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S>tate College of agriculture 
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3 1924 052 334 350 
 
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 Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
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IRRIGATiai WITH REFERENCE TO 
 
 TRUCK FARMING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 
 
 Minor Thesis. 
 
 Presented for the degree M. S. A. 
 1911. 
 
 By 
 
 C. S. Wright. 
 
Irrigation with Reference to Truck Farming in the Eastern United 
 
 States. Minor Thesis Outline, 
 
 A, General Relation of Irrigation to Soil Management and Crop Prod- 
 uction. 
 
 I. Principles of Irrigation. !• 
 
 1. Relation of soil moisture to plant growth. I. 
 
 2. Relation of irrigation to rainfall and climate. 5. 
 
 3. Water storage capacity to different soils. 7. 
 
 4. Distinction between irrigation in arid & humid climatesJ 
 
 10. 
 
 II. Extent of irrigation. 12. 
 
 1. Historical development. 12. 
 
 2. Extent in different sections. 21. 
 
 3. Extent in United States. Arid, 31. 
 
 Semi-arid. 41. 
 
 Humid. 44. 
 
 Ill, Provision of water for irrigation. 
 
 1, Source of water. 48 • 
 
 2, Irrigation works. 54. 
 
 3, U, S, Reclamation Service. Brief, 55. 
 
 4, Measurement of water for irrigation units and methods, 58 
 
 5, Losses of water in distribution. Reservoirs and canals. 
 
 59. 
 
 IV. Application of water. 
 
 1, Duty of water. Amount required for crop production. 
 
 Pact or s affecting. 72. 62© 
 
 2, Methods of applying water. Advantages and disadvantages. 
 
 3, Relative importance of large and small applications of 
 
 water. 80 • 
 
 4, Importance of mulching in relation to irrigation, 84. 
 
 5, Relation of irrigation to "alkali**, 85. 
 
 6, Relation of irrigation to "dry farming", 91. 
 
 7, Sewage irrigation, ^3. 
 
 V. Cost of irrigation, 9S. 
 
 1, Water. 
 
 2. Distribution. 
 
B. Irrigation of truck crops in humid sections. 
 
 I. Extent of irrigation in eastern United States. 
 
 1. General farming. 99. 
 
 2. Special crops. lOI. 
 
 3. TruitB. lOI. 
 
 4. VegetaToles. 102. 
 
 II. Systems of olDtaining and distributing water, wells, reservoirs, 
 tanks, canals and pipe systems, pumping pH,ants, etc. 103. 
 
 III. Methods of applying water. Advantages and disadvantages 
 
 with reference to crops, soils and cost. ■^o^' 
 
 IV. Amount of water used per application and season. 108. 
 
 V. Cost of applying water to different crops and soils hy 
 
 diffent methods. 110. 
 
 VI. Crop returns from irrigation, classified. 112. 
 
 VII. Sewerage irrigation. Extent of practice, crops. 115. 
 
 VIII. Outlook of irrigation under humid climate. Kinds of soil 
 
 and crops to which "best applicahle and their prohahle extent. 
 
 116. 
 
 Replies to circmlar letters. 117. 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 Supplying vegetation with moisture when natural 
 causes are not sufficient to produce the results desired. 
 Mechanical interference with nature for definite results. 
 
 2 
 TWO purposes of irrigation. 
 
 To Increase the crop producing power of land 
 that is cultivated under rahfall moisture. 
 
 To bring into cultivation lands that receive 
 too little rainfall for the profitable production of crops. 
 Objects of Irrigation. 
 
 The chief use of irrigation is to supplement 
 an irregular and insufficient rainfall. The secondary ob- 
 kects are to enrich the land or to correct alkali.^ 
 To enrich the land: 
 
 Many waters, although they may seem perfectly 
 pure, carry some fertilizing material in solution or suspen- 
 sion which will be deposited in the soil when the water is 
 applied and allowed to evaporate or seep down. Sewage waters 
 are possibly extreme cases of water carrying fertility. 
 
 Water from a muddy stream may be applied to an open 
 sandy soil to change Its texture, bringing its particles in 
 closer contact with each other. 
 
 1. N. H. Bui. 34. 
 
 2. Bailey, Cyc. Agr., Vol. IV, p, 154. 
 3.S. W. Fletcher, Soils, 236-237. 
 
1. PRINCIPLES OF IRRIGATION. 
 
 Relation of soil moisture to plant growth. 
 
 It is probable that the earliest forms of life 
 came into being in the water, and were made very largely 
 of water. As yet there is no form of plant imoim to exist 
 without water although there are some which can live on a 
 very small supply. 
 
 Water makes up a large part by weight of all 
 living and growing parts of plant life, and it is a medium 
 in which the transformation of the ermde materials to as- 
 similable food-products takes place, also furnishing a 
 means of transportation of these products to the points 
 of growth. 
 
 There are conditions where plants appear to 
 thrive and produce fair yields with relatively small 
 amounts of water, but there is always a supply somewhere 
 either from seepage or capillarity which the plant's 
 roots reach. 
 
 Water is indispensable to plant growth and ia 
 used more than any other substance, so that it is Impos- 
 sible to overestimate its importance as a plant food, al- 
 though it must be borne in mind thatwater is seldom if 
 ever a complete plant food. 
 
 Frequent warm rains in springs are of greater 
 importance to a hay meadow than is an application of 
 
 1. ting, pp. 1-45. 
 
fertilizer without rain. 
 
 Otj! a potato field at the time the tubers are 
 forming, an abundance of water is far more important than 
 an abundance of fertilizer. 
 
 All waters iiiaioh have been exposed to the atmos- 
 phere have become charged with oxygen, carbonic acid and 
 nitrogen, which they carry with them into the soil, and 
 these aid in one way or another, both the physical and 
 life processes which make for fertility. 
 
Experiments with wheat at Tulare showed the 
 maximum yield to be produced when from 18-24 inches of 
 water was applied. Barley shov;ed best yield with same 
 amo\mts. Horse beans at Berkeley; maximim amount used 
 was 38". Yield Increased with theincreas* of applica- 
 tion. 
 
 The croprproducing capacity*^ of a certain 
 amount of rain-fall or irrigation depends upon several 
 factors such as, time of irrigation or time when rain 
 falls, retentiveness of the soil, and skill of the 
 farmer in the conservation of moisture. Ten inches 
 of rain-fall in one section may be equal to sixteen 
 inches in another. 
 
 At least ei^t to twelve inches of rain-fall 
 are needed to produce a profitable crop of wheat, al- 
 though the wheat uses less than half that much. It is 
 estimated that 4 l/2 inches of rain-fall is required 
 to produce a yield of 15 bushels of wheat, and twice 
 as much or nine Inches to produce 30 bushels. 
 
 1. 0. E. S. Bui. 177, p. 64. 
 
 2. Fletcher, Soils, p, 238. 
 
2. RELATION OP IRRIGATION TO RAIN-FALL AND CIIMTE. 
 
 The^ question of whether irrigation should be 
 practiced in any given station, and will it be profit- 
 able, may be answered directly by the amount and seasonal 
 distribution of rain-fall, coupled with the soil and climate 
 
 In secticns where the annual rain-fall is very 
 small, irrigation is a necessity, ifrtiile in sections vrtiere 
 there is a high annual rainfall, but not always well dis- 
 tributed throu^out the growing season, irrigation is 
 used as a supplement. 
 
 In California the rain all falls during the 
 rainy season, which is from November to April. In Wash- 
 ington the rainy season is from October to May. 
 
 In both of these cases the water gets v/ell into 
 the soil before the crop is put upon the ground. There 
 is moisture enough present to produce germination. The 
 roots at first develop near the surface, then as the 
 moisture is reduced, the roots increase in depth, advanc- 
 ing more and more deeply as the season progresses, and 
 the water-table becomes lowered. 
 
 In these tv/o sections the rain falls in the 
 cooler portion of the year, when the air is more nearly 
 satxirated and the wind veolcities are small, the sun be- 
 ing obscured much of the time by clouds; these conditions 
 allow the greater portion of the water to enter the soil, 
 
 1. King, 95-110. 
 
the loss from evaporation being small. The soil i^ deep, 
 and retentive, preventing loss from drainage and acting 
 as a very capable reservoir, thus by the aid of good sitrf- 
 ace cultivation holding the moisture, giving it up slowly 
 to the plant roots and keeping them quite well supplied 
 during their growing season. 
 
 In Kansas where the rain falls largely in the 
 form of showers in the heated, sunny season of the year, 
 «ftien wind velocities are hi^ and the air extremely dry, 
 a large portion of the ran is lost by evaporation, only 
 the surface soil is moistened, the plant roots develop 
 in the surface few Inches and when a short drought oc- 
 curs the roots tend to go dovm for moisture, but there 
 is none there and they are destroyed, so that vHcien the 
 next shower comes there are no rootlets to absorb it, 
 and it is all lost to evaporation. 
 
7. 
 
 3. WATER STORAGE CAPACITY TO DIFFERENT SOILS. 
 
 In Hawaii-'- experiments were carried on to de- 
 termine the power of soils to b4sorb and retain moisture, 
 the results showing that soil containing nitrogen in the 
 form of decayed vegetable matter increased the absorbing 
 power from 44.6^ to 66. 5f, and the retaining power from 
 6.2% to 19.7^. 
 
 Following the action of organia matter, the next 
 most important factor in determining the power of soils to 
 take up and hold water is the relative amount of clay, or 
 of the elements wftiich form clay, present in the soil. 
 Soil samples without clay:-- 
 
 Water absorbed 31-8^, at the end of one month 
 there was left 12,4^, and at the end of five months 2.b%, 
 
 Hiili Water absorbed 86.4JS, end of one month 52. SJ^, 
 end of five months ZQ,2%. 
 
 Illustrating the material increase in absorp- 
 tion and retention power, when clay was added. 
 
 In Colorado^ from 1870-1875 there was no plant 
 adapted to upland culture. Alfalfa ai?rived in 1873, and 
 up to this time the potato crop was not benefited by ir- 
 rigation in the Greeley colony. 
 
 When alfalfa began to be turned under as a green 
 crop, thus adding humus to the soil, they found it was pes- 
 
 1. Off. Expt. Stas. Bui. 90. 
 
 2. Yearbook, 1904, pp. 311-322. 
 
9 
 
 Promoting storage of moisture in soils. 
 
 Where the annual precipitation is only barely 
 sufficient for the crop, it is very important that the 
 soil be kept in such a condition that it will be able 
 to take up and store as large a proportion of it as pos- 
 sible. Thus it is evident that ploughing should be done 
 in the fall as early as possible and deep enough to af- 
 ford a reservoir to receive the rain-fall which may fall 
 before spring. 
 
10 
 
 4. DISTINCTION BETWEEN IRRIGATION IN ARID AND HUMID CLIMATES. 
 
 In the arid climates the soil is light and sandy, 
 the rain-fall is very small, evaporation is great, in all 
 the conditions are much against the remaining of any moist- 
 ure in the soil. The soil is rich in the chemical elements 
 of fertility and is fertile, the rain-fall is insufficient 
 to sustain crop production. 
 
 Artificial application of water is necessary to 
 mature any crop. 
 
 Experiments seem to show that the best results 
 are obtained by giving the land thorough soa kings at con- 
 siderable intervals of time, practicing deep durface 
 tillage and thus encouraging deep root development to 
 avoid the burning hot rays from the sun. 
 
 The scorching winds of the arid sections are a 
 menace to plant growth, drying the water from the soil 
 and from the plants as well. Thorough irrigation and 
 surface tillage is the only means by which plant growth 
 may be secured. 
 
 Other things being equal, more water will be 
 required in an arid region than in a humid region; more 
 in a warm than in a cold climate; more on a clay than on 
 a sandy soil; more in a windy section than in a region 
 of a comparatively still atmosphere; more with a high 
 soil moisture content, more on a poor soil and more wa- 
 ter is used per pound of dry matter produced in a small 
 crop than is required in a large crop. 
 ■^rw- Ly o ft k Fippin, Soils, p. 134. 
 
11 
 
 In hiunid climates the annual rain-fall is 
 sufficient to mature crops, the question of distri- 
 bution being the important one. Ofhere may be a time 
 during the growing season when a drought will result 
 from the lack of rain; in such cases irrigation is 
 necessary to supplement for rain. 
 
 On light sandy soils heavy irrigations are 
 perfectly sale, but on heavy clay soils judgment must 
 be used in the amount of water to apply at one time. 
 It is not xmcommon to get sudden heavy showers of an 
 inch or more followed perhaps by a day or more of 
 stormy weather; if this comes just after a thorough 
 
 irrigation has been made, there is a possibility of 
 decrease rather than increase in crop production, as 
 excessive moisture during a time when the air is also 
 heavily laden is very conducive to spore germination 
 and thus to disease spread. This applies more espec- 
 ially to the more valuable crops such as truck garden 
 or (vegetable) crop. 
 
12 
 
 II. EXTENT OF IRRIGATION. 
 Historical Development of Irrigation in the Old World. 
 
 It is stated that the first artificial lake or 
 reservoir of which we have authentic record was lake Maeris, 
 constructed some historians say by King Maeris, and others 
 by King Amenemhet III, 2084 B. c. This lake communicated 
 vdth the Nile by a canal 12 miles long and 5o feet broad. 
 When the reiver rose to a height of 24 feet and was likely 
 to be disastrous to crops, the sluices were opened and the 
 river relieved by sending the flood into the lake, and at 
 the ti.ie of low water the gates were opened and the water 
 from the lake used to reinforce the stream, in 1491 B. C, 
 Swsostris, who reigned in Egypt, is said to have had a 
 great number of canals cut for the purposes of trade and 
 irrigation. Irrigation canals in Egypt was very numerous, 
 using up the 3:*eater part of the flow from the Nile. 
 
 The Assyrians appear to have had great skill in 
 irrigating and water problems in very early times, they 
 developed extended irrigating systems, n^iich converted 
 the naturally sterile valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris 
 into the most fertile of fields. They constructed a res- 
 ervoir 42 miles in circumference and 35 feet deep into 
 which they could turn the whole Euphrates river, by moans 
 of an artificial canal, uie of their great works which 
 stands out as a piece of bold engineering hardly equalled 
 by anything of its kind in mod«rn times, is the great 
 canal from the Tigris leading toward Samara, which was 
 400 Miles long with a width varying from 250 to 400 fe^t, 
 and used with its numerous branches on either side to 
 the broad irrigated fields, and its main part used for 
 commerce. 
 
 At the time of the invasion of Agrica the Syra- 
 cusan General wrote that the African shore was covered 
 with gardens and large plantations everywhere abounding 
 in canals by means of which they were plentifully watered. 
 
 In the early Grecian aind Roman history irriga- 
 tion and waterways are spoken of, and the descriptions 
 show that they mur.t have been immense and required an 
 immense amount of time and labor to construct. Rome in 
 Nero's time was supplied with water by large acqueducts 
 for drinking purposes, etc., said to aggregate a length 
 of 255 miles, and deliver 312,500,000 gallons. 
 
 When the Romans invaded Prance they constructed 
 great systems of water works fear ti^e cities in the various 
 places. The Nismes conduit eonstructed 19 h: C, and de- 
 livering 14,000,000 gallons daily, is noted for the great 
 Pont du Gard which carried it across a ravine and which is 
 
13, 
 
 spoken of as one of the greatest monvunents the Romans 
 left in France. 
 
 China, like Egypt, dates its early enterprises 
 of irrigation and transportation by water far back into 
 antiquity; tthe great Imperial Canal there has a length 
 of 650 miles, connecting the Hoany-Ho with the Yang-tse- 
 Kiang, Its depth seldom exceeds 5 to 6 feet and the water 
 in it moves at about 2 l/2 miles per hour. 
 
 Third edition, King, 66-71. 
 
 The^ earliest Egyptian sculptures show water 
 being raised from the Nile in buckets and poured on the 
 land. The works along the Nile and the Euphrates have 
 an unbroken historical record reaching back more than 
 2000 years before Christ. The great works of Beloochistan 
 
 were built by a race whose history is unknown. There 
 are irrigation works in Southern India built by the Hin- 
 dus which antedate the Christian era, iisiiile in many parts 
 of the Western Hemisphere, notably in Peru and the south- 
 western part of United States, there are remains of an- 
 cient irrigation works, evidently centuries older than 
 any historical record. In some countries, irrigation has 
 risen and disappeared with the civilization of which it 
 formed a part. This is true of the irrigation works con- 
 nected with the Aztec Civilization in the Western Hemie- 
 sphere. There are evidences of prehistoric irrigation 
 in the Hawaiian Islands. Many of the irrigation canals 
 of the Tigris and Euphrates have been abandoned, and few 
 have maintained their ancient importance. 
 
 1. Bailey, Cyc. Agr. p. 420. 
 
14 
 
 Irrigation has been practiced in America from 
 time immemorial by the town-building ^Pueblo Indian tribes 
 inhabiting portions of New Mexico and Arizona. The Mor- 
 mons entered Salt Lake Valley 1847, at which time there 
 were probably not moi'e than a few hundred acres irrigated 
 by Indians, Mexicans and the California Missions. The 
 Union colony settled at Greeley, Colo., in 1870, 23 years 
 after the Mormons had begun to irrigate. It is probable 
 that there were not more than 20,000 acres under irriga- 
 tion in the United States in 1970- From 1870 to 1880 was 
 a period of rapid development of small ditches constructed 
 by individuals and a ssociations of farmers. At the end of 
 that period there were probably 1,000,000 acres \inder ir- 
 rigation. Prom 1880 to 1890 occurred the "boom" of spec- 
 ulative enterprise of money and labor, nearly all proving 
 financial failures, but they aided in tiie extension of 
 irrigation. 
 
 In 1889 there were 3,631,381 acres irrigated on 
 54,136 farms, average area of 67 acres. The following 
 decade, irrigated acreage doubled in extent. 
 
 The agricultural wealth of that vast region 
 lying west of the Missouri River was first made known 
 by settlers whose poverty compelled them to make use of 
 the cheapest methods in rendering the arid lands pro- 
 ductive. They lead water from the nearest stream by the 
 
15, 
 
 use of plough and shovel. Since then many Ipplements 
 and methods have been used but still much remains to be 
 done before tirie water of the western streams is effi- 
 ciently and economically applied to arid lands. To rem- 
 edy this the Irrigation investigations of the Department 
 of Agriculture were instituted C1896) to be carried on 
 wherever practicable in conjunction with western exper- 
 iment stations. Results: 1. To show that vast amounts 
 
 are 
 of water/now being wasted in transportation, delivery, and 
 
 use by crude and defective means. This waste is being 
 slowly diminished but still the highest duty has not been 
 reached. 
 
 Land now irrigated in the West 13,000,000 acres. 
 Over 50,000,000 acre feet of water being diverted for this 
 purpose, and it is believed that only about one-third of 
 this volume of water is utilized in nourishing plant 
 growth, balance being wasted. All of this waste cannot 
 be prevented, but it is thought that enough might be 
 saved to irrigate under careful use about 7,000,000 acres. 
 
 Census XII, Vol. 6, p. 801, 
 
16, 
 
 EARLY DEVELOPI/IENT OF THE CULTIVATION OP LAND 
 
 BY IRRIGATION IN TH3 NEW WORLD. 
 
 Traces of an early civilization in Colorado, 
 New Mexico and Arizona, extending tlirough Mexico and 
 Central America into Peru, are foiind in the ruins of 
 ancient towns and irrigating canals in many places. 
 When the Spaniards invaded Mexico, Central America and 
 Peru, they were great3.y surprised to find in these 
 countries, particularly in Peru, theland of the Incas, 
 very elaborate and extensive irrigation systems, laid 
 out and in actual general use by these people. 
 
 Prescott, in his "Conquest of Peru," speaking 
 of the use of water for irrigation, vvrites that water 
 "was conveyed througti canals and acqueducts built on a 
 noble scale from large slabs of Freestone fitted together 
 without cement, and carrying w^ter great distances in some 
 cases. One that traversed the district of Condesuyos was 
 between 400 and 500 miles long. They lead from some nat- 
 ural reservoir in the heart of the mountains, being fed at 
 
 intervals from other basins. These were built without 
 the aid of iron tools, through ores and around all sorts 
 of difficult lands. 
 
 King, 71-72. 
 
17. 
 
 IRRIGATION PRO:,_ PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 During the first century and before water was 
 
 it 
 used to help trees during the heats of summer, and was 
 
 known to be a benefit. Also it v/as known that water 
 was injurious in winter, its effects in autumn depended 
 upon the nature of the soil. It was known that an ex- 
 cess injured the roots, and that old trees required more 
 than young. In the Fabian district of Italy, the habit 
 of irrigating the fields or vineyards, the water took the 
 place of the wfeedingchook as it killed all weeds, and 
 nourished the corn, showing the water must have been salt. 
 In winter when frosty prevailed, they irrigated to wargi 
 the soil, the v/ater from the Sangro River having this 
 peculiar effect. 
 
 THE PROPER METHOD OF WATERING GARDENS. Theophrastus. 
 Evening is preferred to morning, evaporation not 
 being so quick, and the plant profiting more from the water. 
 
 Pliny. 
 
 The proper times for watering are the morning 
 and the evening. Transplanted plants especially benefited. 
 
18, 
 
 Th^ first conception of irrigation as essential 
 to the growth of fruits in a country with a rainless summer- 
 
 The Spanish missionaries who entered California 
 from Mexico in 1769 established fruit gardens and vineyards 
 with irrigation facilities along the coast region. 
 
 They laid off their plantations in old Spanish 
 style and proceeded upon the assiimption that fruit could 
 not be grown in California without irrigation. They dug 
 permanent ditches, and ran water through them frequently, 
 to the uncultivated orchard or vineyard. 
 
 Soon after the discovery of gold in California 
 and the arrival of the Americans, it was found that sxirface 
 cultivation would conserve the moistu-e from, the rainy sea- 
 sons and the second conception was that irrigation was not 
 necessary and was injurious to the fruit crop, that culti- 
 vation was the pei?fect condition and produced the better 
 fruit; these tv/o ideas were not upheld by all growers, some 
 advocated irrigation, others no irrigation, but cultivation. 
 
 The result was they found on some land that the 
 non-irrigation failed to produce fruit, while irrigation 
 produced a very successful crop. 
 
 They kept watching conditions and plainly say 
 that dormant trees set in the wet season would grow well, 
 and continue through the early part of the dry season, 
 but as the dry season advanced they would stop growing and 
 perish, as the soil moisture became exhausted beyond the 
 
 1. Farmers' Bui. 116. 
 
19. 
 
 reach of the roots j if the soil was heavy it would become 
 as hard as a rock, if it was light! t would become an ash 
 heap. 
 
