a' : "" ^ 8^ MS!*' Fvyy^B B^fi Mr ll H^w urn ■wiw iiSOSfti^ll 'i'. :: % OF HOME' MAKING Van Rensselaer Rose - Canon ■"I iv vfy wm 1 HMB-ial w% |H| [ H|i [nm^i r/Jasr'/^a^ /&x^ w/^e^c^^^*-^z^^^ LIBRARY OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF HOME ECONOMICS CORNELL UNIVERSITY ITHACA, NEW YORK t ■ 0? II II Cornell University VjB Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000454854 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON ■ CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA ■ SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY ■ CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO Plate I. — Dignified houses, in plaster and shingle, adapted for country homes. A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING COMPILED BY MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER FLORA ROSE HELEN CANON OP THE DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS, NEW YORK COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Nro fmrk THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1919 AU rights reserved CoPYBIGHT, 1919 By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Set up and electrotyped. Published February, 1919 STATEMENT BY THE EDITOR Herein is brought together a collection of precepts and ad- vice on the setting up and management of a home. The book is written and compiled primarily for those women who are managing households, not for those who are teaching or who are students in the class-room. It has been the purpose to bring together from many reliable sources the guiding rules to be followed in making the home a place where the family can live a thrifty and joyous life. It is compiled by those who understand the subject and the situation. Chapters on hygiene and sanitation were prepared by the authors, but space would not allow of their inclusion. This is a source of much regret, but the omission allowed a fuller treatment to be retained in the remaining chapters. The book is intended primarily for rural conditions. The country home should receive as careful and considerate atten- tion as the farm itself. The home is inseparable from the farm. Yet, as the principles and practices of home-making are the same in country and town, the book should actually meet the needs of a wide range of people. The Editor is glad to add a book in his series on the work and welfare of women, and he hopes it will not be the last. The woman's work and the man's work together make the welfare of any people secure. L. H. BAILEY. CONTENTS PART I THE HOUSE AND ITS FURNISHINGS CHAPTER I The Modern Hotjse Arrangement of the house The farmhouse . Farmhouse planning Exterior design . Cost of building Suggestions for making alterations . CHAPTER II Home Furnishing Structural consideration of rooms Color Pattern Selection of furnishings Furniture Arrangement of furnishings . Character of rooms expressed by furnishings CHAPTER III Planning the Home Kitchen Use of the kitchen Exposure Doors Windows Arrangement of equipment Discussion of plans PAGE 1 2 7 8 21 25 27 29 30 45 51 54 78 92 95 100 100 102 103 103 104 105 110 Vlll CONTENTS Pantries and closets Interior finish PAGE 112 118 PART II HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT CHAPTER IV Cake op the House ... Cellar. Kitchen Living-room and dining-room Sleeping-rooms Bathroom . . Suggestions for sweeping and dusting Repair kit . Some special directions for cleaning CHAPTER V Household Measurements and their Use Measurements for commodities Temperature Time . Measuring gas Measuring electricity Measuring water. Density of liquids Kitchen measures ' CHAPTER VI Household Records . How to keep household records Household accounts CHAPTER VII Heat and Light Care of fires Radiation . 121 121 122 123 123 123 124 124 125 129 129 131 138 143 147 151 153 156 175 176 177 191 191 191 CONTENTS IX Comparative cost of various methods of heating Factors governing consumption of fuel and convenience of oper- ation . . . Suggestions for firing and cleaning a furnace Advantages and disadvantages of various fuels Lighting ... ... PAGE 192 193 198 200 200 CHAPTER VIII Stoves and Cookers 207 CHAPTER IX Methods of Keeping Foods Cool 220 CHAPTER X Kitchen Utensils . . . . Utensils best adapted to various cooking processes Special utensils and equipment Arrangement of utensils How to prepare new utensils for use How to protect metals not in use . Materials and their care 225 225 228 230 231 232 232 CHAPTER XI Table Setting and Serving Table setting Table service Some table manners and customs 240 240 244 247 CHAPTER XII The Laundry Fabrics Water Starch Bluing Washing 249 249 250 253 257 261 261 CONTENTS Bleaching . . Ironing Equipment for the laundry CHAPTER XIII Stain Removal Methods for treatment of stains in general Specific methods for individual stains PAGE 273 273 276 282 284 287 PART III CLOTHING CHAPTER XTV Textiles . Cotton Linen . Wool . Silk Artificial silk Ramie Jute . Tests for fabrics Weave 307 307 312 315 321 324 325 325 326 329 CHAPTER XV The Making op Clothing . Equipment for the sewing room Preparation of materials How to take measurements Kinds of patterns How to "estimate the amount of material How to place the pattern on the material How to mark a pattern for basting How to cut a garment How to baste a simple garment Kinds of seams for garments . 330 334 336 338 340 342 344 348 352 353 358 CONTENTS XI PAGE How to make a foundation belt . 359 Fitting garments 360 How to make a skirt even at the bottom . 363 How to keep bias seams from sagging 364 Suggestive finishes to be used by the home worker . 364 Suitable materials for various types of dresses and waists . 369 Suggestions for economy in dress . 369 Making simple undergarments . 369 Clothing for children . . 381 Patching . 388 Cloth darning ... . 389 Stocking darning. . 391 CHAPTER XVI Millinery . ... . 393 How to select a hat . 393 Renovating materials . 400 Simple handmade trimmings . . 404 PART IV FOODS AND NUTRITION CHAPTER XVII Planning the Daily Meals . . . 407 Good foods for supplying the body's needs 408 How to estimate the daily need of fuel . 412 How to estimate the daily need of protein 414 How to estimate the daily need of lime, iron and phosphorus 415 Some rules for planning meals 425 Food for the prospective mother 433 Food for the nursing mother . 434 Formulas for infant feeding . . 435 The part milk should play in the diet during growth . . 436 CHAPTER XVIII Marketing for the Household 438 Buying fresh or staple foodstuffs . 439 Buying canned foods . ■ 445 Xll CONTENTS CHAPTER XIX PAGE Food for the Sick . 455 Fluid diet . 455 Soft or semi-solid diet . . 457 Light or convalescent diet . 458 Care and feeding for incipient colds 458 Care and feeding for constipation . 459 Diet during a condition of intestinal putrefaction 461 Care and diet for indigestion. 461 Diet in fever 462 Modified milk diets for typhoid fever 463 Food for tuberculosis patients 463 CHAPTER XX Beverages . .... . 465 Coffee .... . 465 Tea . . 468 CHAPTER XXI Batters and Dottghs . . . . . 473 Classification . 473 Ingredients . 474 Methods of mixing . 478 Utensils for baking . 478 Filling the pans . . 479 Baking . 479 CHAPTER XXII Cakes . 483 Cakes made with yeast . 483 Sponge cakes . 483 Butter cakes 484 Ingredients used in cakes .... 484 Cake fillings . ... 486 CONTENTS CHAPTER XXIII Pastry .... Ingredients Characteristics of good pastry Directions for making plain pastry Directions for making flaky pastry Directions for making puff pastry . X1U PAGE 490 490 491 492 493 494 CHAPTER XXIV Yeast Bread . Ingredients. Mixing and kneading Fermentation Shaping dough Proofing Baking "Rope" in bread. Recipes Salt-rising bread Cooking op Cereals CHAPTER XXV 495 495 498 499 499 499 500 500 501 505 506 CHAPTER XXVI Meat and Potji/try Selection of meat by appearance General rules for cooking General directions for soup-making Care of meat ... Keeping meat Use of market trimmings and meat fat in cooking Chickens and fowls 510 510 512 514 516 519 519 524 CHAPTER XXVII Fish and Oysters Fish . Oysters 527 527 532 XIV Eggs Tests for fresh eggs Egg cookery CONTENTS CHAPTER XXVIII CHAPTER XXIX Vegetables Care of vegetables in the home Cooking of vegetables CHAPTER XXX Sauces White sauce Butter sauce Brown sauces Sauces thickened with egg Sweet sauces Salads Salad herbs . Salad dressings Desserts . Fruits Gelatin desserts Whipped cream Junket Frozen desserts Sugar Cookery CHAPTER XXXI CHAPTER XXXII CHAPTER XXXIII CHAPTER XXXIV Food Preservation . Preservation of food by low temperatures PAGE 534 534 535 543 543 544 552 552 553 553 553 561 563 563 564 570 570 570 571 572 572 576 579 581 CONTENTS xv Drying fruits and vegetables. Salting vegetables Canning Preservation of meat . Sugar-cured hams, bacons, and tongues Brine salt pork .... Dry-cured pork . Pickled pigs' feet . Head-cheese Lard Corned beef Dried beef . . • . Pickled beef tongues . Hamburg steak . Mixed sausage Pork sausage PAGE 588 592 599 622 624 626 626 626 627 627 628 629 629 630 630 630 ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. 1. Floor plans of a small house. ..... 2. The first floor plan of a suburban house 3. A typical arrangement of all rooms on one floor 4. A small farmhouse arranged on a single floor . 5. A remodeled farmhouse, to illustrate step-saving . 6. First floor plan, showing living area and working area. . 7. Second floor plan, showing sleeping area 8. A farmhouse plan, showing diagonal corners . 9. Plan showing simplicity of living area .... 10. Plan showing well-organized arrangement 11. A house planned for farm life and farm conditions . 12. A modest farm cottage of good design 13. A typical low room in an old-fashioned cottage 14. The same type of low room as in Fig. 13 . . 15. A tall room of the late nineteenth-century type 16. A typical modern living-room ..... 17. A study of windows in relation to the adjoining wall space 18. Types of windows 19. A method of hanging two sets of curtains 20. Four methods of curtaining a double-hung window . 21. Two methods of curtaining a group of windows 22. Three arrangements of valance and curtain 23. Three types of valance and curtain arranged to cover the trim 24. A group of typical side chairs 25. Four good table forms for use in dining-room or library 26. Types of Colonial chairs 27. Comfortable arm-chairs for general use . 28. Three good forms of couches 29. Typical small tables of good form and finish 30. Good types of lamps 31. Arrangement of rugs in living room 32. Arrangement of rugs in living rooms 33. Arrangement of furniture in a square dining-room 34. Arrangement of a large kitchen PAGE 4 5 6 7 10 12 13 14 15 17 20 25 32 32 34 34 36 38 56 58 60 64 67 79 80 82 84 86 87 91 93 96 98 101 xviii ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE FIG. 35. Arrangement of a farmhouse kitchen 111 36. Arrangement of a kitchen for a suburban house 112 37. Plan showing kitchen arrangements 113 38. A complete and convenient kitchen for any house 114 39. The pass-pantry or serving-pantry 115 40. Comparison of scales for measuring temperature 132 41. The index of a gas meter 143 42. Gas meter index reading 79,500 cubic feet . 144 43. Dial of a watthour meter 147 44. Dial of a watthour meter • . 148 45. Ordinary form of water-meter dial 151 46. Comparison of amount of light given by different gas lamps 202 47. Comparison of amount of light given by different electric lamps 203 48. Cost of producing a given amount of light by various illumi- nants at usual prices . 204 49. Diagram of a home-made fireless cooker 215 50. An iceless refrigerator . . 222 51. Removable canton flannel cover for the refrigerator 223 52. Methods of folding underwear . 275 53. A method of folding sheets and tablecloths 276 54. Another method of folding sheets . . 277 55. A method of folding nightdresses and shirts 278 56. A sleeve-board . 280 57. Cotton fibers, showing the characteristic twist . 308 58. Linen fibers, showing the characteristic nodes and longitudinal striations ... . 313 59. Wool fiber, showing the characteristic scales and the serrated surface .316 60. Silk fiber, showing the two minute filaments from the spinnerets of the silk worm 319 61. Method of shrinking fullness out of a garment 336 62. Method of taking measurements 338 63. Method of lengthening shirt-waist pattern 342 64. Method of shortening a shirt-waist pattern . 343 65. Cutting and opening a shirt-waist pattern to throw in fullness . 344 66. Increasing or decreasing bust measure of a shirt-waist pattern 345 67. Method of decreasing the size of a shirt-waist pattern 346 68. Method of lengthening a waist pattern for a very full bust or round shoulders 347 69. Method used in modeling garments over a flat pattern 348 ILLUSTRATIONS xix tIG - PAGH 70. Adjusting pattern to fit shoulders. . ... 349 71. Simple adjustment of sleeve pattern . . , 349 72. Method of cutting collars for flat or rolling effect 350 73. Changing length or width of skirt pattern . . .351 74. Increasing waist or hip size of a skirt pattern 351 75. Decreasing the size of the hips of a gored skirt pattern . 352 76. Adjusting a skirt pattern for a person who has a prominent abdomen or hips . . ... 353 77. Another method of adjusting a gored skirt pattern for a figure with prominent abdomen . . . 354 78. Method of adding material to a gored skirt pattern 355 79. Designing narrow or full circular skirt pattern . 356 80. Method of cutting a pattern for a circular flounce . . 357 81. Method of making a foundation belt for a skirt or a dress 359 82. Combinations of simple embroidery stitches . 366 83. Set-in pocket . . . 368 84. Method of making a bound buttonhole. 370 85. Method of making an arrow . . 371 86. Plain seam with edges overcast . 374 87. Plain seams . 374 88. French seam 374 89. Hemmed fell . .374 90. Overhanded or French fell . 374 91. Flannel fell . . .374 92. Methods of finishing the bottom of drawers . 377 93. Methods of finishing the bottom of an underskirt . 377 94. Sateen underskirt with cotton-backed satin flounce finished with scalloped facing ....... 377 95. Bound placket- . . . . 379 96. Bound and faced placket . . 379 ' 97. Continuous bound and faced placket with fly. 379 98. Two methods of making a hemmed placket . 380 99. Methods of marking positions of buttonholes. . 380 100. Methods of stranding buttonholes . . 380 101. Buttonhole stitch ... . 380 102. Suitable designs for an infant's dress, slip, and coat 383 103. Suitable designs for dresses for children from three to five years 385 104. Suitable designs for dresses for children from six to ten years . 385 105. Suitable designs for dresses for children from ten to twelve years .......... 386 XX ILLUSTRATIONS Fid. PAGE 106. Suitable designs for dresses for children from twelve to sixteen years . . . . . 387 107. Correct size of a crown, shown by the heavy line. 394 108. Incorrect size of crown. . 395 109. Correct placing of a hat, shown by the heavy line . . 395 110. The prominent lines of the hat should harmonize with the lines of the face .... • 396 111. Correct placing of a turban ... . 396 112. The outline or decoration of a hat should not repeat or parallel undesirable lines in the face . . 397 113. Decoration and structural lines of a hat . . ■ 399 114. Simple decorations possible in straw trimming 404 115. Simple use of ribbon to decorate or change a crown slightly 404 116. Stitches for folds, for sewing down facings, and for decoration . 405 117. French fold, used for decoration around crowns and brims 406 118. Cuts of beef 119. Cuts of mutton . 120. Cuts of pork 121. Cellar ventilation 122. The storage trench 511 511 512 583 586 123. Sterilizer, showing false bottom as a rack . . . 601 124. Commercial hot-water canning outfit for out-of-door work 602 125. Steam cooker . . . 603 126. Manner of testing a jar ... 605 127. Position of clamp during sterilization .... 605 128. Position of clamp after sterilization ..... 605 PLATES PLATE I. Dignified houses, in plaster and shingle, adapted for country homes .... . . Frontispiece FACING PAGE II. Appropriate types of architecture for a suburban or country home . . . ... 24 III. A group of furnishings showing uncrowded arrangement and unobtrusive background. A similar group showing how ob- trusive background and crowded arrangement may obliter- ate effect of even well-selected furnishings ... 48 IV. Types of rugs with suitable pattern ..... 52 V. Types of textile pattern that may be used for upholstery or hangings ....... .64 VI. Good'types of desks and sideboards ..... 80 VII. Types of furniture ugly in proportion, etc. .... 84 VIII. A few excellent types of mirrors and foot-stools ... 88 IX. Simple and serviceable types of bedroom furniture . 96 X. A good kitchen arrangement ..... 104 XI. Shelves for materials to be stored. Utensils in which foods may be cooked and served . . . . .112 XII. Use of form in draping dresses before and after fitting . . 336 XIII. Draping a waist; a simple skirt with cascade effect on sides; dress form used in draping .... . 344 XIV. Finishes for nightgowns . . . . . 376 XV. Simple and effective designs in small hats. Finishes for corset covers . . ..... 400 XVI. Showing 100-calorie portions of some common foods . . 416 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING PART I THE HOUSE AND ITS FURNISHINGS CHAPTER I THE MODERN HOUSE By Helen Binkerd Young A sound house plan is fundamental to the economics of the home. A common impulse toward rational living has made it necessary to simplify the paraphernalia of existence; to eliminate useless tasks and trappings and to arrange the remaining neces- sities into an orderly scheme of household life. The arrange- ment of the modern house is a direct expression of this point of view. The snug, compact dwellings of the present day are eloquent records of the scientific trend in home-making. Theoretically, the administration of a household under con- servation methods implies a perfect dwelling — one in which there is an exact adjustment between the worker and the work- place; where there is no friction between the housekeeping and the house structure; where the interior space and equipment fit perfectly the operations of the home. The gap that exists be- tween an effective scheme of work and a poor arrangement of space represents a permanent element of inconvenience or waste; hence the value of a well-considered floor plan. The comfort demanded by modern standards of living has brought into the erection of the house many new materials, many new trades and a great deal of fixed equipment in the way of heating, plumbing, and lighting systems, hardwood 1 2 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING floors, and various types of built-in closets and furniture. The modern house is accordingly a different and a more costly prod- uct than the dwellings of our fathers. This increase in the cost of a cubic foot of the house of to-day, together with the necessity to build, heat, and maintain the home economically, has had a . marked effect on the size, shape, and arrangement of dwellings. Small housekeeping units, square floor plans, small halls, con- densed stair arrangements, compact kitchens, grouped chim- neys, and grouped window treatments are the natural results of straightforward planning to meet modern conditions. Intensive housekeeping and intensive house-planning are the tendency of the times. ARRANGEMENT OF THE HOUSE The plan of the house must be above all a direct and business- like arrangement. Every foot of space must be made to count, must contribute either to the smoothness of the housework or to the effectiveness of the whole interior. There should be no waste nor stagnant space, no idle nor undefined areas. The organization of the floor plan should fit the organization of home activities. The three phases of daily life — work, play, and sleep — suggest three divisions of space in the arrangement of a dwelling, the living-rooms forming one group, the working parts another, and the sleeping-rooms another. Each of these space groups is distinct in use, in arrangement, and in the char- acter of its furnishings. Communication between these parts is provided by means of hall and stairs; in fact the starting point of any plan is a study of its circulation or passage. The hall may, therefore, be con- sidered as the kernel of the plan, the distributing center of space. The arrangement of the living-rooms should be generous in feeling. To this end, wide doorways, groups of windows, and long vistas both indoors and out are essential. One large unit for general family use and two or three smaller ones usually comprise the living area of the modest house. Some variety in the size, shape, and direction of the rooms is desirable in the design of the living space. Combinations of oblong rooms of THE MODERN HOUSE 3 different sizes placed at right angles to each other, or of oblong and square rooms of different dimensions, make a more inter- esting and more furnishable arrangement than a succession of square rooms, which tend to repeat each other in character and use. Generous window groups on long or important walls and arrangements of single windows or pairs on short or unimportant walls furnish a variety of outlook and lighting that is bound to give life and animation to the whole interior. In general the living-rooms in temperate climates should occupy southerly exposures — south, southeast, and south- west — unless such an arrangement is contradicted by the di- rection of the view, prevailing winds, or other conditions of the site. An east dining-room is especially to be desired, since the morning sun on the breakfast table starts the day off cheerily. Living-rooms southerly and working parts northerly make a good complementary arrangement for using to advan- tage the four exposures of a free-standing house. Further discussion of the working arrangements, such as kitchen, pantry, laundry, and the like, may be found on pages 99 to 119. The sleeping-rooms must above all be private in location. That means that each room must be entered directly from a hall, not from another room. In a two-story house the privacy of the sleeping-rooms is automatically assured by placing them on the second floor. In a one-story arrangement a small bedroom-hall must be deliberately provided in addition to the entrance-hall. The relative advantages of a one-floor or two-floor arrange- ment for a private dwelling depend on a number of factors. In general, the two-story house and the real bungalow, which has all the rooms arranged on a single floor, are climatic ex- pressions of housing for widely different localities. Each is so normal for its own conditions that it becomes the prevalent type of that place. The informal spread-out plan of the bunga- low is normal for warm climates, where yard and grounds form part of the daily life for a large part of the year and where the buildings may be lightly constructed without cellars and A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING without heating systems. But when a dwelling must be ar- ranged for year-round comfort in a locality of extreme heat and cold, the supposed economy of a one-floor arrangement, unless kept very small and compact, loses all point and de- FJR3T I .MR. TIAJI mm udor. run Fig. 1. — Floor plans of a small house. The first floor plan shows a desirable spaciousness of living area and adaptability of working parts. The second floor plan shows an arrangement of four bedrooms, closets, and bath de- veloped from a central hall. feats its own end. Large cellar and roof areas, the need for weather-tight construction and for an effective heating plant soon eat up the supposed economy of cost. There is, however, something to be said for the simpler housekeeping of the one-floor arrangement. The ease with which a servantless household may be comfortably maintained when all the living arrangements are on a single floor, is re- sponsible for the popularity of various forms of apartments, flats, two-family dwellings, and even cottages with bedrooms on the first floor. Most of these are, however, rented dwelling- places and must not be confused with the type of house that it is desirable to build and own as a permanent home. THE MODERN HOUSE The three arrangements shown in the accompanying illus- trations are typical examples of houses planned for modern conditions. In Fig. 1 are shown both floor plans of a small house 26 by Fig. 2. — The first floor plan of a suburban house designed for the accomodation of a family with little children. 30 feet. Here the spaciousness of the living area and the adapt- ability of the working parts may be instantly noted. The contrast in the size and shape of living- and dining-rooms, together with the long vista through both rooms and porch to the yard beyond, form a pleasing development of the space. The stairway is screened from the front door and is arranged in a separate stair-hall which serves also as passage to the coat- room and the kitchen. Such an arrangement greatly assists smooth and noiseless housekeeping. The second-floor plan shows an arrangement of four rooms, closets, and bath de- veloped from a central hall. In Fig. 2 is shown the first-floor plan of a suburban house designed for the accommodation of a family with little children. 6 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING The panel of space across the 'front, comprising living-room, hall, and dining-room, is supplemented by a similar arrange- ment of rooms in the rear, in the form of nursery and kitchen. The front of the house can thus be kept in order while Fig. 3. — A typical arrangement of all rooms on one floor. The living-rooms and kitchen are grouped snugly together, and the bedrooms are grouped and arranged to open from a retired hall. the rear part is in use. The nursery is so located that it can be watched by the worker in the kitchen, and the stairs are very accessible. With such an arrangement properly equipped, a mother could do her own work without exhaustion or loss of time. The children's lunch could be served in the nursery and the mother's couch and sewing materials would always be ready. The nursery could later be transformed into a study-room or library, or in case of illness into a down- stairs bedroom, since toilet facilities are at hand. The house also adjusts itself to hired help. A typical arrangement of all rooms on one floor is shown THE MODERN HOUSE in Fig. 3. The living-rooms and kitchen are grouped snugly- together, and the bedrooms are grouped and arranged to open from a retired hall. Such a plan is suitable for a one-floor cottage arrangement in temperate climates. Another one- floor arrangement is shown in Fig. 4. ay SF5Z |sh*W| FfiRRACE T |ce ™ + ,->lTi«r H p _l 1 »' ' ' ' — Fig. 4. — A small farmhouse arranged on a single floor, with a cellar beneath for the furnace and for vegetable storage. , THE FABMHOUSE* No building can be discussed intelligently apart from its surroundings. The best placing of the farmhouse depends on the location of the barns and other outbuildings. The rela- tion of these buildings to one another and to such considerations as sunlight, view, roadways, and garden should be carefully studied. Obviously, a general farm scheme that unites into one workable system lands, barns, and dwelling is the wisest beginning for the development of any property. Each im- provement will then take its place in the final scheme, and * The remainder of this chapter is taken from Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 39. 8 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING permanent economy will result. Owners of either old or new farmsteads will profit by adhering to a simple and direct work- ing plan for the farm grounds. The farmhouse is merely one unit of the whole farmstead. The practical value of a working plan can hardly be over- • estimated. The haphazard farm groups commonly seen bear eloquent testimony to the futility of developing property with- out plan. Failure to plan involves waste of money and labor; it means a continuous process of tearing down, reconstructing, and makeshift. Under all circumstances, hit-and-miss methods of work have proved unfailingly wasteful. Organized farming and organized housekeeping are the present tendency, and to this end an organized arrangement is necessary. A well-planned farmstead is more economical, more orderly, more beautiful, and more salable than one which, like Topsy, "just growed." FARMHOUSE PLANNING A farmhouse is more difficult to plan than either a city or a suburban dwelling, because it must provide for so many needs. The city or the suburban house is merely a home; it is supple- mented by an outside place of business and by outside markets. The farmhouse, on the other hand, must be not only a home, but also the business center and to a limited extent the store and the market. This means that, planned as compactly as may be, a farmhouse is necessarily larger in floor area than a suburban house for the same family need be. Much thought and planning are, therefore, required in order to arrange this larger area in such a manner that wasteful methods of work will be avoided. Traditional types. It may truly be said that the problem of the American farm- house is still unsolved. For the building of new appropriate farm dwellings, there is almost no precedent to guide one. Most of the rural houses now standing are failures as farm- houses because they were not planned for farm conditions. In fact, many of them were not planned at all. They were THE MODERN HOUSE 9 merely built, and built in about the following fashion: an outer shell was constructed and roofed over, the inside was divided into rooms, and somewhere a kitchen was attached. If the house became too small, more rooms were added to fit the growing needs of the family. With each addition to the house, the kitchen retreated to the rear of the structure, where, by its very distance from the living-rooms, it confined the housewife to her post of duty. As the family decreased in numbers and helpers became few, the front part of the house was closed and home life was centered within the. radius of the kitchen and its activities. Such of these old structures as are soundly built are worth replanning and equipping with running water, electric light, sound; floors, and a good heating system. Alteration should be undertaken only after the complete project has been worked out on paper. In Fig. 5 is illustrated a rambling plan of the traditional farmhouse of the upright-and-wing type previously described. The original and the remodeled arrangement are shown in A and B, respectively. The main faults of the old plan, A, are two: first, the plan is deficient in correctly located hall space; second, the distance from the kitchen to the front of the house * is too great. Since a person must pass through one room in order to reach another, the whole floor virtually becomes a passageway. This condition destroys privacy, interrupts work, and entails much extra cleaning. The correct amount of hall area placed in the heart of the plan would give separate entrance to each room and would save the whole house. Hall space should be regarded as the developer of the plan. If the plan is compactly arranged and the hall centrally placed, great service may be obtained from even a small allowance of hall space. The presence of five, six, or seven doors in a room in- dicates poor hall-planning, and therefore poor house-planning; It is well to remember that the number of doors in a room diminishes in proportion to the excellence of the plan. In plan B there is introduced enough central hall area to give direct access to each of the rooms. The kitchen is placed THE REMODELED PLAN THE. OLD PLAN 1 A Fig. 5. — A remodeled farmhouse, to illustrate step-saving, THE MODERN HOUSE 11 centrally at the rear of this hallway. This brings the kitchen nearer the living rooms and shortens all working distances. If the distances from the" center of the kitchen to the center of each room in plans A and B are computed, it is found that the remodeled plan saves an average distance of fifteen feet a round trip over the old plan. In the remodeled plan, such modern improvements as heat, light, and running water have been added; closets also have been provided. The whole plan is now arranged so as to en- courage wholesome living. Under the old plan the house contained two cellars, one under the square upright and one under the kitchen, with an unexcavated area under the dining-room. A long journey was thereby involved in going from one excavated part to the other. The new plan simplified this difficulty by excavating under the dining-room wing. A study of new types. Attention must now be focused on more economical arrange- ments. The plan of any building is based primarily on its needs. Broadly speaking, family life makes three demands on a house plan: that it shall provide living area, working area, and sleeping area. The living area includes such parts as sitting-room, dining-room, library, office, and porch; the work- ing area includes kitchen, pantry, laundry, hall, and stairs; the sleeping area includes bedrooms and bath. It is the func- tion of a good plan to organize these three elements into a compact arrangement, allowing each requirement an area to itself. Spaciousness must be expressed in the living area, com- pactness in the working area, and privacy in the sleeping area. The farm cottage shown in Figs. 6 and 7 aptly illustrates these principles. Here is a compact plan with its three areas clearly defined. In the living area a feeling of spaciousness is obtained by the use of wide doorways and groups of windows through which vistas are seen indoors and out. No interior, however small in actual dimensions, need appear cramped if long vistas are planned for. Good interior design is also 12 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING evident in Fig. 6. It is indicated by the balanced arrangement of the structural parts of each room. On the rear wall of the living-room is seen a central fireplace flanked by broad door- ways of equal width, while the front wall opposite expands into a generous bay window centrally placed, with built-in Fig. 6. — First floor plan, showing living area and working area. bookshelves to right and left. These features so unite as to make of the living-room a composition at once so dignified, so orderly, and so effective that little furniture is needed to complete it. In the dining-room, balanced design is expressed by the long flower-box, the bay window, and by the central door on -the opposite wall, flanked by diagonal corner features of THE MODERN HOUSE 13 equal width. In general, diagonal corners should be avoided except where they are a practical necessity or where they are deliberately used for reasons of design, as in Fig. 8. Of the working area (Fig. 6), the kitchen, pantry, and stairs barns are: in - "this direction-. SECOND FLOOR- SCALE O S lO 13 20 S.S 30 FEET- friiiTTtirTtrrtTrrtTTfiTTTTTTTl Fig. 7. — Second floor plan, showing sleeping area. are the parts most constantly used by the woman of the house. Hence they are compactly grouped and are placed next to the living space. Woodroom and washroom are of intermittent use to the housewife but of constant use to the farmer. Conse- quently they are placed away from the living rooms in the direction of driveway and barns. 