possible to stable a cow in a stall of suitable length. Two wings at the end of the part of the bam containing the cow stalls provide for a class room on one side and a feed shed on the other. A dressing room, a closet, and a locker are also located near one of these wings. Besides the features men- tioned, this bam is provided with two silos, two watering tanks, and a liquid-manure cistern, the size and location of which are clearly indicated in the ground-floor plan. 43. Bam of the Iowa Agricultural College.— A general view of the silo end of the model dairy bam in use on the dairy farm of the Iowa Agricultural College is shown in Fig. 44. As illustrated in the ground plan, which is shown in Fig. 45, this structure is L-shaped. The main part is used for box stalls, calf pens, an office, and storage rooms, and the ell for stabling the cows, stalls being provided for fifty-one cows. It will be seen from the ground plan that cows in the stalls will face away from one another, and that the two manure gutters are near the center of the bam. A manure carrier runs along the center alley and to the outside, as shown in Fig. 44. The cow bam is only one story in height, but it is provided with a mon- itor roof and a window arrangement that makes it particularly well lighted. Hay and feed are stored on the second floor of the main structure. On the west side of the bam is a semi- detached milk house, not shown in the figxires. 55 56 § 41 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT 57 ROUND AND POLYGONAL BARNS ROUND BAKNS 44. Advantages of Round Dairy Bams. — The round dairy bam, provided it is properly constructed, undoubtedly has several advantages over rectangular structures. One of the chief of these advantages is that a round bam reqmres less lumber for its construction than does a rectangular bam of the same capacity, some authorities claiming that this differ- ence amounts to as much as 30 or 40 per cent, in favor of the circular construction. Another advantage is the convenience of distributing feed to the cows and of removing manure from the bam. In a round bam, the silo, the hay-storage space, and the grain room are usually located in the center of the building. This arrangement makes it possible to distribute feed with no unnecessary retracing of steps, the feeder simply starting at one point and working around in a circle until he returns to the starting point. There is, of course, a corre- sponding saving in cleaning out the gutters behind the cows. Fiuiiher advantages are that the sUo can be enclosed within the barn, thus making it unnecessary to weatherproof the outside of the silo, and that an open, unobstructed space is available for the storage of hay and straw. Round bams are also stronger than rectangular bams, and consequently resist the racking effects of high winds better than do bams of the latter construction. 45. Disadvantages of Round Dairy Bams. — Some dairy- men object to the round bam for the reason that additions cannot easily be made when the dairy herd has increased to the point where it requires more bam room. It is, however, possible to obviate this diffictdty by including a second floor in the building and using this second floor for other purposes until the dairy herd becomes large enough to reqtiire more bam room. Another disadvantage of round bams is that box stalls do not fit into them as conveniently as they do in 58 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT §41 rectangtilar bams. However, as mil be seen from the illustra- tions of round bams that follow, it is possible to provide a sat- isfactory arrangement of box stalls. Perhaps the chief objection to round bams, especially the early type of round bam, is the straight roof. A roof of this kind requires numerous supporting posts, which greatly encum- ber the space in the interior that should be left free. This objection is entirely obviated in the newer types of roofs, which are self-supporting. In addition to leaving the interior free from supports, this style of roof construction has the advan- tage of greatly increasing the mow capacity. Fig. 46 46. Round Bam of the University of Illinois. — In Fig. 46 is shown a general view and in Fig. 47 a sectional view of the round dairy bam in use at the University of Illinois. In the sectional view are specified the dimensions of both the bam and the principal timbers used in its construction. In Fig. 48 are shown a ground-floor plan and a plan of the joists. It will be seen from the ground-floor plan that there are mangers for twenty-eight cows in a single circular row facing the center of §41 DAIRY BARNS AND EQUIPMENT 59 the bam. A stanchion is provided for each manger, but the cows are confined in the stanchions only at feeding and milk- ing time. At other times, the cows are turned loose in the open space between the mangers and the bam wall. By means of gates, as shown in the ground-floor plan, it is possible to close up a part of this area, thus making temporary box stalls. The floor in this circular area is of clay, and it has been found satis- factory as long as it is kept well covered with litter. The fact that the cows are loose in the enclosure most of the time makes the conditions here somewhat different from those in the usual /a;4 f^-'-mm HM jM^^fe^ ^ jk^ ^ 1 m 1 *"■' '"'i m ■^yi^^M i [Mmrnk i a^^ Mj^^ K,.-^ y ' «% ^^^ ^^ -.- ' ■^' " V ♦ ■;•. " 'I'll *« j^ « ?' Fig. is 33 Fig. 17 34 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE § 42 that the Red Polled cattle have considerable merit both for the production of milk and of beef, but they can scarcely compete with the highly-developed dairy breeds on the one hand, or the highly-developed beef breeds on the other. Fig. 16 shows a cow and Fig. 17 a bull of the Red Polled breed. The animals of this breed are of medium to large size, a uniform mahogany red in color, with light muzzles, and are polled, or hornless. The Red Polled cattle are mild and quiet in disposition, and in form not unlike the Shorthorn, especially in the specimens that tend most strongly toward the beef form. It is doubtful whether, at the present time, they are more than holding their own in point of numbers. The interests of the breed in this country are looked after by the Red Polled Cattle Club of America. DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT (PART 1) SELECTION OF DAIRY CATTLE SBIiECTION OF DAIRY COWS 1, Records of Production. — Undoubtedly the most satis- factory guide in the selection of a dairy cow is a record of her production, that is, actual figures showing the quantity of milk she has produced in a given time and the average butter- fat content of this milk. Progressive dairymen realize the advantage of keeping such records, not only for the guidance of prospective buyers but also as a means of determining which of the cows are profitable and which are unprofitable. With records of production available, even an inexperienced man can make a satisfactory selection of cows; and the most expert judges of dairy cattle frequently make a poor selection if they do not have information showing what the cow has produced in the past. Obviously, it is to the interest of the dairyman who is buying cows to purchase, as far as possible, from herds of which records of production are kept. When, for any reason, this is impracticable, it is necessary to depend on other indications of milk-producing qualities. 2. Use of the Score Card. — The score card on page 4, which gives a list of the important points that should be taken into consideration in judging an animal, will materially assist the beginner in selecting his animals. The figure given COPYRTOHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ENTERED AT STATIONERS* HALL, LONDON §43 (h) (c) Fig. 1 § 43 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT 3 opposite each item in the first column to the right indicates the perfect score for that particular item and the last column on the right contains blank spaces in which the person doing the judging may indicate the degree to which, in his opinion, the animal approaches perfection in each detail enumerated. In Fig. 1 (a), (6), and (c) are shown, respectively, a profile view, a rear view, and a front view of an animal, on which the various parts, as usually given on a score card, are indi- cated by letters, and certain dimensions that will be explained presently are also given. The names and locations of .the parts are as follows: a, Poll m, Rump b, Neck n, Thigh c, Muzzle d, Face e, Forehead /, Withers g, Shoulders h. Chest i, Barrel /, Back, or chine k, Loin I, Hips It should be kept in mind that the chief use of a score card is to enumerate the essential points and indicate their relative importance. When these details are sufficiently well mastered to be carried in the mind, the score card may be dispensed with to a large extent. The score card shown is necessarily somewhat general in nature, since it is designed to be used for cows of all breeds^ and grades. Most of the associations representing the various breeds of dairy cattle have formulated a special card adapted to the particular breed represented by the association. 3. Chest Capacity. — The secretion of milk makes a large demand on the organs of respiration, for the chemical changes involved in the formation of milk from constituents of the blood require a large quantity of oxygen. Hence it is neces- sary that a good dairy cow Should have a large, roomy chest, providing ample space for the fullest possible development 0, Pin bones, or thurls p, Flank 9. Fore flank r, Udder s, Teats t, Milk' veins u. Escutcheon ■V, Navel w, Dewlap DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT §43 SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY COW General Appearance Form: wedge-shaped as viewed from the front, side, and top Form: spare, as indicated by prominent joints and clean bone and lack of muscular development along ribs and loins . .' Quality: hair fine, soft; skin pliable, loose, medium thickness ; secretion yellow, abundant Constitution: vigorous, as indicated by alert expres- sion, evidently active vital functions, and general healthy appearance Head and Neck Muzzle: clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large Eyes : large, bright Face: lean, long; quiet expression Forehead : broad, slightly dished Ears : medium size ; fine texture Neck: fine, medium length; throat clean; light dew lap Forequarters and Hindquarters Withers: lean, thin; shoulders: angular, not fleshy. Hips : far apart ; not lower than spine Rump: long, wide, comparatively level Thurls: high, wide apart Thighs : thin, long Legs : straight, short; shank fine Body Chest: deep; with large girth and broad on floor of chest; well-sprung ribs Abdomen: large, deep; indicative of capacity; well supported Back: lean, straight; chine open Tail : long, slim, with fine switch Loin: broad Udder: large, long; attached high and full behind; extending far in front and full; quarters even. . . Udder: capacious, flexible, with loose, pliable skin covered with short, fine hair Teats: convenient size, evenly placed Milk veins : large, tortuous, long, branching, with large milk wells Perfect Judge's Score Score 10 4 2 2 2 20 10 2 Total 100 § 43 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT 5 of the lungs. The visible air passages, which include the nostrils and windpipe, should be large, clean, and free from obstructions of fatty or other tissues. Small passages, or large passages constricted by accumulations of fat, must neces- sarily impede the free inspiration and expiration of air. The capacity of the chest is determined, first, by depth of the body from the top of the backbone to the floor of the chest, as shown in Fig. 1 (a) by the dotted line A ; second, by the spring, or curvature, of the ribs, which is indicated by the transverse diameter of the chest at its widest point, as shown in (c) by the line B; and third, by the width on the floor of the chest, as shown in (c) by the line C. It should be noted that some'dairy cows are wedge-shaped, as viewed from the side, on account of a deficiency in depth of chest. The wedge shape is a desirable feature in dairy cows, but when, as in the case mentioned, it is secured at the expense of depth of chest it is of little value. The wedge shape should come from large development of the hind- quarters rather than from dwarfing of the forequarters. Experienced dairymen recognize this and look first for a deep chest then for animals having sufficient development of the hindquarters to give them a wedge shape. As a general rule, it is considered that the distance from the top of the backbone, immediately behind the shoulders, to the floor of the chest, immediately back of the fore legs, should not be less than one-half of the total height of the animal. A dairy cow may present a good depth of chest but at the same time be deficient in width of chest. If the ribs are not well sprung and come together at an acute angle at the lower ends, the capacity of the chest will be more or less con- stricted, which condition entails a reduced lung capacity. In somewhat the same way that a shallow chest accentuates the wedge shape, a narrow chest may give to its possessor a somewhat trim and attractive form. The dairyman should endeavor to recognize animals in which a pronounced wedge shape is due to fiat ribs and consequently a narrow chest. The chest capacity of a dairy cow is sometimes estimated by the conformation of what is known as the heart girth, 6 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT § 43 which is the girth just back of the fore legs, as illustrated by the line ^4 in Fig. 1 (a). If the space between the elbow joint and the wall of the chest is excessive the animal is said to be deficient in the fore flank. It should be noted, how- ever, that the conformation of the individual varies consider- ably with respect to the closeness with which the shoulder blade and fore arm are attached to the body. Apparent lack of heart girth may be due to a loosely attached shoulder and fore arm rather than to narrowness of the chest itself. In other cases an extremely round-ribbed animal may be appar- ently deficient in the fore flank because of a sharp inward curvature of the lower ends of the ribs. When an animal is found to present the appearances of deficiency in the fore flank, an extremely careful examination should be made in order to determine the real conformation of the animal and the capacity of the chest. In making this examination, the hand should be passed across the floor of the chest imme- diately back of the fore legs and in this way the actual width at this point determined. Another method of estimating this width is by observing the space between the fore legs at the bottom of the line of the chest. This dimension is indicated by the line C in Fig. 1 (c). 4. Circulatory System. — The milk is elaborated in the udder from certain constituents of the blood as the latter circulates through the extensive system of vessels contained in the organ. Obviously, in order to secrete large quantities of milk, the cow must possess not only an abundant supply of blood but also ample facilities for the circulation of this fluid. Vigor of circulation is indicated externally by the appearance of certain blood vessels that are prominent on the dairy cow. The vessels known as the milk veins, so called from the fact that uninformed persons have supposed that they carry milk, are perhaps the most important struc- tures of this kind. In Fig. 1 the milk veins are shown at t. They extend in a more or less irregular course from the udder forwards along the under side of the abdomen, entering it in the region of the navel through openings known as milk § 43 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT 7 wells. The size and elasticity of these milk veins form a basis for estimating the volume of blood circulation in the udder. The simplest form of milk veins is that of two rather small, almost straight vessels located as already described. In their extreme development, milk veins are a network of large vessels covering almost the entire floor of the abdomen from the udder to the navel. Ordinarily, those on opposite sides are distinct, though sometimes branches extend from one to the other. A good development of milk veins will show the principal vessels somewhat larger than the finger. The course of these vessels will be extremely tortuous and will extend to a point somewhat beyond the umbilicus. Branches from the main vessel frequently extend forwards almost to the fore arm, where they enter the abdominal wall. The milk veins on the opposite sides of the same animal are seldom symmetrical ; those on one side may be simple and those on the other side much branched. It is safe to say that most cows showing well-developed milk veins either are or have been good milk producers. It should be carefully noted, however, that many good milk- producing cows do not exhibit particularly strong develop- ment of milk veins. This is especially true in the case of cows under 4 or 5 years of age, for the veins are small in young animals and increase in size as the animals advance in age. As a rule, judges of dairy cattle place much stress on the milk veins as an index of the producing qualities of cows, and they are undoubtedly important, but, at the same time, it is possible to overestimate their importance. Other external blood vessels that are most prominent and most useful in indicating vigor of circulation are seen on the udder, on the face, and on the fore flank. If the veins in the regions mentioned are prominent, full, and elastic, this condition may be regarded as good evidence of a vigorous circulation. In this connection it is perhaps well to note that the degree of prominence of all the veins mentioned will depend to a 8 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT § 43 considerable extent on the quality of the animal's skin. Two cows may possess uniformly well-developed veins, but if one has a fine, thin, flexible skin and the other a coarse, thick skin, the veins will appear much more prominent in the former animal. For this reason it is necessary, in examining a cow for the quality under discussion, to take into consideration the condition of the skin. In addition to the veins already described, the capillary circulation is also of importance in estimating the vigor of the general circulation. If the mucous membranes in the eyes, nostrils, vulva, etc. are of a bright pink color, vigorous capillary circulation is indicated. On the other hand, a dull, pale appearance of these membranes is good evidence of a defective capillary circulation. 5. Digestive System. — The dairy cow consumes a large quantity of bulky feed, consequently the digestive organs must be large and capacious to take care of the feed. The size of the abdomen indicates the capacity of the paunch and is an important element in determining the wedge shape of the typical dairy cow. It should be stated, however, that a very pendent abdomen is not necessarily a capacious one. The contents of the abdomen are held in place by muscular walls, and if these walls are strong and tense the abdominal viscera are held close to the backbone and there is no marked hollow in front of the hips and below the loin. In such cases the digestive organs may be of comparatively large capacity and yet not more than ordinarily prominent. It is desirable that the walls of the abdomen be strong and the contents well held up, not only for convenience in moving about but also as an indication of constitution and vigor. As explained elsewhere, the process of assimilation is just as important as that of digestion. A profitable dairy cow must be able not only to digest large quantities of feed, but also to assimilate this material into the blood where it may be used for milk production. Just as animals vary in their digestive capacity, so also do they vary in their capacity to assimilate feed. Strong assimilative powers are indicated § 43 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT 9 externally by the appearance of an oily secretion on the skin, particularly inside of the ears, along the backbone, and at the tip of the tail. As a result of this secretion, there will be a fine, lustrous appearance of the hair, a soft, pliable skin, and an abundance of soft, oily dandruff. The presence of all the qualities is considered a strong indication of high assimi- lative powers, but here again it is necessary to take into consideration the fact that unfavorable external conditions may greatly alter the appearance of the qualities mentioned. Exposure to sun, storm, and wind has a tendency to remove the secretions as fast as they are formed and in the same degree the hair is likely to appear harsh and the skin stiff. On the other hand, grooming, shampooing, and blanketing tend to accentuate the secretions. From this it is evident that something should be known about the surroundings of the animal and the care she has received before reaching a conclusion as to her assimilative powers as indicated by the qualities mentioned. 6. Temperament. — The desirable dairy cow should have not only the proper conformation for milk secretion but also a disposition, or temperament, favorable to this function. It is a recognized fact that of two animals alike in respect to other qualities and under identical conditions as to feed, care, etc., one may yield good returns and the other indifferent or poor returns, as a result of difference in temperament. But just what the external indications of a desirable tempera- ment are has never been satisfactorily defined, and for that reason it is not possible to specify them here. It has been claimed that cows with very highly developed nervous sys- tems are more likely to be large producers than those that are sluggish and phlegmatic, and that the latter are the most inclined to lay on flesh. In support of this claim it may be said that many high producers have a very highly developed and sensitive nervous organization, and consequently are easily disturbed or thrown out of balance. This character- istic is said to be common in certain dairy breeds. It is doubtless true, however, that many cows have been large 10 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT § 43 producers simply because they were not easily disturbed or thrown out of balance by unfavorable external conditions. That there can be no great difference in the functions of the animal as between the secretion of fat in milk and laying up fat in the tissues of the body is indicated by the fact that most cows that are large producers of milk will, when dry, lay on flesh, that is, become fat, if given an opportunity to do so. 7. Udder Development. — By far the best indication of the ability of a cow to give milk is furnished by the organ of milk secretion, the udder. In selecting dairy cows, the size, shape, and structure of the udder is a point that should be given careful consideration. In forming an idea of the size of the udder, the conformation of the thighs and pelvis must be taken into account. For example, in the case of an animal having thin thighs set wide apart, a large udder may be somewhat concealed by these structures, particularly if the organ is held close up to the abdomen by the fibrous and muscular tissues that support it. In another case, a small udder may be forced into such prominence as to appear large if the thighs are thick and fleshy, joined together low down under the pelvis, and the supporting tissues of the organ are relaxed. Whatever the conformation of the animal, the udder should be large and well developed. It should be full on the sides, between the thighs, extend well up toward the vulva, and outwards at least as far as the outer angle of the thighs. The appearance of a desirable udder structure in those parts is shown in Fig. 1 (b). The fore part of the udder should be full, well rounded, carried close to the abdomen, and extend well forwards on the belly. The udder should be smooth and symmetrical in shape and free from irregularities or marked constrictions between the quarters. It may be said, however, that these latter points are largely matters of symmetry and appearance. There is no evidence to prove that an udder of irregular shape does not secrete as much as an udder of regular shape if other factors are equal. A very pendulous, or bottle- § 43 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT 11 shaped, udder, particularly if it is a large one, is not easy or convenient to carry, and for this reason is undesirable and furthermore is somewhat unsightly. The capacity of the udder depends on its structure as well as on its size and shape. Milk is secreted in numerous glandular follicles, and these should make up a considerable part of the udder structure. In some udders, however, fat deposited in the connective tissues gives the appearance of large develop- ment of this part, when in reality the organ may be deficient in glandular structure and consequently inefficient as a milk- producing organ. An udder of the character just described is referred to as fleshy, or meaty, and is believed to be more subject to disease than is a normal udder. The presence of fat in the tissues of the udder is indicated externally by a certain lack of elasticity of the organ, a condition that is determined by manipulation with the hand. Another indi- cation is in the failure of the udder to shrink in size during the milking process. The fleshy udder will be nearly the same size and shape after milking as it was before the operation, and it is largely by this fact that the experienced dairyman judges the structure of the organ. Where it is not possible to see the udder immediately before and after a milking, a skilled person will be able to determine by careful manipula- tion whether or not it is objectionably fleshy. If the udder is not fleshy, it will show a considerable degree of elasticity even when full of milk. Furthermore, if the skin covering the udder is fine, soft, and loose, and if the exterior vei-ns are prominent, there is not likely to be undue fleshiness. In old cows, particularly those that have been large pro- ducers, the supporting tissues of the udder often become much relaxed, allowing the udder to hang considerably lower than normal. In this condition the space between the udder and the abdomen usually fills up with connective, or fatty, tissue, thus giving the cow the appearance of having an enormous udder development. If a cow of somewhat advanced age shows an extremely large udder, it is well to bear in mind that this condition may be due to relaxation of the supporting tissues. 12 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT § 43 The teats in themselves probably have no relation to the milk-secreting capacity, but as they are the structures by means of which the milk is drawn from the udder, their size and position is of importance as a matter of convenience in milking and also as affecting the general appearance of the cow. The teats should be cylindrical in form, attached to the udder in a perpendicular position, and should be from 2^ to 4 inches in length. The position of the teats on the udder should be symmetrical, with the hind teats somewhat closer together than the front ones. Fig. 2 8. Milk Signs. — In an effort to discover some positive external mark or indication by which the milk-producing powers of dairy cows may be judged, several peculiarities of structure that vary more or less in different individuals have been widely discussed at different times. These peculiarities, commonly referred to as milk signs, are practically without logical foundation as indicators of productive qualities, and are to a very large extent disregarded by well-informed dairy- § 43 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT 13 men. The fact that they have been in times past, and are yet, considered of importance by some persons, is the only warrant for mentioning them here, and the beginner should be warned against placing too much credence in them. 9. Of the so-called milk signs, the escutcheon has perhaps been most widely advertised and attained the most prom- inence. In nearly all cows and in some bulls there will be found on the inside of the thighs a greater or less area on which the hair grows upwards instead of downwards, as is the case over most of the body. This area of upgrow- ing hair is known as the escutcheon or milk mirror, two forms of which are illustrated at u in Fig. 2. It was for- merly believed that cows on which the escutcheon covered a large area, extending down on the udder and up to the vulva in a broad band, were greatly superior in milk produc- tion to cows in which the development of the escutcheon was deficient. Early supporters of this belief went so far as to maintain that a cow possessing a certain definite form of escutcheon would give a certain definite quantity of milk per day for a certain definite period of time. For a time much faith was placed in this theory, but when actual records of production were kept it was soon discovered that there was no definite relation between the size and shape of the escutch- eon and the quantity of milk produced. It is now generally conceded that the different types of escutcheons are to be regarded more as characteristics of certain breeds than as indicators of producing qualities. 10. Thie conformation of what is called the pelvic arch is another character that has been cited as an index of milk production. There is, however, some confusion in regard to this character, due to the fact that two pelvic arches are recognized by authorities on dairying. One is formed by the thighs and the attachment of the muscles to them and is seen from the rear. If the thighs are wide apart and the muscles joined high up, giving the appearance of roominess between the hind legs, the arch is said to be of good form. The other pelvic arch is formed by the bones of the hip and 242—17 14 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT § 43 rump. If these bones are of such form as to be prominent and make a distinct rise or arch between the hip bones and the pin bones at the root of the tail and also a more or less arched appearance from side to side immediately at the rear of the hips when viewed from behind, this arch is considered to be well developed. In so far as this conformation indicates a strong development and power to support the udder and abdomen, it is of advantage to the animal. It also indicates a roominess of the pelvic cavity, permitting the birth of well- developed calves, but it has not been demonstrated that the development of ;these arches is directly related to milk secretion. 11. If the hand is passed along the flank in the region between the stifle joint and the abdomen a more or less well- defined band of muscular tissue will be felt. This band is the so-called flank vein, or cord, and its prominence has been considered an indication of high milk production. It prob- ably has no relation whatever to milk secretion further than being to some extent a support for the udder. 12. Some cows possess, in addition to the four normal teats, several rudimentary, extra, or supernumerary, teats. These extra teats are seldom more than mere elevations on the surface of the skin and usually are found behind the rear teats, sometimes on only one side but usually on both sides. Occasionally they occur between the normal teats or as branches of them. At one time dairymen were inclined to look upon these extra teats as favorable indications of high milk-producing powers, but modem dairymen are coming to regard them as valueless in this respect and as blemishes, particularly in the occasional cases in which they are so far developed that milk may be drawn through them. 13. The umbilicus, or navel, in the cow has the form of a scar on a loose fold of skin near the middle of the abdomen. In some cases the fold is loose and pendent ; in others there is but little indication of a fold; likewise the scar may be distinct or barely recognizable. This character is another § 43 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT 15 of the so-called milk signs, it being supposed that a loose, pendent umbilicus indicates superior milk-producing qualities, but it is now generally considered that, like the escutcheon, it is largely a breed characteristic. 14. Determination of Age. — In the selection of dairy cattle, it is important that the judge be able to form a fairly accurate estimate of their age. The size of the animal, the teeth, and the horns are the characters on which expert dairymen base their estimates. In calves up to about 1 year, \\ years, or 2 years of age, size is the chief indication. There are, of course, exceptional cases of unusually rapid growth and others in which growth has been stunted. But, as a rule, an experienced man will be able to estimate the age of calves very closely by their size. The faculty is one that is acquired by practice. No definite instructions can be formulated, but a few years' experience will usually give considerable pro- ficiency along this line. The appearance of the horns, when present, is a fairly satisfactory means of estimating the age of dairy animals. The growing practice of dehorning, however, makes this method useless in the majority of cases. Under normal conditions, the horn grows rapidly for IJ years or 2 years after birth, beyond which time the growth is much slower. At about 3 years of age a distinct ring is formed at the base of the horn and each year thereafter another ring is formed. The rings are, as a rule, much more distinct on cows than on bulls, but in most cases they are sufficiently prominent to be distinguishable. The age of the animal is determined by adding 2 to the number of rings visible on the horn. Thus an animal showing 3 distinct rings on the horn is considered to be about 5 years old. It is possible that a dishonest owner may by scraping remove one or more rings from the horns, but there will usually remain some evidence by which it can be seen that the condition is not normal. Another method of estimating the age of cattle is by -their teeth. Cattle usually have twenty teeth on the lower jaw 16 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT §43 and twelve on the upper jaw. Fig. 3 shows the arrangement of these teeth. The front teeth in the lower jaw are known Fig. 3 as incisors and the back teeth of the upper and lower jaws are known as molars, but usually only the former are considered in estimating age. Animals of the bovine species have no incisor teeth in the upper jaw. The calf is usually bom with all the temporary, or milk, incisor teeth up, that is, through the gums. The milk teeth are later replaced by permanent teeth, which are easily distin- guished from the temporary teeth by their larger size. Fig. 4 shows the incisor teeth of a bo- vine and indicates the order in which the milk teeth are re- placed by permanent teeth . The first milk teeth to be replaced by permanent ones are the middle pair a; next are the first intermediates, b; next, the second intermediates, c; and lastly, the outer, or comer, teeth d. The first, or middle pair of permanent incisors, appear at about 18 months of age, and Fig. 4 § 43 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT 17 the succeeding pairs appear at intervals of about 9 months. Thus two pair of permanent teeth indicate an age of about 27 months ; three pair, an age of 3 years ; and four pair, an age of 3 years and 9 months. It should be understood that these statements are for averages, and that individuals frequently vary considerably from these averages. From the time of the appearance of the comer incisors there is little change in the appearance of the teeth until the animal begins to fail in physical vigor, which ordinarily is about the age of 8 or 9 years. It is therefore difficult to make an estimate of the age of cattle by the appearance of the mouth between the ages of 4 and 9. As cattle increase in age, the teeth shrink from each other and drop out. Many cows are, however, able to thrive even after all the incisor teeth have been lost. SELECTION OF THE DAIRY BULIj 15. In practically all cases, a dairyman will find it to his advantage to select a pure-bred bull for use in his herd. Breeders frequently refer to the bull as constituting half of the herd, this being a terse way of indicating his importance. Inferiority of any individual cow affects only the offspring of that particular animal, but inferiority of the bull is reflected in the offspring of all the cows that he serves. For this reason the beginner in dairying will do well to exercise care in selecting a bull and pay a reasonable price for an animal that is suitable for his purpose. Many dairymen make the mistake of using immature bulls of mixed or unknown breed- ing. In such cases, a yearling bull is usually turned out with the herd about the first of June and allowed to run with the cows for 2 or 3 months. By this time most of the cows will have become pregnant and the bull is then fattened and sold at a price little if any below his first cost. By this system, the dairyman has the use of the bull practically free, and furthermore he does not have the expense and trouble of keeping a bull during the rest of the year. However, the disadvantages of this course far exceed its advantages. High 18 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT § 43 quality of offspring cannot be obtained unless a sire capable of imparting the desired qualities is selected. The most satisfactory way to judge the value of a dairy bull is by an examination of his offspring to see if they possess the quali- ties desired. This requires that the bull selected be not less than 4 years old, for before that age his first offspring will not be sufficiently developed to give satisfactory indications of their merit. A bull of this age is, of course, more difficult to control and more expensive to keep than a yearling, but if he is a good animal he is worth many times the extra trouble and expense. As a guide in the selection of a dairy bull, much has been made of such milk signs as rudimentary teats, milk veins, escutcheon, etc., just as these signs have been overemphasized as indications of superior productive power in cows. Although these so-called milk signs may be of some value in selecting a bull, they are by no means to be set against the producing powers of a bull as shown by the quality of his female offspring. The discussion of the qualities that pertain to constitution, temperament, etc., under the selection of dairy cows will apply to the selection of bulls, except, of course, those char- acters that are strictly female in their nature. Good dairy sires should possess a strongly masculine appearance. The chief indications of masculinity are seen in the head and neck, both of which should be sturdy and rugged. The eyes should be prominent and not too close together, the jaws strong, and the nostrils clean and of good size. There is also a certain resolute appearance, vigor, alertness, and energy of movement in the strongly masculine bull that is easily recognized though difficult to describe. § 43 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT 19 SYSTEMS OF DAIRYING 16. In a general way, it may be said that there are two systems of dairying, and in considering the establishment of a dairy herd it is necessary to take into account the system under which it is proposed to conduct the dairying operations. In one system, calves are practically disregarded and every effort is concentrated on the production of maximum quanti- ties of milk. In the second system the condition is reversed, the production of a large number of calves being the primary consideration and milk yield a secondary matter. Sometimes a combination of the two systems is found advisable. 17. Dairying for Milk Production. — In dairy herds that are maintained primarily for milk production, the question of breed is of less importance than if the principal profit is to be derived from the production of calves. In the first case, the herd will, as a rule, be made up of grade cows rather than pure-bred cows. The usual plan is to buy a pure-bred bull and cross him on native cows for the production of the grade animals and in this way the question of breed will come up for consideration. The important dairy breeds have been described and illustrated in another Section, and, although there is no doubt that some breeds are better fitted for certain conditions of soil, climate, etc. than are others, nevertheless the matter of the choice of breed may be left to individual preference. In almost any location the dairyman may choose a breed for which he has a particular liking and be reasonably assured that with proper management a successful working herd can be established. The herd of grade cows may be maintained in two ways: first, by the purchase of mature animals from time to time to replace those cows whose usefulness has passed ; and second, by raising calves to take the place of old cows that are no longer profitable. There are many conditions under which 20 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT § 43 the first-mentioned system may be advisable. Some of these are a desire to have the herd composed of cows in their full productive capacity; abundant opportunity near at hand for selecting and purchasing new cows ; a reasonably good market for cows that are undesirable; and some degree of skill in selecting and purchasing new animals. Where some or all of these conditions prevail, this may be the easiest and cheapest way of maintaining a herd of high productive capacity. Under the system in which calves are raised to take the place of worn-out cows, the herd will always contain numerous young animals that have not reached full develop- ment of the milk-secreting functions. For this reason a herd maintained under these conditions will seldom equal, in average production per cow, a herd maintained by pur- chasing mature cows. On the other hand, a greater degree of uniformity among the animals of the herd may be obtained by raising calves. If land is abundant and cheap, the cost of raising a calf to maturity will be considerably less than that of purchasing an animal outright. Through force of circumstances most dairymen are com- pelled to rely to a large extent on the latter method, that is, the raising of calves as a means of keeping up the number of cows in the herd, in which case the selection of the bull as a sire for these calves becomes an important consideration. In most cases, the dairyman will find it to his advantage to buy a bull, although in establishing a herd it is sometimes possible to economize by securing the services of a suitable bull belonging to a neighboring herd. In the purchase of a bull, close attention should be given to the points mentioned in the discussion of the selection of a bull. The beginner should avoid the common mistake of using a bull of inferior or mixed breeding. Modern dairymen recognize the fact that money judiciously spent in the purchase of a good pure-bred bull is a paying investment. 18. Dairying for Calf Production. — Maintaining a dairy herd chiefly for calf production will seldom prove profitable unless the calves can be sold as pure-bred animals, and hence § 43 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT 21 at a higher price than could be obtained for calves of mixed breeding. Under these conditions, the establishment of a herd involves the purchase of pure-bred cows and usually a pure-bred bull. The first consideration in establishing a pure-bred herd is the selection of a breed, and, as already pointed out, this is largely a matter of individual preference. A highly productive herd can be established with any of the dairy breeds. There is, perhaps, one consideration in select- ing a breed for such a herd as is under discussion that does not apply in selecting a grade herd. It is the matter of securing a market for the pure-bred calves produced. As a rule, it will be to the advantage of the beginner to select a breed that is fairly well represented in his locality, as buyers are naturally attracted to localities where a large number of animals can be inspected. It may, therefore, be said that, other things being equal, it is best to choose the breed that is most extensively raised in the locality where the herd is to be established. A breeder who is isolated from others that are engaged in his same line is at a serious dis- advantage in attracting customers. In purchasing the foundation herd, the beginner may proceed in one of several ways, depending on the capital and equipment he has available. If he has ample capital and ade- quate buildings, land, etc., he will perhaps find it desirable to purchase immediately a sufficient number of mature animals of the breed selected to stock the farm. This procedure is likely to require considerable outlay, for such animals usually command a high price. Moreover, the buyer will usually find that by buying in this way he has acquired a greater or less number of animals not fully up to his expectations in regard to breeding qualities and milk production, and it will be necessary to dispose of these animals within a few years, usually at a sacrifice. If capital and equipment are somewhat limited, a start may be made by purchasing a few animals, perhaps only one or two cows and, if necessary, a bull; and the herd gradually increased by adding desirable calves as they approach maturity. If the first individuals are of high quality and care 22 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT § 43 is taken in the selection of a sire, this method is an excellent one for the establishment of a herd, although it requires considerable time. 19. In some cases a dairyman will find it desirable to adopt a course intermediate between that of buying the entire herd outright and that of starting with only a few animals. For example, the man who proposes to establish a pure-breed dairy herd may find it convenient to purchase one-third or one-half as many cows as he intends to keep ultimately and with offspring from these gradually increase the herd to the desired size. In the purchase of this pure- bred stock, the age of the animals will be an important consideration. It is likely that females between the ages of 15 and 30 months will prove the best investment. Such animals will begin production in a short time, and, being still immature, can be bought for considerably less than fully matured cows. Very young calves can seldom be bought much cheaper in price than yearlings, since the owner will usually demand for them the prices that their pedigrees warrant, regardless of the cost of raising them. On the other hand, animals that are fuUy matured and have established a record of production will almost invari- ably command a high price. Moreover, few animals reach their full productive capacity until a large proportion of their calves have been produced, and in purchasing such animals the buyer must take into consideration the proba- bility that they will not produce many more calves. It occasionally happens that very old animals, particularly if they have a slight blemish, can be bought at such a low price that will make them a good investment if they can be made to produce even one or two calves. The dairyman with small means who is seeking to establish a herd can fre- quently take advantage of such opportunities if he is in a neighborhood where a number of large breeders are located, for such breeders are often willing to part with animals of the kind described, because they detract from the appearance of the herd. ^ ^ I ^ -a V CQ o Z 1 ^ I z O Id u •a g .1 ^ H€ and Addresi\ Names and addresses of all the' owners, gince dropped If imported, name of impoiter Date of landing (a) If a Cow, date of service „...„ „_ H. R. Name and No. of Bull ,-...,_., Color and distinguishing marks, as sketched o: ..y£ta&^.,.^ _ __ „..., ._j<%6«^71^ i**h!(^ (■ Tte bncdcr iiihe awur of Din ■iiitDE iir«rT. o««i b, Hem^r ^Gordon. PprtejjjMlneola^ B„ _ .SeSt.?!"*.?.? *, 190e ciJ.....Wiltft..«S!l..B.?d. ,. - Sk. S[SS..'BSXSia^. 136478 _ ,. _ _ 1>„ HlmiS..l9S9J* 65.74.836.._ _ Hu been Accepted [« Kp>l>y m die iflfi/XUIK .. .:_Tal«)De c( ibe Aynliire Reconl ondet llw nlei ti,i» ■nd win be fiutobeted a* above. June 18.1904 This Anintal haa be «f i duly tnuiaferred In U>« Ayrshira TRANSFER RECORD Se ptember fl.'lO Henry Oordon Porter, Mlneola.WiS. FtbsIc Cotton Hayes, Ulneola.Vis. April 6,1911 FranJc Cotton Hayes, MlTIBOlft.WlB. Harry Harlov Beach, aonerrllle , Tie . (a) Fig. 2 24 §44 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT 25 the breed, but a detailed description of them is unnecessary, since they are largely self-explanatory. As a rule, a dairyman who is raising pure-bred cattle will find it to his advantage to become a member of the association that is looking after the interests of the particular breed he is raising. Most breeders' associations charge a lower fee for registering animals for members than for non-members. The saving effected in this way is considerable if many animals are registered, and there are other advantages to be derived TO BK WRITTEN IN INK ONLV 1 °1S.TO? " \ Application for Transfer HBMBBUS- FEBS. 31 Cnti. Afttr Sli Muthi froa t>u* ofStl*. 50 Cnti. MON-MBMBBRS' FBBS. » Cnta. Afln^ Hoadu (roa Du* of Sili, ll.OD R«nlttiDc«> thonid b* nudi by ilaoty Ort«r, or Dnft hymbla la How York or DoiIoel ATTENTION IS DIRECTED TO THE FOLLOWING BY-LAWS IV ASTICLB rv SfttiMf. Antmali mnit ba tr*iuIaTT«d u> ownon baton thair olTipring ciko ba raflUcnS. Strlmrt, Mo KpplloKttoo lor truttor will racolT* atMntlou onlui acoompuitwl wlUi raqnlrad tB*. * A(Ab«j& AracordotalltTUHtanotowoDrdilpof lagtiiaradanlmaUtHDUbaBadanpoQ theracordiotlha AtaoctM^Hna U tkatt hi tM» 4Mty tf Ikt tiairtfailjiwiii^M/njUltP<^b dicaalim muM bo fllod m\Oi tha applltatioB. tlgis n in Vx^t^ (hat the BiH^^ H. B.. served thSiiirfiZ. lal vblfib Is to be tiBnilarrod bi IFICATE OF SERVICE. *Sixneture of Owner ,tff%uU, ,, No in H. B., served^iS^S No in H. B.. ^' :y loi than usowaer at Iba lira ■IgniUlseartUnMoImTlca.anlharltrtoi rack tlfDKtnra inau b* Had wltb Uia appimueo. P. O. Address, __ _ Fig. 3 from keeping in touch with other breeders who are handling the same kind of cattle. 21. Breeders' associations usually endeavor to encourage early registration of animals by making the fee considerably smaller for animals under a certain age than for older animals, and the difference is usually sufficient to make it advisable to register calves within the time limit. Some breeders do not register young calves, because of the loss of the fee in case 26 DAIRY-CATTLE MANAGEMENT §44 the calf dies before it reaches the age of usefulness and there are many breeders who make it a rule not to register bulls until they are sold. Both of the practices are, however, doubtful economy, not only because registration of young animals costs less, as explained, but also because early regis- tration is favorable to systematic and businesslike manage- ment of the herd. Dairy cattle associations usually provide for advanced registry of superior animals in the manner described in Breeds of Dairy Cattle. Advanced registry is regarded as evidence of conspicuous merit, and animals so recorded or eligible to it command a higher price than ordinary individuals. A dairyman will, therefore, find it advisable to take advantage of this feature if any of his animals will meet the requirements laid down by the association governing advanced registry. MILK (PART 1) SECRETION AND COMPOSITION OF MILK SECBETIOlSr OF MILK 1. Milk is the whitish, opaque liqiiid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammals for the nourishment of their young. Under natural conditions the secretion of milk ceases as soon as the young no longer need it; under artificial conditions, as in the case of dairy cattle, the period of lactation has been lengthened until it covers a much longer time than for the needs of the calf. The long period of milk flow in dairy cattle is the result of many years of selection and breeding. The word milk as it is commonly used refers to the milk of the cow, as that produced by this animal is of the greatest commercial importance. The milk from the females of the sheep, goat; ass, and horse, also, is sometimes used as human food. Unless otherwise specified, however, the term milk, when used in this Section, refers to the milk of the cow. The milk from which the butter fat has been removed is known as skim milk; that from which the fat has not been removed, as whole milk; that from a number of animals or of several herds, as mixed milk. 2. Organs of Milk Secretion. — Female mammals have two mammary glands and each gland may be divided into two or more lobes, each having a separate opening. In the cow, COPYRIQHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL. LONDON §45 MILK §45 there are regularly four of these openings, but in occasional cases, six; in the mare and ewe, two; in the sow, from ten to fourteen. In the cow, the mammary glands are on the under surface of the body between the hind legs. Each of the two glands is made up of two parts, and each part is known as a quarter. The four quarters taken as a whole is termed the udder, and the four fleshy, pendulous parts through which the milk is removed, are the teats. 