 On the other hand, they saw that where the surface 
 had been mellowed after the late rains had cojnpacted the snrf- 
 acev directly opposite behavior of the plants was seen, the 
 growth was continued, fruit were plentiful, of good size and 
 color; thus they gladly welcomed the fact that cultivation 
 was an advantage over running water over the hard dry soil. 
 
 As cultivation proved itself to be a relief froci 
 irrigation, providing the amount of rain-fall was suffi- 
 cient to support a year's growth and fruitage: providing 
 the soil has Sufficient retentiveness to hold water from 
 evaporation or leaching; providing there is sufficient 
 
 depth of soil to form a capacious reservoir- 
 
 Thus they found that in order to get a success- 
 ful crop without irrigation, they must have a deep soil 
 of loagi nature retentive to moisture, which was kept cult- 
 ivated, and especially during the rainy season, so as much 
 of the rain as possible would be taken in and stored in- 
 stead of being allowed to rtm off. 
 
 The question arises: is it better to apply flowing 
 water or have natural rain-fall? The answer given is that it 
 makes no difference so long as the irrigation is not over- 
 done; the correct amount of water applied either way proves 
 
20 
 
 very satisfactory. Where water is applied from ponds or 
 streams, it contans humus and minerals enough to pay in 
 fertility for its application. 
 
 At first there were many objections registered 
 against the fruit grown on the irrigated lands of Cali- 
 fornia, but this was due to the overirrigation #iich 
 forced too large and soft a growth. 
 
21, 
 
 II. EXTENT OF IRRIGATION. 
 
 In different sections. 
 
 Europe. In Italy irrigation had a very early 
 development and has been practiced yearly ever since. 
 
 Mulberry orchards and various kinds of farm 
 crops are extensively grown and irrigated in the Po val- 
 ley. In Sicily and southem Italy nearly all fruit cult- 
 ure is carried on by means of irrigation. In Lombardy 
 there were.:under irrigation in lg78, 4,715,000 acres. 
 
 In Spain irrigation is very widely practiced 
 on cereals, vegetables, and fruits, farm crops and grass 
 lands, area irrigated reaiching up into the thousands of 
 acres. 
 
 In France, irrigation was practiced in earliest 
 times, and has been greatly developed; the national gov- 
 ernment controls some of the largest irrigating canals 
 and systems. 
 
 In Switzerland the waters from the mountain 
 streams have been used to irrigate the meadows for many 
 yeetrs . 
 
 In Belgium the land is naturally very light and 
 sandy and before irrigation practices were begun was prac- 
 tically harren of vegetation. There has been an enormous 
 amount of work done in Vcb construction of canals and the 
 land value has been very greatly increased, because of the 
 iacrease in its crop producing power under irrigation 
 nractice . 
 
22 
 
 In iDenmark, irrigation has been used to reclaim 
 tte land to a great advantage, Increasing land value by 
 nearly one hundred dollars per acre. 
 
 In Austria Hungary. 
 
 There are portions where irrigation water is 
 conveyed by gravity from the higher lakes, streams, etc., 
 to the grass meadows, and in other pprtions various meth- 
 ods of lifting the water are used especially for the small- 
 er meadows . 
 
 In England, the oldest ruins of irrigation works 
 are of questionable origin, probably being constructed at 
 the time of the Romans in England. Water meadows have 
 been known in the southern parts for many years. 
 
 On the continent of Asia, irri^tion is practiced 
 in many countries, but India is probably the point of great- 
 est attention both in ancient and modem development. Ex- 
 tensive canals have been constructed and many sources of 
 water developed. In the Island of Ceylon,c the ruins of ir- 
 rigation systems have been regenerated. 
 
 In Australia irrigation practice is of a more 
 recent origin than other countries, and it undoubtedly will 
 continue on the increase. 
 
 In China, canals are established to senve two 
 purposes, transportation and source of water for irriga- 
 tion practice. 
 
23. 
 
 In Japan irrigation has been practiced extensive- 
 ly from time imn^emorial, as it has in China, irrigation be- 
 ing necessary to produce the maximiom of crops on the land 
 to supply the many people. Rice being one of the major 
 crops, there is need of a vast amount of water. 
 
 tXi- Africa, irrigation practice has been in ope- 
 ration many years. In Egypt along the Nile River, covering 
 a narrow strip along the river's course. Many artesian 
 wells have been sunk in the provinces of Algiers, Oran, 
 
 and Constantine. The water found contains nitrates in 
 
 o 
 
 abxindance and this adds fertility as well as water to the 
 irrigated land. 
 
 On the Islands of the Pacific Ocean, especially 
 the e^gigar cane growing islands, as Hawaii, vast systems 
 of irrigation have been constructed and are in use, the 
 yield of sugar cane being doubled by the practice. 
 
 On the American continent. 
 
 In South America there were extensive irrigation 
 works previous to the occupancy of that continent by the 
 Spanish and Portuguese, on both slopes of th: Andean ranges 
 
 In Central America and Mexico irrigation has been 
 more or less extensive since the early history. 
 
 According to the statements of Wilson given by 
 King, page 88, area in different sections: 
 
 "The total area irrigated in India is about 
 26,000,000 acres, in Egypt about 6,000,000 acres, and in 
 Italy about 3,700,000 acres. 
 
24, 
 
 "In Spain there are 500,000 acres, in France 
 400,000 acres, and in the United States 4,000,000 acres 
 of irrigated land. Meaning that crops are grown on 
 40,000,000 acres which, but for irrigation, would be 
 relatively barren or not profitably productive. In ad- 
 dition to these figures, there are some millions more 
 of acres cultivated by the aid of irrigation in China, 
 Japan, Australia, Algeria, South America, and alsewhere." 
 
 The amount of rain-fall a section may have dur- 
 ing the year does not control the question of whether ir- 
 rigation shall be used or notj the distribution of the 
 rain-fall during the growing season is the main point. 
 It is necessary in most sections to have a fair annual 
 rain-fall inobrder to fill the soil and give rise to 
 springs, streams, and wells, or there could be no water 
 for irrigation. There are cases where irrigation water 
 is supplied to a dry country by a voluminous stream from 
 a region of heavy rain- fa 11, as Egypt is supplied by the 
 Nile River - 
 
 In many of the sections where irrigation is 
 practiced there is a fairly heavy and uniformly distrib- 
 uted rain-fall; in these cases irrigation is supplementary 
 rather than absolutely necessary, the increase in water 
 bringing increase in yield of crops and thereby paying 
 for itself. 
 
 King, Irrigation and Drainage. 
 
25. 
 
 EGYPT lAK I RRI GAT ION . 
 
 Off. Expt. Stas. Bui. 130, pp, 100. 
 
 One feature of Egyptian irrigation which is almost 
 1; eking in America is the use of water-raising devices; and 
 it is a problem which will have to be solved in the United 
 States, to take the water from the streaiiS. 
 
 In Egypt as in America the use of water on the 
 higher lands has ruined large areas of lower lands by rais- 
 ing the. level of the ground water, and with it the alkaline 
 salts from the subsoil, and the vrark of reclaiming these al- 
 kali lands has gone much farther in Egypt than in America, 
 considering the fact that a great portion of the land is be- 
 low sea level and the level of the lakes. 
 
 The irrigation canals conyey vsater to the farms, 
 but the irrigation must raise the water for the fields, 
 labor is very cheap and the farms are small, the hogf is 
 the only instrument used in distributing the water over 
 the fields, the water-raising devices are largely worked 
 by hand, as the shaduf and the natali, archimedian screw, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Many of the irrigation structures of Egypt are 
 models of their kind, such as the dams, leafl-gates, wafete 
 
 gates, etc. 
 
 The regulators and bridges of the larger canals 
 will always be objects of study for irrigation engineers 
 of other countries. 
 
26. 
 
 The question in Egypt is to store the water 
 which the Nile carries during its flood season. If this 
 can be done, there will be an ample supply and in a few 
 years the demand for land will exceed the demand for 
 water. With us the area of irrigable land will ulti- 
 mately be limited by the v/ater supply. 
 
 Early irrigation in California:^ vftien the ad- 
 venturous missionaries pushed their way through to the 
 Pacific coast, they taught the Indians the crude art of 
 irrigation as they went, thus starting the first small im- 
 pulse toward the conquest of California's fertile soil; 
 with the early churches and gardens, the skill arid labor 
 reqirired to build the first rude furrows are now of little 
 importance In comparing with the monumental engineering 
 works vhich succeeded them, and they are an insignificant 
 feature in a landscape which now includes miles upon miles 
 of cement-lined aqueducts, scores of pumping stations, and 
 acres upon acres of orange and lemon orchards cultivated 
 with great thcroughness and skill. 
 
 For the beginnings of Anglo-Saxon irrigation in 
 this country we must go to the Salt Lake valley of Utah, 
 where, in July, 1849, the Mormon pioneers turned the clear 
 waters of City Creek upon the sunbaked alkaline soil, in 
 order that they might plant the very last of their stock 
 of potatoes in the hope of bringing forth a crop fo save 
 the little company from starvation. Utah thus is the 
 1. Yearbook, 1899, 591-612. 
 
27. 
 
 cradle of our modern irrigation industry. 
 
 The Mormon church had a great influence upon the 
 first settlers; helping them organize and figliting together 
 for eachother's good and the maintenance of all, the con- 
 structed an irrigation canal, divided their farms to about 
 thirty acres and each f ; rm grev; enough produce to be self- 
 sustaining entirely, due to the use of water. 
 
 The discovery of 'gold in California started the 
 overland march, and began operations there. The Union col- 
 ony of Greeley, Colorado, became the second historic in- 
 stance of the beginning of the present system. Utah was 
 the result of a religious immigration, Greel^^y the crea- 
 tion of a town meeting, and starting home making in Colora- 
 do. Cooperation was adopted in the construction and man- 
 agement of public utilities, and the irrigation canal was 
 one of the first. 
 
 Irri^vtion in California started in a corporate 
 and speculative way, the intentions of a few to get rich 
 by renting or selling water rights, and collecting toll 
 annually from the water tenants. 
 
 The investment of corporare capital in canals to 
 distribute and control water used in Irrigation thus started 
 in California, and spread like contagion throughout the 
 West, and for a number of years was Uie leading factor in 
 promoting agricultural growth of the western two-fifths of 
 the United States. It has been the agency through which 
 many millions of dollars have been raised and expended, 
 
28. 
 
 hundreds of miles of canals constructed, and hundreds of 
 thousands of acres of land reclaimed. 
 
 These corporate canals have in most cases repre- 
 sented a great loss to their builders, due to the long delay- 
 in getting settlers and to the very limited means of those 
 who did settle. 
 
 In the Artesian basin of South Dakota. 
 
 The method-'- employed in irrigating varies somewhat 
 with the crop. For small grain fall plough and flood, soak- 
 ing the soil well but not allowing water to stand. In ordi- 
 nary years this is sufficient but in a dry season another 
 watering is given just as the grain is beginning to head. 
 If applied much earlier than this the ground not being suf- 
 ficiently shaded by the foliage is apt to bake and form a 
 crust over the surface. If watered later, it retards the 
 maturing of the grain and impairs its quality. Hie effects 
 of over-irrigation have been shown very plainly in this 
 section. 
 
 The market gardeners have been most successful 
 financially, their methods vary with different crop and 
 seasons, having the soil well moistened at seed time to 
 hasten germination. After that they watch the crop and 
 water when it is necessary, following by cultivation. 
 
 The objections to artesian water are the salts 
 it contains, but the ce have proved ineffective only when 
 
 1. Off. Expt. Stas. Bui. 148 (Crane). 
 
29. 
 
 irrigation is carried on when they prove injurious, the 
 frequent rains wash away anv accumulation of these soluble 
 salts. 
 
 The salts in the waters and those drawn from the 
 land have not thus far had any detrimental effect, nor do 
 they give indications that they will have in the future. 
 All cases of deterioration of the soil are directly traced 
 to the oversupply. 
 
 In extraordinarily dry seasons the mter from these 
 wells increases the crops two or three times, and the crops 
 are always of a better quality. 
 
 A good two inch wekk supplemented by a reservoir 
 will supply one half a section. 
 
 The artesisn basin comprises that area in vihich 
 flowing wells have been obtained by drilling down into the 
 Dakota sdlndstone formation that underlies almost the entire 
 state of South Dakota. 
 
 Owing, however, to the greater number of wells and 
 the ease of getting water, the James River valley is called 
 Artesian Basin, and it is within this region that almost all 
 of the experiments in irrigation from artesian wells have 
 been conducted. 
 
 Prom 1880 to 1894 quite a number of wells were sunk 
 with the intention of using them for irrigation; they were 
 mostly six inch wells sunk from five to thirteen hundred feet 
 and costing from twenty-five hundred to four thousand dollars. 
 These wells did not prove successful under the tenant system 
 
30. 
 
 of farming and most of them resulted in a financial loss to 
 the original projectors and were given up. 
 
 Then a new system was started; one and a quarter 
 inch wells were sunk at a cost of three to six hundred dol- 
 lars and were within the means of moat of the farmers. 
 
 A two inch well costs sixty cents a foot. The duty 
 of the artesian water is to supplement the rainfall. 
 In Italy. 
 
 M^st of the actual use of water in Italy is con- 
 trolled by associations of irrigators; some control whole sys- 
 tems of canals, while others operate single laterals. 
 
 The Italian government owns the water of the streams 
 and certain canals which are controlled by the Minister of Fi- 
 nance and his subordinates. Canals are leased from the Govern- 
 ment, and they must be kept in repair by the lessee, the gov- 
 ernment thusplaying an important part in the helping to ad- 
 vance irrigation. 
 
 Irrigation in the Yakima ¥alley, Washington. 2 
 
 This is a region of many acres of fertile soil which 
 could be made to produce very profitable crops of plenty of 
 water were only available, nifliich is now standing idlS only 
 waiting for water. 
 
 1. Off. Expt. Stas. Bui. 190. 
 
 2. Off. Expt. Stas. Bui. 188. 
 
31. 
 
 In Persia where the excessively heated atmosphere 
 evaporates surface water very rapidly, irrigation water is 
 applied to the fields by gravity. Sbries of wells are dug on 
 the hillsides c nnected by underground tunnels. In this way 
 the exposure to air is greatly decreased and irrigation made 
 possible. 
 
 II. 3. EXTEKf IN UNITED STATES, 
 
 In the Arid States. 
 
 In 1899 there were 102,819 irrigators and 7,263,273 
 acres of land irrigated at a cost for irrigation systems of 
 164,289,601. 
 
 The arid states as considered are Arizona, Cali- 
 fornia, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Ore- 
 gon, and Wyoming. 
 
 The crops irrigated in these states ere hay and 
 forage, cereals, vegetables, orchard fruits, aid other minor 
 crops . 
 
 Hay and fb rage i s the more important i tem, being 
 over one -third of the whole area irrigated, showing that 
 irrigation in these states is an adjunct of stock raising. 
 
 "The most important function of irrigation, next to 
 raising hay and forage for the winter feed of cattle on the 
 public range, is the production of vegetables, fruits, and 
 miscellaneous crops." 
 
 1. Census XII, Vol. IV. 
 
32. 
 
 In these arid states the greater part of the irri- 
 gation water is taken from the streams, a small pertcent 
 ccming from wells. 
 
 The tendency at first was for large farms, but the 
 size has decreased and intensive culture is practiced. 
 
 Cccording to the census of 1900 there were in the 
 state of:-- 
 
 Arizona 183,396 acres irrigated 
 
 California 1,446, 114 " " 
 
 Colorado 1,611,271 " " 
 
 laahO 608,718 " " 
 
 Montana 951,154 " " 
 
 Nevada 504,168 " " 
 
 New Mecixo 203,893 " " 
 
 Oregon 387,095 " " 
 
 Utah 629,293 " " 
 
 Washington 135,470 " " 
 
 Wyoming 605,878 " " 
 
 Arizona. 
 
 When the Americans or rather the Tiiaite men entered 
 Arizona, they found the Indians practicing irrigation in a 
 primitive form. There are two clearly defined regions in the 
 state, the higher and lower. The higher plateau where the 
 elevation is 509P feet, has a rainfall insufficient to crop 
 production, inftiile the lower section has sufficient rainfall 
 to grow forage crops. 
 
33. 
 
 There are two river systems, the Colorado and the 
 Gila. The Colorado has cut such deep channela through the 
 high plateau that its waters are rarely available. That 
 portion of the state where irrigation is most largely car- 
 ried on is the water-sheds of the Gila, where extensive 
 canals and ditches have been constructed. This portion of 
 the state resembles Southern California, and withour irri- 
 gation it is a semi tropical desert; with irrigation it 
 produces crops to sustain a dense population. 
 
 Census XII, IV, p. 823-826. 
 
 California. 
 
 In this state there is a great variation in topog- 
 i>aphy, soil and climate. The greater portion of the land will 
 produce crops without the artificial application of water, 
 but due to the intensive culture of orchards and other crops, 
 irrigation systems are established as an insurance in case 
 of drou^t. 
 
 Due to the mountain ranges there are many streams 
 and lakes, and water is easily available from these, while in 
 some places wells are dug and pumping systems constructed. 
 There are also many canals and ditches. 
 
 Water from underground sources is obtained by pump- 
 ing from wells, driving tunnels into the sides of hills and 
 mountains, and from flowing wells. 
 
 lindmills are used very little. 
 
 Centrifugal and rotary pumps are employed, the fuel 
 used being very largely oil and wood. 
 
 "~ " -5^6 P."^ 
 
34 
 
 In Nebraska^ and Colorado, in the lands of the 
 South Platte Valley, the rights to be supplied by water 
 are ten times the supply or tlie average flow of the streams 
 from Spril to September. 
 
 Rights to»ater are theoretically based on use, 
 courts decree water rights. 
 
 In Colorado, Wyoming, and Nebraska the priority rule 
 is followed, any man who had dug a ditch and improved his land 
 was given the superiority of the right to use water over the 
 later comers . 
 
 Justice and public welfare demands of these priority 
 holders, however, that they take only what water they can use 
 beneficially. Water rights are lost after ten years' nonuse. 
 
 Water rights in Nebraska and Wyoming grant suffi- 
 cient water to irrigate a certain area, not stating the volume. 
 
 The largest water rights are held by canal companies 
 who control nearly 60,000 acres of land. 
 
 Whalan Palls Canal Co. and Port Laramie Canal & 
 Reservoir Co. have pending rights which will undoubtedly 
 equal eight hundred cubic feet of water per second, from the 
 North Platte River. 
 
 Colorado . 
 
 In this state no riparian rights are recognized, 
 
 priority is upheld. Appropriation is considered a natural 
 right and is declared not to be denied so long as there is 
 
 1. 0. E. S. Bui. 157. 
 
 2. Off. Expt. Stas. 157, p. 80. 
 
35. 
 
 unappropriated waters In the s treams . 
 
 The-^ greater portion of the irrigation water is 
 derived from streams, wells are used to some extent, the 
 underflow being reached at from 20 to 1500 feet. 
 
 Ditches and canals receivec water from the Platte 
 River and its tributaries, reservoirs have been built by 
 Individuals and corporations to store the fluctuating flow 
 of this river. 
 
 Beside the Platte there are the Arkansas, Rio 
 
 Grande, Grand, Green, and THhite River basins furnishing water. 
 
 2 
 In this state it can never be expected to get 
 
 water enough to irrigate all the land. 
 
 In 1898 there were aome 2,(^^(^,0(^Q acres irrigated, 
 
 with water ri^ts value 30,000,000. 
 
 Idaho. 
 
 3 
 A part of the northern portion of this state is 
 
 humid Twhile the remainder is arid. The Snake River having 
 its source in the Yellowstone National Park furnishes the 
 greater portion of the v/ater used in irrigation. And with 
 more judicial practice in the use of water, a vast area 
 of now uncultivated land could be made available to crop 
 production. 
 
 1. Census XII, II, 831-837. 
 
 2. Nevada Bui. 52. 
 
 3. Census XII, Vol. 4. 
 
36. 
 Montana . 
 
 The"^Mlssourl River basin practically includes two- 
 thirds of the state. 
 
 The main range of the Rocky Mountains crosses the 
 northern portion of the state, and its heavily wooded slopes 
 furnish a source for several mountain streams which combine to 
 form the Mj^ssouri . 
 
 The dtate as a whole is not so badly in need of irri- 
 gation, as those states a:- little farther south. 
 
 There has been a rapid increase in the farm wealth 
 of the state, due to the successful application of irrigation 
 to the crops. 
 
 ©rops grow qdte successfully without irrigation, but 
 there are portions of each growing season when irrigation 
 produces an increase of production, acting as an insurance. 
 
 Nevada . 
 
 This state is perhaps the most arid in the Union. 
 
 There are very few settlements and those almost entirely the . ; 
 homes of miners and ranchmen. 
 
 irrigation has developed to some extent along the 
 Humboldt River, where reservoirs have been constructed and some 
 orops are grown. 
 
 The Truckee, Carson, and Walker Rivers furnish water 
 spasmodically and if preparations were made to store it, con- 
 ditions WDuld be greatly improved. 
 
 1, Census XII, vol. 4. 
 
 2. Census XII, II. 
 
37, 
 
 Springs furnish water for the ranches, but no 
 great attempts have been made to sink wells, and no ^eat 
 agricultural development has taken place 
 
 Nevada* is a state which is dependent upon irriga- 
 tion, the rainfall varying in different parts from 15 to 
 18.38 inches. 
 
 The irrigation supply comes from the melting of 
 snow on the mountains. 
 
 The main portion of the work in Nevada up to 1901 
 was the finding of the amount of water available for irriga- 
 tion and the possibility of getting i t to the land viftaere it 
 was to be used. 
 
 NeR Mexico. 
 
 Agriculture^ in this state in 1900 was just begin- 
 ning to take a stride toward great improvement; there are 
 many rivers and great opporttinities for improvement by the 
 construction of reservoirs and the careful application of 
 the water. 
 
 An^ ample quantity of water fbr irrigating exists 
 at a shallow depth in the Rio Grande valley in southern New 
 Mexico available by sinking pipe wells. Six inch wells 48 
 feet deep at Mesilla Park gave 1000 gallons per minute. 
 
 1. Nevada Bui. 52. 
 
 2. Census XII, II. 
 
 3. New Mexico Bui. 45, 
 
38. 
 
 Oregon. 
 
 The Cascade fiange divides this state into two sec- 
 
 tions of very dissimilar characters as to topography, soil, 
 and climate. There is a heavy rainfall and irrigation is 
 not necessary for general field crops. Irrigation being 
 used at times during the staomers for vegetables and some for 
 hay. The irrigation systems are very largely individual and 
 inexpensive. 
 