14 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Fio. 8. — A farmhouse plan, showing diagonal corners used deliberately for purpose of design. The sleeping area provides one bathroom and three bed- rooms, each of the latter with its closet. Their position on the second floor renders them quiet and private. Briefly stated, economy of plan is expressed in the grouped THE MODERN HOUSE 15 SECOND FLOOR gr Fig. 9. — Plan showing simplicity of living area and com- pleteness of working area. chimney arrangement, in the condensed hall and stair arrange- ment, and in the small kitchen. The kitchen arrangement is weak, however, in some respects. It has only one outside wall and is therefore lacking in cross-ventilation. Moreover, the 16 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING position of the door between dining-room and kitchen, being in line with the kitchen range, would surely prove a nuisance from considerations of sight, sound, and smell. It is unfor- tunate, too, that the path of travel from the rear to the front of the house leads through the kitchen. In Fig. 9 is represented another well-planned farmhouse. It is characterized chiefly by the simplicity of the living area and by the completeness of the working area. Each area occupies about one-half of the floor plan. The living area is unique and spacious. Instead of two separate rooms, each of which would be small, living-room and dining-room are combined into one large apartment. A group of three glass doors connects this generous living-room with an unusual porch arrangement, called on the plan an " arbored terrace." This terrace, which is. cement-paved under foot and vine-covered overhead, is in reality an open-air con- tinuation of the living-room, which adds materially to the comfort of the family in summer. Here meals may be served while sunlight and garden are enjoyed. The position of window groups on both ends of the large room creates a long, unbroken vista, so that all the living space is appreciated all the time. Centrally placed on the long outer wall of the living-room is a fireplace alcove, or inglenook. This feature increases the actual width of the room and provides two outdoor vistas in new directions. Inglenooks, however, should be used with great reserve unless they are generous in width and develop naturally on the plan. Many times the excellence of an entire plan is sacrificed to the use of a feature of this nature. The completeness of the working area is best appreciated by observing that each kind of work has its allotted place. The kitchen is intended for cooking; the pantry, for food storage; the pass pantry, for dishes; the woodroom, for fuel; the hall and stairs, for passage; the two recessed porches gather entrance to the house in a common passage that serves all rooms. The kitchen arrangement shown in Fig. 9 excels that in Fig. 6 in at least three particulars. The introduction of a pass a I u I*- u. tf ~ E Z < ■ft z I 3 18 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING pantry serves to seclude the kitchen from the living-room; good cross-ventilation takes place between the windows over table and sink; and the path of travel from the rear porch to the front of the house does not cross the kitchen. In this house the laundry is located in the basement, which stands out of ground on the kitchen corner. An outside door enters the cellar on grade level. The bedroom plan is compact, private, light, and airy. Other plans may be analyzed in a similar manner, the strength and the weakness of various arrangements noted, and a sense of good planning acquired. The larger farmhouse shown in Fig. 10 has been inserted for personal study on the part of the -readers. It represents a well-organized arrangement with a new feature introduced in the rear — a hired man's room with separate stairs leading to it. The dignified, simple, and well-designed exterior shown' in Plate I, upper figure, will stim- ulate the imagination and serve to make the plan more realistic. It must not be supposed that the plans shown in Figs. 6, 8, and 9 are perfect in every respect. No business office is in- cluded and they contain fewer bedrooms than farmhouses of the past have provided. It must be remembered that each of these houses was designed for a particular family and for a particular farm site, as all successful houses should be. Con- sequently they are not intended as models to be copied, but as illustrations of the principles of house-planning. If the principles of planning are understood they may be applied, whether to new work or to alterations. In general, an intricate or confused plan is always a poor one; the more carefully an arrangement is studied, the simpler it should become. Briefly stated, the final test of a good plan is its extreme simplicity. Starting at the main entrance, one should be able to proceed mentally through the plan with ease and comprehension. For the most part the walls should be in continuous, straight lines and should show an absence of jogs, angles, and diagonal corners. Windows may be grouped or single, but should be disposed in an orderly manner with relation both to interior and to exterior appearance. THE MODERN HOUSE 19 The plans shown are a reasonable protest against the old wasteful types of farm dwellings. Study of these plans will serve to show in what respects the modern rural house should differ from former arrangements. A living-room now com- bines the unused parlor and the overused sitting-room for general family life; an office where the farmer's business is transacted is provided in a place convenient to roadway and barn, but outside the path of housework travel; the kitchen arrangement is compact and well organized; the downstairs bedrooms open, not from other rooms, but from a private hall, thus insuring quiet and privacy (Figs. 5 and 8) ; a bathroom is provided on either the first or the second floor, according to water pressure; if possible all the bedrooms are provided with windows on two sides; the large hall with open stairs has given way to a more condensed arrangement; a generous porch or uncovered terrace is placed where it either commands the best view or is most useful during the day; the family hearth has literally returned in the living-room fireplace; and the whole plan is so arranged that the rooms lived in most are the sunniest. A dwelling combining the above features is illustrated in Fig. 11. Wisely studied and frankly arranged, without a foot of waste room, this structure represents a type of farmhouse that is economical to build, to heat, and to work. The stairs for the whole house are contained in one vertical shaft; the hall is reduced to a small area; an office is placed near the roadway and away from the housewife's work, which is accom- modated in a dining-room and kitchen combination; a man's room is provided at the extreme end of the plan, away from the family; a washroom is on the line of travel between the back porch and the dining-room; and a spacious living-room, with fireplace and window groups, is located on a desirable corner. On the second floor, the stairs land centrally in a square hall, which gives direct entrance to each of the four bedrooms and to the bathroom; the bedrooms are provided with good closets; fight and ventilation are everywhere abun- dant. 20 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING 5ECO/ND FLOOR PLAN Fig. 11. — A house planned for farm life and farm conditions. Modem improvements. The class of conveniences known as modern improvements — meaning thereby plumbing, heating, and lighting systems, the installation of mechanical power to be used for pumps, wash- ing machines, mangles, vacuum cleaners, and the like — may properly be discussed only by experts who have special knowl- edge of them. The practical aspect of most of these improve- THE MODERN HOUSE 21 ments has been widely discussed in books and pamphlets, so that any householder may become informed before installing such improvements in the home. EXTERIOR DESIGN (PLATES I AND II) In order to be a success, a country house must be in har- mony with its environment. It should appear to have grown on its site, and to be a normal expression of human life in nat- ural surroundings. The house should be in tune with the color and the contour of the landscape. Farm lands which are for the most part flat or rolling, produce contours which are strongly horizontal. Architecture that is appropriate to such landscape should in general be low, broad, and snug. Tall narrow structures are necessary in cities where land is costly and are appropriate in rugged, cliffy countries where nature is replete with vertical surfaces; but they are inappropriate when standing free on a fiat site. Color scheme. . The setting of a rural house presupposes such natural scenery as is composed of trees, shrubs, lawns, gardens, hills, rocks, and streams. The color effect of the house must be in harmony with this setting. Such colors as white, cream, grays, soft greens, and browns of various shades will always harmonize with nature. Red is bold unless partially screened by planting. The use of brick is about the only reason for introducing a red color scheme. Brick walls are broken in mass by jointing and relieved by contrast at the openings, whereas a wooden house painted red is distressing. When field stone, concrete, cement, or brick is used, the color scheme is spontaneous, being pro- duced by the color of the materials selected; when wood is employed, however, a surface color effect is applied by means of stain or paint. This color scheme should be neither too dull nor too bright. Cold grays and drabs are about as cheer- less as red is aggressive. In general, when choosing paint from samples, it is wise to select a color that is somewhat softer than the effect desired. A small piece of gay color which 22 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING looks interesting in the hand, appears glaring and bold when covering an entire house. Likewise, a cold, dead color appears cheerless when used in mass. The chief factor to be avoided in painting houses is an ef- fect of patchiness. For example, in the case of a porch post or column, the cap and the base should not be painted one color and the shaft another. The whole porch should be one idea. Cornices, brackets, and moldings should not be picked out by color, as light and shade interpret them sufficiently. Useless bric-a-brac and ornament that cannot be removed should be subdued as much as possible in the color scheme. Looked at as a picture, the windows and doors of a house should appear as decorative accents, contrasting with the background of wall. Windows especially are the eyes that give expression to the architectural face of the dwelling. With walls of a light color the windows naturally form a dark con- trast; but if the walls are dark or dull in effect, the windows may be enlivened by painting the sash a lighter or brighter color and the blinds a clear shade of green,, yellow-brown, or other harmonious color. Doorways and entrances should have dignified recognition in the color scheme. General proportion. The effectiveness of a house in the landscape depends not at all on ornament, but on its structural shape and the color produced through the use of building materials. Refined proportions, simple roof lines, and interesting but not violent contrasts between roof, walls, and openings, together with the character and arrangement of windows and doors, are the elements that combine to make of a country house an ex- ample of true rural architecture. It has been previously stated that the mass-proportion of a house in the open country should be low and broad rather than tall and narrow. This feeling of proportion depends not so much on the actual height of the house from ground to gable, as on the position of the eaves or the cornice line. When the eaves line is low, the effect of the house is low; hence the THE MODERN HOUSE 23 value of long roof lines in obtaining good proportions. If the roof rafters are brought down to the level of the second floor, a sound, practical, and attractive structure usually results. It is desirable to include the porch under such a roof whenever possible, since this simplifies the roofing system of the house and unites house and porch into one contained design. While long roof lines and recessed porches are not always desirable, they have their charm and place. Low eaves and a long roof line usually fit a farmhouse plan very conveniently because such a treatment brings a smaller second-floor plan than first-floor plan. This is exactly the farmhouse requirement. The rooms under the roof may be lighted' and ventilated by means of generous dormers or gables. It is commonly supposed that bedrooms located under a sloping roof must necessarily be low and hot. This is not true. The fact that some bedrooms so located have been stuffy does not argue that all bedrooms need to be so; it implies rather that there has been no cross-ventilation or that the windows were placed so low as to leave a pocket of hot air confined near the ceiling. An outlet for the hot air should be furnished by windows placed high in the room. If the roof pitch and dormer windows are studied to fit the height of the second-floor rooms, a full second story with high or full-length windows may be commodiously arranged under a long roof, and the low parts may be used for closets. Structural elements. The windows of a dwelling, whether grouped or single, should be similar in style and should show some kind of orderly arrangement. In general, unity of design is preserved if the tops of all windows on a floor are kept on the same level. Vari- ations in window heights will thus occur between the floor level and the sill. Oval windows, diamond-shaped windows, and other fancy forms should be avoided. A miscellaneous collection of windows jotted at different points over a building robs it of dignity and composure. Window blinds and small panes have a certain decorative value from the outside. 24 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING No country house is complete without a generous porch or other feature that will form a center for outdoor family life. A vine-covered arbor, a paved spot, or merely a shaded stretch of lawn near the house may be made fully as livable as the usual porch. The usual type of American porch, a covered platform attached to the house, built high and dry, inclosed by a railing, and reached by steps, has artificially confined outdoor life to the house apart from yard and garden. If comfort and beauty are both to be served, neither porch nor garden should be sacrificed; they should rather be arranged adjacently so that the lawn adjoins the porch and the vistas down the garden paths are continuous with the main vistas from the porch, or are related to views from the important windows of the house. In other words, house and grounds should be planned as one continuous design, using as a con- necting link the porch. The chief difficulty with a united porch and garden scheme arises from the usual difference in height between the porch floor and the yard level. These two levels may be brought near together either by setting the house low on the ground and build- ing areas around the cellar windows (Plate I), or by raising a flat, graded terrace to within a step or two of the porch floor. Both these schemes are frequently and successfully practiced, and in no way prevent fight and air from entering the cellar. In order to be commodious, a porch should be room-shaped, rather than long and narrow. A porch 10 to 12 feet wide and 14 to 20 feet long will give greater comfort than one 6 to 8 feet wide and extending around two sides of the house. Further- more, a rectangular porch will not darken so much of the in- terior as will one extending along the full length of the house. If the porch occupies a sunny position, it may be shaded and embowered by screening with latticework, over which vines may be allowed to grow. A cement or brick floor is desirable for porch use. If an upstairs sleeping-porch is planned, the railing should be built solidly from the floor for 2 or 3 feet, and the open part above should be provided with window sash and awnings in Plate II. — Appropriate types of architecture for a suburban or country home. THE MODERN HOUSE 25 order that storms and early morning light may be excluded. This arrangement can be made comfortable for year-round use. Outside entrance doors should be sheltered by a hood on brackets, by a portico, or by a porch (Fig. 12). It is usually de- sirable to separate the living-porch from the main entrance. ' "V////H, y/M////M ■ W///////MM Fig. 12. — A modest farm cottage of good design. Here, if anywhere, a little genuine design should be afforded. A portal is an intimate feature and should express dignity, hos- pitality, and beauty to all who enter. A natural-finish oak door with plate glass panel can hardly be considered appro- priate for a decorative doorway, because it is out of keeping, both in material and color, with the remainder of the exterior. COST OF BUILDING The actual cost of building a given house is determined largely by local conditions. The cost of labor, the cost of ma- 26 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING terials used, the distance of the new building from the base of supplies, and the amount of hauling involved, are items that vary with every enterprise. Thus no fixed price may be quoted as to the cost of a given building, the year round and in all localities. The reading public should, therefore, place no faith in the building figures quoted in popular magazines. They are misleading in the extreme; for they usually represent either a set of conditions which have not been fully told or which are so unusual that they may not be duplicated. In general it may safely be said that a modest house of usual construction may be built for considerably less money by rural than by city labor. One way of estimating the probable cost of a new house is to compare it with another dwelling recently built in the local- ity. If the size and cost of the house already built are known, one may compute the average cost a cubic foot by dividing the total cost by the number of cubic feet that the house con- tains. If the house that is planned is to be of better grade than the one figured on, it will cost more a cubic foot; if it is simpler, it will cost less. A rough 'estimate may thus be reached before the work is undertaken or is figured out by the con- tractor. With present standards of building it is likely that in no locality can a house with modern improvements be erected for less than sixteen cents a cubic foot, and that a modest house need not exceed twenty-four cents a cubic foot unless fireproof construction is used. An average cost of about eighteen cents a cubic foot is probably fair for most country districts. Much has been said and written about the present high cost of building. It is true that a house of a given size to-day often costs twice as much as one of the same size would have cost twenty-five years ago; but this advance is due not alone to the increased cost of labor and material, but also to similar types of dwellings not being compared. A house equipped with heat, running water, hardwood floors, many closets, and fre- quently with electric light and built-in furniture is com- pared with a mere weather-proof structure built with single We Modern house 27 floors, no closets, and few or no modern improvements. Many more trades and much more equipment than formerly now go into the building of a comfortable house. It is the amount and the kind of equipment that increases the cost; a house 30 by 40 feet may be made to cost $3,000 or $10,000, according to the beauty and finish of interior woodwork, floors, and walls, the amount of plumbing, the number and kind of fixtures selected, or the kind of heating plant installed. SUGGESTIONS FOR MAKING ALTERATIONS Any person who expects to make alterations in a house should begin to ponder improvements a long time in advance. The first step should be an accurately measured record of the present floor plans, drawn at a scale of one-quarter inch to the foot. The exact size and position of walls, ' openings, closets, chimneys, or other existing features should be located on these drawings, which may then be studied by comparing them with other good plans found in books and magazines. Tissue paper or tracing paper may then be placed over the drawings and alteration sketches freely made. A dozen arrangements may thus be tried on paper, hung on the wall, and considered at leisure. These plans should be supplemented by a building- book in which one may keep measurements, written data, and new ideas as they occur. In this book, clippings may be pasted and sketches may be freely made. These plans and this book correspond in a rude way to the architect's drawings and specifications, and will serve to crystallize the alterations into definite form. Generations of building experience have shown that suc- cessful results must be based on definite instructions. No man's memory should be trusted for measurements or other information, and verbal directions should not be given to workmen. Building operations are exceedingly definite; walls and openings when in place cannot be moved one inch in order to suit a piece of furniture or to make way for an altered notion. All these experimental ideas should be worked out on paper. As the owner studies over alteration problems, the best 28 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING arrangement will at length take shape in his own mind. An intelligible home-made drawing and an explicit written list of his requirements may then be put in shape, so that the car- penter or contractor can make a fairly accurate estimate of the cost before work is begun. In order to obtain the best results, the owner should read up, in reliable books, such sub- jects as waterworks and heating systems and should, freely investigate catalogues of equipment. When the contemplated alterations are extensive and there- fore costly, or when a new house must be built, the work should by all means be turned over to a good architect. Forceful arrangement and good design require trained experience; an attempt to get along without such professional help is false economy. It is the architect's daily business to put building requirements into buildable shape. Practical construction is the basis of his design. Moreover, he is acquainted with all the short .cuts whereby efficient results may be obtained quickly and permanently. References King, F. H. Ventilation for Dwellings, Rural Schools, and Stables. Lynde, Carleton. Home Waterworks. Putnam, X. W. The Gasoline Engine on the Farm. Roberts, Isaac Phillips. The Farmstead. Schneider, N. H. Electric Light for the Farm. Stickley, Gustav. Craftsman Homes. White, Charles E., Jr. Successful Houses and How to Build Them. CHAPTER II HOME FURNISHING By Annette J. Warner The home represents the most intimate environment of the individual. No matter how unconscious of their surround- ings persons may seem, their tastes and ideas are affected by the things with which they live continually. Such being the case, the woman who makes it her task to provide for her family significant surroundings, thereby adds to the ordinary experiences of life a real factor of education and enjoyment. Any rules or discussion on furnishing the home must neces- sarily be very general, and cannot be conclusive in deciding individual problems. The most that can be done is to review such features and considerations as enter into all questions of home furnishing, hoping thereby to point the way to the solution of the individual problem. Even in the hands of an experienced person, matters of home furnishing and of decoration require a slow and thoughtful study. There are no shortcuts. No matter how long it takes to make a decisio*n in furnishing, the time spent in so doing is insignificant when compared to the duration of the result. On account of this permanence of furnishings, also, an in- terior cannot afford to record passing fads, shams and imi- tations, but should rather express lasting, sincere, and dignified ideas. The furnishings of the house should be consistent in character with the structural interior. Beamed ceilings, rough plaster walls, and sturdy woodwork are appropriate in a home of the Craftsman style. Such an interior would be a suitable back- ground for mission furniture; it would be incongruous in a house of Colonial style, or as a setting for mahogany furniture. 29 30 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING The house should appear as though it were planned, through- out by one person for one locality, one family, one purse. If the- house is in a southern latitude, comfort is expressed by large spaces, long vistas, shadows, cool colors, light drapery, few and light-weight rugs and light furniture. If the house is in a northern climate or is used chiefly in winter, comfort is expressed by a large fireplace, warm colorings, large rugs, heavier and richer drapery, and some upholstered furniture. In the city house, space and light are luxuries that must be conserved by every possible means. In the country there are fewer limitations of this sort, but there are varying conditions in the environment of country houses that should influence their treatment. In general, simplicity of treatment in finish and furnishing preserves the dignity of the house and is always in good taste. An interior should also be fitted to its use in every part, should appear consistent, genuine, and harmonious throughout. The environment can thus be made to typify the qualities to which a family aspires. STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATION OF ROOMS Size The old ideal for a room was the largest, "squarest" room possible for every use — for a family room, bedroom, or kitchen. Changed conditions of living and the increased cost of labor and building material have reduced the size of the modern house. According to the varied nature of their use, it is evident that rooms should vary in size and in shape. Living-room. The living-room for the family should be the largest room in the house, since it serves a greater variety of purposes and a larger number of persons than any other room. The restful effect of an appearance of ample space is one of its charms. Sacrifice of spaciousness in other parts of the house may well be made in Order to provide a spacious living-room. The actual size for a living-room is a matter allowing great variation, but HOME FURNISHING 31 rooms varying from 14 to 16 feet in width and from 18 to 24 feet in length suggest good sizes. Dining-room. The dining-room is also a gathering place for all the members of the family. It, however, has but one center and serves only one function. It may, therefore, well be considerably smaller than the living-room. For the comfortable serving of the meals, at least three feet should be allowed between the edge of the table and the sideboard or any other furniture in the room. Kitchen. The kitchen should be small and compact in arrangement and should not contain a foot of unnecessary space. A good size for a kitchen in which the work is done by one person is estimated to be from 100 to 150 square feet of space (page 102). Bedrooms. The bedroom of the modern house may be relatively small because the convenience of built-in closets, of lighter types of furniture, and of bathrooms makes a large size unnecessary. In a bedroom, after sufficient space has been allowed for pur- poses of ventilation, sleeping, dressing, and storage of clothes, convenience is better served by compactness than by size. Halls. Halls are used to give direct access to all parts of the house. After this purpose has been accomplished, space may appro- priately be economized here in a home of moderate size. Shape and proportion Simple rectangular shapes for rooms are the natural outcome of building conditions. Any extension or projection should be a coherent structural feature and should be used only to satisfy a need in the function of the room. A chimney seat, a recess necessitated by a dormer window, an ingle nook when it works out naturally on plan, are often reasonable features. A bay- window built to add space or to improve the lighting conditions of a room, if well designed may furnish an interesting decorative 32 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Fig. 13. — A typical low room in an old-fashioned cottage, showing how even a good horizontal arrangement of lines and furnishings decreases the ap- parent height of the room. Fig. 14. — The same type of low room as in Fig. 13, showing how a vertieal ar- rangement of lines and furnishings tends to increase the apparent height of the room. HOME FURNISHING 33 feature both inside and outside the house. No excrescences or protuberances should be built merely for the sake of original or ornate effect. An oblong is in general a more pleasing shape for a room than is a square. A pleasing relation between the three dimensions — length, breadth, and height — should if possible be maintained. A room that is very long is not easily adapfed to general uses and is lacking in an effect of intimacy. A room that is too high is wasteful of unused space, is hard to hea't, and is unfriendly in appearance. In a room in which all the dimensions are equal or nearly equal, the shape is obvious at once; nothing is left to the imagination, and the result is stupid and uninteresting. However, a square may sometimes be the most convenient and economical shape for a room. For a small dining-room with a square or round dining table, a square may be both a conven- ient and a fitting shape. An oblong in which one dimension is perceptibly longer is much more pleasing than one in which there is a doubt as to comparative dimensions. An excellent proportion for an average room is one in which the width is more than half and less than two-thirds the length. In a house of moderate cost and size, it is not always possible to plan so that each room is of ideal proportion. Persons must often live in homes which they themselves have not built. In such cases there are many devices by which the apparent pro- portion may be improved. Devices for changing apparent proportion (Figs. 13-16). The eye naturally tends to follow any continuous line. By establishing lines in any particular direction, therefore, that direction is emphasized at the expense of the others. Rooms that are too high may be made to appear lower by introducing strong horizontal lines, for example: 1. By bringing the ceiling color down on the side wall. This is successful only when the ceiling color is happily related in hue and value to the side wall, and when its width corresponds to the width of a moderate border 10 inches or 12 inches, in a room of ordinary dimensions, say 14 feet by 16 feet by 9 feet. 34 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKim Fig. 15. — A tall room of the late nineteenth century type showing a placing of picture molding and a selection and arrangement of furnishings that tend to decrease the apparent height of the room. Wall coverings of such dig- nified pattern and harmonious color as are shown in Plate V, may some- times be used above the molding with decorative effect. Note the relation of the shapes of the pictures to the spaces. Fig. 16. — A typical modern living-room in which a group of casements and a built-in seat dominate the furnishing effect. HOME FURNISHING 35 2. By using a molding at the intersection of side wall and ceiling, and by making the picture-molding continuous with the top of doors or windows. 3. By a wainscot or dado, the top of which is on a level with the window-sills. 4. By using a valance in the window drapery, if this is con- sistent with the style of the room and the other furnishings, and by hanging all draperies so that the width of the opening is emphasized. 5. By using furniture in which the horizontal lines dom- inate, such as long low bookcases, davenports, sideboards, or tables. 6. By using pictures which are horizontal oblongs in shape, or by grouping several smaller pictures so' that either the lower or upper edges of their frames will establish continuous horizon- tal lines. Rooms that are too low may be made to appear higher by emphasizing the vertical lines, for example: 1. By placing the picture-molding at the ceiling, leaving the sidewall undivided. 2. By using vertically striped wall paper. Stripes should always be of nearly the same color or value in order to be un- obtrusive. 3. By using as long draperies as are consistent with the use and structure of the room, and by hanging these in straight folds and so arranging them as to make the openings high and narrow in effect. 4. By the use of tall and narrow bookshelves, cabinets, and other furniture. 5. By the use of pictures that are vertical oblongs, or by grouping the pictures with each other or with pieces of furniture so that the vertical is emphasized. In a room that is square or is too short an oblong, emphasis may be given to one dimension, for example: 1. By opening up a vista through a door or window, or by planning interesting features in the furnishings in order to emphasize the long axis of the room. A mirror may perform ffl m E ■ 1 i H:: : 4 — i 1 i $=■ 17.— A study of windows in relation to the adjoining wall space. First group: A single window in the middle of a short wall: a small double-hung window of bald design- a generous double-hung window with pleasing wall space around it; an interesting and well-placed casement. Second group: Two separate windows in a generous wall space: a good arrangement both for distribution of light and for the placing of furniture- a poor arrangement both for lighting and for furnishing. Third and fourth groups: Pairs and groups of windows in a generous wall space: a fair arrangement for a pair of double-hung windows, providing good light and good wall space; an interesting group of casements, dominating the wall space and furnishing abundant light- a pleas- ing group of double-hung windows; a pleasing arrangement of French windows The use of moldings in any case must be related to the proportion of the room and the structural line of the openings. HOME FURNISHING 37 a valuable office in adding to the apparent length of a room. The French have understood this and have increased the ap- parent size of dance-hall and dining-room by the skillful use of many mirrors. 2. By placing the long dimension of a rug in the direction to be emphasized. If the room is sufficiently large and the other conditions warrant it, two narrow rugs so placed as to emphasize the length of the room may be used. 3. By placing the long pieces of furniture in the direc- tion to be emphasized. Seats or shelves may sometimes be built in. In rooms that are too long, the apparent width should be increased and the apparent length diminished by every device possible, for example: 1. By placing openings or important structural features centrally on the long sides, thus breaking the length of the room into two or more furnishing centers. 2. By using more than one rug, placed with the long edges parallel to the short side of the room, in order to break up the space and establish lines across the room. 3. By placing the long pieces of furniture or by grouping furniture so that the width rather than the length of the room is emphasized. Location of windows and doors (Figs. 17, 18). The location, .style, and proportion of windows and doors are structural considerations that -affect every interior. The amount and shapes of the remaining wall spaces after windows and doors have been placed define the possibilities of the fur- nishing scheme. It is, therefore, important to arrange windows and doors in such a way as to leave usable wall spaces. These spaces should be so pleasing in shape and proportion that the bare room is in itself a design. Many doors in a room are an evidence of poor planning. While there is no rule about windows, an amount of window area equal to about one-fourth the floor area will in general be found a reasonable guide. 38 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING D E EiSiiE i ~i I" =4 H G M H H r 4 Fig. 18. — A-B: Two types of bay windows. C: A well-placed group of high casements. D-I: A study of six windows showing how the appearance of the window is affected by the division of the glass. HOME FURNISHING 39 Structural surfaces. The structural surfaces of the room are walls, ceiling, and floor. Walls include plaster walls, windows, doors, and trim. Plaster walls. The usual finish for the walls of a dwelling is plaster. Plaster may be rough or smooth. It may be left in the natural color, painted, or papered. 1. Rough plaster: The irregularities in rough, or sand-finished, plaster produce an effect of texture that makes such a wall an attractive background. The natural color of rough plaster varies according to the color of the sand used in mixing it. Sometimes it is a pure gray, sometimes it is tinged with soft tones of warm color. Powdered color may be mixed with the plaster when it is wet, if the mason is sufficiently experienced to handle it. Rough plaster should be applied by a skillful workman in order to produce a uniform effect. Rough plaster is rather harsh in texture and is not suitable in all rooms or with all woods. It is more akin to hard woods like oak, waxed or stained, than to mahogany or satinwood or painted woods. It is incongruous with delicate or very luxurious hangings. It is better in family rooms than in bedrooms or small rooms in which hands come often in contact with the wall. If rough plaster is spotted or discolored, it is not so easy to clean as smooth plaster. If the discoloration is only on the surface, it may be removed by pumice stone. If it is desired to change the color of rough plastered walls, oil paint is a very good medium; a coat of glue-size applied before the paint will facilitate the work and will economize the amount of paint. 2. Smooth plaster: Walls finished in smooth plaster present an even flat surface, not so interesting as the rough plaster, but with many advantages. It is easier to apply and is easily cleaned. Smooth plaster should be painted or papered, since its glaring white surface is a trying element in almost any color scheme. 40 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING 3. Smooth plaster painted (oil color or water color): Paint has an advantage over paper in that any subtlety of tint or tone may be obtained through skillful mixing. In general, in the use of house paint, white will lighten any color and black will darken any color; but in the case of the yellows, since black paint tends to develop green shades in them, dark brown paint should be substituted for the black. Oil color is more durable than water color. Although oil paint is more expensive in the beginning than water color, it is more economical in the end for use in rooms that are constantly occupied, or on parts of walls that are subject to the frequent contact of hands or fur- niture, such as schoolrooms, nurseries, kitchens, or corridors. Oil color sometimes has a disagreeable shine. This may be avoided by adding turpentine or by flat finishing (pouncing with a broad flat bristle brush). Oil colors may be obtained already mixed, but they frequently vary from sample. A better plan is to buy the ingredients and have them mixed only a short time before using. Different surfaces require different proportions of paint, oil, turpentine, and the like. An even tone throughout the room is always safe, but a very attractive effect may be obtained by an uneven tone. For example, the walls might be painted a gray blue and stippled with a gray green. Such treatment produces an effect of at- mosphere suggesting space. It should never be attempted except by an experienced painter. Oil color is easily cleaned by washing with soap and water. Water color, or calcimine, has the advantage of being in- expensive, and less skill is required in applying it. Water color may be applied over other surfaces, such as paper, beaver- board, or calcimine, but wall paper should not be put on over calcimine as it is likely to strip off. Water color walls cannot be washed but can be easily freshened by the application of a second coat. Water color is the most common treatment for ceilings even though the side walls may be painted or papered. 