3. Structure of a Cow's Udder. — In Fig. 1 is shown a sectional view of one- quarter of a cow's udder. The part marked a is the teat. Extending through the teat is a canal through which the milk passes. At the upper and the lower end of the canal are muscles that open and close the open- ings. Above the teat is a cavity b, known as the milk cistern, which has a capacity of about one-half pint Fig. 1 and from which the milk is drawn through the teat. Canals c, known as milk ducts, extend in all directions through the fleshy portion of the udder, and branch and rebranch to form smaller and smaller canals, each of which finally ends in a group of small sacklike bodies that are termed follicles. In these follicles the milk is secreted. They are small cavities about g-o- inch § 45 MILK 3 in diameter, and are arranged in groups of from three to five with a common outlet into a branching duct. The system of milk ducts and follicles has been compared to a bunch of grapes in which the grapes represent the follicles and the stems the milk ducts. The ducts from each cistern form practically a distinct system, although there is a slight connection between the two quarters on the same side near the top of the quarters, but none between the quarters on opposite sides. A small part of the milk from a hind quarter of the udder can, there- fore, be drawn through the front teat on the same side, and vice versa, but milk from the quarters on one side cannot be drawn through the teats on the other side. 4. Time of Milk Secretion. — The milk is secreted in large part during the process of milking. That this is the case is shown by the fact that an animal may give, at- a single milking, a weight of milk greater than the weight of the udder itself. Some milk is secreted previous to the milking, however, as is shown by the distention of the udder before milking is commenced. COMPOSITION OF MIIiK MILK CONSTITUENTS 5. Milk consists of water, butter fat, protein, sugar, and ash. The last four of these constituents are known as the solids of milk, and, when considered collectively in an analysis, are termed the total solids. The proportion of the various constituents varies at difEerent stages of the lacta- tion period. The first milk secreted after a calf is born is a thick, yellowish liquid having a strong odor and a bitter taste, and is known as colostrum. In composition, colostrum from different cows varies considerably. The following, however, is a general average: MILK § 45 Per Cent. Water 72.39 Fat 1.30 Sugar 1.52 Protein 23.70 Ash 1.09 ido.oo Colostrum is helpful to the new-born calf, but it is undesirable as human food, and, therefore, should not be made a part of the regular milk supply. A change in the composition of milk takes place rapidly, and in from five to seven days after the calf is born the milk becomes suitable for use as human food. The average composition of milk after the change is about as follows: p cemt Water 87.40 Fat 3.75 Protein 3.15 Sugar ^.00 Ash ". .70 100.00 Milk from different cows varies considerably in composition from this average. Probably the greatest difference is in the percentage of fat. Cows are known that give milk in which there is as much as 8 per cent, of fat, and there are others that give milk in which there is less than 3 per cent, of fat. Near the end of the lactation period, milk undergoes another change in composition. The percentage of fat increases until in many instances the fat content is twice as much as before the change, the fat globules become much smaller, and the solids other than fat increase somewhat in total percentage. The taste of the milk also may change, becoming bitter and salty, and when in this condition milk is not suitable for use as human food. The quantity of milk given by an animal decreases at this time until often the yield per cow is only 2 §45 MILK or 3 quarts a day. On account of the changes that occur during the last part of the lactation period, some dealers will not purchase the milk. They guard against receiving it by refusing to purchase milk obtained from cows that give less than 3 quarts a day. 6. In Table I is given the average composition of milk from the cow, nanny-goat, ewe, and mare, for the purpose of showing the difference in the percentages of the different constituents in the milk of these animals. It can be seen from the table that milk from sheep and from goats is richer in both fat and protein, and that the milk from a mare is much poorer in fat and protein than is cow's milk. It can be seen, also, that the milk of the mare is the richest in sugar, and that the milk from both the goat and the ewe is less watery than that from the cow or from the mare. TABLE I COMPOSITION OP MILK OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ANIMALS Species of Animal Water Percent. Fat Percent. Protein Percent. Sugar Per Cent. Ash Percent Cow 87.40 85-71 80.82 90.78 3-75 4.78 6.86 1. 21 3-iS 4.29 6.52 1.99 5.00 4.46 4.91 S-67 .70 Nanny goat Ewe .76 .89 Mare 7. Butter Fat. — The butter fat of milk, which is also known as milk fat, is made up of small globules, the number in a single drop of milk varing from 30,000,000 to 100,000,000. The globules are arranged both singly and in aggregations. The fat is the lightest part of milk, and if milk is allowed to stand quietly for a time most of the globules rise to the surface. Some of the smallest globules, however, are not able to over- come the resistance encountered in passing upwards through the milk, and hence do not rise to the surface. The globules in the milk of cows of different breeds vary somewhat in size. 6 MILK § 45 For example, the globules in the milk of Jersey and Guernsey animals are larger than those in the milk of Shorthorn or Holstein animals. Examinations show that if the average size of the individual globules in the milk of Shorthorns is represented by 1, the average size of those in Guernsey milk is represented by 1.25, and of those in Jersey milk by 1.6. Cream is the part of milk into which a large part of the fat is gathered. The separation of cream from the other part of milk is known as the creaming of milk. Gravity creaming, or separation, can be accompUshed by allowing the milk to stand quietly for a time, and then removing the upper layers, in which the fat has accumulated. Cream can be separated also by means of machines known as centrifugal separators. The principle on which these machines are based is that as cream is lighter than the remaining part of the milk, cen- trifugal force can be used in the separation of the two. 8. Protein. — Two of the substances of milk, casein and albumin, belong to the class of compounds known as protein. Casein forms a large part of the curd obtained when milk is allowed to sour or when milk is curdled by the addition of rennet, a material employed in the manufacture of cheese. Casein gives to milk much of its opacity. The casein appears to be in solution, since it does not settle out when milk is allowed to stand. It can, however, be filtered out by the use of very fine filters. If whole milk is curdled, the fat globules are enclosed in the curd. The removal of the curd leaves a yellowish or greenish clear liquid, the whey, which contains the constituents of the milk that are in solution. One of these is albumin, a substance that coagulates on heating and that, in appear- ance, is much like the white of an egg. The quantity of albumin in milk, except in colostrum, is small, and is not sufficient to cause the milk to become semisolid on heating. In colostrum, however, there is such a large percentage of albumin that this first milk will coagulate if heated. 9. Milk Sugar. — The sugar found in milk is known as lactose. It is much less sweet and less soluble than cane §45 MILK sugar and is obtained by condensing the milk and allowing the sugar to crystallize. It is used for medicinal purposes and for the modification of milk for children. 10. Ash. — Some of the compounds that form the ash of milk are in solution, and hence are found in the whey, others are insoluble and are removed in the curd. The ash con- stituents are an important part of the milk; without them it would not be a perfect food for young animals. FACTORS INFLUENCING MILK COMPOSITION 11. Influence of Breed on Milk Composition. — ^The milk of the difEerent breeds of cattle differs materially in com- position, especially in the quantity of butter fat. In Table II is given the average composition of the milk from represent- ative animals of four important dairy breeds, and of the milking family of the Shorthorn breed.- TABLE II COMPOSITION OF MILK OF COWS OF DIFFERENT BREEDS Breed Water Fat Protein Sugar Per Cent. Per Cent. Percent. Per Cent. 85.66 4.78 396 4-85 85-52 5.02 3-92 4.80 87.30 3.68 3-48 4.84 87.88 S-ST' 3.28 4.69 87-SS 3-65 3-27 .- 4-8o Ash Per Cent. Jersey . . . Guernsey. Ayrshire . Holstein . Shorthorn 0-75 0.74 0.70 0.64 0-73 It can be seen from the table that the milk of the cows of the Jersey and Guernsey breeds is the highest in fat ; that of the Ayrshire and Shorthorn cows is next; and that the milk of the Holstein is the lowest. In protein, Holstein and Short- horn milk are lowest. In the percentage of sugar, little dif- ference is to be noted. In total solids, the milk of Jersey and Guernsey cattle is higher than that of any of the other breeds. 242—20 8 MILK §45 12. Influence of Time of Milking on Milk Composition. The composition of milk is influenced somewhat by the length of time that elapses between successive milkings. If the length of time between milkings is always the same, there will be practically no variation in composition, but if a longer time elapses between two successive milkings than between the next two, a variation can be noticed. In general, the milk that is drawn after the shortest period of time is richest in butter fat. To guard against having a difference in com- position of the milk from successive milkings, a dairyman should arrange his barn work so that 12 hours elapses between the two milkings each day. In practice, however, it often occurs that more time elapses between the evening and the morning milkings than between the morning and evening milkings, and as a result dairymen often find that the evening milk is richer than that drawn in the morning. 13. Influence of Stage of Milking on Milk Composition. There is a variation in the composition of milk drawn at different stages of the same milking. The first milk drawn TABLE III COMPOSITION OF MII>K AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF A SINGLE MILKING Stage Fat Per Cent. Solids Not Fat Per Cent. First Stage 1.70 1.76 2.10 2.54 3-14 4.08 8.77 Second Stage 8.99 8.7S 8.69 8.49 8-S9 Third Stage Fourth Stage Fifth Stage Sixth Stage is very poor in fat ; the last milk, the strippings, is high in fat. Table III shows the composition of milk from a single animal at each of six consecutive stages of the same milking. § 45 MILK ' 9 It can be seen from the table that the difference in com- position is largely due to an increase in the percentage of fat. One explanation offered by dairymen why the fat content differs during different stages of a milking is that the milk that has stood in the lower part of the udder has lost its fat on accovmt of reabsorption, but this theory has not been definitely proved. 14. Influence of Feed on Milk Composition. — It is believed by many that the feed of an animal has much to do with the composition of the milk, and that the percentage of fat in milk can be increased by feeding a ration rich in fat. Experi- ments prove, however, that such is not the case. A change from green to dry feed may cause a temporary change in the composition of the milk, but such a change does not persist for more than a few days. The feed may affect the color of the milk to a slight extent ; fresh grass heightens the yellow color of the fat and hence of the milk, and the feeding of carrots also tends to make milk more yellow. The feed may often affect the taste and odor of the milk. The feeding of beet leaves, turnips, and malt sprouts is said to cause an unnatural taste and odor in the milk, and cabbage, rape, garlic, wild turnip, ragweed, and many other weeds, which may be consumed by the animals in pastures, sometimes injure the flavor of the milk. Even the turning of cattle into clover or young rye may impart, at least temporarily, an abnormal taste to the milk. These flavors do not injure the wholesomeness of the milk, but they render it less appetizing and injure it for butter and cheese making. Silage, especially very sour silage, affects the taste of the milk to a slight extent, but does not make it unappetitizing. Many people prefer the milk from silage-fed cows to that from cows on dry feed, and it is known that the flavor is not usually so marked as that imparted to milk by fresh grass when cattle are first turned into the pastures. Some of the milk-condensing companies will not allow the feeding of silage to herds furnishing them milk; others advocate its use. 10 MILK § 45 Some drugs, when given to milch cows, may affect not only the wholesomeness but also the healthfulness of the milk. Milk from cows that are receiving medicine should, therefore, never be used for human food. This is especially true when the milk of a single animal, or of a few animals, is used as food for children. CONTAMINATION AND FERMENTATION OF MILK BACTERIA IN MILK ACTION OF BACTERIA IN MILK 15. Soon after milk is drawn it begins to undergo changes, the most apparent one of which is that of becoming sour, or acid. This and many of the other changes are caused by bacteria. Many kinds of bacteria are nearly always present in milk, but in varying numbers. It is known, however, that milk produced under cleanly conditions is much freer from bacteria than that produced under unclean conditions. Cleanliness, therefore, is an important consideration in milk production. Certain kinds of bacteria are responsible for diseases of mankind, and many of these disease-producing bacteria grow luxuriantly in milk and are often found there in large numbers; the best way to exclude them is by pro- ducing and caring for the milk in the most sanitary manner possible. Bacteria thrive best where food is abundant, where the temperature is favorable for their growth, and where moisture is present. These three conditions are found in the soil and in the alimentary tract of animals; therefore, any material from these sources — mud, dirt, or manure, for example — that gets into a quantity of milk carries with it a number of bacteria. In the milk they find conditions favorable for growth — food is plentiful; the temperature, especially if the milk be warm, is favorable; and moisture is present. As a § 45 MILK 11 result, they multiply rapidly and in a comparatively short time the milk will contain so many bacteria that it is likely to be unfit for use. No other food is so exposed to contamination by mud, dust, and manure, as is milk. If a solid food becomes dirty it can be washed, but when bacteria have once been introduced into milk, the harm cannot be remedied, for milk cannot be cleaned like a soUd. Insoluble particles of dirt and manure can be removed by straining milk through a fine-meshed cloth, but many of the bacteria that are on the particles will be washed off and will pass through the cloth. Thus, if milk is to keep well and be an appetizing, healthful human food, it must be produced under such conditions that bacteria do not enter it in large numbers. SOTJRCES OF BACTEKIA IN MILK 16. Bacteria in Udders of Cows. — The udders of cows, as they are exposed constantly to dirt and man-ure, are exposed also to bacteria. There is usually a small quantity of moisttire on the ends of the teats, and this, together with the body warmth and food that are present, make conditions favorable for bacterial growth. The bacteria enter the teat canal and work their way to the milk cistern, milk ducts, and even into the secreting tissue of the udder. However, only certain kinds of bacteria are able to grow in the udder, just as certain kinds of higher forms of plants grow in a certain environment of temperattire, moisture, food, etc. These bacteria do not develop as rapidly as might be expected; something seems to hold them in check. The nature of most kinds of bacteria found in the udder is such that they have but Uttle or no effect on the keeping quality of the milk or on its taste and. odor. More bacteria are fotind in the teats, milk cisterns, and large milk ducts than in the other parts of the udder, and, as the first milk drawn comes directly from the milk cisterns, the number of bacteria in a milking can be lessened by rejecting the first five or six streams from each teat. As the per- 12 MILK §45 centage of fat in the first milk drawn is small, no great loss is incurred by rejecting this milk. However, care should be taken to prevent it from getting on the floor of the stable, as its presence causes a bad odor, especially during the warm seasons of the year. 17. Bacteria From Coat of Cow. — During the milking of a cow, considerable dust and hair are dislodged from the udder and flank of the animal by the motions of the milker, and ■•■pm ■■..•■.».:*MSi,*J Fig. 2 a large part of this material may find its way into the milk pail. On account of this hair and dust being covered with bacteria, many germs gain entrance to the milk in this way. Fewer bacteria will get into milk from this source if the coat of the animal is clean than if it is dirty, but too often the udder and teats are covered with mud and manure, and under such conditions it is impossible to milk the animal without getting a large quantity of germ-laden material into the milk. « §45 MILK 13 It shotdd be the aim of dairymen to keep the cows clean. They should not have access to mud holes, etc., and the barnyard, if one is in use on the farm, should be well drained and covered with gravel, crushed stone, or concrete to prevent it from becoming muddy. In addition, manure should be excluded from the yard in which the animals are kept. 18. The stalls in a dairy bam should be arranged so that it is impossible for the cows to lie in the mantire back of the stall. There are on the market several stalls, or cattle ties, that have been designed to accomplish this end. Usually it Fig. 3 is done by arranging some contrivance that will force the animal to the back of the stall when she is standing and to the front part when she is Ijang down. In Fig. 2 is illustrated what is known as the Model stall. This is an unpatented equipment and hence can be used without restrictions. The part that has been devised for keeping the animal out of contact with her mantu-e is a 2" X 3" plank a, which is placed as shown in the illustration. This piece should be arranged so that it is just in front of the hind feet of the animal as she stands in the stall. On lying down, she will soon learn that in order to gain a comfortable position she must crowd 14 MILK §45 forwards to avoid the strip, and when thus crowded forwards she will be out of contact with any manure that is in the gutter b or on the ledge in front of it. The plank serves also to keep the bedding from being pushed back into the manure gutter, and the bedding is, therefore, kept much cleaner than in a stall having no such provision as the plank. Fig. 3 is made from a photograph, and shows the appearance of cows kept in Model stalls. No cleaning had been done on the animals at the time the photograph was made, and no mud or caked manure was visible on their bodies. Fig. 4 19. Another type of stall, known as the New Ideal stall, is shown in Fig. 4. Stalls of this kind are used in the dairy bam at the Purdue University Experiment Station, at Lafayette, Ind., where they have given excellent satisfaction. The stall, with the exception of the manger and floor,' is made of gas pipes. The guides a on which the chain tie slides up and down are nearer to each other at the top than at the bottom, and when the cow lies down in the stall the § 45 MILK 15 arrangement tightens the chain and thus draws her forward out of the manure. In constructing stables for dairy cows, farmers are Hkely to pay, more attention to arrangements for convenience in feeding, cleaning the stable, etc. than to devices for keeping the, cows clean. . The latter should, however, receive much attention, as the quality of the milk that is produced in the sta:ble will depend largely on the cleanliness of the cows. , The bedding used for dairy cows should be abundant and free from dust. Rotten and moldy straw should not be used, ias it is likely to get on the coats of the animals and thus become a source from which the milk can be contaminated; C|eaii, bright straw, shredded' o,r finely-cut corn stalks, and shavings are good bedding materials for dairy barns. One of the most important considerations in the production of clean milk is to prevent the cows from getting dirty. When all that can be done in this direction has been accomT [plished, a further step is the cleaning of the cows just before [they are milked.' The cleaning, or grooming, of cattle is an [operation tod, often overlooked. Careful grooming removes ■much of the loose dirt and hair from the coats of the animals land thus aids, in producing milk containing comparatively , few bacteria. ' Wiping the udders and flanks with a clean, (damp cloth just previous to milking also is a good practice, 'as it removes the loose dirt and ha^r and dampens the hair j of the coats so that less dust will fall .than from dry' coats. f Washing the udders with water and wiping them with a clean towel still further diminishes the quantity of dirt and hair that can get into the milk. 20. Vacuum cleaners similar to those used for cleaning .houses, offices, etc. are sometimes used in dairy barns for the grooming of cattle. An advantage of a vacuum cleaner for this purpose is that the dust, loose hair, and dandriiff from the coats of the cows are drawn ofE into a dust collector, anci, hence, none of, the material escapes into the stable. The disadvantage of the cleaners is their high cost, a complete outfit costing in the neighborhood of $130. As a rule, they 16 MILK §45 are used in barns where a vacuum type of milking machine has been installed, as the vacuum pump, pipe line, engine, or other power used for the milking machines are stiitable also for a cleaning outfit. Where a vacuum type of milking machine is in use, the cost of added equipment for the installa- tion of the cleaner is about $27. Vacutmi cleaners are usually sold by the firms that manufacture vacuum milking machines. In Fig. 5 is illustrated a vacuum cleaning outfit, with the exception of the vacuum pump and the power for operating Fig 5 it. At a is shown the pipe line in which the vacuum is created ; at b, a stanchion cock for turning the suction on or off; at c, the hose from the pipe line to the dust collector d; and at e, the hose from the collector to the cleaning tool /. When an animal is to be cleaned, the stanchion cock is opened and the cleaning tool is pushed back and forth over the coat as shown in the illustration. The suction draws all loose hair, dust, dandruff, etc. through the hose e into the dust collector d, where it is retained by screens of cloth that §45 MILK 17 prevent it from passing through the hose c into the pipe line a. The dust collector is light in weight, and thus is easily moved from place to place. 21. After the animals have been cleaned, it is essential that they be prevented from again becoming dirty before being milked. This can be done by keeping them standing. A chain across the stanchions, as shown in Fig. 6, at a, that will be just below the animal's neck is a device sometimes employed for this purpose. The chain, of course, should be unhooked as shown at h, after the cow has been milked. Fig. 6 The clipping of the hair from the hind legs, flanks, and udders of dairy cows is a good practice, as it will be found that the animals will keep cleaner and can be more easily cleaned in case they become soiled. Hand clippers are often used for this purpose. Small clipping machines operated by hand power, like the one illustrated in Fig. 7, are used on many dairy farms. 22. Bacteria From Dust of Stable. — Dust from fine particles of fodder, dirt, and manure is very objectionable in a stable on accoiont of the bacteria it carries. The dust, 18 MILK §45 during the milking time, falls into the milk pail, and thus bacteria are added to the milk. Effort should be made, therefore, to have a minimum quantity of dust in a stable while the milking is being done. The feeding of dry fodder, the grooming of the cattle, and the sweeping of the stable should all be done at least one hour before or delayed until after the animals are milked. The ceiling of the stable should be tight to prevent dust from falling from the lofts above. 23. Bacteria Prevalent in Dark Stables. — Plenty of win- dows should be provided in a stable where dairy cows are kept, as bacteria do not thrive in sunlight and abundant light is necessary for the health of the animals ; the presence Fig. 7 of light also makes evident dirt that might otherwise be unnoticed. At least 4 square feet of window space should be provided for each animal, as less than this amount is Ukely to make the stable so dark that bacteria and all their evils will abound. Too great a window space is undesirable, however, as it is then difficult to keep the stable warm in winter. This is especially true if the windows are on the north side of the bvulding. 24. Excluding Bacteria by Use of Sanitary Milk Pail. Much dirt, manure, hair, etc., can be kept out of milk by making use of the right kind of milk pail. Larger quantities §45 MILK 19 of dust, hair, dandruff, etc. will fall into an ordinary large- topped milk pail than into a pail the top of which is protected by a hood with a small opening, as in the so-called sanitary, or small-topped, pails illustrated in Fig. 8. It has been shown by experiment that such pails are exceedingly efficient in excluding dirt and bacteria from milk. Under fair barn Fig. 8 conditions, it was found that milk drawn into such pails contained but one-twentieth as many bacteria as milk drawn under similar conditions into open pails. 25. Cleanliness of Utensils —All utensils used about a dairy should be constructed so that they can be easily cleaned, and every precaution should be exercised to keep them clean. Milk pails and milk cans should be smooth on the inside, and 20 MILK § 45 there should be no open seams or sharp corners, and all parts should be exposed so that they can be reached by a cloth or brush while being cleaned. Fig. 9 illustrates the right and the wrong kinds of seams and corners in milk utensils. In (a) is shown the outline of a milk pail with a sharp angle between the sides and the bottom. Depressions formed in this way are very difficult to clean and the dirt that is sure to be left in them does not dry out between the periods of use; as a result, the bacteria multiply rapidly and find their way into the milk. The proper construction of seams in pails or cans is shown in (b) . This can be provided even in an inexpensive vessel by flushing the joint depressions with solder. In (c) is shown a cross-section of the kind of seam that is too often found in milk pails. The depression a af- fords a place where bacteria are sure to collect. Open joints of this kind should be filled with solder, as shown in (d), to make them safe for W use in milk pails. ^■°- 9 Roughness of the surface, such as is caused by spots of rust, is undesirable in milk pails and like utensils on account of the likelihood of bacteria collecting on them. A bright, clean surface is, there- fore, best in all utensils used about a dairy. If possible, the utensils should not be allowed to become dry before being washed, as dried milk, especially skim milk, is very difficult to remove, owing to the fact that it forms a glue that does not easily soften in water. The utensils should be rinsed in cold or lukewarm water, then washed in hot water to which a small quantity of alkali cleansing powder has been added. Powder is preferable to soap, as it is more efficient in removing the dried milk and can be rinsed from the surface more easily. Perfumed powder should never be used for this purpose. The utensils, after having § 45 MILK 21 been washed with hot water and washing powder, should again be thoroughly washed and sterilized with boiling water or steam, a large enough quantity of either being used to insure a perfect cleansing and sterilization. It is not neces- sary that the utensils be wiped, for they will dry quickly if inverted and left to drain. 26. Milk cans used by farmers for delivering milk from farms to creameries or cheese factories are often the source of milk contamination. From the skim milk or the whey returned to the farms in cans, serious contamination often results. These products are often sour and contain undesir- able kinds of bacteria; hence, to guard against infection, the cans should be thoroughly washed and sterilized before being used for whole milk again. Some progressive milk dealers wash and sterilize the cans before they are returned to the farms, as they find that at the factory where steam is available the process can generally be carried out more efficiently than on most farms. 27. When bottles are used for milk, special care should be taken in cleaning them. Brushes for cleaning the bottles can be purchased from dealers in dairy supplies, and dairymen will find it to their advantage to procure and use brushes for this work. If only a few bottles are to be washed, a hand brush will generally answer the purpose, but if a large number must be cleaned daily a brush that is whirled by tread or steam power is more satisfactory. After the bottles have been thoroughly washed, they should be placed in boil- ing water for a few minutes and then placed in an inverted position on draining boards. These draining boards should have holes in them large enough to allow each bottle to drop one-third of its. length through the board. The reason for the use of boiling water in washing bottles is that all bacterial life that may be in the bottles is likely to be killed by the high temperature of the water. Such complicated dairy utensils as milking machines and cream separators must be cleaned with great care. The rubber teat cups and the rubber tubes that are used with 22 MILK § 45 milking machines cannot be washed with water and cleansing powder in a manner to prevent bacterial growth on their inner surface, and for this reason many people have been led to believe that good milk could not be produced with a milking machine. If, however, these parts are immersed in a ^-per-cent. solution of formaldehyde during the time they are not in use, care being taken that the tubes are com- pletely filled with the liquid, no difficulty will be experienced in keeping them free from bacterial infections. After the parts are removed from the formaldehyde solution they should be washed in water before being used again. The metal parts can be kept in good condition by the use of boiling water and cleansing, powder. , 28. Cream separators should have the bowl removed- after each period of use and. the parts should be carefully cleaned, for it is impossible to remove the slime that collects; simply by passing water through the machine.. This sUme',; if not removed, furnishes food for bacteria, and the next time the machine is used the milk and cream are likely to become contaminated. , The cloth strainers that are used for removing solid particles from milk are not easily kept free from bacteria. Enough ma,terial to furnish abundant food for bacteria will remain on them even after the most careful washing. To minimize the number of bacteria left on a cloth, it should be thoroughly washed and sterilized in boiling water and then hting where it will quickly dry. If allowed to remain damp, any bacteria that may remain on the cloth will have a chance to grow and will contaminate the milk when the strainer is next used. 29. Milker as Source of Bacterial Infection. — The milker is often a source from which bacteria get into milk. If the clothes worn during the milking are dusty and dirty, a larger number of bacteria are sure to get into the milk than if clean jumpers and overalls are worn. The hands should be clean, also, as some milk is Ukely to come in contact with them; the milking should be done with the whole hand and not by stripping the teats with the thumb and finger, for the latter § 45 MILK 23 method rubs ofE much dirt from the teats. The hands should be kept dry, for if moistened with milk or water a small quantity of the liquid, which' is sure to contain bacteria, is very likely to drop into the pail. CONTROL OF BACTERIA IN MILK 30. In the commercial handling of milk, it is necessary to employ means for controlling the number of bacteria either by the exercise of cleanliness in the production of the milk, the prevention of the growth or the destruction of any bacteria contained in the milk, or by a combination of these methods. 31. Cleanliness as a Means of Control. — One of the most efficient ways of controlling the number of bacteria in milk is to exercise cleanliness at every step in the production and handling. Milk that contains only the bacteria coming from the udder will not sour for days, but that containing large quantities of dirt will often be unfit for use in a few hours. Prevention of contamination is one of the most important ways of improving the keeping quality of milk. 32. Clarification of Milk. — When milk containing sedi- ment is passed through a centrifugal separator, the particles collect as slime on the wall of the separator bowl and are thus removed from the milk. The process of removing solids in this manner is known as clarification. It is much more efficient for the removal of dirt, etc. than any method of straining, and is often employed by city milk dealers to rid milk in bottles from sediment. Clarification does not, however, improve the keeping quality of milk as much as might be imagined, for only a small number of bacteria are removed when compared with the number present in the milk. In fact, clarification has practically no efEect on the keeping quality of the milk. 33. Straining of Milk. — The straining of milk through a cloth or a quantity of cotton more or less efficiently removes 24 MILK §45 any insoluble particles that may be present, but any bacteria adhering to these particles are washed off and remain in the milk, for no cloth or filter used for straining milk is of fine enough mesh, to hold the -O bacteria. In Fig. 10 is illustrated the relative sizes of fat globules of milk and the most common kinds of bacteria found in milk. The fat globules are shown at a and groups of bacteria at b. From a study of this illustration it is evident that any cloth or filter of sufficiently fine mesh to remove the bac- teria would at the same time remove the fat globules. 34. Cooling and Storing of Milk. — As bacteria multiply more rapidly at high than at low temperatures, milk will become sour more quickly if kept at a high temperature than if kept at a low temperature. For this reason, milk will keep longer if cooled rapidly soon after it is drawn than if it is allowed to cool slowly or is allowed to remain at a fairly high temperature. Experience shows that if milk is cooled to about 50° F. immediately after it is drawn from the cow, it will contain fewer bacteria than if cooled slowly. Fig. 11 Pfl06ENY Of A S/NGIE 6ERM IN TW£LVE HOUKS #• /f! M/7A coo/ec/ nrfi/W/y ■0- /n M//k cooJei/ s/oiv/y Fig. 11 "^ % '^>K^^^ illustrates the relative number of bacteria produced in 12 hours from a single germ in milk when it is cooled rapidly with cold water and when it is allowed to cool slowly. § 45 MILK 25 Milk may be cooled in a number of ways. When the quantity to be treated is small, it may be placed in a tall, narrow can and the can placed in cold water. Stirring the milk in the can will hasten the coohng to a great extent. When a large quantity is to be treated, a device known as a milk cooler is employed. The most efficient coolers are those in which the milk is allowed to flow in a very thin stream over a metal surface on the opposite side of which is cold water, or water and ice. Fig'. 12 shows a cooler of this type. The cold-water and ice are placed inside of the metal vessel a, the milk is placed in the receptacle b, from whence it flows over the corrugated surface of a to the base of the cooler c, and eventually out of the spout d. The spouts e and / are the inlet and out- ^^ let tubes for use when run- ^^^^W^WBtM ning water is available. In Ml 6 '! ||||Bh use, the inlet tube is con- ■I ' JJiBf nected. with the water sup- ^^^^^pSfe ply by means of a rubber j^^^~^^^^^ charge, is so arranged that /Cg---i^^^ ^~'= '"■_ V^^.^^^ the water is carried off from .iis^^j^^^ ^ - _ ~]^^ ^^^^^ With rtmning water, the -_ J^^i^--=s;-==p=^^*^=^ milk will be cooled to with- F'g. 12 in a few degrees of the temperature of the water. If an abun- dance of water having a temperature not above 55° F. is available, no ice need be used in the cooler, but when water is scarce or its temperature too high, ice should be used. After milk has been run through a cooler it should be placed in cans or bottles in cold water. Care should be taken that no milk is spilled into the vats or tanks used to hold the water, especially if the same water is used for several days in succession. Milk in water furnishes food for bacteria, and if the water becomes warm conditions will be favorable for a rapid bacterial growth, and as a result pronounced odors soon rise from the tank. If possible, fresh water should be used daily, as there will then be little chance for bacteria to 26 MILK § 45 reproduce sufficiently to cause odors. If perchance some milk is spilled into the tank and it is not expedient to change the water, a few pieces of unslaked lime added to the tank will prevent the development of bacterial odors. Milk that has been cooled should, of course, be stored in a cool place, but the temperature should not be below the freezing point, as freezing causes the separation of the fat and casein in such a manner that they cannot be reincor- porated. A temperature just above the freezing point is satisfactory, for at this temperature the milk will remain sweet for a long time. A word of precaution is necessary, however, about the storing of milk. Although the bacteria that cause milk to sour do not develop at low temperatures, certain bac- teria that cause putrefaction do develop, and as a result milk that has been stored for a long time may be perfectly sweet, but at the same time it may contain bacteria that are harmful to man. For this reason milk should not be stored for more than 48 hours, and preferably 24 hours, before it is consjimed. 35. Use of Preservatives in Milk. — The growth of bacteria in milk can be inhibited by the use of such preservatives as boric acid and formaldehyde. However, since these pre- servatives are injurious to human health, their use as a milk preservative is, as a rule, prohibited. When use is made of a preservative, formaldehyde is more often employed than boric acid, because the former is less expensive and more effective. Formaldehyde used at the rate of 1 part to 25,000 parts of milk will act as an efficient preservative and will prevent milk from souring for from 24 to 48 hours; hence, there is great temptation for its use, especially in the case of the dealer who has milk that cannot be disposed of at once. 36. Controlling Bacteria by Heat — The bacteria that cause souring of milk are almost certain to be killed by boil- ing the milk, but there are certain putrefactive bacteria that the boiling temperature will not kill. Any injurious bacteria will not be present in any considerable numbers in the milk until after 24 to 48 hours. Boiled milk, therefore, is perfectly healthful if used within, say, 24 to 36 hours; after about § 45 MILK 27 48 hours it is likely to be harmful as human food. Although boiling is a means of controlling the number of bacteria in milk, there are several objections to this method of treat- ment. Boiled milk is not easily digested and assimilated by the human body; the boiled taste is very apparent and is objected to by most people; and there is always the danger that the milk will be a day or so old, and hence likely to contain- putrefactive bacteria. In view of these facts, boil- ing is not a good method of controlling the number of bacteria in milk. 37. A method of controlling the number of bacteria in milk by heat that is more satisfactory than boiling is that of pasteurization. Liquids are pasteurized by heating them to a temperature somewhat below the boiling point, averaging in practice from 140° F. to 180° F., keeping them at that temperature for a given period of time, and then cooling them rapidly. In milk treated thus, the bacteria that cause milk to sour, and most disease-producing forms, are destroyed. Certain spore forms that grow rapidly when acidity is not present are not killed by the heat of pasteurization, and for this reason the milk should be used before it becomes old, say in from 24 to 48 hours. The temperature used for the pasteurization of milk is important. If as high as 185° F. is employed, the milk will have a cooked taste; and if the temperature is as low as about 120° F., a large portion of the bacteria will not be killed. The temperature required for pasteurization varies with the length of time the milk is subjected to the heat — the higher the temperature, the shorter is the time required. The city of New York has the following regulations, which may be taken as a guide: 158° for 3 minutes, 155° for 5 minutes, 152° for 10 minutes, 148° for 15 minutes, 145° for 18 minutes, 140° for 20 minutes. As a rule, pasteurization is more effective when the heating is done for 15 to 20 minutes at the temperatures indicated for these lengths of time, than when done for a short time, say 3 to 5 minutes, at higher temperatures. 28 MILK §45 38. A scum forms on milk heated in open vessels, unless it is agitated during the heating, and since a scum is undesirable on milk that is offered for sale, and as it serves as a protection to the bacteria embedded in it, precautions are generally- taken to prevent it from forming. Milk that is agitated creams slowly on ac- count of the aggrega- tions of fat globules being broken apart. The individual glob- ules are smaller than the aggregations and thus they take a long- er time to reach the surface. In Fig. 13 (a) is illustrated a^ magnified group of fat globules of un- heated milk, and in (b) a group of fat globules of pasteur- ized milk. It can be noticed that aggre- gations of globules are practically absent in (b). The temper- ature to which milk is heated also has an effect on the creaming property; the higher the tem- perature, the slower is the creaming. Fig. 14, which is made from a photograph of actual con- ditions, illustrates the effect of heat on the creaming of milk. A quantity of milk was divided into three parts, and one part was left unheated and the other parts were heated to different temperatures for different lengths of •a • 9 >V * ■«• to . %/' ^ ^K >**:<*'» iSp 1 Ik'^ "ff^ ff. -4)41 a 'If A" rfto'' , !?* »°<^^6P^''-'-j«> *l I (b) Fig. 13 §45 MILK 29 time. In cylinder a was placed the unheated milk; in b, milk that had been heated to 147° F. for 15 minutes; in c, milk that had been heated to 180° F. for 1 minute. The line e in each cylinder marks the separation between the cream and the milk after the cylinders had been allowed to stand undisturbed for 24 hours. It can be seen that more cream is on the surface of the unheated milk than is on either of the quantities heated, and that there is an exceedingly small quantity of cream on that heated to 180° F. If milk is pasteurized in a bot- tle, no scum will form on the surface, conse- quently there is no need to agitate the milk during the pro- cess, and since there is no breaking apart of the aggregations of fat globules by agita- tion, milk pasteurized in bottles creams nearly as well as un- heated milk. The same factors that cause milk raised to a high tempera- ture to cream very slowly also affect cream. Pasteurized cream appears much thinner than raw cream, distinct disadvantage to dealers, as consumers are likely to think the cream is of poor quality. Fig. 14 This is a 39. Persons often think that all milk that is not sour is fit for use. Long before souring takes place in pasteurized milk, it is likely to be unfit for use as human food. It is important, therefore, that pasteurized milk be sold as such and that the consumer recognizes the fact that the milk 30 MILK §45 should be used within a short time. The city of New York requires that milk sold as pasteurized shall be marked as such-, and that the date and hour when it was pasteurized be indicated on the bottle; it must be delivered to the customer within 24 hours, and must not be pasteurized a second time. The quality of pasteurized milk depends on the quality of the milk treated. If the raw milk is old and contains many bacteria, the pasteurized milk will have a poor keeping quality; indeed, it may spoil almost as rapidly as if unpas- teurized. On the contrary, if the milk is fresh and contains few bacteria, the pasteur- ized product will be of good quality. 40. In the home it is often desirable to pasteur- ize milk, especially when it is used for children or when it cannot be obtained from herds that are known to be healthy. For home pas- teurization, milk should be heated in the bottles in which it is delivered. A simple form of apparatus is illustrated in Fig. 15. Fig. 15 A false perforated bottom is placed in the pail, and the pail is filled with cold water to the height indicated in the illustration. The bottle of milk is then covered and placed in the water, the purpose of the cover being to prevent a scum from forming on the surface and to prevent dust from getting into the bottle. The water is then heated to about 155° F. and kept at this temperature for about 20 minutes. A float- ing dairy thermometer like the one illustrated is a handy kind for determining the temperature. The milk in the bottle will become nearly as hot as the water in the pail, and if the water in the pail is kept at 155° F. for the time indicated the milk will be sixfl&ciently pasteurized. After the milk has §45 MILK 31 been heated, it shotdd be cooled as soon as possible. This can be done by running cold water into the pail slowly or by placing the bottle in several changes of cold water, taking care not to place the hot bottle in very cold water at first. Milk heated as here described, shotdd never be allowed to cool slowly, not even by placing it in an ice box,, for any bacteria that may have resisted the effect of the heat would grow rapidly at such a favorable temperature and the milk would soon spoU. If a large quantity of milk is to be pasteurized in the home, use can be made of tall cans 4 or 5 inches in diameter; these are placed in water in a wash boiler, as illustrated in Fig. 16. A false bottom should be provided to prevent the excessive Fig. 16 heating of the milk on the bottom of the cans. Cans having a larger diameter are unsatisfactory on account of the milk in the center of the can not being heated as quickly as that near the side. The cans should, of course, be provided with covers. The water should be heated to a temperature of about 155° F. and this temperature retained for about 20 minutes, after which the cans should be cooled qtiickly. Care should be taken not to allow the water to become much hotter than 155° F. or the milk may have a burned taste. In creameries, large dairies, etc., use is made of pastetiri- zin'g machines. These do very efficient work, but they are entirely impracticable for use on farms where only a small quantity of milk is pasteurized daily. 32 MILK § 45 PRESERVED MILK 41. Condensed Milk. — Liquids thick with sugar are not favorable mediums for bacterial growth. The condensed- milk manufacturer makes use of this fact in the making of his product; The milk is heated, cane sugar is added, and the milk is condensed in vacuum pans to about one-third of the original volume. The heating is not sufficient to destroy the bacteria, but they are unable to grow tintil the milk is diluted with water. 