'iiili|ii';;/!i!ii«!i iiillHiiliMiiiiiii (flornell ImttBratta ffitbrarg aitljata, SJfjd Snrk FROM THE BENNO LOEWY LIBRARY COLLECTED BY BENNO LOEWY 1854-I9I9 BEQUEATHED TO CORNELL UNIVERSITY CorfM« Unlvantty Ubrary BS491 .B94 1840 ^liiiiNiiiiii 3 1924 029 274 077 olln Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029274077 ED FOR THOMAS TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE, AND MAT BE PROCURED BY OKDKR OK ALL OTHER llOOKSELLERS. THE FAMILY LIBRARY, WITH PLATES AND WOODCUTS, Price Five Shillings each. ANT VOLUME OR WORK SOLD SEPARATELY. Vol. 1, 2. LIFE OP BUONAPARTE . 3, LIFE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT . 4, 10, 13, 19, .27, 38. LIVES OF BRITISH ARTISTS 5, 6, 9. HISTORY OF THE JEWS 7, 51. HISTORY OP INSECTS 8. COURT AND CAMP OF BUONAPARTE 11. LIFE AND VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 12. LIFE OF NELSON, BY SOUTHEY . 14. LIVES OF BRITISH PHYSICIANS 15. 48, 49, 50. HISTORY OF BRITISH INDIA . 16. DEMONOLOGY AND WITCHCRAFT . 17. LIFE AND TRAVELS OF BRUCE . 18. VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS'S COMPANIONS . 20. 32. VENETIAN HISTORY 21. HISTORY OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS . 22. 34, 37. LIVES OP SCOTTISH WORTHIES . 23. TOUR IN SOUTH HOLLAND 24. LIFE OP SIR ISAAC NEWTON 25. MUTINY OF THE BOUNTY 26. REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 28, 29. LANDER'S TRAVELS IN AFRICA . 30. SALMAGUNDL BY WASHINGTON IRVING 31. TRIALS OF CHARLES 1. AND THE REGICIDES 33. LETTERS ON NATURAL MAGIC 36. LIFE OF PETER THE GREAT . 36." SIX MONTHS IN THE WEST INDIES 39,40. SKETCH BOOK .... 41 to 46. TYTLER'S GENERAL HISTORY 47. CROKER'S FAIRY TALES 52. MEMOIR OF THE PLAGUE IN 1665 63, 54. THE LIFE AND TIMES OP WASHINGTON 55. KNICKERBOCKER'S HISTORY OF NEW YORK 56, 57, 58. WESLEY'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY . 59, 60. NAPOLEON'S EXPEDITION TO RUSSIA 61. LIFE OF ALI PASHA . . . . . . 62. LIVES AND EXPLOITS OP BANDITTI AND ROBBERS . 63. SKETCHES of IMPOSTURE, DECEPTION, akd CREDULITY 64. HISTORY OF THE BASTILE 65. LIFE OP GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS 66. CHRONICLES OF LONDON BRIDGE 67. THE LIFE OP JOHN, DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH 68. THE LIFE AND W^RITINGS OP CERVANTES 69. THE LIFE OF MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO . 70. 71. RUINS OF CITIES 72. LIFE AND TIMES OP RICHARD THE FIRST . 73. THE LIFE OF MAHOMET. ' . Two Vols. , One Vol. Six Vols. Three Vols. Two Vols. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. Four Vols. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. Two Vols. One Vol. Three Vols. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. Two Vole. . One Vol. One VoL One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. Two Vols. Six Vols. One Vol. Ooe Vol. Two Vols. One Vol. Three Vols, Two Vols. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. Two Vols. One Vol. One Vol. POPULAR BOOKS PRINTED FOR THOMAS TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE, AND MAY BE PROCURED BY ORDER OF ALL OTHER BOOKSELLERS. £js. d. 2 fi I 6 16 IS 2 16 aSoofes on aStblttal ©rtttcfem, Src BROWN'S SELF-INTERPEETING BIBLE, with Notes, Maps, &c., 4to. CONCORDANCE OF THE SCRIPTURES, Bound and Gilt. . CAMPBELL ON THE GOSPELS. 2 vols. 8vo. CARPENTER'S INTRODUCTION, &c., THE FAMILY EDITION. 4to. OWEN ON THE HEBREWS. 4 vols. 8vo. . . . . . PRIDEAUX'S CONNEXION OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 2 vols. 8vo. . . . . . . . 18 e ROBINSON'S GREEK AND ENGLISH LEXICON OF THE NEW TES- TAMENT. 8to. . . . . . . . . 15 3 BURDER'S ORIENTAL CUSTOMS, New Edition, by Jones. 8vo. .090 CLARKE'S SUCCESSION OP SACRED LITERATURE. 2 vols. Svo. . 15 DR. ADAM CLARKE'S COMMENTARY ON THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 6 vols, imperial Svo. . . ..696 DR. ADAM CLARKE'S COMMENTARY ON THE NEW TESTAMENT. 2 .vols, imperial Svo. . . . . . .280 BLAYNEY'S JEREMIAH AND LAMENTATIONS. 8vo. . . . 12 BOOTHROYD'S VERSION OF THE SCRIPTURES. With Notes. 3 vols. 4to. 3 3 BROWN'S DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 8vo. . . . . 12 BURKITT'S NOTES ON THE NEW TESTAMENT. 2 vols. Svo. .110 CALMET'S DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. Svo. . . .14 CARPENTER'S INTROBTJCTION TO THE BIBLE. Imperial Svo. . 12 CRUDEN'S CONCORDANCE of THE SCRIPTURES. Imperial Svo. . 18 DODDRIDGE'S FAMILY EXPOSITOR. Imperial Svo. . . .110 FULLER'S EXPOSITORY DISCOURSES ON GENESIS. I2mo. . .040 GLEIG'S HISTORY OP THE HOLY BIBLE. 2 voU. i2mo. . . 12 GURNEY'S DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 24mo. ' " . .036 HENRY'S COMMENTARY ON THE BIBLE, hy Blomfield. 4to. ' .' 1 10 HORNE'S COMMENTARY ON THE PSALMS. Svo edition. . 0/0 JENNINGS'S JEWISH ANTIQUITIES. Svo. . . ..070 LOWTH'S LITERAL TRANSLATION OP ISAIAH. Svo. . .070 LECTURES ON HEBREW POETRY. Svo. ' ' . . .070 MACKNIGHT'S TRANSLATION OF THE EPISTLES. Imperial 8vo. 1 I NEWCOME'S TRANSLATION OF EZEKIEL. Svo. . ..070 THE MINOR PROPHETS. Svo. .070 NOVUM TESTAMENTUM GRjECE. 32mo. (Glasgow.) . ..040 SEPTUAGINT GRjECE. 2vols.'32mo. (Glasgow.) . . ! 8 STUART'S COMMENTARY ON THE ROMANS. 8vo. . . .' 12 HEBREWS. Svo. . . 12 TRANSLATIONS OF THE PROPHETICAL BOOKS OP SCRIPTURE. 5 vols. Svo. . . , , ^ ^ 2 4 WINTLE'S TRANSLATION OP DANIEL. Svo. . ... 8 WILLS'S GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. Svo" 9 CALVIN'S COMMENTARY ON THE PSALMS. 2 vols. Svo. ' 1 10 PATRICK, LtDWTH, ARNOLD, WHITBY, & LOWMAN. 5 vols. Imp Svo' BROWN'S DICTIONARY OP THE BIBLE. Svo. 12 GILPIN ON THE NEW TESTAMENT. 2 vols. Svo. ' ' 16 POPULAR WORKS PRINTED FOR T. TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE. And may be procured by order of all other Booksellers. EGAN'S (PIERCE) BOOK or SPORTS and MIRROR of LIFE. Cuts, 8vo. GRANT'S SKETCHES IN LONDON. 24 Engravings by Phiz. 8vo. HONE'S EVERY DAY BOOK and TABLE BOOK. 3 vols., 8vo. . . YEAR BOOK. Numerous Cuts. 8vo. .... STRUTT'S SPORTS AND PASTIMES OP THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND. 8vo. ....... PARTERRE (THE); a collection of tales and anecdotes. 90Cuts. 4 toIb. 8vo. RAMBLES AND ADVENTURES OF CAPTAIN BOLIO. 32 Engravings. I2mo. GRACE DARLING, HEROINE OF THE FERN ISLANDS. A Tale. 20 Plates by Phillips, &c. .....'. PICKWICK ABROAD ; or a Tour in France. 41 Engravings by Phiz. 8vo. EGAN'S PILGRIMS OF THE THAMES. 26 Engravings. 8vo. . PAUL PERIW^INKLE ; or the Press-cang. Now Publishing, to be completed in Twenty Parts, each .....,, COLMAN'S BROAD GRINS. 6 Engravings. 32mo., Gilt. . . . EDGEWORTH'S NOVELS AND TALES. 18 vols., 12mo. JOHNSON'S (CAPT.) LIVES of NOTED HIGHWAYMEN. 13 Engravings. LONDON SINGER'S MAGAZINE. Cuts. 8vo. .... HEARTS OF STEEL. An Historical Tale. 12mo. . . . 23to3rap55, l^fetorg, anb CSffograp^B- AUTOBIOGRAPHY. A Collection of the most amdsIng Lives. 33 vols, BROOKES'S GENERAL GAZETTEER. By Marshall. 8vo. CECIL'S LIFE OF THE REVEREND JOHN NEWTON. 32mo. . . CLASSIC (THE) AND CONNOISSEUR IN ITALY and LANZI'S STORIA PITTORICA. 3 vols., 8vo. ...... CONDER'S DICTIONARY OF GEOGRAPHY, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 12mo. ........ GILLIES'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 8 vols., 12mo. GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY of E^fGLAND. Foolscap, Cliiswick Press, 12mo. GORTON'S TOPOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 4 vols., 8vo. ..... LANGHORNE'S TRANSLATION OF PLUTARCH'S LIVES. 8vo. MITFORD'S HISTORY of GREECE. Edited by Davenport. 8 vols., 12mo. MODERN TRAVELLER. By Josiah Condeh. 33 vols., 18mo. PARIS AND ITS ENVIRONS. With 204 fine Views by Heath. 4to. WATSON'S LIFE OF PHILIP THE SECOND. New Edition. 8vo. LIFE OF PHILIP THE THIRD .... WHISTON'S JOSEPHUS'S HISTORY OF THE WARS OF THE JEWS. 3vols., 8vo. .Oxford. ...... ADVENTURES in ALGIERS and OTHER PARTS of AFRICA. 3 vols., 8vo. MILNER'S CHURCH HISTORY AND CONTINUATION. 8vo. FULLER'S HISTORY OF CAMBRIDGE. New Edition. 8vo., Plates. Edited by Nichols. . . ' . MOSHEIM'S ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 2 vols., 8vo. . . . £ >. d. 7 12 1 11 6 10 6 10 6 1 I 9 10 1 I 13 1 1 6 4 10 9 7 5 £ s. a 5 15 6 12 2 1 16 12 1 15 9 3 12 8 2 2 5 & 2 2 9 9 1 7 1 11 6 15 14 1 7 GDj&mfetrg, iSatural l^tstorg, a3otanB, iJteitfrinc, gbureng, jFarritrg, Src BUCHAN'S DOMESTIC MEDICINE. 8vo. .... GRIFFIN'S CHEMICAL RECREATIONS. 12mo. . . • • RYDGE'S VETERINARY SURGEON'S MANUAL. Fourth Edition. 8vo. SOUTH'S OTTO'S PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF THE BONES AND MUSCLES. 8vo. ...... THOMSON'S HISTORY OP CHEMISTRY. 2vols., 12mo. . . . OUTLINES OF MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY, &o. 2to1s., 8vo. SYSTEM OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 2 vols., 8vo. . OUTLINE OF THE SCIENCE of HEAT, ELECTRICITY, &c, 8vo. . . BUFFON'S NATURAL HISTORY. By Wright. 466 Cuts. 4 vols . . MAWE'S EVERY MAN HIS OWN GARDENFR. 12mo. STRUTT'S SYLVABBITANNICA; Portraits of Forest Trees. 4to., 50 Plates 1 WHITE'S NATURAL HISTORY. By Ladv Dovoh. 12mo. £ «. d. 12 7 6 14 12 1 12 2 2 15 1 4 a 8 6 1 I 6 73, CHEAPSIDE, AND MAT BE FUOCURED BY ORDER OF ALL OTHER BOOKSELLERS. ADAMS'S PRIVATE THOUGHTS ON RELIGION. 18mo. . .020 ALLEINE-S ALARM TO UNCONVERTED SINNERS. 32mo, ..020 AMBROSE LOOKING UNTO JESUS, anil other Works. 8to. . .080 BAXTER'S SAINTS' EVERLASTING REST. 8vo 9 — Pocket Edition. ISmo. .030 BERKELEY'S tBISHOP) WORKS. 8yo 12 BLAIR'S SERMONS. 6 vols, in one. 8vo. . . . .070 LECTURES ON RHETORIC AND BELLES LETTRES. 8to. 7 9 BOLTON'S TREATISE ON COMFORTING AFFLICTED CON- SCIENCE,S. 18mo. . . . . . ..020 BOOTH'S (ABRAHAM) SELECT WORKS, Tiz.REK!N or Grace, &c. 12m». 4 6 BUNYAN'S PILGRIM'S PROGRESS. Notes by Adam Clarke. 18mo. .040 Large 8vo. Edition. Plates. .070 HOLY WAR. New Edition. 18mo. .. . ..036 BORDER'S VILLAGE SERMONS. New Edition. IZmo. . .030 BURKITT'S HELP AND GUIDE TO CHRISTIAN FAMILIES. 32mo. 2 BURNET'S EXPOSITION OF THE THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES. 870. 9 BUTLER'S AN ALOGYoF RELIGION, NATURAL ANB REVEALED. 12mo. 4 6 SERMONS. New Edition. ]2mo. . . . .046 CALVIN'S LIBERTY OF CHRISTIAN RELIGION. By Alien. 2 vols. 8vo. 1 I CALVIN'S COMMENTARY ON THE PSALMS. 2 vols. 8to. ..110 THEOLOGY AND LIFE. By Down. 12nio. . .060 CAMPBELL'S('G.,D.D.)LECTURESonECCLESIASTICALHISTORY. 8vo.0 7 . . PULPIT ELOQUENCE AND PASTORAL CHARACTER. 8vo 6 DISSERTATION OK MIRACLES. 8vo. 6 WORKS. Complete in 6 vols. 8vo. .220 CARPENTER'S SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. Sixth Edition. I2mo. 5 CAVE'S LIVES OF THE FATHERS. New Edition. 3 vols. 8vo. Oxford . 1 4 O CAVE'S LIVES OF THE APOSTLES AND PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. Svo^O 16 CECIL'S SERMONS. New Edition. 12mo. . • • ' ^ ,^ „ CHARNOCK ON THE DIVINE ATTRIBUTES. 8to. . • ■ ' CLARKE'S (DR. ADAM) MISCELLANEOUS WORKS. 13 vols. 12mo. SERMONS. 4 vols. 12mo. . PROMISES OF SCRIPTURE. By CARPENTEa, 12 3 18 1 1 6 o-nio. . • • 4 6 rOT FJ3 OX GOD'S SOVEREIGNTY. 12mo. . • • ' „ ! « DODDRIDGE'S RISE AND PROGRESS OF RELIGION^ 32.0. . IvZs SELECTIONS FROM THE WORKS OF HOWE. . • « ^WIGHT'S SYSTEM OF THEOLOGY. 5 VJ.8V0 • -^^^ Imperial Octavo. 1 1 FLLISS KNOWLEDGE OF DIVINE THINGS. 12mo. . . ' , „ F^^EY'S SERMONS ON IMPORTANT SUBJECTS. 12n,o .-040 !!!1I! LECTURES TO PROFESSING CHRISTIANS. 12n,o. ON REVIVALS OF RELIGION. 12mo. ' J [ J FISHER'S MARROW OF MODERN DIVINITY 12nH.. . • gVlL'S BODY OF PRACTICAL DIVINITY. 2 vols. 8vo. . ' ' ^ ^^ , . CAUSE OF GOD AND TRUTH. 8vo. . ■ • ^ ^^ ^ rnODWIN'S REDEMPTION REDEEMED. 8vo, • " q ^ 5 oSrNAWS CHRISTIAN IN COMPLETE ARMOUR. 8v„. ■ • « HALL'S (REV ROBERT) SELECT WORKS. 12mo. . ' . 12 hInNAM'S PULPIT ASSISTANT N.W Edition. 8vo. • POPULAR WOHKS PRINTED FOR THOMAS TEOO, 73, 0REAF8IDE. 10 6 12 12 1 7 10 5 BTO. 2 vols. 8vo, CIiis\rick HAWKER'S EVENING PORTION. New Edition . . ..030 HERVEY'S THKRON AND ASPASIA. New Edition. 8vo. . . 10 6 MEDITATIONS AND CONTEMPLATIONS. 8vo. ..050 HILL'S (REV. ROWLAND) VILLAGE DIALOGUES. Cuts. 12mo. .060 Svols. 12nio. .090 HOOKER'S ECCLESIASTICAL POLITY. 2 vols. 8vo. . . . 18 HOWE'S CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY. By Dunn. ]2mo. . .066 THEOLOGICAL TREATISE. By Taylor. 12mo. ..040 LELAND'S DIVINE AUTHORITY OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTA- MENTS. 8vo. ........ VIEW OF DEISTICAL WRITERS. By Edmonds. 8vo. MASSILLON'S SERMONS. New Edition, 8vo. . . . . NEALE'S HISTORY OF THE PURITANS. 3 vols. 8vo. NELSON'S FASTS and FESTIVALS of the CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 8vo. Oxford. ........ NOVUM TESTAMENTUM GR.flECE. 32mo. Glasgow. . . . OLNEY HYMNS. By Newton and Cowper. 32mo. PASCAL'S THOUGHTS ON RELIGION. 18mo. . . . . PEARSON'S EXPOSITION OF THE CREED. 8vo. PORTEUS'S LECTURES ON ST. MATTHEW'S GOSPEL. PULPIT (THE), A COLLECTION OF one hundred and fifty sermons. ROBINSON'S SCRIPTURE CHARACTERS. 8yo. ROMAINE'S WORKS. New Edition. . SAURIN'S SERMONS. Translated by Robinson, &c. 3 vols. 8vo. SCOTT'S (REV. THOMAS) THEOLOGICAL WORKS. 12mo. SEPTUAGINT (THE) GREEK. 2 vols. 32mo. Glasgow. SHEPARD'S PARABLE OF THE TEN VIRGINS. 12mo. . . ■ SHERLOCK'S WORKS, with Summary by Hughes. 5 vols. 8vo. . SIMPSON'S PLEA FOR RELIGION. New Edition. 12mo. . . . SACRED CLASSICS, or LIBRARY OF DIVINITY, viz. BEVERIDGE'S PRIVATE THOUGHTS, by Stebbing. 2 vols. . BOYLE'S (Hon. Robert) TREATISES, by Rogers BUTLER'S FIFTEEN SERMONS, by Cattermole CAVE'S LIVES OF THE APOSTLES, by Stfbbing. 2 vols, . BISHOP HALL'S TREATISES, by Cattermole HORNE ON THE PSALMS, by Montgomery. 3 vols. HOWE'S THEOLOGICAL TREATISES, by Taylor . KNOX'S CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY, by Stebbing LOCKE ON THE REASONABLENESS OF CHRISTIANITY . SACRED POETRY of the SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 2 vols. SERMONS BY DIVINES OP THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. 3 vols. . TAYLOR S (Rev. Jeremy), LIBERTY OF PROPHESYING . SERMONS ON THE MIRACLES . STURM'S REFLECTIONS ON THE WORKS OF GOD. 2 vols. THORN'S LECTURES ON THE CHRISTIAN SABBATH. 18mo. TILLOTSON'S WORKS, WITH LIFE, by Burcb.' 10 vols. 8vo. . WARBURTON'S DIVINE LEGATION OF MOSES. 2 vols. 8vo. WATSON'S SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 12mo. bound 6 O 6 110 12 18 1 16 8 12 6 1 17 6 4 0~ 9 4 4 9 4 12 4 4 4 9 12 4 4 12 3 3 3 1 8 WATTS'S GUIDE TO PRAYER. 32mo. bound . DEATH AND HEAVEN. New Edition WESLEY'S SERMONS, WITH LIFE, by Drew. 2 vols. 8vo. WHEATLEY'S ILLUSTRATION OF THE COMMON PRAYER. WHITFIELD'S SERMONS. Life by Drew. 8vo. , WITSIUS ON THE COVENANT BETWEEN GOD AN^D MAN. 2 vols. 8yo. Bvo. 1 8 12 15 4 1 1 6 1 POPULAR WORKS PRINTED FOR T. TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE. And may be procured by order of all other Booksellers. JWfetrilawous Hfterature. £ BEAUTIES OP WASHINGTON IRVING. 21 Cuts by CaoiKsHnNK. . BOOK OF SONGS; Minstrel's Companion SET TO Mdsic. 12mo. . . BUCKE'S HARMONIES AND SUBLIMITIES OP NATURE. .3 vols. 8vo. 1 CAMPBELL'S (GEORGE D. D.), PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. 8vo. COWPER'S LIFE AND WORKS. By Grimshawe. 8 vols. 12mo. . i POEMS. 2 vols. Pocket Edition. . . • ' ? CRABB'S DICTIONARY OP GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. New Edition. DAVENPORT'S IMPROVED EDITION of WALKER S DICTIONARY. 18mo L.^ WithKey to Proper Names. I8mo. DE FOE'S NOVELS and MISCELLANEOUS WORKS. In vols.,, monthly at ENFIELD'S HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY. New Edition. 8vo. . EURIPIDES OPERA OMNIA. 3 vols. 8vo. . . . . .S FERGUSON'S LECTURES ON MECHANICS, &c. &c. 8vo. . . WRENCH CLASSICS. Edited by Ventoullac, viz : ELISABETH. Cotim.. 18mo. Cloth boards NUMA POMPILIUS Florian. NOUVEAUX MORCEAUX CHOISIS. De Buffon. LA CHAUMIERE INDIENNE. St. Pierre. CHOIX DES CONTES MORAUX. De Marmontel. BELISAIRE. Marmontel. .... HISTOIRE DE PIERRE LE GRAND. Voltaire. TELEMAQUE. Fenelon. .... PENSEES, DE. Pascal. CHOIX DES TRAGEDIES, DE. Racine. . COMEDIES, DE. Moliere. FULLER'S CHURCH HISTORY OP BRITAIN, by Nichols. 3 vols. GARDENS AND MENAGERIE or the ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 2 voli GLEIG'S HISTORY OP THE BIBLE. 2 vols. i2mo HIGGINS'S PHILOSOPHY of SOUND & MUSICAL COMPOSITION. 12mo HOLLAND'S (Mbs.) DOMESTIC COOKERY. New Edition HOWARD'S BEAUTIES OF BYRON. 32mo. . JOHNSON'S DIAMOND DICTIONARY. 32mo. POCKET DICTIONARY FOR SCHOOLS. I8mo. JOSEPHUS'S HISTORY of the WARS of the JEWS. 3 vols. 8vo. Oxford LOCKE'S ESSAY ON THE HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 8vo. LONDON ENCYCLOP.ffiDlA. Ninth Edition. 22 vols, royal 8vo. MADAN'S LITERAL TRANSLATION OF JUVENAL. 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford. MANUAL OF ASTROLOGY ; or. Book of the Stars. 8vo. MILTON'S Poetical works, by Sir Egerton Brydges. 6 vols. Plates. . Pocket Edition. 18mo. PARADISE LOST. „ „ 18mo. . SELECT PROSE WORKS, by St. John. 2 vols. 12mo. . MITCHELL'S PORTABLE ENCYCLOPjEDIA. SO Plates, 8vo. MOAT'S SHORT-HAND STANDARD. 24 Engravings, 8vo. . . . MORE (Mrs. HANNAH) ON FEMALE EDUCATION. iSmo. . MORNINGS AT BOW STREET. 21 Cuts by Cruikshank. ]2mo. . . PALEY'S WORKS. Notes and Illustrations by Paxton. 5 vols. 8vo. PORTER'S (MISS) LAKE OF KILLARNEY. A Tale. I2mo. . . READY RECKONER. New Stereotype Edition. ROLLIN'S ANCIENT HISTORY. 6 vols. 8vo. Maps. SALE'S AL KORAN OP MAHOMET. 8vo. SCOTT'S MINSTRELSY OF THE SCOTTISH BORDER. 8vo. SHAKSPEARE'S DRAMATIC WORKS. Diamond Edition. i2mo. AND POETICAL WORKS. Octavo Edition SHELLEY'S POETICAL WORKS. New Edition. 4 vols. 4 6 6 11 6 9 SPHINX ; A collection of three hundred rebuses, charades, &c. &c. STERNE'S WORKS. Complete in I vol., 8vo. TEGG'S DICTIONARY OP CHRONOLOGY. New Edition. 12mo. VOCAL COMPANION : or Singer's Own Book. 12mo. WATTS'S LOGIC ; or Right Use of Reason. 24mo. ON THE IMPROVEMENT OP THE MIND. 24mo. " . WESLEY'S LOGIC. Improved by Jackson. 18mo. JOURNAL OP HIS LIFE, VOYAGES, and TRAVELS. 8vo". WESLEY ANA ; Important Passages from bis works. 18mo. YOUNG'S NIGHT THOUGHTS. 18mo JONES'S EN GLISH SYSTEM OF BOOK-KEEPING. ' Part l.'(Trade6men)' ' 2 parts, in one vol. (Merchant and Bankerl MORE'S (MRS. HANNAH) POPULAR WORKS. 2vols.,8vo, DOUCE'S ILLUSTRATIONS OF SHAKSPEARE. 8vo., Outs, 10 6 9 6 6 3 6 6 16 1 12 8 0. 4 6 2 6 2 6 1 6 7 9 14 6 10 4 -6 3 12 1 8 15 12 8 12 3 2 6 2 6 10 6 3 6 3 12 1 4 14 POPULAR WORKS PRINTED FOR T. TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE, And may be procured by order of uU other Booksellers. iSdoIis for ©SfllrrEn. BARBAULD'S EVENINGS AT HOME. 18mo. . BOOK OF TRADES rOiuFFiN's) New Edition. 16mo. BOY'S BOOK OF SCIENCE. Square IGmo CHILD'S (Mrs.) STORIES FOR HOLIDAY EVENINGS. 18mo. . CHILD'S (Thk) own BOOK. Sixth Edition. 16mo. CHILD'S BOTANY. Square 16mo. . . . . . . — Coloured plates .... ENDLESS AMUSEMENT, kodr hdndred curious experiments. 18mo. . New Series. l8mo. . . . . EARLY FRIENDSHIPS, by Mrs. Copley . ... GIRL'S OWN BOOK, by Mrs. Child. Square 16mo. . . . . BOOK OF SPORTS, by Miss Leslie. Square I6mo. HISTORY OF ENGLAND, por yodng historians. 18mo. Bound. JOYCE'S SCIENTIFIC DIALOGUES. Royal 18mo. JUVENILE EVERY DAY BOOK. Square I6mo SCRAP BOOK. 4to Plates . . . . . LOOKING-GLASS FOR THE MIND. 65 Cuts, I2mo. MOTHER'S (The) STORY BOOK. 26 Cuts. 18mo. Bouud PETER PARLEY'S WORKS, square I6mo., any sold separately,. viz : TALES ABOUT EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA, AND AMERICA. ANIMALS. New Edition . . . •. ENGLAND, IRELAND, SCOTLAND, AND WALES. Square 1 Gmo. ..... CHRISTMAS AND its FESTIVITIES. Sq. 16mo. • PLANTS. Prepared for Press, by Mrs. Loudon. . ANCIENT AND MODERN GREECE . . ROME AND MODERN ITALY UNIVERSAL HISTORY . . . . THE SEA AND PACIFIC OCEAN . SUN, MOON, AND STARS GRAMMAR OF GEOGRAPHY . UNITED STATES OF AMERICA LIFE OF FRANKLIN and WASHINGTON MYTHOLOGY of GREECE and ROME . SERGEANT BELL AND HIS RAREE-SHOW. Square 16mo STORIES ABOUT POLAND, by Robin Cahveb. I8mo. Half Bound STRIVE AND THRIVE, a Tale, by Mrs. Mary Howitt TEMPERANCE TALES, founded on facts. Square 16nio. TEGG'S PRESENT FOR AN APPRENTICE. „ „ ■ TEGG'S STANDARD LIBRARY FOR THE PEOPLE, bound and gilt, Yiz : THREE EXPERIMENTS OP LIVING . . . ABBOT'S HOARY-HEAD and the VALLEYS BELOW LOVE-TOKEN FOR CHILDREN, by Miss Sedgwick THE MOTHER'S BOOK, by Mrs. Child . ■ • • LIVE AND LET LIVE, by Miss Sedgwick BEST'S ART OF ANGLING, by Jackson . . • ■ MRS. CHILD'S FRUGAL HOUSEWIFE TODD'S SABBATH SCHOOL TEACHER . . . . LETTERS TO MOTHERS, by Mrs. Sigohrney . jaORE'S (Mrs. Hannah) STORIES FOR THE MIDDLE RANKS . 'IICH POOR MAN AND POOR RICH MAN . ^^y OP AN AMERICAN PHYSICIAN . • • ^^r^ja^EATISE ON SELF-KNOWLEDGE V^?>^ICAL PIETY ^i^^sTO^I^^p-s ™^^uir''°'' ^^''^''^ ■ : MORE'S DRAMAS, SEAlw^ and ESSAYS . . . PHILOSOPHY OF COMMOH <;^nsE EPHRAIM HOLDING'S DOMESirfj ADDRESSES . . TOM TELESCOPE'S NEWTONIAN PHILOScphy Cuts Square I6mo. UNCLE PHILIP'S CONVERSATION ON THE \fif ALE FISHERY . ABOUT THE Tools and trades OF ANIMALS . . . WATTS'S DIVINE SONGS FOR CHILDREN. Bound. . HOPEFUL YOUTH FALLING SHORT OP HEAVEN YOUNG MAN'S OWN BOOK. ISmo. .... AID TO KNOWLEDGE. 18mo. . YOUNG LADIES' STORY-TELLER, by Misa Leslie . £ .5. d. 4 6 8 6 2 6 7 6 2 s 2 2 2 6 4 6 4 6 3 6 5 5 8 3 6 3 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 7 6 2 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 2 2 6 2 2 2 6 2 6 2 3 2 2 6 2 2 2 3 2 6 3 3 2 ■2 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 6 1 3 6 3 6 2 POPULAR WORKS PRINTED FOR T. TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE, AND MAY BE PROCURED BY ORDER OV ALL OTHER BOOKSELLERS. Sitj&ool 23oolts. £ ,, rf. -iESCHYLUS. A nbw translatiok. . • • • ..050 ADAM'S ROMAN ANTIQUITIES, with Questions. By Boyd. 12mo. .070 AINSWORTH'S DICTIONAUr,. LATIN AND ENGLISH. 18mo. .070 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By the Ret. J. Williams. . . .050 ANTHON'S HORACE, with English Notes. By Boyd. . . .076 SALLUST, ,, „ . . ' " ' CICERO'S ORATIONS, CJESAR'S COMMENTARIES, with English Notes, Plates, &c. 6 GREEK GRAMMAR. Edited hy Major. . • .040 PROSODY „ . . ..026 LATIN GRAMMAR. Edited by the Ret. W. Hayes . .040 BALDWIN'S HISTORY OP ROME. 12mo. Bound. . ..036 GREECE: 12mo. Bound. . .040 PANTHEON OF HEATHEN MYTHOLOGY. I2mo. Bound 5 6 5 6 BONNYCASTLE'S SCHOOL BOOKS, improTed by the Ret. E. C. Tyson, viz : INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRA. 12mo. Bound. . .040 KEY TO ALGEBRA. „ „ . .,.046 INTRODUCTION TO MENSURATION. „ . .050 KEY TO MENSURATION. „ „ • . . S ARITHMETIC. » » • ..036 KEY TO ARITHMETIC. „ ,, • ..046 BURGESS'S HEBREW ELEMENTS., 12mo. . . . . S RUDIMENTS OF HEBREW. 12mo. . . ..070 CRABB'S DICTIONARY OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. Fourth Edition 7 ENFIELD'S SPEAKER. New Edition. Bound. . . . 3 6 FIRST LESSONS OF GRECIAN HISTORY. Questions and Answers. 12mo. 10 FISHER'S YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION. Bound. . . 3 6 GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY BY A LADY. New Edition, by Wright 4 6 Q. HORATII FLACCI OPERA (DOERING). Oxford. 8to. . . 18 HUTTON'S COURSE OF MATHEMATICS, by Ramsay. Bto. . . 15 KEITH ON THE USE OF THE GLOBES. New Edition, by Wright .066 LEMPRIERE'S CLASSICAL DICTIONARY, by Park. l8mo. . .070 MANGNALL'S HISTORICAL QUESTIONS, by Wright. 12mo. . .050 MEADOWS'S ITALIAN AND ENGLISH DICTIONARY. 18mo. .070 FRENCH & ENGLISH PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY. 18mo 7 MURRAY'S SCHOOL BOOKS, Improved by Tyson, viz. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 12mo.. Bound . . . . Abridged, ISmo. Bound . EXERCISES. I2ino. Bound KEY TO ENGLISH EXERCISES. 12mo. Bound ENGLISH READER. 12mo. Bound INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH READER. 12mo. GRAMMAR AND EXERCISES, by Gartley. J^ MORRISON'S NEW SYSTEM OF BOOK-KEEPINf '^ PINNOCK'S HISTORY OP ENGLAND. New^^^^™ POTTER'S ANTIQUITIES OF GREEC'K>^^°™' ^^°"'- " ' ' TEGG'S FIRST SCHOOL BOOK, or B^g ™»de Easy. Bound TOOKE'S (HORNE) DIVERSIONS «'*' PURLEY. New Edition, by Taylor SPELLING BOOKS, viz. ENFIELD'S, New Progressive ... MAYOR'S, a Very Superior Edition . ... DILWORTH'S „ „ . . ■ • FENNING'S „ „ • • • • VYSE'S ,,„••••• WRIGHT'S GREEK-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. ISmo. Cloth. . .070 printed by BRADBURY AND EVANS, WHITEFRIARB. 1 3 13 1 3 13 13 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS; on AN ILLUSTRATION O? TUB SACRED SCRIPTURES, BY ■ OF TUB CUSTOMS AND MANNERS OF THE EASTERN NATIONS, ■* AND ESPECIALLY THE JEWS THEREIN ALLUDED TO, COLLBCTED FROM THE MOST CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS, AND THE MOST EMINENT CRITICS. Br SAMUEL BURDER, D.D. A NEW EDITION, ENLABGED, AND SYSTEMATICALLY ARRANGED, ^ BY THE REV. W. GROSER. An obsolete custom, or some forgotten circumstance, opportunely adverted to, will sometimes restore its true perspicuity and credit to a very intricate passage. Bishop Lowth, LONDON: PRINTED FOR THOMAS TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE. 1840. PAINTED BY J. HADDON, CASTLE STREET, FTNSBUav. AUTHOR'S PREFACE FIRST EDITION OF THE FIRST VOLUME. Our estimation of the holy Scriptures should be proportionable to their importance and excellence. That ignorance of spiritual things, which is so natural to all men, demonstrates their necessity > and the happy influence which they have upon the mind in seasons of adversity and distress, proves their value and utility. They are admirably adapted to our circumstances, as they present us with a complete system of truth and a perfect rule of conduct, and thus make those who properly understand them wise unto salvation. But whatever relates either to faith or to practice, was delivered in ages very distant from the present, in places very remote from the spot which we inhabit, and by persons of habits and manners materially diflferent from those with which we are familiar. General and permanently established usages, to which persons conforftied themselves from early infancy, must have had a strong hold of the mind, and would greatly influence the turn of thought and the mode of expression. By these circumstances we must suppose the penmen of the Scriptures to have been affected; nor can we expect that a revelation coming from God, through the medium of men of like passions with ourselves, should be divested of such peculiari- ties. This consideration, so far from disparaging divine revelation, on the principle that it is more local than universal, in some measure serves to authenticate it ; for though upon a superficial view of the subject, this circumstance may appear to give it such IV PREFACE. an aspect, yet upon mature examination it will be found that if it contain those branches and articles of truth, which are of general apphcation, and which are productive of similar effects in distant ages and places, whatever local peculiarities it may possess, remain convincing and perpetual evidences of its credibility, while those circumstances are known to have existed, or are in any measure retained by the eastern nations. If the credibility of the Bible be in any degree connected with the customs which are therein recorded or alluded to, it is certainly very material to observe, that in the East the usages and habits of the people are invariable ; many of those which are particularly observable in the Scriptures continue to this day unaltered ; and doubtless, many things which are noticed as singularities of more recent establishment, may be traced back into ages now almost forgotten, the distance of time and the remoteness of situation, being the only circumstances which obscure the connexion between the past and the present state of things. MuUa renascentur qucB jam cecidere. Horace. That the eastern customs remain unchanged is a fact so incontestable, that the Baron de Montesquieu, in his Spirit of Laws (b. xiv. c. 4), has endeavoured to assign a natural cause for it. Sir J. Chardin, from whose Travels and MS. papers many articles have been selected for the following work, adverting to his collections for the illustration of the, Bible, says, " the lan- guage of that divine book (especially of the Old Testament) being oriental, and very often figurative and hyperbolical, those parts of Scripture which are written in verse, and in the prophecies, are full of figures and hyperboles, which, as it is manifest, cannot be well understood without a knowledge of the things from whence such figures are taken, which are natural properties and.particular man- ners of the countries to which they refer : I discerned this in my first voyage to the Indies ; for I gradually found a greater sense and beauty in divers passages of Scripture than I had before, by having in my view the things, either natural or moral, which ex- plained them to me : and in perusing the diflferent translations, which the greatest part of the' translators of the Bible had made, I observed that every one of them, (to render the expositions as they thought more intelligible) used such expressions as would accom- modate the phrase to the places where they wrote, which did not only many times pervert the text, but often rendered the sense obscure, and sometimes absurd also. In fine, consulting the com- PREFACE, V mentators upon such kind of passages, I found very strange mis- takes in them ; and that they had all along guessed at the sense, and did but grope (as in the dark) in the search of it ; and from these reflections I took a resolution to make my remarks upon many passages of the Scripture, persuading myself that they would be equally agreeable and profitable for use. And the learned, to whom I communicated my design, encouraged me very much (by their commendations) to proceed in it ; and more especially when I informed them, that it is not in Asia as in our Europe, where there are frequent changes, more or less, in the form of things, as the habits, buildings, gardens, and the like. In the East they are constant in all things : the habits are at this day in the same man- ner as in the precedent ages, so that one may reasonably believe, that' in that part of the world the exterior forms of things (as their manners and customs) are the same now as they were two thousand years since, except in such changes as may have been introduced by religion, which are nevertheless very inconsiderable." Preface to Travels i7i Persia, p. vi. The language of the Scriptures is highly figurative. It abounds- with allusions and metaphors, and from this source obtains many of its beauties. The objects of nature, and the manners of nations, are introduced to diversify and adorn the sacred page ; and many of the boldest and finest images, which are there to be found, are formed upon established customs. Such passages, when first de- livered, were easily understood and fully comprehended, and came to the mind with an energy Vhich gave them certain effect. If a similar influence do not accompany them to persons whose resi- dence is in distant climes and ages, it is because they are unac- quainted with su«h circumstances as are therein alluded to, or because they suffer their own habits and manners to prepossess the mind with disaffection to every thing discordant from its own particular and favourite modes. If we desire to understand the word of God as it was originally revealed, we must not fail to ad- vert to its peculiarities, and especially those of the description in question. It will be found absolutely impossible to develop the meaning of many passages, without recurring to the customs with which they are connected ; and these, when brought forward, wilf remove the abstruseness which was supposed to attend the subject, and give it a just and clear representation. The accumulated labours of biblical critics have succeeded ia EREFACE. clearing up many difficulties; but in some instances they have failed, and have left the inquirer bewildered and perplexed. 1 he reason they have not done better has been the want of a proper attention to oriental customs. Commentators in general have not sufficiently availed themselves of the assistance of travellers into the East. It is but rarely that any materials are drawn from their journals to elucidate the Scriptures. The few instances which occur of this sort, discover how happily they may be explained by this method, and excite our surprise and regret at the neglect of it. A spirit of inquiry and research seems to have animated those persons, who, during the two last centuries, explored the regions of the East. Many of them were men of considerable natural talents, and acquired learning. While they indulged a laudable curiosity in collecting information on general subjects, they did not neglect sacred literature. By their industry the geography, natural history, religious ceremonies, and miscellaneous customs of the Bible, and the eastern nations have been compared and explained, and that essentially to the advantage of the former. But with regard to these writers it must be observed, that many excellent things of the kind here adverted to are only incidentally mentioned. Some observations which they have made are capable of an application which did not present itself to their minds ; so that in addition to a number of passages which they have profess- edly explained, select portions of their works may be brought into the same service. To collect these scattered fragments, and make a proper use of them, is certainly a lEtborious work : it has, how- ever, been ably executed by the late Mr.'Harmer; his Observa- tions on divers Passages of Scripture are well known and highly esteemed. It must be acknowledged to his praise, that he led the way in this department of literature, and has contributed as much as any one man to disseminate the true knowledge of many parts of holy writ. But his work is too copious for general utility: it will never fail to be read by the scholar ; but it cannot be expected that the generality of Christians can derive much benefit from that, which from its extent is almost inaccessible to many persons. It must also be admitted that some of the subjects which are there discussed may be dispensed with, as not being of much importance. The style is sometimes prolix, and difficult of conception, and the arrangement is certainly capable of improvement. On the whole, the book would be more valuable if it were more select in its sub- PREFACE. VII jects and compressed in its language. This object long appeared so important, that I determined to execute an abridgment of these observations for my own private use ; but upon farther reflection, I was induced to undertake the compilation of a volume to include the substance of the best writers of this class. The production now offered to the public is the fruit of that resolution. I have endeavoured to select from Mr. Harmer's Observations whatever appeared important and interesting. This has not in- deed been done in the form of a regular abridgment ; but after extracting such materials as appeared suitable, I have inserted them in those places, where, according to the passages prefixed to each of the articles, they ought to stand. This method I apprehend to be new, and not before attempted, but I hope will prove both agreeable and useful. As it is the avowed intention of each article to explain some passage, it is proper that it should be inserted at length, and in a manner so conspicuous as at once to attract the attention of the reader. To the materials collected from Mr. Harmer, have been added some very important remarks from Shaw, Pococke, Russell, Bruce, and other eminent writers. It is admitted that many of these things have repeatedly passed through the press ; bift as the valuable observations which have been made by travellers and critics lie interspersed in separate and expensive publications, a compendious selection of them appeared very desirable, and is here accomplished. But many of the following observations are original : they are not however particularly distinguished from the rest. I must here avail myself of an opportunity to acknowledge my obligations to Mr. Gillingwater, of Harleston in Norfolk, for the very liberal manner in which he favoured me with the use of his manuscript papers. They consist of additions to, and corrections of Mr. Harmer's Observations, and were communicated to that gentleman with a view to assist him in the farther prosecution of his work ; but it was too late, as the fourth and last volume was then nearly completed at the press, and in a single instance only towards the close of it was any use made of these materials. From this col- lection I have made many extracts, and have enriched this volume with several new articles on subjects which had not before been discussed. In the progress of my work I have also derived very VIU PREFACE. considerable assistance from many valuable books furnished by James Brown, Esq. of St. Albans, for which I acknowledge my- self greatly obliged, and especially for his very careful correction of the manuscript before it went to the press. That this work might be rendered acceptable to the scholar, and those who have inclination to consult the sources from whence the information it contains is drawn, the authorities in most instances have been very particularly inserted. It must however be observ- ed, that one principal object in view was the advantage of Chris- tians in general. I have aimed to furnish the plain reader with a book to which he may refer for information, on such passages of Scripture as appear obscure and difficult, at least those which are to be explained by the method here adopted. Two indexes, one of scriptures incidentally illustrated, and the other of subjects dis- cussed, are subjoined : an appendage, which I conceive no book ought to be destitute of that is designed to be useful. A very considerable claim to candour may be advanced in favour of this work. The number and difficulty of the subjects treated of — the compass of reading necessary to obtain materials to elucidate them — the singular felicity of avoiding undue pro- lixity or unsatisfactory conciseness — and the perplexity arising from the jarring opinions bf learned men on many of these sub- jects, render it an arduous task for an individual to accomplish. Without presuming to suppose that I have always succeeded in ascertaining the true meaning of those difficult texts which are brought forward, I have done the best which I could to remove their obscurity, and to give them a consistent and intelligible mean- ing. Ne'e semper feriet quodcunque minahitur arcus. Many of the observations here advanced are indeed rather proposed to consideration, than offered to decide positively the meaning of those passages to which they are attached. The same diversity of sentiment which has influenced commentators and prevented an unanimity of judgment, may justly be supposed to induce some readers to form their opinion as variously. Samuel Burder. ST. ALBANS, JAN. 8, 1802. TIIK AUTHOR'S ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. The former edition of the first volume of this Work was so favourably received, as to encourage the author to proceed in his labours. The same writers who supplied materials for that volume have been again examined, and much that is new selected from them. Other valuable authors have also been perused, and have offered important assistance in composing the second volume. Considerable use has been made of the classical writers. The reader will find a great body of information condensed into a small compass, and applied to elucidate many obscure passages of Scripture. The author has only to add, that he hopes his readers will excuse the trouble of consulting the Work under two dis- tinct arrangements, as, for the accommodation of the purchasers of the first volume, it was determined that in this new edition the second should be sold separately. ST. ALBANS, JAN. 8, 1 807. PREFACE TO THE PRESENT EDITION. The deserved popularity of this work having created a demand for a new editibn, the publisher has deemed it desirable to send it into the world in a renovated and improved form. The apology which the author offered to his readers thirty years ago for " the trouble of consulting the work under two distinct arrangements" is no longer valid. The second part has been so long an accompaniment to the first, that there is now no pro- priety in consulting the convenience of the original purchasers at the expense of the public at large. And, as experience has shown that the textual arrangement which the author adopted is less advantageous than an arrangement of subjects, the whole has been reduced to a systematic order, by which it is believed the utility of the work will be greatly increased. This has never been done effectively till now. In arranging the work according to the subjects to which it relates, it was found that on some topics there were serious deficiencies : these it has been deemed advisable to supply. Nothing is omitted which former editions contained, but many valuable additions have been made, principally from the works of travellers who have written since the author's decease. In order to distinguish these portions, an asterisk has been prefixed to each of the new articles. By consulting the Analysis, the reader will perceive at once to what part of the work he is to turn for the subject which he wishes to see elucidated ; while every advantage of the original arrange- ment is secured by the very copious Index of Texts, at the con- clusion of the volume. March 20,1840. ANALYSIS. Chapter I. CUSTOMS RELATING TO FOOD. Vegetables Honev . Milk ". Butter . Flesh Blood Preparation ot l"'oocl Water Wine Vinegar Manners at Table Page 1 7 8 9 . 10 11 22 25 32 33 Chap. II. CCSTOMS RELATING TO ArPAKEL. Common Dresses . . .41 Distinctive Dresses . 42 Diversity of Dresses . .46 Manufacture of Apparel . 47 Girdles 49 Shoes ib. Omamenls . . .50 Hair . . . . 67 Painting 60 Chap. 111. CVt-TOMS RELATING TO HABITATIONS. Tents .... . 62 Caves .... 66 Houses .... . 70 Internal Arrangements . 80 Gates . 85 Gardens 88 Cities .... . 90 Chap. IV. CUSTOMS RELATING TO IHJSBANDBY. Plovring Sowing Watering Threshing Winnowmg . Plantations Vineyards Flocks Beasts of Burden Fertility . Casualties 93 95 96 Pago . 102 104 . 105 IOC . 108 112 . 113 116 Chap. V. CUSTOMS RELATING TO COMMERCE. Money Contracts Debtors Merchandise . . 118 120 . 122 124 Chap. YI. CUSTOMS RELATING TO ARTS AND SCIENCES. Hunting . . .' 128 Fishing . 133 Taming Serpents , . ib. Manufactures . . 134 Felling Timber . . . 137 Medicine . 138 Astronomy . . 142 Music . 144 Chap. VII. CUSTOMS RELATING TO LITERATURE. Writing . . ' . 146 Sealing . . . 151 Learned Men . , . 152 Schools . . 164 Pronunciation . , . 166 Poetry . . 157 Rhetorical Figures . ib. Chap. VIII. CUSTOMS RELATING TO RELIGION. Altars . . 173 Priests . 174 ANALYSIS. Offerings Ablutions . Fasting . Prayer . ' . Sabbaths Temple Worship Synagogues . , Sacred Feasts . Traditions Idols Idolatry Hiunan Sacrifices Superstitions . Page 177 189 19i 196 203 206 209 213 220 229 236 244 248 Chap. IX. OTISTOMS RELATING TO MABRIAGE. Espousal .... 268 Nuptials 270 Polygamy .... 277 Divorce 278 Widowhood . . . .279 Ckdp.'x. CUSTOMS RELATING TO CHILDREN. Infancy Heirship Adoption . 281 283 286 Chap. XI. CUSTOMS RELATING TO SOCIAL INTER- COUBSB. Salutations Hospitality Gifts Compacts . Names . Honours . Memorials Old Age . Discourse Citizenship Servants Common Life 288 291 296 298 302 307 309 310 311 312 313 317 Chap. XII. CUSTOMS RELATING TO FESTIVITIES. Games . Processions Feasts . 320 327 328 Chap. XIII. CUSTOMS RELATING TO TKAVELLINC. Page Koads . 339 Baggage . 341 Beasts of Burden . 342 Lodging Places . 345 Caravans . . 348 Dangers . 349 Navigation ..062 Chap. XIV. CUSTOMS RELATING TO GOVERNORS. Kings Subordinate Rulers Envoys . Revenues . Insignia Homage . Distinctions . 365 369 372 373 376 382 385 Chap. XV. CUSTOMS RELATING TO CRIME. Laws Accusation .... Asylums ..... Oaths ..... Trials Imprisonment Punishments .... Chap. XVI. CUSTOMS RELATING TO WAR. Arms Camps ..... Fortresses .... Tactics . . . . , Victors ..... The Vanquished S88 391 393 ib. 397 406 408 423 430 431 436 447 451 Chap. XVII. CUSTOMS RELATING TO FUNERALS. Mourning . Embalming Interment . Sepulchres 457 471 472 476 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. CHAPTER L CUSTOMS RELATING TO FOOD. Judges xix. 5. Comfort thy heart with a morsel of bread, and afterward go your way. ^ "The greatest part of ther people of the East eat a little morsel as soon as the day breaks. But it is very little they then eat ; a little cake, or a mouthful of bread, drinking a dish or two of coffee. This is very agreeable in hot countries ; in cold, people eat more." Chardin MS. If this were customary in Judea, we are not to understand the words of the Levite's father-in-law as signifying, stay and break- fast ; that is done, it seems, extremely early : but the words appear to mean, stay and dine : the other circumstances of the story per- fectly agree with this account. Harmer, vol. i. p. S5Q. VEGETABLES. Numb. xi. 5. MelonsJ] By this we are probably to under- stand the water-melon, which, according to Hasselquist ( Voyage, p. 255), " the Arabians call bateeh. It is cultivated on the banks of the Nile, in the rich clayey earth which subsides during the inundation. This serves the Egyptians for meat, drink, and phy- sic. It is eaten in abundance during the season, even by the richer sort of people ; but the common people, on whom Provi- dence has bestowed nothing but poverty and patience, scarcely eat any thing but these ; and account this the best time of the year, as they are obliged to put up with worse fare at other seasons. This fruit likewise serves them for drink, the juice refreshing these poor creatures, and they have less occasion for water than if they were to live on more substantial food in this burning cjimate." This well explains the Israelites regretting the want of this fruit in the parched, thirsty wilderness. EzEK. iv. 9. Millet.'] This is a kind of plant, which perhaps derives its name from its thrusting forth such a quantity of grains. / 2 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Thus in Latin it is called milium, as if one stalk bore a thousand grains. {Martinii Lex.) It is doubtless the same kind of grain as that which is called in the East rfwrra, which now, according to Niebuhr, is a kind of millet, and when made into bad bread with camels' milk, oil, butter, or grease, is almost the only food which is eaten by the common people in Arabia Felix. He further says, " I found it so disagreeable, that I should willingly have preferred to it plain barley bread." (Description de I'Arabie, pp. 45, 135.) This remark appears to illustrate the passage of Ezekiel here referred to. Job XXX. 4. Who cut up mallows hy the bushes, and juniper roots for their meat.J Biddulph (Collection of Voyages and Travels from the Library of the Earl of Oxford, p. 807) says he " saw many poor people gathering mallows and three-leaved grass, and asked them what they did with it : they answered, it was all their food ; and that they boiled it, and did eat it. Then we took pity on thefn, and gave them bread, which they received very joy- fully, and blessed God that there was bread in the world." Harmer, vol. iii. p. 166. Luke xv. 16. The husks that the swine did eatJ] That KEpariov answers to siliqua, and signifies a husk or pod, wherein the seeds of some plants, especially those of the leguminous tribe, are contained, is evident. Both the Greek and Latin terms sig- nify the fruit of the carob tree, a tree very common in the Levant, and in the southern parts of Europe, as Spain and Italy. This fruit still continues to be used for the same purpose, the feeding of swine. It is also called St. John's Bread, from the opinion that the Baptist used it in the wilderness. Miller says it is mealy, and has a sweetish taste, and that it is eaten by the poorer sort, for it grows in the common hedges and is of little account. Campbell's Translation of the Gospels, note. * Mr. Hartley confirms this representation {Researches, p. 218), saying, " It has been remarked by Commentators, that the husks (K6joarta) here mentioned, are the fruit of the Ceratonia, or Carob tree. "The modern Greeks still call this fruit by the same name, (cspana, and sell them in the markets. They are given to swine, but are not rejected as food even by men." 2 Kings iv. 39. And one went out into the field to gather herbs.'\ To account for this circumstance, why the herbs were gathered in the field and not in the garden, it maybe observed from Russell, that at Aleppo, besides the herbs and vegetables produced by re- gularly cultivated gardens, the fields aflFbrd bugloss, mallow, and asparagus, which they use as pot-herbs, with some others which are used in salads. Harmer, vol. i. p. 332. FOOD. 3 Amos vii. 14. A gatherer of sycamore fruit. ^ Or, more pro- perly, a dresser of sycamore fruit. Pococke gives the following account of it. " The dumez of Egypt is called by the Europeans Pharaoh's fig : it is the sycamore of the ancients, and is properly Zificusfatuus (wild fig). The fig is small, but like the common figs. At the end of it a sort of water gathers together ; and unless it be cut, and the water let out, it will not ripen. This they some- times do, covering the bough with a net to keep off the birds : and the fruit is not bad, though it is not esteemed. It is a large spreading tree, with a round leaf, and has this particular quality, that short branches without leaves come out of the great limbs all about the wood ; and these bear the fruit. It was of the tim- ber of these trees that the ancient Egyptians made their cofiins for their embalmed bodies, and the wood remains sound to this day." Travels, vol. i. p. 305. This shows the propriety of rendering Psalm Ixxviii. 47, " He destroyed their sycamore trees with frost." Amos vii. 14. Sycamore fruit.] The sycamore fruit, which grows sticking to the trunk of the tree, does not ripen till it is rubbed with iron combs, after which it ripens in four days. Jerome says, that without this management the figs are excessively bitter. Hasselquist (Travels, p. 261), describing the ficus sycamorus, or Scripture sycamore, says, " it buds the latter end of March, and the fruit ripens in the beginning of June ; it is wounded or cut by the inhabitants (of Lower Egypt) at the time it buds ; for without this precaution, they say, it will not bear fruit." HosEA ix. 10. The first ripe in the fig-tree at her first time.] " In Barbary, and no doubt in the hotter climate of Judea, after mild winters, some of the more forward trees will now and then yield a few ripe figs, six weeks or more before the full season. Such isprobably the allusion in this place." Shaw's Travels, Tp. 142. Numb. xi. 5. Onions.} "Whoever has tasted onions in Egypt, must allow that none can be had better in any part of the universe. Here they are sweet, in other countries they are nau- seous and strong ; here they are soft, whereas in the north, and other parts, they are hard of digestion. Hence they cannot in any place be eaten with less prejudice and more satisfaction than in Egypt. They eat them roasted, cut into four pieces, with some bits of roasted meat, which the Turks in Egypt call kobab ; and with this dish they are so delighted, that I have heard them wish they might enjoy it in paradise. They hkewise make soup of them in Egypt, cutting the onions in small pieces ; this I think one of the best dishes I ever eat." Hasselquist's Voyages, p. 290. * ExoD XV. 27. Threescore and ten palm-trees.] The palm- B 2 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. tree is exceedingly valuable in the east, especially to travellers who have to pass through deserts, in which it is not unfrequently found. Dr. Edward Clarke says, " The dates hung from these trees in such large and tempting clusters, although not quite ripe, that we climbed to the tops of some of them, and bore away with us large branches with their fruit. In this manner dates are sometimes sent, with the branches, as presents to Constantinople. A ripe Egyptian date, although a delicious fruit, is never refresh- ing to the palate. It suits the Turks, who are fond of sweetmeats of all kinds ; and its flavour is not unlike that of the conserved . green citron, which is brought from Madeira. The largest plan- tation occurred about half way between Alexandria and Aboukir, whence our army marched to attack the French on the thirteenth of March : the trees here were very lofty, and from the singular formation of their bark, we found it as easy to ascend to the tops of these trees as to climb the steps of a ladder. Wherever the date-tree is found in these dreary deserts, it not only presents a supply of salutary food, for men and camels, but nature has so won- derfully contrived the plant, that its first offering is accessible to man alone, and the mere circumstance of its presence, in all seasons of the year, is a never failing indication of fresh water near its roots. Botanists describe the trunk of the date-tree, as full of rugged knots ; but the fact is, that it is full of cavities, the vestiges of its decayed leaves which have within then! an horizontal sur- face, flat and even, exactly adapted to the reception of the human feet and hands, and it is impossible to view them without believ- ing that He who, in the beginning, fashioned "every tree in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed," as " meat for man," has here manifested one among the innumerable proofs of his beneficent design. The extensive importance of the date-tree is one of the most curious subjects to which a traveller can direct his attention. A considerable part of the inhabitants of Egypt, of Arabia, and of Persia, subsist almost entirely upon its fruit They boast also of its medicinal virtues. Their camels feed upon the date stones. From the leaves they make couches, baskets, bags, mats, and brushes ; from the branches — cages for their poultry, and fences for their gardens; from the fibres of the boughs ; thread, ropes, and rigging— from the sap is prepared a spirituous liquor ; and the trunk of the tree furnishes fuel : it is even said that from one variety of the palm-tree, the Phoenix farinafera, meal has been extracted which is found among the fibres of the trunk, and has been used for food." Clarke's Travels vol v pp.407— 409. « , . V. Gen. XXV. 30. Red pottage.] The inhabitants of Barbary still make use of lentils, boiled and stewed with oil and garlic, a pottage of a chocolate colour ; this was the red pottage for which FOOD. Esau, from thence called Edom, sold his birth-right. Shaw's Travels, p. 140, 2d edit. * ExoD. xvi. 15. Thei/ said one to another, It is manna,] It appears from the testimony of Burckhardt that a substance to which the supetnatural manna bore considerable resemblance, is produced by a tree growing in the district in which it fell. He says, " I have already mentioned several times the Wady el Sheikh ; I found it here of the same noble breadth as it is above, and in many parts it was thickly overgrown with the tamarisk or tarfa ; it is the only valley in the peninsula where this tree grows, at present, in any great quantity, though small bushes of it are here and there met with in other parts. It is from the tarfa that the manna is obtained ; and it is very strange that the fact should have remained unknown in Europe, till M. Seetzen mentioned it in a brief notice of his tour to Sinai, published in the Mines de I'Orient, This substance is called by the Bedouins, mann, and accurately resembles the description of manna given in the Scriptures. In the month of June it drops from the thorns of the tamarisk upon the fallen twigs, leaves, and thorns, which always cover the ground beneath that tree in the natural state ; the manna is collected before sunrise, when it is coagulated, but it dissolves as soon as the sun shines upon it. The Arabs clean away the leaves, dirt, &c., which adhere to it, boil it, strain it through a coarse piece of cloth, and put it into leathern skins ; in this way they preserve it till the following year, and use it as they do heney, to pour over their unleavened bread, or to dip their bread into. I could not learn that they ever make it into cakes or loaves. The manna is found only in years when copious rains have fallen ; sometimes it is not produced at all, as will probably happen this year. I saw none of it among the Arabs, but I ob- tained a small piece of last year's produce, in the convent ; where, having been kept in the cool shade and moderate temperature of that place, it had become quite solid and formed a small cake ; it became soft when kept some time in the hand ; if placed in the sun for five minutes it dissolved ; but when restored to a cool place it became solid again in a quarter of an hour. In the season, at which the Arabs gather it, it never acquires that state of hard- ness which will allow of its being pounded, as the Israelites are said to have done in Numb. xi. 8. Its colour is a dirty yellow, and the piece which I saw was still mixed with bits of tamarisk leaves : its taste is agreeable, son>ewhat aromatic, and as sweet as honey. If eaten in any considerable quantity it is said to be slightly purgative. " The quantity of manna collected at present, even in seasons when the most copious rains fall, is very trifling, perhaps not amounting to more than five or six hundred pounds. It is entirely consumed among the Bedouins, who consider it the ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. greatest dainty which their country affords. The harvest is usually in June, and lasts for about six weeks; sometimes it begins in May. There are only particular parts of the Wady Sheikh that produce the tamarisk; but it is also said to grow in Wady Naszeb, the fertile valley to the south-east of the convent, on the road from thence to Shezm. • " In Nubia and in every part of Arabia, the tamarisk is one of the most common trees ; on the Euphrates, on the Astaboras, in all the valleys of the Hedjaz, and the Bedja, it grows in great plenty, but I never heard of its producing manna except in Mount Sinai ; it is true I made no inquiries on the subject elsewhere, and should not, perhaps, have learnt the fact here, had I not asked repeated questions respecting the manna, with a view to an explanation of the Scriptures. The tamarisk abounds more in juices than any other tree of the desert, for it retains its vigour when every vegetable production around it is withered, and never loses its verdure till it dies. Jt has been remarked by Niebuhr (who, with his accustomed candour and veracity says, that during his journey to Sinai he forgot to inquire after the manna), that in Mesopotamia, rhanna is produced by several trees of the oak species ; a similar fact was confirmed to me by the son of the Turkish lady, mentioned in a preceding page, who had passed the greater part of his youth at Erzerum in Asia Minor ; he told me that at Moush, a town three or four days distant from Erze- rum, a substance is collected from the tree which produces the galls, exactly similar to the manna of the peninsula, in taste and consistence, and that it is used by the inhabitants instead of honey." Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, hy the late John Lewis Burckhardt, pp. 599 — 601. Job vi. 6, Can that which is unsavoury be eaten without salt ?] The eastern people often make use of bread, with nothing more than salt or some such trifling addition, such as summer-savory dried and powdered. This, Russell says {Hist, of Aleppo,^. 27), is done by many at Aleppo. The Septuagint translation of this passage seems to refer to the same practice, when it renders the first part of the verse^ " will bread be eaten without salt ?" Har- mer, vol. i. p. 238> Matt. v. 13. If the salt has lost its savour. 1 Our Lord's sup- position of the salt losing its savour is illustrated by Mr. Maun- drell {Journey, p. 162), who tells us, that in the Valley of Salt near Gebul, and about four hours' journey from Aleppo, there is a small precipice occasioned by the continual taking away of the salt. " In this," says he, " you may see how the veins of it lie. I broke a piece of it, of which the part that was exposed to the rain, sun, and air, though it had the sparks and particles of salt, yet had FOOD. 7 perfectly lost its savour. The innermost, which had been connected to the rock, retained its savour, as I found by proof." Dan. i. 15. And at the end of ten days their countenances appeared fairer and fatter in flesh than all the children which did eat the portion of the king's meat.'} It is probable that there was nothing extraordinary or out of the common way in this cir- cumstance. Sir J. Chardin observes, " I have remarked this, that the countenances of the Kechichs are in fact more rosy and smooth than those of others, and that these people who fast much, I mean the Armenians and the Greeks, are notwithstanding very beautiful, sparkling with health, with a clear and lively countenance." Jlar- mer, vol. i. p. 357. HONEY. Matt. iii. 4. Wild honey. \ This is obtained from wild bees, frequent in Palestine, in hollow trunks or branches of trees, and the clefts of rocks. Thus it js said, " honey out of the stony rock." (Psalm Ixxxi. 16; Deut. xxxii. 13). Some have supposed this to be the honey dew, or liquid kind of manna exuding from the leaves of trees, as of the palm or fig-tree, of which the rabbins speak much. Josephus {Bell. Jud. vol. iv. p. 27) speaks of honey pressed from the palm-trees near Jericho, as little inferior to the real ; and Pliny, of honey flowing from the olive-tree in S^yria {Nat. Hist, xxiii. 4). But neither the honey dew nor expressed juice, if different, being somewhat unwholesome, is thought so probable as the genuine honey. Psalm xix. 10. Sweeter also than honey and the honey-comb.] There is no difference made amongst us between the delicacy of honey in the comb and that which is separated from it. From the information of Dr. Halley concerning the diet of the Moors of Barbary, we learn that they esteem honey a very wholesome break- fest, " and the most delicious, that which is in the comb, with the young bees in it, before they come out of their cases, whilst they still look milk white." (Miscellanea Curiosa, vol. iii. p. 382).' The distinction made by the Psalmist is then perfectly just, and con- formable to custom and practice, and probably, equally so of ancient times. Prov. XXV. 27. It is not good to eat much honey.} Delicious as honey is to an eastern palate, it has been thought sometimes to have produced terrible effects. Sanutus {Gesta Dei per Fran- cos, vol. ii. p. 224) informs us, that the English who attended Edward the First into the Holy Land, died in great numbers, as they marched, in June, to demolish a place, which he ascribes to 8 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. the excessive heat, and their intemperate eating of fruits and honey. This circumstance seems to illustrate both the remark of Solomon and the prophetic passage, which speaks of a book sweet in the mouth as a morsel of honey, but bitter after it was down. Rev. x. 9^ 10. Harmer, vol. i. p. 299. MILK. Prov. xxvii. 27. And thou shalt have goats' milk enough for thy food.'] Milk is a great part of the diet of the eastern people. Their goats furnish them with some part of it, and, Russell tells us (p. 53), are chiefly kept for that purpose ; that they yield it in no inconsiderable quantity ; and that it is sweet and well tasted. This at Aleppo is, however, chiefly from the beginning of April to September ; they being generally supplied the other part of the year with cows' milk, such as it is ; for the cows being com- monly kept at the gardens, and fed with the refuse, the milk generally tastes so strong of garlic or cabbage -leaves as to be very disagreeable. This circumstance sufficiently points out how far preferable the milk of goats must have been. Harmer, vol. i. p. 288. Prov. xix. 24. A slothful man hideth his hand in his bosom, and will not so much as bring it to his mouth again.] The Arabs in eating their milk use no spoons. They dip their hands into the milk,, which is placed in a wooden bowl before them, and sup it out of the palms of their hands. {Le Bruyn, vol. i. p. 586). Is it not reasonable to suppose the same usage obtained among the Jews, and that Solomon refers to it, when he says, " a slothful man hideth his hand in the dish, and will not so much as bring it to his mouth again ?" Our translators render it the bosom, but the word everywhere signifies a pot or dish. Harmer, vol. i. p. 289. Judges iv. 19. And she opened a bottle of milk and gave him drink.] Jael certainly showed her regard to Israel by destroy- ing Sisera, but it is as certain that she did not do it in the most hon- ourable manner — there was treachery in it : perhaps in the esti- mation of those people, the greatest treachery. Among the later Arabs, giving a person drink has been thought to be the strongest assurance of their receiving him under their protection. When Guy de Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, was taken prisoner, and was conducted before Saladin, he demanded drink, and they gave him fresh water, which he drank in Saladin's presence : but when one of his lords would have done the same, Saladin would not suffer it, because he did not intend to spare his life : on the contrary advancing to him, after some expostulations, he cut off" his head! D'Herbefot, p. 371. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 469. FOOD. BUTTER. Judges v. 25. Butter.] D' Arvietjx informs us f Voy, dans M Pal. p. 200) that the Arabs make butter by churning in a leathern bottle. Hence Jael is said to have opened a bottle of milk for Sisera, Judges iv. 19. Mr. Harmer (vol. i. p. 281) supposes that she had just been churning, and pouring out the contents of her bottle into one of the best bowls or dishes she had, presented this butter-milk to him to quench his thirst. Prov. XXX. 33. The churninff of milk hringeth forth hutter.~\ The ancient way of making butter in Arabia and Palestine, was probably nearly the same as is still practised by the Bedouin Arabs and Moors in Barbary, and which is thus described by Dr. Shaw : " Their method of making butter is by putting the milk or cream into a goat's skin, turned inside out, which they suspend from one side of the tent to the other, and then pressing it to anJ fro in one uniform direction, they quickly occasion the separation of the unctuous and wheyey parts." (Trav. p. 168). So "the butter of the Moors, in the empire of Morocco, which is bad, is made of all the milk (comp. Frov. xxx. 33, above), as it comes from the cow, by putting it into a skin and shaking it till the butter separates from it." (Stewart's Journey to Mequinez). And, what is more to the purpose, as relating to what is still practised in Palestine, Hasselquist speaking of an encampment of the Arabs, which he found not far from Tiberias, at the foot of the mountain or hill where Christ preached his sermon, says, " they make butter in a leathern bag, hung on three poles, erected for the purpose, in the form of a cone, and drawn to and fro by two women." (Trav. p. 159.) Job xxix. 6. Washed my steps with butter.] Chandler, in his Travels, particularly observes, that it was usual for men to tread on skins of cream, in order to separate the butter from its more watery part. This article was sometimes made in very large quantities ; on which account such a method might be preferred for expedition. This circumstance Mr. Harmer considers (vol. iii.. p. 173) as a very natural explanation of the phrase, "L washed my steps with butter." Job XX. 17. The brooks of honey and butter.] In these cool countries we have no idea of butter so liquid as described in these words ; it appears among us in a more solid forip. But as the plentiful flowing of honey, when pressed from the comb, may be compared to a little river, as it runs into the vessels in which it is to be kept ; so, as they manage matters, butter is equally fluid, and may be described in the same way: "A great quantity of but- ter is made in Barbary, which, after it is boiled with salt, they put 10 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. into jars, and jpreserve for use." {Shaw, p. 169). Streams of butter, then, poured, when clarified, into jars to be preserved, might as naturally be compared to rivers, as streams of honey flowing, upon pressure, into other jars in which it was kept. Har- mer, vol. iii. p. 176. Isaiah vii. 15. Butter and honey shall he eat."] D'Arvieux ( Voy. dans la Pal. p. 21), being in the camp of the grand emir, who lived in much splendor and treated him with great regard, was entertained on the first morning with little loaves, honey, new churned butter, and loaves of cream, more delicate than any he ever saw, together with coffee. Agreeably to this he assures us in another place (p. 197), that one of the principal things with which the Arabs regale themselves at breakfast is cream, or new butter, mingled with honey. Harmer, vol. i. p. 294. * Referring to Assalt, Mr. Buckingham says, " The mode of feeding was so offensive to an European taste, and the nature of the messes prepared was so contrary to our notions, that it required a great effort to overcome the disgust excited even by their appear- ance, and to preserve a show of being satisfied. Among other novelties, I observed that large lumps of solid butter were eaten by the people of this place, without the addition of bread, vegeta- bles, or flesh meat ; and this is accounted so wholesome that it is frequently given to infants in arms, by ounces at a time, as nurses in England would give bread only. At all the dinners there was an abundance of boiled rice, and generally a goat or kid served up with it, though often so tough as to require to be literally torn in pieces before it could be eaten. Raisins and olive oil, both produced from the surrounding country, were also in abundance, with bowls of butter and sugar melted and mixed together, and a kind of pudding about the shape and size of a large lemon, made of barley paste stuffed with onions and pepper." Buckingham's Travels among the Arab Tribes, pp. &2, 33. FLESH. Amos vi. 4. And eat the lambs out of the Jlock.] Chardin observes that lambs are in many places of the Scripture spoken of as great delicacies. These and the kids must be eaten of, to form a conception of the moisture, taste, delicacy, and fat of this ani- mal. As the eastern people are no friends of game, fish, or fowls, their most delicious food is the lamb and the kid ; hence they were used for presents, Judges xv. 1 ; 1 Sam. xvi. 20 ; hence also the energy of that expression, marrow and fatness, Psalm Ixiii. 5 ; Luke XV. 29. Harmer, vol i. p. 322. Luke xv. 29. A kid.] Kids are considered as a delicacy. Hariri, a celebrated writer of Mesopotamia, describing a person's ' FOOD. 1 i breaking in upon a greal pretender to mortification, says, he found him with one of his disciples, "entertaining themselves with much satisfaction with bread made of the finest flour, with a roasted kid, and a vessel of wine before them." This shows in what light we are to consider the complaint made by the elder brother of the prodigal son, and also the gratification proposed to be sent to Tamar (Gen. xxxviii. 16), and the present made by Sampson to his pretended bride. (Judges xv. 1). Harmer, voL iv. p. 164. 1 Sam. ix. 24. And the cook took tip the shoulder and that which was upon it, and set it be/ore Saul.J The shoulder of a lamb is thought in the East a great delicacy. Abdolmelek the caliph (Ockiey's Hist, of the Saracens, vol. ii. p. 277), upon hfe entering into Cufah, made a splendid entertainment. " When he was sat down, Amrou the son of Hareth, an ancient Mechzumian, came in : he called him to him, and placing him by him upon his sofa, asked him what meat he liked best of all that ever he had eaten. The old Mechzumian answered, an ass's neck well sea- soned and well roasted. You do nothing, says Abdolmelek : what say you to a leg or a shoulder of a sucking lamb, well roasted, and covered over with butter and milk ?" This sufficiently ex- plains the reason why Samuel ordered it for the future king of Israel, as well as what that was which was upon it, the butter and milk. Harmer, \o\. i. p. 319. Prov. XV. 17. A stalled ox.] This instance of luxury appears to be alluded to in Matt. xxii. 4, and Luke xv. 23. In the times of Homer it was in high esteem, and formed a chief part of their entertainments. At the feasts made by his heroes, Agamemnon, Menelaus, and Ajax, it is mentioned as the principal part, if not the whole, of what was prepared. See //. vii. 320. Od. iv. 65, et viii. 60. Virg. JEn. viii. 182. ExoD. xxix. 22. The rump.] Or the large tail of one species of the eastern sheep. Russell (Hist, of Aleppo, p. 51), after ob- serving that they are in that country much more numerous than those with smaller tails, adds, " this tail is very broad and large, terminating in a small appendix that turns back upon it. It is of a substance between fat and marrow, and is not eaten, separately, but mixed with the lean meat in many of their dishes, and also often used instead of butter. A common sheep of this sort, with- out the head, feet, skin, and entrails, weighs about twelve or four- teen Aleppo rotoloes, of which the tail is usually three rotoloes or upwards ; but such as are of the largest breed, and have been fattened, will sometimes weigh above thirty rotoloes, and the tail of these ten. These very large sheep being about Aleppo kept up in yards, are in no danger of injuring their tails ; but in some 12 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Other places, where they feed in the fields, the shepherds are obliged to fix a piece of thin board to the under part of their tail, to prevent its being torn by bushes and thistles, as it is not covered underneath with thick wool like the upper part. Some have small wheels to facilitate the dragging of this board after them." A rotoloe of Aleppo is five pounds. See also Herodotus, lib. iii. cap. 115. With this agrees the account given by the Abbe Mariti (Travels through Cyprus, vo\. i. p. 36), " The mutton is juicy and tender. The tails of some of the sheep, which are re- markably fine, weigh upwards of fifty pounds." This shows us the reason why, in the levitical sacrifices, the tail was always ordered to be consumed by fire. EzEK. xxiv. 5. Take the choice of the flock, and burn also the hones under it.'] The following account of a royal Arab camel feast will afford some illustration of the parable contained in this chapter. " Before mid-day a carpet being spread in the middle of the tent, our dinner was brought in, being served up in large wooden bowls between two men ; and truly, to my appre- hension, load enough for them. Of these great platters there were about fifty or sixty in number, perhaps more, with a great many little ones ; I mean, such as one man was able to bring in, strewed here and there among them, and placed for a border or garnish round about the table. In the middle waS' one of a larger size than all the rest, in which were the camel's bones, and a thin Broth in which they were boiled. The other greater ones seemed all filled with one and the same sort of provision, a kind of plum-broth, made of rice and the fleshy part of the camel, with currants and spices, being of a somewhat darker colour than what is made in our country;" Philosophical Translations abridged, part ii. cap. 2, art. 40. The Hebrew word translated burn, should have been rendered, as in the margin, heap. The meaning cannot be that the bones were to be burnt under the caldron, but that they were to be heaped up in it ; for it is said, let them seethe the bones of it therein. With this interpretation the Septuagint translation of the passage agrees : and viewed in this light, the object is ascer- tained by the foregoing extract. Mark i. 6. He did eat locusts.] Much pains have been taken to prove that the locusts, which are said to have been a part of John the Baptist's food, were the fruit of a certain tree, and not the bodies of the insects so called ; but a little inquiry after facts will fully clear up this matter, and show that, however disgustful the idea of such kind of food appears to us, the eastern nations have a very different opinion about it. Dampier informs us (vol. i. p. 430), that " the Indians of the Bashee islands eat the bodies of locusts :" and that he himself once tasted of this dish, and liked it FOOD. 15 very well. He also tells us (vol. ii. p. 27) that the Tonouineze feed on locusts ; that they eat them fresh, broiled on coals, or pickle them to keep ; and that they are plump and fat, and are much esteemed by rich and poor, as good wholesome food, either fresh or pickled. Shaw observes {Travels, p. 188) that the Jews were allowed to eat them ; and that, when they are sprinkled with salt, they are not unlike in taste to our fresh water cray-fish. Ives {Trav. p. 15) informs us, that the inhabitants of Madagascar eat locusts, of which they have an innumerable quantity, and that they prefer them to the finest fish. (See also Herodotus, b. iv. s. 172.) Judges vi. 19. And Gideon went in, and made ready a kid, and unleavened cakes of an ephah ofjlour : the fiesh he put in a basket, and he put the broth in apot, and brought it out to him under the oak, and presented itJ] " There is a passage in Dr. Shaw, that affords a perfect commentary on this text. It is in his preface, p. \2. 'Besides a bowl of milk, and a basket of figs, raisins, or dates, which upon our arrival were presented to us to stay our appetites, the master of the tent where we lodged fetched us from his flock, according to the number of our company, a kid or a goat, a lamb or a sheep ; half of which was immediately seethed by his wife, and served up with cuscasooe : the rest was made kab-ab, i. e. cut into pieces and roasted ; which we reserved for pur breakfast or dinner next day.' " May we not imagine that Gideon, presenting some slight re- freshment to the supposed prophet, according to the present Arab mode, desired him to stay till he could provide something more substantial for him ; that he immediately killed a kid, seethed part of it, made kab-ab of another part of it, and when it was ready, brought out the stewed meat in a pot, with unleavened cakes of bread which he had baked ; and the kab-ab in a basket for his carrying away with him, and serving him for some after repast in his journey ? Nothing could be more convenient for the carriage of the reserved meat than a light basket, and Thevenot informs us, that he carried his ready dressed meat with him in a maund." liarmer, vol. i. p. 330. Numb. xi. 5. We remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt freely.'] Pococke (Trav. vol. i. p. 182) says, that in Egypt fish is commonly eaten by the people with great pleasure ; but that in April and May, which is the hot season there, they eat scarcely any thing but fish, with pulse and herbs, the great heat taking away their appetite for all sorts of meat. This account perfectly agrees with what the children of Israel are represented as saying. Psalm xhi. 3. Mg tears have been my meat day and night.] It seems odd to an English reader to represent tears as meat or 14 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. food, but we should remember, that the sustenance of the ancient Hebrews consisted, for the most part, of liquids^ such as broth, pottage, &c. Prov. xxiii. SO. Be not among wine-bibbers, among riotous eaters of flesh.] The Arabs are described by Shaw (p. 169) as very abstemious. They rarely diminish their flocks by using them for food, but live chiefly upon bread, milk, butter, dates, or what they receive in exchange for their wool. Their frugality is in many instances the effect of narrow circumstances ; and shows with what propriety Solomon describes an expensive way of living, by their frequent eating of flesh. Isaiah xhx. 1. Woe to Ariel, to Ariel, the city where David dwelt.} At Jerusalem vast quantities of flesh were consumed in their sacred feasts, as well as burnt upon the altar. Perhaps this circumstance will best explain the reason why the holy city is call- ed Ariel. According to the Eastern taste, the term is applied in this sense ; that is, to places remarkable for consuming great quantities of provision, and especially flesh. " The modern Per- sians will have it," says D'Herbelot, in his account of Shiraz, a city of that country, "that this name was given to it because this city consumes and devours like a lion (which is called Shir in Persian) all that is brought to it, by which they express the multitude, and it may be the good appetite, of its inhabitants." The prophet pronounces woe to Zion, as too ready to trust to the number of its inhabitants and sojourners, which may be insin- uated by the term Ariel which he uses. Harmer, vol. i. p. 212. Lev. vii. 15, 16. And the flesh of the sacrifice of his peace- efferings for thanksgiving shall be eaten the same day that it is offered — on the morrow also the remainder of it shall be eaten. — ] The longest time allowed for eating the flesh of any of the Mosaic sacrifices was the day after that on which they were killed ; the eating of it on the third day is declared to be an abomination. This precept may be thought to have been unnecessary in so warm a climate ; but we are to remember that the drying of meat is often practised in those hot countries : that it is sometimes done with flesh killed on a religious account ; and that this probably was the cause of the prohibition. The Mahometans who go in pilgrimage to Mecca are required to sacrifice sheep ; part of which they eat, part they give to their friends, and part they dry for use at other times. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 157. Lev. xi. 2. These are the leasts which ye shall eat.'] The directions given by Moses in this chapter respecting clean and unclean beasts have a remarkable parallel in the laws of Menu, He forbids the brahmins eating the milk of a camel, or any quad- FOOD. 15 ruped with the hoof not cloven. He orders to be shunned, quad- rupeds with uncloven hoofs ; carnivorous birds, such as live in towns ; birds that strike with their beaks ; web-footed birds ; those which wound with strong talons ; those which dive to de- vour fish ; all amphibious fish-eaters ; also tame hogs, and fish of every sort. There are a variety of other circumstantial prohibitions, connected with those already cited, of a nature very similar to this specimen. 1 CoR. X. 25. Whatsoever is sold in the shambles.] The word juaKcXXov, rendered shambles, is made use of by Latin writers in the same sense as it is here, for a place where food was sold. The original of the name is said to be this. One Macellus, a very wicked and profane man, being condemned to die, a place was built in his house by iEmilius and Fulvius for selling provisions, and firom bis name it was called macellum. Into these places the priests sent to be sold what was offered to their idols, if they could not dispense with it themselves, or thought it not lawful to make use of it. Herodotus says, that the Egyptians used to cut off the heads of their beasts that were sacrificed, and carry them into the market to sell to the Greeks ; and if there were no buy- ers, they cast them into the river. Gill,, in loc. BLOOD. Genesis ix. 4. But flesh with the life thereof, which is the blood thereof, shall ye not eat.] Mr. Bruce has given a very extraordinary account of the practice of eating blood in Abyssinia. This custom, so prevalent in several places, is forbidden in the Scriptures. A recital of the narrative will probably suggest to the reader the reasons of the prohibition. Mr. Bruce tells us, that, " not long after our losing sight of the ruins of this ancient capital of Abyssinia, we overtook three travellers, driving a cow before them : they had black goat skins upon their shoulders, and lances and shields in their hands ; in other respects they were but thinly clothed : they appeared to be soldiers. The cow did not seem to be fatted for killing, and it occurred to us all, that it had been stolen. This, however, was not our business, nor was such an occurrence at all remarkable, in a country so long engaged in war. We saw that our attendants attached them, selves, in a particular manner, to the three soldiers that were driving the cow, and held a short conversation with them. Soon after, we arrived at the hithermost bank of the river, where I thought we were to pitch our tent : the drivers suddenly tript up the cow, and gave the poor animal a very rude fall upon the ground, which was but the beginning of her sufferings. One of them sat across her neck, holding down her head by the horns, the other twisted the halter about her fore feet, while the third. 16 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. who had a knife in his hand, to my very great surprise, in place of taking her by the throat, got astride upon her belly, before her hind legs, and gave her a very deep wound in the upper part of the buttock. From the time I had seen them throw the beast upon the ground, I had rejoiced, thinking that when three people were killing a cow, they must have agreed to sell part of her to us ; and I was much disappointed upon hearing the Abyssinians say, that we were to pass the river to the other side, and not encamp where I intended. Upon my proposing they should bar- gain for part of the cow, my men answered, what they had already learned in conversation, that they were not then to kill her : that she was not wholly theirs, and they could not sell her. This awakened my curiosity ; I let my people go forward, and staid myself, till I saw, -with the utmost astonishment, two pieces, thicker and longer than our ordinary beef steaks, cut out of the higher part of the buttock of the beast : how it was done I can- not positively say, because, judging the cow was to be killed from the moment I saw the knife drawn, I was not anxious to view that catastrophe, which was by no means an object of curiosity: whatever way it was done, it surely was adroitly, and the two pieces were spread upon the outside of one of their shields. One of-them still continued holding the head, while the other two were busy in curing the wound. This, too, was done not in an ordinary manner. The skin, whiclr had covered the flesh that was taken away, was left entire, and flapped over the wound, and was fastened to the corresponding part by two or more small skewers or pins. Whether they had put any thing under the skin, between that and the wounded flesh, I know not ; but, at the river side where they were, they had prepared a cata- plasm of clay, with which they covered the wound; they then forced the animal to rise, and drove it on before them, to furnish them with a fuller meal when they should meet their companions in the evening" (Travels, vol. iii. p. 142). "We have an instance, in the life of Saul, that shows the propensity of the Israelites to this crime : Saul's army, after a battle, flew, that is; fell voraciously upon the cattle they had taken, and threw them upon the ground to cut off their flesh, and eat them raw ; so that the army was defiled by eating blood, or living animals. 1 Sam. xiv. 33. To prevent this, Saul caused to be rolled to him a great stone, and ordered those that killed their oxen, to cut their throats upon that stone. This was the only lawful way of killing animals for food ; the tying of the ox, and throwing it upon the ground was not permitted as equivalent. The Israelites did pro- bably, in that case, as the Abyssinians do at this day ; they cut a part of its throat, so that blood might be seen on the ground, but nothing mortal to the animal followed from that wound : but, after laying his head upon a large stone, and cutting his throat, the blood fell from on high, or was poured on the ground like rooD. 17 water, and sufficient evidence appeared that the creature was dead, before it was attempted to eat it. We have seen that the Abyssinians came from Palestine a very few years after this, and we are not to doubt, that they then carried with them this, with many other Jewish customs, which they have continued to this day." (Brace's Travels, vol. iii. p. 299.) To corroborate the account given by Mr. Bruce, in these extracts, it may be satisfac- tory to affix what Mr. Antes has said upon the subject, in his Observations on the Manners and Customs of the Egyptians, p. 17. " When Mr. Bruce returned from Abyssinia, I was at Grand Cairo. I had the pleasure of his company for three months almost every day, and having, at that time, myself an idea of penetrjUing into Abyssinia, I was very inquisitive about that country, on hearing many things from him which seemed almost incredible to me ; I used to ask his Greek servant Michael, (a simple fellow, incapable of any invention) about the same circum- stance, and must say, that he commonly agreed with his master, as to the chief points. The description Mr. Bruce makes con- cerning the bloody banquet of live oxen among the natives, he happened never to mention to me, else I could have made the same inquiry; but I heard not only this servant, but many eye witnesses, often speak of the Abyssinians eating raw meat." PREPARATION OF FOOD. Gen. xviii. 6. And Abraham hastened into the tent unto Sarah, and said, make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes upon the hearth.} These instructions are quite similar to the manners of the place, which even at pre- sent are little, if any thing, altered from what they anciently were. Thus Dr. Shaw relates (Trav. p. 296), " that in cities and villages, where there are public ovens, the bread is usually leavened ; but among the Bedouins, as soon as the dough is kneaded, it is made into thin cakes, which are either immediately baked upon the coals, or else in a ta-jen, a shallow earthen vessel like a frying pan." 2 Sam. xiii. 8 ; 1 Chron. xxiii. 29. Gen. xviii. 7. Abraham ran into the herd, and fetched a calf tender and good."] Abraham appears to have taken a very active part in preparing to entertain the angels. But when it is said that " he ran into the herd, and fetched a calf," we must not un- derstand him as descending to an office either menial or unbe- coming his rank, since we are informed, that " the greatest prince of these countries is not ashamed to fetch a lamb from his herd, and kill it, whilst the princess is impatient till she hath prepared her fire and kettle to dress it." Shaw's Travels, p. 301. Prov. xii. 27. The slothful man roasteth not that which he c 18 ' ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. took in hunting.] Solomon evidently represents it as an instance of diligence in these words, both that a man should employ him- self in hunting, and that he should properly prepare what was so obtained. The small portion of land which fell to the share of a man could by no means find him full employment: and only labour, besides time, was requisite for catching wild animals, which might contribute to his support and maintenance. The present Arabs frequently exercise themselves in hunting in the Holy Land. {Voy. dans la Pal. p. 243.) Harmer, vol. i. p. 335. EccLES. xii. 4. The doors shall he shut in the streets, when the sound of the grinding is low.] The people in the East bake every day, and usually grind their corn as they want it. The grinding is the first work in the morning. This grinding with their mills makes a considerable noise, or rather, as Sir John Chardin says, " the songs of those who work them." May not this help to ex- plain the meaning of this passage, in which the royal preacher, describing the infirmities of old age, among other weaknesses, says, " the doors shall be shut in the streets, when the sound of the grinding is low ?" that is, the feeble old man shall not be able to rise from his bed early in the morning to attend that necessary employment of grinding corn, consequently his doors shall be shut ; neither will the noise of their songs, which are usual at that em- ployment, be heard, or when it is heard, it will be only in a low feeble tone. Jer. XXV. 10. The sound of the mill-stones.] "In the East they grind their corn at break of day. When one goes out in a morning, he hears everywhere the noise of the mill, and this noise often awakens people." f Chardin. J He supposes also that songs are made use of when they are grinding. It is very possible then, that when the sacred writers speak of the noise of the mill -stones, they may mean the noise of the songs of those who worked them. This earliness of grinding makes the going of Rechab and Baanah to fetch wheat the day before from the palace, to be distributed to the soldiers under them, very natural. (2 Sam. iv. 2 — 7.) They are female slaves who are generally employed at these hand-mills. It is extremely laborious, and esteemed the lowest employment in the house. (Harmer, vol. i. p. 250.) Mr. Park observed this custom in the interior parts of Africa, when he was invited into a hut by some female natives, in order to shelter him from the incle- mency of a very rainy night. While thus employed, one of the females sung a song, the rest joining in a sort of chorus. Matt. xxiv. 41 . Two women shall be grinding at the mill, the one shall he talten, and the other left.] Amongst other circumstances which should manifest the security of the world at the coming of Christ, it is particularly mentioned, that " two women shall be FOOD. 19 grinding at the mill, the one shall be taken and the other left." ^ " Most families grind their wheat and barley at home, having two portable grindstones for that purpose. The uppermost is turned round by a small handle of wood or iron, placed in the edge of it. When this stone is large, or expedition is required, then a second person is called in to assist. It is usual for the women alone to be concerned in this employ, sitting themselves down over against each other, with the mill-stones between them." (Shaw's Travels, p. 297.) Hence also we may learn the propriety of that expres- sion of " sitting behind the mill." (Exod. xi. 5.) ExoD. xii. 34. And the people took their dough before it was leavened, their kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothes upon their shoulders."] The vessels which the Arabs make use of for kneading the unleavened cakes which they prepare are only small wooden bowls. (Shaw's Trav. p. 231.) In these they afterwards serve up their provisions when cooked. It is not cer- tain that these wooden bowls were the kneading troughs of the Israelites : but it is incontestable that they must have been com- paratively small and light, to be so easily carried away. ExoD. xii. 15. Seven days shall ye eat unleavened bread."] As by the law of Moses no leaven of any kind was to be kept in the houses of the Israelites for seven or eight days, it might have been productive of great inconvenience, had they not been able by other means to supply the want of it. The MS. Chardin informs us, that they use no land of leaven whatever in the East, but dough kept till it is grown sour, which they preserve from one day to another. In wine countries they use the lees of wine as we do yeast. If therefore there should be no leaven in all the country for several days, yet in twenty-four hours some would be produced, and they would return to their preceding state. Harmer, ^o\. i. p. 253. Judges xx. 10. And we will take ten men of a hundred throughout all the tribes of Israel.] This appointment was not so much designed to collect food as to dress it, and to serve it up. In the present Barbary camps, which march about their territories every year, twenty men are appointed to each tent ; two of them officers of different ranks,' sixteen common soldiers, one a cook, and another a steward who looks after the provisions. (Pitts's Travels, p. 28.) Among the Greeks, according to Homer (II. ii^ 126), they seem to have divided their troops into companies of ten each, one of whom waited on the rest when they took their repast, under the name of the oivoxooq, which is usually translated cup- bearer. But perhaps the person that was so characterized not only gave them their wine when they took their repasts, but had c 2 20 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. the care of their provisions, set out their tables, and had the prin- cipal share in cooking their food. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 234. 2 Sam. xvii. 28. Parched corn.] Parched corn is a kind of food still retained in the East, as Hasselquist informs us. " On the road from Acre to Seide, we saw a herdsman eating his dinner, consisting of half-ripe ears of wheat, which he roasted and eat with as good an appetite as a Turk does his pillau. In Egypt such food is much eaten by the poor, being the ears of maize or Turk- ish wheat, and of their durra, which is a kind of millet. When this food was first invented, art was in a simple state ; yet the cus- tom is still continued in some nations, where the inhabitants have not even at this time learned to pamper nature." Lev. ii. 4. Unleavened cakes of fine Jlour.] D'Arvieux re- lates, that the Arabs about Mount Carmel make a fire in a great stone pitcher, and when it is heated, mix meal and water, which they apply with the hollow of their hands to the outside of the pitcher, and this soft paste, spreading itself upon it, is baked in an instant, and the bread comes off as thin as our wafers ( Voy. dans la Pal. p. 192.) Stones or copper plates were also used for the purposes of baking (Pococke, vol. ii. p. 96.) Upon these oven- pitchers probably the wafers here mentioned were prepared. Harmer, vol. i. p. 235. 2 Sam. xiii. 8. She took flour, and kneaded it."] Mr. Parkhurst (Hebrew Lexicon, p. 413, 3d edit.) supposes this passage is to be understood of the frequent turning of the cakes while baking. This appears to have been the common method of preparing them, for Rauwolff, speaking of his entertainment in a tent on the other side of the Euphrates, says, " the woman was not idle neither, but brovtght us milk and eggs to eat, so that we wanted for nothing. She made also some dough for cakes, and laid them on hot stones, and kept them turning, and at length she flung the ashes and embers over them and so baked them thoroughly. They were very good to eat, and very savory." Lev. xxvi. 26. Ten women shall hake your bread in one oven.] An oven was designed only to serve a single family, and to bake for them no more than the bread of one day. This usage still continues in some places, and gives peculiar force to these words. Harmer, vol. i. p. 269. EzEK. xiii. 19. Pieces of bread.] At Algiers they have pub- lic bakehouses for the people in common, so that the women only prepare the dough at home, it being the business of other persons to bake it. Boys are sent about the streets to give notice when Food. 21 they are ready to bake bread ; " upon this the women within come and knock at the inside of the door, which the boy hearing, makes towards the house. The women open the door a very Httle way, and hiding their faces, deliver the cakes to him, which, when baked, he brings to the door again, and the women receive them in the same manner as they gave them." This is done almost every day, and they give the boy a piece, or little cake, for the baking, which the baker sells. (Pitt's Travels, p. 65.) This illustrates the account of the false prophetess receiving as gratui- ties pieces of bread: they are compensations still used in the East, but are compensations of the meanest kind, and for services of the lowest sort. Harmer, vol. i. p. 270. Matt. vi. 28 — 30. , The grass of the field, which is cast into the oven.'] Shaw ( Trav. p. 85) tells us, that myrtle, rosemaryj and other plants are made use of in Barbary to heat their ovens. This circumstance gives a clear comment on the words of our Lord : " Consider the lilies of the field how they grow ; they toil not, neither do they spin : and yet I say unto you, that even Solo- mon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. Where- fore if God so clothe the grass of the field, which to day is, and to morrow is cast into the oven, shall he not much more clothe you, O ye of little faith ?" Lam. iv. 5. They that were brought up in scarlet embrace dunghills.'] On account of the scarcity of fuel, ovens are com- monly heated with horse or cow-dung. D'Arvieux ( Voy. dans la Pal. p. 193) says, that the people are very careful to lay up a stock of it for consumption, and that he saw the children gather, and clap it against a wall to dry. As it could not remain so during the rainy season, Mr. Harmer (vol. i. p. 256) conceives that it might usually be collected together in some outhouse when pro- perly prepared, where the wretched wanderer, spoken of by the prophet in these words, might take refuge, and thus be said to embrace dunghills, (1 Sam. ii. 8.) Lev. xi. 35. Ranges for pots.] The scarcity of fuel in the East induces the people to be very frugal in using it. RauwolfF (p. 192) gives the following account of their management : " They make in their tents or houses a hole about a foot and a half deep, wherein they put their earthen pipkins or pots, with the meat in them, closed up, so that they are in the half above the middle. Three-fourth parts thereof they lay about with stones, and the. fourth part is left open, through which they fling in their dried dung, which burns immediately, and gives so great a heat, that the pot groweth so hot as if it had stood in the middle of a lighted coal heap, so that they boil their meat with a httle fire, quicker than we do ours with a great one on our hearths." As the Israel- 22 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. ites must have had as much occasion to be sparing of their fuel as any people, and especially when journeying in the wilderness, Mr. Harmer (vol. i. p. 268) considers this quotation as a more satisfactory commentary on this passage than any which has been given. Lam. v. 10. Our skin was black like an oven.'[ Portable ovens were frequently used in the East, and were part of the furniture of eastern travellers. These ovens appear to have been formed of diflFerent materials, according to the rank of the several owners. Those that are alluded to by the prophet Jeremiah, when describ- ing the distresses of the inhabitants of Jerusalem, saying, " our skin was black like an oven because of the terrible famine," seem to be of an inferior kind, and belonged most probably to the ordi- nary class of travellers. Nevertheless there were others of a far superior nature, even of very valuable metals. Thus we are in- formed from an Arabian tale, translated in 1786 from an unpub- lished MS. that part of the food of the caliph Vathek on his travels was delicate cakes, wJiich had been baked in silver ovens. St. Jerome describes an eastern oven as a round vessel of brass, black- ened on the outside by the surrounding fire which heats it within. WATER. 1 Sam. XXV. 11. Shall I then take my bread, and my water, and my flesh that I have killed for my shearers, and give unto men whom I know not whence they are .'] Water is considered as an important part of the provision made for a repast, and is sent as such to shearers and reapers in particular. The words of Nabal in reply to David's messengers are not in the least surprising. The following passage from Mr. Drummond's Travels, p. 216, affords proof of their propriety. " The men and women were then em- ployed in reaping, and this operation they perform by cutting off the ears, and pulling up the stubble ; which method has been always followed in the East : other females were busy in carrying water to the reapers, so that none but infants were unemployed. Harmer, vol. i. p. S12. Numb. xx. 19. If I and my cattle drink of thy water, then will I pay for it.'] The value of water in the East is much greater than is commonly understood. Its scarcity in many instances renders a well an important possession : it is not then to be won- dered at that contention should arise on the probability of losing it. Gen. xxvi. 20. Major Rooke relates a circumstance of this kind, which cost several their lives, to such an extremity was the matter carried. He says, " one morning when we had been driven by stress of weather into a small bay, called Birk Bay, the country around it being inhabited by the Budoos (Bedouins), the noque- FOOD. 23 dah sent his people on shore to get water, for which it is always customary to pay ; the Budoos were, as the people thought, rather too exorbitant in their demands, and not choosing to comply with them, returned to make their report to their master : on hearing it, rage immediately seized him, and, determined to have the water on his own terms, or perish in the attempt, he buckled on his armour, and, attended by his myrmidons, carrying their match- lock guns and lances, being twenty in number, they rowed to tlie land. My Arabian servant, who went on shore with the first party, and saw that the Budoos were disposed for fighting, told me that I should certainly see a battle. After a parley of about a quarter of an hour, with which the Budoos amused them till near an hundred were assembled, they proceeded to the attack, and routed the sailors, who made a precipitate retreat, the noquedah and two others having fallen in the action, and several being wounded." (Travels, p. 53.) Hence we discover the conformity of the ancient and modern custom of buying the water, and the serious consequences that have ensued from disputes respecting it. This narration also gives energy to the complaint in Lam. v. 4. " We have drank our own water for money." Mark ix. 41. Whosoever shall give you a cup of water to drink in my. name shall not lose his reward.'] To furnish travellers with water is at this time thought a matter of such consideration, that many of the eastern pe6ple have been at a considerable ex- pense to procure passengers that refreshment. " The reader, as we proceed," says Dr. Chandler (Trav. in Asia Minor, p. 20) " will find frequent mention of fountains. Their number is owing to the nature of the country and the climate. The soil, parched and thirsty, demands moisture to aid vegetation ; a cloudless sun, which inflames the air, requires for the people the verdure, shade, and coolness, its agreeable attendants ; hence they occur not only in the towns and villages, but in the fields and gardens, and by the sides of the roads, and by the beaten tracts on the mountains. Many of them are the useful donations of humane persons while living, or have been bequeathed as legacies on their decease. The Turks esteem the' erecting of them as meritorious, and seldom go away after performing their ablutions or drinking, without grate- fully blessing the name and memory of the founder." Then, after observing that the method used by the ancients of obtaining the necessary supplies of water still prevails, which he describes as done by pipes, or paved channels, he adds, " when arrived at the destined spot, it is received by a cistern with a vent, and the waste current passes below from another cistern, often an ancient sarcophagus. It is common to find a cup of tin or iron hanging near by a chain, or a wooden scoop with a handle placed in a niche in the wall. The front is of stone, or marble, and in some, painted and decorated with gilding, and with an inscription in Turk- ,24 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. ish characters in relievo." The blessing of the name and memory of the builder of one of these fountains shows that a cup of water is in these countries by no means a despicable thing. Niebuhr tells us, that among the public buildings of Kahira, those houses ought to be reckoned where they daily give water gratis to all passengers that desire it. Some of these houses make a very handsome appearance ; and those whose business it is to wait on passengers are to have some vessels of copper curiously tinned, and filled with water, always ready on the window next the street. ( Voyage en Arable, torn. i. p. 97.) 2 Sam. xvii. 28. And earthen vessels.'] Speaking of a town called Kenne, Dr. Perry f View of the Levant, p. 339) tells us, that its chief manufacture is in bardacks, to cool and refresh their water in, by means of which it drinks very cool and pleasant in the hottest seasons of the year. It is not then surprising that earthen vessels should be presented to David ; at least if this were the use for which they were designed. Harmer, vol. ii. p. Ig. 2 Sam. xxiii. 