4. Paper or textiles: Smooth plastered walls are often cov- ered with paper or a textile; this treatment is effective in many furnishing schemes and is especially adaptable in old houses. HOME FURNISHING 41 Wainscots. Wainscoting treatments formed by chair-rail or paneling of various heights suggest a variety of decorative effects which are appropriate for important rooms, such as living-room, dining-room, and hall. A paneled treatment of wood or of moldings and plaster is dignified and effective, provided the wall and window spaces will accommodate themselves to such an arrangement. Obviously, panelled treatments can be studied only in relation to the individual room. Trim of walls. The trim of the room may be thought of as part of the wall or as a frame for an opening. If the room is small or the open- ings many and not well placed, the trim should be subordinated to the wall treatment. But if the room is of good size and the windows and doors are well proportioned and well placed, the trim will bear more emphasis. Except in fireproof houses, a certain amount of woodwork is needed to cover the bony joints of construction and to com- plete the finish of the room. The same kind of wood and the same finish should be used throughout the room, with the possible exception of the floor. Since the woodwork furnishes both a structural and a decorative element in the room, its choice should be considered from both standpoints. The trim covering the joints and framing doors and windows, should be wide enough to look adequate for this service, but not so heavy nor so ornate as to be obtrusive in the part it plays in the background of the room. A good width for the trim for the openings in average rooms is between 3J^ and 5 inches. Hard woods finished to show their character are excellent if the grain is not too conspicuous. Quartered oak with its modest grain and possibilities of finish is very fitting for the woodwork of a room in which oak furniture is to be used. Other woods, such as hard pine and cypress, are susceptible to treatment that makes them very effective. Woods of an inconspicuous grain, or cut so that the grain does not obtrude itself, should be chosen for trim. A wood with a bold swirling 42 A MANUAL OF -HOME-MAKING grain or with strong contrasts of light and dark is a poor choice for interior work, for it is too restless and insistent to take its place quietly in any decorative scheme. Fortunately, the item of expense is a protection against the use of woods so aggres- sive in color as mahogany, curly birch, and the like. Such woods should be reserved for furniture. The woodwork should play a definite part in the decorative scheme of the room, harmonizing with the walls both in char- acter and color. If the harmony cannot be secured by trans- parent stains, the woodwork should be painted. In fact, in many old or ready-made houses, paint for woodwork is the only means of securing a harmonious interior. Filler, stain, thin shellac, and Wax are commonly used to se- cure the transparent finish desirable for hard woods. Woods with large- or open grain, such as oak, chestnut, cypress, and pine, require a filler to make a smooth even surface. This filler may be kept the same color as the wood, or it may be stained darker, or a very light whitish filler may be used. The effect of this filler is to tone, to modify, or to emphasize the natural markings of the wood. Woods with a close inconspicuous grain, such as maple and birch, do not require a filler, but can be toned by staining. Wax is a more pleasing finish for hardwoods than is varnish, which should be used only on bathroom floors or other places where durability is perhaps more important than appearance. The soft dull finish of a waxed surface is more appropriate to wood than the glaring shiny finish of varnish. Paint is an opaque finish used to cover woods having an un- pleasant or no visible grain. Such woods as soft pine, white wood, and cypress are good foundations for painted woodwork. By means of paint, any woodwork can be adjusted in color to its surroundings. This flexibility of paint in relation to color schemes is a strong recommendation in its favor for both old and new work and for all types of rooms. Doors. Doors of good pattern in various woods may be obtained ready-made in standard sizes. They should be of the same gen- HOME FURNISHING 43 eral finish as the trim and other woodwork. Doors of uniform height on each floor contribute to unity of effect. The width may be varied for convenience. Mantelpieces, cornices, and picture-moldings. Any wood used in connection with such features as fireplaces should be consistent in character and finish with the other trim of the room. The mantel should be planned with and for the room, not purchased ready-made and grafted upon it. Like- wise any tile or brick facings used in the fireplace should har- monize in texture and color with the entire decorative scheme. A cornice of wood like the trim may mark the intersection of ceiling and side wall and should of course be finished like the other woodwork. A picture-molding marking this intersection is an effective finish for low rooms or those of ordinary height. A picture-molding so placed should be heavier than one lower on the wall. In some cases, a second molding may be used on the wall some distance below the one at the ceiling. This second molding then becomes the picture-rail. Ceiling. The treatment of the ceiling should harmonize with the finish of the walls and woodwork. Ordinarily the ceilings in dwellings are finished with plaster. This lends itself through the use of calcimine (water color paints), to any color scheme. Paper is a less desirable finish for ceilings. If it must be used, as sometimes happens in old houses where the ceiling has cracked or become discolored, a plain tone should be chosen. If a ceiling is cracked, canvas or burlap may be put over the old plaster and then paint or calcimine applied to it. Beamed ceilings produce an interesting structural and dec- orative effect. The beams should preferably be finished like the other woodwork in the room. If peculiar problems are presented by the woodwork, the finish of the beams may be considered only in relation to the ceiling. Beamed ceilings are often found in houses of early colonial architecture. They are also a feature of the new Craftsman houses. In the first case 44 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING they would usually be painted, since most of the woodwork is painted; in the latter, they would be finished like the oak or similar woods generally used. Ceilings of wood, except in sheathed or paneled rooms, are likely to look heavy and oppressive. In summer cottages and in some parts of the country, rooms sheathed and ceiled in yellow pine or cypress are often finished in the natural color and varnished. Paint is the only antidote and should be used on the ceiling at least, after "cutting" the varnish. White metal ceilings are in line with the progress toward fireproof construction. They cannot as yet be obtained in pleasing pat- tern except for very large rooms, and even here their construc- tion is unpleasantly obtrusive. Floors. Floors are made to be walked upon and are subject to hard usage. They should, therefore, be durable. Floors cannot be easily changed; therefore they should be permanent in material and finish. Since they contribute to the color scheme of the room, they should be finished accordingly. Floors continuous in color as far as the eye can see have a unifying effect. Wood is the material most used for floors. Wood that is hard, of in- conspicuous grain, and responsive to color treatment should be chosen. Well selected oak is probably the best. Maple and birch are very durable, but light in color; hard pine is also possible and relatively inexpensive. The matter of color and finish can be regulated to some extent to suit the character of wood selected and the color scheme of the room. Hardwood floors should in general be finished like hardwood trim, except that caution should be observed in attempting dark stains, because all floors through usage tend to wear back to the natural color of the wood. Since all wood floors tend to darken in time, the rather light appearance of a new floor should be endured with patience. If after a period of time the tone of the floor still appears too light, it is easier to darken it slightly than to remove a dark mussy stain. Furthermore, rugs can always be relied on to remedy the color effect of the bare floor. HOME FURNISHING 45 Softwood floors of pine, such as are often found in old houses, can be finished by filling the spaces between the boards with either a standard or home-made crack-filler and then applying two or more coats of good hard paint, such as the ordinary deck paint. Some housekeepers have had success with a crack-filler made of flour paste into which a pulp of damp newspaper is beaten. Under all conditions, however, a painted floor is a compromise and will require frequent renewals. color ' Color is more potent in creating the atmosphere of a house or room than is any other influence. Harmonious color will cover a multitude of sins in design, while no amount of good design will atone for discordant color. Color produces a distinct reaction on the human system; it is cheering, depressing, irritating, or restful, as the case may be. It is, therefore, of primary importance to understand the right use of color in the home. Since the question of color is involved in the finish of walls and of woodwork, it is the first factor to be considered in the treatment of an interior. Color has three generally recognizable characteristics: First, that quality that gives it its general or popular name and dis- tinguishes it from other colors — as red from green, or yellow- reds from purple-reds, yellow-greens from blue-greens, and the like. This quality is named by the scientists, hue. Hues, or colors, may in general be classed as warm or cool. Yellow, orange, red, and colors strongly tinged with these, connected as they are with ideas of sun and fire and blood, are the warm colors. Blue, green, and violet, and colors strongly tinged with these, associated in thought with cold and distant things like ice, the sky, the woods, and purple hills, are the cool colors. A second characteristic or quality of color is the strength or brilliancy, termed by the scientists, chroma or intensity. By this quality, a strong or bright color is distinguished from a soft, dulled, or grayed color, as the red in the upper from the red in the under side of an autumn leaf. The third characteristic or quality is that which distinguishes 46 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING light from dark colors, termed by' the scientists, value. A popular term for light colors is tint; for dark colors, shade. Recognized influences of color Hue. Colors in which there is a suggestion of yellow or orange or red, the warm colors, such as tones of tan or buff or old gold or brown or yellow-green, or the "warm grays," such as taupe or "sand" or "mode" colors, are likely to produce a warmth of atmosphere that makes them in general agreeable to live with. These colors are likely also to harmonize with the wood- work in the average house and to furnish a becoming back- ground for the usual wood and willow furniture. Red or reddish colors are .too aggressive and insistent to be used in large quantities. Red also tends to diminish the ap- parent size of a room. Yellow and yellowish colors are in general light, bright, and cheerful in effect. Blue or bluish colors, while they tend to increase the ap- parent size of a room, are inclined to absorb the light and to be forbidding if used in large quantities. Green, which is a mixture of yellow and blue, and greenish colors are in general quiet and restful in effect without being depressing. Violet is the color characteristic of mystery and shadow and royalty, and should be avoided or used with great dis- crimination in a home. In general, colors composed of two or more colors, whether of paint, of dye, or the interweaving of colored threads in a fabric, are more interesting, more refined, and more atmos- pheric in effect than the very evident reds and yellows and blues. Intensity or chroma. Strong or bright colors are not appropriate for use in large masses, such as wall or floor coverings, because they are too insistent and aggressive and they do not easily harmonize HOME FURNISHING 47 with the furnishings in the average home. These strong colors may be used in small masses, such as a bouquet of flowers, books, or a textile, to add a note of interest or to accent a color scheme. Dulled or grayed colors are in general appropriate to use in large masses, such as wall or floor coverings, because they are restful in effect and keep their place as background. A greater variety of these grayed colors may be used harmo- niously in the same room than would be possible with a com- bination of bright colors. Value. Light colors in general tend to increase the apparent size of a room, to make a room seem lighter, and to produce an effect of daintiness, of cleanliness, and of cheer; they also are more luminous and, therefore, very effective in artificial light. Used to excess, or inappropriately, light color may produce an effect of bareness or aloofness. Dark colors in general tend to diminish the apparent size of a room, to produce an effect of dignity or richness. Colors that are too dark are likely to be oppressive or to produce an effect of gloom or dinginess, and are very difficult to illuminate by night. Middle values, that is, colors that are about half- way between the extremes of light and dark, are in general more appropriate for the furnishings in living-rooms. Strong contrasts in light and dark, such as light woodwork with dark walls, or dark woodwork with light walls, dark figures on a light ground, or the opposite, produce a distracting and unrest- ful effect. Considerations governing color selection From the foregoing discussion it follows that: 1. 'Southerly rooms with a superabundance of light and sun- shine need in general cool and dark colors to temper the light. 2. Northerly rooms with no sunshine and too little light need in general light, yellowish colors to introduce a feeling of cheer and sunshine. 3. Rooms that are comfortably lighted and sufficiently sunny are open to a variety of color treatments. 48 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING 4. Rooms that are over-large and yet are comfortably lighted may be given a more friendly aspect by the use of warm colors that are medium dark. 5. In rooms that are too small and yet are comfortably lighted, a feeling of space can be suggested by the use of light or bluish colors. 6. In rooms in which the woodwork is already finished and cannot be changed, the color scheme is within limits prede- termined. From it walls and furnishings must take their cue. 7. Rooms that are comfortably large and light and with no hampering conditions are open to a variety of color treatments. 8. The living-room adapted to many uses and many persons should be more dignified and impersonal in color scheme than the other rooms of the house. It should be more neutral in its general scheme in order to be adaptable to a greater variety of coloring in the smaller areas. Books, pictures, an open fire, flower arrangements, and other changing and accidental conditions inevitably bring many touches of brilliant and varying color into the living-room. 9. A dining-room devoted to good cheer and used only for short periods admits a livelier treatment. Sometimes dishes that have a decided color may well give the keynote to the color scheme. 10. Since the bedroom is for sleep and rest, even though it is for personal use and allows a larger margin for individual preference than do other rooms, nothing should take precedence over those qualifications that fit it for its purpose. The white bed, white towels, and light furniture characteristic of the daintiness desirable in bedrooms, call for lighter colorings than do the family rooms. For bedrooms used also for both study and sitting-room, compromises must be made. The white bed is no longer suitable; the bedroom takes on the functions and, therefore, should assume the appearance of a living-room as far as possible. 11. Since the bathroom should appear, as well as be, im- maculate, all white or white with other light colors is most suitable. White with yellow for a bathroom on the north side HOME FURNISHING 49 of a house, white and blue or white and green for a sunny- bathroom, are good. 12. For the kitchen, light colors are cheerful and cleanly in appearance. They have the added value of so diffusing the light both by day and by night that there need be no dark corners to work in. It follows from all these manifest influences of color, that the rooms to be treated should be examined as to exposure, lighting, size, proportion, and use before determining the color scheme. Color for the whole interior A uniform coloring for the walls of a series of connecting rooms contributes to unity of effect. A sufficient variety in effect may be secured by varying the color or pattern of dra- peries and other furnishings in the different rooms. It seldom happens that all the rooms on a floor have the same exposure, or the same amount of light or the same use. Every need may be considered and yet a friendly harmony obtained by the use of closely related colors that may range from light to dark in value and through a series of related hues. The parts of the room as a background The ceiling, the side wall, and the floor form the background of the room against which all the furnishings and the occupants of the room are seen. Like the frame of a picture, the back- ground should be subordinate in color as well as in amount of detail. This limitation, far from minimizing the importance of the background, gives it an added distinction, and demands for it the most careful consideration. The function of the back- ground is to serve. While not obtruding itself, it should through its color supply a pervading influence that may be felt like an atmosphere. This province of the background is best filled, as has been said in the discussion of color, by subdued warm colors, not too dark, that harmonize with the more usual types of furnishings and methods of lighting. (See Plate III.) Ceiling, side walls, and floor are parts of one whole. They should, therefore, be keyed to the same color. This important 50 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING point has often been disregarded. The ceilings have been made white, the floors constructed of any convenient wood without reference to its color; the color of the walls has been chosen with- out reference to either floor or ceiling. In the distribution of color values in the background, the old analogy, often repeated, holds good: the side walls of a room correspond in value to the middle distance in a landscape; the ceiling corresponds to the sky which is lightest of the three; the floor to the ground, which is the darkest. This is not a m,ere fancy. A very dark ceiling or sky is threatening and oppressive in effect. The dark tones of the ground contribute to an effect of stability and support that are fundamental in a serviceable floor. Walls and trim. The wall color, being most in evidence as a background, cover- ing a greater area than either ceiling or floor and serving as the connecting link between these, should be the determining factor in the selection of the color scheme and naturally would be decided first. The color of the wall should be selected after a diagnosis of such considerations as location, size, lighting and use of the room, and the recognized influence of color already discussed (pages 46 and 47). The color of ceiling, floor, and woodwork would then be chosen in relation to it. If the color of the trim, which is really a part of the wall, has been determined first, the color of the wall should be related to it. Golden oak, cypress, and mahogany furniture limit the choice of the wall color to tones closely related to that of the wood. If a householder is already supplied with furniture of a decided character or color, the choice of color scheme is limited in the same way. The furniture in such a case will determine the color of the walls. Woodwork painted to match the wall color increases the apparent size of the room; it also renders less conspicuous ir- regularities and poor design in doors and windows. Usually the woodwork may well be made a tone lighter or a tone darker than the wall. Paint for the woodwork in bedrooms or any room with a light color scheme should be toned; a HOME FURNISHING 51 cream or ivory tone is usually! more gracious than a dead white. If it is necessary to finish the woodwork before the wall color can be known, a neutral color is the only safe choice. Ceiling. While the ceiling should be keyed to the color of the side wall, this should be done very carefully, since any light ceiling will absorb some color from the side wall. The ordinary method of lighting a room by windows placed in the side wall obviates to a considerable degree the effect of a white ceiling. The light strikes the side wall directly, leaving the ceiling inevitably much darker than white. This should be kept in mind in selecting the tint for the ceiling, lest it be too dark for the effective light- ing of the room; and it should not be forgotten when a ceiling color is extended to the side wall. In such a case the color that comes on a side wall should be several tones darker in order to appear of the same tone as the ceiling color. Floors. It is more difficult to regulate the color of wood floors than that of ceiling or side wall, because while it is desirable to re- late the color of the floor to the side wall, there is a distinct limit to the range of color in wood floors. Floors are often too light in value, but for practical reasons this cannot always be avoided. Whatever has to be accepted in the color of the floor, however, may fortunately be corrected by a good choice of rugs. PATTERN (PLATES IV, v) An exhaustive discussion of pattern would involve the whole theory and practice of design, but the usual mistakes of the home-maker in choosing wall paper, drapery, upholstery, and rugs may be avoided by an understanding of what constitutes good pattern and the kind of pattern appropriate for different uses. On account of the constant influx of novelty goods that tend to bewilder and confuse the purchaser, a fund of common sense and a determination not to be sidetracked by passing fads are necessary in order to make a wise selection. 52 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Characteristics of good pattern The motifs employed for patterns are of two kinds: (1) ab- stract or geometric forms which are simply harmonious shapes so repeated as to make a pleasing pattern; for example, the Greek key pattern; (2) concrete or nature forms "convention- alized," or adapted to their use as pattern; for example, the French fleur-de-lis. The distinction of a design depends not on the origin of the motif, but on its decorative treatment and color. The effective- ness of a pattern as an element in house furnishing depends on its adaptability in color and design to the service it is to render in the room for which it is selected. A fabric with less intrinsic merit than another in pattern and color may be the better choice in some instances, by reason of its happier rela- tion to the other furnishings in the room. By far the greater number of motifs are taken from nature. Any nature motif must be conventionalized, or adapted to its use as pattern, by changing its form, size, or color, and arranging it in an orderly way, keeping in mind not its origin from nature, but its purpose as decoration. Any pretense at naturalistic modeling or shad- ing should be very formal in character. That it is pattern and not picture should never be lost sight of in judging a design for a flat surface. Medallions, scrolls without beginning or end, baskets of flowers or fruits, fluttering ribbons and bowknots, are all absurd substitutes for real design. The figures in a design are parts of one whole and should be connected or related in some way. Widely separated motifs tempt the eye to jump from one spot to another and provoke one to count rows, and mentally rearrange the pattern. All effect of restfulness is thereby lost. Patterns that cover the ground well are in general better for furnishings than scattered spots. Some patterns that would be objectionable on a flat wall, however, may be used acceptably in drapery, since the fullness of the folds rearranges the design. One of the characteristics of a good design is its appropriate- ness to the material in which it is developed. Patterns may be Plate IV. —Types of rugs with suitable pattern, developed in line and in mass, in self tones and in contrasting and vari-colored effects. HOME FURNISHING 53 woven, embroidered, or printed — stenciled, stamped, or stained • — on a fabric. The pattern may appropriately declare the material in which it is developed. Woven patterns should pref- erably suggest warp and woof. The design in a rag carpet, for example, naturally appears in stripes made by the woof, which is much more prominent than the finer threads of the warp. There is a great variety of patterns appropriate to printed wall papers that may be selected in preference to those that imitate leather or burlap or silk or oilcloth. A pattern may be expressed in lines alone on a background of another color, or it may be in masses or spots that are lighter or darker or different in color from the background. In such patterns the shapes rather than the details are important. Sometimes the pattern is of masses that are broken up by a variety of detail and color, Pattern as used for walls and floors Walls and floors are flat solid surfaces. Their effectiveness and comeliness depend on this structural fact and this must be borne in mind in the selection of pattern for them. Any varia- tion of surface would impair the function of wall or floor. Any suggestion by the pattern of such defects is manifestly out of place. Wall patterns of trellises and vines, of realistic flowers or fruit or landscape, of simulated columns, or of panels made of pictured moldings should, therefore, be avoided. For the same reasons, realistic flowers and animals are out of place in pattern. The more realistic these motifs are, the poorer is the design. Because the effect of solidity in walls and floor must be maintained, the pattern should seem very flat. Since both walls and floor are backgrounds, the pattern should be unobtrusive in color and design. Fantastic ornament, violent color, or strong contrasts of any sort are out of place in a background. Since walls are upright surfaces, stripes, if inconspicuous, figures in which the vertical dominates or that are so arranged as to give an up-and-down rather than a crosswise or diagonal movement, are good types for wall pattern. 54 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Floors are horizontal surfaces that are viewed from every direction. The pattern on the floor should, therefore, be effect- ive from any angle. Goemetric or very conventional patterns equally good from every point of view are the best choice for floor coverings. SELECTION OP FURNISHINGS Wall coverings A textile may be used to cover smooth plastered walls. All sorts of materials that give the desired effect, from the cheap- est to the most expensive, have been employed for this purpose. Canvas, burlap, grasscloth, and other weaves of pleasing text- ure are effective when appropriately used. None of these, however, compares with paper in popularity as a wall covering. Paper is comparatively inexpensive, is easily hung, is made in an immense variety of colorings and pattern and a wide variety of textures. Wall paper has an advantage over paint in that the exact effect may be known before it is purchased, by ex- perimenting with a roll of it in the very room and light in which it is to be used. If there is cause for doubt, a plain paper should be selected for walls. There are many plain papers of good color from which to choose. The oatmeal textures probably offer the most desirable and satisfactory coloring among the inex- pensive papers. The silk-fibered papers, while more expensive, compensate in color and quality for the greater investment of money. Another safe choice in paper is one nearly plain in effect but the surface of which is broken by dots or dashes or splashes or other slight variations that give a little "bloom" or vibration of color. Paper with stripes that are not too wide or of too conspicuous contrast are good, especially in low rooms. A plain paper sometimes shows up too conspicuously the un- evenness in old walls. In such a case a paper with a small con- ventional figure, or one with a self-toned foliage pattern is better. A paper with a good pattern may be very effective in a hall or corridor or a room with few or no pictures and plain draperies. It helps to furnish the room. A large-figured paper HOME FURNISHING 55 in a small room is out of scale and makes the room look smaller. A figured wall-paper may be used as a frieze in a large room. Such a frieze is generally more effective than one of the stock border patterns, and is more easily adapted in width to varied requirements. A figured frieze is often a decorative finish above a high paneled wainscot. A border of unobtrusive pattern and color may serve on oc- casion to define an edge or emphasize a direction. But the idea that every room must have a border because fashion so decrees is absurd and unreasonable. Festoons of flowers and conspicu- ous ornament of any sort that tend to draw the eyes upward unpleasantly is out of place. In rooms of ordinary height, borders should generally be omitted. They are the offspring of the traditional cornice whose original office was to make the division between ceiling and side wall. A picture-molding placed at this intersection is an excellent finish in a low room or one of ordinary height. If the room is too high, the ceil- ing color may be brought down on the side wall and the picture-molding placed at the intersection of ceiling and wall colors. Hangings for windows and doors (Figs. 19-23) Hangings are useful to temper the light, to obstruct an un- pleasing view, to preserve privacy, and to furnish a decora- tive effect. Door draperies are used for the temporary separa- tion of rooms or for decorative effect. The types of window hangings are shades, curtains, and val- ances. The purpose of a shade is to regulate light and to secure privacy; therefore, a shade should always be opaque. A glare of color in a room through a shade of intense hue is sometimes more trying than a flood of sunshine. Shades, being next to the window, affect the exterior color scheme of the house and should be chosen with this in mind. Shades need not on that account be at variance with the interior coloring of the house, for a neutral tone may be chosen that will not violate any color Fig. 19. — A method of hanging two sets of curtains in recessed windows. HOME FURNISHING 57 scheme, or double-faced shades may be used. These are only a little more expensive and may, if necessary, be colored to order. In buying for a permanent home, it is economy to select shades of a good quality. Shades should be hung inside the trim as near the glass as possible without interfering with the operation of the window. If this is not possible, the shades should be hung near the inner edge of the casing or window trim. Shades may be hung so as to pull up from the bottom instead of down from the top. There are also fixtures which make it possible to adjust the shade so that it may cover any portion of the window at any time. These adjustable shades are particularly desirable for schoolroom win- dows exposed to direct sunlight for a large part of the day, for kitchen windows on the south side of the house, and for windows in any sunny workroom. Besides shades and blinds that shut out the light, the windows of most rooms need draperies to soften the hard lines of glass and wood, to temper the light, to veil a view, to complete the background of the room, and to add a decorative note in color or pattern. Each room presents an individual problem in curtains. Harmony, simplicity, and suitability are the guiding thoughts in the solution. Taste is more effective than money. With the modern ideas of the home as a place in which lives are to be lived, of rooms rationally furnished for everyday use, windows swathed in festoons of draperies, sweeping the floor, harboring dust, inviting germs, and excluding the air, have no place. The much trimmed, festooned and lambrequined draperies are not now much in use; their return should never be allowed. How- ever rich the material used for draperies may be, they should be simply made and so hung as to fall in straight folds. In a case of doubt, the simplest solution of the problem of window draperies should be accepted. The choice in material ranges from filmy nets, transparent gauzes, scrim, and muslin through soft silk and cotton fabrics, linens and coarse canvas weaves, brocades, damask, and tapes- try, velvets and velours; in color and design from one un- D Ml i]t ni 1 I 1 < i > Fig. 20. — -Four methods of curtaining a double-hung window: A, straight curtains hung within the window trim. B, a half, or sash, curtain often used for privacy. C, an inconsistent way of hanging drapery, which could be remedied by raising the rod, and extending it to the length of the top molding. D, a method of hanging curtains to cover an ugly trim or to widen the window in effect. HOME FURNISHING 59 broken neutral tone to the most complex variation of hues and patterns; in price from a few cents to many dollars a yard. Any fabric may be used, provided it is suitable. Effects in design, color, texture, and pattern that harmonize with the room and its furnishings are the distinguishing characteristics of the most tasteful selections of hangings, rather than rich and costly materials. Scrim, colored chintzes, cretonnes or any other dainty wash- able material is appropriate for a bedroom. Bright or gaily- figured hangings may be used in rooms devoted to good cheer and occupied for only short periods, su.ch as a dining-room or a porch sitting-room. Patterns and colors that are entertaining in a tea-room might be unbearable in a living-room. For rooms in constant use, or for rooms that should be reposeful in their influence, such as a library, a living-room, or a study, near-neutral colors and unobtrusive patterns are essential. A city dwelling, close to the street and overshadowed by other ' buildings, a country house situated on a hilltop, or in a valley, or by the sea, or in a setting of open fields or gardens sur- rounded by trees and shrubbery, present different problems in window treatment. Velvets, damasks, and handsome linen are appropriate for the city house, and the greater formality and reserve which are its natural characteristics. An effect of freshness is in keeping with the environment of the country home. Cretonnes, chintzes, and printed linen with brighter coloring than would be appropriate in the city home, are in harmony with the birds and flowers and outdoor country. Simple curtains of unbleached cotton for the small-paned cottage window with its ledge of flowering plants suggest the charm of the little house across the sea. For the house used only in summer, curtains should of course be of washable materials. The lighting of the room is an important consideration in selection of window draperies, If the room is poorly lighted, thin draperies light in value, tending toward yellow — the most luminous color — will be the most effective choice, provided it is consistent with the color of the walls. If the room is too light Fiq. 21. — Two methods of curtaining a group of windows. HOME FURNISHING 61 and sunny, darker and cooler colors and heavier fabrics should be used. Curtain material should never be chosen without hanging a large sample in the window of the room in which it is to be used, because the color effect is frequently quite dif- ferent under transmitted light. Material with a black thread is likely to look dull and dingy; a fabric woven with blue and yellow threads becomes green when seen against the light. The effect of artificial light on the draperies should also be considered, since colors change surprisingly from their day- time effects. Valance is the term used for a short drapery hung at the top of the window. It should preferably extend across the en- tire curtain space, or in emergency cover only that space be- tween the curtains. Valances are decoratively useful in fur- nishing a continuation in color and line between curtains that hang too far apart, or in emphasizing the shape of the window. They may serve as a decorative connecting link between the outside curtains at a group of windows, making it possible to dispense with other drapery in the group. Valances emphasize the horizontal in a room. Portieres, or door draperies, sometimes serve in place of doors in the openings between rooms where only a temporary separation is required. They may serve also to soften the lines of the trim, to cover an expanse of objectionable wood in the doors, or to add a decorative note of color or pattern. There is a wide variety of fabrics to choose from. Generally a heavy fabric hangs better and seems more appropriate in a doorway than a light one, and a double-faced material is simpler to make up. Manifestly, skeleton draperies composed of cords and tassels, strings of beads and shells, are an absurd substi- tute for a useful drapery. Door draperies may continue the color of the walls, or, like the window drapery, may be of a contrasting color. If the rooms connected by the opening require different color treatment, the portiere may be made double. The same considerations regarding pattern that guide the selection of window hangings are applicable to door drapery. 