42. Evaporated Milk. — Evaporated milk is made by evaporating milk to about one-third of the original volume. It is then placed in cans and is sterilized by heating to 250° F. from 15 to 20 minutes. The milk is thus freed from living bacteria and will keep as long as it remains in the cans unopened. It will spoil, however, if not used within a few days after it is exposed to the air. 43. Milk Powder. — If milk is heated until all the water is evaporated, a powder composed of the milk solids results. This product, known as milk powder, is often used by bakers in place of fresh milk. It keeps well if it has been pre- pared from skim milk, but if made from whole milk, the fat becomes rancid in a comparatively short time, and thus the flavor of the product is injvired. MILK FERMENTATIONS 44. Most of the known forms of bacteria are able to live and reproduce in milk. As a rule, however, only a few forms are common to milk. The changes caused by these bacteria are known as fermentations and most of them are familiar to persons who handle milk. 45. Acid Fermentations. — The fermentation tnost com- monly found in milk is that which causes it to become acid. The bacteria that are responsible for this change are known as acid- forming bacteria; there are several varieties of these, but § 45 MILK 33 only two have anything to do with the ordinary souring of milk. Bacteria of these two varieties grow more rapidly than those of any other kind, and on this account souring is the most noticeable change, aside from creaming, that occurs in milk. In fact, souring is regarded as such a natural change that milk in which it does not appear is looked upon with suspicion, and justly so. The two varieties of bacteria that cause the ordinary souring of milk are widely distributed, and unless precautions are taken they enter milk in large numbers, but no matter how many of them there are in milk, the acidity rarely exceeds 1 per cent. The reason for so low a percentage is that the bacteria cannot grow when the acidity exceeds 1 per cent. One kind is sometimes called the desirable acid- forming bacteria, as they are useful in the manufacture of butter and cheese. They impart to these products desirable flavors that cannot be otherwise obtained. Because the acid they produce in the milk is lactic acid, they are known also as lactic-acid bacteria. These desirable acid-forming bacteria are more likely to cause the souring of milk that has been produced under clean conditions than if the surroundings are dirty. In fresh milk produced under clean conditions but few of the bacteria will be present, but when temperature conditions are favorable they reproduce rapidly and soon crowd out other forms. Milk soured by them becomes a solid mass of curd, free from holes, and the curd can be broken to form a creamy mass. Milk soured by lactic-acid bac- teria has an agreeable acid taste, a characteristic odor, and is a healthful, appetizing food. Bacteria of the second class produce a gas in the process of fermentation, and for this reason they are known as gas- forming bacteria. They are more prevalent in dirty milk than in clean milk, and are much less desirable than the lactic- acid form. They produce about the same quantity of acid as do lactic-acid bacteria, but the curd formed in the milk is not uniform and is filled with holes, due to the gas that is formed, and this curd shrinks, becomes tough, and cannot be broken into a creamy mass. Milk soured by the gas- 34 MILK § 45 forming bacteria has a disagreeable taste, an ofEensive odor, and is not a healthful food; the flavor of butter and cheese made from such milk is undesirable, and for this reason the products are disliked by consumers. The appearance of samples of milk soured by the lactic-acid and by the gas-forming bacteria is illustrated in Fig. 17. The milk in cylinder a was fermented by lactic-acid bacteria and that in cylinder b by gas-forming bacteria. It can be seen that the curd shown in a is formed into a solid mass , free from holes, and I that the curd in b is ' full of gas holes and that it has shrunk until it occupies a smaller space than does the curd in a. 46. Acid - forming bacteria, other than the two kinds just de- scribed, are present in milk in small numbers, : and at ordinary tem- peratures grow very slowly ; hence they have nothing to do with the ordinary souring of i'"^- 1'' milk. A sample of milk that has been soured by these bacteria can be obtained by filling a bottle full of raw milk, closing the top to shut out the air, and then allowing the bottle to remain in a warm place for about two weeks. On examination at the end of the time it will be found that the milk has an intensely acid taste that resembles unsweetened lemonade. The curd of the milk can be broken into particles that will remain in suspension as in buttermilk, and if used cold and sweetened with sugar, milk fermented in this manner forms a pleasant beverage. § 45 MILK 35 All acid-forming bacteria are instrumental in preventing the growth of putrefactive forms of bacteria. None of the putrefactive bacteria can grow in an acid substance, and as acid is soon formed in milk by the development of . acid- forming bacteria, unheated, or raw, milk becomes a medium unfavorable to the growth of putrefactive forms. This seems an important provision of nature, for, were it not for the development of the acid-forming bacteria, milk in a com- paratively brief time after it was drawn would become an ofien'sive, ill-smelling, unhealthful substance. The acid condition of milk is useful in the manufacture of butter, which, as a rule, is made from cream that has been allowed to sour. Butter made from sour cream has a desirable flavor and good keeping quality, but that from sweet cream has little flavor and is poor in keeping quality. In making butter, it is desirable that only lactic-acid bacteria ferment the cream, as the gas-forming and other acid-forming kinds injure the butter flavor. Butter makers are able to control the kind of bacteria that sour the cream by first pasteurizing the cream to kill all acid-forming bacteria and then adding a pure culture of lactic-acid bacteria known as a starter. A culture of this kind will usually sour the cream in the manner desired. In addition to being useful to the butter manufacturer, acid-forming bacteria are very important in cheese making. They are helpful in the ripening process, for if none are present cheese does not ripen. The presence of the bacteria also protects the cheese against attacks of putrefactive bacteria through the acid formed by an action similar to that noted in the case of milk. 47. Milk that has undergone acid fermentation is used as food in a number of ways. Buttermilk, which is sour milk in which the curd is finely divided, is much reUshed as an article, of diet by some people. In buttermilk obtained by churning, the curd is so very finely divided that it does not settle on standing. This is due to the agitation of the milk during the churning process and to the presence of the 36 MILK § 45 butter, which prevents the curd from forming into hard masses. Buttermilk made by churning cream for butter is known as natural buttermilk. A product known as artificial buttermilk can be formed by stirring sour milk vigorously for a time. The product has the exact taste of natural buttermilk, but the curd does not stay in suspension for so long a time. In both natural and artificial buttermilk, the taste is much milder when lactic-acid bacteria sour the milk or cream than when any other forms have caused the souring. As a rule, therefore, if a starter is employed in souring the milk, a milder product is secured than if the milk is allowed to sour without the addition of a starter. Another form of artificial buttermilk can be made by placing in whole milk pure-culture tablets of lactic-acid germs, which can be pro- cured from druggists and other dealers. After the addition of the tablets the milk is agitated and placed at ordinary room temperature for about 24 hours, after which it is again agitated to break up the curd that has formed. The number of tablets to use with a certain quantity of milk is specified on the package in which they are sold. Cottage cheese is another product that may be considered as a form of sour milk, since it is the curd of sour milk from which the whey has been removed by straining. Like butter- milk, cottage cheese is of a milder flavor when a starter is used in souring the milk than when none is used. 48. Sweet Curdling of Milk. — Under certain conditions milk curdles but still remains perfectly sweet. This change is caused by certain bacteria that do. not develop in an acid medium, and it is seen, therefore, more often in heated than in raw milk. The curd that forms is soft and mushy, and gradually disappears, due to certain functions of the bacteria. It sometimes happens that raw milk does not sour naturally, and when this is the case sweet curdling is likely to occur. 49. Butyric Fermentation. — There are always present in milk small numbers of bacteria that produce what is known as butyric acid, which is an acid that has a disagreeable odor like that of rancid butter. These butyric-acid bacteria §45 MILK 37 are seldom found in large numbers in raw milk, for they cannot compete with the lactic-acid and gas-forming bacteria. In pasteurized milk, however, especially if it is three or four days old, many of this class of bacteria are likely to be present. The curd that is formed when butyric fermentation occurs in milk is full of gas holes and has a disagreeable odor and a very bitter taste. 50. Ropy Milk. — Milk sometimes becomes slimy, or ropy, on account of the growth of bacteria in it, and the contam- ination can be transferred from one quantity to another simply by transferring some of the ropy milk to a vessel containing milk that is free from this condition. There are several kinds of bacteria that cause ropiness of mil but the one that most frequently produci this change lives only in the upper layers ( the milk. Ropiness caused by this form ( bacteria is often seen in bottled milk that kept at low temperatures, and is apparei when the cream that has risen to the top ( the milk is turned from the bottle. It thought that- the bacteria gain entrance to tl: milk either from water used in washing tl milk utensils or from water in pastures c feed lots that may have soiled the udders an flanks of the cattle. During the warm seasc of the year outbreaks of ropiness sometim( occur in the milk of a herd, and cause troub and loss to the owners. Some kinds of lactic-acid bacteria produce a ropiness in milk, but the occurrence is rare. Bacteria of this kind are found in a slimy milk of Norway, which has the taste and odor of good buttermilk and is used as a beverage in the country mentioned. It is often so slimy that it can be drawn out into long threads as fine as those of a spider's web. Milk of this kind does not mix readily with water, as may be learned by an examination of Fig. 18, which shows the appear- y Pig. 18 38 MILK § 45 ance of the milk when it is poured into water. The whey that is used in the manufacture of Edam cheese in Holland is also of a slimy nattire. 51. Bitter Milk. — Some forms of bacteria produce a bitterness in milk that in many cases is very pronounced. Certain of the acid-forming kinds sometimes cause an intense bitterness, which may be so noticeable as to mask the otherwise acid taste. Bitterness sometimes occurs in old pasteurized milk and is due to the growth of certain of the putrefying bacteria that were not killed by the heat. Unpasteurized milk that is stored at a low temperature for a long time may develop a bitterness, as the low temperature prevents lactic-acid bacteria from developing, but there are certain other forms that can grow, and it is the growth of these that produces the bitterness. 52. Alcoholic Fermentation. — There are certain yeasts in milk that ferment milk sugar, forming, as a result, alcohol and carbon dioxide. However, milk sugar does not undergo fermentation so easily as other sugars, and for this reason alcoholic fermentation is less likely to occur in milk than in many other substances. Since yeasts grow best in acid substances, alcoholic fermentation, when it is found in milk, appears in sour milk, buttermilk, or whey. A fermented beverage called koumiss is made by the alcoholic fermentation of milk. Mare's milk is generally used for the purpose, as this kind of milk undergoes fer- mentation rapidly on account of containing a large percentage of milk sugar. The drink, which is used principally in Southeastern Russia, is effervescing and has an agreeable and characteristic flavor. In the United States, a similar drink that is known by the same name is prepared by adding cane sugar to cow's milk and then inoculating it with baker's yeast. The milk sours, due to the action of lactic-acid bacteria, and the yeast ferments the cane sugar. Kefir is a beverage similar to koumiss that is used princi- pally in Russia, although it is found to a limited extent in the United States. What are known as kefir grains are § 45 MILK 39 employed in the manufacture of this product. These are dried masses of yeasts and acid-forming bacteria that have the power of starting alcohoUc fermentation in cow's milk. When making the beverage the dried kefir grains are soaked in water and then added to the milk, and after the milk is fermented the grains are removed and placed in fresh milk if more kefir is desired or they are redried for future use. 53. Colored Milks. — Several kinds of bacteria produce color in milk, but the occurrence is rather rare. Among the colors occasionally occurring iti milk, due to bacteria, are blue, red, orange, green, yellow, amber, chocolate, and even black. Milks containing these colors are, however, of rare occurrence. Red milk that is not caused by bacteria some- times occurs in dairies. Blood discharged into the udder because of a wound or a severe attack of inflammation may become mixed with the milk and impart to it a red color. When the color is due to blood, it will be present at the time the milk is drawn, and after the milk has stood for a time the blood corpuscles will settle to the bottom of the con- taining vessel. If the red color is due to bacteria it will not appear at once, and will most often be seen at the surface of the milk. PATHOGENIC BACTERIA IN MILK 54. As may be inferred from previous statements, milk may contain many kinds of disease-producing bacteria. Tech- nically, these are known as pathogenic bacteria. They may be grouped into two general classes — those that are due to a diseased condition of the cow giving the milk, and those that are due to diseases of man and transmitted from one person to another through the medium of milk. Tuber- culosis, garget, mammitis, foot and mouth disease, cow pox, digestive troubles, and inflammation of the uterus are among the diseases of cattle that may cause trouble and suffering in the human family if milk from diseased animals is used as food. Therefore, whenever a dairyman finds any of these diseases in his herd he should immediately stop selling the 242—22 40 MILK § 45 milk and take measures to have the diseased animals treated. In fact, he should stop selling milk if the cows are sick with any disease, whether it is a bacterial disease or not, for milk from sick animals is very likely to be unfit for use as human food. The descriptions, symptoms, tests, methods of treat- ment, etc. of the animal diseases referred to in this article are described in a subsequent Section. The diseases of mankind that may be transmitted by milk are those bacteriological diseases that infect through the alimentary tract. Typhoid fever and diphtheria are often carried by milk, and it has been claimed that at least a few epidemics of scarlet fever have been caused by the contamina- tion of milk with scarlet-fever germs. In view of the fact that diseases are often transmitted by milk, great care should be exercised by dairymen and consumers to prevent infection. If any of the germ diseases mentioned above are near a dairy, the milk should not be used until all danger of infection is over, or if one of the diseases is in the family of a person employed about the dairy, he should not be allowed to handle any of the utensils used for milk, nor should he be allowed to come in contact with the milk in any manner. In fact, precautionary measures should be taken if there is any kind of sickness about the houses of dairymen. Of course, not all diseases of the human family are transmissible by milk, but it is a good plan, no matter what disease is in the home, to ascertain from a competent physician whether or not there is any danger of infection being carried in the milk, and to be governed accordingly. TESTS OF BACTERIA IN MILK 55. It is often desired to test milk for the relative number and the different kinds of bacteria contained therein. One method of testing for the relative number is to determine the quantity of dirt in the milk. If a large quantity is present, bacteria are sure to be there in large numbers. A com- parative determination of the quantity of dirt in several lots of milk can be made by filtering a like quantity from each § 45 MILK 41 lot, say a quart or a pint, through small disks of absorbent cotton. The relative quantity of dirt in the different lots is ascertained by the color imparted to the disks of cotton, the lighter colored the cotton the cleaner the milk, and con- versely. Fig. 19 is a drawing made from a test as here out- lined. One pint from each of four lots of milk was filtered Fig. 19 through cotton disks. The milk that passed through disk (a) was comparatively clean; that through disk (6) was slightly dirty ; that through disk (c) was what may be termed dirty ; and that through disk (d) was very dirty. The milk that passed through disk (d) contained more bacteria than that poured through disk (c), and so on through all the lots of milk. 42 MILK §45 56. What is known as a fermentation test gives some idea of the kind of bacteria in milk. A simple way of making a test of this kind is to place a quantity of milk in a glass vessel and keep the milk at a temperature of 95° F. to 100° F. for 24 hours. If by this time the milk is sour and shows a solid, homogeneous curd and little or no free whey, like the milk in cylinder a, Fig. 17, conditions in- dicate that the milk was raw and that the fermentation is due to lactic-acid bac- teria; if the milk is sour and the curd is filled with gas holes and has contracted into a small cake, as shown in cylinder b, Fig. 17, the indica- tions are that, the milk was raw and that the fermentation is due to gas-forming bacteria; if the milk does not curdle or if the curd is soft and r mushy, conditions in- dicate that bacteria that cause sweet cur- dling of milk are probably present or that the milk has been pasteurized. As stated previously, lactic-acid bacteria are desirable for the souring of n^lk. Fio. 20 § 45 MILK 43 57. Another method, known as the Wisconsin curd test, of determining the kind of bacteria in milk is as follows: Pint fniit jars are cleaned and then sterilized with boiling water; a jar is filled from each of the samples of milk to be tested; the milk is heated to 90° F. and 10 drops of rennet is added to each jar; the milk is then stirred until the rennet is thoroughly mixed with the milk, and the jars are allowed to stand quietly until a firm curd has formed, which will require from 10 to 15 minutes. Each curd is then cut into small pieces with a sterilized case knife, which facilitates the expulsion of the whey. As the whey collects it is turned off, and the curd soon forms a small cake that encloses practically all of the bacteria that were in the milk. The curds are kept at about 100° F. for from 10 to 15 hours; they are then removed from the jars and examined as to odor and the presence of gas holes. A solid curd, such as is illustrated in Fig. 20 (a), that has an agreeable odor is an indication of good milk that was fermented by lactic-acid- forming bacteria ; a spongy curd, as shown in {b) , indicates that likely the milk was produced under unclean conditions and that gas-forming bacteria were instrumental in the souring of the milk. This test is more delicate than the simple fermentation test and is often of great service in tracing the sotirce of poor milk. It must, however, be made with great care to avoid all sources of error; as the operator must be certain that the undesirable bacteria found in the curd were present in the milk and were not introduced by the use of unclean jars or by the contamination of one sample of milk from another in taking the samples. 58. Some idea of both the number and kinds of bacteria in milk can be obtained by still another modification of the fermentation test. In making this test, use is made of a water solution of methylene blue. This is made as follows: From a druggist procure a few ounces of a saturated alcoholic solution of the dye, and mix 1 part of this alcoholic solution with 19 parts of water. To make the test, several small bottles or glass test tubes, the number depending on the 44 MILK § 45 number of milk samples to be tested, are sterilized and filled with samples of milk. To each tube or bottle is added 15 drops of the water solution of methylene blue. This slightly colors the whole mass. Bacteria in the milk will gradually cause this color to disappear, the length of time depending on the number of bacteria present. The tubes or bottles are kept at about 100° F. If the blue color dis- appears in about 15 minutes, the milk contains a very large number of bacteria and has a very poor keeping quality; if from, say, 15 to 60 minutes are required, the bacteria are less numerous, but the milk is probably not a very good grade of market milk; if the color disappears in from 1 to 3 hours, the milk contains few bacteria and may be considered as of good quality; if more than three hours are reqtiired, the milk is low in bacteria and may be classed as a high-grade market milk. The dye does not interfere with the growth of bacteria, hence by noting the type of curd, the kinds of bacteria can be determined just as in the fermentation test. iiJBSORPTION OF ODORS BY MILK 59. Milk has the property of absorbing and retaining certain odors, and the absorption will take place when the milk is either warm or cold. It is important, therefore, in dairy practice to keep milk in an atmosphere that is free from pronounced odors of any kind. Milk tainted by odors is not necessarily unhealthful, but it is unappetizing, and is sure to be objectionable to the consumer. In view of this fact, it is especially important that the air of the dairy stable be kept free from objectionable odors, especially during milk- ing time. Fermenting manures and feeds that have pronounced odors should be kept out of the stables. Silage is sometimes the cause of an odor in milk. If it is fed directly before the milk is drawn, the atmosphere of the barn will be filled with the silage odor and, as a result, the milk will be tainted; if, on the contrary, the feeding is done an hour or so before milking time and the barn is thoroughly aired there will be prac- § 45 MILK 45 tically no silage odor in the milk. The keeping of other classes of animals, hogs for example, in a stable with dairy cattle is sometimes responsible for unpleasant odors in milk. If other animals are kept in a stable with cows, great care should be exercised in keeping their quarters clean and thus preventing the contamination of milk. Ventilation of the dairy stable is necessary, not only for the health of the herd but for preventing the excessive so-called cowy odor that is too often noticed in stables, as a pronounced cowy odor is likely to taint the milk. Care should be exercised to prevent undesirable odors in milk after it has been removed from the stable. Placing it in open vessels in cellars or rooms where there is an odor from decaying vegetables, etc. is a bad practice. Bright, clean rooms that have an imtainted atmosphere are desirable storage places for milk. The following experiment is suggested to show the ease with which milk absorbs odors. A banana from which the skin has been removed is allowed to remain for only 20 minutes in a tight box that holds a shallow pan of milk. The banana is then removed and the box closed and kept closed for 24 hours. At the expiration of the time, the box is opened and the milk examined to ascertain whether or not any of the banana odor is retained by the milk. In nearly every case a pronounced odor of banana can be detected. MILK (PART 2) MARKET MILK PROFITS IN MIIiK PRODUCTION 1. Cost of Producing Milk. — The cost of producing milk varies largely with the cost of feed and labor, and with the milk-producing power of the cow. Although the cost of feed and labor varies widely in different localities, it has been estimated that, as a rule, the value of the calf, the skim milk, and the manure produced by a cow will be approximately equivalent to the total expense of her keep other than that entailed by her feed. Thus, the farmer, knowing the cost of the feed used by his cows, and the mar- ket value of the butter fat produced by them, can determine to a reasonable degree of. accuracy what profit his herd is returning to him. Of course, he must take into consideration the market value of the home-grown feed used by the cows in order to determine the approximate relative profit returned by the herd. For instance, if the market price of corn were 70 cents per bushel, the feeding of home-grown com to milch cows would not be conducive to as great a relative profit in the producing of milk as would the feeding of home-grown com that was worth only 35 cents per bushel, provided the price of milk was the same in both instances. It is practically impossible to give exact figures as to the cost of the feed required to produce a given number of pounds of milk or of butter fat, owing to the fact that such important COPYRIQHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ENTERED AT STATIONER5' HALL, LONDON §46 MILK §46 considerations as the market price of feed, the portion of the year that cattle can be kept on pasture, etc., vary widely in different localities. In Table I are given figures, as deter- mined by experiment, that show the cost in the states of New York, Minnesota, Missouri, and Utah of producing 100 pounds of milk and 1 pound of butter fat. A study of these figures will show the variability of the cost in different parts of the United States of producing milk and butter fat. TABLE I COST IN FOTJR DIFFERENT STATES OF PRODTJCING lOO POUNDS OE MILK AND 1 POUND OF BUTTER EAT Cost of Feed for Name of State I era Pounds of Milk Cents I Pound of Butter Fat Cents New York 95 8i 88 63 2 IlT>- Minnesota Missouri Utah 18 21 IS 2. Quantity of Milk Produced by Cows. — Two or more cows of equal weight, if given the same kind and quantity of feed and the same care, will, as a rule, produce widely different quantities of milk and butter fat. Table II illustrates what a difference there may be in the producing powers of cows. The figures given in the table were obtained by means of an experiment that was conducted in Illinois. Three cows were used in the experiment, and the table shows the number of pounds of milk and of butter fat that were produced in one year; the average per cent, of butter fat in the milk of each cow ; the gross returns from each cow, assuming that the milk was worth $1.50 per hundredweight; the gross returns from each cow, assuming that the butter fat was worth 27 cents per pound; the cost of the feed for each cow; and the profit from each, based on the prices assumed. §4G MILK m % o » o w O u w H H « ^ « n o ■
  • irj -uiiH Jad 0ST$ Ov 00 "~? ^■B 31ITJ\[ UIOJJ m to M STijina-g ssojx) «@ M M spunoj ■o M M ;-Bjj jawng M CO ro •q.uao ja^j 00 On 4 c^BJ jawtig; ■4 o ON o o lO On spunojj -JinM ro O 00 ro o H t^ o o o !S ^4^ ^^ Many cows are kept that do not give nearly as large profits as those listed in Table II. In fact, many cows are kept that do not produce enough milk to pay for the feed they consume. Under such a condition, the farmer actually pays for the privilege of keep- ing the animals. In an experiment that was conducted in Illinois at the same time as the one just described, a cow was found that con- sumed in one year feed worth $17.83 more than the value of the milk she produced during that time. 3. Effect on Profits of Feed and Care of Cattle. — It should be borne in mind that feed and care have much to do with the yield of milk. Cows taken from a herd that has been poorly fed and otherwise improperly cared for and placed in a herd where they get better care will usually show an increased yield of milk. They will, however, do 4 MILK §46 better during the second period of lactation after such a change than during the first. The Cornell Experiment Station kept accurate records of the quantity of milk and of fat produced, and the cost of the feed for one year of 10 cows that" were poorly fed and cared for. These ten cows were then taken to the station barn and fed and cared for in the best manner pos- sible for two years. The increase in the yield of milk by ample feeding and good care over that by poor feeding and poor care was 46 per cent. The cost of the milk per 100 pounds Pig. 1 during the period of insufficient feeding was 53 cents; during the period of ample feeding the cost was 45 cents. 4. Effect on Profits of Method of Milking. — ^The method of milking cows, whether by hand or by milking machines, has a considerable effect on the cost of producing milk. Experience shows that the labor problem on dairy farms is a serious one ; not only are efficient dairy laborers difficult to obtain, but they are expensive to employ. Considering §46 MILK these facts, it might seem that the use of milking machines, which minimize the amount of hand labor required on a dairy farm, would be economical. It has been proved by experi- ment, however, that for a small herd the cost of a machine and its installation is so large that hand labor is less expen- sive. Particularly for large dairies, such as those of about 24 cows and upwards, milking machines have been installed and in many cases, it is claimed, have been found economical and satisfactory. However, many dairymen with large herds maintain that the use of a milking machine is not as econom- ical as hand labor. Some claim, also, that the machines on the market have not been perfected to the point where they are entirely satisfactory. Thus, at the present time it would seem that each dairyman must be guided by his own par- ticular conditions in deciding whether milking by hand or by machine is the more econom- ical. The manufacturers' price for a coinplete modem milking machine outfit for 24 cows is about $275. An advantage of milking by machine over hand milking, besides that of being able to milk a larger number of cows with the same amount of help, is that there is a likelihood of the milk being cleaner and, therefore, of containing fewer bacteria. An interesting point in regard to milking machines is that experiments have been made which show that the use of modem types of machines does not interfere with the milk flow or with the length of the period of lactation. Fig. 2 5. The type of machine most widely used is known as the vacuum type. Two machines of this type are illustrated in Fig. 1. The pipe a is connected with a vacuum pump that 6 MILK §46 is operated by electric, gas, or steam power. The machine is provided with a tinned-steel pail b on top of which is a metal cover c that is termed a pulsator. This fits loosely on a gasket that makes an air-tight joint when the vacuum is Fig. 3 created by the pump. The pulsator is connected by a single line of hose with a stanchion cock d on the pipe line, and has two pieces of hose, each of which has a group of four teat cups. When in use, each set of teat cups connects with the teats of an animal, and thus two animals are milked at a §46 MILK time. The teat cups are held in place on the cow by suction. An enlarged view of a machine is shown in Fig. 2, and the position of the cups on a cow is shown in Fig. 3. In the operation of the machine, the pulsator alternately makes and breaks the vacuum, which is caused by the vacuum pump, and thus draws the milk from the teats into the teat cups, from whence it is sucked through the hose to the pail. In the milk passage there is an inspection glass to permit the operator to see when the milk flow stops. After the milking has been completed the pulsator is removed and the milk is poured into pails or other receptacles. The tinned-steel pails can be obtained in two styles, the par- tition and the stand- ard. The advantage of the former type is that the milk from each cow milked can be kept separate, and, hence, a record kept of each animal. Fig. 4 illustrates the meth- od of emptying the partition style of pail. By using a standard pail, the milk of both animals is mixed together, consequently individual records cannot be kept. A form of milking machine that is operated alternately by vacuum, or suction, and compressed air is on the market. The vacuum draws the milk from the cow; the compressed air relieves the suction on the teats every second or two, and thus prevents certain ill effects that, it is claimed, result from continuous suction. Pig. 4 MILK §46 WEIGHING, TESTING, AND KEEPING OF RECORDS OF MILK 6. In order to determine whether a cow is a profitable one to keep, her owner must have a knowledge of the quantity of milk and butter fat that she produces in a year. Such knowledge can be se- cured only by keeping a record of the quan- tity of milk produced and of the per cent, of butter fat the milk contains. There are several ways in which this can be done. The milk of each milking from the cow can be weighed and a small sample taken for the determination of the per cent, of butter fat ; or the milk can be weighed and sampled one day in each week, the figures thus ob- tained being used as an average for the seven days; or each day of every seventh week the milk can be weighed and sampled for test- ing. The latter method involves less, work than either of the two preceding meth- ods, and it nas been shown to be accurate. The keeping of records should not be begun until at least three weeks after the cow has calved. Fig. 5 o u S Q S ^ z CO "is Q H 1 5 u; <^ C>^ '^ ^ 6Q S »; id tS csj CM Ci IS ^ <3^ IV, ^ ss -~.- IS ci ■-- ■ ^ cvi "^ ^ S§5 if v^ i ^ to, tM tS-' < (s ~-; ■NJ ^ tM M 5(; >> ici ^ ^ y; Ic, ^ IS ^ sa a- ^ "T ts b So N-- CM^ g;; = «» Q ^ i^ CM c\i SJiM t^ c r^ csj C^ M CM en M c^ CM < 1 kl v» S :*: Q' CM PO c J; ST? "^ M ty c-1 ^= 1 \j ^ sa 3^ c\i c, c "b ^ O- M c^ ^ " ■^ a- !s t 3^< CM c ^ ^ \ - 3g5 5 5: =t= iiT 3^ t^ NS f T c-5 sa c < S3 \ji t. ^ U-, ^ c T Cl CM s cj ^ CM c- ^ CM l< T csi c*:) c 1 i« to 11 ^ 1- sa to t ca 'a ca^ ^ i ci s la !i II 3 <• 3 -^ Q t ~ ^ Cv^ S< J So sa C\ II 1^ J CM be -5 rO &0 c>- ss :s W- i;i !o c: -^ ^ -^ C-, CM tr ssi 5^ Lr- \ ^ ^ Ca "-v C^ -^ '-. -^ csi It 4 I ^ c so VO \s ^ so "n so MS Iri ss W ss ^ fo i:::! l^ NS i^ to to have in the dairy quarters and can be used for a variety of purposes. In Fig. 32 (b) is shown a cream sampler for taking out samples for the Babcock or acid tests. § 47 FARM BUTTER MAKING 35 35. Butter Ladles and Packers. — If a hand-power churn and a single-print butter printer are used in the making of butter on the farm, but one or two simple wooden ladles will be necessary. For large-sized mechanical-power churns and automatic printers, several of the heavier ladles and packers should be used. Fig. 33 shows a variety of ladles and packers for the handUng of butter; in (a) and (b) are shown small ladles; in (c), (d), and (e), packers; in (f) and (g), forked ladles; and in Qi) and (i), levelers. BUTTEK-MAKING OPERATIONS SEPARATION OF CKEAM CENTRIFTJGAL, SEPARATION 36. Process of Centrifugal Separation. — The first step in the centrifugal separation of cream is to see that the milk is at the proper temperatiire. The best practice on the farm is to separate the cream immediately after the milk is drawn from the cows, thus taking advantage of its animal heat. In case the milk becomes cold before the cream is separated, it shotdd be heated either by setting the milk cans on a stove and stirring the milk constantly or by setting the cans in hot water; the latter method is preferable, because of the reduced danger of scorching the milk. The temperature should be raised to about 80° or 90° F. When the milk is at the proper temperature it is poured into the tank on the separator, the latter is started, and the milk is admitted to the bowl by means of a stop-cock. Care shoTold be taken to have the separator running at its proper speed before the milk is admitted to the bowl, or inefficient separation of the first milk will result. In cold weather, it is advisable to flush the bowl with warm water before admitting the milk. It is the custom of separator manufacturers to stamp the most efficient separating speed of each model of 36 FARM BUTTER MAKING § 47 separator on the crank handle in terms of revolutions of the crank per minute; thus, if "40 R. P. M. " is stamped on the crank, it means that the operator should turn the crank forty times per minute as timed by a watch. One of the patented speed indicators for machines may also be used for this purpose and is considerably more convenient for the purpose than a watch. The separator should be maintained at a uniform speed throughout the separation, as any con- siderable variation lessens the separating efficiency. If the milk supply in the tank becomes low and it is necessary to run the machine empty for a short time tintil more milk can be added, the separator should be flushed with about a quart of warm water to prevent it from becoming clogged. After the separation is finished the machine should first be flushed with warm water and then the bowl and tubes taken apart and thoroughly washed in warm water and aklaline washing powder by means of the bristle brushes that are provided with the separator. Scalding water should never be used for the first washing of centrifugal separators, as certain constituents will become scalded on the metal parts and hence will be difficult to remove. Of course, after the parts have been thoroughly cleaned they should be sterilized in boiling water or live steam. Care should be taken in handling the devices on the inside of the bowl so as not to injure them in any way. After the parts are sterilized they should be stood up over ' a drain to dry before being put together again. Specific directions are given with each separator for its proper care. 37. Advantages and Disadvantages of Centrifugal Separa- tion. — The advantages of centrifugal separation as compared to gravity separation are numerous. One of the greatest of these advantages lies in the fact that by the centrifugal method milk can be separated immediately after it is drawn from the cows, thus avoiding the probability of it becoming contaminated to a greater or less extent by standing exposed to the air for several hours, as in the case of gravity separation. Also, a centrifugal separator of the best kind will leave less § 47 FARM BUTTER MAKING 37 than Too' of 1 per cent, of butter fat in the skim milk, as compared to a loss of from .2 per cent, to 1 per cent, by the best gravity method. By the use of the centrifugal separator, it is estimated that, under average conditions, there will be a gain in butter fat over that obtained by gravity separation amounting to from $5 to $8 per cow per year. At this rate a separator will soon pay for itself. In addition, it is usually easier to obtain the proper temperature of milk for centrifugal separation than for gravity separation. Another important advantage of centrifugal separation is that cream of a better quality and consistency for churning is obtained than by the gravity method, by which the cream is often lumpy and leathery, and more or less mixed with skim milk. Many impurities, such as hair, small insects, and undesirable bacteria are removed by the centrifugal method ; in the gravity method, such foreign matter may be skimmed off with the cream, and perhaps transmitted to the butter. By the centrifugal method the skim milk is fresh and warm for feeding purposes and is left in an unadulterated condition. The disadvantages of centrifugal separation are: the initial cost of the separator, the time and labor required for the operation of the machine, and the work entailed in washing the separator after each operation. GRAVITY SEPARATION 38. Shallow-Pan Separation. — As has already been stated, in shallow-pan separation of cream the whole milk is allowed to stand in shallow vessels in a temperature of not higher than 60° F. until the cream has risen to the surface, after which the cream is skimmed off. A lower temperature than 60° F. is desirable if conditions will permit. The air in the quarters in which the milk is standing should be pure, free from dust and objectionable odors, and not subject to drafts, as a constant current of air over the milk is likely to cause the cream to be leathery. After the cream has formed it is removed by means of a skimmer. A good method of skim- ming off cream is to lift the pans carefully to a bench and 38 FARM BUTTER MAKING § 47 with a clean knife break the cream away from the sides of the pan, draw the cream gently to one side of the vessel, and dip it off with the skimmer. The shallow-pan system has the advantage of a low cost for eqtdpment and a simplicity of operation. Formerly, it was the most common method of separation used throughout the cotmtry on farms where but a few cows were kept. How- ever, it has the objectionable disadvantage of giving a com- paratively poor quality of cream, because of the length of time the cream must be exposed to souring and contamina- ting conditions before it is skimmed. Butter made from shallow-pan-separated cream will not keep fresh long. Also, even under the most favorable conditions, about J per cent, of butter fat will remain in the skim milk, thus making the method far from economical. 39. Deep-Setting Separation. — When the deep-setting process of cream separation is employed, it is advisable to pour the milk into cans immediately after it is drawn and partly submerge the cans in as cold water as can be obtained. The rapidity with which the cream will rise depends on the temperature of the water; if the water is at 50° F., all the cream that it is possible to obtain by this system will rise in 24 hours, and if the temperature can be held at 40° F., the same quantity of cream can rise in 12 hours. Thus it can be seen that, if time is an important consideration, intensely cold water or ice may be used to advantage. When the cream has completely risen the skim milk can be drawn off into one vessel and the cream into another, or, if the can is not fitted with a siphon or faucet, the cream can be removed with a skimmer. It is best to draw off the skim milk closely, as the smaller the quantity of skim milk in the cream the better the latter will keep and the better will be its quality. The deep-setting system of separation, on account of the high quality of cream produced when it is practiced, is coming into general use where centrifugal separators are not used. The rapid cooling of the milk just after it is drawn from the cows and the low temperature at which it is maintained § 47 FARM BUTTER MAKING 39 during the rising of the cream tend to keep down tindesirable bacterial growth. A thin cloth is usually tied over the top of the can to protect the contents from drafts and dust, thus insuring a good consistency of cream and a freedom from foreign matter that is often lacking in cream separated by the shallow-pan method. . In addition, a much more thorough separation can be secured by the deep-setting system, as, when properly . carried on, 'the fat can be removed so com- pletely that not more than about i of 1 per cent, of the total butter fat will be left in the skim milk. 40. Water-Dilution Separation. — When water-dilution separation is practiced, the usual custom is to pour the whole milk into the water-dilution separators immediately after it is drawn and dilute it by adding about an equal quantity of cold water. The sepa,rator is then set in a cool place until the cream has risen, when the skim milk is drawn off through a stop-cock in the bottom of the separator. Notwithstanding its apparent advantages, water-dilution separation has never come into general favor throughout the country, for several reasons. One is that the cream obtained by this method is seldom of good quality, due to contami- nation from taints in the water used for dilution, and butter made from such cream has a washed-out, flattish flavor. Another reason is that the skim milk is robbed of its flavor for the calf or hog to which it is fed, and twice the quantity must be consumed by the animal to secure the same results obtained through feeding undiluted skim milk. Another somewhat objectionable feature connected with water-dilution separation is the comparatively large can or tank capacity required where considerable milk is produced. The greatest disadvantage of water-dilution separation is in the large quantity of butter fat that is lost when it is practiced. After extensive experiments, the Purdue University Agri- cultural Experiment Station, of Indiana, has found that in the state of Indiana the average loss of butter per cow per year, where water-dilution separation is practiced, is 40^ pounds. This loss is almost twice as large as that resulting 40 FARM BUTTER MAKING § 47 from shallow-pan separation, which, in the same experiment, was found to be an average of 26b pounds of butter per cow per year. In comparison with the quantity of butter lost by deep-setting separation, which was found to be lOiV potmds of butter per cow per year, the loss by water-dilution separation is almost four times as large. In comparison with the loss by centrifugal separation, which was found to be an average of only Is pounds of butter per cow per year, that entailed through water-dilution separation is almost forty times as great. Because of the fact that water-dilution separation has so many disadvantages, it should not be practiced. It is explained in this Section only to permit of an understanding of its operation. BABCOCK TEST FOE CREAM, SKIM MILK, AND BUTTERMILK 41. The Babcock method for the testing of cream, skim milk, and buttermilk is much the same as for the testing of whole milk, as explained in Milk, Part 2. There are, however, some important differences in the details of making the different tests that should be explained. The additional equipment that is needed for the testing of cream, skim milk, and buttermilk has already been described. 42. Testing of Cream. — For weighing the cream into the test bottles, a convenient method is to balance two cream bottles on the scales and then set the sliding weight at the 18-gram mark; this will make the weight of the scale pan on one side 18 grams more than that on the other side and the scales will be tilted toward the heavier side. Into the bottle at the lighter side, cream is then slowly dropped by means of a pipette until the two sides exactly balance again. The weight is then moved back to the zero mark and cream is dropped into the other bottle until the two sides balance. Thus, two 18-gram samples will be obtained. After the desired number of samples have been weighed, about 17.5 cubic centimeters of acid is added to each. The quantity of acid that is used must be varied sUghtly according to the §47 FARM BUTTER MAKING 41 richness of the cream; rich cream requires less acid than cream not so rich, but the mixture of acid and cream must be given more time before being whirled in the tester. Care should be exercised in adding the acid to rotate the bottles or a scorching of the fat will result. After the acid has been added the mixture should be allowed to stand about 3 or 4 minutes before being placed in the centrifuge. The oper- ation of the tester is the same as for whole milk. In Fig. 34 is shown the proper method of reading the fat column in the testing of cream. Readings should be taken from a to c, as indicated by the brace, and not from a to 6, or from a to d. Calipers should be used in reading the fat, as already explained for the testing of whole milk. In testing cream in an 18-gram bottle, the percentage of fat is obtained directly from the reading of the fat column. Thus, if the fat column, as measured by the calipers, extends from to 28, there is a fat content of 28 per cent. In the illustration, the fat reading is 19^ per cent. 43. Testing of Skim Milk. — In the testing of skim milk, a sample of 17.6 cubic centimeters is measured by means of a pipette and is then transferred to the test bottle. More acid should be used for skim milk than for whole milk — about 20 cubic centimeters should be used. Each bottle should be placed in the tester so that the filling tube will be toward the center, to avoid any of the fat being caught between this tube and the sides of the bottle when the latter assumes a vertical position at the end of the whirling. The tester should be operated at a slightly greater speed than for the testing of whole milk. In reading the percentage of fat in the bottle neck, it is usually necessary to use a pair of calipers, as explained for the testing of whole milk and cream. Often there is a layer of white or charred curd at the bottom of the fat; this shotdd not be included in the fat reading. Each division on the scale of the skim-milk bottle represents -gV of Fig, 34 42 FARM BUTTER MAKING § 47 1 per cent., and the marks are so far apart that the small column of fat can be estimated to even a smaller percentage. 44, Testing of Buttermilk. — The testing of buttermilk is accomplished with the same apparatus and by the same method as recommended for skim milk. Buttermilk tests are useful in showing the quantity of butter fat that is lost in the buttermilk. RIPENING OF CREAM 45. Purposes in Ripening of Cream. — The development in cream of certain kinds of bacteria that break up the milk sugar into lactic acid and thus produce sourness, or acidity, is known as ripening. The ripening process is one of the most important steps in the making of butter, as the quality of the butter depends almost entirely on the control of con- ditions during the ripening. It is highly important that during the ripening process conditions be such as to be favorable to the multiplication of desirable bacteria and, at the same time, unfavorable to the development of bacteria that will have an injurious effect on the butter. The chief purpose in the ripening of cream is to obtain a good flavor and aroma in the butter produced from it. Although bacteriologists disagree as to the exact source of flavor and aroma in butter, it is generally believed that these qualities are due to bacterial growth, and that bacteria that produce lactic acid are the most desirable ones to have present. At least flavor and aroma in butter go hand in hand with the proper ripening of cream, and it is impossible to produce a good quality of butter without ripening the cream. Another purpose in ripening cream is to increase its chum- ability. The increased ease in churning is probably due to the action of the acid on the albuminous and caseous matter in the milk, making it less viscous and the movement of the fat through it, therefore, easier. Ripened cream can be churned at a lower temperature and in a thinner state than unripened cream. Also, if cream is ripened and cliumed at the proper temperature, it is possible to remove all but about -nr of 1 per § 47 FARM BUTTER MAKING 43 cent, of butter fat, whereas if sweet cream is churned under exactly the same conditions, considerable more butter fat will be lost. An important advantage in ripening of cream is that butter produced from such cream will keep fresh much longer than that produced from unripened cream. The cause for this lies in the fact that in the proper ripening of cream many or all of the bacteria responsible for deterioration of butter are suppressed. The germs that produce lactic acid have little deteriorating effect on butter; hence, cream ripened so that these germs predominate will produce not only a good quality of butter but a product that will keep well. 46. Explanation of Cream Ripening. — Cream ripening is of two kinds: natural and artificial. Natural ripening is the process by which cream becomes sour through the agency of the bacteria that it normally contains. Artificial ripening is the process by which it becomes sour through the agency of bacteria that have been introduced into it by man. Cream is ripened by the natural method by merely allowing it to stand in a temperature of from about 65° to 75° F. until it has reached the desired stage of acidity. Cream is ripened by the artificial process when lactic-acid bacteria are added to the cream and the cream is allowed to stand in a tem- perature of about 65° F. until it is sufficiently acid to churn. The medium that contains the lactic-acid bacteria is known as a starter, and is usually skim milk or buttermilk in which there is a preponderance of lactic-acid bacteria. A more detailed description of each process is given in the following pages. 47. Natural Ripening. — When cream is to be ripened by the natural method, extreme care should be exercised in handling the milk from the time it is drawn from the cows until it is separated, and in handling, the cream from the time of separation until it is sufficiently ripe for churning. After skimming or separating the cream, it should be placed in a can or vat provided with some kind of cover that will exclude foreign matter and bad odors, preferably a tin cover, and the 44 FARM BUTTER MAKING § 47 vessel containing the cream set in some place where the latter is not likely to be contaminated. The best ripening tem- perature is from about 65° to 70° F. In winter, this tem- perature can be obtained by having a stove placed in the dairy quarters. If churning is done but two or three times each week, the cream will, of course, be gathered in small quantities. The cream should be kept sweet, if possible, and at a tem- perature below 50° F. until enough has been gathered to make a churning. This should not be longer than 2 or 3 days at the most. If cream is kept longer than 2 days in hot weather, the butter is likely to have a stale flavor. While a churn- ing is being collected, fresh cream should always be thoroughly cooled before it is added to a quantity previously collected. When it is desired to ripen the cream that has been gathered for one churning, it should be placed in a temperature of from 65° to 70° F. and held at that temperature for from 12 to 18 hours, or until it has reached the desired acidity. The cream should be stirred occasionally while it is souring. The methods of determining when cream is sour enough for churning are described later. After the cream has reached the desired stage of acidity it should be cooled to about 55° F. and maintained at that temperature until it is churned. For farm butter making, where the milk is in the hands of the butter maker from the time it is drawn from the cows until it is chtuned into butter, the natural process of cream ripening is likely to be more satisfactory than the artificial process. In fact, to keep a good starter under farm condi- tions where churning is done but two or three times a week, is a difficult proposition. If the natural process of ripening is conducted properly, a good quality of butter can be pro- duced. However, butter produced by this process will not be as uniform in flavor and keeping quality from week to week as will butter made from cream that was ripened by a starter. 