 Utah. 
 
 "Th& beginning of irrigation wifi^om is the conserva- 
 tion of the natural precipitation. " 
 
 Irrigation should be supplementary to the natural 
 precipitation; the first thing for the irrigation farmer in 
 Utah to consider is the proper storage of the Rainfall and 
 snowfall in the soil, and then the nater right in the canal 
 above his farm. 
 
 The natural precipitation over the larger portion 
 of the Great Basin, ifproperly conserved by summer fallowing, 
 is sufficient to produce crops without irrigation. 
 
 The amount of moisture found in the isoil in the fall 
 depends on the crop grown, the total amount of water applied 
 during the season, the summer precipitation, and on an irri- 
 gated farm, on the date of the last irrigation. 
 
 On an irrigated farm as high as 95.56^ and on non- 
 irrigated farms as high as ^Z,Vjl.% of the total winter precip- 
 itation were found in the upper eight feet of soil. 
 
 1 nfinRiin yjT TT 2. Utah Bui. 104, Nidstoe. 
 
39. 
 
 The average per cent of winter precipitation found 
 in the upper eight feet of soil for five years on an irrigated 
 farm 82.13. On nonOirrigated farm just reclaimed three years 
 61.85. 
 
 Prom the fact that the eighth foot becomes dry as 
 the growing season progresses, we have the right to infer that 
 water Is drawn by plants from below the eighth foot. Just 
 how far down the action of the plant roots is felt upon the 
 soil moisture film is not known. However, it is certainly 
 below eight feet and it is not improbable that it is at least 
 twelve to sixteen feet. 
 
 The drier the soil is in the fall the more of the 
 winter precipitation Is fbund in the first eight feet of soil. 
 
 The water capacity of soils under field conditions is u 
 usually ei^teen per cent. 
 
 A considerable portion of the winter precipitation 
 passes down through the soil below the eight foot limit. 
 
 Fall ploughing tends to conserve the natural pre- 
 cipitation. 
 
 Summer fallowing conserves the soil moisture the 
 longer the fallow period, and the higher the per cent of 
 soil moixture. " 
 
 Utah. 
 
 About"'- one half within the bounds of the Great Basin 
 the rilrers have cut deep conyoris through the plateaus, thus 
 making their waters only available In certain places. 
 
 1. Census. 
 
40. 
 
 The Mormons began the practice of irrigation in 
 this state, and since that time much work has been done by 
 the Government, and many reports made of the progress. 
 
 Washington. 
 
 The Cascade Mountains divide this state into hmnid, 
 semi-arid and a rid portions. On the arid potion great irri- 
 gation progress has been made. 
 
 Wyoming. 
 
 1 
 When Wyoming became a state the constitution de- 
 
 clared all unappropriated water the property of the state, and 
 It could only be appropriated upon application to the state 
 through, the state engineer, who would issue a permit. There 
 are no rlprian rights given and thh only thing considered is 
 priority in appropriation. Water ri^ts may be sold separate 
 from theland sale, providing there is no injury accrued on 
 any of the other irrigators holding water rights. 
 
 In this state there are almost unnumberable streams 
 from the momitalns and thus irrigation is proportionately 
 easy, the greatest development having takai place where cattle 
 raising Is the principal Industry - 
 
 1. Off. Stas. Bui. 157. 
 
41. 
 
 EXTENT IK THE SEMI -ARID STATES, 
 According to CTensus of 1900. 
 
 Kansas total area irrigated 23,620 acres 
 
 Nebraska 
 North Dakota 
 Oklahoma 
 South Dakota 
 Texas 
 
 148,538 " 
 
 4,872 " 
 
 2,759 " 
 
 43,676 "" 
 
 49,652 " 
 
 The greatest amount of irrigating is done when the 
 water can be taken from the mountain streams, a very small 
 proportion being taken from wells. 
 
 Kansas . 
 
 That portion of Kansas lying west of the one hun- 
 dredth meridian, and some parts extending east of it, belong 
 to the semi-aj'id region where irrigation is necessary- 
 
 The history of irrigation in the state of Kansas 
 has been marked by a number of failures. At first settlement 
 was encouraged far into the plains region by a series of wet 
 years, compaines advanced money on the land, dry years came, 
 the settlers were unable to produce crops, gave up their 
 homes and departed, leaving their land to these companies 
 who had furnished money. The companies then built immense 
 canals and irri^tion systems flooded the land, and were 
 ready for a complete success, but they load not considered 
 the volume of their supply streams, and the reaSilt was their 
 
42. 
 
 canals were full when not needed and when most needed they 
 were empty. New steps had to be taken then to construct 
 reservoirs, and to use methods of raising the ground water, 
 which is found throughout the state at varying depths. 
 
 Bebraska. 
 
 This state lies in tw o distinct regions — the humid 
 and arid. East of the one hundredth meridian the rainfall is 
 usually sufficient to insure the successful cultivation of 
 crops, proving very satisfactory with the aid of irrigation 
 for the dry times . 
 
 The western part of the state is tsrpical of the Great 
 Plains country, and lie re is where the greatest development of 
 irrigation has been made. 
 
 The ^latte River furnishes some water the year around 
 and ground water can be reached at depths froci ten to three 
 hundred feet. Windmills and reservoirs are used. 
 
 North Dakota. 
 
 "Irrigation in this state is comfined almost entirely 
 to the northwestern part of the state, and is not generally 
 practiced even there." The gredter portion of the water is 
 taken from strpams, while some is taken from wells; the lead- 
 ing crops irri^ted are pasture and wild hay land, 
 
 Oklahoma . 
 
 The Black Hills country in the western and south- 
 western parts of the state represents the area irrigated. 
 
43. 
 
 The Cheyenne River, rising in eastern Wyoming, 
 flows through South Dakota, but its flow is very spasmodic. 
 There are two tributaries rising in the timbered area of the 
 Black Hills, however, which carry a continuous stream. 
 
 The supply is not nearly sufficient for the land 
 under ditch, but it could be increased greatly by the con- 
 struction of reservoirs to hold the heavy flow at times, after 
 rains, etc. 
 
 Texas . 
 
 1 
 ThiSotate has a large portion humid and a large por- 
 tion semi-arid to arid. 
 
 Irrigation is not very extensively carried on. The 
 waters arising in New Mexico are alkaline, so they cannot be 
 
 used. 
 
 p 
 In the Pecos valley up until 1889 irrigation was 
 
 found only in a few small places where ditches had been taken 
 
 out of theotreams. 
 
 The only settlers were cattle men and they tried 
 their best to discourage general farming. At Roswell the per- 
 manent water of the spring rivers and the ease with which it 
 could be put on the land encouraged the most extensive farming. 
 
 In 1889, encouraged by the success of irrigation in 
 Arizona, and Southern Calif oinla, a large company was formed to 
 develop the Pecos valley, and the present systems of irrigation 
 are in a great measure the result of the investments irade by 
 this company. 
 
 1. Census 12. 
 2. Division of Soils, 1899. 
 
44. 
 
 IRRIGATlUi; IN HUMID STATES. 
 
 The twelfth census was the first to take into con- 
 sideration irrigation in humid states, and the first attempt 
 shows that there are a large number of farmers in the so 
 called htuaid climate who place dependence upon an artificial 
 supply of water. 
 
 Humid ^ates considered: — 
 
 Connecticut Acres irrigated 
 Florida 
 
 Maine 
 
 Massachusetts 
 New Jersey 
 New York 
 Pennsylvania 
 Rhode Island 
 
 471 
 1483 
 
 17 
 134 
 
 73 
 
 68 
 864 
 
 40 
 
 In Connecticut the greatest extent of irrigation 
 is on the bottom lands edging the streams, inhere little 
 cost is involved in the operation. 
 
 In Florida the practice was started by the orange 
 growers, vifoo were so successful th; t it was taken up by 
 those interested in truck farming. Florida has an annual 
 rainfall #ite sufficient but it is subject to drought dur- 
 ing the growing season. 
 
45 
 
 The otate is underlaid by artesian waters at depths 
 of from twenty-five to five hundred feet, so that when wells 
 are bored, most of them flow with considerable pressure and 
 great voltme, so that in most cases there is no cost from 
 pumping. 
 
 Maine. 
 
 Irrigation is only reported from eleven farms, 
 the water being pumped from wells, uid applied through hose. 
 
 Massachusetts . 
 
 Nearly all the irrigation reported was on ^rden 
 produce. 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 Very small and quite general. 
 
 New York. 
 
 Very little reported in comparison with what the 
 next census will show. 
 
 In Pennsylvania irrigation has been practiced 
 since 1800 to some Extent. 
 
 The southern rice-growing states have extensive 
 systems of irrigation. 
 
 The -ater used on several rice fields of Louisiana 
 and Texasi measured in 1903 and 1904, compared with measure- 
 ments taken 1901-1902 should a tendency to use less water. 
 Deep coverings of water found to keep soil cold and to pro- 
 duce ssjjiMling plants. 
 
46. 
 
 In the Hawaii Islands, it is necessary to irri- 
 gate in order to grow the sugar cane, flooding and furrow 
 irrigation being used. Irrigation has been carried on so 
 extensively that beautiful springs ere breaking through the 
 ground at the lower points of the land. 
 
 These excesses of water have carried away a large 
 amount of the fertility which these deep virgin lands con- 
 tained before irrigation started, as an accumulation formed 
 during the years of no leaching rains. 
 
 Experiments seem to diow that the best results are 
 obtained in the arid regions by giving the land thorough 
 soaklngs at considerable intervals of time. In the humid 
 regions, however, it is not uncommon to get sudden diowers 
 of an inch or more followed perhaps by a day or more of 
 stormy weather; If -Uiis comes just after a thorough irriga- 
 tion of an inch or more, there is a possibioity of a decrease 
 rather than an increase in crop production, as excessive 
 moisture during a time when the air is also heavily laden 
 is very conducive to spore germination and this to tbe es- 
 tablishment of disease and its spread. This does not apply 
 to such crops as the cereals and grasses, but more especially 
 to vegetable crops, as cucumbers, potatoes, beans, etc. 
 
 When irrigating under humid conditions there should 
 be good drainage, the soil should be light sand and that 
 which is producing high priced crops. It has been said 
 that the value of the crop should be at least fifty dollars 
 
 per acre. 
 
 1. Oi-f. E^pt^^^t^^^^^^l^ 90. Maxwell. 
 
47 
 
 In humid, regions irrigation is always a supplement 
 to the natural rainfall and is not generally applied in any 
 such large quantities as in the arid West. 
 
 The regions in the East where irrigation has re- 
 ceived special study are New Jersey, New Hampshire, Louisi- 
 ana, Ohio, and Wisconsin. 
 
48 
 III. PROVISION OF WATER PCR IRRIGATION. 
 
 1. Source of water. 
 
 It-^ is a trite saying that the water of the land 
 comes from the air. Three thousand years ago the circula- 
 tion of moisture has been observed. The evaporation from 
 the sea, the winds blowing the vapors inland, the precipi- 
 tation as rain and snow, the riinning off as springs and 
 rivers back to the sea, have all been known for ages. 
 
 There is an opinion prevalent among the ^ttlers on 
 the plains that thedieet water located in the porous tertiary 
 beds forms a c ontinuous she6t from north to south as well as 
 from west to east, but this is true only to a very small ex- 
 tent, as the great valleys effectually cut off such connec- 
 tion of the sheet waters. 
 
 The plateau on which the Frenchman River makes its 
 shallow mark has the largest area uncovered by marl, the 
 porous grit here e2q)osed and its own sedimentary soils, al- 
 most as porous as the porous sand hills resting on this 
 plateau, all combine to make the region a most certain 
 source of subterraneous water supply. When rain comes it 
 is almost all absorbed. The surface imbibes it and the 
 pores: below carry it down to the storehouse beneath. Evap- 
 oration gets a relatively small part of this water. The 
 heaviest storms rarely raise a stream in the gullies, the 
 absorptive power of the sod is so great. 
 
 The Prenchnan has never been known to have a flood, 
 
 yet its flow is constant because of this imbibition, and its 
 source is from a steady outflow. 
 
49. 
 
 The ultdmate source of the water is the r^fall 
 and it has been shown that some large areas north of the 
 Frenchman have this imbibition power- 
 
 The Frenchman River runs through Colorado and 
 Nebraska. 
 
 !Riere2 are In the western states still vast a?eas 
 of land vtaidi are valuieSs on account of the lack of v;ater. 
 The future utilization of this vacant land depends largely 
 upon the water supply, and upon the intelligent regulation 
 of the same, based upon a thorough knowledge of the re- 
 sources of the country and its limitations in this regard. 
 
 STREAl^ilSj WELLS J AND STORED WATER, 
 
 Surface streams are the most important since ithey 
 furnish the greater part of the water, and render valuable 
 more than nine-tenths of the land now reclaimed by the arti- 
 ficial application of water. 
 
 The small mountain streams of the West are really 
 the valuable ones, as their flow can be cared for with small 
 ditches. TThe larger streams are almost uncontrolable, ,and 
 no great development can take place except through the state 
 or government intervention. 
 
 Although the greater part of the land made valu- 
 able by the artificial application of water is dependent 
 upon streams, yet wells play a very important part as sources 
 of water. 
 
 Two classes §f wells. 
 
 I. G®ol. Survey 16, Part 2, pp. 535-588. Robt. Hay. 
 
 " J' „ ' .. .. 157-533. I.-. H.Nenell, 
 
50, 
 
 Artesian or flowing, and those from which mter 
 must be piimped or lifted by various devices. 
 
 Experience has shown that a farmer #10 will con- 
 tent himself with a few acres and utilize his resources to 
 the best advantage can make a good home arid living upon the 
 arid or semi-arid lands by means of agriculture rendered 
 possible by means of water pumped from a well. 
 
 The greatest trouble in the dry Ysfest has been the 
 attempt by the farmer to lay claim to and cultivate vast 
 areas . 
 
 Artesian wells have attracted considerable atten- 
 tion but they are probably of less real value than other 
 wells on account of their continuous flow, making swamps, 
 depositing salts, their very convenience being their down- 
 fall. 
 
 The artesian wells of the country as a rule grad- 
 ually decrease in the amount of water delivered and in 
 pressure, This decrease is generally due to mechanical de- 
 fects in construction or accidental injuries more than to 
 the drawing down of the hydrostatic head. 
 Reservoirs. 
 
 In the arid sections the mountain streams flow 
 full during the spring and later in the season they are 
 practically dry. Reservoirs are built to hold over some 
 of this supply from the time w*ien there is an over supply 
 until a dry time; at first these reservoirs were built up 
 toward the head of the stream, and at some distance from 
 
51 
 
 the owner s land; as a result iirfaen the reservoir was opened 
 the above neighbors could help themselves and irrigate their 
 fields first. This led to the building of the reservoirs in 
 the low Jands where they were really not successful unless 
 they were owned by a company of irrigators along the stream 
 and the reservoir was made large enough to supply all. 
 
 In portions of Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, 
 the water supply may be considered under two heads: 
 
 1. The visible or surface waters. 
 
 2. The Invisible or subterranean waters. 
 
 The visible waters may be again divided into lakes, streams, 
 and springs. 
 
 Lakes exist only in years of more than average 
 rainfall. 
 
 Streams arise in the mountains from springs, etc. 
 
 Springs are not very abundant on the ranch land, 
 and ttere are very few which are copious. 
 Underground waters. 
 
 1. Underflow of the valleys. 
 
 2. Sheet water of the highlands. 
 
 The sandy character of the valleys allows consid- 
 erable underground storage of water. Occasional beds of clay 
 separate the water into two or three sheets which coalesce 
 into one thicker trein around the edges of these clay depos- 
 its. Miere there are more veins than one the waters in the 
 lower ones usuallyrise to the level of the highest vHaen a 
 horti^g reaches them. 
 
52. 
 
 In the states Utah, Colorado, and Nevada the 
 water for irrigation piirposes is almost entirely supplied 
 by motmtaln streams. 
 
 East of the Mississippi River, the majority of 
 irrigators are dependent upon windmills, hydraulic- rams, 
 steam pumps, gasoline pumps, etc. 
 
 In Connecticut as many of the eastern states, 
 there are small natural streams, ponds, springs, etc., from 
 which water is pumped for irrigating purposes. Many farmers 
 dam the flowing streams , thus making a storage pond where 
 they reserve the water until it is needed. 
 Possible sources. 
 
 1. Diversion of perennial streams. 
 
 2. Development in dry stream beds. 
 
 3. Development of springs. 
 
 4. Catchment from outcropping of water-bearing strata, 
 
 5. Tunneling to intercept such strata when deeply 
 
 covered. 
 
 6. F lowing wells. 
 
 7. Pupping from wells, lakes, streams, springs. 
 
 8. Storage of storm water from surface flow or 
 
 from drainage systems. 
 
 9. City water. 
 
 1. A simple method of damming a constantly flowing 
 stream and causing the water to flow off into side channels 
 which have been constructed to lead the water where it is de- 
 sired for use. 
 
 2. A dry, stream-bed is generally a very fertile 
 spot of heavy moisture-retaining soil, and crops will grow 
 here with great luxuriance. 
 
53, 
 
 3. Springs are outcropplngs of water from some 
 higher level, appearing where there may be a break in the 
 strata covering. 
 
 4-5-6. Simply means of getting at the underground 
 water layers and bringing them into use. 
 
 7. There are many methods of pumping, there having 
 been quite an evolution of foru-s of pump. 
 
 By pumping we mean raising water from a lower to a 
 higher level. The first means of accomplishing this feat in 
 Europe was two men with a woven basket-like tub, this lead 
 up to the shaduf and their arrangement in series up a bank, 
 a form of our old well sweeps. Animal power succeeded human 
 power, followed by wind power, and mechanical contrivances 
 as rams and engines. 
 
 8. Storage of water from storms and surface flow 
 is a very important point since such flow is almost always 
 greater during the season Titxen it is not needed for crop 
 irrigation, and should be held over. 
 
 9. City water can be used where it is possible 
 ana is used quite generally by truck gardeners in the vi- 
 cinity of cities. 
 
54. 
 III. 2. IRRIGATION WORKS. 
 
 A well sunk at the New Mexico station cost |150.00, 
 and MJi th a 20-horse-power engine could irrigate land three 
 inches deep at a maximum cost of 51 to 64 cents an acre where 
 short runs were used. 
 
 There are 6,272,640 square inches in an acre of 
 land. There are 231 cubic inches in a ^llon. Twenty-seven 
 thousand one hundred and fifty-four gallons will cover an 
 acre one inch deep, A twenty- five horse-power motor will 
 pump one thousand gallons a minute and raise the water fifty 
 feet. One thousand gallons a minute for twenty- four hours 
 will cover fifty- three acres one inch deep. Fifty- three acres 
 a day for seven days equaly three hundred seventy-one acres. 
 
 Use^ of windmills for pumping. 
 
 Windmills may be used to pump mater from canals, 
 ditches, reservoirs, lakes and wells, and when the wind 
 blows ten to fifteen miles an hour they may be satisfactory, 
 but for irrigation, a thing *iich must be done at a certain 
 time, they are not to the best as they are at the mercy of 
 the wind J without wind they are useless. 
 
 In southern California, deep well pumping by gas- 
 oline engines is used to good advantage, both as individual 
 concerns and as companies for profit where the water is aold. 
 
 Small electric pumping plants are used when electric- 
 ity is available for power purposes, its advantages being that 
 
 1. New Mexico Bui. 45. 
 
 2. Yearbook 1907, pp. 409-424. 
 
55, 
 
 it can be started qxiickly and easily and it will run contin- 
 ually or Intermittently as desired, doing very good work, 
 at a slight cost for maintenance. Cost this methos: |1.85 
 per acre foot of water or |3.70 per acre per yard. 
 
 In Santa Clara valley, one of the leading fruit 
 Regions of central California, there were in 1900 about 1500 
 irrigating plants of all kinds. About 900 of these were es- 
 tablished since 1897. 
 
 Many of the systems have centrifugal pumps run by 
 steam, the larger of which are from four to twelve inches, 
 being operated by engines of from fifteen to forty horse- 
 power, the water being drawn from wells from 100 to 500 feet 
 deep. Soiall gasoline pumps are also ysed. 
 
 I 
 ORGANIZATION OP THE RECIAMATION SERVICE. 
 
 Major J. W. Powell in his book entitled the "Lands 
 of the Arid Region" started the movement. He kept the matter 
 agitated before the government, and in 1888 he, as Director of 
 the Geological Survey, was authorized to investigate the ex- 
 tent to which the arid region might be reclaimed by irriga- 
 tion. He papped the mountainous catchment basins of the 
 stt?eams and located the irrigable land. 
 
 In 1894 an appropriation for gauging streams was 
 made, and work was extended from time to time until a large 
 amount of general information was at hand concerning the 
 
 1. Farmers' Bui. 116. 
 
 I. Third annual report of the Reclamation Service. 
 1903-4. second edition. 
 
56, 
 arid West and the opportunities for its development under 
 irrigation practise. 
 
 When the Reclamation law went into effect on June 
 17, 1902, there were a small corps of engineers comprising 
 tftiat was known as the division of hydrography of the Geo- 
 logical Survey, and these men became the nucleus of the 
 Reclamation Service, which was organized for administrative 
 purposes as part of the Geological Survey, The working 
 staff has been increased. 
 
 THEIECIAMATION LAW. Approved June 17. 1902 . 
 
 An act appropriating the receipts from the sale 
 and disposal of public lands in certain states and terri- 
 tories to the construction of irrigation works for the 
 reclamation of arid lands. 
 
 Previous laws had provided for five per centum 
 of the sales for educational purposes. 
 
 The states and territories concerned in this act 
 were the eleven arid states and five semi-arid, leaving out 
 Texas, in all then thirteen states and three territories, 
 making a reclamation fund in aggregate for ttie sixteen for 
 the years 1901 to 1904 inclusive, ^23,270,592.63. 
 
 Under section nine of the law there is a provision 
 that the funds arising in each state or territory shall be 
 divided into two portions, a major and a minor portion, and 
 that the major portion 51^ shall be expended in the state 
 
 1. Third annual report of the Reclamation Service 
 1903-4. Second edition. 
 
57. 
 
 in wiiich it arises wherever it is deemed most necessary 
 througji competitive examinations under the civil service 
 law. 
 
 Sections. 
 
 1. Funds for Reclamation. 
 
 2. Examination and Surveys. 
 
 3. Withdrawals of lands. 
 
 4. Construction and charges. 
 
 5. Defines payment; matter of reclamation owed 
 
 personally. 
 