62 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Color and pattern. Color is of first importance in the decorative effect of window- hangings. White curtains may be appropriate in a room with white woodwork, white ceiling, and light walls, for they are in such case in harmony with the general color scheme, but they are not appropriate for rooms of darker color. Window- hangings should generally harmonize in hue with the walls of the room. If the hangings are of exactly the same color as the side wall, the result is likely to be monotonous. But if the room is small, the openings many, and the other furnishings in strong color contrast to the walls, a close match in color between walls and draperies may produce a most restful effect. If the walls are plain and not covered with pictures and other objects that attract undue attention, the draperies may be stronger in color and more pronounced in pattern, constituting the strong decorative note in the room. In general, provided the colors are harmonious and the pattern not too pronounced, it is safe to use striped or figured draperies with plain walls, and plain draperies with walls that have a pattern. Figured draperies may be used effectively with striped wall covering. The best designs for drapery, as for wall covering, are those that cover the ground and present no violent contrast in color or pattern. Window draperies may contribute largely to the color effects described in rooms of different exposure, or of different locali- ties. The warmth and light contained in soft tones of yellow and orange can be counted on to counteract a feeling of cold and gloom. Darker and cooler colors may be used when there is much sun or heat. Texture. Texture affects the adaptability of the hangings. Texture is the quality of material made known to us originally, as its name signifies, through touch, but by experience is equally recognizable through sight. Words used to describe textures are accordingly descriptive of feeling, such as rough, smooth, hard, soft, velvety, silky, crepy, coarse, fine, firm, loose. Burlap, HOME FURNISHING 63 for example, is rough and coarse compared with India silk. Tightly woven linen is firm and hard in effect. Velvets and velours are soft. Burlap, monk's cloth, canvas, and similar textures are appropriate in rooms finished in rough plaster with oak woodwork and mission furniture. Silk and satin or mercerized fabrics are more appropriately used with wood of such grain or texture as mahogany or satinwood or with painted wood. Variations in texture produced by different weaves, patterns, or colorings may give even inexpensive materials so distinguished a quality as to make them appropriate for use in very dignified surroundings. Some of the designs from priceless tapestries in European museums have been printed on linen and may thus be enjoyed at moderate cost. Treatment as to number in one window. Ordinarily one pair of curtains is sufficient to answer the purpose of a window drapery. Especially in rooms with few or very small windows, swathing with drapery should be avoided since it produces a stuffy effect. Casement cloth, many of the heavy nets, and sunfast materials, cretonnes, chintzes, and printed linens are very effective when used as single hang- ings. It is sometimes necessary to think of curtains as screens to shut out the public or a disagreeable view. Curtains may be so chosen as to perform this service and yet admit light. Sash curtains hung across the lower half of the window are the most natural answer to this problem. They are often use- ful in a bathroom or kitchen. Two sets of curtains are sometimes required for practical or decorative reasons. For example, in windows near a street, one set of curtains may shut out the gaze of passers-by while admitting the light, and the other serve as a screen in the even- ing and a decorative note at all times. In recessed windows, such as are found in brick or stone houses, or in a bay window or a group of windows, thin curtains may be used next the glass, and heavier draperies harmoniously related to the side wall may be' hung on the trim and drawn to shut off the recess or the whole window group when desired. 64 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING t — n — IJ" r L~ T r nf - 10 Fig. 22. — Three arrangements of valance and curtain, the first being the least desirable. HOME FURNISHING 65 If two sets of curtains are used, one pair is hung next the glass. These are called glass, or sometimes sash, curtains. As the function of these is to cut out the view but admit the light, they should be of thin material, such as net, plain lace, scrim, gauze, thin silk, mercerized cotton, sunfast fabric, or casement cloth. Such an inner curtain should be consistent in texture with the outer drapery; for example, with velvet or silk or any rich material, net of good quality or possibly mar- quisette is a good choice. With linen or cretonne, scrim is better. With cretonne or similar patterned hangings, the inner curtains should match the ground in tone; white, if the ground is white, cream or ecru if the ground is of that color; otherwise, one is likely to look faded or discolored. In thin materials, too coarse a mesh should be avoided on account of shrinking; an even weave is more easily made up and hangs better. These glass curtains soften the glare and are a pro- tection for the heavier window draperies. They are always in evidence on the outside of a house and should be selected with this in mind. If all the glass curtains in the house are alike, or if in the city those in the front of the house are alike, a pleasing unity of effect from the outside is conserved. The over, or outer, pair of curtains which is in more direct relation with the walls of the room may be made of any of the heavy materials already mentioned. This over-drapery may be used to regulate the light during the day, and, by shutting out the outside world, to give an effect of intimacy at night. At any time it may furnish a decorative note in the room. Hanging of draperies. If the woodwork of the room has been so selected and finished as to make of it a structural decorative feature, it should bear somewhat the same relation to the draperies as a, picture-frame to a picture, outlining and defining that which is inclosed. In this case the draperies, if there is only one set, should preferably be hung inside the trim; if there are two sets, the outside one would probably need to be hung on the trim, but should be kept as near the inner edge as possible. 66 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Varying types of window construction require different methods of hanging draperies. Often in the case of ready- made dwellings, the wood is so disturbing in color or finish, or the size and placing of the various openings in the room are so unfortunate that it is necessary to cover the trim in order to produce a good result. If all the windows in the room are of the same size and the same kind and placed on the same level, the problem is simple. If there are two sets of curtains, the problem is varied only by the sort of fixtures used. The question is more complex when there are several varieties of windows in the room, with doors requiring draperies besides. The most important or dominant opening should in general indicate the treatment. Casement or French windows that open out are compliant to the same treatment and arrangement of draperies as double- hung windows. If casement windows open in, only one set of curtains can be managed easily. These may be hung di- rectly on the windows, and be confined by rods with rings at both top and bottom. If a second set of draperies is used with such windows, the rod from which they are suspended must reach from the outer edge of the trim or even beyond this edge so as to free the curtains when the window is opened. Draperies should always hang straight; fashion should never be allowed to be a determining factor. When curtains are looped back, disturbing lines at variance with the structural features of the room are produced and simplicity is lost. If it is desirable to draw curtains back, the folds may still hang straight. Curtains just long enough to escape the sill are appropriate in most cases but if for any reason they must be hung to cover the trim, they should cover sill and apron as well. Sometimes when the design of the window contains a paneled space below, long curtains just escaping the floor are more consistent with the type of window than those of sill length. Valances hung between curtains are appropriate only when these curtains are not to be drawn ; in such cases they should be of the same fullness and should hang in the same sort of HOME FURNISHING 67 B 1 1 ~r | T T _ Fig. 23. — Three types of valance and curtain arranged to cover the trim. A, a simple gathered valance; B, a simple type of formal fitted valance; C, a type of valance in which the figure governs the method of hanging. 68 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING folds as the curtain. Valances should preferably be extended across the whole window and should hang on a separate rod in order not to interfere with the independent adjustment of the curtains. The valance usually hangs from the same height as the curtain; but in the case of a window with a transom, the valance may, if the construction of the window allows, hang from the top of the transom and fall only far enough to cover comfortably the top of the curtains. Portidres are hung in the same general way as curtains; sometimes on the trim but more often between the door jambs. Measuring draperies for windows and doors. The space to be covered by the drapery should be measured accurately. Every measurement should be taken with a yardstick or four-foot rule. A tape-measure is liable to stretch. A diagram of the window should be made and the measure- ments indicated upon this. Length. The space that the curtain is to cover from the top of the heading to the bottom of the hem when finished should be determined. An allowance of 5 or 6 inches should be left for "crawl" and for the making up of any unlined curtain that is to have a shirred heading, a run for the rod, and a 2-inch hem at the bottom. If the curtains are to be washed frequently, and especially if they are of material with a coarse mesh, more should be allowed for shrinkage. This extra length may be disposed of by making three thicknesses in the hem. If sewed by hand, the hem can be ripped easily and rehemmed after washing. If there is no heading, only 4 inches need be allowed for making. In estimating the quantity of material, allowance must be made for the "repeat" of the pattern in matching the design. Sometimes when there is a large design and con- siderable waste, the parts cut out can be used in the valance. If the pattern has a figure conspicuous in size or shape or color, the drapery should be planned so that this figure comes at the same distance from the top in both curtains of one window and HOME FURNISHING 69 preferably in all the windows in the room. The drop in differ- ent patterns varies from a few inches to several feet and is an important consideration in measuring and cutting figured materials. Materials suitable for window drapery come in many widths, from 31 inches to 52 inches or even 72 inches. For windows of average width, 50-inch material may be used to good ad- vantage if pattern and texture permit, by cutting it in two lengthwise and making both curtains in the pair from one length of drapery. Width. Window drapery should, theoretically, be sufficiently wide to cover comfortably the whole window even if it is seldom necessary to do this. The width of the whole space plus from one-third to one-half the space to be covered, according to the thickness of the material, furnishes an agreeable fullness. When the curtains are purely decorative, as is sometimes the case with the outer drapery, or when only one pair is used with a valance in a group of windows, less fullness may be sufficient. Lining. If the curtains are to be lined, allowance should be made for the heading at the top and, ordinarily, for 2 inches to be turned up at the bottom, that is, as much for making as in the unlined curtain. If the curtains are to be finished with a gimp or fringe, 1 inch is enough to allow for making, since in this case the lining should come nearly to the edge. For the lining, the same length should be allowed as for the curtain, minus the width of the heading. If the material is heavy, more must be allowed for the lining, since the outside is likely to sag. If the outside is considerably heavier than the lining, or if there is a difference in the elasticity of the two materials, the curtains should be sewed only at the top and allowed to hang for two or three weeks before finishing. Fifty- 70 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING inch sateen suitable for lining curtains is to be found in the upholstery departments. Valances. The ordinary valance of cretonne or thin material is gathered or plaited and made with a heading. Such valances vary from 12 to 18 inches in vertical length, according to the size of the window and the type of room, whether a bedroom or a living- room. For short casement windows or for a bedroom, a valance not more than 8 inches wide is sometimes very effective. The width of the window space to be covered plus from one-third to one-half its width should allow sufficient fullness for the valance. If the valance is to be plaited, the length necessary for each plait should be multiplied by the number of plaits and added to the length of the rod, plus 2 inches for making. For the heading, to the length of the finished valance should be added the same allowance as for curtains, 4 inches for the heading and run at the top, \Yi inches for the hem at the bottom. For a gathered valance in a window 3 feet wide, one width of 52-inch material will allow sufficient fullness. For a flat valance, the vertical width of the valance is measured at the widest part, and 2 inches added for making. For the horizontal length of such a valance, the width of the window space to be covered is measured, or, in the case of a curved rod, the length of the rod, and 2 inches added for making. If there are plaits or pipes in such a valance, the amount re- quired for each one must be calculated, and this added to the length of the valance. Portieres. For portieres hung from a pole by rings, the space to be covered by the hanging finished is that from the bottom of the pole to within 2 inches of the floor. This space is required in the interest both of cleanliness and appearance. For portieres with a run for the rod, with or without heading, allowance must be made as for curtains. Portieres often require lining, in which case 3 inches in addition to the length when finished HOME FURNISHING 71 should be allowed. Some materials "crawl" in use, but most fabrics that are used for portieres are heavy and tend to sag. Making draperies. Curtains. Before cutting, the material should be studied carefully to see whether there is any up and down, right and wrong side, or matching of figures to be considered. When possible one should cut by thread. In the case of some cheap printed goods, this is not practicable, but such curtains are likely to hang askew after they have been laundered. In making curtains, a large table that one can walk around should be used. Glass curtains and any curtains made of thin textiles or unlined may be finished at the top (1) with a hem or casing for the rod, (2) with a heading and a run for the rod below the hem, (3) with a hem and rings sewed on to the edge of the cur- tain or with rings sewed on to the line of the hem so that they are invisible. Curtains that are hung on rings are more easily moved back and forth; but if the curtains need frequent laun- dering, the rings may be troublesome. Twice the diameter of the rod, or more, should be allowed for the width of the run or casing, to provide for shrinking and the easy adjustment of the curtains- Thin curtains are better gathered or shirred. Ample width for a heading in limp material is V/z inches; if the heading is wider, the folds lop over in an untidy way. Two inches is not too wide a heading if the curtains are of a firm material that stands up well. For full length curtains for large windows, 3 inches is a good width for the hem at the bottom. For glass curtains or curtains of thin material, 2 inches is sufficient. The hem may be turned in its full width, thus making three thicknesses of material. In any case this gives firmness and weight that makes the cur- tain hang well, and in the case of washable curtains furnishes an opportunity to counteract the effect of shrinkage. Hem- 72 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING stitching or fagoting is an excellent finish for scrim or marquis- ette, and it gives a touch of distinction to the curtain. Curtains of chintz and some other materials may be turned up on the right side, and an edge of gimp or a narrow fringe may be sewed on. Attractive edgings for chintz are obtainable, and when chintz curtains are used in living or other family rooms, these gimps make an effective finish. In this case, the width of the gimp is enough to allow at the bottom for making. In general, the hemstitching or other finish of a curtain begins at the top of the inside of the curtain and continues across the lower edge. There is no reason why it should not be continued up the outside edge, thus making the edges reversible. Lined curtains. Many materials used for the outer window drapery should be lined, especially for windows subjected to the heat and glare of the sun. Lining is often desirable even -when there are glass curtains, both for the protection of the material, if this is expen- sive or likely to fade, and for the effect in the room. Some fab- rics are much more effective when lined; others are much hand- somer unlined. The pattern in cretonne, for example, comes out much better when there is no lining, while in printed linens the pattern is often almost obliterated and the ground looks dense and dull if made up without a lining. If the curtain to be lined has a heading, this should generally be made by turning over the outside material at the top, es- pecially if the heading is likely to fall over, or is of plaits which are intended to turn over. ' When curtains are to be lined, they should be placed face down on the table. After cutting off the selvage, which is otherwise likely to draw, the edges are turned in and basted down. The lining should be basted on to the outside first at the top, then across the curtain at frequent intervals throughout the length of the curtain. The edges of the lining are then turned in and basted to the outside, letting the edge of the lining come to about l /ie inch from the edge of the outside. The curtain is finished at the top, and if it is of heavy material, HOME FURNISHING 73 allowed to hang for three weeks or more before finishing either the sides or the bottom. Valances. The ordinary valance of cretonne or thin material is gathered or plaited and made with a heading. Gathered valances are made in the same way as gathered curtains. For plaited val- ances, the box plait is generally used. The plaits may be very near together or at some distance apart. The width of plaits and spaces must be carefully estimated, and if the plaits are a wide distance apart, this spacing must be determined with great accuracy. In figured material, the figure often indicates the best spacing. The plaits may be taken up like a tuck, basted carefully, pressed to produce the boxplait, the basting ripped out, and the valance allowed to hang free from the rod. The casing for the rod is stitched to the back at the base of the heading. The casing should be so wide that the outline of the rod is not visible on the right side; or a flat tape may be sewed on at the base of the heading and hooks attached to this. Plaited valances are more formal and finished in appearance than gathered or shirred valances. They should be measured accurately, sewed firmly, pressed well, and hung straight. The shaped valance made over buckram and with interlining is suitable for the richest material, such as velvet, velour, or damask, and for the most stately rooms. When such materials are used, a professional can generally be employed to make them up; therefore, only the simplest type of flat valance will be de- scribed here. A simple shape should be chosen with few or no curves. A pattern is cut from heavy paper and fitted carefully to the window over the rod or other fixture to which it is to be fastened. The heavy cotton or canvas lining is then cut. Can- vas is better than buckram, because the latter is likely to crack or become limp in damp weather. The canvas form is laid on the table and the lining basted carefully on it, a little tighter from left to right than the canvas, if the valance is to go on a curved rod. The lining is laid on the goods on a table. If the fabric is figured, the pattern should be studied carefully, to be 74 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING sure that the figures come in the right place. The goods should be cut 1 inch larger all around than the lining. In basting the outside to the stiffened lining, it should be as much looser than the canvas as the lining is tighter, in order that the valance may fit well around the curve of the rod. Such a valance may be finished by a gimp or cord or other slight finish. It may be hung from a %-inch board fastened to the top of the trim, and projecting 3 or 4 inches from the wall. The shaped valance is seldom required for home-made curtains. Portieres. Draperies for doors are made in the same general way as those for windows. They are often of heavy material and are sometimes lined. The purpose of the lining is often to furnish a contrasting hanging for the room on the other side. When the rod is fastened to the door jamb as high as possible, the run for the hanging may conveniently be made at the top. If a heading is desired, the rod should be placed lower. When portieres are hung on the outside of the trim, a heading may be used or not. Portieres may be hung by rings, or by hooks. A French heading, with French hooks, may be used on a portiere that is to be hung on the trim. The French heading is made by taking up three tucks or plaits which may be x /i inch in depth, or more if the material is heavy. The plaits should be stitched across 23^ or 3 inches from the top. The French hook is attached at the bottom of the heading. The hook then fastens into the ring which fits the rod. Floor coverings Only modern rugs of domestic or foreign manufacture will be considered here, as the choice Oriental rugs are not within the compass of the average purse and the ability to select these wisely is acquired only by long study and experience. The functions of either a carpet or rug are to protect the floor, to obviate noise, to give warmth in both fact and effect, and to add a decorative note to the room. To protect the floor in much-used rooms, rugs should cover the larger part of the floor. HOME FURNISHING 75 If a number of small rugs are used, they should be placed where the wear is greatest — on lines of travel, before a fireplace, a lounge, a bed, or a dresser. The term carpet will be used in this connection to designate a fabric that covers the floor com- pletely; the term rug, for a fabric not completely covering the floor. Carpets. Carpets are not so popular at the present time as rugs; but with the home-maker, fashion should not enter into the con- sideration: A carpet with small figures or none, covering the entire floor, tends to make a room look larger, and to unify, the color scheme; it contributes to the warmth and quiet of a room, and in an old or cold house may serve to offset a poor floor. A perfectly plain carpet usually called "filling" may be ob- tained in ingrain and other weaves to cover the entire floor and serve as a background for rugs. With a vacuum cleaner it should be entirely possible to use carpets and be hygienic. Rugs. Rugs serve all the purposes of a carpet and are in general much more easily cared for and more adaptable decoratively. Even a large rug, when rolled on a pole, can be easily moved in and out for cleaning. For temporary homes, rugs are a wiser investment than carpets because they are more easily adjusted to different floor spaces. Color, as in other furnishings, is the first point to consider in the selection of a rug. The rug preferably should be of about the same value as the floor, so that it may tone with it, making no severe or obtrusive contrast. In the case of a floor that is too light but that may not be darkened, the lesser of two evils is to compromise by choosing a rug considerably darker than the floor. The floor is the base of the room, the foundation on which the furnituie rests, the background against which it is seen. Colors relatively dark contribute to an effect of solidity. In must be continually repeated that neu- tral effects serve best as backgrounds. The safest coloring per- 76 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING haps is the one similar or analogous to the prevailing color of the walls; but a complementary or contrasting color, if sufficiently neutralized and if repeated elsewhere in the room, may be used with excellent effect. A plain rug with a self -toned border is in general a good choice. If the rug is to be subjected to very hard wear, a pattern will make the wear less evident. A rug. with an unobtrusive pattern, preferably with small geometric figures that "read" from every direction, or a very conventional nature motif with no strong contrasts in value, is likely to keep its place as a background better than a rug with large pattern, medallions, or intricate ostentatious border. Such rugs assert themselves at the ex- pense of the other furnishings and tend to make the room seem crowded. Realistic flowers or animals, trees or houses, are out of place in pattern. The best size and proportion for rugs is determined by the room and its furnishings. In the average room, a relatively large rug proportioned to the size and shape of the room is a satisfactory choice. Between two and three feet, or in a very large room even a wider margin, of bare floor may be left on each edge; the rug thus answers every purpose of a rug, clears the furniture, and is easily cared for. The size, number, and placing of rugs should be studied in relation to the other fur- nishings of the room, since they play an important part in the whole design. There is a wide variety of textures and weaves on the market. It is impossible to suggest with any definiteness, the weave or manufacture to buy. The texture or quality should above all be appropriate to the room in which it is to be used; a rag rug may be the best choice for a bedroom or even for a living-room in a simply furnished country house. Heavy Wilton or Ax- minsters or velvets with deep pile are too suggestive of luxury to be used in modern simple homes. Since rugs are always to be walked upon, they should above all be durable. A reliable dealer who handles standard makes of rugs should be selected, and his judgment trusted as to the wearing qualities of his goods. HOME FURNISHING 77 Linoleum. For hard and continuous wear, such as on the floors of kitch- ens, passages, and dining-rooms, on farms or for large families, linoleum makes a very satisfactory covering. A good quality of linoleum is about as durable as wood. Its pliability, elastic- ity, and quietness especially recommend it for rooms in which there is much walking or standing. Since it comes in wide lengths, a linoleum floor has practically no seams or joints to catch the dirt and can, therefore, be considered a very sanitary material. Battleship linoleum, plain brown in color, often tones in acceptably with woodwork and furniture. A few other good plain colors are procurable. For the kitchen, a modest inlaid or a granite pattern is by. many considered more cleanly in appearance. A similar choice of pattern in light colors is also appropriate for bathrooms. A good grade of linoleum is not cheap, but its lasting qualities repay the initial expense. Cheap grades are not in the long run a good investment. A linoleum "floor should be laid by the firm from whom it is purchased. The inconvenience attendant on the proper laying of a linoleum floor must be borne patiently, because it must be kept in the form of loose pieces until it has adjusted itself to the flatness of the floor, the temperature of the room, and the space which it is to fill. Since the marks made by furniture show up badly on a new linoleum, the pressure of heavy pieces should be re- lieved by little blocks under the legs while the linoleum is new; but as the surface becomes harder through care and exposure, it will be found to stand better the necessary wear. Cork carpet. Cork carpet, a floor covering similar to linoleum in wearing qualities, but with more of a surface texture, can be ob- tained in a number of plain tones. Like linoleum it can be used pleasingly even in living-rooms as a background for rugs. 78 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Wood-veneer carpet. A wood-veneer carpet of inconspicuous pattern laid over an old floor is also a very durable and satisfactory background for rugs. Japanese matting of fine weave, though light in color can be made to take the place of a bare wood floor especially in bedrooms or rooms where white or light painted wood is used. Ingrain filling. Ingrain filling or other plain carpets may also be used as a background for rugs in the absence of a good wood floor. furniture (Plates VI-IX and Figs. 24-29). Furniture is perhaps the most distinctive of all the movable furnishings of the home. Well-made furniture is very durable and should, therefore, be selected with the care which perma- nence calls for. Furniture of reliable workmanship and made from choice material is rarely cheap, but is the best investment in the end. If the family purse is limited, it is better to buy at the start the few essential pieces and to add to these from time to time. No article of furniture should be purchased unless a need for it exists, and then the one that will best fill that need should be sought for until it is found. At the time of purchase, each article should be judged on its intrinsic merits and its adaptability to the need and place that it is to fill. The fundamental considerations in the selection of furniture are three: the function or use of the article selected; its construc- tion and design; and its relation to the room and other furnish- ings. Function. The usefulness of a piece of furniture is paramount to every other consideration. For example, a chair of whatever materials constructed, is made to sit in. If it does not answer this use comfortably, it is utterly unworthy as a seat. In its simplest form a chair has a seat, legs, and back, but it is often developed into forms with arms, rungs, rockers, and upholstery as well. Fio. 24. — A group of typical side chairs of substantial and pleasing form, and of varied finish. From these, selections might be made for dining-room, living-room, or hall. 80 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Fig. 25. — Four good table forms for use in dining-room or library. Even the most elementary type should afford a seat wide enough to accommodate the body comfortably, should have legs of a height that allow the feet of the occupant to rest easily upon the floor, and a back that accords with the curve of the spine. These requirements would seem so obvious as not to need mention, were it not so rare to find them all combined in one chair. Since the adult members of a single family may vary greatly in height, Plate VI. — Good types of desks and sideboards. HOME FURNISHING 81 size, and proportion, no exact rule as to the measurements of chairs can be formulated. In general, however, the seat of an ordinary straight chair should measure from 15 to 20 inches across the front and may be usually 2 or 3 inches narrower at the back. In height the seat may be from 15 to 20 inches from the floor, inclining slightly backwards. The lower the seat, the greater should be its depth; and conversely, the higher the seat, the more shallow its depth. The height of the back from the seat may vary from 12 to 30 inches. Arms should be of a height to support the arm of the occupant comfortably — about 10 inches usually from the seat. Rails or slats or ban- nisters in the chair-back should be tested with reference to the ribs and shoulder-blades of the user. Rungs are usually added for strength, but a well-made chair may be quite adequate to its purpose without them. The varying purposes for which chairs are used are another element in the decision. A sewing chair, a slipper chair, and a nursery rocker are preferably low. A short-backed chair is - convenient for a dressing-table or for the kitchen. A chair for lounging may be as deep and high-backed and as luxuriously upholstered as the user fancies. No chair is good that is not comfortable in service. With a table also, the first thought of the buyer should be its use. A dining-table, a table for the- library, a sewing-table, a table for bedroom, hall, or kitchen, each has a special service to render and should be chosen with that service in mind. Every table, however, should be stable. A bureau, a chest, a sideboard, or any container should be thought of in terms of the storage space afforded and facility of access to that space; doors should open and shut easily; drawers should run smoothly. Construction and design. The first requirements in construction are strength and du- rability. These are essential elements also for efficient service. Good furniture must be sincerely built from honest material, should be designed for a definite purpose, and should avoid 82 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Fig. 26. — Types of Colonial chairs, usually developed in mahogany or cherry, which may be found in good reproductions. 