48. Artificial Ripening, — Although the artificial ripening of cream cannot be unreservedly recommended for butter § 47 FARM BUTTER MAKING 45 making tmder average farm conditions, there may be times when such a practice is necessary. For example, it may be necessary, during cool weather, to use a starter in order to hasten the ripening process, or to control the ripening of. cream when the milk from which it was taken has been sub- jected to contaminating influences. In case a starter is used, the butter maker shotdd exercise extreme care in its prepara- tion, as a poor starter is worse than none at all. Starter can be obtained in several ways. On the farm the most common method is to use buttermilk from the last churning, provided the butter produced from that churning was of good quaUty. Such a starter works fairly well so long as the buttermilk can be kept free from undesirable ferments ; there is a UkeHhood, however, of bacteria that produce bad flavors getting into the cream and being carried from one churning to another. If buttermilk starter is used, great care must be exercised to keep the flavor right and to pro- vide fresh starter as soon as the buttermilk shows any sign of losing its flavor or aroma. One method that has been recommended for obtaining a home-made starter is to milk a small quantity of milk — about 1 gallon is sufficient — in the most sanitary way possible; this can be done by brushing the cow carefully, wiping off her udder with a damp cloth, and milking into a pail that has been sterilized. This should give a quantity of clean milk that contains a relatively small number of germs. The pail containing the milk should be set in a warm place at about 70° to 75° F. and covered with a clean piece of muslin. In about 24 to 36 hours the milk should be curdled by the lactic acid. If this milk is found to have the pleasant acid flavor that is desired it should be added directly to cream or it may be used to prepare a larger quantity of starter; it should be used as soon as it coagulates and before the curd becomes firm. If it coagulates before it is needed it should be cooled to about 55° F. The preparation of a larger quantity of starter is accomplished by sterilizing as much skim milk as is wanted by heating it for an hour to at least 180° F. and then cooling it to about 70° F. The ciirdled sour milk is then added 46 FARM BUTTER MAKING § 47 to the sterilized skim milk and the whole is kept at a tem- perature of about 70° F. The bacteria in the sotir milk have a clear field in the sterilized skim milk and a good starter is thus obtained. This may be added to the cream for ripening, as explained later. A small quantity of the starter is saved each time and added to another quantity of sterilized skim milk. In this way, provided care is taken to avoid con- tamination, starters can be carried along for several weeks, and in some cases for months. Whenever starter loses its desirable flavor and aroma, recourse should be had to the original method of obtaining it. To save time and trouble in preparing a starter by the method just described, it is possible to purchase a pure culture of lactic-acid bacilli. Such a culture prepared for market is known as a commercial starter. In preparing starter from a commercial starter, thoroughly pasteurized skim milk is used. Full directions for making and using such starters always accompany the cultures. When a sufficient quantity of cream has been gathered for a churning, it should be placed in a vat or can where it can be kept at a fairly tmiform temperature, which should be about 70° F. in winter and 65° F. in summer. To the cream should be added about 10 per cent, of starter — that is, a quantity equal to 10 per cent, of the quantity of cream — and the whole should then be thoroughly stirred. The stirring should be continued at occasional intervals for about 3 or 4 hours, to insure even ripening. If the cream is allowed to remain still, the skim milk will settle to the bottom of the vat and curdle in a solid mass; later on this curd is broken up and becomes mixed with the cream, and is a common source of white specks in butter. After the cream has become sufficiently sour it should be cooled to about 55° F., as described for cream that has been ripened by the natural method. § 47 FARM BUTTER MAKING 47 DETERMINATION OP ACIDITY IN CREAM 49. For the production of butter of good flavor, it is necessary to stop the ripening process at the proper stage. Butter that is made from overripened cream has a strong flavor and poor keeping quaUties, and will not bring a high price on the market. Experienced butter makers are able to determine remarkably well by the taste, aroma, and appearance of cream when it has reached the proper stage of acidity for churning. It is difgcult to describe a standard for these qualities that will be imderstood by all, as ideas differ concerning what constitutes mildly sour, sour, or very sour cream. As a general statement, however, cream is at the best stage for churning when it is mildly sour, has a mild, pleasant acid aroma, and appears glossy. It is better to chum cream when it is slightly tmderripe than when it is overripe. For accurate mathematical calculation of the percentage of acid in cream, various chemical tests have been devised, the most common of which are Manns's acid test and Far- rington's alkaUne test. Both of these tests are in wide use by commercial creameries, and are suitable for use in the making of butter on farms, provided the butter maker is willing to exercise care in making the tests and in calculating the percentage of acidity. The manipulation of both tests is much the same, but the apparatus differs somewhat. In both tests, an alkaline solution of known strength is added to a definite quantity of cream until the alkali neutralizes the acid in the cream. The quantity of alkali that is neces- sary to do this measures the quantity of acid present. In order to determine just when the right point is reached and all the acid is neutralized, a coloring matter called an indi- cator is used; the indicator is pink in an alkaline solution and colorless in an acid solution. In Manns's test, the indi- cator is added to the cream; in the Farrington test, it is added to the alkali. As the alkaline solution is slowly added to the sour cream in the presence of the indicator, no color is apparent until the- point of neutrality is slightly passed. At this stage a pink color gradually appears. 242—28 48 FARM BUTTER MAKING § 47 50. Manns's Acid Test. — The apparatus reqtiired for Manns's test is illustrated in Fig. 29. The glass burrette is filled to the zero mark with a tenth-normal solution of either potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide. These solutions can be made up cheaply by druggists or they can be pur- chased from dealers in dairy supplies. For this test, 50 cubic centimeters of cream is reqiiired. The cream is meas- ured by drawing it into the glass pipette with the mouth until the etched mark in the upper end is reached. This sample of cream is then allowed to rtin into the glass beaker standing under the burette. To the cream is added a few drops of an indicator — phenolphthalein. The pinch cock at the lower end of the burette is gently squeezed together and the alkali is permitted to drop slowly into the cream. This mixture is stirred constantly with the glass stirring rod until a pink color is faintly noticeable, when the pinch cock should be released. The number of cubic centimeters of alkali that were required to neutralize the acid can be deter- mined from the calibration on the burette. The per cent, of acid in the sample of cream is calculated by multiplying the number of cubic centimeters of alkali that was used by .009, dividing the product by the number of cubic centimeters of the sample, and multiplying by 100. This is expressed in clearer form in the following formula: _ , , .,., c. c. alkali X. 009 ^,^„ Per cent, of acidity = X 100 c. c. sample Thus, if 30 cubic centimeters of alkali is required to pro- duce a pink color in 50 cubic centimeters of cream, the per cent, of acid in the cream is §^:^X100=.54 per cent. 50 5 1 . Farrington's Alkaline Test. — The apparatus for making the Farrington alkaline test is shown in Fig. 30; it con- sists of one or more cylinders of a capacity of 100 cubic centimeters, a pipette of a capacity of 17.6 cubic centimeters, and a white porcelain cup. Clean, soft water to the amount § 47 FARM BUTTER MAKING 49 of 97 cubic centimeters is placed in one cylinder and five alkaline tablets are dissolved in it; these tablets can be pur- chased cheaply from dairy-supply dealers. The cylinders should be tightly corked and laid away until the tablets are entirely dissolved. If tablets and water are put in the cylinder in the evening, the solution shoidd be ready for use the next morning. Several cylinders of solution can be pre- pared at one time for convenience, if desired. In making the test, 17.6 cubic centimeters of cream are measured by means of the pipette and the sample is transferred to the porcelain cup. The pipette should be rinsed out with a small quantity of clean water and the rinsings added to the cream in the cup. A few cubic centimeters of alkali are then poured into the cream, the cup being given a rotary motion with the hand, to thoroughly mix the solution with the cream. Then a few drops should be added at a time until a faint pinkish color appears. The number of cubic centimeters of alkali used in neutralizing the acid in the cream is read directly from the calibrations on the cylinder or cylinders, and this number, by pointing it off into two places, expresses the per cent, of acid in the cream. For example, if 56 cubic centimeters of alkali were used the acidity would be .56 per cent. The per cent, of acid to develop in cream for farm butter making should be from about .50 to .55 per cent. CHURNING CONDITIONS AFFECTING CHURNABILITY OF CKEAM 52. Temperature. — The temperature of cream at the time of churning is one of the most important factors in deter- mining its chtimabihty. Cream at a high temperature can be churned in less time than is reqtdred for cream of low temperature, but an inferior grade of butter will be produced. Likewise, too low a temperature is not desirable, because it retards the process of churning. Under average farm con- 50 FARM BUTTER MAKING § 47 ditions, the best chvirning temperature of cream is between 55° and 62° F., the exact temperature depending largely on the hardness of the fat, which varies according to the season of the year, the individuality of the cow, the stage of the lactation period, and the kind of feed given to the cows. In spring, cows yield milk containing a larger per cent, of soft fats than at any other time, consequently churning can be done at a lower temperature than in winter, when the harder fats are present in large quantities. Cream produced from the milk of certain individual cows or from the cows of certain breeds can be churned at lower temperatures than that from other individual cows or from cows of certain other breeds. The farther advanced a cow is in the period of lactation the harder will be the butter fat yielded by her milk. Also, succulent feeds tend to produce softer butter fats than do dry feeds. Thus, it can be seen that the best churning tem- perature of cream varies with conditions. The butter maker should choose some temperature between those already given and vary it according to the preceding conditions. As a rule, about 60° to 62° F. will be found a good winter churning temperature and from about 55° to 58° F. a good temperature for summer churning. 53. Richness. — The quantity of fat in cream is another important factor influencing its chumability. Within certain limits, the more fat there is in a given quantity of cream the shorter the period required for its churning, and vice versa. Of course, cream can become so thick that it will adhere to the sides of the churn and thus not be subjected to agitation. If rich cream is churned at a high temperature the butter is likely to be greasy in texture and will contain considerable buttermilk that is difficult to remove by washing. For farm butter making, it is advisable to produce a grade of cream that contains from about 22 to 28 per cent, of fat. 54. Degree of Ripeness. — As a rule, the riper cream is the easier it will chum. As explained before, the acid pro- duced in the ripening of cream affects the albuminous and caseous matter, making it less viscous; thus, it can be seen § 47 FARM BUTTER MAKING 51 that the greater the per cent, of acid in cream the greater the ease with which it can be churned. However, cream should not be ripened too much or the ctird will become coagulated, and when the cream is churned this curd will .break up into small lumps and be incorporated in the butter. The proper stage to ripen cream for churning has already been explained. 55. Size of Fat Globules. — The size of the fat globules in cream influences its chiimability somewhat; the larger the fat globules the easier the churning, as a general rule. How- ever, this is an tmimportant factor in butter making, because the dairyman cannot control such qualities in the cream. 56. Quantity of Cream in the Churn. — The length of time required for completing the churning operation depends to a considerable extent on the quantity of cream in the chum. The greatest churning efficiency is secured when the churn is about one-third ftill of cream, because, under such con- ditions, the cream is subjected to the maximum ■ degree of agitation. It is sometimes desirable, however, to have more than this quantity of cream in the chum, and it is possible to chtirn without much diflficulty when the chum is half full. Chum manufacturers usually list the cream capacity of their chums at about half the total capacity. 57. Nature of Agitation. — The kind and degree of agita- tion given the cream by a particular chum is a factor influen- cing chumability. In the dash chum, for instance, the cream is exposed to a relatively small degree of agitation, con- sequently the churning period is considerably longer than for the revolving and swinging types of churns. The speed of operating the chum also affects the chumability of the cream. In the revolving type of chum, for example, if the speed is too great, the cream will be affected by centrifugal force and agitation will not take place to an efficient degree. 52 FARM BUTTER MAKING § 47 OPERATIONS OF CHURNING 58. Preparation of Chum. — The first step in preparing the churn for churning is to rinse it out thoroughly with hot water. A convenient way to do this is to fill the churn about one-third full of boiling water and operate it for a few minutes until the outside becomes warm. In the case of chums having tight-fitting lids, it is necessary to open the Vent after a few strokes or revolutions to relieve the pressure generated inside by the hot air and steam; most hand-power chums are pro- vided with a bimg or other device for reheving the presstire, and mechanical-power churns usually have provisions for operating the chum during the washing process with the vent slightly open. The next step in the preparation is to let the hot water out and to fill the chum again with cold water. This should be churned until the outside of the chum feels entirely cool to the touch. The use of cold water closes the pores of the wood again and the churn is ready for the cream. 59. Straining of Cream. — As the cream is transferred from the ripening can or vat to the chum, it should be strained through a finely perforated tin strainer suspended in or held above the chum opening. The purpose of this final straining is not so much to remove foreign matter as to break up as much as possible any lumps of ctird that may have formed in the cream and which, if not removed, would be incorporated in the butter. 60. Addition of Butter Color. — If the butter maker wishes to produce butter of a tmiform color throughout the year, it will be necessary to add artificial coloring matter to the cream previous to churning. The exact quantity of color to add depends on the season of the year and the butter market to be reached. In May and June, it is Ukely that no color will be needed, as the cows will be feeding on green pastures. But as the summer advances the butter will become lighter in color, and, at times, especially in the winter, it will become so light that artificial color is necessary. Southern markets demand a richly colored butter; Chicago and New § 47 FARM BUTTER MAKING 53 York markets perfer what is known as a " June color," or that characterizing the butter produced during the month of June. Commercial butter-coloring matter is made from the fruit of the annato tree, from certain vegetables, and from coal tar. All of these colors are satisfactory as coloring matter, but some states have laws forbidding the use of coal-tar butter-coloring material; hence, the butter maker should become informed concerning this matter before using a coal- tar color. No definite instructions can be given in regard to the quantity of butter color to add, owing to the foregoing con- ditions. As a rule, about 12 to 20 drops of coloring matter for each estimated pound of butter is used. By a little experimenting, the butter maker can soon learn the proper quantity of color to use under various conditions. Of course, if the quantity of butter fat contained, in the cream has not been determined by the Babcock test, there is no way. of calculating the quantity of color necessary, and in this case there is nothing to do but to guess at the quantity to use. In case the color is not added to the cream previous to churn- ing, it can be mixed with the salt and added at the time of salting and working the butter, but so much working is necessary to incorporate the color into the butter by this method that the texture of the latter is likely to be damaged. 61. Operation of Chums. — After adding the butter color, the lid of the chum should be clamped down and the churn started. Specific directions for the mechanical operation of each type of churn should be obtained from the manufacturer. After about a minute of churning, the churn should be stopped and the vent slightly opened to relieve the presstu-e of air within, due to the escape of air incorporated in the cream dtiring the various processes leading up to churning. This should be repeated at intervals of from 2 to 4 minutes until no gas escapes when the vent is opened. The churning should be continued without interruption until the operation is com- pleted. At certain seasons of the year, especially in the fall, when cows are well advanced in the period of lactation, the 54 FARM BUTTER MAKING § 47 churning is frequently difficult. This is due to the fact that tinder such conditions the fat globules in the cream are exceptionally small and hard and consequently hard to unite. As previously explained, cream subjected to such conditions should be ripened to a greater degree of acidity and churned at a higher temperature than cream not subjected to such conditions. If this -fails to correct the difficulty and the cream becomes frothy in the churn, it is advisable to pour warm water over the outside of the latter until the temper- ature is considerably raised. If this fails to accomplish the desired result, it will be necessary to potir warm water into the churn to break up the mass it contains. Churning under normal conditions is usually completed in from about 20 to 30 minutes. 62. Time to Stop Churning. — There are various ways of ascertaining when the churning has gone far enough. Per- haps the most reliable method is to stop the churn and examine the butter granules, which should be about the size of corn kernels or slightly smaller. If the granules are too small when the churning is stopped, many of them will go through the strainer in drawing off the buttermilk; if, on the other hand, they are too large, a considerable quantity of buttermilk will have become incorporated in the butter. In the revolving and swinging types of chums, a small glass is fastened in one end of the churn or in the lid so that the operator can see when the cream has broken; so long as this glass is clouded with milk there is no need to examine the cream, but as soon as the glass is washed clear the churn should be stopped for an examination. After the cream has broken, the fat granules unite very rapidly; hence, it is advisable to examine them every three or four revolutions or strokes of the chum. 63. Washing of Butter. — When the butter granules are the right size, the buttermilk should be drawn off through a strainer, the churn filled with about as much pure, cold water as there was cream to start with, the lid clamped on and from six to twelve agitations given to the butter, depending on the § 47 FARM BUTTER MAKING 55 type of chum; if a revolving chum is used, about eight revolu- tions should be given ; if a swing or dash chum is used, about twelve complete swings or strokes are necessary. The wash water should be drained off through a strainer. Care should be taken to use the purest water obtainable for washing butter, to avoid a possibility of contamination by disease germs or objectionable odors. The wash water should be at ab6ut the temperature of the buttermilk, pro- vided the butter has come through ia good condition. If the butter comes soft, it is advisable to use water of a slightly lower temperature; if too hard, the temperature shotdd be higher. Extremes should be avoided in all cases, as too warm water will cause a soft, greasy butter, and too cold water will make the butter appear brittle and tallowy, and there will be difficidty in getting the salt incorporated. 64. Washing of Chum. — After the butter and buttermilk have been removed from the chum, it should be thoroughly washed. It is advisable to fill it about one-third full of hot water to which a few handfuls of washing soda has been added, and then operate it for a few minutes until the exterior has become warm. In this condition the pores of the wood are open and it is possible to cleanse thoroughly both the iaside and the outside. Scrubbing brushes shotdd be used and care exercised to reach all parts of the interior. After this wash- iug, the warm water should be drained out and replaced by cold water. The chum should then be operated for a few minutes and the water left in it until the wood becomes cool. SALTING, WORKING, AND PACKING OF BUTTER SALTING OF BTTTTEB 65. Purposes in Salting of Butter. — Perhaps the chief purpose in the salting of butter is to give it a desirable flavor. Butter without salt has a flattish, insipid flavor and can be sold only in certain European countries. On the other hand, if too much salt is used the natural flavor of the butter will 56 FARM BUTTER MAKING § 47 be lost. American markets demand a relatively high-salted butter; European markets favor butter that is salted very lightly or, in some cases, not at all. It is important that butter should be salted uniformly from churning to churning. Even a slight variation in the percentage of salt used will cause considerable difference in the flavor. Another purpose in salting butter is to improve its keeping qualities. It is a well-established fact that common salt is an antiseptic; consequently, when it becomes incorporated in a product like butter, many undesirable ferments that would cause the butter to deteriorate very rapidly are held in check. Salt also indirectly improves the keeping quality of butter by facilitating the removal of buttermilk. This is due to the fact that salt precipitates the curd in the butter- milk, thus releasing the whey, which can be readily removed by working the butter. If the butter has not been thoroughly washed, it is likely to retain an excessive quantity of curd after being salted. 66. Quantity of Salt to Use. — As stated before, the exact quantity of salt to use will depend on the demands of con- sumers. Under normal conditions of the butter, it is advi- sable to add about 1 ounce of salt to each pound of butter. However, the butter maker should be governed in his estimate of the quantity of salt to use by certain conditions. If there is a considerable quantity of free moisture in the butter, or if it has. a bad aroma, a greasy texture, or small hard granules, it is best to use about li ounces of salt to each pound of butter. Where the butter is not weighed but the quantity is estimated by means of the Babcock test, IJ ounces of salt per pound of butter fat should be used, because more butter will be produced than is indicated by the test. 67. Method of Salting Butter. — When a common, hand- power churn is used, the butter should be removed from the churn and placed on the worker before the salt is added. It is advisable to spread the butter out somewhat in order to distribute the salt over a wider surface. The next step is to work the salt into the butter, tasting the latter occasionally § 47 FARM BUTTER MAKING 57 to determine when the salt has become thoroughly dissolved. In case a combined churn and worker is used, as is the case in practically all creameries and on exceptionally large dairy farms, the salt is added to the butter while it is still in the chum and the working is done mechanically by rollers operated by the churn gears. Specific directions for this operation, of course, accompany the chum. WORKING OP BUTTER 68. Purposes in Working of Butter. — The chief purpose in the working of butter is to distribute the salt evenly through it. No matter what the condition of the butter may be, working should not be stopped until all the salt has been dissolved and the entire mass of butter has a uniformly salty taste. Another purpose in the working of butter is to get rid of the excess of buttermilk and water it contains. If this were not done the butter would have a poor flavor and woiild rapidly deteriorate. A third purpose in the working of butter is to bring it into a compact, waxy mass and give it texture. 69. Methods of Working Butter. — The most common method of working butter on the farm is by the wooden-bowl- and-ladle method; that is, the butter is placed in a wooden bowl and worked with a wooden ladle. This method involves considerable muscular exertion, is inefficient, and usually destroys the texture of the butter; consequently, it is not to be recommended even for small quantities of butter. The butter maker should not spare a reasonable expense in pro- viding an efficient butter worker, for the lessened labor and improved quality of butter resulting from its use will more than repay the outlay. In the working of butter, either with a hand or a machine worker, the operator must be guided by the condition of the butter. Hard, granvilar butter should be worked longer than soft, waxy butter, and butter of a poor flavor requires more working than that of good flavor. Of course, the principal ,58 FARM BUTTER MAKING § 47 guide of the butter makers should be the evenness of salt distribution, as determined by tasting the butter at frequent intervals. After the salt has become thoroughly distributed, a good plan is to scrape the forefinger over the top or the side of the mass so as to gather up a lump of butter about the size of a hazelnut ; if the butter in the lump breaks away from the main mass leaving long thread-like projections at the edge, the texture is as good as can be obtained and it is best to stop working. If the butter does not break away with threads, it is best to work it for 1 or 2 minutes longer and make the test again. However, an exceptionally soft grade of butter will never show threads, no matter how much it is worked. Slow, careful working is advised under all conditions. In the combined chums and workers, each particular type requires a different number of revolutions for the working of butter. The manufacturer's instructions should be fol- lowed as nearly as possible, but the foregoing tests should also be made. PACKING OF BTJTTEK 70. Importance of Proper Packing. — It is almost axio- matic to state that any article of food must be put up in a sanitary and attractive package to bring the highest market price. This statement is especially true of butter, which is easily contaminated by dust and bad odors. The primitive practice of printing butter in elaborately carved molds that are difficult to keep clean, and later selling it absolutely unpro- tected by any sort of covering or package, is to be severely condemned. If butter is to command a good price it must be wrapped or boxed in such a way that there is no pos- sibility of contamination from without. This is not only a matter of business to the dairyman but is a strong movement in the direction of pure food. 71. Kind of Package to Use. — The kind of package to use depends on the quantity of butter produced and on the demands of the consumer. It is obvious that when but a few pounds of butter are made each week the use of tubs or crates § 47 FARM BUTTER MAKING 59 is out of the question. Also, if the butter is sold to private customers, it is not likely that a package holding naore than 1 poimd will be in demand. When large quantities are pro- duced, it may be found that packing in tubs is the most economical method to follow, although, in most markets, the small package commands the highest price. For the average farm, where from 5 to 100 pounds of butter is produced each week, there is perhaps no better method of packing the butter than to print it in 1-pound, brick-shaped, prints, and wrap these in one of the commercial vegetable- parchment papers sold by dealers in dairy supplies. This makes a sanitary and attractive package, and if the butter- maker's name and address or some appropriate trade mark is printed on the wrapper, considerable advertising will be derived from it. A step in advance of this is to place the wrapped package in a pasteboard carton, such as the one shown in Fig. 35. Fig. 35 This is simply a pasteboard box made to hold one print of butter, and it usually bears advertising matter relative to the butter it contains. Butter packed in either vegetable-parch- ment paper or cartons can be handled to much better advan- tage in hauling or shipping, and it is practically secure against contaminating influences. It is safe to say that good butter packed in this way will command a price sufficient to cover the cost of the wrappers, with a margin of profit, over that sold in bulk or in uncovered prints. Some markets prefer the large packages, such as tubs and round boxes holding from 5 to 60 pounds of butter. A few markets prefer a package made of a partictilar kind of wood ; for instance, the Boston market gives preference to butter packed in a spruce tub. In Fig. 36 (a) is shown a popular type of butter tub ; in (b) is shown a round butter box and a 60 FARM BUTTER MAKING H7 crate made to hold twelve 5-pound boxes. These tubs and boxes are provided with metallic fasteners that can be easily Fig. 36 tacked on to the lid and sides when the packages are filled. For the shipping of butter short distances in warm weather, when there is danger of the butter becoming soft or rancid, the returnable refrigera- tor shipping box is desirable. One form of the refrigerator box with trays is shown in Fig. 37. It requires no ice, being constructed with dead- air spaces around the box. ^^'^^^ Fig. 37 Such boxes can be purchased in size's ranging from about 15 to 80 pounds capacity. Boxes equipped for packing the butter with ice for shipment over a long distance can be pur- chased in sizes from about 12 to 120 pounds capacity. BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE (PART 1) DEFINITIONS AND EXPLANATIONS 1. Beef cattle are cattle that are kept primarily for the production of beef, thus contrasting them with dairy cattle, which are raised primarily for the production of milk. 2. Dual-purpose cattle are cattle that are kept for the production of both beef and milk. An appropriate term for them and one that is commonly applied is general-purpose cattle. They produce, when fattened, fairly satisfactory carcasses of beef, although they are not the equal of the special-purpose beef cattle in this respect, and the cows give a suflScient quantity of milk of fair butter-fat content to warrant milking them. If cattle of' a dual-purpose breed or strain possess merit as beef animals but are without dairy qualities, they shoiild be classed as beef cattle. If, on the other hand, they possess dairy qualities but neither they nor their offspring exhibit beef qualities, they should be classed as special-purpose dairy cattle. 3 . In describing beef and dual-purpose»cattle, it is necessary, as is true in the case of all kinds of livestock, to make use of certain technical terms, the meaning of which would, with- out explanation, doubtless be clear to stockmen but not to inexperienced persons. These terms are : form, or conformation, quality, constitution, and early maturity. COPYRIGHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED §48 33 f Fig. 1 § 48 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 3 4. By form, or conformation, is meant the outward visible shape of an animal. It has particular reference to the relative straightness of the top line and bottom line, the depth and breadth of the body, and the compactness and symmetry of the parts as a whole. When a cattleman states that a steer has a desirable conformation, he means that the top line and bottom line of the animal are comparatively straight, that its body is deep and broad, and that, as a whole, the animal is low-set, compact, and symmetrical. Names of Exterior Regions Shown in Fig. 1 1, Muzzle 19, Fore flank 2, Face 20, Fore ribs 5, Tongue fat (feeder's wattle) 21, Midribs 4, Poll 22, Barrel 6, Breast 23, BeUy 6, Brisket 24, Hind flank 7, Shoulder point 26, Back 8, Xeck 26, Loin 9, Dewlap 27, Rump 10, Shoulder vein 28, Hooks 11, Shoulder 29, Thighs 12, Withers 30, Gaskins IS, Elbow 31, Hocks H, Arm 32, Pin bones 15, Knee S3, Tail head 16, Cannon 34, Switch 17, Dew claws 35, Twist 18, Crops 36, Udder in cows; cod in steers; scrotum, or purse, in bulls. 5. Quality, as used by stockmen, refers to the relative fineness of structure of an animal. Quality is indicated by fine hair; loose and pliable skin; an even covering of firm, mellow flesh; fine but strong bone; a clean-cut head that is free from coarseness; refined but not delicate features; a stylish appearance; and, in fact, general refinement throughout. 6. By constitution is meant the aggregate of the physical powers of an animal. Thus, an animal that has a strong constitution has strong physical powers and consequently is able to withstand an tinfavorable environment to a greater degree than an animal of weak constitution. Strong consti- 242—29 4 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 48 tution is evidenced by a large heart girth, a capacious chest, a roomy but not paunchy barrel, a well-developed brisket, deep flanks, and strong bone. In order for an animal to have a strong constitution, there must be plenty of room for the vital organs and general strength and vigor of the parts as a whole. 7. Early maturity is a term used to express the potential quality of an animal to reach a desired condition at an early age. For example, a beef animal is said to possess the quality of early maturity if it can be made sufficiently fat to satisfy market requirements when it is 18 months old or under. If a beef animal cannot be satisfactorily fattened for the market until it is 2 years old or over, it is called a late-maturing animal. Some of the indications of early maturity in a beef animal are : a tendency to grow rapidly, to lay on fat readily, and to be low-set, or short legged, and free from coarseness and angu- larity. In other words, an animal that possesses quality without tending to be delicate, or weak in constitution, will usually mature early. A late-maturing animal, on the other hand, shows a disproportionate length of leg, general coarse- ness and angularity, and a lack of tendency to fatten into a satisfactory market animal. 8. Parts of Cattle. — In describing beef and dual-purpose cattle, it is necessary to mention various parts and regions of the body. The location of all of the parts and exterior regions about which doubt might arise is shown in Fig. 1. In (a) is shown a profile view of an animal ; in (b) , a front view ; and in (c) , a rear view. The names of the different regions shown are given on the page opposite the illustration. § 48 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE BEEF AND DUAL-PUKPOSE TYPES OF CATTLE BEEF TYPE 9. Cattle that have the desired conformation for beef production are said to be of the beef type. It is not difficult to describe this type in such a way that the description will be applicable to cattle that have been fattened for market, but it is not so easy to give a description that will apply to cattle in thin condition, such as feeders before they have taken on any fat. This is because beef conformation is somewhat of a potential quality; that is, it is not strongly developed in most beef animals until they become fat. The experienced cattleman is able to distinguish animals of the beef type, even though they are in thin condition, but the inexperienced person often has difficulty in doing this. There are certain characteristics, however, that are invariably associated, to a greater or less degree, with cattle of this type. An animal of the correct beef type has a compact form. It is short in the neck and legs, and has a broad, short head; well-sprung ribs; a deep, broad chest; well-laid-in shoulders and hips ; a long, level rump ; and well-fleshed thighs. The top line and bottom line are approximately straight and parallel. In general, a beef -type animal has a high percentage of meat to bone and offal. In Figs. 2 and 3 are shown animals of the approved beef type. Animals of the beef type invariably show marked indications of having a high percentage of the blood of one or more of the recognized improved breeds of beef cattle. The breeds that are classed as beef breeds are: the Shorthorn, the Polled Durham, the Hereford, the Aberdeen- Angus, the Galloway, and the Sussex. Fig. 3 § 48 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE DUAL-PURPOSE TYPE 10. Cattle that closely approach the beef type without sacrificing to any great extent dairy excellence are said to be of the dual-purpose tjrpe. There is considerable difference of opinion, however, in regard to just what characters should be found in cattle of this type, some authorities insisting on marked beef-tj^e characters and others on pronounced dairy- type characters. An animal of the dual-purpose type should not possess the characteristic angularity of the special-purpose dairy cattle, but should show marked ability to take on flesh and fat; this is especially true in the case of males and of cows that are not in milk. On the other hand, cows should show pronounced indications of ability to give a reasonably good flow of milk. The udder and teats should be well developed and free from fleshiness; that is, they should be loose, mellow, and pliable to the touch. When a cow of the dual-purpose type is milked dry, the udder should be greatly reduced in size; in cows of the beef type the udder is fleshy and is about the same size after milking as before. In comparing an animal of the dual-purpose type with one of the beef type, it may be said that the dual-purpose animal has a greater length of neck and head, a less pronounced tendency toward fleshiness and fattening quaUties, and gives considerably more evidence of an ability to produce milk in adequate quantities. In Figs. 4 and 5 are shown animals of the correct dual-piupose type. The animal shown in Fig. 4 borders on the dairy type; the one in Fig. 5 borders on the beef type. The dual-purpose type of animal is not restricted to any particular breeds, but because a large number of animals of certain breeds are of this type, the breeds are spoken of as dual-purpose breeds. These breeds are: the Devon, the Red Polled, and the Brown Swiss; certain animals and strains of the Shorthorn breed are also classed as dual purpose. Fig. 4 Fig. § 48 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS OF CATTLE BEEF BREEDS SHORTHORN CATTLE 11. Origin and Development. — The Shorthorn breed of cattle originated in the northeastern part of England, along the valley of the river Tees and ia the counties of Northumberland, Durham, York, and Lincoln. For many years the Shorthorns were known as Durham or as Teeswater cattle. The exact origin of the breed is somewhat obscure, but it is known that it is the result of the blending of several types of cattle that existed in the region just mentioned. Little is known of the appearance of the foundation stock prior to the 17th century. During that century, the Pied cattle of Lincolnshire, which are described as being more white than any other color, and the red cattle of Gloucestershire and Somersetshire intermingled. It is claimed that the Holdemess cattle of Yorkshire also entered into this mixed breed. The Holdemess cattle are said to have been black and red in color, large bodied, short homed, and profitable to both the dairyman and the butcher. By the early part of the 18th century these different races, or strains, of cattle were blended into one common stock, from which the Shorthorn breed has descended. Although disputed by some authorities, it is probable that at about the middle of the 18th century Dutch or Flanders cattle imported from Holland were crossed with the foundation stock. Since 1780, accurate records have been kept and the improvement of the breed from that time has been made mainly by the selection of desirable animals within the breed. 10 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 48 12. In the development of the Shorthorn breed, the names of certain of the early English and Scotch breeders stand out preeminently. Charles Colling, Sr., a noted breeder, was an advocate of the in-and-in system of breeding, and bred the cow Cherry, which is now considered the foundation of the improved type of Shorthorn. He turned his business over to his sons Robert and Charles. Robert Colling owned the noted bull Hub- back, which was small, yellowish-red in color, and had consider- able quality, proving to be a successful cross on the large, late- maturing cows that were common at that time. A noted bull that descended from Hubback was Favorite (262), which sired Comet (155), the first bull to sell for $6,000. The CoUings founded the Phoenix, the Wildair, the Princess, the Red Rose, the Bright Eyes, and the Daisy tribes, or families, and some others. Thomas Booth, of KUlerby, and his sons Richard and John were among the most noted of the early Shorthorn breeders. The Booths bred their cattle along much the same lines as those followed by the Collings. Some of the noted families of Shorthorns bred by the Booths are : the Farewell, the Broughton, the Dairy Maid, or Moss Rose, the Gaudy, or Lady Betty, the Mantilinia, and the Belinda. The most famous bull used by the Booths was Crown Prince (10,087). Thomas Bates, of Kirklevington, was another famous breeder of Shorthorns. Bates paid especial attention to pedigree and to milking qualities. The Bates strain of Short- horns was at one time the most popular strain of the breed, and prices were obtained for Bates Shorthorns that have never been obtained for the cattle of any other line of breeding. Bates's particular tribe was the Duchess. A cow of this family sold for $40,600 at a sale in 1873. The bull Belvedere (1,706) and his son Duke of Northumberland (1,940) were two of the best animals ever produced by Bates. Amos Cruickshank was a noted Scotch breeder of Shorthorns. His ideal was a low-set, broad, deep-bodied, thickly fleshed animal. Cruickshank especially emphasized shortness of leg, depth and breadth of chest, length and spring of rib, and good conformation of barrel and quarters. The bull Champion § 48 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 11 of England (17,526) was perhaps the greatest breeding bull ever owned by Cruickshank. 13. Introduction Into America. — The first Shorthorns imported into the United States were brought to Virginia in 1783. The cattle of this importation were of two types, the dairy type and the beef type. The colors of the cattle were red, white, red and white, and roan. The dairy-type animals had short horns and compact, heavy bodies, the cows displaying marked dairy propensities. The beef -type animals were longer, more rangy, and later maturing than those of the dairy type, but when mature they attained a large size and made heavy carcasses. In 1785, some of these Shorthorns were taken into Clark County, Kentucky. These cattle, with more of the same stock that were taken into Kentucky during the next decade, effected a marked improvement on the native stock; they became known as "Patton's stock," from the name of the family that owned them. In 1817, the first Kentucky importations were made. Col. Lewis Sanders imported eight heifers and James Prentice imported two bulls. The descendants of the animals imported by Mr. Sanders became known as the "seventeens." They were excellent individuals and exerted a widespread influence on the Shorthorn stock of Kentucky. In 1822, the roan heifer Arabella was imported by Samuel Williams, of Massa- chusetts. This animal became the foundation of the Arabella tribe, which was at one time large and highly valued for its dairy qualities. From 1821 to 1833, many important impor- tations were made into a number of states. In 1831, Benjamin Warfield, a noted breeder, secured his first pure-bred Shorthorn. He was succeeded by his son William, who originated the Loudon Duchess family of Shorthorns. 14. The Ohio Importing Company was organized in 1833 for the purpose of promoting the interests of agriculture and introducing an improved breed of cattle. Felix Renick, one of the leading promoters, was sent to England to select cattle for the company. He visited many noted herds and selected seven bulls and twelve females for the first importation. This 12 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 48 importation proved very successful, and in 1835 and 1836 two more importations were made by this company. In 1836, the company held its first sale of forty-three animals, which brought an average of $803.25 per head. The final sale of the company was held in 1837 ; the fifteen head of cattle that were sold averaged $1,071.65 each. In 1852, the Scioto Valley Importing Company was organized and through its agents, George Renick and Dr. Arthur Watts, imported ten bulls and seventeen females. This importation sold at auction at an average of $1,351.85 per head, and proved to be a great stimulus to the breeding of Shorthorn cattle, several importing companies being organized. From 1830 to 1880, several importations of Shorthorns of Bates breeding were made into the eastern part of the United States. Samuel Thome made perhaps the most important of these importations. From 1860 to 1880, the Bates Short- horns were very popular in this country. After 1880, the Scotch blood grew rapidly in popularity, and within recent years high prices have been paid for animals having Scotch pedigrees. 15. Description. — The Shorthorn breed has wonderful adaptability, and this quality has led to wide distribution of the animals not only in this country under various con- ditions, but in nearly every country in which cattle are bred. Shorthorns were the first cattle used for improving the cattle on the ranges, but notwithstanding their yalue for this purpose, they are best adapted to a system of mixed farming, such as is carried on in the Central States. The Shorthorns are popular in localities where land is high in value, because many of the animals yield a profit in milk as well as in calves. The Shorthorn may be red, white, red and white, or roan in color. Animals of the breed are the heaviest of the beef cattle, mature bulls often weighing as much as 2,400 pounds. At present the tendency is to breed for early maturity, and as a result present-day Shorthorns are not as large and coarse as they were formerly. The Shorthorn is characterized by great weight and size, together with symmetry and style. Fig. e 13 Fro. 7 14 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 48 A typical Shorthorn cow is shown in Fig. 6 and a bull of the breed in Fig. 7. Both are excellent representatives of the breed. 16. The head should show refinement and good feeding qualities; should be wide between the eyes, short from the eyes to the nostrils, and the face should be slightly dished. The horns should be short, rather fine; should curve forwards; and they should be waxy white in color, with dark tips. The neck shordd be short and should blend smoothly into the head and shoulders; the shoulders of the Shorthorn are inclined to be bare of flesh. The body, in good animals, is deep and strong in heart girth; the back is broad, straight, level, and deeply covered with flesh; the hindquarters are considered to have the best development to be found in the animals of any breed; the line of the back of the thigh is nearly straight and the flanks are well let down, giving the animals a char- acteristic squarely built appearance. If fed for a long period the Shorthorn tends to produce patches of fat about the tail- head and rolls of fat along the sides. Shorthorns were formerly criticized for being too long of leg, but since the infusion of the blood of low-set Scotch animals, this tendency has been largely obliterated. Becaase of the difference in types, there is more or less lack of uniformity in the breed, two distinct types being bred today in the United States: the strictly beef type and the milking type. The Shorthorns are possessed of a quiet disposition and the animals grow rapidly. They require good care and pastures ; in fact, they wiU not thrive unless well cared for and amply fed. 17. Few breeds equal the Shorthorn in the production of beef. The animals are naturally thickly fleshed, with a maximtmi development of the valuable parts of the carcass; they are not as early maturing as the cattle of some of the other beef breeds, but can easily be made ready for the butcher at from 1 to 2 years of age; they wiU, however, stand a con- siderable longer period of feeding, if this is desired; they carry flesh well, and only after being forced in fattening for a long time do they exhibit a tendency to take on flesh unevenly, with fat in patches on the rump or roUs on the sides. The ij 48 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 15 Shorthorn is a good feeder and makes large gains for the feed consumed. The breed is very popular in the United States, Canada, England, and other countries where beef is produced. The Shorthorn is the most highly prized of all the breeds for grading up common cattle. A marked improvement has been made wherever the Shorthorn has been used for this purpose; this is partictilarly true on the western ranges, where Shorthorn bulls have proved their worth in grading up range cattle. The first cross of a Shorthorn on an animal of any other breed produces an excellent beef animal, and grade Shorthorns predominate over all other kinds of animals in American cattle markets. The "Prime Scots," so popular in the English markets, are crosses of the Shorthorn on the Aberdeen-Angus, and the "blue-gray" steers are crosses of light-colored Shorthorns on Galloways. English breeders of Shorthorns have always paid more or less attention to the milking qualities of their animals; in fact, some English breeders pay as much attention to milldng qual- ities as to beef -producing qualities. But in America, especially since the thickly fleshed Scotch type of Shorthorns became popular, the milking qualities of the breed have been neglected. With the rapid increase in the value of land, however, more attention has been given to the milking qualities, and at present efforts are being made to develop milking strains of Shorthorns, more commonly known as dual-purpose Short- horns. The milk of the Shorthorn is of good quality, as a rule, and the cows of the breed have made creditable records in butter tests against animals of the leading dairy breeds. 