 6. Operation and maintenance of works. 
 
 7. Condemnation proceedings. 
 
 8. State Laws, 
 
 99. Distribution of expenditure. 
 10. Rules and Regulations. 
 
 The Reclamation Fund has amounted to over $60,000,000, 
 and is being added to at the rate of six or seven millions a 
 year. It has been invested. in the construction of reservoirs, 
 canals and distributing systems, and already twenty-seven 
 projects have been initiated or completed, works having been 
 undertaken in each of the western states and territories. 
 
 Over a million acres have been reclaimed. Reser- 
 voirs have been lauiltiwith a capacity of 5,000,000 acre-feet, 
 or water sufficient to cover 5,000,000 acres of land one foot 
 deep. 
 
 Canals large and small, tunnels, bridges, culverts, 
 headgates, siphons, etc., have been built to an enormous ex- 
 tent. 
 
 Nearly 60,000,000 cubic yards of earth and 10,000,000 
 loose and S'olid rock have been excavated. 
 
 Value of crops raised in 1910 nearly $20,000,000 . 
 
58, 
 
 Land values have increased from praetically 
 nothing to $100,000,000, and tliese values will increase 
 as the work nears completion. 
 
 III. 2. MEASURElffiNT OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION UNITS AIJD METHODS. 
 
 Acre foot 325,851,45 gallons. 
 
 The amoiint of water required to cover an acre one 
 foot deep equivalent to 43,560 cubic feet, a simple and a 
 definite unit. 
 
 Second foot. 
 
 The flow of one cubic foot of water each second, 
 sixty-two and one-half potinds of seven and eight-tenths 
 gallons each second. A convenient method for stream meas- 
 urement, a stream one foot wide and one foot deep, flowing 
 at the rate of one foot per second. 
 
 A second foot flowing one day will deliver 86,400 
 cubic feet of water, or an equivalent of 1.983471 acre feet. 
 
 Miners inch . 
 
 The amount of water which will flow through a hole 
 one inch square under a uniform and designated pressure?, dif- 
 ferent states have different pressure requirements. Gener- 
 ally a head of six inches and flowing through the year. 
 
 5© California miners inches equals one second foot. 
 38.4 Colorado 
 
 Science, Vol. XXXIII, no. 853, pp. 682-683. 
 
59. 
 
 The miners inch is an indefinite quantity, coming to be 
 regarded as the one-fiftieth part of a second foot. 
 
 The cubic foot per second is a definite and 
 convenient unit of volume. 
 
 For measuring the flow of a stream there are 
 various forms of meters. A, the Wyoming station the Nilo- 
 meter and the weir are used; the Mead water regies te and 
 weir; clock arrangements with record sheets. 
 
 III. 5. LOSSES OF WATER IN DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 Reservoirs and Canals, 
 Ways in which losses may occur. 
 
 Seepage from ditches, evaporation from water surf- 
 aces and from the wet soil, bu percolation beyond the reach 
 of the roots of theplants, and by waste which may seem neces- 
 sary to properly wet the soil. 
 
 Sunshine is aristtbng factor in causing a loss of 
 soil moisture; relative humidity, sunshine and temperature, 
 and winds. 
 
 Utah Bui. 39. A. A, Mills. 
 Geo. Survey 14-2, pp. 100. 
 F. H. Newell. 
 
 1. Utah Bui. 80. 
 
60. 
 
 Evaporation and s eepage from canals, there may be 
 a loss at one point and a gain at another point in the same 
 canal due to seepage and the elevation of the soil. 
 
 Losses from evaporation are relatively small com- 
 pared with losses froqi seepage. 
 
 Losses in clay soils are less than in sandy soils 
 or gravelly soils. Loss in carrying water in small quantities 
 is relatively larger than from large quantities. A small head 
 of water is wasteful, and loss decreases as an imprevious lin- 
 ing is formed. Cement linings do not last in Colorado. A low 
 estimate of the yearly loss of water froni' .Colorado canals is 
 ten million dollars. 
 
 3» Losses of water by seepage and evaporation. 
 
 Extensive losses from seepage injure canal companies 
 by lessening the amount of water they can deliver, and often 
 injure farmers by the water nihich seeps out from the canal, 
 finding its way to the surface where it is not needed. 
 
 The average losses by seepage and evaporation foxind 
 in 1900 from different canals varied greatly. The average 
 fate of loss per mile was 2.47 per cent, A vast difference 
 was shown from month to month and year to year. If a rate 
 of loss such as this should remain jiniform throu^out the 
 length of a canal, it would mean at the end of forty miles 
 the canal would be dry. 
 
 1. Colorado Bui. 48. 
 
61. 
 
 The loss from canals is found to be largely from 
 seepage as in the cement lined canals where the loss was 
 only from evaporation it was comparatively insignificant. 
 In summer when the water becomesheated in its transit through 
 the canals and laterals, and when turned on the hot, dry surf- 
 ace of the fields, a very large per cent goes up into the air. 
 
 Thus the loss from seepage must be looked for in 
 the main canals, the losses from evaporation in the laterals 
 and on the fields. 
 
62, 
 
 IV. APPLICATION OP WATER. 
 
 Duty of Water- Amount Required for Crop 
 Production and Factors Affecting. 
 
 The duty of water means the area or acreage of 
 land which may be irrigated with a given quantity of water, 
 as a cubic foot per second, or a miners inch. 
 
 This is a very important subject to irrigators, 
 and one on which it is indeed difficult to get data which 
 is entirely satisfactory and trustworthy, due to its gen- 
 eral character, Y/here water is used from canals some of 
 the conditions which help to make any available data un- 
 certain are, water lost by seepage and evaporation from 
 the canal and its distribut4r>ie is Before the land to which 
 the water is to be applied is reached, is so variable and 
 indeterminate that it makes any data only a rough approx- 
 imation. 
 
 If there was a sufficiency of exact data at hand 
 covering a wide range of conditions, it would still be 
 necessary to make great allowances when specific applica- 
 tions were desired, because of variations in weather, clim- 
 ate, crops, soils, and degrees of skill in applying. 
 
 General statements are helpful but no fixed rule 
 can satisfy all conditions.^ 
 
 1. Ifevada Bui. 52. 
 
 2. King, Irrigation and Drainage, 209. 
 
63. 
 Duty of Water. 
 
 Amotint of land which can be irrigated with a given 
 qualtity of water, or the relation which these bear to each other. 
 
 The inveesgitation of the duty of water is one of the 
 most complicated problems or irrigation, on account of the di- 
 versity of conditions and the difficulty of procuring facts, 
 ihere is such a difference in methods of measurement, locali- 
 ties, soils, crops, application of water, and frequency of 
 watering that the statements made by different persons are 
 almost irpe cone liable. In general, more water is used (the 
 duty less) on the newer land than on that which has been cult- 
 ivated by irrigation for some years, and more is used where 
 water is plentiful than where it is scarce. 
 
 The amount of water vfriich must be applied to the land 
 artifically in order to produce crops varies from none isfcere 
 is sufficient rainfall, to the maximum amount where there is 
 practically no rainfall. 
 
 In Italy iidiere irrigation has long been systemat- 
 ically practiced, it 1 s generally calculated that one cubic 
 foot per second of water will serve satisfactorily flfty-iflve 
 acres of land, making if fifty-one and two-fifths acres to 
 allow for evaporation and seepage. Or 4,63 inches of water 
 every ten days during irrigating season. 
 
 Rice irrigation in Italy receives on an average 5.55 
 inches every ten days during irrigatlngseason. 
 
 Census XII, Vgl. 6, 818. 
 1. King, 209-217. 
 
64. 
 
 In Spain where there is less ramfall than in Italy 
 2,353 inches every ten days. 
 
 In Egypt, winter applications 3.937 inches once in 
 forty days, summer 4.528 to 3.412 inches, cotton requiring 
 twice this amount of 1.706 inches per ten days, rice 3.412 
 inches ten days, maize 2.276 inches every ten days. 
 
 Tables given covering 100 cases from all parts of 
 the world, average taken for thegeneral crops excluding rice, 
 sugar cane and water meadows, a cubic foot of water per sec- 
 ond is made to serve 117.6 acres equivalent to 2o-24 inches 
 of rain during a season of 100 days covering surface 2.024 
 inches every ten days. 
 
 "Three hundred twenty-five to five hundred fifty 
 pounds of water will produce a pound of dry matter in the 
 humid atmosphere of Wisconsin; an average of seven hundred 
 fifty poiinds is required to produce the same amount in the 
 climate of Utah, showing the increase required due to evap- 
 oration. In thehot and dry climate of the Hawaiian Islands, 
 two hundred eighty-five to fo\ar hundred and fifty pounds of 
 water are required to grow one pound of sugar cane, while 
 in Utah over foxir thousand pounds of water has been absorbed 
 by the crops and air in growing one pound of wheat. No def- 
 inite estimate that might be made could cover the quantity 
 of water required for the irrigation of crbps in the same 
 or different sections for different seasons and different 
 times in any section. 
 
 1. Yearbook 1905, 423-438. (E. Mead). 
 
65. 
 
 The amount of water varies with the locality 
 with the season. At the same place and during tl^ same 
 season it varies with the nature of the soil, method of 
 application, degree of skill exercised by the irrigator 
 and kind of crop irrigated. 
 
 In the so called humid states, although the an- 
 nual rainfall may represent conditions very favorable to 
 crop production, it is a question of distribution through 
 the growing season. 
 
 In New Jersey, the rainfall nns from 49.7 inches 
 on the seacoast to 31.05 inland. 
 
 Lowest amount found from April 1 to August 1, 
 1880-1895 was 9.33 inches. In Southern New Jersey an equiv- 
 alent of 12 inches is required for tl:e whole growing season, 
 certain years on certain months four inches will thus meet 
 the deficiency. Thus the irrigation problem is more compli- 
 cated in the East than it is in the West or arid regions, 
 since in a certain number of years very little may be re- 
 quired, while other years the entire 12 inches may be re- 
 quired; irrigation capacity must therefore be large enough 
 to mett the maximum ddmands although the naximum dediands 
 will not be made according to records more than once in 
 three years. 
 
 Factors affecting irrigating are thorough culti- 
 vation to conserve both natural and artificial, water ap- 
 plied, character of the soil and subsoil, depth of groiind 
 
 water, slope of land, etc. 
 
 Voorhess, H. J. Bui. 87, 40-48. 
 
66, 
 
 The amount of water required to produce paying 
 yields of any crop is a ©mplex and an important problem. 
 
 A given quantity of water applied to the soil in 
 any, way, either rain or by irrigating, renders greatest 
 service when the whole of it is taken up by the roots of 
 the growing crop. 
 
 Were it possible to establish and maintain field 
 conditions of culture which would insure that all water lost 
 from the soil should take place through the foliage of the 
 crop being fed, then a very small amount of rdnfall during 
 the growing season would suffice for the production of large 
 yields. 
 
 Thus the duty of water in crop production is deter- 
 mined by the natural losses, as transpiration through the 
 plant, evaporation from the surface of the soil, and by 
 drainage both surface and under*. And the more these sources 
 of loss can be curtailed the greater will be the 6.p.ty of 
 waterin any region. 
 
 In countries where irrigation is absolutely neces- 
 sary to grow grops, proper management can make the loss from 
 evaporation and drainage very slight, the same may be accom- 
 plished in humid sections. 
 
 CajDITIONS milCH MODIFY THE DUTY OF WATER. 
 
 1. The peculiarities of the crop grown, such as the 
 number and size of the breathigg pores of the green parts 
 of the plants. Ttie character of the foliage as to T«fiiether 
 
 King, 196-197. 6th edition. 
 
67. 
 
 it produces much or little shade. The length of the roots, 
 deep rooted plants are able to take more water from the soil 
 than are shallow roots. 
 
 2. The character of the soil. 
 
 From the standpoint of the water company and irriga- 
 tion engineer, the size of the soil particles is important, 
 since water passes through or percolates through a coarse 
 soil much paster than through a fine aoilj important to canals. 
 
 The grower regulates evaporation by means of mulch 
 and experiments show that a mulch formed by stirring the soil 
 
 to a depth of four inches is very much more efficient than 
 one inch, and that there is approximately one third as much 
 loss from the four inch mulch as from no mulch at all. 
 
 3. The character of the rainfall. 
 
 Slight rains tend to cause shallow root-systems and 
 are of no particular advantage in such a way destroying the 
 effect of the soil mulch. 
 
 4. The character of the subsoil. 
 
 Just as important as the siirface soil, an open sub- 
 soil, has a small water hoSiding capacity and artificial appli- 
 cations should be made accordingly, great skill and good judg- 
 ment must be used in application. 
 
 The frequency of forming a mulch is of as much im- 
 portance as its depth. 
 
 6. Otioseness of Planting. 
 
 An important factor affecting the duty of water when 
 
 King, 202. 
 
68. 
 
 expressed in terms of land aerved rather than in terms of crop 
 produced. 
 
 7. Fertility of Land. 
 
 Using as a stancard of comparison the unit area 
 rather than the yield of crop, tends to make the duty appear 
 less, due to larger evaporation which takes place from the 
 more vigorous growth of vegetation, and the closer stand which 
 the larger amount of available plant food renders possible. 
 The real duty of water is, however, higher on the most fer- 
 tile soil when based upon actual yield per acre. 
 
 8. Frequency of applying water, modifies the quantity 
 which will be used during a season. 
 
 Frequent snail applications are harmful in that they 
 induce shallow root sustems, increase the opportunity for 
 evaporation, etc. 
 
 THE rSJTY OF WATER IN RICE CULTURE. 
 
 The rice plant has an aquatic natxire, aiaking its 
 water demands quite different from that of ordinary crops, 
 and the anount required to bring a crop to maturity is con- 
 siderably more. 
 
 The normal habitat of the plant is low, swampy 
 lands, where the surface is more or less continuously under 
 water. Occasionally threatened attacks by insect enemies 
 make extra flooding necessary, and the water must not be 
 allowed to become stagnant, which requires an enormous re- 
 serve of water for any sizable area of rice. 
 
69. 
 
 Various sources of data place the duty frora one 
 second foot fot 25 to 66 acres; average 38,6, equivalent to 
 C&vering the surface with water about 6-2 Inches deep every 
 ten days. 
 
 THE DUTY OF WATER ON WATER MEADOWS. 
 
 In this form of irrigation immense quantities of 
 water are used on the land. 
 
 In Italy the practice originated and has attained 
 the highest stage or perfection. 
 
 The meadows are usually permanent, and have had their 
 surfaces carefully prepared, so that tlie roots of the graas 
 over the whole meadow are continually covered by a thin layer 
 of warm water. This tliin layer is kept flowing continually 
 over the meadow through the entire year only being withheld 
 long enough to cut the grass and remove it, to be fed to the 
 cows green. ^ this method tlie grass is kept continually 
 growing and as many as seven heavy crops have been taken off, 
 giving a production of 45-50 tons per acre, and sometimes more. 
 
 The growhg season is greatly prolonged, and it is 
 found to be a cheap method of maintaining a high state of 
 fertility of the soil. In some cases sewage waters are used. 
 
 If this water applied during the year was not drained 
 off but allowed to pile up there would be three hundred or more 
 feet, showing the enormous applications. 
 
 1. King, 219-220, 
 
70. 
 
 THE DUTY OF WATER IN CRMBERRY CULTURE. 
 
 This is another crop which tbrives in swampy 
 places where there is an;, abundance of water, flooding be- 
 ing used to pretect the crop from insects, frost, and to 
 prevent winter killing. 
 
 The surface of the ground v/ater is seldom more than 
 one or two feet below the surface, and the peaty soil is 
 therefore continually saturated. There is no loss from such 
 a bog by seepage, so that water is only necessary for flooding. 
 
 King 220-221. 
 
 Cold vs. warm water for plants. 
 
 It is the generally accepted opinion of florists and 
 gardeners that watering plants with very cold water is detri- 
 mental to growth but no one has attempted to say how cold the 
 water may be without producing this result. It is the common 
 opinion, however, that water appli d to greenhouse plants 
 should not be much colder than the air surrounging the plants. 
 The V/isconsin Station carried on some experiments with various 
 plants and with various temperatures of water for various 
 lengths of time. 
 
 Prom their results of the numerous trials, the con- 
 clusion appears fully warrantable that the growth of ordinary 
 field and garden crop is not affected by tlie temperature of 
 any water ordinarily available for irrigation purposes, and 
 they conclude from their results that for outdoor v/ork no 
 harm can result from the using for irrigation purposes water 
 
 from the coldest springs or wells, for the temperature of 
 the water from these sources will not be less than 40 de- 
 grees in any case when taken from the iiell or spring, and by 
 the means ordinarily employed this temperature will be some- 
 what raised before the water reaches the roots. 
 
 It is concluded from the results of the greenliouse 
 vrork that for vegetablec and f low^ri^ig plants conmionly grown 
 under glass, well or spring water may' be freely used at any 
 time of the year without vmrming. 
 
 King. 
 
71. 
 
 Prom-'- an agricultural standpoint, the irrigating 
 duty of v/ater is that anount of water nihic when applied to a 
 
 given area of cultivated soil will produce the best results. 
 
 2 
 In clay soil the maximum yield of both wheat and 
 
 s 
 
 straw was obtained by saturating the soil, approximately ten 
 feet deep at each irrigation, or covering the ground with 
 26.82 inches of water during th© season. 
 
 On caly soil containing more sand the yield of grain 
 (wheat-:^ increased as the water was increased up to forty inches, 
 while the maximum yield of straw was produced with sixteen 
 Incheeof water. 
 
 On clay soil containing little sand, timothy gave 
 mixed results, tthough where the : maximum amount of water 41.3 
 Inches, was used the yield was greatest. 
 
 On clay soil containing more sand the first clover 
 crop increased steadily and rapidly, from theuse of 4.2 inches 
 of water up to .2-9 inches. The application of 5.2 inches 
 more of v/ater j decreased the crop nearly one half. 
 
 On poor gravelly, clay soil the greatest yield of 
 grain (wheat-| was obtained by irrigating every six days while 
 the greatest yield of stravif v/as produced by irrigating every 
 tv/elve days. 
 
 All plats receiving the same amount of water, during 
 the season, there was very little difference in thetotal yield 
 from plats irrigated every six, nine, twelve, or fifteen days 
 respectively. 
 
 1. Utah Bui. 26. Fortier. 
 
 2. Utal-. Bui. 26, Sanborn. 
 
72. 
 
 Duty of water under subirrigatlon, which means 
 the application of v/ater by some means below the surface 
 of the soil. 
 
 Sub-irrigation is too costly for ordinary farm 
 crops, the lateral motion of water is too slow to warrant 
 sub-irrigati on . 
 
 Soil Biatered in this way is w;.:rmer than surface 
 irrigated, and the atmosphere around sub-irrigated plants is 
 warmer to a height of twelve inches. 
 
 The sub-irrigated plat did not contain as much 
 moisture as the surface irrigated plat at the end of the 
 season. 
 
 2. METHODS QPAiPPLYING IRRIGATION T/ATER. 
 
 Methods of irrigation must vary according to the 
 amount of water available, the soil, the lay of the land, the 
 character of the crop, and therecan be no best method to ap- 
 ply to all circEiBistances. 
 
 With the experience of half a century in California 
 there have borne to be a few methods generally recognized to 
 be best, each for tlie conditions vtoich govern its preference. 
 
 1. Distribution of moisture evenly tliroughout the soil 
 mass to as great a depth as possible, providing it does not 
 sink beyond the reach of the plant by root-extension nor 
 neyond recovery by capillary rise. 
 
 2. Economy of labor both in aggregate time and in the 
 
 feasibility of operating without employment of extra hands. 
 1. Utah Bui. 26, Sanborn. 
 
73, 
 3. Economy of water in the prevention of waste by 
 overflow or evaporation or by rapid percolation, and in 
 placing the water where it will do themost good. 
 
 4 . Leaving the la d in the best condition for at- 
 taining with least labor a state of tilth which convenes 
 moisture, and at the same time favors thrift in theplant. 
 
 ^al. Bui. 53. 
 
 The^ methods of irrigation in vogue are as varied 
 as the topography of tiie country. 
 
 Practice and experience govern the amount of water 
 to be applied to any givaisoil. 
 
 It has been found that practically a seventy per 
 cent saturation of the soil will give the best results. Soil 
 will take up seventy per cent of that water which it is cap- 
 able of taking and still permit of good circulation of water 
 and air so that plant growth is guaranteed. 
 
 A proper application of water is an even distribu- 
 tion over a well graded area, so that the entire surface will 
 dry ewenly and not in spots. 
 
 Application at the right time, in the right amount, 
 without washing or puddling the soil or injuring the crop, re- 
 quires an intimate acquaintance wit ;the conditions; good 
 judgment, close observation, skilfXil manipulation, and pa- 
 tience after the field has been put into excellent shape. 
 
 When water is applied to a soil which becomes more 
 open in texture as the depth increases, the movement of any 
 
 1. Wilcox, Irrigation Farming. 
 
74. 
 
 water applied is straigli t down and in no case is the side 
 movement very great. Where a fine, loamy soil is underlaid 
 by three to five feet of subsoil with a finer texture through 
 which water percolates sIot ly, water may be led quite rapidly 
 through furrows some distance apart, giving heavy applica- 
 tions and depending upon a lateral spread, and capillarity to 
 wet that soil besfeween the furrows. 
 
 A very dry fine soil will take up water very slowly 
 when flooded, since the surface pores become filled with wa- 
 ter and this is held there with such a force that air from 
 pores below cannot rise and give up their position to water. 
 Soil Puddling. 
 
 A soil is puddled when the compound particles are 
 broken up into individuals and brought together again as one 
 compound mass; when this takes place the water which is con- 
 tained is held frrilily until evaporation draws it out, and 
 thus there is very little space for and very little 
 
 soil air present. Plants die for the want of air; nitrifi- 
 cation ceases, and the nitrates present in the soil may be 
 denitrified. Water logging has the same effect as puddling. 
 
 It is practically impossible to flood with water a 
 recently stirred soil without puddling it, so the best prac- 
 tice is to wet and then stir. When the seed are planted, or 
 plants set, tliere should be en .ugh water present in the soil 
 to give them a good start, then when the plants have attained 
 some size, the roots betting spread out, and tlie earth sett- 
 ling to its natural firmness, water may be applied in quan- 
 
 King, 329-330. 
 
75. 
 
 tity without as much danger of harm to the soil or plants. 
 Soil washing ; 
 
 Caused by too laibge volumes of water hurried over 
 the ground too fast. 
 