1, 4 and 6, Chippendale; 2 and 3, Sheraton; 5, Hepplewhite. superfluous ornament and shiny varnished finishes. The con- struction of furniture should be evident; that is, the necessary upright and horizontal elements should not be distorted by curves and ornament that impair the function of the members. Variations in contour, such as low flowing curves, should accord with the main outlines. Of all the necessary pieces of furniture, chairs and seats are the freest in form and may deviate farthest HOME FURNISHING 83 from straight-line design. Curved lines and rolling contours adjust themselves easily to the human form and are usually- more comfortable than the rigid lines of straight chairs. This does not imply, however, that fantastic shapes are justifiable. Since no piece of furniture is stronger than its weakest joint, it is important to observe that all joints be strong and genuine even though hidden. The legitimate use of screws, wedges, and glue has brought about such sound and inconspicuous join- ery that there is no longer any excuse for wobbly, insecure furni- ture. In general, the tendency of modern furniture design is toward easily movable forms such as metal beds, closets instead of wardrobes, and various types of reed and willow furniture. The parts of which furniture is composed should seem reason- able for the function which they are to perform. The legs of chairs and tables should not be heavy enough for porch posts like those in some pieces of mission furniture, nor should they be frail and "ladylike" as in the case of the little gilt parlor chair. The woods most used in modern furniture are ash, oak, ma- hogany, walnut, and other woods finished to imitate these, also pine and whitewood for painted pieces. Bird's-eye maple and curly birch, being sport growths, should not be used as a structural furniture wood. Of these woods, oak is heavy, durable, susceptible to color modifications, easily kept in good condition, of a sturdy character, appropriate to everyday conditions, and not too expensive. Mahogany is durable, but needs much care, is too "dressy" in appearance for the stress of modern daily life, and is not so adaptable, except in its browner tones, to usual color schemes. Contrary to the usual belief, there is no intrin- sic merit in the fact that a piece of modern furniture is called mahogany. Many of the best looking pieces are only birch stained red, or if made of the genuine wood are often less at- tractive than their birch substitutes. Only in antique pieces, valuable because they are good and not because they are old, and in modern copies or adaptations of fine design and finish, is the real sentiment and beauty of mahogany preserved. In general, oak is the most representative wood for modern furni- 84 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Fig. 27. — Comfortable arm-chairs for general use. ture, just as black walnut was the typical wood in our mothers' day and mahogany in the day of our grandmothers. The finish of all woods should be soft and dull, rubbed, not varnished. A shiny polish is often used to hide blemishes in the wood and is of a nature pertaining more to metals and to glass than to wood. > Plate VII. — Types of furniture ugly in proportion, erratic in line, over- ciecorated in finish, that should be avoided. HOME FURNISHING $5 There is much good painted or enameled furniture. It lends itself to charming and unusual color schemes. This finish is especially appropriate with the light clean effects so suitable in bedrooms in country homes, and in rooms with painted trim. Willow, because of its elasticity, is an excellent material for seats, but not appropriate for tables, desks, beds and other furniture forms in which firmness and smoothness are essential qualities. Though not so durable as wood, willow is light in weight, has unlimited color possibilities, and fits satisfactorily into many varying types of furnishings. The simple designs are always the best. Upholstery. Well-disposed springs and padding add much to the comfort of a lounge or chair, and a textile covering may contribute most attractive notes to the color scheme of a room. Upholstered chairs with a well-built frame that is frankly evident, are the best choice. Fat-looking, dimpled, padded, buttoned, and fringed upholstery should be avoided. Too often it covers weak construction. Upholstery furnishes a good opportunity to amalgamate the various colors in a room, such as the contrasting colors of walls and hangings, or to emphasize one of these, or to introduce new colors that will enliven an otherwise monotonous room, or to distribute the color interests when there is too much color massed on one side of a room, as sometimes results from a series of door and window draperies. For ordinary home use, plain, striped, or figured fabrics are more appropriate than leather, which finds its best use in offices and men's lounging rooms. • A slenderly built chair should not be upholstered in a large figured, strong-colored fabric. A chair or any other furni- ture may be excellent in design with no decoration. Any decoration should be an integral part of the whole design, an outgrowth of the construction, a refinement of the propor- tions, or an emphasis of an essential element by a bit of enrichment. Fio. 28. — Three good forms of couches. Top, a willow davenport, comfortable, reasonable in price, and easily moved. Center, a type of upholstered davenport exceedingly comfortable but likely to be costly. Bottom, an inexpensive box-couch arrangement that may be made both comfortable and attractive by the use of good springs, upholstery, and cushions. HOME FURNISHING 87 Fig. 29. — Typical small tables of good form and finish from which a suitable selection might be made for various types of living-room, bedroom, or porch. 88 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Relation to other furnishings. To secure a homogeneous result in house furnishing, the fit- ness of each purchase should be thought of in relation to the room in which it is to go and in relation to the other furnishings of that room. As has been previously pointed out, the proportion of furniture has a notable effect on the apparent proportion of the room: very large pieces of furniture seem to crowd a small room; very small pieces, unless grouped, appear dwarfed in a large room. Furniture should be selected of a material that will harmonize with the woodwork. Oak is the best choice for a room finished in oak or in the woods finished in a color similar to oak, as ash, chestnut, or even cypress. The modern market produces such a wide range of design in oak furniture of different finishes and prices as to make an appropriate choice for such a room com- paratively simple. Mahogany or painted or willow furniture affiliates better than does oak with painted woodwork, especially if painted in ivory or white or light tones. Oak and mahogany are so at vari- ance in character and texture that they will not mix. Willow and painted furniture affording great variety in form and color will fit well together. Pictures Contrary to the usual belief, pictures are not indispensable in a well-furnished room . I f the wall spaces are not too large and bare, if the walls are paneled or have an interesting covering, or if the draperies in the room are noticeably decorative in color or pattern, pictures may be superfluous. However, if, as often happens in rooms with plain walls, a problem is presented by large empty spaces, a wise use of good pictures presents a solution. Such pictures being steady com- panions should be selected for their intrinsic worth of subject, color, and composition. Good photographs in brown or gray tones of most of the world's masterpieces may be obtained for a reasonable price. Some good color prints from both old and new masters are also available. Even a group of magazine Plate VIII.- -A few excellent types of mirrors and foot-stools that are both serviceable and decorative. HOME FURNISHING 89 prints, similar in size and harmonious in color, may be a worthy contribution to the decorative scheme of the room. These are far better than amateur efforts with paints or crayon. A good picture deserves a good frame. The frame serves to protect the picture and to enhance its appearance, but should never be so large, ornate or obtrusive as to assert itself at the expense of the picture. A frame for a mirror may appropriately be more decorative; the controlling thought in selecting such a frame is its fitness to the wall and other furnishings. The width, style, and color of the frame must be suited to the picture. Light pictures, like etchings and many water colors, look best framed in light, delicate moldings, with or without a mat, as the case may require. Photographs in gray or brown tones stand a heavier, darker frame toned to accord with the picture. Colored pictures often look well in gilt frames, but the gilt should be dulled and, like the frame of wood, should be toned to harmonize with the picture. If the frame alone does not sufficiently isolate the picture, a mat of harmonizing color may be used. Strong contrasts between frame, mat, and picture, such as is frequently seen in photograph or engraving surrounded by a white mat and black frame, should be avoided; they are too assertive to take a place in any color scheme. The size and proportion of pictures should be adjusted to the wall spaces; a tall picture in a vertical space, a broad pic- ture in a horizontal space, or a combination of these so ar- ranged as to form groups of pleasing proportions. Pictures rec- tangular in shape harmonize better with the structural masses than round or oval pictures. Strong contrasts of color and value between wall and picture tend to destroy the harmony between the picture and its setting. Dark pictures on a light wall, light pictures on a dark wall, assert themselves unduly. The general tone of the picture should be related to that of the wall. A few general points should be remembered in the hanging of pictures. They should be hung flat against the wall, not tilted out from it; they should be fastened securely to the wall or suspended from the picture-molding by two parallel vertical wires. The height of the pictures should be related to the 90 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING level of the eye, and in general either the tops or bottoms of the frames should be at the same distance from the floor, unless a picture appears better hung in relation to some piece of furniture, such as a desk or bookcase. Pictures are often hung too high. Other furnishing accessories While some small furnishings have a distinct use and may introduce the one decorative note needed to complete the scheme, safety lies in restraint. These small things should be selected with as much care as the larger furnishings. The lesson of sacrificing heirlooms, mistaken purchases, and even misfit gifts for the sake of the unity of the whole scheme should be early learned. Constructive forms with lines that are slightly curved for the sake of grace while the general direction of support or economic outline is kept, are pleasing. Whatever is added by way of ornament must follow or fit, not conceal, this structural shape. Masses of decoration applied without re- gard to the form, cheapen the appearance and confuse the intent of the object. In the choosing of a clock, a clearly marked dial and a support- ing case of pleasing contour and form are the essential considera- tions. The general design will vary according as the clock is intended to stand on the mantel or the floor or to be affixed to the wall. The real function of a vase is to serve as a container for flowers. The design of the vase should, therefore, anticipate the flower, though it may be so distinguished in color and form as to be by itself a decorative note in a room. The color or decoration on the vase should not attempt to compete with the flower. Lamps are indispensable to comfort, whether oil, gas, or electricity is used for illumination, and are one of the most decorative and intimate features in a furnishing scheme. Three elements enter into the design of lamps; the light, its shade, and its support. The support should both be and appear adequate for its use and should harmonize both in size and HOME FURNISHING 91 shape with the shade. Broad bases or heavy bowls give stability to the design of a latnp. Metal and pottery are eminently suit- able materials for lamp standards. The height of. the lamp and the flare of the shade should be related to the space that is to be lighted. Tall lamps with broad flaring shades illuminate a large circle, while low lamps and snug shades confine the light to small areas (Fig. 30). In general, warm or yellowish tones for shades are more genial and more in keeping with the idea of light than are cool colors; they are also more becoming. Paper or parchment and Fig. 30. — Good types of lamps with substantial bases and attractive shades that are serviceable in use. fabrics are less stiff in material and more flexible in color scheme than are glass and metal for shades. Complex shapes and millinery treatment for shades should be avoided. The waste-basket serves a humble but important use. It. should be so made as to stand firmly, conceal its contents, and be unobtrusive in color and design. Sofa pillows are valuable if they are useful. Plain or figured materials of agreeable texture, harmonizing with the general coloring of the room, are more decorative than those elaborately made. The much-abused tidy has in a few cases a real use in pro- tecting the backs of upholstered chairs from the hair; it should be trim in outline, of washable material, of inconspicuous color, and fastened securely in place. 92 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Mere curiosities should be kept in a closed cabinet or a museum. ARRANGEMENT OF FURNISHINGS (FIGS. 31-33) The character of every room should be obvious at the moment of entrance. It should be immediately evident whether the room in question is used for a family gathering room, for literary or social pursuits, a playroom, or a workroom. All parts of the room should contribute to this simple and sustained im- pression. It is for the moment a complete picture in which no one object compels undue attention because of conspicuous size, color, or decoration. Unity is the whole idea. The contents of the room should show first of all, orderliness of arrangement. The distribution of the furnishings should be adjusted to the structural lines of the room; rugs parallel with the walls of the room, draperies hanging in straight folds in rectangular openings, tables, couches, bookcases, beds, bureaus, and dressers following and fitting the available wall spaces. Pictures, single or grouped, arranged with direct relation to the furniture and to a continuous line of a given height, table runners and books straight with the library table, square lunch cloths and doilies straight with the edges of the dining-table, — all are manifestations of order in arrangement., Diagonal lines introduced by curtains looped back, rugs askew on the floor, furniture placed across the corners, or at oblique angles to the wall, pictures hanging in steps, set at defiance the rectangular lines of the room and disturb the sense of order. The furnishings of the room should be so arranged as not to crowd all the interest on one or two walls, leaving the other parts of the room empty and dead. Instead, the interest should be distributed throughout the room by a balanced arrangement. For example, heavy features, such as a fireplace on one side of the room, may be balanced by a long davenport on the oppo- site side, with bookcase, table, and desk occupying end positions. The next step is to consider the arrangement of furnishings from the standpoint of convenience and use. The comfort of a room depends on the grouping of the pieces that are to be used Fig. 31. — Top, a typical square living-room showing an erratic but not unusual arrangement of rugs and furniture. Bottom, the same room arranged in a reasonable and orderly way. 94 A MANUAL 0~F HOME-MAKING together. Thus a generous living-room may provide a hearth center, a reading center, a music center, and a sewing center if the furnishings are properly grouped; or, in the case of a bed- room, a bed, night table, and lamp might form one group, with dresser, chair, and closet in another. The arrangement of the furnishings depends very greatly on the location of windows and doors. The good light necessary for reading, writing, or sewing puts, a premium on the positions near the windows, for, while theoretically it is possible to see in all parts of a comfortably lighted room, the direct light from a window is the best for all kinds of close work. The furniture grouping must, therefore, adjust itself to this requirement. Desks arranged with a good light from the left side, the prin- cipal reading seats within comfortable distance from the win- dows, and adequate lamps or lighting fixtures provided where most needed, insure satisfaction in this respect. Care should also be taken to arrange furniture groups away from drafts and paths of travel. Bookcases, cabinets, and the like, may occupy odd bits of wall in locations where it is not comfortable to sit. Just as the form of a chair may be less rectangular than other pieces of furniture, so its position in the furnishing scheme is more free. The very use of chairs implies that they cannot in general occupy fixed positions, with the exception perhaps of an occasional upholstered or straight-backed chair. This flexibility of chair arrangements introduces enough variety to keep the room from looking stiff. Nothing in the room is so insignificant as to escape the need of thoughtful placing; vases, clocks, lamps, and pictures, all are elements in the scheme. Arrangement, however, is as much concerned with the elimi- nation of superfluous features as with the proper disposal of the essentials. Souvenirs, trinkets, and family photographs, no matter what their personal significance, cheapen the effect and lessen the dignity of rooms intended for general use. A room is a good design only when nothing can be added and nothing can be taken away without marring its com- pleteness. HOME FURNISHING 95 CHARACTER OF ROOMS EXPRESSED BY FURNISHINGS The hall, living-room, dining-room, and library, if there is one, represent one group of interests, and may be considered to form the social, recreative, or living area of the house. The general character of these rooms should be spacious and decorative in effect. Though each unit of this group should have its own dis- tinctive character, these living-rooms, on account of their inter- relation and common use, should show some harmony in color and treatment. The hall is the threshold of the house. It serves as an intro- duction. This first impression should be one of welcome and dignity and, above all, of order. Good light, genial colors on the walls and floor, a sense of free space for the passage of per- sons, an ample provision for the necessary wraps and umbrellas in a tidy and concealed form, are the essential characteristics of a well-considered hall, regardless of its size. If a regular coat closet is not provided in the hall, a generous rod with coat hangers arranged in an angle behind curtain or screen is far neater and more satisfactory than some form of mongrel hat rack exposed to view. The movable furnishings necessary to equip the hall of a dwelling for its use are very few, a rug on the floor, carpet on the stairs, a chair or seat, a well-lighted mirror, a clock perhaps, and a small stand with drawers for gloves, time-tables, pad and pencil, and other incidentals. Decorative touches may be intro- duced by a figured wall paper, a potted plant, or a spray of flowers. The character of the modern living-room should unite the dignity of the old-fashioned parlor and the genuine homely qualities of the old-time sitting-room. The large living-room of the modern house is an attempt to amalgamate into a single space the interests formerly represented by separate rooms, such as reception-room, music-room, parlor, sitting-room, and library. Its character should accordingly represent dignity, hospitality, comfort, and recreation. This room must be gen- eral not personal, in its decoration and furnishing. Walls and Fig. 32. — Top, a room showing the effect in furnishing of one large rug, a fireplace in the center of one long inside wall, and the other furnish- ings well related to these. Bottom, a room showing a good arrange- ment of two rugs; a fireplace in the short inside wall, and the furniture well arranged in occupational centers. lU ■— H Plate IX. — Simple and serviceable types of bedroom furniture that may be developed in different woods suitable for rooms with varying finish.. HOME FURNISHING 97 rugs sufficiently neutral in color to fo'rm a good background, harmonious furnishings adjusted to the space and suitably- arranged for the interests to be accommodated, and a method of comfortable lighting both by day and by night are the essen- tial considerations. The position of such structural pieces as the fireplace and the location of the windows give the cue to the general arrangement for the room. The selection of the furnishings in each case will depend on whether the main interests of the household are youthful or mature, studious or musical, industrial or social. One or two large rugs are more appropriate for the living- room than a number of small ones. Small rugs in a living- room are an aggravation, because of the tendency to slip about, turn up at the corners, and give a scrappy appearance to a floor. In general, a typical living-room for general family use should include a fireplace, some form of lounge, bookshelves, a generous table with lamp, a place to write, and plenty of comfortable chairs. A piano or victrola, a sewing-table, small or folding tables that can be moved around to serve a cup of tea or for games and the like, may also be needed. Added to these are a number of small furnishings that should be thoughtfully selected to complete the comfort of the occupants as the room is used. Footstools or hassocks, a dictionary-stand, lamps and candle- sticks, a waste-basket, a neat wood-box or basket, a few pillows, a vase or two for flowers, a clock, are all worthy adjuncts to the family room. A place should also be provided for the quick dis- posal of transient paraphernalia, such as father's newspaper, mother's mending, and the children's toys. The artificial lighting of the room should be adjusted to the spaces that are used at night. A general diffusion of light over the whole space can be provided most simply by some central form of ceiling light. In addition to this, lamps will be needed for reading or close work. The soft light of candles or the open fire are sufficient when the room is used only for conversation. The character of a dining-room should above all be cheerful. Eastern windows admitting the morning sun, light colors on the walls, plants or flowers, are a real aid to good digestion. 98 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Haii. HALL Fig. 33. — Top, an effective and logical arrangement of furniture in a square dining-room. Bottom, a well-planned bedroom showing a serviceable arrangement of dressing and sleeping equipment, with plenty of free space for passage. HOME FURNISHING 99 In contrast to the living-room, the dining-room has but one function and therefore but one center of interest. The dec- oration and furnishing of this room should focus on the idea of the table 'in use. A dining-table capable of enlargement, a rug perhaps, chairs, a serving-table, and a place to keep the dishes, against an interestingly papered or paneled back- ground, constitute the real requirements of the dining-room. Anything provided in addition to this is purely by way of decora- tion which implies that the added features must enhance the general appearance. Clean linen — white, cream, or gray — simple forms of knives, forks, and spoons, china with refined outlines and restrained decorations, furnish a dining-room with more distinction than an abundance of ornate furnishing. Unlike the living area, the rooms of the sleeping area stand each one by itself, a complete unit, both in furnishing and in decoration. A sleeping-room should above all be personal in its use, light, airy, and intimate in character. Sufficient window space, light colored walls and woodwork, fresh looking curtains, furniture stained or painted to accord with these, carry out this idea. A clean comfortable bed, conveniences for dressing and storage of clothes provided by dressing-table, bureau, chiffonier and closet, a well-lighted mirror, a comfortable chair or two, a bedside table, and rugs in the open spaces are the essentials. Facilities for writing or sewing may also be needed. Whatever accessories are introduced are of a personal nature. Bed and dressing arrangements should be located with special reference to good lighting both by day and by night. The bed should be so placed as not to face the light, while the mirror should be so placed that the person dressing is in full light. Side lights are a particularly appropriate type for bedroom use. The character, equipment, and use of the kitchen are discussed in connection with its planning on pages 100 to 120. CHAPTER III PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN * By Helen Binkerd Young Any home-maker should be able to plan a kitchen intelli- gently. This means a kitchen that measures up to some stand- ard tests on general essential points. The details are of small moment when compared to such fundamental considerations as the size of the kitchen, the amount of light and air, and the general organization of the work. Too much or too little floor space, too many doors, too few windows, and too little wall space are basic matters that may break up the entire conven- ience of the place, no matter how perfect the details of equip- ment may be. Naturally, it is too late to begin to plan a kitchen after it is built, for the structural conditions are then fixed and the possibilities of arrangement are accordingly limited. This is not meant to discourage the remodeling of old kitchens, but merely to emphasize the importance of planning the kitchen correctly at the start. USE OF THE KITCHEN Properly speaking, the kitchen is a scrupulously clean room intended for operations connected with food materials, and for this purpose only. It is not the province of the kitchen to pro- vide space for eating, for washing and ironing clothes, for lava- tory purposes, for removing boots, wraps, and overalls, or for passageway from the back of the house to the front. For the sake of cleanliness and speed, such activities should be provided for elsewhere. It is poor logic and poor economy to plan for such features as laundry tubs and cleaning closets in the kitchen, for they are too unsanitary and too unrelated to food work to * Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 108. 100 PLANNING' THE HOME KITCHEN 101 have a place there. Moreover, in order to include the laundry work, the kitchen must be made larger than it would otherwise need to be. A separate room for laundry purposes should be provided, either in the basement or, as in the case of the farm- house, on the same floor as the kitchen and adjacent to it. Fig. 34. — A large kitchen, 14 by 18 feet, so rear- ranged that food and laundry work are sepa- rately grouped, while the stove is common to both. This room can also be used for the storage of cleaning mater- ials and as a direct entrance into the main part of the house, thereby eliminating constant passage through the kitchen. Therefore, by taking out of the kitchen proper all operations foreign to foods, a smaller and more convenient room may be planned. Even in altering an old house, this idea of planning the kitchen proper for food work only, should be the guiding thought. Thus, a large kitchen in which the family washing has been done 102 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING should be remodeled in such a way that all food work is grouped at one end and laundry work and-passage at the other end, with the stove as the common piece of equipment between. If the room is large enough for it, a thin partition wall may be used to complete the division. This makes a more cleanly and more economical arrangement than does the single large room with the two kinds of work crossing each other. Such a kitchen al- teration is shown in Fig. 34. The same idea of grouping the food work in an alcove and using the remainder of the space for another purpose can be applied to a combination kitchen and dining-room, such as is shown in Fig. 14. The compact kitchen end could be made light and washable in character, and the dining-room end more like a sitting-room, with passage through the room halfway between, thus disturbing the comfort of neither part. It is evident from the foregoing explanation that the intelligent planning of a kitchen involves a number of side issues, which, in the case of the farmhouse, unite to make of it a very complex problem. If the kitchen is to become a compact, businesslike compartment for one use only, the entire working arrangements of the house must be thoroughly studied in order to make sure that there is a definite place allotted to every need (Fig. 37). EXPOSURE The location of the kitchen will of course depend on the re- mainder of the house plan and on the location of the other rooms. Theoretically, the best exposure and location for a kitchen is toward the north, the northeast, or the northwest, with at least two outer walls for light and air. This implies either a corner location or a separate wing. South, southeast, and south- west are less desirable exposures for a kitchen, because they are likely to be hot and glaring and are usually hard to ventilate. Furthermore; southern exposures are usually at a premium for the more important living-rooms. If the arrangement is such that the kitchen can have but a single exposure, it can still be made a very comfortable one as regards light, air, and coolness, if it faces north and is provided with plenty of windows; whereas, PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 103 a kitchen having but one outside wall, and that facing directly south, is in the very worst situation from every viewpoint. SIZE The size of the kitchen is determined chiefly by the number of workers and by the kind of fuel to be used for cooking. In general it should always be large enough to accommodate two workers in emergency, and yet at the same time as small as convenience will allow. A kitchen in which coal is to be used for fuel is normally larger than one in which gas is to be used, because of the larger size of the range, the need for a convenient supply of fuel, and the fact that for reasons of comfort the other pieces of furniture cannot be placed too near the stove. Years of experience in planning, equipping, and using kitchens under conservational methods, show that a gas-fuel kitchen with a pass pantry need not exceed 150 square feet of floor space, and that a coal-fuel kitchen, together with a pass and food pantry, ordinarily need not exceed an area of 200 square feet of floor space. This area may be arranged in such shapes as 9 by 12 feet, 10 by 12 feet, 10 by 13 or 14 feet, 11 by 11 feet, 11 by 12 or 13 feet, or 12 by 12 feet, for the kitchen proper, and 5 by 7, 8, 9, or 10 feet, or 6 by 6, 7, or 8 feet, for the pantry, according as these measure- ments best fit into the plan for the remainder of the house. In general, approximately square shapes for kitchens and pantries are more convenient than are long, narrow ones. Eight feet should be the minimum width for a kitchen. Of course the areas given are merely guides to help determine the probable amount of space needed for kitchen developments and to serve as a sort of check on wasteful or crowded planning. It is very easy to plan a kitchen that is too large; it is also pos- sible to plan a kitchen that is too small, where freedom of motion is cramped and where one tires of standing always in one place or position. DOORS After the size and the location of the kitchen have been de- termined, the placing of the openings is the next step to be con- 104 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING sidered. The subject of doors especially should be given the most deliberate attention, for the inconvenience of many kitch- ens can be traced back to the presence of too many or wrongly placed doors. It is evident that a kitchen should have as few doors as pos- sible in order to avoid breaking up the wall space and to avoid passage through the kitchen to different parts of the house. Ordinarily, five or six doors are needed in connection with the kitchen work: an outside door, a pantry door, a cellar door, a door to the dining-room, and perhaps one leading to a rear stair- way or hall. Fortunately, all these doors need not be located in the kitchen proper. Different combinations can be arranged whereby one door can be made to serve two or three purposes. Thus, the cellar or the rear-stair door might open from a pantry or from an outside entry, which might also contain the outside door. Two or three doors of passage are all that are needed in a well-planned kitchen. These should, as nearly as possible, be arranged at one side, corner, or end, thus leaving a continuous wall space in an alcove form for the arrangement of equipment. WINDOWS The function of a window is essentially twofold — to admit light and air. Naturally that arrangement of windows will be most reasonable which provides for the best diffusion of light and the best ventilation with the least amount of glass space. For, while it is poor economy to have too few windows, it is also poor economy to have too many. It has been found that for effective results, a sort of flexible relation exists between the amount of window space to be used and the size of the room to be lighted. Accordingly, the total window area for a kitchen should in general be about 25 per cent of the floor area. For example, a kitchen 11 by 11 feet, having 121 square feet of floor area, should be provided with about 30 square feet of window space, arranged on the two outer walls. This space may be divided into two windows 3 by 5 feet each, or three windows 2% by 4 feet each, or three windows 2 by 4J/£ feet each, as the case may require. The w _~»-- M i t£lk V.; . Av- . 1 ' ^V" ~ - B f ' M ' !*] 1 1 if 1 a 1 I, ,. .,., p i in ... . || >^|H ".-J J~ -Xy/- : ^V;Y r ~j.-%, 1 J^|j^|j«MjM *«&1 ■w8 ' -'™|^-3I lig^ ||i «| HBk\% ■••. «**? ' 9 "^[ I -. ^ » ''■ v "'' / ' *' 1 •'■" (J, - - .. _ _ 4^ "1 PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 105 necessary window space for any given kitchen may thus be approximated. Ordinarily, kitchen windows should be located as far apart as possible. In the case of a corner exposure, they should be placed near the partition walls rather than near the corner of the house. This arrangement insures a strong diagonal sweep of air and an even distribution of light. The tops of the windows should be not more than a foot from the ceiling, so that the rising heat and odors can easily escape. Broad, short windows, built high from the floor, are an excellent type for kitchen use. The dis- tance from the floor to the sill should be from three to four feet, in order to allow for table space beneath the windows. While not so picturesque as casements, double-hung windows are usually the easier type to operate in a kitchen. 'ARRANGEMENT OF EQUIPMENT Having planned the kitchen that is structurally suited to its use, further convenience depends on the selection and arrange- ment of the furniture, or equipment. In this, as in the case of any industry, the aim should be to do the most work in the least time without friction and with the fewest workers. The equipment should line the walls, leaving a free central space for working. Theoretically, every change in working level, whether of floor or table, and every gap between two pieces of equipment, cause loss of efficiency; that is to say, the more continuous the arrangement of equipment, the more con- venient will be the work. Having dispensed with all unneces- sary doors and deliberately preserved one or two continuous wall spaces, the disposition of the equipment becomes an easy matter. Indeed, it would be difficult to make a really incon- venient work-place of a compact, well-lighted kitchen of limited size, having few doors and generous wall spaces, such as has been previously described. But in order to reach a standard of maximum convenience, the work and the equipment should be organized so that all things pertaining to a given operation are grouped together. The table, the stove, and the sink represent the three essen- 106 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING tial operations carried on in a kitchen: the preparation of the food, the cooking of the food, and the cleaning-up process that follows. This equipment and this work form the nucleus of three operation centers: (1) the food center, (2) the heat center, and (3) the water center. This organization is the basis of convenient arrangement for every home kitchen, large or small, whether it belongs to apartment, suburban home, or farmhouse. 1. The food center requires the following equipment: a. Table space, from 8 to 12 square feet exclusive of sink-boards b. Storage space Ice-box Dumb-waiter Food pantry (Any or all of these) Drawers and shelves (In form of closet or cabinet) (1) For cold foods. (2) For dry supplies and utensils needed in food preparation b. Storage space. 2. The heat center requires the following equipment: a. Stove or range, from 2 by 3 feet to 2}^ by 5 feet Fuel box or bin, if coal or wood is to be used Pan closet for utensils Water boiler 3. The water center requires the following equipment: a. Sink, 2 by 3 feet, more or less b. Drain-board, 8 square feet or more — part to right and part to left of sink Shelves and drawers (In form of china closet and pan closet) c. Storage space for china and utensils The food center should, if possible, be located on an outer wall, with the sink and range centers on inside walls and with light coming from the side. Ordinarily, the position of the dining-room and the location of the main chimneys of the house determine the general location of the sink and the range, re- spectively. The sink should be near or next the dining-room wall, so that meal service involves a short path of travel and but one handling of dishes. PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 107 If possible, the food and water centers should be combined into one arrangement, so that all the table space, such as the table top, the cabinet shelf, and the drain-board, forms a con- tinuous work shelf on the same level. Ordinarily the stove or the range is the one piece of equip- ment that should be set somewhat apart. It may even be conveniently placed in a detached position bn a separate wall space, partly because the other work is more comfortable if the stove is not too near, and partly because the design of stoves is such that two or three sides must be accessible to the worker. The question is often asked whether movable or built-in equipment is preferable. While the use of either sort can be made entirely convenient in arrangement, there is much to be said in favor of built-in equipment as far as cleanliness and appearance are concerned. In the latter case, there are no cracks behind or under the furniture, and, consequently, the moving of heavy articles is unnecessary in cleaning. A table, a stove, and a cabinet, all separate and standing on legs or casters, make the problem of a clean floor more difficult than if the cabinet and the range were set directly on the floor and the table space was supplied by drain-boards or a shelf. Also, the appearance is simpler and more restful with the built-in pieces. However, a satisfactory kitchen can be made by the use of separate pieces. Table space. Extensive table space may be gained by providing generous drain-boards to right and left of the sink, continuous with the cabinet shelf. A movable table of the same height, mounted on casters or, preferably, on small wheels, will prove a great step- saver and will simplify the serving of meals. A double-deck wheel tray would serve this purpose even better since it is lighter to push about. All floors on a level and all table tops on a level save many an accident in the kitchen. A work table covered with zinc will give satisfaction for it is nonabsorbent and is easily cleaned. 