18. Registration. — George Coates, of Yorkshire, England, published the first volume of the Shorthorn Herd Book in 1822, and from this was developed the English Shorthorn Herd Book. Since 1876, the Herd Book has been in the hands of the Short- horn Society of the United Elingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The first volume of the American Shorthorn Herd Book was pubhshed in 1846 by Lewis F. Allen, of Black Rock, New York. The publication was continued as a private enterprise until 16 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 48 1882, when it was purchased by the American Shorthorn Breeders' Association. The first volume of a herd book known as the American Shorthorn Record was published in 1869 by A. J. Alexander, of Woodburn, Kentucky. The first volume of the Ohio Shorthorn Record was published in 1878 by the Ohio Shorthorn Breeders' Association. The American Short- horn Breeders' Association purchased all of the Shorthorn herd books of the United States, and beginning with Vol. 25 of the American Shorthorn Herd Book, started by Mr. Allen, has continued the publication, having charge of the entire registration of Shorthorns in the United States. The registration of Shorthorns in Canada is conducted by the Dominion Herd Book, which first appeared in 1887, this publication having purchased the interests of the British- American Shorthorn Herd Book and the Canadian Shorthorn Herd Book. POLLED DURHAM CATTLE 19. Origin and Development. — The Polled Durham breed of cattle originated in America, particularly in the Miami Valley of Ohio, and has the distinction of being the only breed of cattle that has originated in this country. The true founda- tion of the breed, however, dates back to the dawn of the history of domestic cattle in England, for the breed is merely a branch or family of the Shorthorn breed that has been evolved by a number of breeders who conceived the idea of breeding Shorthorns without horns. Polled Durhams have been developed along two lines, the single standard and the double standard. The single-standard line of breeding had its origin in crosses of Shorthorn bulls on native muley, or hornless, cows. The term single standard is derived from the fact that animals of this line of breeding can be registered only in the American Polled Durham Herd Book. The double-standard line of breeding had its inception in what might be termed a freak of nature — the birth of horn- less calves from pure-bred Shorthorn parents. The term double standard is derived from the fact that animals of this § 48 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 17 strain are eligible to registry in both the American Polled Durham Herd Book and the American Shorthorn Herd Book. 20. The single-standard line' of breeding was established between the years 1860 and 1870. During this period several breeders located in widely separated sections, each ignorant of the work of the others, were trying to originate a breed of hornless cattle by crossing pure-bred Shorthorn bulls on native muley cows. The principal breeders engaged in this work were: William W. Crane, of Tippecanoe City, Ohio; W. S. MiUer, of Elmore, Ohio; J. F. and A. E. Burleigh, of Mazon, Illinois; and Shafor & Clawson, of Hamilton, Ohio. In dis- cussing the origin of the muley cows that were used as founda- tion stock, W. S. Miller states that among the cattle brought to this cotintry in early importations there were several vari- eties of hornless cattle. These hornless cattle, according to Mr. Miller, varied in color and other qualities, and became inter- mingled in every possible way with other cattle of the country; but no matter with what animals they were crossed, their descendents for hundreds of years persisted in maintaining the hornless character, so that ia all parts of the country there can even yet be found muleys among the native cattle. Mr. Miller further states that in nearly every herd of cattle in the country at the time of the founding of the PoUed Durham breed a few muleys were to be found; and that compared with other animals of the herds the muleys were uniformly heavier bodied and more blocky, and had every appearance of being better milkers than the homed animals. The great champion of the single-standard strain was WiUiam W. Crane, of Ohio. His method of breeding was to select native muley cows as near to the form desired as possible and breed them to registered Shorthorn bulls. Of this cross only the hornless females were saved. These, in turn, were bred to other Shorthorn bulls, and of the offspring none were saved but the polled females. This line of breeding was continued until the 4th and 5th crosses were reached. After that the polled animals were more or less interbred to fix the characters sought, which were the colors, markings, contours. 18 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE §48 and scale of the Shorthorns, to which was added that of horn- less heads. The aim was to produce practically ptire Short- horns without horns. This method is much the same as that followed by other leading breeders. It was the desire of the breeders to produce a breed that would be red in color, or nearly so, and for this reason they selected cows that were red. Much attention was given also to the milking qualities of the breed. 21. The double-standard strain of Polled Durhams has descended, as previously stated, from hornless calves having pure Shorthorn blood. Double-standard Polled Durhams have come from three families: the Gwynne, the White Rose, and the Phyllis. The Gwynnes are descended from Oakwood G-n-ynne 4th, a roan cow bred by W. S. King, of Minneapolis, Minnesota. She had loose horns, or scurs, but produced three calves that were entirely hornless. Bred to 7th Duke of HilUiiu-st 34,221, she produced in 1881 a pair of twin calves — Mollie Gwynne and Nellie Gwynne — ^that were hornless. In 1883, Oakwood GT\T.'nne 4th, to the service of Bright Eyes Duke 8th 31,894, produced a polled red bull calf that is recorded as King of Kine 87,412. In 1888, W. S. Miller ptu-- chased the two cows Nellie Gwynne and Mollie Gwynne, the bull King of Kine, and two polled heifers NeUie Gwynne 2d and Mollie Gwynne 2d. Only in one instance did King of Kine get a calf with horns, and in that instance the horns were small. 22. The White Rose division of the Polled Durhams came through the famous show buU Young Hamilton 114,169. He was a natural poUed animal bred from Shorthorn sire and dam. The PhyUis division of the Polled Diu-hams descended from Mary Louden, a nattiral polled cow from Shorthorn parents. 23. Distribution in the United States. — Polled Durhams are found in greatest numbers in Indiana, Iowa, Ohio, Illinois, North Dakota, Kansas, Kentucky, Wisconsin, Texas, and Nebraska, the numbers in these states ranking about as the order named. The breed is growing in favor principally in these states. Fu^. 8 20 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 48 24. Description. — In size, color, and general appearance, the Polled Durhams are similar to the typical Shorthorn, save that the Polled Durhams are hornless. The preferred and prevailing color is red. The breed is so much like the Short- horn that no additional description need be given. A rather rough Polled Durham cow is shown in Fig. 8 and an excellent Polled Durham bull in Fig. 9. The breed is not yet sufficiently strong in numbers and has not been handled enough for dairy purposes to furnish milk records of value. The animals have been from the first, and continue to be, bred primarily for the development of beef qualities as their dominant character, consequently their dairy qualities must be regarded as a secondary consideration. It remains to be determined to what extent the breed will affect the interests of dairymen. 25. Registration. — The American Polled Durham Breeders' Association was organized in Chicago, November 14, 1889, and was chartered November 22, 1890. The association pub- lishes the American Polled Durham Herd Book, the first volume of which appeared in 1894. HEREFORD CATTLE 26. Origin and Development. — The Hereford breed of cattle' originated in Herefordshire, England, from which it takes its name. Herefordshire is preeminently a grazing country, the conditions being favorable to a luxuriant growth of grasses. The origin of the Hereford, like that of other English breeds, is obscure. The general opinion among authors, however, is that the breed descended from the aborig- inal cattle of the country, from which descended also the Sussex and the Devon breeds, and that the original color of the animals was red. A second point agreed on by various authors is that there was an admixture of the cattle of Wales. The county of Hereford lies next to Wales and it is very prob- able that in the early development of the breed the Welsh cattle played a prominent part. To these cattle, which were § 48 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 21 white with red ears, several writers attribute the white markings of the Hereford. There is good authority that there was also an infusion of the blood of the white-faced cattle of Flanders; some writers attribute the white markings of the Herefords to this cross. Whatever the origin of these markings, they were well established by the latter part of the 18th century. The early Herefords were very active and tractable, and were highly esteemed by graziers because of their great sub- stance and depth of carcass. They were fairly early maturing, produced a good quantity and quality of beef, and brought high prices. The fact that they were large and of good draft form made them popular, as at that time cattle were raised as much or more for use at the plow and other kinds of labor as for beef and milk production. / 27. During the first half of the 19th century the Herefords began to attract considerable attention. The cause of the breed was taken up by the leading graziers, who found no cattle that surpassed the Herefords for profitable feeding on a simple grass ration. Herefords also took a leading position in the show yard, winning more prizes at the early shows than the animals of any other breed. These facts attracted wide attention, and as a restilt the breed began to extend outside of the county of Hereford. Before 1835, the breed had become established in fifteen English and Welsh counties. Certain of the early Hereford breeders of England became noted for their work in improving the breed. Of these breeders the Tomkins family has the greatest fame. Through the efforts of this family Herefords gradually matured earlier, produced less offal, and became shorter of leg and more refined in every way. In 1819, the herd of Benjamin Tomkins, consisting of 52 animals, was sold at auction, 28 head of the breeding stock bringing over $20,000. Another noted family of Hereford breeders was the Galliers. They used much the same blood in developing their herd as was used by the Tomkins family. Early 19th-century Hereford breeders of note were John Price, John Hewer, and Thomas Jeffries. John Price was an advocate of in-and-in breeding and developed a famous herd. 22 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 48 He realized over $83,000 in auction sales of Herefords. John Hewer did much to improve the breed, placing great emphasis on scale, quality, and uniformity of color. He had four favorite strains: the Countess, the Lofty, the Red Rose, and the Fanny. Hewer rented out bulls to service for large sums, and bred and owned many of the most noted Herefords of the 19th century. There is scarcely a line of Hereford breeding today that is not traceable to the Hewer stock. Thomas Jeffries rented bulls from John Hewer to improve his herd. This blending of blood brought about remarkable success and Jeffries produced many famous animals. Cotmore (376), which was bred by Jeffries, is classed as one of the best Hereford bulls of history. 28. Introduction Into America. — The first importation of Herefords into the United States was made in 1817 by Henry Clay, of Lexington, Kentucky. A few other importations followed shortly after but the breed did not make much pro- gress in the United States until about 1840. The first person to make extensive importations and who, probably, has done more for the breed in the United States than any other person, was William H. Sotham, a native of Herefordshire, England, who had emigrated to New York. In 1839, Mr. Sotham made an importation of Hereford cattle, selling a half interest in them to Erastus Coming, of Albany, New York. In 1840, in connection with Mr. Coming, he made an importation of twenty-one Hereford cows and heifers, and a 2-year-old Hereford bull. In the same year he made another importation of ten Hereford heifers and a bull. For a number of years he exhibited his Herefords at fairs in New York State, Ohio, Missouri, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania, and distributed his stock into all parts of the country. Mr. Sotham was succeeded by his son, T. F. B. Sotham, a prominent advocate of the Herefords in the United States. In 1860, F. W. Stone, of Guelph, Canada, began the import- ing and breeding of Herefords, some of his animals subse- quently furnishing the foundation for many of the herds in America. About 1875, T. L. Miller, of Beecher, Illinois, made § 48 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 23 his first importation. Mr. Miller was one of the greatest promoters of the breed in its early history in this country, owning at one time the best Hereford herd in America. He founded and for several years edited the American Hereford Herd Book. 29. Even though these several importations had been made, the Hereford did not gain a strong foothold in the United States until about 1880, when the western range country was opened. The Hereford proved its adaptability to that country and con- sequently a large expansion in the Hereford trade took place; this soon placed the breed second in point of numbers in the United States, the Shorthoim breed being first. Importations were made in 1880 by T. L. Beecher and C. M. Culbertson, of Illinois, and H. C. Burleigh, of Maine. M. H. Cochrane, of Hnihurst, Canada, also made extensive importations in 1880 and the succeeding years, and founded a noted herd. A number of choice Herefords were imported in 1881 by Adams Earl, of Lafayette, Indiana, who was one of the most successfxol Hereford breeders in America. Importations were made in 1882 by Gudgell & Simpson, of Independence, Missouri, and Earl & Stewart, of Lafayette, Indiana. The three most prominent and widely distributed strains, or families, of Here- fords, in the United States are descended from the imported bulls Anxiety, 2,238 (5,188), The Grove 3d 2,490 (5,051), and Lord Wilton (4,740). 30, Description. — In general conformation, the Hereford represents the beef type to an extreme, having a broad, deep, compactly built, thick-fleshed body set on short legs. The head indicates good feeding qualities, being short, wide, and sometimes slightly dished in the face, with a capacious mouth and wide nostrils. The horns are white or waxy yellow, often coarser and considerably longer than those of the Shorthorn; in cows and steers they are often a little elevated, but in bulls they are usually drooping. The neck is unusually short and blends well with the shoulders, which are smooth and well covered. The neck frequently carries a rather heavy dewlap and brisket, which is a point to be discouraged. The chest 24 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 48 is wide and deep, and the heart girth is good, indicating a good constitution. The short neck, capacious chest, well-covered shoulders, and full shoulder vein give the Hereford an unusually good front, one of the most striking features of animals of the breed. The back is broad and straight, with a wide thick loin. The ribs are well sprung and deep, the back and ribs carrying a large amount of flesh. The weak point of the Here- ford is the hindquarters, as the rump is inclined to be sloping and the thighs lacking in thickness and depth. These defects, however, are being corrected by the best breeders. The skin is rather thin and covered with a long, thick, mossy coat. The breed is a little inclined to coarseness in the bone. 31. In Fig. 10 is shown a Hereford cow and in Fig. 11 a Hereford bull, both being typical animals of the breed. The color of the Hereford is red with white markings. The most common markings are a white face, a white stripe on top of the neck and sometimes part of the way down the back, white on the legs from the hock down, and more or less white on the belly. White may occur to a greater or less extent on any part of the body. The face is universally white, although occasionally a calf is dropped with spots on the face, showing a tendency to revert back to the old mottled-face character. The ears are usually red or spotted, and red spots around the eyes are common. The red may vary from light to dark, but a rich medium red is most desired. In size the Hereford ranks a little below the Shorthorn, but cannot be criticized for lack of size and scale. The bulls often weigh as much as 2,200 pounds and the cows 1,500 pounds or more. 32. Herefords, like the Shorthorns, are capable of adapting themselves to various conditions of life. Being heavy and large of frame, they are best adapted to level land and to con- ditions where they have an abundant supply of feed. They are deficient in milking qualities and are not suitable for condi- tions where a dual-purpose breed is desired, but in the pro- duction of beef they are unexcelled. Herefords have proved to be especially well adapted to range conditions and are used more extensively for the improvement of the cattle on the ■^^ff'pft^' ., . .-.,1-,^ -.. *--■■, -::£a::-:; ' ■ '*»i ^«. ii%.i^k Fig. in Fu;. a 26 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 48 ranges of the West and Southwest than are the animals of any other breed. They are exceptionally robust and hardy in constitution, are good feeders, and take on flesh rapidly. The Hereford is unexcelled as a grazer and makes a good carcass on grass alone; on this account the breed is well suited to Western and Southwestern ranges. When fed, however, the Hereford is a good feeder and makes a prime carcass of beef. The quality of the meat is above criticism; it is tender, juicy, and of a good flavor, and the fat and lean are well marbled. The carcass carries a large amount of meat on the valuable parts and dresses out with a small percentage of offal. The Hereford matures early, the calves being used extensively for the production of prime baby beef. The Herefords are good breeders, breeding regiilarly to an advanced age. They cross well with the Shorthorn, but not so well with other beef breeds, and are valuable for grading up common beef herds. 33. Polled Herefords. — For the last quarter of a century or more there has been an increasing demand in the United States for hornless, or polled, cattle. The excellent beef qualities of the Hereford being fully recognized, a few of the breeders have been attempting for a number of years to develop a horn- less strain of the breed that will retain all the good qualities of the Herefords, but be without horns. At the present time it appears that these breeders will be successful. A polled Hereford cow is shown in Fig. 12 and a polled Hereford bull in Fig. 13. The cow is too high set and is rather long in the neck and face for a typical beef animal ; the bull is of much better conformation. 34. Registration. — In England the registration of Hereford cattle is in charge of the Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association, which publishes the Hereford Herd Book. T. L. Miller, of Illinois, published in 1881 the flrst American Hereford Herd Book. The same year the American Hereford Breeders' Association was organized; this association now has charge of the Hereford registration in this country. Fig. 12 21 Fir,. i;i 28 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 48 ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE 35. Origin and Development. — The Aberdeen- Angus breed of cattle is indigenous to the counties of Aberdeen and Forfar in Scotland. Forfar County was formerly called Angus. At an early period of the history of the breed there arose a con- troversy as to the name. The Aberdeenians wanted to call the cattle Aberdeens, and residents of Angus wanted to call them Angus. Finally, as a compromise, the name Aberdeen- Angus was adopted. The origin of the breed is purely a matter of speculation. Among the wild cattle of Britain were polled animals, and it is possible the Aberdeen-Angus may have descended from these. A belief is held by certain Scotch writers that the breed is a sport from a homed black breed that formerly existed in Scotland. Hornless cattle have existed in Aberdeen and Angus for many years, being known by the Scotch farmers as "dodies" and "humlies." The improved Aberdeen- Angus cattle have descended directly from these native polled animals. 36. Noted early improvers of the Aberdeen- Angus were Hugh Watson, William McCombie, WUliam Fullerton, and Sir George Macpherson Grant. Hugh Watson, of Forfar, was the first great improver of the breed. His ambition was aroused by a visit to the English Shorthorn country at about 1815. He began his work with a small herd of selected black cows and a black bull named Tamty Jock. The work of Watson did much to make the Aberdeen-Angus cattle earlier matur- ing, heavier fleshed, and blockier than they had been before. William McCombie established his herd in 1830. He was a strong believer in the importance of individual merit coupled with good pedigree, and emphasized the value of the sire. McCombie founded the Pride and the Queen families, two of the most famous tribes of the breed. In 1878, he exhibited his herd at the Paris International Exposition, winning the grand championship against all breeds and attracting inter- national attention. McCombie is considered by many to be the most distinguished improver and promoter of the breed. § 48 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 29 William FuUerton established a herd in 1834 and added much to the prestige of the breed through the use of the bull Pan- mure (51). Sir George Macpherson Grant is considered the most impor- tant of modem Aberdeen- Angus breeders, his herd having been considered since 1880 as the premier herd of Scotland. A number of the best bulls of the breed produced in the last quarter of a century were bred by Grant. Some of the most famous of his bulls are Juryman (421), Bushranger (732), Ermine Bearer 1,749, King of Trumps 2,690, Justice 854, Judge 473, Prince Ito (50,006), Bion 36,986, Emulus 20,417, EbHto 50,098, and Equestrian 34,216. The cows Erica 184 and Coquette 2,538 are among the most famous of the Grant cows. The Aberdeen-Angus families in special favor at the present time are: the Queen, the Erica, the Pride, the Blackbird, the Heather Bloom, the Nosegay, and the Coquette. There are many other families of merit, of course, but these are the most popular. 37. Introduction Into America.— The first importation of Aberdeen-Angus cattle into America was made in 1873 by George Grant, of Victoria, Kansas, the shipment consisting of three bulls. These bulls were used on the homed cattle of the Indian Territory and Northern Texas, getting a large percentage of calves that were black and hornless. Two of the bulls were exhibited at the Kansas City fair the same year of their importation, where they excited admiration and curios- ity. The first Aberdeen- Angus cow to come to America was, with two bulls, imported into Canada in 1876 by Professor William Brown, of the Ontario Agricultural College. In 1878, Anderson & Findlay, of Lake Forest, Illinois, made an importation of five cows and one bull. This firm was the first prominent exhibitor of the Aberdeen-Angus cattle in the central west. Anderson & Findlay built up a valuable herd and have been successful exhibitors at leading state fairs. Importations were made in 1879 by F. B. Redfield, of Batavia, New York, and in 1880 by George Whitfield, of Rougemont, 30 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 48 Quebec. Mr. Whitfield imported the famous bull Judge (1,150), which was afterwards sold to Messrs. J. S. and W. R. Goodwin. 38. In 1881, Gudgell & Simpson, of Independence, Missouri, imported over thirty head, one of the largest lots ever brought to America. This firm exhibited a herd in 1882 which was awarded grand sweepstakes over all breeds at the Kansas City fair. The herd of Gudgell & Simpson was the medium through which many Aberdeen-Angus were distributed throughout the western part of the United States. Other importations made in 1882 were those of Henry & Matthews, of Kansas, and Geary Brothers, of London, Ontario. The latter exhibited the first Aberdeen-Angus steer seen at an American fat-stock show, the famous Black Prince, imported from Scotland in 1883. Geary Brothers probably imported more high-class animals than any other importers, and held several public sales of Aberdeen-Angus. Besides those mentioned, others who imported Aberdeen- Angus and founded herds in 1881 and 1882 were I. N.' Hine, of Milan, Ohio; Mossom Boyd, of Bob- caygeon, Ontario; J. H. Pope, of Ontario; and M. H. Cochrane, of Hillhurst, Canada. One of the most famous of early American Aberdeen-Angus herds was that of F. W. Harvey, of Chicago, which was estab- lished on his farm at Turlington, Nebraska. In charge of this herd was placed William Watson, a son of Hugh Watson, the famous Scotch breeder. Mr. Harvey imported two bulls and several heifers in 1882, and from these and other purchases he built up his herd. The Turlington herd made its appear- ance in the show yard in 1883, but was defeated by the herd of Gudgell & Simpson, but in 1884 its success began. That year it won grand sweepstakes over all breeds at the Nebraska state fair, and from that time until its dispersion in 1890 the Turlington herd was a leading winner at western shows. The great breeding centers for Aberdeen-Angus cattle are the following states, given in the order of their importance: Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Kentucky, Michigan, Texas, North Dakota, West Virginia, and Virginia. The Fig. 14 "■ '' T ^^*^^^^**' ■ ^^ ■|s^^^»«**^r»r<5^, *J V'*"^ " ^- '-*Al.«i Fig. > I I I I — r- Fig. 23 6 feet long, making a floor 6 feet wide and 16 feet long. The scantlings are beveled at each end like sled runners, and a hole is bored in the end of the middle scantling of each plat- form for a clevis so that the floor can be dragged from one place to another. This construction is illustrated in Fig. 23, 28 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE §50 in which (a) is a plan view, (6) a side view, and (c) an end view of one of the platforms. The bunk should be constructed of oak, as it is durable and the cheapest in the end. The bed, or box, should be made of 2"X6" stuff, the side and bottom pieces 16 feet long and the end pieces 3 feet long. The end pieces are set 2 inches inside of the ends of the side and bottom pieces, making a box the inside dimensions of which are 3 ft. X 15 ft. 4 in., and 4 inches deep. The six posts should be 4"X4" pieces 2 feet 6 inches long and beveled off at the top so as to shed water and so that there may be no sharp comers to injure the cattle. The crossties imder the feed box should be 1"X6" pieces and long enough to reach across. Jfc tzi (a) - % 1 \ -.; Jl) l[ /h) 1 ; ^^^^ \^^ (c) Fig. 24 After the bunk is made it should be inverted and 2"X4" strips 5 feet long nailed crosswise to the bottom of the posts. This length wiU allow' the strips to project 6 inches past the post on each side, as shown in the illustration. The two plat- forms shotold then be placed in position about 3 feet apart, and the bunk set on them. The bunk is sectired to the platforms by boring a hole through the crosspieces on the bottom of the posts and through the floor, and dropping in bolts. Three btmks of the dimensions given will be enough to accommodate from forty-eight to fifty head of cattle. The bunks should be arranged in a row, as this is a great conve- nience in feeding, and when the bimks are so arranged there is less tendency for the cattle to go from one bunk to another than if some other arrangement were made. The platforms 150 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 29 keep the feeder and the cattle out of the mud, and all droppings and waste feed fall upon them. This gives the hogs a chance to get at the waste feed before it is lost in the mud. 20. Fences. — It is important that fences about feed lots, pastures, and paddocks in which beef and dual-purpose cattle are enclosed be strong and rigid. A fence of barbed wire is probably most commonly used and the least expensive. To be satisfactory, a fence of this kind should be at least 5 feet high and consist of from six to eight strands of wire strung on strong posts set not more than 10 feet apart and 2 to 3 feet in the ground. Woven wire is extensively used and is superior to barbed wire in appearance, durability, and safety. Fig. 25 When fences are subject to constant strain, as around bams and where cattle run on both sides, woven wire is not very satisfactory, since the cross-wires soon get out of place or broken. In such exposed positions, it is frequently found advisable to construct a plank fence such as is shown in Fig. 25. This fence is built of 2-inch planks 6 inches wide spiked to posts set 8 feet apart and 3 feet in the ground. The three lower planks are set 4 inches apart; the fourth plank is set 6 inches above the third ; and the fifth, or top, plank is set 8 inches above the fourth. The total height of the fence is 52 inches or 54 inches in case a cap board is used to finish the top as shown in the illustration. In localities where timber is plentiful, use is sometimes made of what is known as a pole fence such as is illustrated in Fig. 26. 30 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE §50 The method of construction is evident from the illustration. The usual plan is to set the upright posts a deep enough in the ground to give them considerable rigidity and set the inclined supports b just deep enough to prevent them from being easily displaced. The poles c are usually cut in 12-, 14-, or 16-foot lengths and at the ends are fastened to the posts by wire, or if the poles are of small diameter by means of heavy spikes. 21. Pinch Gate. — ^The device known as a pinch gate is really a sort of adjustable staU in which an animal can be closely confined. It afifords a convenient means for securing cattle during castrating, dehorning, branding, treating wounds. Pig. 26 and on other occasions when it is necessary to get hands on an animal. In the construction of the pinch gate described here, three strong posts are required. Two of these posts, marked a and b, are placed at the front of the pinch gate and the third post c is placed at the rear end of the gate, this arrangement being illustrated in Fig 27, which is a top view of the finished pinch gate. These posts will often be subjected to severe strains when the gate is in use, and it is recommended that they be firmly anchored by setting them in concrete. Each of the front posts has hung to it a 12-foot gate and to the rear post is hung a gate 2 feet 6 inches long. The manner in which these gates are adjusted to form an enclosed space for § 50 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 31 confining an animal is shown in Fig. 27, in which d is the right-hand gate, e is the left-hand gate, and / is the short, rear gate. If the pinch gate is btdlt in connection with an alley, as is usually the case, the alley should be narrow enough to be closed by one of the 12-foot gates when it is swung open. The right-hand gate and the rear gate can be brought together at the right-hand rear comer of the enclosure, at which point there is no post, but the two gates can be fastened together by means of a bar on the rear gate that passes through a hasp on the right-hand gate and is fastened with a key. The left- hand gate swings clear of the rear post, but may be fastened to it if desired by means of a slip bar in the gate. If it is desired to stiU further confine an animal, the left-hand gate may be swung in and secured at the desired point by means of notches g on the rear gate. A piece of strap iron J inch thick and 3 inches wide is so bent as to form these notches and attached securely to the middle plank of the rear gate. Since the gates, like the posts, are likely to be subjected to severe strains, it is advisable to construct them largely of 2"X6" cypress or oak liunber, using bolts to fasten the pieces together. The 2"X6" upright pieces at the ends of the gates shotdd be mortised in such a manner as to fit one on each side of the horizontal planks. The middle upright will be strong enough if a piece of 1"X6" material is used on each side of the gate without mortising. A brace of 1"X6" material should be attached on each side of the gate extending from the bottom of the hinged end diagonally up to the top of the middle upright as shown in the illustration. The finished gate is 32 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE §50 41 feet high, measured on the uprights. The five horizontal planks are of 2"X6" material, the spacing between the planks, ^End of rear ^a^ Pig. 28 beginning at the top, being 7, 6| 4i and 3J inches. This construction is illustrated in Fig. 28, which is a view from the right-hand side of the enclosure. In Fig. 29 at a is seen an end view of the right-hand gate, from which the method of mortising each 2"X6" upright 1 inch deep to receive the horizontal planks will be evident. The left-hand gate is made like the right-hand gate, but it is provided with a slip bar of wood to secure it where desired on the rear gate. The small gate, hung on the rear post, is made of the same material as the side gates. The dimensions and construction of the former are shown in Fig. 29. A frame containing a stanchion is hinged to one of the front posts, as shown in Fig. 30. The stanchion is of the same material as the gates, except that the two upright pieces next to the posts of the pinch gate are of 3"X4" material. About Fig. 29 50 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 33 2 inches from the top and 4 inches from the bottom of the uprights axe crosspieces a of 2"X6" material, one on each side of the uprights. A third pair of crosspieces b is placed so that their upper edges wiU be about 2 feet from the grotmd. The uprights,, which are 4 inches thick, are mortised 1 inch deep on each side for the 2"X6" crosspieces, leaving a 2-inch space for the pieces c and d that are used to secvtre an animal's head. The piece c of the stanchion is of 2"X6" material and is set ia the frame and bolted 2 inches from the upright of the frame. The piece d of the stanchion is of the same material and has its lower end bolted by a single bolt to the middle crosspieces and the upper end free. The upper end is cut to fib against the upright of the frame, when open, to give a wider opening than would otherwise be possible to the stanchion. The pieces c and d of the stanchion are hewn out 2 inches deep a foot above the middle crosspiece to give more room for an. animal's neck. Holes are bored through the upper crosspieces as shown so that a bolt may be used to close the stanchion as far as the neck of the animal wiU permit. If the stanchion is to be used for animals with wide horns, it may be desirable to set it in front of the posts instead of between them, as this wiU allow the end uprights to be placed farther apart and permit the stanchion to open wider. This would, of course, necessitate using longer crosspieces for the stanchion. In case the pinch gate is to be used in dehorning operations, it is well to place an iron ring on the middle crosspieces, as shown in Fig. 30, so that the animal's nose can be drawn down and secured during the operation. A floor of rough concrete or planks with cleats on them should be provided, as the animals will soon tear up the dirt if no floor is placed under them. Pig. 30 §50 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 35 22. Breeding Rack, or Crate. — Some cattlemen consider it advisable to make use of a breeding rack of some kind, particularly in cases when heavy bulls are employed for serving light heifers. Although it is true that such a device is not absolutely necessary and that probably the majority of cattle raisers do not make use of one, there are nevertheless cases in which it would be a valuable adjunct to the equipment of an up-to-date establishment. A satisfactory breeding crate is illustrated in Fig. 31, and a dimensioned drawing of the same crate is shown in Fig. 32. From these views any carpenter will have no difficulty in constructing one like it. A particularly desirable feature of this crate is the adjustable stanchion by means of which it can be used with small heifers or large cows. In Fig. 32 an arrow indicates the direction in which the stan- chion may be moved forwards and dotted lines through the two horizontal pieces indicate holes through which a bolt may be dropped to secure the stanchion at any desired position. 23. Dehorning Shears. — In Fig. 33 are shown three of the principal types of dehorning shears used by cattlemen. In (a) is shown what is usually spoken of as the slant-blade 36 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 50 dehorner; in {b) is shown the V-blade dehomer; and in (c) is shown the Newton & McGee dehomer. All of these will do satisfactory work when the blades are kept in good condition. In the operation of dehorning, the shears should be placed close to the base of the horn, so close, in fact, that when the horn is cut off a small rim of the skin and flesh at the base of the horn is taken with the horn. Experience has proved that by this method the wotmd will heal qmckly and the horn will not grow subsequently ; if the horn is cut in much outside of this point, it wiU continue to grow and make an unsightly stub. Some calf dehomers are on the market with which calves may be successftilly dehorned about the time the horns start. As a rule, however, young cattle are dehorned when they are about a year old, because up to that age the young cattle with horns wiU do no damage and at the age mentioned an animal is in better condition to recover quickly from the operation than is a young calf. 24. Bull Rings. — Bulls shotdd be ringed before they are a year old, or, in other words, before they show any signs of becoming vicious. With the bull ring that is most commonly used it is necessary to make an opening through the tissue between the nostrils. This punctttre can be made with a good sharp trocar or even with a pitchfork tine. Care should be taken to see that what- ever tool is used for ptmcturing is thoroughly clean before it is used. ^■°- ^* A ring of the type known as a self- piercing bull ring, one of which is shown in Fig. 34, can be inserted without previously making a puncture. The ring is simply opened, placed in position in the bull's nose, and the points then brought together. A locking device is provided to prevent the ring from opening after it is once in position. 25. Salt Boxes. — Salt boxes should be provided for cattle both in the pasture and in the feed lot. These boxes may be made 1 foot square or larger and 10 inches deep, and should §50 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 37 be placed under cover, if possible, where the cattle wUl have access to them, and at a convenient height. A good height is about 30 inches from the ground to the top of the box. In case the box is to be set out of doors in the pasture and unpro- tected, it should be made out of 2-inch planks and be 2 feet square and 1 foot deep. This will make it sufEciently heavy and strong as not to be easily upset or broken. 26. Dipping Tank. — ^A tank in which beef and dual-purpose cattle may be dipped for the destruction of skin parasites or for the treatment of skin diseases is often a valuable adjunct to the other equipment just described. This is particularly the case in the West and Southwest, where cattle scab or mange is a somewhat common disease, and also in the South where the so-called tick fever prevails. The essential features of a dipping equipment are a tank large enough to permit of submerging an animal, a chute with a smooth incline through Fig. 35 which the animals may be sent into the tank, and a draining pen where the animals are kept for a short time after they emerge from the tank and where the solution that drips from them may be collected and rettimed to the dipping tank. In Fig. 35 is illustrated a general plan of a cattle-dipping plant, in which the chute leading to the tank is shown at a, the tank at b, and two draining pens at c. In this case the gate d is so arranged that in one position it closes the right- hand pen and leaves a passage from the tank to the left-hand 38 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE §50 pen; when the gate is swung to the other side a passage to the right-hand pen is opened and the left-hand pen is closed. In this way it is possible to hold one pen of animals while the other is beiag filled, then release the first lot and fill the pen again while those in the second pen are draining. Dipping tanks are usually of steel, concrete, or wood. It is likely that in most cases a tank of concrete or steel will be found more economical and more satisfactory, in the end, than one of wood, on account of their greater durability and freedom from leakage, and the cost is only slightly greater than that of texHo. Fig. 36 wood. Steel dipping tanks can be purchased from most dealers who handle water tanks. A concrete dipping tank can be constructed by making a form of Itunber, the form being of the size and shape desired for the inside dimensions of the finished tank. This form is then placed in an excavation that is large enough to receive it and at the same time allow space enough at the ends, sides, and bottom for the concrete wall. A concrete mixture such as is recommended for bam foundations is satisfactory for dipping- tank construction. Some reenforcing material such as iron rods, woven wire or ordinary fence wire, should be embedded 39 40 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 50 in the walls as they are being filled in with concrete. After the concrete has set and the wooden form has been removed, the interior of the tank shotild be washed with a thin paste of piire cement for the purpose of sealing any cracks and interstices and making the tank water-tight. Wooden tanks in knock-down form may be purchased from some dealers in stockmen's supplies. In Fig. 36 is shown a general view of such a tank assembled, and details and dimen- sions of the same tank are shown in Fig. 37. An experienced carpenter or woodworker would doubtless be able to construct a tank along the same general lines as the one illustrated, but the work must be carefully done to insure a water-tight tank. An exhaustive description of the detailed drawing in Fig. 37 is scarcely necessary here, for it is sufficiently explicit to enable a competent workman to do the job, and unless such a workman is available it will perhaps be advisable to buy a tank outright, for a poorly constructed tank will be found to be extremely unsatisfactory and wasteful. FEEDS FOR BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 27. The general principles of feeding as set forth in a section devoted to the subject are, of course, applicable in the case of beef and dual-pupose cattle as in that of any class of farm animal. The discussion here presented is not intended to be complete with reference to the feeds mentioned, but rather to point out special considerations with reference to particular feeds, that are of importance in feeding beef and dual-purpose cattle. CONCENTRATED FEEDS 28. Com. — Of all the concentrates, com is the most largely used for the feeding of beef and dual-purpose cattle. It has been said that com can be grown in every state in the Union, but it is most profitably grown in what is known as the com belt, which includes the seven states of Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska and those immediately § 50 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 41 adjoining, and it is in this belt that beef production is most extensive. Com is pecuharly suitable for use as a fattener, as its relatively high content of carbohydrates adapt it for this purpose rather than for the promotion of growth. Where com flourishes no other plant furnishes such a large amount of nutrients per acre stdtable for fattening cattle. In general, there are three kinds of corn that shoiild be men- tioned in this connection, namely, flint com, "dent com, and sweet com. In flint com, the starch is in a hard, flinty condi- tion in which it is difl&cult for an animal to crush it, and it is more necessary with this variety of corn than with others to grind it for feeding to animals. In dent corn, a part of the starch is hard and part of it is in a floury condition, which makes the kernel more easily masticated by animals. The difference, if any, in the value of White dent and Yellow dent for feeding purposes is so slight that it cannot be measured. Sweet com has a very hard, shrunken kernel, and is seldom used except to cut up green as forage in the summer or early fall. The dent varieties carry a smaller proportion of cob to grain than the flint varieties. The cob of com has very little feeding value even when finely ground, but sometimes serves a useful purpose in giving more bulk to a ration and furnishing a certain quantity of roughage. The practice of grinding corn, cob and aU, or crushing it for feeding purposes, has gained considerable favor with cattle feeders. At the Illinois Experiment Station, how- ever, a test was made from which it appears that for winter feeding, at least, broken ear com is as satisfactory if not more so than either com meal or com-and-cob,meal for feeding to cattle. Certain by-product feeds derived from com in the process of manufacturing starch, oil, and other materials, are also used for feeding. As examples of some of the common by-product feeds gluten feed, gluten meal, germ-oil meal, and hominy feed may be mentioned. Some of these are useful as supplementary feeds for cattle. However, if there is an abundance of corn grown on a farm it is seldom advisable to purchase extensively the com by-product feeds. 42 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 50 29. Wheat. — ^Wheat is seldom used in the feeding of beef or dual-purpose cattle. There is at least one by-product, how- ever, in the manufactiure of flour which is most excellent in forming part of the ration of beef-breeding cattle and young and growing cattle, and this is, wheat bran. It is a bulky feed containing considerable woody fiber, but in practice it has proved to be one of the best supplementary feeds to be used in connection with com and in some instances with oats for the feeding of beef -breeding cattle and young stock. Wheat middlings, shorts, and low-grade flour, the latter being frequently spoken of as red-dog flour, are all similar products, but they are not much used in cattle feeding because of being too fine. 30. Oats. — ^Whole or ground oats form a most excellent feed for use in connection with corn meal and wheat bran in the ration of beef -breeding cows, bulls, and calves, although the price of oats in recent years has been such as to render their extensive use inadvisable. 31. Cottonseed Meal. — One of the most extensively used by-product feeds for the purpose of supplementing corn is cottonseed meal, and since this material is rich in protein and com has a relatively low protein content such a combination is well suited to the requirements of cattle feeders. In the manufacture of cottonseed oil, the usual method is to remove the hulls of the seeds and subject the remaining portion to heat and pressure for the extraction of the oil. The residue, when dried and ground, constitutes cottonseed meal. Another process of oil extraction consists in simply subjecting the entire seed, unheated, to extremely high pressvire. The residue of this process, commonly sold in cakes, is known as cold-pressed cottonseed cake. In this product there is a much larger pro- portion of the hulls and Hnt than in ordinary cottonseed meal, hence it has a correspondingly lower feeding value. In the South, where cottonseed meal is relatively cheap and abtmdant, it is fed at the rate of 6 to 8 and in some cases 12 potmds of meal per steer per day. In such instances the cattle are § 50 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 43 seldom fed more than 4 months, and doubtless the general average is considerably less than this. In the North, cotton- seed meal is advantageously used in the fattening of cattle at the rate of about 3 pounds per 1,000 potmds live weight of cattle daily. Cattle may be fed this ration over a considerable period without danger, whereas it is not deemed advisable to feed, for any considerable time, as large quantities as are fed in the South. 32. Oil Meal. — ^The material known as oil meal or as ground linseed cake is a by-product feed, being the residue left in the manufacture of linseed oil from flaxseed. Flaxseed itself is seldom fed to cattle because of its high commercial value. There are two processes used in the manufacture of linseed oU which gives to the by-product feed the name of either the old-process oil meal or new-process oil meal. The new-process oU meal is manufactured by treating the crushed and heated seed with naphtha. By the old process, the oil is extracted by pressure, as in the production of cottonseed oil. Nearly all of the hnseed oil in the United States is made by the old process, and hence nearly all of the oil meal offered for sale is old-process meal. The protein in the old-process meal is somewhat more digestible than that in the new-process meal. 33. Soybeans. — The soybean has not been extensively used in the production of beef, largely because it has not been extensively grown where beef production is a prominent industry of the farm. It is beKeved that soybeans, which are rich in protein and fat, will eventually be more largely used in cattle feeding. They should always be ground and used in connec- tion with other feeds. They could be advantageously used where com is extensively grown, in about the same propor- tion that cottonseed meal is now used. The entire plant could also be cut up and put into the silo along with the corn and thus make a better balanced ration for cattle-feed- ing purposes and perhaps without the necessity for the pur- chase of other concentrated feeds rich in protein. 44 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 50 KOUGHAGE FEEDS 34. Alfalfa Hay. — The alfalfa plant floiirishes in the West- em States, reaching its highest state of perfection in California and producing large yields in Colorado, Utah, Montana, and adjoining states. Of late years, considerable alfalfa has been successfully grown throughout the corn belt, and often corn- belt farmers have found it profitable to ship in western-grown alfalfa for feeding to their beef and dual-purpose cattle. Alfalfa hay is of a character that keeps the animal in thrifty condition and is very valuable to use in connection with com for finishing beef animals. It puts on a bloom that it is impossible to put on with any other kind of roughage, and the large amount of protein it contains makes it possible to maintain animals almost entirely on alfalfa, as it forms practically a balanced ration and is very palatable. 35. Clover Hay. — ^What is known as medium red clover hay is the standard roughage of the central and eastern parts of the United States. When cut at about full bloom it furnishes a higher proportion of digestible nutrients than when cut at any other time. After the hay passes through the full-bloom stage it becomes more woody, the leaves and finer stems fall off, and the hay is less nutritious and less palatable. On the other hand, if cut before this time the hay contains too large a percentage of water to be profitably handled. Clover hay does not carry so large a percentage of protein as does alfalfa hay, but on account of the difficulty in securing a satisfactory stand of alfalfa in the Central States, clover is much more widely grown and is looked upon p,s one of the standard crops on every well-managed farm. One-half to two-thirds of the ration for maintaining cattle can easily be made up of clover hay, and, with the exception of alfalfa, there is no better roughage that is better for fattening livestock. 