 7/ater in furrows will not viash if the slope is uni- 
 form so that the flow will be even and constant, and if the 
 volume is kept not too great and not too small so that there 
 is a constant flow the soil is not washed. 
 
 King. 
 
 Methods Used in Applying Vifater . 
 
 1. Free flooding, or running water without restraint 
 except that afforded by tlie banks of the laterals conveying it. 
 
 2. Flooding in contour checks, or irregular-ishaped in- 
 closures vhich are determined in size and shape by the ine- 
 qualities of the surface. 
 
 3. Flodding in rectangular checks, or inclosures which 
 are approximately of equal size and with level bottoms. 
 
 4. Depressed beds, with raized ditches on the levees 
 which hold tlie water until it soaks away among the inclosed 
 plants--a garden modification of the rectaQ;gular-check- system. 
 
 5. Ridge irrigation, in which plants are grown on the 
 sides or at the bases of raised ditches — a simple form of 
 depressed-bed-irrigation . 
 
 6. Rirrow plowing, or running water in one or more fur- 
 rows betv/een the rows of crops grown in that way. 
 
 7. Raised-bed-irrigation, in which the water is taken by 
 
 seepage, and capillary action, from a small ditch on each 
 
76 
 
 side--a modification of the furrow system. 
 
 8 Sub-irrigation, or distribution by means of pipes 
 with suitable outlets, or from blind ditches filled with 
 material permitting circulation. of water which will reach 
 the plant roots by capillary action. 
 
 S. Underflow irrigation, by which the ground- water is 
 raised by percolation from ditches at intervals of consider- 
 able distance-- the plant roots being reached directly or by 
 capillary movement. 
 
 10. Distribution under pressiire in underground or surf- 
 ace pipes, with stand pipes and connections for sprinkling. 
 
 11. Skinner irrigation, a spray system. 
 
 Farmers' Bui. 138, pp. 26-27, 
 
 COBSI DERATIONS IK CHOICE OF SYSTEM OR METHOD. 
 
 Slope of tiieland. 
 
 Character of the crop. 
 
 Character of the soil. 
 
 Labor requirement. 
 
 Ease of cultivation after irrigation. 
 
 The tinie when water should be applied depends upon 
 
 the nature of the crop, the soil and the weather - 
 
 Farmers' Bui. 131. 
 
 Flooding . 
 
 A method proving very satisfactory on land where 
 the natural slppe is good as at Union Colony, Greeley, Colo- 
 rado, where fields of 40, 80, and even 180 acres are flooded. 
 A main supply ditch is run along on the side with highest 
 elevation, then shallow plough furrows are made from this, 
 
 1. King. 
 
77. 
 
 to guide the water, canvas dams are used in the ditch to throv/ 
 the water out, v/ater is allowed to run through to far end of 
 ditch, then dams used along at the necessary distances toward 
 the supply ditch to warrant all the land being flooded. It 
 is impossible to get an e ven distribution, as any low places 
 will be over watered while the ridges will be hardly moistenedj. 
 it is rather a deceptive method of watering although it is 
 cheap and rapid. 
 
 Flooding definite areas at a time by means of checks 
 is probably the most satisfactory way to flood. Its advan- 
 tages are: 
 
 1. It is possible to know that a certain amount of water 
 has been applied to the inclosed or flooded ppace. 
 
 2. Enables the irrigator to quickly spread a considerable 
 depth of water over the surface and bring even moisture. 
 
 3. It facilitates the use of a large run of v;ater in a 
 short time. 
 
 4. Gives satisfactory irrigation where other methods fail, 
 
 Free flooding is where streams are allowed to over- 
 flow their banks and the land being level vthe water forms a 
 constant layer over the surface and soaking in. Only feasible 
 to use where the land is level or has a very constant and gen- 
 tle Incline. 
 
 Flooding in contour checks: where portions having 
 the same level are flooded at one time, being held in place 
 by ridges thrown up around the edges of the piece. 
 
 Farmers' Bui. 116. 
 
78 
 
 Flooding in rectangular checks os where a field is 
 laid out in rectangles hy laying up furrows, water let into 
 these rectangles, to Insure even distribution on subtly 
 rou^ land, when one rectangle has been well soaked water 
 
 t'lt'''"6)C out. 
 
 turned into next and so on. 
 
 Prom New Jersey Bui. 115, 1895. 
 Water brought in a three inch main from the city 
 reservoir, one thousand feet away, from this main lateral 
 pipes lead off to the various plots, these latersla end in 
 uprigjhts vSiich are provided with faucets above ground, fur- 
 nishing centeri- for irrigation by means of surface pipes 
 and garden hose. Capacity with inch pipe and hose with the 
 slight fall from the reservoir is nine gallons per minute. 
 
 Utah Bui. 39. Mills. 
 In experiments with different systems an average of 
 six inches at each irrigation proved best. 
 
 Five methods of distributing were tried on grass 
 land; a network of small ditches jgave thebest results. Those 
 methods which distribute the most evenly give the best yield. 
 
 Flooding increased the yield of wheat 23^ over 
 farrow. 
 
 Utah Bui. Bo. 
 
 With a given amount of v/ater, better yields of 
 corn were obtained from flooding than from furrow system. 
 
 Nevada Bui. 52. 
 
79. 
 
 In Nevada the low lands are irrigated by damming 
 the river as it overlofws its banks. Flood and check also 
 used. 
 
 In the Rocky Mountain states the gravity system 
 
 is naturally used. 
 
 2 
 In Wyoming the ranchmen turn the water on the mead- 
 ows, as early as possible in spring, and allow it ti flow up 
 until cutting time to wash off the alkali, to withdraw the 
 frost in spring, to start growth early, aad keep growth con- 
 stant. 
 
 2 
 In Connecticut, where the supply is obtained from 
 
 springs, ponds and streams, being pumped by rams and windmills, 
 
 the greatest economy is used in distribution, pipes laid 
 
 along one side of the field, water rtan between rows, sprayed, 
 
 and open ditches. 
 
 Basins are used largely in orchards. They tend to 
 keep the roots near the surface, and they saturate the soil, 
 making it liable to cake and bake. It also causes quite a dis- 
 turbance of the soil to make an individual basin around each tree. 
 
 Furrow irrigation seems to be the better method for 
 orchards and cultivated crops. The loss from evaporation is 
 small, it permits the use of smaller streams of water to better 
 advantage than any other method, but it is not the most rapid 
 me thod . 
 
 The most common method in arid regions is to flood 
 
 1. Office of Expt. Stas- Bui. 73 (nirich) 
 2 " " " " " 81 (Buff am), 
 s] " " " " " 36 (Phelps). 
 
 4.* " " " " " 158, pp. 51-52. 
 
80. 
 
 from small field ditches; for grain and grass, it is a cheap 
 mfithod, does not distut?b the soil, does not interfere with 
 the use of machinery, but it is rather difficult to control. 
 
 The check method is best adapted to light, sandy 
 soils having a comparatively even slope of from three to fif- 
 teen feet to the mile, a large volume of water can be used 
 cheaply, the high cost coming inthe preparation of the land. 
 
 IV. 3. RELATIVE II\IPORTAKCE OF lARGE AKD SMALL APPLICATIONS OP WATER. 
 
 From the standpoint of labor, the fewer the number of 
 irrigations, the less is the labor and thus the cost. 
 
 Prom the standpoint of the duty of water, the less 
 often the surface of the soil is wet, the smaller will be the 
 loss by evaporation and by seepage in bringing the water to 
 the fields. 
 
 The amount of water to be applied at one t^me is as 
 much as the crop will tolerate without suffering in yield or 
 quality, and practice the most thorough tillage to keep this 
 water after it is applied. 
 
 The soil regulates to some extent the amount of water 
 T«*iich may be applied at any single irrigation, the type of 
 plants whether shallow or deep rooted will also come into the 
 consideration. Ax heavy application applied to a light soil 
 with a loose subsoil and a low water-table for a shallow rooted 
 crop will likely insure loss from seepage. 
 
 1. King, p. 234. 
 
81. 
 
 In Arizona with deciduous fruit trees experiments 
 proved that winter irri^tion was most satisfactory. But if 
 water was abundant in stmnner, it would probably be wise to 
 give the orclTard a thorough irrigation in as short a tiaie as 
 possible, following with a thorough ploughing to protect 
 against evaporation. 
 
 Frequent summer irrigation is decidedly not advis- 
 able where the soil is fairly deep and retentive of moisture. 
 In winter there is more rain and flowing water, and it should 
 be saved, the showers of late summer should be saved by fol- 
 lowing with cultivation. 
 
 The value of thorough irrigation was proved by the 
 tracing of roots of peach trees to a depth of twenty feet. 
 
 Deep winter irrigation followed by thorough summer 
 cultivation is the best for dediduous orchards in Southern 
 Arizona, much better than frequent applications of small 
 amounts of water during the growing season. 
 
 Arizona Bui. 37. 
 
 1. Utah Bui. 29 (J. W. Sanborn^. 
 
 Best-*- yield of grain v/as secured where water was 
 applied sufficiently to saturate the soil 1 1/2 feet. 
 
 Best yield of grass was soured from the heaviest 
 application of water 2 1/2 feet. 
 
 Soils reserve most of the soilds from water applied 
 beyond soil s&turation. 
 
 Water escaping from soils by leaching is richer in 
 
 1. King, 234. 
 
82, 
 
 the elements of fertility than before it entered the soil; : 
 the amount which so escapes is so small in comparison with 
 that applied, that it contains only a fraction of the sol- 
 ids applied. 
 
 2. Utah Bui. 80. 
 
 On sliallow bench lands. 
 
 Heavy Irrigations increase the per cent weight of 
 heads of plants; light irrigations increase the per cent of 
 leaves. 
 
 In the seeds of corn, wheat, and oats, the fat and 
 nitrogen free extracts are increased by free applications of 
 water; in the corn kernel the per cent protein increases as 
 the amount of irrigation decreases. Increased irrigation 
 increased the starch content and decreased the protein of 
 the potato. Increased irrigation increased proportion of ear 
 to stover in corn, grain to straw in wheat, and per cent 
 marketable potatoes. Best yield of potatoes cane from fre- 
 quent small irrigations. 
 
 Yield of crop and texture of soil are the main 
 factors in governing the applications of water to the soil. 
 
 If a crop of corn yields seventy bushels to the 
 acre it may be brought to maturity in 110 days with 11.75 
 acre-inches of water. 
 
 A soil of medium texture may carry in its surface 
 four feet 4.5 inches of available water and if extremely 
 open 2.5 inches. :in such cases three irrigations would be 
 
 1. King, 234. 
 
83. 
 
 necessary on the medium soil and five on the open intervals 
 between waterings 37 and 22 days respectively. If the yield 
 was increased to 100 buphels, irrigations necess&ry would be 
 4 and 7 with intervals of 27 and 15 days. 
 
 Same way with wheat with 40 bushel yield, 4o bushels 
 reqiiiring 12 acre-inches three or five irrigations, intervals. 
 33 or 20 days. 
 
 Barley 60 bu hels per acre in 88 days requires 12.84 
 acre-inches, 3 or 5 irrigations at 29 or 18 days. 
 
 These three examples are of the highest limits likely 
 to be attained under best field conditions, and may serve as a 
 standard to work toward since they areactual examples. 
 
 In all parts of the world the average number of irri- 
 gations for wheat are from three to five, when supplemented 
 more or less with natural rainfall. 
 
 Allowing 110 days as the requirement for maturity of 
 corn 
 
 In Egypt the crop 'requires 7 waterings every 15 days 
 " New Mex." " " 6 " " 18 " 
 
 " Italy " " " 3 " " 37 " 
 
 In Italy the rainfall is quite large and nearly suf - 
 ficient to mature a crop. Thus it would seem and it has been 
 shown by experimentil study that where the corn crop has to<. de- 
 pend upon irrigation for the water needed, that applications 
 must be made at intervals of 15 to 27 days fbr yields of 100 
 bushels per acre. 
 
 1. King, 234-236, 3d ed. 
 
84. 
 
 IV. 4. IMPORTANCE OP MULCHING IN RELATION FO IRRIGATION. 
 
 Mulching^ is nothing more than another kind of 
 irrigation in a milder form. Mulch retains moisture during 
 dry times. In 1894 mulched strawberries withstood a drought 
 flftiile others died. Mulched with little irrigation gave bet- 
 ter results than not mulched and irrigated and requires more 
 water. The results #iich may be obtained by mulching depend 
 very largely upon the season. 
 
 L, WJien^ the damp surface of a soil is covered with 
 a dry mulch, evaporation is very greatly decreased as has 
 been shown both in field and laboratory experiments. 
 
 The most effective soil mulch has been shown to be 
 the one of the coarsest texture and the deepest. For instance, 
 a three inch mulch of coarse sand is better than a three inch 
 mulch of fine clay loam, and a three inch mulch of coarse sand 
 is better than a two inch mulch of the same material. 
 
 Any mulch will deteriorate with age, as it settles 
 and reverts to its original condition, even though it has no 
 rainfall on it, showing that a mulch should be frequently re- 
 formed. 
 
 Althou^ the greatest means of protection against 
 evaporation is the soil mulch there ere many other forms of 
 mulch. All forms of vegetation growing upon the soil serve 
 more or less as a mulch, by shading the soil, bu reducing the 
 velocity of the wind close to the surface, and by transpira- 
 ration from the leaves, saturating the air with moisture #iich 
 
 1. New Hampshire Bui. 34. P. W. Rane. 
 
 2. King. 
 
85. 
 
 would otherwise be taken up vy evaporation from the soil. 
 
 Manure mulches also prove very beneficial, espec- 
 ially coarse strawy manure, adding plant food and conserving 
 moisture. The surface dressing of grass meadows with farm- 
 yard manure has proved very beneficial. 
 
 The loss of water from soils takes place practically 
 altogether from the surface of the soil, Evaporation has, 
 therefore, a very close dependence upon capillarity- The evap- 
 oration of a little water from the surface inch of a soil de- 
 creases the water content of that inch, the capillary pressure 
 increases correspondingly and water is drawn from lower and 
 moister layers to restore the equilibriiim. Continued evapora- 
 tion must, then, be accompanied by a continued capillary supply. 
 
 Thus it is obvious that evaporation will be shut off 
 if the capillary supply is interrupted and this is the secret 
 of the so called "dry mulch" which consists of a layer of dry 
 material of any sort, even dry soil, spread over the surface 
 to constitute an interruption to the continuity of the capillary 
 films, breaking the pipes or ways through )i^ich the water has 
 been coming to the surface, and preventing its further rise. 
 
 IV. 5. REIATION OF IRRIGATION TO ALKALI. 
 
 Alkali^ soils occur naturally in arid lands and they 
 may also be the result of irrigation; in humid regions by nat- 
 ural drainage tlie undesirable salts are carried away wtiile in 
 arid lands water is carried away by evaporation and the salts 
 are left behind accumulating at or near the surface of the soil. 
 
 1. Plant World, Vol. 14, 8-Mar., 1911. 
 
 2. King. 
 
86. 
 
 Alkali is eommonly made up of salts of sodium, 
 magnesium, calcium, so me times potassium, mostly as carbon- 
 ates, chlorides, and sulfates, carbonate of soidum, the 
 so called "black alkali," is the most dreaded, and inhite 
 alkali includes all theother kinds of salts. 
 
 The-*- presence of one-twentieth of one per cent of 
 sodium carbonate in the soil will often injure a crop, ?hile 
 one-tenth of one per cent of the dry weight of the soil will 
 prevent the germination or kill the seedlings of most of the 
 common crop plants. 
 
 All soils may contain a certain amount of alkali 
 salts but it is the question of their distribution through the 
 soil, and the amount in the upper two or three feet, which is 
 important. 
 
 When water is applied to a soil containing soluble 
 salts, first it is drawn down by the two forces, gravity and 
 capillarity. Gravity being the greater force and pulling 
 the larger portion down through thelarger openings between 
 the soil particles, such as holes made by worms, roots, etc., 
 this first flush of water dissolves the surrounding salts, 
 and by capillarity, ccting in the finer pores, this first 
 water Ttiich has taken up the quickly dissolvable salts is 
 largely taken up and held in the capillary sapces. Thus the 
 greater part of the salts are held in these spaces and the 
 last part of the water passes down the gravity tubes prac- 
 tically pure. When the supply stops at the surface and evap- 
 oration starts again, water is drai,vn upward by capillarity to 
 
 1. Eye. Agr. , 514. 
 
87 
 
 replace tht-t lost by evaporation, so that water containing 
 the greater portion of the salts is pulled up and the salts 
 are deposited as evaporation gpes on. A second application 
 is mad© and the same process repeated, the alkali salts in- 
 creasing at the surface rather than decreasing, showing that 
 in order to correct alkali some means of drainage is neces- 
 sary in connection with irrigation. 
 
 Irri^tion alone is a neans of increasing alkali, 
 while irrigation and drainage are a means of the correction 
 o| alkali. 
 
 Irrigation applied to a field contafaing a large per 
 cent of alkali salts and of higher elevation than surrotinding 
 fields will, if applied too heavy, dissolve the salts of the 
 high field, seep down to the low' r area, bring the water-table 
 up near the sxirface and make a heavy deposit, causing the low 
 field to become unproductive of crops. 
 
 Methods employed in reclaiming alkali lands are: 
 
 1. Chemical correction, adding something which will 
 change the salts chemically into a compound either insoluble 
 or inert, as adding gypsum to soil containing sodium carbonate, 
 
 2. Growing resistant plants. 
 
 There are plants itiich can growiiin the presence of 
 more alkali than other, aach as sorghum, kaffir corn, and su- 
 gar beets, but the amount of alkali is more apfctto increase 
 than to decrease so that these crops will fail to grow after 
 a time and some method of reducing the alkali has to be re- 
 sorted to. 
 
88. 
 
 3. Cultivation and mulching. 
 
 Lessening evaporation decreases the formation of 
 alkali at the surface. 
 
 4. Removal of alkali. 
 
 The salts may be scraped up and carted off the surf- 
 ace, but the source still remains and a new layer will soon 
 be found. 
 
 Flushing water over the surface has the same effect, 
 so some method must be used to get at those salts which are 
 down deeper than the surface layer. 
 
 5. Underdrainage and leaching. 
 
 Allow the wstter to carry the salts down and out. 
 
 Alkali salts are formed by rock deterioration. 
 They collect in the soil because the rainfall is not suffic- 
 ient to carry or wash them out. 
 
 Salt bush, a pasture plant in Australia, and kano in 
 Africa, are plants which will survive a high per cent of al- 
 kalinity. 
 
 Alkali injures plants at the root crown, really 
 girdling at the point where the plant stem leaves the soil, 
 since the water in its upward movement brings the salts up 
 in solution and evaporation allows a surface deposit to be 
 
 made. 
 
 Black alkali is the worst form, and is carbonate 
 of soda or salsoda; It has a puddling effect on the soil 
 besides its effect on plant growth. 
 
 Gypsiam has a correcting effect on black alkali. 
 1. Arizona Bui. 37. 
 
89 
 
 IV. 5. A DANGER PRCM EXCESSIVE IRRIGATIOII AND THE REL^EDY. 
 
 It has frequently been found in the irrigated regions, 
 that soils which showed b^t very little alkali when first 
 brought under cultivation have after the lapse of a compara- 
 tively few years become so widely impregnated with alkali as 
 to make them unfit for growing crops. Before irrigation was 
 introduced the salts were present in rather large amounts, but 
 well distributed through the soil, and not in sue large quan- 
 tities in any one place as to be lnj\rrioii.s to plant growth. 
 With the introductioh&of. irrigiationv however , water was/^ajpplled 
 in isxcessive amount s^itc thehigher lands, and seeping through to 
 the lower soils carried with it the soiuble salts, which ac- 
 cumulated in excessive amounts in the latter, especially where 
 drainage was imperfect. This water removed the valuable salts 
 from the hi^er land and brought them together in such quan- 
 tities in the lower land as to ruin plant life there and also 
 by taking the salts away it decreased the fertility and thus 
 the plant life on the higher land. 
 
 So even if proper drainage systems were used to carry 
 off this water with its salts it would be harmful as the salts 
 in small well distributed quantities are valuable, and any 
 washed away by excessive watering is wasteful or plant food. 
 
 In the majority of cases even with a porous sandy 
 subsoil, underdrainage will hasten the reclamation of alkali 
 land to such anextent that the rapid reclamation will pay for 
 the installation of the system, lines of drain tile being ad- 
 vised for the system of underdrainage. 
 
 Calcium sulfate has a correcting effect upon black 
 
 alkali. 
 
 Black alkali is sodium carbonate and when the two 
 substances come together a chemical action takes place ex- 
 pressed by the following formula: 
 
 NagCos t CaS04:;iCaC03 f NagSo^ 
 
 Vftien the calcium sulphate is added to the soil, it is 
 adding more of ths alkaline material, but in its action upon 
 the sodixam carbonate it reduces the injurious effect on plant 
 growth, so that plants will grow 6n a soil which is in reality 
 
 1. Bureau of Soils Bui. 35. 
 
90. 
 
 more alkaline than it was before. 
 
 If^ the soil is not well drained, the reverse re- 
 action will predominate and may be indicated as follov;s: 
 Na2S04 -^CaGo3l~CO2f-H20= Na2S04-hH2Ca( 003)2- 2HNaC03+'CaS04 
 
 When gypsum comes in contact with chloride in solution 
 or in a wet soil, calcium chlorid and sodium sulphate will be 
 formed. 
 
 2NaCl i- CaSo4 - Na2So^+ OaClg 
 
 1. Field operation of Division of Soils, 1899, pp. 54-55. 
 
91. 
 
 v. 
 
 re). Peiatlon of iT-^ir^atlon to nry fa-rnin.-. 
 , .. V^^^'fill^^ in rnrto^i^rliT^ rf-'-'-fnmi-n^ non^itlor\r^ the annual 
 : precipitation is the only reatui-eof the ral-^nn t^^at ^eneivoo 
 a.tentio^n, but the-e -.^c ot^^-- f-atures o- factors in connection with 
 the -rainfall that >ia-"0 mlch to do ^r'ith the RU'^c'-^nsfui prc^viction C 
 crops. 
 
 The seasonal distribution of the rain, the rate at 'v^^ich the 
 rain falls, and -,he amount of rain that is lost through run-off fri:in 
 t>^e surface all have an ini-jortant ria^t in the Hete^mininf of the 
 percenta^-e of t^e total raint^all t>iat is rually available fo-- the 
 iise of the crorR. Prospecti'^e s'^ttleT-c, in -v-e-ions of limitod rainfall 
 
 lareapt to c-lve very little attention to the clinatlc features other 
 than t>^e total ^ainfall, ^'^hich may be for one single year rather t^an 
 the normal yearl" rainfall, they in-nore almost co-npletel;-,' the seasonal 
 distribution of the rain, the frequency of torrential rains, the loss 
 of water through surface run-off, the occu^ance of hail, and the 
 
 . amount of evaporation. 
 