15 And David longed, and said, Oh that one would give me drink of the water of the well of Bethlehem, which is by the gate/] Agathocles relates, that there were certain foun- tains in those regions, to the number of seventy, whose waters were denominated golden, and of which it was death for any one to drink, except the king and his eldest son. This may explain the wish of king David for water from the well of Bethlehem, unless we suppose it to have arisen from a predilection, like that of the Parthian monarchs for the water of Choaspes, which was carried with them wherever they went, and from that circumstance styled by TibuUus, regia lympha, and by Milton, the drink of none but kings. Gillingwater MS. Isaiah xxix. 8. Or as when a thirsty man dreameth, and be- hold, he drinketh ; but he awaketh, and behold, he is faint, and his soul hath appetite.] As the simile of the prophet is drawn from nature, an extract which describes the actual occurrence of such a circumstance will be agreeable. "The scarcity of water was greater here at Bubaker than at Benown. Day and night the wells were crowded with cattle lowing, and fighting with each other to come at the trough. Excessive thirst made many of them fiirious : others being too weak to contend for the water, en- deavoured to quench their thirst by devouring the black mud from the gutters near the wells ; which they did with great avidity, though it was commonly fatal to them. This great scarcity of water was felt by all the people of the camp ; and by none more than myself. I begged water from the negro slaves that attended the camp, but with very indifferent success ; for though I let no FOOD. 25 opportunity slip, and was very urgent in my solicitations both to the Moors and to the negroes, I was but ill supplied, and fre- quently passed the night in the situation of Tantalus. No sooner had I shut my eyes, than fancy would convey me to the streams and rivers of my native land ; there, as I wandered along the verdant bank, I surveyed the clear stream with transport, and hastened to swallow the delightful draught ; but alas ! disappoint- mentawakened me, and I found myself a lonely captive, perishing of thirstamidst the wilds of Africa." Park's Travels in Africa, p. 145. ExoD. vii. 18. The Egyptians shall loath to drink of the water of the river.] A peculiar energy will be discovered in these words, if what the abbot Mascrier has said (Lett. i. p. 15) of the water of the Nile be attended to. " The water of Egypt is so delicious, that one would not wish the heat should be less, nor to be delivered from the sensation of thirst. The Turks find it so exquisitely charming, that they excite themselves to drink of it, by eating salt. It is a common saying among them, that if Mahomet had drank of it, he would have begged of God not to have died, that he might always have done it." Harmer, vol. ii. p. 295. * ExoD. vii. 19. Vessels of stone.] The water of the Nile is very thick and muddy, and it is purified either by a paste made of almonds, or by filtrating it through pots of white earth ; the pos- session of one of these pots is thought a great happiness. Thevenot (part i. p. 245.) May not the meaning of this passage be, that the water of the Nile should not only look red and nauseous like blood in the river, but in their vessels too when taken up in small quantities, and that no method whatever of purifying it should be effectual ? Harmer, vol. ii. p. 298. ExoD. XV. 23. And when they came to Marah, they could not drink of the waters of Marah, for they were hitter.] Dr. Shaw (Travels, p. 314) thinks that these waters may be properly fixed at Corondel, where there is a small rill, which, unless it be diluted by the dews and rain, is very brackish. Another traveller {Jour- ney from Grand Cairo to Mount Sinai, a. d. 1722, pp. 14, 15) tells us, that at the foot of the mountain of Hamam el Faron, a small but most delightful valley, a place called Garondu, is a rivulet that comes from the mountain, the water of which is tolerably ^ood and sufficiently plentiful, but is bitter, though very clear. ^Pococke says, there is a mountain known to this day by the name of Le Marah, and toward the sea is a salt well, called Birhammer, which is probably the same here called Marah. WINE. Judges ix. 13. Wine, ivhich cheereth God and man.] This 26 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. form of speech, however singular it may appear to us, is perfectly justifiable, as connected with the Jewish sacrifices, and as used in common bpth by them and by the Gentiles; Wine, as the Jewish doctors assert, was not only used in their sacrifices, but till the drink-oiFering was poured out they did not begin the hymn that was then sung to God. Virgil, speaking of noble vines, or wines, says, they were Mensis et diis accepta secundis. Georg. lib. ii. 101. "grateful to the gods and second courses :" that is, they were so excellent as to be fit to be used for libations which were made at the second course. Judges ix. 27. Trod the grapes.] In the East they still tread their grapes after the ancient manner. " August 20, 1765, the vintage (near Smyrna) was now begun, the juice (of the grapes) was expressed for wine ; a man, with his feet and legs bare, was treading the fruit in a kind of cistern, with a hole or vent near the bottom, and a vessel beneath to receive the liquor." Chand- ler's Travels in Greece, p. 2. Joel i. 5. Bowl, all ye drinkers of wine, because of the new wine, for it is cut off from your mouth.] That old wine was most esteemed in the East is clear from the words of our Lord, " No man also having drank old wine, straightway desireth new, for he saith the old is better." (Luke v. 39.) By a false translation in these words of Joel, new is put instead of sweet wine. Wine of this sort, as appears from the ancient eastern translation of the Septuagint, was chiefly esteemed formerly; for that which our version renders, " royal wine in abundance, according to the state of the king" (Esth. i. 7), they translate, much and sweet wine, such as the king himself drank. A remark that Russel makes on the white wines of Aleppo may help to explain this. They are palatable, but thin and poor, and seldom keep sound above a year. (Hist, of Aleppo, p. 19.) Such, however, as were capable of being kept till they were old, and which those that loved drinking desired, were those of the sweet sort, and consequently proper subjects for the threatening of the prophet. But what completes and finishes the illustration of this passage, is a curious observa- tion of Dr. Shaw (Travels, p. 146) concerning the wine of Algiers. " The wine of Algiers, before the locusts destroyed the vineyard^ in the years 1723 and 1724, was not inferior to the best hermitage, either in briskness of taste or flavour ; but since that time it is much degenerated, not having hitherto (1732) recovered its usual qualities." It is a desolation of their vineyards by locusts that Joel threatens, which, it seems, injures their produce for many years ; and consequently nothing was more natural than to call FOOD. 27 the drunkards of Israel to mourn on that occasion. See Acts ii. 13, which probably is to be understood of sweet wine also. Harmer, vol. i. p. 386. , Jer. xlviii. 11. Emptied from vessel to vessel.'] From a re- mark of the Abb6 Mariti, it appears to be a usual practice in Cyprus to change the vessels in which their wine is kept : this is done to improve it. He says ( Travels, vol. i. p. 221), " these wines are generally sold on the spot, at the rate of so much per load. Each load contains sixteen jars, and each jar five bottles, Florence measure. When the wine is brought from the country to town, it must be put into casks in which there are dregs ; and it is to be remarked, that nothing tends more to bring it to perfec- tion, than to draw it off into another vessel, provided this is not done until a year after it has been put into the casks." Chardin says, " they frequently pour wine from vessel to vessel in the East ; for when they begin one, they are obliged immedi- ately to empty it into smaller vessels, or into bottles, or it would grow sour." Harmer, vol. i. p. 392. Isaiah xxv- 6. Wine on the lees well refined.'] In the East they keep their wine in jugs, from which they have no method of drawing it off fine : it is therefore commonly somewhat thick and turbid, by the lees with which it is mixed : to remedy this incon- venience they filtrate or strain it through a cloth ; and to this custom, as prevailing in his time, the prophet here plainly alludes. Matt, xxiii. 24. Ye strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel.] This is an allusion to a custom the Jev/s had of filtering their wine, for fear of swallowing any insect forbidden by the law as unclean. Maimonides, in his treatise of forbidden meats (cap. ii. art. 20), affords a remarkable illustration of our Saviour's prover- bial expression. " He who strains wine, or vinegar, or strong drink, and eats the gnats, or flies, or worms which he hath strained off, is whipped." In these hot countries, as Serrarius well observes (TrihcBres, p. 51), gnats were apt to fall into wine, if it were not carefully covered ; and passing the liquor through a straijier, that no gnat or part of one might remain, grew into a proverb for exactness about little matters. Josh. ix. 4. Wine bottles.] Chardin informs us that the Arabs, and all those that lead a wandering life, keep their water, milk, and other liquors, in leathern bottles. " They keep in them more fresh than otherwise they would do. These leathern bottles are made of goat-skins. When the animal is killed, they cut off its feet and its head, and they draw it in this manner out of the skin, without opening its belly. They afterwards sew up the places 28 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. where the legs were cut off, and the tail, and when it is filled, they tie it about the neck. These nations, and the country people of Persia, never go a journey without a small leathern bottle of water hanging by their side like a scrip. The great leathern bottles are made of the skin of a he goat, and the small ones, that serve instead of a bottle of water on the road, are made of a kid's skin." These bottles are frequently rent, when old and much used, and are capable of being repaired by being bound up. This they do, Chardin says, " sometimes by setting in a piece ; some- times by gathering up the wounded place in manner of a purse ; sometimes they put in a round flat piece of wood, and by that means stop the hole." Maundrell gives an account exactly similar to the above. Speaking of the Greek convent at Bellmount, near Tripoli, in Syria, he says, " the same person whom we saw offi- ciating at the altar in his embroidered sacerdotal robe, brought us the next day, on his own back, a kid and a goat-skin of wine, as a present from the convent." {Journey, March \2.) These bottles are still used in Spain, and called borrdchas. Mr. Bruce gives a description of the girba, which seems to' be a vessel of the same kind as those now mentioned, only of dimensions considerably larger. " A girba is an ox's skin, squared, and the edges sewed together very artificially, by a double seam, which does not let out water, much resembling that upon the best English cricket balls. An opening is left at the top of the girba, in the same manner as the bung-hole of a cask, around this the skin is gathered to the size of a large handful, which, when the girba is full of water, is tied round with whip-cord. These girbas generally contain about sixty gallons each, and two of them are the load of a camel. They are then all besmeared on the outside with grease, as well to hin- der the water from oozing through, as to prevent its being evapo- rated by the heat of the sun upon the girba, which, in fact, happened to us twice, so as to put us in imminent danger of perishing with thirst.'' ( Travels, vol. iv. p. 334.) Vide Harmer, vol. i. p. 132. Mark xiv. 3. And being in Bethany, in the house of Simon the leper, as he sat at meat, there came a woman, having an alabaster box of ointment of spikenard, very precious, and she brake the box, and poured it on his head.] Chardin describes the Persians as sometimes transporting their wine in buck or goat-skins, which are pitched, and when the skin is good the wine is not at all injured, nor tastes of the pitch. At other times they send it in bottles, whose mouths are stopped with cotton, upon which melted wax is poured, so as quite to exclude the air. They pack them up in chests, in straw, ten small bottles in each, sending the celebrated wine of Schiras thus through all the kingdom into the Indies, and even to China and Japan. The ancient Romans used pitch to secure their wine vessels. FOOD. 29 (Horace, Carm. lib. iii. ode 8.) This is said to have been done according to one of the precepts of Cato. But though pitch and other grosser matters might be used to close up the wine vessels, those which held their perfumes were doubtless fastened with wax, or some such cement, since they were small, and made of alabaster and other precious materials, which would by no means have agreed with any thing so coarse as pitch. To apply these remarks to the subject of this article, it may be observed that Propertius calls the opening of a wine-vessel, by breaking the cement that secured it, breaking the vessel : — Cur ventos non ipse rogia, ingrate, petisti ? Cur uardo flainin'er all his frame : illustrious on bis breast, The dojible clasping gold the king confess'd. Odyss, xix. 261. Pope. 2 Sam. xiii. 18. Garment of divers colours.] Party-coloured ' vestments were esteeined honourable. To make them, many pieces of difierent coloured ribands were sewed together. (Shaw's Tra- vels, p. 228.) Kings' daughters were thus arrayed. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 91. * Genesis xxxvii. 3. Coat of many colours.'] Buckingham, writing from Assalt, says, " The service appeared to me nearly the same as I had beforejsvitnessed in the Greek churches of Asia Minor ; and differed only in being performed in the Arabic instead of the Greek language. The priest wore a coat of many colours ; a gar- ment apparently as much esteemed throughout these parts in the present day, as it was in the days of the patriarch Jacob, who had one made for his favourite son Joseph ; or in -the time of Sisera, when a coat of divers colours was enumerated among the rich trophies and spoils of the battle of Tabor or Kishon. In the exercise of his functions, the priest remained mostly at the altar, 44 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. while yoiing boys, bearing censors of incense, were constantly waving them around his sacred person." Buckingham's Travels among the Arab Tribes, p. 31. Esther viii. 15. And Mordecai went out from the presence of the king in royal apparel of blue and white.'] White garments were usually worn by those who set up as candidates for any honourable employment in the state: and it was done to show how justly and innocently they would perform the duties and offices committed to their charge. See Horace, b. i. Od. 35, 1. 21. Dan. v. 29. They clothed Daniel with scarlet^ This was de- signed to honour Daniel, and certainly was, according to the cus- tom of the East, a ceremony highly expressive of dignity. To come out from the presence of a superior in a garment diflfereiit from that in which the person went in, was significant of approba- tion and promotion. Whether it was the precise intention of this clothing to declare Daniel's investiture with the dignity of the third ruler of the kingdom, or whether it was an honorary distinc- tion, unconnected with his advancement, cannot be absolutely decided, because cafFetans, or robes, are at this day put on people with both views. Chardin has a passage, from which it appears how easy it is immediately to put a garment on a person they intend to honour, answerable to that degree of honour they design to do him, let it be what it will. After having observed, that in Persia and the Indies they not only give a vestment, but a complete suit of clothes, when they would do a person more honour than common, contrary to what is practised in Turkey and China, he goes on to observe, that these presents of vestments are only from superiors to inferiors, not from equals to equals, nor from the mean to the great. Kings constantly give them to am- bassadors, residents, and envoys, and send them to princes who are their tributaries, and pay them homage. They pay great attention to the quality or merit of those to whom these vestments or habits are given ; they are always answerable to their rank. Those that are given to their great men have, in like manner, as much difference as there is between the degrees of honour they possess in the state. The kings of Persia have great wardrobes, where there are always many hundreds of habits ready, designed for presents, and sorted. The intendant of the wardrobes (which they call kalaat kone, that is, the house of kalaats, that being the name given those vestments that are made presents of) sends one of them to the person the great master orders, and of that kind the order directs. More than forty tailors are always employed in this house. This difference of vestments, as to the stuff they are made of, is not observed in Turkey ; there they are pretty much alike in point of richness, but they give more, or fewer, according to the dignity of the persons to whom they are pre- APPAREL. 45 sented, or the degree, in which they would caress them. There are ambassadors who have received twenty-five or thirty of them for themselves and attendants ; and several are given to one per- son, respect being had to the place he holds. In the year 1675, the king of Persia having returned answer to the agents of the grandson of Teimuras-can, the last king of Iberia, (who solicited his return to court, and was then in Muscovy) that he should be welcome, and this . young prince having come to the frontiers, his majesty sent one of hisoificers to bi;ing him to him, and to defray his expenses, with a very rich present, in which, among other things, were five complete suits of clothes. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 85. Rev. xi. 3. / wj,ll give power unto^my two witnesses, and they shall prophesy a thousand two hundred and threescore days, clothed in sackcloth.'] Sackcloth appears to have been made of hair, and as to its colour, to have been black ; the Scripture declares that the sun. became " black as sackcloth of hair." (Rev. vi. 12/) The prophets wore it as a dress at particular times, and agreeably to that custom the two witnesses were to be clothed in sackcloth. It was used in these cases to express distress, and as a token of mourning ; it appears also to have been employed to enwrap the dead when about to be buried, so that its being worn by survivors was a kind of assimilation to the departed : and its being worn by penitents was an implied confession that their guilt exposed them to death. This may be gathered from an expression of Chardin, who says, Kel Anayet, the shah's buffoon, made a shop in the seraglio, which he filled with pieces of that coarse kind of stuff, of which winding-sheets for the dead are made. And again, " the sufferers die by hundreds, wrapping cloth is doubled in price." However, in latter ages, sotne eastern nations might bury in linen, yet others still retained the use of sackcloth for that purpose. Fragments Supplement aty to Calmefs Diet. No. 320. JuDE 23. Hating even the garment spotted by the flesh.] In all holy worship their clothes were to be vidthout spots or stains, loose and unbound. If they had been touched by a dead body, or struck by thunder, or any other way polluted, it was un- lawful for the priest to officiate in them. The purity of the sacer- dotal robes is frequently insisted on in the poets : Casta placent superis ; purS. cum Teste venito. Potter's Archceol. Grcec. vol. i. p. 224. Deut. xxii. 5. : The woman shall not wear that which per- taineth unto a man, neither shall a man put on a womaris gar- ment.] This prohibitory law seems directed against an idolatrous usage, which appears, to be as ancient as Moses, and which later 46 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. writers inform us; was to be found among several nations in after times ; and that too attended with the most abominable practices. .From Plutarch (De Isid. et Osir. torn. ii. p. 368. edit. Xylandr.) we learn, that the Egyptians called the moon the mother of the world, and assigned to her a nature both male and female : and Boyse (Pantheon, p. 12) says of Diana, Luna, or the moon, that the Egyptians worshipped this deity both as male and female, the men sacrificing to it as Luna, the women as Lunus, and each sex on these occasions assuming the dress of the other. Parkhurst'^ Heb. Lex. p. 107. DIVERSITY OF DRESSES. Psalm cii. 26. As a 'vesture skalt thou change them.} A fi'equent change of garments is very common in the East ; and that, both to show respect and to display magnificence. Thevenot tells us (part i. p. 86) that when he saw the grand seignior go^to the new mosque, he was clad in a satin doliman of a flesh colour, and a vest nearly similar ; but when he had said his prayers there, he changed his vest, and put on one of a particular kind of green. To this frequent change of vestments amongst the great, the Psalmist may allude in these words. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 117. , Job xxvii. 16. Prepare raiment as the clay.] D'Herbelot tells us (p. 208) that Bokhteri, an illustrious poet of Cufah in the ninth century, had so many presents made him in the course of ■ his life, that at his death he was found possessed of a hundred complete suits of clothes, two hundred shirts, and five hundrM turbans ; an indisputable proof of the frequency with which pre- sents of this kind are made in the Levant to men of study ; and'at the same time a fine illustration of JobV description of the treasures of the East in his days, consisting of raiment as well as silver. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 11. 1 Sam. xviii. 4. Stripped himself of the robe.] D'Herbelot (vol. ii. p. 20) says, that when Sultan Selim had defeated Causbu Gouri, he assisted at prayers in a mosque at Aleppo, upon his triumphant return to Constantinople, and that the imam of the mosque, having added at the close of the prayer these words ; " May God preserve Selim Khan, the servant and minister of the two sacred cities of Mecca and Medina," the title was so very agreeable to the sultan that he gave the robe that he had on to the imam. Just thus Jonathan stripped himself of the robe that was upon him, and gave it to David. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 94. MATT.xxii. 11. A wedding garment.] The following extract will show the importance of having a suitable garment for a marriage feast, and the offence taken against those who refuse it when presented as a gift. " The next day, Dec. 3, the king sent APPAREL. 47 to invite the ambassadors to dine with him once more. The Mehemander told him, it was the custom that they should wear over their own clothes the best of those garments the king had sent them. The ambassadors at first made some scruple of that compliance : but when they were told that it was a custom observed by all ambassadors, and that no doubt the king would take it very ill at their hands if they presented themselves before him without the marks of his liberality, they at last resolved to do it ; and, after- their example, all the rest of the retinue." Ambassador's Travels, p. 188. Deut. xxi. 13. She shall put the raiment of her captivity from off her.'] It was customary among the ancients for the women, who accompanied their fathers or husbands to battle, to put on their finest dresses and ornaments previous to an engagement, in order to attract the notice of the conqueror, if taken prisoners. See Ovid. Itemed. Amor, 343. MANUFACTURE OF APPAREL. 1 Sam. ii. 19. Moreover his mother made him a little coat, and brought it to him from year to year-l The women made wearing-apparel, and their common employment was weaving stuffs, as making cloth and tapestry is now. We see in Homer, the instances of Penelope, Calypso, and Circe. There are exam- ples of it in Theocritus (Idyll. 15.), Terence (Heaut. act. ii. sc. 2.) and many other authors. But what appears most wonderful is, that this custom was retained at Rome among the greatest ladies in a very corrupt age, since Augustus commonly wore clothes made by his wife, sister, and daughter. (Suet. Aug. 73. See also Prov. xxxi. 13, 19.) Fleuri/s Hist, of Israelites, p. 72. Prov. xxxi. 13. She seeketh wool and Jlax^ It was usual in ancient times for great personages to do such works as are men- tioned in these words, both among the Greeks and Romans. Lu- cretia with her maids was found spinning, when her husband Col- latinus paid a visit to her from the camp. Tanaquilis, or Caia Cae- cilia, the vdfe of king Tarquin, was an excellent spinner of wool. (Valerius Maximus, 1. x. p. 348.) Her wool, with a distaff and spindle, long remained in the temple of Sangus ; and a garment made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was reserved in the temple of Fortune. Hence it became a custom for maidens to accompany new-married women with a distaff and spindle, with wool upon them, signifying what they were principally to attend to. (Plin. Nat. Hist. 1. viii. c. 48.) Maidens are advised to follow the ex- ample of Minerva, said to be the first who made a web ; and if • they desired to have her favour, learn to use the distaff, and to card and spin. ( Ovid. Fast. 1. iii.) So did the daughters of Minyas 48 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS- (Ovid. MetA. iv. f. i.v. 34;, and the nymphs. ^ F«V^i7, Geor.l. jv.)i Augustus Caesar usually wore no garments but such as were made at home, by his wife, sister, or daughter. {Suetqn. in Fit. August. c. 73.) Prov. xxxi. 22. Shemakethherself coverings of tapestry.} Ho- mer, who was nearly contemporary with Solomon, represents both Helen and Penelope employed at their looms, II. iii. 125. Od. ii. 94, et vi. 52. And to this day in Barbary, "the women alone are employed in the manufacturing of their hykes, or blankets as we should call them : who do not use the shuttle, but conduct every thread of the woof with their fingers." Shaw's Travels, p. 224. Prov. xxxi. 18. Her candle goeth not out by night.] There is a passage in Virgil, which may serve as an illustration of this text, and which bears so great a resemblance to it, that it might almost pass for a poetical imitation. Prima quies medio jam noctis abactae Curriculo expulerat somnum : cum fcemina primum Cui tolerare colo vitam, tenuique Minerp^, Impositum cinerum et sopitos suscitat ignes, Noctem addens operi, famulasque ad lumina longo Exeroet penso. ^n. viii. lin. 407. Night was now sliding in her middle course : Tlie first repose was finished : when the dame. Who by her distaflf's slender art subsists, Wakes the spread embers and the sleeping fire. Night adding to her work : and calls her maids To their long tasks, by lighted tapers urg'd. Trapp. And to give a modern instance of a similar kind. Monsieur de Guys, in his " Sentimental Journey through Greece" {cited in " Critical Review," for June, 1772, p. 459), says, " embroidery is the constant employment of the Greek women. Those who fol- low it for a living are employed in it from morning to night, as are also their daughters and slaves. This is a picture of the in- dustrious wife, painted after nature by Virgil, in the eighth book of his ^neid. I have a living portrait of the same kind constantly before my eyes. The lamp of a pretty neighbour of mine, who follows that trade, is always lighted before day, and her young assistants are all at work betimes in the morning." EccLES. iii. 7. A time to sew.] Putting on new clothes is thought by the people of the East very requisite for the due solemnization of a time of rejoicing. Hasselquist says (p. 400) "The Turks, even the poorest of them, must absolutely have new clothes at the bairam," or great festival. The rending mentioned in this verse undoubtedly refers to the Oriental mode of expressing APPAREL. 49 sorrow : the sewing is designed as an opposite to it : it appears, then, from this consideration, connected with the custom now men- tioned, to intend a time of making up new vestments, rather than, as has been commonly understood, the reparation of old ones. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 119. GIRDLES. Matt. x. 9. Purses.l Clothed as the eastern people were, with long robes, girdles were indispensably necessary to bind together their flowing vestments. They were worn about the waist, and properly confined their loose garments. These gir- dles, Zwvai, were so contrived as to be used for purses ; and they are still so worn in the East. Dr. Shaw, speaking of the dress of the Arabs in Barbary, says, " The girdles of these people are usually of worsted, very artfully woven into a variety of figures, and made to wrap several times about their bodies. One end of them being doubled and sewed along the edges, serves them for a purse, agreeable to the acceptation of the word ^ojvj/ in the Holy Scriptures." (^Travels, p. ^2. fol.) The Roman soldiers used, in like manner, to carry their money in their girdles. Whence in Horace, " qui zonam perdidit," means one who had lost his purse (Epist. ii. lib. 2, lin. 40.) And in Aulus Gellius (lib. xv. cap. 12) C. Gracchus is introduced, saying, those girdles which I carried out full of money, when I went from Rome, I have at my return from the province brought home empty. Luke vi. 38. Good measure pressed down, and shaken toge- ther, and running over, shall men give into your bosom-l The eastern garments being long, and folded, and girded with a girdle, admitted of carrying much corn or fruits of that kind in the bosom. SHOES. 2 Sam. xv. 30. And he went barefoot.'] This was an indica- tion of great distress : for in ancient times the shoes of great and wealthy persons were made of very rich materials, and ornamented with jewels, gold, and silver. When any great calamity befel them, either public or private, they not only stripped themselves of these ornaments, but of their very shoes, and walked barefoot. In this manner prisoners taken in war were forced to walk, both for punishment and disgrace. See Byneeus de Calceis Hebresor. 1. ii. c. 5, and Guier de Luct. c. 15, § 4. EzEK. xxiv. 17. Put on thy shoes upon thy feet.] When Ezekiel was commanded to abstain from mourning, he was ordered among other things to put his shoes on his feet. This was cer- tainly contrary to the practice of the Jews, and was therefore the more remarkable. Addison, in his account of the modern mourn- ing of the Jews in Barbary, says, " the relations of the deceased. 50 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. for seven days after the interment, stir not abroad, or if by some extraordinary occasion they are forced to go out of doors, it is without shoes; which is a token with them, that they have lost a dear friend." p. 218. Matt. iii. 11. Whose shoes I dm not worthy to bear.] The custom of loosing the sandals from off the feet of an eastern wor- shipper was ancient and indispensable. It is also commonly ob- served in visits to great men. The sandals or slippers are pulled off at the door, and either left there, or given to a servant to bear. The person to bear them means an inferior domestic, or attendant upon a man of high rank, to take care of, and return them to him again. See Asiatic Researches, vol. i. p. 289, This was the work of servants among the Jews : and it was reckoned so servile, that it was thought too mean for a scholar or a disciple to do. The Jews say, " all services which a servant does for his master a disciple does for his master, except unloosing his shoes." John thought it was too great an honour for him to do that for Christ, which was thought too mean for a disciple to do for a wise man. Gill, in he. f ORNAMENTS. ExoD. xxxiii. 5. Therefore now put off thine ornaments from thee.] The Septuagint gives this as a translation of these words : " now therefore put off your robes of glory, and your ornaments." It was customary to put off their upper garments in times of deep mourning ; and it is still practised in the East. " A few days after this we came to a place called Rabbock, about four days' sail on this side Mecca, where all the hagges (pilgrims), excepting those of the female sex, enter into hirrawem, or ihram, i. e. they take off all their clothes, covering themselves with two hirrawems, or large white cotton wrappers ; one they put about their middle, which reaches down to their ankles ; with the other they cover the upper part of the body, except the head ; and they wear no other thing on their bodies but these wrappers, only a pair of gingameea, or thin-soled shoes, like sandals, the over leather of which covers only the toes, their insteps being all naked. In this manner, like humble penitents, they go from Rabbock till they come to Mecca, to approach the temple ; many times enduring the scorching heat of the sun, till the very skin is burnt off their backs and, arms ; and their heads swelled to a very great degree." Pitt's Travels, p. 115. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 402. ExoD. xxxiii. 6. And the children of Israel stripped themselves of their ornaments by the mount Horeb.] The denunciation of divine anger was the reason why the children of Israel stripped themselves of their ornaments. A similar indication of fear is ob- APPAREL. 51 servable in the general practice of the Romans. A day was fixed for the trial of the accused person. In the meantime he changed his dress ; laid aside every kind of ornament ; let his hair and beard grow ; and in this mean garb went round and solicited the favour of the people. Adam's Roman Antiquities, p. 87. Psalm Ixxv. 4, 5. Lift not up your horn on high, speak not with a stiff wecA.] This passage will receive some illustration from Bruce's remarks in his Travels to discover the source of the Nile, where, speaking of the head-dress of the governors of the provinces of Abyssinia, he represents it as consisting of a large broad fillet, bound upon their forehead and tied behind their head. In the middle of this was a horn, or a conical piece of silver, gilt, about four inches long, much in the shape of our common candle extinguishers. This is called kirn, or horn, and is only worn in reviews, or parades after victory. The crooked manner in which they hold the neck, when this ornament is on their forehead, for fear it should fall forward, seems to agree with what the Psalmist calls speaking with a stiff neck ; for it perfectly shows the mean- ing of speaking with a stiff neck, when you hold the horn on high, or erect, like the horn of a unicorn. See also Psalm xcii. 10. Psalm xcii. 10. My horn shalt thou exalt like the horn of an unicorn ; I shall he anointed with fresh oil.'\ Mr.- Bruce, after having given it as his opinion, that the reem of Scripture is the rhinoceros, says, " the derivation of this word, both in the Hebrew and in the Ethiopic, seems to be from erectness, or standing straight. This is certainly no particular quality in the animal itself, which is not more, or even so much erect as many other quadrupeds, for in its knees it is rather crooked ; but it is from the circumstance and manner in which his horn is placed. The horns of other animals are inclined to some degree of parallelism with the nose or os fi'ontis. The horn of the rhinoceros alone is erect and perpendicular to this bone, on which it stands at right angles, thereby possessing a greater purchase, or power, as a lever, than any horn could possibly have in any other position. " This situation of the horn is very happily alluded to in the sacred writings : my horn shalt thou exalt like the horn of an uni- corn ; and the horn here alluded to is not wholly figurative, as I have already taken notice in the course of my history, but was really an ornament worn by great men in the days of victory, pre- ferment, or rejoicing, when they were anointed with new, sweet, or fresh oil, a circumstance which David joins with that of erecting the horn." Travels, vol. v. p. 88. EzEK. xxi. 27. I will overturn, overturn, overturn it.] "Per- verted, perverted,,perverted will I make it." marg. This passage, according to the marginal reading, may be beautifully illustrated from the turbans of antiquity. Those of independent sovereigns, E 2 62 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. even to this day in Persia (see a copy of one in Chardin's Travels), had their apex upright. Inferior and subordinate princes wore theirs bent backwards. To this the prophecy refers, declaring that the crown of Judea should thenceforward be dependent and subordi- nate, as it was under the Persians, Greeks, and Romans. See Christian Observer, vol. i. p. 351. 1 Peter iii. 3. And of wearing of gold.'} The Jewish women used to wear a crown of gold on their heads in the form of the city of Jerusalem, called a golden city ; this they wore after its destruc- tion in memory of it. They might not go out with it on the Sab- bath-day. The apostle here means to discourage whatever was excessive and extravagant. Gill, in lac. Gen. xxiv. 53. Jewels of gold and raiment.'} Among the several female ornaments, which Abraham sent by his servant, whom he employed to search out a wife for his son Isaac, were "jewels of silver, and jewels of gold," exclusive of raiment, which pupbably was very rich and valuable for the age in which Abra- ham lived. Rich and splendid apparel, especially such as was adorned with gold, was very general in the eastern nations, from the earliest ages : and as the fashions and customs of the orientals are not subject to much variation, so we find that this propensity to golden ornaments, prevails even in the present age, among the females in the countries bordering on Judea. Thus Mungo Park, in the account of his travels in Africa, mentions the following sin- gular circumstance, respecting the ornamental part of the dress of an African lady. " It is evident, from the account of the process by which negroes obtain gold in Handing, that the country con- tains a considerable portion of this precious metal. A great part is converted into ornaments for the women : and, when a lady of consequence is 'in full dress, the gold about her person may be worth, altogether, from fifty to eighty pounds sterling." We find also, that the same disposition for rich ornamental ap- parel prevailed in the times of the apostles ; for St. Peter cautioned the females of quality in the first ages of Christianity, when they adorned themselves, not to have it consist, "in the outward adorn- ing of plaiting the hair, and of wearing gold, or of putting on appa,rel." 1 Pet. iii. 3. See also Psalm xlv. 9, 13, "Upon thy right hand did stand the queen in gold of Ophir. — Her clothing is of wrought gold." Gen. xxiv. 22. And it came to pass as the camels had done prinking, that the man took a golden ear-ring of half a shekel weight, and two bracelets for her hands of ten shekels weight, of gold.} The weight of the ornaments put upon Rebekah appears extraordinary. But Chardin assures us, that even heavier were worn by the women of the East when he was there. He says. APPAREL. 53 the women wear rings and bracelets of as grgat weight as this, through all Asia, and even heavier. They are rather manacles than bracelets. There are some as large as the finger. The women wear several of them, one above the other, in such a manner as sometimes to have the arm covered with them from the vt'rist to the elbow. Poor people wear as many of glass or horn. They hardly ever take them off. They are their riches. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 500. Gen. XXXV. 4. Ear-rings.] " Some of the eastern ear-rings are small, and go so close to the ear, as that there is no vacuity between them : others are so large that you may put the fore- finger between, and adorned with a ruby and a pearl on each side of them, strung on the ring. The women wear ear-rings and pendants of divers sorts : and 1 have seen some, the diameter of whose round was four fingers, and almost two fingers thick, made of several kinds of metals, wood, and horn, according to the qua- lity of people. There is nothing more disagreeable to the eyes of those that are unaccustomed to the sight ; for these pendants, by their weight, widen so extremely the hole of the ear, that one might put in two fingers, and stretch it more than one that never saw it would imagine. I have seen some of these ear-rings with figures upon them, and strange characters, which I believe may be talismans or charms, or perhaps nothing but the amusement of old women. The Indians say they are preservatives against en- chantments. Perhaps the ear-rings of Jacob's family were of.this kind." Chardin MS. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 393. Sol. Song i. 10. Thy cheeks are comely with rows of jewels,] Olearius supposes the head-dress of the bride here referred to is the same with that which is now frequently used in the East. He says (p. 818), that all the head-dress that the Persian ladies make use of, consists of two or three rows of pearls, which are not worn there about the neck, as in other places ; but round the head, be- ginning at the forehead, and descending down the cheeks and under the chin; so that their faces seem to be set in pearls. Harmer on Sol. Song, p. 205. Sol. Song i. 13. -A bundle of myrrh is my well-beloved unto me, he shall lay all night between my breasts.] The eastern wo- men, amongst other ornaments, used little perfume-boxes, or ves- sels filled with perfumes, to smell at. These were worn suspended from the neck, and hanging down on the breast. This circumstance is alluded to in the bundle of myrrh. These olfactoriola, or smelling-boxes (as the Vulg. rightly denominates them), are still in use among the Persian women, to whose "necklaces, which fall below the bosom, is fastened a large box of sweets ; some of these boxes are as big as one's hand ; the common ones are of gold, the 54 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Others are covered with jewels. They are all bored through, and filled with a black paste very light, made of musk and amber, but of very strong smell." Complete System of Geography, vol. ii. p. 175. Sol. Song iv. 9. Thou hast ravished mine heart with one of thine eyes.'] " There is a sigularity in this imagery which has much perplexed the critics ; and perhaps it is not possible to as- certain the meaning of the poet beyond a doubt. Supposing the royal bridegroom to have had a profile, or side view of his bride in the present instance, only one eye, or one side of her necklace, would be observable ; yet this charms and overpowers him. Ter- tullian. mentions a custom in the East, of women unveiling only one eye in conversation, while they kept the other covered: and Niebuhr mentions a like custom in some parts of Arabia. {Travels, vol. i. p. 262.) This brings us to nearly the same interpretation as the above." Williams's New Translation of Solomon's Song, p. 267. IsaIah iii. 16. Making a tinkling with the feet.] Rauwolff tells us, that the Arab women, whom he saw in going down the Euphrates, wore rings about their legs and hands, and sometimes a good many together, which in their stepping, slipped up and .down, and so made a great noise. Sir John Chardin says, that " in Persia and Arabia they wear rings about their ancles, which are full of little bells. Children and young girls take a particular pleasure in giving them motion ; with this view they walk quick." {Harmer, vol. ii. p. 385.) Niebuhr speaks of the great rings which the common and dancing-women in Egypt, and an Arabian woman of the desert, wore round their legs. {Voyage en Arabie, torn. i. p. 133.) It appears from the Koran, that the Arabian women in Mahomet's time were fond of having the same kind of ornaments noticed. " Let them not (i. e. the women) make a noise with their feet, that the ornaments which they hide may hereby be discovered. {Sale's Koran, cap. xxiv. p. 291, noted.) " Let them not make a noise with their feet, 8[c. by shaking the rings which the women in the East wear about their ancles, and which are usually of gold or silver. The pride which the Jewish ladies of old took in making a tinkling with these ornaments of the feet, is (among other things of that nature) severely reproved by the prophet Isaiah." Exodus xxxviii. 8. Looking-glasses.] The eastern mirrors were made oi polished steel, and for the most part convex. If they were thus made in the country of Elihu, the image made use of by him will appear very lively. " Hast thou with him spread out the sky, which is strong, and as a molten looking-glass ?" (Job xxxvii. 18.) Shaw informs us {Travels, p. 241), that "in the Levant APPAREL. 55 -looking-glasses are a part of female dress. The Moorish women in Barbary are so fond of their ornaments, and particularly of their looking-glasses, which they hang upon their breasts, that they will not lay them aside, even when, after the drudgery of tiie day, they are obliged to go two or three miles with a pitcher, or a goat's skin, to fetch water." The Israelitish women used to carry their mirrors with them, even to their most solemn place of worship. (Hartner, vol. ii. p. 41 1 .) The woi'd mirror should be used in the passages here referred to, rather than those which are inserted in the present translation of the Bible. To speak of looking-^^awe* made of steel, and glasses molten, is palpably absurd ; whereas the term mirror obviates every difficulty, and expresses the true meaning of the original. Exodus xxxviii. 8. The women who assembled at the door of the tabernacle. ] A laver of brass was made of the mirrors of the women who thus assembled. Some have derived this from a cus- tom of the Egyptian women, who used to go to the temple with a looking-glass in one hand, and a timbrel in the other. Vide Cyril de Adoratione in Spiritu et Virtute, tom. i. 1. 2, p. 64. Prov. xi. 22. A jewel of ffold in a swine's snout.'] This pro- verb is manifestly an allusion to the custom of wearing nose jewels, or rings set with jewels, hanging from the nostrils, as ear-rings from the ears, by holes bored to receive them. This fashion, however strange it may appear to us, was formerly, and is still, common in many parts of the East, among women of all ranks. Paul Lucas, speaking of a village, or clan of wandering people, a little on this side of the Euphrates, says, " The women, almost all of them, travel on foot ; I saw none handsome among them ; they have almost all of them the nose bored, and wear in it a great ring, which makes them still more deformed. (Second Voyage du Levant, tom. i. art. 24.) But in regard to this custom, better authority cannot be produced than that of Pietro della Valle, in the account which he gives of Signora Maani Gioerida, his own wife. The description of her dress, as to the ornamental parts of it, with which he introduces the mention of this particular, will give us some notion of the taste of the eastern ladies for finery. " The ornaments of gold, and of jewels, for the head, for the neck, for the arms, for the legs, and for the feet (for they wear rings even on their toes), are indeed, unlike those of the Turks, carried to great excess, but not of great value : as turquoises, small rubies, emeralds, carbuncles, garnets, pearls, and the like. My spouse dresses herself with all of them according to their fashion, with exception however of certain ugly rings of very large size, set with jewels, which, in truth very absurdly, it is the custom to wear fastened to one of their nostrils, like buffaloes : an ancient cus- tom however in the East, which, as we find in the holy Scriptures, 56 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. prevailed among the Hebrew ladies, even in the time of Solomon. These nose-rings, in complaisance to me, she has left off; but I have not yet been able to prevail vi^ith her cousin and her sisters to do the same. So fond are they of an old custom, be it ever so absurd, who have been long habituated to it." ( Viaggi, tom. i lett. 17.) To this account may be subjoined the observation made by Chardin, as cited in Harmer (vol. ii. p. 390.) " It is the cus- tom in almost all the East for the women to wear rings in their noses, in the left nostril, which is bored low down in the middle : these rings are of gold, and have commonly two pearls and one ruby between, placed in the ring. I never saw a girl or young woman in Arabia, or in all Persia, who did not wear a ring after this manner in her nostril." Vide Bp. Lowth's Npte on Isaiah iii. 20. ExoD. xxxii. 2. From the ears of your wives, of your sons.'] Men wore these ornaments in the eastern countries, as well as women ; as we find in the story of the Ishmaelite and Midianite soldiers. Judges viii. 24, and Pliny, In oriente quidem et viris aurum eo loci, &c. In the East it is esteemed an ornament for men to wear gold in that place : speaking of their ears. See Bochart Hieroz. p. i. 1. 1, c. 34. Matt, xxiii. 5. They make broad their phylacteries.] These were four sections of the law, written on parchments, folded up in the skin of a clean beast, and tied to the head and hand. The four sections were the following : — Exod. xiii. 2 — 1 1 ; Exod. xiii. 11—17 ; Deut. vi. 4—10; Deut. xi. 13—22. Those that were* for the head were written and rolled up separately, and put in four distinct places in one skin, which was fastened with strings to the crown of the head towards the face. Those that were for the hands were written in four columns on one parchment, which being rolled up, was fastened to the inside of the left arm between the shoulder and the elbow, that it might be over against the heart. Gill, in loc. Acts xix. 12. Handkerchiefs.] " It is the custom almost every- where to carry a staff in their hand ; the mode of wrought hand- kerchiefs is also general in Arabia, in Syria, in Palestine, and in all the Turkish empire. They are wrought with a needle, and it is the amusement of the fair sex there, as among us, the making of tapestry and lace. The young women make them for their fathers, their brothers, and, by way of preparation beforehand, for their spouses ; bestowing them as favours on their lovers. They have them almost constantly in their hands in those warm countries, to wipe off sweat.'' Chardin. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 395. Matt. ix. 20. — the hem oj' his garment.] The Jewish mantle APPAREL. 57 or upper garment was considered as consisting of four quarters, called in the oriental idiom wings. Every wing contained one corner, whereat was suspended a tuft of threads or strings, which they called icpaiTTrESov. Numb. xv. 37 ; Deut. xxii. 12. What are there called fringes are those strings, and the four quarters of the vesture are the four corners. As in the first of the passages above referred to they are mentioned as serving to make them re- member the commandments of the Lord to do them, there was conceived to be a special sacredness in them, which must have probably led the woman to think of touching that part of his gar- ment, rather than any other. Campbell's Translation of the Gospels, note. Matt. ix. 20. — and touched the hem of his garment.'] This woman having probably been a constant witness of the many won- derfiil miracles wrought by Christ, was convinced that he was a divine person, and that every thing belonging to him was sacred : and therefi)re, as, according to the custom of the eastern nations, to kiss the fringe of any consecrated robe ("Arabian Nights, vol. iv. p. 236) was an act of the most profound reverence, so by touching the hem of our Saviour's garment she was persuaded that she should not'only pay him the greatest respect, but dispose him to pity her, and heal her disease ; which was instantly done. The garment of Christ, in consequence of the humble appear- ance which be made upon earth, was not ornamented with that striking appendage, which usually adorned the borders of the eastern garments, a beautiful fringe. Had his garment been in the prevailing fashion of the East, the woman, probably, would have been represented as touching the fringe of his garment, instead of its hem. HAIR. 2 Sam. xiv. 26. He weighed the hair of his head at two hun- dred shekels after the king's weight] In those days hair was accounted a great ornament, and the longer it was, the more it was esteemed. In after ages art was used to make it grow, and grow thick. They also anointed their hair with fragrant oils, of myrrh, and cinnamon ; and thed powdered it with dust of gold : all which made it very ponderous. Josephus informs us, that such ostenta- tion was in use amongst the Jews: for speaking ^of the guard which attended Solomon with long flowing hair about their shoul- ders, he says, that they scattered in their hair every day little particles of gold, which made their hair shine and sparkle by the reflection of the rays of the sun upon it. These circumstances may in some measure account for the great weight of Absalom's hair. Patrick, in he. 1 Cor. xi. 14, 15. Doth not even nature itself teach you, that 68 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. if a man have long hair, it is a shame unto him ; but if a woman have long hair, it is a glory to her ; for her hair is given her for a covering.'] The eastern ladies are remarkable for the length, and the great number of the tresses of their hair. The men there, on the contrary, wear very little hair on their heads. Lady M. W. Montague thus speaks concerning the hair of the women : "Their hair hangs at full length behind, divided into tressesj braided with pearl or ribbon, which is always in great quantity. I never saw in my life so many fine heads of hair. In one lady's I have counted one hundred and ten of the tresses, all natural ; but it must be owned, that every kind of beauty is more common here than with us." (Lett. vol. ii. p. 31.) The men there, on the contrary, shave all the hair off their heads, excepting one lock ; and those that wear their hair are thought effeminate. Both these particulars are mentioned by Chardin, who says, they are agreeable to the custom of the East : the men are shaved, the women nourish their hair with great fondness, which they lengthen, by tresses and tufts of silk, down to the heels. The young men who wear their hair in the East are looked upon as effeminate and infamous. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 398. 1 Peter iii. 3. Of plaiting of the hair.] This was a way of adorning themselves that was practised in the East .anciently, and still continues to be the common usage of those countries. The Editor of the Ruins of Palmyra (p. 22), found that it anciently prevailed there ; for he discovered with great surprise mummies in the Palmyrene sepulchres, embalmed alter the ancient Egyptian manner ; by which means the bodies were in such a state of pre- servation, that among other fragments which he carried off with him, was the hair of a female, plaited exactly after the manner commonly used by 'the Arabian women at this time. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 381. Isaiah iii. 22. Crisping-pins.] Mr. Bruce, describing the dress of-the inhabitants of Abyssinia, says, they wear "their own hair short and curled like that of a negro in the west part of Africa. But this is done by art, not by nature, each man having a wooden stick, with with he lays hold of the lock and twists it round a screw, till it curls in the form he desires." To this Mr. Bruce adds in a note, " I apprehend this is the same instrument used by the ancients, and censured by the prophets, which, in our translation, is rendered crisping-pins. ( Travels, vol. iii. p. 82.) Sol. Song vii. 5. And the hair of thy head like purple: the king is held (Heb. bound) in the galleries.] Mr. Parkhurst pro- poses to render the words, " the hair of thy head is like the APPAREt. 59 purple of a king, bound up in the canals, or troughs." The Vul- gate is, *' Comae capitis tui sicut purpura regis vincta canalibus." " In Solomon's Song," says Mons. Goguet, alluding to this text, " there is mentioned a royal purple which the dyers dipped in the canals, after having tied it in small bundles." {Origin of Laws, vol. ii. p. 99.) The following note is also added: "The best way of washing wools after they are dyed is to plunge them in running vater. Probably the sacred author had this practice in view when he said, they should dip the royal purple in canals. As to what he adds, after being tied in little bundles or packets, one may conclude from this circumstance, that instead of making the cloth with white wool, and afterwards putting the whole piece into the dye, as we do now, they then followed another method : they began by dying the wool in skeins, and made it afterwards into purple stuffs." His account well illustrates the comparison of a lady's hair to royal purple, bound up in the canals, if we may suppose, what is highly probable, that the eastern ladies anciently braided .their hair in numerous tresses (perhaps with purple ribands, as well as with those of other colours), in a man- ner somewhat similar to what they do in our times, according to the description given by Lady M. W. Montague. 2 Sam. x. 4. Shaved off one half of their heards.'\ It is a great mark of infamy amongst the Arabs to cut off the beard. Many people would prefer death to this kind of treatment. As they would think it a grievous punishment to lose it, they carry things so far as to beg for the sake of it : " By your beard, by the life of your beard, do. God preserve your blessed beard." When they would express their value for a thing, they say, " It is worth more than his beard." These things show the energy of that thought of Ezekiel (ch. v. ver. 1, 5), where the inhabitants of Jerusalem are compared to the hair of his head and beard. It intimates, that though they had been as dear to God as the beard was to the Jews, yet they should be consumed and destroyed. (Harmer, vol. ii. p. 55.) When Peter the Great attempted to civilize the Rus- sians, and introduced the manners and fashions of the more refined parts of Europe, nothing met with more opposition than the cutting off of their beards, and many of those, who were ob- liged to comply with this command, testified such great venera- tion for their beards, as to order them to be buried with them. Irwin also, in his voyage up the Red Sea (p. 40), says, that at signing a treaty of peace with the vizier of Yambo, they swore by their beards, the most solemn oath they can take. D'Arvieux gives a remarkable instance of an Arab, who, having received a wound in his jaw, chose to hazard his life rather than to suffer his surgeon to take off his beard. From all these representations it may easily be collected how great the insult was which Hanun put upon David's servants. 60 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. PAINTIKQ. Lev. xix. 28. Nor print any marks upon you.] The painting of the bodies of eminent personages, or of others upon remarkable occasions, is known to have obtained in countries very remote from each other. Our British ancestors were painted, and Dampier, the celebrated voyager, brought over an East Indian prince, whose skin was very curiously stained with various figures. The wild Arabs adorn themselves in this manner, according to D'Arvieux, who tells us, among other things, in his description of the prepara- tives for an Arab wedding, that the women drew, with a certain kind of ink, the figures of flowers, fountains, houses, cypress- trees, antelopes, and other animals, upon all the parts of the bride's body. {Voy. dans la Pal. p. 223.) This the Israelites were forbidden to do, Jer. iv. 30. Thou rendest thy face with painting.'] Several authors, and Lady M. W. Montague in particular {Letters, vol. ii. p. 32), have taken notice of the custom that has obtained from time immemorial among the eastern women, of tinging the eyes with a powder, which, at a distance, or by candle-light, adds very much to the blackness of them. The ancients call the mineral substance, with which this was done, stibiumj that is, antimony; but Dr. Shaw tells us {Travels, p. 229), it is a rich lead ore, which, according to the description of naturalists, looks very much like antimony. Those that are unacquainted with that substance may form a tolerable idea of it, by being told it is not very unlike the black-lead of which pencils are made, that are in ev^y body's hands. Pietro Delia Valle, giving a description of his wife, an Assyrian lady, born in Mesopotamia, and educated at Bagdad, whom he married in that country, says {Viaggi. tom. i. lettera 17), " her eye-lashes, which are long, and, according to the custom of the East, dressed with stibium, as we often read in the holy Scriptures of the Hebrew women of old (Ezek. xxiii. 40), and in Xenophon, of Astyages, the grandfather of Cyrus, and of the Medes of that time {Cyropced. lib. i.), give a dark and at the same time majestic shade to the eyes." " Great eyes," says Sandys {Trav. p. 67), speaking of the Turkish women, "they have in principal repute; and of those the blacker they be the more amiable ; insomuch that they put between the eye-lids and the eye a certain black powder, with a fine long pencil, made of a mineral, brought from the king- dom of Fez^ and called alchole, which, by the not disagreeable staining of the lids, doth better set forth the whiteness of the eye; and, though it be troublesome for a time, yet it comforteth the sight, and repelleth ill humours." Dr. Shaw furnishes us with the following remarks on this sub- ject. " But none of these ladies take themselves to be completely PAINTING. 61 dressed, till they have tinged the hair and edges of their eye-Hds with the powder of lead-ore. Now, as this operation is performed by dipping first into the powder a small wooden bodkin of the thickness of a quill, and then drawing it afterwards through the eye-lids, over the ball of the eye, we shall have a lively image of what the prophet (Jer. iv. 30) may be supposed to mean by " rending the eyes with painting." The sooty colour, which is in this manner communicated to the eyes, is thought to add a won- derful gracefulness to persons of all complexions. The practice of it, no doubt, is of great antiquity; for, besides the instance already taken notice of, we find that when Jezebel is said (2 Kings ix. 30) " to have painted her face," the original words are, " she adjusted her eyes with the powder of lead ore." (Trav. p. 224, fol. edit.) This practice still maintains its influence in various parts of the world. Numerous instances of it occur in modern voyages and travels. A single extract will be sufficient to demonstrate its pre- sent existence. Captain Symes says, that " the Birmans, both men and women, colour their teeth, their eye-lashes, and the edges of their eye-lids, with black. This custom is not confined to the Birmans, particularly the operation of colouring the eye-lashes : the women of Hindostan and Persia commonly practise it. They deem it beneficial as well as becoming. The coUyrium they use is called surma, the Persian name of antimony." (Embassy to Ava, vol. ii. p. 235.) Mr. Harmer (vol. ii. p. 406) is of opinion that the expression used by Jacob in blessing Judah — that " his eyes shall be red virith wine" (Gen. xlix. 12), is to be explained by this usage. He observes that " the original word occurs but twice in the Scriptures ; in both places it evidently expresses a consequence of drinking wine ; but in one it signifies an agreeable, and in the other a re- proachful effect of it (Gen. xlix. 12; Prov. xxiii. 29). I do not know that redness of the eyes, strictly speaking, is occasioned by drinking; that arises from other causes. If we change the ex- pression a little, and, instead of redness of the eyes, read redness of the countenance, as some commentators are disposed to do, it is certain such an effect is produced by the drinking of wine; but it is, however, another word that expresses redness in general, that expresses ruddiness of complexion in particular (see 1 Sam. xvi. 12, and 1 Sam. xvii. 42). Nor did the LXX. understand the word to signify redness, but a kind of blackness, for so they translate Prov. xxiii. 29, whose eyes are Trik&voi, a word which arises fi-om bruising the flesh, and which is marked out in English by two words joined together — black and blue. The Syriac and Arabic are said to translate it in the same manner {Poli, Syn. in loc.) ; and is it not more natural to explain it in this passage, which speaks of woe, of sorrow, of wounds, after this manner, 62 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. than of a red face ? If the word is understood in this sense in this passage of the Proverbs, it cannot be agreeable to give it, un- necessarily, another sense, when we read the predictions of Jacob; and it is certain there is no difficulty in understanding it of black- ness of the eyes there." The sense of the prediction may there- fore be, " his eyes shall be blackened with wine ;" enlivened, that is, by wine, as if blackened by lead ore. Agreeably to this, though not with the same precision, the LXX. make use of a terra in translating the word in this place, which signifies the joyousness of the eyes, as do also many of the Fathers. (Vide Scholia in Sac. Bib. Grcsc. ex. vers. 70, inter. Lond. 1653.) CHAPTER III. CUSTOMS RELATING TO HABITATIONS. TENTS. * Jeremiah xxxv. 7. But all your days ye shall dwell in tents.'] The genuine Arabs have no houses, but live constantly in tents. Mr. Buckingham says, " The mounted Arabs are called Khydli ; those who move ' on foot are called Zellemi ; and the peasants, or cultivators of the earth, are known by the term Fella- heen. The mixed race, between those who live in the uncultivated desert, and those who inhabit the cultivated parts of the country, partaking also of the occupations of both, in tending flocks and tilling the soil, while they have neither houses or tents, but chiefly inhabit grottos, ruins, and caves, are called Bedowee ; but it is those only who dwell in the desert, and live perpetually in tents, that are called, by way of distinction, Arabs. In all cases of in- quiry, I had uniformly heard it used to designate this class only ; as thus, my guide would ask, ' Whean el Arab V- — ' Where are the Arabs V The reply was, ' Fee Arab und el Waadi Themed.' ' The Arabs are encamped in the valley of Themed.' Then fol- lowed the expression, ' Be howul und el Arab.' — ' We will alight and halt with the Arabs;' in all cases meaning only a camp of Bedouin Arabs (as they are called by us) and never using the term Arab, except to those who live always in tents. In no in- stance, that I could discover, was this name ever applied to any other class of people ; though, as a proof that the term is thus meant to distinguish the Bedouins as the original Arabs, in con- tradistinction to the various branches and mixed races into which they have ramified, the Arabic language is still called ' Ulsaan Arabi,' or the tongue of the Arabs ; the whole country of Arabia, from the desert of Palmyra to the south coast of Yemen, is called HABITATIONS. 63 ' Belled Arabi,' or the country of the Arabs : and a man born in that country of pure blood and unmixed descent, is always called 'Arab ibn Arab,' an Arab, and the son of an Arab. Tents are only distinguished from houses by an epithet expressive of the materials of which each is composed ; * Beeout Hadjar,' or dwell- ings of stone, being the name given to all buildings, large or small ; and ' Beeout Shaar,' or dwellings of hair, being the name given to all the tents of the Bedouins, which are almost universally made of a black or brown cloth of hair, made in the camp, from sheep's, goat's, and camel's hair, in various proportions." Travels among the Arab Tribes, pp. 87, 88. Isaiah xxxviii. 12. Mine age is departed and removed from me as a shepherd's tenti] Besides those who live wholly in tents, numbers of the eastern people spend part of the year in them. Pococke tells us, he fell in with a summer village of country peo- ple, whose huts were made of loose stones, covered with reeds and boughs, their winter village being on the side of a hill at some distance. {Travels, vol. ii. p. 158.) He also mentions another village, the inhabitants of which lived under tents. It was done in a great measure for the accommodation of their flocks. Probably in this passage Hezekiah alludes to these portable dwellings. "o° Judges xix. 9. Behold, the day groweth to an end.'\ " It is the pitching time of the day." Marg. The term pitching, here used, undoubtedly refers to tents, and intimates that the day was so far advanced as to make it proper to pitch a tent, or to halt for the night. In the latter part of the afternoon, eastern travellers begin to look out for a proper place in which to pass the night. So it is said, in the preface to Dr. Shaw's Travels, p. 17. " Our constant practice was to rise at break of day, set forward with the sun, and travel till the middle of the afternoon ; at which time we began to look out for the encampments of the Arabs, who, to pre- vent such parties as ours from living at free charges upon them, take care to pitch in woods, valleys, or places the least conspi- cuous." Harmer, vol. iii. p. 238. Gen. xviii. 1 . And he sat in the tent door in the heat of the day.'] Those who lead a pastoral life in the East, at this day, frequently place themselves in a similar situation. " At ten minutes after ten we had in view several fine bays, and a plain fiiU of booths, with the Turcomans sitting by the doors, under sheds resembling porticoes; or by shady trees, surrounded by flocks of goats." Chandler's Travels in Asia Minor, p. 180. 1 Kings xx. 12. As he was drinking, he and the kings, in the 64 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. pavilions.] The pavilions here spoken of were nothing more than mere booths or common tents/notwithstanding Benhadad and the kings were drinking in them. That great and even royal persons occasionally refreshed or indulged themselves in this manner, is clear from the following paragraph in Dr. Chandler's Travels in the Lesser Asia, p. 149. " While we were employed on the theatre of Miletus, the aga of Suki, son-in-law by marriage to Elez Oglu, crossed the plain towards us, attended by a considerable train of domestics and officers, their vests and turbans of various and lively colours, mounted on long-tailed horses, with showy trappings, and glittering furniture. He returned, after hawking, to Miletus : ■ and we went to visit him, with a present of coffee and sugar ; but were told that two favourite birds had flown away, and that he was vexed and tired. A couch was prepared for him beneath a shed, made against a cottage, and covered with green boughs to keep off the sun. He entered as we were standing by, and fell down on it to sleep, without taking any notice of us." Harmer, vol. iii. p. 50. Judges iv. 21. A nail of the tent.] Shaw, describing the tents of the Bedouin Arabs (p. 221), says "these tents are kept firm and steady, by bracing or stretching down their eaves with cords, tied down to hooked wooden pins, well pointed, which they drive into the ground with a mallet ; one of these pins answering to the nail, as the mallet does to the hammer, which Jael used in fastening to the ground the temples of Sisera." Isaiah i. 8. -ds a cottage in a vineyard.] This was a little temporary hut, covered with boughs, straw, turf, or the like mate- rials, for a shelter from the heat by day, and the cold and dews by night, for the watchman that kept the garden or vineyard, during the short season while the fruit was ripening (Job xxvii. 18), and presently removed when it had served that purpose. The eastern people were probably obliged to have such a constant watch to defend the fruit from the jackals. " The jackal," says Hasselquist {Travels, p. 277), "is a species of mustela, which is very common in Palestine, especially during the vintage, and often destroys whole vineyards, and gardens of cucumbers." Bp. Lowth, in loc. Psalm cxix. 83. / am become like a bottle in the smoke.] Cups and drinking-vessels of gold and silver were doubtless used in the courts of princes (1 Kings x. 21.) But in the Arab tents leathern bottles, as well as pitchers, were used. These of course were smoky habitations. To this latter circuiflstance, and the con- trast between the drinking utensils, the Psalmist alludes : " My appearance, in my present state, is as different from what it was when I dwelt at court, as the furniture of a palace differs from that of a poor Arab's tent." Harmer, vol. i. p. 131. HABITATIONS. 65' Sol. Song i. 5. / am black, but comely, ye daughters of: Jerusalem, as the tents of Kedar, as the curtains of Solomon.^ Modern tents are sometimes very beautiful. "The Turks spare for nothing in rendering their tents convenient and magnificent. Those belonging to the grand seignior were exceedingly splendid, and covered entirely with silk ; and one of them lined with a rich silk stuff, the right side of which was the apartment for the eunuchs. But even this was exceeded by another, which I was informed cost twenty-five thousand piastres : it was made in Persia, and intended as a present to the grand seignior ; and was not finished in less than three or four years. The outside of this tent was not indeed re- markable ; but it was lined with a single piece made of camel's hair, and beautifully decorated with festoons and sentences in the. Turkish language." Travels, by Van Egmont and lieyman, vol. i. p. 212. Nadir Shah had a very superb tent, covered on the outside with scarlet broad cloth, and lined within with violet-coloured sating ornamented with a great variety of animals, flowers, &c. formed entirely of pearls and precious stones. Job xxix. 3. When his candle shone Upon my head.^ The tents of princes are frequently illuminated, as a mark of honour and dignity. Norden tells us (part ii. p. 45), that the tent of the bey of Girge was distinguished from the other tents by forty lan- terns suspended before it, in form of chequer-work. If this were the custom formerly, it is possible that these words of Job might have a reference to it: " Oh, that it were with me as in months past, as in the days when God preserved me, when his candle shone upon mine head," (when I returned prosperous from expe- ditions against the enemies of my tribe, and had my tent adorned with lamps,) "and I passed through the night by the light of it." Harmer, vol. ii. p. 133. Acts xviii. 3* Because he was of the same craft, he abode with them, and wrought, for by their occupation they were tent-mahers.l It was a received custom among the Jews for every man, of what rank or quality soever, to learn some trade or handicraft ; one of their proverbial expressions is, that whoever teaches not his son a trade teaches him to be a thief. In those hot countries where tent§Jwhich were commonly made of skins, or leather sewed toge- the^Bo keep out the violence of the weather) were used not only by soldiers, but by travellers, and others whose business required them to be abroad, a tent-maker was no mean or unprofitable em^ ployment. This custom, so generally practised by the Jews, was adopted also by other nations in the East. Sir Paul Rycaut ob- -serves that the grand seignior, to whom he was ambassador, was taught to make wooden spoons. The intention of this usage was F 66 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. not merely amusement, but to furnish the persons so instructed with some method of obtaining their living, should they ever be reduced to want and poverty. CAVES. Job xxiv. 8. They are wet with the showers of the mountains, and embrace the rock for want of a shelter. '\ This exactly agrees with what Niebuhr says of the modern wandering Arabs near Mount Sinai. ( Voyage en Arable, tom. i. p. 187.) " Those who cannot afford a tent, spread out a cloth upon four or six stakes ; and others spread their cloth near a tree, or endeavour to shelter themselves from the heat and the rain in the cavities of the rocks." * Judges vi. 2. Because of the Midianites the children of Israel made them the dens which are in the mountains, and caves and strong holds.] "On leaving Assalt," says Mr. Buckingham, "we passed down by the foot of the hill, on the side of which the town stands, and watered our horses there at a large trough and well, at which the women of the place were washing garments. From hence we passed, on through a narrow valley, which runs eastward of the town ; and after continuing about a quarter of a mile in that direction, turns off to the south-east, and grows wider and wider till its termination. Near the town, on this its eastern side, the hills that inclose the valley are laid out in vine-beds. In the rocks are grottoes, which particularly abound on the northern side of the valley, and many of these are, even now inhabited by shep- herds, who feed their flocks on the neighbouring hills, and retire to these caves for shelter at night. " On turning to the south, in which direction we soon proceeded^ the valley became more fertile, and appeared to be well wooded and watered throughout its extent, being capable of a much higher degree of cultivation than it is likely to enjoy for a long time to come, and of sustaining five times the population that now inhabit the town and neighbourhood. From the eastern extremity of this valley we ascended a steep hill, from the summit of whick we enjoyed a fine view of the castle and town of Assalt to the westr ward. Our course fi:om this lay south-east for the first hour, on a rugged find stony road. In our way over this we saw the Dead Sea, about five leagues distant to the south-west, and the town of Bethlehem in the mountains of Judea, bearing b|Kom- pass w. s. w., distant, perhaps, in a straight line, about thirty miles. / "On reaching the end of this elevated and stony .plain, we descended over the brow of the hill in which it terminated, and alighted at a place called Anab — no doubt the same as that enu- merated among the various towns and cities in Joshua (chap. xv. HABITATIONS. ' 67 V. 50). The word itself signifies " grapes," a fruit with which the whole of this region abounds, and which it appears to have pos- sessed in the earliest ages ; for this is the part of the country into which the spies were sent by Moses, when encamped in the wilderness of Paran, to spy out the land, and from whence they brought back a branch with a cluster of grapes, as a proof of the fertility of the soil, or, in the figurative language of those days, of its ' flowing with milk and honey.' (Numbers xiii. 23, 27.) " Anab is still inhabited by about one hundred persons, but these all live in grottos or caves excavated in the rock, which were probably more ancient than any buildings now existing. Their preservation, however, offers the strongest proof that the very earliest of their occupiers must have been men of the ordinary size of the present generation, and not giants, as described by these emissaries from the camp. Their exaggeration of the size of the cities, which were said to be ' walled and very great,' might be pardoned in those who were born during the forty years' wan- dering in the wilderness, in which they had never seen any towns ; though such a description could not have been given of any of the places of the Amorites, by those who had seen Memphis, and others of the many really 'great' cities in Egypt. But their exaggeration with respect to the men is not so easily accounted for, as they must have seen men of as good stature among their own race as any that inhabited the land of Canaan. As the men who related these extraordinary facts respecting the country they had been sent to examine, were condemned to die of the plague because of the ' evil report' which they brought up of the land, it is fair to infer, that this evil report was a false one, as death would be an inappropriate reward for fidelity of description ; and there is, therefore, reason to believe that there was no truth whatever in their assertion, that the people of the country were giants, in whose presence they themselves (the spies) appeared but as grasshoppers. Numbers xiii. 33. " The size of the caves now inhabited here, and which are un- doubtedly of very high antiquity, confirm the opinion that their original occupiers were of the same size as their present possessors. These are chiefly shepherds, whose flocks browze on the steep sides of the hills near them, and who in the severe nights of winter take shelter in the caves with their attendants. Some of the in- habitants of the caves are, however, cultivators of the earth, and till and plant such detached plots and patches of the soil, among the least steep parts of the ascent, as may be most favourable for the fruits or grain. The grottoes themselves are all hewn out by the hand of man, and are not natural caverns ; but, from their great antiquity, aud the manner in which they were originally executed, they have a very rude appearance. Nevertheless, the persons who occupy them fortunately deem them far superior to F 2 68 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. buildings of masonry, and consider themselvesbetteroflf than those who live in tents or houses, so that they envy not the dwellers in camps or cities. They are certainly more durable and less likely to need repair than either ; and, with the exception of a chimney, or some aperture to give an outlet to the smoke (a defect existing in all the buildings of these parts), they are very comfortable re- treats, being drier and more completely sheltered from wind and rain than either house or tent, besides being warmer in winter and cooler in summer than any other kind of dwelling place that could be adopted." Travels among the Arab Tribes, pp. 60 — 63. Isaiah ii. 19. The holes of the rocks and the caves of the earth,'] The country of Judea, being mountainous and rocky, is full of caverns, as it appears from the history of David's persecu- tion under Saul. At Engedi in particular there was a cave so large, that David with six hundred men hid themselves in the sides of it, and Saul entered the mouth of the cave without perceiving that any one was there. (1 Sam. xxiv.) Josephus ( Antiq. lib. xiv. cap. 15, and Bell. Jud, lib. i. cap. 16) tells us of a numerous gang of banditti, who having infested the country, and being pur- sued by Herod with his army, retired into certain caverns, almost inaccessible, near Arbela in Galilee, where they were with great difficulty subdued. Some of these were natural, others artificial. " Beyond Damascus," says Strabo (lib. 16), "are two mountains called Trachones (from which the country has the name of Trachonitis), and from hence, towards Arabia and Iturea, are cer- tain rugged mountains, in which there are deep caverns, one of which will hold four thousand men.'' Tavernier [Voyage de Perse, part ii. cap. 4) speaks of a grot, between Aleppo and Bir, that would hold near three thousand horse. " Three hours dis- tant from Sidon, about a mile from the sea, there runs along a high rocky mountain, in the sides of which are hewn a multitude of grots, all very little difiering from each. other. They have en- trances about two feet square ; on the inside you find in most or all of them a room of about four yards square. There are of these subterraneous caverns two hundred in number. It may, with probability at least, be concluded that these places were con- trived for the use of the living, and not of the dead. Strabo de- scribes the habitations of the Troglodytae to have been somewhat of this kind." (Maundrell, p. 118.) The Horites, who dwelt on Mount Seir, were Troglodytes, as their name imports ; but those mentioned by Strabo were on each side of the Arabian gulf. Mohammed (Z^oraw, cap. 15, and 24) speaks of a tribe of Ara- bians, the tribe of Thamud, " who hewed houses out of the moun- tains to secure themselves." Thus, because of the Midianites the children of Israel made them the dens which are in the moun- tains, and caves, and strong holds. (Judges vi. 2.) To these HABITATIONS. 69 they betook themselves in times of. distress, and hostile invasion. When the men of Israel saw that they were in a strait, (^for the people were distressed,) then the people hid themselves in caves, and in thickets, and in rocks, and in high places, and in pits. (1 Sam. xiii. 6 ; Jer. xli. 9.) Therefore to enter into the rock ; to go into the holes of the rocks ; and into the caves of the earth; was to them a very proper and familiar image to express terror and consternation. The prophet Hosea hath carried the same image further, and added great strength and spirit to it (cap. x. 8). They shall say to the mountains. Cover us; and. to the hills. Fall on us ; which image, together with these of Isaiah, is adopted by the sublime author of the Revelation (cap. vi. 15, 16), who fre- quently borrows his imagery from our prophet. Bp. Lowth in loc, Zeph. ii. 6. And the sea-coast shall be dwellings and cot- tages for shepherds, and folds for flocks.] Abp. Newcome has remarked, that many manuscripts and three editions have a single letter in one of these words more than appears in the common editions ; which, instead of Cherith, gives us a word which signi- fies caves ; and he thus renders the words : and the sea-coast shall be sheep-cotes ; caves for shepherds, and folds for .flocks. This translation will appear perfectly correct if it be considered, that the mountains bordering on the Syrian coast are remarkable for the number of caves in them. In the history of the crusades it is particularly mentioned that a number of persons retired with their wives and children, their flocks and herds, into subterraneous caves to find shelter from the enemy. (Gesta Dei per Francos, p. 781.) Harmer, vol. iii. p. 60. Jer. xlviii. 28. Like the dove that maketh her nest in the sides of the hole's mouth.] Where art intervenes not, pigeons build in those hollow places nature provides for them. A certain city in Africa is called Hamam-et, from the wild pigeons that co- piously breed in the adjoining cliffs ; and in the curious paper relating to Mount ^Etna ( Phil. Trans, vol. Ix.), which mentions a number of subterraneous caverns there, one is noticed as being called by the peasants, la Spelonca della Palomba, from the wild pigeons building their nests therein. (Sol. Song ii. 14.) Though ./Etna is a burning mountain, yet the cold in these caverns is excessive : this shows that pigeons delight in a cool retreat, and explains the reason why they resort to mountains which are known to be very cold even in those hot countries. The words of the ■Psalmist, " flee as a bird to your mountain," without doubt refer to the flying of doves thither when frightened by the fowler. Dove-houses, however, are very common in the East. Of Kef- teen, a large village, Maundrell (p. S) says, there are more dove 70 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. cotes than other houses. In the southern part of Egypt, the tops of their habitations are always teraainated by a^ pigeon-house. Isaiah Ix. 8. Harmer, vol. i. p. Numbers xxiv. 21. Thou puttest thy nest in a rock.'] When Balaam dehvered before Balak his predictions, respecting the fate that awaited the nations which he then particularized, he says of the Kenites, Strong is thy dwelling, and thou pultest thy nest in a rock. Alluding herein to that princely bird the eagle, which not only delights in soaring to the loftiest heights, but chooses the highest rocks, and most elevated mountains, as the most desirable situations for erecting her nests. The metaphor signifies security. See Hab. ii. 9 ; Obad. iv. Gillingwater MS. Luke ii. 7. And laid him in a manger.] A grotto or cave must, to them that live in tents, be the most convenient stable they could have : nor would it be a despicable advantage to those who live in more fixed habitations. There is nothing then impro- bal^le in the tradition, that our Lord, who was confessedly born in a stable, was born in a grotto in or very near the city of Beth- lehem. Natural or artificial grottos are very common in the east- ern countries^ particularly in Judaea, and are often used for their cattle. Pococke observes (Trav. vol. ii. p. 48), " there were three uses for grottos ; for they served either for sepulchres, cisterns, or as retreats for herdsmen and their cattle in bad weather, and especially in the winter nights." Harmer, vol. iii. p. 107. HOUSES. Job xxiv. 16. Dig through houses.] The houses were built of mud, or at best with bricks formed from it, of a very soft texture, which rendered them liable to such an assault ; the thickness of the walls, however, would require considerable labour to pene- trate, and consequently digging would be requisite to effect a breach. EzEK. xiii. 10. One built a up wall, and, lo, others daubed it with untempered mortar.] In Persia, where it has been conjec- tured that the prophet Ezekiel now was (see Fragments, No. 106), the mortar is made " of plaster, earth, and chopped straw, all well wrought and incorporated together : but this is not the material with which they cast or set, that is, coat over, their walls. The;r cast their walls pretty often also, with a mixture made of plaster and earth, which they call zerdghil, (i. e. yellow earth ; though in reality it be not yellow, but rather of a musk or cinnamon colour). They get it on the river side, and work it in a great earthen ves- HABITATIONS. 71 sel ; but they put ^o little esrth in proportion to water, that it remains liquid like muddy water, or at most like strained juice ; and it is altogether of the colour of that earth. They make use of it to work the plaster in another earthern vessel, where they mingle this water with plaster in such a quantity, that it retains the colour of the earth. With this mixture they cast their walls, which at first look all grayish ; but, according as they dry, they grow so white, that when they are fully dry, they look almost as if they were plastered over with pure plaster. This mixture is used not only for saving plaster, but also because it holds better than plaster alone, and looks as well." Thevenot's Travels, part ii. p. 86. Zech. ix. 3. Silver as the dust, and Jine gold as the mire of the streetsJ] Houses are in some places built of mud on the out- side, which is the occasion of great inconvenience. The editor of the Ruins of Balbec gives us the following account of Cara (vol. ii. p. 32): "This village is pleasantly seated on a rising ground. The common mud, formed into the shape of bricks, and dried in the sun, of which its houses are built, has, at some distance, the appearance of white stone. The short duration of such materials is not the only objection to them, for they make the streets dusty when there is wind, and dirty when there is rain." Maundrell says, that upon a violent rain at Damascus the whole city be- comes, by the washing of the houses, as it were a quagmire, (p. 124.) From this representation the image of the prophet acquires peculiar energy. Harmer, vol. i. p. 176. Mal. iv. 3. Ye shall tread doion the wicked, for they shall he ashes under the soles of your feet.'\ One sort of mortar made in the East is composed of one part of sand, two of wood-ashes, and three of lime, well mixed together, and beaten for three days and nights incessantly with wooden mallets. (Shaw's Travels, p. 206.) Chardin mentions this circumstance, and applies it to this passage of the prophet, supposing there is an allusion in these words to the making of mortar in the East, with ashes collected from their baths. Some learned men have supposed the wicked here are compared to ashes, because the prophet had been speaking of their destruction under the notion of burning, ver. 1 ; but the sacred writers do not always keep close to those figures which they first propose ; the paragraph of Malachi is a proof of this assertion ; and if they had, he would not have spoken of treading on the wicked like ashes, if it had not been customary in these times to tread ashes, which it seems was done to make mortar. Harmer, vol. i. p. 179. Exodus v. 7. Straw to make brick.] Whether this were given and used, to mix with the tlay, as is done in some places. 72 ' ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. that the bricks made thereof might be firmer gjid stronger ; or to burn them with in the furnaces : or to cover them from the heat of the sun, that they might not dry too soon and crack, is not easy to determine. It is said that the unburnt bricks of Egypt formerly were, and still are, made of clay mixed with straw. The Egyptian pyramid of unburnt brick. Dr. Pococke {Observations on Egypt, p. 53) says, seems to be made of the earth brought by the Nile, being a sandy black earth, with some pebbles and shells in it : it is mixed up with chopped straw, in order to bind the clay together. The Chinese have great occasion for straw in making bricks, as they put thin layers of straw between them, without which they would, as they dried, run or adhere together. Macartney's Emb. p. 269. Amos vi. 11. He will smite the great house with breaches and the Utile house with cleftsJ] Chardin, speaking concerning the rains, says, " they are the rains, which cause the walls to fall which are built of clay, the mortar plastering dissolving. This plastering hinders the water from penetrating the bricks ; but when the plastering has been soaked with wet, the wind cracks it, and occasions the rain in some succeeding showers to get between and dissolve every thing." This account illustrates the words of the prophet in a very happy manner, as the houses were mostly built of these fragile materials. (Ezek. xiii. 11.) Har- mer, vol. i. p. 178. Amos iii. 15. / will smite the winter house with the summer house.'\ There is a distinction made in the prophets between winter and summer houses. The account Shaw gives {Travels, p. 34), of the country seats about Algiers, may explain this affairs " The hills and valleys round about Algiers are all over beautified with gardens and country seats, whither the inhabitants of better fashion retire during the heats of the summer. They are little white houses, shaded with a variety of fruit-trees and ever-greens. The gardens are all of them well stocked with melons, fruit, and pot-herbs of all kinds : and, what is chiefly regarded in these hot climates, each of them enjoys a great command of water." These summer houses are built in the open country, and are small, though belonging to people of fashion, and as such explain, in the most ample manner, the words of Amos, / will smite the winter house, the palaces of the great in the fortified towns, with the sum- mer house, the small houses of pleasure used in the summer to which any enemy can have access ; and the houses of ivory shall perish, those remarkable for their magnificence ; and the great houses shall have an end, saith the Lord, those which are distin- guished by their amplitude as well as richness, built as they are in the strongest places, yet shall all perish like their country seats. (Jer. xxxvi. 22.) Harmer, vol. i. p 225. HABITATIONS. 73 Luke vi. 48. When the flood arose, the stream beat vehemently upon that house.] "Though the returns of rain in the winter are not extremely frequent, yet when it does rain, the water pours down with great violence three or four days and nights together, enough to drown the whole country." {Jaeohus.de Vitriaco, Gesta Dei, p. 1098.) Such violent rains, in so hilly a country as Judea, must occasion inundations very dangerous to buildings within their reach, by washing the soil from under them, and occasioning their fall. To some such events our Lord must certainly be understood to refer. Harmer, vol. i. p. 31. Amos v. 19. As if he leaned his hand on the wall, and a ser- pent hit him.] Serpents sometimes concealed themselves in the holes and chinks of the walls of the eastern houses. This is con- firmed by a remarkable story related by D'Herbelot. — Amaded- dulat, who reigned in Persia in the tenth century, found himself reduced to great difficulties, arising from want of attention to his treasury. Walking one day in one of the rooms of his palace, which had been before that time the residence of Jacout, his anta- gonist, he perceived a serpent, which put its head out of a chink of the wall; he immediately ordered that the place should be searched and the serpent killed. In opening the wall there, they found a secret place, in which they could not discover the serpent, but a treasure, which was lodged in several coffers, in which Jacout had deposited his most precious effects. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 91. Isaiah xxii. 1. Thou art wholly gone wp to the house-tops.] The houses in the East were, in ancient times as they are still gene- rally, built in one and the same uniform manner. The roof or top of the house is always flat, covered with broad stones, or a strong plaster of terrace, and guarded on every side with a low parapet wall. (Deut. xxii. 8.) The terrace is frequented as much as any part of the house. On this, as the season favours, they walk, they eat, they sleep, they transact business (1 Sam. ix. 25), and they perform their devotions. (Acts x. 9.) The house is built with a court within, into which chiefly the windows open ; those that open to the street are so obstructed with lattice-work, that no one, either without or within, can see through them. Whenever therefore any thing is to be seen or heard in the streets, every one immediately goes up to the house-top to satisfy his curiosity. In the same manner, when any one had occasion to make any thing public, the readiest and most effectual way of doing it, was to pro- claim it from the house-tops to the people in the streets. (Matt. x. £7.) Bp. Lowth, in loc. Psalm cxxix. 6. Let them he as the grass upon the house- tops.] The tops of the houses in Judea were flat, and so grass 74 ORIENTAI/ CUSTOMS. grew upon them, being covered with plaster of terrace. As it was but small and weak, and, being on high, was exposed to the scorching sun, it was soon withered. (Shaw's Travels, p. 210.) Menochius says, that he saw such roofs in the island of Corsica, flat, and having earth upon them, on which grass grew of its own accord; but being burnt up in summer-time by the sun, soon withered. (De Republica Heb. 1. vii. c. 5. p. 666.) But what Olaus Magnus relates is extraordinary. He says, that in the northern Gothic countries they feed their cattle on the tops of houses, especially in a time of siege ; that their houses are built of stone, high and large, and covered with rafters of fir and bark of birch : on this is laid grass-earth, cut out of the fields four- square, and sowed with barley or oats, so that their roofs look like green meadows : and, that what is sown, and the grass that grows thereon, may not wither before plucked up, they very dili- gently water it. {De Ritu Gent. Septent. 1. ix. c. 12.) Maundrell {Journey from "Aleppo, p. 144) says, that these words allude to the custom of plucking up corn from the roots by handfuls, leav- ing the most fruitful fields as naked as if nothing had ever grown ^ in them ; and that this is done, that they might not lose" any of the straw, which is generally very short, and necessary for the sustenance of their cattle, no hay being made in that country. 1 Sam. ix. 26. And they rose early, and it came to pass about the spring of the day, that Samuel called Saul to (on) the top of. the house, saying, up, that I may send thee awayJ\ Sleeping on the top of the house has ever been customary with the eastern people. " It has ever been a custom with them, equally connected with health and pleasure, to pass the night in summer upon the house-tops, which for this very purpose are made flat, and divided from each other by walls. We found this way of sleeping extremely agreeable; as we thereby enjoyed the cool air, above the reach of gnats and vapours, without any other covering than the canopy of the heavens, which unavoidably presents itself in different pleasing forms upon every interruption of rest, when silence and solitude strongly dispose the mind to contemplation." Wood's Balbec,' Introduction. * Matt. xxiv. 17. Let him who is on the house-top not come down to take any thing out of his houseJ\ " It was not possible to view this country without calling to mind the wonderful events that have occurred in it at various periods from the earliest times: more particularly the sacred life and history of our Redeemer pressed foremost on our minds. One thing struck me in the form of the houses in the town now under our view, which served to corroborate the account of former travellers in this country, ex- plaining several passages of scripture, particularly the following. In Matt. xxiv. 17, our blessed Saviour, in describing the distresses HABITATIONS. 75 which shortly would overwhelm the land of Judea, tells his dis- ciples, ' when the abomination of desolation is seen standing in the holy place, let him who is on the house-top not come down to take any thing out of his house, but fly,' &c. The houses in this country are all flat-roofed, and communicate with each other : a person there might proceed to the city walls and escape into the country, without coming down into the street." Willyam's Voy- age up the Mediterranean, Mr. Harmer endeavours to illustrate this passage, by referring to the eastern custom of the stair-case being on the outside of the house : but Mr. Willyams's representation seems to afibrd a more complete elucidation of the text. Prov. xxi. 9. It is better to dwell in a corner of the house- top, than with a brawling woman in a wide houseJ\ During the summer season it was usual to sleep on the tops of the houses, which were flat, and properly guarded by a parapet wall ; for this purpose they were accommodated with little arbours and wicker- work closets, which, however agreeable in the dry part of the year, would prove much otherwise when it rained, as it would expose them to a continual dropping. To be limited to such a place, and to have no other apartment to live in, must be very inconvenient. To such circumstances it is, probably, that Solomon alludes, when he says, " it is better to dwell in a corner of the house-top, than with a brawling woman in a wide house." The allusion is ren- dered more perfect and striking by connecting with this passage - the continual dropping mentioned, Prov. xix. 13, and xxvii. 15. Harmer, vol. i. p. 172. Judges xvi. 27. There were upon the roof about three thousand men and women.'] " The Eastern method of building may assist us in accounting for the particular structure of the temple or house of Dagon (Judges xvi.), and the great number of people that were buried in the ruins of it, by pulling down the two principal pillars. We read (ver. 27) that about ' three thousand persons were upon the roof to behold while Samson made sport.' Samson must therefore have been in a court or area below them, and consequently the temple will be of the same kind with the ancient rtfuvrt, or sacred inclosures, surrounded only in part or altogether with some plain or cloistered buildings. Several palaces and dua-wdnas, as they call the courts of justice in these countries, are built in this fashion ; where upon their festivals and rejoicings a great quantity of sand is strewed upon the area for the wrestlers to fall upon, whilst the roof of the cloisters round about is crowded with spectators of their strength and agility. I have often seen several hundreds of people diverted in this manner upon the roof of the dey's palace at Algiers ; which, like many more of the same quality and denomination, hath an advanced cloister over against the gate of the palace (Esther 76 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. V. 1), made in the fashion of a large pent-house, supported only by one or two contiguous pillars in the front, or else in the centre. In such open structures as these, in the midst of their guards and counsellors, are the bashas, kadees, and other great officers, assem- bled to distribute justice and transact the public aiFairs of their provinces. Here likewise they have their public entertainments, as the lords and others of the Philistines had in the house of Dagon. Upon a supposition therefore that in the house of Dagon there was a cloistered structure of this kind, the pulling down of the front or centre pillars only, which supported it, would be attended with the like catastrophe that happened to the Philistines." Shaw's Travels, p. 283. Judges xvi. 27. Now the House ivas full of men and women] Some persons have asserted that no building sufficiently capacious to receive so great a number of people could be constructed so as to rest chiefly upon two pillars. But this is a mistake ; for Pliny ■(^Nat. Hist. lib. xxxv. cap. 15) mentions two theatres, built by C. Curio (who was killed in the civil wars on Caesar's side), which were made of wood, and so extensive as (according to his mode of writing) to hold all the Roman people. They were contrived with such art, that each of them depended upon one hinge. This caused Pliny to censure the madness of the people, who would venture into a place for their pleasure, where they sat " tam infidS, instabilique sede," on such an uncertain and unstable seat ; for, if that hinge had given way, there had been a greater slaughter than at the battle of Cannae. This entirely removes any imaginary difficulty, of this nature at least, from the history of Samson. Mark ii. 4. They uncovered the roof where he was."] The most satisfactory interpretation of this passage may be obtained from Dr. Shaw, who acquaints us, that '' the houses throughout the East are low, having generally a ground floor only, or one upper story, and flat roofed, the roof being covered with a strong coat of plaster or terrace. They are built round a paved court, into which the entrance from the street is through a gateway or passage-room, furnished with benches, and sufficiently large to be used for receiving visits or transacting business. The stairs which lead to the roof are never placed on the outside of the house in the street, but usually in the gateway, or passage-room to the court, sometimes at the entrance within the court. This court is now called in Arabic, el woost, or the middle of the house ; literally answering to to fie however, are peculiar cases. Rain indiscriminately in the winter months, and none at all in the summer, is what is most common in the East. Jacobus de Vitriaco assures us it is thus in Judea ; for he observes that "lightning and thunder are wont, in the western countries, to be in the summer, but happen in the Holy Land in winter. In the summer it seldom or never rains there : but in winter, though the returns of rain are not so frequent, after they begin to fall they pour down for three or four days and nights together as vehemently as if they would drowrf the country." (Gesta Dei per Francos, vol. i. p. 1097.) The withered appear- ance of an eastern summer, which is very dry, is doubtless what the Psalmist refers to when he says, my moisture is turned into the drought of summer. The reference is not to any particular year of drought, but to what commonly occurs. Harmer, vol. i. p. 6. Gen. xxvii. 39. Dew of heaven.] Egypt, says M. Savary, would be uninhabitable, did not the nocturnal dews restore life to vegetables. These dews are so copious^ especially in summer, HUSBANDRY. 101 that the earth is deeply soaked with them, so that in the morning one would imagine that rain had fallen during the night. This is the reason why the Scripture promises the Israelites, who inhabited a climate pretty similar to that of Egypt, the " dew of heaven" as a signal favour. Job xxix. 19. The dew lay all night upon my Iranch.'] It is well known that in the hot eastern countries, where it rarely rains during the summer months, the copious dews which fall there during the night contribute greatly to the nourishment of vege- tables in general. " This dew," says Hasselquist, speaking of the excessively hot weather in Egypt, " is particularly serviceable to the trees, which would otherwise never be able to resist this heat ; but with this assistance they thrive well and blossom, and ripen their fruit." Travels, p. 455. Hos. xiv. 5. I will be as the dew unto Israel.^ The earth while it supplies the various plants which grow upon it, is supplied for that purpose very much by the dew, which is full of oleaginous particles. " The dews seem to be the richest present the atmo- sphere gives to the earth ; having, when putrefied in a vessel, a black sediment like mud at the bottom ; this seems to cause the darkish colour to the upper part of the ground ; and the sulphur which is found in the dew may be the chief ingredient of the ce- ment of the earth, sulphur being very glutinous, as nitre is dissolv- ent. Dew has both these." (TulVs Husbandry, c. Q.) A lively comment this upon the promise in this passage, " I will be as the dew unto Israel." Psalm Ixxii. 16. They of the city shall flourish like grass of the earthJ] The rapidity with which grass grows in the East is the idea here referred to. " When the ground there hath been destitute of rain nine months together, and looks all of it like the barren sand in the deserts of Arabia, where there is not one spire of green grass to be found, within a few days after those fat en- riching showers begin to fall, the face of the earth there (as it were by a new resurrection) is so revived, and as it were so renewed, as that it is presently covered all over with a pure green mantle." Sir Thomas Hoe's Voyage to India, p. 360. Exod. xiii. 4. The month Abib.'\ This answered nearly to our March O. S. and had this name because in Egypt and Pales- tine corn, particularly barley (Shaw's Trav. p. 406), was in ear at that time. So April among the Romans was called ab aperiendo terram, from opening the earth. The author of the Ceremonies and Religious Customs of all nations observes (vol. iii. p. 108), that the year among ,the Hurons, and several other nations of Canada and Mississippi, is composed of twelve synodical lunar 102 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS, months, and -that all the lunar months have names suitable to them. They give Ihe name of the worm-moon to the month of March, because those reptiles begin to discover themselves at that time ; that of the moon of plants to the month of April ; and the moon of swallov^s to that of May. The Flemings have the same form of speech in their tongue. The month of February is by them called, the month in which they crop or prune the trees ; the month of April that in which the meadows are fit for mowing. The signs of the zodiac also receive their names in much the same manner. See Pluche's Hist, du del, vol. i. p. 11. Parkhurst's Heb. Lex. p. 2. Psalm cxxvi. 4. Turn again our captivity, O Lord, as the streams in the south.] " This image is taken from the torrents in the deserts to the south of Judea ; in Idumea, Arabia Petrasa, &c. a mountainous country. These torrents were constantly dried up in the summer (see Job vi. 17, 18), and as constantly returned after the rainy season, and filled again their deserted channels. The point of the comparison seems to be the return and renewal of these (not rivers, but) torrents, which yearly leave their beds dry,,but fill them again ; as the Jews had left their country deso- late, but now flowed again into it.'' B'p. Home's Commentary. ^ , THRESHING. Deut. XXV. 4. Thou shah not muzzle the ox when he tread-, eth out the corn.] It is customary in Arabia, and among the Moors in Barbary, to tread out the corn with cattle. The sheaves lie open and expanded on the threshing-floors, and the cattle continually move round them. The natives of Aleppo still religiously observe the ancient practice of permitting the oxen to remain unmuzzled, when they separate the corn from the straw. Shaw's Travels, p. 221. Russell's Nat. Hist, of Aleppo, vol. i. p. 76. 2 Sam. xxiv. 18. Threshing floor.] These among the ancient Jews, were only, as they are to this day in the East, round level plats of ground in the open air, where the corn was trodden out by oxen, the Lihycce areee oi Horace, ode i. 1. 10. Thus Gideon's floor (Judges vi. 37) appears to have been in the open air ; as was likewise that of Araunah the Jebusite ; else it would not have been a proper place for erecting an altar and offering sacrifice. In Hosea xiii. 3, we read of " the chaff" which is driven by the whirl- wind from the floor." This circumstance of the threshing floor's being exposed to the agitation of the wind, seems to be the prin- cipal reason of its Hebrew name ; which may be further illustrated by the direction which Hesiod {Opera et Dies, 1- 5.97) gives his husbandman " to thresh his corn in a place well exposed to the HUSBANDRY. 103 wind." From the above account it appears that a threshing-floor (rendered in our textual translation a void place) might well be near the entrance of the gate of Samaria, and that it might afford no improper place for the kings of Israel and Judah to hear the prophets in. See 1 Kings xxii. 10 ; 2 Chron. xviii. 9. Isaiah xli. 15. Threshing.'] The manner of threshing corn in the East differs essentially from the method practised in western countries. It has been fully described by travellers, from whose writings such extracts are here made, and connected together, as will convey a tolerable idea of this subject. In Isaiah xxviii. 27, 28, four methods of threshing are mentioned, as effected by dif- ferent instruments : the flail, the drag, the wain, and the treading of the cattle. The staff or flail, was used for the inflrmiora semina, says Hieron, the grain that was too tender to be treated in the other methods. The drag consisted of a sort of frame of strong planks, made rough at the bottom with hard stonps or iron f it was drawn by horses or oxen over the corn-sheaves spread on the floor, the driver sitting upon it. The wain was much like the former, but had wheels with iron teeth, or edges like a saw. The axle was armed with iron teeth, or serrated wheels throughout : it moves upon three rollers, armed with iron teeth or wheels, to cut the straw. In Syria they make use of the drag, constructed in the very same manner as above described. This not only forced out the grain, but cut the straw in pieces for fodder for the cattle ; for in the eastern countries they have no hay. The last method is well known from the law of Moses, which forbids the ox to be muzzled when he treadeth out the corn. Deut. xxv. 4. {Bp, Lowth's Note on Isaiah xxviii. 