36. Soybean Hay. — Soybeans will, as a rule, do well south of the forty-second parallel of latitude, which includes most of the com belt, and certain hardier varieties are success- fully grown in Northern Wisconsin. Soybean hay is of value § 50 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 45 because it can be grown in a short period of time and is a means of suppl3dng protein in a ration when other nitrogenous feeds are lacking. A serious drawback to growing soybeans is the difficulty in harvesting, as they are hard to cut and cure properly. Although little definite experimental work has been done along that line, soybeans promise to be good to use for silage in connection with com. 37. Cowpea Hay. — Cowpea hay may be compared to soybeans in many respects. Cowpeas are less hardy than soybeans, but are a good crop south of the central part of the corn belt. In sections where cowpeas thrive, they are ranked above soybeans on account of their greater palatability and having finer, less woody stems. A Missouri feeding experiment, comparing the value of different roughages, showed that cowpea hay and clover hay were of equal value in producing gains when fed with shelled corn, but that cheaper gains were made when a carbonaceous roughage, such as com stover, was substituted for a part of the legimiinous roughage. When properly cured, cowpea straw has proved to be nearly as valu- able a roughage as clover hay. 38. Timothy Hay. — Timothy hay has a high commercial value, due to its extensive use as a feed for horses doing hard work in cities, but it does not contain a proper proportion of nutrients and is not sufficiently palatable to make a satisfactory feed for cattle. It wiU usually be foimd more profitable to sell timothy at its market value and buy a leguminous hay to supply roughage for cattle. The feeding value of timothy for mature animals is increased if it is well matured. For young, , growing animals, timothy should be cut before it is mature, as at this stage it is more palatable and gives more btolk than later. The fact that the percentage of protein in timothy hay is very low makes it necessary to use a large quantity of nitro- genous concentrates to balance properly the ration either for growing or fattening animals, and this would in itself be expen- sive, not considering the high commercial value of the timothy hay. It has been found by experiment that it is in a class with 46 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 50 corn stover as a feed for cattle. A farmer ought also to take into consideration the fact that the growing of a crop of timothy for hay is very hard on the soil, while a crop of clover or alfalfa can be so handled as to add fertility to the soil as well as to furnish feed for the animals grown on the farm. 39. Oat-and-Pea Hay. — The combination of oats and peas is more generally used as a soiling crop in a dairy region than for hay. The yield from oat-and-pea hay exceeds that of clover, and on account of the high feeding value of the former, wUl probably receive more attention of cattlemen in the future than it now does. At present, this crop is grown most exten- sively in the northern section of the country beyond the com belt. It is an excellent crop to sow early in the spring when clover and other meadows have been winter killed and it seems advisable to augment the hay crop. 40. Prairie Hay. — Good prairie hay has practically the same composition and feeding value as timothy hay for cattle. Prairie hay is not advised for use as a roughage in cattle feed- ing except where it is the only roughage available. Formerly, prairies in the West furnished large quantities of prairie hay, but with the advance of farming, relatively small areas of prairie hay remain. 41. Millet. — ^At the best, millet is not a palatable or a valuable feed for cattle, but, because of its hardy nature, quick maturity, and heavy production, it is sometimes used. Millet is valuable as a catch crop, but, on account of its woody nature, it should be thickly seeded to prevent the hay from being too coarse. For feeding ptuposes, millet should be cut before it is mature — ^in fact, soon after heading — ^because at maturity the stem becomes woody and the seed, being small and hard, is not easily digested. While millet is harmful to some animals when fed heavily, a limited quantity can be fed to cattle safely if it is not allowed to become too ripe and if care is used in feeding. A serious objection to miUet is that it depletes the soil, probably worse than any other crop. Millet . hay shotild be fed sparingly to cattle, as when fed abundantly it frequently causes scours and digestive disorders. § 50 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 47 42. Cottonseed Hulls. — The hulls that are a by-product of cottonseed meal and cottonseed oil manufacture are widely used in the southern states as a cattle roughage. Various feeding experiments have proved that cottonseed hulls are of less feeding value than equal weights of either oat straw or corn stover. Although cottonseed hulls may be profitably used in the South, their feeding value wiU not warrant using them elsewhere as a commercial feed, since the expense of han- dling and shipping may easily exceed their feeding value, espe- cially compared with other roughages that are usually available at a low cost. The feeding value of cottonseed hulls depends on the process by which the seed is removed from the hull, for sometimes part of the seed remains in the hull, in which case the feeding value is increased accordingly. 43. Com Stover. — In composition and feeding value, corn stover closely resembles timothy hay, and, under some condi- tions, com stover has proved as profitable a roughage as timothy hay in beef production. Although extensively used, it is not an ideal roughage for cattle. Different experiments have demonstrated that 1 ton of clover hay is equivalent to 3 tons of com stover for either milk or meat production. Com stover is fed extensively throughout the com belt, largely because it is a cheap roughage that cannot be profitably disposed of in any other way. Many cattle subsist upon it dtoring the greater part of the winter months. After the com is husked, the cattle may run in the field till late in winter and are then carried through the rest of the winter on shock com or shredded fodder. Cattle may be wintered at a low cost on com stover, supple- mented by a small grain ration, but com stover alone should not be depended on too largely for milk production or for grow- ing young animals. SUCCtJIiENT FEEDS 44. Silage. — ^Although silage may be made from a variety of crops, com is looked on as one of the best crops for the silo, especially in the states where the com plant flourishes. Com silage is a carbonaceous roughage, and it should therefore be 48 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 50 fed in connection with some nitrogenous feed, as cottonseed meal or alfalfa, in order to furnish a balanced ration. The value of com silage has for some time been recognized by dair5mien and its use is now rapidly increasing among the beef producers. As a roughage for wintering a breeding herd it is unexcelled, and a nimiber of valuable experiments have shown silage to be of great economical value in the finishing of cattle for the market. It forms a succulent portion of the ration and is almost invaluable as a feed to fall back on in case of a summer drouth which may destroy the pastures. The bunks for feeding sUage in simimer should be placed under a shed of some kind so that the sun will not strike the silage, as the hot sun wLU quickly dry it out and thus render it less palatable; also, the silo should be of such a size that at least 2 inches will be removed daily. For winter feeding, the bunks may be either outside or within the sheds, as only what is cleaned up readily should be fed in any case. Silage allowed to accumu- late in troughs or about the door of the silo will become molded, and if eaten by cattle is likely to produce digestive disorders. 45. Beet Pulp. — In localities adjacent to beet-sugar facto- ries, a by-product known as beet pulp is available and is of considerable value as a cattle feed. It contains about 90 per cent, of water, but the remaining 10 per cent, contains a sufficient quantity of nutrients to warrant its use. One ton of beet pulp is said to be equal to about 200 pounds of com, and various feeding experiments seem to indicate that its value in meat production is about in this proportion. A mature animal will eat over 100 poimds of beet pulp in a day, but better results have been obtained from feeding a smaller quantity, say, from 70 to 90 pounds per day. Steers fed and fattened on beet pulp finish weU and produce a good quality of beef. The pulp is preserved in sUos, or in pits and trenches covered over with straw and earth to keep out air. The silo is the most economical means of storing the ptdp, and by this method it may be utilized for a longer period. Beet pulp is especially valuable for winter feedi|ig, as it supplies a succulent feed at a time that such feeds are hard to furnish. The use § 50 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 49 of this material is for obvious reasons restricted to localities near beet-sugar plants, but dried beet pulp, which is identical with the product just discussed except that some of the excess of water has been removed, may be shipped to a considerable distance and fed to advantage. 46. Roots. — In many sections roots are extensively used for cattle feeding. The term roots as used here has reference to mangels, sugar beets, turnips, carrots, and rutabagas (Swed- ish turnips), which are particularly smtable for winter feeding. At that season of the year dry feeds are depended on to furnish the biilk of the feed, but any of the root crops mentioned are good to maintain the physical condition of cattle. The objec- tion to root crops is that they require much hand work, which may make them too expensive for ordinary feeding. In meat and imlk production, these crops may be classed with com, and a combination of roots with other feeds has usually given slightly better results than dry feeds alone. Since com is so extensively grown and the introduction of the sUo has given the cattlemen a succulent feed for winter feeding, roots are not grown extensively except in regions where labor is cheap and a large variety of crops will not grow. Roots are exten- sively used in Canada and England, where corn does not ripen a satisfactory crop. In other sections, roots are grown for special ptirposes, such as finishing animals for the show ring or for producing a large milk flow. The yield from the princi- cipal root crops may exceed 20 tons to the acre, but they are not considered an economical feed for the use of the average stockman: BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE (PART 4) FOUNDING OF A HERD GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 1. Before purchasing breeding stock for the founding of a herd of beef or dual-purpose cattle, a person should consider a number of points. He should take into consideration the ejctent of his experience, the amount of capital available, the ideal type of animal that he has in mind and that he hopes ultimately to produce, the adaptability of his locality to a par- ticular branch. of the cattle business, and the principal breed of cattle raised in the locaHty. In cattle breeding, as in other enterprises, an inexperienced person must proceed with caution if he is to succeed. If limited as to capital, he should begin in a small way and allow the business to expand as he gains experience. The expe- rienced man, on the other hand, may, even though lacking in capital, often profitably purchase a herd of high-class animals at the outset, the profits from the herd making up the deficiency in capital. The man with plenty of capital is privileged, of course, to start as he chooses; he may enter the business exten- sively and trust to luck, or he may employ a competent herds- man to look after his cattle. One of the essentials to the highest success in the breeding of any kind of livestock is that the breeder have in mind a COPYRIGHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED §51 2 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 definite ideal toward which to breed. The work of the great livestock breeders of all times has been characterized by per- sistent effort to attain an ideal. Unless a breeder has an ideal and constantly breeds toward it, his herd will lack the striking uniformity observed in the herds of the best breeders. So the beginner in cattle breeding should, before purchasing foundation stock for his herd, decide on the type of animal that he hopes ultimately to produce. If he has this ideal clearly in mind he can purchase breeding animals that approach the type he prefers. If a person has the privilege of selecting the place where he is to establish his herd, he should choose a locality adapted to the branch of cattle breeding he desires to undertake. For instance, if a breeder intends to sell breeding stock, he should locate where there will be a demand for his stock. The higher the grade of stock produced, however, the less important is the factor of local demand. If a person is located and is select- ing a breeding herd, his selection should be influenced to a considerable extent by the demands of the locality. No matter how successful a breeder may be, there are many advantages in breeding the same kind of cattle as those that predominate in the community. Buyers of breeding stock are more likely to visit a community where there are several herds of the same breed than where only one herd is to be foimd. Also, when new blood is to be introduced into a herd, it is more satisfactory in every way to select animals near home. SELECTING OF FOUNDATION STOCK 2. When a person has decided on the breed and type of cattle that he wishes to raise and is ready to start in the busi- ness, he is confronted with the problem of where to purchase animals reasonably. Although this problem is largely one that must be solved by each individual according to his con- ditions, is it usually the most satisfactory to purchase animals as near home as possible. The procuring of stock from neigh- boring farms saves transportation charges, enables the buyer to examine the cattle carefully with reference to merit and § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 3 healthfulness, and also makes it possible for him easily to ascertain facts regarding their breeding qualities. It is not always possible, of course, to obtain desirable stock near home. When it is impossible, the breeder will find it necessary to purchase animals either from breeders in other localities or at the large livestock markets, such as Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha, St. Louis, Pittsburg, St. Paul, and Indi- anapolis. If pure-bred animals are desired, it will be necessary, in order to be sure that they are pure-bred and to obtain their pedigrees, to make the purchase from breeders. In case grade animals are wanted, it will often prove desirable to procure them from commission men at the livestock markets. Pure-bred cattle may be purchased at private sale, or at the show ring, or at dispersion and annual sales of breeders. There is much in favor of buying at private sale. It gives the buyer time to look over the animals and satisfy himself regard- ing the health and type of the herd. In addition, it is often the case that animals can be purchased more cheaply at pri- vate sale than in any other way. In buying at the show ring the buyer must bid against other buyers who may want the animals for their show records and are, therefore, willing to pay more than they are worth for breeding purposes. Also, a show animal is likely to have been overfitted to such an extent that it win not be a siu-e breeder tmtil it returns to normal condition, and, in fact, may never get over the effects. A dispersion sale may be made because the cattle are diseased or because they are poor breeders; for this reason, a breeder should be cautious about purchasing stock at such sales. Occasionally, there is opportunity to purchase good animals at dispersion sales, but the buyer should become informed regarding the reason, for making the sale. Many of the best breeders hold regular annual sales. It is often as satisfactory to buy animals at these sales as at private sale, as the buyer has the benefit of the judgment of other cattlemen in regard to the worth of the animals. The most desirable place to purchase cows for a dual-purpose herd is a locality where the breeders are striving to produce the dual-purpose type of animal. Better animals can usually 4 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 be obtained in such a locality than in the large markets, and in addition there is less danger of disease. 3. Selecting of Beef Breeding Cows. — ^Whether the founda- tion stock of a beef breeding herd shall consist of pure-bred or grade animals is dependent on the purpose of the breeder in founding the herd. If the purpose is to raise pure-bred breed- ing stock to sell at fancy prices, it will be necessary, of course, for the breeder to select as foundation stock pure-bred, pedigreed animals. If, on the other hand, the piupose is to produce stock for the feed lot, it will usually be the most economical to select as foundation stock grade cows with a high percentage of the blood of one or more of the recognized beef breeds. When selecting either pure-bred or grade beef cows, a breeder shotdd seek for animals that have merit and are healthy. A meritorious beef -breeding cow is low set ; she has a broad, deep body; well-sprung ribs; smoothly set shoulders; a short neck; a short, broad head; a straight top line and bottom line; a long, level rump with plenty of width at the hips and pin bones; well-filled thighs, with the legs set well apart and weU fleshed to the knees and hocks; and medium-sized bone in the legs and tail. The general conformation and appearance is symmet- rical, smooth, and without angularity or coarseness on the one hand or evidence of delicacy on the other. The score card for beef breeding cattle given in a preceding Section gives the detailed requirements for animals of this class. Too much care cannot be taken to guard against securing breeding cows that are diseased. The two diseases that are to be feared most in the breeding of cattle are tuberculosis and contagious abortion. These diseases, as well as others, will be discussed in another Section. It is extremely desirable to procure cows that are as uni- form in conformation and breeding as possible, otherwise the offspring wiU vary greatly in conformation, markings, and, worst of all, in maturing qualities. A herd of cows tmiform in type and breeding, aU bred to a ptire-bred sire of the same breed, will rarely if ever produce calves that vary materially in type § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 5 or the possibility of maturing at approximately the same age. It is much more difficult to purchase grade animals that are uniform than it is pure-bred animals. One of the most important points in the selecting of beef breeding cows is to be sure that they are good breeders and mothers. Some cows are sterile and others breed very irreg- ularly. It is obvious that such animals can be kept only at a loss, unless, perhaps, they are valuable pedigreed animals, in which case the dropping of an occasional calf may warrant keeping them. It is advisable, therefore, before purchasing cows to learn all the facts possible about their breeding quali- ties and the quality of their offspring. In the case of some strains of the beef breeds, the milking qualities have become almost extinct, so much so, in fact, that the dams are unable to suckle their offspring. This is a very objectionable charac- teristic and should be discriminated against. For corn-belt and small-farm conditions it is better to pur- chase native stock than western, or range, stock. Range cattle are likely to be restless and wUd and not suited to an environment where they must be kept confined. 4. Selecting of Dual-Purpose Cows. — It is not advisable, under present conditions, to select pure-bred cows of any of the so-called dual-purpose breeds for a herd of dual-purpose cattle. Grade cows can be seciu-ed that wiU be fully as effi- cient as pure breds, and besides, will cost less. The majority of dual-purpose herds are made up of grade cows, most of which contain considerable Shorthorn blood. If grade cows are to be bought, the kind and grade must be determined by the purchaser according to his conditions. The best animals, or those having the highest efficiency in both beef and milk production, wiU be relatively high priced and hard to find. The beginner will probably find it more desirable to ptirchase a lower grade of cows, and then improve his herd by young stock that he will raise to take the places of the poorer individuals. This method is cheaper but requires a longer time to establish an efficient herd. Regardless of the grade of cows selected, aU individuals should be uniform 242^0 6 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 in conformation, so that when bred to the same sire, a vmiform lot of calves will be secured. Yotmg cows axe to be preferred, provided they are known to be breeders. A dual-purpose cow should have a clean-cut head; a broad muzzle; clear eyes; a smooth, short, but rather fine neck, indicating more milk- ing quality than is noted in the average beef animal ; smooth, well-fleshed shoulders and forearms; a deep, full heart girth; a deep, broad barrel with well-arched ribs; a straight, well- fleshed back and loin; a level, wide rump; weU-fleshed thighs that are set well apart, giving space for a good udder; a good development of aU milk-secretiag organs; well-placed legs, with a good quality of bone; and above all should be healthy and vigorous. However, the conformation of the dual-purpose cow is not so firmly estabHshed but that it wiU vary with animals of different breeding. It is even more tmdesirable to purchase cattle from the ranges as dual-purpose animals than as beef animals. Western cattle do not take kindly to handling, and in the case of matiure cows there is danger of the udders being spoiled, due to the lack of care cattle receive on the range. 5. Selecting of a Herd Bull. — There are two considerations of prime importance in the selecting of a herd btdl. The first consideration is that the buU should be pure bred ; the second is that he should have all of the characters of a tjrpical animal of the breed to which he belongs. Many persons who are not familiar with cattle think that because an animal is registered or is eHgible to registry it must have merit. This is by no means true. A pedigree or certificate of registry has to do merely with the ancestry of an animal and not with its indi- vidual qualities. If anything, a cattle raiser shotild be more particular about sectoring individual merit in a registered or a pedigreed buU than in a grade btdl, or one that is not eligible to registry. The reason for this is that a registered bull is more Ukely to stamp his character in his get than a btill of inferior breeding. In other words, an inferior registered bull is more likely to stamp his inferiority on his offspring than a medicore bull of doubtful ancestry. § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 7 Naturally, the one condition that has a tendency to limit the general use of pedigreed sires is the fact that they cost more than grade sires. However, a registered bull of good individuality can be purchased at a sufficiently reasonable price to justify most cattle raisers in buying such an animal in preference to a grade bull. It is important that the bull selected to head a herd shall be a good breeder. Some breed- ers pamper their young bulls to such an extent that the use- ftilness of the animals is impaired and consequently when they go into the herds of cattle raisers they prove tinsatis- factory. It is weU to avoid purchasing a bull that has been overfed on com, as such an animal is likely to be a poor breeder. The best policy, in order to be svire that a bull is a breeder, is to insist on the owner guaranteeing him before the purchase is made. When possible, it is well to purchase a bull from a herd that has been tested and fotmd to be free from tuberculosis. A mature bull, if a good individual, is more satisfactory than one that has just arrived at the age of serviceability, but mature bulls are more difficult to secure than young ones, and it is usually not advisable to attempt to get them, for the reason that they are often simply culls that were not good enough to sell when younger. It will generally be fotmd to be the most practical plan to ptirchase a well-grown calf or a year- ling, being careful not to give him too much work to do tmtil he is 2 years old or over. Occasionally, a tried sire that some other breeder has used for a time is available. A tried sire is, of course, always to be preferred to an untried one. BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 MANAGEMENT OF BEEF AND DUAL- PUKPOSE CATTIiE MANAGEMENT OP A BREEDING HERD COWS 6. Period of Heat in Cows. — Heifers first come into heat when they are between 4 and 18 months old. A mature cow will usually come into heat from 20 to 60 days after calving, depending on her health and whether the calf is taken from her or not. The signs of heat are much the same in the case of cattle as in the case of other farm animals. The animal shows signs of restlessness, the vulva becomes swollen and red, and there is a discharge of reddish mucus, accompanied with frequent urination. The period of heat in cows lasts from 12 to 24 hours and recurs regularly about every 21 days unless the animal becomes pregnant, in which case it ceases until after the calf is dropped. 7. Age at Which to Breed Cows. — The most common prac- tice among breeders of beef and dual-purpose cattle is to breed heifers the first time when they are about 20 to 21 months old, so that they will calve when they are about 30 months old. It is not advisable to allow heifers to go much longer than the age specified before breeding them, as there is danger that they will get too fat to breed regularly. On the other hand, they should not be bred younger, as in that case they wUl not have attained their full growth before parturition, which might result in the retarding of their development. Slight varia- tions from the age given may be made in case heifers have not made normal development ; that is, if they are poorly devel- oped at the normal breeding age the time of breeding them should be delayed somewhat. § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 9 8. Season at Which to Breed Cows. — It generally proves the most satisfactory to breed beef cows so that the calves will be dropped about the time the cows are turned onto grass in the spring. This is the most natural calving period. The date of turning cattle onto grass varies in different localities, and the time of breeding will need to be varied accordingly. In the corn-belt states the date of turning onto grass varies from the middle of April to the middle of May. As the period of gestation in cattle is, roughly speaking, 9 months, a cow should be bred in August to calve the following May. It is desirable to have calves as near the same age as possible, so that they wiU be uniform in size and condition when ready for the market. Some of the advantages of having calves come in the spring are : First, the cows are bred at a season when they are most likely to come into heat regularly and at a time when they are more likely to stand to the service of the buU and become pregnant. Second, a herd can be much more cheaply main- tained during the winter months if the cows are' not suckling calves than if they are. Third, less equipment wiU be neces- sary for suitably caring for the herd than if the calves come in the fall. Fourth, if calves come in the spring and are well cared for and liberally fed from birth to maturity, it will not be necessary to carry them through more than one winter, as with good care and management they can be matured into baby beef and sold before the second winter. When a breeder is situated so that fall calves can be prop- erly cared for, there are some arguments in favor of fall calving. A herd invariably requires a great deal of care during the season when the cows are dropping their calves, and if this is during the fall and winter months, the breeder is likely to have more time at his disposal for giving proper attention to the herd. Also, calves that are not turned onto grass imtil they are about 6 months old seem to thrive better than those that are permitted to rvin on grass when very young. Another point is that fall calves can be carried through the second win- ter on rougher, coarser feed than is possible with spring calves that are passing through their first winter. 10 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 In the case of dual-purpose cows there is considerable advan- tage in faU calving. As dual-purpose cows are to be milked, those that become fresh late in the fall will produce the most mUk during the winter when the highest price is obtained for dairy products. Cows that have been milked aU winter after having calved in the faU will be revived in milk flow when turned onto grass in the spring; thus, by having calves come in the fall a dual-purpose cow will produce a maximum quantity of milk in both winter and siunmer. In addition, if cows calve in the fall, the owner will be enabled to utilize his time in win- ter in caring for them and the calves; whereas, if they calved in the spring, the care of the herd would interfere with other farm work. As a dual-purpose calf depends for a few months on milk as its feed, if dropped in the fall it will have the advan- tage of grass the following spring when it is weaned; if dropped in the spring, however, the grass season will likely end about the time the calf is weaned. 9. Breeding of Cows. — It is not a good plan to allow a bull to run with a herd of breeding females during the breeding season. This is true from the standpoint of both cow and bull, as diuing a period of heat there would be unnecessary worry to both animals. When a cow comes into heat she shotild be turned into a paddock with the bull and allowed to remain until a satisfactory service has been made. In the case of heifers or if an extremely heavy bull is to be used, a breeding crate shoidd be made use of to prevent injury to the female. After a heifer or a cow has been served, it is best to separate her from the rest of the herd for several hours until she becomes quiet. 10. Signs of Pregnancy in Cows. — The first indication that a cow is pregnant is quietness and failure to come into heat at the regular time. A cow wiU usually begin to fleshen up in a short time after becoming pregnant, unless she is a heavy milker. After a few months an increased size of the abdomen will be noted, which wiU become more noticeable as parturition approaches. 11. Period of Gestation in Cows. — The period of gesta- tion in cows is approximately 285 days, although there is likely § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 11 to be more or less variation from this time. In Table I is given a gestation table for cows that will be found helpful in keeping records of anticipated increase in the herd. This table is made up on a basis of a gestation period of 285 days. 12. Care of Cow at Calving Time. — About a week or 10 days before a calf is expected, the cow should be placed in an enclosure by herself. During the simmier and early fall there is no better place for calving than a clean pasture or paddock. At other seasons of the year a comfortable, roomy box stall should be provided. Special care shoiild be exercised to see that the stall is clean and sanitary, for many ills that affect new-born calves are due to filthy stalls. Before the cow is placed in the stall, all loose litter should be removed and the quarters thoroughly disinfected with a coal-tar disinfectant or some such preparation, after which clean bedding, prefer- ably straw, should be supplied. All droppings and dirty bed- ding should be removed once or twice daily. 13. Parturition in Cows. — Parturition is preceded by an enlargement and swelling of the udder, and often by swelling of the abdomen in front of the udder. Several days before the birth of the young, a waxy secretion exudes from the teats and the vulva becomes red and swollen. A short time before labor pains start the belly drops, the rump flanks fall in, and the loin is depressed. When this occurs, the animal begins to show signs of uneasiness, such as lying down and rising again, and lowing. The labor pains wiU then begin, accom- panied by violent muscular contractions, which wiU result in the birth of the young. Within a short time after birth a calf wiU require feed, and it is always preferable that it should be allowed to suckle the dam, as the first milk, which is known as colostrum, exerts a purgative effect that is beneficial to the calf at this time. Usu- ally the calf win be able to rise to its feet and take its first meal within a short time after being dropped. 14. Care of Cows While Suckling Calves. — For a few days after a calf is dropped, the dam should be attended frequently 12 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE §51 TABLE I GESTATION TABLE FOR CATTLE Date of Due to Date of Due to Date of Due to Breeding Calve Breeding Calve Breeding Calve Jan. I Oct. 12 Feb. I Nov. 12 Mar. I Dec. 10 2 13 2 13 2 II 3 14 3 14 3 12 4 15 4 15 4 13 5 16 5 16 5 14 6 17 6 17 6 15 7 18 7 18 7 16 8 19 8 19 8 17 9 20 9 20 9 18 lO 21 10 21 10 19 II 22 II 22 II 20 12 23 12 23 12 21 13 24 13 24 13 22 14 25 14 25 14 23 15 26 15 26 15 24 16 27 16 27 16 25 17 28 17 28 17 26 18 29 18 29 18 27 19 30 19 30 19 28 20 31 20 Dec. I 20 29 21 Nov. I 21 2 21 30 22 2 22 3 22 31 23 3 23 4 23 Jan. I 24 4 24 5 24 2 25 5 25 6 25 3 26 6 26 7 26 4 27 7 27 8 27 5 28 8 28 9 28 6 29 9 29 7 30 10 30 8 31 II 31 9 §51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 13 TABTiT^ I— (Pontinued) Date of Breeding Due to Calve Date of Breeding Due to Calve Date of Breeding Due to Calve April I Jan. 10 May I Feb. 9 June I Mar. 12 2 II 2 10 2 13 3 12 3 II 3 14 4 13 4 12 4 15 5 14 5 13 5 16 6 15 6 14 6 17 7 8 16 17 7 8 15 16 7 8 18 19 9 18 9 17 9 20 lO 19 10 18 10 21 II 20 II 19 II 22 12 21 12 20 12 23 13 22 13 21 13 24 14 23 14 22 14 25 15 24 15 23 15 26 16 25 16 24 16 27 17 26 17 25 17 28 18 27 18 26 18 29 19 28 19 27 19 30 20 29 20 28 20 31 21 30 21 Mar. I 21 Apr. I 22 31 22 2 22 2 23 Feb. I 23 3 23 3 24 2 24 4 24 4 25 26 3 4 25 26 5 6 25 26 5 6 27 28 5 6 27 28 7 8 27 28 7 8 29 7 29 9 29 9 30 8 30 31 10 II 30 10 14 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE §51 TABLE I — (Pontinued) Date of Breeding Due to Calve Date of Breeding Due to Calve Date of Breeding Due to Calve July I April II Aug. I May 12 Sept. I June 12 2 12 2 13 2 13 3 13 3 14 3 14 4 5 6 14 15 16 4 5 6 15 16 17 4 5 6 15 16 17 7 8 17 18 7 8 18 19 7 8 18 19 9 19 9 20 9 20 10 20 10 21 10 21 II 21 II 22 II 22 12 22 12 23 12 23 13 23 13 24 13 24 14 24 14 25 14 25 15 i6 25 26 15 16 26 27 15 16 26 27 I? i8 27 28 17 18 28 29 17 18 28 29 19 20 21 29 30 May I 19 20 21 30 31 June I 19 20 21 30 July I 2 22 2 22 2 22 3 23 3 23 3 23 4 24 4 24 4 24 5 25 26 5 6 25 26 5 6 25 26 6 7 27 28 7 8 27 28 7 8 27 28 8 9 29 9 29 9 29 10 30 10 30 10 30 II 31 II 31 II §51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 15 TABTiF! I— {Continued) Date of Breeding Due to Calve Date of Breeding Due to Calve Date of Breeding Due to Calve Oct. I July 12 Nov. I Aug. 12 Dec. I Sept. II 2 13 2 13 2 12 3 14 3 14 3 13 4 5 6 15 16 17 4 5 6 15 16 17 4 5 6 14 15 16 7 8 18 19 7 8 18 19 7 8 17 18 9 20 9 20 9 19 lO 21 10 21 10 20 II 22 II 22 II 21 12 23 12 23 12 22 13 24 13 24 13 23 14 25 14 25 14 24 15 16 26 27 15 16 26 27 15 16 25 26 17 18 28 29 17 18 28 29 17 18 27 28 19 ' 30 19 30 19 29 20 21 31 Aug. I 20 21 31 Sept. I 20 21 30 Oct. I 22 2 22 2 22 2 23 3 23 3 23 3 24 4 24 4 24 4 25 26 5 6 25 26 5 6 25 26 5 6 27 28 7 8 27 28 7 8 27 28 7 8 29 9 29 9 29 9 30 10 30 10 30 10 31 II 31 II 16 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 to see whether the calf is taking all of the milk. In case a part of the milk is left in the udder it should be rmlked out regularly to prevent injury to the organ. As long as a cow is suckling a caJf, she should have a sufficient quantity of good feed to stim-ulate a strong flow of milk. Heavy feeding, how- ever, should not be practiced until the calf can take aU of the milk. The best feeds to stimulate a strong flow, of nulk are pasture in simimer and dry and succulent roughage supple- mented by grain in winter. 15. Summer Feeding of Beef Breeding Cows. — In the feeding of beef breeding cows the object sought is to keep the animals in good, vigorous health without overfeeding them, which might restilt in sterility or irregularity in breeding. A breeder should understand at the outset that it is false economy to allow cows either in winter or summer to become markedly reduced in flesh, as it is always expensive to bring them back to normal condition, and even then they will not recover entirely for a considerable time. Breeding cows require little feed in summer aside from good grass, provided an abimdance of pasture is supplied. Pasture grasses form nearly a balanced ration for breeding cows, and if the pastxure is supplemented with other feeds, care shoiild be exercised to see that they are balanced. It maybe desirable to supplement pasture with grain in order to force the growth of suckling calves that are to be fattened at an early age or to put the cows in condition for market or show. A variety of grasses makes the most satisfactory pasture for cattle. The following mixture has been recommended for seeding a permanent pasture on well-drained land of ordinary fertility: Kentucky blue grass, 4 pounds; Meadow foxtail, 1 pound; Perennial rye grass, 1 pound; Alsike or White clover, or both, 2 pounds; to this 1 pound of alfalfa seed may be added if desired. This mixture should be sown at the rate of about 16 pounds of seed per acre. Pastvixe in rotation usually consists largely of clover and timothy. A clover-and-timothy pasture will not be available for pasturing as early in the spring nor will it be likely to afford § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 17 pasture as late in the fall as a blue-grass pasture, but during July and August it will be superior to blue grass. To obtain the greatest benefit from a pasture, it shoiild not be overstocked. Unlike horses and sheep, cattle prefer and thrive best on luxuriant pastures where the grass has obtained a good start. Overstocking a pasture will result in the grass being continually kept so short that the animals will not do well on it. Pastures also usually become short during the dry, hot months. This wUl usually occur in the latter part of July, August, and September. When a pasture becomes of little value because of either overstocking or seasonal conditions it is advisable to supplement it with some soiling crop. If the pasture becomes depleted early in summer it may be neces- sary to feed a little hay and grain in racks placed in the pasture field. In case the shortage of grass occurs late in summer it is probable that com fed as a soiling crop wiU, be the most satisfactory supplementary feed. The winter ration should be continued for a few days after cows are turned onto grass in the spring. If this is done and the animals are turned on gradually, that is, allowed to graze for only an hour or so each day at first, there is little danger that the change in feed will cause derangements in their diges- tive tracts. Special care should be exercised in turning cattle onto clover in the spring or when they are not accustomed to it, as there is danger of bloat. Difficulty is seldom experienced, however, if the cattle are turned onto clover when it is dry and when they are well filled with other feeds. Under such conditions it is seldom necessary to remove them from the pas- ture; however, it is advised by some -feeders to turn them onto the clover for only an hour or two each day for a few days, leaving them on a little longer each time. Some stockmen prefer to feed soiling crops to cattle rather than to allow them to graze on pasture. It is usually possible to keep cattle on a smaller .area of land where soiling is prac- ticed than where pasturing is the method used, but considera- ble of the advantages of a soiling system are offset by the fact that soiling necessitates a great deal of labor. It is estimated that beef breeding cows can be kept for as little as 10 cents 18 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 per head per day on a well-arranged soiling system. How- ever, according to this estimate it is cheaper to feed cattle on com silage. Careful estimates from experiments show that beef breeding cows can be maintained on com silage for only 7 cents per head per day. Cattle on pastures should have access to salt at all times. Coarse salt is entirely satisfactory for cattle and costs very little. 16. Winter Feeding of Beef Breeding Cows. — The winter- ing of a beef breeding herd is not necessarily expensive, as it can be done in most instances largely with roughages that have small cash value. In fact, the advantage of keeping a beef breeding herd on a farm where a considerable quantity of roughage, particularly such by-product roughage as com stover, oat straw, and wheat straw, is produced is that the cattle will utilize such feed profitably as part of the winter ration. Naturally, cattle will keep in better condition on clover or alfalfa hay than on the roughage mentioned, but it is more economical to use clover and alfalfa as a supplement to other feeds than as the principal roughage part of a ration. Silage, also, is one of the most satisfactory feeds to use as the basis of a winter ration for beef breeding cows, and is cheap. The condition of cattle when put into winter quarters should largely determine the quantities and to a less extent the kinds of feeds that should be used. If the cows are considerably reduced in flesh, owing either to lack of good pasture or to prolonged suckling of the calves, it is advisable to feed them sufficiently to restore them to normal breeding condition. This can be done by a liberal use of sUage and clover hay or by feeding com stover and straw together with com and oats. In some latitudes it is possible to winter cattle almost entirely outdoors on a pasture that has been saved especially for this purpose; in most latitudes, however, it wiU be found desira- ble to keep the herd in a small lot and depend entirely on feeds used in dry-lot feeding. Throughout the principal cattle-producing regions, where cattle require dry-lot feeding in winter, com and its products should form the basis of the ration. A ration composed of 18 § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 19 pounds of silage and 4 pounds of clover hay per day per 1,000 pounds of liveweight of the animal, together with all the oat straw the cows will eat, will not only keep cows from losing in weight dtiring the winter season, but will cause them to gain at the rate of from 1 to If pounds per head per day. If silage is not available, a daily ration of 10 pounds of shock com and 4 pounds of clover hay, with straw at will, will take the herd through satisfactorily under normal conditions, but the latter ration is not as good as the first. Beef cows can be wintered on com stover and straw supplemented with 2 pounds per 1,000 pounds of liveweight daUy of clover hay. This ration will doubtless keep most herds from losing in weight, but is not recommended, being lower in nutrients than is desirable. The quantities of feeds just given will ordinarily be found sufficient until calving time. After the calves are dropped, the feed should be gradually increased until the cows are receiving all that they will consume without waste, and some grain should be added to the ration. This grain may consist of equal parts of com meal, ground oats, and bran, to which is added 10 per cent, of either cottonseed meal or linseed meal. 17. Feeding of Dual-Purpose Cows. — ^A dual-purpose cow, beside producing a calf of the desirable beef type, is expected to give a creditable performance as a dairy cow. The dairy performance of any cow capable of producing a fair flow of milk depends largely on the feed and care that she receives. Good pasture can scarcely be improved on to produce a good milk flow. However, grass alone cannot be depended on to keep the milk flow at the maximum throughout the summer season. Some dairymen profitably feed a small quantity of grain, say from 1 to 3 pounds of bran or ground oats per day, as a supplement to pasture. In late summer, pastures usually begin to dry out, and as a resiolt the cows fall off in milk flow. At this season of the year pasture can be profitably supple- mented by soiling crops. Com, after it is sufficiently matured, is probably the best crop to use for this purpose. For winter feeding, some succulent feed should be provided. Silage is the preeminent winter dairy feed in all sections of the 20 BEEF AXD DU-\L-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 com belt. Silage can be fed to -mature cows in quantities ranging from 30 to 60 pounds per day. In compounding rations for milV cows during winter, care should be taken that the feeds balance aecording to palatabihty, bulk, cost, availa- bility, quality, and the physical effect of the feed. The following are desirable rations for dual-purpose cows on full feed for rmlk production: Rations Pounds Rations Pounds No. 1: No. 4: SUage 20 Alfalfa 20 Alfalfa hay 15 Ground com 5 Beets 8 Ground oats 5 Bran. 5 Shorts 3 Gluten feed 2 No. 2: No. 5: Silage 40 Alfalfa hay 14 Bran 4 Com silage 15 Gluten feed 2 Cottonseed meal 2J No. 3: No. 6: Silage 30 Com stover 7 Bran 8 Corn silage 40 Barley 3 Cottonseed meal 2 Linseed meal 2 Wheat bran 4| Mixed hay 15 Dried brewers' grains. . . 4| 18. Care of Breeding Cows When on Pasture. — It is not a good plan to pasture breeding cattle in adjoining pastures, as the animals wiU stand along the fence and watch their neigh- bors when they shotdd be graziag or lying in the shade. There is danger, too, that they wiU injure themselves by attempting to jump over the fence. Other kinds of stock should not be allowed to run in a pas- ttire with breeding cattle. Colts and mules wiU chase cattle, especially calves, often injuring them, and hogs are likely to hiort or even eat small calves if allowed in the pastirre at calving time. § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 21 Plenty of shade in the way of sheds or trees shotdd be pro- vided in a cattle pasture to help keep down ravages of flies. Successftil fitters of exhibition cattle provide dark stables for the cattle in daytime, and even hang cloth over the doorways to brush off flies as the cattle enter. Cattle should always be driven slowly and quietly; it is especially important that they should not be run by a dog. 19. Care of Breeding Cows During Winter. — In caring for breeding cows in winter, it is important to make them take sufficient exercise to keep vigorous and healthy. This is par- tictilarly important in the case of pregnant cows. One of the best means for instuing that breeding animals wiU get enough exercise is to allow them to browse in stalk fields or require them to go some distance to get water. Pregnant animals, especially, should not be compelled to walk over icy places or through deep mud. In fact, they should not be subjected to any condition that might cause abortion or other injury. 20. Eliminating of Undesirable Beef Cows From a Herd. In order for a cow to produce a good calf for either early mar- keting or for breeding purposes, it is necessary that she should give a good flow of milk that will keep the calf growing con- tinually. Some cows, even though very plain looking them- selves, will produce superior beef calves, because of having a good milk flow. It should be the purpose of a breeder to keep only such animals as produce good calves; all others should be eliminated from the herd. No matter what the individual excellence of a cow may be, tmless she will produce a high- grade calf each year she should not, as a rule, be kept. There are other reasons besides that of being poor pro- ducers, for cows being undesirable in a herd. A vicious animal that abuses the other cows may easily do more damage than she is worth as a breeder. Some cows acquire such habits as jumping over or creeping through fences and may soon teach these to the rest of the herd. All such cows should be sold or slaughtered, as their presence in the herd will cause constant trouble. 242 — 41 22 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 21. Eliminating of Undesirable Dual-Purpose Cows From a Herd. — In addition to the points that have just been men- tioned in regard to the eKminatitig of beef cows, the breeder of dual-ptupose cattle must give attention to the milk pro- duction of individual cows. In order to know exactly what the cows are doing, use should be made of a Babcock testing outfit. Too much dependence should not be placed on the resvdts of the test, however, without considering the quantity of milk given by each cow throughout the period of lactation. A cow that gives a large quantity of nulk of high test daily for a few months may not be as desirable as one that gives less and poorer milk daily, but whose lactation period is consider- ably longer. It is the yearly production that indicates a cow's value from the dairy standpoint. If a breeder is to emphasize the dual-purpose use of his herd, he must not be misled by the Babcock tester, as milk produc- tion must be sacrificed in order to secure efficiency in beef production. However, a wise use of the tester will aid in estab- Ushing the dual-purpose efficiency of the herd. HEBD BULLS 22. Handling of a Herd Bull. — ^Experienced breeders agree that it is not advisable to allow a herd bull to run with the herd, at least during the breeding season. If allowed to do so, the buU may worry to the extent that his breeding powers wiU become impaired. This is especially true where another pas- ture is alongside that in which the herd is running and there are other cattle and possibly another bull to attract attention. Aside from the fact that under such conditions the bull wiU fret constantly, he wiU find an opportunity sooner or later to get through the fence and consequently his regard for fences will disappear and with it his regard for man. Another advantage of keeping the herd buU separate from the herd is that a record of the service date of each cow can be kept, so that it can be definitely known when each cow is due to calve. Then, too, the bull can serve a larger number of cows than when per- mitted to run with the herd. § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 23 The best plan for handling a herd btdl is to keep him in a roomy paddock and bring the cows to him when they are to be bred. This paddock shoxild be sufficiently large to ftimish ample pasture for the bull and to give him an opportunity to get plenty of exercise. If the bull is required to graze in order to get forage, he will probably receive sufficient exercise to keep in a healthy breeding condition. A paddock for a bull should be well fenced and provided with shade, water, and shelter. It is important to keep the paddock, and more especially the stable, of a bull free from mud and filth. If everything is kept dean, there is little danger of the bull contracting foul feet. Foul feet are to be guarded against in all animals, but more especially in a bull, because he is probably standing in a stable more and is harder to treat if affected than most other animals. During the winter months it is a good plan to have the bull paddock situated near the cattle lot or separated from it by a single strong fence, so that the bull may see other cattle and get exercise by walking along the fence, as he wiU do. If the bull is not compelled to take exercise and is located by him- self, he is apt to become so indolent and fleshy that his breed- ing powers win be lessened. A bull should be kept under con- trol at all times; he wiU respect his herdsman as long as he is quietly treated but made to feel that he is not master. As a rule, btJls should be dehorned in calfhood, as at that time the operation is extremely simple. As a precaution, a buU ring, such as may be secured from any dealer in stock- men's supplies, shotild be placed in the animal's nose, prefer- ably before he reaches maturity. In handling a vicious bull, a strong stick about 3 feet long and having a snap af3Sxed to one end is attached to the buU ring by means of the snap. The attendant can easily handle the most unruly buU with this device by merely keeping his head elevated. No bull can do much damage unless he is able to get his head down. 23 . Feeding a Herd Bull. — A herd buU should be fed in such a way that he will be kept in good, thrifty condition without 24 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 becoming too fat. If a bull cannot be maintained in proper condition without giving him abnormal quantities of feed, it is safe to conclude that he has qualities and characteristics that unsuit him for serving as a sire in a beef herd. The feed- ing of large quantities of roughage and of such heating feeds as com should be avoided. Cases are known where bulls have been fed so liberally on choice clover or alfalfa hay that they developed paunches that materially interfered with their sure- ness as breeders. Plenty of green succulent feed should be supplied during the summer. If the paddock does not furnish sufficient forage, it can be supplied from soiling crops. In winter, roots and silage are good succident feeds. A good grain ration for a herd buU is as follows: Com, 40 per cent. ; oats, 30 per cent. ; bran, 30 per cent. This ration, with roughage, if fed to a bull in as large quantities as he will clean up, will not endanger his breeding powers or condition. The ration that is fed shoiold, however, vary according to the individuality of the animal. For example, if a bull is some- what sluggish in temperament, it would be advisable to sub- stitute some less heating feed for a part of the com in the ration just recommended. 