108 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Range. The newer patterns of reliable ranges are simpler and less ornate than those of the older stoves and require less care. If a new kitchen is to be built, a separate ventilating flue may be provided in addition to the smoke flue. This ventilating flue, provided with a register inlet about four feet above the stove top, will relieve the kitchen of odors and of excessive heat, especially if a projecting metal hood is fastened over the range for collecting the rising air. The stove or range requires more care and makes more dirt than any other feature in the kitchen. Fuel must be brought in and ashes must be removed. Whatever can be done to simplify the incoming and the outgoing of fuel will make for cleanliness and for economy of labor. A generous temporary supply may be stored either in a separate fuel compartment next to the kitchen, or in a fuel box fitted with a double-hinged cover and built into the wall in such a way that it may be filled from without and emptied from within. The actual arrangement in any case will depend on whether wood or coal is burned and whether the main supply may be stored in or near the house. Ashes may be emptied directly into an air-tight metal can in the cellar. This is an easier and cleaner method than removing them by hand. A can of a size that one man can handle easily will probably not need to be emptied oftener than once a week. Many of the newer ranges are already equipped for this method of ash-disposal, but any stove may be so arranged if there is a caieful workman at hand. The ash pan should first be removed from the stove and a round hole cut through the bottom of the ash compartment and through the floor below; a stovepipe is then passed through these holes and is flanged over the bottom of the ash pit of the stove. Two precautions must be observed in this piece of work: first, the stovepipe which is to lead the ashes into the cellar can must be provided with a damper near the stove, in order to prevent an upward draught of air from burning out the fire; second, a free air space of at least two inches must be allowed all around the pipe where it passes through the floor, consequently the floor hole must be cut at PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 109 least four inches larger than the pipe. This open space may be filled with concrete or covered with an ordinary metal collar. Measures should also be taken to make the ash can perfectly safe. A container of hot ashes in a place not frequently visited, such as the cellar, may prove a source of danger unless it is surrounded by a wire cage or in some way protected so that rub- bish, paper, kindling, or other combustible material can never be thrown directly against it. Sink and drain-boards. A one-piece enameled iron sink, with high back, will prove a satisfactory appliance. This sink should be large enough to hold a dishpan conveniently. Dishwashing will be more quickly accomplished with the double drain-board before mentioned than if a single drain-board is used. Enameled iron drain-boards are not advisable. They are more showy than serviceable, for, besides being noisy, they are too small to be useful and too hard to be safe for dishes. Suitable drain-boards may be made of ash or of maple, or thej r may be made of some other wood and covered with zinc. For the purpose of shedding water, wooden drain-boards should be grooved and zinc-covered boards should be provided with a curbed or raised edge. Furthermore, a drain-board should slope slightly toward the sink, on the rim of which it rests. The resulting board level is about 1 inch above the sink level. The construction of sink-boards requires the most careful workmanship. The use of wood for draining purposes subjects it to the severe test of being continually wet on one side only. In order to avoid warping and splitting, therefore, a sink-board should be thick, heavy, and well cleated on the underside. A surface finish that will render the boards water-resisting should be applied before they are put into use. Usually sink-boards are varnished, but this finish water-marks, wears off, and on the whole is less serviceable than a surface finished with wood filler, followed with linseed oil. The sink should be supported from the wall, rather than on legs, and should be piped, if possible, through a partition wall 110 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING rather than through the floor. A sink should be set at a height convenient for the worker — 34 inches from the floor is a good average height. The usual height of 30 inches to the top of the rim is too low for most persons. discussion of plans (figs. 35-38) The plan of a farmhouse kitchen that has been developed in accordance with the principles of kitchen planning previously described is shown in Fig. 35. It will be found to work out satis- factorily on each of the essential matters of use, location, size, number and location of doors, number and location of windows, and organization of work. In this kitchen, coal or wood is used for fuel, and the equipment is movable. In Fig. 36 is shown the arrangement of a kitchen in a suburban house. In this case, gas is used for fuel, and the equipment is built in. This arrangement also will be found to stand the test on the points essential to good planning. The working area of a farmhouse is represented in Fig. 37, in which the principles of kitchen planning are clearly expressed. The relation of the kitchen to the dining-room, the porch, the pantry, and the washroom, should first be noted, after which size, location, openings, and general equipment may be studied. . This kitchen has a corner location on the plan, with the food pantry and one wall exposed in a northerly direction. The kitchen proper represents an area of 130 square feet and the pantry an area of 45 square feet. The number of doors has been reduced to two, which are placed adjacent so that travel from the porch occurs around a corner and not across the working center. The most direct passage from the barns lies through the washroom, as should be the case. The windows of the kit- chen, which are placed high, light the working area sufficiently and provide good ventilation. Moreover, if it is needed, a com- plete sweep of air may be obtained from end to end by opening the two pantry doors, over either of which a transom may be built. Both these doors are glazed, in order to afford light and view. A fuel compartment is conveniently located for either kitchen or washroom. An eating porch, looking toward the PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 111 garden and the sunset, occupies the corner angle between the kitchen and the dining-room. The kitchen and the porch con- nect with a Dutch door, so that outdoor meals are easily served. Extra food and extra fuel are stored in the cellar, whence they are delivered by a dumb-waiter, or lift. TO DAKNJ A Fig. 35. — A farmhouse kitchen that demonstrates the principles of sound planning. The purpose of a washroom is to save the other parts of the house. Here all dirty and occasional forms of work may be done. The room is equipped for the family washing and ironing, and stores such general cleaning apparatus as brooms, pails, and vacuum cleaner. Here, also, men coming from the barn may remove muddy boot's and overalls, and may clean up before going to the table. Such feeding pails for stock as are brought to the house should be deposited here, not taken into the kitchen. 112 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Considering the nature of this room and its many uses, it should be made as large as can be afforded, and should be provided, if possible, with a cement floor and a painted wall so that splash- ing will not injure it. The room shown in Fig. 37 is in reality Fig. 36. — A kitchen for a suburban house, developed in accord- ance with the principles of good arrangement. the old washhouse and woodshed, fitted more completely than formerly, and is an important part of the plan. PANTRIES AND CLOSETS No part of the kitchen equipment has been so evaded in planning as has accurate and systematic storage space. The habit has been acquired of using every corner and tUck-away place for a closet, the idea being that the more closets, the greater would be the convenience. Too much or inaccessible storage space invites slack housekeeping and is, therefore, more de- structive to the general scheme than is too little closet room. Plate XI. (Above) Shelves of suitable size for the materials to be stored. (Below) Utensils in which foods may be both cooked and served— casseroles and meat plank. PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 113 Limited storage space compels one to organize, to eliminate, and- to arrange compactly, the general result thereby favoring conservation. Only such storage space should be planned as Fig. 37. — Plan in which principles of kitchen arrangement are clearly expressed. is really needed to complete and assist the operation of the kitchen. There are three general types of storage space that may be used in connection with the kitchen arrangements: (1) the pantry, (2) the cupboard filled with shelves, and (3) the cabinet, or dresser. Of these three, the pantry is by nature the most capacious, the cupboard next, and the cabinet least. An analy- sis of these three forms should enable one to plan intelligently the storage space for an individual kitchen. The pantry may be defined as an enlarged closet through 114 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING which one passes or into which one steps instead of merely reaching. Its purpose is primarily to furnish more generous storage space than is provided by the ordinary cupboard. There are in general two types of pantries, the food pantry and the pass pantry. The food pantry is intended primarily for the storage of food supplies that must be kept cooler than the tem- 51TTIWC JWING R.0 on Fig. 38. — A complete and convenient kitchen for any house. perature of the kitchen. The pass or butler's pantry is used for the storing of china and for the serving of meals. Often these two pantries can be combined into one without breaking up the organization of the work. Whether a food pantry, or a pass pantry, or both, or a com- bination of the two shall be planned for any given house, de- pends on the conditions of that special case. In general, a food PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 115 -The pass pantry or serving-pantry, shown on plan in Fig. 38. pantry is always needed when coal is used for cooking, because the temperature of the kitchen then becomes so warm that certain foods will not keep; whereas, when gas is used, the temperature is likely to be fairly cool and even, which often allows for the food pantry to be replaced by an ice-box, a dumb-waiter, or both, placed directly in the kitchen. If the ventilation of .the room is good, such an arrangement will re- quire very little more ice a year than the amount needed if the re- frigerator were placed in a separate entry or pantry or on an outer Fig. 39- porch. If the family is large, however, or the house located at a distance from the markets, a food pantry is almost necessary to store sufficient supplies. Often one tier of shelves in the food pantry is reserved for utensils, which makes a separate cupboard unnecessary. Owing to the nature of its use, the food pantry should preferably be located on a northerly outside wall and should be provided with a window. The pass pantry (Fig. 39) is for several reasons an almost invaluable adjunct to the kitchen. Not only does it provide closet space for china and aid the smooth serving of meals, but it also shuts off the noise and the odors of the kitchen from the remainder of the house. Owing to the nature of its use, the pass pantry should be located on the partition wall between the dining-room and the kitchen. It is of course desirable, but not really necessary, to arrange the pass pantry so that it touches the outer wall and is provided with a window. Where this is impossible, an inside serving-pantry painted white and lighted through a glass panel in the door leading to the kitchen, will be found to be light and satisfactory (Figs. 35 and 36). Sometimes in place of, or in addition to, the pass pantry, a 116 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING china closet opening both ways is built into the wall between the dining-room and the kitchen (Fig. 37). Although con- venient, this destroys the quieting effect of the pass pantry, as it provides direct communication between the dining-room and the kitchen, and danger of noise and odors. A simple and direct arrangement for meal service is shown in Figs. 35 and 36, where the pass pantry is used and there is a slide through to the sink drain-board. In neither case are the dishes carried across the kitchen; they are delivered, washed, and returned within the shortest possible line of service. Glass china closets and plate rails should be used sparingly in the design of the dining-room. The cupboard — a closet filled with shelves — is a valuable place of storage for pans, china, or supplies. If intelligently shelved, it can be made almost as capacious as a small pantry. The arrangement of shelving is perhaps the most important feature in the planning of storage space. For the best results, shelves should be designed only wide enough to hold com- fortably one row of supplies, of whatever kind considered. An arrangement of narrow shelves spaced close together will prove to be more capacious, accessible, and easy to clean than wide shelves spaced far apart. From every standpoint, deep shelves are a great mistake, because one must then arrange for two or three rows of materials in order to use the space. It will be found that the area of comfortable reach is between one and six feet from the floor, leaving about five feet of quickly available space. For the sake of efficiency, this space should be as compactly shelved as is feasible for the use intended. A cupboard provided with one or two broad shelves below and a series of narrower shelves above, will hold a large number of articles, both effectively and accessibly displayed. A cupboard with doors for pans, china, or supplies is ample if made from 10 to 15 inches deep; a series of open shelves, if made from 8 to 10 inches deep. Shelves as narrow as 6 inches are good for single rows of dry supplies. From 7 to 10 inches between shelves is a safe average distance for spacing; but in order to make the most out of a given space, it is best to think out carefully PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 117 the materials that are to be stored, and to space the shelves accordingly. The kitchen cabinet, or dresser, brings a new element into the storage arrangement. It introduces a work shelf at table height, thereby dividing the storage into an upper and a lower part. The deep under part may be arranged for either closet or drawer space; the upper part may be arranged as a shallow cupboard for supplies. The most valuable form of storage for the lower section of a cabinet is an arrangement of drawers, for these pull out and expose their contents from the top so that one need not stoop to reach them. From four to six well- planned drawers will be adequate for the ordinary kitchen: a broad, shallow drawer subdivided for small utensils, such as knives, forks, spoons, egg-beaters, and the like; a deeper drawer for kitchen linen, such as towels, clean cloths and aprons; and two or three deep, narrow drawers, or bins, for storing flour, sugars, and other dry supplies of a bulky nature. Appropriate drawer space for the pass pantry is about as follows: a broad, shallow drawer with subdivisions for the different kinds of table silver; one, two, or three broad, shallow drawers for table linen; and a deep drawer for miscellaneous needs, containing perhaps a compartment for string, one for wrapping paper, and so on. It should be realized from the foregoing discussion that the cabinet, or dresser, is an appropriate form of storage only when table space is needed also; that is, the emphasis is here placed on the work shelf rather than on the storage capacity. To equip a pantry, whose function is to furnish maximum storage space, with closets of the dresser type is therefore a mistake, since it furnishes an excess of table space at the expense of cupboard room. An ordinary cupboard or a series of open shelves, sup- plemented by a small table or work shelf with drawers below, is a much more appropriate arrangement than to break up the most valuable part of the storage space by the intrusion of a work shelf. The cabinet form is chiefly valuable in the kitchen proper. 118 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING The subject of kitchen storage should not be dismissed with- out emphasizing the usefulness of the dumb-waiter. This is an almost indispensable convenience when a portion of the cellar is used for food supplies. The dumb-waiter will carry- wood, coal, and food between floors, and is a great labor-saver. With such an arrangement, a cold part of the cellar may be substituted for the food pantry, even taking the place of an ice-box satisfactorily. One trip a day to the cellar is enough to keep the lift supplied. INTERIOR FINISH Any kitchen that is to give full satisfaction must be sound in arrangement, sightly in appearance, and smooth in opera- tion. Within reasonable limits, anything that can be devised to enforce this triple standard, must be considered worthy of trial. The demands of convenience will of course always come first, thereby deciding matters of arrangement and of manage- ment; but the less insistent needs for a work place that shall be a fit and lovely spot, must also be met. A clean, level floor, walls and furniture with smooth washable surfaces, and a pleas- ing color scheme are elements that eliminate mental friction and that add the touch of refinement which makes of any work a joy. Up to the present time, no perfect flooring that is cheap enough for use in private homes has been evolved. The ma- terials most available are wood and linoleum. Of the two, linoleum is thought to be preferable, because it can be cemented tight to the under floor, it is practically crackless, and it is quiet and easy to walk on. Plain brown "battleship" linoleum is a reliable, standard product, or a modest inlaid pattern may be used instead. Experienced housekeepers claim that linoleum with a pattern is both more attractive and easier to keep clean than is the plain color. Although good linoleum is not a cheap floor covering, its satisfactory and lasting nature commends it in spite of its cost. A maple or a beech floor of narrow boards is the next best material. Yellow pine and oak are too open grained to make a PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 119 satisfactory floor for kitchen use. Maple and beech are both light in color and do not make a very attractive floor under hard use, but they can be scrubbed and kept clean. A maple floor should be finished by saturating it with hot linseed oil for a number of hours; then all the extra oil should be thoroughly wiped up. In this way, the wood is practically impregnated against the absorption of grease. Kitchen woodwork should be plain, with as few grooves and moldings as possible. Wooden wainscotings in kitchen and bathroom should never be used. For the interior finish of the kitchen, nothing is comparable to clean, light-colored paint for walls and woodwork. Warm grays, buffs, and other soft, neutral tints may be used. Some- times walls, woodwork, and furniture are all painted the same color, thereby uniting the whole effect. Even ready-made cabinets, tables, and refrigerators are far more attractive if painted a light color. A kitchen finished in stained oak or varnished pine, like the remainder of the house, is unnecessarily monotonous. It should be differentiated from the other rooms in color scheme and general atmosphere. Light colors, mixed on a basis of white, are not only cheering and restful to look at, but have the further advantage of reflecting and distributing the light so that there are no dark corners. Such a room becomes also an easy and economical one to light well at night. When gas or oil lamps are used, light colors are positively invaluable in the kitchen. Each wall then becomes in reality a huge reflecting surface, so that a given amount of light is virtually used several times over. If an elec- tric fixture for indirect lighting — an inverted metal bowl — is placed centrally on a white ceiling, the entire kitchen is evenly lighted so that there are neither heavy shadows nor dark cor- ners to impede the work. Naturally, the lighter the general color scheme, the less the current that will be needed. Light colors may, therefore, be considered as having a practical, as well as an aesthetic, value. 120 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING References Child, Georgie Boynton. The Efficient Kitchen. 1914. Frederick, Christine. The New Housekeeping. 1913. Goodnow, Ruby Ross, and Adams, Rayne. The Honest House. 1914. White, Charles E., Jr. Successful Houses and How to Build Them. 1912. PART II HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT CHAPTER IV CARE OF THE HOUSE By Helen Knowlton Fob convenience as well as efficient work in housekeeping, a schedule of regular daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly proc- esses should be made out. Time can then be well planned, and a routine established that simplifies the machinery of house- keeping. CELLAR To keep the cellar in a sanitary condition, as much sunlight as possible should be admitted. The windows should be made as large as possible and be on opposite sides to insure cross- ventilation. If the house is banked for the winter, dry clean material should be used and the windows should not be covered. If the cellar floor is of concrete and is proof against dampness, it can be washed. The cellar walls should be whitewashed once or twice a year. Whitewash is a disinfectant. If the cellar walls admit moisture, it is recommended to wash them with a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid (1 part acid and 5 parts water), and then apply a plaster of oil-mixed mortar. A cellar containing a heating plant should be divided into compartments. By constructing one of these compartments with an insulating wall of hollow tile, a cool room for vegetables may be secured. It is sometimes best to construct an outside cellar for such storage (page 584). 121 122 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING KITCHEN Sink. A sink without running water is unjustifiable for the busy housewife. A drain connection with a trap and a sanitary dis- posal outside for wastes should be provided. The best kind of sink and the proper height for placing it are discussed on page 108. ' After each dishwashing, the sink should be washed with hot soapy water, and the sink-trap flushed with a generous supply of hot water. This trap must be cleaned occasionally with kero- sene. At least one gallon of hot water should be poured down and while the pipe is still warm, one-half cup of kerosene poured in. This should stand for at least five minutes and then the trap may be flushed with a second gallon of hot water. A solu^ tion of washing-soda should not be used since it tends to form a hard soap with the grease and to stop up the pipe. Kerosene forms no soap, but simply an emulsion. The sink should be kept so far as possible for purposes con- nected only with the preparation of food and the cleaning of dishes. Walls and woodwork. Painted walls and woodwork are most easily cleaned. They may be wiped with a broom covered with a soft cloth for fre- quent cleaning. A long-handled brush is better than a broom. Occasionally they may be scrubbed with a soft brush, warm water and borax, and rinsed before being dried. Floors. Floor finishes best adapted for the kitchen are discussed on page 117. A mop-wringer is a great convenience in the work of mopping the kitchen floor. Dishwashing. Since the aim of dishwashing is to clean the dishes and to kill the bacteria that may be present by the use of soapsuds and scalding water, special care should be taken in case of ton- silitis, colds, and other infectious diseases. Unless the dishes CARE OF THE HOUSE 123 of the patient are boiled, the germs may infect the whole family. Kitchen towels and cups. The roller towel for family use as well as the common drink- ing-cup must be discarded, if the health of the family is to be safeguarded. Kitchen dresses. Washable work dresses are the only kind suitable for wearing in a kitchen. They have been proved to be economical of both money and time. They may be made of various inexpen- sive and satisfactory materials (page 368). Short sleeves and turndown collars or no collars at all add to the comfort of the worker. The design should be the simplest possible. LIVING-ROOM AND DINING-ROOM The window shades of the living-room and the dining-room should .be raised more than halfway to let in the sunshine, and the windows should be opened frequently to air out and to keep the temperature below 70° F. SLEEPING-ROOMS The ideal sleeping-room is the outdoor porch with only cur- tains for protection. An indoor sleeping-room should have simple furnishings. Unnecessary draperies collect dust and exclude air and sunshine. The floor should be bare save for a few small, easily cleaned rugs. The wall paper should be of a soft restful color, either plain or with small inconspicuous figures. An iron bed is better than a wooden one because it can be more easily cleaned. A mattress is more healthful than a feather bed, because the body is not so enveloped as to hinder the escape of waste matter from the skin. The bed covering should be warm but light. Several light-weight blankets or comforts are better than fewer heavy ones. BATHROOM Absolute cleanliness and abundant ventilation are essential in a sanitary bathroom. Kerosene applied with a special brush 124 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING or cloth to the bathtub, bowl, and toilet and washed off with a good soap solution will solve most of the difficulties of cleaning. All brushes or cloths used in cleaning the bathroom should be thoroughly washed in clean soap-suds, rinsed in hot water, and dried in the sunlight each time after being used. Occasional flushing of the toilet with a strong solution of washing-soda is desirable. Faucets, door knobs, and all parts of the toilet ever touched by the hands, as well as the usually cleaned parts, should be washed occasionally with a solution of some good disinfectant, such as creolin, lysol, or alcohol. SUGGESTIONS FOB SWEEPING AND DUSTING Dust should be avoided, since it irritates the throat and may carry germs. If possible a vacuum sweeper should be used. If a broom is used it should be dampened, or bits of moist paper or some commercial substance for sweeping should be sprinkled over the floor. In sweeping, short strokes should be taken away from the person. Rugs which can be cleaned outdoors are generally preferable to carpets. Dustless mops and dustless dusters are sanitary labor-savers. They can be made at home by dipping the mop or the duster in a solution of some vegetable oil, such as linseed or cottonseed oil, in gasoline or other solvent, about one tablespoon of oil to one pint of gasoline being used. There should be no fire in the room where the gasoline is used. The mop or duster should be hung outdoors until the gasoline has evaporated. The oil will be evenly distributed in this way. The duster may be washed once or twice before it is necessary to redip it in the oil solution. REPAIR KIT A well-stocked repair kit should be a part of the equipment of every household. It should be placed in a convenient loca- tion and should contain: hammer, screwdriver, plane, pliers, CARE OF THE HOUSE 125 awl, oil-can, saw, soldering outfit, knife sharpener, twine, shears, and such tacks, nails, screws, hooks, and wire as are most often in demand. ' Cleaning closet In every house there should be a cupboard or a closet set aside for cleaning purposes, "with a place for everything and everything in its place." The cleaning materials and apparatus listed under the following directions are not expensive and greatly simplify the cleaning problem. Shelves and racks should be provided for holding all apparatus and materials needed, and as far as possible labels should show where each brush, broom, pail, or bottle is to be returned. The following list of materials and utensils should be included in the housekeeper's cleaning kit : Cleaning materials Alcohol Paraffin Alum Rottenstone Ammonia Salt Bath brick Soap Black lead Turpentine Borax Vinegar Furniture polish Washing-soda Kerosene Wax (floor) Light oil Whiting Olive oil Cleaning articles Apron, stove Flannel, heavy Carpet, piece old brussels Flannel, waxing Chamois skin or leather Flannelette for dusters Cheese-cloth Gloves, rubber Cloth, scrub Mitt, for kerosene Cloth, soft Waste, cotton (cotton waste may be bought Flannel, canton at any hardware store) * Mary Urie Watson. Rules for cleaning. Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 23. 126 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Cleaning utensils Boiler, for clothes Irons Brush, closet Monkey wrench Brush, cornice Mop, cloth Brush, scrub Mop, string Brush, soft Saucepans (old) Brush, trap Scissors (for lamp) Brush, weighted Step ladder Brush, wire (for sink) " Tub Carpet sweeper Tub, fiber Dauber Washboard Dish-pans Whisk-broom Funnels Wringer Ironing tables To clean lamps. The apparatus necessary for cleaning lamp is an old news- paper, the kerosene can, a damp flannelette duster, lamp scissors, and a dry towel. 1. Carry the lamps to a sink, or to a table convenient to the sink. 2. Spread the paper and place everything on it. 3. Wash and dry the lamp chimneys as if they were tumblers. 4. Open up the lamp burner, screw up the wick, trim off all the char with the scissors, and screw down the wick % inch below the brass. Round wicks must have the char rubbed off with the duster. 5. Soap one corner of the duster and rub carefully every part of the brass burner; if necessary, polish (see copper, page 232). 6. Fill each lamp nearly full of kerosene. See that the burner is properly screwed on, and wipe the body of the lamp carefully. 7. Put on the chim- neys and set the lamps in their places. 8. Wash the scissors and duster and hang the duster to dry. Gather all trimmings in the paper and burn both trimmings and paper. They are not safe to leave around. To oil a kitchen stove. 1. Put a little light oil on a wad of cotton waste and rub it on all the iron parts of the stove. 2. Rub it off with fresh waste, an old cloth, or some crumpled paper. 3. Polish it with a dry flannelette or woolen cloth until all oiliness is gone. 4. Burn the waste, old cloth, or paper because oily waste and oily cloths are a frequent cause of fire through spontaneous combustion. 5. Wash out the polishing cloth. To clean a gas stove thoroughly. This process requires the following apparatus : A stove apron, a few old newspapers, a wire sink-brush, a monkey wrench CARE OF THE HOUSE 127 whisk, dustpan and brush, a sink towel, several pieces of old cloth, soap and washing-soda, and the oil bottle. 1. Put on the apron and spread the papers on the table. 2, Turn off the gas at the main supply pipe with the monkey wrench. 3. Fill a large dish-pan with strong, hot soap-suds, put into it to soak the dripping-pah and rack and any movable nickel pieces of the stove. 4. Fill a tub half full of strong, hot soda-water. Put the drop tray in the bottom to soak, and on top of it put the top grates, doors, and all movable black parts of the stove. 5. Brush out both ovens and all parts of the stove frame. 6. Wet one of the old cloths in hot water, rub it on the soap, and wash off the stove. Dry it, if necessary, with an old cloth. Then oil the black parts very lightly with the oil and polish it off thoroughly with another old dry cloth. 7. Remove the pieces from the soda-water, rinse them in the sink in fresh warm water, and scrub the doors and other black pieces with the wire brush. Dry them off, oil and polish them, and put them back on the stove. 8. Let the dirty water out of the sink, transfer the nickel pieces, dripping-pan, and rack to the sink, pour in the soapy water, scrub the pieces thoroughly, dry them with the sink towel, and return them to place. 9. Scrub, rinse, dry, and return to place the drop tray. 10. Oil the stove after all the parts are put together. 11. Burn the old cloths and wash the sink out carefully. It is especially necessary to be careful about burn- ing oily cloths that are not washed after using, because they have been known to take fire spontaneously and are therefore dangerous when tucked into, corners out of sight. To clean windows. A high stepladder, fiber tub, damp flannelette duster, scrub ■ cloth, soft linen towel, "chamois leather, ammonia, and warm water are necessary to clean windows. 1. Fill the tub half full of warm water and add a tablespoonful of am- monia or a few drops of kerosene. 2. Carry the ladder to the window, roll up the shade, and take it down. Unroll it on the floor or over a table, then roll it up, dusting both sides as it rolls. Stand it aside, marking to which window it belongs if more than one is being cleaned. 3. Dust the window, especially the surrounding woodwork, with the damp flannelette duster. 4. Wash the glass) especially corners, and dry with the linen towel. 5. Polish with the chamois leather. 6. Replace the shade, testing carefully, and make sure the spring works properly. 7. Wash out the tub, towel, cloth, and duster. Hang the cloths to dry and put everything else away. 8. If chamois leather is not available, use crumpled newspaper. 9. The following mixture may be used instead of ammonia and water, but the resulting white dust must be carefully wiped up: 1 tablespoonful pre- cipitated whiting; 2 tablespoonfuls household ammonia. 128 A . MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING To clean a piano case. A bottle of olive oil, a bottle of alcohol, some new or perfectly clean canton flannel, a perfectly clean chamois leather, and a basin of water will be needed to clean a piano. 1. Wet a small piece of the flannel and drop on it a few drops of oil. 2. Rub, with the wet flannel, a small section of the case at a time, and immediately rub it thoroughly with a dry piece of the flannel, before proceeding to a fresh section. 3. Polish it finally with the chamois or a fresh piece of the flannel. Rub with the grain of the wood, and breathe on it occasionally to help remove any oiliness that may remain. A very little flour rubbed with the grain of the wood will also help to remove oiliness, but its use should not be necessary. 4. Wash the piano keys with a corner of the flannel wet with alcohol. Be careful, however, to avoid touching the wood with the alcohol, as it will ruin the varnish. To wax a floor. In waxing floors, the following apparatus is necessary: a can of floor wax, a waxing flannel, a half yard of heavy flannel or a piece of old brussels carpet, and a weighted brush. 1. The floor must be clean and free from dust. 2. If necessary, stand the wax can in a dish of hot water in order to soften the wax. 3. Rub the waxing flannel on the wax and put a very thin, even layer of wax on the floor. It is better to rub along the boards than across. Start at the corner farthest from the door, and do not step on the waxed part. 4. Put away the wax and flannel, and keep off the floor for at least three hours. The polishing can be done after standing an hour, but is more work-. 