27.) " In threshing their corn, the Arabians lay the sheaves down in a certain order, and then lead over them two oxen, dragging a large stone. This mode of separating the ears from the straw is. not unlike that of Egypt." {Niehuhr's Travels, p. 299.) " They use oxen, as the ancients did, to beat out their corn, by trampling upon the sheaves, and dragging after them a clumsy machine. This machine is not, as in Arabia, a stone cylinder, nor a plank with sharp stones, as in Syria, but a sort of sledge^ consisting of three rollers, fitted with irons, which turn upon axles. A farmer chooses out a level spot in his fields, and has his corn carried thither in sheaves, upon asses, or dromedaries. Two oxen are then yoked in a sledge, a driver gets upon it, and drives them backwards and forwards (rather in a circle) upon the sheaves, and fresh oxen succeed in the yoke from time to time. By this opera- tion the chaff is very much cut down : the whole is then winnowed, and the pure grain thus separated. This mode of threshing out the corn is tedious and inconvenient ; it destroys the chaff, and in- jures the quality of the grain." {Niehuhr's Travels, vol. i. p. 89.) In another place Niebuhr tells us that " two parcels or layers 104 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. of corn are threshed out in a day ; and they move each of them as many as eight times, with a wooden fork of five prongs, which they call meddre. Afterwards they throw the straw into the middle of the ring, where it forms a heap, which grows bigger and bigger; when the first layer is threshed, they replace the straw in the ring, and thresh it as before. Thus the straw becomes every time smaller, till at last it resembles chopped straw. After this, with the fork just described, they cast the whole some yards from thence, and against the wind, which, driving back the straw, the corn and the ears not threshed out fall apart firom it, and make another heap. A man collects the clods of dirt, and other impurities, to which any corn adheres, and throws them into a sieve. They af- terwards place in a ring the heaps, in which a good many entire ears are still found, and drive over them for four or five hours to- gether a dozen couple of oxen, joined two and two, till by abso^^ lute trampling they have separated the grains, which they throw into the air with a shovel to cleanse them." "The Moors and Arabs continue to tread out their corn after the primitive custom of the East. Instead of beeves they fre- quently make use of mules and horses, by tying in the like man- ner by the neck three or four of them together, and whipping them afterwards round about the nedders (as they call the threshing- floors, the LyhiccB arece of Horace) where the sheaves Ire open and expanded in the same manner as they are placed and prepared with us for threshing. This, indeed, is a much quicker way than ours, but less cleanly ; for as it is performed in the open air, (Hosea xiii. 3) upon any round level plat of ground, daubed over with cow's dung, to prevent, as much as possible, the earth, sand, or gravel from rising, a great quantity of them all, notwithstanding this precaution, must unavoidably be taken up with the grain ; at the same time the straw, which is their only fodder, is hereby shattered to pieces, a circumstance very pertinently alluded to 2 Kings xiii. 7, ij'here the king of Syria is said to have made the Israelites like dust by threshing." {Shaw's Travels, p. 138, 139, 2nd edit.) Homer has described the method of threshing corn by the feet of oxen, as practised in his time and country : As with autumnal harvests cover'd o'er. And thick bestrewn lies Ceres' sacred floor. When round and round, with never-weary'd pain, Th« trampling steers beat out th' uunumber'd grain. Iliad XX. lin. 495. Pope. WINNOWING. Matt. iii. 12. He will burn up the chaff with unquenchable Jire.} There is, in what the Baptist here declares, an evident allusion to the custom of burning the chaff after winnowing, that it might not be blown back again, and so be mingled with the wheat. There was danger, lest, after they had been separated. HUSBANDRY. 105 the chaff should be blown again amongst the wheat by the changing of the wind. To prevent this they put fire to it at the windward side, which crept on and never gave over till it had consumed all the chaff. In this sense it was an unquenchable fire. See also Psalm Ixxxiii. 13, 14; Isaiah v. 24 {ViAs Hammond and Dod- dridge, in loc.) PLANTATIONS. Deut. xxxii. 13. And oil out of the flinty rock.^ This must mean the procuring of it from the olive-trees growing there. Maundrell {Journey, at March 25), speaking of the ancient fertility and cultivation of Judea, says, "the most rocky parts of all, which could not well be adjusted for the production of corn, might yet serve for the plantation of vines and olive-trees, which delight to extract, the one its fatness, the other its sprightly juice, chiefly out of such dry and flinty places." Comp. Virg. Gear. ii. 1. 179. Jer. iv. 17. As keepers of a field are they against her round about.'] Plantations of esculent vegetables are not unfrequently cultivated in the East without inclosures ; they would of course require to be watched as they improved in value and became fit to use. So Chardin says, that " as in the East, pulse, roots, &c. grow in open and uninclosed fields, when they begin to be fit to gather, they place guards, if near a great road more, if distant fewer, who place themselves in a round about these grounds." Harmer, vol. i. p. 455. Pkov. XV. 19. The way of the slothful man is an hedge of thorns.l Hasselquist says (p. Ill), that he saw the plantain-tree, the vine, the peach, and the mulberry-tree, all four made use of in Egypt to hedge about a garden : now these are all unarmed plants. This consideration throws a great energy into the words of Solo- mon, " The way of the slothful man is an hedge of thorns." It appears as difiicult to him, not only as breaking through an hedge^ but even through a thorn fence : and also into that threatening of God to Israel, " Behold, I will hedge up thy way with thorns." Hosea ii. 6. Deut. xxiv. 20. When thou beatest thine olive-tree, thou sha}t not go over the boughs again, it shall be for the stranger, thv , fatherless, and the widow.] The sacred writings sometimes repre- sent olives as beaten off the trees, and at other times as shaken. This does not indicate an improvement made in aftertimes on the original mode of gathering them, or different methods of procedure by different people in the same age and country, who possessed olive-yards ; but rather expresses the difference between gathering the main crop by the owners, and the way in which the poor col- lected the few olive-berries that were left, and which, by the law of Moses, they were to be permitted to take. The abbot Fortis X06 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. in his account of Dalmatia (p. 412) says, that " in the kingdom of Naples, and in several other parts of Italy, they used to beat the branches with long poles, in order to make the fruit fall." An- swerably to this, the olives of the Holy Land continue to be beaten down to this time : at least, they were so gathered in the year 1774. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 106. Luke xiii. 8. ^nd he answering, said unto him, Lord, let it alone this year also, till I shall dig about it, and dung it^ Dan- dini tells us (ch. x. p. 43), that in Mount Libanus they never use spades to their vineyards, but they cultivate them with their oxen ; for they are planted with straight rows of trees, far enough from one another. As the usages of the East so seldom change, it is very probable a spade was not commonly used in the time of our Lord in their vineyards. We find the prophet Isaiah (ch. v. ver. 6), using a term which our translators indeed render by the English word digging, but which differs from that which expresses the digging of wells, graves, &c. in other places, and is the same with that used to signify keeping in rank. (1 Chron. xii. 33.) When then Jesus represents the vine-dresser as saying to his lord, " let it alone this year also, till I shall dig about it, and dung it," it should seem that we are not to understand the digging with a spade about the fig-tree, planted in a vineyard according to their customs ; but the turning up of the ground between the rows of trees with an instrument proper for the purpose, drawn by oxen — in other words, ploughing about them. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 432. Gen. viii. 1 1 . And the dove came in to him in the evening, and, lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf plucked off.'] The con- nexion between Noah's dove and an olive leaf will not appear at all unnatural, if we consider what Dr. Chandler has related. He says ( Trav. in Asia Minor, p. 84), that the olive groves are the principal places for shooting birds. And in the account of his travels in Greece (p. 127), he observes, that when the olive blackens, vast flights of doves, pigeons, thrushes, and other birds, repair to the olive groves for food. See also Hasselquist, p. 212. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 191. Isaiah v. 26. Hiss unto them."] " The metaphor is taken from the practice of those that keep bees, who draw them out of their hives into the fields, and lead them back again, by a hiss or a whistle." Bp. Lowth, in loc. VINEYARDS. Prov. xxiv. 31. The stone wall.'] Stone walls were frequently used for the preservation of vineyards, as well as living fences. Van Egmont and Heyman (vol. ii. p. 39) describing the country HUSBANDRr. 107 about Saphet, a celebrated city of Galilee, tells us, " the country round it is finely improved, the declivity being covered with vines supported by low walls." Harmer, vol. i. p. 456. Isaiah v. 2. And planted it with the choicest vine.] " And he planted it with the vine of Sorek." Lowth. The vine of Sorek was known to the Israelites, being mentioned Gen. xlix. 11. There is something remarkable in the manner in which it is there spoken of: " binding his Ifoal unto the vine, and his ass's colt unto the choice vine." Chardin says, that at Casbin, a city in Persia, they turned their cattle into the vineyards after the vint- age, to browse on the vines. He speaks also of vines in that country so large, that he could hardly compass the trunks of them with his arms. (Voyages, torn. iii. p. 12.) This shows that the ass might be securely bound to the vine ; and without danger of damaging the tree by browsing on it. Lowth, in loc. Sol. SoNGii. 15. Take us the foxes, the little foxes, that spoil the vines, for our vines have tender grapes.] Foxes are observed by many authors to be fond of grapes, and to make great havoc in vineyards. Aristophanes (in his Equites) compares soldiers to foxes, who spoil whole countries, as the others do vineyards. Galen (in his book of Aliments) tells us, that hunters did not scruple to eat the flesh of foxes in autumn, when they were grown fat with feeding on grapes. Amos ix. 13. The ploughman shall overtake the reaper."] The Arabs commit depredations of every description. They strip the trees of their firuit even in its unripe state, as well as seize on the seed and corn of the husbandman. Maillet ascribes the alteration for the worse, that is found in the wine of a province in Egypt, to the precipitation with which they now gather the grapes. This was done to save them from the Arabs, " who frequently make excursions into it, especially in the seasons in which the fruits begin to ripen. It is to save them from these depredations, that the inhabitants of the country gather them before they come to maturity." {Lett. viii. p. 296.) It is this circumstance that must explain this passage of the prophet : " Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that the ploughman shall overtake the reaper, and the treader of grapes him that soweth seed, and the mountains shall drop sweet wine, andall the hills shall melt:" that is,the days shall come when the grapes shall not be gathered, as they were before, in a state of immaturity, for fear of Arabs or other de- stroying nations, but they shall be suffered to hang till the time of ploughing; so perfect shall be the security of these times. Harmer, vol. i. p. 90. ExoD. xxii. 5. If a man shall cause a field or vineyard to 108 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. he eaten.] Chandler observed {Travels in Asia Minor, p. 142) that the tame cattle were very fond of vine leaves, and were per- mitted to eat them in the autumn. " We remarked," he says, " about Smyrna, the leaves were decayed, or stripped by the camels and l^erds of goats, which are admitted to browse after the vintage." If those animals are so fond of vine leaves, it is no wonder that Moses, by an express law, forbade a man's causing ianother man's vineyard to be eaten by putting in his beast. The turning any of them in before the fruit was gathered, must have occasioned much mischief; and even after, it must have been an injury, as it would have been eating up another's feed. Ilarmer, vol. iv. p. 130. FLOCKS. John x. 11. / am the good shepherd."] That this allusion was very pertinent with regard to the persons to whom Christ addressed-i his discourse, the condition and custom of the country may con- vince us. The greatest part of the wealth and improvement there consisted in sheep, and the examples of Jacob and David in par- ticular are proofs, that the keeping of these was not usually committed to servants and strangers, but to men of the greatest quality and substance. The children of the family, nay the mas- ters and owners themselves, made it their business, and esteemed the looking to their flocks an employment no way unbecoming them. Hence probably came the frequent metaphor of styling kings the shepherds of their people ; hence also the prophets de- scribed the Messiah in the character of a shepherd ; and Christ, to show that he was the person intended, applies the character to himself. The art of the shepherd in managing his sheep in the East was different from what it is among us. We read of his going before, leading, calling his sheep, and of their following and knowing his voice. Such methods were doubtless practised by them, but have not obtained amongst us in the management of our flocks. John x. 1. He that enter eth not hy the door into the sheep- fold, hut climheth up some other way, the same is a thief and a robber.] The sheepfold was an inclosure sometimes in the manner of a building, and made of stone, or fenced with reeds. In it was a large door, at which the shepherd went in and out, when he led in or brought out the sheep. At tithing, which was done in the sheepfold, they made a little door, so that two lambs could not come out together. To this inclosure there is an allusion in these words. John x. 3. Calleth his own sheep hy name] " This is an allusion to the customs of Judea, where shepherds had names for HUSBANDRY. 109 their sheep, which answered to them as dogs and horses do with us, following to the pasture ground, and wherever their shepherds thought fit to lead them. Macknight's Harmony, vol. ii. p. 455. John x. 4. And when he putteth forth his own sheep, he goeth before them, and the sheep follow him, for they know his voice.'] Polybius, in the beginning of his twelfth book, tells us, that the flocks in the island of Cyrnon, upon the landing of any strangers ■in order to lay hold of them, immediately run away ; but that when the shepherd, upon observing the attempt, stoutly blows his horn, they immediately scamper towards it. Nor, says he, is it at all wonderful that they should be thus compliant with the sound, since in Italy the keepers of swine do not observe the custom of Greece in following their herd, but going before them to some distance, they sound their horn, and the herd immediately follow them, flocking to the sound. And so accustomed are they to their own horn, as to excite no little astonishment at the first hearing of it. Bulkley's Notes on the Bible. ,. , i Peter v. 4. Chief shepherd."] In ancient times, when flocks and herds of cattle were very numerous, the care of them required the attention of many shepherds ; and that every thing might be 'conducted with regularity, it was necessary that one should pre- side over the rest. This we find was necessary ; and hence, in 1 Sam. xxi. 7, we read that Doeg was the chief of the herdsmen that belonged to Saul; and in some curious remarks on the sheep- walks of Spain, published in the Gentleman's Magazine for May, 1764, we are informed, that in this country (where it is not at all surprising to meet with eastern customs still preserved from the Moors) they have to this day, over each flock of sheep, a chief shepherd. " Ten thousand compose a flock, which is divided into ten tribes. One man has the conduct of all. He must be the owner of four or five hundred sheep, strong, active, vigilant, in- telligent in pasture, in weather, and in the diseases of sheep. He has absolute dominion over fifty shepherds and fifty dogs, five of each to a tribe. He chooses them, he chastises them, or dis- charges them at will. He is the prcepositus or the chief shepherd of the whole flock." Gen. XXX. S2. I will pass through all thy flocks to-day, removing from thence all the speckled and spotted qattle, and all the brown cattle among the sheep, and the spotted aiid speckled among the goats ; and of such shall be my hire.] The following extract from the Gentoo laws, p. 150, is remarkable for its coin- cidence with the situation and conduct of Jacob ; and demon- strates that he acted with propriety, if the regulations here mentioned existed in his time ; and of their very great antiquity there is no doubt. " If a person without receiving wages, or 110 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. subsistence, or clothes, attends ten milch cows, he shall select, for his own use, the milk of that cow which ever produces most ; if he attends more cows he shall take milk after the same rate, in lieu of wages. If a person attends one hundred cows for the space of one year, without any appointment of wages, he shall take to himself one heifer of three years old ; and also, of all those cows that produce milk, whatever the quantity may be, after every eight days, he shall take to himself the milk, the entire product of one day. Cattle shall be delivered over to the cowherd in the morning : the cowherd shall tend them the whole day with grass and water, and in the evening shall re-deliver them to the master, in the same manner as they were intrusted to him : if, by the fault of the cowherd, any of the cattle be lost, or stolen, that cowherd shall make it good. When a cowherd hath led cattle to any distant place to feed, if any die of some dis- . temper, notwithstanding the cowherd applied the proper remedy, the cowherd shall carry the head, the tail, the forefoot, or some such convincing proof, taken from that animal's body, to the owner of the cattle ; having done this, he shall be no farther answerable ; if he neglects to act thus, he shall make good the loss." Probably this last circumstance is alluded to in Amos iii. 12. EzEK. xxxiv. 25. They shall dwell safely in the wilderness, and sleep in the woods.'] The eastern shepherds frequently lie abroad in the fields with their flocks, during the night, without a tent to shelter them. Chardin thus describes an occurrence in his first excursion from Smyrna (p. 157), " About two in the morn- ing, our whole attention was fixed by the barking of dogs, which, as we advanced, became exceedingly furious. Deceived by the light of the moon, we now fancied we could see a village, and were much mortified to find only a station of poor goat-herds, without even a shed, and nothing for our horses to eat. They were lying, wrapped in their thick capots, or loose coats, by some glimmering embers among the bushes in a dale, under a spreading tree by the fold. — The tree was hung with rustic utensils ; the she-goats, in a pen, sneezed, and bleated, and rustled to and fro. The shrubs by which our horses stood were leafless, and the earth bare." This account may stand as a comment on the words of Ezekiel : " I will make with them a covenant of peace,.and will cause the evil beasts to cease out of the land ; and they shall dwell safely in the wilder- ness, and sleep in the woods." Amos iii. 12, A piece of an ear.] It seems odd to mention this as what a shepherd rescues from a lion, but Russell {Hist, of Aleppo, p. 53) informs us, that about that city they have one spe- cies of goat whose, ears are considerable things, being often a foot long, and broad in proportion. HUSBANDRY. 1 1 1 Job xxxi. 20. The fleece of my sheep.} It was common in Judea, and possibly in other eastei-n countries, to clothe their sheep to keep their wool cleati from dirt and filth. Horace seems to allude to this custom when, speaking of the Tarentine sheep, he says, Dulce pellitis ovibus Galesi Flumen. B. ii. Od. 6. This practice was unquestionably designed to enhance the value of the fleece, and render the wool itself more useful and excellent. Gen. xxxi. 40. In the day the drought consumed me, and the frost hy night.'] " In Europe the days and nights resemble each Other with respect to the qualities of heat and cold ; but it is quite otherwise in the East. In the Lower Asia in particular, the day is always hot ; and as soon as the sun is fifteen degrees above the horizon, no cold is felt in the depth of winter itself. On the con- trary, in the height of summer the nights are as cold as at Paris in the month of March. It is for this reason that in Persia and Turkey they always make use of furred habits in the country, such only being sufficient to resist the cold of the nights." [Chardin in Harmer, vol. i. p. 74.) Campbell (" Travels," part ii. p. 100), says, " sometimes we lay at night out in the open air, rather than enter a town ; on which occasions I found the weather as piercing cold as it was distressfully hot in the day time." Hence we may clearly see the force and propriety of Jacob's complaint. IsAiAHxlii.il. Wilderness.} " By desert, or wilderness, the reader is not always to understand a country altogether barren and unfruitful, but such only as is rarely or never sown or culti- vated: which, though it yields no crops of corn or fruit, yet affords herbage, more or less, for the grazing of cattle, with foun- tains or rills of water, though more sparingly interspersed than in other places." Shaw's Travels, p. 9, Note. Agreeable to this account we find that Nabal, who was possessed of three thousand sheep, and a thousand goats, dwelt in the wilderness, 1 Sam. xxv. 2. This it would have been impossible for him to have done, had there not be sufficient pasturage for his fiocks and herds. Gen. xxiv. 15. Rebekah came out — with her pitcher upon her shoulder.} The same custom prevailed in ancient Greece. Homer represents Minerva meeting Ulysses as the sun was going down, under the form of a Phaeacian virgin carrying a pitcher of water, that being the time when the maidens went out to draw water. When near the fam'd Phseaciau walls he drew. The beauteous city op'ning to his view. His step a virgin met, and stood before ; - A polished urn the seeming virgin bore. Odyss. b. vii. 25, Pope. 112 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. See also Odyss. lib. x. 105. A similar custom prevailed also in Armenia, as may be seen in Xenophon's Anabasis, b. iv. Gen. xxiv. 20. And she hasted, and emptied -her pitcher into the trough.] In some places where there are wells, there are no conveniences to draw water with. But in other places the wells are furnished with troughs, and suitable contrivances for watering cattle. The MS. Chardin tells us, that " there are wells in Per- sia and Arabia, in the driest places, and above all in the Indies, with troughs and basons of stone by the side of them." Harmer, vol. i. p. 431. Gen- xxix. 2. A great stone was upon the well's mouth.'] In Arabia, and other places, they cover iip their wells of water, lest the sand, which is put into motion by the winds, should fill and quite stop them up. C Chardin.) So great was their care not to leave the well open any length of time, that they waited till the flocks were all gathered together, before they began to draw water: and when they had finished, the well was immediately closed again. Harmer, vol. i. p. 113. BEASTS OP BURDEN. Job i. 3. So that this man was the greatest of all the men in the East.] Job might well be styled the greatest man in the land of Uz, when he was possessed of half as many camels as a modem king of Persia. " The king of Persia being in Mazanderan in the year 1676, the Tartars set upon the camels of the king in the month of February, and took three thousand of them, which was a great loss to him, for he had but seven thousand in all, if their number should be complete : especially considering that it was winter, when it was difficult to procure others in a country which was a stranger to commerce, and their importance, these beasts carrying all the baggage ; for which reason they are all called the ships of Persia." Chardin. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 486. 1 Sam. ix. 3. And Kish said to Saul his son, take now one of the servants with thee, and arise, go seek the asses.] The follow- ing extract, compared with the circumstances recorded in this chapter respecting the business upon which Saul was sent, will greatly illustrate them. "Each proprietor has his own mark, which is burnt into the thighs of horses, oxen, and dromedaries, and painted with colours on the wool of sheep. The latter arc kept near the owner's habitation ; but the other species unite in herds, and are towards the spring driven to the plains, where they are left at large till the winter. At the approach of this season they seek, and drive them to their sheds. What is most singular in this search is, that the Tartar employed in it has always an HUSBiNDRY. 113 extent of plain, which, from one valley to another, is ten or twelve leagues wide, and more than thirty long, yet does not know which way to direct his search, nor troubles himself about it. He puts up in a bag six pounds of the flour of roasted millet, which is suf- ficient to last him thirty days. This provision made, he mounts his horse, stops not till the sun goes down, then clogs the animal, l«aves him to graze, sups on his flour, goes to sleep, wakes, and continues his route. He neglects not, however, to observe, as he rides, the mark of the herds he happens to see. These discoveries he communicates to the different noguais he meets, who have the same pursuits ; and, in his turn, receives such indications as help to put an end to his journey." Baron Du Tott, vol. i. part 3, p. 4. 2 Kings ii. 19. And the ground barren.] Marg. "Causing to miscarry." If the latter reading is allowed to be more just than the former, we must entertain a different idea of the situation of Jericho than the textual translation suggests. There are actually at this time cities where animal life of certain kinds pines, and decays, and dies ; and where that posterity which should replace such loss is either not conceived, or, if conceived, is not brought to the birth ; or, if brought to the birth, is fatal in delivery to both mother and offspring. An instance of this kind occurs in Don VUoa's Voyage to South America, vol, i. p. 93. He says of the climate of Porto Bello, that " it destroys the vigour of nature, and often untimely cuts the thread of life." And of Sennaar Mr. Bruce ( Travels, vol. iv. p. 469) says, that " no horse, mule, ass, or any beast of burthen, will breed or even live at Sennaar, or many miles about it. Poultry does not live there ; neither dog nor cat, sheep nor bullock, can be preserved a season there : they must go all, every half year, to the sands. Though every possible care be taken of them, they die in every place where the fat earth is about the town, during the first season of the rains." He far- ther mentions, that the situation is equally unfavourable to most trees. FERTILITY. * Deut. viii. 7. The Lord thy God bringeth thee into a good land,] The fertility of Judea is highly extolled by Dr. E. Clarke. When he visited Jerusalem, he tells us, " The limestone rocks and stony valleys of Judea were entirely covered with plantations of figs, vines, and olive-trees ; not a single spot seemed to be neglected. The hills, from their bases to their upmost summits, were overspread with gardens : all of these were free from weeds, and in the highest state of cultivation. Even the sides of the most barren mountains had been rendered fertile, by being divided into terraces, like steps rising one above another, upon which soil had been accumulated with astonishing labour. Among the standing 114 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. crops we noticed millet, cotton, linseed, and tobacco, and occa- sionally small fields of barley. A sight of this territory can alone convey any adequate idea of its surprising produce : it is truly the Eden of the East, rejoicing in the abundance of its wealth. The effect of this upon the people was strikingly portrayed in every countenance ; instead of the depressed and gloomy looks of Djezza Pasha's desolated plains, health, hilarity, and peace were visible in the features of the inhabitants. Under a wise and beneficent government, the produce of the Holy Land would exceed all cal- culation. Its perennial harvest; the salubrity of its air; its limpid springs ; its rivers, lakes, and matchless plains ; its hills and vales ; all these, added to the serenity of its climate, prove this land to be indeed ' a field which the Lord hath blessed : God hath given it of the dew of heaven, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of corn and wine.' " {Travels, vol. iv. p. 282.) Isaiah xviii. 1,2. Woe to the 'land shadowing with wings, which is beyond the rivers of Ethiopia ; that sendeth ambassadors by the sea even in vessels of bulrushes, upon the waters, saying, go, ye swift messengers, to a nation scattered and peeled, to a peo- ple terrible from their beginning hitherto; a nation meted out and trodden down, whose lands the rivers have spoiledJ] The circurn- stances of this prophecy accord perfectly well with Egypt. In this country wings universally obtained as hieroglyphics of the wind, {Maurice'' s Ind. Ant. vol. ii. p. 386) and a sort of light ships or boats built of papyrus were commonly used on the Nile. Ex- clusive of the deserts on each side of it, Egypt is one continued vale about 700 miles long ; and from the h'eart of Abyssinia the Nile brings a species of mud, light and fat, which by the inunda- tion of this river overspreads, smoothes, and fertilizes the face of a country naturally barren. An event of such importance to the inhabitants as the overflow of the Nile would naturally induce them to measure its different heights. As soon as it retired within . its banks, and the earth became sufficiently dry, the Egyptians sowed their land, and sent forth their cattle to tread the seed into the ground ; and without any further care expected the harvest. Genesis xli. 5, 47. And behold seven ears of corn came up upon one stalk. — And in the seven plenteous years the earth brought forth by handfuls.'] In Barbary, one stalk of wheat, or barley, will sometimes bear two ears : whilst each of these ears will as often shoot out into a number of less ones : thereby afford- ing a most plentiful increase. May not these large prolific ears, when seven are said to come up upon one stalk, explain what is further mentioned of the seven fruitful years in Egypt, that is, that the earth brought forth by handfuls ? This latter passage may, indeed, mean, that the earth brought forth handfuls of stalks from single grains, and not handfuls of ears from single stalks, agreeably to the following passage from Dr. Shaw. HUSBANDKY. 115 " In Barbary it is common to see one grain produce ten or fifteen stalks. Even some grains of the murwaany wheat, which I brought with me to Oxford, and sowed in the physic garden, threw out each of them fifty. But Muzeratty, one of the late kaleefas, or viceroys, of the province of TIemsan, brought once with him to Algiers a root that yielded fourscore : telling us, that the prince of the western pilgrims sent once to the bashaw of Cairo, one that yielded six score. Pliny mentions some that bore three or four hundred." Ezra vi. 15. The month Adar. This was the name, after the Babylonish captivity, of the twelfth month, nearly answering to our February, O.S. and perhaps so called from the richness or exuberance of the earth in plants and flowers at that season, in the warm eastern countries. "As February advances, the fields, which were partly green before, now, by the springing up of the latter grain, become entirely covered with an agreeable verdure : and though the trees continue in their leafless state till the end of this month or the beginning of March, yet the almond, when latest, being in blossom before the middle of February, and quickly succeeded by the apricot, peach, &c. gives the gardens an agree- able appearance. The spring now becomes extremely pleasant." See Russell's Nat. History of Aleppo, p. 13, 30. Hasselquisfs Travels, p. 27. CASUALTIES. ExoD. xxii. 6. If fire break out, and catch in thorns, so that the stacks of corn, or the standing corn, or the field, he consumed therewith, he that kindled the fire shall surely make restitution.'] It is a common management in the East, to set the dry herbage on fire before the autumnal rains, which fires, for want of care, often do great damage. Moses has taken notice of fires of this kind, and by an express law has provided, that reparation shall be made for the damage done by those who either mahciously or negli- gently occasioned it. Chandler, speaking of the neighbourhood of Smyrna, says (p. 276), " In the latter end of July, clouds began to appear from the south : the air was repeatedly cooled by showers which had fallen elsewhere, and it was easy to foretel the ap- proaching rain. This was the season for consuming the dry herbage and undergrowth on the mountains ; and we often saw the fire blazing in the wind, and spreading a thick smoke along their sides." He also relates an incident to which he was an eye-wit- ness. Having been employed the latter end of August, in taking a plan at Troas, one day after dinner, says he, a Turk coming to us "emptied the ashes from his pipe, and a spark of fire fell unob- served in the grass, which was long parched by the sun, and in- flammable like tinder. A brisk wind soon kindled a blaze, which I 2 116 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. withered in an instant the leaves of the bushes and trees in its way,' seized the branches and roots, and devoured all before it with prodigious crackling and noise. We were much alarmed, as a general conflagration of the, country seemed likely to ensue." After exerting themselves for an hour, they at length extinguished it. (p. 30.) It is an impropriety worth correcting in this passage, where the word stacks of corn is used rather than shocks, which is more conformable to custom, as the heaps of the East are only the disposing the corn into a proper form to be immediately trod- den out. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 145. I-SAiAH xviii. 2. A nation whose land the rivers have spoiled^ Great injury has often been done to the lands contiguous to large and rapid rivers, especially when inundations have happened. Various occurrences of this nature are mentioned by different tra- vellers, which clearly show the meaning of the prophet in these words. Sonnini relates a circumstance of this kind, to which he was a witness, in passing down the Nile. He says " the reis and the sailors were asleep upon the beach ; I had passed half of the night watching, and I composed myself to sleep, after giving the watch to two of my companions, but they too had sunk into slum- ber. The kanja, badly fastened against the shore, broke loose, and the current carried it away with the utmost rapidity. We were all asleep ; not one of us, not even the boatmen, stretched upon the sand, perceived our manner of sailing down at the mercy of the current. After having floated with the stream for the space of a good league, the boat, hurried along with violence, struck with a terrible crash against the shore, precisely a little below the place from whence the greatest part of the loosened earth fell down. Awakened by this furious shock, we were not slow in perceiving the critical situation into which we were thrown. The kanja, re- pelled by the land, which was cut perpendicularly, and driven to- wards it again by the violence of the current, turned round in every direction, and dashed against the shore in such a manner as ex- - cited an apprehension that it would be broken to pieces. The darkness of the night, the frightful noise which the masses sepa- rated from the shore spread far and wide as they fell into a deep water ; the bubbling which they excited, the agitation of which communicated itself to the boat, rendered our awakening a very melancholy one. There was no time to be lost ; I made my com- panions take the oars, which the darkness prevented us from find- ing so soon as we could have wished : I sprung to the helm, and, encouraging my new and very inexperienced sailors, we succeeded in making our escape from a repetition of shocks, by which we myst all, at length, have inevitably perished ; for scarcely had we gained, after several efforts, the middle of the river, than a piece of hardened mud, of an enormous size, tumbled down at the very spot we had just quitted, and which must, had we been but a few COMMERCE. 117 minutes later, have carried us to the bottom." Travels in Egypt, vol. iii. p. 148. Mr. Bruce has a passage which is much to the purpose. He says, " The Chronicle of Axum, the most ancient repository of the antiquities of that country, a book esteemed, I shall not say how properly, as the first in authority after the Holy Scriptures, says, that between the creation of the world and the birth of our Saviour there were 5500 years ; that Abyssinia had never been inhabited till 1808 years before Christ, and 200 years after that, which was in 1600, it was laid waste by a flood, the face of the country much changed and deformed, so that it was called at that time oure midre, or the land laid waste, or, as it is called in Scripture itself, a land which the waters orjloods had spoiled," 2 Kings iii. 17. Ye shall not see wind, neither shall ye see rain.'] Rain is often in the East preceded by a squall of wind. The editor of the Ruins of Palmyra tells us, that they seldom have rain except at the equinoxes, and that nothing could be more serene than the sky all the time he was there, except one afternoon, when there was a small shower, preceded by a whirlwind, which took up such quantities of sand from the desert as quite darkened the sky. (p. 37.) Thus Elisha told the king of Israel, "ye shall not see wind nor rain, yet that valley shall be filled with water." The circumstance of the wind taking up such a quantity of sand as to darken the sky, may serve to explain 1 Kings xviii. 45, " The heaven was black with clouds and wind." The wind's prognosticating of rain is also referred to, Prov. xxv. 14: "Whoso boasteth himself of a false gift," pretending to give something valuable, and disappointing the expectation, " is like clouds and wind without rain." Harmer, vol. i. p. 54. CHAPTER V. CUSTOMS RELATING TO COMMERCE. Job ii. 4. Skin for skin, yea, all that a man hath, toill he give for his Ufe.l Before the invention of money, trade used to be carried on by barter ; that is, by exchanging one commodity for another. The men who had been hunting in the woods for wild beasts would carry their skins to market, and exchange them with the armourer for so many bows and arrows. As these traffickers were liable to be robbed, they sometimes agreed to give a party of men a share for defending them, and skins were a very ancient tribute : with them they redeemed their own shares of .property and their lives. It is to one or both of these customs that these words allude,'as a proverb. Biblical Researches, vol. ii. p. 88. 118 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS, MONEY. Gen. xxxiii. 19. An hundred pieces of money.'] There is very great reason to believe that the earliest coins struck were used both as weights and money : and indeed, this circumstance is in part proved by the very names of certain of the Greek and Roman coins. Thus the Attic mina and the Roman libra equally signify a pound ; and the trrarrip (stater) of the Greeks, so called from weighing, is decisive as to this point. The Jewish shekel was also a weight as well as a coin : three thousand shekels, according to Ar- buthnot, being equal in weight and value to one talent. This is the oldest coin of which we anywhere read, for it occurs, Gen. xxiii. 16, and exhibits direct evidence against those who date the first coinage of money so low as the time of Croesus or Darius, it being there expressly said, that Abraham weighed to Ephron four hundred shekels of silver, " current money with the merchant." Having considered the origin and high antiquity of coined money, we proceed to consider the stamp or impression which the first money bore. The primitive race of men being shepherds, and their wealth consisting in their cattle, in which Abraham is said to have been rich, for greater convenience metals were sub- stituted for the commodity itself. It was natural for the repre- sentative sign to bear impressed the object which it represented; and thus accordingly the earliest coins were stamped with the figure of an ox or sheep. For proof that they actually did thus impress them, we can again appeal to the high authority of Scrip- ture ; for there we are informed that "Jacob bought a parcel of a field for an hundred pieces of money." The original Hebrew, translated pieces of money, is kesitoth, which signifies lambs, with the figure of which the metal was doubtless stamped. Maurice's Indian Antiquities, vol. vii. p. 470. 1 Peter i. 18, 19, Ye were not redeemed with corruf things, as silver and gold — hut with the precious Hood of Christ,.' as of a lamb without blemish and without spot.] It has been conjectured that buying and seUing was originally conducted by the exchange of one article for another, as cattle for land ; and that the money then used had the stamp of cattle upon it. Agreeably hereto it is thought that among the Latins the v/ or A peamia csme to denote money, from pecus, cattle. And on the same account that proverbial saying among the Greeks, Bove £Tt yXwrrri, there is a bull (or cow) upon his tongue, came to be applied to one who was bribed to silence by money which had on it the stamp of a bull. To the money used among the Hebrews having on it the' stamp of a lamb, St. Peter is thought by some td allude in these words. Companion to Holy Bible, p. 26. Gen. xxiii. 16. And Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver.] COMMERCE. 119 Ancient nations have discovered a singular coincidence in the management of their money. The Jews appear to have used sil- ver in lumps, perhaps of various dimensions and weights ; and certainly, on some occasions at least, impressed with a particular stamp. The Chinese also do the same. For " there is no silver coin in China, notwithstanding payments are made with that metal, in masses of about ten ounces, having the form of the cru- cibles they were refined in, with the stamp of a single character upon them, denoting their weight." Macartney, p. 290, vol. ii. p. 266, 8vo. edit. EzEKiEL xlv. 12. The shekel shall be twenty gerahs ; twenty shekels, twenty-five shekels, fifteen shekels, shall be your maneh.^ This singular method of reckoning, adopted by Ezekiel, is per- fectly conformable to the general practice ; for Chardin says, " it is the custom of the East, in their accounts and reckonings of a sum of money, to specify the different parts of which it is com- posed : talking after this manner ; I owe twenty-five, of which the half is twelve and one-half, the quarter six and one-fourth, &c." Harmer, vol. ii. p. 512. 2 Kings xii. 10. They put up (bound up) in bags, and fold the moneyJ] It appears to have been usual in the East, for money to be put into bags, which, being ascertained as to the exact sum deposited in each, were sealed, and probably labelled, and thus passed currently. Instances of this kind may be traced in the Scriptures, at least so far as that money was thus conveyed (2 Kings V. 23), and also thus delivered from superior to inferior officers for distribution: as in the passage referred to in this article. Major Rennell {On the Geography of Herodotus, sect. 15), in giving an abstract of the History of Tobit, says, " we find him again at Nineveh (Tobit xi. 16), from whence he dis- patches his son Tobias to Rages, by way of Ecbatana, for the money. At the latter place he marries his kinswoman, Sara, and sends a messenger on to Rages. The mode of keeping and delivering the money, was exactly as at present in the East. Gabael, who kept the money in trust, " brought forth bags, which were sealed up, and gave them to him," (Tobit ix. 5) ' and received in return the handviTiting or acfaiowledgment which Tobias had taken care to require of his father before he left Nineveh. The money we learn (Tobit i. 14) was left in trust, or as a deposit, and not on usury, and, as it may be concluded, with Tobit's seal on the bags. In the East, in the present times, a bag of money passes (for some time at least) currently from hand to hand, under the authority of a banker's seal, without any examination of its contents;" Job xiv. 17. Sealed up in a bag.] The money that is collected 120 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. together in the treasuries of eastern princes is told up in certain equal sums, put into bags, and sealed. (Chardin.) These are what in some parts of the Levant are called purses, where they reckon great expenses by so many purses. The money collected in the temple in the time of Joash for its reparation, seems in like manner to have been told up in bags of equal value to each other, and probably delivered sealed to those who paid the workmen. (2 'Kings xii. 10.) If Job alludes to this custom, it should seem that he considered his offences as reckoned by God to be very numerous, as well as not suffered to be lost in inattention, since they are only considerable sums which are thus kept. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 285. Luke xix. 20. Laid up in a napkin.] The Greek word here used for a napkin is adopted by the Jews into their language, and is used for a veil, and for a linen cloth. The Jews had a custom which they called possession by a napkin or linen cloth, which is, that when they buy or sell any thing, they use a piece of cloth which thtey call sudar, the word used in this passage ; this the contractors lay hold of to ratify and confirm the bargain. Upon which custom, as connected with these words, Dr. Gill observes, that this man made no use of his sudar, or napkin, in buying or selling; he traded not at all ; he wrapped up his money in it, and both lay useless. h Luke xv. 12. And he divided unto them his living.] It was usual for rich men in the East to divide their property ; but not always for the purpose specified in this part of the parable. " Ever apprehensive of revolution and ruin, a rich man generally divides his estate into three parts. One he employs in trade, or the ne- cessary purposes of life ; another he invests in jewels, which he may easily carry off" if forced to fly; and the other heburies. As he intrusts nobody with the secret of this deposit, if he die before he returns to the spot, it is then lost to the world, till accident throws it in the way of some fortunate peasant when turning up his ground. Those discoveries of hidden treasure, and sudden transitions from poverty to riches, of which we read in oriental tales, are by no means therefore quite ideal ; but a natural con- sequence of the manners of the people." Richardson's Dissert, on the East, p. 180. CONTRACTS. Gen. xxiii. 11. In the presence of the sons of my people.] Contracts, or grants, were usually made before all the people, or their representatives, till writings were invented. Patrick, in loc. Prov. vi. 1. — if thou hast stricken thy hand with a COMMERCE. 121 stranger.'^ To strike hands with another person was a general emblem of agreement, bargaining, or suretyship. So Homer represents it, //, ii. 341, and iv. 159. And Virgil, — En dextra, fidesque. ^n. iv, 597. See also Prov. xvii. 18, xxii. 26; Job xvii. 3. Ruth iv. 7. Now this was the manner in former times in Israel concerning redeeming, and concerning changing, to confirm all things ; a man plucked off his shoe, and gave it to his neigh- bour ; and this was a testimony in Israeli] It is not easy to give an account of the origin of this custom : but the reason of it is plain, it being a natural signification that he resigned his interest in the land, by giving him his shoe wherewith he used to walk in it, that he might enter into and take possession of it himself. The Targum instead of shoe hath right-hand glove; it being then the custom, perhaps, to give that in room of the shoe : in later times, the Jews delivered a handkerchief for the same purpose. So R. Solomon Jarchi says, we acquire, or buy now, by a handkerchief or veil, instead of a shoe. The giving of a glove was in the middle ages a ceremony of in- vestiture in bestowing lands and dignities. In A. D. 1002, two bishops were put in possession of their sees, each by receiving a glove. So in England, in the reign of Edward the Second, the deprivation of gloves was a ceremony of degradation. With regard to the shoe as the token of investiture, Castell {Lex. Polyg. col. 2342) mentions that the emperor of the Abyssinians used the casting of a shoe as a sign of dominion. See Psalm Ix. 8. To these instances the following may properly be added: "Childe- bert the Second was fifteen years old, when Gontram his uncle declared that he was of age, and capable of governing by himself. I have put, says he, this javelin into thy hands, as a token that I have given thee all my kingdom. And then turning towards the assembly he added, you see that my son Childebert is become a man; obey him." Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws, vol. i. p. 361. Jer. xxxii. 11. So I took the evidence of the purchase, both that which was sealed, according to the law and custom, and that which loas open."] It has greatly perplexed commentators to find out the utility of the double evidences of Jeremiah's purchase; possibly the account given of modern practice may illustrate the afiair. " After a contract is made, it is kept by the party himself, not the notary ; and they cause a copy to be made, signed by the notary alone, which is shown upon proper occasions, and never exhibit the other." According to this account, the two books were the same, the one sealed up with solemnity, and not to be used on common occasions, the other open, and to be used at pleasure. Jiarmer, vol. iL p. 277. 122 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. 1 Kings xxi. 8. Seal.'] Seals are of very ancient invention. Thus Judah left his seal with Tamar as a pledge. The ancient Hebrews wore their seals or signets in rings on their fingers, or in bracelets on their arms. Sealing rings, called annuli signatorii, sigillares, and chirographi, are said by profane authors to have been invented by the Lacedaemonians, who not content to shut their chests, armouries, &c. with keys, added a seal also. Letters and contracts were sealed thus : first, they were tied up with thread or a string, then the wax was applied to the knot, and the seal impressed upon it. Rings seem to have been used as seals in almost every country. Pliny, however, observes that seals were scarcely used at the time of the Trojan war ; the method of shut- ting up letters was by curious knots, which invention was parti- cularly honoured, as in the instance of the Gordian knot. We are also informed by Pliny, that in his time no seals were used but in the Roman empire: but at Rome testaments were null without the testator's seal and the seals of seven witnesses. Wilson's Archceol. Diet. art. Seal. Philem. 19. /, Paul, have written it with mine own hand.'] These words are to be explained by the Roman laws, by which it was enacted, that if any man write that he hath undertaken a debt, it is a solemn obligation upon him. Whatsoever is written as if it were done, seems, and is reputed to have been done. From hence it appears that a man is bound as much by his own hand, or confession under it, as if any other testimonies or proofs were against him of any fact or debt. Hammond, in loc. Col. ii. 14. Blotting out the hand-writing.] The hand-writ- ing, x£'po7P"<^ov, signifies a bill or bond, whereby a person binds himself to some payment or duty, and which stands in force against him till the obligation is discharged. In these words the apostle alludes to the different methods by which bonds formerly were can- celled : one was by blotting or crossing them out with a pen, and another was by striking a nail through them. In either of these cases the bond was rendered useless, and ceased to be valid. These circumstances the apostle applies to the death of Christ. DEBTORS. 1 Sam. xxii. 2. And every one that was in debt.] It appears to have been usual in ancient times for such persons as are de- scribed in this verse to devote themselves to the perpetual service of some great man. The Gauls in particular are remarked for this practice. " Plerique, cum aut sere alieno, aut magnitudine tribut- orum, aut injuria potentiorum premantur, sese in servitutem dicant nobilibus," &c. Ccesar de Bellu Gall. lib. vi. cap. 13. COMMERCE. 123 2 Kings iv. I. The creditor is come to take unto him my two sons to be his bondsmen.l This was a case in which the Hebrews had such power over their children, that they might sell them to pay what they owed; and the creditor might force them to it. Huet thinks that from the Jews this custom was, propagated to the Athenians, and from them to the Romans. Neh. v. 5. JVe bring into bondage our sons and our daugh- ters to be servants.'\ As to the paternal power of the Hebrews, the law ■gave them leave to sell their daughters, Exod. xxi. 7, but the sale was a sort of marriage, as it was with the Romans. Fa- thers sold their children to their creditors, Isaiah I. 1, and in the time of Nehemiah the' poor proposed to sell their children for something to live upon ; and others bewailed themselves that they had not wherewith to redeem their children that were already in slavery. They had the power of life and death over their chil- dren, Prov. xix. 18. But they had not so much liberty as the Romans, to make use of this severe privilege without the knowledge of the magistrate. The law of God only permitted the father and mother, after they had tried all sorts of correction at home, to de- clare to the elders of the city that their son was stubborn and re- bellious; and upon their complaint he was condemned to death and stoned. Deut. xxi. 19. The same law was in force at Athens. Fleury's History of the Israelites, p. 140. Matt, xviii. 25. His lord commanded him, to be sold, and his wife, and children, and all that he had.'\ It w&s not only the custom of the Jews to come upon children for the debts of their parents, but of other nations also. With the Athenians, if a father could not pay his debts, the son was obliged to do it, and in the mean time to be kept in bonds till he did. (Alex, ab Alex. Genial. Dier. 1. vi. c. 10.) Grotius proves, from Plutarch and Halicar- nassensis, that children were sold by the creditors of their parents in Asia, at Athens, and at Rome. Joel iii. 3. And sold a girl for wine, that they might drink.] Considered as slaves are in the East, they are sometimes purchased at a very low price. Joel complains of the contemptuous cheap- ness in which the Israelites were held by those who made them captives. " They have cast lots for my people, and have given a boy for an harlot, and sold a girl for wine, that they might drink." On this passage Chardin remarks, that " the Tartars, Turks, and Cosaques sell the children sometimes as cheap, which they take. Not only has this been done in Asia, where examples of it are fre- quent ; our Europe has seen such desolations. When the Tartars came into Poland they carried off all they were able. I went thither some years after. Many persons of the court assured me that the Tartars, perceiving that they would no more redeem those 124 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. that they had carried oiF, sold them for a crown, and that they had purchased them for that sum. In Mingrelia they sell them for provisions, and for wine." Harmer, vol. ii. p. 374. Gen. xlvii. 19. Buy us and our land for bread, and we and our land will be servants unto Pharaoh.^ From the Gentoo laws it appears, that such a purchase as that made by Joseph was not an unusual thing. Particular provision is made in these institutes for the release of those who were thus brought into bondage. " Whoever having received his victuals from a person during the time of a famine, hath become his slave, upon giving to his pro- vider whatever he received from him during the time of the famine, and also two head of cattle, may become free from his servitude, according to the ordination of Pacheshputtee Misr. — Approved." " Whoever having been given up as a pledge for money lent, per- forms service to the creditor, recovers his liberty whenever the debtor discharges the debt ; if the debtor neglects to pay the creditor his money, and takes no thought of the person whom he left as a pledge, that person becomes the purchased slave of the creditor." ' Gentoo Laws, p. 140. Neh. v. 1 1. Also the hundredth part of the money, and of the corn, the wine, and the oil that ye exact of them.'\ The hundredth part was an usury at this time exacted in those countries, as after- wards among the Romans : this was the hundredth part of what was lent every month, so that every year they paid the eighth part of the principal. Salmasius, however, observes, that in the eastern countries, there never were any laws to determine what interest should be taken for money lent for a day, or a week, or a month, or a year (for there were all these sorts of usury), but every one was left to demand what he pleased ; and according to what was agreed they paid for what was borrovired. Patrick, in loc. " Nothing is more destructive to Syria than the shameful and excessive usury customary in that country. When the peasants are in want of money to purchase grain, cattle, &c. they can find none but by mortgaging the whole or part of their future crop greatly under its value. The danger of letting money appear closes the hands of all by whom it is possessed; andif it be parted with, it must be from the hope of a rapid and exorbitant gain : the most moderate interest is twelve per cent. : the usual rate is twenty, and it frequently rises as high even as thirty." Volney's Travels, vol. ii. p. 410. See also Jer. xv. 10. MERCHANDISE. Prov. xxxi. 24. She maketh fine linen, and selleth it, and deliverelh girdles unto the merchants.'] Herodotus informs us, that the Egyptian women used to carry on commerce. That trade is COMMERCE. 125 now, however, lost ; and the Arabs of that country are the only people who retain any share of it. Maillet {Lett. xi. p. 134) says, that the women used to deal in buying and selling things woven of silk, gold, and silver, of pure silk, of cotton, of cotton and thread, or simple linen cloth, whether made in the country or imported. This is precisely what the industrious Israelitish women are sup- posed to have done. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 414. 1 Kings x. 22. Peacocks.] Ellis, in Cook's last voyage, speaking of the people of Otaheite, says, they expressed gteat sur- prise at the Spaniards (who had lately made them a visit (because they had not red feathers as well as the English (which they had brought with them in great plenty from the Friendly Isles), for they are with these people the summum bonum and extent of all their wishes (vol. i. p. 129). As these islands border so closely upon Asia, and have among their manners and customs many which bear a resemblance to those of the Asiatics, may not these people's hfgh esteem for red feathers throw some light upon this passage, v?here-we find peacocks ranked amongst the valuable commodities imported by Solomon ? Lam. v. 4. Our wood is sold unto us.] The woods of the land of Israel being from very ancient times common, the people of the villages, which had no trees growing in them, supplied them- selves with fuel out of those wooded places, of which there were many anciently, and several that still remain. This liberty of taking wood in common, the Jews suppose to have been a consti- tution of Joshua, of which they give us ten. The first, giving liberty to an Israelite to feed his flock in the woods of any tribe. The second, that it should be free to take wood in the fields any- where. (Vide Jteland Pal. p. 261.)' But though this was the ancient custom in Judea, it was not so in the country into which they were carried captives ; or if this text of Jeremiah respects those that continued in their own country for a while under Geda- liah, as the 9th verse insinuates, it signifies that their conquerors possessed themselves of these woods, and would allow no fuel to be cut down without leave, and that leave was not to be obtained without money. It is certain that, presently after the return from the captivity, timber was not to be cut without leave. (Neh. ii. 8.) Harmer, vol. i. p. 460. Luke xi. 5. Friend, lend me three loaves.] It was usual with the Jews to borrow bread one of another ; and certain rules are laid down when and upon what condition this is to be done ; as for instance on a Sabbath-day. So said Hillel, " let not a woman lend bread to a friend till she has fixed the price, l^st wheat should be dearer, and they should be found coming into the practice of usury." What was lent could not be demanded again under thirty days. Gill, in loc. 126 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Luke xvi. 12. If ye have not been faithful in that which is another man's, who shall give you that which is your own .**] The following custom of the Turks may contribute to our understand- ing of these words. " It is a common custom with the merchants of this country when they hire a broker, book-keeper, or other confidential servant, to agree tbat he shall claim no wages : but to make amends for that unprofitable disadvantage, they give them free and uncontrolled authority to cheat them every way they can in managing their business: but with this. proviso, that they must never exceed the privileged advantage of ten per cent. All under that which they can fairly gain in the settling of accounts with their respective masters, is properly their own ; and by their master's will is confirmed to their possession." Aaron Hill's Travels, p. 77. This kind of allowance, though extremely singular, is both ancient and general in the East. It is mentioned in the Gentoo Laws, chap. ix. " If a man hath hired any person to conduct a trade for him, and no agreement be made with regard to wages, in that case the person hired shall receive one-tenth of the profit." The text above cited must, therefore, according to these extracts at least, mean, " if you have not been found faithfiil in the administration of your principal's property, how can you expect to receive your share (as the word may signify) of that advantage which should reward your labours ? If you have not been just toward him, how do you expect he should be just toward you ?" Fragments, No. 303. Matt. ix. 9. Sitting at the receipt of custom.'] The pub-, licans had houses or booths built' for them at the foot of bridges, at the mouth of rivers, and by the sea-shore, where they took toll of passengers that went to and fro. Hence we read of the tickets or seals of the publicans, which, when a man had paid toll on one side of the river, were given him by the publican to show to him that sat on the other side, that it might appear he had paid. On these were written two great letters, larger than those in common use. Gill, in loc. Lev. xix. 36. Just balances, just weights, a just ephah, and a just hin shall ye have.'] Fraudulent practices were severely punished among the Egyptians, whether they were of a public or private wrong. Diodorus Siculus tells us, the law commands that both the hands should be cut off of those that adulterated money, or substituted new weights. Luke vi. 38. Good measure, pressed down, and shaken to- gether, and running over.} The allusion here is to dry measure among the Jews ; which, though right find full, here called good measure, they thrust and pressed to make it hold more ; and COMMERCE. 127 shoak it also for the same purpose, and then heaped it up as much as they could till it fell over. Of all these methods used in measuring we have frequent instances in the Jewish writings : some of it them are cited by Gill, in loc. Exodus x. 26. There shall not a hoof be left behind.'^ Bp. Patrick observes, that this was a proverbial speech in the eastern countries ; similar to a saying amongst the Arabians, which was first used about horses, and afterwards transferred to other things — -present money even to a hoof, that is, they would not part with a horse, or any other commodity, till the buyer had laid down the price of it to a farthing. Rev. xiii. 17. And that no man might buy or sell, save he that had the mark, or the name of the beast, or the number of his name.'] Many learned men have thought these expressions relate to the manner in which Ptolemy Philopater persecuted the Jews. " He forbid any to enter into his palace, who did not sacrifice to the gods he worshipped, whereby he excluded the Jews all access to him, either to the suing to him for justice, or the obtaining of his protection, in what case soever they should stand in need of it. He ordered by another decree, that all of the Jewish nation that lived in Alexandria should be degraded from the first rank of citi- zens, of which they had always hitherto been from the first founding of the city, and be enrolled in the third rank among the common people of Egypt, and that all of them should come thus to be enrolled, and at the time of this enrolment have the mark of an ivy-leaf, the badge of the god Bacchus, by a hot iron im- pressed upon them ; and that all those who should refuse to be thus enrolled, and to be stigmatized with this mark, should be slaves ; and that if any of them should stand out against this de- cree, they should be put to death." Prideaux's Connexion, part ii. lib. 2, ann. ante C. 216. * John. ii. 16. Make not my father's house a house of mer- chandise.'] " It appears from the best authorities that this mosque" (the great mosque at Damascus) " was a Christian cathedral ; and this opinion is supported by the style of the architecture, which is of the Corinthian order throughout every part of the edifice. It is thought by, some writers to have been built by the Emperor Heraclius, and dedicated to Zachariah ; by others it is considered to have been the work of the Bishops of this see, and by them dedicated to St. John of Damascus ; while the Turks call it the ■ Mosque of St. John the Baptist, and think it was built by the Khalif Valid, in the 86th year of the Hejira, from some of the Arabic historians mentioning that he embellished it about that period. The mosque, at the time of our passing through it, was full of people, though these were not worshippers, nor was it at 128 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. either of the usual hours of public prayer. Some of the parties were assembled to smoke, others to play at chess, and some ap- parently to drive bargains of trade, but certainly none to pray. It was indeed a living picture of what we might believe the temple at Jerusalem to have been, when those ' who sold oxen, and sheep, and doves, and the changers of money sitting there,' were driven out by Jesus with a scourge of cords, and their tables over- turned. It, was, in short, a place of public resort and thorough- fare, a ' house of merchandise,' as the temple of the Jews had become in the days of the Messiah. " On leaving the mosque, we came out into a crowded bazaar which accounted for the building itself being used as a convenient resort for those who wished to converse apart on the subject of business ; thus answering the convenient purpose of a promenade and an exchange. In order to show that this may also exist in Christian countries, without implying any extraordinary irrever- ence to religion, it may be sufficient to advert to the assignations which take place in the Catholic cathedrals of the continent of Europe, and the sauntering gossip of idle visitors to Westminster Abbey, in our own country ; to say nothing of the appropriation of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem to worse purposes than either, at the time of its most solemn celebrations, for which we have the most unexceptionable authority. They all tend to prove, that in every country there is a strange" mixture of profit and pleasure with religion, and that edifices set apart for the solemn worship of the Deity, into which no one- should enter but with feelings of the purest devotion, are frequently the scenes of indulgence, to some of the worst passions of human nature — hypocrisy, fraud, and men- tal and physical prostitution." Buckingham's Travels among the Arab Tribes, pp. 308, 309. CHAPTER VI. CUSTOMS RELATING TO ARTS AND SCIENCES. HUNTING. PsALM xxxv. 7. They have hid for thee their net in a pitl] This is said in allusion to the custom of digging pits, and putting nets into them, for the purpose of catching wild -beasts; they were covered with straw, or dust, or such like things, that they might not be discerned. 2 Sam. xxii. 6. Snares of death."] This is an allusion to the ancient manner of hunting, which is still practised in some coun- tries, and was performed by " surrounding a considerable tract of ARTS AND SCIENCES. 129 ground by a circle of nets, and afterwards contracting the circle by degrees, till they had forced all the beasts of that quarter together into a nai-row compass, and then it was that the slaughter began. This manner of hunting was used in Italy of old, as well as all over the eastern parts of the world f Virgil, jEn. iv. 1. 121 — 131, Skald's Travels, p. 235), and it was from this custom that the poets sometimes represented death as surrounding persons with his nets, and as encompassing then! on every side. Thus Statius, lib. V. Syh. i. 1. 156, -FurvcB misei-um circum undique lethi Vairavere plagffi." Spence's Polymetis, Dial. xvi. p. 262 ; Horace, lib. iii. Ode xxiv. 1. 8. See also Psalm xviii. 5, et al. Isaiah xxiv. 17. Fear, and the pit, and the snare are upon thee.^ These images are taken from the different methods of hunting and taking wild beasts, which were anciently in use. The terror (so Bp. Lowth translates, instead of /ear) was a line strung with feathers of all colours, which fluttering in the air, scared and frightened the beasts into the toils, or into the pit, which was pre- pared for them. This was digged deep in the ground, and covered over with green boughs, or turf, in order to deceive them, that they might fall into it unawares. The snare or toils were a series of nets, inclosing at first a great space of ground, in which the wild beasts were known to be ; and drawn in by degrees into a nar- rower compass, till they were at last closely shut up and entangled in them. Hab. i. 8. Their horses also are swifter than the leopards.] Leopards tamed and taught to hunt are, it is said, made use of in the East for that purpose, and seize the prey with surprising agility. Le Bruyn tells us (torn. ii. p. 154), that he had often seen the bashaw of Gaza go to hunt jackalls, of which there are great numbers in that country, and which he took by means of a leopard trained to it from its youth. The hunter keeps it before him upon his horse, and when he meets with a jackall, the leopard leaps down, and creeps along till he thinks himself within reach of the beast, when he leaps upon it, throwing himself seventeen or eighteen feet at a time. If we suppose that this way of hunting was in use in the time of the prophet Habakkuk, the image was sufficiently familiar to the common people. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 438. Judges xv. 5. And when he had set the brands on fire, he lot them go into the standing corn of the Philistines.] " There is reason to think that there was nothing new or uncommon in this operation, as it was most obvious for the end proposed that the 130 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. wit of man could devise. We accordingly find that Ovid alludes to the practice, and mentions that foxes and firebrands were every year exhibited at Rome, and killed in the Circus. For it was the custom in many places to sacrifice, by way of retaliation, every animal, whether goat or swine, which did particular injury to the fi-uits of the earth. In consequence of this they introduced these foxes, which had been employed for that purpose with firebrands. Cur igitur misss vinctis ardentia tsdis Terga ferant vulpes causa docenda mihi. He then mentions an instance of much injury done by a fox so accoutred by fire. Qua fugit incendit vestitos messibus agros, Damnosis vires ignibus aura dabat. On this account the whole race, according to the poet, were con- demned, at the festival called Cerealia, to be in their turns set on fire. Utque luat poenas gens baec, Cerealibus ardet, Quoque modo segetes perdidit ipsa perit. Fast. lib. iv. 681,ror. It is alluded to proverbially more than once by Lycophron, and seems to have been well known in Greece. He makes Cassandra represent Ulysses as a man both of cunning and mischief, and styles him very properly \afnTovpiQ, a fox with a firebrand at his tail ; for wherever he went, mischief followed, v. 344. Suidas also takes notice of this custom, when he speaks of a kind of beetle which the Boeotians named Tipha. They imagined that if to this they were to fasten some inflammable matter, it would be easy to set any thing on fire. He adds, that this was sometimes practised with foxes." Bryant's Observations, p. 154. The caliph Vathek being under the necessity, when on his travels, of lighting torches, and making extraordinary fires to protect himself and his attendants from the fury of the wild beasts that were ready to make an attack on them, set fire to a forest of cedar that bordered on their way. Accidents of this kind in Persia are not unfrequent. , Hist, of Caliph Vathek, p. 250. " It was an ancient custom with the kings and great men to set fire to large bunches of dry combustibles, fastened round wild beasts and birds ; which being then let loose, the air and earth appeared one great illumination ; and as those terrified creatures naturally fled to the woods for shelter, it is easy to conceive that conflagrations would often happen, which must have been peculiarly destructive." {Richardsons Dissert., p. 185.) This circumstance reminds us of the destruction occasioned among the standing corn, the vine- yards, and olives of the Philistines. In Psalm Ixxxiii. 14, there ARTS AND SCIENCES. 131 is a reference to one of these fires, though arising from another cause. See also Homer, II, ii. 455. 1 Peter v. 8. As a roaring Hon.] For the illustration of this passage it may be observed, that the roaring of the lion is in itself one of the most terrible sounds in nature; but it becomes still more dreadful, when it is known to be a sure prelude of destruc- tion to whatever living creature comes in his way. Hence that question in Amos iii. 8, " the lion hath roared, who will not fear?" The lion does not usually set up his horrid roar till he beholds his prey, and is just going to seize it. (See Bochart, vol. ii. p. 729.) Amos iii. 8. The lion hath roared, who will not fear?"] " The strength of the lion is so prodigious, that a single stroke of his paw is sufficient to break the back of a horse : and one sweep with his tail will throw a strong man to the ground." Kolben says, that when he comes up to his prey, he always knocks it down dead, and seldom bites it till the mortal blow has been given. This blow he generally accompanies with a terrible roar. " The roar- ing of a lion when in quest of prey resembles the sound of distant thunder ; and, being re-echoed by the rocks and mountains, appals the whole race of animals, and puts them to a sudden flight: but he frequently varies his voice into a hideous scream or yell." Bingleifs Animal Biography , vol. i. p. 253, 267. 1 Sam. xxvi. 20. Hunt a partridge^ The account given by Dr. Shaw {Travels, p. 236), of the manner of hunting partridges and other birds by the Arabs, affords an excellent comment on these words : " The Arabs have another, though a more laborious method of catching these birds ; for observing that they become languid and fatigued after they have been hastily put up twice or thrice, they immediately run in upon them, and knock them down with their zerwattys, or bludgeons, as we should call thera." - It was precisely in this manner that Saul hunted David, coming hastily upon him, and putting him up from time to time, in hopes that he should at liength, by frequent repetitions of it, be able to destroy him. Harmer, vol. i. p. 318. 2 Tim. ii. 26. Thai they may recover themselves out of the snare of the devil j who are taken captive by him at his will.] In order to understand this beautiful image, it is proper to observe that the word avavt}-ipb)(7iv signifies to awake from a deep sleep, or from a fit of intoxication (Eisner, in loc), and refers to an artifice of fowlers, to scatter seeds impregnated with some drugs, intended to lay-birds asleep, that they may draw the net over them with the greater security. Dr. Shaw (Travels, p. 236) mentions a method practised by the modern eastern fowlers of carrying before them a piece of painted canvass of the size of a door, by k2 132 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. means of which they stupefy or astonish their game, and thus easily destroy them. Psalm Ixviii. 30. Rehuke the company of the spear-men.] Literally, •' rebuke the beast of the reeds," or canes. This in all probability means the wild boar, which is considered as destructive to the people of Israel. Psalm Ixxx. 13. That wild boars abound in marshes, fens, and reedy places, appears from Le Bruyn, who says, " we were in a large plain full of canals, marshes, and bul- rushes. This part of the country is infested by a vast number of wild boars, that march in troops, and destroy all the seed and fruits of the earth, and pursue their ravages as far as the entrance into the villages. The inhabitants, in order to remedy this mis- chief, set fire to the rushes which afford them a retreat, and de- stroyed above fifty in that manner; but those that escaped the flames spread themselves all round in such a manner that the people themselves were obliged to have recourse to flight, and have never disturbed them since, for fear of drawing upon them- selves some greater calamity. They assured me that some of these creatures were as large as cows." Travels, vol. ii. p. 62. See also Apollonius, lib. ii. 820; Virgil, JEn. x. ; Ovid Metam. viii. Scripture Illust, Expos. Index. Isaiah xxxvii. 29. / will put my hooh in thy nose.] It is usual in the East to fasten an iron ring in the nose of their camels and buffaloes, to which they tie a rope, by means of which they manage these beasts. God is here speaking of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, under the image of a furious refractory beast ; and accordingly, in allusion to this circumstance, says, " I will put my hook in thy nose." See Shaw's Travels, p. 167, 2nd edit. Job vii. 12. Am I a sea, or a whale, that thou settest a watch over me ?] Crocodiles are very terrible to the inhabitants of Egypt; when therefore they appear, they watch them with great attention, and take proper precautions to secure them, so that they should not be able to avoid the deadly weapons afterwards used to kill them. To these watchings, and those deadly after-assaults, I apprehend Job refers, when he says, " Am I a whale (but a crocodile no doubt is what is meant there), that thou settest a watch over me?" " Different methods," says Maillet, "are" used to take crocodiles, and some of them very singular; the most common is to dig deep ditches along the Nile, which are covered with straw, and into which the crocodile may probably tumble. Sometimes they take them with hooks, which are baited with a quarter of a pig, or with bacon, of which they are very fond. Some hide themselves in the places which they know to be frequented by this creature, and lay snares for him." (Lett. ix. p. 32, Harmer, vol. iv. p. 286.) ARTS AND SCIENCES. 133 EzEK. xxxii. 3. / will therefore spread out my net over thee with a company of many people, and they shall bring thee up in my net^l Herodotus (lib. ii. cap. 70) relates, that in his time they had, in Egypt, many and various ways of taking the croco- dile. Brookes {Nat. Hist. vol. i. p. 332) says, " the manner of taking the crocodile in Siam, is by throwing three or four nets across a river, at proper distances from each other ; that so if he break through the first, he may be caught by one of the others." FISHING. Job xli. 1. Canst thou draw out leviathan with an hook?"] From this passage, Hasselquist {Travels, p. 440) observes, that the leviathan " means a crocodile, by that which happens daily, and without doubt happened in Job's time, in the river Nile ; to wit, that this voracious .animal, far from being drawn up by a hook, bites off and destroys all fishing-tackle of this kind, which is thrown out in the river. I found, in one that I opened, two hooks, which it had swallowed, one sticking in the stomach, and the other in a part of the thick membrane which covers the palate." James i. 1 4. But every man is tempted, when he is drawn away of his own lust, and enticed.^ The original words have a singular beauty and eloquence, containing an allusion to the method of drawing fishes out of the water with a hook concealed under the bait, which they greedily devour. Doddridge, in loc. Job xli. 7. Or his head with fish-spears ?'\ The Hebrew root of the word rendered fish-spears seems to have no connexion in sense with spears. The Hebrew phrase may mean to insert, place, or set in ; the Chaldee Targum on this verse runs literally thus: "Is it possible that thou shouldst place his skin. in the booth, and his head in the shed or hut for fish ?" Agreeably to this idea the whole verse may refer, as Gusset has observed, to the fishermen's custom of hanging up in their huts the skins or heads of the strange or monstrous. fishes they had taken; as hun- ters did those of wild beasts, and as our fox-hunters still nail up against the stable door the heads of the foxes they have killed. Parkhurst's Heb. Lex. p. 614. ed.4. TAMING SERPENTS. PsALM Iviii. 5. The voice of charmers.'] Whether any man ever possessed the power to enchant or charm adders and serpents, or whether those who pretended to do so profited only by popular credulity, it is certain that a favourable opinion of magical power once existed. Numerous testimonies to this purpose may be col- lected from ancient writers. Modern travellers also afford their 134 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. evidence. Mr. Browne (in his Travels in Africa, p. 83) thus describes the charmers of serpents. " Romeili is an open place of an irregular form, where feats of juggling are performed. The charmers of serpents seem also worthy of remark, their powers seem extraordinary. The serpent most common at Kahira is of the viper class, and undoubtedly poisonous. If one of them enter a house, the charmer is sent for, who uses a certain form of words. I have seen three serpents enticed out of the cabin of a ship lying near the shore. The operator handled them, and then put them into a bag. At other times I have seen the serpents twist rpund the* bodies of these psylli in all directions, without having had their fangs extracted or broken, and without doing them any injury." There appears to have been a method of charming serpents by sounds, so as to render them tractable and harmless. The an- cients expressly ascribe the incantation of serpents to the human voice! Thus in Apollonius Rhodius (lib. iv. b. 147) Medea is said to have soothed the monstrous serpent or dragon, which guarded the golden fleece, with her sweet voice. And the laying of that dragon to sleep is by Ovid ascribed to the words uttered by Jason : Verbaque ter dixit placidos facientia somnos, Somnus in ignotos oculos subrepit. Metam. 1. vii. 153. So Virgil attributes the like effects on serpents to the song, as well as to the touch of the enchanter. Vipereo generi et graviter spirantibus Hjdris Spargere, qui somnos cantfique maufique solebat, Muloebatque iras, et morsus arte levabat. ^En. vii. 1. 753, His wand and Loly words the viper's rage. And venora'd wound of serpents could assuage. Dryden. Psalm Iviii. 6. Break their ieeth.] This clause of the verse is understood as a continuation of the foregoing verse, and to be interpreted of the method made use of to tame serpents, which, Chardin says, is by breaking out their teeth. Music has a won- derful influence upon them. Adders will swell at the sound of a flute, raising themselves up on the one-half of their body, turning themselves about, and beating proper time. {Harmer, vol. ii. p. 223.) Teixeira, a Spanish writer, in the first book of his Persian History, says, that in India he had often seen the Gentoos leading about the enchanted serpents, making them dance to the sound of a flute, twining them about their necks, and handling them without any harm. (See also Picarfs Ceremonies and Religious Customs of all Nations, vol. iii. p. 268, note. Niehuhr, vol. i. p. 152.) MANUFACTUKES. Jer. xviii. 3. Then I went down to the potter s house, and, he- ARTS AND SCIENCES. 135 hold, he wrought a work on the wheels.^ The original word means stones rather than wheels. Dr. Blayney, in a note on this passage, says, " the appellation will appear very proper, if we consider this machine as consisting of a pair of circular stones, placed one upon another like mill-stones, of which the lower was immoveable, but the upper one turned upon the foot of a spindle, or axis, and had motion communicated to it by the feet of the 'potter sitting at his work, as may be learned from Ecclus. xxxviii. 29. Upon the top of this upper stone, which was flat, the clay was placed, which the potter, having given the stone the due velocity, formed into shape with his hands." Deut. iv. 20. Iron furnace.] It has been observed by che- mical writers, not only that iron melts slowly even in the most violent fire, but also that it ignites, or becomes red-hot, long before it fuses ; and any one may observe the excessive brightness of iron when red, or rather white-hot. Since, therefore, it requires the strongest fire of all metals to fuse it, there is a peculiar pro- priety in the expression, a furnace for iron, or an iron furnace, for violent and- sharp afflictions. Rom. xii. 20. In so doing thou shall heap coals of fire on his head.J Many interpreters conceive that here is an allusion to artificers that melt metals by heaping coals of fire upon them, and so imagine that the import of these words is, thou shalt melt him down by kindness into affection for thee. , Dr. Whitby, however, offers a different explanation ; he says, that the sense of the pass- age appears to him to be, that if he persevere in his enmity to thee, the event, though not sought for by thee, will be, that thou by thy patience shalt engage the wrath of God to fall upon him, and maintain thy cause against him. This, he apprehends, best suits with the foregoing verse ; and that the words being taken from Prov. xxv. 22, which have that import, according to Grotius, require that interpretation. The expression where it occurs in the Old Testament refers to the wrath and indignation of the Lord. (Psalm cxl. 9, 10 ; Isaiah xlvii. 14 ; Ezekiel x. 2.) Deut. xxxiii. 19. And of treasures hid in the sand.] Scheuch- zer, in his Physica Sacra, on the place, refers this to the river Belus, which ran through the tribe of Zabulon, and which, accord- ing to Strabo, Pliny, and Tacitus, was remarkable for furnishing the sand of which they anciently made glass. But it seems much more natural to explain the " treasures hid in the sand," of those highly valuable murices and purpuras, or purple-fish, which were found on the sea-coast near the country of Zabulon and Issachar, and of which those tribes partook in common with their heathen neighbours of Tyre, who rendered the curious dyes made from those shell-fish so famous among the Romans, by the names of 136 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Sarranum Ostrum, Tyrii Colores. See Goguet, Origin of Laws, part ii. b. 2, ch. 2, art. i. vol. ii. p. 95^ Edinburgh. 1 Cor. iii. 10. A wise master-builder.] The title of (to0oc, or wise, was given to such as vs^ere skilful in manual arts. Homer accounts such to be taught by Minerva, the goddess of wisdom {Iliad XV. lin. 411), and to this some think the apostle alludes when he compares himself to ao^og apx'TEKriov, a wise master- builder. Matt. xxv. 4. The wise took oil in their vessels with their lamps.'] Chardin observes, that in many parts of the East, and in particular in the Indies, instead of torches and flambeaux, they carry a pot of oil in one hand, and a lamp full of oily rags in the other. They seldom make use of candles, especially amongst the great, candles casting but little light, and they sitting at a consi- derable distance from them. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 431, note. ' John xviii. 3. Lanterns.] Norden, among other particulars, has given some account of the lamps and lanterns that they make use of commonly at Cairo. " The lamp is of the palm-tree wood, of the height of twenty-three inches, and made in a very gross manner. The glass, that hangs in the middle, is half filled with water, and has oil on the top, about three fingers in depth. The wick is preserved dry at the bottom of the glass, where they have contrived a place for it, and ascends through a pipe. These lamps do not give much light, yet they are very commodious, because they are transported easily from one place to another. " With regard to the lanterns, they have pretty nearly the figure of a cage, and are made of reeds. It is a collection of five or six glasses, like to that of the lamp which has been just described. They suspend them by cords in the middle of the streets, when there is any great festival at Cairo, and thfey put painted paper in the place of the reeds." (part i. p. 83.) Were these tlfe lanterns that those whb came to take Jesus made use of? or were they such lamps as these that Christ referred to in the parable of the virgins ? or are we rather to suppose that these lanterns are appropriated to the Egyptian illuminations, and that Pococke's account of the lanterns of this country will give us a better idea of those that were anciently made use of at Jerusalem ? Speaking of the travelling of the people of Egypt, he says, " by night they rarely make use of tents, but lie in the open air, having large lanterns made like a pocket paper lantern, the bottom and top being of copper tinned over, and in- stead of paper they are made with linen, which is extended by hoops of wire, so that when it is put together it serves as a can- dlestick, &c., and they have a contrivance to hang it up abroad by means of-three staves." Harmer, vol. ii. p. 429. ARTS AND SCIENCES. 137 Isaiah v. 2. And made a wine-press therein.] " And he hewed out also a lake therein." Lowth. By this expression we are to understand not the wine-press itself; but what the Romans called lacus, the lake, the large open place, or vessel, which, by a con- duit or spout, received the must from the wine-press. In very hot countries it was perhaps necessary, or at least very convenient, to have the lake underground, or in a cave hewn out of the side of a rock, for coolness, that the heat might not cause too great a fer- mentation, and sour the wine. The wine-presses in Persia, Char- din says, are formed by making hollow places in the ground, lined with mason's work, Nonnus describes at large Bacchus hollow- ing the inside of the rock, and hewing out a place for the wine- press, or rather the lake. Kat axoiriKovg i\axr)vt irthoaKaifieoQ Se aidripov, k. t. \. He pierc'd the rock ; and with the aharpen'd tool Of steel well temper'd scoop'd its inmo$t depth ; Then smooth'd the front, and formed the dark recess In just dimension for the foaming lake. Dionysinc. lib. xii. Lowth, in loc. FELLING TIMBER. Joel i. 19. The fiame hath burnt all the trees of the Jield.] There are doubtless different methods for felling timber, practised by various nations. In more rude and uncivilized times, and even still among the people of that description, we may expect to find the most simple, and perhaps, as they may appear to us, inconve- nient contrivances adopted. Prior to the invention of suitable implements, such means as would any way effect this purpose would certainly be resorted to. We must not be surprised then to find that formerly, and in the present day, trees were felled by the operation of fire. Thus Niebuhr says, " we cannot help, condemning the unskilful expedient which these highlanders employ for felling trees.: they set fire to the root, and keep it burning till the tree falls of itself." (Travels, vol. i. p. 300.) Mr. Bruce mentions whole forests, whose underwood and vegetation is thus consumed. Possibly this custom may be alluded to in Zech. xii. 6. " I will make the governors of Judah like a hearth of fire among the wood, and like a torch of fire in a sheaf, and they shall devour all the people round about." Such fires may be kindled either from design or accident. In such instances, as obtaining the timber is the object, these fires are purposely lighted, and would be so managed as to do as little damage as possible, though some injury must cer- 'tainly result from this method of felling trees. Strange as it may seem, we learn from Turner's Embassy to Thibet, (p. 13), that there " the only method of felling timber in practice, I was in- formed, is by fire. In the trees marked out for this purpose, vegetation is destroyed by burning their trunks half through ; 138 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. being left in that state to dry, in the ensuing year the fire is agaia apphed, and they are burnt till they fall." An allusion to some- thing of this kind the prophet Joel certainly has in these words. Perhaps it may be rather to a general undesigned devastation by fire, than to any contrivance for procuring the timber. MEDICINE. Mark vi. 56. They laid the sick in the streets.] Maximus Tyrius tells us (in his fortieth Dissertation, p. 477), that the medical art, as reported, had ifs rise from the custom of placing sick persons on the side of fi-equented ways, that so those who passed along, inquiring into the nature of their complaint, might communicate the knowledge of what had been to themselves useful in the like case. Luke x. 34. Pouring in oil and wine.] It was usual with the Jews to mix oil and wine together, to heal wounds, and they have a variety of rules both for the time and manner of mingling it, as well as for the seasons and mode of applying it. See more in Gill, in loc. James v. 14. Anointing him ivith oil in the name of the Lord.] " In Yemen, the anointing of the body is believed to strengthen and protect it from the heat of the sun, by which the inhabitants of this province, as they wear so little clothing, are very liable to suffer. Oil, by closing up the pores of the skin, is supposed to - prevent that too copious transpiration which enfeebles the fi-arae ; perhaps, -too, these Arabians think a glistering skin a beauty. When the intense heat comes in, they always anoint their bodies with oil. At Sana, all the Jews, and many of the Mahometans, have their bodies anointed whenever they find themselves indis- posed." (Niehuhr, vol. ii. p. 274.) This in some degree ex- plains the direction of the apostle James, the meaning of which will be, to do that solemnly for the purpose of healing, which was often done medicinally; and accordingly we find Solomon, in many places of his Proverbs, speaking of administering ointment, which rejoices the heart, which may be a healing medicine to the navel, &c. Prov. iii. 8. It shall be health to thy navel.] Medicines in the East are chiefly applied externally, and in particular to the stomach and belly. This comparison, Chardin says, is drawn &om the plaisters, ointments, oils, and frictions, which are made use of in the East upon the belly and stomach in most maladies ; they being ignorant in the villages, of the art of making decoctions and potions, and the proper doses of such things. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 488. ARTS AND SCIENCES. 139 Isaiah xvii. 6. An olive-tree.] The olive-tree, from the effect of its oil in relaxing and preventing, or mitigating pain, seems to have been from the beginning an emblem of the benignity of the divine nature ; and particularly after the fall to have represented the goodness and placabiHty of God through Christ, and the blessed influences of the Holy Spirit in mollifying and healing our dis- ordered nature,*and in destroying or expelling from it the poison of the old serpent, even as olive oil does that of the natural serpent or viper. Hence we see a particular propriety in the olive leaf or branch being chosen by divine Providence as a sign to Noah of the abatement of the deluge, Gen. viii. 1 1 ; we may also account for olive branches being ordered as one of the materials of the booths at the feast of tabernacles, Neh. viii. 15, and whence they became the emblems of peace to various and distant nations. See Firg. lEn. vii. 1. 154. viii. 1. 116. xi. 1. 101. Livy, lib. xxxix. cap. 16. et lib. xlv. cap. 25. Our late eminent navigators found that green branches qarried in the hands, or stuck in the ground, were the emblems of peace universally employed and understood by all the islanders, even in the South Seas. See Capt. Cook's Voyages, passim. • Parkhurst's Heb. Lex. p. 193. EccLES. X. 1. Dead flies cause the apothecary's ointment to stink.] " A fact well known," says Scheuchzer (Phys. Sacra, in loc), " wherefore apothecaries take care to prevent flies coming to their syrups and other fermentable preparations. For in all insects there is an acrid volatile salt, which, mixed with sweet or even alkaline substances, excites them to a brisk intestine motion, disposes them to fermentation, and to putrescence itself; by which the more volatile principles fly off, leaving the grosser behind : at the same time the taste and odour are changed, the agreeable to fetid, the sweet to insipid." 2 Kings v. 6. That thou mayest recover him of his leprosy.] Schultens (in his MS. Orig. Heb.) observes, that " the right understanding of this passage depends on the custom of expelling lepers, and other infectious persons, from camps or cities, and reproachfully driving them into solitary places; and that when these persons were cleansed and re-admitted into cities or camps, they were said to be' recollecti, gathered again from their leprosy, and again received into that society from which they had been cut off." Job iv. 19. Which are crushed before the moth.] It is pro- bable that this means a moth-worm, which is one state of thp creature alluded to. It is first inclosed in an egg, from whence it issues a worm, and after a time becomes a complete insect^ or moth. The following extracts from Niebuhr may throw light on 140 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. this passage, that man is crushed by so feeble a thing as a worm. " A disease very common in Yemen is the attack of the Guiney- worm, or the Vena Medinensis, as it is called by the physicians of Europe. This disease is supposed to be occasioned by the use of the putrid waters, which people are obliged to drink in several parts of Yemen; and for this reason the Arabians always pass water, with the nature of which they are unacquainted, through a linen cloth, before drinking it. Where one unfortunately swal- lows any of the eggs of this insect, no immediate consequence follows : but after a considerable time, the worm begins to show itself through the skin. Our physician, Mr. Cramer, was, within a few days of his death, attacked by five of these worms at once, although this was more than five months after we had left Arabia. In the isle of Karek I saw a French officer, named Le Page, who, after a long and difficult journey performed on foot, and in an Indian dress, between Pondicherry and Surat, through the heart of India, was busy extracting a worm out of his body. He supposed that he had got it by drinking bad water in the country of the Marattas. " This disorder is not dangerous, if the person affected can extract the worm without breaking it. With this view it is rolled on a small bit of wood as it comes out of the skin. It is slender as a thread, and two or three feet long. It gives no pain as it makes its way out of the body, unless what may be occasioned by the care wliich must be taken of it for some weeks. If unluckily it be broken, it then returns into the body, and the most dis- agreeable consequences ensue, palsy, a gangrene, and sometimes death." Scripture Illust. Expos. Index. Amos iv. 10. The pestilence after the manner of Egypt.^ Abp. Newcome says, that this means the unwholesome effluvia on the subsiding of the Nile, which causes some peculiarly malignant diseases in this country. Maillet (Lett. i. p. 14), says, that "the air is bad in those parts, where, when the inundations of the Nile have been very great, this river, in retiring to its channel, leaves marshy places, which infect the country round about. The dew is also very dangerous in Egypt." John ix. 6. He spat on the ground, and made clay of the .spittle.'] This was done, observes Mr. Wootton, (Miscel. Bisc. vol. ii. p. 103) to show his divine authority in using means to human reason the most improper, and that too on the sabbath, directly in opposition to a rule established by the Jews, which, though good and just in itself, was superstitious and cruel when applied to the case of healing on the sabbath-day. Maimonides says, that it was particularly forbidden to put fasting spittle upon or into the eyes of a blind man on the sabbath-day. The Jews were not the ARTS AND SCIENCES. 14<1 only persons who superstitiously used spittle. It was considered by the Greeks as a charm against fascination. Theocritus makes Damsetas thus express himself: Qe ftq ^aiTKavOiii Se, rpig iwTvaa tig ejjiov koXttov. Idyl. yi. The Romans had also the same opinion of it. On the day when an infant was named, (which for girls was the eighth, for boys the ninth after birth) the grandmother or aunt, moving round in a circle, rubbed with her middle finger the child's forehead with spittle, which was hence called lus trails saliva. Gen. 1. 2. And Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his f other. ~[ Concerning the practice of physic in Egypt, Herodotus says, th'at it was divided amongst the faculty in this manner. " Every distinct distemper hath its own physician, who confines himself to the study and care of that alone, and meddles with no other : so that all places are crowded with physicians : for one class hath the care of the eyes, another of the head, another of the teeth, another of the region of the belly, and another of occult distempers." lib. ii. c. 84. After this we shall not think it strange that Joseph's physicians are represented as a number. A body of these domestics would now appear an extravagant piece of state, even in a first minister. But then it could not be other- wise, where each distemper had its proper physician ; so that every great family, as well as city, must needs, as Herodotus expresses it, swarm with the faculty. There is a remarkable passage in Jeremiah (chap. xlvi. 11) where, foretelling the overthrow of Pharaoh's army at the Euphrates, he describes Egypt by this characteristic of her skill in medicine. " Go up into Gilead, and take balm, (or balsam) O virgin the daughter of Egypt; in vain shalt thou use many medicines, for thou shalt not be cured." Warhurtons Divine Legation, b. iv. sec. 3,' § 3. Malachi iv. 2. The sun of righteousness shall arise with healing in his wings.'] The late Mr. Robinson of Cambridge called upon a friend just as he had received a letter from his son, who was surgeon on board a vessel then lying off" Smyrna. The son mentioned to his father, that every morning about sun-rise a fresh gale of air blew from the sea across the land, and from its wholesomeness and utility in clearing the infected air, this wind is always called the Doctor. "Now," says Mr. Robinson, "it strikes me, that the prophet Malachi, who lived in that quarter of the world, might allude to this circumstance, when he says, the sun of righteousness shall arise ' with healing in his wings.' The Psalmist mentions the ' wings of the wind,' and it appears to me that this salubrious breeze, which attends the rising of the sun, may be properly enough considered as the wings of the sun, which 142 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. contain such healing influences, rather than the beams of the sun, as the passage has been commonly' understood." ASTRONOMY. Isaiah xiii. 10. For the stars of heaven and the constellations thereof shall not give their light : the sun shall be darkened in his going forth, and the moon shall not cause her light to shine."] The Chaldeans were devoted above all people in the world to the ob- servation of the heavenly bodies, and their existence was become more essentially necessary to them, as a nation celebrated for as- tronomy and commerce ; a circumstance this, which adds singular force and sublimity to a passage, even without this consideration exceedingly grand and poetical. Foster's Essay, p. 30. Gen. i. 5. And the evening and the morning were the first dayi\ The Mosaical method of computing days from sun-rise to sun-set, and of reckoning by nights instead of days, prevailed amongst the polished Athenians. And from a similar custom of our Gothic ancestors, during their abode in the forests ' of Ger- many, words expressive of such a mode of calculation (such as fortnight, se'nnight) have been derived into our own language. The same custom, as we are informed by Csesar, prevailed among the Celtic nadons. " All the Gauls," says he, " measure time, not by the number of days, but of nights. Accordingly they observe their birth-days, and the beginnings of months and years, in such a manner, as to cause the- day to follow the night." John xi. 9. Are there not twelve hours in the day ?] The division of time with the Jews was purely arbitrary. Formerly the Hebrews and Greeks divided the day only according to the three sensible differences of the sun ; when it rises, when it is at the highest point of elevation above the horizon, and when it sets: that is, they divided the day only into morning, noon, and night. These are the only parts of a day which we find mentioned in the Old Testament ; the day not being yet divided into twenty- four hours. Since that the Jews and Romans divided the day, that is, the spaces between the rising and setting of the sun, into four parts, consisting each of three hours. But these hours were different from ours in this respect, that ours are always equal, being always the four and twentieth part of the day ; whereas with them the hour was a twelfth part of the time which the sun , continued above the horizon. As this time is longer in summer than in winter, their summer hours must be longer than their winter ones. The first hour began at sun-rising,. noon was the sixth, and the twelfth ended at sun-set. The third hour divided the space between sun-rising and noon : the ninth divided that which was between noon and sun-set. And it is with relation to ARTS AND SCIENCES, 143 this division of the day that Christ says, " are there not twelve hours in the day ?" Mark xiii. 35. Or at the cock-crowing.] The ancients divided the night into different watches ; the last of which was called cock-crow : wherefore they kept a cock in their tirit, or towers, to give notice of the dawn. Hence this bird was sacred to the sun, and named AXtKrcitp, which seems to be a copipound out of the titles of that deity, and of the tower set apart for his service ; for these towers were temples. HolweU's Mythological Diet. p. 16. 2 Kings xx. 11. The dial of Ahaz.] At the beginning of the world it is certain there was no distinction of time, but by the light and darkness, and the whole day was included in the general terms of the evening and morning. The Chaldeans, many ages after the flood, were the first who divided the day into hours ; they being the first who applied themselves with, any success to astrology. Sun-dials are of ancient use ; but as they were of no service in cloudy weather and in the night, there was another in- vention of measuring the parts of time by water ; but that not proving sufficiently exact, they laid it aside for another by sand. The use of dials was earlier among the Greeks than the Romans. It was above three hundred years after the building of Rome before they knew any thing of them ;' but yet they had divided the day and night into twenty-four hours : though they did not count the hours numerically, but from midnight to midnight, dis- tinguishing them by particular names, as by the cock-crowing, the dawn, the mid-day, &c. The first sun-dial we read of among the Romans, which divided the day into hours, is mentioned by Pliny {Nat. Hist. lib. i. cap. 20), as fixed upon the temple of Quirinus, by L. Papyrius the censor, about the twelfth year of the wars with Pyrrhus. Scipio Nasica some years after measured the day and night into hours from the dropping of water. Isaiah xl. 12. Measured the waters in the hollow of his hand.'] Having pointed out the hieroglyphic meaning of the other signs of the zodiac,. Mr. Maurice adds, " The Libra of the zodiac is perpetually seen upon all the hieroglyphics of Egypt, which is at once an argument of the great antiquity of that asterism, and of the probability of its having been originally fabricated by the astronomical sons of Misraim. By the balance they are supposed by some to have denoted the equality of days and nights, at the period of the sun's arriving at this sign. And by others it is asserted, that this asterism, at first only the beam, was exalted to its station in the zodiac from its being the useful nilometer, by which they measured the height of the inundating waters, to which Egyptian custom there may possibly be some remote allusion in 144. ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. this passage, where the prophet describes the Almighty as ' measuring the waters in the hollow of his hand.' " Indian Anti- quities, vol. iii. p. 240. Isaiah xlvii. 13. The astrologers.] Astrology, divination, and the interpretation of dreams, were fashionable studies with men of rank. They in general carried with them, wherever they went, pocket astronomical tables, which they consulted, as well as astrologers, on every affair of moment. Richardson's Dissert, on the East, p. 191. MUSIC. 