24. Use of a Herd Bull. — For active service in a large herd, a bull should be well toward 2 years of age; however, a yoting bull may be used on a few cows when 1 year old to try out his worth as a breeder. Between the ages of 1 year and I5 years, a bull should not be allowed to serve more than eight or ten cows ; a 2-year-old bull may safely serve from twenty to thirty cows in a year or season; after 3 years of age a bull may be con- sidered a mature breeder and will be capable, if vigorous, of four services a week or even one a day for a short period of time, say a month or six weeks. The number of cows that may be served in a year by a mature bull should vary from thirty to sixty, depending on the breeding condition of the btill. If a bull is handled properly, the period of his usefulness should continue until he is 8 or 9 years old or even longer. The best offspring of a bull, however, are usually produced in the period from the time he is 3 years old until he is 7 years § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 25 old. When a bull becomes impotent, or sterile, it is usually due to errors in feeding arid lack of exercise rather than to excessive service. 25. Disinfecting a Bull. — ^When a new bull is introduced into a herd, it is never known but that he may carry the germs of some contagious disease, brought from the herd where he was secured or received during shipment. It is a good plan, therefore, to disinfect him before allowing him to associate with other cattle and especially to serve a cow. Disinfection may be accomplished by dipping, spraying, or thoroughly washing the animal and douching the genital parts with a syringe. Any animal dip wiU be suitable for the purpose, or a 5-per-cent. solution of carbolic acid may be used to cleanse the sheath. CALVES 26. Management of Beef Calves. — Prior to the 'time a calf is weaned, mUk will constitute the greater part of its feed. After it is about 2 weeks old, it wiU foUow its mother a part of the time and begin to take the same kind of feed that she eats. If a little grain is fed to the cow when the calf is a few weeks old, it will soon learn to eat such feed, provided the grain is placed in a low feed box. As soon as the calf is eating grain regularly, it should be allowed to eat from its own feed box away from the dam. The quantity of grain should be gradually increased as the calf grows and the flow of milk lessens. A good grain ration for a calf is com, 3 parts ; bran, 3 parts ; oats, 3 parts ; linseed meal, 1 part. This ration will not cause a calf to become so fat that its breeding powers wiU be impaired. A calf that is nursing its dam will eat about 1 pound a day of this mixture when 3 months old; the quantity should be grad- ually increased until at 6 months of age the calf will be getting 3 pounds a day. In a strictly beef herd a calf is usually weaned between the ages of 3 and 8 months. Some breeders of exhibition cattle, where economy of production is of secondary consideration, allow a calf to nurse its dam until it is upwards of a year old. 26 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 In such cases, the methods of managing the calves are exceed- ingly ntmierous and will not be discussed here. If a calf has been taught to eat hay and grain before being weaned, it can be abruptly taken away from the cow. As soon as this is done an increased allowance of the hay and grain that the calf is accustomed to should be fed to it and about 1 pound of lin- seed meal, cottonseed meal, or bran given to replace the milk. It pays always to keep calves in a healthy, thrifty con- dition, because at no other age can gains be secured with such small quantities of feed. Calves weaned in the fall, when good pasture can no longer be supplied, need to have especially good care during the winter. The ration should consist of grain and good nitrogenous roughage. Oats are especially desirable for feeding to young growing stock. A grain ration consisting of 2 parts of com meal, 2 parts of oats, and 1 part of a nitrogenous concentrate, fed with a limited quantity of clover or alfalfa hay supplemented with some cheaper roughage, such as stover, is excellent for calves. If the object is simply to grow calves well d-uring the winter without fattening them, the grain feed should be limited so that roughage will make up a large percentage of the ration. A large quantity of rough- age has a tendency to distend the digestive tract, making the animal capable of consuming large quantities of feed later in life. The grain ration should be limited to 3 or 4 pounds for a calf from 6 to 8 months old. If a calf is weaned in the spring about the time the cow is turned onto grass, little supplementary feed will be required. The feed given to the calf before it was turned onto grass shoxdd not, however, be reduced too suddenly. If the pastiu-e is good a calf should make good gains if fed daily about 2 pounds of grain of a nitrogenous nature. The following winter the calf may be treated much the same as older cattle of the breeding herd. Silage supplemented with from 1 to 3 pounds of nitrogenous grain and from 3 to 5 pounds of clover or alfalfa hay per day will keep the calf thrifty. The proportion of grain to roughage and the kind of roughage fed win necessarily vary according to the use to which the calf is to be put and the rapidity of growth desired. § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 27 27. Management of Dual-Purpose Calves, — In the man- agement of a dual-purpose herd it is necessary to raise the calves largely on skim-milk. If the calves were allowed to suckle the cows for any considerable length of time, as in the case of beef cows and calves, much of the value of the cows as dairy animals would be lost. It is considered advisable by most breeders, however, to allow a dual-purpose calf to run with its dam for about from 7 to 10 days after being dropped. During this time the milk of the cow will be iinfit for human consumption but admirably adapted to the needs of the calf. Some breeders prefer to take a calf from its dam before it has had an opportunity to nurse. An advantage of this method is that it is easier to teach a calf to drink from a pail if it has never suckled. Another advantage is that both the cow and the calf will be less discontented than if they are allowed to rtin together for several days before being separated. If a calf has become accustomed to nvirsing its dam, a little patience will be required to teach it to drink from a pail. Pre- paratory to receiving the first lesson, the calf should be allowed no feed for 12 hoiurs. Fresh whole milk of a temperature between 95° and 100° F. should be used. The calf should be placed in a comer of a stall, where the attendant may secure it by standing astride its neck. A bucket containing the milk may now be placed on the floor in front of the calf. The calf's head should then be gently but firmly lowered into the pail, care being exercised not to force the nostrils beneath the nulk. In most cases the calf wiU drink at once, particularly if the attendant will insert his finger in its mouth while the latter is immersed in the paU of nulk. If the calf does not drink after repeatedly immersing its nose as directed, letting it fast for another 12 hours and then repeating the operation wiU almost invaribly result successfully. As soon as the calf has been taught to drink it should be fed regularly three times a day. At each feeding the calf may be given from 3 to 6 pounds of freshly drawn milk. The exact quantity wiU depend on the size and vigor of the calf, and the quantity should be increased gradually and regularly as the ani- mal grows. No fixed rule for this can be given ; the judgment 28 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 of the feeder must determine the quantity for each case. The milk should always be fed at from 95° to 100° F. in order to avoid scours. In case scours start, it is well to feed some blood meal. All pails and mangers should be kept dean and sweet to prevent disease. After a calf has become accustomed to drinking from a pail the nulk used may be gradually changed from whole milk to part and finally to all skim-rmlk. For the good of the calf, the change should not be undertaken too quickly nor while the calf is too young. If a calf is vigorous it may receive all skim-milk when it is 4 weeks old; if it is not vigorous it may be advisable to keep it on whole milk until it is considerably more than 4 weeks old. When a calf is 3 or 4 weeks old it wiU begin to nibble feed if any is available. At this time small quantities of good clover or alfalfa hay may be given and the calf encouraged to eat aU it wants of this feed. Concentrated feed in the form of wheat bran, com meal, ground oats, etc. may also be placed in boxes ia order that the calf may acquire a taste for such feed. For a grain ration after the calf has begun to eat, nothing is superior to a mixtiu-e of equal parts, by weight, of wheat bran, com meal, and either whole or ground oats, with 10 per cent, of old-process linseed meal. This ration may be continued until the calf is old enough to wean. In addition to these feeds, com silage and pulped roots such as turnips and rutabagas are desirable for calves. Skim-milk calves should be weaned at about 6 months of age. Owing to the fact that they are generally more accustomed to eating grain and roughage than calves permitted to nurse their dams, they suffer less inconvenience and shrinkage at this period than the latter. MAKKETINQ OF BREEDING CATTLE 28. Advertising of Breeding Stock.— The methods employed in advertising a herd of breeding cattle should be determined by the class of buyers that the breeder desires to reach. If it seems likely that the best field for sales will be among local breeders, local advertising should be done. Local § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 29 advertisement may be secured by having the pastures located near highways so that the public can see the cattle, by insert- ing notices and display advertisements in local publications, by exhibiting the best animals at local fairs, etc. If the cattle for sale are high-grade, pedigreed animals and it is desired to attract buyers from a distance, advertising should be done in specialized livestock joiimals and the cattle should, if possible, be exhibited at a few of the large fairs or livestock shows. A breeder should use an attractive letter head and shotild exercise care in handling his correspondence. He should have circulars printed describing and illustrating the animals for sale, so that in case inquiries about stock are received by mail, a full description can be forwarded with little trouble. One of the most important points for an advertiser of live- stock to bear in mind is that all statements made in advertising matter should be accurate. It is easy for a breeder to make unwarranted claims for his stock, but deception of this kind soon comes to light and the breeder wiU find that he has no market for his animals. It is always better when adver- tising stock to tmderestimate the animals rather than to over- estimate them. 29. Methods of Selling Breeding Stock. — There are two general methods by which a breeder may dispose of breeding stock, namely, private sale and public sale. By the former method, stock may be sold at the farm, at shows, or by mail orders. The private sale has many advantages for both the breeder and the buyer. The breeder has an opportunity to show not only his sale stock but his breeding herd, to tell the buyer his aims in breeding, and to discuss the individual merit of animals. The buyer, on the other hand, can form an opinion of the breeder and his work, can leam his methods, and can ascertain facts about the breeding herd, as a whole, as well as about the animals he contemplates purchasing. The breeder, in order to sell all of his stuplus stock by private sale, must establish a reputation as a breeder and be a judge of the value of the animals he has to sell. After the reputation of a herd is established, the breeder will be able to sell his stock at less 30 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 expense than is attached to pubHc sales. Some breeders pre- fer to sell breeding stock at livestock shows. This is an expen- sive method of selling, however, as it is necessary to have the stock in show condition, which requires work and expense. Then considerable expense is entailed in transporting the cat- tle to the shows and in caring for them while there. Although there may be a demand for stock at fairs and shows and the animals may sell for full value, the buyer is likely not to be satisfied with his purchase. Animals fitted for the show ring are likely to go down in condition and prove to be poor breeders, if placed in other hands. The sale of piure-bred breeding stock by mail order is a grow- ing practice. Many animals may be disposed of in this way, particularly if the owner has established a reputation for hon- esty and integrity. If a breeder desires to build up a large correspondence business, however, he must be very careful in regard to statements he makes to prospective buyers. The public sale as a method for selling stock has some advantages over the private sale. One advantage is that a public sale affords more advertisement to a herd than can be obtained by private sales. A public sale attracts the attention and possibly the presence of a large number of buyers, and besides, the catalogs and other literature sent out to advertise the sale indirectly advertise the herd. Another advantage of the public sale over the private sale is that in fitting animals for a pubUc sale all of the work may be done at one time and the returns wiU all come in at the same time, whereas in the case of private selling the work of fitting the animals is pro- longed indefinitely and the returns come in irregularly. The disadvantages of public sales are the large expense incurred, the possibility of bad weather interfering, and the uncer- tainity as to whether stock will be in condition at the time of the sale. It is essential for the sake of advertisement that a breeder treat all visitors and prospective buyers courteously. When holding a public sale, a breeder should furnish lunch, pay hotel bills of buyers while in town, and provide conveyance to the farm from the station. § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 31 In most sales of breeding stock there is an implied guarantee that the animal is a breeder, and advertisement of stock in a reliable publication is considered a guarantee that the animals advertised are reUable breeders. In fact, it is usually con- sidered that a breeding animal is guaranteed unless it is other- wise stipulated. Technically, a 1-year-old biiU that has sired one or two calves is a breeder, but cattle breeders in general consider that a buU, in order to be considered a reHable breeder, should get with calf at least 70 per cent, of the cows he serves when not running with the herd. A cow is considered a breeder if she has a calf at foot at the time of the sale, or if she has failed to come into heat for four consecutive periods after being bred; a heifer is considered a breeder if she came into heat regularly up to the time of being served, after which her heat periods ceased. Usually bulls are guaranteed to breed satis- factorily for a period of one year following the sale, provided they are cared for properly. Cows are usually guaranteed for 6 months. A guarantee given by many reliable breeders is that after an animal has been tried for a period of 90 days and fotmd not to be a breeder, it may be returned to the former owner at his expense and the purchase money will be refunded. If the animal is returned for other reasons, however, it must be at the buyer's expense. The breeder has a right to try all returned animals to satisfy himself that they are not breeders. Young animals that have been properly cared for seldom prove to be non-breeders, although some time may be required for an animal to become acclimated when taken to a new region. A breeder should do no more than guarantee to refund money and transportation charges on a non-breeder. The success that a breeder will make will depend in a large measure on the personality of the man. One breeder will make a success with private sales and another will be the most successful with public sales. The local reputation of a breeder as a man and the general appearance of his premises count for a great deal in determining his success in the breeding business. There is no better advertisement for any phase of agricultural enterprise than well-kept premises. This is partic- ularly true in the case of high-grade breeding farms. 32 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 30. Shipping of Breeding Stock. — A breeder should take as much care in shipping breeding stock that he has sold as he would in shipping his own stock. The cattle should be fed well and watered before being loaded, and good halters should be placed on all of the animals. Bulls should be rung before being shipped but should never be tied in the car by the rings, as the jerking of the train would be likely to make their noses sore. It is advisable to tie cattle at the side of a car rather than at the end. The shipping cars should be well bedded and the animals loaded as shortly before shipment as possible, especially if they are to go a considerable distance. MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE FOR MARKET 31. Management of Baby-Beef Cattle.— Calves that are to be finished as baby beef should have a full ration at all times and should not be allowed to lose their milk flesh, which is known as milk bloom. It should be understood at the outset that only well-bred calves of good to choice quality can be satisfactorily matured in the time available for producing baby beeves. Although 2-year-old and older cattle can be finished for market in from 3 to 8 months, depending on the quality and condition of the cattle and the methods of feeding, baby-beef cattle cannot be satisfactorily finished in less than from 8 to 12 months. When providing feed for baby-beef cattle it should be borne in mind that the appetite of calves is more fickle than that of older cattle, and consequently it is necessary to provide a better quality of roughage for yoimg animals than for older ones. Assuming that the feeding period begins in the fall, the ration for baby-beef calves may be made up of a relatively large percentage of roughage, provided roughage of good qual- ity, such as clover hay, alfalfa hay, or silage is available. If no nitrogenous roughage such as clover hay or alfalfa hay is to be had and sUage is fed, cottonseed meal or linseed meal should be used as a supplementary feed. Com silage has been found to be a desirable feed for baby beeves, provided a suffi- cient quantity of a concentrate such as com, cottonseed meal. § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 33 linseed meal, etc., is added to the ration to obviate the neces- sity for the consumption of too large quantities of the silage. The majority of cattle feeders do not have com silage. In this case, dependence must be placed on com as the basis of the concentrated part of the ration, and it is very desirable that clover or alfalfa hay form the basis of the roughage part of the ration. Oats are frequently available and are excellent in the earlier stages of feeding, but are rather too biilky to feed extensively after the first few months; in other words, they' are a good feed with which to start calves. Shelled com, also, may be used with good results in the ration of calves. The following rations are suitable for feeding to baby-beef calves, the quantities given being the average per day for a feeding period of from 250 to 300 days. The exact quantity of feed to give at any particular time will depend on the appe- tite of the animals and the stage of the feeding period. Suggested Rations Rations Pounds Rations Pounds No. 1: No. 3: Shelled com 12 Com and cob meal. .... 14 Cottonseed meal 2 Cottonseed meal 2 Clover hay 4 Alfalfa hay 8 SUage 8 No. 2: No. 4: Com and cob meal. ... 14 Com and oat meal 12 Cottonseed meal 2J Bran 2 Clover hay 4 Clover hay 8 Silage 8 32. It should be the aim of a feeder to keep his calves thriving and gaining from 1 to IJ pounds each daily during the winter months so that they will go on pasture in the spring in good flesh' but not as fat as they can be made. Cattle in too fat condition do not make as good use of grass as cattle in mod- erate condition. As soon as the calves are tumed onto grass the roughage part of the ration should be decreased to a quan- tity that they will readily clean up, but the grain ration should be continued. 34 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 Heifer calves can be finished for market from 30 to 60 days sooner than steer calves, but will, of course, bring a slightly lower price than the latter. Occasionally, a few heifers in a drove of steers can be sold at the same price as the steers. Although baby beeves may be fattened and marketed as early as July, it is generally better practice to feed them through the summer, marketing them in October, November, or December. The great bulk of so-caUed baby beeves are not fed liberally enough and consequently are not sufficiently fat when they reach the market. The result is that the cattle feeder is dis- appointed because his cattle do not bring the price that he expected. It is safe to say that it is impossible to get a calf or yearling too fat for a large market, and other things being equal, the fatter they are the higher the price they will bring. 33. Management of Stockers. — A great many cattle raisers prefer to keep their calves for the production of prime steers rather than to market them as baby beef. In this case a much lighter ration is fed to the calves than to those intended for baby beef. In feeding stocker calves the aim should be to keep the animals in fairly good condition on the most econom- ical feeds available. For this purpose there is nothing better than pasttire in stunmer and coarse roughage with com in winter. The quantity of feed given wiU depend on the age and appetite of the calves. The preceding statement in regard to the feeding of stocker calves applies in a general way to the feeding of stockers of any age. It is, obviously, necessary to feed to stockers only such feeds as will cause them to make steady gains at a minimum cost. A stocker shotild be fed so that when it is placed in the feed lot for fattening it will be in a thrifty con- dition and capable of consuming large quantities of feed. Stockers are usually pastured in summer arid maintained on cheap roughage and com during the winter. 34. Management of Feeders. — Two general systems for the feeding of cattle for market are in vogue at the present time. These are known as short feeding and long feeding. Short feeding is the process of feeding cattle but a short time, § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 35 say from 60 to 120 days, in preparing them for market. Long feeding, on the other hand, is the process of feeding cattle several months, say from 6 to 12 months, before they are mar- keted. By the short-feeding system it is possible to feed several droves of cattle a year. It is impossible, however, to produce finished, high-grade beeves under this system of feeding. To make a success of the short-feeding system, a feeder must have unusual bujdng and selling facilities, in order to take advantage of a depressed market for buying and a strong market for selling. A feeder that practices long feeding is more inde- pendent of market facilities than the short feeder, as he handles fewer cattle and is able to shorten or lengthen the feeding period according to the condition of the market. 35. Two methods are practiced in the short-feeding system: First, the buying of aged, thin-fleshed cattle and "warming them up," a process that consists of feeding them HberaUy for from 60 to 120 days, and, second, the buying of well-fleshed cattle that have been marketed in a half-fat condition and finishing them. If the first method is the one chosen, low-grade cattle of plain quality are usually purchased. Such cattle wiU not finish into choice beef even on a long feed, and a short feed wiU give all of the finish that it is profitable to secure. Short-feed cattle of this type, although not in demand in a strong market, wiU kill fairly well. If the second method is chosen, good cattle that have been disposed of for some reason, such as a lack of feed, are ptirchased. Such cattle are in condition to finish well, but there is a possibility that they may, for some unknown reason, be poor feeders. The success of the short feed depends largely on the ability of the feeder to judge and buy cattle and his skiU in putting the cattle on fuU feed in a short time. It is important in this system to get cattle with as much age as possible. Cattle under 2 years old should never be selected, because a yotmg animal placed on heavy feed for a short time will put most of the feed into growth, whereas in the short-feeding system it is desired to obtain as large a gain in fat as possible in the time available. The cattle must be thrifty, but if they are to be 36 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 "warmed up," it is better that they be decidedly lacking in flesh, as the lower the condition of a thrifty animal, the more rapid will be the gains in weight, especially in the case of mature animals. In short feeding, the cattle must be put on fuU feed quickly and fed heavily on a highly concentrated ration. If the ani- mals are weU fleshed and the feeder is certain that they are accustomed to a heavy grain ration, they may be started at once on practically a full feed of grain. In this case, the ration can consist wholly of ear com or com and cob meal supple- mented with cottonseed meal, although a small quantity of roughage is usually fed. If animals are in thin condition and not accustomed to heavy feeding, it will be necessary to get them on full feed gradually. A good plan in this case is to feed at first a ration consisting of two-thirds hay, preferably chopped clover or alfalfa, and one-third com. This ration may be gradually changed until at the end of a month the ration will consist of one-half or less of hay and the rest grain. Toward the end of the feeding period the ration may consist largely of com, but if the nitrogenous roughage is reduced to a small quantity, cottonseed meal or some other, nitrogenous concentrate should be fed at the rate of from 2 to 3 poimds per steer per day. Cattle in thin condition that are to be short fed should receive at the start of the feeding period all of the roughage they will clean up. It is desirable to feed in large quantities a good legume hay or some succulent feed; this wiU .cause the digestive tracts of the animals to become distended and will put their systems in good condition so that they wiU be able to consume large quantities of feed later. Silage is one of the best feeds for this purpose. At first the silage should be fed with hay but after a week the steers may be fed all of it they will consume. In a few days, grain may be gradually substituted for the silage until within a month the animals are receiving a full ration. 36. The following are suggested rations for the fattening of cattle. It is likely that these rations will need to be modified § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 37 to suit individual conditions, but they will give an idea of the kinds and quantities of feeds to give. The rations given are for animals on full feed and may be used for either long or short feeding. Suggested Rations Rations Pounds Rations Pounds No. 1: No. 5: Ear com 20 Ear com 15 Linseed meal 3 Com silage 25 Clover hay 8 Alfalfa hay 5 No. 2: No. 6: Shelled, com 18 Ear com 16 Linseed, meal 3 Cottonseed meal 3 Clover hay 9 Com silage 32 No. 3: No. 7: Ear com 18 Alfalfa hay 5 Cottonseed meal 1 Com stover 5 Alfalfa hay 10 Com 18 No. 4: No. 8: Ear com 14 Barley 15 Linseed meal 1| Linseed meal 1 J Shock com 14 Clover or alfalfa hay. . . 16 Clover hay 8 At the end of a long feeding period the cattle wiU be con- suming a larger percentage of concentrate compared to roughage than is indicated in the suggested rations. For example?, in a ration of com, linseed meal, and clover, the clover may be reduced to from 2 to 4 potmds per day when the cattle reach a high condition. In the Southwest where cottonseed hulls can be secured at a reasonable cost for roughage, the following ration wiU prove satisfactory: Pounds Kafir com (chopped) 16 Cottonseed meal : 3 Cottonseed hulls 12 242-^2 38 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 37. For the fattening of cattle for market, home-grown feeds should be used as much as possible, as cattle feeding should be a method of marketing the feeds "grown on the farm. Com, com silage, and clover or alfalfa hay constitute a very- satisfactory and economical ration; if alfalfa hay is fed it will furnish nearly enough protein to balance the ration, but if clover hay is used, enough cottonseed meal or other highly nitrogenous concentrate shotdd be added to make a balanced ration. Where silage is fed, cottonseed meal is better than linseed meal, as it is not so laxative. If timothy hay, com stover, or straw must be used as roughage, from 3 to 4 pounds of linseed meal per 1,000 pounds liveweight of cattle shoiild be fed daily. It is usually not profitable to feed more than 2 to 3 pounds daily of a commercial concentrate per 1,000 pounds liveweight of cattle, but when such roughages as those mentioned, which are very low in protein, are fed 3 potuids of linseed meal should be the minimum. 38. At the University of Illinois an experiment was con- ducted to ascertain the best method of preparing com for feeding to fattening cattle. Four forms of com were used, namely, com meal, broken ear com, com and cob meal, and shelled corn. As a result of this experiment, it was foimd that the most profitable method of feeding com is to feed it in the broken ear. It is now believed by many successful cattle feeders and investigators that when com is supplemented with 3 poimds of cottonseed meal or linseed meal and an abundance of good roughage, about a peck daUy per 1,000 potmds liveweight of cattle is as much as it is safe to feed. If more than this quantity is fed there is danger of getting the animals off feed. Experienced feeders often feed more com than this, but the novice should not feed much more than the quantity mentioned. As a restilt of feeding trials in Texas it was found that 10 pounds of rice bran were equal to 16 pounds of cottonseed meal when forming two-fifths of the concentrate of the ration. Rice polish was found to be about equal to cottonseed meal. § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 39 It was found also that when cottonseed hulls were fed for rough- age, 2t^ poxinds of rough rice was equal to 1 pound of cotton- seed meal. In the sugar belt, molasses is very valuable feed as an appe- tizer. It is often claimed that molasses aids digestion. A common method of feeding molasses is to take a barrel spraying outfit, the barrel being filled with an equal volume of water and molasses, and drive through the feed lot spraying on the feed in the troughs such a quantity of the mixture as is to be fed. 39. In the long-feeding system of handling feeders it is desirable, for economy of gains, to have the cattle consume a large percentage of roughage during the early part of the feed- ing period. For this reason, many feeders start cattle on a long feed by allowing them to run in a stalk field, supplement- ing the roughage they obtain with from 4 to 6 pounds of ear com per head per day. The com ration is gradually increased until the cattle are on fuU feed. When cattle are pastured on stalk fields it is desirable that they have access to a straw stack. Under favorable conditions, stalk fields wiU not afford pasture much later than the middle of January, and it is seldom advisable to leave cattle on them until that time. As soon as the stalk pastures become depleted the cattle should either be removed or supplied with supplementary roughage. When the stalk pastures fail it is a good plan to put the cattle in a dry lot provided with an open shed. The lot should be well drained so that the cattle will not be compelled to wade through mud. Enough coarse feeds should be fed to keep the animals thriving. Com silage is one of the best feeds for this purpose. It can be advantageously supplemented with clover or alfalfa hay fed in limited quantities, or with a small quantity of cottonseed meal. Clover or alfalfa hay at the rate of about 2 pounds per steer per day with all the com sUage the steers win eat ought to carry them through the winter in good con- dition. It might be well also to add to this ration what oat straw or com stover the cattle will readily consume. If clover or alfalfa hay is not available and com silage is fed, com stover and oat straw being depended on for additional roughage, it 40 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 will be found advisable to feed cottonseed meal at the rate of 1 pound daily per 1,000 pounds liveweight of cattle. In case clover or alfalfa hay is used as the principal roughage, it is a good plan to feed from 15 to 17 pounds daily per animal and supplement this with from 4 to 6 pounds of shelled com or ear com per 1,000 pounds liveweight of cattle. These rations should be increased considerably if the cattle are to be matured early the following summer. If, however, the aim is merely to carry the cattle through the winter in a thrifty condition, maldng the minimimi gains, the ration suggested will be satisfactory. 40. In some sections of the country cattle feeders use nothing but shock com — com fodder— for the fattening of cattle. Shock com is fed with the greatest profit in early fall, used either as the only constituent of the ration or as a sup- plement to other roughage such as standing com stalks. The quantity of shock com to feed depends on the quantity of grain that it is desired to feed. If shock com is the only feed used, enough of it to furnish from 15 to 25 pounds of ear com should be fed daily to a 1,200-pound steer. A better method of feed- ing shock com is to feed enough to fiumsh from 8 to 10 pounds of ear com and supplement this with broken, shelled, or crushed com and from 2 to 3 pounds of cottonseed meal. The quanti- ties just given are for animals on full feed. The disadvan- tages in feeding shock com are that a large space is required to store the feed, unless the feeder chooses to hatd it directly from the field to the feed lot, which is a disagreeable task in bad weather, and that it is not an economical method of utili- zing a com crop. For these reasons, the feeding of shock com is not as extensively practiced as formerly, the feeding of the com plant as silage being a much better method of fattening cattle. Where plenty of pasture is available, feeders often purchase feeding cattle in the spring and aUow them to graze during the pasture season. If the cattle are to be fattened during early fall and winter, there is no better feed after the pastures fail than com cut before it is mature and fed directly to the animals. After the com matures the cattle can be finished on any of the standard rations. § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 41 The rations previously given for the fattening of cattle on a short feed are stiitable for cattle on a long feed that are receiv- ing a full ration. Rations for the fattening of yearlings, 2-year-olds, and older cattle, are practically the same, year- Ungs possibly reqtiiring a Httle larger proportion of protein than older cattle. 41. The method to use in getting cattle on full feed is a point about which there is considerable difference of opinion among feeders. One class of cattle feeders insist that the best results are secured by getting the cattle on full feed quickly. The most radical of this class recommend taking cattle from the market or pastures, that have not been accustomed to grain, and putting them on practically a ftill feed of com within a week. Others recommend taking 2 weeks for the same purpose. Another class of cattle feeders believe that it is not advisable to put cattle on full feed so quickly, and this class recommends taking from 2 to 6 weeks to get cattle on full feed. Generally speaking, feeders that believe in getting cattle on fuU feed qidckly believe also that it is the best practice to feed as much com as the animals wiU consume. Feeders that believe in getting cattle on feed more slowly and rationally believe that the most economical and profitable returns come from stopping a little short of maximum rations. The practice to be advised is largely dependent on the length of the feeding period. If the feeding period is short, it is certainly good practice to get the cattle on full feed in a short time ; if 5 to 6 months or more is available for the finishing process, it is advisable to use more time. Cattle on feed should be fed regularly and in the same way each time. They should be kept quiet. Cattle soon learn to have confidence in a quiet attendant. 42. Marketing of Cattle for Beef. — ^Few cattle feeders have the advantage of large local livestock markets; conse- quently, stock must either be sold at small local markets or be shipped some distance to large central markets. In small local markets, the feeder must be a good judge of the market value of his produce ; as there are few buyers in a local market. 42 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 he will not have the advantage of competition among buyers or the aid of reliable commission merchants. At some season of the year, local trade will be oversupplied and there will be no demand for some grades of meat; consequently, the local price on livestock will drop unless there is a demand for the meat elsewhere. It is seldom that it will pay to ship less than a carload of cattle any great distance. Occasionally, it is possible for two or more feeders to combine and make up a carload of cattle, especially if the cattle are uniform in grade, breeding, and size. The bulk of the sales made in a large market are made through the aid of commission merchants. A car may be loaded with stock and consigned to a reliable commission firm without the owner accompanying the shipment, if this is desired. The commission firm, on receiving the car, will unload the cattle, care for and sell them, and after deducting the commission, yardage, and freight charges remit the balance to the con- signor. The commission charges range from 50 cents a head to $12 per car. The advantage of turning the selling of the stock over to commission merchants is that they are acquainted with the buyers, know the trend of the market, and are able to judge the time to sell and the value of the stock. Buyers on- the market are able to judge remarkably well regarding the feeding that cattle have received just before or during shipment. The shipper should, therefore, prepare his cattle to stand shipment rather than fill them with feed just before they are to be sold. Cattle that have been fed on such feeds as com, Unseed meal, silage, grass, clover, or alfalfa hay are apt to scour badly unless prepared for shipping. About 24 hours before shipment the grain ration should be reduced considerably and timothy hay substituted for the roughage part of the ration. It is advisable to feed corn-fattened cattle a liberal quantity of oats or bran before shipping them. Water should be withheld foi: at least 6 hours before shipment. .43. At most shipping points a car can be secured for ship- ping cattle by notifying the railroad authorities a day in advance. If the weather is warm the stock should be moved § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 43 slowly and quietly to the shipping point during the cool part of the day. It is a good plan to load the cattle so that they will make most of the trip during the night, provided the weather is warm; cattle probably ride quieter during the night than dur- ing the day. The car should be well bedded so that the cattle will arrive at the market in the best possible condition. Cat- tle can be shipped 75 miles direct to market or any distance not requiring over 12 hours en route without any special pro- vision for feeding. In case cattle are to be fed en route, hay and com should be provided before shipment. For short shipments, the ordinary stock car, which wiU hold from 16 to 22 mature 'cattle, is used. For long shipments, specially built stock cars that contain water troughs are used. The troughs can be filled en route, the cattle being allowed only a moder- ate quantity of water to keep them in good shipping condi- tion. Sometimes beef animals are shipped long distances, requiring several days for shipping. In this case it is wise to unload them a short distance from the market, and feed them well so that they will be in good condition when they arrive at the market. After arriving at the market, the cattle should be unloaded and allowed to feed normally. Abnormal feeding should be guarded against, because animals that become unduly full will be discriminated against by buyers. After the cattle have been allowed to feed normally they are ready to be sold. Cattle may be sold direct by the shipper, but it is better policy for the inexperienced feeder to trust the selling to commission men, who are better acquainted with conditions. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION PITTING OP CATTLE FOR EXHIBITION 44. A person cannot expect to be highly successful in the fitting of cattle for exhibition unless he has had practical experience in the handling of show animals. Methods of fitting animals vary, the method used depending on the individuality of the animal. The information given here covers only the 44 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 ftmdamental principles of fitting cattle for the show ring and is offered only for the purpose of saving the novice from mistakes that he would otherwise make. Only animals of the b6st conformation, quality, and style should be selected for exhibition. For the calf classes, the calves are usually selected when from 3 weeks to 1 month old. A calf of this age that is robust, symmetrical, deep, and broad, and that has straight top and bottom Unes and a mellow skin may, under proper care, be expected to develop into a prize- winning animal. As size and weight are very important in the show ring, the greatest age possible within the limit of the class in which an animal is to show should be sectued. If a calf is bom on or after September 1, it can show in the calf class at any time the following year; it can show as a yearling at any time the next spring; and it can show as 2-year-old at any time the year following. Thus it will be seen that a calf may still be showing in the calf class when it is 15 months of age. Calves and yearlings are usually exhibited in one of/ two classes, namely, the senior class and the jtmior class. Calves dropped between September 1 and January 1, show in the senior class, and those dropped after January 1 show in the junior class. 45. A calf that has been selected as an exhibition animal shotild be allowed to remain with its dam until it is 2 or 3 weeks old. It should then be removed from the dam, being allowed at first to nurse three times a day and after a time but twice daily. The calf should be allowed to nurse the dam as long as possible and if it wiU take more milk than is furnished by the dam, a nurse cow should be used. The quantity of milk that the calf gets is more important than that the milk shall contain a high percentage of butter fat. At from 6 to 8 weeks of age, the calf should be started on a grain ration of equal parts of shelled com, whole oats, and bran, with all the clean clover or alfalfa hay it will clean up. During the summer the calf should run on pasture, but should not be exposed to severe storms. In winter, it should be housed and provided with a dry bed, plenty of good air, § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 45 and stmshine. During good weather, the calf should be allowed the run of a sheltered lot, and should always be supplied with good water. In the spring the animal should be put on grass, at first for only a short time each day and later, as the nights become warm, it should be ttumed in the pasture at night and kept in a cool, well-ventilated stable during the heat of the day. In darken- ing the stables to protect the animal from flies, care should be taken not to interfere with ventilation. The grass will cool the system of the calf and this together with the exercise enforced by grazing will put it in good shape for the heavy feeding that is to foUow. 46. When the animal is to be shown in the fall, it should be taken off the pasture before the middle of the summer. From this time to the time of the show much skiU is required on the part of the feeder to put the necessary amount of flesh on the animal along with the quality, finish, and bloom neces- sary to make a prize winner. Some succulent feed, such as com silage or roots, should be given, but care must be taken not to give enough of this feed to detract from the quality of the flesh. The grain ration should consist of ground oats, com, and bran with a little linseed meal. An excess of com should be avoided, as it will cause an excess of fat and detract from the smoothness of finish. Good, bright clover or alfalfa hay forms the best roughage. A variety of feeds is advisable, and everjrthing should be done to tempt the appetite, but sudden changes should be avoided. Care should be taken not to feed a sufficient quantity of roughage to make the animal paunchy. Ordi- narily, in the feeding of cattle for show, they are fed three or four times a day and watered about twice and this shoidd be done at the same time each day; regularity is very important. The appetite should be kept keen. The feed boxes should be constructed so that they can be removed and thoroughly cleaned, and they should be scalded occasionally. In case the animal goes off feed, all feeds should be withheld for a time, and then, if possible, it should be allowed a fill of grass. 4« BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 The quantity of feed to give must be regulated by the appe- tite of the animal. The appetite is most easily maintained with a variety of feeds in the ration, and a little brown sugar is often used to advantage. Sugar is especially good to feed during the show season to keep an animal on feed. In making up rations for show animals, it should be remem- bered that com is a heavy feed and should be fed sparingly. The progress during the latter part of the feeding period depends largely on the contentment of the animal. It should have its fill of a suitable ration and then be allowed to lie down and ruminate. Rumination is best performed while the animal is lying down and is devoting all its energy to this one thing. 47. The stable shoidd be kept well bedded with fresh, bright straw. The animal should be removed from the stall twice every day and all the droppings and wet straw removed and fresh straw put in. Plenty of fresh air should be provided, but the bam should be kept free from drafts. For fattening purposes, too much light is not desired in a bam, and for this reason it is well to tack burlap over some of the windows. A calf shotild be familiarized with grooming at an early age, as grooming will keep the coat in good shape and get the animal used to being handled. The earlier it is made familiar with the halter the better. The calf should be tied in its stall and led out occasionally, and as the show approaches it should be trained to lead among other animals and to stand squarely on its feet, with head up, and to advance at the command of the attendant. The award of premiums may be much influ- enced by the behavior of the animal in the show ring. If it does not stand naturally in the ring the judge cannot estimate its merits. The animal should be groomed once daily, a good bristle brush, a card, and a flannel cloth or chamois skin being used. If a harsh brush or a sharp steel comb is used, grooming may be more injurious than helpful. The grooming should com- mence some weeks before the show. If the animal is kept in a dark stable, a blanket is unnecessary except during the last few days. The coat is usually washed weekly with soft § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 47 water and a good toilet soap. Hand-washing is much better than washing by means of hose, although not nearly so rapid. The washing removes the dust from the hair, saving considera- ble grooming, and promotes healthy action of the pores of the skin, tending to make the hair more soft and pliable. Suffi- cient time should be allowed between the last washing and the time the animal will go into the show ring to allow for an accu- mtilation of oil in the hair. In fitting the horns, the dead outer covering shbtild first be removed. This is done by first using a sharp, heavy rasp, following this up with a jack knife, and finishing with emery paper. Sweet oil and tripoH are smeared on the horns, which are then thoroughly polished with a woolen cloth and then with any good polishing powder and a chamois skin. The hoofs should receive careful attention. They should be trimmed back at frequent intervals, and to prevent them from becoming too dry, the animal should be led through a clay puddle several times a day. 48. When cattle are to be transported to the show by rail, the feed shotdd be more or less modified. The grain portion of the ration should be reduced and this reduction adhered to tintil the animal reaches the grounds. When at the show the animal should receive the same ration it was receiving at home. There is practically no danger of getting a calf or yearling too fat, but this condition is common with 2-year-olds. A calf or yearling, however, may be made too fat to carry over successfully for showing another year. If it is desired to show the animal another season, the grain should be reduced on returning from the show and succulent feed supplied in order to allow the system to cool out and to prevent premature finish. The reduction in the grain ration should continue tintil about April or May, after which the quantity of feed should be gradually increased, about one month being taken to get the animal back to the maximum quantity. Great care must be exercised in feeding animals that have been exhibited, as otherwise they may become worthless for show purposes. 