5. Fold the piece of heavy flannel twice, making four layers, put it down on the floor, put the weighted brush on it, and rub each board, with the grain, until it shines. The piece of carpet makes an excellent substitute for the flannel. The polishing can be done on the hands and knees without a weighted brush, but is much harder work. CHAPTER V HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE The modern household should be equipped with well-selected measuring appliances which can be intelligently used not only to help standardize the daily housework and living conditions in the home but also to insure and promote just dealing in the community. The . exact value of units used must be clearly known. Since the use of the metric system (page 167) is for- tunately becoming more widespread, future generations may escape the problems arising from the vagueness and ambiguity of the systems now in common use in this country.* MEASUREMENTS FOR COMMODITIES Measuring apparatus for household commodities should be tested and sealed by the local sealer of weights and measures, at the time of purchase. Weighing scale. A weighing scale should have a capacity of 10 to 30 pounds or more, and should be graduated to 1 ounce or less. Among good types on the market are the hanging-pan spring scale, the counter beam scale, and the beam scale of the steelyard type designed to hang from a bracket. The cheap scale in which the commodity pan stands above the spring, is likely to be inaccurate. To use the scale properly, the following precautions should be observed: (1) Handle it carefully, and keep it clean and dry. (2) Keep it in balance. A properly constructed scale will rarely get out of balance, but the proper way of adjusting a particular * The following material in this chapter, with the exception of the tables indicated, is condensed from Measurements for the Household, Circ. 55, published by the Bur. of Standards, U. S. Dept. of Commerce. 129 130 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING kind of scale should be learned. (3) Keep the eye squarely in front of the point of the scale that is being read. (4) Do not weigh a commodity in cardboard or other heavy covering with- out weighing the covering separately and deducting its weight from the total weight. Liquid measures. The supply of liquid measures should include a quart, a pint, and a half -pint measure, and a 4-ounce glass graduate subdivided to 1 dram or less for measuring small quantities of liquids and determining the errors in larger quantities. The measures should be cylindrical or conical with the top diameter smaller than the bottom, and made of metal, enamelware, composition, or similar and suitable material. They should be strong and rigid enough to withstand ordinary usage. To test the quantity of a liquid as delivered, the following directions will be useful: Pour the liquid into the measure. If it does not fill the measure, pour it out and fill the measure with water to the same point that the purchased liquid reached. This can be done by observing the wet ring left around the measure. Then put a definite quantity of water into the gradu- ate, and complete the filling of the measure. The difference between the quantity of liquid remaining in the graduate and the original quantity put in is the shortage. If the quantity of liquid ordered more than fills the test measure, the check for error is made on the last portion poured into the measure. To avoid mistakes in reading cone graduates, it should be noted that these are sometimes more finely subdivided at the base than at the top. A graduate should be held level in filling it or reading it. It should be read at the main surface of the liquid, not at the point to which the small amount of liquid creeps on the sides of the glass. Dry measures. A nest of dry measures holding from Yi bushel to 1 quart may be necessary, although the growing tendency is to sell dry commodities by weight. The weight of a bushel of certain HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 131 common dry commodities, as fixed by law in certain states, is given on page 162. Dry measures should be of metal, or of well-varnished wood with a metal band around the top, or of some similar and suitable material. They should preferably be cylindrical. If they are conical, the top diameter should exceed the bottom diameter by an amount not greater than 10 per cent of the bottom diameter. The diameters should in no case be less than the following: For yi bushel 13V 4 inches For 1 peck 1CV 8 inches For Yi peck 8V2 inches For two quart". 6 6 /s inches For 1 quart ... 5 s /s inches For 1 pint 4 inches Length measure. For measuring length, a yardstick and a tape 3 or 6 feet in length are recommended. TEMPERATURE The following thermometers should be a part of the equip- ment of every household : Room-temperature thermometer. To give a fair measure of the temperature of a room, a ther- mometer should be placed about four feet from the floor, away from a stove, radiator, or ventilation flue and not on an out- side wall. Under certain conditions fifteen minutes or more may be required to show the correct temperature if a thermometer is moved. Outdoor thermometer. To indicate the real temperature of outdoor air as given in the weather reports, a thermometer must be mounted in a specially well ventilated house or box four feet from the ground and so built as to shield the thermometer entirely from direct sunlight. Nearly the same results may be secured by placing a thermometer in an open shady place, possibly at the north of a building, several feet away from the walls and four feet from the ground. 132 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING 125- 120- IIJ - no - 105 - 100 - 75- 70- 45- (,0- &Z 20 15 -257 -248 -2}9 -250 -221 -212 -176 -Mr -158 -I4J- Clinical thermometer. The usual clinical thermometer is a "maxi- mum" thermometer, that is, the mercury in the stem registers the highest temperature reached and does not return when the ther- mometer is cooled, but must be shaken back before another temperature can be measured. For this reason the thermometer may be removed from the mouth and read later. The usual type of "lens-front" thermome- ter is so made that the front of the glass tube acts as a lens magnifying the width of the mercury thread. To read such a thermome- ter, it should be held in the hand and turned until the mercury column suddenly appears magnified to considerable width. This will occur when the clear corner of the triangular tube is directly in front. The reading can then be made, remembering that the smallest divisions of the scale are usually 0°.2. The mercury should then be shaken back into the bulb by holding the thermometer firmly be- tween thumb and forefinger, bulb outward, and giving a few very brisk shakes from the wrisL, or with the arm, and then seeing that the thermometer reads as low as 96° F. or 35°.5 C. The thermometer should never be tapped against a hard substance, as this is almost certain to break the bulb. Bath thermometers. Bath thermometers usually have their scales printed on paper or milk glass contained in a large glass tube which incloses the ther- mometer capillary. They are often protected by a wooden cage to prevent breakage. When thus protected, it may take some time to ob- Fig. 40. — Comparison of Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales for measuring tem- perature. -u; -104 1 -?5 -84 -y- -2; HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 133 tain the real temperature of the water unless the thermometer is kept moving. The temperatures in different parts of a tub of water may differ many degrees unless the water has been well mixed. A bath thermometer should be read while it is in the water because the readings will change very rapidly when the ther- mometer is taken out of warm water. Milk thermometers. Milk thermometers are useful in measuring the temperature of milk or cream, for the control of pasteurizing milk, churning cream, whipping cream, and the like. These processes are best carried out at definite temperatures. Some of these milk ther- mometers are purposely made large and light so that they will float, making their use more convenient. Candy-making thermometers. These thermometers are for use in making candies, boiling sirups, and the like. The thermometer should not be too near the bottom or the sides of the kettle, nor yet should it be at the point where boiling is most violent. Some of the tempera- tures at which boiling sirups should be removed from the fire to make different kinds of candies, as well as other useful in- formation as to temperature, are given in Table II. A candy-making thermometer may be tested for accuracy as follows: First find the boiling point for any altitude from Table I (thus at 2,000 feet elevation the average temperature is 208° F. or 98° C.) ; then hold the thermometer with its bulb well immersed in a dish of briskly boiling pure water, and read the highest temperature reached. If this differs from that found in the table, the thermometer is too high or too low by this dif- ference. Oven thermometers. Various kinds of thermometers are used for reading oven temperatures. One kind is placed in the oven door and has a dial with a hand for indicating the temperatures. These ther- mometers may not indicate the true temperature of the Oven because the door never becomes as hot as the remainder of the 134 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING oven, and often takes much longer in heating up. However, since temperatures sometimes need not be known more accu- rately than within 10 or 20 degrees, such thermometers are use- ful and are more convenient than those which have to be hung inside the oven. One kind of thermometer which reads up to 550° F., is made to screw into a special opening in the range. It may be hung inside the oven, but in this case the door must be opened or a window provided in order to read it. Tests for thermometers. Household thermometers from reliable makers are usually correct to within 1 or 2 degrees at room temperature and below, although sometimes they are several degrees in error. Any thermometer which has 32° F. or 0° C. on its scale may be easily tested at this point by scraping a tumbler full of clear ice, saturating this with ice-cold, pure water, and placing the ther- mometer bulb in this mixture until it reads as low as it will go. Clean snow saturated with water may also be used, but if the snow is left dry it may be much colder than 32° F. If the thermometer tested reads 32° F. or 0° C, it is correct at this point. If higher or lower than this, it is too high or too low by the amount of the difference observed. Such a test is reliable to a tenth of a degree if carefully made. For other temperatures there are no tests which are quite as convenient or reliable as for the ice point. The steam point, 212° F. or 100° C, is used in the testing of thermometers in the laboratory, but the steam temperature depends on the baro- metric reading, which varies with the weather, and with the altitude of the place where the water is boiled. For places within 500 feet of sea level, the temperature shown by a ther- mometer immersed in a steam bath over briskly boiling water, or in the water itself if the same is pure, should be between 210° and 212° F., or between 99°, and 100° C. For higher alti- tudes the temperature will be lower, as may be seen from Table I. The temperatures given in this table are averages only and variations of 1° F. or 0°.6. C. may take place from day to day because of changes in the barometric pressure. HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 135 If a tested clinical thermometer is at hand, a fairly accurate test at about 100° F. may be made. A thermometer which is correct at the ice point and at about 100° F. will probably be correct at other temperatures. Clinical thermometers should be tested by a competent testing laboratory, such as that at the United States Bureau of Standards. TABLE I. — Boiling Point op Water and Average Barometer Readings for Different Altitudes Altitude Temperature of steam Corrected barometer Average readings Degrees F. Degrees C. Inches Millimeters Sea level 212.0 208.3 204.6 201.1 197.6 194.0 100.0 97.9 95.9 93.9 92.0 90.0 29.9 27.8 25.8 24.0 22.3 20.7 760 2000 feet 706 4000 feet 655 6000 feet 610 8000 feet 566 10,000 feet 526 -Useful Temperatures Mercury freezes Freezing cold storage Water freezes Danger of frost Household refrigerator, proper temperature Churning Gymnasium, or rooms where occupants are actively engaged in physical work or exercise Ripening of cream Rooms where occupants are not exercising Normal temperature of the human body determined by thermometer under the tongue Incubator temperature Degrees Fahren- heit 136 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING TABLE II. — Continued High fever, temperature measured as above Pasteurizing milk Pasteurizing milk (flash process) Water boils at normal pressure Plain sugar sirups: For sirup, 11 pounds to the gallon For fondant candies For fudge and other candies of like nature For taffy and like hard candies to be pulled .... For clear brittle candies, peanut brittle, etc For almond and walnut brittle Melting point of common soft solder Oven temperatures for baking: Custards, meringues, pies, puddings, etc Sponge cake, bread, gingerbread, plain cake, and cookies Parker House rolls, popovers, and biscuits Biscuit and pastry Melting point of lead Melting point of aluminum Degrees Fahren- 105 145 160 212 219 236 240 240 300 310 315 365 250 350 350 400 400 450 450 550 621 1218 TABLE III. — A Table op Temperatures * Process Freezing of fruit ices (temperature of medium) '. Freezing of water Whipping of cream Butter-making Raising of bread (temperature of room) Degrees Centigrade -5 to — S 3 to 10 15 to 16 26 to 40 Fahrenheit 23 to 18 32 37 to 50 60 79 to 104 * Williams, Anna W., and Gray, Cora E., Cooking Temperatures, Bull. 47, Univ. of 111. HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 137 TABLE III.— Continued Process Degrees Centigrade Degrees Fahrenheit Cheese-making 37 to 60 (Depends upon acidity) Begins 56; completes 71 82 to 99 82 to 84 89 to 94 100 103 113 111 113 to 115 117 125 122 250 175 46.5 to 60 60 to 70 70 to 80 175 to 190 185 to 205 190 to 195 175 to 190 150 to 170 200 180 to 220 98 6 to 140 Coagulation of albumin 133 to 160 Simmering of water 180 to 210 Soft custards 179 to 183 Double boiler, top part 192 to 201 Boiling water at sea level 212 Jellies (boiling point of water 100° C.) Sugar cookery (boiling point of water 100° C.) Fondant 185 235 Fudge frosting, boiled 1 egg white to 1 cup sugar . 2 egg whites to 1 cup sugar 1 egg white to 1 cup of dark brown sugar 232 235 to 239 243 257 1 egg white to ■!€ cup of dark , brown sugar, }/i cup white 252 * Roasting of meat Temperature of oven First 15 minutes 450 Remainder of time Temperature of meat interior Rare done 347 115.7 to 140 Medium 140 to 158 158 to 176 Deep-fat frying. Temperature of fat for 347 to 374 365 to 401 Cold, wet, uncooked foods Baking. Temperature of center of oven for 374 to 383 347 to 374 Angel food cakes 302 to 338 Souffles (surrounded by water) 392 . 356 to 428 * Sprague, Elizabeth, and Grindley, H. C, "A Precise Method of Roast- ing Beef," Univ. of 111. Bull., Vol. IV, No. 19. 138 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING TABLE 111.— Continued Process Degrees Centigrade Degrees Fahrenheit Butter cakes Loaf Layer Muffins Parkerhouse rolls 190 210 220 to 235 235 235 235 to 240 235 to 200 240 374 410 428 to 455 455 Baked potatoes Baking powder biscuit Popovers *Pastry 455 455 to 464 455 to 392 464 *Sprague, Elizabeth, "Studies of Methods in Food Preparation," Journal of Home Economics, Vol. Ill, No. 5, p. 446. TIME The usual clocks found in the home may be divided into two classes, the mantel or wall clock type, which has a pendu- lum, and the common alarm-clock type, in which the movement is controlled by the vibrations of a balance wheel, as in a watch. The second variety is quite portable and will usually run in any position, but the pendulum clock must be kept fixed in an up- right position and must be adjusted every time it is moved. Moving a pendulum clock. The pendulum clock usually has its pendulum suspended by a thin flat spring, and to avoid breaking this spring when the clock is to be moved from one place to another, it is best either to unhook the bob from the pendulum rod or to secure the pendulum tightly to the clock works or case so that it cannot swing. In setting up such a clock after removal, it is necessary to put the clock "in beat"; that is, to make the successive vi- brations of the pendulum, or the time between successive ticks of the clock, of equal length. This must be done by carefully leveling the clock on its support, unless the clock is provided with adjusting thumbscrews at the top of the pendulum by the movement of which one way or the other it can be made to beat uniformly. HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 139 Setting a clock. The setting of a pendulum clock is usually best done by turn- ing the minute hand forward, several revolutions if necessary, to bring the hour hand to the correct hour. If the clock does not have a striking mechanism, the hour hand, which is usually held on its slightly conical shaft by friction, may be moved forward a sufficient number of hours, and the minute hand ad- justed to the correct minute. As the hour hand may have be- come loosened on its shaft by this procedure, however, it should be pressed tightly into place after it is set correctly. In some clocks with a striking mechanism, the minute hand should not be moved backward across a striking point, although it can, without injury, be moved back short distances in other parts of the dial to set it correctly. Regulating a clock. Few clocks of either the pendulum or the alarm-clock type are made with devices to compensate for changes in temperature, and as these changes will alter the rate, it is desirable to keep the clock in the part of a room where its temperature will be most constant. Even with the best conditions in this respect, it will be necessary to regulate the clock's rate frequently on account of the changes of temperature with season 01 with the conditions of heating or cooling of the room. A rise of tempera- ture will lengthen the pendulum rod and make the clock run more slowly. It will be necessary, therefore, to raise the pendu- lum bob by turning the supporting nut, unless an adjustment device is provided by which a contact point on the suspension spring at the top of the pendulum can be changed. This is done by turning a key to right or left in a small keyhole in the face of the clock, usually near the upper part of the dial. This has the effect of shortening or lengthening the pendulum. In the alarm-clock type, the regulation is done by moving a small lever, usually at the back of the clock, which engages with the hairspring on the balance wheel, and so decreases or increases the effective length of the spring, thus controlling 140 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING the time of a vibration of the balance. The lever should be moved toward the letter "S" when one wishes to make the clock run more slowly and toward "F" when it should run faster. The same rule applies in the regulation of a watch. When regulating a pendulum clock by the key device, the key should be turned overhand toward the letter "S" or "F," according as one wishes to make the clock run more slowly or faster. If there are no indicating letters ("F" and "S") pro- vided, the usual rule is to turn the key in the direction the hands move to make it go faster or counterclockwise to make it run more slowly. The amount of movement required to correct the rate must generally be found by trial. Thus, if the clock gains five min- utes a day, and one turns the key of the regulator two revolu- tions toward "S," or moves the lever of an alarm clock two divisions toward "S," and the clock then loses three minutes a day, one can obtain nearly zero rate by turning the key three-quarters of a revolution back toward "F" or by mov- ing the lever three-quarters of a division back toward "F." In some pendulum clocks there may be some motion lost in reversing the regulation, and this should be taken into account in estimating the amount to move the regulator. To correct the striking of a clock. While some clocks of a more recent type have the hour and minute pinions and the striking mechanism so geared together that it is almost impossible for the clock to strike wrongly, this frequently happens with other types of clocks. This difficulty can be remedied easily in the latter case by several methods. One method, which can be used in case the hour hand is held in position on its shaft by friction only, is to move the hour hand backward or forward an hour or more as may be neces- sary to make the hour indicated by the clock-face agree with the striking mechanism, pressing the hour hand tight on its shaft afterwards, as described above. Then the clock should be set to correct time by moving the minute hand around the dial the necessary number of times, allowing the clock to strike HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 141 the full amount each time the hand passes the XII point before approaching that point again. This method is especially con- venient when the clock strikes one or two strokes less than it should. When it strikes more strokes than it should, the same method may be used, or the minute hand may be turned ahead rapidly so that it will again pass through the XII point while the clock is still striking for the previous hour. By so doing the striking mechanism is not released to strike the following hour, and thus an hour is gained in the face indica- tion of the clock compared with the striking. This may be repeated as many times as the number of strokes by which the striking mechanism was in error. The clock may then be set to correct time in the usual way, allowing it to strike the full amount on each passage of the XII point, or the clock may be stopped for as many hours as it is fast, until again it indi- cates the correct hour, when it can be started and set correct without the necessity of striking all the nine, ten, or eleven hours that may have intervened. Some clocks have a lever in the movement — an extension of the striking mechanism release arm or shaft — which can be moved up or down to release the striking mechanism and al- low it to strike as many hours as are necessary to bring it into agreement with the indication of the hands. Or, if a special lever for the purpose is not provided, it is sometimes easy, on opening the door to the works of the clock, to find the release arm itself and by raising it accomplish the same result. Care of timepieces. Precautions should be taken not only with clocks but also with watches to keep them at a constant temperature if one wishes to obtain the best results with them. If possible a watch should be kept at nearly the same temperature at night as during the day. The variations with the drop in temperature at night will affect the rate of the alarm clock uncompensated for temperature much more than that of a watch, which is usu- ally compensated for high and low temperatures. 142 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING The careful handling of a timepiece of the balance-wheel type — clock or watch — is also important, because of the effect on the adjustment and rate. All sudden changes of motion should be avoided, and a fall is liable to bend some of the pivots and seriously change the rate. The position in which it is kept also makes a large difference in its rate, especially with the unadjusted cheaper types. Both the watch and the clock should best be kept in an upright position, both day and night, as uniformity of practice is the chief essential. All timepieces should, of course, be kept protected from dust and dirt. They should be wound regularly. It is perhaps better to wind a watch twice a day than once a day, if it is done regularly, and the last part of the winding should be done slowly to avoid in- jury to the mechanism. An alarm clock. An alarm clock may be made very useful in giving a warn- ing of the necessity of inspecting a given process which other- wise might be overlooked, and when food materials are fre- quently spoiled in preparation from lack of attention, the use of an alarm clock will soon save its cost. In using the alarm feature of an alarm clock, the setting mechanism should be turned in one direction only, for the same reason as in the case of setting a clock with striking mech- anism to correct time, to avoid locking or breaking the setting device. Occasionally the indicating hand of the alarm will not be placed correctly on its pinion and the alarm will sound at a different time from that expected. This error will be a constant one, however, and its amount having been once learned, allowance may be made for it in setting the hand; or a watch repairer can correct the fault very quickly. Many alarm clocks have the dial for setting the alarm of very small diameter, making it difficult accurately to set the hand. For this use it is desirable to secure a clock with as large an alarm- hand dial as possible, preferably one having the alarm hand set on the central pinion with the hour and minute hands. With such a clock the alarm can be set quite accurately HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 143 for giving a signal at short intervals and can be used to give warnings of the time to inspect certain processes of the kitchen, for the taking of medicine at regular intervals, and the like. MEASURING GAS How to read a gas meter. The index of an ordinary gas meter, which is similar to that of an electric or a water meter, is shown in Fig. 41. The smal- Fiq. 41. — The index of a gas meter. Each dial is marked with the volume of gas passed a revolution. The smaller top dial, which is marked "Two Feet" inside of the circle, is generally called the "testing circle" or "prov- ing head" and is used principally in testing the meter. ler top dial, which is marked "Two feet" inside of the circle, is generally called the "testing circle" or "proving head," and is used principally in testing the meter. One revolution of the hand of the testing circle indicates that 2 cubic feet of gas have passed through the meter. In some meters one revolu- tion of the hand of the testing circle represents more or less than 2 cubic feet of gas and the testing circles are correspond- ingly marked. The indication of the hand of the testing circle is ignored in the ordinary reading of the meter. Of the large dials the first one at the right is usually marked "1 thousand." This means that during one complete revolu- tion of the hand,' 1000 cubic feet of gas has passed through the 144 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING meter. This dial is divided into ten equal parts so that the pas- sage of the hand over each part indicates the passage of one- tenth of 1000 cubic feet, or 100 cubic feet. For most meters, it may be said of the other dials that the complete revolution of each hand indicates the passage of ten times as much gas as one revolution of the hand of the dial of next lower denomina- tion (usually the one to the right). The figure representing the number of cubic feet discharged during one revolution of the hand is written over each dial. Thus if the first dial is Fig. 42. — Gas meter index reading 79,500 cubic feet. marked "1 thousand," the second dial will be marked "10 thousand," the third " 100 thousand," and so on. The reading of the index, as illustrated in Fig. 41 is as follows: Reading of " 1 thousand" dial 200 cubic feet Reading of "10 thousand" dial 5 000 " " Reading of "100 thousand" dial 30 000 " " Complete reading of the meter 35 200 " " It is not necessary to write down separately the reading of each dial, but it is much shorter to set down from right to left the figure last passed by the hand of each dial, commencing with the dial of lowest denomination and then — if the dial of lowest denomination is marked "1 thousand" — appending two zeros to the resulting figures. If a hand is very nearly over one of the figures on a dial, it is impossible to tell without consulting the dial of next lower HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 145 denomination whether the figure under the hand or that just previously passed by the hand should be read. For example, in Fig. 42 the hand of the "100 thousand" dial is over 8, and considering this dial alone the reading might be taken as 8; but it is seen that the reading of the "100 thousand" dial cannot have reached 8, since the hand of the dial to the right (the "10 thousand" dial) has not reached zero. The reading of the "100 thousand" dial is therefore 7, and the correct reading of the entire index is 79 500 cubic feet. To satisfy one's self that the gas company does not make a mistake in reading the meter, it is well for the consumer, oc- casionally at least, to read his meter at as nearly as possible the same time that the gas company reads it. Usually the gas company's bill will state the meter readings on the dates be- tween which the bill applies, so that checking meter readings will be easy. If the meter readings are not given on the bill, the consumer can determine what the amount of his bill should be if he knows the meter readings and the price of gas a thousand cubic feet. Should the consumer take one meter reading at the proper time and then miss the next one or two, it is obvious that he can still check up the gas bills by taking a reading at the next convenient time when the company's reader calls, cal- culating the cost of gas used between the dates of his readings and comparing this cost with the sum of the amounts of the bills rendered for gas between the same dates. Cost of gas consumed an hour in appliances. With only a little trouble one can determine the cost an hour of operating a gas light, heater, or other gas-consuming ap- pliance. To do this, one should have in operation the appli- ance in question and all other gas appliances supplied through this meter shut off. Then, by observing the "testing circle" of the meter, the time in seconds required for 1, 2, or more cubic feet of gas to pass should be determined. The number of cubic feet of gas used an hour is then determined in the fol- lowing manner: (1) Divide the number of cubic feet burned during the test by the number of seconds, thus determining the 146 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING number of cubic feet of gas used a second, and (2) multiply the result by 3600 (the number of seconds in an hour). Example: It is observed that with a gas water-heater in operation, the meter indicates the passage of 2 cubic feet of gas in 1 minute and 40 seconds. Applying the above rule, 2 (cubic feet) is divided by 100 (seconds) (the equivalent of 1 minute and 40 seconds), which gives T ^\ T fs is multiplied by 3600, giving Wo , or 72. The water-heater is, therefore, using 72 cubic feet of gas an hour. Knowing the cost of 1000 cubic feet of gas, one can easily calculate the cost an hour for gas used in the heater; for example, if gas were $1 for 1000 cubic feet, the 72 cubic feet would cost 72 times j^ of $1, or 7.2 cents, which is the cost an hour for gas. Causes of high bills for gas. If a consumer's gas bill for a certain period greatly exceeds that of the previous period, it is due to one or more of the fol- lowing causes: 1. An increased consumption of gas. A careful considera- tion of the use made of gas during the period covered by the bill will very often reveal the fact that an unusual amount of gas has been consumed. Baking, canning of fruit, entertain- ing, the coming of long winter evenings, and the like are a common cause of increased gas consumption resulting in larger bills than usual. Leaks in the gas pipes of the house may produce the same results. 2. An error of the gas company in reading the meter or in office work. If the consumer reads his own meter and checks the bill, the question as to whether this cause is operative can be quickly ascertained. 3. A fast meter. If the two above causes apparently do not exist, the consumer will naturally consider that his meter is fast. The best procedure for the consumer who thinks his meter incorrect varies with the locality. Many of the larger cities are provided with meter-inspection departments, under the supervision of the city or state, and the consumer can have his meter tested by this department. If his meter is found to be fast in excess of the established tolerance, the company HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 147 usually pays the fee for the test and refunds to the consumer a certain amount, depending on the magnitude of the error of the meter and the probable length of time that the consumer has been thereby overcharged. If the meter is found to be within the tolerance, or "slow," the consumer usually pays the fee (about $1), and may have to pay the gas company for the probable amount he has been undercharged. MEASURING ELECTRICITY How to read an electric meter. A view of the dials of a modern electric meter is given in Fig. 43. The method of reading is similar to that for the dials MLOWATT HOURS Fig. 43. — Dial of a watthour meter. In this dial the hands are correctly set on their shafts. The reading is 538 kilowatt hours. of a gas meter as explained on page 144. The reading in Fig. 43 is 538 kilowatt hours. In taking down these figures one should read the dials from right to left; that is, in the reverse of the usual order of writing numbers. The pointer on the dial at the extreme right points to 8; the number 8 is written down as the figure in the units place. The index of the next dial to the left has passed the 3, but has not reached the 4, as shown by the fact that the units' dial reads 8; the figure 3 is accordingly written in the tens' place. The index of the third dial has passed the 5, and this figure is to be written in the hundreds' place, giving 538 kilowatt hours as the reading of the meter, since the index of the dial at the extreme left has not reached the figure 1. If the index hand of the second dial in Fig. 43 be turned slightly so as to point to, or even slightly past, the figure 4, it becomes more difficult to read the meter correctly, as a hasty 148 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING inspection may result in the reading being made as 548 kilo- watt hours. However, the index of the units' dial standing on the figure 8 shows that it has not quite completed a revolution, and hence that the index of the second dial (if it is properly set on its shaft) should be close to a division and about to reach it. Hence, it should be read as having passed the 3 and not having reached the 4. A view of a meter dial face having the KILOWATT HOURS Fig. 44. — Dial of a watthour meter. In this dial the hand on the second circle from the right is slightly in advance of its proper position on its shaft. The reading is the same as in Fig. 43, namely, 538 kilowatt hours, although at a glance it might be incorrectly read as 548 kilo- watt hours. second index to the left slightly displaced in this way is shown in Fig. 44. When one dial hand points to 9, special care must be taken that the dial hand of the next higher dial is not read too high, as it may appear to have reached the next number, but will not have done so until the dial hand at 9 has come to 0. A sim- ple illustration will make this clear. If the hour hand of a clock points to 10, as closely as can be read, and if the clock had no minute hand, the time would be read as 10 o'clock. If the min- ute hand, however, is pointing to the figure 11, the time is read as 9.55. Ten minutes later the hour hand may not have moved perceptibly, but the time is now read as 10.05. Sim- ilarly, in the electric meter, the readirig of each dial must be interpreted by noting the reading of the next dial to the right. The dial hands on adjacent dials revolve in opposite direc- tions; therefore, a reading should always be checked after being written down, as it is easy to mistake the direction of rotation. HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 149 Checking, the watthour meter. The electric meter may be checked approximately by the householder without the use of electrical instruments. For this purpose it is only necessary to note the reading of the meter, then turn on a number of lamps and note the time in hours re- quired to' cause the index of the dial farthest to the right to ad- vance one division. It is necessary to use lamps which are rated in watts, as is done with most incandescent lamps now made. If the meter is modern, it will have a dial marked "kilowatt hours," and one division on the dial farthest to the right is a kilowatt hour, which means 1000 watt hours. For example, if 10 lamps, each marked 25 watts, are lighted at a given time, the rate of using electrical energy is 10x25 =250 watts. In 4 hours these lamps will use 4x250=1000 watt hours, and this should cause the index of the dial farthest to the right to ad- vance one division. As it is not possible to read a single division accurately, the lamps may be allowed to run until the index has moved over several divisions. If more lamps can be turned on, or larger lamps used, the time required for the test will be re- duced. The preceding test is approximate but will settle the question of whether any large error exists in the meter. To make an ac- curate test requires portable watt hour meters or other electrical apparatus which is suitable for use only by meter inspectors. It is desirable for the householder to read the meter at the time it is read by the meter man, and to keep a record of the readings and the dates, in order to have the means of checking the bill rendered by the company. When the bill for electric current seems unduly high, the meter is often first suspected; in reality it is usually the last thing to blame. Some of the reasons for higher bills are as follows: 1. Cloudy or rainy weather, requiring use of light in daylight hours. 