1 Sam. xvi. 17. And Saul said unto his servants, provide me now a man that can play well, and bring him unto me.] This command of Saul might originate in a desire to obtain such a person as might by his skill in playing equally contribute to his gratification and state. It seems to have formed a part of royal eastern magnificence to have had men of this description about the court. " Professed story tellers," it may also be observed, " are of early. date in the East. Even at this day men of rank have generally oiie or more, male or female, amongst their attendants, who amuse- them and their women, when melancholy, vexed, or indisposed; and they are generally employed to lull them to sleep. Many of their tales are highly amusing, especially those of Persian origin, or such as have been written on their model. They were thought so dangerous by Mohammed, that he expressly prohibited them in the Koran." Bichardson's Dissert, on the Manners of the East, p. 69. 1 Sam. xvi. 23. And it came to pass when the evil spirit from God was upon Saul, that David took a harp, and played with his hand; so Saul was refreshed, and was well, and the evil spirit departed from him.] The power of music upon the affections is very great. Its effect upon Saul was no more than it has pro- duced in many other instances. Timotheus the musician could excite Alexander the Great to arms with the Phrygian sound, and allay his fury with another tone, and excite him to merriment. So Eric, King of Denmark, by a certain musician could be driven to such a fury, as to kill some of his best and most trusty servants. {Ath. Kiroh. Phonurg. 1. ii. s. 1. Is. Fossius de Po'imatum cantH et rythmi viribus.) 2 Kings iii. 15. But bring me now a minstrel.] The music of great men in civil life has been sometimes directed to persons of a sacred character, as an expression of respect, in the East: perhaps the playing of the minstrel before Elisha is to be understood, in part at least, in the same manner. When Dr- Chandler was at ARTS AND SCIENCES. 145 Athens, the archbishop of that city was upon ill terms with the waiwode : and the Greeks in general siding with the waiwode, the archbishop was obliged to withdraw for a time. But some time after, when Chandler and his fellow travellers were at Corinth, they were informed, that the archbishop was returned to Athens ; that the waiwode had received him kindly, and ordered his musicians to attend him at his palace ; and that a complete revo- lution had happened in his favour. Travels in Greece, p. 244. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 302. Nehemiah xii. 24. And the chief of the Levites ; Hashahiah, S/^erebiah, and Jeshua the son of Kadniiel, with their brethren over against them, to praise and give thanks according to the commandment of David the man of God, ward over against wardJ] " Though we are rather at a loss for information res- pecting the usual manner and ceremony of chanting the Hebrew poems ; and though the subject of this (the Jews') sacred musiq in general is involved in doubt and obscurity, thus far at least is evident from many examples, that the sacred hymns were alter- nately sung by opposite choirs ; and that the one choir usually performed the hymn itself, while the other sung a particular dis- tich, which was regularly interposed at stated intervals, either of the nature of the proasm or epode of the Greeks. Exod. xv. 20, 21; Ezra iii. 11; 1 Sam. xviii. 7; and many of the Psalms." Lowth's Lect. on Hebrew Poetry, vol. ii. p. 25. 2 Sam. xix. 35. Can I hear any more the voice of singing men and singing women ?^ The Mahomedan caliphs are repre- sented as surrounded by young and handsome ladies in a morning, with all sorts of instruments of music in their hands, standing with great modesty and respect ; who, on their sitting up in their beds, in order to rise, prostrate themselves, and those with instruments of music begin a concert of soft flutes, &c. In the halls in which they eat and drink, bands of musicians are supposed to attend them in like manner. ("Arabian Nights' Entertainments," vol. ix. p. 20.) Theocritus has described the same custom as existing amongst the Greeks, and from the words of Barzillai to David it appears, that something of the kind was practised in the court of that king. 146 CHAPTER VII. CUSTOMS RELATING TO LITERATURE." WRITING. Job xix. 23. O thai my words were now written.] " The most ancient way of writing was upon the leaves of the palm-tree. {Pliny, lib. xiii. cap. 11.) Afterwards they made use of the inner bark of a tree for this purpose ; which inner bark being in Latin called liber, and in Greek ^i^Xoq, from hence a book hath ever since in the Latin language been called liher, and in the Greek (3tjiXoc, because their books anciently consisted of leaves made of such inner barks. The Chinese still make use of such inner barks or rinds of trees to write upon, as some of their books brought into Europe plainly show. Another way made use of among the Greeks and Romans, and which was as ancient as Homer (for he makes mention of it in his poems), was, to write on tables of wood covered over with wax. On these they wrote with a bodkin or style of iron, with which they engraved their letters on the wax; and hence it is, that the different ways of men's writings or compositions are called different styles. This way was mostly made use of in the writing of letters or epistles; hence such epistles are in Latin called tahellee, and the carriers of them tahellarii. When their epistles were thus written, they tied the tables together with a thread or string, setting their seal upon the knot, and so sent them to the party to whom they were directed, who cutting the string opened and read them. But on the invention of the Egyptian papyrus for this use, all the other ways of writing were soon superseded, no material till then invented being more convenient to write upon than this. And therefore when Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, set up to make a great library, and to gather all sorts of books into it, he caused them to be all copied out on this sort of paper ; and it was exported also for the use of other countries, till Eumenes, king of Pergamus, endeavouring to erect a library at Pergamus, which should outdo that at Alexandria, occasioned a ' prohibition to be put upon the exportation of that commodity. This put Eumenes upon the invention of making books of parchment, and on them he thenceforth copied out such of the works of learned men as he afterwards put into his library, and hence it is that parchment is called in Latin pergamena, that is, from the city Pergamus, in Lesser Asia, where it was first used for this purpose among the Greeks. For that Eumenes on this occasion first invented the making of parchment cannot be true; for in Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and other parts of the holy Scriptures, many ages before LITERATURE. 147 the time of Eumenes, we find mention made of rolls of writing ; and who can doubt but that these rolls were of parchment ? From the time that the noble art of printing hath been invented, the paper which is made of the paste of linen rags is that which hath been generally made use of both in writing and in printing, as being the most convenient for both, and the use of parchment hath been mostly appropriated to records, registers, and instru- ments of law, for which, by reason of its durableness, it is most fit." (Prideaux's Connexion, vol. ii. p. 707, 9th edit.) It is observable also, that anciently they wrote their public records on volumes or rolls of lead, and their private matters on fine linen and wax. The former of these customs we trace in Job's wish, " O that my words were now written ! O that they were printed in a book ! that they were graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever!" There is a way of writing in the East, which is designed to fix words on the memory, but the writing is not designed to continue. The children in Barbary that are sent to school make no use of paper. Dr. Shaw tells us (Trav. p. 194); but each boy writes on a smooth thin board, slightly daubed over with whiting, which may be wiped off or renewed at pleasure. There are few that retain what they have learned in their youth ; doubtless things were often wiped out of the memory of the Arabs in the days of Job, as well as out of their writing-tables. Job therefore says, " O that they were written in a book," from whence they should not be blotted out! But books were liable to injuries, and for this reason he wishes his words might be even " graven in a rock,'' the most lasting way of all. Thus the dis- tinction between " writing," and " writing in a book," becomes perfectly sensible, and the gradation appears in its beauty, which is lost in our translation, where the word " printed" is intro- duced, which, besides its impropriety, conveys no idea of the meaning of Job, records that are designed to last long, not being distinguished from less durable papers by being printed. {Harmer, vol. ii. p. 168, vide also Jones's Vindication of the former part of St. Matthew's Gospel, chap. 14 and 15.) Deut. xxvii. 2, 3. Thou shalt set thee up great stones, and plaister them with plaister, and thou shalt write upon them all the words of this lawJ] Before the use of paper was found out the ancients, particularly the Phoenicians and Egyptians, wrote their minds upon stones. This custom continued long after the invention of paper, especially if they desired any thing should be generally known, and be conveyed down to posterity. Patrick, in loc. Isaiah viii. 1. J great roll.] " The eastern people roll their papers, and do not fold them, because their paper is apt to fret. (Chardin.) The Egyptian papyrus was much used, and the brittle h2 148 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. nature of it made it proper to roll what they wrote." Harmer, vol. ii. p. 170, note. , Hab. ii. 2. Make it plain upon tables.] Writing-tables were used in and before the time of Homer; for he speaks (11. vi.) of writing very pernicious things upon a two-leaved table. They were made of wood, consisted of two, three, or five leaves, and were covered with wax ; on this impressions were easily made, continued long, and were very legible. It was a custom amongst the Romans for the public affairs of every year to be committed to writing by the pontifex maximus, or high priest, and published on a table. They were exposed to public view, so that the people might have an opportunity of being acquainted with them. It was also usual to hang up laws approved and recorded on tables of brass in their market-places, and in their temples, that they might be seen and read. {Tacili Annales, 1. xi. c. 14.) In like manner the Jewish prophets used to write, and expose their prophecies publicly on tables, either in their own houses, or in the temple, that every one that passed by might read them. Luke i. 63. And he asked for a writing-table.] Dr. Shaw { Travels, p. 194) informs us, that the Moorish and Turkish boys in Barbary are taught to write upon a smooth thin board, shghtly daubed over with whiting, which may be wiped off or renewed at pleasure. Such probably (for the Jewish children use the same) was the little board or writing-table that was called for by Zacharias. Jer. xvii. 13. They that depart from me shall be written in the earth.] Peter Delia Valle observed a method of writing short-lived memorandums in India, which he thus describes. " I beheld children writing their lessons with their fingers on the ground, the pavement being for that purpose strewed all over with very fine sand. When the pavement was full, they put the writing out, and, if need were, strewed new sand from a little heap they had before them, wherewith to write farther." p. 40. One would be tempted to think, says Mr. Harmer (vol. ii. p. 168, note), the prophet Jeremiah had this way of writing in view, when he says of them that depart from God, " they shall be written in the earth." Certainly it means, in general, soon to be blotted out and forgotten, as is apparent from Psalm Ixix. 28; Ezek. xiii. 9. Matt. v. 18. One jot or one tittle.] It has been thought that this refers to one of those ducts, dashes, or corners of letters, which distinguish one letter from another, and nearly resemble each other. Other persons have apprehended that it refers to one of those little strokes in the tops of letters, which the Jews LITERATURE. 149 call crowns or spikes, in which they imagined great mysteries were contained. There were some persons among them who made it their business to search into the meaning of every letter, and of every one of these little horns or pricks that were upon the top of them. To this custom Christ is here supposed to refer. Rev. vi.] St. John evidently supposes paintings or drawings, in that volume which he saw in the visions of God ; the first figure being that of a man on a white horse, with a bow in his hand, &c. The eastern manuscripts are thus ornamented. Olearius (p. 638), describing the library belonging to the famous sepulchre of Schich Sefi, says, that the manuscripts are all extremely well written, beautifully bound, and those of history illustrated with many re- presentations in miniature. The more ancient books of the East are found to be beautified in this manner ; for Pococke speaks in his travels of two manuscripts of the Pentateuch, one in the monastery of Patmos, the other belonging to the bishop of Smyrna, adorned with several paintings well executed for the time, one of which is supposed to be above 900 years old. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 181. Rev. xix. 16. And he hath on his vesture and on his thigh a name written.] The modern hangings which are sent yearly from Cairo to Mecca, to place about the holy house there, as the Mo- hammedans reckon it, are embroidered all over with letters of gold as long, broad, and thick, as a person's finger. Thevenot, part i. p. 149. 1 Cor. xvi. 9,2. Maranat\a.] This is a Syriac expression, which St. Paul makes use of when writing a Greek epistle ; it seems to be some form of speech frequently made use of among the people of those times : perhaps these were the very words the Jews in ancient times had frequently inscribed on the covers of their sacred writings. The oriental books and letters were usualy wrapped in elegant coverings, which had 'some words on them indicative of the contents of the books. Chardin, speaking of a letter which was inclosed in a bag, says, " upon the middle of one of the sides of the bag were written these two Persian words, Hamel Fasel, which signify excellent or precious writing." Har- mer, vol. iv. p. 10. Isaiah xlix. 16. / have graven thee upon the palms of my hands.~\ This is an allusion to the eastern custom of tracing out on their hands, not the names, but the sketches of certain emi- nent cities or places, and then rubbing them with the powder of the hennah or cypress, and thereby making the marks perpetual. This custom Maundrell thus describes : " The next morning no- thing extraordinary passed, which gave many of the pilgrims lei- 150 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. sure to have their arms marked with the usual ensigns of Jerusa- lem, 'the artists who undertake the operation do it in this man- ner : they have stamps in wood of any figure that you desire, which they first print off upon your arm, with powder of charcoal; then taking two very fine needles tied close together, and dipping them often, like a pen, in certain ink, compounded, as I was informed, of gunpowder and oxgall, they make with them small punctures all along the lines of the figure which they have printed, and then washing the part in wine, conclude the work. These punctures they make with great quickness and dexterity, and with scarce any smart, seldom piercing so deep as to draw blood." Journey, at March, 27. Isaiah xliv. 5. Subscribe with his hand.'] This is an allusion to the marks which were made by punctures, rendered indelible by fire or by staining, upon the hand, or some other part of the body, signifying the state or character of the person, and to whom he belonged. The slave was marked with the name of his master ; the soldier of his commander ; the idolater with the name or ensign of his god ; and the Christians seem to have imitated this practice by what Procopius says upon this place of Isaiah. " Many marked their wrists or their arms with the sign of the cross, or with the name of Christ." Bp. Lowth in loc. To this explanation I shall subjoin the following extract from Dr. Doddridge's Sermons to Young People, p. 79, both as it cor- roborates and still farther elucidates this transaction. " Some very celebrated translators and critics understand the words which we render, 'subscribe with his hand unto the Lord,' in a sense a little different from that which our English version has given them. They would rather render them, ' another shall write upon his hand, I am the Lord's ;' and they suppose it refers to a custom which formerly prevailed in the East, of stamping the name of the general on the soldier, or that of the master on the slave. As this name was sometimes borne on the forehead, so at other times on the hand ; and it is certain that several Scriptures, which may easily be recollected, are to be explained as alluding to this : Rev. xiii. 16, 17; Rev. vii. 2, 3; Rev. iii. 12. Now from hence it seems to have grown into a custom amongst some idolatrous na- tions, when solemnly devoting themselves to the service of any deity, to be initiated into it by receiving some marks in their flesh, which might never wear out. This interpretation the original will certainly bear; and it here makes a very strong and beautiful sense, since every true Christian has a sacred^ and indelible cha- racter upon him, which shall never be erased. But if we retain our own version it will come to nearly the same, and evidently refers to a practice which was sometimes used among the Jews (Nehem. ix. 38, x. 29), and which is indeed exceeding natural, of obliging themselves to the service of God, by setting their hands LITERATURE. 151 to some written articles, emphatically expressing such a resolu- tion." Rev. xvii. 5. And upon her forehead was a name written. Mystery, Babylon the Great.'\ It has beei observed by inter- preters, that lewd women were used to have their names written over their doors, and sometimes on their loreheads ; and that criminals among the Romans had an inscription of their crimes carried before them. In the first sense, as Mr. Daubuz observes, this inscription will denote a public profession of what is signified by it, or a public patronage of idolatrous doctrines and worship. In the second sense, it will denote the crimes for which she is condemned, and was punished by the foregoing plagues. Mr. Waple thinks this inscription is rather an allusion to the known inscription on the forehead of the high-priest, Holiness to the Lord. Whereby is intimated, that this idolatrous persecuting government was an antichristian church, of a temper and spirit quite contrary to the true worship of the one true God. Lowman, in loc. IsA. Ix. 8. They shall fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their windoius.l M. Savary (in his Letters on Egypt), speaking of a victory, says, " on the morning of the memorable day, a pigeon was sent off from Manseura, to carry to Grand Cairo the news of the death of Facr Eddin, and of the flight of the Egyptians." This custom of employing pigeons to carry messages with expedition, which has so long subsisted in the East, is at present abolished. Possibly this practice of using the rapid swiftness of these birds for purposes of the utmost dispatch, and the vehemence with which they returned to their accustomed habitations, may be alluded to by Isaiah, who, when describing the eagerness with which the flocks of Gentiles should crowd into the church of Christ, says, " they should fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their win- dows." Dr. Russel tells us, when pigeons were employed as posts, they not only placed the paper containing the news under the wing, to prevent its being destroyed by wet, but " used to bathe their feet in vinegar, with a view to keep them cool, so that they might not settle to drink or wash themselves, which would have destroyed the paper;" (Hist, of Aleppo, vol. ii- p. 203.) SEALING. 1 Kings xxi. 8. So she wrote letters in Ahab's name, and sealed them with his seal.'] The very ancient custom of sealing despatches with a seal or signet set in a ring, is still retained in the East. Pococke says (Travels, vol. i. p. 186, note), "in Egypt they make the impression of their name with their seal, generally of cornehan, which they wear on their finger, and which is blacked 152 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. when they have occasion to seal with it." Hanway remarks {Travels, i. 317), that " the Persian ink serves not only forwriting, but for subscribing with their seal ; indeed, many of the Persians in high office could not write. In their rings they wear agates, which serve for a seal, on which is frequently engraved their name, and some verse from the Koran." Shaw also has a remark exactly to the same purpose. Travels, p. 247. _EzEK. ix. 2. And one man among them was clothed with linens with, a writer's inkhorn hy his side^ D'Arvieux informs us, that " the Arabs of the desert, when they want a favour of their emir, get his secretary to write an order agreeable to their desire, as if the favour were granted ; this they carry to the prince, who, after having read it, sets his seal to it with ink, if he grant it ; if not, he returns the petitioner his paper torn, and dismisses him. These papers are without date, and have only the emir's flourish or cypher at the bottom, signifying the poor, the abject Mahomet, son of Turabeye." [Voy. dans la Pal. p. 61, 154.) Pococke says {Trav. vol. i. p. 186, note), that " they make the impression of their name with their seal, generally of cornelian, which they wear on their finger, and which is blacked when they have occa- sion to seal with it." The custom of placing the inkhorn by the side, Olearius says, continues in the East to this day. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 458. Nehemiah vi. 5. An open letter.] A letter has its Hebrew name from its being rolled or jb'lded together. " The modern Arabs roll up their letters, and then flatten them to the breadth of an inch, and paste up the end of them instead of sealing-wax." {Niehuhr, p. 90.) The Persians make up their letters in "a roll about six inches long, and a bit of paper is fastened round it with gum, and sealed with an impression of ink, which resembles our printer's ink, but (is) not so thick." {Hanway's Travels, vol. i. p. 317), Letters were generally sent to persons of distinction in a bag or purse, and to equals they were also enclosed, but to infe- riors, or those who were held in contempt, they were sent open, i. e. uninclosed. Lady M. W. Montague says {Letters, vol. i. p. 136), the bassa of Belgrade's answer to the English ambassador going to Constantinople was brought to him in "a purse of scar- let satin." But in the case of Nehemiah an insult was designed to be oflfered to him by Sanballat, in refusing him the mark of respect usually paid to persons of his station, and treating him contemp- tuously, by sending the letter without the customary appendages when presented to persons of respectability. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 129.) LEARNED MEN. Matt, xxiii. 2. The scribes.] The scribes were persons some LITERATURE. 153 way employed about books, writings, or accounts, either in tran- scribing, reading, or explaining them. According to these various employments there were several sorts of them. Most authors, however, reduce them to two general classes, civil and ecclesiastical scribes. Of the civil scribes there were doubtless various ranks and degrees, from the common scrivener to the principal secretary of state. It is probable the next scribe in office was the secretary of war, called the principal scribe of the host, who mustered the people of the land (2 Kings xxv. 19.) It is reasonably supposed this is the officer referred to in Isaiah xxxiii. 18, " Where is the scribe ? Where is the receiver ? Where is he that counteth the towers ?" Besides the principal scribes or secretaries, we read of numbers of a lower order, as of " the families of the scribes which dwelt at Jabez (1 Chron. ii. 55), and of the scribes, as well as the officers and porters that were of the tribe of Levi. (2 Chron. xxxiv. 13.) It is probable some of these were under-secretaries and clerks to the principal scribes ; others of them might be scriveners employed in drawing deeds and contracts, and in writing letters, and any other business of penmanship. Such scribes are referred to in Psalm xlv. 1, " My tongue is as the pen of a ready writer." Others of these inferior scribes might be schoolmasters, who, as the Jewish doctors tell us, were chiefly of the tribe of Simeon, and that Jacob's prophetic curse upon this tribe, that "they should be divided in Jacob, and scattered in Israel " (Gen. xlix. 7), was hereby accomplished. The ecclesiastical scribes, who are frequently mentioned in the New Testament, were the learned of the nation who expounded the law, and taught it to the people, and are therefore sometimes called vojuoSiSao-KoXoi, doctors of the law. The vofiiKOi, so often mentioned in the New Testament, and rendered lawyers, were the scribes. Compare Matt. xxii. 35, with Mark xii. 28. Scribe was a general name or title of all who studied, and were teachers of the law and of religion (Isaiah ix. 15.) They were the preach- ing clergy among the Jews, and while the priests attended the sacrifices, they instructed the people. It appears, however, that what they taught chiefly related to the traditions of the fathers ; that it was about external, cai'nal, and trivial rites ; and that it was very litigious and disputatious. Jennings's Jewish An- tiquities, vol. i. p. 390. Deut. xvii. 18. And it shall he, when he sitteth upon the throne of his kingdom, that he shall write him a copy of this law in a book."] Maimonides gives the following account of this circum- stance. " The king was to write the book of the law for himself, besides the book that was left him by his father ; and if his father had left him none, or if that were lost, he was to write him two books of the law, the one he was to keep in his archives, the other Was not to depart from him, unless when he went to his throne, 154 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. or to the bath, or to a place where reading would be inconvenienfj If he went to war, it accompanied him ; if he sat in judgment, it was to be by him." Esther vi. 1. The booh of records J\ That which was prac- tised in the court of Ahasuerus in the passage now referred to appears to have been customary in the Ottoman Porte. " It was likewise found in the records of the empire, that the last war with Russia had occasioned the fitting out of a hundred and fifty gaUiots, intended to penetrate into the sea of Azoph : and the particulars mentioned in the account of the expenses not specifying the mo- tives of this armament, it was forgotten that the ports of Azoph and Taganrag stood for nothing in the present war ; the building of the galliots was ordered, and carried on with the greatest dis- patch." Baron du Tott, vol. ii. p. 15. " The king has near his person an officer, who is meant to be his historiographer : he is also keeper of his seal, and is obliged to make a journal of the king's actions, good or bad, without comment of his own upon them. This, when the king dies, or at least soon, after, is delivered to the council, who read it over, and erase- every thing false in it, whilst they supply every material fact that may have been omitted, whether purposely or not." Bruce's Travels, vol. ii. p. 596. 2 Kings v. 7. And it came to pass, when the king of Israel had read the letter — ] It was an ancient custom for the kings of Egypt to read all the letters of state themselves. Diod. Sic. p. 44. SCHOOLS. Acts xix. 9. Disputing daily in the school of one Tyranms.] Among the Jews there were two kinds of schools, wherein the law was taught ; private and public. Their private schools were those wherein a doctor of the law entertained his scholars, and were usually styled houses of learning. Their public schools were those where their consistories sat to resolve all difficulties and differences of the law. The method of teaching adopted in the schools is observable in the Scripture. When Jesus Christ was twelve years of age, he was found in the temple, in the midst of the doctors, hearing them, and asking them questions. (Lukeii. 46.) St. Paul says, that he had studied at the feet of Gamaliel. (Acts xxii. 3.) Philo says, that among the Essenes, the children sat at the feet of their masters, who interpreted the law, and ex- plained the figurative and allegorical sense of it, after the manner of the ancient philosophers. Among the Hebrews, the rabbins sat on chairs that were raised : those scholars, who were the greatest proficients, were placed on benches just below their mas- ters, and the younger sort sat on the ground,. on hassocks. The LITERATURE. 155 master taught either by himself or by an interpreter ; if he used an interpreter he spoke Hebrew, and the interpreter explained it in the vulgar tongue. If the scholars desired to propose any question to the master, they addressed themselves to the interpreter, who proposed it to the rabbin, and reported his answer. — Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, art. School. Acts xxii. 3. Brought up in this city at the feet of Gamaliel.] With respect to the schools among the Jews it should be observed, that, besides the common schools in which children were taught to read the law, they had also academies, in which their doctors gave comments on the law, and taught the traditions to their pupils. Of this sort were the two famous schools of Hillel and Sammai, and the school of Gamaliel, who was St. Paul's tutor. In these seminaries the tutor's chair is said to have been so much raised above the level of the floor, on which the pupils sat, that his feet were even with their heads. Hence St. Paul says, that he was brought up at the feet of Gamaliel. Matt. v. 1. And when he was set, his disciples came to him.] Sitting was the proper posture of masters or teachers. The form in which the master and his disciples sat is thus described by Maimonides. " The master sits at the head or in the chief place, and the disciples before him in a circuit, like a crown ; so that they all see the master, and hear his words. The master may not sit upon a seat, and the scholars upon the ground ; but either all upon the earth, or upon seats. Indeed from the beginning, or formerly, the master used to sit, and the disciples to stand ; but before the destruction of the second temple, all used to teach their disciples sitting." Matt. x. 27. What ye hear in the ear, that preach ye upon the house-tops.] This expression will be best explained by refer- ring to the custom of the Jews, mentioned by the rabbins, who affirm that the masters among them used to have their inter- preters, who received their dictates, whispered softly in their ear, and then publicly proposed them to all. Some conceive, that by this practice we are to explain (Exod. iv. 16), " And he shall be thy spokesman unto the people, and he shall be, even he shall be to thee instead of a mouth, and thou shalt be to him instead of God." EccLEs. xii. 11. Masters of assemblies.] It is most probable that the assemblies here referred to were for the purpose of pro- nouncing discourses of an eloquent and philosophical nature. Such assemblies have been common in those countries since the days of Solomon, and even in his time might not be unknown. 156 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Macamat signifies, according to D'Herbelot, assemblies and con- versations, pieces of eloquence, or academical discourses, pro- nounced in assemblies of men of letters. This way of reciting compositions, in prose and verse, has been as frequent among the Orientals, as it was anciently among the Romans, and as it is now in our academies. The Arabians have many books contain- ing discourses of this kind, which are looked upon by them as master-pieces of eloquence. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 70. The Romans were accustomed to number their years by the clavi or nails which were fixed on the temple doors. The praetor, consul, or dictator, drove one annually into the wall of Jupiter's temple upon the ides of March. (See Horace, b. iii. Od. xxiv. 5.) May not these words of Solomon allude to a cus- tom similar to this ? PRONUNCIATION. Judges xii. 6. Then said they unto him, say now. Shibboleth: and he said, Sibboleth.'\ In Arabia, the difierence of pronuncia- tion by persons of various districts is much greater than in most other places, and such as easily accounts for the circumstance mentioned in this passage. Niebuhr ( Trav. p. 72) relates some- thing similar to it. " The king of the Hamjares, at Dhafar, said to an Arab, a stranger, ' Theb,' meaning to say, ' Sit down,' but as the same word in the dialect of the stranger signified leap, he leaped from a high place, and hurt himself : when this mistake was explained to the king, he said. Let the Arab who comes to Dhafar first learn the Hamjare dialect." He further says, "not only do they speak quite differently in the mountains of the small district, which is governed by the iman of Yemen, from what they do in the flat country ; but persons of superior rank have a differ- ent pronunciation, and different names for things, from those of the peasants. The pronunciation of certain letters also differs. Those which the Arabs of the north and west pronounce as K or Q, at Maskat are pronounced tsch ; so that bukkra kiab is by some called butscher tschiab." Acts xxvi. 1. Then Paul stretched forth the handJ] Eisner {Observ. vol. i. p. 478) shows this to have been esteemed at that time a very decent expression of an earnestness in one that spoke in public, though some of the most illustrious Greek orators in earlier ages, such as Pericles, Themistocles, and Aristides, thought it a point of modesty to avoid it : but this was the effect of a false taste ; and it is plain the eloquent Demosthenes often used the same gesture with St. Paul here. LITERATURE. - 157 POETRY. Deut. xxxi. 19. Put it in their mouth.'] That is, says Bp. Patrick, that they might sing it, and thereby preserve it in their memory. It was always thought the most profitable way of in- structing people, and communicating things to posterity, to put them into verse. Aristotle (probl. 28, sec. 19) says, that people anciently sung their laws, and that the Agathyrsi continued to do so in his days. The laws of Charondas, as Athenaeus informs us out of Hermippus, were sung at Athens over a glass of wine, and were therefore written in some sort of verse. Tully also reports, that it was the custom among the old Romans to have the virtues and praises of famous men sung to a pipe at their feasts. This he apprehends they learned from the ancient Pythagoreans in Italy; who were accustomed to deliver verses containing those precepts which were the greatest secrets in their philosophy, and composed the minds of the scholars to tranquillity by songs and instruments of music. Prov. i. 1. Proverhs.] " In those periods of remote antiquity, which may with the utmost propriety be styled the infancies of societies and nations, the usual, if not the only, mode of instruc- tion was by detached aphorisms or proverbs. Human wisdom was then indeed in a rude and unfinished state : it was not digest- ed, methodized, or reduced to order and connexion. Those who by genius and reflection, exercised in the school of experience, had accumulated a stock of knowledge, were desirous of reducing it into the most compendious form, and comprised in a few maxims those observations which they apprehended most essential to human happiness. This mode of instruction was, in truth, more likely than any other to prove efficacious with men in a rude stage of society ; for it professed not to dispute, but to command ; not to persuade, but to compel : it conducted them, not by a circuit of a.rgument, but led immediately to the approbation and practice of integrity and virtue. That it might not, however, be altogether destitute of allurement, and lest it should disgust by an appear- ance of roughness and severity, some degree of ornament became necessary ; and the instructors of mankind added to their precepts the graces of harmony, and illuminated them with metaphors, comparisons, allusions, and the other embellishments of style. This manner, which with other nations prevailed only during the first periods of civilization, with the Hebrews continued to be a favourite style to the latest ages of their literature." Lowth's Lectures on the Hebrew Poetry, vol. i. p. 162. RHETORICAL FIGURES. Sol. Song vi. 10. Fair as tlie moon.] This manner of de- 158 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. scribing beauty still prevails in the East. D'Herbelot informs us, that the later writers of these countries have given to the patriarch Joseph the title of the Moon of Canaan, that is, in their style, the most perfect beauty that ever appeared above the horizon of Judea. Many eastern writers have applied the comparison particularly to the females of those countries. Sol. Song ii. 17. Till the day break.] Till the day breathe. It is obvious to common observation, in almost every country, that in settled weather there is generally, at the time of the sun's ap- proach to the horizon, and a little after he is risen, a pretty brisk easterly gale, which seems to be the breathing of the day here mentioned. Egmont and- Heyman (vol. ii. p. 13) inform us, that " though the heat of the coast of the Holy Land, and of some other places there, is very great, yet this excessive heat is very much lessened by a sea-breeze, which constantly blows every morning, and by its coolness, renders the heats of the summer very supportable." (See Nature Displayed, vol. iii. p. 177, English ed. 12mo. Amos viii. 9. 1 will cause the sun to go down at noon, and I will darken the earth in the clear day.] One of the Asiatic poets, describing a calamitous and miserable day, says, " it was a time in which the sun rose in the west.'' Amos threatened that God would make the sun go down at noon, and would darken the earth in a clear day. Mr. Harmer observes (vol. ii. p. 186), that though these expressions are different, they are of the same import, and serve to illustrate one another. They both signify how extremely short this time of prosperity would be, and how unexpectedly it would terminate. Mr. Lowtli {Commentary on the Prophets), says, that the prophet alluded to eclipses of the sun ; for he says that Archbishop Usher hath observed in his annals, that about eleven years after the time that Amos prophesied, there were two great eclipses of the sun, and it is well known in what an ominous light the ancients regarded them. Nahum ii. 10. The faces of them all gather blackness.] Mr. Harmer considers this blackness as the effect of hunger and thirst ; and Calmet {Diet. art. Obscure) refers it to a practice of bedaubing the face with soot. This proceeding, however, is not very consistent with the hurry of flight, or the terror of distress. A better elucidation of it may perhaps be obtained from the fol- lowing extracts than from the preceding opinions. " Kumeil, the son of Ziyad, was a man of fine wit. One day Hejage made him come before him, and reproached him, because in such a garden, and before such and such persons, whom he named to him, he had made a great many imprecations against him, saying, " the Lord blacken his face," that is, fill him with shame and confusion, LITERATURE. 159 and wished that his neck was cut off, and his blood shed." (Oc/c- ley's Hist, of the Saracens, vol. ii. p. 319.) A more recent occur- rence of this nature is recorded by Mr. Antes, in his Observations on the Manners and Customs of the Egyptians, p. 125. After giving an account of the manner in which he had been used during his residence in. Egypt, by Osman Bey, he says, " I have sometimes been asked whether it were not possible to have such a villain chastised by the hand of justice ? Whoever knows any thing of the beys and mamelukes, will readily conclude that it cannot be done, and that it would even be dangerous to attempt it. At that time Ibrahim and Murat Bey were the most powerful among the beys. Had I complained to them, and accompanied my complaint with a present of from .twenty to fifty dollars, for a smaller sum would not have answered, they might perhaps have gone so far as to have banished Osman Bey from Cairo ; but they would probably in a few months have recalled him, especially had they found it necessary to strengthen their party against others. Had this bey afterwards met me in the street, my head might not have been safe. Both Ibrahim and Murat Bey knew something of me ; but when they heard the whole affair, they only said of Osman Bey, God blacken his face." This explanation of the phrase perfectly agrees with the sense of the passage referred to in this article; as also with Joel ii. 6. To gather blackness sig- nifies, in these extracts, as well as in the Scriptures, to suffer extreme confusion or terror. Psalm cxxxiii. 2, 3. As the dew of Herman, and as the dew that descended upon the mountains of Zion.'\ " A great difficulty occurs in the comparison which the Psalmist makes to the dew of Hermon that fell on the hill of Sion ; which might easily be in- terpreted, if it had been observed, that the clouds which lay on Hermon, being brought by the north winds to Jerusalem, caused the dews to fall plentifully on the hill of Sion. But there is a Shihon mentioned in the tribe of Issachar (Josh. xix. 19), which may be the Sion spoken of by Eusebius and St. Jerome as near mount Tabor ; and there might be a hill there of that name, on which the dew of the other Hermon might fall, that was to the east of Esdraelon. However, as there is no certainty that Mount Hermon in that part is even mentioned in Scripture, so I should rather think it to be spoken of this famous mountain, and that Tabor and Hermon are joined together, as rejoicing in the name of God, not on account of their being near to one another, but be- cause they are two of the highest hills in all Palestine. So that if any one considers this beautiful piece of eloquence of the Psalm- ist, and that Hermon is elsewhere actually called Sion (Deut. ix. 48), he will doubtless be satisfied, that the most natural interpre- tation of the Psalmist would be to suppose, though the whole might be called both Hermon and Sion, yet that the highest sum- 160 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. niit of this mountain was in particular called Hermon, and that a lower part of it had the name of Sion ; on which supposition, the dew falling from the top of it down to the lower parts, might well be compared in every /espect to ' the precious ointment upon the head, that ran down unto the beard, even unto Aaron's beard, and went down to the skirts of his clothing;' and that both of them in this sense are very proper emblems of the blessings of unity and friendship which diffuse themselves throughout the whole society." Pococke^s Travels, vol. ii. p. 74. Psalm cxlvii. 16, 17. Who can stand hefore his cold?] The winters in the East are very cold and severe, at least in some places, and in some particular years; Jacobus de Vitriaco {Gesla Dei per Francos, p. 1130) saw the cold prove deadly to man and beast. How forcible the exclamation of the Psalmist appears from this representation ! It is said also, that he giveth snow like wool. To illustrate this remark, Chardin says, " that towards the Black Sea, in Iberia and Armenia, the snow falls in flakes as big as wal- nuts, but not being either hard or very compact, it does no other hurt than presently covering a person." Harmer, vol. i. p. 16. Isaiah viii. 6, 7; Forasmuch as this people refuseth the waters of Shiloah that goeth softly ; now, therefore, behold, the Lord bring- eth up upon them the waters of the river, strong and many.] The gentle waters of Shiloah, a small fountain and brook just without Jerusalem, which supplied a pool within the city for the use of the inhabitants, are an apt emblem of the state of the kingdom and house of David, much reduced in its apparent strength, yet supported by the blessing of God ; and are finely contrasted with the waters of the Euphrates, great, rapid, and impetuous ; the image of the Babylonian empire, which God threatens to bring down like a mighty flood upon all these apostates of both kingdoms, as a punishment for their manifold iniquities. Juvenal, inveighing against the corruption of Rome by the importation of Asiatic manners, says, that the Orontes has long been discharging itself into the Tiber: Jampridem Syrus in Tiberum defluxit Orontes. And Virgil, to express the submission of some of the Eastern countries to the Roman arms, says, that the waters of the Eu- phrates now flowed more humbly and gently. " Euphrates ibat jam moUior undis." ^n. viii. 726. Lowth, in loc. HosEA xiv. 6. And his smell as Lebanon.] Not only both the great and small cedars of Lebanon have a fragrant smell, but Maundrell {Journey, May 9) found the great rupture in that mountain, which " runs at least seven hours' travel directly up into it, and is on both sides exceeding steep and high, clothed with fra- LITERATURE. 161 grant greens from top to bottom, and everywhere refreshed with fountains, falling down from the rocks in pleasant cascades, the in- genious work of nature. These streams all uniting at the bottom, make a full and rapid torrent, whose agreeable murmuring is heard all over the place, and adds no small pleasure to it." Solomon's Song, i. 9. / have compared thee, O my love, to a company of horses^ This appears a very coarse compliment to a mere English reader, arising trom the difference of our man- ners; but the horse is an animal in very high estimation in the East. The Arabians are extravagantly fond of their horses, and caress them as if they were their children. D'Arvieux gives a diverting account of the affectionate caresses an Arab used to give a mare which belonged to him. He had sold it to a mer- chant at Rama, and when he came to see it (which he very fre- quently did), he would weep over it, kiss its eyes, and when he departed, go backwards, bidding it adieu in the most tender man- ner. The horses of Egypt are so remarkable for stateliness and beauty, as to be sent as presents of great value to the Sublime Porte {Maillet, Lett. ix. and xiii.) ; and it appears from sacred history, that they were in no less esteem formerly among the kings of Syria, and of the Hittites, as well as Solomon himself, who bought his horses at 150 shekels, which (at Dean Prideaux's calculation, of three shillings the shekel) is £22. 10*. each, a very considerable price at which to purchase twelve thousand horses together. The qualities, which form the beauty of these horses, are tallness, proportionable corpulency, and stateliness of manner ; the same qualities which they admire in their women, particularly corpulency, which is known to be one of the most esteemed cha- racters of beauty in the East. Niebuhr says, " as plumpness is thought a beauty in the East, the women, in order to obtain this beauty, swallow, every morning and every evening, three of these insects (a species of tenehriones) fried in butter." Upon this prin- ciple is founded the compliment of Solomon ; and it is remark- a:ble, that the elegant Theocritus, in his epithalamium for the celebrated queen Helen, whom he described as plump and large, uses exactly the same image, comparing her to the horse in the chariots of Thessaly. {Idyl, xviii. ver. 29). Williams's New Translation of Solomon's Song, p. 172. MiCAHV. 8. jis a young lion among thejloclcs of sheep; which, if he go through, both treadeth down, and teareth in pieces.^ The lion is remarkable for tearing his prey to pieces. This circumstance is particularly noted both by sacred and profane writers. Gen. xlix. 9; Deut. xxxiii. 22; Psalm xxii. 13; Hosea xiii. 8. Thus also Virgil : , Impastus ceu plena leo per orilia turbans, (Suadet enim vesana fames) mandilque tiahitquo MoUe pecus. ^n. ix,339. M 162 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. The famisli'd lion, thus with hunger botd, O'erleaps the fences of the nightly fold. And tears the peaceful flocks. Dbyden. Comp. Homer, II. xi. lin. 176. BuiFon says {Nat. Hist. torn. viii. p. 124), when the lion leaps on his prey, he gives a spring of ten or fifteen feet, falls on, seizes it with his fore-paws, tears it with his claws, and afterwards devours it with his teeth. Jer. xlix. 19. Behold, he shall come up like a lion from the swelling of Jordan against the habitation of the strong.'\ The comparison used by the prophet in these words will be perfectly understood by the account which Mr. Maundrell gives of the river Jordan. " After having descended," says he, " the outermost bank of Jordan, you go about a furlong upon a level strand, before you come to the immediate bank of the river. This second bank is so beset with bushes and trees, such as tamarisks, willows, oleanders, &c. that you can see no water till you have made your way through them. Id this thicket anciently, and the same is reported of it at this day, several sorts of wild beasts were wont to harbour them- selves, whose being washed out of the covert by the overflowings of the river gave occasion to that allusion, " he shall come up like a lion from the swelling of Jordan." {Journey from Aleppo to Jervi- salem, p. 82.) Correspondent with this account,' Ammianus Mar- cellinus (lib. 18, cap. 17) tells us, that "lions without number range through the reeds and shrubs of the rivers of Mesopotamia." EccLES. vii. 6. The crackling of thorns under a pot.'] Cow- dung dried was the fuel commonly used for firing, but this was remarkably slow in burning. On this account the Arabs would fi-equently threaten to burn a person with cow-dung as a lingering death. When this was used it was generally under their pots. This fuel is a very striking contrast to thorns and furze, and things of that kind, which would doubtless be speedily consumed, with the crackling noise alluded to in this passage. Probably it is this contrast which gives us the energy of the comparison. Harmer, vol. i. p. 261. Psalm xvi. Title. Michtam.] D'Herbelot observes of the works of seven of the most excellent Arabian poets, that they were called Al Modhahebat, which signifies golden, because they were written in letters of gold upon Egyptian paper, (p. 586.) Might not the six psalms which are thus distinguished be so called, on account of their having been on some occasion or other written in letters of gold, and hung up in the sanctuary ? Ainsworth supposes that Michtam signifies a golden jewel. Such a title would have been agreeable to the eastern taste, as D'Herbelot has mentioned a book entitled, Bracelets of Gold. Writing in letters of gold LITERATURE. 163 still continues in the Efist. Maillet, speaking of the royal Mo- hammedan library in Egypt, says, the greatest part of these books were written in letters of gold, such as the Turks and Arabs, even of our time, make use of in the titles of their books." {Leti. xiii. p. 189.) The Persians are fond of elegant manuscripts gjlt and adorned with garlands of flowers. {Jones's Persian Grammar, p. 144.) Isaiah xiv. 4. The golden city.] To represent objects of a superior excellence and importance, comparisons of the highest order are very properly selected. These are sometimes merely simple, and are designed to convey to the mind some predominant quality ; but in other cases they are complex, and the metaphor includes that variety of properties which peculiarly belong to its subject. Many figures are taken from gold, both as to its individual and collective attributes. It is made the emblem of value, purity, and splendour. Thus God is likened to gold. " The Almighty shall be thy defence." (marg. gold.) Job xxii. 26. So is the word of God. Psalm xix. 10. The saints and their graces are thus represented, Job xxiii. 10. 1 Pet. i. 7. The vials of God's wrath are golden, because they are pure and unmixed with par- tiality and passion. Rev. xv. 7. Whatever is rich, pompous, and alluring, is called golden. So Babylon is called a golden dig. This cannot undoubtedly be understood in a literal but figurative sense ; for however great might be the profusion of that metal in the city of Babylon, it could not be sufficient to give rise to such a description of its magnificence, but by an allowed and perhaps common allusion. From the frequent recurrence of this figure, it must have been in very general use amongst the eastern people j and since its properties are probably better known than those of most other metals, would readily express the meaning of a writer, and be perfectly intelligible to the understanding of his readers. Pindar styles gold the Richest offspring of the mine ; Gold, like fire, whose flashiug rays From afar conspicuous gleam Through the night's involving cloud. First in lustre and esteem, Decks the treasures of the proud. West's Translation, Ode 1. But, in modern times, no instance perhaps occurs wherein this comparison is so universally made as by the Birmans. Whoever has read the recently pubhshed travels of Captain Symes, in the kingdom of Ava, must have had his attention forcibly arrested by this circumstance ; for there almost every thing peculiarly great is styled golden, and without exception every thing belonging to the king is so denominated. The city where he resides, the barge which he uses, are styled golden. The following extract will 164 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. completely explain this circumstance, and form a pleasing addition to the foregoing observations, " We passed a village," says Captain Symes, "named Shoe-Lee-Rua, or Golden-boat village, from its being inhabited by watermen in the service of the king, whose boats, as well as every thing else belonging to the sovereign, have always the addition of shoe, or golden, annexed to them. Even his majesty's person is never mentioned but in conjunction with this precious metal. When a subject means to affirm that the king has heard any thing, he says, it has reached the golden ears. He who has obtained admission to the royal presence has been at the golden feet. The perfume of otto of roses, a' nobleman observed one day, was an odour grateful to the golden nose. Gold, among the Birmans, is the type of excellence. Although highly valued, however, it is not used for coin in the country. It is employed sometimes in ornaments for the women, and in utensils and ear- rings for the men ; but the greatest quantity is expended in gilding their temples, on which vast sums are continually lavished. The Birmans present the substance to their gods, and ascribe its qua- lities to their king." {Embassy to Ana, vol. ii. p. 226.) These remarks illustrate the comparison where it occurs in the Scripture, and demonstrate with what design and propriety it is used. Job xxxvii. 22. Fair weather cometh out of the north.] The Hebrew word for fair weather is rendered by the LXX. Ne^tj Xpv(TavyovvTa, gold-coloured clouds. An old Greek tragedian, quoted by Grotius, speaks of Xpvcrwiroc AiOrip,- the gilded ether. Varro uses the phrase aurescit aer, the air is gilded. The poets abound with passages comparing the solar orb or light to gold. Thus Virgil, Georg. i. 2S2, calls the sun aureus, or golden : and Milton, Par. Lost, b. iii. 572, mentions The golden sun in splendoar litest heaven : And Thomson, in his description of a summer's morning, intro- duces • the mountain's bron- Illam'd with fluid gold. Summer, lin. 83. EzEic. xxviii. 14. Thou art the anointed cherub that coveretL] This has been considered as a very obscure epithet to apply to the prince of Tyre, and great difficulties Kave occurred in explaining the meaning of the expression. It has been apprehended by some critics to be an allusion to the posture of the cherubic figures that were oyer the ark (Exod. xxV. 20), and by others to signify the protection which this prince afforded to different neighbouring states. But the first of these interpretations is set aside by con- sidering that the prophet evidently refers to a living cherub, not the posture of the image of one made of gold, or of an olive-tree. As to the other construction, it is inadmissible, because it does not LITERATURE. " 165 appear from the prophecies that Tyre was remarkable for defending its neighbours, but rather the contrary. (Ezekiel xxvi. 2, 3.) Mr. Harmer (vol. iii. p. 333) proposes a new, and probably a just elucidation of this passage. He observes that takhtdar is a Per- sian word, which properly signifies a precious carpet, which is made use of for covering the throne of the kings of Persia : and that this word is also used as an epithet by which the Persians describe their princes, on account of their being possessed of this throne. The prophet Ezekiel may, with the same view, give this appellation to the prince of Tyre. Such an application of it is certainly no more than strictly reconcileable to the eastern taste. This explanation also answers to the rest of the imagery used in this passage. 2 Chron. xxxvi. 15. Risifig up betimes, and sending them.'] The Jews in general rose very early in the morning. Hence in their style, to rise early signifies to do a thing sedulously, and with a good- will : thus it is fi'equently said, that God rose up early to send the prophets to his people, and exhort them to repentance. Jer. vii. 13, xi. 7, xxxv. 14. It is a consequence of country la- bour. The Greeks and Romans followed the same custom : they rose very early, and worked till night ; they bathed, supped, and went to bed in good time. Fleury's History of the Israelites, p. 49. Dan. viii. 5. An he-goat.'] A goat is very properly made the type of the Grecian or Macedonian empire, because the Macedo- nians at first, about 200 years "before Daniel, were denominated ^geadcB, or the goat's people ; and upon this occasion, as heathen authors report, Caranus, the first king, going with a great multi- tude of Greeks to seek new habitations in Macedonia, was com- manded by the oracle to take the goats for his guides to em- pire; and afterwards, seeing an herd of goats flying from a violent storm, he followed them to Edessa, and there fixed the seat of his empire, made the goats his ensigns or standards, and called the city JEgece, or the Goats' Town, and the people JEgeadee, or the Goats' People. The city ^gea was likewise the usual burying- place of the Macedonian kings. It is also very remarkable, that Alexander's son by Roxana was named Alexander ^gus, or the son of the goat ; and some of Alexander's successors are represented in their coins with goats' horns. Bp. Newton on the Prophecies, vol. ii. p. 29. Dan. viii. 5. And the goat had a notable horn between his eyes.] It is very well. known that in former times Macedon, and the adjacent countries, particularly Thrace, abounded with goats ; insomuch that they were made symbols, and are to be found on many of the coins that were struck by different towns in those parts 166 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. of Greece. But not only many of the individual towns in Mace- don and Thrace employed this type, taut the kingdom itself of Macedon, which is the oldest in Europe of which we have any regular and connected history, was represented also by a goat with this particularity, that it had taut one horn. The custom of repre- senting the type and power of a country under the form of a horned animal is not peculiar to Macedon. Persia was represented tay a ram. Ammianus Marcellinus (lita. xix. cap. 1) acquaints us, that the king of Persia, when at the head of his army, wore a ram's head made of gold, and set with precious stones, instead of a dia- dem. The relation of these emblems to Macedon and Persia is strongly confirmed tay the vision of Daniel recorded in this chap- ter, and which from these accounts receives no inconsiderable share of illustration. An ancient bronze figure of a goat with one horn, dug up in Asia Minor, was lately inspected tay the society of Anti- quaries in London. The original use of it protaataly was to tae affixed to the top of a military standard, in the same manner as the Roman eagle. This supposition is somewhat supported by what is related of Caranus, that he ordered goats to be carried before the standards of his army. {Justin, lita. vii. cap. i.) See Archm- ologia, or Miscellaneous Tracts relating to Antiquity, vol, xiv. p. 14. Isaiah Ixii. 10. Go through, go through the gates.] Repeti- tion is a figure very frequent in the Oriental languages, and in- stances of it occur in several parts of the Scriptures. It is also to tae found in common authors. Chardin, translating a Persian letter, renders thus, " To whom I wish that all the world may pay homage;" but says in the Persian it is, "that all souls may serve his name, his name." See Psalm Ixxxvii. 5 ; Isaiah xxvi. 3, Psalm lix. 1.4. Dog.] Though dogs are not suffered in the houses in the East, and people are very careful to avoid them, lest they should tae polluted by touching them, there are great numbers of them in their streets. They do not belong to parti- cular persons, nor are they fed regularly, but get their food as they can. It is considered right, however, to take some care of them : and charitable people frequently give money to butchers and bakers to feed them, and some leave legacies at their deaths for the same purpose. (Le Brut/n, torn. i. p. 361.) Dogs seem to have been looked upon among the Jews in a disagreeable light, (1 Sam. xvii. 43 ; 2 Kings viii. 13), yet they had them in consider- able numtaers in their cities. They were not shut in their houses or courts, but seem to have been forced to seek their food where they could find it. (Psalm lix. 6, 14, 15.) Some care of them .seems to be indicectly enjoined upon the Jews, Exod. xxii. 31. Harmer, vol. i. p. S20. LITERATURE. 167 Phil. iii. 2. Beware of dogs.] This may very possibly be an allusion to Isaiah Ivi. 10, 11, 12. The Jews used to call the gentiles dogs, and perhaps St. Paul may use this language, when speaking of their proud bigots, by way of retaliationi (Rev. xxii. 15.) L'Enfant tells us of a custom at Rome, to chain their dogs •at the doors of their houses, and to put an inscription over them. Beware of this dog, to which he seems to think these words may refer. Doddridge, in loc. Matt. xxi. 21. Ye shall say to this mountain, he thou removed."] It was a common saying among the Jews, when they intended to commend any one of their doctors for his great dexterity in solving difficult questions, that he was a rooter up of mountains. In allu- sion to this adage, Christ tells his disciples, that if they had faith, they might say to a mountain, be thou removed, and be thou cast into the sea, and it should be done ; that is, in confirmation of the Christian faith, they should be able to do the most difficult things. As these words are not to be taken in a literal sense, so they are likewise to be restrained to the age of miracles, and to the apostles, ■since experience convinces us, that this is no ordinary and standing gift belonging to the church. Whitby, in loc. 2 Peter i. 5. And besides this, giving all diligence, add to your faith virtue.'] Doddridge thus paraphrases and explains this passage : " and for this purpose applying with all possible diligence," as you have believed the gospel, be careful to accom- pany that belief with all the lovely train of attendant graces ; asso- ciate, as it were, to your faith, virtue, true fortitude, and resolution of mind, which may enable you to break through that variety of dangers with which your faith may be attended. The word iiri- Xopr]yriaaTt, translated add, associate, properly signifies, to lead up, as in dance, one of these virtues after another, which he mentions, in a beautifiil and majestic order. Heb. xii. 3. Consider him that endured such contradiction of sinners against himself.] The original word, avaXoyiaaa^i, con- sider, is very emphatical. Erasmus Schmidius observes, that it is a metaphor taken from arithmetical and geometrical proportions, so that it signifies the great accuracy and exactness with which they should consider the author and finisher of their faith, and especially the analogy between his case and their own. Rev. yi. 8. And I looked, and behold a pale horse, and Ms name that sat on him was Death.] It is not unlikely that the figures representing death and the grave might have their names expressed by some motto or inscription, as it was a thing so well known in the medals of these times to write the names Pietas, Fe- lieitas, Virtus, &c. under the figures designed to represent them. 168 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Job xxxviii. 14. It is fumed as clay to the seal,] The birds pillage the granary of Joseph extremely, where the corn of Egypt is deposited, that is paid as a tax to the grand seignior ; for it is quite uncovered at the top, there being little or no rain in that country ; its doors, however, are kept carefully sealed, but its in- spectors do not make use of wax upon this occasion, but put their seal upon a handful of clay, with which they cover the lock of the door. This doubtless is what is referred to in these words, "it is turned as clay to the seal." Harmer, vol. ii. p» 457. 2 Sam. xiv. 17. As an angel of God so is my lord the Mng, t& discern good and bad.] Chardin relates a circumstance concerning some commercial transactions which be had with the king of Per- sia, in* which he expressed himself dissatisfied -with the valuation which the king had put upon a rich trinket, in answer to which the grand master replied, " Know that the kings of Persia have a general and full knowledge of matters, as sure as it is extensive; and that equally in the greatest and smallest things there is nothing more just and sure than what they pronounce." The knowledge of this prince, according to this great officer of state, was like that of an angel of God. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 287. Job xviii. 4. Shall the earth be forsahen for thee ? and shaU the rock be removed out of its place i*] When the Orientals would reprove the pride or arrogance of any person, it is common for them to desire him to call to mind bow little and contemptible lie and every mortal is, in these or similar apophthegms : What tlioug-h MaBommed were dead, His imams (or ministers) conducted the aiTairs of the nation. The universe shall not fall for his sake. The world does not subsist for one man alone. Lowth's Lect. (Gregory's Translate) vol. ii, p. 420. Prov. xxi. 8. The way of man isfroward and strange."] This passage, according to the common interpretation, is very obscure. The original Hebrew words are used to signify a man laden with guilt and crimes, and that his way is {not froward and strange, as. in our translation,) but unsteady or continually varying ; in which expression there is a most beautitul allusion to a beast which is so overburdened that he cannot keep in the straight road, but is. con- tinually tottering and staggering, first to the right hand, and then to the left. ParkhursVs Heb. Lex. p. 187, 3rd edit. Heb. v. 7. When he had offered up prayers and supplications^ The word for supplications signifies branches of .olive trees covered with wool {Harpocratian Lex. p. 152. Alex, ab Alex. Genial. Dier. 1. v. c. 3), which such as sued for peace carried in their hands. Hence it came to signify supplications for peace. Gill, vet loc» LITERATURE. 169 John v. 13. He conveyed himself away.] Doddridge (in loc.) translates the word i^tvivtrBv, slipped away, and observes from Casaubon, that it is an elegant metaphor borrowed from swimming ; it well expresses the easy unobserved manner in which Jesus as it were glided through them, while, like a stream of water, they opened before him, and immediately closed again, leaving no trace of the way he had taken. Matt. xiv. .SI. Wherefore didst thou douWi] This is a figu- rative word, taken either from a person standing where two ways meet, not knowing which to choose, but inclijiing sometimes to the one and sometimes to the other ; or from the tremulous motion of a balance, when the weights on both sides are nearly equal, and consequently now the one and now the other scale seems to pre- ponderate and fix the beam. The French word balancer very exactly answers to ^larat^iiv in this latter view. RoM. viii. 19. Earnest expectation.} The word aTroKopaSowa, which our translators well render earnest expectation, signifies to lift up our head, and stretch ourselves out as far as possible, to hear something agreeable and of great importance ; to gain the first appearance and glimpse of a friend that has long been absent ; to gain the sight of a vessel at sea that has some precious freight that we have a concern in, or carries some passenger very dear to us. Heb. X. 1. For the law hcking a shadow of good things to come, and not the very image of the things.} Here is an allusion to the different state of a painting, when the first sketch only is drawn, and when the piece is finished; or to the first sketch of a painting when compared with what is yet more expressive than even the completest painting, an exact image. Doddridge, in loc. John v. 35. He was a burning and a shining light.} This character of John the Baptist is perfectly conformable to the mode of expression adopted by the Jews. It was usual with them to call any person who was celebrated for knowledge, a candle. Thus they say that Shuah, the father-in-law of Judah (Gen. xxxviii. 2) was the candle or light of the place where he lived, because he was one of the most famous men in the city, enlightening their eyes ; hence they call a rabbin, the candle of the law, and the lamp of light. Lightfoofs Works, vol. ii. p. 550. 1 Peter ii. 4. A living stone.] By a metaphor taken from plants, which stick fast to their roots, and are nourished by juice ascending from them, stones which remain still in the quarry are said to be living. By this epithet here is meant the firmness of that thing which is signified by the name of a stone, for nothing is 170 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. firmer than stones growing in a quarry, or cleaving fast to a rock by their roots. For this reason a steady and inflexible purpose of mind is compared by Ovid to such a stone, where he speaks of Anaxaretes : Durior et ferroj quod Noricus excoquit ignis, Et saxo quod adhuc vivum radice tenetur. Metam. 14). EzEKiEL XX. 47. Say to the forest of the south, hear the word cfthe Lord; thus saith the Lord God, behold I will kindle afire in thee, and it shall devour every green tree, and every dry treeJ] D'Herljelot (p. 330) has given us a passage of a Persian poet, describing the desolation made by a pestilence, whose terms very much resemble the words of the prophet : The pestilence, like an avenging fire, ruins at once this beautiful city, whose territory gives an odour surpassing that of the most excellent perfumes : of all its inhabitants there remains neither a young man nor an old. This was a lightning that, falling upon a forest, consumed there the green wood, with the dry. See also Hab. iii. 5. Har- mer, vol. ii. p. 186. Matt. xii. 50. For whosoever shall do the will of my Father, ■who is in heaven, the same is my brother, and sister, and mother.] We meet with many instances of language remarkably similar to these words of our Lord. In the Iliad (lib. vi. 429) Andromache says to Hector, Thou art my father, my mother, and my brother. Svjuot £(7cr£ Trarj/p, &c. Quam tibi nee frater Dec sit tibi filius ullus, Frater ego et tibi sim filius unus ego. i Propert. lib, ii. el. 14. When Martial would describe the love of Gelia for her jewels ; Hos fratres vocat, he says, et vocat sorores, lib. viii. ep. 81. These she calls her brothers and sisters. Epictetus (lib. ii. cap. 22) observes, that a man's own welfare and advantage is to him brother, father, kindred, country, and God. EzEK. xxi. 21. For the king of Babylon stood at the parting of the way.] Heb. " mother of the way." It is a common thing among the people of the East to denominate a man the father of a thing for which he is remarkable. It appears also that both people and places may in like manner be called the mother of such things for which they are particularly noticed. Thus Niebuhr tells us, that the Arabs call a woman that sells butter " omm es sUbbet," the mother of butter. He also says that there is a place between Basra and Zobeir, where an ass happened to fall down, and throw the wheat with which the creature was loaded into some water. IITERATURE. 171 on which account that place is called to this day, " the mother of wheat." ( Voy. en Arabie, torn. i. p. 263.) In like manner, in the Bibliotheque Orientale of UHerhelot ^. 686, 358) " omm alketab," or the mother of books, signifies the book of the divine decrees : and at other times the first chap- ter of the Koran. The mother of the throat- is the name of an imaginary being (a fairy) who is supposed to bring on and cure that disorder in the throat,'which we call the quinsy. In the same collection we are told, that the acacia, or Egyptian thorn, is called by the Arabians, the mother of satyrs, because these imaginary inhabitants of the forests and deserts were supposed to haunt under them. After this, we shall not at all wonder when We read of Nebuchadnezzar's standing in the mother of the way, a remark- able place in the road, where he was to determine whether he would go to Jerusalem, or to some other place, one branch of the road pointing to Jerusalem, the other leading to a different town. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 442. 1 John iii. 17. Bowels of compassion.'] The inhabitants of Otaheite have an expression that corresponds exactly with this phraseology. They use it on all occasions when the passions give them uneasiness ; they constantly refer pain from grief, anxious desire, and other aflfections, to the bowels as their seat, where they likewise suppose all operations of the mind to be performed. Cook's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. Judges xvi. 17. He told her all his heart, and said unto her, There hath not come a razor upon my head.] Pliny (Nat. Hist. lib. xii. cap. 20) has preserved the memory of several men remark- able for their great strength. The heathens were so well acquainted with the circumstances of Sampson's history, that from it they formed the fable of Nisus, the king of Megara, iipon whose hair the fortune of his kingdom depended. Patrick, in loc. Gen. ix. 21. And he drank of the wine and was drunken.] Numerous passages might be selected from the sacred books of the Hindus, in which there appears an extraordinary coincidence with some parts of the sacred scriptures. It is admitted by those who are best acquainted with the heathen records, that the simila- rity is not merely casual, but that the facts and circumstances thus detailed had been in some way, however remote or traditional, derived from the divine original. The following extract from the Padma-purdn, of which the translation is minutely exact, may afford a specimen of these conformities, which are strongly corro- borative of the truth of the Mosaic history. It is evidently the history of Noah and his sons just after the flood. 1. "To Satyavarman, that sovereign of the whole earth, were 172 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. , born three sons ; the eldest, Sherma ; then C'harma j and thirdly,. Jya'peti by name. 2. " They were all men of good morals, excellent in virtue and virtuous deeds, skilled in the use of weapons to strike with or (» be thrown ; brave men, eager for victory in battle. 3. " But Satyavarman, being continually delighted with devout meditation, and seeing his sons fit for dominion, laid upon them the burden of government. 4. " Whilst he remained honouring and satisfying the gods,, and priests, and kine, one day, by the act of destiny, the king^ having drunk mead, 5. " Became senseless, and lay asleep naked; then was he seen by C'harma, and by him were his two brothers called. 6. " To whom he said, what now has befallen ? in what state is this our sire ? By those two was he hidden with clothes, and called to his senses again and again. 7. " Having recovered his intellect, . and perfectly knowing what had passed, he cursed C'harma, saying, thou shalt be the servant of servants. 8. " And, since thou wast a laugher in their presence, from; laughter shalt thou acquire a name. Then he gave to Sherma the wide domain on the south of the snowy mountain. 9. " And to Jya'peti he gave all on the north of the snowy mountain ; but he, by the power of religious contemplation, attain- ed supreme bliss." Asiatic Researches, vol. iii. p. 465. John iii. S. Except a man he born again, he cannot see the hingdom of God.'\ The mode of expression adopted in these words is not known in the East. The author of the Institutes of Menu,, who flourished 1280 years before Christ, uses the following remarkable language. " Of him who gives natural birth, and him who gives knowledge of the whole veda, the giver of sacred knowledge is the more venerable father; smce the second or divine birth insures life to the twice born, both in this life and hereafter eternally. Let a man consider that as a mere human birth, which his parents gave him for their mutual gratification, and which he receives after lying in the womb ; but that birth, which his prin- cipal acharya, who knows the whole veda, procures for him hy his divine mother, the gayatri, is a true birth ; that birth is exempt from age and from death." (cap. ii. 146.) The difference between the goodness of the actions performed by the ordinary man, and by him who has been twice born, is in another part of this work ascribed very justly to the motive. A deep sense of the corruption of human nature produced the same doctrine among other ancient nations, as well as the Indians. "They had sacrifices denominated those of regeneration, and these sacrifices were always profusely stained with blood. The taurobolium, a ceremony in which the high priest of Cybele Was consecrated, was a ceremony of this RELIGION. 173 kind, and might be called a baptism of blood, which they con- ceived imparted a spiritual new birth to the liberated spirit, nor were these baptisms confined to the priests alone ; for persons not invested with a sacred function were sometimes initiated by the ceremony of the taurobolium ; and one invariable rule in these initiations was to wear the stained garments as long as possible, in token of their having been thus regenerated." Maurice's Indian Antiquiiies, vol. v. p. 957. CHAPTER VIII. CUSTOMS RELATING TO RELIGION. ALTARS. Gen. xii. 7. There huilded he an allar unto the Lord, who ^appeared unto him.'\ The patriarchs took care to preserve the memory of considerable events by setting up altars and pillars, and other lasting monuments. Thus Abraham erected monuments in divers places where God had appeared to him. Gen. xiii. 18. , Jacob consecrated the stone which served hitti for a pillow while he had the mysterious dream of the ladder. Gen. xxviii. 18. And the heap of stones which was witness to his covenant with Laban he called Galeed. Gen. xxxi. 48. Of this kind was the sepul- chre of Rachel, the well called Beer-sheba, Gen. xxvi. 33, and all the other wells mentioned in the history of Isaac. Sometimes they gave new names to places. The Greeks and Romans relate the same of their heroes, the oldest of whom lived near the time of the patriarchsv {Pansan. Dion. HaL lib. iii.) Greece was full of their monuments, ^neas, to mention no others, left some in every place that he passed through in Greece, Sicily, and Italy. ( Virgil, ^n. passim.) Fleurys Hist, of the Israelites, p. 8. Exodus xx. 24. An altar of earth shalt thou make unto me.] This command certainly imports, that the altars of the Lord were to be as plain and simple as possible. They were to be made either of sods and turfs of earth, which were prepared in most places, whilst they stayed in the wilderness, or of rough and un- polished stone, if they came into rocky places, where no sods were to be obtained ; that there might be no occasion to grave any image upon them. Such altars, Tertullian observes {Apoiog. c. 25), were among the ancient Romans in the days of Numa; when, as they had no sumptuous temples, nor images, so they had only temeraria de cespite altaria, altars hastily huddled up of earth, without any art. Patrick, in loc. Levit. vi. 13. The fire shall ever be burning upon the altar ; 174 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. it shall never go out.] A ceremony remarkably similar to this in- stitution is mentioned by Sir W. Jones, in his discourse on the Persians. "The Sagnicas, when they enter on their sacerdotal office, kindle, with two pieces of the hard wood semi, a fire, which they keep lighted through theirlives,for their nuptial ceremony, 'the per- formance of solemn sacrifices," the obsequies of departed ancestors, and their own funeral pile." Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. p. 60. Levit. vi. 13. It shall never go out.'} This circumstance was so famous, that it was imitated by the Gentiles, who thought it ominous to have their sacred fire go out ; and therefore appointed persons to watch and keep it perpetually burning. The great business of the vestal virgins at Rome was to look after what was called the eternal fire ; imagining that the extinction of it purported the destruction of the city. The Greeks also preserved an inex- tinguishable fire at Delphi ; so did the Persians, and many other people. See Bochart Hieroz. p. i. lib. ii. cap. 35, the Persians took great care to preserve a continual fire. Q. Curtius, giving an account of the march of Darius's army, says, the fire which they called eternal was carried before them on silver altars ; the Magi came after it, singing hymns after the Persian manner ; and three hundred and sixty-five youths clothed in scarlet followed, according to the number of the days in the year. PRIESTS. Gen. xiv. 18. Melchizedec, king of Salem.] It was customary among the ancients to unite the sovereignty and chief priesthood together. Hex Anias, rex idem liominum, Fhoebique Eaceidos. ^n. iii. 80. King Anius, both king of men, and priest of ApoUo. Numb. i. 49. Thou shall not number the tribe of Levi."} From this example the heathen learned to exempt all those who minis- tered to their gods from all other services, especially from war. Strabo notes {Geograph. lib. ix.) this custom to have been as old as Homer's time ; for in all his catalogue there is no mention of any ship that went against Troy from Alalcomenon, because that city was sacred to Minerva. Caesar (lib. vi.) also observes, that the ancient Druids were exempt from war and from tribute. Psalm cxxxiii. 2. It is like the precious ointment upon the head, that ran down upon the beard, even Aaron's beard, that went down to the skirts of his garments.'] The manner of performing the ceremony of anointing the high-priest has been particularly transmitted to us by the rabbinical writers. They inform us that the oil was poured on the top of the priest's head,' which was bare, RELIGION. 175 SO plentifully, as to run down his face upon his beard, to the col- lar (not the lower skirts) of his robe. It has been said, that at the consecration of the high priest the unction was repeated seven days together, an opinion founded upon Exod. xxix. 29, 30. Jennings's Jewish Ant. vol. i. p. 210. Exodus xxviii. 33. Bells.} " The bell seems to have been a sacred utensil of very ancient use in Asia. Golden bells formed a part of the ornaments of the pontifical robe of the Jewish high- priest, with which he invested himself upon those grand and pecu- liar festivals, when he entered into the sanctuary. That robe was very magnificent, it was ordained 'to be of sky-blue, and the border of it, at the bottom, was adorned with pomegranates and gold bells intermixed equally, and at equal distances. The use and intent of these bells is evident from these words : And it shall be upon Aaron to minister, and his sound shall be heard when he goeth in unto the .holy place before the Lord, and when he cometh out, that he die'not. The sound of the numerous bells that covered the hem of his garment, gave notice to the assembled people that the most awful ceremony of their religion had commenced. Wh.en, arrayed in this garb, he bore into the sanctuary the vessel of incense, it was the signal to prostrate themselves before the Deity, and to com- mence those fervent ejaculations which were to ascend with the column of that incense to the throne of heaven." " One indispen- sable ceremony in the Indian Pooja is the ringing of a small bell by the officiating brahmin. The women of the idol, or dancing- girls of the pagoda, have little golden bells fastened to their feet, the soft harmonious tinkling of which vibrates in unison with the exquisite melody of their voices." (Maurice's Indian Ant. vol. v. p. 137.) " The ancient kings of Persia, who, in fact, united in their own persons the regal arid sacerdotal office, were accustomed to have the fringes of their robes adorned with pomegranates and golden bells. The Arabian courtesans, like the Indian women, have little golden bells fastened round their legs, neck, and elbows, to the sound of which they dance before the king. The Arabian princesses wear golden rings on their fingers, to which little bells are suspended, as well as in the flowing tresses of their hair, that their superior rank may be known, and they themselves, in pass- ing, receive the homage due to their exalted station." Calmet's Dictionary, art. Bell, Numb. vi. 24:. The Lord bless thee, and keep thee.] The high-priest was accustomed annually to bless the people when assembled together. " During this ceremony, he not only three times pronounced the eternal benediction, and each different time in a different accent, but, in the elevation of his hands, extended the three middle fingers of his right hand in so conspicuous a manner, as to exhibit a manifest emblem of the three Hypostases ; 176 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. to whom the triple benediction, and repetition of the word Jeho- vah in a varied tone of voice, evidently pointed. I am credibly informed, that at this day, on certain high festivals and solemnities, this form of blessing the people is still adhered to by the Jewish priests, but is attempted to be explained by them, as if allusive to the three patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob ; an explanation, of which it may be doubted, whether it savour more of impiety or absurdity." Maurice's Ind. Ant. vol. iv. p. 209. Captain Innys, of Madras, has asserted, that the Mohammedan priests also, at present, use the same form : this is a strong colla- teral circumstance ; for, since it is notorious that Mohammed was indebted for a considerable part*of his theological knowledge to the secret instructions of a Jew, he probably learned from that Jew the symbol ; and it was frequently practised in the Arabian mosques, so early as the seventh century. Luke xxiv. 50. And he lifted up Ms hands, and blessed them.] The form of blessing the people used by Aaron and his sons is recorded Numb. vi. 23 — 27. Though our Lord might not use the same form in blessing his- disciples, yet in doing it he lifted up his hands, as they did. Maimonides says, that " the priests go up into the desk after they have finished the morning daily service, and lift up their hands above, over their heads ; except the high- priest, who does not lift up his hands above the plate of gold on his forehead ; and one pronounces the blessings, word for word." Gill, in loc JjVKE i. 9. According to the custom of the priest's office.] " As the great number of the sacerdotal order occasioned their ■being first divided into twenty-four companies, so in after-times the number of each company grew too large for them all to minis- ter together. For there were no less, according to Josephus, than five thousand priests in one course in his time. The ministry of each course was divided according to the number of the houses of their fathers that were contained in it. If a course consisted of five houses, three served three days, and the other two, two days a-piece. If it contained six, five served five days, and the other two days : if it contained seven, the priest of each house served a day. The particular branches of the service were assigned by lot to each priest, whose turn it was to attend on the ministry." Jennings's Jewish Ant. vol. i. p. 269. 1 Tim. iii. 13. They that have used the office of a deacon well purchase to themselves a good degree^ Some commentators have thought that in these words the apostle alludes to various degrees which subsisted among the Levites. They pass through no less than four different degrees. From one month old to their twen- tieth year they were ^Instructed in the law of God ; from twenty to RELIGION. 177 twenty^five, in the functions of their ministry ; from thence to thirty they served a sort of apprenticeship, beginning to exercise themselves in some of "the lower branches of the sacred service ; and lastly, when they had attained their thirtieth year, they were fully instituted in their office. Some have observed much the same degrees among the vestal virgins : thirty years they were bound to the strictest chastity ; the first ten of vv^hich were spent in learning the mysteries of their profession : the second ten they ministered in holy things : and the last ten were employed in bringing up young novices. Dionys. Halicarn. lib. 2. Jennings's Jewish Ant, vol. i. p. 274. OFFERINGS. Genesis iv. 4. And Abel brought of the firstlings ofhisJiockJ] The universaUty of sacrificial rites will naturally produce an in- quiry into the source from which such a custom, so inexplicable upon any principles of mere natural reason, could have been de- rived. And here we are involuntarily led to the first institution of this ordinance, which is so particularly recorded in Scripture. When it pleased God to reveal his gracious purpose of redeeming lost mankind by the blood of the Messiah, it would doubtless be highly expedient to institute some visible sign, some external, representation, by which the mysterious sacrifice of Mount Cal- vary might be prophetically exhibited to all the posterity of Adam. With this view, a pure and immaculate victim, the firstling of the flock, was carefully selected ; and, after its blood had been shed, was solemnly appointed to blaze upon the altar of Jehovah. When the first typical sacrifice was offered up, fire miraculously descended from heaven, and consumed it ; and when this primitive ordinance was renewed under the levitical priesthood, two circum- stances are particularly worthy of observation — that the victim, should be a firstling — and that the oblation should be madehy the instrumentality of fire. It is remarkable that both these primitive customs have been faithfully preserved in the heathpn world. The Canaanites caused thfeir firstborn to pass through the fire, with a view of appeasing the anger of their false deities ; and one of the kings of Moab is said to have offered up his eldest son as a burnt-offering, when in danger from the superior prowess of the Edomites, 2 Kings iii. 27. Nor was the belief, that the gods were rendered propitious by this particular mode of sacrifice, con- fined to the nations which were more immediately contiguous to the territories of Israel. We learn from Homer, that a whole hecatomb of firstling lambs was no uncommon offering among his countrymen. {Iliad iv. ver. 202). And the ancient Goths, "having laid it down a a principle, that the .effusion of the blood of animals appeased the anger of the gods, and that their justice turned aside upon the victims those strokes which were destined for men " N 178 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. ( Mallet's North. Ant. vol. i. c. 7), soon proceeded to greater lengths, and adopted the horrid practice of devoting human victims. In honour of the mystical number three, a number deemed particu- larly dear to Heaven, every ninth month witnessed the groans and dying struggles of nine- unfortunate victims. The fatal blow being struck, the lifeless bodies were consumed in the sacred fire, which was kept perpetually burning ; while the blood, in singular con- formity with the levitical ordinances, was sprinkled, partly upon the surrounding, multitude, partly upon the trees of the hallowed grove, and partly upon the images of their idols. (^Mallet's North. Antiq. vol. i. c. 7.) Even the remote inhabitants of America have retained similar customs, and for similar reasons. It is somewhere observed by Acosta, that in case of sickness, it is usual for a Peruvian to sacrifice his son to Virachoca, beseeching him to spare his life, and to be satisfied with the blood of his child. Fabers HorcB Mosaices, vol. i. p. 88. 1 Kings xviii. 38. The fire of the Lord fell.'] Bp. Patrick apprehends that God testified his approbation of Abel's sacrifice by a stream of light, or a flame from the shechinah, which burnt it up. In this opinion many ancient writers concur ; remarking that footsteps of it maybe met with in many other cases. See Gen. XV. 17; Lev. ix. 24; Judges yi. 2\ ; 1 Chron. xxi. 26; 2 Chron. vii. ■13; Psalm xx. 3, marginal reading. Some relics of it are to be found among the heathen : for when the Greeks went on ship- board to the Trojan war, Homer represents Jupiter promising them good success in this manner. (//. ii. 354.) And thynder some- tinges accompanying lightning, Virgil makes him establish cove- nants in that manner. After ^neas had called the sun to witness, Latinus lifts up his eyes and right hand to heaven, saying, Audiat liEBC genitor, qui foedera fulmine sancit. ^N. xii. 20O. Let the (heavenly )_/oiXtiag' and though very contrary to charity, yet frequent with them, to bind themselves by vow or execration to do nothing beneficial to a neighbour or parent, &c. This was called corban, and is the same with Biopov. This was used by them even against their own parents, and though contrary to the precept of honouring and relieving them, yet was considered obligatory by them. Many cases are be found in Maimonides and the rabbins of this kind, and this it is probably which is charged on the Pharisees by Christ. But that which a more ordinarily received by the ancients, and which Origen h .d from a Hebrew, is, that corban and Swpov are a gift consecrated RELIGION. 189 to God; and so saith Theophylact. The Pharisees persuading children to give nothing to their parents, but to consecrate all to the treasury of the temple taught them to say, " O Father, that where- by thou mightest be profited (relieved) by me, is a gift," (conse- crated to the temple) and so they divided with the children all they had, leaving the poor parents without any relief in their old age. Hammond, in loc'. Matt. xv. 5. But ye say, whosoever shall say to his father or mother, it is a gift, hy whatsoever thou mightest he profited by meJ\ Origen upon this passage says, that he should never have under- stood it, bad it not been for the information which he received from a Jew, who told him that it was the custom with some of their usurers, when they met with a tardy debtor, to transfer the debt to the poor's box ; by which means he was obliged to pay it, un- der the penalty of bringing upon himself the imputation of cruelty to the poor and impiety towards God ; and that children would sometimes imitate this practice in their conduct towards their parents. ABLUTIONS, Heb. X. 22. Our bodies washed with pure waterJ] Wash- ings and purifications were very constantly performed by the Jews, and the people of the East in general. The water used on these occasions was required to be very pure, and was therefore fetched from fountains and rivers. The water of lakes or standing ponds was "unfit for this purpose : so was -also that of the purest stream, if it had been a considerable time separated from its source. Hence recens aqua, fresh water, is applied to this use in Virgil: — Occupat ^neas aditum, corpusque recenti Spargit aqu^. — JEn. vi. 635. The Jewish Essenes made use of the purer sorts of water for cleansing, as we are informed by Porphyry. To this practice the apostle seems to allude in these words : and Ezekiel in like man- ner says, " then will I sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean." (Ezek. xxxvi. 25.) Sea water, on account of its saltness, was preferred to any other. Hence Aristeas re|)orts concerning some of the Jews who lived near the sea, that every day before matins they used to wash their hands in the sea. Fetter's Archeeologia Grceca, vol. ii. p. 22:2. Numb. xxxi. 23. It shall he purified with the water of sepa- ration,'] The Jews have continued, firom the time of Moses, particularly to observe such precepts, whether written or tra- ditional, as respect purification. In many instances they have 190 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. carried their regard to a superstitious extreme. Leo of Modena (p. 8) says, " If they buy any new vessel of glass, earth, or metail, they wash it first thoroughly, plunging it under water in some river, well, or bath." Matt. iii. 15. Thus it becomeih us to fulfil all ri(/hleousness.] Previous both to anointing and clothing at the consecration of the Jewish high-priest, there was another ceremony, that of washing with water. This was common both to the high-priest and the other priests. Exod. xxix. 4. From hence some have explained these words of our Lord when he desired to be baptized by John ; that being about to enter upon his priestly office, it became him to be baptized, or washed, according to the law, which he was subject to. Jennings's Jewish Ant, vol. i. p. 204. ExoD. XXX. 1 9. For Aaron and his sons shall wash their hands and their feet thereat.'] The care which was taken respecting ablutions in general, and with regard to sacrifices in particular, was not confined to the Jews ; it is to be observed also amongst the gentiles. There are numerous passages of Homer which clearly evince this. Speaking of the great sacrifice that was pre- paring to be offered for appeasing Apollo, he says, Xipvt^paVTo, S' eXEira, Kai ovKoxvrae av€\ovTo. II. i. •Upon which words Eustathius observes, it was the ancient custom, before they sacrificed, t6 wash their hands, for that none but those who were clean and pure might meddle with sacred things. Lev. XV. 13. And bathe his flesh in running water.} The difference between bathing in ordinary and in running water is here strongly marked, by a positive command in favour of the lat- ter. This circumstance was not peculiar to the Jewish ritual, but is to be met with in the Mahometan law, and in the Indian reli- gion. In the Indies it is a most meritorious act to pray to God in the running stream. Bernier's Travels, vol. ii. Ps 4.LM xxvi. 6. I will wash my hands in innocency, so will I compass thine altar, Lord."] It was usual for the priests to go round the altar, when they had laid the sacrifice upon it, and bound it to the horns of it at the four corners, and there sprinkled and poured out the blood, Ps. xliii 4, in ordet to which they washed their hands. In the worship of the heathen, the same ceremony was performed before the commencement of the service; so Tibullus : Purk cum vesta venite. £t manibus puris sumite fontis aquam. Lib. ii. £1. i. 13. RELIGION. 191 But come, ye pure, in spotless eafbs array'd, For you the solemn festival is made : Come, follow thrice the victim round the lands. In running water purify your hands. GRAlNGEn. Job xvii. 9. He that hath clean hands.\ The idea here si^- gested is that of purity and holiness. Porphyry observes, that in the Leontian mysteries the initiated had their hands washed with honey, instead of water, to intimate that they were to keep their hands pure from all wickedness and mischief; honey being of a cleansing nature, and preserving other things from corruption. 1 Tim. ii. 8. Lifting up holy hands,] The apostle alludes to a custom of the Jews, who always used to wash their hands before prayer. The account Maimonides gives is this : " a man must wash his hands up to the elbow, and after that pray. They do not make clean for prayer but the hands only, in the rest of prayers, except the morning prayer : but before the morning prayer a man washes his face, his hands, and feet, and after that prays." Mark vii. 3. Except they wash their' hands oft.'] Eav fir\ irvyftT) vixpwvTW, except they washed with their fist. Theophylact translates it, unless they washed up to their elbow, affirming that TTvy/iri denotes the whole of the arm from the bending to the ends of the fingers. But this sense of the word is altogether unusual ; for irvjfiri properly is the hand, with the fingers contracted into the palm and made round. Theophylact's translation, however, exhibits the evangelist's meaning. For the Jews, when they washed, held up their hands, and contracting their fingers, received the wa- ter that was poured on them by their servants (Who had it for a part of their office, 2 Kings iii. 1 1), till it ran down their arms, vrhich they washed up to their elbows. Macknight's Harmony, vol. ii. p. 352. Mark vii. 5. But eat bread with unwashen hands.] Amongst the ridiculous superstitions of the Jews, it is curious to mark the rule which they established concerning eating with their hands, washed or not washed. Bread might not be eaten unless they had first washed their hands, but they were allowed to eat dfy fruits with unwashen hands. This circumstance should be parti- cularly noticed, as bread is emphatically mentioned by the Evan- gelist. See Wootton's Miscell. vol. p. 166. Lev. xi. SS. And every earthen vessel whereinto any of them falleth, whatsoever is in it shall he unclean, and ye shall break it.] The regard which the Jews pay to ceremonial purity is very great. The minutest attention is given by them to the vessels which are used in domestic economy, that they may avoid pollution. Leo of Modena informs us (p. 8) that " the vessels wherewith they dress 192 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. their meat, and serve it, must all be bought new. They presume that some forbidden meats may have been dressed or put into them, and the fume may have pierced into the very substance of the vessel. If it be of metal or stone, which cannot receive vapours, they make use of it, first putting it into the fire, or seething it in water. This they do from the prohibition of eating divers kinds of meats." Rev. xvi. 5. The angel of the waters,] Among the Jews there was an officer, who was a priest, appointed to take care oF the wells, fountains, and ditches about Jerusalem, that the people might have water at the feasts ; in this office was Nicodemon ben Gorion, thought to be the Nicodemus mentioned in the gospel. Dr. Lightfoot thinks that there is a reference to this person in the expression, the angel of the waters. Acts xvi. 13. On the Sabbath we went out of the city by a river's side, where prayer was wont to be made.] The Jewish pros- euchae were places of prayer, in some circumstances similar to, in others different from, their synagogues : the latter were generally in cities, and were covered places ; whereas, for the most part, the proseuchse were out of the cities, on the banks of rivers, having no covering, except, perhaps, .the shade of some trees, or covered galleries. Their vicinity to water was for the convenience of those frequent washings and ablutions which were introduced among them. 2 Kings v. 17. And Naaman said, shall there not then, I pray thee, be given to thy servant two mules' burthen of earth ?] When the Israelites were in the wilderness, and water was so scarce that a miracle was necessary to procure a sufficiency for their sustenance, it must have been almost impossible to have ob- tained such 'a quantity as their numerous ablutions required. In similar circumstances of difficulty contrivances have been' adopted, whereby it has been obviated. " If they (the Arab Algerines) cannot come by any water, then they must wipe themselves as clean as they can, till water may conveniently be had ; or else it suffices to take abdes upon a stone, which I call an imaginary abdes ; i. e. to smooth their hands over a stone two or three times, and rub them one with the other, as if they were washing with water. The like abdes sufficeth when any are sickly, so that .water might endanger their life : and after they have so wiped, it is gaise, i. e. lawful to esteem themselves clean." Pitt's Account, p. 44. In a Mahometan treatise of prayer, published by De la Motraye (vol. i. p. 360), it is said, " in case water is not to be had, that de- fect may be supplied with earth, a stone, or any other product of the earth; and this is called tayamum, and is performed by RELIGION. 193 cleaning the insides of the hands upon the same, rubbing there- with the face once ; and then again rubbing the hands upon the earth, stone, or whatever it be, stroking the right arm to the elbow with the left hand ; and so the left with the right." With respect to Naaman the prevailing opinion has been, that he meant to erect an altar of the earth which he requested of Elisha ; but it may be proposed to consideration, whether he had not a view to purification, agreeably to the instances which occur in the foregoing extracts. John iii. 10. Art thou a master of Israel, and knowest not these things ?'\ There were several ceremonies to be performed by all who became Jewish proselytes. The first was circumcision : the second was washing or baptism : and the third was that of offering sacrifice. It was a common opinion among the Jews, concerning those who had gone through all these ceremonies, that they ought to be looked upon as new-born infants. Maimonides says it in express terms : " A gentile who is become a proselyte, and a slave who is set at liberty, are both, as it were, new-born babes ; which is the reason why those who before wfere their pa- rents are now no longer so." Hence it is evident that nothing could be more just than Christ's reproaching Nicodemus with his being a master in Israel, and yet being at the same time ignorant how a man could be born a second time. Fleury's Hist, of Is- raelites, p. 201. Acts xiii. 43. Religious proselijies.] The reception of prose- lytes required a particular previous preparation : the person who offered himself as a proselyte was examined by three of the magis- trates as to the motives by which he -was actuated : if he gave a satisfactory answer, he was instructed in the Jewish religion ; after which he solemnly professed his assent to the doctrines which had been proposed to him, and promised to persevere in the faith and practice of the law. As to the form and manner of admission, the rabbis make it to consist of three articles ; circumcision, baptism, and sacrifice. Thus admitted, the proselyte was considered as born again. The bond of natural relation between him and all his kindred was now dissolved. He was now to all intents and purposes a Jew; and entitled to a share in all their privileges. The Jews however were very apt to look with a jealous eye upon proselytes, preferring Israelites by descent to all others. Jen- nings's Jewish Antiquities, vol. i. p. 132. 1 Corinthians XV. 29. Baptized for ike dead."] Many inter- pretations have been given of this difiicult passage, of which a few only will here be adverted to. Chrysostom says, that among the Marcionites, when any one of their catechumens die, they lay a 194 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. living person under the bed of the deceased, and then advancing toward the dead body, ask, virhether he be willing to receive bap- tism. The person under the bed answers for him, that he desires earnestly to be baptized, and accordingly he is so, instead of the dead person. Epiphanius asserts, that the Marcionites received baptism not only once, but as often as they thought proper ; that they procured themselves to be baptized in the name of such as died without baptism', and that St. Paul had these heretics in view. But this opinion Doddridge entirely discards, observing, that it is more likely to have arisen from a mistake of the passage, than that the custom spoken of should have been so early preva- lent. . He translates the passage, who are baptized in the room of the dead, and adopts the opinion of Sir Richard Ellys (see Fortuita Sacra, p. 137), which is thus expressed in the paraphrase : Such are our views and hopes as Christians ; else, if it were not so, what sfipuld they do who are baptized in token of their embracing the Christian faith, in the room of the dead, who are just fallen in the cause of Christ, but are yet supported by a succession of new con- verts, who immediately offer themselves to fill up their places, as ranks of soldiers that advance to the combat in the room of their companions, who have just been slain in their sight ? In this in- terpretation other commentators of great eminence have likewise concurred. Fasting. I Matt. vi. 16. When ye fa^t.l Fasting has in all ages and nations been used in time of mourning, sorrow, or affliction. It was comniori among the Jews, though the fasts of their calendar are later than the law. The heathens sometimes fasted. The king of Nineveh, terrified by tfonah's preaching, ordered that not only men, but beasts also, should continue, without eating or drinking, should be covered with sackcloth, and each after their manner should cry to the Lord (Jonah iii. 5, 6). The Jews in their fasts begin the observance of them in the evening after sunset, and remain without eating till the same hour the next day, or till the rising of the stars."" On the great day of Expiation, wheft more strictly obliged to fast, they continue so for twenty-eight hours. Men are obliged to fast from the age of full thirteen, a:nd women from the age of full eleven years. Children from the age of seven years fast in proportion to their strength. During the fast, they riot only abstain from food, but from bathing, from perfumes, and anointing. This is the idea which the easteffl people have generally of fasting, it is a total abstinence from plea- sure, of every kind. Besides su6h fasts as are common to all the Jews, others are practised by the most zealous and pious. The Pharisee (Liike xviii. 12) says, " I fast twice in a week," i. e. Mon- day and Thursday : on Thursday, in memory of Moses's going up RELIGION. 195 Mount Sinai on that day ; on Monday, in memory of his coming down from thence. It is said, that some Pharisees fasted four days in the week. On fast days in the morning, confessions are added to the prayers, and the recital of such melancholy accidents as happened on such a day, and occasioned the fast then cele- brating ; the law is opened, and part of Exod. xxxii. 