48 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 CASTRATION OF CALVES 49. Calves may be castrated best between the ages of 1 and 3 months. If a calf is healthy and strong, the sooner the oper- ation is performed the better, because the nearer a calf is to mattirity the harder the operation wiU be and the greater will be the danger of complications. It is advisable, when possible, to castrate a calf before or after fly time. The operation may be performed with the calf standing, or the calf may be thrown and securely held or tied. Although many breeders never take the precaution, it is weU to wash the scrotum with diluted carbolic acid or some other good dis- infectant before making an incision. The scrotum and tes- ticles should be firmly grasped with the left hand, the testicles being forced to the lower part. An incision shotdd then be made longitudinally in each half of the scrotum near the division and through the several coverings of the testicles ; the incisions should be large enough to let the testicles be forced out. If the incisions are low on the scrotum they wiU aUow the wound to drain. The membrane connected to the testicles should then be freed and the cords cut about 5 inches back from the testicles. There is some danger of hemorrhage in cutting the cord off, so that some operators prefer to scrape the cord in two or to bruise it off. After the operation is completed it is a good plan to apply a disinfectant. If for any reason pus gathers in the scrotum, it should be washed out and the scrotum disinfected. A 6-per-cent. solution of carbohc acid is a good disinfectant for this purpose. The castration of a mature male is accomphshed in much the same manner as that just described, although greater care should be exercised in the operation and in guarding against exposure after the operation is completed. Some operators prefer, when castrating a mature bull, to have the animal standing in a narrow stall and securely stanchioned with head drawn around to the side. Spaying, which consists in removing the ovaries of a female, is a delicate operation, and unless a breeder is experienced in the work it is better to employ a veterinarian. § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 49 DEHORNING OP CATTLE 50. By dehorning is meant the removing of horns from cattle or the stopping of the growth of horns on calves by apply- ing some chemical. Hornless cattle can be handled more economically than homed cattle; they require much less room in the feed lots and sheds; a considerably larger number can get up to a feed rack at the same time; and there is not as much danger of animals goring each other as in the case of homed cattle. Hornless cattle are always more quiet in the feed lot and hence make more rapid gains. In a lot of homed cattle the timid animals are kept away from their feed and chased around the feed yard. Hornless feeders usually sell at from 10 to 25 cents per hun- dredweight higher than homed ones. Homed cattle always bruise one another more or less in shipping and as the bruises show up plainly on the dressed carcass, they are often dis- criminated against. A hide that has been punctured by a horn is reduced in value for tanning purposes. The homs should not be removed from pure-bred cattle, as each breed has a style of horn peculiar to itself and the style and quality of the horn are very important in determining the value of the animal for breeding or show. The removal of the homs also detracts from the style of the head of an animal. Perhaps the most desirable method of dehorning is by the use of caustic potash or caustic soda when a calf is very young. This substance comes in sticks about the size of a lead pencil and can be procured at any drug store. The operation shotild be performed as soon as^the horn can be located by rubbing the hand over the head; usually the best time is when a calf is about 2 weeks old, although the horn can be destroyed when it is nearly an inch long. First, the hair is clipped from around the horn. One end of the stick of caustic potash is roUed in paper to protect the hand and the other end is dipped in water. The horn should then be rubbed thoroughly until the skin becomes inflamed and crumbles up. If the horn is not rubbed thoroughly, it may be only partly destroyed and continue to grow in a deformed manner. 50 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 After the chemical has been thoroughly applied, a brown scab will form over the horn, which will come off in about a month. In applying the caustic, care should be used to keep the dis- solved caustic from running down over the animal's head, causing useless sores or getting into the eyes. This method of dehorning leaves the head resembling a natural poll and is preferred by many, as it gives little pain and does not endanger the life of the animal. When not in use, the sticks of caustic potash should be kept in a tightly stoppered bottle to prevent them from absorbing water from the air. Patent dehorning solutions are no more efficient than caustic potash and are simply saturated solutions of caustic soda or potash. If cattle are not dehorned -when yoimg and the horns are allowed to grow out to a considerable length, they can be removed by pincers and saws made for the ptirpose. Pincers do the job more quickly and cause less pain than a saw, but they cut the blood vessels smoother and consequently the bleeding does not stop so quickly as when a saw is used. In either case the horn must be cut off from | to j inch below the point where the skin and the horn grow together. Unless this is done the horn will continue to grow and give a deformed appearance to the head. When a saw is used, it is necessary to put the animal in a stanchion and tie the head firmly, but if pincers are used it is only necessary to tie the animal's head firmly to a solid post, the pincers doing the job so quickly that the animal has little chance to struggle and get loose. If possible, the operation should be performed on a bright, pleasant day, when the cattle can be turned out after being dehorned. The best time to dehorn is in the fall after the flies have gone and before cold weather sets in. If the operation is performed during cold weather, it is likely to cause catarrh, which may give very serious trouble. If animals are dehorned in fly time the flies are very likely to blow the cavity and it may thus become filled with maggots. In this case the wound will not heal and will cause great agony to the animal. If the horns are cut a little beneath the skin, as directed, there is little danger of serious bleeding. However, it is a good § 51 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 51 plan to have some bandages and absorbent material on hand. Pine tar is a good dressing to place on the horn to help in healing as well as to keep out harmful insects and germs. Cattle just dehorned should not be allowed to run around straw or hay stacks where chaff or other material might get into the cavity. BRANDING OF CATTLE 51. Branding is practiced on the ranges, where there is danger of large droves of cattle owned by different persons becoming intermingled. Each fall the stock is corralled and the young calves are marked the same as their dams. The marking is done with a hot iron, which sears the skin; after this the mark is always carried. Each ranch owner adopts some letters or a monogram as a brand, and a brand is recognized as proof of ownership ; individual owners usually adopt some particular part of the body on which to place their brand. Other systems of marking are usually adopted for the mark- ing of stock in smaller herds, where it is desirable to have the individuals marked to keep records of their breeding, age, etc. The two methods of marking in general use are by metal ear tags, which contain a number and the OAsmer's mark, and by notching the ears. The objection to metal tags of any kind is that they are easily pulled out and lost. A permanent system of marking may be adopted by notching the ears, as explained in Sheep Management, Part 1. The only serious objection to notching the ears is that it disfigures the appear- ance of the animal, especially if a high-class show animal. Some breeders brand the hoof or horn, and still others use a tattoo marker. REGISTERING OF CATTLE 52. The various breed associations wUl, on application, furnish blanks to any person desiring to register an animal. The owner must fill out these blanks, giving a description of the animal, its pedigree, etc. If the association finds that the animal is eligible to registry, the secretary will issue to the owner a certificate of registry. The expense of registering 52 BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE § 51 stock varies with the age and breed of the animal, and whether the breeder is a member of the association or not. Different associations have different requirements in regard to the register- ing of stock and the recording of ownership, so that it would be well for any one desiring specific information on this subject to consult the secretary of the association. INDEX Note. — ^All items in this index refer first to the section (see the Preface) and then to the page of the section. Thus, "Adulterated milk, §46, p20/' means that adulterated milk will be found on page 20 of section 46. • Aberdeen-Angus cattle, §48, pp5, 28. Abnormal presentation, §26, pl3. variations, §26, p27. Abomasum, §25, pl2. Abortion, §26, pl5. Contagious, §26, pl6. Non-contagious, §26, pl6. Absorption of feed, §25, pl7. Acid fermentation of milk, §45, p32. -forming bacteria, §45, p32. test for cream, Mann's, §47, p48. -testing outfit, Farrington's, §47, p32. -testing outfit, Mann's, §47, p31. Acidity in cream, Determination of, §47, p47. Acquired character, §26, p21. Adulterated milk, §46, p20. Advanced registry, §26, p55. Advertising of breeding stock, §51, p2S. Age at which to breed cows, §51, p8. of a dairy cow, Determination of, §43, pl5. Agitation of cream in the chum, §47, p51. Albumin, §45, p6. Alcoholic fermentation in milk, §45, p38. Alfalfa hay, §50, p44. Alkaline test for cream, Farrington's, §47, p48. Angus cattle, Aberdeen-, §48, pp5, 28. Application for transfer, §44, p25. Arm, §48. p3. Artificial impregnation, §26, plO. ripening of cream, §47, pp43, 44. selection, §26, p32. Ash, §45, p7. in digestion, §25, pl6. in feed, Functions of, §25, p9. in feeds, §25, p4. Atavism, §26, pl8. Ayrshire cattle, §42, pl9. milk, §45, p7. Babcock test, §46, pl3; §47, p40. test outfits, §47, p27. Baby-beef cattle, §49, p47. -beef cattle. Management of, §51, p32. fat, §44, pl8. Back, §43, p3; §48, p3. Bacteria, Acid-forming, §45, p32. Butyric-acid, §45, p36. ■ by heat, Control of, §45, p26. by use of sanitary milk pail, Excluding §45, pl8. from coat of cow, §45, pl2. from dust of stable, §45, pl7. Gas-forming, §45, p33. in milk, §45, plO. in milk, Control of, §45, p23. in milk, Pathogenic, §45, p39. in milk, Sources of, §45, pll. in milk. Tests of, §45, p40. in udders of cows, §45, pll. Lactic-acid, §45, p33. prevalent in dark stables, §45, pl8. Bacterial infection, Milker as a source of, §45, p22. Balanced ration, Making up a, §25, p31. rations. §25, p29. Bank bam of the Tennessee Experiment Sta- tion, §41, p71. or basement, bams, §41, p67. Bam and paddock for a bull, §50, pl3. Combined shed and storage, §50, pl5. Elaborate beef-cattle, §50, pl3. for 18 cows. Model, §41, p42. for 20 cows. One-story, §41, p37. for 20 cows. Rectangular, §41, p35. for 24 cows, §41, p39. for 46 cows, §41, p42. for 72 cows, Basement, §41, p69. 242—45 Xll INDEX Bam for 76 cows, Round, §41, p61. for 88 cows, Polygonal, §41, p64. for 105 cows, Round, §41, p62, Mediiun size, §50, p6. of the Iowa Agricultural College, §41, p54. of the South Dakota Agricultural College, §41, p52. of the Tennessee Experiment Station, Bank, §41, p71. of the University of Illinois, Round, §41, p58. Rectangular basement, §41, p68. Round dairy, §41, p57. Wisconsin dairy, §41, p46. Barns, §50, pi. Basement, or bank, §41, p67. Construction of dairy, §41, p8. Dairy, §41, pi. Equipment for dairy, §41, pl9. Examples of dairy, §41, p35. Floors for dairy, §41, pl4. for 70 cows, Polygonal, §41, p65. Foundations for dairy, §41, p8. Location of, §50, p2. Materials for construction of, §50, p3. Polygonal, §41, p63. Rectangular, §50, p6. Roofs for dairy, §41, pl3. Round, §50, p4. Sites for dairy, §41, p6. Ventilation of dairy, §41, pl5. "Walls for dairy, §41, pi. Barrel, §43, p3; §48, p3. Barrow, §26, p47. Basement bam for 72 cows, §41, p69. barn, Rectangular, §41, p68. or bank, bams, §41, p67. Beef and dual-purpose cattle. Equipment for, §50, pi. and dual-purpose cattle, Feeds for, §50, p40. and dual-purpose cattle. Management of, §51, p8. and dual-purpose cattle. Parts of, §48, p4. breeding cattle. Score card for, §49, p63. breeding cows, Selection of, §51, p4. breeding cows, Summer feeding of, §51, pl6. breeding cows, Winter feeding of, §51, pl8. breeds of cattle, §48, p9. calves, Management of, §51, p25. carcass, §49, p54. carcass to live weight, Proportion of, §49, p59. cattle, §48, pi; §49, p4. cattle. Baby-, §49, p47. -cattle barn. Elaborate, §50, pl3. cattle. Grades of, §49, p3. cattle, Judging of, §49, p60. cattle. Management of baby-, §51, p32. cattle, Procedure in judging of, §49, p65. Beef cattle. Score card tor market, §49, p62. cows from a herd. Eliminating of undesirable, §51, p21. cuts. Wholesale, §49, p54:. Marketing of cattle for, §51, p41. type of cattle, §48, p5. type of Holstein-Friesian cattle, §42, pl6. Beet pulp, §50, p48. Belly, §48, p3. Belted cattle, Dutch, §42, p24. Berkshire swine. Score card for, §26, p54. Bile, §25, pl4. Birth, §26, pl2. Premature, §26, pl5. Bitter milk, §45, p38. Bloom, Milk, §51, p32. Boar, §26, p3. Boilers in a dairy, Steam, §46, p42, Bologna bulls, §49, pp3, 22, 27. Bones, Pin, §48, p3. Books, Flock, §26, p50. Herd, §26, p50. Record, §26, p50. Stud, §26, p50. Boric acid, §45, p26. Boston milk regulations, §46, p24. Bottles, Cleaning of milk, §45, p21. Milk, §46, p36. Boxes, Salt, §50, p36. Branded cattle, §49, p49. Branding of cattle, §51, p51. Breast, §48, p3. Breeding, §26, pp2, 10. cattle. Marketing of, §51, p28. Close, §26, p40. cows during winter, Care of, §51, p21. cows, Feeding of dual-purpose, §51, pl9. cows, Management of, §51, p8. cows, Selection of beef, §51, p4. cows, Selection of dual-purpose, §51, p5. cows. Summer feeding of beef, §51, pl6. cows when on pasture, Care of, §51, p20. cows, Winter feeding of beef, §51, pl8. Double-standard, §48, pl6. herd, Management of a, §51, p8. In-and-in, §26, p39. Incestuous, §26, p39. Laws of, §26, pl7. Line, §26, p40. of cows, §51, plO. operations, §26, p32. Principles of animal, §26, pi. rack, or crate, §50, p35. records, §26, p49; §43, pp23, 24. Single-standard, §48, pl6. stock. Advertising of, §51, p28. stock, Methods of selling, §51, p29. INDEX xiu Breeding stock, Shipping of, §51, p32. the dairy cow, §44, p5. to points, §26, p46. true, §26, p39. Breeds, Dairy, §42, p4. Improvement of, §26, p46. Miscellaneous dairy, §42, p24. of cattle. Beef, §48, p9. of cattle. Dual-purpose, §48, p43. of dairy cattle, §42, pi. Brisket, §48, p3. Brown Swiss cattle, §42, p28; §48, pp7, SO. Brushes, Scrubbing, §47, p31. Buck, §26, p3. Bull, §26, p3. Bam and paddock for a, §50, pl3. Disinfecting a, §51, p25. Feeding a, §44, p21. Feeding a herd, §51, p23. Handling of a herd, §51, p22. Methods of handling a, §44, pl9. rings, §50, p36. Selection of a herd, §51, p6. Selection of dairy, §43, pl7. Use of a, §44, p21. Use of a herd, §51, p24. Bulls, Bologna, §49, pp3, 22, 27. Choice, §49, pp3, 13, 20. Feeder, §49, pp3, 28, 36. Good, §49, pp3, 13, 20. Management of dairy, §44, pl9. Medium, §49, pp3, 13, 20. Bunk for a muddy lot. Feed, §50, p27. Ten-sided feed, §50, p25. Bunks, Rectangular feed, §50, p25. Butcher stock cattle, §49, pl2. stock cattle, Grades of, §49, p3. Butcher's ideal animal, §49, p69. Butter,' §45, p36. color to cream. Addition of, §47, p52. fat, §45, p5. fat. Table of cost in four different states of producing 100 pounds of milk and 1 pound of, §46, p2. ladles and packers, §47, p35. making. Equipment for farm, §47, p3. making. Farm, §47, pi. -making operations, §47, p35. Packing of, §47, p58. printers, §47, p29. Salting of, §47, p55. Washing of, §47, p54. workers, §47, p28. Working of, §47, p57. Buttermilk, §45, p35; §46, p33. Babcock test of, §47, p42. Butyric-acid bacteria, §45, p36. Butyric fermentation, §45, p36. By-product feeds, Commercial, §25, p23. Calf production, Dairying for, §43, p20. Calves, Care of cows while suckling, §51, pll. Castration of, §51, p48. Grades of veal, §49, p3. Management of, §44, pl6. Management of beef, §51, p25. Management of dual-purpose, §51, p27. Veal, §49, pp3, 42. Calving, §26, pl2. time, Care of cow at, §51, pll. Canada, Milk standards of, §46, p32. Canadian cattle, French, §42, p29. Canners, Cutters and, §49, p22. Good, §49, pp3, 22, 24. Grades of, §49, p3. Inferior, §49, pp3, 22, 24. Medium, §49, pp3, 22, 24. Cannon, §48, p3. Cans and their care. Milk, §46, p33. Cleaning of milk, §45, p21. Filling of milk, §46, p34. Washing of milk, §46, p35. Capillary circulation of a dairy cow, §43, pS. Caps, Milk-bottle, §46, p36. Carbohydrates in feeds, §25, p6. in feed. Functions of, §25, plO. Carcass, Beef, §49, p54. to live weight. Proportion of beef, §49, p59. Card for beef-breeding cattle. Score, §49, p63. for Berkshire swine. Score, §26, p54. for dairy cow, Score, §43, p4. for market beef cattle. Score, §49, p62. for stockers and feeders. Score, §49, p64. of the City of New York, Score, §46, pp26-30. Score, §26, p53. Cards, Use of score, §43, pi; §49, p61. Carriers, Feed, §41, p30. Manure, §41, p31. Milk, §41, p33. Carrying devices, §41, p30. Casein, §45, p6. Castration, §26, p46. of calves, §51, p4S. Cattle, Aberdeen-Angus, §48, p28. Ayrshire, §42, pl9. Baby-beef, §49, p47. Beef, §48, pi; §49, p4. Beef breeds of, §48, p9. Beef type of, §48, p5. Branded, §49, p49. Branding of, §51', p51. Breeds of dairy, §42, pi. Brown Swiss, §42, p28; §48, pp7, 50. XIV INDEX Cattle, Butcher stock, §49, pl2. Dakota-Texan, §49, p49. Dehorning of, §51, p49. Devon, §42, p30; §48, pp7, 43. Dressed-beef, §49, pp51, 53. Dual-purpose, §48, pi. Dual-purpose breeds of, §48, p43. Dual-purpose type of, §48, p7. Dutch Belted, §42, p24. Effect on profits of feed and care of, §46, p3. Equipment for beef and dual-purpose, §50, pi. Export. §49, p51. Feeds for beef and dual-purpose, §50, p40. for beef, Marketing of, §51, p41. for exhibition. Fitting of, §51, p43. for market, Management of, §51, p32. French Canadian, §42, p29. Galloway, §48, pp5, 35. General-purpose, §48, pi. General quality of, §49, p30. Gestation table for, §44, pll; §51, pl2. Grades of beef, §49, p3. Grades of butcher stock, §49, p3. Guernsey, §42, p8. Handling quality of, §49, p31. Hereford, §48, pp5, 20. Holstein-Friesian, §42, pl3. Jersey, §42, p4. Judging of beef, §49, p60. Judging of dual-purpose, §49, p69. Management of baby-beef, §51, p32. Management of beef and dual-purpose, §51, p8. Market classes of, §49, pi. Marketing of breeding, §51, p28. Montana-Texan; §49, p49. Parts of beef and dual-purpose, §48, p4. Polled Durham, §48, pp5, 16. Polled Hereford, §48, p20. Procedure in judging of beef, §49, p65. Red Polled, §42, p32; §48, pp7, 46. Registering of, §51, p51. Registration of dairy, §44, p22. Score card for beef breeding, §49, p63. Score card for market beef, §49, p62. Selection of dairy, §43, pi. Shipping, §49, pp51, 52. Shipping of pure-bred, §43, p28. Simmenthal, §42, p29. Shorthorn, §42, p32; §48, pp5, 7, 9, 52. Still, §49, p47. Texas and Western range, §49, pp47, 49. Sussex, §48, pp5, 40. Wyoming-Texan, §49, p49. Caves as butter-making quarters, §47, p5. Cell-body, §26, p4. Cell-wall, §26, p4. Cellars as butter-making quarters, §47, p5. Cells, Female germ, §26, p5. Germ, §26, p4. Male germ, §26, p5. Centrifugal separation, §47, pp8, 35. -separator mechanism, §47, plO. separators, §47, p8. separators. Types of, §47, pll. Certificate of registry, §44, p24. Certified milk, §46. pp31, 32. Cheese, Cottage, §45, p36. Chest, §43, p3. capacity of dairy cows, §43, p3. Chicago milk regulations, §46, p24. Chime, §43. p3. Chum, Agitation of cream in the, §47, p51. Preparation of, §47, p52. Quantity of cream in the, §47, p51. Washing of, §47, p55. Churning, §47, p49. equipment, Miscellaneous, §47, p24. Operations of, §47, p52. Power outfits for, §47, p24. Richness of cream for, §47, p50. Ripeness of cream for, §47, p51. Size of fat globules in cream for, §47, p51. Straining of cream for, §47. p52. Temperature of cream for, §47, p49. Time to stop, §47, p54. Chums, §47,' pl9. Dash, §47, p20. Operation of, §47, p53. Revolving, §47, p21. Swinging, §47, p24. Circulation of a dairy cow. Capillary, §43, p8. Circulatory system of a dairy cow, §43, p6. Cistern, Milk, §45, p2. Clarification of milk, §45. p23. Classes of cattle, Market, §49, pi. Claws, Dew, §48, p3. Cleaners for cows. Vacuum, §45, pl5. Cleaning of cream separators, §45, p22. of milk bottles, §45, p21. of milk cans, §45, p21. Cleanliness as a means of control of bacteria in milk, §45, p23. of utensils, §45, pl9. Clipping of cows, §45, pl7. Close breeding, §26, p40. Clotted cream, §46, p33. Clover hay, §50, p44. Cod, §26, p9; §48, p3. Colored milks, §45, p39. Colostrum, §45, pp3, 15. Complex-bowl separators, §47, pl3. Compound, Definition of, §25, p3. INDEX XV Concentrated feeds, §50, p40. Concentrates, §25, p22. Condensed cream, §46, p33. milk, §45, p32; §46, p33. skim milk, §46, p33. Conformation, §48, p3. Dairy, §42. pi. to milk secretion, Relation of dairy, §42, p2. Constitution, §26, p36. Contamination of milk, §45, plO. Cooler, Milk, §45, p25. Cooling and storing of milk, §45, p24. Copulation, §26, plO. Cord, §43, pl4. Com, §50, p40. stover, §50, p47. Cottage cheese, §45, p36. Cottonseed hulls, §50, p47. meal, §50, p42. Covering, §26, plO. Cow, §26, p3. at calving time. Care of, §51, pll. Bacteria from coat of, §45, pl2. Breeding the dairy, §44, p5. Care of a pregnant, §44, p7. Circulatory system of a dairy, §43, p6. Determination of age of a dairy, §43, pl5. Digestive system of a dairy, §43, p8. during parturition, Care of a, §44, plO. Feeding the dairy, §44, pi. milk, §45, p5. Milk signs in a dairy, §43, pl2. Score card for dairy, §43, p4. Temperament of a dairy, §43, p9. Ud^er development of a dairy, §43, plO. Cowpea hay, §50, p45. Cow's udder, Structure of a, §45, p2. Cows, Age at which to breed, §51, p8. Bacteria in udders of, §45, pll. Breeding of, §51, plO. Choice, §49. pp3, 13, 18. Clipping of, §45, pl7. during winter, Care of breeding, §51, p21. Feeding of dual-purpose breeding, §51, pl9. from a herd. Eliminating of imdesirable beef, §51, p21. from a herd, Eliminating of undesirable dual- purpose, §51, p22. Good, §49. pp3, 13, 18. Management of breeding, §51, p8. Management of dairy, §44, pi. Medium, §49, pp3, 13, 18. Parturition in, §51, pll. Period of gestation in, §51, plO. Period of heat in, §51, p8. Prime, §.49. pp3, 13, 18. Quantity of milk produced by, §46, p2. Cows, Rations 'for dairy, §44, p3. Season at which to breed, §51, p9. Selection of beef-breeding, §51, p4. Selection of dairy, §43, pi. Selection of dual-purpose breeding, §51, p5. Seven-day milk record for twenty, §46, p9. Signs of pregnancy in, §51, plO. Summer feeding of beef-breeding, §51, pl6. Vacuum cleaners for, §45, pl5. when on pasture, Care of breeding, §51, p20. while suckling calves, Care of, §51, pH. "Winter feeding of beef-breeding, §51, pl8. Crate, Breeding rack, or, §50, p35. Cream, §45, p6; §46, p33. Addition of butter color to, §47, p52. Artificial ripening of, §47, pp43, 44. Babcock test of, §47, p40. Clotted, §46, p33. Condensed, §46, p33. Conditions affecting churnability of, §47, p49. Determination of acidity in, §47, p47. Evaporated, §46, p33. Farrington's alkaline test for, §47, p48. for churning. Richness of, §47, pSO. for churning. Ripeness of, §47, p51. for churning, Size of fat globules in, §47, p51. for churning, Straining of, §47, p52. for churning. Temperature of, §47, p49. in the chum, Agitation of, §47, p51. in the chum. Quantity of, §47, p51. Mann's acid test for, §47, p48. Natural ripening of, §47, p43. Ripening of, §47, p43. -separating equipment, §47, p8. Separation of, §47, p35. separators, Cleaning of, §45, p22. standards. Table of state milk and, §46, pl8. strainers, stirrers, and samplers, §47, p33. Creaming of milk, §45, p6. Crops, §48, p3. Root, §25, p28. Soiling, §25, p27. Cross-breed, §26, p38. Crossing, §26, p41. Curdling of milk. Sweet, §45, p36. Curd test of milk, Wisconsin, §45, p43. Cuts, Wholesale beef, §49, p54. Cutters and canners, §49, p22. Common, §49, pp3, 22, 24. Good, §49, pp3, 22, 24, Grades of, §49, p3. Medium, §49, pp3, 22, 24. D Dairy barn. Round, §41, p57. bam, Wisconsin, §41, p46. bams, §41, pi. XVI INDEX Dairy bams, Construction of^ §41, p8. barns, Equipment for, §41, pl9. bams, Examples of, §41, p35. bams, Floors for, §41, pl4. bams, Foimdations for, §41, p8. bams, Roofs for, §41, pl3. barns, Sites for, §41, p6. barns. Ventilation of, §41, pl5. barns, "Walls for, §41, plO. breeds, §42, p4. breeds. Miscellaneous, §42, p24. bull, Selection of, §43, pl7. bulls, Management of, §44, pl9. cattle. Breeds of, §42, pi. cattle, Registration of, §44, p22. cattle, Selection of, §43, pi. conformation, §42, pi. conformation to milk secretion. Relation of, §42, p2. cow. Breeding the, §44, p5. cow, Circulatory system, of a, §43, p6. cow. Digestive system of a, §43, p8. cow, Determination of age of a, §43, pl5. cow, Feeding the, §44, pi. cow. Milk signs in a, §43, pl2, cow. Score card for, §43, p4. cow. Temperament of a, §43, p9. cow, Udder development of a, §43, plO. cows. Management of, §44, pi. cows. Rations for, §44, p3. cows. Selection of, §43, pi. herds. Management of, §44, pi. Steam boilers in a, §46, p42. thermometers, §47, p31. type, Description of, §42, pi. Dairying for calf production, §43, p20. for milk production, §43, pl9. Systems of, §43, pl9, Dakota Agricultural College, Bam of the South, §41, p52. -Texan cattle, §49, p49. Dam, §26, p3. Dash chums, §47, p20. Deep-setting separation, §47, pplo, 38. -setting separation. Devices for, §47, pl6. Dehorning of cattle, §51, p49. shears, §50, p35. Devon cattle, §42, p30; §48, pp7, 43. Dew claws, §48, p3. Dewlap, §43, p3; §48, p3. Digestibility of feed, Factors influencing, §25, pis. Digestion, Ash in, §25, pl6. of feed, §25. pll. Water in, §25, pl6. Digestive changes in the intestines, §25, pl4. changes in the mouth, §25, pll. Digestive changes in the stomach, §25, pll. system of a dairy cow, §43, p8. Dipping tank, §50, p37. Direct heredity, §26, pl7. Discontinuous variations, §26, p27. Disease, Inheritance of, §26, pl9. Diseases transmitted by milk, §45, pp39, 40. Disinfecting a bull, §51, p25. Distillers, §49, p47. Doe. §26, p3. Domestic animals, §26, p2. Dominant character, §26, p24. Double-standard breeding, §48, pl6. Dressed-beef cattle, §49, pp51, 53. Dual-purpose breeding cows, Feeding of, §51, pl9. -purpose breeding cows, Selection of, §51, p5, -purpose breeds of cattle, §48, p43. -purpose calves. Management of, §51, p27. -purpose cattle, §48, pi. -purpose cattle, Equipment for beef and, §50, pi. -IMirpose cattle. Feeds for beef and, §50, p40. -purpose cattle, Judging of, §49, p69. -purpose cattle. Management of beef and, §51, p8. -purpose cattle, Parts of beef and, §48, p4, -purpose cows from a herd. Eliminating of imdesirable, §51, p22. -purpose type of cattle, §48, p7. Ducts, Milk, §45, p2. Durham cattle, Polled, §48, pp5, 16. Dust of stable. Bacteria from, §45, pl7. Dutch Belted cattle, §42, p24. E Early maturity, §48, p4. Elbow, §48, p3. Electric milking machines, §46, p6. Element, Definition of, §25, p3. Embryo, Development of the, §26, pll. Embryotome, §26, pl4. Energy, Production of, §25, p7- Equipment, Cream-separating, §47, p8, for beef and dual-purpose cattle, §50, pi. for dairy bams, §41, pl9. for farm butter making, §47, p3. Miscellaneous churning, §47, p24. Escutcheon, §43, pp3, 13. Evaporated cream, §46, p33. milk, §45, p32; §46, p33. Ewe, §26, p3. milk, §45, p5; §46, p33. Excellence, Standard of, §26, p53. Exhibition, Feeding of cattle for, §51, p43, Export cattle, §49, p51. Extra teats, §43, pl4. INDEX xvu Face, §43, p3; §48, p3. ' Fallopian tubes, §26, p8. tubes. Pavilion of the, §26, p9. Farm butter making, §47, pi. butter making,' Equipment for, §47, p3. Farrington's acid-testing outfit, §47, p32. alkaline test for cream, §47, p48. Farrowing, §26, pl2. Fat, Baby, §44, pl8. Butter, §45, p5. globules in cream for churning. Size of, §47, p51. in feed. Functions of, §25, plO. in feeds, §25, p7. MUk, §45, p5. Table of cost in four different states of pro- ducing 100 pounds of milk and 1 pound of butter, §46, p2. Tongue, §48, p3. Feces, §25, pl6. Fecundity, §26, p37. Fed westerns, §49, p49. Feed, Absorption of, §25, pl7. and care of cattle. Effect on profits of, §46, p3. bunk for a muddy lot, §50, p27. bunk. Ten-sided, §50, p25. bunks. Rectangular, §50, p25. carriers, §41, p30. compounds. Functions of, §25, p8. Cost or availability of, §25, p37. Digestion of, §25, pll. Expulsion of undigested part of, §25, pl6. Factors influencing digestibility of, §25, pl8. Functions of, §25, p7. Functions of ash in, §25, p9. Functions of carbohydrates in, §25, plO. Functions of fat in, §25, plO. Functions of protein in, §25, p9. Functions of water in, §25, pS. lots at the Illinois Experiment Station, Shed and, §50, pl9. lots at the Missouri Experiment Station, Shed and, §50, pl6. on animals. Physiological effects of, §25, p36. on milk composition, Influence of, §45, p9. Palatability of, §25, p20. Preparation of, §25, p20. Feeder bulls, §49, pp3, 28, 36. Feeder's ideal animal, §49, p68. wattle, §48, p3. Feeders, Choice, §49, pp3, 28, 29. Common, §49, pp3, 28, 36. Fancy selected, §49, pp3, 28, 29. Good, §49, pp3, 28, 32. Grades of, §49, p3. Feeders, Inferior, §49, pp3, 28, 36. Management of, §51, p34. Medium, §49, pp3, 28, 32. Score card for stockers and, §49, p64. Stockers and, §49, pp3, 27. Feeding a bull, §44, p21. a herd bull, §51, p23. Frequency of, §25, p21. Long, §51, p35. of baby-beef cattle, §51, p33. of beef-breeding cows. Summer, §51, pl6. of beef -breeding cows. Winter, §51, pl8. of dual-purpose breeding cows, §51, pl9. of feeders, §51, p37. Principles of animal, §25, pi. Short, §51, p34. standards, §25, p29. standards. Table of Wolff-Lehmann, §25, p62. the dairy cow, §44, pi. Feeds, Ash in, §25, p4. by horses and sheep. Table of comparison of the digestibility of, §25, pl9. Carbohydrates in, §25, p6. Classification of, §25, p22. Commercial by-product, §25, p23. Composition of, §25, p3. Concentrated, §50, p40. Fat in, §25, p7. for beef and dual-purpose cattle, §50, p40. Miscellaneous factors affecting the selection and use of, §25, p34. Protein in, §25, p5. Roughage, §50, p44. Selection and use of, §25, p29. Succulent, §50, p47. Supplemental, §25, p23. Water in, §25, p4. Feedstuffs, Table of average composition of American, §25, p3S. Table of total dry matter and total digestible nutrients in 100 pounds of American, §25, p52. Female germ cells, §26, p5. reproductive organs, §26, p6. Fences, §50, p29. Fermentation, Butyric, §45, p36. in milk. Alcoholic, §45, p38. of milk, §45, plO. . of milk. Acid, §45, p32. test of milk, §45, p42. Fermentations, Milk, §45, p32. Fertilization, §26, p9. Fetus, §26, pll. Filling of milk cans, §46, p34. utensils. Milk, §46, p36. Filly, §26, p3. Fitting of cattle for exhibition, §51, p43. XVIU INDEX Fixed types, §26, p26. Flank, §43, p3. Fore, §48, p3. Hind, §48, p3. vein, §43, pl4. Flaxseed meal, §50, p43. Flock books, §26, p50. Flooring materials, §50, p4. Floors for dairy bams, §41, pl4. Fluids, Secretion of, §25, p8. Foaling, §26, pl2. Fodders, §25, p26. Follicles, §45, p2. Forceps, Lamb and pig, §26, pl5 Fore flank, §43, p3; §48, p3. ribs, §48, p3. Forehead, §43, p3. Form, §48, p3. Formaldehyde, §45, p26. Foundation stock. Selection of, §51, p2. Foundations for dairy bams, §41, pS. Founding of a herd, §51, pi. French Canadian cattle, §42, p29. Friesian cattle, Holstein-, §42, pl3. G Galloway cattle, §48, pp5, 35. Gas-forming bacteria, §45, p33. milking machines, §46, p6. Gaskins, §48, p3. Gastric juice, §25, pl3. Gate, Pinch, §50, p30. Gelding, §26, p47. General-purpose cattle, §48, pi. Genital organs, §26, p6. Germ cells, §26, p4. cells. Female, §26, p5. cells, Male, §26, p5. Gestation in cows. Period of, §51, plO. Period of, §26, pll. table for cattle, §44, pll; §51, pl2. tables, §26, pll. Gat, §26, p3. Goat milk, Nanny, §45, p5. Goat's milk, §46, p33. Government milk standards, §46, pl7. Grade, §26, p38. Grass westerns, §49, p49. Gravity separation, §47, p37. separation. Devices for, §47, pl5. Guaranteed milk, §46, p31. Guernsey cattle, §42, p8. milk, §45, p7. H Handling quaUty of cattle, §49, p31. Harking back, §26, pl8. Hay, Alfalfa, §50, p44. Hay, Clover, §50, p44. Cowpea, §50, p45. Oat-and-pea, §50, p46. Prairie, §50, i>46. Soybean, §50, p44. Timothy, §50, p45. Hays, §25, p25. Head, Tail, §48, p3. Heat, §26, plO. Control of bacteria by, §45, p26. in cows. Period of, §51, p8. Heifer, §26, p3. Heifers, Choice, §49, pp3, 13, 15. Common stock, §49, pp3, 28, 40. Good, §49, pp3, 13, 15. Good stock, §49, pp3, 28, 40. Medium, §49, pp3, 13, 15. Medium stock, §49, pp3, 28, 40. Prime, §49, pp3, 13, 15. Herd, Advertising the, §43, p25. books. §26, p50. bull. Feeding a, §51, p23. buU, Handling of a, §51, p22. bull. Selection of a, §51, p6. bull. Use of a, §51, p24. Eliminating of undesirable beef cows from a, §51, p21. Eliminating of tindesirable dual-purpose cows from a, §51, p22. Founding of a, §51, pi. Management of a breeding, §51, p8. Herds, Management of dairy, §44, pi. Heredity, Direct, §26, pl7. Indirect, §26, pl8. Law of, §26, pl7. Hereford cattle, §48, pp5, 20. cattle. Polled, §48, p20. Hind flank, §48, p3. Hips, §43, p3. Hocks, §48, p3. Hollow-bowl separators, §47, pll. Holstein-Friesian cattle, §42, pl3. milk, §45, p7. Honeycomb, §25, pl2. Hooks, §48, p3. Horse, Stomach of a, §25, pl4. Hulls, Cottonseed, §50, p47. Hybrid, §26, p38. Hybrids, Mendel's law of, §26, p22. Hydrochloric acid, §25, pl3. Ideal animal. Butcher's, §49, p69. animal. Feeder's. §49, p68. stall. New, §45, pl4. Illinois Experiment Station, Shed and feed lots at the, §50, pl9. INDEX XIX ininois. Round bam of the University of, §41. p58. Impotent, §26, p6. Impregnation, §26, plO. Artificial, §26. plO. In-and-in breeding. §26, p39. Inbreeding, §26, p39. Incestuous breeding, §26, p39. Indirect heredity, §26, pl8. Individual merit, §26, p32. Inheritance, Law of, §26, pl7. of acquired characters, §26, p21. of disease, §26, pl9. of malformations and mutilations, §26, p20. Intestinal juice, §25, pl6. Intestines, Digestive changes in the, §25, pl4. Intra-uterine, or prenatal, influences, §26, p31. Iowa Agricultural College, Bam of the, §41, p54. Jack, §26, p3. Jenny, §26, p3. Jersey cattle, §42, p4. milk, §45, p7. Judging, §26, p53. of beef cattle, §49, p60. of beef cattle, Procedure in, §49, p65. of dual-purpose cattle, §49, p69. Kefir, §45, p38. King system of ventilation, §41, pl6. Knee, §48, p3. Koumiss, §45, p38. li Labor, §26, pl3. Lactic-acid bacteria, §45, p33. Lactose, §45, p6. Ladles, Butter, §47, p35. Lamb and pig forceps, §26, pl5. Lambing, §26, pl2. Laws of the State of New York, Milk, §46, p20. of the State of Wisconsin, Milk, §46, p21. Line breeding, §26, p40. Linseed meal, §50, p43. Live weight, Proportion of beef carcass to, §49. p59. Loin, §43, p3; §48, p3. Long feeding, §51, p35. M Machines, Milking, §46, p5. Male germ cells, §26, p5. reproductive organs, §26, p9. Malformations, §26, pp20, 27. Mammals, §26, p3. Mangers, §41, p28. Mann's acid test for cream, §47, p4S. acid-testing outfit. §47. p31. Manure carriers, §41 p31. Manyplies, §25, pl2. Mare, §26. p3. milk, §45, p5. Market beef cattle, Score card for, §49, p62. classes of cattle, §49, pi. Management of cattle for, §51, p32. milk, §46, ppl, 30. milk, Handling of, §46. p33. Marketing of breeding cattle, §51, p28. of cattle for beef, §51, p41. Mating, §26, p38. Maturity, Early, §48, p4. Meal, Cottonseed, §50, p42. Linseed, §50, p43. Oil, §50, p43. Mendel's law of hybrids, §26, p22. Merit, Individual, §26, p32. Register of, §42, p8. Midribs, §48, p3. Milk, §45, pi; §46, p32. Absorption of odors by, §45, p44. Acid fermentation of, §45, p32. Adulterated, §46, p20. Alcoholic fermentation in, §45, p38. -and-beef type of Holstein-Friesian cattle, §42, pl6. and cream standards, Table of state, §46. plS. and 1 pound of butter fat. Table of cost in four different states of producing 100 pounds of, §46, p2. Ayrshire, §45, p7. Babcock test of skim-, §47. p41. Bacteria in, §45, plO. Bitter, §45, p38. bloom, §51, p32. bottles, caps, and filling utensils, §46, p36. bottles. Cleaning of, §45. p21. cans and their care, §46, p33. cans. Cleaning of. §45, p21. cans. Filling of, §46, p34. cans. Washing of, §46, p35. carriers, §41, p33. Certified, §46, pp31, 32. cistern, §45, p2. Clarification o4, §45, p23. Composite sample of, §46, pll. Composition of, §45, p3. composition, -Factors influencing, §45, p7. composition. Influence of breed on, §45, p7. composition, Influence of feed on, §45, p9. composition. Influence of stage of milking on, §45, pS. composition. Influence of time of milking on, §45. p8. XX INDEX Milk, Condensed, §45, p32, §46, p33. Condensed skim-, §46, p33. constituents, §45, p3. Contamination of, §45, plO. Control of bacteria in, §45, p23. cooler, §45, p25. Cooling and storing of, §45, p24. Cost of producing, §46, pi. Cow, §45, p5. Creaming of, §45, p6. Diseases transmitted by, §45, pp39, 40, ducts, §45, p2. Evaporated, §45, p32; §46, p33. Ewe, §45, p5; §46, p33. fat, §45, p5. Fermentation of, §45, plO. Fermentation test of, §45, p42. fermentations, §45, p32. Goat's, §46, p33. Guaranteed, §46, p31. Guernsey, §45, p7. Handling of market, §46, p33. Holstein, §45, p7. Jersey, §45, p7. laws of the State of New York, §46, p20. laws of the State of Wisconsin, §46, p21. Mare, §45, p5. Market, §46, ppl, 30. Nanny goat, §45, p5. of different species of ammals. Table of com- position of, §45, p5. pail, Excluding bacteria by use of sanitary, §45, pis. Pasteurized, §46, pp31, 32. Pathogenic bacteria in, §45, p39. powder, §45, p32. Preserved, §45, p32. produced by cows. Quantity of, §46, p2. production, Dairying for, §43, pl9. production. Profits in, §46, pi. record for twenty cows, Seven day, §46, p9. regulations. City, §46, p23. Ropy, §45, p37. Secretion of, §45, pi. secretion. Relation of dairy conformation to, §42, p2. secretion, Time of, §45, p3. Selected, §46, p30. Shorthorn, §45, p7. signs in a dairy cow, §43, pl2. Skim-, §46, p32. Sources of bacteria in, §45, pll. Standards for, §46, pl7. standards of Canada, §46, p32. standards o'f the United States, §46, pl7. standards, State, §46, pl9. Sterilized, §46, p32. Milk, Straining of, §45, p23. sugar, §45, p6. Sweet curdling of, §45, p36. type of Holstein-Friesian cattle, §42, pl6. Use of preservatives in, §45, p26. veins, §43, p3. Weighing, testing, and keeping of records of, §46, p8. wells, §43, p6. Wisconsin curd test of, §45, p43. Milker as a source of bacterial infection, §45, p22. Milkers and springers, §49, pp3, 46. Grades of, §49, p3. Milking, Effect on profits of method of, §46, p4. machines, §46, p5. Milks, Colored, §45, p39. Millet, §50, p46. Missouri Experiment Station, Shed and feed lots at the, §50, pl6. Mixed milk, §45, pi. Model bam for 18 cows, §41, p42. stall, §41, p23; §45, pl3. Monstrosities, §26, p28. Montana-Texan cattle, §49, p49. Mouth, Digestive changes in the, §25, pll. Muddy lot. Feed bunk for a, §50, p27. Mutilations, §26, p20. Muzzle, §43, p3; §48, p3. N Nanny, §26, p3. goat milk, §45, p5. Native, §26, p38. Natural ripening of cream, §47, p43. selection, §26, p32. Navel, §43, p3. Neck, §43, p3; §48, p3. New Ideal stall, §41, p25; §45, pl4. York City milk regulations, §46, p23. York, Milk laws of the state of, §46, p20. York, Score card of the city of, §46, pp26-30. Normal presentation, §26, pl3. variations, §26, p26. Nucleolus, §26, p4. Nucleus, §26, p4. Nutritive ratio, §25, p30. Oat-and-pea hay, §50, p46. Oats, §50, p42. Odors by milk. Absorption of, §45, p44. CEstrum, §26, plO. Oil meal, §50, p43. Omasum, §25, pl2. One-story bam for 20 cows, §41, p37. Organs, Female reproductive, §26, p6. INDEX XXI Organs, Genital, §26, p6. Male reproductive, §26, p9. of milk secretion, §45, pi. Reproductive, §26, p6. Os uteri, §26, p8. Ovaries, §26, pp5, 8, 9. Ovulation, §26, plO. Ovum, §26, p5. Ox, Stomach of an, §25, pl2. Padcers, Butter, §47, p35. Packing of butter, §47, p58. Paddock for a bull. Bam and, §50, pl3. Pail, Excluding bacteria by use of sanitary milk, §45, pl8. Palatability, §25, p34. of feed, §25, p20. Pancreatic juice, §25, plS. Parturition, §26, pl2. Care of cow during, §44, plO. in cows, §51, pll. Pasteurization, §45, p27. Pasteurized milk, §46, ppSl, 32. Pasteurizing outfits, §47, p27. Pasture, Care of breeding cows when on, §51, p20. Pastures, Convenience of site of dairy barn to, §41, p8. Pathogenic bacteria in milk, §45, p39. Paunch, §25, pl2. Pavilion of the Fallopian tubes, §26, p9. Pea hay, Oats-and-, §50, p46. Pedigree, §26, pp50, 51. Pelvic arch, §43, pl3. Penis, §26, p9. Pepsin, §25, pl3. Peptone, §25, pl3. Pig forceps. Lamb and, §26, pl5. Pin bones, §43, p3; §48, p3. Pinch gate, §50, p30. Point, Shoulder, §48, p3. Points, §26, p46. Standard scale of, §26, p53. Poll, §43, p3; §48, p3. Polygonal bams, §41, p63. Polled cattle. Red, §42, p32; §48. p46. Durham cattle, §48, pp5, 16. Hereford cattle, §48, p26. Polygonal bam for 88 cows, §41, p64. bams for 70 cows, §41, p65. , Powder, Milk, §45, p32. Power outfits for churning, §47, p24. Prairie hay, §40, p46. Pregnancy in cows. Signs of, §51, plO. Signs of, §44, p7. Pregnant cow. Care of a, §44, p7. Premature birth, §26, pl5. Prenatal, or intra-uterine, influences, §26, p31. Prepotency, §26, p34. Presentation, Abnormal, §26, pl3. Normal, §26, pl3. Preservatives in milk, Use of, §45, p26. Preserved milk, §45, p32. Printers, Butter, §47, p29. Production, Records of, §43, pi. Profits in milk production, §46, pi. of feed and care of cattle. Effect on, §46, p3. of method of milking. Effect on, §46, p4. Protein, §45, p6. in feed. Functions of, §25, p9. in feeds, §25. p5. Ptyalin, §25, pll. Puberty, §26, plO. Pulp, Beet, §50, p48. Pure-bred animal, §26, p38. -bred cattle. Shipping of, §43, p28. Purse, §26, p9; §48, p3. Q Quality, §48, p3. Quarters for butter making, §47, p3. R Rack, or crate. Breeding, §50, p35. Ram, §26, p3. Range cattle, Texas and Western, §49, pp47, 49. Rangers, Western, §49, p49. Ration, Making up a balanced, §25, p31. Quantity of, §25, p21. Rations, Balanced, §25, p29. for baby-beef cattle, §51, p33. for dairy cows, §44, p3. for dual-purpose cows, §51, p20. for feeders, §51, p37. Recessive character, §26, p24. Record books, §26, p50. for twenty cows, Seven-day milk, §46, p9. Records, Breeding, §26, p49; §43, pp23, 24. of milk. Keeping of, §46, p8. Rectangular bam for 20 cows, §41, p35. bams, §50, p6. basement barn, §41, p68. Red Polled cattle, §42, p32; §48, pp7, 46. Register of merit, §42, p8. Registering of cattle, §51, p51. Registration of dairy cattle, §44, p22. Registry, Advanced, §26, p55. Application for, §44, p23. Certificate of, §44, p24. Regurgitation, §25, pl3. Rennet, §23, pl2; §45, p6. Rennin, §25, pl3. Repeller, §26, pl4. XXll INDEX Reproduction, §26, ppl, 2. Reproductive organs. Female, §26, p6. organs, Male, §26, p9. Reticulum, §25, pI2. Reversion, §26, pl8. Revolving chums, §47, p21. Ribs, Fore, §48, p3. Richness of cream for churning, §47, p50. Rings, Bull, §50, p36. Ripeness of cream for churning, §47, p51. Ripening of cream, §47, p42. of cream. Artificial, §47, pp43, 44. of cream. Natural, §47, p43. Rochester milk regulations, §46, p24. Roll, §49, p7. Roofing materials, §50, p3. Roofs for dairy bams, §41, pl3. Rooms in dwellings as butter-making quarters, §47, p4. Root crops, §25, p28. Roots, §50, p49. Ropy milk, §45, p37. Rotater, §26, pl4. Roughage, Dry, §25, p24. feeds, §50, p44. Succulent, §25, p27. Round bam for 76 cows, §41, p61. bam for 105 cows, §41, p62. bam of the University of Illinois, §41, p58, barns, §50, p4. dairy bam, §41, p57. Rudimentary teats, §43, pl4. Rumen, §25, pl2. Rump, §43, p3; §48, p3. Rut, §26, plO. S Sale of surplus stock, §43, p87. Saliva, §25, pll. Salt boxes, §50, p36. Salting of butter, §47, p55. Samplers, Cream, §47, p33. Sanitary milk pail, Excluding bacteria by use of, §45, pl8. Score, §26, p53. card, §26, p53. card for beef-breeding cattle, §49, p63. card for Berkshire swine, §26, p54. card for dairy cow, §43, p4. card for market beef cattle, §49, p62. card for stockers and feeders, §49, p64. card of the City of New York, §46, pp26-30 card. Use of, §43, pi; §49, p61. Scoring, §26, p53. Scrotum, §26, p9; §48, p3. Scrab, §26, p38. Scrubbing brushes, §47, p31. Season at which to breed cows, §51, p9. Secretion of milk, §45, pi. Time of milk, §45, p3. Selected milk, §46, p30. Selection, Artificial, §26, p32. Natural, §26, p32. Selling breeding stock. Methods of, §51, p29. Semen, §26, pp6, 9. Separation, Centrifugal, §47, ppS, 35. Deep-setting, §47, ppl5, 38. Devices for deep-setting, §47, pl6. Devices for gravity,, §47, pl5. Devices for shallow-pan, §47, pl6. Devices for water-dilution, §47, pl8. Gravity, §47, p37. -of cream, §47, p35. Shallow-pan, §47, ppl5, 37. Water-dilution, §47, ppl5, 39. Separator mechanism. Centrifugal-, §47, plO. Tubular-bowl, §47, pl2. Separators, Centrifugal, §47, p8. Cleaning of cream, §45, p22. Complex-bowl, §47, pl3. Hollow-bowl, §47, pll. Types of centrifugal, §47, pll. Serving, §26, plO. Sex, Determination of, §26, p47. Shade, Shed for, §50, p24. Shallow-pan separation, §47, ppl5, 37. -pan separation. Devices for, §47, pl6. Shears, Dehorning, §50, p35. Sheath, §26, p9. Shed and feed lots at the Illinois Experiment Station, §50, pl9. and feed lots at the Missouri Experiment Station, §50, pl6. and storage bam. Combined, §50, pl5. for shade, §50, p24. Sheds, §50, pl5. Shipping cattle, §49, pp51, 52. of breeding stock, §51, p32. of pure-bred cattle, §43, p28. Shoat, §26, p3. Short feeding, §51, p34. Shorthorn cattle, §42, p32; §45, p7; §48, pp5, 7, 9, 52. Shoulder, §48, p3. point, §48, p3. vein, §48, p3. Shoulders, §43, p3. Silage, §25, p27; §50, p47. Simmenthal cattle, §42, p29. Single-standard breeding, §48, pl6. Sire, §26, p3. Sites for dairy bams, §41, p6. Size, §26, p36. Skim-milk, §45, pi; §46, p32. -milk, Babcock test of, §47, p41. INDEX XXUl Skim-milk, Condensed, §46, p33. Soiling crops, §25, p27. Soils for dairy-bam sites, §41, p7. South Dakota Agricultural College, Barn o£ the, §41, p52. Sow, §26, p3. Soybean hay, §50, p44. Soybeans, §50, p43. Spaying, §26, p47. Spermatozoa, §26, p5. Sport, §26, p27. Spring houses as butter-making quarters, §47, po. Springers, Grades of, §49, p3. Milkers and, §49, pp3, 46. Stable, Bacteria from dust of, §45, pl7. Stables, Bacteria prevalent in dark, §45, pl8. Stag, §26, p47. Stall, Model, §41, p24; §45, pl3. New Ideal, §41, p25; §45, pl4. Van Norman, §41, p23. Stallion, §26, p3. Stalls, §41, pl9. without ties or stanchions, §41, p26. Stanchions, §41, pl9. Metal, §41, p20. of wood and metal, §41, p22. Stalls without ties or, §41, p26. Wooden, §41, p21. Standard of excellence, §26, p53. scale of points, §26, p53. Standards for milk, §46, pl7. of Canada, Milk, §46, p32. of the United States, Milk, §46, pl7. State milk, §46, pl9. Table of state milk and cream, §46, plS. Starter, §47, p43. State milk standards, §46, pl9. Steam boilers in a dairy, §46, p42. Steer, §26, p47. Steers, Choice, §49, pp3, 5, 10. Common rough, §49, pp3, 5, 12, 13, 20. Medium, §49, pp3, 5, 10. Prime, §49, pp3, 5. Sterile, §26, p6. Sterility, §26, pl6. Sterilized milk, §46, p32. Still cattle, §49, p47. Stirrers, Cream, §47, p33. Stock, Advertising of breeding, §51, p28. heifers. Common, §49, pp3, 28, 40. heifers, Good, §49, pp3, 28, 40. heifers. Medium, §49, pp3, 28, 40. Methods of selling breeding, §51, p29. Sale of surplus, §43, p27. Selection of foundation, §51, p2. Shipping of breeding, §51, p32. Stockers and feeders, §49, pp3, 27. and feeders. Score card for, §49, p64. Grades of, §49, p3. Management of, §51, p34. Yearling, §49, pp3, 28, 36. Storage bam. Combined shed and, §50, pl5. Storing of milk, Cooling and, §45, p24. Stover, Com, §50, p47. Stomach, Digestive changes in the, §25, pll. of a horse, §25, pl4. of an ox, §25, pl2. Strainers, Cream, §47, p33. Straining, §26, pl3. of cream for churning, §47, p52, of milk, §45, p23. Straws, §25, p25. Striking back, §26, pl8. Strippings, §45, p8. Stud, §26, p3. books, §26, p50. Succulent feeds, §50, p47. Sugar, Milk, §45, p6. Summer feeding of beef-breeding cows, §51, pl6. Supernumerary teats, §43, pl4. Supplemental feeds, §25, p23. Surplus stock, Sale of, §43, p27. Sussex cattle, §48, pp5, 40. Swine, Score card for Berkshire, §26, p54 Swinging chums, §47, p24. Swiss cattle. Brown, §48, pp7, 28, 50. Switch, §48, p3. Symmetry, §26, p36. Table for cattle. Gestation, §44, pll; §51, pl2. of average composition of American feed- stuffs, §25, p38. of comparison of the digestibility of feeds by horses and sheep, §25, pl9. of comparison of the producing power of 3 cows for one year, §46, p3. of composition of milk at different stages of a single milking, §45, p8. of composition of milk of cows of different breeds, §45, p7. of composition of milk of different species of animals, §45, p5. of cost in four different states of producing 100 pounds of milk and 1 pound of butter fat, §46, p2. of state milk and cream standards, §46, plS. of total dry matter and total digestible nutrients in 100 pounds of American feed- stuffs, §25, p52. of Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards, §25, p62. Tables, Gestation, §26, pll. XXIV INDEX Tail head, |48, p3. Tank, Dipping, §50, p37. Teats, §43, p3; §45, p2. Rudimentary, extra, or supernumerary, §43, pl4. Telegony, §26, p30. Temperament of a dairy cow, §43, p9. Temperature of cream for churning, §47, p49. Tennessee Experiment Station, Bank barn of the, §41, p71. Test, Babcock, §46, pl3; §47, p40. for cream, Farrington's alkaline, §47, p48. for cream, Mann's acid, §47, p48. of milk, Wisconsin curd, §45, p43. outfits, Babcock, §47, p27. Testicles, §26, p9; §26, p5. Testing milk, §46, p8. outfit, Farrington's acid-, §47, p32. outfit, Mann's acid-, §47, p31. Texas and Western range cattle, §49, pp47, 49. Thermometers, Dairy, §47, p31. Thigh, §43, p3; §48, p3. Thurls, §43, p3. Tie, §49, p7. Ties or stanchions, Stalls without, §41, p26. Timothy hay, §50, p45. Tissues, Production of, §25, pS. Tongue fat, §48, p3. Transfer, Application for, §44, p25. Troughs, Watering, §41, p28. Tubes, Fallopian, §26, p8. Pavilion of the Fallopian, §26, p9. Tubular-bowl separator, §47, pl2. Twist, §48, p3. U Udder, §43, p3; §45, p2; §48, p3. development of a dairy cow, §43, plO. Structure of a cow's, §45, p2. Udders of cows, Bacteria in, §45, pll. Umbilicus, §43, pl5. Utensils, Cleanliness of, §45, pl9. Uterus, §26, p8. V Vacuum cleaners for cows, §45, pl5. milking machines, §46, p5. Vagina, §26, p8. Van Norman stall, §41, p23. Variable types, §26, p26. Variation, Degrees of, §26, p26. External causes of, §26, p28. Law of, §26, p25. Variations, Abnormal, §26, p27. Discontinuous, §26, p27. Normal, §26, p26. Veal calves, §49, pp3, 42. calves. Grades of, §49, p3. Veals, Choice, §49, pp3, 42, 44. Conjmon, §49, pp3, 42, 46. Good, §49, pp3, 42, 44. Medium, §49, pp3, 42, 44. Vein, Flank, §43, pl4. Shoulder, §48, p3. Veins, Milk, §43, p3. Ventilation, King system of, §41, pl6. of dairy bams, §41, pl5. Vulva, §26, p8. W Walls for dairy bams, §41, plO. Washing of butter, §47, p54. of churn, §47, p55. of milk cans, §46, p35. Water-dilution separation, §47, ppl5, 39. -dilution separation. Devices for, §47, pl8. in digestion, §25, pl6. in feeds. Functions of, §25, p8. in feeds, §25, p4. supply. Convenience of site of dairy barn to, §41, p8. Watering troughs, §41, p28. Wattle, Feeder's, §48, p3. Weighing milk, §46, p8. Wells, Milk, §43, p6. Western range cattle, Texas and, §49, pp47, 49. rangers, §49, p49. Westems, Fed, §49, p49. Grass, §49, p49. Wether, §26, p47. Wheat, §50, p42. Whole milk, §45, pi. Winter, Care of breeding cows during, §51, p21. feeding of beef-breeding cows, §51, pl8. Wisconsin curd test of milk, §45, p43. dairy bam, §41, p46. Milk laws of the State of, §46, p21. Withers, §43, p3; §48, p3. Womb, §26, p8. Workers, Butter, §47, p28. Working of butter, §47, p57. Wyoming-Texan cattle, §49, p49. Yeaning, §26, pl2.