 The U. p. ^'^eathor Pureau. hare published some ^'aluable figures 
 'vhich they have collected at thoir stations in these regions,' and 
 
 : which should be ver^,^ ^'aluable to prospective settle-s. 
 
 Tjry farming rep-ions a^e natu.rally classified on the basis of 
 rainfall. In this country dry-fa^min^^ is usually considered to be 
 confined to those regions in i^hich the annual rainfall is less than 
 20 and r.-io^o than 10 Inc^er,. 
 
 r?ry- farming methods a^e usuallv understood to mean those "^hich 
 
 lead to the conservation of moisture, but the conception of ^hat these 
 methods actuallv are varies greatly in dl^^ferent sections of the 
 country. The dry-farmer in the Great Plains u_sually gets his best 
 results '"ith annual cropping methods combiined ^'ith good tillage "rith 
 I^^ to 20 inches. 
 On the other >^and the dry farmers in that part of the Great Basin 
 
 where the rainfall is less than I"^ inches follow the method of alternate 
 
 crcppinr' and summer tillar^e alrr.ost erclusivelTr. 
 
 Pf;t"7een t^e^e t"'o -^lasf^cjs there is a thir^"i operating under 
 
 conditions ^"^ere summer tillage ma^ be necessary to insure ©etu'^ns 
 
 on evGvr crop, but "'here it frequently' pavs to taKe c'^ances on produci^p- 
 
 a c-^op o^- the land each year. 
 
 The; method of alternate cropplnr-- anr^ ■summer tillage is generally 
 recognised as the most hig'hly developed dry-farming method because 
 it gives better returns with a lower annual rainfall than other methods. 
 especially in Regions of ^-^intisr rainfall, llKe central Utah. 
 
 ^'hile the method of alternate cropping and summer fallowing j:;^ 
 is recognised as the most bir^hi^'- developed dry-farming method, it 
 does not follo-^ that it is the best method for all dry-farming rep^ions 
 or that it v^iii al^a^^s give f^e best returns. 
 
 5hw-UHi-fee4-S^ate-B The rainfall in all parts of the United States 
 is subject to wide fluctuations from year to ^oar, and it is ver:;- 
 important to farmers that they know the normal annual rainfall in 
 
 their section, crorjs in the East are often lost through drought and 
 not infrequentl:,'- under conditions that the up to date dry-farmer 
 ^"'ould. have produced a crop. 
 
92. 
 
 The ccsnbination of special toots, special methods 
 of cultivation, cjid drou^t resistant crops as means of over- 
 coming drou^t has been given the name dry- farming. 
 
 The semi-arid regions between the line of 20° and 
 the Rocky Mountains presents one of tlie greatest problems to 
 American agriculture. Between 1883 and 1889 many settlements 
 were made in this region, due to successful crops being raised 
 during three wet years. The appearance of two or three dry 
 years caused abandonment. There is no lack of fertility, and 
 the difficult problems are in the direction of heat and moisture. 
 Rainfall is scanty and irregular; the scorching winds which 
 change green fields of corn into dry and rattling stalks in 
 twenty- four hours are the difficulties. 
 
 Summer fallowing one year and growing a crop the next 
 has proved successful but it is not sure, so irrigation bears 
 an important relation, as the dry farm needs enough irrigation 
 to provide a living for the tenants in dry years and to insure 
 some green object all the time. 
 
 This irrigation can be provided by pumping from soil 
 water or imderground streams. Storage in surface reservoirs of 
 storm awaters and the irregular flows of the streams, irrigation 
 with flood water in winter and spring. 
 
 Dr. farming is practiced in the semi-arid regions where 
 there is a fair rainfall during the winter months but almost 
 none in tlie growings months, so that irrigation has to be used 
 in supplement to rainfall and in connection with the methods 
 used in dry farming. 
 
 1. Yearbook 1905, 423-438. 
 
93. 
 
 7t se'.vage irrigation. 
 
 The use of the dlscfiarge from sewers; waste water. 
 
 Irrigation furnishes a very good means of disposal 
 for various waste proeucts, making them of use rather than 
 sources of annoyance. In most placed the sewage is run into 
 streams when it is finally destroyed by sunlight and expos- 
 ure to the air. Many cases have been noted, however, where 
 sewage was dumped into one ei:d of a stream aid drinking water 
 taken from the other end, causing great danger to public 
 health. 
 
 Many elaborate experiments have been carried on to 
 demonstrate thepracticabllity of using sewage in the irriga- 
 tion of farming land. Where the practice is carried on the 
 chief difficulty arises when the sewage must be applied 
 winter and summer, making it necessary to provide large 
 areas of land and to apply the sewage water more with the 
 idea of getting rid of it than of the actual need of the 
 plants. 
 
 Soils of a loose sandy nature are capable of hand- 
 ling extremely large quantities of sewage waters, as the 
 water percolates throu^ and leaves the organic matter at 
 the surface where plant roots can get it. If a sewage farm 
 is properly handled, there need to be annoyance from it. 
 Applications followed by cultivation place the organic matter 
 in a position where the soil bacteria can work on it and 
 soon put it in the form of available plant food. 
 
 P. H. Newell, pp. 275-281. 
 
94 
 
 Sewage irrigation has proved itself profitable 
 even in humid, climates where there was sufficient rainfall 
 to carry the crop through, the value of the sewage water 
 being its fertilizer value. If it proves of value under such 
 conditions there surely should be none wasted in the arid 
 and semi-arid West. 
 
 This method of disposing of sewage may be called a 
 form of slow intermittent filtration in which the top of the 
 filter is used to grow plants. 
 
 There has always been the question raised as to the 
 
 liability of disease being carried on the plants from such 
 
 practice, especially on those crops which are eaten uncooked, 
 and 
 Tests, analysis have been made and every case has 
 
 proved that the practice is a perfectly safe one. 
 
 The methods of applying the water are sijiilar to 
 
 those employed in the use of ditch water, flooding and furrow 
 
 being used followed by cultivation. 
 
 Sewage irrigation is a problem from the point of 
 
 view of sanitation. 
 
 The composition of sewagL. water depends upon the 
 
 conditions and is variable. 
 
 Average analysis of four samples are as follows :-- 
 
 Water 97.4^ Nitrogen .45% Potash ,2% 
 Ash X.l Phos. acid. 2 
 
 Sewage irri^tion is especially good on light sdndy 
 
 soils, where the large amount of water is valuable as well as 
 
 its fertilizer content, the cropemost suitable for groiKth on 
 
 P. H. Newell 
 
95 
 
 land thus irrigated are those crops which are cooked before 
 eatihg, although all investigations and tests have proven no 
 disease to be caused in this way. 
 
 "The^ meadows near Edinburg (England), once arid and 
 worthless, have, by being flooddd with the sewage of the city, 
 risen to an enormous value, and are annually let bjr pu!S)liG 
 auction at prices varying from 15 to 32 pounds per acre - An 
 estimate of the green fodder cut annually from each acre is 
 from fifty to eighty tons." 
 
 Chemical analysis of sewage waters showed them to be 
 rich in ammonia, solubls alkaline salts, phosphates, 
 
 1. Morton, Cyclopedia of Agr., p. 823 
 
96 
 
 Y. COST 01 IRRIGATIOII. 
 
 1. Water. 
 
 2. Distribution. 
 
 Thel average cost of piunping water found at the well 
 plants in Louisiana and Arkansas was: 
 
 In Louisiana with an average lift of twenty feet, 
 cost f6.67 per acre. 
 
 In Arkansas lift forty feet, cost fll.61 per acre, to 
 irrigate . 
 
 On^ six hundred and forty acres in Hew Jersey 32 plots 
 eqeh containing 20 acres, water pumped from a stream and dis- 
 tributed by pipes at a cost of $45,000, about #70.00 per acre. 
 
 6600 gallons of water pumped hourly by windmills and 
 stored in tanks of 66,000 gallons capacity, tton acres of land to 
 a square with a well in the center instiled at a cost of $4500, 
 or $45 per acre, to be irrigated from it. A substitute gasoline 
 vapor engine for the windmills, of a capacity to deliver 6600 
 gallons hourly doing away with the tanks cost $3500; «ng|,ne of 
 Capacity of 330o gallons hourly reduced price to $2500, us4@g 
 three inch pipe in place of four. 
 
 Small^ irrigation plants in lew Jersey cost from ^190 
 to #600. 
 
 Gasoline engine and windmills for one acre $190. Steam 
 pump for five acres $SDO, an 
 
 1/ Office Sxpt. St^s. Bui. 201. 
 2. " " " "36. 
 
 rrti It ft 't Tt on 
 
97 
 
 PumpingI the average for the summer, of an acre -inch 
 of water, lifted thirty-five feet required : 2714 galltos gasoline 
 at .12 l/2^co£3ting .3S 9/lO^ per acre-inch. 
 
 Fitting the ground 24j^ per acre, distributing water, 
 14j!( per acre . 
 
 Average rate of pumping 540 gallons per minute, or 
 
 1.2 cubic feet per second. 
 
 2 
 Cost of check irrigating in California. Estimate of 
 
 cost to check and prepare twenty acres for irrigation, |361.00 
 
 or fl8.08 per acre. 
 
 Cost to check and seed 160 acres, |1593.04 in three- 
 quarter acre checks, of §9.96 per acre. 
 
 A^ well sunk at the ITew Mexico Station at a cost of 
 |150, with a 20 H. P. c- Engine could irrigate land three inches 
 deep at a maximum cost of from 51 to 64 cents per acre with 
 short runs. 
 
 Engine to pump 1000 gallons per minute from a well two 
 hundred feet deep cost .flO.OO per acre. 
 
 Artesian '?!fells. 
 
 Flowing wells, the deepsr the well the warmer the water 
 and the richfr in minerals. 
 
 In^ Colorado the wells of a two inch bore, producing 
 from five to twentyifive gallons of water per minute, cost from 
 twenty- five to seventy- five dollars- 
 
 1. Off. Sxpt. Stas. Bui. 133, pp. 266. 
 
 2. " " T .T 145^ 'T 84. 
 
 3. New !:exico Bui. 45. 
 
 4 . Col or adp IBul • 1 6 
 
98 
 
 The Gonrad Buoher well sunk in Colorado in 1889 
 gets a flow of six hundred gallcnilf per minute from a depth of 
 952 feet, and cost f25!00 largely for the casings. wAter exceeds 
 one cubic foot per second. 
 
 At^ New .ersey a belt containing 1/120 of an acre was 
 used to grow beans and this belt was used as a basis for com- 
 puting larger areas. 
 Price of water one dollar per thousand cubic feet. 
 
 '7a*er applied at the rate of 27,032 cubic ^eet per acre 
 making a cost per acre of |27.L3. 
 
 Increased the yield per acre sixty bushels of number one 
 beans at a cost of forty- five cents a bushel. 
 
 7.48 Cu. ft.= 1 gal. water. 27LoS2 Cu. ft. - 202,200 gals. 
 Gost^ of Pumping as shown in the Santa Clare valley of 
 California varies according to the power used, size of the pump and 
 the depth of wells. 
 
 In 1900 cost of pumping with cost of fuel estimated. 
 U-umber 4 pump centrifugal, operated liy gasoline engine, 
 water taken from a well 70 feet deep cost fS.OO per day. Result- 
 
 n 
 ing in. the pugq?ing of 600 gallons per minute, 26,000 gallons pfr 
 
 hour, or 360,000 gallons in a day of ten hours. Calculated to 
 
 irrigate about four acres with two inches of water. 
 
 1/ ITew Jersey Bui. 115. 
 2. Farmers. Bui. 116. 
 
99. 
 
 B. IRRIGATION OF TRUCK CROPS IN HUMID SECTIONS. 
 I. Extent of irrlfratlon in the Eastern United states. 
 I. General ■Farming;. 
 
 This type of farming is carried on under conditions 
 where land is relatively cheap and abundant, the soils are light loam 
 and during- years of fairly constant rainfall the crops are satisfact- 
 ory. Field crops are not generally Irrifrated although all experiments 
 which have been carried on have strongly shown the value of irrigation. 
 
 King at the "Wisconsin Bxperiment station carried on experiments 
 of irrigating general field crops, and obtained an increase in the 
 yield of clover hay of ^l/s tons per acre, with corn the increase 
 was 26.95 bushels per acre, with potatoes 83.9 bushels increase. 
 By comparing the yields with the general yields of the state and 
 deducting the cost of irrigating, the result was in net profit per 
 acre, |20.00,$II.00, and $14.00 respectively on the three crops. 
 This would seem to show that where water can be readily obtained, 
 irrigation will pay on the general field crops. 
 
 in Pennsylvania hay meadows are irrigated to some extent, 
 especially near the beds of small creeks which are fed by springs; 
 the increase in yield of hay is from 50 to 75 percent. 
 
 in nearly all the humid sections of the Eastern staten there are 
 frequent droughts during the growing season, and generally they 
 come at the critical time, as when the corn ears are filling, and when 
 the potatoes are f orming^, thus greatly decreasing the yield of crop, 
 If water could be applied at this time it is perfectly safe to say 
 the yields could be doubled. 
 
100. 
 
 The droughts always seem to come during the months of May and 
 August, when the crops are starting and when they are maturing, and 
 at the times when the greatest possible damage can be done. 
 
 in these sections the water comes from wells and ponds very 
 largely, pumps or windmills are used to raise the water and taKe it 
 to the field, where it is distributed either in furrdws for the row 
 crops or by spraying for the small crops, and these systems of 
 application are expensive. 
 
 The grower of special crops can see advantages enough to a-f^ford 
 the expense but the general farmer who is not dependent upon any one 
 crop for his living is not llKely to invest too heavily, if his 
 potato crop is nearly a failure because of a drought he still gets 
 enough for his own use, and a successful crop of something else will 
 overshadow his loss, if his corn fails to fill good ears he uses the 
 stalks to feed his cattle and thus does not feel any direct loss as 
 does the special crop grower who is dependant on that crop. The result 
 is the general farmer goes on from year to year expecting better 
 success the next time if he fails once, never considering what he 
 might do by investing in an irrigation system. 
 
lOI. 
 
 2. special Crops. 
 
 V'hile the general farmer may maXe ijp with one good 
 crop what he looses on another, the grower of a special crop is 
 dependent upon the success of that crop, and he will do anything 
 within his power to make that crop do its very best. If it Is a 
 Cranberry bog it must be flooded and kept moist, if it is a rice 
 fiaid it must be treated practically the same. 
 
 In general it might be said that a sfflin growing a special crop 
 will see anything which will be of benefit t6 his crop much quicker 
 
 than will the general farmer, and if it be irrigation that his 
 crop requires he will spare no effort to establish a system, 
 with the expectation that it will repay him by increased crop 
 production. 
 .■?. Fruits. 
 
 The small-'Pruits as a rule do not require especially large 
 quantities of water and in the humid states there is always water 
 enough present in the soil to bring the crop throughjif the blossoming 
 stage, the time of greatest importance however is the time af settl&g 
 and maturing the fruit and a deficiency of water at this time means a 
 clfop of small, seedy and Inferior fruit, in a season of sufficient 
 rainfall there is therefore no direct benefit from an l-"rlgatlon 
 system, at least there will be little benefit, but when a drought 
 does occur the benefits are great enough to pay for the installation 
 of such a system. 
 
 with the tree fruits there is always a large amount of evaporation 
 from the large leaf surface and consequently large amounts of water 
 are taken from the soil. At fruiting time if the supply is deficient 
 the fruit will be small, misshapen, and poor in i^ualit^. 
 
ThTJK una man wno can irrigate wlien his c^oj) Is receiving a checK by 
 drought has a normal crop and receives a high marlet price while 
 
 his fellow competitor who cannot irrj^gate has either a poor crop 
 or none at all. in fac* it might be made a general statement I'^ith 
 any crop grown, that the man who can grow a good crop by means of 
 
 irrigation and proper conservation of moisture, reaps a rich 
 
 harvest while the unfortunate one is a looser. 
 4. Vegetables. 
 
 Throughout the humid regions irrigation is practiced where 
 vegetables are grown. Vegetable ar truck gardens are always on 
 high priced land in close proxlmitj?. to cities where large crops must 
 be grown in order that the land may return a profit to the grower. 
 Very few of our vegetable growers keep records of the cost of and 
 profit derived from iffigation, but they all agree that it is of 
 great value, in ordinary years it increases the yield, and in dry 
 years it maans a full crop in the place of no crop, the returns in 
 a single dry season often equal the first coat of providing the 
 water-supply- 
 
103. 
 
 n.. Systems of obtaining and distributing water. 
 
 Where irrigation is only practiced on a small scale the 
 supply generally comes from t^e city waterworKs, and is appllBd to 
 the fields by some spray system. 
 
 in the humid sections there is very little water which can be 
 bfe applied directly from gravity streams, there are however some places 
 as In Pennsylvania where hay meadows are flooded by damming the 
 streams which flow through it and in this way flood the meadow, but 
 this is only possible in a few places. 
 
 The general water supply is from springs, po^ds, wells, driven- 
 wells and streams. The water is taken from these by different systems 
 of pumping as windmills, rams, and steam and gasolene engines, and 
 is carried through pipes to elevated tanks or reservoirs, or under 
 pressure directly by pipes to tbe fields where it is distributed. 
 
 As to methods of application the greater part is sprayed, while 
 some is run in furrows and some flooded. 
 
 ^'^ater is all carried to the fields and distributed through 
 galvanized pipes Clron), usually two inch pipes are used. 
 III . Methods of applying water. 
 
 in himid regions the sprinkling system prevails over all 
 others, due to the fact that the quantity of water applied at one 
 irrigation has to be relatively small in comparison with the amounts 
 used in the "'est, since the risk of a sudden thunder shower which may 
 over soak the soil has to be considered. 
 
 The advantages of the sprinkling system is that there is no 
 loss of space if the main pipes are laid underground, and there is 
 no loss from leakage; it is applicable to uneven ground and 1111 sides, 
 with no special preparation of the surface required since the water 
 
164. 
 
 is appj-iBd. under prepsiire and as a fine spray, the only disa''? vantages 
 are the first cost for piping and pump. 
 
 The furrow system is cheap and simple and proves quite sritisfactor y 
 with row crops on heavy soils, its special advantage is that it may 
 be applied at any time since the water does not come In contact with 
 the foliage. There is a loos of space where the head laterals are 
 used, and there Is expense for piping where It is used In the place 
 of the ^ead laterals. It also costs to make the furrows and to 
 cultivate them in. 
 
 One method quite largely used Is hose sprinkling, main pipes 
 are used to carry the water to the field where they are divided into 
 smaller pipes or laterals which are sunk under ground at regular 
 intervals and have frequent surface openings with hose connections. 
 This is an expensive spray method from the standpoint of labor, 
 and Is in most cases soon substituted by a mechanical spray system 
 of some klntf. 
 
 There are several spray systems in use of which the Skinner Is 
 the more general at present. 
 
 Beside the Skinner system there are the Keeley system, water- 
 witches and multiple sprinklers, all of whlc^ require water under 
 pressure to operate. 
 
105. 
 
 THE SKINNER SYSTEM. 
 
 The Skinner System is essentially an overhead spray system, it 
 consists of paraleli lines of pipe, in which are inserted specially 
 devised nozzles, located in the pipe at distances approximately 
 four feet apart. The noz-^le lines are from 40-60 feet apart, 
 depending upon the local conditions. The water is distributed in 
 a manner which insures absolute uniformity; which covers every 
 square inch of soil whether it be smooth or rou^h, and it is under 
 the control of the operator. 
 
 The SK inner Union is placed at the head or entrance of each 
 sprinkling line of pipe, and acts as a filter, furnishing additional 
 protection to the noxrles, also permitting the ready rotation of 
 tjte pipe. The size of the pipe and the pressure available 
 governs the width which one line may be expected to cover. 
 
SKINIVTER SYSTEM- 
 
 As It Is used out o " doors. 
 
 
 
 f j._-m? S^7f!'.r 
 
 As it is used in the Greenhouse. 
 
107, 
 
 KEELY SYSTEM. 
 
 This system is an enlarged multiple sprinkler or water witch 
 It requires about one minute per revolution, and applies water evenly 
 A system costs from |50. to lioo. Allpipes are laid under ground 
 with connections for these eprinklers at the surface. 
 
 WATER WITCHES AND MULTIPLE SPRINKLERS- 
 These are modifications of large whirling spray nozzles, and 
 are used in various sizes from the small ones used on lawns to 
 the large ones mounted on small wheels and moved across a field, 
 as shown in Baileys Cyclopedia of Agriculture Vol. I, p 43S. 
 
 .fe^;^a!!!l!!:!i!l!l!:ii;l,iL,Ji 
 
 
 Keely Sprinkler. 
 
108/ 
 
 I?. Amount of water used per application and season. 
 
 Arnold Schmid & Son of Nashville, Tennessee, used 2,000,000 
 gallons: of water on tliree acres of heavy loam soil for truck crops 
 during the growing season of 1910. 
 
 H. P. Chester at Cleveland, Ohio, applied on a very light sandy 
 soil 60,00 cu. ft. of water per acre in 1910. 
 
 C. P. Venahle, Florida, applies one gallon per square foot of 
 
 surface twice a week in hot weather. (1910). 
 
 / 
 
 The type of soil is one of the main factors which controls the 
 
 application of water, a light and sandy soil requires much more 
 
 water for the successful production of crops than does a heavy 
 
 loam soil which is retentive to moisture. 
 
 As to the amount of water to he used at each application, it 
 is coming tof realized th&t the hest practice is to make heavy app- 
 lications at intervals, and follow with shallow cultivation, rather 
 than make frequent shallow waterings. 
 
 Some growers say make applications heavy enough to meet the gro- 
 und water, others say wet the soil down four to six inches and still 
 others apply from l/2 to 1 inch of water at each application. 
 
 There can he no general statement made to cover every region 
 and every condition in the country, on this most importemt ques- 
 tion of how much water to use per application and season. Every 
 grower should know his soil, know his climate and know the water 
 requirements of his crops j when he considers these he can apply 
 water to an advantage and get the hest results. 
 
 The time of application of water. 
 