1 1 is read ; and in the afternoon, in the prayer of Mincha, or the offering, the same is read again with Isaiah Iv. 6. Besides the general fasts of the whole Jewish people, others are peculiar to them in different nations. The German Jews, after the feasts of passover and tabernacles, have a custom to fast three days, on the two following Mondays and the Thursday between them. This is founded on an apprehension, that as the preceding feasts were of eight days continuance, they might have offended God during that time. For the same reason they fast on the last day of the year, and some on the last day in every month. Cal- met's Dictionary of the Bible, art. Fasting. Psalm cix. ^4. My knees are weak through fasting ; and my flesh faileth of fatness.'] A sentiment similar to that which is sug- gested by this passage, and expressed in words not very different, is to be met with in several ancient writers. Thus Tryphiodorus {Destruction of Troy, v. 252) : Lest faint and wearied ere the task was done, Stretch'd through the length of one revolving sun, Their knees might fail, by hunger's force subdued. And sink, unable to support their load. Merrick. Plautus, in his Curc^lio, has taken notice of this effect of hunger : Tenebrse oboriuntur, genua inedi^ succidunt. Ac. ii. sc. 3. So also Lucretius : £t qnoniam non est quasi quod suffulciat artus, Debile fit corpus, languesount, omnia membra : Srachia palpebiseque cadunt, poplitesque procumbunt. Lib. iv. 948. See Lev. xxvi. 26, Ezek. iv. 16. Matt. ix. 14. The Pharisees fast ofU'] These are not the pubhc fasts, but the private ones, which are referred to. These were very frequent: for besides their fasting twice a week, on Mondays and Thursdays, they had a multitude of fasts upon divers occasions, particularly for rain. On this account they sometimes appointed thirteen fast days. They observed them on other ac- counts,, as because of pestilence, famine, war, sieges, or inunda- tions ; sometimes for trifling things, as for dreams. Gill, in loc. o 2 196 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Matt. vi. 16. For they disfigure their faces,] or made them hlack, as the Arabic version renders it. This they did, that they might look so through fasting. Such persons were held in great esteem, and thought to be very religious. The Jevi^s say, " who- ever makes his face black on account of the law in this world, God will make his brightness to shine in the world to come." '&' Acts xxvi. 5. After the straitest sect of our religion I lived a pharisee.'] The pharisees were in general exceeding rigid and particular in all the ceremonies which they professed to observe ; and as a spirit of emulation may well be supposed to have influ- enced those who were so much under the government of pride, they would certainly endeavour to obtain the highest degree of supposed sanctity. It appears from the gospels that many rigorous severities were used by them ; and Witsius assures us, that they used to sleep on narrow planks, that falling down from them they might soon be awakened to prayer; and that others lay on gravel, and placed thorns so near them, that they could not turn without being pricked by them. Meletem. cap. i. § 15. Col. ii. 21.. Touch not, taste not, handle not.] The dogmata to which St. Paul refers in these words are such as the Essenes held. They would not taste any pleasant food, but lived upon coarse bread, and drank nothing but water : some of them would not taste any food at all till after sun-set; and if they were touched by any that were not of their own sect, they would wash them- selves, as after some great pollution. Perhaps there might be a sodality of Essenes at Colossi, as there were in many other places out of Judaea ; and that some of the Christians, too much inclined to Judaism, might also affect the peculiarities of this sect; which might be the reason why the apostle so particularly cautions against them. Jennings's Jewish Ant. vol. i. p. 471. PRAYER. PsALM Iv. l?. Evening, andmorning, and at noon will I pray.] The frequency and the particular seasons of prayer are circum- stances chiefly connected with the situation and disposition of such as habituate themselves to this exercise. But from a singular con- formity of practice in persons remote both as to age and place, it appears probable that some idea must have obtained generally, that it was expedient and acceptable to pray three times every day. Such was the practice of David, and also of Daniel (see ch. vi. 10), and as a parallel, though, as far as connected with an idolatrous system, a different case, we are informed that " it is an invariable rule with the Brahmins to perform their devotions three times every day : at sun-rise, at noon, and at sun-set." Maurice's Indian Antiquities, vol. v. p. 129. RELIGION, 197 Acts iii. 1, The hour of prayer.] The Jews had stated hours both for public and private prayer. It was Daniel's custom to pray three times a day, Dan. vi. 10, and this was also the practice of David, Psalm Iv. 17.- From hence we learn not only how fre- quently, but at what times of the day that duty was commonly performed. It is generally supposed that the morning and even- ing prayers were at the time of offering the morning and evening sacrifice, that is, at the third and ninth hour : and the noon prayer was at the sixth hour, or twelve o'clock. We find in scripture no express institution of the stated hours of prayer. The Jews say they received them from the patriarchs ; the first hour from Abra- ham ; the second from Isaac ; and the third from Jacob. From the Jews the Mahometans have borrowed their hours of prayer, enlarging the number of them from three to five ; which all Mussulmans are bound to observe. The first is in the morning before sun-rise; the second when noon is past, and the sun begins to decline from the meridian ; the third in the afternoon, before sun-set; the fourth in the evening after sun-set, and before the day is shut in ; the fifth after the day is shut in, and before the first wateh of the night. To these some of their devotees add two more, the first an hour and a half after the day is shut m,. and the other at midnight; but these are looked upon as vol»ntary services, practised in imitation of Mahomet's example, but not enjoined by his law. See Sale's Koran, Prelim. Dis. sect. iv. p. 107. Matt. vi. 5. Pray in the corners of the streets.] Such a practice as is here intimated by our Lord was probably common at that time with those who were fond of ostentation in their de- votions, and who wished to engage the attention of others. It is evident that the practice was not confined to one place, since it may be traced in different nations. We have an instance of it related by Aaron Hill (in his Travels, p. 52), " Such Turks as at the common hours of prayer are on the road, or so employed as not to find convenience to attend the mosques, are still obliged to execute that duty : nor are they ever known to fail, whatever business they are then about, but pray immediately when the hour alarms them, in that very place they chance to stand on : inso- much that when a janissary, whom you have to guard you up and down the city, hears the notice which is given him from the steeples, he will turn about, stand still, and beckon with his hand, to tell his charge he must have patience for awhile; when taking out his handkerchief, he spreads it on the ground, sits cross-legged thereupon and says his prayers, though in the open market, which having ended, he leaps briskly up, salutes the person whom he undertook to convey, and renews his journey with the mild ex- pression of ghell johnnum ghell, or, come, dear, follow me." It may be proper to add, that such a practice as this is general throughout the East. 198 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Matt. vi. 7. Vain repetitions.'] As prayer is unquestionably one of the principal means by which our dependence upon God is expressed, and our homage is avowed, it cannot be conducted with too much seriousness and reverence. The Jews had very much lost the spirit of this devout exercise, and had suffered them- selves in some instances to be influenced by heathen practices : one of these our Lord in particular prohibits, that of using vain repetitions, jujj /3orToXo7T)(rr)r£. This word is derived from Barrof, a stutterer, properly one who cannot speak plain, but begins a syllable several times before he can finish it, and Aoyoe, speech. From hence is derived the name of Battus, a silly tauto- logical poet, mentioned by Suidas, to whom Ovid is thought to allude in the answer of that babbling Battus to Mercury : sub illis Montibus, inquit, eruut, et erant sub montibus illis. Metam. lib. ii. 1. 703. tbey should Be near those hills, and near those hills they were. Hammond says, that though Christ spake not Greek in this ser- mon, and therefore did not himself refer to the name and style of Battus, the evangelist, or his translator, rendered his Syriac ex- pression by the proverbial Greek word. The practice of the heathen may be understood from their writ- ings, ^schylus has near an hundred verses at a time made of nothing but tautologies. The idolatrous worshippers of Baal " called on the name of Baal from morning even unto noon, say- ing, O Baal, hear us." (1 Kings xviii. 26). Thus also the devotees of Diana, " all with one voice about the space of two hours cried out. Great is Diana of the Ephesians." (Acts xix. 34.) In imitation of such examples the rabbins had laid down these maxims : — Every one that multiplies prayer shall be heard. — The prayer which is long shall not return empty. Acting therefore upon these principles, there was certainly much danger to be ap- prehended of unmeaning prolixity and insincere repetitions. Christ saw that it was necessary both to condemn this conduct in others, and to warn his disciples against practices so pernicious to true religion. Matt, xxiii. 14. For a pretence make loncf prayers.] Mai- raonides says, " the ancient saints or good men used to stay an hour before prayer, and an hour after prayer, and held an hour in prayer." This being done three times a day, nine hours every day were spent in this manner. On this account they obtained the character of very devout men, and hereby covered all their oppression of the poor. Gill, in loc. Dan. vi. 10. He went into his house, and his windows being open in his chamber towards Jerusalem^ It was enjoined upon RELIGION. 199 the Jews, that if any of them were led away captive, Uiey should pray to God toward the city which he had chosen, and tl^e house which Solomon had built, 1 Kings viii. 48. The conduct of Daniel in the instance now referred to, was in obedience to tj^at command. We find that a similar custqm of expressing an afifectiori for any highly esteemed place by turning their faces towards it, prevails at this present time among the people in Africa. Thus Park informs us : " when we were departed," says this traveller, " from Kamalia (near the Niger,) a town in Manding, we were followed for about half a mile by most of the inhabitants of the town, some of them crying, and others shaking hands with their relations, who were now about to leave them ; and, when we had gained a piece of rising ground, from which we had a view of Kamalia, all the people belonging to the coffle (a number of slaves who were going down to the coast) were ordered to sit down in another place, with their faces towards Kamalia, when a schoolmaster that accom- panied them pronounced a long and solemn prayer." Gillingwater, MS. Dan. vi. 1 1 . Making supplication.'] There were various wg,ys of making supplication peculiar to different nations. Themistocles, when pursued by the Athenians and Lacedemonians, and forced to cast himself on the protection of Admetus, king of the Molos- sians, held the young prince (who was then a child) in his arms, and in that posture prostrated himself before the king's household gods ; this being the most sacred manner of supplication amoijgst that people.. [Plutarch in Themis t.) The Grecians used to supplicate with green boughs in their hands, and crowns upon their head^, chiefly of olive or laurel ; whence Statius says. Mite nemus circa - VittatsE laurus, et supplicis arbor olivse. Psalm xxviii. 2. When I lift up my hands toward thy holy oracle.'] Lifting up the hands was a gesture commonly used in prayer by the Jews. There are many instances to prove that it was practised by the heathens also. See Homer, II. v. 174. So also Horace: — CobIo suspinas si tuleris manus Naaoeote lupa B. iii. Od. 23. 1. Other instances may be found in Virgil, Mn. ii. and x. Psalm xliv. 20. Stretched out our hands.] The stretching out of the hand towards an object of devotion, or an holy place, was an ancient usage among both Jews and heathens, and it con- tinues in the East to this time. Pitts, in his account of the 200 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. religion and manners of the Mahometans, speaking of the Algerines throwing wax candles and pots of oil overboard, to some Marabbot (or Mohammedan saint) says, " when this was done, they all together held up their hands, begging the Marab- bot's blessing, and a prosperous voyage." (p. 17.) This custom he frequently observed in his journey. Gen. xlviii. 14. And Israel stretched out his right hand, and laid it upon EphrainCs head.l Imposition of hands was a Jewish ceremony, introduced, not by any divine authority, but by custom : it being the practice among those people whenever they prayed to God for any person, to lay their hands on his head. Our Saviour observed the same custom, both when he conferred his blessing on children, and when he healed the sick, adding prayers to the cere- mony. The apostles likewise laid hands on those upon whom they bestowed the Holy Ghost. The priests observed the same custom when any one was received into their body. And the apostles themselves underwent the imposition of hands afresh, every time they entered upon any new design. In the ancient church imposition of hands was even practised on persons when they married, which custom the Abyssinians still observe. 2 Sam. vii. 18. Sat before the Lord.] Pococke (vol. i. p. 213) has given the figure of a person half sitting and half kneeling, that is, kneeling so as to rest the most muscular part- of his body on his heels. This he observes, is the manner in which inferior per- sons sit at this day before great men, and is considered as a very humble posture. In this manner, probably, David sat before the Lord, when he went into the sanctuary to bless him for his promise respecting his family. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 58. I Kings xix. 13. And it was so, when Elijah heard it, that he wrapped his face in his mantle.] The Jews accounted it a token of reverence to have their feet bare in public worship, and to have their heads covered. This was accordingly the practice riot of the priests only, but of the people also ; and the latter prac- tice remains so to this day. Thus on the divine appearance to Moses in the bush, it is said, " he hid his face, for he was afraid to look upon God," Exod. iii. 6 ; and on the extraordinary mani- festation of the divine presence to Elijah, " he wrapped his face in his mantle." On the same account perhaps the angels were re- presented in vision to Isaiah as covering their faces with their wings in the presence of Jehovah. Isaiah vi. 2. The ancient Romans performed their sacred rites with a cover- ing on their heads. Thus Virgil : Spes est pacis, ait. Turn numina sancta preoamur Palladis armisonre, qua8 prima accepit ovantes : Et capita ante aras Phrygio Tolamur amictu. Ma. iii. 543. RELIGION. 201 Our way we bend To Pallas, and the sacred hill ascend : There prostrate to the fierce virago pray, Whose temple was the land-mark Of our way, . Each with a Phrygian mantle reil'd liis head. The Grecians, on the contrary, performed their sacred rites bare headed. St. Paul therefore, writing to. the Corinthians, who were Greeks, says, " every man praying or prophesying with his head covered dishonoureth his head.^' 1 Cor. xi. 4. 1 Kings xviii. 42. Elijah went up to the top of Carmel; and he cast himself down upon the earth, and put his face between his kneesJ] The devout posture of some people of the Levant .greatly resembles that of Elijah. Just before the descent of the rain, "he cast himself down upon the earth, and put his face between his knees." Chardin relates that the dervises, especially those of the Indies, put themselves into this posture, in order to meditate, and also to repose themselves. They tie their knees against their belly with their girdle, and lay their heads on the top of them, and this, according to them, is the best posture for recollection. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 506. Matt. xxvi. 39. And fell en his face, and pray-ed,'] This gesture was sometimes used by the Jews in prayer, when they were in circumstances of peciiliar perplexity. One of their own ■writers thus describes it ; " when they fall upon their feces, they do not stretch out their hands and their feet, but incline on their sides, saying, O my father, abba, father." Gill, in loc. 1 Coa. xL 4. Having his head covered.J This had become customary with some of them in public worship, and they did it in imitation either of the heathens who worshipped their deities with their heads covered, except Saturn and Hercules, whose solemni- ties were celebrated with heads unveiled ; or of the Jews, who used to veil themselves in public worship through a spirit of bond- age and fear. Gill, in loc. Matt. xix. 13. Then were there brought unto him little children, that he should put his hands on them and pray.'] It appears to have beenj customary among the Jews, when one prayed for another who was present, to lay his hand upon the person's head. — CampbelPs Translation of the Gospels, note. Matt. xix. 13. That he shall put his hands on them, and pray.] It was common with the Jews to bring their children to venerable persons, men of note for religion and piety, to have their blessing and prayers. Gen. xlviii. 14. Matt. v. 1. And seeing the multitudes, he went up into a 202 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. mountain.] The first generation of men had neither temples nor statues for their gods, but worshipped towards heaven in the open air. The Persians, even in ages when temples were common in all other countries, not thinking the gods to be of human shape, as did the Greeks, had no temples ; they thought it absurd to confine the gods within walls, whose house and temple was the whole world. The Greeks and most other nations, worshipped their gods upon the tops of high mountains. Hence Jupiter in Homer commends Hector for the many sacrifices which he had offered upon the top of Ida. {Iliad \. ver. 170.) The nations which lived near Judea sacrificed also upon the tops of mountains. Balak, king of Moab, carried Balaam to the top of a mountain to sacrifice to the gods, and curse Israel from thence. (Numb, xxiii, 1.) Abraham was commanded by God to offer Isaac his son for a burnt offering upon one of the mountains in the land of Moriah. (Gen. xxii. 2.) In later ages, the temples were often built upon the summits of mountains. Both at Athens and Rome the most sacred temples stood in the most eminent part of the city. It is further observable, that very high mountains were commonly held sacred to the gods, the reason of which custom was probably be- cause the tops of mountains approached nearest to the heavens, the seat of the gods. It certainly was not with any design to sanction the superstition of the heathens, that our Lord chose to deliver his first discourse from a mountain ; it was a convenient and eligible situation for that purpose ; but the conformity of his conduct with the general practice is singular and deserving atten- tion. It might inculcate a useful lesson, that as the heathens sup- posed themselves to be nearer to their gods in such stations, so the doctrines which he delivered were really able to effect .that approach to Jehovah, to which the superstitions of the surround- ing nations only pretended. I Chron. xvi. 36. And all the people said Amen.] This praC- • tice is of very great antiquity, and was in general use with the Jews in early times. {Vitringade Synag. Vet. part ii. lib. 3, cap. 18.) It was also retained by them after the captivity. Neh. viii. 6. The Jewish doctors give three rules for pronouncing the word. 1. That it be not pronounced too hastily and swiftly, but with a grave and distinct voice. 2. That it be not louder than the tone of him that blessed. 3. It was to be expressed in faith, with a certain persuasion that God would bless them and hear their prayer. 1 CoR. X. 30. For if I hy grace he a partaker, why am I evil spoken of for that for which I give thanks ?] The custom of blessing both what was to be eaten and what was to be drank was transmitted from the synagogues to the first christian as- semblies. These benedictions are also called thanksgivings or RELIGION. 203 praises ; and thus we are to. understand these words of the apostle. Picarfs Religious Ceremonies, vol. i. p. 124. 1 CoR. xiv. 16. Say Amen at thy giving of thanks ?'] It was usual to say Amen at blessing, or giving of thanks, privately at meals by those who were present. Concerning this practice the Jews have many rules. The apostle here speaks of the blessing in public, on which occasion all the people, as with one voice, said Amen. The rule was, that " the congregation may not answer Amen until the blessing is finished out of the mouth of the priests ; and the priests may not begin the other blessing, until the Amen is finished out of the mouth of the congregation." To answer Amen to what was said in a language not understood -s^as not allowed. The primitive Christians used at the close of the Lord's supper to say Amen. This custom might probably have obtained in the Corinthian Church. Gill, in loc. SABBATHS. Luke xxiii. 54. And the Sabbath drew on.] " The sabbath began to shine." Vulg. "As soon as the sun was gone down so far that it shone only on the tops of the mountains they lighted the lamps, because it was not lawful to light any fire on the sabbath- day ; some think St. Luke's expression alludes to these lamps." Lamy's Apparatus Bihlicus, p. 188. John v. 10. The Jews therefore said unto him that was cured, it is the sabbath-day, it is not lawful for thee to carry thy bed.] The sabbath was originally instituted as a day of sacred rest, and was to be employed in the service of God. Of this latter circum- stance the Jews had so far lost sight, that they substituted their own superstitious rites in the place of divine ordinances, and thus . exchanged a spiritual for a merely ceremonious observance of the day. Concerning some of the superstitions which prevailed amongst this people, M. Basnage thus speaks : " In the places where they had liberty, in Maimonides's time, they sounded the trumpet six times, to give notice that the sabbath was beginning. At the first sound the countryman left his plough, at the second they shut up their shops, at the third they covered the pits. They lighted can- dles, and drew the bread out of the oven ; but this last article de- serves to be insisted upon, because of the different cases of con- science, about which the masters are divided. When the sound of the sixth trumpet surprised those that had not as yet drawn their bread, what was to be done ? To fast the next day was dis- turbing the feast ; to draw their bread at the beginning of the sab- bath was to violate it. The perplexity is great ; some have not ventured to decide it, others have given leave to draw out what was necessary for the three meals of the sabbath. But this per- 204 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. mission has caused abuses ; for a multitude of people meet, who under pretence of drawing out the quantity of bread they have need of for their three meals, take out all that might be spoiled. The difficulty is increased if any one suffers his bread to 'bake after' the sabbath is begun. If he has sinned knowingly, he must leave his bread there, and fast to expiate his fault. Nothing but igno- rance is ground sufficient to permit them taking whei-ewith to sub- sist their family for twenty-four hours. But how is this bread to be taken out? They must not make use of a peel but a knife, and, do it so nicely as not to touch the stones of the oven, for that is a crime. Such are the questions that arise upon the entrance of the sabbath." {History of the Jews, p. 44-3.) Similar superstitions are related by this author concerning other particulars which affect the Jews. Isaiah i. 14. Your appointed feasts.] The sabbath, though it recurred every seventh day, was much the greatest^ feast the Jews kept. On that day they could not lawfully dress any meat. They had recourse to a very curious method of obtaining hot victuals. They preserved heat in their pipkins by wrapping them up in baskets in hay, and putting their provisions, perhaps previ- ously dressed, into them, by which means the heat was preserved. The poorer Jews, who had not houses of their own capacious enough to make entertainments in, upon their feast days, in the city of Rome, used to hire the grove which was anciently dedi- cated to Egeria, and meet there. They carried their provisions in these baskets of hay ; and the Romans, not knowing the reason why they did so, derided them, and called this basket and hay a Jew's household stuff. Juvenal has an allusion to this practice in the following passage : Nunc sacri fontis nemus et delubra locantur Judaeis, quorum copbinus foenumque supellex. Sat. iii. 13, Now the sacred shades and founts are hir'd By banish'd Jews, who their whole wealth can lay In a small basket on a wisp of hay, Dryden, Exodus xxiii. 12. On the seventh day thou shalt rest; that thine ox and thine ass may rest.] We should here observe the great clemency of God, who by this law requires some goodness and mercy to be exercised even to brute animals, that he might remove men the farther from cruelty to each other. The slaugh- ter of a ploughing ox was prohibited by a law common to the Phrygians, Cyprians, and Romans, as we find recorded by Varro, Pliny, and others. The Athenians made a decree, that a mule worn out by labour and age, and which used to accompany other mules drawing burthens, should be fed at the public expense. RELIGION. ' 205 Ludit berboao pecus omne campo, Cum tibi nonas fedeunt Deoembres : Festus in pratis vacat otioso ^ Cum bove pagus. Hon 1. iii. Od. xviii. ad Faunum, 9. • When the nones of December, sacred to you, return, all our flocks sport in the grassy fields : and the whole village, celebrating your festival, divert themselves in the meadows with the ox, who that day is allowed to rest. See also Tibullus, 1. ik El. i, 5. Juv. Sat. vi. 536. JPopham on Pentateuch, Isaiah Iviii. 13. Call the Sabbath a delight.'] In honour of the Sabbath the Jews are accustomed to light and burn a lamp, which they call the lamp of the Sabbath. " The rest of the Sab- bath began on Friday in the evening, half an hour before sun-set ; they then light a candle of four wicks, which burns part of the night, and this is one of the ceremonies which they observe with the greatest exactness. The poor are obliged to beg to get oil, or to deprive themselves of sustenance, rather than fail to have a lamp burning in their houses ; because that is necessary for the delight of the Sabbath, mentioned by the prophet Isaiah." {Bas- nage's Hist, of the Jews," p. 440.) The account which Levi gives of this custom, in his " Rites and Ceremonies of the Jews " (p. 8), is rather different from the fore- going, but is on the viFhole more particular and satisfactory. He says, " as soon as the Sabbath is begun, they are obliged to leave all manner of work, and, after having cleaned themselves in honour of the Sabbath, go to the synagogue, to the evening Service of the Sabbath ; and the women are bound to light a lamp with seven cotton wicks, in remembrance of the days of the week, saying the following grace : ' Blessed art thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe, who hast sanctified us with thy commandments, and com- manded us to light the lamp of the Sabbath.' This ceremony of lighting the lamp of the Sabbath is invariably assigned to the wo- men ; the reason of which is, that as their original mother, by her crime in eating of the forbidden fruit, first extinguished the lamp of righteousness, they are to make an atonement for that crime, by rekindling it, in lighting the lamp of the Sabbath," Isaiah Iviii. 13. Pleasure on my holy day.] The manner in ■which the modern christianized Greeks observed the Sabbath was derived, probably, from the manner in which their pagan ancestors observed their sacred days. " In the evening," says Chandler (Travels, p. 18), speaking of his visiting the island Tenedos, " this being Sunday, and a festival, we were much amused with seeing the Greeks, who were singing and dancing, in several companies, to music, neai the town, while their women were sitting in groups on the roofs of the houses, which are flat, as spectators, at the 206 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. same time enjoying the soft air and serene sky." The ancient Egyptian festivals were observed with processions, music, and other tokens of joy. The Sabbaths of Jehovah were to be#egarded in a very different manner, as appears from the prohibitions con- tained in these words of Isaiah. Harm^, vol. iii. p. 346. Matt, xxviii. 1. The end of the Sabbath.] M. Basnage thus describes the manner in which the Jews conclude the Sabbath. " In the evening thSj return to the synagogue, to prayer again. The law is taken from the ark a second time. Three persons sing the psalm of the Sabbath, and read the section of the following week. • They repeat the hundred and nineteenth psalm, and bring the perfume. According to Rabban Simon, the son of Gamaliel, this was only a gum that distilled from a balsamic tree; but others maintain it was compounded of three hundred and sixty-eight pounds of different aromatic drugs, which the high priest pounded in a mortar. They find a mystery in this number, which they divide into two, and refer one of them to the days of the solar year. They think also, that this perfume is necessary to guard themselves from the ill odour that is exhaled from hell, the fire whereof begins to burn again when the Sabbath ends. Lastly, the blessing is given as in the morning, and the SabbatlTconcludes when they see three stars appear in the firmament. {History of the Jeios, p, 442, § 16.) Luke vi. 1. The second Sabbath after the first.] The expla-^ nation of this phrase has given commentators not a little troubl^.^ Some allege that there were two Sabbaths in the year, each of them called the first, in respect to the two different beginnings of the year, the civil and the sacred. Grotius, whose opinion is followed by Hammond, conceives that when any of the solemn yearly feasts fell on the Sabbath-day, that Sabbath had a special respect paid tO'it, and was called fxtya or o-a|3/3arov irpwrov. Now of these first Sabbaths there were three in the year, at the passover, at pen- tecost, and at the feast of tabernacles . The first of them, that is, when the first day of the feast of passover fell on the Sabbath-day, was called TrpojTOTrpwrov trajS/Sarov, or the first prime Sabbath. The second, that is, when the day of pentecostfellon the Sabbath, was called SevrepoTrpwrov, which he apprehends was the Sabbath here intended. TEMPLE WORSHIP, Rev. viii. 1. There was silence in heaven about the space of half an hour.] Most interpreters agree, that this silence in heaven for half an hour is an allusion to the manner of the temple worship : while the priest offered incense in the holy place, the people prayed without in silence, Luke i. 10. On the day of ex- RELIGION. 207 piation the whole service was performed by the high-priest, to which particular service Sir I. Newton has observed an allusion. " The custom was on other days, for one of the priests to take fire from the great altar in a silver censer ; but on this day, for the high priest to take fire from the great altar in a golden censer ; and when he was come down from the great altar, he took incense from one of the priests who brought it to him, and went with it to the golden altar ; and while he offered the incense, the people prayed without in silence ; which is the silence in heaven for half an hour." (On Apoc. p. 264.) It was usual to enjoin silence at all religious invocations amongst the heathen nations. The priest began with the known expression " favete linguis," lest any words of ill omen should injure the sa- crifice. See Hor. Ep. hb. iii. od. 1; Virg. ^n. Ub. v.; Tibull. lib. ii. el. 2. Rev. v. 14. And the four and twenty elders fell down and worshipped him that liveth for ever and ever.~\ It was the cus- tom in the temple worship for the singers to make pauses. In every psalm, say the Talraudists, the inusic made three intermis- sions ; at these intermissions the trumpet sounded, and the people worshipped. See Lightfoofs Temfle Service, c. 7. Rev. vii. 9. A great multitude — stood before the throne and before the Lamb, clothed with white robesJ] At the feast of taber- nacles they walked every day round the altar with palm-branches in their hands, singing hosannah : during this ceremony the trum- pets sounded on all sides. On the seventh day of the feast they went seven times round the altar, and this was called the great hosannah. Upon the last day of the feast they used to repeat their hosannah often, saying, For thy sake, O our Creator, hosan- nah : For thy sake, O our Redeemer, hosannah. For thy sake, O our seeker, hosannah. See the Jewish Rituals. There seems to be an allusion in these words to this custom. Rev. v. 8. Golden vials full of odours.] Vials were of com- mon use in the temple service, they were not like those small bot- tles which we now call by that name, but were like cups on a plate, in allusion to the censers of gold, in which the priests offered incense in the temple. These censers were a sort of cups, which, because of the heat of the fire burning the incense, were often put upon a plate or saucer. The common custom of drinking tea and other hot liquor out of a cup and saucer will show the form of these censers. Lowman, in loc. 2 Chron. vi. 1. Then said Solomon, the Lord hath said, that he tvould dwell in the thick darkness.] This notion of God's dwelling in darkness prevailed atnongst the heathens, who are 208 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. supposed to have learned it hence. Justin Martyr observes, that Orpheus and another ancient writer called God IlaYKpv^ov, alto- gether hidden. And the Lacedaemonians, who pretend to be allied to the Jews, had a temple dedicated to Zsvg Sicorttvoc, Jupiter in the dark. Patrick in loc. Heb. vii. 26. And made higher than the heavens."] On the day of atonement the high priest was carried to an upper chamber in the temple, called the chamber of abtines. In the account here given of the exaltation of Christ there may be an allusion to this circumstance. Gill, in loc. Isaiah vi. 6. Then flew one of the seraphim unto me, having a live coal in his hand, which he had taken with the tongs from off the altar.'] Hoc quoque inter reliqua neglects, religionis est, quod emortuo carbone sacrificatur. {Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. xvi. torn. 2, p. 139.) Pliny mentions as a mark of neglected rehgion the sacrificing with a dead coal. Rev. xi. 2. But the court which is without the temple have out, and measure it not ; for it is given unto the Gentiles,] There was a sort of proselytes among the Jews, called strangers of. the gate. These were foreigners, who did not embrace the Jewish religion (and are therefore improperly called proselytes), yet were suffered to live among the Jews under certain restrictions; as, that they should not practise idolatry ; that they should not blas- pheme the God of Israel ; and that they should keep the Jewish Sabbath : these strangers were, moreover, permitted to worship the God of Israel in the outer court of the temple, which, for that reason, was called the court of" the gentiles. To this is the reference in the charge given to the angel in the passage above cited. Jennings's Jewish Ant. vol. i. p. 143. Rev. xvi. 15. And they see his shame.] This is an allusion to the burning of the garments of those priests, who were found asleep when upon their watch in the temple. The Jewish writers give the following account of this custom. " The man of the mountain of the house (the governor of the temple) goes round all the wards every night, with burning torches before him : and in every ward where the person does not stand upon his feet, the man of the mountain of the house says to him. Peace be to thee ; if he find he is asleep, he strikes him with his staff, and he has power to burn his. clothes." Gill, in loc. Matt. xxi. 12. And the seats of them that sold doves.] Selden (de Diis Syris, Syntag. ii. cap. 3, p. 276) tells us, he hadlearned from Ferdinandus Polonus, that the keepers and sellers of pigeons were looked upon as men of infamous character among the Jews, RELIGION. 209 and held in no better estimation than thieves, gamblers, and the like ; mentioning at the same time the opinion of Scaliger, that the persons here spoken of were those who taught pigeons to fly, and carry messages. SYNAGOGUES. Matt. xxv. 1. Ten.] The number ten was much noticed and used by the Jews. A congregation with them consisted of ten persons, and less than that number did not make one: and wher- ever there were ten persons in a place, they were obliged to build a synagogue. The blessing of the bridegrooms, which consisted of seven blessings', was not said but in the presence of ten persons. To this there may be an allusion here. Gill, in loc. Acts vi. 9. The synagogue of the libertines.] Great numbers of the Jews, who were taken captive by Pomptey, and carried into Italy, were there set at liberty, and obtained their freedom from their masters ; their children, therefore, would be libertini in the proper sense of that word; and, agreeably to this,' the Jews banished from Rome by Tiberius are spoken bf by Tacitus {Annal. lib. ii. cap. 85) as of the libertine race. These might easily con- stitute one of the 480 synagogues said to have been at Jerusalem. Rev. ii. 1. The angel of the church.] Next to the chief ruler of the synagogue was an officer, whose province it was to offer up public prayer to God for the whole congregation, and who on thM account was called the angel of the church, because as their mes- senger he spake to God for them. Hence the pastors of the seven churches of Asia are called by a name borrowed from the synagogue. Jennings's Jewish Ant. vol. ii. p. 55. ' Matt. iv. 23. And Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues.] The scribes ordinarily taught in the syna- gogues : but it was not confined to them, as it appears that Christ did the same. It has been questioned by what right Christ and his apostles, who had no public character among the Jews, taught in their synagogues. In answer tb this Dr. Lightfoot 'observes, that though' this liberty was not allowed to any illiterate person or mechanic, but to the leai-ned only ; they granted it to prophets and workers of miracles ; and such as set up for heads and leaders of new sects; in order that they might inform tjiemselves of their dogmata, and not condemn them unheard and iiiiknown. Under these characters Christ and his apostles were admitted to this pri- vilege. Jennings's Jewish Ant, vol. ii. p. 54. Luke iv. 20. And he closed the hook, and he gave it again to the minister, and sat down.] The third part of the synagogue 210 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. service was expounding the Scriptures, and preaching to the peo- ple. The posture in which this was performed, whether in the synagogue or in other places, was sitting. Accordingly, when our Saviour had read the haphtaroth in the synagogue at Nazareth, of which he was a member, having been brought up in that city ; instead of retiring to his place, he sat down in the desk or pulpit ; and, it is said, that the eyes of all that were present were fastened upon him ; as they perceived by his posture that he was going to preach to them. And when Paul and Barnabas went into the synagogue at Antioch, and sat down, thereby intimating their de- sire to speak to the people if they might be permitted ; the rulers of the synagogue sent to them, and gave them leave. Acts xiii. 14, 15. Acts xiii. 15. And after the reading of the law and the pro- phets.'] The custom of reading the law, the Jews say, existed a hundred and seventy years before the time of Christ. The divi- sion of it into sections is ascribed to Ezra. The five books of Moses, here called the law, contained fifty-three sections, so that by reading one on each Sabbath, and two in one day, they read through the whole in the course of a year ; finishing at the feast of Tabernacles, which they called "the rejoicing of the law." When Antiochus Epiphanes burnt the book of the law, and for- bade the reading of it, tl)e Jews, in the room of it, selected some passages out of the prophets, which they thought came nearest in words and sense to the sections of the law, and read them in their stead ; but when the law was restored again, they still con- tinued the reading of the prophetic sections; and the section for the day was called the dismission, because usually the people were dismissed upon it, unless any one stood up and expounded the word of God to them. This is the reason of the message sent to the apostles, " Ye men and brethren, if ye have any word of ex- hortation for the people, say on." Gill, in loc. Luke iv. 16. And stood up to read.] The custom of reading the Scriptures publicly was an appointment of Moses, according to the Jews. It was also usual to stand at reading the law and the prophets. Some parts of the Old Testament were allowed to be read sitting or standing ; as particularly the book of Esther. Common IsraeHtes, as well as priests and Levites, were allovred to read the Scriptures publicly. Every Sabbath-day sef en persons read; a priest, a Levite, and five Israelites. And it is said to be a known custom to this day, that even an unlearned priest reads before the greatest wise man in Israel. Gill, in loc. , Luke iv. 17. And there was delivered unto him the hook of ,the prophet Isaiah.] This was done by the chazan or minister, one part of whose business was to deliver the book of the law ttf, RELIGION, 211 and take it from, him that read. When a high-priest read, the chazan, or minister of the synagogue, took the book of the law, and gave it to the ruler of the synagogue, and he gave it to the sagany who delivered it to the high-priest, and the high-priest stood and received it, and rpad standing. The same method was observed when a king read in the book of the law : but when a common priest, or an inferior person read, there was not so much ceremony used. Gill, in loc. Luke iv. 20. And sat down."] The Jewish doctors, to show their reverence for the Scriptures, always stood when they read them, but when they taught the people they sat down. See Matt, xxiii. 2. Thus we find our Lord sitting down in the synagogue to preach, afi;er he had read the passage in the prophet which he made the subject of his discourse. The custom of preaching from a text of Scripture, which now prevails throughout all the christian churches, seems to have derived its origin from the authority of this example. Macknighfs Harmony, vol. i. p. 122. 1 CoR. xiv. 27. Let one interpret."] This practice seems to have been borrowed from the Jews, who had such an officer in the synagogue. Maimonides says, that from the time of Ezra it had been customary that one should interpret to the people what was read out of the law ; one *verse only was read at a time, and there was silence till it was interpreted. Interpreters were not allowed to give their own sense of the words, but were obliged to go ac- cording to the Targum of Onkelos, which they say was the same as was delivered on Mount Sinai. They never put any man into this office till he was fifty years of age. Matt, vii.' 29. For he taught them as one having authority, and not as the scribes-l When the scribes delivered any thing to the people, they used to say, " our rabbins, or our wise men, say so." Such as were on the side of Hillel made use of his name, and those who were on the side of Shammai made use of his. Scarcely ever would they venture to say any thing as of them- selves. But Christ spake boldly, of himself, and did not go about to support his doctrine by the testimony of the elders. Gill, in loc. Esther ix. 26. Wherefore they called these days Purim.] This festival was to be kept two days successively, the fourteenth and fifteenth of the month Adar, ver. 21. On both days of the feast, the modern Jews read over the Megillah, or book of Esther, in their synagogues. The copy there read must not be printed, but written on vellum in the form of a roll ; and the names of the ten sons of Haman are written on it in a peculiar manner, being ranged, they say, like so many bodies hanged on a gibbet. p 2 212 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. The reader ui'ust pronounce all tWe'se names in one' breath. Whenever Hainan's name is pronounced, they iri'Ake a terrible npise in the synagogue : some druiri with their feet on the floor, and, the boys have' mallets, with which to l^nock and make a nQis;e. I .They prepare themselves for tl^eif carnival by a previous fast, which should continue tKree days,' in imifa'tibh of E^th^r's^ Esth. iv. 16, but they have mostly rfediiced it ta one day.' Jeti- ninffs's Jewish Ant. vol. i. p. 305. John xvi. 2. They shall put you out of the synagogues^ There were three degree^, of exQommuriJcation. among the Jews ; the first is what is calkd inthe New Testament, casting out of the syna- goguei and signifies a separation from all commerce or society; it was of force thirty days, but might beshortened by repentance. If the person persisted in^ his obstinacy after the thirty days were expired,, they excommunicaWd bjm again, w^ith the addition of a solemn purse. TMs is supposed by some to be the same with de- livering over to Satan. The offence was published in thie syna- gogue, and at this, time candles were lighted, and when the pro- clam,ation was ended they, were put out, as a sign that the person excommunicated, was deprived of the light of heaven ; his goods were confiscated ; his male children were not admitted to circum- cision ; andjf he died without repentance, by the sentence of the judge, a stope was ca,st upon his coflSn or bier, to show that he de- served to be stored.. ,He jwas not mourned for with ariy solemn lamentation. The last degree of excommunication vi^as anathe- matizing,^ which was inflicted when the pfiender had often refused to comply with the sentence of the court, and was a:ttended with corporal punishment, and sometimes with banishment and death. , 1 Cor. xvi. 22. If any man lov^not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be anathema maranat^aJ] When the Jews lost the power of life, and death, they iised nevertheless to pronoiince an dridthema on persons who according to the Mosiac law, should have been executed ; aiid such a person became an anathema, or cherem, or accursed, for the expressions, £^re equiyalent. They had a full persuasion that the curse would not be in vain ; and indeed it, ap- pears they expected some judgment, corresponding to that which the law pronounced, would befal the oflTender ; for instance, that a man to be stoned would be killed by the falling of a stone pr other heavy body uppn him ; a man to be strangled would be choked; or one whom the law sentenced to the flames vvould be burnt in his house, and the like. Now to express theiir faitli, that God would one way or another, and probably in some remarkable manner, in- terpose^^ to add that efficacy to his own sentence, which they could not give it, it is verj^ probable they might use the ,word8 maran- atha, that is, in Syriac, the Lord cpmefh, or he will surely and quickly come to put this sentence in execution, and to siiow that RELIGION. 213 • 1> the person on whom it falls is indeed anathema, accursed. In beautiful allusion to this, when the apostle was speaking of a secret alienation from Christ, maintained under the forms of chrife- t'anjty (which might perhaps be the dase among lidany 'Of the Co^l^ithiaps), as 'this 'was not a crime ca{)able! of "being convicted a.n4 censured in the christian church, he reminds' them', that the Lord Jesus CHrist will c^ome at length, and fioA ii out, and puh- ish it in a proper manner. This, weighty sentence the apoStle chose to write with his own hand, and insert between his general salutation ai^d beiiediction, that it might be the more attentively regarded. JDoddridge, 'm\oc. SACRED FEASTS. ExoD. xii. 26, 21, Your children shall say, what mean ye by tMs.. service?] A custom obtained among the Jews, that a child should ask the meaning of the passover, and that the person who presided should then give an account of its intent and origin, that so the remembrance of God's mercy might be transmitted to their latest posterity. This was called the Declaration, or show- ing forth. ExoD^ xii, 15. The first day ye shall put away leqven out of your houses.] Coijcerning this matter the mddem Jews are supfer- stitiously exact and scrupulous. The master of thie family makes a diligent search into every hole and crevice throughout the house, lest any crumb of leavened bread should remain in it : and that not by the light of the sun or moon, but of a candle. And in order that this exactness may not appear altogether superfluous and ridiculous, care is -taken to conceal some' scraps of leavened bread in some corner or other, the discovery of which occasions mighty joy. This search, nevertheless, strict as it is, does not give him entire satisfaction. After all he beseeches God that all the leavened byead that is in the house, as well as what he has found, may become like the dust of the earth, and be reduced to nothing. . They are also very exact and scrupulous in making their bread for the feast, lest there should be any thing like leaven mixed with it. The corn of which it is made, must not be carried to the mill on the horse's bare back^ lest thp ^eat of the sun should mak^ it ferment. The sack iii whichU is put, must be carefully examined, lest there should be any remainder of old meal in it : the dough must be piade in a place not exposed to the sun, and must be put into the oven immediately after it is made, lest ii should ferment .itself. , Jennings's Jewish Ant. vol. ii. p. 211. ExoD. xii. 3. In the tenth day of this month they shall take to themselves every man a lamb ; ver. 6, and ye shall keep it up until the fourteerjtth day of the sam^ month.] From hence it'ap- 214 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. pears that the lamb was to be taken from the flock four days before it was killed. For this the rabbies assign the following reasons : that the providing of it might not, through a hurry of business, especially at the time of their departure from Eg^jpt, be neglected till it was too late : that by having it so long with them before it was killed, they might have the better opportunity of ob- serving whether there were any blemishes in it : and by having it before their eyes so considerable a time, might be more effectually reminded of the mercy of their deliverance out of Egypt ; and likewise to prepare them for so great a solemnity as the approach- ing feast. On these accounts some of the rabbies inform us it was customary to have the lamb tied these four days to their bed-posts : a rite which they make to be necessary and essential to the pass- over in all ages. Jennings's Jewish Ant. vol. ii. p. 187. ExoD. xii. 9. Eat not of it raw, nor sodden with water, hut roasted with fire.] The prohibition of eating it raw, for which there might seem to be little occasion, since mankind have gene- rally abhorred such food, is understood by some to ' have been given in opposition to the barbarous customs of the heathens, who in their feasts of Bacchus, which, according ' to Herodotus and Plutarch, had their original in Egypt, used to tear the members of living creatures to pieces, and eat them raw. It is observable, that the Syriac version renders the clause, " Eat not of it raw, eat not of it while it is alive." Spencer de Leg, Heb. 1. ii. c. 4. sect. 2. Matt. xxvi. 26, 27. And as they were eating Jesus took bread.] Though this supper' is distinct from the passover, and different from any ordinary meal, yet there are in it allusions to both, and to several Jewish customs. He that asked a blessing upon bread used to take it into his hands : this is a stated rule, that all may see that he blesses over it. It was also common with the Jews to ask a blessing upon their bread ; the form in which they did it was this : " Blessed art thou, O Lord our God, the king of the world, that producest bread out of the earth." If there were many at table, one asked a blessing for the rest. The blessing always preceded the breaking of the bread. The rules concerning the breaking of the bread are : " the master of the house recites and finishes the blessing, and after that he breaks : he does not break a small piece, lest he should seem to be sparing ; nor a large piece, lest he should be thought to be famished ; it is a principal com- mand to break a whole loaf." He that broke the bread put a piece before every one, and the other took it into his hand. The Jews in eating the passover used to say of the unleavened bread, " This is the bread of affliction, which our fathers eat in the land of Egypt." The Jews blessed and gave thanks for their wine, as well as their food ; they generally did it in this form : " Blessed RELIGION. 215 art thou, O Lord our God, the king of the world, who hast created the fruit of the vine." Gill, in loc. Matt. xxvi. 26. Jesus took bread, and blessed it.] The person of the greatest dignity amongst the Jews always pronounced the Baraca or benediction on the bread and wine ; for which reason our blessed Lord performed it himself, being with his disciples as their master and doctor. Picart's Religious Cerem. vol. i. p. 124. Matt. xxvi. 26. This is my body.] It is very probable that our Lord, after he had blessed and broken the bread according to the Jewish custom, imitated also the Jews in these words, This is my body ; for they say when they eat unleavened bread, " this is the bread of afBiction which our fathers eat in the land of Egypt." But Christ signified to his disciples, that they were no longer re- quired to eat that bread of affliction which their fathers had eaten when they came out of Egypt ; but that being the author of a new covenant, he gave them his own body and blood instead thereof. Picart's Religious Ceremonies, vol. i. p. 125. Matt. xxvi. 28. For this is my blood of the New Testament, which is shed for many for the remission of sins.] The wine used on this occasion was an emblem and representation of the blood of Christ about to be shed for the remission of sin. It was usual even among the heathens, to make and confirm their covenants by drinking human blood, and that sometimes mixed with wine. (Alex, ab Alex. Genial. Dier. 1. v. c. 3.) Matt. xxvi. 29. I will not drink henceforth of the fruit of the vine, until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom.] This declaration of Christ is in allusion to a usage at the passover, when after the fourth cup they tasted of nothing else all that night but water. It intimates that he would drink no more, not only that night, but never after. Gill, in loc. Matt. xxvi. 30. When they had sung a hymn.] This was the hallel, which the Jews were obliged to sing on the night of the passover. It consisted of six psalms, the hundred and thirteenth, and the five following ones. This they did not sing all at once, but in parts. Just before the drinking of the second cup and eating of the lamb they sung the first part ; and on mixing the fourth and last cup they sung the remainder; and said over it what they call the blessing of the song, which was Psalm cxlv. 10. They might, if they would, mix a fifth cup, and say over it the great hallel, which was Psalm cxxxvi., but that they were not obliged to. Gill, in loc. ExoD. xii. 10. That which remaineth till the morning ye shall 216 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. burn with fire.] We read in Macrobius of such a custom amongst the ancient Romans in a feast called Protervia, where the manner was, as Flavianus saith, " ut si quid ex epulis superfuisset, igne consumeretur ;" that if any thing were left of the good cheer, it should be consumed with fire. h. ii.. Saturnal. cap. 2. Patrick, in loc. 1 Sam. XX. 5. New moon."] " As soon as the new moon was either consecrated or appointed to be observed, notice was given by the Sanhedrim to the rest of the nation, what day had been fixed for the new moon, or first day of the month, because that was to be the rule and measure, according to which they were obliged to keep their feasts and fasts in every month respectively. This notice was given to them in time of peace, by firing beacons set up for that purpose (which was looked upon as the readiest way of communication), but in time of war, when all places were full of enemies, who made use of beacons to amuse opr nation with, it was thought fit to discontinue it, and to delegate some men on purpose, to go and signify it to as many as they possibly could reach, before the time commanded for the observation of the feast or fast was expired." Levi's Mites and Ceremonies of the Jews, p. 25. Eph. v. 14. Wherefore he saith, awake thou that sleepest, and arise from the dead, and Christ shall give thee light.] On the Jewish feast of the new moon they sounded the trumpets so much, that it was called a memorial of blowing trumpets. The scripture nowhere assigns the reason of it; but Maimonides thinks it was instituted to awaken the people to repentance, against the annual fast or great day of expiation, which followed nine days after. He makes the sound of the trumpet on this day to be, in effect, saying, " shake oflT, your drowsiness, ye that sleep, search and try your ways, remember your Creator and repent, bethink yourselves, and take care of your souls." Some have supposed- that the apostle refers to this use and meaning of blowing the trumpets in the passage now cited. Dr. Jennings (Jewish Ant. vol. ii. p. 252) difiers from this opinion, and prefers the conjec- ture of Heumannus, that the passage is taken out of one of those hymns or spiritual songs, which were in common use in the chris- tian church in those times, and which are mentioned in a subse- quent verse. Lev. xxiii. 24. A memorial of blowing of trumpets.] Some commentators have conjectured, that this feast of trumpets was de- signed to preserve the memory of Isaac's deliverance by the sub- stitution of a ram to be sacrificed in his stead: it has sometimes been called by the Jews, the binding of Isaac. But it is more probable that it derived its name from the kind of trumpets (rams' RELIGION. 217 horns) then used, and that it was intended to sblemnize the begin- ning of the new year, to remind them of the beginning of the world, and to excite their thankfulness for the fruits, benefits,' and blessings of the preceding year. The extraordinary blowing of the trumpets by the priests at that time in all their cities, as well as at Jerusalem, where two ^ilvei* trumpets were also used at the temple^ as well as those of horn, when the Levites sung Psalm Ixxxi. was well adapted to promote those important objects. MiCAH vii. 19. Thou wilt cast all their sins into the depths of the *ea.] It is a custom with the modern Jews on new year's DAY to sound the horn, to invite the people to hearken with hu- mility and attention to the judgments of God, and to thank him fbr his favour and support during the year which is just ended. This festival lasts two days, and all the people in the synagogue are to pray with a loud voice, and in a humbler posture than usual. In Germany the Jews send their children to the grand rabbi to receive his benediction ; and when they sit down to table, the master of the house takes a bit of bread, and dips it in hohey, saying, " may this year be sweet and fruitful ;" and all the guests do the same. They seldom omit serving up a sheep's head at this entertainment, which they say is a mystical representation of the ram sacfificfed instead of Isaac. The sounding of the horn is performed stand- ing, where the law is read, the whole congregation remaining in the same posture. This is made of a ram's horn, being also a monument of Isaac's ram. It is crooked, as representing the pos- ture of a man humbling himself. The time for blowing it is from sun-rise to sun-set. The ancient Jews upon the day of atonement discharged their sins upon a he-goat, which afterwiards was sent into the desert. But the modern Jews, of Germany in particular, instead of a goat, now do it upon the fish. • They go after dinner to the brink of a pond, and there shake their clothes over it with all their might. They derive this custom from the passage of the prophet Micah now above cited. ExoD. xxiii. 16. The feitst of ingathering, which is in ihe end of the year, when thou hast gathered in thy labours out of the field!] The same custom prevailed among the gentiles, who, at the end 6i the year, when they gathered in their fruits, offered solemn sacrifices, with thanks to God for his blessings. Aristotle {Ethic, lib. viii.) says, that the anpient sacrifices and assemblies were after the gathering in of the fruits, being designed for an oblation of the first-fruits unto God. Matt. xxi. 34. And when the time of the fruit drew near, he sent his servants to the husbandmen, that they' might receive 'ihe fruits of it.'] The fruit of all manner of tree^ for the first three years was not to be eaten, nor any profit made of it :■ in the 218 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. fourth year it was to be holy, to praise the Lord with ; being either given to the priests, or eaten by the owners before the Lord at Jerusalem : in the fifth year it might be eaten and made use of for profit, and thenceforward every year. To this tin^p of fruit, and the custom of bringing it up to Jerusalem, there seems to be an allusion here. Gill, in loo. * Psalm Ixviii. 24. They have seen thy goings, O God, even the goings of my God, my king, in the sanctuary. '\ Instead of the word goings. Dr. Hurdis (Dissertations on Psalms and Prophecy, p. 68) substitutes that of processions, referring to the custom of the Egyptians at the overflowing of the Nile. He observes that the flood of Egypt, like that of Palestine, was autumnal, and both may be ascribed to the same periodical rains. The ceremonies also observed in Egypt during the swelling of the Nile, and when it had attained its happiest height, as frequently alluded to by the sacred writers, were perfectly similar to those of the Hebrews. To the present day, we are informed by Irwin [Travels, vol. i. p. 307), that at the first visible rise of the river the female chorus, singing and dancing to the sound of the instruments, goes in pro- cession by night to the stream. In veneration of the benevolent power who thus dispenses annually the blessings of plenty, it not only praises him till it reaches the brink of the flood, but even . bathes in its waters, to express the most undoubted adoration. The very same custom manifestly prevailed when the infant Moses was found floating upon the river. For it is not sufficient to say with our translators, that when the daughter of Pharaoh went down to the flood, her maidens walked along by the river-side. The word which expresses their motion is always used by the sacred writers to describe the action of the chorus ; as the Psalmist explains it in these words. Hurdis on Psalm and Prophecy, p. 68. Psalm Ixviii. 25.] The singers went before. The same cus- tom prevailed also among the gentiles in their solemn processions : for both before and after, as well as during the time of their liba- tions and sacrifices, they sang hymns in praise of their respective deities : and when they celebrated the supposed advent of their gods at particular times, it was with the greatest demonstrations of joy, with dancing, music, and songs. (See Callimachus, Hy. in Apol. v. 12.) On this account they employed persons to compose these sorts of hymns ; and that the singing of them might be per- formed with grealer harmony and dignity, they chose for this reli- gious service persons trained up to, and well skilled in, vocal mu- sic. For this employment they brought up children of both sexes, who marched in procession at their great festivals. See Horace, carm. sec. and Catullus, carm. sec. Chandler's Life of David, vol. ii. p. 82. RELIGION. 219 2 Sam. vi. 14. And David danced before the Lord with all his might^ Upon this circumstance the Jews have grounded a ridi- culous custom. In the evening of the day on M^hich they drew water out of the pool of Siloam, those who were esteemed the wise men of Israel, the elders of the Sanhedrim, the rulers of the syna- gogues, and. the doctors of the schools, met in the court of the temple. All the temple music played, and the old men danced, ■while the women in the balconies round the court, and the men on the ground, were spectators. All the sport was to see these vene- rable fathers of the nation skip and dance, clap their hands and sing 5 and they who played the fool most egregiously acquitted themselves with most honour. In this manner they spent the greater part of the night, till at length two priests sounded a retreat with trumpets. This mad festivity was repeated every evening, except on the evening before the Sabbath, which fell in this festival, and on the evening before the last and great day of the feast. Jennings's Jewish Antiq. vol. ii. p. 235. Acts xx. 7. And upon the first day of the week, when the dis- ciples came together to break bread."] Bishop Pearce, in his note on this passage, says, " In the Jewish way of speaking, to break bread is the same as to make a meal : and the meal here meant seems to have been one of those which was called a^yaTtm, hve- f easts. Such of the heathens as were converted to Christianity were obliged to abstain from meats ofiered to idols, and these were the main support of the poor in the heathen cities. The Chris- tians, therefore, who were rich, seem very early to have begun the custom of those aya-irai, love-feasts, which they made on every first day of the week, chiefly for the benefit of the poorer Chris- tians, who, by being such, had lost the benefit, which they used to have for their support, of eating part of the heathen sacrifices. It was towards the latter end of these feasts, or immediately after them, that the Christians used to take bread and wine in remem- brance of Jesus Christ, which, from what attended it, was called the eucharist, or holy communion. JuDE 12. These are spots in your feasts of charity. 1 It is commonly supposed that St. Jude here refers to the primitive Christian love-feasts. But Lightfoot and Whitby apprehend the allusion is rather to a custom of the Jews, who on the evening of the Sabbath had their Koivwvta or communion, when the inhabi- tants of the same city met in a common place to eat together. Romans xvi. 23. Gains my host, and of the whole church."] Dr. Lightfoot {Hor. Hebraic. 1 Cor. xi. 21) has a peculiar notion concerning the Christian agapse; that they were a sort of hospitals for the entertainment of strangers in imitation of those which the Jews had adjoining to their synagogues. Gaius, who is called 220 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. the host of the- whole church, he supposes to have been. the.master of such a hospital; and that Phoebe,, who is called the SfC(Koj/oe of the church at Cencbrea, and those other women meijtipned Phil. iv.'Sj were servants attending these hospitals. TRADITIONS. Genesis iiii 15. It 'shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt-ki'Mise his heel.} The following traditions of the promised Messi^th are Temarkable for their coincidence with the first prjomise,i;and must have had a higher origin than unassisted human invention. ; Jn the Gothic mythology, Thor is represented as the first-born, of the supreme God, and is styled in the Edda, the eldest of sons; he was esteemed a " middle divinity, a mediator between God and man." With regard to his actions^ he is said to have wrestled with death, and, in the struggle, to have been> brought uponiOne knee; to have bruised the head of the great serpent with. his mace ; and in his final engagement with that monster to have beat him to the earth, and slain him. This victory, .however|> is not obtained but^at the expenseiof his own life: "Recoiling back nine steps, he falls dead upon the spot, suffocated with the .floods. of venom which the serpent vomits forth upon him." {Edda, Fab. 11, 23, 27, 32). Much the same notion, we are informed, is pre- valent in the mythology of the Hindoos. ' Two sculptured figures are yet extant in one of' their oldest pagodas, the former of which represents Chreeshna, an incarnation lof their mediatorial God Vishnu, trampling on the crashed head oi \kx serpent; while^in the latter it is seen encircling the deity in its folds, and biting his heel (Maurice's Hist, of Uifidostan, vol. ii. p. 290). It is said that Zeradusht, or Zor-oaster, predicted in the Zendavesta,..thatin the latter days would appear a man called OshanderbegbS., who was destined tt) bless the earth by the introduction of justice; and religion ; that, in his time-, would likewise appear a. malignant de- mon, who would oppose 'his plans and trouble his empirei.for the space of twenty years ; that afterwards, OsiderbeghS.' would revive the practice of justice, put an end to injuries, and re-estab- lish such customs as are immutable in their nature; that kings should be obedient to him, and advance his aflTairs ; that thexaiise of true religion should flourish ; that peace, and tranquillity shOjuld prevail, and discord and trouble cease. (JETyde, de-Relig. 'Bet. Pers. c. 31). According to Abulpharagius, the Persian legislator wrote of the advent of the Messiah in terms even more express than those contained in the foregoing prediction. "Zeradusht," says he, "the preceptor of the magi,, taught the Persians concern- ing the manifestation of 'Christ, and ordered them to bring gifts to him, in ioken of their reverence and submission. He declared, that in the latter days a pure virgin would conceive ; and that as soon as the child was born, a star would appear, blazing even at RELIGION. 221 noon-day with undiminished lustre. You, ray sons," exclaims the venerahle seer, " will perceive its rising, before any other nation^ As soon, therefore, as you shall behold the star, follow it; whither- soever it shall lead youj and adore that' mysterious child, offering your gifts to him with the profoundest. humility. He is the al- mighty word; which created the heavens/' (Gited by .ff^c^c, de Meliff. vet. Pers. c. 31.) Gen. v. 24. God took him.] The following singulair, tradition may possibly have some reference to the translation of Enoch: " The Kalmucks, among other idolsj worship in a peculiar manner one, which they call Xacamuni. They say,, that four thousand years ago; he was only a sovereign prince in Indian but, on ac- count of his unparalleled sanctity, God hath taken him up to heaven alive." Von Strahlenberg's Siberia, p. 409. Genesis xlix. 1'. ■ An^ Jacob called unto his sons; and said, Gather yourselves together, that I may tell you that which shall befal you in the last days."] " It is an opinion of great antiquity, that the nearer men approach to their dissolution, their souls grow more divine, and discern more of futurity. We find this opinion as early as Homer (7/. xvi. 852, et xxii. 358), for he represents the dying Patroclus foretelling the fate of Hector, and the dying Hector denouncing no less certainly the death of Achilles. So- crates, in his apology to the Athenians a little before his death, asserts the same opinion. ' But now,' saith he, ' I am desirous to prophesy to you, who have condemned me, what will happen hereafter. For now I am arrived at that state, in which men pro- phesy most when-they are about to die.' {Platonis Apolog. Socr. Op. vol. i. p. 39, edit. Serrani.) His scholar Xenophon {Cyrop. lib. viii. propejinem, p. 140) introduces the dying Cyrus declaring in like manner- ' that the soul of man at the hour of death appears most divine, and then foresees something of future events.' Dio- dorus Siculus {in initio, lib. xviii. tom. 2) allegeth great authori- ties upon the subject. ' Pythagoras, the Samian, and some others of the ancient naturalists, have demonstrated that the souls of men are immortal, and, in consequence of this opinion, that they also foreknow fixture events at the time that they are making their separation from the body in death.' Sextus Empiricus {adv. Ma- them. p. 312) confirms it likewise by the authority of Aristotle : •The soul,' saith Aristotle, 'foresiees and foretels future events, when it is going to be separated from the body by death.' We might produce more testimonies to this purpose from Cicero, and Eustathius upon Homer, and from other authors, if there were occasion: but these are sufficient to show the great antiquity of this opinictfi. And it is possible that old experience may in some cases attain to something like prophecy and divination; In some instances also God may have been pleased to comfort and enlighten 222 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. departing souls with a prescience of future events. But what I conceive might principally give rise to this opinion, was the tradi- tion of some of the patriarchs being divinely inspired in their last moments, to foretel the state and condition of the people descended from them: as Jacob upon his death-bed summoned his sons to- gether, that he might inform them of what should befal them in the latter days." Newton on the Prophecies, vol. i. p. 85, 2nd edit,. ExoD. iii. 2. And the anffelof the Lord appeared unto him in afiame offirei] The traditionary notion of a miraculous light or fire being the token of a divine presence, prevailed among the Greeks in the time of Homer : for, after relating that the goddess^^ Minerva attended on Ulysses with her golden lamp, or rather torch, and afforded him a refulgent light, he makes Telemachus cry out to his father in rapture : Odyss. xix. What miracle thus dazzles with surprise ? Distinct in tovtb the radiant columns rise : The walls, where'er my wond'ring sight I turn,. And roofs, amidst a blaze of gloiy burn ;. Some visitant of pure ethereal race With his bright presence deigns the dome to grace. Popi. Acts vii. 30. There appeared to him in the wilderness of Mount Sinai an angel of the Lord, in a flame of fire in a bush.\ The heathens had either read or heard of this circumstance, as appears by Artapanus, who mentions it fm Eusebius, 1. ix. Prce- par. Evang, c. xxvii.) ; but he disguises it, and misreports it, saying it was a fire which suddenly broke forth out of the earth, and flamed when there was no matter nor any kind of wood in the place to feed it. However, in the next chapter but one an ancient tragedian reports it exactly, saying just as Moses does here, that the bush burned with fire, and yet remained entire in the flame, which he calls the greatest miracle. There is a story something like this in Dion Pruseeus, Orat. xxxvi. where he saith, the Per- sians relate concerning Zoroaster, that the love of wisdom and virtue leading him to a solitary life upon a mountain, he found it one day all in a flame, shining with celestial fire, out of the midst of which he came without any harm, and instituted certain sacri- fices to God, who, he declared^ then appeared to him. Both Ursinus and Huet have endeavoured to prove, that this was a cor- rupt tradition of this vision of Moses, Patrick, on Exod. iii. 2. . Exodus iv. 25. A bloody husband art thou to meJ] The learned Joseph Mede {Diss. xiv. p. 52) has given to these words of Zippo- rah the following singular interpretation. He says that it was a RELI610V. 223 custom among the Jews to name the child that was circumcised by a Hebrew word, signifying a husband. He builds his opinion upon the testimony of some i;abbins. He apprehends that she applied to the child, and not to Moses, as most interpreters think, the words above-mentioned. Chaton, which is the term in the original, is never used to denote the relation between husband and wife, but that which is between a man and the father or mother of , the person to whom he is married : it signifies a son-in-law, and not a husband. A person thus related is a son initiated into a family by alliance. It is in this view of initiated, that Zipporah says to her son, a bloody husband art thou to me ; that is to say, it is I who have initiated thee into the church by the bloody sacra- ment of circumcision. He endeavours to justify his criticism upon the word Chaton by the idea which the Arabians affix to the verb from whence this noun is derived. The Chaldee Paraphrast also annexes the same notion to the words of Zipporah. Saurin {Diss, on O. T. vol. i. p. 371) does not seem altogether satisfied with this interpretation of the passage : whether it be just or not must be left to the decision of the learned reader. ExoD. xvii. 6. Thou shall smite the rock, and there shall come water out of itJ] This remarkable interposition of God for the Israelites appears to have been imperfectly known in other coun- tries ; and the remembrance of it is still retained in some of the heathen fables. There is a manifest allusion to it in Euripides (Bacchae, 703), where he makes one smite the rock at Cithseron, and waters gush out of it. Huetius (Alnetanae Quaestiones, 1. ii. c. 12, n. 18) gives many such instances; and suggests, that it is very probable that the fable of Janus was forged from hence : alleging that the image is described as holding a rod in his left hand, with which he smites a stone, and causes water to flow from it. Exodus xxv. 10. They shall make an ark.2 We meet with imitations of this divinely instituted emblem among several heathen nations, both in ancient and modern times. Thus Tacitus (de Mor. German, cap. 40) informs us, that " the inhabitants of the north of Germany, our Saxon ancestors, in general, Worshipped Her- thum, that is, the mother earth, and believed her to interpose in the affairs of men, and to visit nations : that to her, within a sacred grove, in a certain island of the ocean, a vehicle, covered with a vestment, was consecrated, and allowed to be touched by the priest alone, who perceived when the goddess entered into this her secret place, and with profound veneration, attended her vehicle, which was drawn by cows. While the goddess was on her progress, days of rejoicing were kept in every place which she vouchsafed to visit. They engaged in no war, they meddled not with arms, they locked up their weapons : peace and quietness only were then 224 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. known, these only relished, till the same priest reconducted the goddess, satiated with the conversation of mortals, to her temple." Among the Mexicans, Vitziputzli, their supreme god, was re- presented, in a human, shape, sjttiiig on a throne, supported bj an azure glpbC) which, they called, heayen. Four poles or sticks came out, from two sjdes of, t)ijs. globe, at the ends of which serpents' heads were carvedj the w^ple' making a litter, whicli the, priests carried on the.ii", shouldersrwheneypr the idol \yas shown in public.*' PiQart's Cexemoriiifis,, \\\. p., 146. " In l/ieutenant Cook's voyage round the world, published by, I)r,,Hawke,sworth, vol. ii, p. ^53, we find that the inhabitants of Huahjeine, one of the islanjip lately discovered in the South, Sea, had " a, kind of che.si oy, ark, the lid of which was nicely sewed on, and thatched, very neatly with palm-nut leaves. It was fixed upon two poles, and supported, upon little arches of wood, very neatly, carved : the use of the poles seemed to be to remove it from pkce to. place, in) the xpfinn^r' of our sedan-chair : in one end of it was a square hole, in, themjdjdle of which was goring, touching th,e sides and leaving the angles open, sp as to form a round hole within, a square one without. The first time Mr. feanks saw this coffer, the aperture at the end vs^as, stopped with a piece of cloth, which, lest h,e should gi,ve offence, he left un.tpu.ched. ^^robably there was then something vf ithjn, : bvit pow the cloth was Itaken away, ao;d, ttppA lookiing into ifc, it v^s foujnd empty. The general re- semblance between this, :^epository, and the ark of the Lord among the Jews, is, remarksible : but it is still more remarkable, that upon inquiring of the b,oy what it was qalled, he said, Ewharre no Eatau, the house of Qpd : he could, however, give no^ account of its signification or use." Parkhurst's Heh, Lex. p. 690, Mh edit. Lev, x^vii. S2, Whatsoever passeth under the rod.'] This ex- presses the manner of the tithing, which, according to the Jews was thus performed. The cattle were all brought into a sheep-cote, in which there was byit one gate, apd that ^o narrow as to suffer only one to come out at a timp. The dams being placed without, and the g^te opened, ^he young ones were invited by their blee^ting to press out to them. As they passed by, one by one, a man who ^tood g,t the gate with a rod' coloured vith ochre, told them in order ; and when the tenth came put, vrhethei; it were male or fenjale, sound or not, he markpd it with his rp)}, and said. Let this be holy in the napie of the tejith. Bocharf thinks that Moses does not here spegjt of the rod of the tithes, but of the shepherd's crook ; for the flock passed under his rpd as often as he numbered them, whiph was particularly done every evening. Patrick, in Ipc. Leviticus xxiv. IL ^nd the f^rfielitish woman's son blas- phemed the name, and cursed.] The words, of the Lord, which RELIGION. 225 imniediately follow, blasphemed the name, being put in italics in our translation, show that they form no part of the original text. Among the Palmyrenians it is a custom to inscribe on their mar- bles, " To the blessed name be fear for ever." " To the blessed name for ever good and merciful, be fear." This is exactly similar to the above-cited passage, respecting the blasphemy of the Is- raelitish woman's son. Fragments, No, 490, Joshua v. 15. Loose thy shoe from offthyfoot^ The custom •which is here referred to, not only constantly prevailed all over the East from the earliest ages, but continues to this day. To pull oflf the sandals, or slippers, is used as a mark of respect on entering a mosque, or a temple, or the room of any person of dis- tinction ; in which case they were either laid aside, or given to a servant to bear. Ives ( Travels, p. 75) says, that " at the doors of an Indian pagoda are seen as many slippers and sandals as there are hats hanging up in our churches." The same custom prevails amongst the Turks. Maundrell, p. 29, describes exactly the ceremonials of a Turkish visit, on which, though an European and a stranger, he was obliged to comply with this custom. Isaiah, xix. 1. Jehovah shall come into Egypt, and the idols of Egypt shall be moved at his presence.'] Both Eusebius (Z)e- monstrat. Evang. lib. vi. cap. 20) and Athanasius {de Incarnat. Ferhi, vol. i. p. 89) have recorded the following fact : that, when Joseph and Mary arrived in Egypt, they took up their abode in Hermopolis, a city of the Thebais, in which was a superb temple of Serapis. Conducted by Providence, or induced by curiosity, to visit this temple with the infant Saviour, what was their wonder and consternation, on their very entrance, to find, not only the great idol itself, but all the dii minores of the temple, fall prostrate before them ! The priests fled away witK horror, and the whole city was in the utmost alarm. The spurious gospel , of the Evangelium Infantiae also relates this story, which is not, on that account, the less likely to be true, since it is probable that the spurious gospels may contain many relations of facts traditionally remembered, however dishonoured by being mingled with the grossest forgeries and puerilities. It is not probable that Eusebius or Athanasius derived thefr information from this source. In this relation we have a remarkable completion of the above cited prophecy of Isaiah. Maurice's Hist, of Hindostan, vol. ii. p. 288. Nehem. ii. 8. And the king granted me according to the good hand of my God upon me.'] The hand is sometimes taken in an ill sense for inflicting punishments, Ruth i. 13 ; Jer. xv. 17, and sometimes in a good sense, for, we extend favours to men with the hand. Thus Drusius explains Psalm Ixxxviii- 5j cut of from thy Q 226 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. fmnd, that is, fallen from thy grace and favour. Pindar {Olymp. 10) thus uses the hand of God, for his help and aid, 0£ou noble. This word El-kods seems to me the etymological origin of all the Cassiuses of antiquity, which like, Jerusalem, were high places; and had temples and holy places erected on them. Volney, ■ vol. ii. p. 304. Matt, xxiii. 15. Ye compass sea and land to make one prose- lyte.] This assertion is greatly illustrated by observing, that the zeal of the Jews in making proselytes, even at Rome, was so re- markable about this time, that it became almost proverbial among the Romans. Thus Horace : Teluti te Judffii cogemus in hanc concedere tuibam. Lib. i. sat. 4. 1. 142. We, like the Jews, will force you to our herd. Matt, xxvii. 6. The price of blood.] It was a custom among the Jews, imitated by the first Christians, that it should not be lawful for executioners to offer any. thing, or for any alms to be received from them. * This was also the case with money that came out of the publican's or quaestor's exchequer. No money obtained by the blood or life of another was fit to be received or put into the treasury. The field that was bought with it was called "the field of blood." RELIGION. 227 Mark xiv. 61. The high-priest asked him, and said unto him. Art thou the Christ, the son of the Messed ?] It is observable, that the peculiar attribute of deity is here used to express the divine nature. Supreme happiness is properly considered as belonging to God : and as all comfort flows from him, suitable ascriptions of praise and glory are his due. But this form of speech was conformable to the ancient custom of the Jews, who, when the priest in the sanctuary rehearsed the name of God, used to answer, " Blessed be his name for ever." The title of the blessed one in their language signified as much as the holy one ; and both, or either of them, the God of Israel. Hence such expressions are very frequent in the rabbins. See also Rom. i. 25; 2 Cor. xi. 31. Matt. vi. 4. That thine alms may he in secret.'^ This seems to be an allusion to the secret-chamber, whither money was brought privately for the relief of the poor. " There were two chambers in the sanctuary, the one was the chamber of secrets, and the other the chamber of vessels ; the chamber of secrets was that into which pious persons put in secret ; and the poor children of good men were maintained out of it privately." The Jews say many things in favour of doing alms privately. They tell us that " R. Jannai seeing a certain man give a piece of money to a poor man publicly, said to him, it would have been better if thou hadst not given him any thing, than to have given him in this manner." The giving of alms to the poor is mentioned by Christ before prayer to God, because it was usual to give alms before prayer. Gill, in loc. Acts vi. 1 . Their widows were neglected in the daily ministra- tion.^ A distribution of alms was made every day. This prac- tice obtained among the Jews in common, for they used to collect every day for the poor, and give it daily to them. Maimonides speaks of it in this manner : " They appoint collectors, who re- ceive every day from every court a piece of bread, or any sort of food, or fruit, or money, from whomsoever that ofiers freely for the time ; and they divide that which is collected, in the evening, among the poor, and they give to every poor person of it his daily sustenance :" from hence the apostles might take up this custom, and follow it. Rom. xii. 15. Rejoice with them that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep^ This verse seems to refer to the two gates of the temple, one called the gate of the bridegroom, and the other the gate of the mourners, into which two sorts all kinds of persons are divided. The first contained all those who continued unblem- ished members of the church, under no kind of censure ; the other contained those who were under any degree of excommunication, who, though they might come into the temple, must come in at the mourners' door, with some mark of discrimination from other men, Q 2 228 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. that they who saw them might pray for them, saying, " He that dwells in this house comfort thee, and give thee an heart to obey." Hammond, in loc, James iv. 15. If the Lord will.'] It was a custom among the Jews to begin all things with God. They undertook nothing without this holy and devout parenthesis, " If God will." They otherwise expressed it, " if the name please ;" or,' " if the name determine so." The phrase was so common that they abbreviated it, using a letter for a word. But this was not peculiar to the Jews ; it was common with all the eastern people. Few books are written in Arabic, but they begin with the word Bismillah, in the name of God. With the Greeks, the expression is aw Qiw : with the Latins, Deo volente. See Gregory's Works, p. 99. Acts i. 26. The lot.l The account which Grotius gives of the manner in which lots were cast, seems very probable and satisfactory. He says, they put their lots into two urns, one of which contained the names of Joseph and Matthias, and the other a blank, and the word apostle. In drawing these out of the urns, the blank came up with the name of Joseph and the lot on which was written the word apostle came up with the name of Matthias. This being in answer to their prayers, they con- cluded that Matthias was the man whom the Lord had chosen to the apostleship. Galatians iii. 28. There is neither male nor female.] Among the heathens females were not admitted to some of their sacred rites and ceremonies. As to the Jews, the males only were con- cerned in many things both of a civil and sacred nature. No female might be heir to an inheritance with a male : they had no share in the civil government, or in the priesthood ,• males were to appear three times a year before the Lord ; but, according to their oral law, women and servants were exempted. The male Jews valued themselves very much because they were Israelites and not gentiles, freemen and not servants, men and not women. Against these things the apostle makes his assertion in this passage. Gill, in loc. Eph. iv. 26. Let not the sun go down upon your wrath.] Many persons have observed, that this was agreeable to the Pythagorean practice, who used always, if the members of their particular society had any difiFerence with each other, to give tokens of reconciliation before the sun went down. This exhortation is peculiarly important to prevent excessive and long-protracted anger, which might in time increase to habitual malice j a temper exceedingly unbecoming a christian. RELIGION. 229 James i. 27. Pure and undefiled religion.'] Archbishop Til- lotson (Works, vol. ii. p. 581) has justly observed, that there seems here to be an allusion to the excellence of a precious stone, which consists much in its begin Kadapa Kai n/xtavroc, clear and without ^oi« or cloud : and surely no gem is so precious or orna- mental as the lovely temper here described. Rev. iv. 3. A rainbow.] The whole race of mankind being deeply interested in this token of divine favour, it is not at all surprising to find the signification of such an important emblem preserved among various nations. Homer (//. xi. v. 27), with remarkable conformity to Scripture, speaks of the rainbow which Jove hath set in the cloud, as a token to men. Iris, or the rainbow, was worshipped, not only by the Greeks and Romans, but also by the Peruvians in South America, when the Spaniards came thither. {L'Abbe Lambert, torn. 13. IDOLS. Isaiah xliv. 13. The carpenter stretcheth out his rule; he marheth it out with a line; he fitteth it with planes; and he niarketh it out with the compass, and maketh it after the figure of a man.] The prophet in these words describes the process of forming an idolatrous figure. It appears to have been done by filling a line with red chalk ; stretching it over a surface ; striking it, and thereby forming lines ; crossing these lines, thereby form- ing squares; delineating'the contour of the figure in these squares ; and forming it with dignified proportion and majesty, to represent a sovereign. An actual instance, in illustration of these sugges- tions, occurs in Denon's Travels in Egypt. In plate 124, he gives a figure, of whfch he says, " I believe it to be that of Orus, or the Earth, son of Isis or Osiris. I have seen it most frequently with one or other of these divinities, or making offerings to them, always a figure younger and of smaller proportion than themselves. I found this on one of the columns of the portico of Tentyra ; it was covered with stucco and painted. The stucco being partly scaled ofiF, gave me the opportunity of discovering lines traced as if with red chalk. Curiosity prompted me to take away the whole of the stucco, and I found the form of the figure sketched, with corrections of the outline ; a division into twenty-two parts : the separation of the thighs being in the middle of the whole height of the figure, and the head comprising rather less than a seventh part." HosEA xi. 2. Graven images.] " We read frequentFy of gra- ven images, and of molten images, and the words are become so familiar, as names of idolatrous images, that although they are not well chosen to express the Hebrew names, it seems not ad- 230 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. visable to change tliem for others, that might more exactly cor- respond with the original. The graven image was not a thing wrought in metal by the tool of the workman we should now call an engraver : nor was the molten image an image made of metal, or any other substance melted, and shaped in a mould. In fact, the graven image and the molten image are the same thing, under different naipes. The images of the ancient idolaters were first cut out of wood by the carpenter, as is very evident from the prophet Isaiah. This figure of wood was overlaid with plates either of gold or silver, or sometimes perhaps of inferior metal ; and in this finished state it was called a graven image {i. e. a carved image), in reference to the inner solid figure of wood, and a molten (i. e. an overlaid, or covered) image, in reference to the outer metalline case or covering. Sometimes both epithets are applied to it at once. " I will cut off the graven and molten image." (Nahum i. 14.) Again, " What profiteth the graven and molten image." (Hab. ii. 18.) The English word molten con- veys a notion of melting, or fusion. But this is not the case with the Hebrew word for which it is given. The Hebrew signifies, generally, to overspread, or cover all over, in whatever manner, according to the different subject, the overspreading or covering be effected ; whether by pouring forth a substance in fusion, or by spreading a cloth over or before, or by hammering on metalline plates. It is on account of this metalline case, that we find a founder employed to make a graven image (Judges xvii. 3); and that we read in Isaiah xl. 19, of a workman "that melteth a gra- ven image ;" and in another place (ch. xliv.) we find the question, " who hath molten a graven image ?" In these two passages the words should be overlayeth and overlaid." Bp. Horsley's Hosea, p. 134, Hosea iii. 4. Teraphim.] As to the external form of the teraphim, Jurieu represents it thus: — The eastern nations pre- served in one of the remote parts of their house the relics of their ancestors ; if they had none of these, their posterity being numerous, they erected empty tombs of stone, wood, or earth, and upon these they set the teraphim at the two extremities. Micah (Judges xviii. 14) having obtained a sight of some of these oracles among the heathen, and being ignorant of the abominations they practised by them, thought they might be sanctified by dedicating them to God, though by idolaters they were designed for inquiring of the dead. Isaiah xlvi. 2. Themselves are gone into captivity.'] It was a custom among the heathens to carry in triumph the images of the gods of such nations as they had vanquished. Isaiah prophecies of Cyrus, that in this manner he would treat the gods of Babylon': " Bel boweth down, Nebo stoopeth ; their idols are laid upon the RELIGION, ^31 beasts and upon the cattle, and themselves are gone into captivity." Daniel foretels of Ptolemy Euergetes, that he would " carry cap- tive into Egypt the gods of the Syrians, with their princes," ch. xi. ver. 8, and the like predictions are to be met with in Jer. xlviii, 7, and in Amos i. 15. We need less wonder, therefore, that we find Plutarch, in the life of Marcellus, telling us, that he took away, out of the temple of Syracuse, the most beautiful pictures and sta- tues of their gods ; and that afterwards it became a reproach to Marcellus, and raised the indignation of other nations against Rome, that he carried along with him, not men only, but the very gods, captive and in triumph. Saurin, vol. iv. Dissert. 24. 1 Sam. v. 4. The head of Dagon, and both the palms of his hands, were cut off upon the threshold.'] The destruction of Dagon before the ark of the Lord clearly discovered the vanity of idols, and the irresistible power of God. The circumstances attending his demolition are remarkable; and in them it is pos- sible may be traced a conformity with the manner in which differ- ent nations treated the idol deities of each other. Dagon was not merely thrown down, but was also broken in pieces, and some of these fragments were found on the threshold. There is a circum- stance related in Maurice's Modern History of Hindostan (vol. i. part 2, -p. ^Q), which seems in some points similar to what is re- corded of Dagon. Speaking of the destruction of the idol in the temple at Sumnaut, he says, that " fragments of the demolished" idol were distributed to the several mosques of Mecca, Medina, and Gazna, to be thrown at the threshold of their gates, and trampled upon by devout and zealous mussulmans." In both in- stances, the situation of the fragments at the threshold seems to intimate the complete triumph of those who had overcome the idols, and might possibly be a customary expression of indignity and contempt. Tibullus informs us, that to beat the head against the sacred threshold was with many an expiatory ceremony. It probably originated with the Egyptians in the worship of Isis. Non ego, si merui, dubitem procumbere teniplis, TA dare sacratis oscula liminibus, B. i, el. 5. For crimes like these I'd, abject, crawl tlie ground, Kiss her dread threshold, and my forehead wound, Grainger. 2 Chron. xxviii. 23. For he sacrificed unto the gods of Damas- cus, which smote him.'] However stupid it was to imagine that they had any power over him, who could not defend themselves from Tiglath-Pileser, yet being of opinion that they were gods, he endeavoured by sacrifices to appease them, that they might do him no further hurt. Thus the ancient Romans by sacrifies entreated the gods of their enemies to come over to them, and to be their friends. See Jackson's Original of Unbelief, cap. 17. 232 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Amos v. 26. Ye have home the tabernacle of your Mohch.'] It is thought, with great probabflity, that Moloch, and those other pagan deities, which the Israehtes carried with them in the desert, were borne in niches upon men's shoulders, or drawn about on covered carriages, as we know the heathens carried their idols in procession or in public marches. There are some who believe that those silver temples of the goddess Diana, which were made and sold at Ephesus, were also these niches, or portable temples, for the devotion of pilgrims. The castom of carrying the images of the gods under tents and in covered litters came originally from the Egyptians. Herodotus speaks of a feast of I sis, wherein her statue was carried upon a chariot with four wheels, drawn by her priests. The same author, speaking of one of their deities, says, they carried it from one temple to another, inclosed in a little chapel made of gilt wood- Clemens of Alexandria speaks of an Egyptian procession, wherein they carried two dogs of gold, a hawk, and an ibis. The same father quotes the words of Menander, who rallied those vagrant divinities that could not continue in one place. Macrobius says, that the Egyptian priests carried the statue of Jupiter of Helio- polis upon their shoulders, as the gods of the Romans were car- ried in the pomp of the games of the circus. Philo of Biblos relates, that they used to carry Agrotes, a Phoenician deity, in a covered niche upon a car drawn by beasts. Euseb. Praep. lib. i. The Egyptian priests placed Jupiter Ammon upon a little boat, from whence hung plates of silver, by the motion of which they formed a judgment of the will of the deity, and from whence they made their responses to such as consulted them. The Egyptians and Carthaginians, as Servius reports,* had little images, which were carried upon chariots, and gave oracles by the motion they communicated to these carriages. The Gauls, as we are told by Sulpicius Severus, carried their gods abroad into the fields, covered with a white veil. Tacitus speaks of an unknown goddess, who resided in an island of the ocean. They kept for her a covered chariot, which none dares approach but her priest : and when be says that the goddess is entered therein, two heifers are harnessed to it, who draw the chariot where they think fit, and then bring it back into her grove. They wash the chariot and the veils that cover it, and then they drown the slaves that were employed in the service. Diodorus Siculus speaks of two small temples of gold. There was one at Lacedsemon, which was all of brass, and therefore was called " chalchotoichos," or the house of brass. Victor, in his description, of Rome, gives instances of some of the same metal in that city ; but I should rather think that the little temples of Diana of Ephesus, which were made and sold by Demetrius the silversmith, were either models of the temple of their goddess, or niches wherein the goddess herself was represented. Calmefs Dictionary of the Bible, art. Niches. RELIGION. 233 EzEKiEL viii. 7. A hole in the wallJ] Caves, and other similar subterrMieous recesses, consecrated to the worship of the sun, were very generally, if not universally, in request among nations where that superstition was practised. The mountains of Chusistan at this day abound with stupendous excavations of this sort. Allusive to this kind of cavern temple, and this species of devotion, are these words of Ezekiel. The prophet in a vision beholds, and in the most sublime manner stigmatizes the horrible idolatrous abominations which the Israelites had borrowed from their Asiatic neighbours of Chaldaea, Egypt, and Persia. " And he brought me," says the prophet, " to the door of the court ; and when I looked, behold, a hole in the wall. Then said he unto me, son of man, dig now in the wall ; and, when I had digged in the wall, behold, a door. And he said unto me, go in, (that is, into this cavern temple) and behold the wicked abomi- nations that they do there. So I went in, and saw, and behold, every form of creeping things, and abominable beasts, and all the idols of the house of Israel, -were portrayed upon the wall round about." In this subterraneous temple were seventy men of the ancients of the house of Israel, and their employment was of a nature very nearly similar to that of the priests in Salsette. " They stood with every man his censer in his hand, and a thick cloud of incense went up. Then said he unto me. Son of man, hast thou seen what the ancients of the house of Israel do in the dark, every man in the chambers of his imagery ?" In Egypt, to the particular idolatry of which country, it is plain, from his mentioning every form of creeping things and abominable beasts, the prophet in this place alludes, these dark secluded recesses were called mystic cells, and in them were celebrated the secret mysteries of I sis and Osiris, represented by the quad- rupeds sacred to those deities. Maurice's Indian Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 212. Acts xiv. 11. The gods are come down to us in the likeness of men.'] It appears from numberless passages in the heathen wri- ters, that they supposed the gods often descended in the likeness of men. Thus Homer represents one of his personages in the character of a suitor, recommending hospitaUty to strangers by saying, ■ If in this low disguise Wander perbaps some inmate of the skies ; They (curious oft of mortal actions) deign In forms like these to round the earth and main. Just and unjust recording in their mind. And with sure eyes inspecting all mankind. Odyss. xvii. ver. 485. This notion particulai-ly prevailed with respect to Jupiter and Mercury. 234 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Acts xiv. 12. And Paul Mercury, because he was chief speaker.'] The Greeks had a custom of making an oblation of tongues at the conclusion of their sacrifices, poffring on them a libation of wine. This was to purge themselves from any evil words which they might have uttered ; or because the tongue was reckoned the best part of the sacrifice, and so reserved for the completion of it : or they offered the tongues to the gods, as wit- nesses of what they had spoken. They offered the tongue to Mercury, because they believed him the giver of eloquence. Upon this practice Dacier remarks, that the people feared lest through wine and the joy of the festival they might have uttered some words unbecoming the sanctity of the occasion. By this sacrifice of the tongues they signified that they purged away whatever they had spoken amiss during the festival ; and asked pardon of Mercury, who presided over discourse, that they might not carry home any uncleanness, which might prevent the communication of the bless- ings expected from the sacrifice. Acts xvii. 23. As I passed by, and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with this inscription. To the unknown God.'\ From the express testimony of Lucian, we learn that there was such an inscription at Athens. Whence it arose, or to what it particularly referred, is difficult to say. Witsius (Melet. p. 85), with Heinsius (in loc.) understands it of Jehovah, whose name, not being pro- nounced by the Jews themselves, might give occasion to this ap- pellation. Dr. Welwood {Preface to the Banquet of Xenophoni p. 18) supposes that Socrates reared this altar to express his de- votion to the one living and true God, of whom the Athenians had no notion, and whose incomprehensible being he insinuated' by this inscription, to be far beyond the reach of their understanding, or his own. Hammond gives another explanation of the circum- stance, which has appeared satisfactory to the learned. Diogenes Laertius, in his life of Epimenides, assures us, that in the time of that philosopher (about 600 years before Christ) there was a terri- ble pestilence at Athens, in order to avert which, when none of the deities to whom they sacrificed appeared able or willing to help them, Epimenides advised them to bring some sheep to the Areo- pagus, and letting them loose from thence, to follow them till they lay down, and then to sacrifice them to the god near whose temple or altar they then were. Now it seems probable that Athens, riot being then so full of these monuments of superstition as after- wards, these sheep lay down in places where none of them were near, and so occasioned the rearing of what the historian calls anonymous altars ; or altars, each of which had the inscription, ayvwaTb) Qt(o, to the unknown God, meaning thereby the deity who had sent the plague, whoever he were : one of which altars at least, however it might have been repaired, remained till St. Paul's time, and long after. RELIGION. 235 Acts xvii. 18. Others said, he seemeth to be a setter forth of strange gods^ The Romans were averse to strange gods, and admitted of theif^ worship with great difficulty. Dion Cassius says, that one of the blackest crimes of Sardanapalus, was introducing into Rome the worship of Heliogabalus. By the law of Athens no foreign god was to be admitted till approved and licensed by the Areopagus, which had the sole power in religious matters. The severest laws were enacted at Athens, and every citizen com- manded, upon pain of death, to worship the gods and heroes, as the laws of the city required : they who observed not the appointed ceremonies were immediately dragged to the court of Areopagus. The cutting a twig out of a sacred grove was a capital offence ; even a fool has been condemned for killing one of iEsculapius's sparrows ; and a child accidentally taking up a plate of gold, fallen fi:om Diana's crown, was put to death for sacrilege. Gen. xxviii. 18. ^nd Jacob rose up early in the morning, and ■ took the stone that he had put for his pillow, and set it up for a pillar, and poured oil upon the top of itJ] One of the idols in the pagoda of Juggernaut is described by Captain Hamilton, as a huge black stone, of a pyramidal form, and the sommona codom among the Siamese is of the same complexion. The ayeen Akbeiy mentions an octagonal pillar of black stone, fifty cubits high. Tavernier observed an idol of black stone in the pagoda of Benares, and that the statue of Creeshna, in his celebrated temple of Ma- thura, is of black marble. It is very remarkable, that one of the principal ceremonies incumbent upon the priests of these stone deities, according to Tavernier, is to anoint them daily with odo- riferous oils ; a circumstance which immediately brings to our remembrance the similar practice of Jacob, who, after the famous vision of the celestial ladder, " took the stone which he had put for his pillow, and set it up for a pillar, and poured oil upon the top of it." It is added, that " he called the name of that place Beth-el," that is, the house of God. This passage evinces of how great antiquity is the custom of considerihg stones in a sacred light, as well as the anointing them with consecrated oil. From this conduct of Jacob, and this Hebrew appellative, the learned Bochart, with great ingenuity and reason, insists that the name and veneration of the sacred stones, called baetyli, so celebrated in all pagan antiquity, were derived. These baetyli were stones of a round form; they were supposed to be animated, by means of magical incantations, with a portion of the deity : they were con- sulted, on occasions of great and pressing emergency, as a kind of divine oracles, and were suspended, either round the neck, or some other part of the body. Thus the setting up of a stone by thi? holy person, in grateful memory of the celestial vision, pro- bably became the occasion of the idolatry in succeeding ages to these shapeless masses of unhewn stone, of which so many asto- 236 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. nishing remains are scattered up and down the Asiatic and the European world. Maurice's Indian Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 355. Rev. ix. 20. They should not worship devils.'] Mr. Ives, in his travels through Persia, gives the following curious account of devil-worship: "These people (the Sanjacks, a nation inhabiting the country about Mosul, the ancient Nineveh) once professed Christianity, then Mahometanism, and last of all devilism. They say, it is true, that the devil has at present a quarrel with God, but the time will come, when, the pride of his heart being subdued, he will make his submission to the Almighty ; and, as the deity cannot be implacable, the devil will receive a full pardon for all his transgressions, and both he, and all those who paid him attention during his disgrace, will be admitted into the blessed mansions. This is the foundation of their hope, and this chance for heaven they esteem to be a better one, than that of trusting to their own merits, or the merits of the leader of any other religion whatsoever. The person of the devil they look on as sacred, and when they affirm any thing solemnly, they do it by his name. All disrespect- ful expressions of him they would punish with death, did not the Turkish power prevent them. Whenever they speak of him, it is with the utmost respect ; and they always put before his name a certain title corresponding to that of highness, or lord." (p. 318.) The Benjans, in the East Indies (according to the Abb^ de Guyon, in his history of that country), fill their temples or pagodas with his statues, designed in all the horrid extravagance of the Indian taste. The king of Calicut, in particular, has a pagoda wholly filled with the most frightful figures of the devil, which receives no other light than what proceeds from the gleam of a multitude of lamps. In the midst of this kind of cavern is a copper throne, whereon a devil, formed of the same metal, is seated, with a tiara of several rows on his head, three large horns, and four others that spring out of his forehead. He has a large gaping mouth, ' out of which come four teeth, like the tusks of a boar. His chin is furnished with a long and hideous beard. He has a crooked nose, large squinting eyes, a face frightfully inflamed, fingers crooked, like talons, and paws rather than feet. His breasts hang down upon his belly, where his hands are laid in a negligent pos- ture ; from his belly arises another head, uglier if possible than the first, with two horns, and a tongue hanging out prodigiously large, and behind him a tail like a cow's. On his tongue and in his hand there are two figures, almost round, which the Indians say are souls that he is preparing to devour. {Hist, of East Ind. part ii. c. 2, s. 1.) IDOLATRY. 