2. Additional lamps may have been installed, or small lamps may have been replaced by larger ones. 3. Old dim lamps may be in use; in order to secure sufficient illumination more of them must be lighted than would be nee- 150 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING essary if lamps in good condition were used. A dim lamp takes practically as much current as a new one, and is very wasteful to use. With lamps in good condition, the light will not be efficiently produced if the electric company allows the vol- tage to be low. In this connection it may be well to state that the tungsten lamp has been improved in quality and reduced in price to such an extent that no customer can afford to use carbon lamps. Many householders cling to the use of carbon lamps because they are usually supplied free. The folly of this course may be realized from the following statement: The cost of a lamp is reckoned in cents, but the cost of the energy to operate it during its life is a matter of dollars. The energy cost for a tungsten lamp is only about one-third that of the carbon lamp. 4. Lamps are sometimes left burning for days in attics, closets, and other out-of-the-way places. 5. Electric laundry irons, toasters, or other heating devices may have been placed in service or used more than in former months. Motor-driven devices may have been installed. Many devices which are operated through flexible cord from a lamp socket take very much more power than any lamp which would be used in the household. If is often erroneously believed that because such devices can be operated from a socket they require no more power than a lamp. The extent of this error may be realized from the statement that a six-pound laundry iron takes as much power as twenty tungsten lamps of about 20 candle- power each. 6. Defective wiring may allow current to flow when no lights or other devices are in use. 7. When electric elevators or electrically driven machinery is used and not properly oiled and cared for, excessive friction may result, with a corresponding waste of power and increase in the bill for electric current. 8. An error may be made by the company's meter reader, so that the bill rendered is too high or too low. If it is too high, the bill for the following month will be low by the same amount, if the meter is then read correctly, so that the consumer will not usually lose anything in the end. When a minimum monthly HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 151 charge is made by the company, the consumer may lose. Hence, if an error has apparently been made by the meter reader, the company should be requested to investigate the matter and to render a corrected bill if an error is found. MEASURING WATER How to read a water meter. Meters for measuring water for domestic use are usually graduated in cubic feet — sometimes in gallons. One cubic foot \0j00o Fig. 45. — Ordinary form of water-meter dial. Reading 11,867 cubic feet. is taken commercially as equal to 73^ gallons. Hence, to re- duce a meter reading in cubic feet to gallons, the number of cubic feet should be multiplied by 7J^. The ordinary form of dial is shown in Fig. 45. A special form of register which is more convenient to read, is known as a straight-line register and gives cubic feet or gallons directly. 152 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING In Fig. 45 the unit is cubic feet and is plainly marked on the dial. If the unit were gallons, the method of reading would be the same. The hands revolve around circles, each divided into ten numbered divisions. The number on the outside of each circle indicates the number of cubic feet for one complete revolution of the hand. The divisions of the circles are numbered alter- nately in the counter clockwise and clockwise direction. Thus, the first dial (at the bottom) is marked 10 and one division measures 1 cubic foot, the second 100 and one division measures 10 cubic feet, the next is marked 1000 and one division measures 100 cubic feet, and similarly for the remainder. The small dial at the left measuring 1 cubic foot for a complete revolution is disregarded in reading the meter, being used for test purposes. One division of a circle is equal to a complete revolution of the hand on the next lower circle. When a hand is between two figures, the lesser is to be taken. If a hand is very near a figure, whether that figure or the next lower is to be taken can be de- termined by observing the hand in the next lower circle. Unless the hand on this circle has reached or just passed 0, the lesser fig- ure is to be taken. The best method of reading is from low to high, that is, from right to left. For example, reading the dial shown in Fig. 45 and setting down the figures successively from right to left, there are 7 for units' place, 6 for tens' place, 8 for hundreds' place, and 1 for thousands' place and for ten- thousands' place, or 11,867 cubic feet. The circles on different makes of dials may be differently lo- cated on the dial, but the method of reading is the same as given. In meters larger than those ordinarily used for household measurement, the lowest graduated circle, the one marked 10, corresponding to units' place in the reading, is sometimes omit- ted, the lowest circle being then the one marked 100. In this case the meter is read exactly as described above, and a zero added in the units' place. The dial after reading cannot be set back to zero. The record is continuous. The amount of water which has passed through the meter in a given time is, therefore, obtained by subtracting the first reading from the last. For example, if the meter were HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 153 read the 30th day of June and again the,30th day of July, the June reading is to be subtracted from that taken in July. Using the water meter as a measuring appliance. The amount of water required for a particular use — for ex- ample, in watering a lawn — may be determined by first turning off all other outlets and allowing the hose to run, reading the meter at the beginning and end of the period and subtracting the first reading from the second. Since the meter can only register when water is passing through, should the hands move when all outlets are closed, water is being wasted through some leak. This can be most easily detected by observing the circle marked "one foot," re- ferred to above as being provided for purposes of test. DENSITY OF LIQUIDS A knowledge of the density or specific gravity of a liquid is usually of value in the household only as an index of some other physical property or quality of the liquid. For example, in the preparation of sirups, jellies, and other food products of similar nature, a measurement of specific gravity is a convenient means of determining when the process of evaporation or "boiling down" has been carried far enough. Also, the quality or fat- content of milk may be determined by measuring its specific gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of any volume of a substance to the weight of an equal volume of water. Milk has a specific gravity of 1.03, since the weight of any volume of milk is 3 per cent more than that of an equal volume of water. The densities given in Table IV are stated in grams to the cubic centimeter, and are numerically the same as specific gravity in terms of water at 4° C. as unity. Determination of specific, gravity. The specific gravity of a liquid may be most readily deter- mined by means of a small glass instrument known as the hy- drometer. This instrument floats in the liquid to be examined and the specific gravity of the liquid is determined by noting the 154 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING point on the stem to which the instrument sinks in the liquid. Since a floating body sinks in a liquid to such a point that the weight of the liquid displaced by the body is equal to the weight of the body, the hydrometer, when provided with a suitable scale, indicates directly the specific gravity of the liquid. Classes of hydrometers. Hydrometers in general use may be divided into three classes with reference to their indication: 1. Specific gravity hydrom- eters; 2. per cent hydrometers; 3. arbitrary scale hydrometers. Specific gravity hydrometers indicate the ratio of the weight of a given volume of the substance to the weight of the same vol- ume of some standard substance. The standard substance is usually water at a definite temperatuie. Per cent hydrometers indicate the percentage of a substance, either by weight or by volume, in a mixture or solution of the substance in water. Arbitrary scale hydrometers indicate the concentration or strength of a substance in terms of some arbitrarily defined scale. Lactometers and Baume hydrometers are examples of this class. TABLE IV. — Densities op Some Household Materials Substance Air, dry Air (of 50 per cent humidity) Brine (5 parts by weight of salt in 100 parts of of brine) Brine (25 parts by weight of salt in 100 parts brine) Butter Cider vinegar Cream * (18 per cent butter fat) Cream (40 per cent butter fat) Gasoline Tempera- lure in degrees centigrade 20 (68' F.) 20 15 15 20 20 20 Density in grams to the cubic centi- meter 0.001205 0.001195 1.035 1.191 0.86 to 0.87 1.013 to 1.015 1.01 0.99 0.70 to 0.74 * Minimum butter-fat content for cream (definition of Bureau of Chem- istry). HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 155 TABLE IV.- — Continued . Substance Tempera- ture in degrees centigrade Density in grams to the cubic centi- meter Ice 92 Kerosene 20 0.78 to 0.82 Lard 92 Linseed oil 20 20 20 15 17.5 .0.92 to 0.93 Milk 1.028 to 1 032 Olive oil 0.91 Sea water 1 023 to 1.025 Sirup, maple * 1.32 to 1.34 Tallow 0.91 to 0.97 Turpentine 20 0.86 to 0.87 * The density of maple sirup varies from 1.32 with 35 per cent of water to 1.34 with 32 per cent of water. The hydrometer to be chosen for household use will depend on the purpose for which it is intended, the degree of accuracy required, and to some extent on the personal preference of the user. The specific gravity hydrometer is recommended for most purposes. For use in making sirups, preserves, and the like, an instru- ment indicating specific gravity in terms of water at 60° F., or one reading in Baume degrees will be found convenient. The hydrometer should have a range of about 1.00 to 1.50 in specific gravity or 1 to 50 in Baume degrees, and should be so graduated that the readings can be conveniently made. Use of the hydrometer. In using the hydrometer, a portion of the liquid whose specific gravity is to be measured should be placed in a glass cylinder of such a size that the hydrometer when placed in the cylinder will be free to move up and down without coming in contact with the walls of the vessel. The liquid should be well stirred. For specially accurate work, the temperature of the liquid should be observed by means of a thermometer placed directly in the liquid; when the temper- 156 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING ature has become fairly constant, the readings on the hydrom- eter may be taken. The eye should be placed on a level with the surface of the liquid and the line where this surface appears to cut the stem of the hydrometer should be taken as the reading of the hy- drometer. In case the liquid is not sufficiently transparent to allow the scale of the hydrometer to be read through the liquid, the read- ing cannot be made as indicated above. It is then necessary to read as accurately as possible above the surface of the liquid. If the readings in a dark-colored liquid are always made in the same way, the resulting error will not be great, and successive readings will be comparable. Influence of temperature. When the temperature of a liquid changes, its specific gravity also changes and the indication of a hydrometer in the liquid will, therefore, differ at different temperatures. All hydrometers should be marked with the temperature at which they are intended to be correct. In actual practice, however, it is not always necessary that the hydrometer be used at its standard temperature, but if readings are to be compared, they must all be made at the same temperature. For example, it may be found by experience that a certain sirup has the proper consistency when cool, if the read- ing on the hydrometer is 1.36 at 80° F. The standard tempera- ture of the instrument may be 60° F., but if experience has shown that a certain reading of the hydrometer at some other temperature gives satisfactory results, it is not necessary to wait for the liquid to cool to the standard temperature of the instrument. KITCHEN MEASURES In the kitchen more accurate weights and measures are grad- ually coming into common use, as the units used are becoming better defined. Domestic science departments of schools and colleges are largely responsible for this advance. HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 157 The basis of the kitchen system of weights and measures is the standard cup, a measure holding 8 fluid ounces — that is, one-half liquid pint — and used to measure either dry or liquid commodities. One of these cups, subdivided into thirds, fourths, or both, should be procured, since the ordinary china cups vary greatly in size. A special set of spoon measures (from one- fourth teaspoonful up) will be found convenient, since ordinary spoons also vary in size. Moreover, neither the ordinary cup or spoon is adapted to measuring of fractions of their capacity. The measures of capacity used in the kitchen are based on the standard cup, as follows: 3 teaspoonfuls = 1 tablespoonful = 4 drams 4 tablespoonfuls = \i cupful = 2 fluid ounces J^ cupful = 1 gill = 4 fluid ounces 2 gills = 1 cupful = 8 fluid ounces 1 cupful = 8 fluid ounces = V^ pint 2 cupfuls = 16 fluid ounces = 1 pint 16 fluid ounces = 1 pint 4 cupfuls = 1 quart In the above all measures are level full. The equivalents given will permit the use of the large glass graduate for measur- ing liquids in cooking. In Tables V to VIII are given equivalents of units commonly used in cooking and for other household purposes. 158 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING -3 S idPoS -SSfl ■2 &-S-2 Su'sll.S « didAidddiiioiisjgicii P33333P3333 CTO'O'D'O'O'O'O'D'O'Cr w a WKHHWWHWHHW eg o P & ^>CiOOO)OONCOCDO OOi-irOiOi-(COt---!jHO H W 3 00000^-^N'^C3•- , doooddddoHH O.I B) t^Oi £"3 te co^mocjooh-foco^HO 3 £w t-i CO lO i-i CO r^. ^ o g HN^CS O 'a « CO (N *# -~>' - ' O cD a) D .i§ ^ HHH oo ^ o> ^OH s 3 °° 00 CO -) ©CM P. oa Tji 00 CD 00 «i\« CN CO ^ W--— J\H\ -rt< ~> — \^r'- 1 oco cw HN^ ■ ■ < OtC o to 1 ^ ssrfsxs s o I 3-8-5 i-iCM^CO ■ • O00 , cd « ^^ r- a S-B..2 X S4 "^h"^?" " 0ai H i-< N t}* W CD O CO g ^3 8 COCO \N -iJ O '3 e SI <-"-* OM HNTfWCDNCW g —3MW,3S H.I1 sssss s HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 163 03 « |||w o oj a) -> a s's-ssa M U.0OQ o> v > SS.2 5, o-o a'E «S dig. .5.2 _■ £.0 ».■§ desgsgsg -.2=3 -g- g-o fl .2 'm - 5 -»2 ft a 3 w a m 5f-c 0, T3 *§ S S S8« 3 & ~anS 09 m ft -9Si3 e also "la 3t defined, r customs •een apples gar beets : a-island co I ted: unbo elled. 1-island co bite beans ative blue- w 2 EhOcqgqCG co 02 1> 2 HMn«n«r,>,*/ saojvjoj p9ms S30JVJ0J \svaj p9fpysun l 8V9d U33.lf) x Sdvaj (* t ,svadpuno2D, t i sdifooaj sdyusivj pB9S ssviB pwoqauQ 1 SUOIUQ $W0 miw go a ■«§ 1 3 S 1- ■- ~ "5 ool rt 0> fe "fi-llJ ■O 3 , a .a i &8-aS'8 3 = « 3 8.H.2.2 J HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 165 o q, gj to a rf ***** ir on co w n) _ ,2 hqQ m -J of -S-d-dg d"d . S'*P d bi IIP 1SJR HP!>!> .2 . <"% «H 3 « ! .lis o ° y » d a 3 iHisll .. g ft a 0.1) a a s ? mSS3 *m 1.9 co ft O-t-* P. 60 a 01 to So" d ■satf £3 S3 a p .2 ■all led, d sets; sted; o a o R^a'S.fid ■*? t- " »"q) Cos.-, ~- O o O Mrt o o s o 13 a s o WS ™§ 2& — 03 tall 166 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Apothecaries' Fluid Measure: Apothecaries' Weight: 60 minims = 1 fluid dram 8 fluid drams = 1 fluid ounce 10 fluid ounces = 1 liquid pint 8 liquid pints = 1 gallon (British measures differ from above) 20 grains = 1 scruple 3 scruples = 1 dram Avoirdupois Weight: 27 I J grains 16 drams 16 ounces 25 pounds 28 pounds 4 quarters 20 hundredweight Circular Measure: 8 drams 12 ounces 1 ounce 1 pound = 1 dram = 1 ounce = 1 pound = 1 short quarter = 1 long quarter i K„n^™J«,„: n u (short hundredweight = 100 pounds 1 hundredweight f lnntr hlin HrpHw*£hf. = 1 12 pounds 1 ton ("short ton ( long hundredweight 2000 pounds \ long ton = 2240 pounds Cubic Measure: 60 seconds = 1 minute 60 minutes = 1 degree 90 degrees = 1 quadrant 4 quadrants = 1 circle or circumference 1728 cubic inches 27 cubic feet 144 cubic inches 128 cubic feet = 1 cubic foot = 1 cubic yard = 1 board foot = 1 cord Dry Measure: 2 pints = 1 quart 8 quarts = 1 peck 4 pecks = 1 bushel 1 barrel (for fruit, vegetables, and other dry commodities) = 7056 cubic inches = 105 dry quarts Kitchen measures. See pages 157 and 158 Linear Measure: 12 inches = 1 foot 3 feet = 1 yard 5$4 yards = 1 rod or pole 40 rods = 1 furlong 8 furlongs = 1 statute mile (1760 yards, or 5280 feet) 3 miles = 1 league Linear Measures {special): 1000 mills = 1 inch 72 points = 1 inch 4 inches = 1 hand 7 . 92 inches = 1 surveyor's link 9 inches = 1 span 6 feet = 1 fathom 40 yards = 1 bolt (cloth) 10 chains = 1 furlong 6080.20 feet = 1 nautical mile Liquid Measure: 4 gills = 1 pint 2 pints = 1 quart 4 quarts = 1 gallon 31 H gallons = 1 barrel 2 barrels = 1 hogshead Paper Measure: For small papers the old measure is still in use: 24 sheets = 1 quire 20 quires = 1 ream (480 sheets) 1 . 1516 statute miles HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 167 TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES— Continued For papers put up in cases, bundles, or frames the following measure is now used: 25 sheets = 1 quire 20 quires = 1 standard ream (500 sheets) Square Measure: Surveyor's Measure: 144 square inches square feet 3QH square yards 160 square rods 640 acres 36 square miles = 1 square foot = 1 square yard = 1 square rod or perch = 1 acre = 1 square mile — 1 township (6 miles square) Surveyor's Area Measure 625 square links 7 . 92 inches 100 links 80 chains 1 link (Gunter's or surveyor's) 1 chain ( = 66 feet) 1 mile = 1 (square) pole or square rod 16 (square) poles =1 square chain (surveyor's) 10 square chains or 160 square rods = 1 acre Time Measure: Troy Weight: 640 acres 36 square miles = 1 square mile = 1 township 60 seconds = 1 minute 60 minutes = 1 hour 24 hours 7 days 365 days 366 days 24 grains 20 pennyweights 12 ounces Carat (for precious stones) = 200 milligrams. term having many values in various countries. Karat (fineness of gold) = 1/24 (by weight) gold gold; IS karats fine — 18/24 pure gold. 1 day = 1 week = 1 year = 1 leap year 1 pennyweight 1 ounce 1 pound (Troy) The carat was formerly an ambiguous For example, 24 karats fine = pure INTERNATIONAL METRIC SYSTEM In the international metric system the fundamental unit is the meter — the unit of length. From this the units of capacity (liter) and of weight (gram) were derived. All other units are the decimal subdivisions or multiples of these. These three units are simply related; e. g., for all practical purposes 1 cubic decimeter equals 1 liter and 1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram. The metric tables are formed by combining the words "meter/* "gram," and "liter" with the six numerical prefixes, as in the following tables: Prefixes Meaning Units milli- = one thousandth 1 0.001 1000 1 "meter* * l for length centi- = one hundredth .01 100 1 deci- = one tenth 10 .1 Unit = one 1 "gram" 1 for weight or mass deka- = ten 10 hecto- = one hundred 100 "liter" for capacity kilo- one thousand 1000 1 One meter = 39.37 inches; 1 liter ounce. 1.0567 liquid quarts; 1 gram = 0.035 avoirdupois 168 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING INTERNATIONAL METRIC SYSTEM— Continued Units of Length Units of Capacity Units of Weight (or Mass) millimeter = 0.001 meter milliliter = 0.001 liter milligram = 0.001 gram centimeter = .01 centiliter = .01 " centigram = .01 decimeter = .1 deciliter = . 1 " decigram = .1 METER = 1 LITER = 1 " GRAM = 1 dekameter = 10 dekaliter = 10 ** dekagram = 10 hectometer = 100 hectoliter = 100 " hectogram = 100 kilometer = 1000 kiloliter = 1000 kilogram = 1000 UNITS OF AREA The table of areas is formed by squaring the length measures, as in our common system. For land measure 10 meters square is called an "ARE" (meaning "area"). The side of one are is about 33 feet. The nectare is 100 meters square, and, as its name indicates, is 100 ares, or about 2 U acres. 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CO CO 1-H o b- i-ieotoaoo to iQ-* coco osr-"3co I -( ^e*(N« *#u*ioc0r* aooooso COiD00>-tTji hhhMN is St 45359 90718 36078 81437 26796 72155 17515 62874 08233 to9r*cces ©Cn*i-< .-««Ncq« CO CO HI Tf II It II 11 II II II II II II II II II II D 11.11 II "H-2-5 ■soe ^ P. co o 40924 61387 OS "-* 00 CO i-teococeo .-■r-cooscD eor-NtO'-t CM CM CO CO-* OMtJUOCO HNNM *-r».*cc r» access .-ICOlOf-CS '3" is < s a o 8 B 10348 20696 31044 41392 ooor^ioco rtooos HN«* Wtfr-.Xft .-•CMCOtP gocooin wscor^coas •ncO'-'Tft- »-».-h(N04N E- II II II II II II II II II II II II II 11 II II II 11 2 s s>3 ^1 03215 06430 09645 12860 owor^os COONWOO HHNNN oooo OOOOO *-««<* iocs traces s ososooao TPOSTJHOS cocooco cDeMr*(Nr- t-r»cocoiO TPOSTfOS-* to — T> K^ i4«i«(£e cocomeo tNiO00«-< i-iOOOffilO Tjtr^ostNio II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II 1-8 * 03527 07055 10582 14110 17637 21164 24692 28219 31747 oooo OOOOO **nm*h L'ttf^rc 1 (3 6 06480 12960 19440 25920 00)0003 osr-ioco^H CO 00 CO CO CO NCOiOthoO COCO-^iOiO oooo OOOOO iHN«^ USC9t«CC0S II II II II II II IE II II II II II li II II II II II ao C COCDOCN TtiCONt- ooi-«»noscN r-t •*# CO 00 i-l COOStNUSOS HiOOM'OO 4 *««** U3Wr»Q0» WOCDH I-HCOTftO r*«oocooo r^ooNeo t-tT-trl CHAPTER VI HOUSEHOLD RECORDS by Edith Fleming Bradford The business of housekeeping needs its records, not only those dealing directly with finances — the whence and whither of the income — , but those showing such facts as the quantities of staple supplies bought each season and the amounts remaining on hand. These records should include tested recipes, varying in quantity or cost from the originals, and such data as the comparative cost of supplies, and the time required to carry on different kinds of work in the routine of housekeeping. The filing of correspondence helps to prevent the accumulation of unimportant letters and acts as a reminder that replies are due. It also gives latest addresses, thus replacing the address-book which, of necessity, shows many alterations and is frequently not up to date. Magazine and newspaper clippings become of greater value when systematically arranged than when allowed to accumulate in a desk drawer or when pasted in a scrapbook. Many housekeepers try to preserve data of this nature by mem- ory, dreading the thought of systematizing records to so great an extent. Such organization, however, may be carried out gradu- ally, beginning with the data most frequently used and extend- ing to other subjects of interest. The following list of subjects may suggest a classification of household records: (1) accounts; (2) financial papers, such as insurance policies; (3) inventories of furniture, linen, and the like, with a separate card for each type of equipment, such as chairs, sheets single, sheets double; (4) comparative cost of foods having approximately the same value in the diet; (5) stock of staple food supplies; (6) tested recipes; (7) dishes suitable for each of the three meals, those quickly prepared being 175 176 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING listed separately; (8) household hints on laundry, dyeing, and the like; (9) storage record; (10) time record for certain kinds of household work, when no interruptions occur, valuable not only to the woman who supervises the work of others, but to the one who does her own housework; (11) medical and dental record; (12) correspondence; (13) gift record, of special value to those who send many gifts at Christmas; (14) plans for the future, such as m'aking gardens; (15) amateur photography. Films may be classified according to place or subject. Prints may be placed with films or separately under a similar classifi- cation. HOW TO KEEP HOUSEHOLD RECORDS A small filing cabinet of pasteboard or wood, in which the information is recorded on cards arranged according to the classification chosen, may be used. The general headings should be written or printed on cards known as guides, which are of heavier paper than are those for the records and which have on their upper edge a projection which serves to call attention to the name of the subdivision written upon it. Both classes of cards should be arranged alphabetically. Cards 3 by 5 inches may be used for all records, although they are rather small for recipes and accounts. Many house- keepers use a card 4 by 6 inches for recipes and one that is 5 by 8 inches for accounts; but as far as possible the same size should be used in order to avoid having many filing cases. One cabinet of wood that will harmonize with the study desk or table will be found very convenient. Such a cabinet of one drawer, will accommodate several hundred cards. A desk, with a drawer adapted to the purpose may be bought, or a drawer of suitable depth may be subdivided so that the cards will fit it. In buying a desk it is well to choose one in which the drawers may be so subdivided as to conform to the standard sizes of cards and papers. These sizes are 3 by 5 inches, 4 by 6 inches, 5 by 8 inches, and 8J^ by 11 inches. The last size permits the filing of papers such as clippings, receipted bills, and correspond- ence in the manila folders generally used in offices. These HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 177 manila folders may be classified in the same way as are the cards, the topics treated being noted on the upper left-hand edge of each. The names of the classifications, if there are several, may be written or printed on large guides placed in front of each section of folders. HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS The advantages of keeping household accounts include: (1) an accurate knowledge of the use of the family income; (2) a check on wasteful expenditures; (3) an encouragement to form a proper relationship between the various classes of expendi- tures; (4) an encouragement to save; (5) a protection against paying a bill twice; (6) a settlement of disputes. Equipment. Equipment for keeping accounts may be of the most simple kind. In the kitchen there should be a hanging hook file on which to place delivery slips and bills to await entry in the ac- counts. A small pad for memoranda, to which is attached a pencil, is found to be a timesaver. Either a desk or a small table with a drawer should be provided in the study or in the living- room for keeping the necessary records, which include an ac- count book and a check book. A filing case, with compart- ments indexed alphabetically, serves to keep bills in order. If it is possible to have the best equipment, a desk with a drawer sufficiently large for the fifing of papers, including not only bills but correspondence, is desirable. At least some equipment is necessary in order that there may be a place for everything, a factor which contributes greatly to the satisfaction, as well as to the profit derived. Forms of keeping accounts. Accounts may be kept in book form, either bound or loose leaf, or on cards. The simplest method of keeping accounts is one that records merely receipts and expenditures, each in its own column, no entry being made for charged items until pay- ment is made. For this purpose pages like form 1 (page 183) are good, receipts being kept on the left-hand page and ex- 178 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING penditures on the right-hand page. A book in which the re- ceipts are kept on the left half of the page and the expenditures on the right half of the same page may be used, but such a book generally does not allow sufficient space for all details of itemi- zation. Some persons like to use a book with two columns at the right-hand side of the page, one column for receipts and one for expenditures, but with this form more care must be taken to enter the figures in the proper column. Such a record, however, gives merely the total income and expense for any period of time without answering such questions as the amount of bank balance, of cash balance, how much has been paid for food during a certain period, how the expenditure for food compares with that for rent, how much has been spent for medical service, for wages, for recreation, for education, the amount owed, to what extent the family has been supplied with produce from the home farm or garden; or a question of dietetic significance, such as how the expense for meat and similar foods compares with that for fruit and vegetables. In order to answer such questions, the expenditures must be analyzed. In the type of account shown in form 1 (page 183), such an analysis is difficult, and in a busy household the time is lacking to accomplish it at the end of a month or a year. If, therefore, it is agreed that little satisfaction is to be de- rived from a mere list of daily expenditures, a type of account that readily gives the desired information must be considered (form 2, pages 184 and 185). Expenditures may be divided under the headings shelter, food, clothing, and miscellaneous, and as many subdivisions as desired may be used under these headings. Under shelter, for example, there may be rent, heat, light, wages and laundry, furniture and furnishings. In case the house is occupied by the owner, the rent column may be replaced by one in which are recorded such items as repairs, taxes, and insurance. The head- ing food may be subdivided into meat and eggs, milk and cream, fruits and vegetables, groceries and miscellaneous items. Under the heading clothing may be entered all the expenses for such supplies for the family, or an account may be opened for each HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 179 individual. Miscellaneous will include such items as education, traveling expenses, medical services, allowances to children, recreation, and benevolence. In the foregoing types of accounts all cash is entered in the receipts column; therefore, in order to prove the accuracy of the record, the difference between receipts and expenditures must agree with the sum of the bank balance, as shown by the check- book, and the cash on hand. In the plan outlined in form 2 (pages 184 and 185), the totals of the columns showing the sub- division of expenditures must agree with the total of the ex- penditures column. If the number of columns is too large to be accommodated on one page, a separate page of columns may be ruled for each of the divisions: cash account, charge account, produce, shelter, food, clothing, and miscellaneous (form 3, pages 186 to 189). This necessitates the entering of dates on the proper page of subdivisions, as well as in the cash account, the charge account, or the produce account. The ruling of pages in form 3 (pages 186 to 189) will explain this matter more fully. As much detail as is desired may be given in the itemization columns. More than one item may be written on each line, if dates are inserted where there is a change. The charge ac- counts of a household are generally with so few firms that either of the forms shown on pages 184 and 187 may be used satis- factorily. If the firms with whom charge accounts are kept are numerous, however, it may be well to devote a separate page to each firm. If it is considered desirable to keep a separate record of the bank account and the cash account, another subdivision may be made as shown in form 3 (page 186). The advantage of this method is that it serves as a test of the accuracy of the bank book and the check book, and it a.so shows the state of the bank account without reference to any other record. The opening entry of a cash, account must be "balance on hand," the bank balance being shown in the deposits column, and the cash balance in the receipts column. Later entries will be as follows: 180 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Bank deposits in the deposits column. Withdrawals from the bank in both the withdrawals and the receipts columns. Receipts for current use in the receipts column. Expenditures, whether by check or in cash, in the expenditures column, as well as in the proper column on the page of the subdivision of expenditures. Goods for which payment is not made, in the right-hand column of the charge account and also on the proper page of subdivisions. Payment of a charged item or items in the expenditures column, and in the left-hand column of the charge account. In entering such items, ref- erence should be made to the name of the firm and the date on which the bill was rendered. Receipt of produce, valued at current market rates, in the produce account and on the proper page of subdivisions. If an account such as that indicated in form 3 (pages 186 to 189) is to be kept, a loose-leaf account book may be used so that additional sheets may be inserted where they are needed. If a bound book is preferred and it is necessary to rule all the sheets used, the book may be divided into portions, each of which consists of a sufficient number of pages to accommodate a year's records. To balance accounts It is desirable that accounts be balanced at least once each week in order that errors and omissions may be avoided. In balancing accounts, totals of all columns may be inserted in small pencil figures, which, if not erased, make it unnecessary to repeat the addition at the end of the accounting period. A test of the accuracy of such records is as follows: Deposits minus withdrawals = bank balance. (This must agree with the check book and with the bank-book balance minus the checks not yet presented.) Receipts minus expenditures = cash on hand Balance in the charge accounts = amount owing Total of all subdivisions of expenditures = total of expenditures in the cash account, plus produce, plus balance in the charge account. To pass to a new page, the totals are entered at the foot of the completed page and again at the top of the new page in the corresponding columns, the word forward being written in the itemization column on each page. HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 181 To close accounts. Accounts may be closed monthly* or yearly according to whether it is desired to compare the records of: (1) different months of the same year; (2) corresponding months of different years; or (3) yearly totals. At the end of each accounting period, however, the old account should be closed by entering, preferably in red ink, the bank balance in the withdrawals column and the cash balance in the expenditures column of the cash account, and by then obtaining the totals of all the columns. The same balances should be carried forward to the deposits and the re- ceipts columns, respectively, of the new account, as shown in form 3. Summaries for comparison. Monthly or annual summaries may be arranged in the fol- lowing form: Income $ Expenditures: Food $ Shelter $ Clothing $ Miscellaneous $ Total $ Balance $ Produce account $ As an example, on pages 183 to 189 are found entries neces- sary to record the following facts in the three types of accounts : On May 1, 1916, the bank balance was $285.46 and the cash balance $17.64. Bought from A. B. Jones on account 6 pounds of butter at $.35 a pound, $2.10; 2 bushels of potatoes at $1.00 a bushel, $2.00; 10 pounds of sugar at $.08 a pound, $.80. May 2, paid rent by check, $30.00; bought for cash from L. K. Harvey, 3 dozen eggs at $.22 a dozen, $.66; received check for $50.00 from F. A. Brown for board and deposited it; received from J. Williams, salary, $30.00, of which $20.00 was deposited and $10.00 retained in cash. May 3, paid account of May 1 with A. B. Jones, $4.90. May 5, bought 9 yards of dress goods at $1.25 a yard, $11.25; gathered garden vegetables worth $.20 for home use; paid $2.00 for magazine sub- scription to May 1, 1917. 182 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING By checking these accounts according to form 3, the following results are obtained: Bank Account: Deposits. . .• $355.46 Withdrawals 30.00 Balance $325.46 Cash Account: Receipts $57.64 Expenditures 48.81 Balance $ 8.83 Total Balance $334.29 Amount Owing . 00 Produce $ .20 Expenditures: Shelter $ 30.00 Food 5.76 Clothing 11.25 Miscellaneous: Education 2.00 Total $ 49.01 HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 183 O O O o n O O •"• CO O O £2 o >a co SS CO ™ CO H Ph I— I H O ■* CO u S ■* . 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