 When applied in furrows it may he done at any time. When 
 
109 
 
 sprayed on the foliage there is leas loss ty evaporation and less 
 damage done to the leaves if applied in early morning and late 
 afternoon. 
 
no 
 
 V. Cost of applying water to different crops and soils by different 
 methods, 
 
 The^ Gost of irrigation is greater in the East than in the West 
 for several reasons. 
 
 1. More piping is used in the East, 
 
 2. Because of the pipe distriTouting systems the cost for power 
 plants and fuel is larger in the East. 
 
 3. Eleyated tanks ajid spray systems require greater lifting 
 power than is required to deliver water on the level. 
 
 Where pumping systems are used there are certain fixed char- 
 ges which must be taken into consideration whether the plant is 
 idle or in use, such as depreciation, repairs and interest on 
 investment. 
 
 With steam power plants the average total cost to deliver the 
 water ready for distribution on the land is given as $28,00 per acre 
 foot. 
 
 City water is quite imiform in cost, the average given is -'^1.11 
 per 1000 cu, ft., $48.00 per acre foot or $16.00 per acre for an 
 application of four inches. 
 
 The cost to irrigate an acre of land one season in Eastern 
 States is from $30 to $100.1. 
 
 ,^ Cost to apply 17550 gallons of water is $2.35. 
 
 H, M, Howard, Mass. says, "City water costs 30;2^ per 1000 gal- 
 lons and when my pump is running full speed it costs me 2 l/2 ^i, 
 per ],000 gallons to pump." 
 
 1. Office Expt, Stas, Bui. 167. 
 
 2. New Jersey Bui. 115. 
 
III. 
 
 U^yman Bros., Mass. 
 
 Cost 2^fi per 1000 gals, to pump water rom a well. 
 R. E, Roork, U, J. 
 
 Cost to apply one inch, of water to an acre of soil, exclusive 
 of labor 40jzf. 
 Arnold Sclmid & Sons., Tenn. 
 
 City water costs 8/ per 1000 gallons. 
 G. H. Heft, Penn. 
 
 Gravity springs supply water at a cost of 25;zr per 15000 gals. 
 C. r. Vinable, Florida. 
 
 Cost $2.00 per day of ten hours to run a plant which has a 
 capacity of 690 gallons per minute. 
 
112. 
 
 VI. Crop returns from irrigation. // A, 
 
 /no 
 
 Experiments at the Uew Jersey Station. Plots 11 X 33 feetl 
 
 Golden Wax beans were planted as a second crop from August 24 
 to Sept, 17, from Sept., 17 to Oct. 5, ten applications of water 
 were made Tsetween tlie rows, 150 gallons Toeing applied each, time, the 
 total amount equalling an application of eight inches, or at the rate 
 of 202,200 gallons per acre. 
 
 The nine non-irrigated plots gave a yield of 17 Ihs. 1 oz., "i L4~^ 
 nine irrigated yielded 45 pounds. The irrigated plots therefore 
 produced nearly three times as many by weight of large sized pods, a 
 having better color and quality than the non-irrigated. -'"^^^'v /^o — 
 
 ^ Pepper plots of the same size, given applications totalling 
 1830 gallons from august 24 to Oct. 4, increased the yield from 
 80 pounds of poor pepers on non-irrigated to 147 pounds of good 
 peppers on the irrigated. 
 
 Celery, one tenth acre field of average loam soil, with grav- 
 elly loam sub-soil, one half of which was irrigated and one half 
 not irrigated. The cost of the irrigation was $1.14 for 8,531 gal- 
 lons applied. 
 
 The irrigated portion yielded 329.5 poimds of celery while the 
 non-irrigated gave 136 pounds. In the marketable product the ratio 
 was three to one in favor of irrigating celery, while the selling 
 price was eight to one in favor of irrigation. 
 
 Increase due to irrigation. 
 
 Gallons Cost. Amount applied Percent 
 applied . per plant. Increase. 
 
 Beans 1685 |.225 5 gals. 164^^ 
 Peppers 1830 .244 22 " 83% 
 
 Celery 8513 1.138 13.5 •• 142^ 
 
 1. Hew Jersey Bui. 115. 
 
113. 
 
 Irrigation of strawberries in Conn,^ 
 
 Two irrigated plots gave a yield of 337 quarts. 
 Two non-irrigated plots gave yield of 132 quarts. 
 
 The yield figured per acre for the Irrigated plots would "be 
 5318 quarts, and for the non-irrigated plots 2,083 quarts. 
 
 The herries from the non-irrigated plots sold at nine cents 
 a quart while those from the irrigated "brought eleven cents a quart, 
 making the selling price per acre for irrigated berries $584.76 and 
 for non-irrigated berries |187.46. Showing a balance in favor of 
 irrigating strawberries in Connecticut of $397,30 per acre. 
 
 George W, Heft of Hellertown, Penn., says, ."the-increas^iin 
 
 my vegetable crop due to irrigation on dry seasons is as follows 
 
 in percent;" 
 
 Lettuce . .""^ 85^ 
 
 Celery 70^% 
 
 Spinach 60^ 
 
 Radish 40^ 
 
 Lima Beans 40^ 
 
 Strawberries 45^ 
 
 Beets 50^ 
 
 D. C. Smith of Florida says, "during the five years I have 
 irrigated fruit and truck, my crops have been increased 75^ three 
 years and 50^ the other two. 
 
 M. E. Moore of Arlington, Mass., says, "I use the Skinner 
 System of irrigation both in the Greenhouses and out-of-doors and 
 know that the increase in crop value produced by the ability to 
 irrigate pays for the installation of the system every year." 
 
 Chas E. Leabrook of New Jersey says, "My crops are increased 
 one half by irrigation." 
 
 2, Office Expt. Sta. Bui. 36. 
 
114. 
 
 P. Schumacher of Long Island says," In dry years the ahility 
 to irrigate is worth surely $1000 on 15 acres of truck crops." 
 
 The^ average yearly value of truck crops in nine cases 
 is given as |1030 per acre of which value the irrigators claim 
 |330 is due to iriPigation, or an increase of 47^. Estimates run 
 from 30 to 50 percent increase, with a safe profit of $200 per acre 
 due to irrigation. 
 
 1. Office Expt. Sta. Bui. 167, p. 49. 
 
115. 
 
 VII. Sewage Irrigation. Extent of practice, crops. 
 
 Sewage Irrigation is a practice which is still to Tse developed; 
 where it is used it gives satisfaction, and when we^stop to con- 
 sider the vast amount of fertility which is lost through waste of 
 sewage, and think of the increase there might be in crop production 
 "by its proper application to the soil, we can easily see its value. 
 
 The value of sewage water has been proven on the hay meadows 
 of Englemd, and in America it has been used somewhat on truck crops 
 with complete success. 
 
116. 
 
 VIII. Outlook of irrigation under humid climate. Kinds of soil 
 
 and crops to whicli Toest applicable and their probable extent. 
 
 1 
 Irrigation of hay meadov/s and truck farms is an established 
 
 and profitable practice, but the value of irrigation to general 
 
 farming is still to be demonstrated. 
 
 At the present time irrigation is carried on very successfully 
 on the loam soils of the truck crop sections, it has proved a pay- 
 ing proposition on light soils especially where vegetable crops 
 were grown. 
 
 There is no doubt that fana crops could be easily doubled 
 by the use of irrigation at times of drought and with the spray 
 systems now out of the experimental stage, I look for a great 
 increase of area under irrigation in the humid sections, especially 
 on the light loam soils, and where the value of the crop grown is 
 sufficient to warrant the invastment for em irrigation system. 
 
 1. 0. E. S. Bui. 167, Conclusions. 
 
117. 
 
 New York, 
 
 Frederick Schumacher, Flushing, L. I. 
 
 Irrigated truck crops, fifteen acres, for fifteen years, on a 
 sandy loam soil. Water is supplied by driven wells, being pumped 
 by windmill and four H. P. gasolene engine into tanks holding 
 13,000 gallons and directly into pipes supplying the Skinner lines. 
 
 Crops on this light soil require water at certain times during 
 each year, and at these times thoroiigh irrigations are given, 
 
 leleive the co&l portion of the day the better time to apply 
 water but find it necessary to run all day during the severely dry 
 spells;; in dry years the ability to irrigate is surely worth $1000, 
 
 Kiilip Bach, Flushing, L. I. 
 
 Twenty acres of truck irrigated twelve years on a sandy loam 
 soil with the spray system. Water is taken from driven wells by 
 a steam pump with a capacity of 100 gallons per minute, pumped into 
 a large tank and carried from here by underground pipes to the field 
 where it is applied by pipes with Skinner nozzles; irrigating 
 thorough and following with surface cultivation. 
 
 John G. SchTJunacher , Flushing, ¥. Y. 
 
 Skinner system used on truck crops, water applied in the after- 
 noon when possible. 
 
 D. Titus, Irondequoit, U. Y. 
 
 Twenty one acres of truck crops irrigated two years on a sandy 
 loam soil. The water is pumped from a pond by a Gould Triplex pump 
 with a capacity of 21000 gals, per hour. This water is carried to the 
 
118 
 
 field under a pressure of 80 pounds in 6 inch, pipe as a main, and 
 applied lay the Skinner system. 
 
119. 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 H. M. Howard, West Newton, Mass. 
 
 Irrigated seven acres of truck crops three years with Skinner 
 system. 
 
 Soil medium ioam, fine sand suhsoil, water supplied "by 8 H. P 
 Foos Gasolene Engine and Deraing triplex pixmp from wells, furnished 
 in the pipes at 80 pounds pressure. City water also used. 
 
 Apply water from 4 P. M. to 6 A. M, , making thorough applica- 
 tions and following with shallow cultivation, 
 
 "I know I can advance the maturity, improve the quality and 
 increase the quantity of salahle produce, "but as for comparative 
 figures, I have kept no check. I crop the land heavy and apply 
 water when I v/ant to try to grow something without waiting for rain. 
 Crops nearing maturity can be matured and the land put in condition 
 for the next crop by a thorough application of water." 
 
 City water costs 30jzf per 1000 gallons. C^ pump that amount 
 for 2i;^. 
 
 Wyman Bros,, 129 Lake St., Arlington, Mass. 
 
 Irrigated 30 to 75 acres of truck crops for 25 years. Soil 
 sandy loam, rather fine sub-soil, some heavier meadow land under- 
 laid with clay. Water pumped from a well close to a lake by a 25 
 horse power gasolene engine and Triplex pinnp, (considering subst- 
 itution a 25 H. P. Electric motor for the engine). Cost to pump 
 2-^0 per thousand gallons. 
 
120. 
 
 Some fields fitted for Skinner others piped for hose irrigation, 
 the water is pumped to a stand-pipe and lead to the fields throiigh 
 a six inch main, where it is divided to supply laterals two and 
 three inch. 
 
 Crops like cahhage grown in rows are furrow irrigated. 
 
 Such crops as onions, carrots, beets and spinach are irrigated 
 l3y using a coarse hose spray; the surface pipes are so arranged 
 that not more than 150 ft. of hose is required to reach from one 
 connection to the next. 
 
 Spraying is done in evening while furrow irrigation is done at 
 any time during the day. 
 
 Thorough irrigation, deep enough to meet the moisture "beneath 
 
 followed hy surface tillage. 
 / 
 Irrigation often means the success or failure of our crop, and 
 
 we raise twice as much produce per acre now as 25 years ago. 
 
 M. Ernest Moore, 278 Broadway, Arlington, Mass. 
 
 Irrigated twelve acres of truck crops for fifteen years on a 
 variation of soil from a light and sandy to a heavy clay soil. It 
 would he impossible to secure first class crops every year without 
 irrigation, and there is a time every season when water is necessary. 
 Supply is pumped from wells (driven), by means of a Deane duplex 
 steam pump, throwing 80 to 90 gallons per minute, through iron pipes 
 to the field. Method of application fa'¥ors the Skinner system and 
 it is used entirely. 
 
 Water is applied in sufficient quantity to thoroughly wet the 
 ground and as soon as the surface has dried sufficiently shallow 
 
121 
 
 cultivation is 'begun. "I do not consider" it practical in this sec- 
 tion to try to raise truck crips without a good system of irrigat- 
 ion. I consider Skinner system the iDest and cheapest method of 
 applying water and know that I can apply an immense amount of water 
 at a very small cost. Used it out of doors and in greenhouse five 
 or six years, and it pays for itself every yearj covers a large 
 area in the very best manner." 
 
 Wilfred Wheeler, Concord, Mass. 
 
 Irrigated two to three acres of strawberries for pot grown plants 
 for eight years; using the Skinner system and find I could not 
 grow the crop without irrigation and this system has cut labor bills 
 one half. Water is carried through 1 l/2 inch and 1 inch pipes 
 and applied at a pressure of 38 pounds, from six to eight P. M. 
 
 Applications are thorough and followed when the surface dries 
 by shallow surface cultivation. 
 
 H. P. Hall, Brighton, Mass. 
 
 Irrigated 4 - 10 acres of truck crops five years on a black 
 sandy loam soil with a sandy sub-soil. 
 
 The water supply comes from a well and the city; steam pump 
 gives a pressure of 60-100 poimds in the two inch main and 1:^ inch 
 laterals in the field. Applied with a hose by flooding, wetting 
 down from 4-6 inches. When spraying water on the foliage it is done 
 from 4 P. M. to 8. A. M. in furrows and flooding at any time. 
 
 Follow irrigation with shallow cultivation; we find it necess- 
 ary to use water when planting or transplanting from June 25th to 
 
 Aug, 1st. 
 
I22. 
 New Jersey. 
 
 K. Elwood Roork, Greenwicli, H. j. 
 
 Three acres of truck irrigated two years on a light loam soil 
 ty the Skinner system. Water supplied loy pumping from driven wells 
 with a Z^ H. P. gasolene engine and a Gould pump with a 48 gallon 
 per minute capacity. Water carried under 20 pounds pressure to the 
 nozzles, applications made of from l/2 to 1 inch at each time, stirr- 
 ing the soil surface as soon as it can be worked. 
 
 Cost to apply the water, ahout 40 cents to apply one inch of 
 water to an acre of soil exclusive of labor. 
 
 David Astle, R. P. S. #6, Vineland, N. J. 
 
 Seven acres of general crops irrigated on a variation of soils, 
 water is pumped from artesian wells from 16-35 feet deep, "by a Myers 
 pump and 5 H. P. Gasolene Engine, capacity 35 gallons per minute. 
 Pumped to a tank on a hill from which pipes lead to the field where 
 connections are made with a spray system mounted on wheels, the 
 nozzles used are called water witches. For a description and illus- 
 tration see Cyc. of Agr. (ISailey) Vol. I, p. 439. 
 
 We could not grow celery at all without irrigation and we 
 have doubled and trebled the yield of other crops by its use. 
 
 Geo. A. Mitchell, Vineland, N. J. 
 
 Has proved the value of irrigation on truck crops and small 
 fruits. 
 
 An experiment with the irrigation of various crops is given 
 in 0. E. Stations Bui. 87. pp. 26-33. 
 
123. 
 
 Chas P. Sea^rook, Bridgeton, ^. J. 
 
 Prom one to fourty acres of truck crops irrigated eight years 
 on heavy and light loam soils. Water is puraped loy Fairbanks and 
 Moore Duplex pump and 8 H. P. Gasolene engine from a well and a 
 creek directly to the Skinner system pipes at from 30 - 40 pounds 
 pressure. Applications are made heavy and followed "by surface 
 irrigation. Crops increased 1/2^^ hy irrigation. 
 
 Fred ¥. Kilhourn, New Brunswick, U. J. 
 
 Ahout four acres of truck crops irrigated thirteen years on a 
 heavy loam soil. City water is used and is applied in furrows at 
 the rate of 5000 cu. ft. per acre per year. After applying water 
 the furrows are filled in to prevent evaporation. 
 
 0. Becker, Tine land, IT. J. 
 
 One half acre of strawberries and vigitahles irrigated five 
 years on a sandy loam soil. A Gould force pump furnishes the water 
 from artesian well, and it is applied to the land through revolving 
 water witches after sundown. 
 
124. 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Arnold Sclimid & Son., 1010 Caruthers ave., Nashyille. 
 
 Three acres of truck irrigated "by Skinner system six years. 
 City water is used at 60 pounds pressure, and sprayed on, 2,000,000 
 gallons "being used per season on a heavy loam soil. Very little 
 cultivation is given any more than to keep down the weeds and grass, 
 later costs eight cents per thousand gallons, and sometimes means 
 the saving of the entire crops. 
 
125. 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 J. C. Wheeler, Albany, Ga. 
 
 "I regard the Skinner system superior to any other for irri- 
 gating truck crops. 
 
 I have irrigated six acres of oranges on a sandy loam soil and 
 some seasons double my crop "by its use. 
 
 Water is pumped from wells by means of Gasolene Engine and 
 centrifugal pump of capacity of 15000 gallons per hour, distributed 
 through furrows 4-12 inches deep and 10-16 feet apart, the amount 
 applied varying with the dryness of the season. Application 
 followed by light surface cultivation. 
 
 Cost depends upon proximity of water supply, kind of power 
 used and method of distributing water". 
 
126. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 M. L. Rueterick, Brooklyn Sta. , Cleveland. 
 
 Five acres of truck more especially celery irrigated eight year 
 on a sandy loam soil with clay and gravel sub-soil. Water supplied 
 from a pond hy a standard pump of 7000 gallons capacity per hour, 
 furnished water at 50 pounds pressure to the Skinner system. Water 
 applied evenings, from l/2 inch to 1 inch applied each time. Some 
 seasons a great henefit others no particular benefit. 
 
 H. 7. Chester, Cleveland, Brooklyn Sta., R. P. D. #2. 
 
 Seven acres of truck irrigated eight years by the Skinner 
 system on a medium loam soil. Three acres is sandy gravel four 
 feet deep, four acres is sandy loam with clay sub-soil. 
 
 Water comes from reservoirs filled by wet weater brooks and 
 from city mains; water carried to field in two inch pipe under a 
 pressure of 50 to 60 pounds. Very heavy applications made since 
 the soil is very light and requires it, 3,000,000 cu. ft. applied 
 per five acres. 
 
 Celery mulched with manure as well as other crops which can 
 )e, others cultivated as soon as possible after each application 
 )f water. In Cleveland it would be time thrown away to attempt 
 ;o do intensive vegetable gardening without irrigating facilities. 
 
127. 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 R. H. Garrahan, Kingston. 
 
 Eight to twelve acres of truck crops irrigated 25 years on a 
 sandy loam and clay soil with clay suh-soil. 
 
 Water supplied by Khowls pump (steam) 100 gallons per minute 
 on 80 pounds pressure at Skinner nozzles j from a pond and creek. 
 
 Methods of applying water are hy flooding and the Skinner 
 system, heing followed hy surface cultivation. Cost and amount 
 applied unknown. 
 
 George W. Heft, Hellertown, Pa., R. P. D. #1. 
 
 Six acres of small fruit and truck irrigated with water witch 
 sprinklers on a sandy loam soil. 
 
 Water furnished "by gravity from springs furnishing 10 gallons 
 per minute and giving 25 pounds pressure at the witches. 
 
 Applications of 150 gallons are made to circles 25 feet in 
 diameter. 
 
 Water cost estimated at 25^ for 15000 gallons, which is a days 
 flow from the springs. In dry season the increase in crop due to 
 irrigation in per cent is as follows: Lettuce 85, Celery 70, 
 Spinach 60, Radish 40, Lima Beans 40, Strawberries 45, Beets 50. 
 
128 
 
 Plorida. 
 
 D. C. Smith, Center Hill. 
 
 Twelve acres of fruit and truck irrigated five years on a sandy 
 soil T/vith a light sand and clay sul3-soil. 
 
 Water supplied from a well by centrifugal purnp and 15 H. P. 
 gasolene engine, supplying 400 gallons per minute to the Skinner 
 system, which applies one inch of water to the surface in seven hours. 
 
 After the plant is installed, it costs ahout |3.00 per days 
 watering. 
 
 The Skinner system is the "best for truck farming. 
 
 During the five years practice the crops have "been increased 
 75 percent three years and 50 percent the other two. 
 
 C. P. Vinahle, Center Hill, ria. 
 
 Pour acres of truck crops irrigated four years with the Skinner 
 system on a dark loam soil. 
 
 Water supplied hy pumping with an International Gasolene 
 Engine 15 H, P. and a Ho. 1924 Gould pump from wells driven from 
 45 to 90 feet deep. There is always an ample supply of water and 
 it is delivered at the nozzles under a pressure of 48 pounds. 
 
 Try to apply one gallon per square foot of surface twice a 
 week in hot weather, and follow with shallow cultivation. Crops that 
 Close their hlossoms at night are watered at night, others anytime. 
 Irrigation proves a very profitalDle proposition. It costs $2.00 per 
 ten hours to run this plant which has a capacity of 690 gallons per 
 minute. 
 
129 
 
 IMPORTANT POITITS BRO'JGHT OUT BY CIRCULAR LETTERS- 
 
 Crops Acres Years Source Of How 
 State. Grower. Trrip^atert. Grown. IrT-israted.Soil. TVater. Applied. 
 
 Mass. 
 
 H.M.Howard, i 
 
 'ruck. 
 
 7. 
 
 3. Light-heavy 
 Loam. 
 
 ?/ell8: 
 City. 
 
 Skinner 
 System. 
 
 n 
 
 H 
 
 u 
 
 T'ymanjBros. 
 
 M.E. Moore. 
 ^f. vrheeler f 
 
 « 30-75. 
 
 " 12. 
 
 ?trawberrles 2-3 „ 
 
 85. Black sandy 
 
 Loam. 
 15. Medium Loam 
 8. Light Loam. 
 
 TFTell. 
 
 It 
 City. 
 
 u ^ 
 Hose. 
 
 Skinner. 
 II 
 
 n 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 H.F.Hall. 
 H.F, Chester 
 
 Truck. 
 
 n 
 
 4-10 
 7. 
 
 5. Black Sandy 
 
 Loam. 
 8. Sandy Loam. 
 
 well & 
 
 City. 
 
 City. 
 
 Flooding 
 "'ith Hose. 
 Skinner. 
 
 u 
 
 M.L. Ruetenik 
 
 It 
 
 5. 
 
 8. 
 
 n II 
 
 Pond. 
 
 II 
 
 Georgia, 
 Florida, 
 
 J.C.Wheeler. 
 D.C. smith. 
 
 Orange 
 Grove. 
 ^ruit&Truc 
 
 6. 
 
 c 12. 
 
 5. 
 
 It II 
 II n 
 
 wells. 
 
 n 
 
 Fxirrow . 
 Skinner. 
 
 n 
 
 C.F.Vinable. 
 
 Truck. 
 
 4. 
 