1 Kings xviii. 26. They leaped upon the altar which was RELIGION. 237 made.} Baal, whose idolatrous worship is here referred to, was the same as Apollo, or the Sun. Callimachus has given us a re- markable instance of the universal veneration which was paid by the ancient pagans, at his altar in the temple of Delos. Amongst other ceremonies in the worship of this idol, it was customary to run round his altar, to strike it with a whip, and with their hands or arms bound behind them to bite the olive. For of Delos the poet says. Thee, ever honoured isle, what vessel dares Sail by regardless 1 'twere in vain to plead Strong driving gales, or, stronger still tiian they. Swift-winged necessity: their swelling sails Here mariners must furl ; nor hence depart. Till round thy altar struck with many a blow The maze they tread, and, backward bent their arms. The sacred olive bite. Hymn to Delos, t.'433. The former part of this ceremony plainly alludes to singing and dancing round the altar. The latter part seems to accord with what is said of Baal, 1 Kings xviii. 26 — 28, where we read of the priests of Baal who leaped upon the altar they had made, which the Septuagint renders ran round ; " and they cried aloud, and cut themselves after their manner with knives and lances, till the blood gushed out upon them." Their running round the altar signified the annual rotation, of the earth round the sun. Striking with a whip the altar, cutting themselves with knives and lances, crying aloud to their deity, were symbolical actions, denoting their desire that he would show forth his power upon all nature in general, and that sacrifice in particular then before him. Having thus surrounded the altar of Apollo, and by these actions declared their belief in his universal power, they used to bend their own arms behind them, and so take the sacred olive into their mouths ; thereby declaring, that not from their own arm or power, which was bound, but from his whose altar they surrounded, and from whom they expected to obtain that peace, whereof the olive was always a symbol. Gen. viii. 11. • There are some evident allusions to these abominable idolatrous practices in the Old Testament ; and for which the Jews are severely reprimanded by the prophets, for following such absurd and \ncked ceremonies. " Thus saith the Lord concerning the prophets that make my people err, that bite with their teeth, and cry peace," Micah iii. 5; and respecting Ashdod, the prophet says, " I will take away his blood out of his mouth, and his abomina- tions from between his teeth," Zech. ix. 7. 1 Kings xix. 18. All the knees that have not bowed to Baal, and every mouth that hath not kissed him.'\ Bpwing the knee was an act of worship, and so was kissing the idol. This was done two ways: either by applying their mouth immediately to the ^38 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. image, or kissing their hand before the image, and then stretching it out, and, as it were, throwing the kiss to it. Salmasius says, that such kisses were called labrata oscula, and from hence came the phrases oscula jacere, and hasia jactare, and manu venerari, and manu salutare. Pliny also says, in adorando dextram ad osculum referimus, totum corpus circumagimus. When we wor- ship, we kiss our hand, and turn about our whole body. Jer. xliv. 17. To pour out drink offerings to the queen of heaven.'] Chardin says, that it is the custom in Mingrelia and Georgia, and some other eastern countries, for people, before they begin a feast, to go out abroad, with eyes turned to heaven, to pour out a cup of wine on the ground. From the Ethiopic ver- sion it is probable that the same custom prevailed in Ethiopia. This may be considered as a picture of what the idolatrous Israelites did, when they poured out drink offerings to the queen of heaven : what Jacob did more purely in the patriarchal times, when he poured out a drink-offering on the pillar he set up (Gen. XXXV. 14) : but it does not follow that anything of this sort was done in their common feasts. The modern Jews, when they an- nually celebrate the 'deliverance of their forefathers in Egypt, take a cup of salvation, and call upon the name of the Lord, singing a portion of the Book of Psalms ; but they drink the wine, and do not pour it upon the ground ; nor do they practise this effusion of wine in their more common feasts. Buxtorfii Syn. Jud. cap. 13; Harmer, vol. i. p. 391. Jer. xliv. 17. To pour out drink-offerings.] When the ancient idolaters made their libations, they usually filled the cup entirely full, and crowned it with flowers. Servius on the first book of the ^neid says, antiqui coronabant pocula, et sic lihabant, the an- cients crowned their cups (with flowers) and then made libations. Thus Virgil, speaking of Anchises, says, MagnuA cratera coron^ Induit, implevitque mere. He adorned the great cup with a crown (of flowers) and filled it with wine. See also Horace, b. iii. Od. LS, 1. 2. HosEA viii. II. Ephraim hath made many altars to sin.] The ancient idolaters were not satisfied with worshipping one deity, or with sacrificing upon a single altar, but greatly multiplied both. They embraced every opportunity of adding to the number already received and established. The Romans were remarkable for the erection of altars upon any sudden benefit received. Tacitus men- tions one consecrated to Adoption ; and another to Revenge. When they felt an earthquake, they betook themselves by public RELIGION. 239 ' command to religious observances : though they did not, as on other occasions, name the god to whom they dedicated such solemnities, lest by mistaking one for another they might oblige the people to a false worship. A. Gell. 1. ii. c. 28. Isaiah Ixvi. 17. They that sanctify themselves, and purify themselves in the gardens, behind one tree in the midst.] Not only sacred groves in general, but the centres of such groves in particular, were, as the Abbe Banier has observed, made use of for temples by the first and most ancient heathens. Some one tree in the centre of each such grove was usually had in more eminent and special veneration, being made the penetrale or more sacred place, which doubtless they intended as the anti-symbol of the tree of life and of the knowledge of good and evil in the midst of the garden of Eden. To this strange abuse alludes that prophetic censure of some who sanctified and purified themselves with the waters of their sacred fountains and rivers in the gardens or groves, behind one tree in the midst. Hence it was, that when they came to build temples, they called them AXcrrj, groves, ac- cording to that of Strabo, AXctj) koXovcti to upa iravra, they call all sacred places or temples groves. {Georg. lib. ix.) Their altars were commonly raised in the middle of a court, with one of the trees consecrated to the idol of the place planted near it, over- shadowing both it and the idol. Such was that altar in the palace . of Priam, described by Virgil : ^dibus in mediis, nudoque sub aetheris axe, Jogens ara fuit, juxtaque Tetetrima laurns Incumbens arse, atque umbt^ complexa penates. ^n. ii. 512. In the centre of the court, and under the naked canopy of heaven, stood a large altar, and near it an aged laurel, overhanging the altar, and encircling the household gods with its shade. Hol- loway's Originals, vol. i. p. 16. Gen. xxviii. 22. And this stone, which I have set for a pillar, shall he God's house.'] It appears strange to us, to hear a stone pillar called " God's house," being accustomed to give names of this kind to such buildings, only as are capable of containing their worshippers within them. But this is not the case in every part of the world, as we learn from Major Symes's narrative of his embassy to the kingdom of Ava. The temples of that people, vast as many of them are, are built without cavity of any sort, and he only mentions some of the most ancient of those at Pagahm as constructed otherwise. The following extract will sufficiently illustrate this matter. " The object in Pegu that most attracts and most merits notice, is the noble edifice of Shoemadoo, or the golden supreme. This 240 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. is a pyraniidical building, composed of brick and mortar, without excavation or aperture of any sort; octagonal at the base, and spiral at the top. Each side of the base measures one hundred and sixty-two feet. The extreme height of the edifice, from the level of the country, is three hundred and sixty-one feet, and above the interior terrace, three hundred and thirty-one feet. Along the whole extent of the northern face of the upper terrace, there is a wooden shed for the convenience of devotees, who come from a distant part of the country. There are several low benches near the foot of the temple, on which the person who comes to pray places his offering, commonly consisting of boiled riee, a plate of sweetmeats, or cocoa-nuts fried in oil ; when it is given, the devo- tee cares not what becomes of it ; the crows and wild dogs often devour it in the presence of the donor, who never attempts to dis- turb the animals. I saw several plates of victuals disposed of in this manner, and understood it was the case with all that was brought." " The temple of Shoedagan, about two miles and a half north of Rangoon, is a very grand building, although not so high, by twenty-five or thirty feet, as that of Shoemadoo, at Pegu. The terrace on which it stands is raised on a rocky eminence, consider- ably higher than the circumjacent country, and is ascended by above a hundred stone steps. The name of this temple, which signifies Golden-Dagon, naturally recalls to mind the passage in the Scriptures, where the house of Dagon is mentioned, and the image of idolatry bows down before the Holy Ark." " Many of the most ancient temples at Pagahm are not solid at the bottom ; a well-arched dome supports a ponderous super- structure ; and within, an image of Gaudona sits enshrined." ExoD. xxxii. 6. And they rose up early on the morrow, and cffered hurnt-offerings, and brought peace-offerings ; and the people sat down to eat and to drink, and rose up to play.] It is highly probable that at this feast they sacrificed after the manner of the Egyptians. Herodotus gives an account of a solemn feast which the people of Egypt celebrated at Bubastis in honour of the goddess Diana : to her, he says, they offer many sacrifices, and while the victim is burning, they dance and play a hundred tricks, and drink more wine than in the whole year besides. For they convene thither about seven hundred thousand men and women, besides children. Aaron's feast of the golden calf seems to have been in imitation of this. EzEKiEL xxiii. 12 — 16.] "The Egyptians and Ethiopians were the undoubted descendants of Ham ; so possibly might be the Hindoos, and consequently all must be supposed to have been infected with the original idolatry of Chaldaea, that primeval coun- try, where their ancestors so long resided. This passage of RELIGION. ' 241 Ezekiel will elucidate the superstitious rites practised in the mys- tic cell of Egypt, and of the sculptures portrayed on the walls, both of those cells, and the caves of India. Whoever attentively considers what, from various authors, and some of such unimpeach- able veracity as Niebuhr, Hunter, and Perron, has been related concerning the splendid regal ornaments that decorate the head and neck ; the zones, jewelled or serpentine, that gird round the waist of the Indian statues: whoever, in India, has seen the pro- fusion of vermilion, or saffron with which, according to his caste, the devout Hindoo marks both his own forehead and that of the deity he adores, must agree with me, that no allusion to these orna- ments can be apparently more direct, and no description of the images themselves more accurate, than this of Ezekiel. Under the character of Aholibah, an abandoned prostitute, does Jehovah thus parabolically stigmatize the idolatrous devotion of the apostate Judah. " She doated [upon the Assyrians, her neighbours, cap- tains and rulers, clothed most gorgeously; and, when she saw men portrayed upon the walls, the images of the Ohaldaeans por- trayed with vermilion, girded with girdles upon their loins, exceed- ing in dyed attire upon their heads, all of them princes to look to, after the manner of the Babylonians of Chaldea, the land of their nativity ; then, as soon as she saw them with her eyes, she doated upon them, and sent messengers unto them unto Chaldea." And again, towards the close of the same chapter it is said, " Moreover this they have done unto me ; when they had slain their children to their idols; then they came, the same day, unto my sanc- tuary to profane it. — And furthermore, ye have sent for men to come from far, unto whom a messenger was sent, and, lo ! they came, for whom thou didst wash thyself, (that is, perform ablu- tions) paintedst thine eyes, and deckedst thyself with ornaments, and sattest upon a stately bed, with a table (that is, an altar) prepared before it, whereupon thou hast set mine incense and mine oil. And a voice of a multitude, being at ease, was with her, and with the men of the common sort were brought Sabians (that is, worshippers of the planets) from the wilderness, who put bracelets upon their hands, and beautiful crowns upon their heads.''' Mau- rice's Indian Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 375. Ezekiel viii. 17. They put the branch to their nose.] This expression undoubtedly alludes to some particular ceremony be- longing to their idolatrous worship. Mr. Lowth (on the Prophets) says, the words may refer to a custom among the idolaters of de- dicating a branch of laurel, or some other tree, to the honour cif the sun, and carrying it in their hands at the time of their worship. Lewis ( Origines HebrtBce, vol. iii. p. 4) observes, that the most rea- sonable exposition is, that the worshipper, with a wand in his hand, would touch the idol, and then apply the stick to his nose and mouth, in token of worship arid adoration. R 243 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Deut. xxvi. 14. / have not eaten thereof in my mourning.'] In harvest time the Egyptians offered the first-fruits of the earth, and kept the feast of Isis with doleful lamentations. Julius Fiv- micus, in relating this circumstance, severely reproves their folly, saying, " Cur plangitis iruges terrae ?" &c. Why do you bewail tKe fruits of the earth ? Why weep you at the growth of your seed ? &a. You should rather give thanks for these things to the most liigh God, whose ibounty is not to be lamented ; but bewail rather your own error. If this custom prevailed in Moses's time, it will easily be perceived why he cautioned the Israelites against it. ExoD. xxix. 20. And sprinkh the blood upon the altar round about.'] It is, says I(p. Patrick, no improbable conjecture of Fortunatus Scacchus, that from hence the heathens learned their Taurobolia and Crioholia, which in process of time they disguised With infernal rites and ceremonies. " The Taurobolium of the ancients was a ceremony in which the high priest of Cybele was consecrated, and might be called a baptism of blood, which they conceived imparted a spiritual new birth to the liberated spirit. In this dreadful and sanguinary ceremony, according to the poet 'Frudentius, cited at length by Banier on the ancient sacrifices, the ■high priest about to be inaugurated was introduced into a dark excavated apartment, adorned with a long silken robe, and a crown of gold. Above this apartment was a floor perforated in a thousand places with holes like a sieve, through which the blood of a sacred bull, slaughtered for the purpose, descended in a copious torrent upon the inclosed priest, who received the purify- ing stream on every part of his dress, rejoicing to bathe with the bloody shower his hands, his cheeks, and even to bedew his lips and his tongue with it. When all the blood had run from the throat of the immolated bull, the carcase of the victim was re- moved, and the priest issued forth fi-om the cavity, a spectacle ghastly and horrible, his head and vestments being covered with Itlood, and clotted drops of it adhering to 'his venerable beard. As soon as the pontifex appeared before the assembled multitude, the air was rent with congratulatory shouts : so pure and so sanc- tified, however, was he now esteemed, that they dared not approach his person, but beheld him at a distance with awe and veneration." Maurice's Ind. Ant. vol. v. p. 196. Acts xiv. IS. Then the priest of Jupiter, who was before their city, brought oxen and garlands unto the gates, and would have done sacrifice with the people,] It was customary to build tem- ples to their tutelar deities in the suburbs of the cities, and to set up their images before the city, at the gates. According to this practice, the priest of that Jupiter who was esteemed the tutelar deity of the place, and whose image was plaCed in a temple RELIGION. 24< erected to him before the city, brought oxen and garlands to offer a sacrifice to Barnabas and Paul. They used to crown both the images of their deities and the victims they offered to them with chaplets of flowers. The heathens considered their several images, of Jupiter for instance, as so many distinct Jupiters, that ia, as having some spirit sent from the god, to whom their wor- ship was ultimately referred, to reside in them. This circum- stance, Bp. Warburton observes, may account for the dispute between two Jupiters, the Tonans and the Capitolinus, mentioned by Suetonius. Doddridge, in loc. Acts xiv. 13. Brought oxen and garlands unto the gates.] Garlands, or crowns, were used in sacrifices for different purposes. Sometimes they crowned the gods to whom they sacrificed. (Ter- tul. de Corona, c. 10.) Sometimes the priests wore them. {Pas- chalius de Coronis, 1. iv. c. 13.) The altars also on which they offered sacrifices were crowned with these garlands, as well as the sacrifices themselves. {Ovid, de Tristibus, 1. iii. el. 13.) They were for the most part made of cypress ; sometimes of the pine- tree ; and of other leaves and flowers, such as were peculiar to the gods. Something similar to these practices obtained amongst the Jews at the offering of their first-fruits. Ephesians v. 18. Be not drunk with wine.] It is highly probable, that here may be a particular reference to those dis- solute ceremonies called the Bacchanalia, that were celebrated by the heathens in honour of him whom they called the god of wine. While these rites continued, men and women made it a point of their religion to intoxicate themselves, and run about the streets, fields, and vineyards, singing and shouting in a wild and tumul- tuous manner ; in opposition to which extravagant vociferations, the use of devout psalmody is with great propriety recommended. Plato somewhere tells us, that there was hardly^a sober person to be found in the whole Attican territories, during the continuance of these detestable solemnities. Doddridge, in \oc. Luke vii. 38. And stood at his feet behind him weeping, and began to wash his feet with tears, and did wipe them with the hairs of' her head.] Polybius tells us, (in his ninth book,) that when Hannibal drew near to Rome^ the Roman ladies went to the tem- ples to supplicate the gods, washing the floors of them with their hair ; which, he adds, it was their custom upon such occasions to do. Prov. xxvii. 6. The hisses of an enemy are deceitful!] It was not customary among the Greeks and Romans to give the kiss of adoration to their idols ; but at Agrigentum in Sicily, where it seems the worship of the Tyrian Hercules was introduced by the R 2 244 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Phoenicians, who, it is well known, settled many considerable colo- nies in that island, we meet with a brazen image of Hercules, whose mouth and chin were worn by the kisses of bis worshippers. The kiss of adoration is still practised by the Siamese pagans, for in their public worship, " after the priest's benediction, every one goes to an image, and kisses or bows to it, and then marches o£Fin good order." Complete Syst. of Geoff, vol. ii. p. 288. Numb. viii. 16. Instead of the first-born of all the children of Israel have I taken them unto meJ] The heathens annexed the same ideas of substition to the victims which they devoted to their gods. We find a singular instance of it in Ovid. Certain birds, which fed upon the flesh of children, and sucked their blood, were coming down upon the young Procas, and just seizing him as their prey. The nymph Crane immediately sacri- ficed a pig, and holding in her hands the entrails of that victim, exclaims, — ' Noctis aves, eztis puerilibus, inquit. Parcite : pro parvo victima parva cadit. Cor pro corde, precor, pro fibris aumite fibraa, Hanc animam robis pro meliore damus. Fast, vi, 139. 1 Pet. iii. 18. For Christ also hath once suffered for sins, the just for the unjust.'] The notion of the victim's being, sub- stituted to suffer death and be consumed in the room of the trans- gressor for whom it was offered, is very ancient, and was com- monly received among Gentiles and Jews, as well as Christians. Thus Ovid supposes the sacrificed animal to be a vicarious sub- stitute, the several parts of which were given as equivalents for what was due by the offerers. Cor pro corde, precor ; pro fibra eumite fibras ; Hanc animam vobis pro meliore damus. Fast, vi. 159. 1 CoR. viii. 10. For if any man see thee who hast knowledge sit at meat in the idol's temple.] Tables were common moveables in idol temples ; and they were used to eat at after the sacrifices were over. The apostle Paul forbids Christians to eat on such occasions and in such places. HUMAN SACRIFICES. Deut. xii. 31. For even their -sons and their daughters they have burnt in the fire to their gods.] This was notoriously prac- tised by the Carthaginians, who, it is certain, derived it fi-om the Phoenicians, the ancient inhabitants of this country. Plato men- tions it in Protagora, where he says, " the Athenian laws did not permit them to sacrifice men ; but among the Carthaginians it was a holy rite ; so that some of them permitted their sons to be RELIGION. S45 Offered to Saturn." This wicked custom at last overspread all nations, even the Greeks themselves. Lev. xviii. 21. Thou shall fiot let any of thy seed pass through the fire to Moloch.] Horrid as is the practice prohibited in these words, we have irresistible evidence of its prevalence. 'I'he manner in which it was performed has been variously described, especially by the rabbins. Sonnerat (IVav. vol. i. p. 154) gives the follow- ing account of this custom : " A still more astonishing instance of the superstition of the ancient Indians, in respect to this venerated fire, remains at this day, in the grand annual testival holden in honour of Darma Rajah, and called the ' feast of fire,' in which, as in the ancient rites of Moloch, the devotees walk 'barefoot over a glowing fire, extending forty feet.' It is called the feast of fire, because they then walk on that element. It lasts eighteen days, during which time, those who make a vow to keep it, must fest, abstain from women, lie on the bare ground, and walk on a brisk fire. The eighteenth day they assemble, ' on the sound of instruments, their heads crowned with flowers, the body bedaubed with saffron, and follow in cadence the figures of Darma Rajah, and of Drobede, his wife, who are carried there in procession.' When they come to the fire they stir it, to animate its activity, and take a little of the ashes, with which they rub their foreheads, and when the gods have been 'three times round it,' they walk either fast or slow, according to their zeal, over a very hot fire, extend- ing to about forty feet in length. ' Some carry their children in their arms ;' and others lances, sabres, and standards. The most fervent devotees walk several times over the fire. After the cere- mony, the people press to collect some of the ashes to rub their foreheads with, and obtain from the devotees some of the flowers with which they were adorned, and which they carefully preserve." Lev. xviii. 21. Thou shalt not let any of thy seed pass through the fire to Moloch.] We have a particular description of this idol in the commentary of Rabbi Simeon upon Jer. vii. ; he says, " all the houses of idols were in the city of Jerusalem, except that of Moloch, which was out of the city in a separate place. It was a stalue with a head of an ox, and the hands stretched out as a man's, who opens his hand to receive something from another. It was hollow within, and there were seven chapels raised, before which the idol was erected. He that offered a fowl or a young pigeon went into the first chapel ; if he offered a sheep or a lamb, he went into the second ; if a ram, into the third ; if a calf, into the fourth ; if a bullock, into the fifth ; if an ox, into the sixth ; but he only who offered his own son went into the seventh chapel ; and kissed the idol Moloch, as it is written, Hos. xiii. 2, ' Let the men that sacrifice kiss the calves.' The child was placed before the idol, and a fire made under it till it became red hot. Then the priest 246 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. took the child, and put him into the glowing hands of Moloch; and lest the parents should hear his cries, they beat drums to drown the noise. Therefore the place was called Tophet, from Thoph, Thuppim, that signifies drums. It was also called Hin- nom, because of the children's roaring, from the Hebrew word naham, to roar, or because the priests said to the parents, Jeheiie- lah, It will be of advantage to you." 2 Kings iii. 27. Then he took his eldest son that should have reigned in his stead, and offered him for a burnt-offering upon the wallJ] In great distress several persons, like the king of Moab, have offered their own children upon their altars. Eusebius {PrcBpar. Evang. lib. 5), and Lactantius (Div. Instit. cap. 21), mention several nations who used these sacrifices. Caesar (De Bello Gallico, lib. 6) says of the Gauls, that when they were afflicted with grievous diseases, or in time of war, or great clanger, they either ofiered men for sacrifices, or vowed they would offer them. For they imagined God would not be appeased, unless the life of a man were rendered for the life of a man. 2 Kings iii. %1. He took his eldest son and offered him fur a iurnt-offering.'] Sir John Shore (now Lord Teignmouth), in a paper concerning some extraordinary customs of the Hindoos, mentions a practice called dherna, formerly very common at Benares. " It is used by the brahmans in that city to gain a point which cannot be accomplished by any other means. The progress is as follows : the brahman who adopts this expedient for the purpose mentioned, proceeds to the door or house of the per- son against whom it is directed, or wherever he may most conve- niently intercept him : he there sits down in dherna, with poison, or a poignard, or some other instrument of suicide in his hand, and threatening to use it if his adversary should attempt to molest or pass him, he thus completely arrests him. In this situation the brahman fasts, and by the rigour of the etiquette, which is rarely infringed, the unfortunate object of his arrest ought to fast also ; and thus they both remain until the institutor of the dherna obtains satisfaction. In this, as he seldom makes the attempt without re- solution to persevere, he rarely fails ; for if the party thus arrested were to suffer the brahman sitting in dherna to perish by hunger, the sin would for ever lie upon his head." {Asiatic Researches, vol. iv, p. 344.) This custom is there exemplified by a remaikable instance in which it was practised. The reason why the king of Moab offered his son on the wall was to represent to the attacking armies to what straits they had reduced him. If any practice of a nature similar to that of the dherna formerly prevailed, we may suppose that the king of Moab did not in. this case merely implore assistance from his gods by the sacrifice of his son, but took this RELIGION, 247 method of terrifying his adversaries, after his own personal valour had proved inefectual to deliver himself and hi& country. MiCAH vi. 7. Simll I give my Jirst-berm for my tfafbsgressiim ?] This actually was the practice of the inhabitants of Florida. The ceremony was always performed' in the presence of one of those princes or caciques, whom they call paraoustis. The victim must always be a male in&nt. The mother of it covers her face, and weeps and groans over the stone, against which the child is to be dashed in pieces. The women who accompany her sing and dance in a eirclle, while another woman stands up in the middle of the ring, holding the child in her artn«, and showing it at a dis- tance to the paraousti ; who probably is esteemed a representative of the sun, or deity to which the victim is offered ; afber whicli the sacrifice is made. " The Peruvians of quality, and those too of mean sort, would sacrifice their first-born to redeem their own life, when the priest pronounced that they were mortally sick." Morels Explanation of Grand Mystery, p. 86. And as the king of Moab when in distress took his first-born son, that should have reigned in his stead, and offered him for a burnt-offering, 2 Kings iii. 27, so " Hacon king of Norway offered his son in sacrifice, to obtain of Odin the victory over his enemy Harold. Aune king of Sweden devoted to Odin the blood of his nine sons, to prevail on that god to prolong his life." See Mailletfs Northern Antiqui- ties, vol. i. p. 134. Genesis xxii. 9. And bound Isaac his son.li Both his hands and his feet, as it is explained in Pirke Elieser, cap 31. When the gentiles offered human sacrifices, they tied both their hands behind their backs. Ovid. 1. 3, De Pont. Eleg. ii. Patrick, in loc. 1 CoR. iv. 13. We are made as the filth of the world, and are the off-scouring of all things unto this day.l Doddridge thus paraphrases, and in his note explains these words : " We are made and treated like the very filth of the world, like the wretches who, being taken from the dregs of the people, are offered as expiatory sacrifices to the infernal deities among the gentiles, and loaded with curses, affronts, and injuries, in the way to the altars at which they are to bleed, or like the refuse of all things to this day, the very sweepings of the streets and stalls, a nuisance to all around us, and fit for nothing but to be trampled upon by the meanest and vilest of mankind." The word Koflnp- juora has a force and meaning here, which no one word in our language can express ; it refers to the custom of purifying a city by the expiatory death of some person: for this purpose they clothed a man in foul and filthy garments, and then put him to death. When the city was visited with any great calamity, they 248 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. chose one of the lowest persons in it, and brought him to a cer- tain place, with cheese, dry figs, and a cake in his hand. After beating him with rods, they burnt him and the rods together in a ditch, and cast the ashes into the sea, with these words. Be thou a lustration for us. The people of Marseilles, originally a Grecian colony, had a similar custom, for we learn from Servius, on the third book of the ^rieid, that as often as they were afflicted with the pesti- lence, they took a poor person, who offered himself willingly, and kept him a whole year on the choicest food, at the public expense. This man was afterwards dressed up with vervain, and in the sacred vestments, and led through the city, where he was loaded with execrations, that all the misfortunes of the state might rest on him, and was then thrown into the sea. The Mexicans had a similar custom of keeping a man a year, and even worshipping him during that tjme, and then sacrificing him. SUPERSTITIONS. Job iii. 3. Let the day perish wherein I was born.] The Greeks had their atro^pa^tt;, and the Romans their dies infausti; that is, certain days which had been distinguished by some great calamity ; on which, therefore, they did not indulge themselves in any mirth or pleasure, and expected no good event to happen to them. Tacitus relates {Annul, lib. 14, § 12) that the senate, to flatter Nero, decreed, "ut dies natalis Agrippinse inter nefastos esset." Esther iii. 7. In the jirst month {that is, the month Nisan) in the twelfth year of king Ahasuerus, they cast pur, that is, the lot, before Human, from day to day, and from month to month, to the twelfth month, that is, the month Adar.] It was customary in the East, by casting lots into an urn, to inquire what days would be fortunate, and what not, to undertake any business in. According to this superstitious practice, Haman endeavoured to find out what time in the year was most favourable to the Jews, and what most unlucky. First he inquired what month was most unfortunate, and found the month Adar, which was the last month in the year, answerable to our February. There was no festival during this month, nor was it sanctified by any peculiar rites. Then he inquired the day, and found the thirteenth day was not auspicious to them, ver. 13. Some think there were as many lots as there were days in the year, and for every day he drew a lot ; but found none to his mind, till he came to the last month of all, and to the middle of it. Now this whole business was governed by providence, by which these lots were directed, and not by the Persian gods, to fall in the last month RELIGION. 249 of the year ; whereby almost a whole year intervened between the design and its execution, and gave time for Mordecai to acquaint Esther with it, and for her to intercede with the king for the revoking or suspending his decree, and disappointing the conspiracy. Patrick, in loe. Gal. iv. IG. Ye observe days."] This practice was become very general in the days of the apostle, and greatly contributed to cherish superstition. The Greeks in particular were addicted to it; with them, certain times were ominous, some days being accounted fortunate and successful, others unfortunate and dis- astrous. Thus Hesiod, in his days, observes, AKKort /ir]Tpv7j 7rf\«t rjfispa, aWore fi7]T7jp, K. r, X. Some dajs, like step-dames, adverse prove, Thwart our intention, cross whate'er we love : Others more fortunatB and lucky shine, And, as a tender mother, bless what we design. The observation of days was also very common at Rome. Augus- tus Caesar never went abroad upon the day following the Nundinae, nor began any serious undertaking on the Nonas, and this he did upon no other account, as he affirmed in one of his letters to Tiberius, than to avoid the unlucky omen that attended things begun on those days. It was a general opinion among the Romans, that the next days after the Nonas, Idus, or Kalendas, were unfortunate ; the like observation of days was practised by many Christians when they had lately been converted from heathenism, and for this St. Paul reproves them. Potter's Archceologia Grceca, vol. i. p. 345. EzEKiEL xii. 8. And in the morning came the word of the Lord unto me."] The ancients thought that those visions were truly prophetic, which appeared in the morning. " Certiora et colatiora de anima somniari aiBrmant sub extremis noctibus." Tertullian. Ovid thus expresses himself in his epistle of Hero to Leander : Sub auroram, jam dormitante lucern^, Somnia quo cernl tempore vera solent. Mr. Pope begins his intellectual vision of the Temple of Fame at the same time : — What time the morn mysterious visions brings. While purer slumbers spread their golden wings. Gen. xliv. 5. Is not this it in which my lord drinketh, and ■whereby indeed he divineth ?] When Norden was at Derri, in the farthest part of Egypt, in a very dangerous situation, from which he and his company endeavoured to extricate themselves by exerting great spirit, a spiteful and powerful Arab in a threatening 259 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Way told one of their people, whom they had sent to him, that he knew what sort of people they were, that he kad consulted his cup, and had found by it that they were those of whom one of their prophets had said, that Franks would come in disguise, and pass- ing everywhere, examine the state of the country, and afterwards bring over a great number of other Franks, conquer the country, and exterminate alh {2>ai>. voL ii. p. 150.) It was precisely the same thing that Joseph meant when he talked of divinivg by his cup. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 475. Julius Serenus tells us, that the method of divining by the cup, among the Abyssinians, Chaldees, and Egyptians, was to fill it first with water, then to throw into it their plates of gold and sil- ver, together with some precious stones, whereon were engraven certain characters : and, after that, the persons who came to consult the oracle used certain forms of incantation, and so calling upon the devil, received their answers several ways ; sometimes by articulate sounds, sometimes by the characters, which were in the cup, rising upon the surface of the water, and by this arrangement forming the answer ; and many times by the visible appearing of the persons thenaselves about whom the oracle was consulted; Cornelius A^rippa {de Occult. Philos, 1. i, cap. 57) tells us like- wise, that the manner of some was to pour melted wax into the cup wherein was water, which wax would range itself into order, and so form answers, according to the questions proposed. Sauriri's Diss. 38. There has been in the East a tradition, which is lost in imme- morial time, that there was a cup, which had passed successively into the hands of different potentates, which possessed the strange property of representing in it the whole world, and all the things which Were then doing in it. The cup is called Jami Jemsheed, the cup of Jemsheed, a very ancient king of Persia. This cupy filled with the elixir of immortality, they say was discovered when digging to lay the foundations of Persepolis. The Persian poets are full of allusions to this cup, which from its property of repre- senting the whole world and its transactions, is styled by them Jam jehan nima, the cup showing the universe ; and to the intel- ligence received by means of it, they attribute the great prosperity of their ancient monarchs, as by it they understood all events, past, present, and to come. Many of the Mohammedan princes and governors affect still to have*information of futurity by means of a cup. HosEA iv. 12. Their staff deelareth unto them.] The method of divination alluded to by the prophet in these words, is supposed to have been thus performed. The person consulting measured his staff by spans, or by the length of his finger, saying, as he measured, " I will go, or, I will not go ; I will do such a thing, or, I will not do it ;" and as the last span fell out, so he detei"- RELIGION. 251 ttimed. Cyril and Theophylaet, however, give a diflerent account of the matter. They say that it was performed by erecting tWo sticks, after which they murmured forth a certain charm, and then, according as the sticks fell, backwards or forwards, towards the right or the left, they gave him advice in any affair. Isaiah Ixvi. 17. And the mouse.'\ The prophet is supposed here to allude to myomancy, a kind of divination by rats or mice. EzEKiEii xxi. 21. He made his arrows bright.'] This was for the purpose of divination. Jerome on this passage says, that " the manner of divining by arrows was thus. They wrote on several arrows the names of the cities they intended to make war against, and then putting them promiscuously all together into a quiver, they caused them to be drawn out in the manner of lots, and that city whose name was on the arrow first drawn out was the first they assaulted." A method of this sort of divination, different from the former, is worth noticing. Dalla Valla says (p. 276), " I saw at Aleppo a Mahometan, who caused two per- sons to sit upon the ground, one opposite to the other, and gave them four arrows into theii' hands, which both of them held with their points downward, and as it were in two right lines united one to the other. Then, a question being put to him about any busi- ness, he fell to murmur his enchantments, and thereby caused the said four arrows of their own accord to unite their points together in the midst (though he that held them stirred not his hand), and, according to the future event of the matter, those of the right side were placed over those of the left, or on the contrary." This prac- tice the writer refers to diabolical influence. The method of divination practised by some of the idolatrous Arabs, but which is prohibited by the Koran, is too singular to be unnoticed. " The arrows used by them for those purposes were like those with which they cast lots, being without heads or feathers, and were kept in the temple of some idol, in whose presence they were consulted. Seven such airrows were kept at the temple of Mecca: but generally in divination they made use of three only, on one of which was written, my Lord hath commanded me; on another, my Lord hath forbidden me; and the third was blank. If the first was drawn, they looked upon it as an appro- bation of the enterprise in question ; if the second, they made a contrary conclusion ; but, if the third happened to be drawn, they mixed them, and drew over again, till a decisive answer was given by one of the others. These divining arrows were gene- rally consulted before any thing" of moment was undertaken; as when a man was about to marry, or about to go a journey, or the like." Sale's Koran, Preliminary Biscourse, p. 168. Acts xvi. 16. A certain damsel possessed with a spirit of 252 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. divination.] Virgil has described an inflated proph/etess of thlS' kind : Ait, Deus, ecce Deus, cui talia fanti Ante fores, subito non vultus, non color unus, Non comptae mansere comae ; sed pectus anhelum, Et rakie fera eoida tument, majorque rideri, Mac mortale sonans; adflata est numine quando Jam propriore Dei. JEv. vi. 46. The virgin cries, tlie God, behold the God, And straight her visage and her colour change, Her hair's dishevell'd, and her heaving breast And lab'riug heart are swoll'n with sacred rage ; Larger she seems, her voice no mortal sound. As the inspiring God near and more near Seizes her soul. Archbishop Potter says, that there were few that pretended to in- spiration but raged after this manner, foaming and yelhng, and making a strange terrible noise : sometimes gnashing their teeth, shivering and trembling, with a thousand antic motions. Antiq. b. ii. c. 12. Obadiah 15. Thy reward shall return upon thine own head."] Some of the ancients were much given to observe omens, and were greatly influenced by them. They endeavoured, if possible, to avoid what they conceived to be thus portended. " The way to avert an omen was, either to throw a stone at the thing, or to kill it out-right, if it was an ominous animal, and so the evil por- tended by it might fall upon its own head. If it was an unlucky speech, to retort it upon the speaker with an ug KE^aXtjv aoi, tibi in caput redeat ; i. e. let it fall upon thine own head: which perhaps is an expression borrowed from the Ifpo<7K07ro(, who, when they espied any thing in the victim that seemed to portend any misfortune to themselves or their country, used to pray that it might etc ks^oXijv Tavrrtv wpiiriOai be turned upon the victim's head. The like expressions are sometimes made use of in holy scripture, as in Obad. 15, and several other places. Herodotus reports, that it was an Egyptian custom, from v?hich it is proba- ble the Grecians, derived theirs. They curse, says he, the head of the victim in this manner, that if any misfortune impended over themselves, or the country of Egypt, it might be turned upon that head." (Potter's Archceoloffia Grceca, vol. i. p. 346, edit. 1795.) 1 Sam. xiv. 9. This shall be a sign unto us.] Archbishop Potter (in his Archceologia Grceca, vol. i. p. 344) has some cu- rious reflections on the custom of catching omens, which was com- mon amongst the Greeks, and which he conceives to be of great antiquity, and also of eastern origin. " That it was practised by the Jews, is by some inferred from the story of Jonathan, the son of king Saul, who going to encounter a Philistine garrison, thus RELIGION. 253 spoke to his armour-bearer : " If they say unto us, tarry until we come unto you ; then we will stand still in our place, and will not go up unto them. But if they say thus, come up unto us, then we will go up ; for the Lord hath delivered them into our hand, and this shall be a sign unto us." A remarkable instance of this superstition is found in the following passage of Virgil : " he introduces iEneas catching Ascanius's words from his mouth; for the Harpies, and Anchises also, having foretold that the Tro- jans should be forced to gnaw their very tables for want of other provisions, when they landed in Italy ; happening to dine upon the grass, instead of tables or trenchers, which their present cir- cumstances did not afford, they laid their meat upon pieces of bread, which afterwards they eat up ; whereupon, Heus ! eliam mensas consumimus ? inquit Julus. See, says liilus, we our tables eat. i^neas presently caught the onsen, as the poet subjoins : Ea vox audita laboriim Prima tulit finem ; primumque loquentis ab ore Eripuit pater, ac stupefactus numine pressit. The lucky sound no sooner reach'd their ears, But straight they quite dismiss 'd their former cares : ' His good old sire with admiration struck, The boding sentence, when yet falling, took. And often roU'd it in his silent bieaat." -£neid vii. 1. 116. Prov, xxiii. 6. An evil eye.] Whether the same ideas are to be attached to this expression as used by Solomon, and as under-- stood by the Egyptians, may not be easily ascertained, though perhaps worthy of consideration. Pococke {Travels, vol. i. p. 181) says of the Egyptians, that " they have a great notion of the magic art, have books about it, and think there is much virtue in talismans and charms; but particularly are strongly possessed with an opinion of the evil eye. When a child is commended, except you give it some blessing, if they are not very well assured of your good will,*they use charms against the evil eye ; and particularly when they think any ill success attends them on account of an evil eye, they throw salt into the fire." Gal. iii. 1. Who hath bewitched you?] It is not to be imagined that the apostle, by the use of this expression, gave any counte- nance to the popular error which prevailed, not only among the heathens, but among some of the more ignorant and superstitious Christians — that of fascination, or bewitching with the eye. The language of the apostle is only a strong expression of surprise at the departure of the Galatians from the purity of the gospel. It however reminds us of those practices of the heathens, which are spoken of by various writers. They believe that great mischief 254 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. might ensue from an evil eye, or from being regarded with envious and mahcious looks. Pliny relates from Isigonus, that " among the Triballians and Illyrians there were certain enchanters, who with their looks could bewitch, and kill those whom they beheld for a considerable time, especially if they did so with angry eyes." (Nat. Hist. lib. vii. cap. 2.) A shepherd in Virgil, says Nescio quia teneros oculu^ mibi f^Bcioat agaos. Some evil eyes bewitch my tender lambs. I £c1og. iii. lin. 103. " No nation in the world is so much given to superstition as the Arabs, or even Mahometans in general. They hang about their children's necks the figure of an open hand, usually the right, which the Turks and Moors paint likewise upon their ships and houses, as a counter-charm to an evil eye ; for five is with them an unlucky number, and five (meaning their fingers) in your eyes is their pro- verb of cursing and defiance. Those of riper years carry with them some paragraph of their Koran, which they place upon their breasts, or sew under their caps, to prevent fascination and witch- craft, and to secure themselves from sickness and misfortunes. The virtue of these scrolls and charms is supposed to be so far universal, that they suspend them even upon the necks of their cattle, horses, and other beasts of burthen." Shaw's Travel, p. 243. Numbers xxii. 6. Come now therefore, I pray thee, and curse me this peopleJ] An opinion prevailed, both in those days and in after ages, that some men had a power, by the help of their gods, to devote, not only particular persons, but whole armies to destruction. This they are said to have done, some- times by words of imprecation, of which there was a set form among some people, which yEschines calls Sjopt^ojuevjjv apav, the determinate curse. Sometimes they also offered sacrifices, and used certain rites and ceremonies, with solemn charms. A famous instance of this we find in the life of Crassus ; where Plutarch tells us, that Atticus, tribune of the people, made a fire at the gate, out of which Crassus was to march to the war against the Parthians ; into which he threw certain things to make a fume, and offered sacrifices to the most angry gods, with horrid imprecations upon him : these, he says, according to ancient tra- dition, had such a power, that no man, who was loaded with them, could avoid being undone. 1 Sam. xvii. 43. He cursed David by his go'Ss.] It is highly probable that this was a general practice with idolaters, who, sup- posing themselves secure of the favour and protection of their dei- ties, concluded that their enemies must necessarily be the objects of their displeasure and vengeance. Hence, anticipating the cer- RELIGION. 255 talnty of divine wrath upon them, they cursed and devoted them to destruction. So did the Philistine act towards David. And so tl>e Romans used to do, saying, " Dii deaeque te perdant." 1 Sam. xxviii. 7. A woman that hath a familiar spirit.'] These pretenders to call up the spirits of the dead were not unfrequent amongst the heathens. We have an instance men- tioned by Herodotus (1. v. c. 29), of Melissa, the wife of Peri- ander, who was thus raised up, and who discovered the deposit, that Periander was solicitous to know where it had been coi;- cealed. Medea in Ovid boasts, — Quorum ope, quum volui; Jubeoque tremiscere montes, Et mugire solum, manesque exire sepulchris. Metam. 1. vii. 199, 205. See also Homer, Odyss. xi. Virgil, ^n. vi. and Tibullus, 1. i. el. 2. Isaiah xxix. 4. And thy speech shall whisper out of the dust.] That the souls of the dead uttered a feeble stridulous sound, very different from the natural human voice, was a popular notion among the heathens, as well as among the Jews. This appears from several passages of their poets; Homer, Virgil, Horace. The pretenders to the art of necromancy, who were chiefly women, had an art of speaking with a feigned voice ; so as to deceive those that applied to them, by making them believe that it was the voice of the ghost. From this art of the necromancers the popular notion seems to have arisen, that the ghost's voice was a weak, inarticulate sound, very different from the speech of the living. Bp. Lowth, in loc. Isaiah Ixv. 4. Who remain amongst the graves^ " The old Hebrews had an idolatrous custom among them of going amc^g the tombs to receive dreams, by which they judge of events, and how to manage their affairs ; for they are charged by the prophet Isaiah with "remaining among the. graves, and lodging in the monuments," which is rendered by the LXX. " with sleeping in the tombs," upon the account of dreams : and it is reasonable to believe that the sepulchre of Moses was purposely concealed, lest in after times it should become an object of worship and adoration : for, says R. Levi ben Gersom, future generations perhf^ps might have made a god of him, because of the fame of his miracles; for do we not see some of the Israelites erred on account of the brazen serpent which Moses made ?" Lewis's Origines Hebrcea, vol. iii. p. 381. Numbers xxii. 31. Then the Lord opened the eyes of Balaam, and he saw the xmgel of the Lord standing in the way.] There 256 ORIKNTAL CUSTOMS. are several instances to be found, both in the Scriptures and in profane authors, where the eyes have been opened by a divine power, to perceive that which they could not see by mere natural discernment. Thus the eyes of Hagar were operied, that she might see the fountain, Gen. xxi. 19. Homer also presents us with an example of this kind. Minerva says to Diomed, Yet more, from mortal mists I purge thy eyes. And set to view the warring deities. 11. v. 16. Pope. And in Virgil, Venus performs the same office to JEneas, and shows him the gods who were engaged in the destruction of Troy. Aspice ; namque omnem, qua: nunc obducta tuenti Mortales hebetat visus tibi, et humida circum, &c. ^n. ii. 604. Now cast your eyes around : while I dissolve The mists and films that mortal eyes involve. Purge from your sight the dross, and make you see The shape of each aveuging deity. Dryden. Milton seems likewise to have imitated this, when he makes Michael open Adam's eyes, to see the future revolutions of the world, and the fortunes of his posterity. ■ then purg'd with euphrasy and rue The visual nerve, for.he had much to see. And from the well of life three drops iustiU'd. Paradise Lost, b. xi. 41 4. Isaiah xlv. 3. .Treasures of darkness.l Treasures were fre- quently hid in the East when they were apprehensive of any dan- ger. Sorcery was considered as the most effectual method of dis- covering them. But we are not to imagine that persons of this description had any other knowledge than what they derived from inquiry and examination, however for interested purposes they mi^ht pretend the contrary. God opposed his prophets to such - pretenders as these, that by really communicating to them the knowledge of hidden riches, he might make it manifest that he was the God of Israel. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 2S2. ExoD. ii. 5. And the daughter of Pharaoh came down to wash herself at the river.'] The people of Egypt, and particularly the females of that country, express their veneration for the benefits received from the Nile, by plunging into it at the time of its be- ginning to overflow the country. Is it not probable that when the daughter of Pharaoh went into that river, it was in conformity with that idolatrous practice? Irwin {Travels, p. 229, 259) relates, that looking out of his window in the night, he saw a band of damsels proceeding to the river side with singing and dancing, and that the object of their going thither was to witness the first visible rise of the Nile, and to bathe in it. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 279. RELIGION. 257 ExoD. XV. 20. And all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dancesJ] Representations similar to this are frequently to be met with in the ancient writers. Hesiod describes the muses as dancing round the altar of Jupiter : Opx^vvrai sai ^uifiov tpKjQtvtOQ KpovKDVof . Theog. v. 4. Thus Theseus led the ring in the dance to the sound of the harp. {Callim. Hy. in Del. 301.) Plato assures us that the gods, and the children of the gods, were honoured with dancing. {De Leg. b. vii. p. 815.) And he was for consecrating songs and dances to them; appointing feasts at proper seasons of the year, and for ordering by authority what songs were proper to be sung, and what dances to be used, at the sacrifices which were offered to them. Lucian also informs us, that the Indians adored the sun when they rose in the morning, not as the Greeks did, by kissing their hand, but by turning to the east and dancing ; and thus ap- peased their deity morning and evening. (De Saltat. § 15, 16, 17.) Chandler's Life of David, vol. ii. p. 116. Numb. xxiv. 17. There shall come a star out of Jacoh-I This prophecy may possibly in some sense relate to David, but without doubt it belongs principally to Christ. Here the metaphor of a sceptre was common and popular, to denote a ruler, like David ; but the star, though, like the other, it signified in the prophetic writings, a temporal prince or ruler, yet had a secret and hidden meaning likewise. A star, in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, denoted God. Thus God, in the prophet Amos, reproving the Israelites for their idolatry on their first coming out of Egypt, says, " have ye offered unto me sacrifices and offerings in the wilderness forty years, O house of Israel 1 but ye have borne the tabernacle of your Moloch and Chiun, your images, the star of your god which ye made to yourselves." (Amos v. 25, 26.) "The star of your god " is a noble figurative expression to signify " the image of your god ;" for a star being employed in the hieroglyphics to sig- nify god, it is used here with great elegance to signify the mate- rial image of a god : the words, " the star of your god," being only a repetition of the preceding, ^' Chiun, your image ;" and not, as some critics suppose, the same with your God-star. Hence we conclude, that the metaphor here used by Balaam of a " star," was of that abstruse mysterious kind, and so to be understood, and consequently that it related only to Christ, the eternal Son of God. {Warburton's Divine Legation, b. iv. sec. 4.) Bp. New- ton, however, is of opinion that the literal meaning of the prophecy respects the person and actions of David. Dissertation on the Prophecies, vol. i. p. 139. Matt. ii. 2. We have seen his star.'\ That the heathens s 258 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. thought the rise of a new star, or the appearance of a comet, por- tended the birth qf a great person, has been proved by Origen {contra Celsum, lib. i.) Further, it appears from Virgil, that it was commonly imagined that the gods sent stars to point out the way to their favourites in difficult and perplexed cases ; and that the ancients called globes of fire appearing in the air, stars : • Subitoque fragore Intonuit Isevum, et de coelo lapsa per umbras Stella facem ducens mult^ cum luce cucurrit. JEn, ii. 692. Matt. ii. 2. We have seen his star in the east."] The ancients had an opinion, says Shuckford {^Connection, vol. ii. b. 8. p. 2S2), that their great men and heroes at their death migrated into some star ; and in consequence of that, they deified them. Thus Julius Caesar was canonized because of a star that appeared at his death, into which they supposed he was gone. Vide Sueton. Jul. cap. 88; Virg. Eel. ix. 47; Horace, 1. i. Od. 12. Job ii. 10. Thou speakest as one of the foolish women speaketh."] Sanctius thinks that Job refers to the Idumean women, who, like other heathens, when their gods did not please them, or they could not obtain of them what they desired, would reproach and cast them away, and throw them into the fire, or the water, as the Persians are said to do. Lev. xvi. 14. Seven."] The number seven was highly regarded, and thought of great efficacy in religious actions, not only by the Jews, but by the heathens. Apuleius says. Desirous of purifying myself, I wash in the sea, and dip my head seven times in the waves, the divine Pythagoras having taught, that this number is above all others most proper in the concerns of religion {de Asino Aureo, lib. xi.). Very frequent instances of the recurrence of this number are to be found in the Scriptures. 1 Samuel vi. 4. Then said they. What shall he the. trespass- offering which we shall return to him ? and they answered. Five golden emerods, and Jive golden mice, according to the number of the lords of the Philistines.'] The ancient heathens used to conse- crate to their gods such monuments of their deliverances, as re- presented the evils fi-om which they were rescued. They dedicated to Isis and Neptune a table, containing the express image of the shipwreck which they had escaped. Slaves and captives, when they had regained their liberty, offered their chains. The Philis- tines hoping shortly to be delivered from the emerods and mice wherewith they were afflicted, sent the images of them to that god from whom they expected deliverance. This is still practised among the Indians. Tavernier {Travels, p. 92) relates, that when any' pilgrim goes to a pagod for the cure of any disease, he brings RELIGION. 259 the figure of the member affected, made either of gold, silver, or copper, according to his quality ; this he offers to his god, and then falls a-singing, as all others do after they have offered. Mr. Selden also has observed, that mice were in use amongst the an- cient heathens for lustration and cleansing. De Diis Syris, Syn- tag. i. cap. 6. ExoD. ix. 8. And the Lord said unto Moses and unto Aaron, take to you handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses sprin- kle them towards the heaven in the sight of Pharaoh.^ " It is said, that when this evil was to be brought upon the Egyptians ; Aaron and Moses were ordered to take ashes of the furnace, and Moses was to scatter them up towards heaven, that they might be wafted over the face of the country. This mandate was very de- terminate, and to the last degree significant. The ashes were to be taken fi'om that fiery furnace which in the Scriptures was used as a type of the Israelites' slavery, and of all the cruelty which they experienced in Egypt. The process has still a farther allu- sion to an idolatrous and cruel rite, which was common among the Egyptians, and to which it is opposed as a contrast. They had several cities styled Typhonian, such as Heliopolis, Idithyia, Abarei, and Busiris; in these, at particular seasons, they sacrificed men. The objects thus destined were persons of bright hair, and a particular complexion, such as were seldom to be found amongst the native Egyptians. Hence we may infer that they were fo- reigners ; and its probable, that while the Israelites resided in Egypt, they they were chosen from their body : they were burnt alive upon an high altar, and thus sacrificed for the good of the people. At the close of the sacrifice the priests gathered together the ashes of these victims, and scattered them upwards in the air ; I presume with this view, that where any atom of this dust was wafted, a blessing might be entailed. The like was done by Moses with the ashes of the fiery furnace, but with a different intention ; they were scattered abroad, that where any the smallest portion alighted, it might prove a plague and a curse to this ungratefi.il, cruel, and infatuated people. Thus there was a designed contrast in these workings of providence, an apparent opposition to the superstitions of the times." Bryant on the Plagues of Egypt, p. 116. Deut. vii. 15. The Lord will put none of the evil diseases of Egypt upon thee.] In that country they were subject to ulcers called ^gyptiaca and Syriaca, as Casaubon observes on Persius, sat. V. p. 467. With these the priests of Isis used to threaten and terrify poor people, if they did not worship her. In opposition to this, Spencer {de Legibus Heb. 1. i. c. 3) thinks that God made this special promise to his people, to preserve them from all such evil diseases, if they kept themselves pure from idolatry. If the wor- & 2 260 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS, ship of Isis, says Bp. Patrick, were as ancient as the days of Mo- ses, this supposition is very ingenious. Isaiah Iviii. 6. The smooth stones.} This refers to stones made smooth by oil poured on them, as was frequently done by the heathen. Theophrastus has marked this as one strong feature in the character of the superstitious man : " Passing by the anointed stones in the streets, he takes out his phial of oil, and pours it on them ; and having fallen on his knees, and made his adorations, he departs." Bp. Lowth, in 16c. 2 Kings xxi. 11. Manasseh king of Judah hath done these abominations, and hath done wickedly above all that the Amorites did.} Bodin informs us from Maimonides, that it was customary among the Amorites to draw their new-born children through a flame ; believing that by this means they would escape many cala- mities ; and that Maimonides himself had been an eye-witness of this superstition in some of the nurses of Egypt. ExoD. xxiii. 19. Thou shall not seethe a kid in his mothers milk.} Cudworth (on the Lord's Supper, p. 14) gives a very curious relation of the superstition, on account of which he con- ceives the seething of a kid in its dam's milk to have been prohi- bited. " It was a custom of the ancient heathens, when they had gathered in all their fruits, to take a kid, and boil it in the dam's milk, and then, in a magical way, to go about and besprinkle with it all their trees, and fields, and gardens, and orchards, thinking by this means -they should make them fructify and bring forth fruit again more abundantly the following year. Wherefore God forbade his people, the Jews, at the time of their ingathering, to use any such superstitious or idolatrous rite." Numb. vi. 5. And shall let the locks of the hair of his head grow.} The Egyptians used to let their hair grow in honour of their gods, particularly of Apollo, Bacchus, and Minerva. This superstitious practice indeed grew to such a height, that they con- secrated it to rivers, in which they thought there was some divi- nity. In other instances they cut it off, and hung it upon trees, or laid it up in their temples, there to be preserved. At Athens there was a certain day appointed in one of their feasts, in which the hair of their children was cut off, and sacrificed to Diana. And according to Hesychius, before they performed this act, they brought a measure of wine, which they offered to Hercules, and then all who were present drank of it. This circumstance, if not an imitation, is a remarkable coincidence with the drink-offering mentioned ver. 17. Some writers have asserted that the laws of the Hebrew Nazarites were given to prevent an idolatrous adop- RELIGION. 261 tion of Egyptian customs : but it seems much more probable that these usages are posterior to the time of Moses, and that they are borrowed from his institutions. See Patrick, in loc. 1 Sam. xxxi. 10. And they put his armour in the house of Ash- tarothJ] The custom of dedicating to the gods the spoils of a conquered enemy, and placing them in their temples as trophies of victory, is very ancient. Tryphiodorus intimates this, when he says, that some of the Trojans were for- consecrating the horse. Eager they urge within some hallowed shrine. To fix it sacred to the powers diviae ; That future Greeks, while they the steed survey'd. Might curse the hattle, where their fathers bled. Mekrick. Homer represents Hector promising that, if he should conquer Ajax in single combat, he would dedicate his spoils to Apollo. And if ApoUo, in whose aid I trust, Shall stretch your daring champion in th« dust, If mine the glory to despoil the foe, On Phoebus' temple I'll his aims bestow. Pope. Other instances occur in Virgil, jEn. vii. 183. Persius, Satire, vi. 45. See ulso 1 Sam. xxi. 9. Those who had escaped shipwreck, or any dangerous fit of sick- ness, usually hung up in the temple of I sis tablets, on which was described the manner of their deliverance or cure. Nunc, dea, nunc succurre mihi ; nam posse mederi Ficta docet templis multa tabella tuis. Tibullus,l.i.el. 3, That you can ev'ry mortal ill remove, The num'roua tablets in your temple prove. See also Horace, b. i. Od. v. 13. Acts xxii. 9. They that were with me saw indeed the light, and were afraid, but they heard not the voice of him that spake to me.'] Eisner has shown, in a curious note on this passage, that the heathens thought that divine voices as well as visions might affect one person in a company without being perceived by the rest. Observ. vol. i. p. 466. Prov. xxvi. 8. As he that bindeth a stone in a sling.] The custom, which prevailed almost universally among the heathens, of erecting memorials of stone, both for a witness of covenants, and for an object of worship, to the idol Margemah, Markolis, or Mercury, seems extremely ancient. R. Elias Ashcenaz (cited by Kircher in his CEdipus, synt. iv. c. 2) says, that the reli^ous honour which was paid to Markolis (the same as the Anubis of the Egyptians, as the Hermes of the Greeks, and Mercury of the 262 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS, Romans) consisted in throwing stones together into a heap; which practice originated from an idle fable concerning the gods, not worth repeating. To this idolatrous rite Solomon is supposed, by Selden and others, to allude in this passage ; where, instead of i-endering the text, "as he that bindeth a stone in a sling," which does not afford the comparison of folly intended, it should have been translated, " as he that throweth a stone to Margemah," or Mercury, which cannot profit the idol, so is he that giveth honour to a fool, of which he is wholly insensible. {Selden de Mercurii Acervo.) There were also Mercurii, or HermcB viales, for the direction of travellers. Dr. Plot, in his Natural History of Oxfordshire, thinks, with Dr. Stillingfleet, that the Britons, long before the arrival of the Romans, were acquainted with the Greeks, and that they learned from them the practice of setting up unpolished stones, instead of images, to the honour of their gods, and he asserts, from Pausanias, that near the statue of Mer- cury, there were thirty square stones, which the Pharii worshipped, and gave to every one of them the name of a god. Stones were universally set up for memorials, and were sacred to the election of kings, &c. by the Danes and other northern nations. The same author seems also of opinion, that the celebrated Stonehenge, in' Wilts, was neither a Roman temple nor Danish mpnument, but rather somewhat belonging to the idol Markolis. (Nat. Hist. Oxf. c. 10, § 81, 102.) Plutarch, in his life of Cimon, mentions - the erection of stone Mercuries, with inscriptions upon them, in honour of taking the city Eione'from the Persians. And Gyral- dus asserts that the heathens had their deus lapideus, or stone god to swear by, and relates fi:om Polybius the form of an oath, which was so taken, between the Romans and Carthaginians, relative t» a treaty of peace. Many thought that the whole of this custom was a vile abuse of Jacob's consecration of the stone at Bethel. Zeph. ii. 14. Flocks shall lie down in the midst of her, all the leasts of the nations : both the cormorant and the bittern shall lodge in the upper lintels thereof.'] " Knobs or chapiters," marg. Char din (tom. iii. p. 108), describing the magnificent pillars that he found at Persepolis, tells us, that the storks, (birds respected by the Persians) make their nests on the top of these columns with great boldness, and are in no danger of being dispossessed. 1 Kings xviii. 28. Cut themselves.'] If we look into antiquity, we shall find that nothing was more common in the religious rites of several nations, than this barbarous custom. To this purpose we may observe, that (as Plutarch de Superstitione tells us) the priests of Bellona, when they sacrificed to that goddess, besmeared the victim with their own blood. The Persian magi {Herodotus, lib. yii. c. 191) used to appease tempests, and allay the winds, by making incisions in their flesh. They who carried about the RELIGION. 263 Syrian goddess {Apuleim, lib. viii.), cut and slashed themselves with knives, till the blood gushed out. This practice remains in many places at the present time, and frequent instances of it may be met with in modern voyages and travels. EzEK. ix. 4. Mark upon the foreheads.] Mr. Maurice, speak- ing of the religious rites of the Hindoos, says, before they can enter the great pagoda, an " indispensable ceremony takes place which can only be performed by the hand of a brahmin ; and that is, the impressing of their foreheads with the tiluk, or mark of different colours, as they may belong either to the sect of Veesh- nu, or Seeva. If the temple be that of Veeshnu, their foreheads are marked with a longitudinal line, and the colour used is vermi- lion. If it be the temple of Seeva, they are marked with a parallel line, and the colour used is turmeric, or saf&on. But these two grand sects being again subdivided into numerous classes, both the size and the shape of the tiluk are varied in proportion to their superior or inferior rank. In regard to the tiluk, I must observe, that it was a custom of very ancient date in Asia, to mark their servants in the forehead. It is alluded to in these words of Ezekiel, where the Almighty commands his angels to "go through the midst of the city, and set a mark on the foreheads of the men who sigh for the abominations committed in the midst thereof." The same idea occurs also in Rev. vii. 3. Indian Antiquities, vol. v. p. 82. Gal. vi. 17. / bear in my body the marks of the Lord Jesus.] Archbishop Potter thinks {ArcTtceol. Grmca, vol. ii. p. 7) that the apostle alludes here to the anyfiara, or brands, with which the 'Greeks used to mark those that were appointed to serve in the wars, lest they should attempt to make their escape. Doddridge says, that perhaps the reference may be to those marks, by which the votaries of particular deities were distinguished. Mr. Black- wall {Sacred Classics, vol. ii. p. 66) considers it as an allusion to an Egyptian custom, according to which any man's servant, who fled to the temple of Hercules, and had the sacred brands or marks of that deity impressed upon him, was supposed to be under his immediate care and protection, and by that to be privileged from all violence and harsh treatment. 1 Kings xxii. 43. The high places.] Many of old worshipped upon hills and on the tops of high mountains ; imagining that they thereby obtained a nearer communication with heaven. Strabo says that the Persians always performed their worship upon hills. Some nations, instead of an image, worshipped the hill as the deity. In Japan most of their temples are at this day upon emi- nences ; and often upon the ascent of high mountains ; command- ing fine views, with groves and rivulets of clear water : for they say, that the gods are extremely delighted with such high and 264 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. pleasant spots. {Keem.pfer's Japan, vol. ii. b. 5.) This practice in early time was almost universal ; and every mountain was es- teemed holy. The people who prosecuted this method of wor- ship enjoyed a soothing infatuation, which flattered the gloom of superstition. The eminences to which they retired were lonely and silent; and seemed to be happily circumstanced for contem- plation and prayer. They who frequented them were raised above the lower world; and fancied that they were brought into the vicinity of the powers of the air, and of the deity who resided in the higher regions. But the chief excellence for which they were frequented was, that they were looked upon as the peculiar places where God delivered his oracles. HolweWs Mythological Diet. p. 225. Isaiah xiv. 13. I will sit also upon the mount of the congre- gation, in the sides of the north.~\ Captain Wilford, in a paper communicated to the Asiatic Society concerning Mount Caucasus, gives us the opinion of the Hindus respecting the garden of Eden. "They place it," he says, "on the' elevated plains of Bukhara the lesser, where there is a river which goes round Brahmapuri, or the town of Brahma: then through a lake called Mansarovara, the existence of which is very doubtful, and is erroneously supposed by travelling fakeers to be the same with that from which the Ganges issues, which is called in Sanscrit, Bindu Sarovara. From the Mansarovara lake come four rivers, running toward the four corners of the world, through four rocks cut in the shape of the heads of four animals : thus taking literally the corresponding passage of Scripture. The cow's head is toward the south, and from it issues the Gangd : toward the west is a horse's head, from which springs the Chocshu or Chocshus ; it is the Oxus ; the Sitd-gangd or Hoang-ho, issues from an elephant's head : and lastly, the Bhadra-gang4, or Jenisea in Siberia, from a tiger's head, or a lion's head, according to others. The Hindus generally consider this spot as the abode of the gods, but by no means as the place in which the primogenitors of mankind were created : at least I have not found any passage in the PurAnas that might countenance any such idea, but rather the contrary. As it is written in the Pm4nas, that on Mount Meru there is an eternal day for the space of fourteen degrees round Su-meru, and of course an eternal night for the same space on the opposite side, the Hindus have been forced to suppose that the Su-meru is exactly at the apex or summit of the shadow of the earth ; and that from the earth to this summit there is an immense conical hill, solid like the rest of the globe, but invisible, impal- pable, and pervious to mankind : on the sides of this mountain are various mansions, rising in eminence and pre-excellence as you ascend, and destined for the place of residence of the blessed. RELIGION. 265 according to their merits. God and the principal deities are sup- po.sed to be seated in " the sides of the north," on the summit of this mountain, which is called also Sabha, or of the congregation. This opinion is of the greatest antiquity, as it is alluded to by Isaiah, almost in the words of the Pauranies. This prophet, de- scribing the fall of the chief of the Daityas, introduces him saying, that he " would exalt his throne above the stars of God, and would sit on the mount of the congregation, in the sides of the north." The mountain or hill of God is often alluded to in Scrip- ture. (Asiatic Researches, vol. vi. p. 488.) The circumstances here nan-ated are too curious to be overlooked, especially as they present us with a striking coincidence with what Moaes has re- corded, and afiFord us some light into the allusion of the prophet Isaiah in the passage here referred to. Zech. iii. 8. / will bring forth my servant the Branch.} The oak was very early made an object of idolatrous worship, Isaiah i. 29, and in Greece we meet with the famous oracle of Jupiter at the oaks of Dodona. In Gaul and Britain we find the highest religious regard paid to this tree and its mistleto, under the direc- tion of the Druids. The mistleto is indeed a very extraordinary plant, not to be cultivated in the earth, but always growing upon some other tree, as upon the oak or apple. The Druids, says Pliny {Nat. Hist. lib. xvii. c. 44), hold nothing more sacred than the mistleto, and the tree on which it is produced, provided it be the oak. They make choice of groves of oaks on their own account, nor do they perform any of their sacred rites without the leaves of those trees, so that one may suppose that they are for this reason called by a Greek etymology Druids. And whatever mistleto grows on the oak, they think is sent from heaven, and is a sign of God himself having chosen that tree. This, however, is very rarely found ; but when discovered is treated with great ceremony. They call it by a name which in their language signifies "the curer of all ills :" and having duly prepared their feasts and sacrifices under the tree, they bring to it two white bulls, whose horns are then for the first time tied. The priest, dressed in a white robe, , ascends the tree, and with a golden pruning-hook cuts off the mis- tleto, which is received in a white sagum or sheet. Then they sacrifice the victims, praying that God would bless his own gift to those on whom he has bestowed it. Is it possible, says Mr. Park- hurst {Heb. Lex. p. 50), for a Christian to read this account with- out thinking of him who was the desire of all nations, of the man whose name was the branch, who had indeed no father on earth, but came down from heaven, was given to heal all our ills, and, after being cut off through the divine counsel, was wrapped in fine linen, and laid in the sepulchre for our sakes ? The mistleto was a sacred emblem to other nations, especially to the ancient inhabi- ^66 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. tants of Italy. The golden branch of Virgil {^n. vi. 1. 126), without which no one could return from the infernal regions, seems an allusion to the mistleto. 1 CoR. xiii. 1. Sounding brass.] One of the most ancient, as well as most celebrated oracles of the pagan world was that at the island of Delos. In early ages, and at the first commencement of these absurd and ridiculous impositions on mankind, they were delivered by the murmuring noise of a fountain, or at the foot of ian oak ; and also from the oaks themselves. But in succeeding times they made use of the brazen kettle, which utensil the ancient Greek poet Callimachus calls the sounding brass. ■ Tliese to the Delian god Begin the grand procession ; and in hand The holy sheaves and mystic off*ring bear ; Which the Felasgians, who the sounding brass. On eaith recumbent, at Doduna guard, Joyous receive and to the Melian's care The hallow'd gifts consign. Hymn to Delos, v. 388. May not St. Paul allude to these brazen kettles in these words ? Two reasons are given why these brazen kettles are said to be always sounding : one is, that many of them were so curiously arranged round the temple, that by striking one of them the sound was communicated to all the rest : the other, and the most proba- ble of the two, is, that there were two brazen pillars before the temple of Delos, on one of which was placed a kettle, and on the other a boy holding in his hand a whip with lashes of brass, which being by the violence of the wind struck against the kettle, caused a continual sound. These pillars seem to have a reference to 1 Kings vii. 21. Gillingwater, MS. CoLOSs. ii. 18. A voluntary humility, and worshipping of angels.'] These expressions apply, in a peculiar manner, to the Essenes. For Josephus informs us, that they had something very particular among them, relating to the angels. He says (de Bella Judaic, lib. ii. c. 8) that when they received any into their num- ber, they made them solemnly swear that they would keep and ^ observe the books of the sects, and the names of the angels with care. Jennings's Jewish Ant. vol. i. p. 471. CHAPTER IX. CUSTOMS RELATING TO MARRIAGE. Isaiah Ixii. 5. As a young man marrieth a virgin.] In a note upon this passage Chardin observes, that it is the custom in the MARRIAGE; 267 East for youths that were never married always to marry virgins ; and widowers, however young, to marry widows. If this practice prevailed in the days of the prophet, his marrying a virgin must have appeared extraordinary ; since, on account of his age, and the early period at which they generally married, it is probable he was now a widower. If this was the case, it must have appeared par- ticular, and have excited great attention. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 482. •Gen. xxix. 26. And Laban said, it must not he so done in our country, to give the younger before the jirst-hornJ] Mr. Halhed observes, in his preface to the Gentoo Laws (p 69), " We find Laban excusing himself for having substituted Leah in the place of Rachel to Jacob, in these words. It must not be so done in our country, to give the younger before the first-born. This was long before Moses. So in this compilation, it is made criminal for a man to give his younger daughter in marriage before the elder ; or for a younger son to marry while his elder brother remains unmarried." Gen. XX. 12. And yet indeed she is my sister ; she is the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother : and she became my wife.'] This peculiar mode of contracting mar- riage, appears in after ages to have become a common practice. It prevailed at Athens. It was lawful there to marry a sister by the father's side, but it was not permitted to marry a sister by the same mother. Montesquieu ( Spirit of Laws, vol. i. p. 54) says, that this custom was originally owing to republics, whose spirit would not permit that two portions of land, and consequently two inherit- ances, should devolve on the same person. A man that married his sister only by his father's side, could inherit but one estate, that of his father : but by marrying his sister by the same mother, it might happen that this sister's father, having no male issue, might leave her his estate, and consequently the brother that married her might be possessed of two. 1 Chron. ii. 35. ^nd Sheshan gave his daughter to Jarha his servant to wife.] When the people of the East have no sons, they frequently marry their daughters to their slaves, and that even when they have " much property to bestow upon them. Hassan had been the slave of Kamel his predecessor. But Kamel, " according to the custom of the country, gave him one of his daughters in marriage, and left him at his death one part of the great riches he had amassed together in the course of a long and prosperous life." Maillet, Lett, xi. p. 118. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 370. 2 Sam. xi. 4. And David sent messengers, and took her.] The kings of Israel appear to have taken their wives with very ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. great ease. This is quite consistent with the account given in general of the manner in which eastern princes form matrimonial alhances. " The king, in his marriage, uses no other ceremony than this : he sends an azagi to the house where, the lady lives, where the officer announces to her, it is the king's pleasure that she should remove instantly to the palace. She then dresses her- self .in the best manner, and immediately obeys. Thenceforward he assigns her an apartment in the palace, aiid gives her a house elsewhere in any part she chooses. Then when he makes her iteghe, it seems to be the nearest resemblance to marriage ; for whether in the court or the camp, he orders one of the judges to pronounce in his presence, that he, the king, has chosen his hand- maid, naming her, for his queen : upon which the crown is put on her head, but she is not anointed." Bruce's Travels, vol. iii. p. 8T. ESPOUSAL. Matt. i. 18. EspousedJl Espousing or betrothing was a solemn promise of marriage made by two persons, each to the other, at such a distance of time as they agreed upon. The man- ner of performing this espousal was, either by a writing, or by a piece of silver given to the bride, or by cohabitation. The writ- ing that was prepared on these occasions ran in this form : " On such a day of such a month, in such a year, A. the son of A. has said to B. the daughter of B. be thou my spouse according to the law of Moses and the Israelites, and I will give thee, for the por- tion of thy virginity, the sum of two hundred zuzim, as it is or- dained by the law. And the said B. has consented to become his spouse upon these conditions, which the said A. has promised to perform upon the day of marriage. To this the said A. obliges himself : and for this he engages all his goods, even as far as the cloak which he wears upon his shoulder. Moreover he promises to perform all that is intended in contracts of marriage in favour of the Israelitish women. Witnesses A. B. C." The promise by a piece of silver, and,without writing, was made before witnesses, when the young man said to his mistress, " Receive this piece of silver, as a pledge that yqu shall become my spouse." The en- gagement by cohabitation, according to the rabbins, was allowed by the law (Deut xxiv. l),,but it had been wisely forbidden by the ancients, because of the abuses that might happen, and to pre- vent the inconvenience of clandestine marriages. After such espousal was made, (which was generally when the parties were young) the woman continued with her parents several months, if not some years, before she was brought home and her marriage consummated. , (Judges xiv. 8) Calmefs Dictionary of the Bible, art. Marriage. 2 Coil. xi. 2. Thai I may present you as a chaste virgin to MARRIAGE. 269 Christ.^ This circumstance is much illustrated by recollecting that there was an officer among the Greeks, whose business it was to educate and form young women, especially those of rank and figure, designed for marriage, and then to present them to those who were to be their husbands ; and if this officer per- mitted them, through negligence, to be corrupted between the espousals and the consummation of the marriage, great blame would naturally fall upon him. Doddridge, in loc. Gen. xxxiv. 12. Ask me never so much dowry.] It was usual for the bridegroom to give to his bride, or her father, a dowry or portion of money or goods, as a kind of purchase of her person. It was the custom of the Greeks and other ancient nations. (Potter's Greek Ant. b. iv. c. 1 1), and is to this day the prac- tice in several Eastern countries. (Complete System of Geog, vol. ii, p. 19, 305.) The modern Arabs who live under tents purchase their wives. De la Roque says, that " properly speaking, a young man that would marry must purchase his wife : and fathers among the Arabs are never more happy than when they have many daugh- ters. This is the principal part of the riches of a house. Accord- ingly, when a young man would treat with a person whose daugh- ter he is inclined to marry, he says to him, Will you give me your daughter for fifty sheep ; for six camels ; or for a dozen cows ? If he be not rich enough to make such offers, he will propose the giving her to him for a mare, or a young colt ; considering in the offer the merit of the young woman, the rank of her family, and the circumstances of him that desires to marry her. When they are agreed on both sides, the contract is drawn up by him that acts as cadi or judge among these Arabs. {Vog. dans la Pal. p. 222.) 1 Sam. xviii. 25. And Saul said, thus shall ye say to David, the king desireth not any dowry, but a hundred foreskins of the Philistines, to he avenged on his enemies.] This custom has pre- vailed in later times in some countries, to give their daughters in marriage to the most valiant men, or those who should bring them so many heads of their enemies. Alex, ab Alexandre (lib. i. cap. 24) reports of a people in Carmania, that if any were desiious to marry, it was necessary that he should first bring the king the head of an enemy. The Roman custom on this point differed from the Hebrew, the former requiring the wife to bring a portion to the husband, that he might be able to bear the charges of matri- mony more equally. Patrick, in loc. HosEA iii. 2. An homer of barley.] Chardin observed in the East, that in their contracts for their temporary wives (which are known to be frequent there), there is always the formality of a 270 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. measure of corn mentioned, over and above the sum of money which is stipulated. This will perhaps account for Hosea's pur- chasing a woman of this sort for fifteen pieces of silver and a certain quantity of barley. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 573. 1 Cor. vi. 20. Ye are bought with a price.] This proves that believers belong to the Lord, not only as redeemed by a price, but as espoused to Christ : for one way of obtaining and espousing a wife among the Jews was by a price ; and this was an ancient rite in marriage used among other nations. The hus- band and wife used to buy each other. (Servius in Virgil. Georg. 1. i. 31.) Gill, in loc. NUPTIALS. John ii. 1. There was a marriage in Cana.] The following circumstances, as connected with marriage, are too remarkable to be passed over unnoticed. " Upon ordinary occasions it was usual to throw among the populace, as the procession moved along, money, sweatmeats, flowers, and other articles ; which the people caught in cloths made for such occasions, stretched in a particular manner upon frames. With regard to the money, however, there appears often to have been a mixture of economy, or rather of de- ception ; which probably arose from the necessity of complying with a custom;, that might be ill suited to the fortunes of some, and to the avarice of others : for we find that it was not uncommon to collect bad money, called kelb, at a low price, to throw away at nuptial processions. The bride on the day of marriage was conducted with great ce- remony by her iriends to her husband's house : and immediately on her arrival she made him a variety of presents ; especially of household furniture, with a spear and a tent. There seems to be a curious similitude in some of these ceremonies to customs which prevailed among the old Germans, before they left their forests, as well as among the gothic nations, after they were established in their conquests. Tacitus observes that the German bridegrooms and brides made to each other reciprocal presents, and particularly of arms and cattle. The gifts made to an eastern bride appear like- wise to have been upon the same principle with the morgengabe, or morning gift, which it was common for the European husband in the early and middle ages to present to his wife on the morning after marriage." Richardson's Dissert, on the East, p. 343. Psalm xix. 5. Which is as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber.] Marriages among the Hebrews were performed with great public rejoicings. Among other rites then in use, Buxtorf (Synagoga Jud.) informs us, that it was usual for a tent or canopy to be pitched in the open air, in which the bride and bridegroom MARRIAGE. 271 met ; and the bride being delivered to the bridegroom, they came forth with great pomp and joy. Gen. xxiv. 60. And they blessed Jiebekah.] Nuptial bene- dictions were used both by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. That of the Jews was in this form : " Blessed be thou, O Lord, who hast created man and woman, and ordained marriage," &c. This was repeated every day during the wedding week, provided there were new guests. The Grecian form of benediction was, apaSij Tvxn ; the Latin was. Quod faustum felixque sit. The Jews con- stantly made use of the same form : but the Greeks and Romans frequently varied theirs : a benediction, however, in some form was always used. See Selden de Jure N. et G. 1. v. cap. 5. Ruth iv. 11. The Lord make the woman that is come into thy house like Rachel and like Leah.^ Such a solemn benediction of those who were going to be married was very ancient. Gen xxiv. 60. The Jews continue it to this day. They say that it was always pronounced in the presence of ten persons at the least, the eldest of whom gave the benediction, which was a ratification of what had been agreed upon. See Selden. Uxor, Hebr. lib. ii. cap. \2. Ruth iii. 9. Spread therefore thy skirt over thy handmaid^ This phrase imports taking a person under protection and tuition ; and here not a common, but a matrimonial one. The Chaldee therefore plainly renders it, let thy name be called upon thy handr maid, by taking me for. thy wife. From hence, when two persons are married among the Jews, the man throws the skirt of his talith over his wife, and covers her head with it Buxtorf, Synagoga Judaica, cap. 39. Matt. xxv. 1 . Lamps.'\ Euripides in his Medea (p. 349, ed. Steph.) mentions the lighting up and exhibition of lamps, refer- ring it, too, to the females, as one part of the ceremony belonging to the celebration of a marriage. So likewise Homer describes it: tiviKpae S" £K SaKajiiav, SaiSoiv viroXainroiitvaiiiv ^yiviQV ava aoTv. H. xvin, "from their chambers forth leading the brides, they ushered them along with torches through the streets." Statins in his Thebaid (lib. 8) puts them into other hands upon the same occasion. Matt. xxv. 6. And at midnight there was a cry made, behold, the bridegroom cometh, go ye out to meet him.\ It was the cus- tom among the ancient Greeks to conduct the new married couple 272 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. home with torches or lamps. Thus Homer describes a marriage procession. The sacred pomp and geuial feast delight, And solemn dance, and hymeneal rite ; Along the street the new made brides are led, With torches flaming, to the nuptial bed : The youthful dancers in a circle bound To the soft flute and cithern's silver sound ; Through the fair streets the matrons in a row Stand in their porches, and enjoy the show. Iliad xviii. lin. 569. A like custom is still observed among the pagan East Indians, " for on the day of their marriage the husband and wife, being both in the same palanquin, go out between seven and eight o'clock at night, accompanied with all their kindred and friends : the trum- pets and drums go before them, and they are lighted by a multi- tude of massals, which are a kind of flambeaux. The new married •couple go abroad in this equipage for the space of some hours, after which they return to their own house, where the women and domestics wait for them. The whole house is enlightened with little lamps, and many of those massals already mentioned are kept ready for their arrival, besides those that accompany them, and go before the palanquin." {Agreement of Customs between East Indians and Tews, art. xvii. p. 68.) The Roman ladies were led home to their husbands' houses in the evening by the light of torches. {Kennett's Roman Antiqui- ties, part ii. b. v. c. 9.) These circumstances strongly illustrate the parable of the ten virgins, especially where it is said that " they went out to meet the bridegroom with their lamps." Matt. xxv. 6. And at midnight there was a cry made, behold the bridegroom cometh, go ye out to meet him.^ In " The Customs of the East Indians and the Jews Compared," the following state- ment is given of the marriage ceremonies of the former, which is remarkable for the affinity it bears to the usage of the latter people. " On the day of their marriage, the husband and the wife, being both in the same palki or palanquin, go out between seven and eight o'clock at night, accompanied with all their kindred and friends. The trumpets and drums go before them ; and they are lighted by a number of massals, which are a kind of flambeaux .Immediately behind the palanquin of the new married couple walk many women, whose business it is to sing verses, wherein they wish them all kind of prosperity. The new married couple go abroad in this equipage for the space of some hours, after which they return to their own houses, where the women and domestics wait for them, the whole house is enlightened with little lamps, and many of these massals already mentioned are kept ready for their arrival, besides those that accompany them, and go before their palanquin. This sort of lights are nothing MARRIAGE. S73 else but many pieces of old linen, squeezed hard against one ano- ther in a round figure, and thrust down into a mould of copper. Those who hold them in one hand have in the other a bottle of the same metal with the mould of copper, which is full of oil, and they take care to pour out of it from time to time upon the linen, which otherwise gives no light." EzEK. xxiii. 40. Thou didst wash thyself, painiedst thine eyes, and deckedst thyself with ornaments.] Cbardin supposes that the decorations and attitude which the prophet gives to Aholibah are those of a bride. " It is precisely after this manner the bride receives her husband in Asia. They carry her to a bath, they afterwards adorn her magnificently, they paint, they perfume her, they carry her to the nuptial chamber, and they place her upon a bed." Harmer, vol. ii. p. 123. Rev. xxi. 2. Prepared as a bride.] In the East brides fre- quently change their dress, and are presented, each time they do so, to the bridegroom. D'Arvieux gives this account of the Arabs (Foy. dans la Pal. p. 225), " When the evening is come, the women present the bride to her future husband. The women who conduct her make him a compliment, who answers not a word, sitting perfectly still, with a grave and serious air. This ceremony is three times repeated the same evening; and when- ever they change the bride's dress, they present her to the bride- groom, who receives her always with the same gravity. It is a sort of magnificence in the East, frequently to dress and undress the bride, and to cause her to wear, in that same day, all the clothes made up for her nuptials. The bridegroom's dress is also frequently changed for the same reason." An attention to this circumstance throws an energy into the words of St. John, when he speaks of the New Jerusalem commg down from God out of heaven, " prepared as a bride for her husband." Harmer, \o\.i\. p. 122. Sol. Song, iii. 6. Who is this that cometh out of the wilderness like pillars of smoke, perfumed with myrrh and frankincense ?] The use of perfumes at eastern marriages is common, and upon great occasions, very profuse. Not only are the garments scented till, in the Psalmist's language, they smell of " myrrh, aloes, and cassia," but it is customary for virgins to meet and lead the pro- cession with silver-gilt pots of perfiimes ; and sometimes even the air around is rendered fragrant, by the burning of aromatics in the windows of all the houses in the streets, through which the pro- cession is to pass. In the present instance, so liberally were these rich perfumes burnt, that, at a distance, a pillar, or pillars of smoke arose from them ; and the perfume was so rich as to exceed in value and fragrancy all the powders of the merchant. Lady M. W. Montague confirms the foregoing observations in the 274 " ORlENTAt ctrstOMS. account which she gives of the reception of a beautiful young Turkish bride at the bagnio; she says ," two virgins met her at the door, two others filled silver-gilt pots with perfumes, and began the procession, the rest following in pairs to the number of thirty. In this order they marched round the three large rooms of the bagnio." And Maillet {Lett, v.) describing the entrance of the ambassadors of an eastern monarch, sent to propose marriage to an Egyptian queen, into the capital of that country, tells us, " the streets through which they passed were strewed with flowers ; and precious odours, burning in the windows from very early in the morning, embalmed the air." Harmer, on Sol, Song, p. 123. Sol. Song iii. 11. The crown wherewith his mother crowned him in the day of his espousals.'] Such a ceremony as this was customary among the Jews at their marriages. Maillet informs us, the crowns were made of different materials. Describing the custom as practised by the members of the Greek church who now live in Egypt, he says {Lett. x. p. 85) " that the parties to be mar- ried are placed opposite to a reading-desk, upon which the book of the gospels is placed, and upon the book two crowns, which are made of such materials as people choose, of flowers, of cloth, or of tinsel. There he (the priest) continues his benedictions and prayers, into which he introduces all the patriarchs of the Old Testament. He after that places these crowns, the one on the head of the bridegroom, the other on that of the bride, and covers them both with a veil." After some other ceremonies the priest concludes the whole by taking off their crowns, and dismissing them with prayers. Judges xiv. 10. And Samson made a feast there, for so used the young men to doi] This was according to the custom of all countries ; it was called by the Jews the nuptial joy. No other feast was to be intermixed with it, and all labour ceased as long as it lasted. Selden, Uxor. Hehr. lib. ii. cap. 11, p. 172. * Similar customs are, it appears, retained in Palestine still. Burckhardt says, " Daughters are paid for according to the respectability of their father ; sometimes as high as fifteen hun- dred piastres: and this custom prevails amongst Druses, Turks, and Christians. If her family is rich, the girl is fitted out with clothes, and a string of zequins, or of silver coin, to tie round her head ; after which she is delivered to her husband. I had an opportunity of witnessing an espousal of two Christians at Aaere, in the house of a Christian: the bride was brought with her female friends and relations, from her native village, one day's journey distant, with two camels decorated with tassels, bells, &c., and was lodged With her relations at Aaere. They entered the village preceded by women beating the tamborine, and by the village youths, firing off their musquets. Soon afterwards MARU1A6E, g75 the bridegroom retired to the spring, which was in a field, ten minutes from the village, where he washed, and dressed himself in new clothes. He then entered the village, mounted on a caparisoned horse, surrounded by young men, two of whom beat tamborines, and the others fired musquets. He alighted before the sheikh's house, and was carried for about a quarter of an hour by two men, on their arras, amidst continued singing and huzzaing : the sheikh then exclaimed, " Mebarek el Aris," Blessed be the bridegroom ! which, was repeated by all present. After Ayhich he was set down, and remained till sunset, exposed to the jests of his friends; after this he was carried to the church, where the Greek priest performed the marriage ceremony, and the young couple retired to their dwelling. The bridegroom's father had slaughtered several lambs and kids, a part of which was de- voured by mid-day ; but the best pieces were brought in three enormous dishes of Bourgul to the sheikh's raedhafe; two being for the' mob, and the third for the sheikh, and principal men of the village. In the evening paras were collected by one of the bridegroom's friends, who sung verses in praise of all his acquaint- ance, every one of whom, when named, was expected to make a present." Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, pp. 295—299. Matt. ix. 15. Children of the bride-chamber.] Great mirth and cheerfulness accompanied the celebration of nuptials amongst the Jews. The children of the bridechamber were the friends and acquaintances of the parties, and assisted in those rejoicings. But to set some bounds to their exultations, a singular ceremony was introduced, according to the rabbins : — a glass vessel was brought in amongst the company, and broke to pieces, that they might, by this action, restrain their joy, and not run to excess. The Gemara produces some instances of this sort. Mar, the son of Rabbena, made wedding-feasts for his son, and invited the rabbins ; and when he saw that their mirth exceeded its bounds, he brought forth a glass cup, worth four hundred zuzees, and broke it before them, whereupon they became sad. The reason which they assign for this action is, because it is forbidden a man to fill his mouth with laughter in this world. Lightfoot's Works, vol. ii. p. 172. John iii, 29. The friend of the bridegroom,} Among the Jews, in their rites of espousals, there is frequent mention of a place where, under a covering, it was usual for the bridegroom to discourse familiarly but privately with his spouse, whereby their affections might be more knit to one another in order to marriage, which, however, were not supposed to be so till the bridegroom came cheerfully out of the chuppah, or covered place. To this David refers (Psalm xix. 5) when he speaks of the sun, which is as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber, and rejoiceth as a Tg 276 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. strong man to run a race. It is affirmed that this custom is still observed among the Jews in Germany, either before the syna- gogues, in a square place, covered ovisr, or, where there is no synagogue, they throw a garment over the bridegroom and the bride for that purpose. Whilst this intercourse is carrying on, the friend of the bridegroom stands at the door to hearken ; and when he hears the bridegroom speak joyfully (which is an intima- tion that all is well), he rejoices himself, and communicates the intelligence to the people assembled, for their satisfaction. Ham- mond, in loc. Matt. xxii. 11. A wedding garm.ent.'] It was usual for per- sons to appear at marriage-feasts in a sumptuous dress, generally adorned with florid embroidery, as some writers tell us (see Rev. xix. 8, and Dr. Hammond, in loc); but as it could not be ex- pected that travellers thus pressed in should themselves be pro- vided with it, we must therefore conclude, not only from the magnificence of the preparations, to which we must suppose the wardrobe of the prince corresponded, but likewise from the fol- lowing circumstance of resentment against this guest, that a robe was offered, but refused by him: and this is a circumstance which '(as Calvin observes) is admirably suited to the method of . God's dealing with us, who indeed requires holiness in order to our receiving the benefits of the gospel, but is graciously pleased to work it in us by his Holy Spirit, and therefore may justly resent and punish our neglect of so great a favour. Doddridge, in loc. Judges xiv. 12. I will give you thirty sheets and thirty changes of garments^ Among the Greeks it was usual for the bride to give changes of dress to the friends of the bridegroom at the celebration of the marriage. Homer represents Pallas as appear- ing to Nausicaa in a dream, and commanding her to descend to the river, and wash the robes of state, preparatory to her nuptials. Oh, indolent, to waste tby hours away ! And sleep'st thou, careless of the bridal day 1 Thy spousal ornament neglected lies : Arise, prepare the bridal train, arise. Odyss. vi. 29. Pope. Dacier is of opinion that the custom now alluded to prevailed amongst the Israelites, and that the proposition made by Samson is grounded upon it. From this sentiment Mr. Pope dissents: " I am rather of opinion," he says, " that what is said of Samson has relation to another custom amongst the ancients, of proposing an enigma at festivals, and adjudging a reward to him that solved it. These the Greeks called jgitpovQ avixiroTiKOvg." Gen. xxiv. 59. And they sent away Rehekah their sister, and her nurse.'] Nurses were formerly held in very high esteem, and considered as being entitled to constant and lasting regard. " The nurse, in an eastern family, is always an important person- age. Modern travellers inform us, that in Syria she is considered- MARRIAGE. ' 277 as a sort of second parent, whether she has been foster-mother or otherwise. She always accompanies the bride to her husband's house, and ever remains there, an honoured character. Thus it was in ancient Greece." Siege of Acre, b. ii. p. 35, note. Thus it appears to have been in the ages of the Patriarchs. Gillingivater, MS. POLYGAMY. 1 Kings xi. 3. And he had seven hundred wives, princesses ; and three hundred concubines. Ij It appears to have been the man- ner of eastern princes, to have a great number of wives, merely for pomp and state. Father la Compte tells us in his History of China (pt. i. p. 62) that there the emperor hath a great number of wives, chosen out of the prime beauties of the country. It is also said, that the Great Mogul has as many wives as make up a thousand.* Patrick, in loc. Psalm xlv. 9. Kings' daughters were among thy honourable women; upon thy right hand did stand the queen in gold of OphirJ] It was the custom anciently in the East, and it is still among the Turkish princes, to have one among their many wives superior to all the rest in dignity. Lady M. W. Montague tells us (vol. ii. p. 156), that she learnt from the Sultana Hlifiten, favourite of the late emperor Mustapha, that the first those princes made choice of, was always after the first in rank, and not the mo- ther of the eldest son, as other writers would make us believe. See also 2 Chron. xi. 21, 22; 2 Chron. xv. 16. Titus ii. 5. Keepers at home.] Jealousy is so common and • powerful among the people of the East, that their wives are very much confined to their houses. Russell informs us {Hist, of Aleppo, p. 113) that "the Turks of Aleppo being very jealous, keep their women as much at home as they can, so that it is but seldom that they are allowed to visit each other. Necessity, how- ever, obliges the husbands to suffer them to go often to the bagnio, and Mondays and Thursdays are a sort of licensed days for them to visit the tombs of their deceased relatidns, which furnishes them with an opportunity of walking abroad in the gardens or fields ; they have so contrived that almost every Thursday in the spring bears the name of some particular sheik (or saint) whose tomb they must visit on that day. (Their cemeteries and gardens are out of their cities in common.) By this means the greatest part of the Turkish women of the city get abroad to breathe the fresh air at such seasons, unless confined (as is not uncommon) to their houses, by order of the bashaw, and so deprived even of that little freedom which custom had procured them from their husbands." The prohibitions of the bashaws are designed, or pretended tp be designed at least, to prevent the breach of chastity, for which these 278 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. liberties of going abroad might be supposed to aflfbrd an opportu- nity. For the same reason it may be apprehended that St. Paul joins the being " chaste and keepers at home" together. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 403. DIVORCE. Mark x. 4. And they said, Moses suffered to write a hill of divorcement, and to put her awayJ] Divorces seem to have been permitted among the Jews, before the law ; but we find no exam- ple of that kind in the Old Testament written since Moses. They have been less frequent with the Jews, since their dispersion among nations which do not permit the dissolution of marriage upon light occasions. In cases where it does take place, the »woman is at liberty to marry again as she shall think proper, but not with the person who gave occasion for the divorce. To pre- vent the abuse which the Jewish men might make of the liberty of divorcing, the rabbins appoint many formalities, which consume much time, and give the married couple opportunity to be recon- ciled. Where there is no hope of accommodation, a woman, a deaf man, or a notary, draws the letter of divorce. He writes it in the presence of one or more rabbins, on vellum ruled, contain- ing oflly twelve lines, in square letters ; and abundance of little trifling particulars are observed, as well in the characters as in the manner of writing, and in the names and surnames of the husband and wife. He who pens it, the rabbins, and witnesses, ought not to be relations either to the husband, or to the wife, or to one another. The substance of this letter, which they call gheth, is as follows : " On such a day, month, year, and place, I, N. divorce you vo- luntarily, put you away, restore you to your liberty, even you, N. who were heretofore my wife, and I permit you to marry whom you please." The letter being written, the rabbi examines the husband closely, in order to learn whether he is voluntarily in- clined to do what he has done. They endeavour to have at least ten persons present at this action, without reckoning the two wit- nesses who sign, and two other witnesses to the date. After which the rabbi commands the vi^ife to open her hands, in order to receive this deed, lest it fall to the ground ; and after having examined her over again, the husband gives her the parchment, and says to her, here is thy divorce, I put thee away from me, and leave thee at liberty to marry whom thou pleasest. The wife takes it, and gives it to the rabbi, who reads it once more, after which she is free. Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, art. Divorce. Mark x. 12. If a woman shall put away her husband.] This practice of divorcing the husband, unwarranted by the law, had been (as Joseplius informs us) introduced by Salome, sister of MARRIAGE. ' 279 Herod the Great, who sent a bill of divorce to her husband Costobarus ; which bad example was afterwards followed by Herodias and others. And (in Antiq. xviii. b. 4), he says that Herodias, in contempt of the laws of her country, left her hus- band, Herod Philip, while he was living, and was married to Herod Antipas, his brother, by the same father. He mentions three other instances of the same irregularity in Antiq. xx. b. 2, S, This seems to have been the case with Josephus himself, who informs us, in Vit. sect. 75, that his wife quitted him, and that he thereupon married another. It appears from Juvenal, Sat. ix., and Martial, x. 41, that the Roman women were allowed to divorce their husbands. By law it was the husband's prerogative to dissolve the marriage. The wife could do nothing by herself. When he thought fit to dissolve it, her consent was not necessary. The bill of divorce which she received was to serve as evidence for her that she had not deserted her husband, but was dismissed by him, and conse- quently free. Camphell's Translation of the Gospels, note. WIDOWHOOD. 2 Sam. xx. 3. They were shut up unto the. day of their death, living in widowhood.'^ In China, when the emperor dies, .all his women are removed to an edifice called the Palace of Chastity, situated within the walls of the palace, in which they are shut up for the remainder of their lives. Macartney, p. 375. Deut. XXV. 5. If brethren dwell together, and one of them die and have no child, the wife of the dead shall not marry without unto a stranger : her husband's brother shall go in unto her, and take her to him to wife.'] From this ancient custom the Athenians appear to have had that remarkable law, that no heiress must marry out of her kindred, but shall resign up herself and her for- tune to her nearest relation ; and by the same law the nearest relation was obliged to marry her. Potter's Gr. Ant. vol. i. p. 159. Among the modern eastern nations we still meet with the law or custom of marrying the brother's widow. Thus Olearius {Am- bassador's Travels into Persia, p. 417, Eng. ed.) informs us con- cerning the Circassians : " When a man dies without issue, his brother is obliged to marry the widow, to raise up seed to him»^' Volney {Voyage en Syrie, tom. ii. p. 74) observes, that "the druzes retain, to a certain degree, the custom of the Hebrews, which directed a man to marry his brother's widow : but this . is not peculiar to them, for they have this as well as many other customs of that ancient people, in common with the inhabitants of Syria, and with the Arabians in general." , Amongst the Arabians, if a father left one or more widows, the 280 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. sons often married them, provided they were not thejr own mothers. This usage was suppressed by Mohammed ; and before his time it was marked with a degree of detestation. Lord Hailes {Annals of Scotland, p. 39) informs us, that this custom prevailed in Scotland so late as the eleventh century : and he supposed it might have originated from avarice, in order to relieve the heir from the pay- ment of a jointure. Matt. xxii. 24. Moses -said, if a man die, having no children, his brother shall marry his wife, and raise up seed unto his brother."] The marriage of the widow with the brother-in-law was performed without much ceremony ; because the widow of the brother who died without children passed at once for the brother-in-law's wife. Custom, however, required that it should be acknowledged in the presence of two witnesses, and that the brother should give a piece of money to the widow. The nuptial blessing was added, and a writing to secure the wife's dower. Some believe that this law was not observed after the Babylonish captivity, because since that time there has been no distinction of the inheritances of the tribes. The present Jews do not practise this law, or at least very rarely. Leo of Modena describes this practice in the following manner : " Three rabbins and two other witnesses, the evening before, choose a place where the ceremony may be performed; the next day, when they come from morning prayers, they all follow the rabbins and witnesses, who in the appointed place sit down, and order the widow and her brother-in-law to appear before them, who declare that they there present themselves in order to be free. The prin- cipal rabbin proposes several questions to the man, and exhorts him to marry the widow ; then, seeing him persist in his refusal, after some other interrogatories, the man puts on one of the rabbin's shoes, which is fit for any foot, and the woman in the mean time draws near to him, and, assisted by the rabbin, says to him in Hebrew, ' My husband's brother will not continue the posterity of his brother in Israel, and refuses to marry me, as being my brother-in-law.' The brother-in-law answers, ' I have no mind to take her.' Hereupon the woman stoops down, loosens and pulls off the shoe, throws it upon the ground, spits before him, and says in Hebrew to him, with the help of the rabbin, ' So shall it be done unto that nfen who will not build up his brother's house ; and his name shall be called in Israel, the house of him that hath his shoe loosed.' These words she repeats three times, and they who are present answer as often, ' He that hath his shoe loosed.' Hei'eupon the rabbin immediately tells her, that she may marry again ; and if she requires any certificate of what is done, the rab- bins shall deliver one to her." 1 Kings ii. 23. And king Solomon sware by the Lord, saying, God do so to me, and more also, if Adonijah have not spoken this CHILDREN. 281 toord against his own life.l Solomon considered it. as a treason- able request, that Adonijah should desire to have David's wife. For, according to the custom of the Hebrews, no man who had been the servant of the king might serve any other master ; nor might any man ride upon the king's horse, nor sit upon his throne, nor use his sceptre ; much less might any private person marry the king's widow, who belonged only to his successor. Thus God gave David all the wives of Saul. 2 Sam. xii. 8. See Selden de Uxor. Heb. lib. i. cap. 10. Matt. xxii. 30. For in the resurrection they neither marry nor are given in marriage.'] This declaration of Christ is directly contrary to the opinion and practice of some of the ancient idola- ters, and particularly the Persians. From a notion that married people were peculiarly happy in a future state, they used often to hire persons to be espoused to such of their relations as had died in celibacy. Richardson's Dissert, on the East, p. 347. CHAPTER X. , CUSTOMS RELATING TO CHILDREN. INFANCY. Job iii. \2. Why did the knees prevent me?] This is not to be understood of the mother; but either of the midwife, who received the new-born infant into her lap, or of the father, as it was usual for him to take the child upon his knees as soon as it was born, Gen. 1. 23. This custom obtained amongst the Greeks and Romans. Hence the goddess Levana had her name, causing the father in this way to own the child. Gill, in loc. Titus iii. 5. 2'Ae washing of regeneration.] As washing is an act whereby purification is effected, and defilement is removed, it is a very proper word to express that divine change which is pro- duced by regeneration, and when connected with the ancient and universal practice of washing new-born infants, gives peculiar energy to the conversation of Christ with Nicodemus on the sub- ject of the new birth, as also lo the phrase used by the apostle in this passage — " the washing of regeneration." Much attention was bestowed on the washing of infants. The Lacedaemonians, says Plutarch, in his Life of Lycurgus, washed the new-born infant in wine, meaning thereby to strengthen the infant. Generally, however, they washed the children in water. 282 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. warmed perhaps in Greece, cold in Egypt. Plautus, in his Am- phytrion, speaks of such a washing ; Postquam peperit pueros, lavare jussit, nos occepimus : Sed puer ille quem ego lavi, ut magnus est, et multum yalet ! ExoD. i. 16. And the king of Egypt spake to the Hebrew midwives, — When ye do the office of a midwife to the Hebrew women, and see them on the stools, if it be a son, then ye shall kill him ; but if it be a daughter, then she shall live.l To understand the word stools as referring to the women to be dehvered involves the passage in perplexity : but if it be interpreted of those troughs or vessels of stone, in which new-born children were placed for the purpose of being washed, it is perfectly clear and intelligible. This custom in relation to children is justified by eastern usages ; and such a destruction of boys is actually practised in the courts of eastern monarchs. Thevenot (part ii. p. 98) hints at both these principles. He says that " the kings of Persia are so afraid of being deprived of that power which they abuse, and are so appre- hensive of being dethroned, that they destroy the children of their female relations, when they are brought to bed of boys, by putting them into an earthen trough, where they suffer them to starve." Gen. xxix. 32. 4-nd Leah conceived, and bare a son, and she called his name Reuben.~\ It seems probable that in common the mother gave the name to a child, and this both amongst the Jews and the Greeks ; though perhaps not without the concurrence of the father. In the age of Aristophanes the giving of a name to the child seems to have been a divided prerogative between the father and the mother. Homer ascribes it to the mother : Him on his mother's knees, when babe he lay, She nam'd Arnjeus on his natal day. Odyss. zviii. 6. Popf. Jer. XX. 15. Cursed be the man who brought tidings to my father, saying, a man-child is born unto thee, making him very glad.'} It is the custom in Persia to announce to the father the birth of his male children with particular ceremonies. Chardin. H'armer, vol. ii. p. 511. Isaiah Ix. 4. Thy daughters shall be nursed at thy side.] Chardin says, " it is the general custom of the East to carry their children astride upon the hip, with the arm round the body," Pitts relates (p. 68), that when the Algerine slaves take children out, the boys ride upon their shoulders. So Symes, describing a religious .procession which he saw in Ava, says (v. ii. p. 23) "the first personages of rank who passed by were three children of the maywoon, borne astride upon men's shoulders." See also Harmer, vol. ii. p. 366. CHILDREN. 283 . Gen. 1. 23. The children also of Machir were brought up upon Joseph's hiees.'\ They were dandled or treated as children upon Joseph's knees. This is a pleasing picture of an old man's fondness for his descendants. So in Homer {Odyss. xix. 401) the nurse places Ulysses, then lately born, upon his maternal grand- father Autolychus's knees. Tov pa oi ^vpvxKua fiXoiQ ivi yovvaai 6i)KE. And on the other hand {II. ix. 1. 455) Amyntor imprecates it as a curse upon his son Phoenix, that he might have no son to sit upon Amyntor's knees. Deut. vi. 7. And thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thy house.]^ Among the Chinese, moral maxims are inculcated by the aged on the younger branches of the family : and plain sentences of morality are hung up in the common hall, where the male branches of the family assemble. This appears to be exactly the same method as was practised by the ancient Hebrews in the time of Moses. See Macartney's Embassy to China. Exodus xx. 12. That thy days may be long upon the land.'\ As disobedience to parents is, by the law of Moses, threatened to be punished with death, so, on the contrary, long life is promised to the obedient ; and that in their own country, which God had peculiarly enriched with abundance of blessings. Heathens also gave the very same encouragement, saying, that such children should be dear to the gods, both living and dying. So Euripides. It was also one of their promises, thou shalt live long, if thou nourish thy ancient parents. Whence children are called Ijy Xenophon FtpoSoa-KOi. Patrick, in loc. HEIRSHIP. Luke xv. 12. He divided unto them his living.] The princi- ples of inheritance differ in the East from what are established among ourselves. There is no need of the death of the parent before the children possess their estates. The various circum- stances connected with this subject are clearly laid down in the following extract from Mr. Halhed's Code of Gentoo Laws, (p. 53.) " The rights of inheritance, in the second chapter, are laid down with the utmost precision, and with the strictest attention to the natural claim of the inheritor in the several degrees of affinity. A man is herein considered but as tenant for life in his own property ; and as all opportunity of distributing his effects by will, after his death, is precluded, hardly any mention is made of such kind of bequest. By these ordinances also he is hindered 284 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. from dispossessing his children of his property in favour of aliens, and from making a blind and partial allotment in behalf of a favourite child, to the prejudice of the rest, by which the weakness of parental affection, or of a misguided mind in its dotage, is ad- mirably remedied. These laws also strongly elucidate the story of the prodigal son in the Scriptures, since it appears from hence to have been an immemorial custom in the East, for sons to de- mand their portion of inheritance during their father's lifetime, and that the parent, however aware of the dissipated inclina- tions of his child, could not legally refuse to comply with the application. " If all the sons go at once in a body to their father, jointly requesting their respective shares of his fortune ; in that case the father shall give equal shares of the property earned by himself, to the son incapable of getting his own living, to the son who hath been particularly dutiful to him, and to the son who hath a very large family, and also to the other sons who do not lie under any of these three circumstances ; in this case, he shall not have power to give to any one of them more or less than to the others. " If a father has occupied any glebe belonging to his father, that was not before occupied, he shall not have power to divide it among his sons in unequal shares, as in the case of property earned by himself" Gen. xxi. 10. Wherefore she said unto Abraham, Cast out this bond-woman and her son ; for the son of this bond-woman shall not he heir with my son-l The following extract will exhibit to the reader a striking similarity of practice with that to which the above-cited passage alludes : and that amongst a race of people very remote both as to local situation and time. " The Alguoquins make a great distinction between the wife to whom they give the appellation of the entrance of the hut, and those whom they term of the middle of the hut; these last are the servants of the other, and their children are considered as bastards, and of an inferior rank to those which are born of the first and legitimate wife. Among the Caribs, also, one wife possesses rank and distinction above the rest." Babie's Travels among Savage Nations, in Universal Magazine for Feb. 1802, p. 84. Gen xlix. 3, 4. Reuben, thou art my Jirst-born ; — thou shalt not excel, because thou wentest up to thy father's bedJ] In the following extract we find a similar punishment ordered for an offence similar to that of Reuben. " Notwithstanding that long continued custom there, for the eldest son to succeed the father in that great empire, (of the Mogul) Achabar Shah, father of the late king, upon high and just displeasure taken against his son, for climbing up unto the bed of Anarkalee, his father's most beloved wife, and for other base actions of his, which stirred up his father's CHILDREN. 285 high displeasure against him, resolved to break that ancient cus- tom ; and therefore often in his life-time protested, that not he, but his grand-child Sultan Coobsurroo, whom he kept in his court, should succeed him in that empire." Sir Thomas Hoe's Embassy to the great Mogul, p. 470. Ltjke xiv. 26. If any man come unto me, and hate not his father, and mother, and wife, and children, and brethren, and sis- ters, yea, and his own life also, he cannot be my disciple,'] When proselytes were received into the Jewish church, the bond of natural relation between them and their kindred was considered as being dissolved. Hence it became a maxim with the rabbis, that a proselyte might lawfully marry his own mother, or his own daughter, born before he became such ; they being now no more related to him than any other women. Such marriages were looked upon as indecent, and on that account were not permitted. It has been supposed that Christ alludes to this renunciation of natural relationship in the words now cited. See also Psalm xlv. 10. To this may be added the words of Tacitus {Hist. lib. v. c. 5), who, in his character of the Jews, having mentioned their cus- tom of circumcision, as adopted by proselytes, adds, " they then quickly learn to despise the gods, to renounce their country, and to hold their parents, children, and brethren, in the utmost con- tempt." Jennings's Jewish Ant. vol. i. p. 139. Prov. xvii. 6. The glory of children are their fathers."] The Jews often added the father's name, either for the sake of distinc- tion or respect, to show that the father was a man of renown. Perhaps Solomon had this custom in view when he said, " the glory of children are their fathers. Thus we see in Homer, that the Greeks took the paternal name for a mark of honour {Iliad x. 68). Sometimes the mother's name was given for the surname; as when the father had many wives, or when the mother was of the better family. So Joab and his brethren are always called the sons of Zeruiah, who was David's sister, 1 Chron. ii. 16. If the name of the father were not distinction enough, they added the grandfather's, as Gedaliah the son of Ahikam the son of Shaphan, Jer. xxxix. 14. Sometimes a surname was taken from the head of a particular branch, from a town, a country, or a nation, if they were originally strangers ; as Uriah the Hittite, Araunah the Jebusite. Fleury's Hist, of the Israelites, p. 21. Gen. 1. 25. The children of Israel.] Though the people were very numerous, they were still called the children of Israel, as if they had been but one family ; in the same manner as they said, the children of Edom, the children of Moab, &c. Indeed all these people were still distinct : they knew their own origin, and took a pride in preserving the name of their author. Thence probably it 286 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. comes, that the name of children signified, with the ancients, a na- tion, or certain sort of people. Homer often says, the children of the Greeks, and the children of the Trojans. The Greeks used to say, the children of the physicians and grammarians. With the Hebrews, the children of the East, are the eastern people ; the children of Belial, the wicked; the children of man, or Adam, mankind. In the gospel we often see, the children of this world ; of darkness ; and of light ; and also, the children of the bride- groom for those who go along with him to the wedding. Fleury's Hist, of Israelites, p. 18. 1 Sam. XX. 30. Thou son of the perverse rebellious woman .'] In the East, when they are angry with a person, they abuse and vilify his parents. Saul thought of nothing but venting his anger against Jonathan, nor had any design to reproach his wife person- ally ; the mention of her was only a vehicle by which, according to oriental modes, he was to convey his resentment against Jona- than into the minds of those about him. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 492. 1 Sam. XX. 30. Then Saul's anger was kindled against Jona- than, and he said unto him, Thou son of the perverse rebellious woman .'] An instance of the prevalence of the same principle in Africa, which induced Saul thus to express himself to Jonathan, occurs in the travels of Mungp Park. " Maternal aiFection is every- where conspicuous among the Africans, and creates a correspond- ent return of tenderness in the child. Strike me, said my attend- ant, but do not curse my mother. The same sentiment I found universally to prevail, and observed in all parts of Africa, that the greatest affront which would be offered to a negro was to reflect on her who gave him birth." Travels, p. 264. Neh. vii. 64. Genealogy.] Among the Chinese a tablet of ancestry is in every house : and references in conversation are often made to their actions. {Macartney's Embassy, p. 295.) This practice seems to correspond with the genealogical tables of the Jews, which they are so careful in preserving. ADOPTION. John i. 12. Sons of God^ Adoption was very generally practised in the East, and is therefore frequently alluded to in the Scriptures. A son might be adopted for a special purpose, such as the raising up of an heir by the daughter of the adopter, &c. after which he could, if he pleased, return to his original family. In this case, if. he had a child in this second relation to his own family, he would be the father of two families, each totally dis- tinct from the other in name, property, rank, and connexions. A person who was never married might adopt a son, and that son CHILDREN, r 28T being married, his children would become the children of his adopter, bear his name, and inherit his estate. The following are the laws of Athens on this subject, stated by Sir William Jones, in his Introduction to the pleadings of IstBus, the famous Athenian barrister. " Adopted sons shall not devise the property acquired by adop- tion, but if they leave legitimate sons, they may return to their natural family ; it they do not return, the estates will go to the heirs of the persons who adopted them." " The adopted son (if there be any) and the after born sons to the person who adopted him, shall be coheirs of the estate ; but no adoption by a man who has legitimate sons then born shall be valid." " An adopted son could not himself adopt another ; he must either leave a legitimate son, or the estate he received from his adopting father must revert to his adopting father's natural heirs. There cannot be two adopted sons at the same time." Romans viii. 23. Waiting for the adoption."] Among the Romans there was a twofold adoption, the one private, the other public. The former was only the act of the person who was desi- rous of receiving a stranger into his family, with respect to the object of his choice, and was a transaction between the parties : the latter was an acknowledgment of it in the forum, when the adopted person was solemnly declared and avowed to be the son of the adopter. To this circumstance Mr. Howe {Works, vol. i. p. 680) supposes the apostle alludes in these words. Gal. iv. 6. And because ye are sons, God hath sent forth the spirit of his son into your hearts, crying, Abba, Father.] The learned Mr. Selden (de Succ. in bona Def. cap. 4) hath brought a very pertinent quotation from the Babylonian Gemara, to prove that it was not allowed to slaves to use the title of Abba in address- ing the master of the family to which they belonged, or the cor- responding title of Imma, or mother, when speaking to the mistress of it. Isaiah, ix 6. The everlasting Father.] It is common in the East to describe any quality of a person by calling him " the father of the quality." D'Herbelot speaking of a very eminent physician, says (p. 140) he did such admirable cures that he was surnamed Aboul Berekiat, the " father of benedictions." The original words of this title of Christ may be rendered, " the father of that which ' is everlasting :" Christ therefore as the head and introducer of an everlasting dispensation, never to give place to another, was very naturally in the eastern style called the "father of eternity." Har- mer, vol. ii.p. 479. 288 CHAPTER XI. CUSTOMS RELATING- TO SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. Gen. xliii. 29. God be gracious to thee, my son."] " This would have been called through all Europe, and in the living lan- guages of this part of the world, the giving a person one's bene- diction ; but it is a simple salutation in Asia, and it is there used instead of those oflPers and assurances of service, which it is the custom to make use of in the West, in first addressing or taking leave of an acquaintance." (Chardin.) This account explains the ground, of the Scripture's so often calling the salutations and fare- wells of the East by the term blessing. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 40. Ruth ii. 4. And behold. Boas: came from Bethlehem, and said unto the reapers, the Lord be with you ; and they answered him, the Lord bless thee.] Such, says Bp. Patrick, was the piety of ancient times, that they used to pray that God would prosper the honest labours of those they saw employed : and they made a re- turn of the same prayers for those who thus expressed their good will. This was also practised by the heathen, especially in har- vest time, which they would not begin by putting the sickle into the corn, till Ceres had been invoked. Thus Virgil : . Neque an(e Ealcem maturis quisquam supponat aristis, Quam Cereri, torti redimitus tempora quercfl, Det motu3 incompoeitos, et carmina dicat. Georg.lib. i. 347. Thus in the spring, and thus in summer's heat, Before the sickles touch the rip'ning wheat. On Ceres call : and let the lah'ring hind With oaken wreaths liis hollow temples hind ; On Ceres let him call, and Ceres praise With uncouth dances, and with country lays. Dryden. Matt. v. 47. If ye salute your brethren only, what do ye more than others ?] " The manner of salutation among,the wise men was this : he that salutes says, a good day to my lord : and he replies saying, a good and long day to my lord ; always he that replies doubles the salutation." The persons they usually saluted were their relations or friends. They were not very free in saluting others, as strangers and gentiles. Gill, in loc. Luke x. 4." Salute no man by the way.] The mission upon which the disciples of Christ were sent was so important, that they were required to use the greatest dispatch', and to avoid those things which might retard them, especially if they were merely of SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. 289 a ceremonious nature. The injunction contained in this passage is thus to be understood ; for it is not to be supposed that Christ would command his disciples to neglect or violate any of those customs unnecessarily which were in general use, and which were innocent in themselves. In the present instance, had they been allowed to give and receive the common salutations, it is probable that their progress would have been inconsiderable for the time employed in it. Of the truth of this statement we may be satis- fied from what Niebuhr says, Travels, vol. i. p. 302. " The Arabs of Yemen, and especially the Highlanders, often stop strangers to ask whence they came ? and whether they are going ? These questions are suggested merely by curiosity, and it would be indiscreet therefore to refuse an answer." This representation of the matter certainly clears from the appearance of incivility a precept which Christ designed only to teach his servants a suitable deportment. Dr. Lightfoot, from the rabbles, observes, that it was the custom of the Jews, during the days of their mourning, not to salute any one. He conceives therefore that Christ would have his disciples appear like mourners ; partly, as representing himself who was a man of sorrow, that so from these messengers the people might guess in some measure what sort of person he was that sent them ; partly, as they were to summon the people to attend upon Christ, in order to be healed both of their spiritual and bodily diseases : and it was therefore fit that their behaviour should be mournful and solemn, in token of their fellow-feeling with the afflicted and miserable. The object of this instruction was to prevent their being hindered by unnecessary delay in their journey. It was not designed to prevent the usual and proper civilities which were practised amongst the people, but to avoid the impediments occasioned by form and ceremony : and this was the more necessary, since it was a maxim with the Jews, " prevent every man with a salutation." How persons might thus be prevented and hindered will clearly appear in the following extract. " The more noble and educated the man, the oftener did he repeat his questions. A well dressed young man^ attracted my particular attention, as an adept in the perseverance and redundancy of salutation. Accosting an Arab of Augila, he gave him his hand, and detained him a considerable time with his civilities : when the Arab being obliged to advance with greater speed to come up again with his companions, the youth of Fezzan thought he should appear deficient in good man- ners if he quitted him so soon. For near half a mile he kept running by his horse, whilst all his conversation was. How dost thou fare? — well, how art thou thyself?— praised, be God thou art arrived in peace ! — God grant thee peace ! — how dost thou do ?" &c. Horneman's Traveh in Africa, p. 53. u S90 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Gen. xxxiii. 4. And Esau ran to meet him, and embraced him, and fell on his neck, and kissed Am.] Such persons as are intimately acquainted, or of equal age and dignity, mutually kiss the hand, the head, or the shoulder of each other. Shaw's Trav, p. 237. This passage, and Gen. xlv. 14 ; Luke xv. 20 ; Acts xx. 37, seem to have a reference to the eastern way of kissing the shoulder in an embrace. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 53. 1 Sam. X. 1. And kissed him.} The kiss of homage was one of the ceremonies performed at the inauguration of the kings of Israel. The Jews called it the kiss of majesty. There is pro- bably an allusion to it in Psalm ii. 12. 2 Sam. xx. 9. Joah took Amasa hy the heard to kiss him.~\ Mr. Harmer (vol. ii. p. 54) supposes we are to understand this expression as referring to the practice of " kissing the beard itself," which was a customary thing. D'Arvieux {Voy. dans la Pal. p. 71), describing the assembling together of several petty Arab princes -at an entertainment, says, that " all the emirs came just together a little time after, accompanied by their friends and attend- ants, and after the usual civilities, caresses, " kissing of the beard," and of the hand, which every one gave and received according to his rank and dignity, they sat down upon mats," 2 Sam. xx. 9. And Joah took Amasa hy the heard with his right hand to kiss him.'] This is the custom still among the Eastern people. The Indians take one another by the chin, that is, the beard, when they would give a hearty salute to a person ; at the same time saying, Bobba, i. e. father, or Bii, brother. See Peter della Valle, Travels, p. 410. Luke vii. 38, And kissed his feet.} This was no unusual practice with the Jews. " R. Jonathan and R. Jannai were sitting together ; there came a certain man, and kissed the feet of R. Jonathan." This custom was also used by the Greeks and Romans among their civilities and in their salutations. See Aristoph. in Vesp. p. 473. Job xxxi. 26, 27. Kissed my hand.'] " If (says Pitts) an infe- rior comes to pay his respects to a superior, he takes his superior's hand, and kisses it, afterwards putting it to his forehead. But if the superior be of a condescending temper, he will snatch away his hand as soon as the other has touched it ; then the inferior puts his own fingers to his lips, -and afterwards to his forehead, and sometimes the superior will also in return put his hands to his lips." (p. m.) Thus also Irwin {Voyage, p. 268), " When the shaik of Ghinnah held a court of justice, and had condemned his vizier, he was immediately surrounded by a crowd of his courtiers, SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. 291 who ' kissed his hands,' embraced his knees, and interceded with him for the pardon of the vizier." If Job had done this in the case he refers to, it would have been an idolatrous action, not- withstanding it is exactly agreeable to the civil expressions of respect which obtain in the East. Matt. v. 47. If ye salute your brethren.'] The eastern salu- tations differ considerably, according to the rank of the persons whom they salute. The common salutation is laying the right hand on the bosom, and a little declining their bodies ; but when they salute a person of great rank, they bow almost to the ground, and kiss the hem of his garment. (Sandys, Travels, p. 50.) Infe- riors, out of deference and respect, kiss his feet, the knees, or the garments of their superiors. (Shaw, Travels, p. 237.) And the hand also. (D'Arvieux, Voy. dans la Pal. p. 8.) When Lord Macartney was introduced to the emperor of China, in 1793, it was observed, that every one of the Chinese prostrated themselves upon the ground ; and at the grand ceremony on the emperor's birth-day, the people kneeled, and bowed nine times, with as much solemnity as if they had been worshipping a deity. Judges i. 14. And she alighted from off her aw.] The alighting of those that ride is considered in the East as an ex- pression of deep respect., Pococke tells us {Trav. vol. i. p. 35) that they descend from their asses in Egypt when they come near some tombs there, and that Christians and Jews are obliged to submit to this, Harmer, vol. ii. p. 116. Job vii. 19. Let me alone till I swallow down my spittle.] This is a proverb among the Arabians to the present day, by which they understand. Give me leave to rest after my fatigue. This is the favour which Job complains is not granted to him. There are two instances which illustrate the passage (quoted by Schultens) in Hariraes's Narratives, entitled the Assembly. One is of a person, who, when eagerly pressed to give an account of his travels, answered with impatience, " I^et nie swallow down my spittle, for my journey hath fatigued rae." The other instance is of a quick return made to one who used that proverb, " Suffer me," said the person importuned, " to swallow down my spittle :" to which his friend replied, " You may, if you please, swallow down even Tigris and Euphrates ;" that is, uke what time you please. Biblical Researches, vol. i. p. 84. HOSPITALITY. Gen, xix. 1,[2. And there came two a-ngels to Sodom at even : and Lot sat in the gate of Sodom : and Lot seeing them rose up to meet them ; and he bowed himself with his face toward the V 2 292 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. ground. And he said, behold now, my lords, turn in, I pray you, into your servant's house, and tarry all night, and wash yourj'eet, and ye shall rise up earlij, and go on your ways.] The Eastern people have always distinguished themselves by their great hos- pitality. Of very many instances the follovifing is a truly fcharac- teristic one. " We were not above a musket-shot from Anna, ■when we met with a comely old man, who came up to me, and taking my horse by the bridle, ' Friend,' said he, ' come and wash thy feet, and eat bread at my house. Thou art a stranger ; and since I have met thee upon the road, never refuse me the favour •which I desire of thee.' We could not choose but go along with hira to his house, where he feasted us in the best manner he could, giving us, over and above, barley- for our horses, and for us he killed a lamb and some hens." Tavernier's Travels, p. 111. See also Gen. xviii. 6 ; Judges xvii. 7 ; Rom. xii. 13 ; 1 Tim. iii. 2; 1 Peter iv. 9. Rom. xii. 13. Hospitality.] Hospitality has always been highly esteemed by civilized nations. It has been exercised from the earliest ages of the world. The -Old Testament affords numerous instances of its being practised in the most free and liberal manner. In the New Testament it is also recommended and enforced. The primitive Christians were so ready in the discharge of this duty, that even the heathens admired them for it. Hospitable as they were to all strangers, they were particu- larly so to those who were of their own faith and communion. In Homer and the ancient Greek writers, we see what respect they had for their guests. From these instances we turn with satisfaction, to view the kind and friendly disposition of less polished people. Modern travellers often mention the pleasing reception they met with from those among whom they made a temporary residence. Volney {Trav. vol. ii. p. 76), speaking of the Druzes, says, " whoever presents himself at their door, in the quality of a supplicant or passenger, is sure of being enter- tajned with lodging and food, in the most generous and unaffected manner. I have often seen the lowest peasants give the last morsel of bread they had in their houses to the hungry traveller. When they have once contracted with their guest the sacred engagement of bread and salt, no subsequent event can make them violate it." " An engagement with a stranger is sometimes accepted as an excuse for not obeying the summons of a great man, when no other apology, hardly even that of indisposition, would be ad- mitted." (Russell's Hist, of Aleppo, vol. i. p. 231.) The Hindoos extend their hospitality sometimes to enemies, saying, " the tree does not withdraw its shade even fron^ the wood-cutter." SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. S93 Judges iv. 17 — 20.] Pococke, giving an account of the manner in which he was treated in an Arab tent, in his journey to Jerusalem, says, his conductor led him two or three miles to his tent, and that there he sat with his wife and others round a fire. " The Arabs are not so scrupulous as the Turks about their women, and though they have their harem, or women's part of the tent, yet such as they are acquainted with come into it. I was kept in the harem for greater security ; the wife being always with me, no stranger ever daring to come into the women's apart- ment, unless introduced." Vol. ii. p. 5. Nothing can be a better comment on this passage than this story. Gen. xviii. 1 — 8.] When a party belonging to Captain Cook (in his last voyage) went ashore on an island near that of Mangeea in the South Seas, they were forcibly detained by the natives a considerable time, which much alarmed them. But this detention proceeded, as they afterwards found, from pure motives of hospi- tality ; and continued only till such time as they had roasted a hog, and provided other necessaries for their refreshment. " In reviewing this most curious transaction," says the writer of that voyage, " we cannot help calling to our memory the manners of the patriarchal times. It does not appear to us, that these people had any intentions in detaining ours, different from those which actuated the patriarch in a similar transaction." Gen. xviii. 4. Let a little water, T pray you, be fetched, and wash your feet.'] One of the first rites of hospitality observed towards strangers amongst the ancients, was washing the feet. Of this there are many instances in Homer : Tov vvv xpi KOfiieiv ■jrpog yap &ioq uaiv arravTiQ, &c., Od. vi. 207-. By Jove the stranger nnd the poor are sent, And what to those we give to Jove is lent. Then food supply, and hathe bis fainting limhs. Where waving shades obscure the mazy streams. Pope. Your other task, ye menial tribe, forbear ; Now wash the stranger, and the bed prepare. Poi>». See also 1 Sam- xxv. 41. Luke vii. 44. Thou gavest me no water for my feet."] It was a custom universal among the eastern people to entertain their guests, at their entrance into their houses, with clean water and sweet oil. Thus it appears that Christ was not entertained by the master of the house ; for " he turned to the woman, and said unto Simon, Seest thou this woman ? I entered into thine house ; thou gavest me no water for my feet, but she hath washed my feet with tears, and wiped them with the hairs of her head. (ver. 46) Mine 294 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. head with oil thou didst not anoint^ but this woman hath anointed my feet with ointment." Thus also Homer represents Telemachus and Pisistratus as being entertained at the court of Menelaus. After their introduc- tion to the palace, he says. From room to room tbeir eager view they beud ; Thence to the bath, a beauteous pile, descend : Wlieje a bright damsel -train attend the guests. With liquid odours and embroider'd vests. Odyss. iy. v. 48, * 1 Tim. v. [0. Jf she have washed the saints' feet.'] " We broke up early, dispersing before nine o'clock, when we were taken to another house to sleep. The mistress of it, who was a widow, and related to my guide, received us kindly, and insisted on going through the ceremony of washing my feet, observed as I under- stood, among the Christians of Assalt to aH strangers who come among them as guests or visitors." Buckingham's Travels among the Arab Tribes, p. £4. Ruth iii. 3. Wash thyself therefore, and anoint thee.] Ac- cording to the custom of the ancient nations, washing generally preceded anointing. Many instances of it occur in Homer ; as when Telemachus is entertained by Nestor, and when Telemachus and Pisistratus are invited to the court of Menelaus. The custom was so ancient and general, that the Greeks had one word to ex- press this anointing with oil after washing with water, which they called x^rXa and ^^''^'^wa-ai. See more in Pearson on Creed, p. 99, ed. 8. Psalm xxiii. 5. Thou anointest my head with oil.] The Psalmist here alludes to the custom of eastern countries at feasts in anointing the heads of the guests with oil. Eccl. ix. 7, 8; Matt, vi. 17. On certain occasions the head was anointed, as well as other parts of the body. Hence Propertius : Terque lavet nostras spica Cilissa comas. Lib. iv. el. 6. v. 74. In the time of Homer it was usual both to wash and anoint before meals not the head only, but the feet also. {Iliad x. 577.) See Luke vii. 38, 46. It is spoken of as an ancient custom by Aris- tophanes ( Vesp. p. 473) for daughters to anoint the feet of their parents after they had washed them. Psalm xxiii. 5. Thou anointest my head with oil : my cup runneth over.] In the East the people frequently anoint their visitors with some very fragrant perfume ; and give them a cup or a glass of some choice wine, which they are careful to fill till it runs over. The first was designed to show their love and respect ; SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. 295 tlie latter to imply that while they remained there, they should have an abundance of every thing- To something of this kind the Psalmist probably alludes in this passage. Isaiah lii. 15. So shall he sprinkle many nations.] " This passage has been embarrassing to commentators, especially the expression of sprinkling many nations. The sense of astonishing many has been followed by the LXX. our translators say sprinkle. Some have united the ideas, ' he shall sprinkle many nations with astonishment.' By attending to the scope of the passage, perhaps we shall see whence these ideas, seemingly so different, took their rise, and that they are radically the same. Imagine a great per- sonage, a king, to be the speaker ; ' I, myself, consider a certain servant of mine, my officer of state, as a" very prudent and wise person ; but when strangers look at him, they see only a mean and unpromising figure, so that when he introduces them into my presence, they wonder at seeing such an one in my court ; but these strangers are from countries so very distant, as to be entirely unacquainted with our customs and manners ; for when, as a sign of their kind reception, my servant sprinkles them with fragrant waters, they are absolutely astonished at this mode of showing kindness, and what they had never before heard of, that they now see practised : and what they were entire strangers to, that they now experience.' " Though I believe this representation of this passage to be un- common, perhaps new, I shall not stay to consider who are these distant strangers, nor who is this person whose external appear- ance so ill denotes his internal excellencies, but shall merely sub- join the following extracts, which seem to me satisfactorily to account for the same Hebrew word being taken by some transla- tors to signify sprinkling, by others to signify astonishment. " He put it (the letter) accordingly in his bosom, and our coffee being done, I rose to take my leave, and was presently wet to the skin by deluges of orange-flower water." {Bruce's Travels, vol. iii. p. 14.) N.B. This is the customary mode of doing respectful and kind honour to a guest throughout the East. " The first time we were received with all the eastern ceremonies (it Was at Rosetta, at a Greek merchant's house) there was one of our company, who was excessively surprised when a domestic placed himself before him, and threw water over him, as well on his face as over his clothes. By good fortune there was with us an European acquainted with the customs of the country, who ex- plained the matter to us in few words, without which we should have become laughing-stocks to the eastern people who were pre- sent." (Niebuhr, Descrip. I'Arahie, French edit. p. 52.) How naturally then, might the idea of sprinkling suggest that of surprise, in relation to very distant strangers ! and how near to •equivalent were these ideas in the estimation of the ancient trans- ^6 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. lators, though to us widely dissimilar. (See Fragments supph- mentary to Calmet's Diet. N. 14.) 2 Cor. iii. 1. ^pintles of commendation.] Commendatory epistles, certifying the piety and good character of the person to whom they were given, and recommending him to a hospitable reception in the places to which he travelled, were an ancient cus- tom in the primitive church. Whether they took their rise from the tesseme /lospilalitads of the heathens, or from the Jews, among whom the same custom prevailed, is an undecided point. Ham- mond, in loc. Ephes. ii. 18. For through him we both have access by one spirit unto the Father. The word Trpoaaytoynv, which we ren- der access, properly refers to the custom of introducing persons into the presence of some prince, or of any other greatly their superior, in which case it is necessary they should be ushered in by one appointed for that purpose, to preserve a becoming deco- rum. Doddridge, in loc. GIFTS. 1 Sam. ix. 7. There is not a present to bring to the man of God.] Presents of some kind or other are the regular introdiicers I'f one party to another in the East. Pococke tells us of a present of fifty radishes. Bruce relates, that in order to obtain a favour from him, he received a very inconsiderable present. " I mention this trifling circumstance," he says, "to show how essential to humane and civil intercourse presents are considered to be in the East : whether it be dates, or whether it be diamonds, they are so much a part of their manners, that without them an inferior will never be at peace in his own mind, or think that he has hold of his superior for his protection. But superiors give no presents to their inferiors." Travels, vol. i. p. 68. 1 Sam. ix. 7. .^4 present.] Presenting gifts is one of the most universal methods of doing persons honour in the East. Maundrell (Journey, p. 26) says, "Thursday, March 11, this day we all dined at Consul Hastings's house, and after dinner went to wait upon Ostan, the bassa of Tripoli, having first sent our present, as the manner is among the Turks, to procure a propitious reception. It is counted uncivil to visit in this country without an offering in hand. All great men expect it as a kind of tribute due to their character and authority, and look upon themselves as affronted, and indeed defrauded, when this compliment is omitted. Even in familiar visits amongst inferior people, you shall seldom have them come without bringing a floyer, or an orange, or some other such token of their respect to the person visited ; the Turks in this SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. 297 point keeping up the ancient oriental custom hinted 1 Sam. ix. 7. ' If we go (says Saul) what shall we bring the man of God ? there is not a present,' &c.; which words are questionless to be under- stood in conformity to this eastern custom, as relating to a token of respect, and not a price of divination." To this account it may be added, that when Lord Macartney had his interview with the Emperor of China, in his embassy to that prince, in 1793, the re- ceiving and returning of presents made a considerable part of the ceremony. Psalm Ixxii. 10. The kings of Tarshish and of the Isles shall bring presents.'] Presents were sometimes made as an acknow- ledgment of inferiority and subjection. They were a kind of tribute from those who made to those who received them : in this light we are doubtless to understand those spoken of in this verse. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 20. Judges iii. 18. When he had made an end to offer the present.] There is often in the East a great deal of pomp and parade in presenting their gifts. " Through ostentation, " says Maillet {Lett. X. p. 86) " they never fail to load upon four or five horses what might easily be carried by one. In like manner as to jewels, trinkets, and other things of value, they place in fifteen dishes, what a single plate would very well hold." Something of this pomp seems to be referred to in this passage, where we read of " making an end x)f offering the present," and of a number of peo- ple who conveyed it. This remark also illustrates 2 Kings viii. 9. " So Hazael went to meet him, and took a present with him, even of every good thing of Damascus, forty camels' burden." Harmer, vol. ii. p. 18. 2 Sam. xviii. 11. I would have given thee ten shekels of silver and a girdle.] Rewards are both honorary and pecuniary, and a great distinction is with us carefully preserved. But in the East they are generally blended together. Du Tott did many great services to the Turkish empire in the time of their late war with Russia; and the Turks were disposed to acknowledge them by marks of honour. " His Highness," said the first minister, speak- ing of the Grand Signer, " has ordered me to bestow on you this public mark of his esteem ;" and, at the same time he made a sign to the master of the ceremonies to invest me with the pelisse, while the hasnadar (or treasurer) presented me with a purse of two hun- dred sequins. Memoirs, tom. iii. p. 127. Thus Joab would have rewarded an Israelitish soldier with ten shekels of silver and a girdle. The girdle would have been an honorary reward ; the ten shekels would have been a pecuniary one. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 363. 1 Sam. xviii. 4. And Jonathan stripped himself of the robe that 298 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. was upon him, and gave it to David, and his garments, even to the sword, and to his bow, and to his girdle.'] It was anciently a a custom to make such military presents as these to brave adven- turers. Besides the present instance of the kind, two others may be quoted : the first is from Homer : Next him Ulysses took a shining sword, A bo,w and quiver, with bright arrows stor'd : A well-prov'd casque, with leather braces bound, (Thy gift, Meriones) his temples orown'd. II. x. 307. Pope. The other is from Virgil, in the story of Nisus and Euryalus : Euryalus phaleras Rhamnetis, et aurea bullis, &c. Ma. ix. 359. Nor did his eyes less longingly behold The girdle belt, with nails ofburnish'd gold; This present Cffidicus, the rich, bestowed On Romulus, when friendship first they vowed, And absent, joined in hospitable ties : He dying, to his heir bequeathed the prize ; Till by tlie conq'ring Ardean troops oppress'd He fell, and they the glorious gift possess'd. Drydex. We read in Tavernier (p. 43) of a nazar, whose virtue and be- haviour so pleased a king of Persia, after being put to the test, that he caused himself to be disapparelled, and gave his habit to the nazar, which is the greatest honour that a king of Persia can bestow on a subject. See also Rom. xiii. 14 ; Ephes. iv. 24 ; Col. iii. 10. Esther ix. 19. Sending portions.] The eastern princes and people, not only invite their friends to feasts, but "it is their custom to send a portion of the banquet to those that cannot well come to it, especially their relations, and those in a state of mourning." (MS. Chardin.) Thus when the grand emir found it incommoded M. D'Arvieux to eat with him, he desired him to take his own time for eating, and sent him from his kitchen what he liked, and at the time he chose. (Foy. dans la Pal. p. 20.) (Nehem. yiii. 10; 2 Sam. xi. 8—10.) Harmer, vol. i. p. S5^. COMPACTS. 1 Sam. xviii. 3. Then Jonathan and David made a covenant^ Various ceremonies have been used on these occasions. When treaties were made, either of a private or public nature, such usages were observed as were of established authority, or significantly important. The Scythians had a peculiar method of forming their treaties. Herodotus (1. iv. c. 70), relates that they first poured wine into a large earthen vessel, and then the contracting parties, cutting their arms with a knife, let some of their blood run into the wine, and stained likewise their armour therewith. After SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. 299 which they themselves, and all that were present, drank of that liquor, making the strongest imprecations against the person that should violate the. treaty. 1 Sam. xviii. 4. And to his girdle.] To ratify the covenant which Jonathan made with David, amongst other things, he gave him his girdle. This was a token of the greatest confidence and affection. In some cases it was considered as an act of adoption. Agreeably to this Pitts informs us {Travels, p. 217), " I was bought by an old bachelor ; I wanted nothing with him ; meat, drink, and clothes, and money, I had enough. After I had lived with him about a year, he made his pilgrimage to Mecca, and carried me with him. But before we came to Alexandria, he was taken sick, and thinking verily he should die, having a woven girdle about his middle, under his sash, in which was much gold, and also my letter of freedom, (which he intended to give me when at Mecca,) he took it off, and bid me put it on about me, and took my girdle, and put it on himself." Gen. xvii. 10. This is my covenant.l Covenants were anciently made in the eastern countries by dipping their weapons in blood, as Xenophon tells us, and by pricking the flesh, and sucking each other's blood, as we read in Tacitus, who observes (1. i. Annal.) that when kings made a league, they took each "other by the hand, and their thumbs being hard tied together, they pricked them, when the blood was forced to the extreme parts, and each party licked it. This was accounted a mysterious covenant, being made sacred by their mutual blood. How old this custom had been we do not know ; but it is evident God's covenant with Abraham was solemnized on Abraham's part by his own and his son Isaac's blood, and so continued through all generations, by circtimcision : whereby, as they were made the select people of God, so God, in conclusion, sent his own Son, who by this very ceremony of cir- cumcision, was consecrated to be their God and Redeemer. Patrick, in loc. Gen. XV. 10. Divided them in the midst.'] There is no foot- step of this rite anywhere in the Scripture, except in Jer. xxxiv. 18, 19. But from this affair of Abraham, it appears to have been very ancient. St. Cyril, in his tenth book against Julian, derives this custom from the ancient Chaldeans. Others derive the word n^in hirith, which signifies a covenant, from "ina batar, which sig- nifies to divide or cut asunder, because covenants were made by dividing a beast, and by the parties covenanting passing between the parts of the beast so divided : intimating that so should they be cut asunder who broke the covenant. We find in Zenobius, that the people called Molotti retained something of this custom ; 300 ORIKNTAL CUSTOMS. for they confirmed their oaths, when they made their covenants, by cutting oxen into little bits. Patrick, in loc. Jer. xxxiv. 18. They cut the calf in twain, and passed between the parts thereof. '\ It was a customary thing to cut the victim which was to be offered as a sacrifice upon the occasion, into two parts, and so placing each half upon two different altars, to cause those who contracted the covenant to pass between both. (Gen. XV. 9, 10, 17). This rite was practised both by believers and heathens at their solemn leagues ; at first doubtless with a view to the great sacrifice, who was to purge our sins in his own blood ; and the offering of these, sacrifices, and passing between the parts of the divided victim, was symbolically staking their hopes of puri- fication and salvation on their performance of the conditions on which it was offered. This remarkable practice may be clearly traced in the Greek and Latin writers. Homer has the following expression : Opxta vidTa ro/toiTEg. Iliad ii. ver. 124.- Having cut faithful oaths ; Eustathius explains the passage by saying, they were oaths relating to important matters, and were made by the division of the victim. See also Virgil, JEn. viii. ver. 640. The editor of the fragments supplementary to Calmet (No. 129) is of opinion that what is yet practised of this ceremony may elu- cidate that passage in Isaiah xxviii. 15. "We have made a covenant with death, and with hell are we at agreement ; when the overflowing scourge shall pass through, it shall not come unto us, for we have made lies our refuge, and under falsehood have we hid ourselves," q. d. We have cut off a covenant sacrifice, a purifi- cation offering with death, and with the grave we have settled, so that the scourge shall not injure us. May not such a custom have been the origin of the following superstition related by Pitts ? " If they (the Algerine corsairs) at any time happen to be in a very great strait or distress, as being chased, or in a storm, they will gather money, light up candles in remembrance of some dead mar- rabot (saint) or other, calling upon him with heavy sighs and groans. If they find no succour from their before-mentioned rites and superstitions, but that the danger rather increases, then they go to sacrificing a sheep (or two or three upon occasion, as they think needful), which is done after this manner : having cut off the head with a knife, they immediately take out the entrails, and throw them and the head over-board ; and then, with all the speed they can, without skinning, they cut the body into two parts by the middle, and throw one part over the right side of the ship, and the other over the left, into the sea, as a kind of propitiation. SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. 301 Thus those blind infidels apply themselves to imaginary interces- sors, instead of the living and true God." (Travels, p. 18.) In the case here referred to, the ship passes between the parts thus thrown on each side of it. This behaviour of the Algerines may be taken as a pretty accurate counterpart to that of making a cov- enant with death, and with imminent danger of destruction, by appeasing the angry gods. Festivities always accompanied the ceremonies attending oaths. Isaac and Abimelech feasted at making their covenant. Gen. xxvi. 30. "And he rffade them a feast, and they did eat and drink." Gen. xxxi. 54, "Jacob offered sacrifice upon the mount, and called his brethren to eat bread." This practice was also usual amongst the heathen nations. Lev. ii. 13. With all thine offerings thou shalt offer salt.'] Salt amongst the ancients was the emblem of friendship and fidelity, and therefore was used in all sacrifices and covenants. Bruce mentions a kind of salt so hard, that it is used as money, and passes from hand to hand no more injured than a stone would be. A covenant of salt seems to refer to the making of an agree- ment wherein salt was used as a token of confirmation. Baron Du Tott, speaking of one who was desirous of his acquaintance, says, upon his departure, " he promised in a short time to return. I iiad already attended him half way down the staircase, when stopping, and turning briskly to one of my domestics, bring me directly, said he, some bread and salt. What he requested was brought ; when, taking a little salt between his fingers, and putting it with a mysterious air on a bit of bread, he eat it with a devout gravity, assuring me, that I might now rely on him." (part i. p. 5£l4.) Among other exploits which are recorded of J acoub ben Laith, he is said to have broken into a palace, and having collected a very large booty, which he was on the point of carrying away, he found his foot kicked something which made him stumble; putting it to his mouth, the better to distinguish it, his tongue soon informed him it was a lump of salt ; upon this, according to the morality, or rather superstition of the country, where the peo- ple considered salt as a symbol and pledge of hospitality, he was so touched that he left all his booty, retiring without taking away any thing with him. {D'Herbelot, Bibl. Orient, p. 466.) This use of salt is also evident from Homer : , Tlien near tlie altar of the darting Tnvg, Dispos'd in rank, their hecatomb tl-ey i)ring ; With water purify their hands, and take The sacred cff'iiog of the salted cake. I)i i. p. SS4. And again : Above the coals the smoking fragments turns, And sprinkles sacred s;ilt from lifted urns. II. iz. 1, 381. 302 ORIENTAt CUSTOMS. Ezra iv. 14. Maintenance from the king's palace.\ Marg. Salted with the salt of the palace. Some have supposed these words refer to their receiving of a stipend from the king in salt ; others, that it expresses an acknowledgment that they were pro- tected by the king as flesh is preserved by salt. It is sufficient, however, to put an end to all these conjectures, to recite the words of a modern Persian monarch, whose court Chardin attended some time. " Rising in wrath against an officer who had attempted to deceive him, he drew his sabre, fell upon him and hewed him in pieces at the feet of the grand vizir, who was standing (and whose favour the poor wretch courted by this deception) and looking fix- edly upon him, and the other great lords that stood on each side of him, he said with a tone of indignation, I have then such un- grateful servants and traitors as these to eat my salt." (torn. iii. p. 149.) I am well informed, says Mr. Parkhurst {Heb. Lex. p. 448, 3d edit.), that it is a common expression of the natives in the East Indies, " I' eat such an one's salt," meaning, I am fed by him. Salt, among the eastern natives, formerly was, as it still is, a sym- bol of hospitality and friendship. The learned Jos. Made observes ( Works, p. 370, fol.), that in his time, " when the emperor of Russia would show extraordinary grace and favour to any, he sent him bread and salt from his table. And when he invited baron Sigismund, the emperor Ferdinand's ambassador, he did it in this form, ' Sigismund, you shall eat your bread and salt with us.' " So Tamerlane in his Institutes, mentioning one Share Behraum, who had quitted his service, joined the enemy, and fought against him, says, "at length my salt, which he had eaten, overwhelmed him with remorse, he again threw himself on my mercy, and hum- bled himself before me." Harmer, vol. iv. p. 458. NAMES. 1 Kings xvii. 1. Elijah.'] " We are deceived by not seeing titles among the Israelites, like those of our nobility. Every one was called plainly by his own name , but their names signified great things, as those of the patriarchs. The name of God was part of most ; which was in a manner a short prayer. Elijah and Joel are made up of two of God's names, joined in a different way. Jehoshaphat and Shephatiah signify the judgment of God : Jeho- zedek and Zedekiah, his justice : Johanan, his mercy : Nathanael, Elnathan, Jonathan, and Nathaniah, all four, signify, God-givefi, or the gift of God. Sometimes the name of God was understood, as in Nathan, David, Obed, &c. as is plain by Eliezer, God my helper ; Uzziel, God my strength ; and Obadiah, the Lord's ser- vant. The Greek names also are of the same import, many are composed of the names of their gods ; as Diodorus, Diogenes, Hermodorus, Haephestion, Athenais, and Artemisia." Fleury's Hist, of the Israelites, p. 20. SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. 303 Gen. xvi. 13. And she called the name of the Lord thai spake unto her, Thou God seest meJ] The religion of names was a matter of great consequence in Egypt. It was one of their essen- tial superstitions : it was one of their native inventions : and the first of them which they communicated to the Greeks. Thus when Hagar the handmaid of Sarai, who was an Egyptian woman, saw the name of the Lord in the wilderness, " she called the name of the Lord that spake unto her, Elroi, the God of vision," or "the visible God:" that is, according to the established custom of Egypt, she gave 'him a name of honour : not merely a name of distinction, for such all nations had (who worshipped local tutelary deities) before their communication with Egypt. But after that they decorated their gods with distinguished titles, indicative of their specific office and attributes. Zechariah (chap. xiv. 9), evi- dently alluding to these notions, when he prophesies of the worship of the supreme God, unmixed with idolatry, says, "in that day shall there be one Lord, and his name one." Out of indulgence, therefore, to this weakness, God was pleased to give a name. "And God said unto Moses, I am that I am." Exod. iii. 14. Warburton's Divine Legation, b. iv. sec. 6. Gen. xxix. 32. And she called his name Reuben, for she said. Surely the Lord hath looked upon mine affliction.'] Many names which occur in the Scriptures were taken from particular incidents and circumstances. Other people besides the Jews have acted in this manner. " The children of the Mandingoes are not always named after their relations ; but frequently in consequence of some remarkable occurrence. Thus, my landlord at Kamaliawas called Karfa, a word signifying to replace ; because he was born shortly after the death of one of his brothers. Other names are descrip- tive of good or bad qualities : as Modi, a good man : Fadibba, father of the town. Indeed the very names of their towns have something descriptive in them, as, Sibidooloo, the town of siboa trees. Kenneyetoo, victuals here. Dorita, lift your spoon. Others appear to be given by way of reproach, as Bammakoo, was a crocodile. Karankalla, no cup to drink from. Among the ne- groes, every individual, besides his own proper name, has likewise a kongtong or surname, to denote the family or clan to which he belongs. Every negro plumes himself on the importance or the antiquity of his clan, and is much flattered when he is addressed by his kongtong. Mungo Park's Travels in Africa, p. 2Q9. Gen. xxix. 6. Rachel his daughter.] Her name in Hebrew signifies a sheep. It was anciently the custom to give names even to families from cattle, both great and small. So Varro tells us (lib. ii. de re rustica, c. 1) "Multa nomina habemus ab utroque pecore, &c. a minore," Porcius, Ovilius, Caprilius; a majore, ^"^ ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Equitius, Taurus," &c. See Bochart, p. i. Hieroz. lib. ii. cap. 43. Acts ix. 36. Now there was at Joppa a certain disciple named Tabitha, which hy interpretation is called Dorcas,'\ It was com- mon not only among the Arabs, but also among the Greeks, to give their females the names of agreeable animals. Tabitha appears to have been a word used in the Syriac, which being in^ terpreted is Dorcas ; that is, an antelope ; an animal remarkable tor beautiful eyes. On this account it might have been given to the person here designated by it. Parkhurst's Greek Lex. p. 692. JoBxlii. 14. And he called the name of the first Jemima.] To vary names by substituting a word similar in sound is very preva- lent in the East. The following extract from Sir Thomas Roe (p. 425) IS a striking example of this circumstance. " They speak very much in honour of Moses, whom they call Moosa calim Alia, Moses the publisher of the mind of God : so of Abraham, whom they call Ibrahim carim Alia, Abraham the honoured, or the friend, of .God: so of Ishmael, whom they call Ismal, the sacrifice of God: so of Jacob, whom they call Acob, the blessing of God: so of Joseph, whom they call Eesoff, the betrayed for God : so of David, whom they call Dahood, the lover and praiser of God : so of Solomon, whom they call Selymon, the wisdom of God : all expressed in short Arabian words, which they sing in ditties, unto their particular remembrances. Many men are called by these names : others are called Mahmud, or Chaan, which signifies the moon ; or Frista, which signifies a star. And they call thdr women by the names of spices or odours ; or of pearls or precious stones ; or else by other names of pretty or pleasing signification. So Job called his daughters." 1 Kings xv. 2. Three years reigned he in Jerusalem, and his mother's name was Maachah.'] It has been conjectured by Mr. Baruh, that the phrase, " and his mother's name was," &c. when expressed on a king's accession to the throne, at the beginning of his history, does not always refer to his natural mother, but that it is a title of honour arid dignity, enjoyed by one of the royal family, denoting her to be the first in rank. This idea appears well founded from the following extracts : " The oloo kani is not governess of the Crimea : this title, the literal translation of which is, great queen, simply denotes a dignity in the harem, which the khan usually confers on one of his sisters ; or, if he has none, on one of his daughters, or relations : to this dignity are attached the revenues arising frqm several villages, and other rights." {Baron du Tott, vol. ii. p. 64.) " On this occasion the king crowned his SOCIAL INTKnCOURSK. S05 mother Malacotawit, conferring upon her the dignity and title of iteghe, i, e. as king's mother,, regent and governess of the king when under age." Bruce' s Travels, vol. ii. p. 531. John i. 42. When Jesus beheld him, he said, thou art Simon the son of Jon a, thou shalt he called Cephas.'] The eastern peo- ple are often-times known by several names ; this might arise from their having more names than one given them at first ; or it might arise from their assuming a new and different name upon particu- lar occurrences in life. This last is probable, since such a custom continues in the East to this day, and it evidently was sometimes done anciently. (2 Chron. xxxvi. 4; 2 Kings xxiv. 17.) The sixth volume of the MS. Chardin seems to complain of expositors, for supposing that one person had frequently diflFerent names ; and says, that the custom of the East still continues, for persons to have a new name upon a change of circumstances. There seems to be some want of precision here : commentators have supposed, and the fact is apparent, that one and the same person has had different names ; but they have determined, in common at least, nothing about the manner in which they came by them. Sir John Chardin thinks, very justly, that they were given upon some change in life ; but then there might be a varia- tion as to the consequences. Some might invariably be called by the new name after its being given them. Thus Abraham was always so called in the latter part of his life, and never Abram : and his wife in like manner Sarah, and not Sarai ; others might be called sometimes by the one, sometimes by the other, and some- times by both joined together. So St. John tells us, that Jesus gave the new name of Peter to the brother of Andrew ; yet he represents Jesus afterwards calling him Simon : and John himself sometimes called him Peter, and somecimes Simon Peter. But as the account that is given us of this variety of names in the MS. Chardin is curious, it shall be subjoined. " Expositors suppose the Israelites, and other eastern people, had several names ; but this is an error. The reason of their being called by different names is, because they frequently change them, as they change in point of age, condition, or religion. This custom has continued to our times in the East, and is generally practised upon changing religions (Acts xiii. 9), and it is pretty common upon changing condition. The Persians have preserved this custom more than any other nation. I have seen many governors of pro- vinces among them assume new paraes with their new dignity. But the example of the reigning king of Persia (1667) is more remarkable. The first year of the reign of this prince having been unhappy, on account of wars and famine in many provinces, 'his counsellors persuaded him that the name he had till then borne was fatal, and that the fortune of the empire would not be changed till he changed that name. This was done, the prince was crowned X 306 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. again under the name of Soliman ; all the seals, all the coins that had the name of Sefi, were broken, the same as if the king had been dead, and another had taken possession. The women more frequently change their names than the men, whether owing to a natural inconstancy, or that they do not agree to the alterations they find in life, being put upon them on account of their beauty, gaiety, their agility in dancing, or fine voice ; and as these natural qualities are quickly lost, either by accident, or by age, they assume other names, which better agree to their changed state. Women that marry again, or let themselves out anew, and slaves, commonly alter their names upon these changes." Harmer, vol. ii. p. 501. John xi. 16. Thomas, which is called DidymusJ] It was customary with the Jews, when travelling into foreign countries, or familiarly conversing with the Greeks and Romans, to assume to themselves a Greek or Latin name of great affinity, and some- times of the very same signification with that of their own country, as those of Thomas and Didymus, one in the Syriac and the other in the Greek, do both signify a twin. He no doubt was a Jew, and, in all probability, a Galilean, as well as the other apostles ; but the place of his birth, and the nature of his calling (unless we should suppose that he was brought up to the trade of fishing) are things unknown. Rev. iii. 12. / will write upon him the name of my God."] Great numbers of inscriptions are yet remaining, brought from the Grecian cities of Europe and Asia, and some from the islands in the neighbourhood of Patmos, in which the victories of eminent persons are commemorated. Some of these were placed near the temples of their deities, others were in the temples, to signify that they were put under their particular protection ; upon these were inscribed the names of the deities, of the conquerors, and of the cities to which they belonged, and the names of the generals by whose conduct the victory was gained. Inscriptions also were sometimes placed upon pillars, to record the privileges granted to cities, and also the names of their benefactors. Rev. ii. 17. A new name written, which no man knoweth, saving he that receiveth it.'] Doddridge on this passage says, I have sometimes thought o \afi^avwv may signify " one that hath received it," as it seems a name given to any person must be known to others, or it would be given in vain ; and then it inti- mates, honour should be conferred upon such a one, which shall only, be known to the inhabitants of that world to which he shall be admitted, and who have already received it; otherwise it must refer to a custom which has sometimes prevailed among princes, of giving particular names, expressing familiarity and delight, to distinguished favourites, by which to call them in the greatest in- SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. SOT timacy of converse, whether by discourse, or by letter, and which have not been communicated to others, or used by them at other times. Rev. xix. 12. He had a name wrilten that no man knew but he himself.'] Among the Hindoos it never has been customary to call any prince by his proper name. This custom has been com- municated to the Burmans with such strength, that it is almost impossible to learn the name of any prince during his reign. His titles only can lawfully be mentioned : and the law is enforced with such vigour, that Burmans, even in Calcutta, shudder when re- quested to mention the dreadful name. Nor am I satisfied (say^ the writer of this article) that either Capt. Symes or I could ever procure the real name of the reigning monarch. JsiaticResearches. Job xxxii. 21. Neither let me givejlattering titles unto manJ] The Hebrew word here used signifies to surname, or more pro- perly to call a person by a name which does not strictly belong to him, and that generally in compliment or flattery. Mr. Scott on this passage informs us from Pococke, that " the Arabs make court to their superiors by carefully avoiding to address them by their proper names, instead of which they salute them with some title or epithet expressive of respect." HONOURS. Job xxix. 7. I prepared my seat in the street."] Sitting upon a cushion is an expression of honour ; and preparing a seat for a person of distinction seems to mean, laying things of this kind on a place where such a one is to sit. Chardin says, " it is the cus- tom of Asia for persons in common not to go- into the shops of that country, which are mostly small, but there are wooden seats on the outside, where people sit down ; and if it happens to be a man of quality, they lay a cushion there. The people of quality cause carpets and cushions to be carried everywhere that they like, in order to repose themselves upon them, more agreeably." It is then extremely natural to suppose that Job sent his servants to lay a cushion or a carpet upon one of the public seats, or some such place. Eli's seat by the way side (1 Sam. iv. 13) was a seat adorned, we may believe, after the same manner. Harmer, vol.ii. p. 59. Judges viii. 26. The chains that were about their camels' necks.] These chains were probably like those which Pococke saw in Egypt, hanging from the bridles of the agas of the seven military bodies of that country, to the breast-plates of the animals on which they rode, in the grand procession of the caravan, about setting out for Mecca. They were undoubtedly marks of distinction and grandeur. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 134. x2 308 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Esther v. 12. Human said moreover, Yea, Esther the queen let no man come in with the king unto the banquet that she had prepared, but myself; and to-morrow am I invited unto her also with the kiiiff.l Athena2us mentions it as a peculiar honour, which no Grecian ever had before or after, that Artaxerxes vouchsafed to invite Timagoras the Cretan to dine even at the table vifhere his relations ate, and to send sometimes a part of what was served up at his own : which some persons looked upon as a diminution of his majesty, and a prostitution of their national honour. Plutarch, in his life of Artaxerxes, tells us, that none but the king's mother and. his real wife were permitted to sit at his table ; and therefore he mentions it as a condescension in that prince, that he sometimes invited his brothers. So that this par- ticular favour was a matter which Haman had some reason to value himself upon. Biblical Researches, vol. ii, p. 199. James ii. 2. A man with a gold ring.] By this circumstance the apostle describes a rich man. Among the Romans, those of the senatorian and equestrian orders were distinguished from the common people by wearing a gold ring. In time the use of them became promiscuous. The ancients used to wear but one. John vi. 27. Him hath God the Father sealed.'] Some have ingeniously conjectured that this may allude to a custom which princes might have when making grand entertainments, to give a commission under their hand and seal, or perhaps to deliver a signet to those whom they appointed to preside in the manage- ment of them. (See Eisner, vol. i. p. 311.) Though it may possibly be sufficient to say, that to seal is a general phrase for authorizing by proper credentials, whatever the purpose be for which they are given, or for marking a person out as wholly devoted to his ser- vice whose seal he bears. Doddridge, in loc. 1 Sam. xxiv. \2. The Lord judge between me and thee.] Full of reverence as the eastern addresses are, and especially those to the great, in some points they are not so scrupulous as we are in the West. An inferior's mentioning of himself before he names his superior is an instance of this kind. Chardin assures us, that it is customary among the Persians for the speaker to name himself first. Thus David spoke to Saul, even when he so reverenced him, that " he stooped with his face to the earth, and bowed himself." (Gen. xxiii. 15, compared with V. 6, is a similar instance.) Harmer, V-ol. ii. p. 41. Nahum ii. 7. And Huzzab shall be led away captive, she shall be brought up, and her maids shall lead her as with the voice of doves.] When D'Arvieux was in the camp of th^ great emir, his princess was visited by other Arab princesses. The SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. 309 last that came, whose visit alone he describes, was mounted, he says, on a camel, covered with a carpet, and decked with flowers ; a dozen women marched in a row before her, holding the camel's halter with one hand; they sung the praises of their mistress, and songs which expressed joy, and the happiness of being in the service of such a beautiful and amiable lady. Those which went first, and were more distinct from her person, came in their turn to the head of the camel, and took hold of the halter, which place, as being the post of honour, they quitted to others, when the princess had gone a few paces. The emir's wife sent her women to meet her, to whom the halter was entirely quitted, out of respect, her own women putting themselves behind the camel. In this order they marched to the tent, where they alighted. They then all sung together the beauty, birth, and good qualities of this princess. ( Voy. dans la Pal. p. 249.) Rev, xii. 1. And there appeared a great wonder in heaven, a woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve starsi] It was a well known custom at the time of this prophecy, to represent the several vir- tues and public societies, by the figure of a woman in some pecu- liar dress, many of which _are to be seen on the Roman coins ; in particular Salus, the emblem of security and protection, is repre- sented as a woman standing upon a globe, to represent the safety and security of the world under the emperor's care, as in a coin of Hadrian's; "globum pede calcans significans se iraperante, orbi salutem publicam datam." The consecration of the Roman emperors is expressed in their coins, by a moon and stars, as in two of Faustina, to express a degree of glory superior to any on earth. Lowman, in loc. MEMORIALS. 1 Sam. XV. 12. Saul came to Carmel, and behold, he set him up a place.'\ In this place the LXX. read x^'P" "' hand, proba- bly because the trophy or monument of victory was made in the shape of a large hand, (the emblem of power,) erected on a pillar. These memorial pillars were much in use anciently: and the figure of a hand was by its emblematical meaning well adapted to preserve the remembrance of a victory. Niebuhr {Foyage en Arabie, tom. ii. p. 211, French edit.) speaking of All's mosque at Mesched-Ali says, that " at the top of the dome, where one gene- rally sees on the Turkish mosques a crescent, or only a pole, there is here a hand stretched out, to represent that of Ali." Another writer informs us that at the Alhambra, or red palace of the Moorish kings, in Grenada, " on the key-stone of the outward arch (of the present principal entrance) is sculptured the figure of an arri?, the symbol of strength and dominion." Annual Register for 1779, Antiquities, p. 124. 310 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Gen. xix. 26. A pillar of salt."] Or, as some understand it, an everlasting monument, whence, perhaps, the Jews have given her the name of Adith {Pirke Elieser, cap. 25), because she re- mained a perpetual testimony of God's just displeasure. For she standing still too long, some of that dreadful shower of brimstone and fire overtook her, and falling upon her, wrapped her body in a sheet of nilro-sulphureous matter, virhich congealed into a crust as hard as stone, and made her appear like a pillar of salt, her body being as it were candied in it. Kimchi calls it a heap of salt; which the Hebrews say continued for many ages. Their conjecture is not improbable, who think the fable of Niobe was derived hence; who, the poets feign, was turned into a stone upon her excessive grief for' the death of her children. Patrick', in loc. OLD AGE. Lev. xix. 32. Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and honour the face of the old man.'] The Jewish writers say that the rule was, to rise up to them when they were at the distance of four cubits ; and as soon as they were gone by, to sit down again, that it might appear they rose up purely out of respect to them. Most civilized people have adopted the practice. Juvenal says, Credebant hoc grande nefas et morte piandum, Si juveuis vetulo non assurrexerat Sat. xiii. v. 54. The Lacedaemonians had a law, that aged persons should be re- verenced like fathers. See also Homer, II. xv. 204, et xxiii. 788. Odyss. xiii. 141. ExoD. xviii. 12. The elders of Israel.] Not only fathers, but all old men, had great authority among the Israelites and all the people of antiquity. They everywhere, in the beginning, chose judges for private affairs, and counsellors for the public, out of the oldest men. Thence came the name of senate and fathers at Rome, and that great respect for old age which they borrowed from the Lacedaemonians. As soon as the Hebrews began to be formed into a people they were governed by old men. John viiK 57. Thou art not yet fifty years oM.] The age of fifty is often spoken of by the Jews, and much observed : at the age of fifty they say a man ia fit to give counsel; hence the Le- vites were dismissed from service at that age, it being more proper for them then to give advice than to bear burdens. A melhurge- man, or an interpreter in a congregation, was not chosen under fifty years of age ; and if a man died before he was fifty, this was called the death of cutting off; a violent death, a death ififlicted by God as a punishment. Gill, in loc. SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. 311 Job xxix. 8. The aged arose, and stood wp.] " This is a most elegant description, and exhibits most correctly that great reverence and respect which was paid even by the old and decrepit, to the holy man in passing along the streets, or when he sat in public. They not only rose, wliicli in men so old and iniirm was a great mark of distinction, but they stood; they continued to do it, though even the attempt was so difficult." Lowtlis Left. vol. ii. p. 412. DISCOURSE. Job iii. 1. After this opened Job his mouth.] It is to be ob- served, says Mr. Blackwell {Inquiry into the Life of Homer, p. 43), that the Turks, Arabians, and Indians, and in general most of the inhabitants of the East, are a solitary kind of people ; they speak but seldom, and never long without emotion. Speaking is a matter of moment among such people, as we may gather from their usual introductions : for, before they deliver their thoughts, they . give notice by saying, " I will open my mouth ;" as here, that is, unloose their tongue. It is thus in Homer, Hesiod, and Orpheus: and thus also Virgil : ■ finem dedit ore loquendi. ^n. vi. 75. He made an end of speaking with iiis mouth. Luke vii. 40. And he saith, master, say oh.] This was a way of speaking in use with the Jews, giving leave to proceed in a discourse ; and as Christ was now a guest in this man's house, he asks leave of him, and he grants it. We read of R. Simeon ben Gamaliel, that he said to R. Ishraael ben Elishah, " Is it thy pleasure that 1 should say before thee one thing ? he said unto him, say on." Gill, in loc. EzEKiEL xxxiii. .SO. Thy people still are talking against thee by the walls.'] Severe as sometimes the cold weather is in the East, Russel observes, that even in the depth of that season, when the sun is out, and there is no wind, it is warm, nay, some- times almost hot, in the open air ; and Pococke informs us, that the people there enjoy it, for the Coptics spend their holidays in sauntering about, and sitting under their walls in winter, and under shady trees in summer. {Trav. i. p. 176.) This, doubt- less, is to be understood of the poorer sort, who have no places more proper for conversation with their friends ; the better houses having porches, with benches on each side, Where the master of the family receives visits, and dispatches business. These circurh- stances greatly illustrate the words of Ezekiel. " Also thou son of man, the children of thy people are still talking against thee," or rathfer, " concerning thee, by the walls, and in the doors of the houses," &c. Harmer, vol. i. p. 22. 312 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Acts xvii. 17. Therefore disputed he in the market daily with them that met him.'] This is perfectly agreeable to the cus- toms of the East. In Arabia it is frequently practised. People usually meet in such places for conversation. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 526. 1 Sam. X. 5, 6. Thou shalt meet a com.'pany of prophets coming down from the high place, with a psaUery and a tabertl] We are told in a book which gives an account of the sufferings of the crew of an English privateer wrecked on the African coast in 1745, and which occasionally mentions the education of their chil- dren, and their getting the Koran by heart, that " when they have gone through, their relations borrow a fine horse and furniture, and carry them about the town in procession with the book in their hands, the rest of their companions following, and all sorts of music of the country going before." Shaw mentions the same custom. {Travels, p. 105). This seems to be a lively comment on these words, which describe a procession of prophets or scholars. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 106. CITIZENSHIP. Ephesians ii. 19. Ye are no more strangers and foreigners, hut fellow-citizens with the saints.']- Sojourners and strangers in Greece " were permitted to dwell in the city, and follow their own business without disturbance, but could not be entrusted with any public office, give their votes in the assemblies, or have any share in the government ; being obliged to sit still as spectators in a theatre, without intermeddling, or any way concerning themselves with state affairs ; and patiently submit to the decrees enacted by the citizens, and observe all the laws and customs of the country. They were not allowed to act any thing or manage any business, in their own names, but were obliged to choose out of the citizens one, to whose care and protection they would commit themselves, and whose duty it was to defend them from all violence and op- pression." Potter's Archceol. Grcec. vol. i. p. 55. Phil. iv. 3. The booh of life.] This expression refers to the custom of those cities which had registers containing the names of all the citizens, from which the names of infamous persons were erased. Agreeably to this we read of names being blotted out of God's book (Rev. iii. 5). Those citizens who were orderly and obedient were continued on the roll, from whence they could easily obtain their title to all the immunities and privileges common to all the members of the city ; and to be excluded from these was both disgraceful and injurious. Matt. ix. 1. And came- into his own city.] This was Caper-, naum, where Christ chiefly dvrelt, and paid tribute as an inhabi- SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. • 313 tant. According to the Jewish canons, he was entitled to citizen- ship by dwelling there twelve months, or by purchasing a dwelling- house. One or other of these things it is probable Christ had done, on which account the city is denominated his. Gill, in loc. Eph. ii. 19. Ye are no more strangers and foreigners, but fellow-citizens with the saints, and of the household of God.'\ The proselytes who joined themselves to the God of Israel, were by the Jews and by the scriptures styled strangers. He that only took upon him to worship the true God, and observe the precepts of Noah, was Ger Toshah, a stranger permitted to dwell among them, and to worship in the court of the Gentiles. He that was circumcised, and became obedient to the law of Moses, was Ger Tzedeh, a proselyte of righteousness : but both were called stran- gers according to the maxim of the Jews: all the nations of the world are called strangers before the God of Israel ; but the Jews are said to be near to him. But now, according to the language of the apostle, there is no such difference, the believing Gentiles being equally admitted with believing Jews, to the privileges of the New Jerusalem, and equally related to God as part of his family. Whithy, in loc. 1 Cor. X. 17. For we being many are one bread."] It was a custom anciently among the barbarians to meet together in a friendly manner over one bread. Jamblich Fit. Pythag. § Ixxxvi. p. 71. Numb. xxvi. 55. The land shall be divided [by lot^ This appears to have been a very ancient method of dividing land. It was not only adopted in the present instance in the distribution of a whole country, but was commonly resorted to in order to apportion particular inheritances. See Hesiod, b. i. 55. Thus also in Homer, Ulysses is made to say : Sprung of a bandmaid from a bought embrace, I shar'd liis kindness witli his lawful race. But when that fate which all must undergo From earth reniov'd him to the shades below, The large domain his greedy sons divide. And each was portion'd as the lots decide. Odyss. xIt. 234. Pope. SERVANTS. Gen. xxix. 24. And Laban gave unto his daughter Leah, Zilpah his maid, for an handmaid.} ' Chardin observes that none but very poor people marry a daughter in the East, without giving her a female slave for an handmaid, there being no hired servants there as in Europe. So Solomon supposes they were extremely poor that had not a servant. Prov. xii. 9. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 366. 314 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. 2 Kings iii. 11. Who poured water on the hands of Elijah.'] This was a part of the service which Elisha performed to his master. We read of it in other instances. - Pitts tells us (p. 24), " the table being removed, before they rise (from the ground whereon they sit) a servant, who stands attending on them with a cup of water to give them drink, steps into the middle, with a bason or copper pot of water, somewhat like a cofFee-pot, and a little soap, and lets the water run upon their hands one after another, in order as they sit." Mr. Hanway, speaking of a Per- sian supper, says {Travels, vol. i. p. 22S), " supper being now- brought in, a servant presented a bason of water, and a napkin hung over his shoulders ; he went to every one in the company, and poured water on their hands to wash." See also Homer, Odyss. iv. 216; Virgil, ^n. i. line 705. Psalm cxxiii. 2. As the eyes of servants look unto the hands of their masters.'] The servants or slaves in the East attend their masters or mistresses with the profoundest respect. Maundrell {Journey at March, p. 13) observes, that the servants in Turkey stand round their master and his guests with the profoundest respect, silence, and order imaginable. Pococke says, tha tat a visit in Egypt, every thing is done with the greatest decency, and the most profound silence, the slaves or servants standing at the bottom of the room, with their hands joined before them, watch- ing with the utmost attention every motion of their master, who commands them by signs. De la Motiaye {Travels, vol. i. p. 249) says, that the eastern ladies are waited on " even at the least wink of the eye, or motion of the fingers, and that in a manner not per- ceptible to strangers." The Baron du Tott (vol. i. p. 30) relates a remarkable instance of the authority attending this mode of com- manding, and of the use of significant motions. "The customary ceremonies on these occasions were over, and Racub (the new visir) continued to discourse familiarly with the ambassador, whCTi the muzur-aga (or high provost) coming into the hall, and approach- ing the pacha, whispered something in his ear, and we observed that all the answer he received from him was a slight horizontal motion with his hand, after which the visir, instantly resuming an agreeable smile, continued the conversation for some time longer : we then left the hall of audience, and came to the foot of the great stair-case, where we remounted our horses : here, nine heads, cut off, and placed in a row on the outside of the first gate, completely explained the sign, which the visir had made use of in our pre- sence." Hence we discover the propriety of the actions performed by the prophets. Ezekiel was a sign to the people in not mourn- ing for the dead (chap, xxiv.), in his removing into captivity, and digging through the wall (chap. xii.). Such conduct was perfectly well understood, and was very significant. SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. 315 Dan. i. 4. tVell-favouredJ] Curtius {Hist. 1. vi. c. 5), says, that in all barbarous or uncivilized countries the stateliness of the body is held in great veneration : nor do they think any capable of great services or actions, to whom nature has not vouchsafed to give a beautiful form and aspect. It has always been the custom of the eastern nations to choose such for their principal officers, or to wait on princes and great personages. Sir Paul Ricaut (Present State of the Ottoman Empire, b. i. c. 5, p. 13) observes, " that the youths that are designed for the great offices of the Turkish empire must be of admirable features and pleasing looks, well-shaped in their bodies, and without any defects of nature: for it is conceived, that a corrupt and sordid soul can scarce inhabit in a serene and ingenuous aspect; and I have observed not only in the seraglio, but also in the courts of great men, their personal attendants have been of comely lusty youths well-habited, deporting themselves with singular modesty and respect in the presence of their masters ; so that when a pacha aga spahi travels, he is always attended with a comely equipage, followed by flourishing youths, well clothed and mounted, in great numbers." Jer. xxxviii. 7. Now when Ehed-meleeh the Ethiopian, one of the king's eunuchs, who was in the king's house.~\ The possession of black eunuchs is not very common in the Levant; they are hardly anywhere to be found, except in the palaces of the sove- reign or of the branches of the royal family. When the Baron Du Tott's wife and mother-in-law were permitted to visit Asma Sultana, daughter of the emperor Achmet, and sister of the then reigning prince, he tells us, that " at the opening of the third gate of her palace several black eunuchs presented themselves, who, with each a white staff in his hand, preceded the visitors, leading them to a spacious apartment, called the chamber of strangers." He adds, that to have such attendants is a piece of great state, as the richest people have not more than one or two of them. Har- mer, vol. iii. p. S9H. Deut. xvi. 14. Thou shalt rejoice in thy feast, thou, and thy son, and thy daughter, and thy man-servant, and thy maid-ser- vant-l There was a law similar to this enacted at Athens by Cecrops, who ordained, that the master of every family should, after harvest, make a feast for his servants, and eat together with them who had taken pains together with him in tilling his ground — " delectari enim Deum honore servorum, contemplatu laboris;" for God delighted in the honour done to servants, in consideration of their labour. This law it is probable he borrowed from Moses, as he reigned much about the same time that Israel came out of Egypt. Luke xii. 37. And will come forth and sqne them.] The 316 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Arabic version renders it, " he shall stand to minister unto them." The phrase is expressive of the posture of a servant, who, as Dr.^ Lightfoot observes, goes round the table while others sit. Some think there is an allusion in the words to a custom used at some feasts, particularly at those in honour of Saturn, in which servants changed clothes with their masters, and sat at their tables, their masters serving them. Jeremiah li. 41. How is Sheshach taken!'] It is conceived that Babylon is called Sheshach from one of her idols, and that the term is used by way of opprobrium. The idol Shach was worshipped there, and had a festival kept for five days together. It is said, that during this festival Cyrus took Babylon. Athe- naeus speaks of this feast {DeipnosopJiistcs, lib. xiv. cap. 17), saying, Berosus, in the first book of the I3abylohish History, relates, that, on the 16th of the calends of September, the feast • Saicea was celebrated at Babylon lor five days ; during which time it was customary for masters to obey their servants ; one of them, being mister of the house, was clothed in a royal garment, and called Zoganez. See some curious particulars about Sheshach in Assembly's Annotations on Jer. xxv. 26. 2 Tim. ii. 15. Rightly dividing the word of truth.] It is pos- sible that this is an allusion to what the Jewish high-priest or Levite did in dissecting the victim and separating the parts in a proper manner, as some were to be laid on God's altar, and others to be given to those who were to share in the sacrifice; others think it refers to guiding a plough aright, in order to divide the clods in the most proper and effectual manner, and make straight furrows. But perhaps the metaphor may be taken from the dis- tribution made by a steward, in delivering out to each person under his care, such things as his oflice and their necessities re- quired. Doddridge, in loc. Exodus xxi. 6. And his master shall bore his ear through ' with an awl, and he shall serve him for ever.] This Jewish cus- tom was borrowed by other nations, particularly by the Arabians, as appears from a passage of Petronius Arbiter {Satyricon, p. 364), where he introduces one Giton expressing himself in these terms : " Circumcide nos, ut Judaea videamur,; et purtunde aures, ut imitemur Arabes. Juvenal puts the following expressions in the mouth of Libertinus : Quamvis Notus ad Euphratem, molles quod in aure fenestras Arguerint, licet ipse neg;em. Sat. i. 103. Gen. xl. 13. Within three days shall Pharaoh lift up thine head.] " The ancients, in keeping their reckonings or accounts SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. 317 of time, or their list of domestic officers or servants, made use of tables with holes bored in them, in which they put a sort of pegs, or nails with broad heads, exhibiting the particulars, either num- ber or name, or whatever it was. These nails or pegs the Jews call heads, and the sockets of the heads they call bases. The mean- ing therefore of Pharaoh's Ufting up his head is, that Pharaoh would take out the peg, which had the cup-bearer's name on the top of it, to read it, i. e. -would sit in judgment, and make exami- nation into. his accounts; for it seems very probable that both he and the baker had been either suspected or accused of having cheated the king, and thatj when their accounts were examined and cast up, the one was acquitted, while the other was found guilty. And though Joseph uses the same expression in both cases, yet we may observe that, speaking to the baker, he adds, " that Pha- raoh shall lift up thine head from off thee," i. e. shall order thy name to be struck out of the list of his servants, by taking thy peg out of the socket." Bihliotheca Bibl. in locum, cited in Stackhouse's Hist, of the Bible, vol. i. p. 331. John viii. 36. If' the son therefore shall make you free, ye shall be free indeed-l By some commentators it has been supposed that Christ alludes to the mode of adoption called aSeX^oS'ecria, but Dr. Gill refers it rather to a custom among the Romans of a son's making free, after his father's death, such as were born slaves in his house. Perhaps there may be also some reference to such sort of persons among the Jews as were partly servants and partly free : such' as were servants to two partners, and were made free by one of them; or who had paid half the price of redemption, but left the other half due : of a person in such circumstances it is said, he may not eat of his master's lamb at the passovei". COMMON LIFE. Gen. xxiv. 11. At the time of the evening, even the time that women go out to draw water."] Homer mentions the same custom of women being employed in drawing water among the Phseacians and Lsestrygonians. {Od. vii. 20, et x. 105.) Dr. Shaw, speaking of the occupation of the Moorish women in Barbary, says, " to finish the day, at the time of the evening, even at the time that the women go out to draw water, they are still to fit themselves with a pitcher or goat-skin, and tying their sucking children be- hind them, trudge it in this manner two or three miles to fetch water." Travels, p. 421. 