 4. ] 
 
 fleavy Loam. 
 
 It 
 
 II 
 
 lennessee 
 
 A.Schmid&Son 
 
 
 3. 
 
 6. ] 
 
 Wed-heavy" 
 
 City. 
 
 n 
 
 N, Jersey 
 " 1 
 
 • C.Becker. 
 '.w.Kilbourne 
 
 
 1/2 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 13. 
 
 Sandy Loam. 
 Heavy Loam. 
 
 wells. 
 City. 
 
 Water 
 
 Witches. 
 Furrow . 
 
 u 
 II 
 
 C.F.Seabrook. 
 G.A.Mitchell. 
 
 
 1-40 
 
 8. 
 
 II II g. 
 
 Light •' 
 II 11 
 
 wells i 
 Creek. 
 
 H 
 
 Skinner. 
 
 n 
 11 
 
 David Astle. 
 R.E.Roork. 
 
 'eneral Cr 
 Truck. 
 
 2-7. 
 
 3. 
 
 2. 
 
 Med Loam. 
 Light Loam, 
 
 wells. 
 
 n 
 
 water' 
 
 "'■itches 
 Skinner. 
 
 N. York. 
 
 J.O.Schiimache: 
 
 " 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 •1 
 
 Philip Bach. 
 
 F.Schumacher. 
 
 II 
 II 
 
 20. 
 IB. 
 
 12. 
 
 Sandy Loam 
 11 II 
 
 wells. 
 II 
 
 Flooding 
 trlth Hose. 
 Skinner. 
 
 i » 
 
 D, Titus. 
 
 II 
 
 21. 
 
 2. 
 
 II II 
 
 Pond. 
 
 •1 
 
 'ennsylvs 
 
 nia. 
 11 
 
 G.W.Heft. 
 R.H.Garrahan. 
 
 Fruit S-Tru 
 Truck. 
 
 ck 5. 
 12. 
 
 • 
 
 6. 
 25, 
 
 II n 
 
 H II & 
 
 Clay " . 
 
 Spring 
 
 Pond i 
 Creel 
 
 r, Water 
 Witches. 
 
 . Skinner. 
 
iTIoward 
 
 fyman. 
 Moore, 
 
 n^eeler. 
 Hall. 
 
 Chestei 
 
 RuetenlK 
 Kheeler. 
 
 smith. 
 
 nnable. 
 
 Schmld. 
 
 Applying. Gained by 
 - 'ater. Irri p-atlnn 
 
 mt of 
 
 ^'ater Applied 
 
 At each Time. 
 
 4PM-6A|M. Advance maturitlty , About oTfe 
 Improve quality ♦ Inch. 
 & Quantity 
 
 Cost. 
 
 130. 
 
 Tillage 
 Practice. 
 
 All day 
 6-8 Pit. 
 
 Increase the Thorough 
 yield to double. f hen needed. 
 
 Thorough. 
 
 3iff. some season^ 
 between no crop 
 and a good one. 
 Could not grow 
 he crop without. 
 4PM-8AM, It always pays. 
 
 $.30 per 
 aals. 
 wet down 4-6 inches 
 depending on the 
 
 .6-9 AM. Could not grow 
 4-10 PM, crops without It. 
 
 soil oondltL 
 fery heavy 
 applloatlonlB. 
 
 ^ome years a benefitl/2-i inch 
 others not. 
 Depends on rain 
 
 After S'RM. increase for 5 
 first Zt754 
 
 2, 50i 
 A very profitabl443560 
 practice. 
 
 Any time' 
 
 Becker. 
 
 Rundown. 
 Kllbourne. Night. 
 
 Seabrook 
 
 Mitchell, 
 
 Astle. Any time 
 
 4^^6«-^sis 
 
 f ©¥ ae=p« 
 
 ^«a4w«fel^T 
 yrs. 
 
 One inch. 
 
 Some years entiite 
 crop saved. 
 
 Afterfl©4nVery beneficial 
 on strawberries. 
 Some yea"^s the fiill 
 value of the crop 
 
 On light soils, 
 
 Any tim4 Benefits crop I/' 
 
 *umacher 
 Bach 
 
 Double &■ Treble. 
 
 TOorK. liorning i Difference betw-- l/s-I Inch 
 Afternoon, een a failure aijid 
 a good crop. 
 
 Schumache:if, " 
 
 [fltua. 
 left. 
 
 pahan. 
 
 Anytime 
 
 City, 30 'Ssuffle hoeing, 
 cents per |and Shallow 
 Thousandcu ft. Cultivation. 
 2l/2cents to 
 pump it. i 
 
 gals 
 per acre 
 semiweelly, 
 
 2000000 
 als a sea 
 
 $2.00 to run 
 en hours and 
 l)ump 690 gals 
 per minute, 
 8 cents per 
 soilithcusand gal 
 
 half hour 
 every eveniijig 
 
 5000 cu 
 .ft per acr^ 
 per year, 
 2 l/4-Iinch 
 4-10 inche 
 /2-I 1/2 I 
 
 oneinch per 
 
 Qreat advantage orJGood soaking 
 
 a dry season, 
 
 worth 1^1 000. dry 
 years. 
 
 Could not do withdut 
 40-85'^;lncrease, If 
 
 A great benefit. 
 
 on. 
 
 Skinner system Stir the surfa 
 pays for itself ce afterlt 
 every year, is partly dry. 
 Stir with 
 :ii'ine tooth cult. 
 S'lir surface as 
 soon as dry 
 enough to work. 
 Mxilching and 
 shallow stirring. 
 
 Light surface, 
 cultivation. 
 
 I3.00 per day Surface after 
 to run the it dries is 
 plant. Istirred. 
 
 Followed by 
 
 each application and 
 ^ for whole season. "" 
 es per appll; 
 
 n(!h 
 
 shallow 
 cultivation. 
 
 Very little 
 .only to kill 
 weeds. 
 
 rhcarou^ . 
 
 ,,app. 
 "40 cents per 
 
 nation. 
 Shallow. 
 As soon as 
 
 acre inch excl surface has 
 Uifiive of labor. dried, shallow. 
 
 Shallow. 
 
 Ogals on 251't25cents I5000gals. """ 
 
 circle. 
 Dent know. 
 
 days flow from 
 Dont know. 
 
 springs. 
 Shallow. 
 
KEEERENCES OH IRRIGATION 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Irrigation and Drainage, E. H, King, 1899, pp. 502. 
 Irrigation Earming, Lute Wilcox, 1895, pp. 311. 
 Conquest of Arid America, Tfoi. E. Smythe, 1900, pp. 325. 
 Irrigation, -12th Census. Vol. VI pp. 800-879. 
 Manual of Irrigation Engineering, H. M. Wilson, 1897, pp. 351. 
 Irrigation, (Conservation) E. E. Hewell, 1892, pp. 410. 
 Egyptian Irrigation, Win. Wilcocks, 1889, pp. 394, II. pi. maps. 
 History of Greeley and the Union Colony of Colorado, David Boyd, 
 
 pp. 448, pi. 8®. 1890. 
 Irrigation in Utah. C. H. Brough, pp. 212, 1898. (John Hopkins 
 
 University studies in history and political science, extra vol. 19). 
 Irrigation works in India and Egypt, R. B. Buckley, pp. 348, maps, 
 
 1893 . 
 Irrigation development, history, customs, laws, etc., etc., in Erance, 
 
 Italy and Spain, Wm. H. Hall, Eng. Dept. Calif. 1888, pp. 672. 
 Morman Land System, G. 0. Cannon, Denver, 1894. 
 Cole's Comhined System of Drainage and Irrig!ation, A. P. Cole, pp. 
 
 103 II. 8°, 1889. 
 On Evaporation and Percolation, Chas. Greaves. Instit. Civ. Eng. 
 
 Proc. 45:19-45, II. 1876. 
 Irrigation and Water Storage in the Arid Region, A. W. Greeley, 51 
 
 Cong. 2nd Sess. House Execution, doc. 287, pp. 356. 
 Rept. European Com. of the Danube on Changes in Bed of Sea at Sulina 
 rrmonth during 29 years, C. A. Hartley, Instit. Civ. Eng. Min. of 
 
 Proc. 91:334-341, 1888. 
 Survey of the Delta of the Danuhe in 1894, C. A. Hartly, Proc. Instit. 
 
 Civ. Eng. 122:336-342, 1893. 
 Prevention of Silting in Irrigation Canals, R. G. Kennedy, Proc. 
 
 Instit. Civ. Eng. 119:281-.290, 1895. 
 Irrigation Studies, Elwood Mead, Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. Proc. 26:565-591, 
 ' II. pi. (1900) 
 Measurement of Volxxme of Stream and Plow of Water in N. Y. , S. A. 
 
 Bond, Rept. lU Y. State Eng. and Sxirreyor, 1900, p. 128. 
 . Measurement of Water for Irrigation, J. B. -Pope, 1896, pp. 25. 
 [Home-making "by the Government. An account of the development of the 
 United gtateo Reclamation Service hy C. J. Blanchard. national 
 Geographic Magazine, Vol. 9, Uo. 4, pp. 250-288 for April, 1908. 
 ' U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Station. 
 Bui. 36. Notes on Irrigation in Connecticut and New Jersey. By C. S. 
 
 Phelps and E. B. Voorhees. pp. 64. 
 Bui. 73. Irrigation in the Rocky Mountain States. By J. C. Ulrich. 
 
 pp. 64. 
 Bui. 81. The Use of Water in Irrigation in Wyoming. By B. C. Buffim. 
 
 pp. 56. 
 Bui, 87. Irrigation in New Jersey. By Edward B. Voorhees. pp. 40. 
 
 pp. 48. 
 Bui. 90. Irrigation in Hawaii. By Walter Maxwell. 
 
^^li.J'^^' Report of Irrigation Investigations in California, under 
 M«L? ? \°," °' Elwood Kead, assisted by William E. Smythe, Marsden 
 i-^wfl^SSr-D?!* Wilson, Charles D. Marx, Prank Soule, C. E. Grunsky, 
 Edward M. Boggs, and James D. Schuyler, pp. 411. 
 
 ^^l\ li^: Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1900, under the 
 supervision of Elwood Mead, Expert in Charge and C. T. Johnston, 
 assistant, pp. 334. 
 
 Bui. 108. Irrigation Practice Among Pruit Growers on the Pacific 
 
 Coast. By E. J. Wickson. pp. 54. 
 Bui. 113. Irrigation of Rice in the United States. By Prank Bond 
 
 and George H. Keeney. pp.77. 
 Bui. 119. Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1901, under the 
 
 direction of Elwood Mead, Chief, pp. '401. , . . ". 
 Bui. 124. Report of Irrigation Investigations in Utah, under the 
 
 direction of Elwtrod Mead, Chief, assisted "by R. P. Teele, A. P. 
 
 Stover, A. P. Doremus, J. D. Stannard, Prank Adams, and G. L. 
 
 Swemdsen. pp. 330. 
 Bui. 130. Egjrptian Irrigation. By Clarence T. Johnston, pp. 100. 
 Eul. 131, Plans of structures in use on Irrigation Canals in the 
 
 United States, from drawings exhibited by the Office of Experiment 
 
 Stations isit Paris, in 1900, and at Buffalo, in 1901, prepared 
 uniinder the direction of Elwood Mead, Chief, pp. 51. 
 Bui. 133. Report of Investigations for 1902, xmder the direction of 
 
 Elwood Mead, Chief, pp. 266. 
 Bui. 144. Irrigation in northern Italy - Part I. By Elwood Mead. 
 
 pp. 100. 
 Bui. 145. Preparing Land for Irrigation and Methods of Applting 
 
 Water. Prepared under the Direction of Elwood Mead, Chief, pp. 84. 
 Bui. 146. Current Wheels: Their Use in Lifting Water for Irriga- 
 tion. By Albert Eugene Wright, pp. 38. 
 Bui. 148. Report on Irrigation Investigations in Eumid Sections of 
 
 the United States. 
 Bui. 157. Water Rights on Interstate Streams. By R. P. Teele and 
 
 Elwood Mead. pp. 118. 
 Bui. 158. Report on Irrigation ajid Drainage Investigations, 1904. 
 
 Under the direction of Elwood Mead, Chief, pp. 755. 
 Bui. 167. Irrigation in the Uorth Atlantic States. By Aug. J. 
 
 Bowie, pp. 50. 
 3ul. 177. Evaporation Losses in Irrigation and Water Requirements 
 
 of Crops. By Samuel Portier. pp. 64, 
 Bui. 188. Irrigation in the Yakima Valley, Washington. By S. 0. 
 
 Jayne . pp . 89 . 
 Bui. 190. Irrigation in northern Italy - Part II. By Elwood Mead. 
 
 pp. 86. 
 Bui. 201. Cost of Pumping from Wells for the Irrigation of Rice in 
 
 Louisiana and Arkansas. By W. B. Gregory, pp. 39. 
 Bui. 203. Distribution of Water in Purrow Irrigation. By R. E. 
 Loughridge. 
 
 Parmer s' Bulletins. 
 Bui 116. Irrigation in Pruit Growing. By E. J. Wickson. pp. 48. 
 Bui. 138. Irrigation in Pield and Garden. By E. J. Wickson. pp.40. 
 Bui. 158. How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. By C. T. Johnston 
 and J. D. Stannard. pp. 28. 
 
Bui. 363, Practical Information for Beginners in Irrigation. "By * 
 
 Samuel Portier, pp. 40. 
 Bui. 277, Use of Alchol and Gasoline in Farm Engines, By C. 1. 
 
 Lucke and S. M. Woodward, pp. 40, 
 
 YearTjook, 
 
 Rise and Future of Irrigation in the United States, By Elwood Mead, 
 YearTsook 1899, pp, 591-612, 
 
 Some Typical Reservoirs in the Rocliy Mountain States, By Elwood 
 Mead. Yearbook 1901, pp. 415-430. 
 
 Preparing Land for Irrigation. By R, P. Teele. Ye^rlDOok 1903, 
 pp. £11-322, 
 
 Potato Culture near Greeley, Colo. By J. Max Clark. Yearbook 1904. 
 pp. 311-322. 
 
 The Relation of Irrigation to Dry Panning. By Elwood Mead. Year- 
 hook 1907. pp, 409-424, 
 
 Review of Irrigation Investigations for 1902, By Elwood Mead, Re- 
 print from Annual Report of Office of Experiment Stations for 
 1902, pp, 469-502. 
 
 Review of Irrigation Investigations for 1905. By Elwood Mead. Re- 
 print from Snnual Report of Office of Experiment Stations 
 for 1903. pp. 469-502. 
 
 Report of Irrigation and Drainage Investigations, 1904, By Elwood 
 Mead. Reprint from Annual Report of Office of Experiment 
 Stations for 1904. pp. 425-472. 
 
 Soil Mulches for Checking Evaporation. By Samuel Portier. Year- 
 hook 1907, pp. 465-473. 
 
 State Experiment Stations. 
 Arizona Bui. 37- Winter Irrigation of Deciduous Pruits. A. J. 
 
 McClatchie. 
 Calif. Bui. 53. Irrigation, Drainage and Alkali. E. W. Hilgard. 
 " " 121. Economy of Soil Moisture and Economy in Use of 
 Irrigation Water. E. W. Hilgard and R. H. Loughridge. 
 Colorado Bui. 16. Artesian Wells of Colorado and their Relation to 
 
 Irrigation. L. G. Carpenter. 
 Colorado Bui. 48. Losses from Canals hy Piltration and Seepage. 
 
 II w M 82. Irrigation Waters and their Changes. W, P. Headden, 
 M II II 83, Irrigation Waters and their Effects. " " " 
 Nevada Bui. 52, Water Supply and Irrigation in Nevada. L, H. Taylor. 
 N. H. Bui. 34. Surface and Suh-irrigation out-of-doors. P. ¥. Rane. 
 H. J. Bui. 115. Irrigation of Garden Crops. B. D. Halsted. 
 N. Mex, Bui, 45. Pumping for Irrigation from Wells. J. J. Kelsey 
 
 and P. E. Lester. „ , - 
 
 Ohio Bui, 61. Suh-irrigation in Greenhouse. W. J. Green. 
 Utah Bui. 24. Irrigation. J. W. Sandorn. ^ ™ o ^ 
 
 " " 26. Suh-irrigation vs. Surface Irrigation. J. W. Sandorn. 
 " " 27. Early, late and Usual Irrigation. J. W, Sandorn. 
 w w 29, Irrigation; Amount of Water to Use, J, W. Sandorn. 
 n « 39. Parm Irrigation. A. A. Mills and Orchard and Vine- 
 Yard Irrigation. E. S. Richmond, 
 Utah Bui. 80. Irrigation Investigations in 1901. 
 
 » " 104. The Storage of Winter Precipitation in Soils. 
 By John A. Widtsoe. 
 
134^. 
 
 Utah Bui. 105. Irrigation Investigations: factors Influencing 
 JiiVaporation and Transpiration. John A. Widtsoe. 
 
 _ . . . _.. U. S. Geological Survey. 
 
 irrigation Literature, llth Annual Report 1891, Pt. 2, pp. 345-388. 
 irrigation in India. By H. M. Wilson. 12th Annual Report, Pt. 2, 
 pp. 363-561, pi. ft, 
 
 later supply hy irrigation. By P. H. Newell. 13th Annual Report, 
 
 Pt. 3 1892-93, pp. 1-99. pi. 
 American Irrigation Engineering. By H. M. Wilson. 13th Annual 
 
 Report, 1892-93, Pt. 3, pp. 351-427., pi. 
 Potable Waters of Eastern United States. By W. J. McGee. 14th 
 
 Annual Report, Part 2, 1893-94, pp. 1-47. 
 Natural Mineral Waters of United States. By A. C. Peale. 14th 
 
 Annual Report, Part 2, 1893-94, pp. 49-88, pi. 
 Puhlic Lands and Their Water Supply. By P. H. Newell. 16th Annual 
 
 Report, Part 2, 1695-96, pp. 457-533. 
 Water Resources of Porticnof the Great Plains. By Rohert Hay. 16th 
 
 Itnnual Report, Part 2, 1895-96. pp. 535-588. 
 Reservoirs for Irrigation. By J. D. Schuyler. 18th Annual Report, 
 
 Pt. 4. 1896-97, pp. 617-740. 
 Reports of U. S. Reclamation Service of the Geological Survey, from 
 
 1902-1907. 
 
 Water-supply and irrigation papers. 
 No. 1 Pixmping water for irrigation. By H. M. Wilson. 1896. 57 p. 9pl. 
 Wo. 2 Irrigation near Phoenix, Ariz. By A. P. Davis, 1897. 98p. 31 pi. 
 No. 3. Sewage Irrigation. By G. W. Rafter. 1897. 100 p. 4 pi. 
 No. 5 Irrigation practice on Great Plains. By E. B. Cowgill. 1897. 
 
 39 p. , 12 pi. 
 No. 8 Windmills for Irrigation. By E. C. Murphy. 1897. 49 p. 8 pi. 
 No. 9 Irrigation near Greeley, Colo. By David Boyd, 1897. 90 p. 
 
 21 pi. 
 No. 13 Irrigation systems in Texas. By W. P. Hutson, 1898. 68 p. 
 
 10 pi. 
 No. 22 Sewage Irrigation, pt. 2. By G. W. Rafter. 1899, 100 p. 7pl. 
 Nos. 248, 25 Wate Resources of State of New York, pt. 1. By G. W. 
 
 Rafter, 1899. p. 1-99, 13 pi. 
 No. 71. Irrigation Systems of Texas, By T. U. Taylor. 1902. 157 p, 
 
 9 pi. 
 No, 80, Relation of rainfall to run-off; By H, M, Wilson. 1903. 
 
 238 pp. 27 pi. 
 Articles on Irrigation in Vols. I & 17 American Cyclopedia of 
 
 Agriculture by Bailey, 
 
 Bui. 130. Texas, June 1910. 
 
 Bui. 188, W. S, D, A,, Nov, 5, 1910, 
 
 Bui. 86, Bur. Plant Industry, 1905. . , . „ ^ 
 
 Year Book 1910, pp. 293-309. Portier. Methods of Applying Water. 
 
 Parmer s Bui 392, Irrigation of Sugar Bedts. 
 
lib. 
 
 Jarmers Bui. 394, Use of T/indmills in Semi-arid West. 
 
 " " 399. Irrigation of Grain. 
 Plant World Vol. 14, Uo. 8, March 1911, Evaporation from Soils. 
 Utah. Bui. 112, L. A. Merrill, Dry Farming Methods. 
 
 « " 111, Brown and Hart, Reclamation of Seeped and Alkali 
 Lands . 
 
References for Irrigation in Humid Sections. 
 
 136. 
 
 S. Dept. Agr. Off. Expt. Stas. Bui. 36, pp. 64, 148 pp. 45, 
 167 pp. 50, 222 pp. 92, 133 pp. 266, 119 pp. 401. Report 
 1908, pp. 355-405. 
 
 Cyc. Amer. Agr. Vol. I., pp 437, By R. P. Teele. 
 
 New York Dept. Agr. Bui. 12, pp. 11. 
 
 Report Scot. Com. Agr., Canada, 1908, pp. 195. 
 
 Report Supt. Forestry, Canada, 1909, pp.96. 
 
 U. S. Dept. Com and LaTaor, Bur. Census Bui. 16, pp. 92. 
 
 Cornell Countryman I., 1904, ITo. 2. pp. 39-40. 
 
 Queensland Agr. Journal, 13, 1903, IJo. 4, pp. 308. 
 
 Mass. Stat© Bd. Agr. Rept. 1901, pp 398-415. 
 
 Forestry and Irrigation, 8, 1902, No. 7, pp. 298-300. 
 w w « «t n II 9 n 366-370. 
 
 Uew Jersey Sta. Report, 1901. pp. 215-268. 
 U. S. D. A. Farmers bul, 46, pp. 26. 
 Expt. Sta. Record, Vol. 6, Uo, 2, pp. 89'r90. 
 Tradesman, 44, 1900, Ho, 2, pp. 62. 
 Uew Jersey Report for 1896, lop. 185-232. 
 " " " " 1897, pp. 103-108. 
 Census XII Vol. 6, pp. 875. 
 
 King Irrigation and Drainage, pp. 170-195. (3rd Edition.) 
 Wilcox Irrigation 5'arming, pp. 455-463. 
 P. H. Hewell, Irrigation, pp. 383-393. 
 Market Growers Journal. Vol. 4, Hos. 13, 18, 19. Vol 5. Nos. 5. 
 
 Vol. 6, Uos. 9, 19, 25. Vol. 7. Uo. 22. 
 New Hampshire Bul. 137, 
 

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