2 Sam. xvii. 17. And a wench went out and told them.] In the East ihe washing of foul linen is performed by women by the sides of rivers and fountains. Dr. Chandler (TVai^e/* in Asia 318 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Minor, p. 21) says, that " the women resort to the fountains by the houses, each with a large two-handled earthen jar on her back, or thrown over her shoulder, for water. They assemble at one without the village or town, if no river be near, to wash their linen, which is afterwards spread on the ground or bushes to dry." May not this circumstance, says Mr. Harmer, (vol. iv. p. 438), serve to confirm the conjecture, that the young woman that was sent to En-rogel went out of the city with a bundle of linen, as if she were going to wash it? Nothing was more Batural, or better calculated to elude jealousy, Psalm xc. 4. Js a watch in the nig/it.] " As the people of the East have no clocks, the several parts of the day and of the night, which are eight in all, are given notice of. In the Indies, the parts of the night are made known, as well by instruments of music as by the rounds of the watchmen, who, with cries and small drums, give them notice that a fourth part of the night is passed. Now as these cries awakened those that had slept all that quarter part of the night, it appeared to them but as a moment." (Chardin.) It is apparent the ancient Jews knew how the night passed away, though we cannot determine by what means the information was communicated to them. Harmer, vol. i. p. 210. Judges xvi. 19. And she made him sleep upon her knees.] Samson is here described as sleeping upon the lap of Delilah ; for so the phrase of sleeping upon her knees evidently supposes. Her posture while sitting on the cushion upon her duan, implies this very attitude of the unwary champion. So Braithwaite {Journeyito Morocco, p. 123) mentions a favourite court lady, in whose lap the emperor constantly slept when drunk. If this cus- tom were an usual one between intimates, as implying a kind of gallantry, we see how Delilah might thus engage Samson, without exciting in him -the. least suspicion of her insidious purpose. Fragments hy the Editor of Calmet's Did. No. 198. 2 CoK. xi. 29. Who is offended, and I hum not T] Who is offended, and I am not flred? So irvpovjxai properly signifies. It may perhaps in this connexion allude to the sudden hurry of spirits into which a man is put by the dangerous fall of a person he tenderly loves, especially when occasioned by the carelessness and folly of another. Doddridge, in loc. 2 Kings xi. 12. Clapped their hands.] The way by which fe- males in the East express their joy, is by gently applying one of their hands to their mouths. This custom appears to be very an- cient, and seems to be referred to in several places of Scripture. Pitts {Religion and Manners of the Mahometans, p. 85), describ- SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. 319 ing' the joy with which the leaders of their sacred caravans are re- ceived in the several towns of Barbary through which they pass, says, " This Emir Hagge, into whatever town he comes, is re- ceived with a great deal of joy, because he is going about so reli- gious a work. The women get upon tbe tops of the houses to view the parade, where they keep striking their four fingers on their lips softly as fast as they can, making a joyful noise all the while." The sacred writers suppose two different methods of ex- pressing joy by a quick motion of the hand ; the clapping of the hands, and that of one hand only, though these are confounded in our translation. The former of these methods obtained an- ciently, as an expression of malignant joy (Lam. ii. 15 ; Jobxxvii. 15); but other words, which our version translates, clapping the hands, signify, the applying of only one hand somewhere with softness, in testimony of a joy of a more agreeable kind. Thus ill 2 Kings xi. 12, and Psalm xlvii. 1, it should be rendered in the singular, "Clap your hand," and as the word implies gentleness, it may allude to such an application of the hand to the mouth as has now been recited. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 277. This practice was not only an expression of joy, as in the pre- sent instance, but was also the ordinary method in the East of calling the attendants in waiting. Thus in the history of Caliph Vathek (p. 127), we are told, that Nourouishar clapped her hands, and immediately came together Gulcheurouz and her women. See also Psalm xlvii. 1, xcviii. 8. Gen. xxxi. 46. ^nd Jacob said unto his brethren, gather stones ; and they took stones and made an heap ; and they did eat there upon the heapJ] Niebuhr relating his audience with the Imam of Yemen, says, " I had gone firom my lodgings indisposed, and by standing so long found myself so faint, that I was obliged to ask permission to quit the room. I found near the door some of the principal officers of the court, who were sitting, in a scattered manner, in the shade, upon stones, by the side of the wall. Among them was the nakib (the general, or rather master of the horse), Cheir Allah, with whom I had some acquaintance before. He immediately resigned his place to me, and applied himself to draw together stones into an heap, in order to build himself a new seat." This management might be owing to various causes. The extreme heat of the ground might render sitting there disagreeable. The same inconvenience might arise also from its wetness. It was certainly a very common practice ; and as it appears from the in- stance of Jacob, a very ancient one. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 215. Luke xvi. 20. Who was laid at his gate.] This was the place where beggars stood, or were laid, and asked alms : hence is that rule with the Jews, " If a man die and leave sons and daughters, if he leave but a small substance, the daughters shall be taken care of, and the sons shall beg at the gates." Gill, in loc. 320 CHAPTER XII. CUSTOMS BELATING TO FESTIVITIES. GAMES. Matt. xi. 16. But whereunto shall I liken this generation ? it is like unto children sitting in the markets, and calling unto their fellows.'] It was the custom of children among the Jews, in their sports, to imitate what they saw done by others upon great occasions, and particularly the customs in festivities, wherein the musician beginning a tune on his instrument, the company danced to his pipe. So also in funerals, wherein the women beginning the mournful song (as the prceficce of the Romans), the rest fol- lowed lamenting and beating their breasts. These things the children acted and personated in the streets in play, and the rest not following the leader as usual, gave occasion to this speech, " we have piped unto you, and ye have not danced ; we have mourned unto you, and ye have not lamented." Luke xxii. 64. Blindfolded Mm.] This usage of Christ refers to that sport so ordinary among children, called fivivSa, in which it is the manner first to blindfold, then to strike (ver. 63), then to ask who gave the blow, and not to let the person go till he named the right man who had struck him. It was used on this occasion to reproach our blessed Lord, and expose him to ridicule. Hammond, in loc. Zech. xii. 3. A burdensome stone.] Jerome upon this place thinks that a burdensome stone is an expression taken from an exercise kept in Judea to his time, where young men used to make trial of their strength by lifting great stones as high as they could. In such an exercise, where men undertook to lift a stone too heavy for their strength, they were in danger of its falling upon them, and bruising or crushing them to pieces. To the same purpose Christ saith " on whomsoever this stone shall fall, it will grind him to powder," Matt. xxi. 44. Matt. vi. 1. To be seen by men.] In the distribution of alms it is absolutely necessary to avoid ostentation. Charity to men should proceed from love to God ; such a principle alone can ren- der it acceptable in his sight. Our Lord found it necessary to deliver an explicit precept upon this subject. This he introduces by an admonition — take heed that ye do not your alms before men, to he seen, ^sa^rjvai, of them. This word is very significant, alluding to such a beholding or looking on as there is at a theatre FESTIVITIES. 321 for men that act parts, or strive for masteries, whose reward con- sists only in the approbation and applause of the spectators. In this sense the word is evidently used by our Lord, who speaks of the reward as consisting in being thus beheld and observed (ver. 3.) , Matt. vi. 2. Do not sound a trumpet before thee.] This may be an allusion to the trumpet which was sounded before the stage- players and gladiators, when they were brought into the theatre, and by which the company were called together. Trumpets were also used in very ancient times to assemble people together in companies. The Pharisees, it is possible, might carry matters to such an excess of pride and vain glory as literally thus to proclaim their liberality ; but probably we are to understand it of the pom- pous and public manner in which they spoke of and dispensed their benevolence. Chardin relates, that in the East the dervises use ram^' horns, which there are remarkably long, for trumpets, and that " they blow them in honour of the donor, when any thing is given them." It is not impossible but that some of the poor Jews that begged alms might be furnished like the Persian der- vises, who are a sort of religious beggars, and that these hypocrites might be disposed to confine their almsgiving very much to such as they knew would pay them this honour. Harmer, vol. i. p. 474, note. Judges xv. 8. ^nd he smote them kip and thigh with a great slaughter.'] Setting aside the various interpretations which have been given of this expression, the editor of Calmet's Dictionary proposes to illustrate it by the following extract : — " It appears probable, from the following circumstances, that the exercise of wrestling, as it is now performed by the Turks, is the very same that was anciently used in the Olympic games. For, besides the previous covering of the palaestra with sand, that the combatants might fall with more safety, they have their pellowan bashee, or master wrestler ; who, like the aywvoOirrig of old, is to observe and superintend the jura palaestrae, and to be the umpire in all disputes. The combatants, after they are anointed all over with oil, to render their naked bodies the more slippery and less easily to be taken hold of, first of all look one another steadfastly in the face, as Diomede or Ulysses does the palladium upon antique gems. Then they run up to and retire from each other several times, using all the while a variety of antic and other postures, such as are commonly used in the course of the ensuing conflict. After this prelude they draw nearer together, and challenge each other, by clapping the palms of their hands first upon their own knees or thighs, then upon each other, and afterwards upon the palms of their respective antagonists. The challenge being thus given, they immediately close in and struggle with each other, Y 322 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Striving with all their strength, art, and dexterity (which are often very extraordinary), which shall give his antagonist a fall, and become the conqueror. During this contest l have often seen their arms, legs, and thighs so twisted and linked together, that they have both fallen together, and left the victory dubious, too difficult sometimes for the pellowan bashee to decide." Shaw's Travels, p. 217. Do not these well deserve the description of leg and thigh men, or shoulder and thigh men? The. name seems to be taken from their very attitudes, and correctly to express them. If this idea be admitted, it cannot be difficult to understand the above cited/ expression. 1 Cor. ix. 25. Every man that striveth for the mastery is temperate in all things.] The preparatory discipline which the Atbletse^ underwent before they contended for victory in the Grecian games was protracted and severe. "At fiist," says Rollin, "they had no other nourishment than dried figs, nuts, soft cheese, and a gross, heavy sort of bread, called jua^a. They were absolutely forbid the use of wine, and enjoined continence, which Horace expresses thus. (Art. Poet. v. 412.) ^ Qui studet optatum ourau contigere metam Multa tulit fecitque puer, sudavit et alsit Abstinuit yenere et vino. Who in thu Olympic race the prize would gain, Has borne from early youth fatigue and pain. Excess of heat and cold has often tried. Lore's softness banished, and the glass denied. " St. Paul, by an allusion to the Athletae, exhorts the Corinthians, near whose city the Isthmian games were celebrated, to a sober and penitent life." 1 Cor. ix. 25. Now they do it to obtain a corruptible crown, but we an incorruptible.] It is well known, that the crown in the Olympic games, sacred to Jupiter, was of wild-olive : in the Pythian, sacred to Apollo, of laurel ; in the Isthmian or Corinthian, solemnized in honour of Palaemon, of pine-tree ; and in the Nemaean, of smallage, or parsley. Now most of these were ever-greens ; yet they would soon grow dry and break to pieces. Eisner (Observ. vol. ii. p. 103) produces many passages in which the contenders in these exercises are rallied by the Grecian wits for the extraordinary pains they took for such trifling rewardsi And Plato has a celebrated passage, which greatly resembles this of St. Paul, but by no mean equals it in beauty and force. (1 Pet. V. 4.) Doddridge, in loc. 1 Cor. ix. 26. So fight I, not as one thai beateth the air.] In order to attain the greater agility and dexterity, it was usual for FESTIVITIES. 323 those who intended to box in the games, to exercise their arms with the gauntlet on, when they had no antagonist near them, and this was called aKiofxa^ia in which a man would of course beat the air. But Bos has taken a great deal of pains in his note here, to show that it is a proverbial expression for a man's missing his blow, and spending it, not on his enemy, but on empty air. Doddridge, in loc. 1 Cor. ix. 27. But I keep under my body, and bring it into subjection, lest that hy any means, when I have preached to others, I myself shall be a cast-away.^ The latter part of this verse Doddridge renders, " lest after having served as an herald, I should be disapproved," and says in a note, I thought it of im- portance to retain the primitive sense of these gymnastic expres- sions. It is well known to those who are at all acquainted with the original, that the word Kripu^ac expresses the discharging the, oflBce of an herald, whose business it was to proclaim the condi- tions of the games, and display the prizes, to awaken.the emulation and resolution of those who were to contend in them. But the apostle intimates, that there was this peculiar circumstance attend- ing the christian contest, that the person who proclaimed its laws and rewards to others was also to engage himself, and that there would be a peculiar infamy and misery in miscarrying. ASoKinog, which we render cast-away, signifies one who is disapproved by the judge of the games, as not having fairly deserved the prize. 1 Cor. xvi. 9. A great door and effectual is opened unto me.] It is thought that there is an allusion to the door of the circus, from whence chariots were let out when the races were to begin ; and that the word avriKtiiiBvoi, which is translated adversaries, but which Doddridge renders opposers, signifies the same with an- tagonists, with whom the apostle was to contend as in a course. (Acts xix. 20.) This opposition rendered his presence more necessary, to preserve those that were already converted, and to increase the number, if God should bless his ministry. Accord- ingly a celebrated church was planted at Ephesus ; and so far as we can learn from the tenor of his epistle to it, there was less to reprove and correct among them, than in most of the other churches to which he wrote. 2 Cor. x. 14. We stretch not ourselves.] It may help very much to understand this and the following verses, if with Ham- mond we consider the terms used in them as agonistical. In this view of them, the measure of the rule ro fitrpov jov kuvovoq, alludes to the path marked out and bounded by a white line, for racers in the Isthmian games, observed among the Corinthians ; and so the apostle represents his work in preaching the gospel as his spiritual race, and the province to which he was appointed Y 2 324 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. as the compass or stage of ground which God had distributed or measured out, Efiepiaev avToj, for him to run in. Accordingly, to boast without his measure (ver. 15), iig ra afitrpa, and to stretch himself beyond his measure, wEp EKTEiviaOat, refer to one that ran beyond or out of his Hne. TVe are come as far as to you (ver. 14), axpi vfxwv e^flao-ajuEv, alludes to him that came foremost to the goal ; and in another man's line (ver. 16), ev aWoTpioj Kavovi, signifies in the province that was marked out for somebody else, in allusion to the line by which the race was bounded, each of the racers having the path which he ought to run chalked out to him, and if one stepped over into the other's path, he extended himself over his line. Phil. iii. 12. / follow after, if that I may apprehend that for which also I am apprehended of Christ Jesus.'\ Doddridge thus renders and paraphrases this last sentence : " for which also I am apprehended by Christ Jesus," whose condescending hand graciously laid hold of me in my mad career, in so extraordinary a manner, as you have often heard, and has introduced me into that blessed race in which I am now engaged. To this he adds in a note, that candidates in the Grecian games, especially when they first presented themselves, were often introduced by some person of established reputation, who, at the same time that he spoke as honourably as might be of his friend, urged him to acquit himself with the utmost vigour and resolution ; and, it is possible, that this clause may allude to that circumstance. I con- clude that even on this interpretation, it further expresses the sense the apostle had of his obligations to the condescension and grace of Christ, in pursuing and seizing him while he fled from him, and so engaging him to aspire to this crown of life. Phil. iii. 14. / press toward the mark for the prize of the high calling of God in Christ JesusJ] Here is all along a beauti- ful allusion to the Olympic games, and especially the foot-races, which made the most celebrated part of them. The prize was placed in a very conspicuous situation, so that the competitors might be animated by having it always in their sight. The word /3pa6s£ov is considered by some as expressing the principal prize, whereas it is possible that some of the racers might come to the goal, and receive lower rewards. Doddridge says, that though such inferior prizes were common in funeral games, secondary prizes were not bestowed on the Olympic foot-race. See Wesfs Dissert, on the Olympic Games, p. 63. L'Enfant thinks that the apostle compares our Lord to those who stood at the elevated place at the end of the course, calling the racers by their names, and encouraging them, by holding out the crown, to exert themselves with vigour. FESTIVITIES. 325 2 Peter i. 90. No prophecy of the Scripture is of any private interpretation^ The word iiriKvcriQ seems to be agonistical, and signifies the starting, or watchword, or sign, upon which the racers set out, or began their course. The place from whence they set out is called afsTripia, where when they set out, they are said to be let loose, and this is literally Ein\vioc, which the scholiast upon Aristophanes defines to 336 ORIKNTAL CUSTOMS, be a question put among their cups. See Bochart. Hieroz. lib. iv. cap. 12. It should also be observed, that they incurred a for- feiture equal to the reward, if they failed altogether in their answers. John xiii. 24. Simon Peter therefore beckoned to him.] Peter being at some distance from Christ, beckoned to John to propose an inquiry to him. This was usually done at meals, when they could not, by reason of their posture, discourse together. This being the case, they made signs by nodding to each other. Gill, in loc. Isaiah xxviii. 1. Woe to the crown of pride, to the drunkards of Ephraim, whose glorious beauty is a fading Jiower.'] The city of Sebaste, the ancient Samaria, beautifully situated on the top of a round hill, and surrounded immediately with a rich valley and a circle of other hills beyond it, suggested the idea of a chaplet, or wreath of flowers, worn upon their heads on occasions of festivity ; expressed by the proud crown and the fading flower of the drunkards. That this custom of wearing chaplets in their banquets prevailed among the Jews, as well as among the Greeks and Ro- mans, appears from Wisdom ii. 7, 8, Bp. Lowth, in loc. Esther i. 9. Feast for the ivomen.] Chardin says, "it is the custom of Persia, and of all the East, for the women to have their feasts at the same time (with), but apart from the men." Harmer, vol. i. p. 354. Esther i. 11. To bring Vashti the queen before the king.] The Persians on festival occasions used to produce their women in public. To this purpose Herodotus relates a story of seven Per- sians being sent to Amyntas a Grecian prince, who received them hospitably, and gave them a splendid entertainment. When, after the entertainment, they began to drink, one of the Persians thus addressed Amyntas : " Prince of Macedonia, it is a custom with us Persians, whenever we have a pubhc entertainment, to introduce our concubines and young wives." On this principle Ahasuerus gave command to bring his queen Vashti into the public assembly. James v. 5. Ye have nourished your hearts as in a day of slaughter.] Mr. BlackytuM {Sacred Classics, vol. ii. p. 183) in speaking of this passage says, " The ordinary reader cannot see the relation between a day of slaughter and such high indulgence and merriment. The ideas seem to be oddly put together ; the per- tinence of the passage may at least be doubted, and the grace of the metaphor is entirely lost. Ev rjjUEpa o-^ayrjc might not im- properly be rendered, in a day, or time of public feasting, or feasting upon sacrifice. It was the custom of all nations, in times pf joy or happy success, first to offer some peculiar parts of the FESTIVITIES. 3S7 sacrifice by way of burnt-offering, in gratitude and acknowledg- ment to their gods, and then to entertain and feast themselves upon all the rest, prepared and dressed for them, with great free- dom and gaiety of heart ; and upon these occasions the people often ran into great disorders and indecencies, to which the apostle here alludes." Psalm XXXV. 16. With hypocritical mockers in feasts.\ This may probably refer to some of Saul's courtiers, who were parasites and flatterers, and made it their business at Saul's table and in their banquetings to mock at David. They were hypocritical mockers of or for a piece of bread, as it may be rendered : the same word is used for a pasty or cake, and for flatterers : they used at their feasts to throw a pasty baked with honey to para- sites. Weemse's Christ. Syn. 1. i. c. 6, p. 209. EzEK. xvi. 18, 19. And thou hast set mine oil and mine incense before them, — thou hast even set it before them for a sweet savour.l The burning of perfumes is now practised in the East in times of feasting and joy; and there is reason to believe that the same usage obtained anciently in those countries. Niebuhr {Foy. en Arabic, vol. i. p. 307) mentions a Mohammedan festival, " after which every one returned home, feasted, chewed kaad, burnt fra- grant substances in his house, stretched himself at length on his sofa, and lighted his kiddre, or lon^ pipe, with the greatest satis- faction." Harmer, vol. iii. p. 191. Prov. xxvii. 9. Ointment and perfumeJ\ At the close of a visit in the East, it is common to sprinkle rose or some other sweet-scented water on the guests, and to perfume them with aloes wood, which is brought last, and serves for a sign that it is time for a stranger. to take leave. It is thus described by M. Savary : " Towards the conclusion of a visit amongst persons of distinction in Egypt, a slave, holding in his hand a silver plate, on which are burning precious essences, approaches the faces of the visitors, each of whom in his turn perfumes his beard. They then pour rose water on the head and hands. This is the last ceremony,- after which it is usual to withdraw." As to the method of using the aloes wood, Maundrell says (p. 30), they have for this purpose a small silver chafing-dish, covered with a lid full of holes, and fixed upon a handsome plate. In this they put some fresh coals, and upon them a piece of lignum aloes, and then shutting it up, the smoke immediately ascends with a grateful odour through the cover. Probably to such a custom, so calculated to refresh and exhilarate, the words of Solomon have an allusion. Job i. 5. When the days of their feasting were gone about.l The feasting continued till they had been at each other's house 338 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. in turn. Something like this is practised by the Chinese, who have their co-fraternities, which they call the brotherhood of the month ; this consists of thirty, according to the number of days therein, and in a circle they go every day to eat at one another's house by turns. If one man have not convenience to receive the . fraternity in his own house, he may provide for it at another ; and there are many public-houses very well provided for this purpose. Semedo's Hist, of C/w'na, parti, c. 13. Solomon's Song v. 13. His cheeks are as a bed of spices.] The ancients, by way of indulgence, used to repose themselves on large heaps of fragrant herbs, leaves, and flowers. Among others, we may take an instance from Anacreon, in Ode iv. b. 1. of him- self, he says, Keclined at ease on this soft bed. With fragrant leaves of myrtle spread And flow'ry lote, I'll now resign My cares, and quaif the rosy wine, Fawkzs, CHAPTER XIII. CUSTOMS RELATING TO TRAVELLING. 2 Kings iv. 23. It is neither new moon nor sabbath.] Peter Delia Vall6 assures us {Travels into Arabia Deserta, p. 258), that it is now customary in that country to begin their journeys at the new moon. When the Shunamite proposed going to Elisha, her husband dissuaded her by observing that it was neither new moon nor sabbath. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 514. Gen. xxxi. 21. Wherefore didst thou flee away secretly, and steal away from me, and didst not tell me, that I might have sent thee away with mirth and with songs, with tabret and with harp?] The Easterns used to set out, at least on their longer journeys, with music. When the prefetto of Egypt was preparing for his journey, he complains of his being incommoded by the songs of his friends, who in this manner^took leave of their relations and acquaintance. These valedictory songs were often extemporary. If we consider them as they probably were used, not on common but more solemn occasions, there appears peculiar propriety in the complaint of Laban. Harmer, vol. i. p. 435. Gen. xxxi. 27, That I might have sent thee away with mirth and with songs, with tabret and with harp?^ A striking similarity TRAVELLING. 339 prevails between the modern dance of the South Sea islands, as performed before Captain Cook, and the ancient choral dance of Egypt and Palestine. " A band or chorus of eighteen men seated themselves before us ; they sung a slow and soft air ; twenty wo- men entered. Most of them had upon their heads garlands, of the crimson flowers of the china rose, or others. They made a circle round the chorus, and began by singing a soft air, to which responses were made by the chorus in the same tone ; and these were repeated alternately. All this while the women accompanied their song with several very graceful motions of their hands towards their faces,, and in other directions. Their manner of dancing was now changed to a quicker measure, in which they made a kind of half turn by leaping, and clapped their hands, repeating some words in conjunction with the chorus. Toward the end, as the quickness of the music increased, their gestures and attitudes were varied with wonderful vigour and dexterity." Last Voyage, vol. i. p. 250. Luke xii. S5. Let your loins he girded about.'] They who travel on foot are obliged to fasten their garments at a greater height from their feet than they do at other times. This is what is understood by girding up their loins. Chardin observes, that " all persons that travel on foot always gather up their vest, by which they walk more commodiously, having the leg and knee unburthened and disemban-assed by the vest, which they are not when that hangs over them." After this manner he supposes the Israelites were prepared for their going out of Egypt, when they eat the first passover. (Exod. xii. 11.) Harmer, vol. i. p. 450. Matt. x. 14. Shake off the dust of your feet.l In these words there seems to be an allusion to some maxims and customs of the Jews, with respect to the dust of heathen countries. With them all dust which comes from the land of the Gentiles is reckoned defiling. Hence they would not suffer herbs to be brought out of a heathen country into the land of Israel, lest dust should be brought along with them. Gill, in loc. ROADS. Judges v. 6. In the days of Shamgar, the son of Anath, the highways were unoccupied, and the travellers walked through by~. ways.'} Though there are roads in the eastern countries, it is very easy to turn out of them, and to go a place by winding about over the lands when that is thought safer. Shaw took notice of this circumstance in Barbary, where he says they found no hedges, or mounds, or inclosures, to retard or molest them. (Travels pref. p. 14.) To this Deborah doubtless refers, when slie says,' " In the days of Shamgar, the son of Anath, in the days of Jael' z2 ^ . 340 OKIENTAL CUSTOMS. the highways were unoccupied, and the travellers walked through by-ways." The account Pococke gives of the manner in which the Arab, under whose care he had put himself, conducted him to Jerusalem, greatly illustrates this circumstance; he says, " It was by night, and not by the high road, but through the fields ; and I observed that he avoided as much as he could going near any vil- lage or encampment, and sometimes stood still, as I thouglit, to hearken.'' Just in that manner people were obliged to travel in Judea in the days of Shamgar and Jael. Harmer, vol. i. p. 462. Isaiah Ixii. 10. Cast up the highway."] The following extracts will sufficiently explain the nature of these highways. Herbert says (p. 170), " the most part of the night we rode upon a paved causey, broad enough for ten horses to go abreast; built by extra- ordinary labour and expense over a part of a great desert, which is so even that it affords a large horizon. Howbeit, being of a boggy loose ground upon the surface, it is covered with white salt, in some places a yard deep, a miserable passage; for, if either the wind drive the loose salt abroad, with is like dust, or that by accident the horse or camel forsake the causey, the bog is not strong enough to uphold them, but suffers them to sink past all recovery." " The most important and most useful monument of antiquity in this country is the causey built by Shah Abbas the Great about the beginning of the last century, which runs from Keskar in the south-west corner of the Caspian, by Astrabad in the south-east corner, and several leagues yet farther, being in all near three hundred Enghsh miles. During this period it has hardly ever been repaired; it must however be observed, that few or no wheel carnages are in use in this country, so that the pavement is yet preserved in many places very perfect. In some parts it is above twenty yards broad, being raised in the middle, with ditches on each side. There are many bridges upon it, under which water is conveyed to the rice fields ; but these are made level, and do not interrupt the prospect." Hanway's Travels in Persia, vol. i. p. 198. Isaiah xl. 3. Prepare ye the way of the Lord.] This passage is an allusion to the custom of sending persons before a great prince, to clear the way for his passage. Sir Thomas Roe's chaplain (p. 468), says, " I, waiting upon my lord ambassador two years, and part of a third, and travelling with him in progress with that king (the mogul) in the most temperate months there, betwixt September and April, was in one of our progresses betwixt Man- doa and Amadavar nineteen days, making but short journeys in a wilderness, where, by a very great company sent before us to make those passages and places fit to receive us, a way was cutout and made even, broad enough for our convenient passage. And in the TRAVELLINS. S41 place where we pitched our tents a great compass of ground was rid and made plain for them, by grubbing a number of trees and bushes : yet there we went as readily to our tents as we did when they were set up in the plains." Luke iii. 4. The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight.^ The roads which led to the Jewish cities of refuge were required to be kept good, that the slayer might flee to them without impediment. The rabbies inform us, among other circumstances, that at every cross- road was set up an inscription. Asylum, asylum. Upon "which Hottinger remarks, that it was probably in allusion to this custom that John the Baptist is described as " the voice of one crying in the wilderness. Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight" * Psalm Ixxvii. 19. Thy footsteps are not kHown.'\ "Ayd still expressed his certainty that somebody had approached us last night, so much confidence did he place in the barking of his dog ; he therefore advised me to hasten my way back, as some Arabs might see our footsteps in the sand, and pursue us in quest of a booty. On departing, Ayd, who was barefooted, and whose feel had become sore with walkings took from under the date-bush round which we had passed the night, a pair of leathern sandals, which he knew belonged to his Hey wat friend, the fisherman, and which the latter had hidden here till his return. In order to in- form the owner that it was he who had taken the sandals, he im- pressed his footstep in the sand just by, which he knew the other would immediately recognise ; and he turned the toes towards the south, to indicate that he had proceeded with the sandals in that direction." Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, by the late John Lewis Burckhardt, p. 513. Luke xi. 5, 6. Which of you shall have a friend, and shall go unto him at midnight, and say unto him. Friend, lend me three loaves; for a friend of mine in his journey is come to me?] The eastern journeys are often performed in the night, on account of the great heat of the day; this is the time in which the caravans chiefly travel : the circumstance therefore of the arrival of a friend at midnight is very probable. Harmer, vol. i. p. 468. BAGGAGE. Gen. xliv. 1. Sacks.] There are two sorts of sacks taken notice of in the history of Joseph, which ought not to be confounded; one for the corn, the other for the baggage. There are no wag- gons almost through all Asia, as far as to the Indies, every thing is carried upon beasts of burthen, in sacks of wool, covered in the 34a ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. middle with leather, the better to make resistance to water. Sacks of this sort are called tambillet ; they inclose in them their things done up in large parcels. It is of thjs kind of sacks we are to understand what is said here and all tlirough this history, and not of their sacks in which they carry their corn. (Chardin.) Harmer, vol. i. p. 429. Deuteronomy xxviii. 5. Blessed shall be thy basket and thy store.'] Hasselquist informs us, that baskets, made of the leaves of the palm-tree, are used by the people of the East on journeys, and in their houses, (p. 261.) Mr. Harmer (vol, i. p. 418, note) conjectures, that such baskets are referred to in these words, and that the store signifies their leathern bags, in both which they used to carry things in travelling. Matt. xiv. 20. They took up of the fragments that remained, twelve baskets full.'] The reason why they were so easily supplied with such a number of baskets in a desert place, might be a cus- tom which the Jews have of carrying baskets with hay and straw, in commemoration of what they did in Egypt, when they were obliged to carry bricks in baskets, and to go about and pick up straw to make bricks. Hence Martial {Epigram 1. v. ep. 17) calls a Jew cistifer, a basket- bearer. Judges vii. 16. He put a trumpet in every man's hand, with empty pitchers.] Though leathern bottles were much used by the people of the East, earthen jars or pitchers were sometimes used also. Dr. Chandler {Travels in Asia Minor, p. 25) tells us, that " the vessel in which their water was to be carried was an earthen jar, which not only served them in the wherry in which they coasted some of the nearer parts of Asia Minor, but was carried upon the ass of a poor peasant, along with other luggage, when they made an excursion from the sea-side up into the country, to visit the great ruin at Troas." If this were the prac- tice in Gideon's time, it could not be difficult for him to collect three htindred water-jars from among ten thousand men. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 258. BEASTS OF BURDEN. 2 Kings iv.-24. Then she saddled an ass, and said to her ser- vant, drive and go forward.] Asses were much used for riding,^ and Pococke tells us (vol. i. p. 191), that " the man (the husband, I suppose, he means) always leads the lady's ass, and if she has a servant, he goes on one side ; but the ass-driver follows the man, goads on the beast, and when he is to turn, directs his head with a pole." The SJiiinamite, when she went to the prophet, did not desire so much attendance, but only requested her husband to TRAVELLING. 343 send her an ass and its driver, to whem she said, " Drive, and go forward." Harmer, vol. i. p. 449. Gen. xxii. 3. Saddled his ass.] There is no ground for sup- posing that the ancient eastern saddles were like our modern ones. Such were not known to the Greeks and Romans till many ages after the Hehrew judges. " No nation of antiquity knew the use t)f either saddles or stirrups" [Goguet, Origin of Laws, vol. iii. p. 172, English edit.): and even in our own times, Hasselquist, when at Alexandria, says, " I procured an equipage which I had never used before ; it was an ass with an Arabian saddle, which consisted only of a cushion, on which I could sit, and a handsome bridle." ("I'ravels, p. 52,J^ But even the cushion seems an im- provement upon the ancient eastern saddles, which were probably nothing more than a kind of rug girded to the beast. Parkhurst's Heb. Lex. p. 213. Job i. 3. Five hundred she-asses.] " It is remarkable, that in this passage female asses only are enumerated ; the reason is, because in them great part of their wealth consisted ; the males being few, and not held in equal estimation. We find that the former were chosen for riding by the natives of these parts : and tlie ass of Balaam is distinguished as a female. They were pro- ba:bly led to this choice from convenience ; for, where the country was so little fertile, no other animal could subsist so easily as this: and there was another superior advantage in the female; that whoever traversed these wilds upon a she-ass, if he could but find for it sufficient browse and water, was sure to be re- warded with a more pleasing and nutritious beverage." Bryant's Observations, p. 61. Gen. xxxi. 34. The cameVs furniture.'] Pococke informs us, that " one method of conveyance, still used in the East, is by means of a sort of round basket, slung on each side of a camel (with a cover), which holds all their necessaries, and on it (the camel) a person sits cross-legged." Mr. Moryson, whose travels were printed in the year 1596, mentions (p. 247) in his journey from Aleppo to Constantinople, "two long chairs, Vike cradles, covered with red cloth, to hang on the two sides of the camel, which chairs the Turks used to ride in, and sleep upon camels* backs." Mr. Hanway likewise mentions (Travels,'-vo\. i. p. 190) kedgavys, " which are a kind of covered chairs, which the Persians hang over camels in the manner of panniers, and are big enough for one person to sit in." Job ix. 25. My days are swifter than a post] The common pace of travelling in the East is very slow. Camels go little more than two miles an hour. Those who carried messages in haste ^"♦^ ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. moved very, differently. Dromedaries, a sort of camel which is exceedingly swift, are used for this purpose; and Lady M. W, Montague asserts, that they far outrun the swiftest horses. {Lett. ^\.^ 65.) There are also messengers who run on foot, and who sometimes go an hundred and fifty miles in less than twenty- four hours; with what energy then might Job say, " my days are swifter than a post." Instead of passing away with a slowness of motion like that of a caravan, my days of prosperity have disap- peared with a swiftness like that of a messenger carrying dispatches. Harmer, vol. i. p. 438. Isaiah V. 28. The hoofs of their horses.'] "The shoeing of horses with iron plates nailed to the hoof is quite a modern prac- tice, and was unknown to the ancients, as appears from the silence of the Greek and Roman writers, especially those that treat of horse-medicine, who could not have passed over a matter so obvi- ous, and of such importance, that now the whole science takes its name from it, being called by us farriery. The horse-shoes of leather and of iron, which are mentioned ; the silver and the gold shoes, with which Nero and Poppea shod their mules, used occa- sionally to preserve the hoofs of delicate cattle, or for vanity, were of a very different kind ; they inclosed the whole hoof, as in a case, or as a shoe does a man's foot, and were bound or tied on. For this reason the strength, firmness, and solidity of a horse's hoof ■ was of much greater importance with them than with us, and was esteemed one of the first praises of a fine horse. For want of this artificial defence to the foot, which our horses have, Amos (vi. \2) speaks of it as a thing as much impracticable to make horses run upon a hard rock, as to plough up the same rock with oxen. These circbrastances must be taken into consideration, in order to give us a full notion of the propriety and force of the image by which the prophet sets forth the strength and excellence of the Babylonisii cavalry, which made a great part of the strength of the Assyrian army." Bp. Lowth, in loc. Isaiah li. 11. And come with singing unto Zion.] In describing the order of the caravans Pitts informs us, " that some of the camels have bells about their necks, and some about their legs, like those which our carriers put about their fore horses' necks, which toge- ther with the servants (who belong to the camels and travel on foot) singing all night, make a pleasant noise, and the journey passes away delightfully." This circumstance is explanatory of the sing- ing of the Israelites in their return to Jerusalem. Harmer, vol. i. p. 469. 1 Chron. xii. 40. And on oxen."] Dandini seems to have been surprised to see oxen employed to carry burthens upon their backs, like camels, rnules, and asses, when he was making his ob- TRAVELLING. 345 gervations on the customs of the East at Tripoly in Syria ; contrary to the old saying, Optat ephippia bos piger, optat araie caballus, 'It appears, however, to have been a very ancient piactice. Har- mer, vol. ii. p. 465. LODGING PLACES. "; Sol. Song ii. 3. / sat down under his shadow with great delight, and his fruit was sweet to my taste.'] " Shade," according to Mr. Wood, in his description of the ruins of Balbec (p. 5) "is an essential article in oriental luxury. The greatest people seek these refreshments as well as the meaner. So Dr. Pococke found the patriarch of the Maronites (who was one of their greatest families) and a bishop sitting under a tree. ( Travels, vol. ii. p. 95.) Any tree that is thick and spreading doth for them ; but it must certainly be an addition to their enjoying of themselves, when the tree is of a fragrant nature, as well as shady, which the citron tree is. Travellers there, we find in their accounts, have made use of plane trees, walnut trees, &c., and Egmont and Heyman were en- tertained with coflFee at Mount Sinai, under the orange trees of the garden of that place (vol. ii. p. 178.) The people of those«oun tries not only frequently sit under shady trees, and take collations under them, but sometimes the fruit of those trees, under which they sit, is shaken down upon them, as an agreeableness. So Dr. Pococke tells us, when he was at Sidon, he was entertained in a garden, in the shade of some apricot trees, and the fruit of them was shaken upon him. ( Travels, vol. ii. p. 85.) He speaks of it indeed as if it was done as a great proof of their abundance, but it seems rather to have been designed as an agreeable addition to the entertainment." Harmer, on Salo- mon's Song, p. 247. Psalm Ixxxiv. 7. Thet/ go from strength to strength.] The scarcity of water in the East makes travellers particularly careful to take up their lodgings as much as possible near some river or fountain. D'Herbelot informs us, that the Mahommedans have dug wells in the deserts, for the accommodation of those who go in pilgrimage to Mecca (p. 396.) To conveniences perhaps of this kind, made, or renewed, by the devout Israelites in the valley of Baca, to facilitate their going up to Jerusalem, the Psalmist may refer in these words. Hence also there appears less of acci- dent than we commonly think of, in Jacob's lodging on the banks of Jabbok (Gen. xxxii. 22), and the men of David's waiting for him by the brook Besor (I Sam. xxx. 21) when they could not hold out with him in his march. Harmer, vol. i. p. 4'21. 346 ORIKNTAL CUSTOMS. I Sam. xxii. 6. Under a tree.] However common it might be for the generality of persons, when travelling, to take up with a temporary residence under a tree, it seems extraordinary that kings and princes should not be better accommodated ; yet accord- ing to eastern customs it is perfectly natural. Thus when Pococke was travelling in the company of the Governor of Faiume, who was treated with great respect as he passed, along, they spent one night in a grove of palm trees. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 127. Luke ii. 7. The inn.'] It will be proper here to give a full and explicit account of the inns or caravanserais of the East, in which travellers are accommodated. They are not all alike, some being simply places of rest, by the side of a fountain if possible, and at a proper distance on the road. Many of these places are nothing more than naked walls ; others have an attend- ant, who subsists either by some charitable donation, or the bene- volence of passengers; others are more considerable establish- ments, where families reside, and take care of them, and furnish the necessary provisions. " Caravanserais were originally intended for, and are now pretty generally applied to, the accommodation of strangers and travellers, though, like every other good institution, sometimes perverted to the purposes of private emolument or public job. They are built at proper distances through the roads of the Turkish dominions, and afford to the indigent or weary travelled' an asylum from the inclemency of the weather ; are in general built of the most solid and durable materials, have commonly one story above the ground floor, the lower of which is arched, and serves for warehouses to store goods, for lodgings, and for stables, while the upper is used merely for lodgings ; besides which they are always accommodated with a fountain, and have cooks'* shops and other conveniences to supply the wants of lodgers. In Aleppo, the caravanserais are almost exclusively occupied by merchants, to whom they are like other houses rented." . (Campbell's Trav. part. ii. p. 8.) " In all other Turkish provinces, particularly those in Asia, which are often thinly inhabited, travelling is subject to number- less inconveniences, since it is necessary not only to carry ail sorts of provisions along with one, but even the very utensils to dress them in, besides a tent for shelter at night and in bad weather, as there are no inns except here and there a caravanserai, where nothing but bare rooms, and those often very bad, and infested with all sorts of vermin, can be procured."- (Antes's Observations on Egypt, p. 55. ) The poverty of the eastern inns appears also from the following extract : " there are no inns anywhere ; but the cities, and com- monly the villages, have a large building called a han, or kervan- serai, which serves as an asylum for all travellers. These houses of reception are always built without the precincts of towns, and TRAVELLING. 347 consist of four wings round a square court, which serves by way of enclosure for the beasts of burthen. The lodgings are cells, where you find nothing but bare walls, dust, and sometimes scorpions. The keeper of this kan gives the traveller the key and a mat, and he provides himself the rest : he must therefore carry with him his bed, his kitchen utensils, and even his provisions, foi; frequently not even bread is to be found in the villages. On this account the orientals contrive their equipage in the most simple and portable form. The baggage of a man, who wishes to be com- pletely provided, consists in a carpet, a mattrass, a blanket, two sauce- pans with lids contained within each other, two dishes, two plates, and a coffee-pot, all of copper well tinned ; a small wooden box for salt and pepper, a round leathern table, which he suspends from the saddle of his horse ; small leathern bottles or bags of oil, melted biitter, water, and brandy (if the traveller be a Christian), a pipe, a tinder-box, a cup of cocoa-nut, some rice, dried raisins, dates, C)rprus cheese, and above all coffee-berries, with a roaster and wooden mortar to pound them." {Folney's Travels, vol. ii. p. 419.) " The caravanserais are the eastern inns, far different from ours ; for they are neither so convenient nor handsome : they are built square, much like cloisters, being usually but one story high, for it is rare to see one of two stories. A wide gate brings you into the court, and in the midst of the building, in the front, and upon the right and left hand, there is a hall for persons of the best quality to keep together. On each side of the hall are lodgings for every man by himself. These lodgings are raised all along the court, two or three steps high, just behind which are the stables, where many times it is as good lying as in the chambers. Right against the head of every horse there is a niche with a window into the lodging chamber, out of which every man may see that his horse is looked after. These niches are usually so large that three men may lie in them, and here the servants usually dress their victuals." (Tavernier's Travels, p. 45.) " The entrance is under a high and magnificent portal, adorned with Mosiac work, like all the rest of the buildings, and upon the sides runs a portico, where you may lie in the day-time conve- niently, and as pleasantly as in the inn itself. The fountain in the middle of the court is raised above five feet, and the brims of it are four feet broad, for the convenience of those that will say tlieir prayers after they have performed their purification." {Chardin, p. 412.) It appears from the preceding extracts, that there are inns or caravanserais of different kinds, some better than others. The scriptures use two words to express a caravanserai, in both in- stances translated inn (Luke ii. 7.) There was no room for them in the inn, xaTaXvfjiaTL — the place of untying ; that is, of beasts for rest (Luke x. 34.) And brought him to the inn, iravSoxuov, 348 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. whose keeper is called in the next verse irav^ox^ve. This word properly signifies a receptacle open to all comers, CARAVANS. . Luke ii. 44. The company.'] As at the three great festivals all the men who were able were obliged, and many women chose, at least at the passover, to attend the celebration at Jerusalem, they used, for their greater security against the attacks of robbers on the road, to travel in large companies. All who came, not only from the same city, but from the same canton or district, made one com- pany. They carried necessaries along with them, and tents for their lodging at night. Sometimes, in hot weather, they travelled all night, and rested in the day. This is nearly the manner of travelling in the East to this hour. Such companies they now call caravans ; and in several places have got houses fitted up for their reception, called caravansaries. This account of their man- ner of travelling furnishes a ready answer to the question, how could Joseph and Mary make a day's journey, without discovering before night that Jesus was not in the company ? In the day-time, we may reasonably presume that the travellers would, as occasion, business, or inclination led them, mingle with different parties of their friends or acquaintance ; but that in the evening, when they were about to encamp, every one would join the family to which he belonged. As Jesus did not appear when it was growing late, his parents first sought him where they supposed he would most probably be, amongst his relations and acquaintance ; and not finding him, returned to Jerusalem. Campbell's Translation of Gospels, note. EzEK. xii. 3. Prepare thee stuff for removing, and remove by day in their sight.'] " This is as they do in the caravans ; they carry out their baggage in the day-time, and the caravan loads in the evening ; for in the morning it is too hot to set out on a jour- ney for that day, and they cannot well see in the night. However, this depends on the length of their journeys ; for when they are too short to take up a whole night, they load in the night, in order to arrive at their journey's end early in the morning ; it being a greater inconvenience to arrive at an unknown place in the night, than to set out on a journey then." Chardin MS. Harmer, vol. i. p. 432. Isaiah Ixii. 6. / have set watchman upon thy walls, Jeru- salem, who shall never hold their peace, day nor night ; ye that make mention of the Lord, keep not silence.] The image in this place is taken from the temple service, in which there was ap- pointed a constant watch, day and night, by the Levites. Now th^ watches in the East, even to this day, are performed by a loud travelliKg. S49 cry from time to time by the watchttierij to mark the time, and that very frequently, and in order to show that they themselves are constantly attentive to their duty. "The watchmen in the camp of the caravans go their rounds, Crying one after another, • God is one, he is merciful ;' and often add, ' take heed to your- selves.' " {Tavern. Voyage de Perse, 1. i. c. 9.) The reader will observe in this extract how mention is made of the name of God by the watchmen. Gen. xxxiii. 3. And he passed over before ihem.] In travelling it was usual to place the women and children in the rear of the company. This was evidently the situation occupied by Leah and Rachel, in their journey with Jacob. From other sources we derive the same information. In the history of the caliph Vathek, it is said, that the black eunuchs were the inseparable attendants of the ladies, the rear was consequeatly their post. In the argu- ment to the poem of Amriolkais, it is related that one day when her tribe had struck their tents, and were changing their station, the women as usual, came behind the rest with the servants and baggage, in carriages fixed on the backs of camels. See also Gen. xxiv. 61. Gen. xxxiii. 13. And he said unto him, my lord knoweth that the children are tender, and the flocks and herds with young are with me : and if men should overdrive them one day, all the flocks will die.'] Prepared as the Arabs are for speedy flight, a quick motion is very destructive to the young of their flocks. " Their flocks," says Chardin, " feed down the places of their encampment so quick, by the great numbers which they have, that they are obliged to remove them too often, which is very destructive to their flocks, on account of the young ones, which have not strength enough to follow." This circumstance shows the energy of Jacob's apology to Esau for not attending him. Harmer, vol. i. p. 126. Jer. iii. 2. In the ways hast thou sat for them, as the Arabian in the wilderness^ Chardin has given a very strong and lively de- scription of the eagerness with which the Arabians look out for prey. " The Arabs wait for caravans with the most violent avidity, looking about them to all sides, raising themselves up on their horses, running here and there to see if they can perceive any smoke, or dust, or tracks on the ground, or any other marks of people passing along." Harmer, vol. i. p. 95. DANGERS. Job xxvii. 21. The east-wind carrieth him away, and he departeth ; and as a storm hurleth him out of his place/] The ancients were persuaded that some persons were carried away by 350 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. storms and whirlwinds. Homer gives us an instance of this, making one exclaim, — Snatch me, ye whirlwinds, far from human race^ Toss'd througfh the void illimitable space. Odjss. b. xx. See also Isaiah xli. 16. Job xxxvii. 9. Out of the south cometh the whirlwind. 1 M. Savary speaking orthe southern wind, which blows in Egypt from February to May, says, it fills the atmosphere with a subtle dust, which impedes respiration, and brings with it pernicious vapours. Sometimes it appears only in the shape of an impetuous whirlwind, which passes rapidly, and is fatal to tKe traveller, surprised in the middle of the deserts. Torrents of burning sand roll before it, the firmament is enveloped in a thick veil, the sun appears of the colour of blood. Sometimes whole caravans are buried in it. Does not Job allude to this wind when he says, " out of the south cometh the whirlwind ?" Job ix. 18. He will not suffer me to take my breath.] Dr. Gill is of opinion that in these words there is an allusion to the hot burning winds, which prevailed in the eastern countries ; and which sometimes blow so strong as almost to take away a man's breath. Thevenot {Travels, part i. b. 1, c. 34) reports, that between Suez and Cairo they had, for a day's time and more, so hot a wind, that they were forced to turn their backs to it to take breath. Job XXX. 22. Thou liftest me up to the wind, thou causest me to ride upon it, arid dissolvest my substance.] Amongst other in- terpretations given of this passage, the editor of Calmet's Diction- ary refers to a sand-storm, and justifies the application of such an idea by the following extract from Mr. Bruce : — " On the 14th, at seven in the morning, we left Assa Hagga, our course being due north. At one o'clock we alighted among some acacia trees at Waadi el Halboub, having gone twenty-one miles. We were here at once surprised and terrified by a sight surely one of the most magnificent in the world. In that vast expanse of desert, from W. and to N. W. of us, we saw a number of prodigious pillars of sand at different distances, at times moving with great celerity, at others stalking on with a majestic slowness ! at intervals we thought they were coming in a very few minutes to overwhelm us ; and small quantities of sand did actually more than once reach us. Again they would retreat so as to be almost out of sight, their tops reaching to the very clouds ; their tops often separated from the bodies ; and these, once disjoined, dispersed in the air, and did not appear more. Sometimes they were broken near the middle, TRAVELLING. 351 as if struck with a large cannon shot. About noon they began to advance with considerable swiftness upon us, the wind being very strong at north. Eleven of them ranged alongside of us about the distance of three miles. The greatest diameter of the largest appeared to me at that distance as if it would measure ten feet. They retired from us with a wind at S.E., leaving an impression upon my mind to which I can give no name, though surely one ingredient in it was fear, with a considerable deal of wonder and astonishment. It was in vain to think of flying ; the swiftest horse, or fastest sailing ship, could be of no use to carry us out of this danger ; and the full persuasion of this rivetted me as if to the spot where I stood, and let the camels gain on me so much in my state of lameness, that it was with some difficulty I could overtake them." {Travels, vol. iv. p. 553.) If this quotation is allowed to explain the imagery used by Job, we see a magnificence in it not before apparent. " We see how Job's dignity might be exalted in the air, might rise to great grandeur, importance, and even terror, in the sight of beholders ; might ride upon the wind, which bears it about, causing it to advance or to recede; and after all, when the wind diminishes, might disperse this pillar of sand into the un- distinguished level of the desert. This comparison seems to be precisely adapted to the mind of an Arab, who must have seen, or have been informed of, similar phenomena in the countries around him." 1 Kings xviii. 44. A little cloud.'\ When Elijah's servant re- ported to his master, that he saw a little cloud arising out of the sea like a man's hand, he commanded him to " go up and say unto Ahab, prepare thy chariot, and get thee down, that the rain stop thee not." This circumstance was justly considered as the sure indication of an approaching shower, " for it came to pass in the meanwhile that the heaven was black with clouds and wind, and there was a great rain." Mr. Bruce (^Travels, vol. iii. p. 669) has an observation which greatly corroborates this relation. He says, " there are three remarkable appearances attending the inundation of the Nile r every morning in Abyssinia is clear and the sun shines;, about nine, a small cloud, not above four feet broad, appears in the East, whirling violently round as if upon an axis ; but arrived near the zenith, it first abates its motion, then loses its form, and extends itself greatly, and seems to call up vapours from all opposite quar- ters. These clouds having attained nearly the same height, rush against each other with great violence, and put me always in mind of Elijah's foretelling rain on mount Carmel. The air, impelled' before the heaviest mass, or swiftest mover, makes an impression of its own form in the collection of clouds opposite,' and the mo- ment it has taken possession, of the space made to receive it, the most violent thunder possible to be conceived instantly follows, with rain ; and after some hours the sky again clears." 352 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. 1 Kings xviii. 44. And he said, go up, say unto Ahab, pre- pare thy chariot, and .get thee down, that ihe-rain slop thee noti] That is, says Bp. Patrick, Elijah saw such abundance of rain coming as would cause floods, and render the way impassable, if Ahab did not make haste home : and accordingly, in a very short space of time that little cloud spread itself, and with a great thick- ness covered the face of the sky. Thus the translator of an Arabian tale from an unpublished manuscript, in describing the journey of the caliph Vathek, informs us, that the caliph having travelled three days, on the fourth day the heavens looked angry, and a terrible tempest ensued: this tempest, says this writer, may be deemed somewhat the more vio- lent, from a supposition that Mahomet interfered, which will appear the more probable, if the circumstance of its obliterating the road through which the camels passed be considered. It frequently happens that a sudden blast will arise in the vast deserts of the East, and sweep away in its eddies the last passenger, whose camel therefore in vain is sought by the wanderer that follows. {Hist, of Caliph Fathek, ]^.24!7.) William of Tyre hath recorded one of a similar nature, that visited Baldwin in his expedition against Damascus. He, against whose will all projects are vain, suddenly overspread the sky with darkness, poured down such torrents of rain, and so entirely effaced the roads, that scarce any hope of escaping remained. These dis- asters were portended by a gloominess in the air, lowering clouds, irregular wind, increasing thunder, and incessant lightning. Gesta Dei per Francos, p. 849. Gillingwater MS. Deut. xxviii. 24. The Lord shall make the rain of thy land powder and dust^ An extract from Sir T. Roe's Embassy, p. 373, will greatly illustrate this. " Sometimes there (in India) the wind blows very high in hot and dry seasons, raising up into the air, a yery great height, thick clouds of dust and sand. These dry showers most grievously annoy all those among whom they fall ; enough to smite them all with a present blindness : filling their eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouths too, if they be not well guarded ; searching every place, as well within as without, so that there is not a little key-hole of any trunk or cabinet, if it be not covered^ but receives some of the dust into it." If this was the judgment threatened, it must have been a calamity much to be deprecated. Luke xii. 55. When ye see the south-wind blow, ye say there will be heat, and it cometh to pass.'\ This circumstance accords perfectly with the relations of travellers into Syria, Egypt, and several parts of the East. When the south-wind begins to blow, the sky becomes dark and heavy, the air grey and thick, and the whole atmosphere assumes a most alarming aspect. The heat produced by these southern winds has been compared to that of a TRAVELLING. 353 large oven at the moment of drawing out the bread ; and to that of a flame blown itpon the face of a person standing near the fire which excites it. Compare Thevenot's Txavels, b. i. p. 2, c. 10, with Maillet's Descript. ■ de VEgypte, torn. i. lett. 2, and Volney''s Voyage, torn. i. c. 4. 2 Kings xix. 7. Behold, I will send a blast upon him.^ The destruction of Sennacherib and his army appears to have been effected by that pestilential wind called the simoom. Mr. Bruce thus speaks of it : " We had no sooner got ir\fo the plains than we felt great symptoms of the simoom ; and about a quarter before twelve our prisoner first, and then Idris, called out, The simoom ! the simoom ! My curiosity would not suffer me to fall down without looking behind me ; about due south, a little to the east, I saw the coloured haze as before. It seemed now to be rather less compressed, and to have with it a shade of blue: the edges of it were not defined as those of the former, but like a very thin smoke, with about a yard in the middle tinged with those colours. We all fell upon our faces, and the simoom passed with a gentle ruffling wind. It continued to blow in this manner till near three o'clock, so we were all taken ill that night, and scarcely strength was left us to load the camels, and arrange the baggage." Travels, vol. iv. p. 581. In another place, Mr. Bruce describes it as pro- ducing a desperate kind of indifference about life — that it brought upon -hua a degree of cowardice and languor, which he struggled with in vain ; and that it completely exhausted his strength. From the accounts of various travellers it appears to have been almost instantaneously fatal and putrefying. It was consequently a fit agent to be employed in desolating the army of Sennacherib. Numb. xi. 1. The fire of the Lord burnt among them.'] Com- mentators have understood this to mean lightning, or the breaking forth of fire from the cloud which marked the presence of God ; but it may be as natural to explain it of the deadly fiery wind, which sometimes appears in those eastern deserts. Maillet men- tions its being felt in the desert between Egypt and Mecca, in part of which Israel wandered forty years. " If the north wind happens to fail, and that from the south comes in its place, then the whole caravan is so sickly and exhausted, that three or four hundred persons are wont, in common, to lose their Jives ; even greater numbers, as far as fifteen hundred, of whom the greatest part are stifled on the spot, by the fire and dust of which this fatal wind seems to be composed." (p. 228.) Gen. xix. 24. Then the Lord rained upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah brimstone and fire."] The curious Wormius tells of the raining of brimstone. May 16, 1646. " Here, at Copenhagen, when the whole town was overflowed by a gi'eat fall of rain, so 2a 354 -" ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. that the streets became impassable, the air was infected with a sulphureous smell ; and when the waters were a little subsided, one might have collected, in some places, a sulphureous powder, of which I have preserved ^ part, and which, in colour, smell, and every other quality, appeared to be real sulphur." Mus. Worm. 1. i. c. II, sec. 1. Psalm cxxxv. 7. He maheth lightnings for trie rain.] Rus- sell (p. 154) says, that at Aleppo a night seldom passes without lightning in the north-west quarter, but not attended with thunder. When it appears in the west or south-west points, it is a sure sign of the approaching rain ; this lightning is often followed by thun- der. Thus God " maketh' lightnings for the rain ;'' and " when he uttereth his voice, there is a multitude of waters in the heavens ;" and as these refreshing showers are preceded by squalls of wind, " he bringeth forth the wind out of his treasures." Jer. li. 16. Harmer, vol. i. p. 67. Isaiah xxxv. 7. And the parched ground shall become a pool.l Instead of the parched ground, Bp. Lowth translates it, the glowing sand shall become a pool, and says in a note, that the word is Arabic as well as Hebrew, expressing in both languages the same thing, the glowing sandy plain, which, in the hot coun- tries at a distance, has the appearance of water. It occurs in the Koran (cap. xxiv.), " But as to the unbelievers, their works are like a vapour in a plain, which the thirsty traveller thinketh to be water, until, when he cometh thereto, he findeth it to be nothing." Mr. Sale's note on this place is, the Arabic word serab signifies that false appearance, which in the eastern countries is often seen in sandy places about noon, resembling a large lake of water in motion, and is occasioned by the reverberation of the sunbeams. [" By the quivering undulating motion of that quick succession of vapours and exhalations, which are extracted by the powerful influence of the sun." Shaw's Travels, p. 378.] It sometimes tempts thirsty travellers out of their way, but deceives them when they come near, either going forward (for it always appears at the: same distance), or quite vanishes. Jer. XV. 18. Will thou be altogether unto -me as a liar, and as waters that fail?] Mr. Harmer (vol. i. p. 483) proposes it as a query, whether in these words the prophet does not allude to a phenomenon mentioned by Chardin. " There is a splendour, or vapour," he says, " in the plains of the desert, formed by the re- percussion of the rays of the sun from the sand, that appears like a vast lake. Travellers of the desert, afflicted with thirst, are drawn on by such appearances, but coming near, find themselves mistaken; it seems to drawback as they advance, or quite vanishes.- Q. Curtius takes notice of it in speaking of Alexander the Great, TRAVELLING. 355 in Susiana," It must however be left to the determination of the judicious reader, whether this observation is apphcable to the passage now cited. Deut. vii. 22. Lest the beasts of the field increase upon thee.] That wild beasts are at present in that country in considerable numbers, and terrify strangers, appears in that passage of Haynes, where, describing his arrival at Cana of Galilee, he says, (p. 118) " the approaching to Cana, at the close of day, as we did, is at once terrifying and dangerous. The surrounding country swarms with wild beasts, such as tigers, leopards, jackals, &c. whose cries and howling, I doubt not, as it did me, would strike the boldest traveller, who had not been frequently in a like situation, with the deepest sense of horror-" See also Ezek. xxxiy. 25. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 171. Psalm xxxv. 6. Let their way be dark anS slippery.] This is an allusion to some of the valleys in the land of Palestine, which were dark, and the roads in them very smooth and slippery. MaundreU's Travels, p. 7- Jer. xli, 8. But ten men were found among them, that said unto Lshmael, slay us not, for we have treasures in the field, of wheat, and of barley, of oil, and of honey ^ Shaw tells us {Trav. p. 139), that in Barbary, when the grain is winnowed, they lodge it in mattamores, or subterraneous repositories ; two or three hun- dred of which are sometimes together, the smallest holding four hundred bushels. These are very common in other parts of the East, and are mentioned by Russell (p. 20) as being in great num- bers about Aleppo, which makes travelling in the night there very dangerous, the entry into them being often left open when they are empty. Harmer, vol. iL p. 452. Joel i. 17. Garners^ Dr. Shaw informs us {Travels, p. 139), that " in Barbary, after the grain is winnowed, they lodge it in mattamores, or subterraneous magazines, two or three hundred of which are sometimes together, the smallest holding four hundred bushels." And Dr. Russell says {Hist, of Aleppo, p. 18), that " about Aleppo in Syria their granaries are even at this day sub- terraneous grottos, the entry to which is by a small hole or open- ing like a well, often in the highway ; and as they are commonly left open when empty, they make it not a little dangerous riding near the villages in the night." Prov. xxii. 14. The month of strange women is a deep pit.] Maundrell (p. 5) describing the passage out of the jurisdiction of the bassa of Aleppo into that of Tripoli, tells us, that the road was rocky and uneven, but attended with variety. He says, "they 2 A.2 356 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. descended into a low valley, at the bottom of which is a fissure into the earth of a great depth : but withal so narrow, that it is not discernible to the eye till you arrive just upon it, though to the ear a notice is given of it at a great distance, by reason of the noise of a stream running down into it from the hills. We could not guess it to be less than thirty yards deep ; but it is so narrow that a small arch, not four yards over, lands you on its other side. They call it the sheik's wife ; a name given it from a woman of that quality, who fell into it and perished." Probably Solomon might allude to some such dangerous place, in comparing a whore to a deep pit. See also Prov. xxiii. 27. Harmer, vol. i. p. 461. Luke iv. 1. And Jesus being full of the Holy Ghost, returned from Jordan, and was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, being forty days tempted of the devilJ] Mr. Maundrell, in his travels in the Holy Land, saw the place which was the scene of Christ's temptations, and thus describes it \- — " From this place (the Foun- tain of the Apostles) you proceed in an intricate way amongst hills and valleys interchangeably, all of a very barren aspect at present, but discovering evident signs of the .labour of the husbandman in ancient times. After some hours' travel in this sort of road, you arrive at the mountainous desert into which our blessed Saviour was led by the Spirit to be tempted by the devil. A most miser- able, dry, barren, place it is ; consisting of high rocky mountains, so torn and disordered as if the earth had suffered some great convulsion, in which its very bowels had been turned outward." Journal/, p. 79. * Luke x. 30. A certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho.'] " Descending from the brow of the range of hills on which Jerusalem is seated, and going about north-easterly, we passed through the higher or northern part of the valley of Ke- dron, leaving Bethany, Bethphage, and the mount of Olives, on our right or to the south of us. " In about three hours from the time of our quitting the gates of Jerusalem, having gone the whole of the -way over stony and rugged ground, we reached an encampment of the tribe of Arabs to which our guides belonged. There were only six small tents of coarse hair cloth, and in each of them not more than half a dozen persons. The Arabs of this tribe extending their range over all the country between the Jordan and Jerusalem, branch off into small parties to obtain pasture for their camels and goats. It was thus that this party occupied a small hollow of the land, in which were a few shrubs, very sparingly scattered over the surface, and hardly sufficient to furnish food for their flocks for more than a few days. " We halted here to receive the pledge of protection from our guides, by eating bread and salt with them beneath their own TRAVELLING. 357 tents. A meal was prepared for us of sour milk and warm cakes, by the wives of our companions, and coffee was served to us by their children, while we sat around a fire of brush-wood, kindled for the occasion. The appearance of the Arabs who composed our party at this halt, was much more different from those who inhabited towns, than that of the peasantry of our own counitry is from its citizens. In these tented dwellers, there is seen an air of independence mixed, perhaps, with something of ferocity, that is never to be witnessed, even in the Mussulmans of large cities ; and a more robust, though less pampered frame, with deeply browned complexions and piercing eyes, gave them altogether a brave and manly appearance. " We remounted and quitted this encampment at one o'clock, though the dangers that were talked of during our entertainment, as likely to beset us in the way, were sufficient to have deterred persons who were not very firmly bent on their purpose from pro- ceeding. In half an hour, going now more easterly, we came to a very narrow pass, cut through the hill, in a bed of hard rock. There was here an old fort, which had once guarded this passage, but was now deserted, and close by were the ruins of a large square building belonging to it. This is too far distant from Jerusalem to be the Anathath spoken of by Josephus, as the country of Jeremiah, that place being fixed at twenty furlongs, whereas this is at least from twelve to fourteen miles. It corres- ponds more accurately with the position given to Ephraim, in D'Anville's map, or even of Adommin, a little to the southward of it; but of these no details are given by which we could ascertain to which, or whether indeed to either of them, this site might be assigned ; nor did we learn that it had any name by which our conjectures might have been assisted. " After going through the pass, we descended again into deeper vallies, travelling sometimes on the edges of cliffs and precipices, which threatened destruction on the slightest false step. The scenery all around us was grand and awful, notwithstanding the forbidding aspect of the barren rocks that everywhere met our view ; but it was that sort of gi-andeur which excited fear and terror rather than admiration. " The whole of this country, firom Jerusalem to the Jordan, is held to be the most dangerous about Palestine, and, indeed, in this portion of it, the very aspect of the scenery is sufficient, on the one hand, to tempt to robbery and murder, and, on the other, to occaision a dread of it in those that pass that way. It was partly to prevent any. accident happening to us, in this early stage of our journey, and partly perhaps to calm our fears on that score, that a messenger had been dispatched by our guides, to an encampment of their tribe near, desiring them to send an escort to meet us at this place. We were met here accordingly by a band of about twenty persons on foot, all armed with matchlocks, 358 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. and presenting the most ferocious and robber-like appearance that' could be imagined. The effect of this was heightened by the shouts which they sent forth from hill to hill, and which were re- echoed through all the vallies, while the bold projecting crags of rocks, the dark shadows in which every thing lay buried below, the. towering heights of the cliffs above, and the forbidding deso- lation which everywhere reigned around, presented a picture that was quite in harmony throughout all its parts. " It made us feel most forcibly, the propriety of its being chosen as the scene of the delightful tale of compassion, which we had before so often admired for its doctrine, independently of its local beauty. Luke x. 30—34. " One must be, amid these wild and gloomy solitudes, sur- rounded by an armed band, and feel the impatience of the travel- ler, who rushes on to catch a new view at every pass and turn,- one must be alarmed at the very tramp of the horses' hoofs, re- bounding through the caverned rocks, and at the savage shouts of the footmen, scarcely less loud than the echoing thunder produced by the discharge of their pieces in the vallies : one must witness all this upon the spot, before the full force and beauty of the admirable story of the good Samaritan can be perceived. Here pillage, wounds, and death, would be accompanied with double terror, from the frightful aspect of every thing around. Here the unfeeling act of passing by a fellow-creature in distress, as the Priest and Levite are said to have done, strikes one with horror, as an act almost more than inhuman. And here too, the com- passion of the good Samaritan is doubly virtuous, from the purity of the motive which must have led to it, in a spot where no eyes were fixed on him to draw from him the performance of any duty, and from the bravery which was necessary to admit of a man's exposing himself by such delay, to the risk of a similar fate to that from which he was endeavouring to rescue his fellow-creature. " After about three hours' travel from the camp at which we had halted, and little more than six hours' journey from Jerusalem, in nearly a north-eastern direction, we came upon the ruins of an aqueduct, leading from the foot of a hill towards the plain. The channel for the water was lined on the inside with plaster and gravel, like the aqueduct at Tyre. Close by it were the remains of a fine paved way, with a single column, now fallen, probably one of the mile-stones on the high road from Jerusalem to Jericho, " We caught from hence the first view of the great plain, as it is called, or of the valley of Jordan. We could see too, the point at which that river emptied itself into the Dead Sea, after pursuing its serpentine course through the plain, in nearly a south-east direction. The sea itself is bounded by high moun- tains, both on the east and on the west, and its surface is generally unruffled, from the hollow of the bason in which it lies, scarcely admitting the free passage necessary for a strong breeze. TRAVELLING. 359 It is, however, for the same reason, subject to whirlwinds or squalls of short duration ; but, at the present moment, its surface exhibited a dead calm, and its waters gave back a whitish glare, from the reflection of the sun on them. " Still descending, we came, in half an hour, to other portions of aqueducts, originally perhaps connected with these, which we had seen above. Here, however, we noticed the addition of arched or vaulted reservoirs for the water, at the termination of the chan- nel ; so that it was conveyed to these as places of general store, rather than to any actual town. Indeed, we saw no vestiges which might lead us to infer that any large settlement existed on the immediate spot, though it may be presumed that there were once dwellers near, for whose convenience these reservoirs were constructed. " We conceived it probable that these aqueducts might have been connected with the fountain which was near to Jericho, the waters of which were sweetened by the prophet Elisha. The fact of the aqueducts being found here, on the foot of the hills, is sufficient to prove that water was at least so scarce an article as to render expensive and artificial means necessary to its preserva- tion. This, too, would be perfectly consistent with such local details as are left us regarding the country immediately about Jericho. " When Elijah was taken up in a chariot and horses of fire, and carried by a whirlwind to heaven, leaving only his mantle behind him ; and when the fifty men of Jericho had sought him on the mountains and high places where they thought he might have dropped, but returned without success to this place, where Elisha himself staid, the Scriptures say, ' Now the men of the city said unto Elisha, Behold, I pray thee, the sityation of this city is pleasant, as my lord seeth, but the water is nought ^nd th§ ground barren.' " " Josephus, after observing that the great plain here is all de- stitute of water, excepting the river Jordan, says, ' notwithstand- ing which, there is a fountain by Jericho that runs plentifully, and is very fit for watering the ground. It arises near the old city, where Joshua, the son of Nun, the general of the Hebrews, took the first of all the cities of the land of Canaan, by right of war.' He then mentions the report of its waters being of such a nature as to destroy every thing over which it ran ; but by the virtue of Elisha's throwing into it a little salt, accompanied by a prayer, the pouring out a milk drink-offering, and joining to this the proper operations of his hands, after a skilful manner, the waiters became not only sweet and wholesome, but possessed afterwards so fertilizing a quality as to be superior to all others, and to occa- sion the writer to say, after enumerating the benefits of its stream, * that he who should pronounce this place to be divine, would not be mistaken.' 360 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. " At the present moment, even such channels as were evidently those of streams and torrents, were destitute of water, from the long-continued drought that had prevailed ; so that we could say nothing regarding the peculiar qualities of any of the fountains in this neighbourhood; and probably from the same cause, the plain here, at the foot of the hills, was parched and barren." Travels in Palestine through the countries of Bashan and Gilead, east of the River Jordan, including n Visit to the Cities of Geraza and Gamala, in the Decapolis, By J. S, Buckingham, vol. ii. pp. 51 —61. EccL'ES. vii. 26, I find more bitter than death the woman whose heart is snares and nets, and her hands as bands.\ The following insidious mode of robbery gives a very lively comment upon these words of Solomon. " The most cunning robbers in the world are in this coiMtry. They use a certain slip with a running noose, which they cast with so much sleight about a man's neck when they are within reach of him, that they never fail, so that' they strangle him in a trice. They have another curious trick to catch travellers. They send out a handsome woman upon the road, who, with her hair dishevelled, seems to be all in tears; sighing, and complaining of some misfortune which she pretends has befallen her. Now, as she takes the same way as the traveller goes, he easily falls into conversation with her, and finding her beautiful, offers her his assistance, which she accepts ; but he hath no sooner taken her up on horseback behind him, but she throws the snare about his neck, and strangles him, or at least stuns him ; until the robbers who lie hid come running in to her assistance, and complete what she hath begun." Thevenot, part. iii. p. 41. ExoD. xvii. 1. Rephidim.] " After we had descended, with no small difficulty, the western side of Mount Sinai, we come into the other plain that is formed by it, which is Rephidim. Here we still see that extraordinary antiquity, the rock of Meribah, which hath continued down . to this day, without the least injury from time or accident. It is a block of granite marble, about six yards square, lying tottering as it were, and loose in the middle of the valley, and seems to have formerly belonged to Mount Sinai, which hangs in a variety of precipices all over this plain. The ' waters which gushed out, and the stream which flowed,' (Psalm Ixxviii. 20) have hollowed, across one corner of this rock, a channel about two inches deep and twenty wide, appearing to be encrustated all over, like the inside of a tea-kettle that had been long in use. Besides several mossy productions that were still preserved by the dew, we see all over this channel a great number of holes, some of them four or five inches deep, and one or two in diametei', the lively and demonstrative tokens of their having been formerly so many fountains. It likewise may be further observed, that art or chance TRAVELLING. 361 could by no means be concerned in the contrivance, for every circumstance points out to us a miracle, and, in the same manner with the rent in the rock of Mount Calvary, at Jerusalem, never fails to produce a religious surprise in all who see it." Shaw's Travels, p. 352, 353. ExoD. xiv. 29. The waters were a wall unto them on their right hand and on their left^ Diodorus Siculus relates that the Ichthyophagi, who lived near the Red Sea, had a tradition handed down to them through a long line of ancestors, that the whole bay was once laid bare to the very bottom, the waters retiring to the opposite shore, and that they afterwards returned to their accus- tomed channel with a most tremendous revulsion. (Bib. Hist. lib. iii. p. 174.) Even to this day the inhabitants of the neigh- bourhood of Corondel preserve the remembrance of a mighty army having been once drowned in the bay, which Ptolemy calls Clysma. {Shaw'» Travels, p. 349.) The very country where the event is said to have happened in some degree bears testimony to the accuracy of the Mosaical narrative. The scriptural Etham is still called Etti ; the wilderness of Shur, the mountain of Sinai, and the country of Paran, are still known by the same names. Niebuhrs Travels, vol. i. p. 189, 191. Numb. x. 31. Thou mayest be to us instead of eyes.] The importance of a guide in traversing the deserts must be evident, when we peruse the following extract from Bruce's Travels (vol. iv. p. 586), " A hybeer is a guide, from the Arabic word hubbah, to inform, instruct, or direct, because they are used to do this office to the caravan travelling through the desert in all its directions, whether to Egypt and back again, the coast of the Red Sea, or the countries of Sudan, and the western extremities of Africa. They are men of great consideration, knowing perfectly the situation and properties of all kinds of water to be met on the route, the distances of wells, whether occupied by enemies or not, and if so, the way to avoid them with the least inconvenience. It is also necessary to them to know the places occupied by the simoon, and the seasons of their blowing in these parts of the desert; likewise those occupied by moving sands. He generally belongs to some powerful tribe of Arabs inhabiting these deserts, whose protection he makes use of to assist his caravans, or protect them in time of danger, and handsome rewards are always in his power to distri- bute on such occasions : but now that the Arabs in these deserts are everywhere without government, the trade between Abyssinia and Cairo given over, that between Sudan and the metropolis much diminished, the importance of the office of hybeer, and its consi- deration, is fallen in proportion, and with these the safe conduct." ExoD. xiii. 21. The Lord went before them by day in a pillar 362 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. of a cloud, to lead them the may; and bff night in a pillar of fire, to give them light.'] Xenophon, in his Laeedsemonian repub- lic, describing the march of a Spartan king when he goes out to war, mentions a servant or officer under the name of fire-carrier, who went before him with fire taken from the altar, at which he had just been sacrificing, to the boundaries of the Spartan terri- tory, where, sacrificing again, and then proceeding, a fire, kindled likewise from this latter sacrifice, goes before him, without ever being extinguished. *1 Sam. XXX. II. And they found an Egyptian in the field and brought him to David, and gave him bread and he did eat, and they made him drink water.] " In the afternoon we entered a lateral branch of the Naszeb, more northerly than the main branch which contains the well, and we gradually ascended it. We had been joined at the Ayoun Mousa by an Egyptian Bedouin, belonging to the Arabs of the province of Sherkyeh, who was married to a girl of the Towara Arabs. Last night, being in the vicinity of the place where he knew his wife to be, he put spurs to the ass on which he was mounted, and thinking that he knew the road, he quitted the Wady Sheberjke two hours before we did, and without any provision of water. He missed his way on the sandy plain of Debbe, and instead of reaching the spring of Naszeb, where he intended to allay his thirst, he rode the whole of this morning and afternoon about the mountain in different directions, in fruitless search after the shady and conspicuous rock of Naszeb. Towards the evening we met him, so much ex- hausted with thirst that his eyes had become dim, and he could scarcely recognise us ; had he not fallen in with us he would pro- bably have perished. My companions laughed at the effeminate Egyptian, as they called him, and his presumption in travelling alone in districts with which he was unacquainted." Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, by the late John Lewis Burckhardt, pp. 479, 480. NAVIGATION. Acts xxvii. 29. Then, fearing lest they should have fallen upon rocks.] The ancients dreaded shipwreck as the worst sort of death, as being thereby liable to be devoured by fish, dashed against rocks, or cast upon uninhabited islands. So Horace : — Quern mortis titnuit gradum, Qui siccis oculis monstra natantia, Qui vidit mare turgidum, et Infames scopulos Acroceraunia? B.i. od. 3, 1. IT. ' What kind of death could affright him, who could behold the sea monsters swimming, the sea raging, and the infamous (by reason of shipwrecks) rocks of Acroc&raunia, with dry eyes ? TRAVELLING. 363 Acts xxvii. 27. The shipmen deemed that they drew near to some country.] Literally, that some land approached them. No doubt this was an usual sea phrase for drawing near to land. So Virgil : — Pro vehimur portfl, terneque utbesque recediint. ^n. iii. 72. ] We leave the poit ; the lands and towns recede. Thus also Ovid: — ^dmotumque fretum lemiSr tellusque repuTsa est. Met. vi. 512. The oars naw dash the sea, the shore's repell'd. Acts xxvii. 34. There shall not a hair fall from the head of any of you.] Some think this alludes to a custom ainong mariners, to make vows in times of extremity, and to shave their heads in consequence of them, and so interpret these w^ords as if it were - said, you need not vow your hair, you shall be safe without that expedient; but it appears to have been a proverbial and general expression of entire safety. (1 Kings i. 52; Matt. x. 30; Luke xii. 7.) Doddridge, in loc. Acts xxvii. 34. There shall not a hair fall from the head of any ofi/ouJ] This was a proverbial phrase expressing the utmost safety, and therefore they might cheerfully eat their food and be satisfied. To dream of shaving the head portended shipwreck to sailors : nor was it lawful for any to pare his nails, or cut off his hair, but in a storm : to which custom some think the apostle here alludes. See Kirchman, de Funer. Rom. 1. ii. c. 14. p. 212. Psalm civ. 26. There go the ships ; there is that leviathan whom thou hast made to play therein.'] The terms of the original Hebrew are here so very strong, that we cannot doubt of the author's intention to couch a figurative sense under the literal and more obvious acceptation of his expressions. I»eviathan is un- questionably the prince and people of Egypt, exhibited under the apt emblem of their own crocodile. It is not unusual with the sacred writers to allude to that country under this formidable im- age. Compare Isaiah xxvij. 1, with Ezek. xxix 3. If therefore it be here said literally of the great and wide waters to which the Psalmist is pointing, " their ships shall make procession, that leviathan thou has fashioned to perform the actions of his feast therein," the author must intend to speak of the rejoicings of the Egyptians at the height of their flood, rather than of the sports of the leviathan, of which natural history affords no proof. The very term here applied is used to express the action of the multitude when Aaron celebrated the Egyptian feast of the golden calf, and- they rose up to dance and sing before it. It is also used to denote the gestures of the triumphal procession of the Hebrews, the 364 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. motions of the women who sung with timbrels, " Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands. " That the Egyptians did anciently make processions by water to their temples, Hero- dotus bears witness. The feast of Bubastis, which is mentioned by him as the greatest of the Egyptian feasts, commenced with a procession by water. He says that " both men and women em- bark together, a vast multitude of each in every vessel ; some of the women being furnished with crotala, play with them, while some of the men perform on the pipe, during the whole of the voyage. The remainder both of -women and men sing and clap hands. This they particularly do when they draw near to any city. The women also at such times call upon the female inhabi- tants of those cities severally to exert themselves, and they accord- ingly come forth and dance." Hurdis's Diss. p. 133. Acts xxviii. 11. Castor and Pollux.'] It was the custom of the ancients to have images on their ships, both at the head and stern ; the first of which was called wapaa-rifiov, the siffn, from which the ship was named ; and the other was that of the tutelar deity, to whose care the ship was committed. There is no doubt but they had sometimes deities at the head, and then it is most likely, if they had any figure at the stern, it was the same, as it is hardly probable the ship should be called by the name of one deity, and be committed to the care of another. Doddridge, in loc. Acts xxvii. 40. And loosed the rudder-hands. \ The ancient ships had frequently two rudders. They were a kind of very large and broad oars on each side of the hinder part of the ship. When occasion required they unloosed them, and even let them drop when in danger, as well as cut off the anchors. See more in Parkhursfs Greek Lex. p. 555. Phil. i. 23. In a strait between two.] The original is very emphatical, and seems to be an allusion to a ship stationed at a particular place, and riding at anchor, and at the same time likely to be forced to sea by the violence of the winds ; which presents us with a lively representation of the apostle's attach- ment to his situation in the christian church, and the vehemence of his desire to be unbound, that is, to weigh anchor, and set sail for the heavenly country. Doddridge, in loc. Phil. ii. 15. Among whom ye shine as lights in the world^ This metaphor has an allusion to the buildings which we call light- houses, the most illustrious of which was raised in the island of Pharos, when Ptolemy Philadelphus built that celebrated tower, on which a bright flame was always kept burning in the night, that mariners might perfectly see their way, and be in no danger of GOVERNORS. 365 suffering shipwreck. Some of these light-houses were constructed in the form of human figures. The colossus at Rhodes held in one hand a flame which enlightened the whole port. These lights were also sometimes moveable, and were used to direct the marches of the caravans in the night. Pitts thus describes them : " They are somewhat like iron stoves, into which they put short dry wood, which some of the camels are loaded with. Every cotter hath one of these poles belonging to it, some of which have ten, some twelve of these lights on their tops, and they are likewise of different figures, one perhaps oval, another triangular, or like an N or M, &c. so that every one knows by them his respective cotter. They are carried in the front, and set up in the place where the caravan is to pitch, before that comes up, at some distance from one ano- ther." {Harmer, vol. i. p. 472.) The meaning of the passage from these representations is obvious. " Ye shine as elevated lights in the dark world about you," that ye may direct those that sail on this dangerous sea, and secure them from suffering ship- wreck, or guide those who travel through this desert in their way to the city of rest. (Matt. v. 14 ; Luke ii. 32 ; John v. 35 ; 2 Pet. i. 19.) CHAPTER XIV. CUSTOMS RELATING TO GOVERNORS. KINGS. 1 Sam. X. 24. All the people shouted and, said, God save the king.l The acclamations of the people attended the ceremony of the inauguration of the Jewish kings. This fully appears in the case of Saul, and also of Solomon : for when Zadok anointed him king, " they blew the trumpet, and said, God save king Solomon," 1 Kings i. 39. 2 Kings ix. 13. Then they hasted, and took every man his garment, and put it under him at the top of the stairs, and blew with trumpets, saying, Jehu is kingJl " When I read," says Mr. King {Archceol. vol. vi. p. 293), " that on Jehu's being anointed king over Israel at Ramoth-gilead, the captains of the host, who were then sitting in council, as soon as they heard thereof, ' took every man his garment, and put it under him on the top of the stairs,' and blew with trumpets, proclaiming, Jehu is king ; and when I consider the account given by Herodotus of the ancient Ecbatana, ^hich was at no great distance from Syria, and in a 366 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. country tnucli connected with it ; and reflect also upon the appear- ance of the top of the stair-cases, both at Launceston and Connis- borough (which were narrow and steep), I am very apt to conclude, that at either of the two latter places is still to be beheld nearly the same kind of scenery, as to building, which was exhibited to the world on the remarkable occasion of inaugurating Jehu at Ramoth-gilead," Matt. vi. 29. Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these.'} The royal robes which were put on the king of Judah at his coronation were very rich and splendid. These may certainly be gathered from the declaration of Christ in these words. This allusion is the more apposite, if, as Josephus saith {Antiq. lib. viii. c. 7), Solomon were usually clothed in white. On this supposition, it is probable that this was the colour of the royal robes of his successors. But it being likewise the colour of the priest's garments, the difference between them must be supposed to lie in the richness of the stuff they were made of, Jennings's Jewish Ant. vol. i. p. 184. 2 Kings xi. 14. And when she looked, behold, the king stood by a pillar, as the manner was.'] From various testimonies it appears, that a seat erected near a pillar or column was particu- larly honourable and distinguishing. Homer furnishes an instance of this kind. Speaking of Ulysses, he says. The monarcla by a column high enthroned. His eye withdrew, and fix'd it on the ground. Odyss. xxiii. 93. Pofe. The same custom is also twice mentioned in Odyss. b. viii. See also 2 Kings xxiii. 3. 2 Kings xx. 13. And Hezekiah hearkened unto them, and showed them all the house of his precious things, the silver, and the gold, and the spices, and the precious ointment, and all the.house of his armour. \ Vertomannus, in his voyage to the East, describ- ing the treasure of the king of Calicut, says, that it is esteemed so immense that it cannot be contained in two remarkably large cellars or warehouses. It consists of precious stones, plates of gold, and as much coined gold as may suffice to lade a hundred mules. They say that it was collected together by twelve kings who were before him, and that in his treasury is a coflfer three spans long and two broad, full of precious stones of incalculable value. This custom for the eastern princes to amass enormous loads of trea- sure, merely for show and ostentation, appears to have been prac-' tised by the kings of Judea. One instance of it at least is found in the case of Hezekiah, in the passage now referred to. The display which Hezekiah made of his treasure was to gratify the GOVERNORS. 367 auibassadors.of the king of Babylon. It appears to have been an extraordinary thing, and not done but upon this and occasions of a simiiar nature ; such probably was the general practice. Lord Macartney informs us, that " the splendour of the emperor of China and his court, and the riches of the mandarins, surpass all that can be said of them- Their silks, porcelain, cabinets, and other furniture, make a most glittering appearance. These, how- ever, are only exposed when they make or receive visits : for they commonly neglect themselves at home, the laws against private pomp and luxury being very severe." Dan. ii. 4. O king, live for ever.] This ancient wish and address to the throne seems most manifestly to have taken its rise from an ancient and original apprehension, that those who could obtain favour and mercy through the promised Messiah would really live for ever, and have not only as great, but greater powers to be useful hereafter, than they have had on earth. Morsels of Criticism, vol. i. p. 469. Daniel v. 27. Thoti art weighed in the balances.] From the following extract it will appear, that there is an allusion in these words, which will justify a literal interpretation of them. " The first of September (which was the late- Mogul's birth-day), he, retaijiing an ancient yearly custom, was in the presence of his chief grandees, weighed in a balance : the ceremony was performed within his house, or tent, in a fair spacious room, whereinto none were admitted but by special leave. The scales in which he was thus weighed were plated with gold ; and so was the beam, on which they hung by great chains, made likewise of that most pre- cious metal. The king, sitting in one of them, was weighed first against silver coin, which immediately afterwards was distributed among the poor; then was he weighed against gold; after that against jewels (as they say), but, I observed (being there present with my lord ambassador), that he was weighed against three seve- ral things, laid in silken bags on the contrary scale. When I saw him in the balance, I thought on Belshazzar, who was found too light. (Dan. v. 27.) By his weight (of which his physicians yearly keep an exact account), they presume to guess of the pre- sent estate of his body, of which they speak flatteringly, however they think it to be." Sir Thomas Roe's Voyage to India. EzEKiEL xliv. 2. This gate shall be shut.] Amongst other instances of the extreme distance and profound awe with which eastern majesty is treated, Chardin says (torn. iii. p. 69), " It is a common custom in Persia, that when a great man has built a palace, he treats the king and his grandees in it for several days ; then the great gate of it is open ; but when these festivities are over, they shut it up, never more to be opened. This account 368 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. may serve as a comment on the words of Ezekiel : " Then said the Lord unto me, this gate shall be shut, it shall not be opened, and no man shall enter in by it : because the Lord God of Israel hath entered in by it, therefore it shall be shut. It is for the prince." Harmer, vol. iii. p. 329. John i. 49. Thou art the king of Israel.^ Those virho enter- tained any expectations that Christ should appear as a temporal prince, had embraced very false ideas of his mission and character. They were however, in a great measure induced by this mistaken hope to overlook the office which he w;as to discharge as a spiritual ruler in Israel. In this way he was far more honoured and exalted than he could have been by any of those ceremonies which were practised upon the coronation of kings in the East. It may be worth while to relate the circumstances of so great an event, as it may serve to evince on what objects the minds of the Jews were most intent. Mr. Bruce has given us a description of this kind, which, on account' of the conformity it exhibits between the man- ners of Abyssinia and Judea, shall have the preference to any other. He says, that "it was on the 18th of March (according to the Abyssinian account, the day of our Saviour's first coming to Jerusalem) that this festival began. The king's army consisted of 30,000 men. All the great officers, all the officers of state, and the court, then present, were every one dressed in the richest and gayest manner; nor was the other sex behindhand in the splendour of their appearance. The king, dressed in crimson damask, with a great chain of gold round his neck, his head bare, mounted upon a horse richly caparisoned, advanced at the head of his nobility, passed the outer court, and came to the paved way before the church. Here he was met by a number of young girls, daughters of the umbares, or supreme judges, together with many noble vir- gins standing on the right and left of the court. " Two of the noblest of these held in their hands a crimson cord of silk, somewhat thicker than a common whipcord, but of a looser texture, stretched across from one company to another, as if to shut up the road by which the king was approaching the church. When this cord was prepared, and drawn tight about breast high by the girls, the king entered, advancing at a moderate pace, curvetting, and showing the management of his horse. He was stopped by the tension of this string, while the damsels on each side, asking who he "was, were answered, I am your king, the king of Ethiopia. To which theyjreplied with one voice. You shall not pass, you are not our king. " The king then retires some paces, and presents himself as to pass, and the cord is again drawn across his way by the young women, so as to prevent him, and the question repeated. Who are you ? The king answered, I am your king, the king of Israel ; but the damsels resolved, even on this second attack, not to sur- GOVERNORS. S69 render, but upon their own terms. They again answer, You shall not pass, you are not our king. " The third time, after returning, the king advances with a face and air more determined, and the cruel virgins again presenting the cord, and asking who he is, he answers, I am your king, the king of Sion, and, drawing his sword, cuts the silk cord asunder. Immediately upon this, the young women say. It is a truth, you are our king, you are the king of Sion. Upon which they loegin to sing Hallelujah, and in this they are joined by the court and army upon the plain ; fire-arms are discharged, drums and trum- pets sound,, and the king, amidst these acclamations and rejoicings, advances to the foot of the stairs of the church, where he dismounts, and there sits down upon a stone, which, by its remains, apparently was an altar of Anubis, or the dog-star. At his feet there is a large slab of freestone, on which is an inscription. " The king is first anointed, then crowned, and is accompanied half-way up the steps by the singing-priests, called dipteras, chanting psalms and hymns : here he stops at a hole made for the purpose in one of the steps, and is then fumigated with incense and myrrh, aloes and cassia. Divine service is then celebrated, and after receiving the sacrament, he returns to the camp, where fourteen days should regularly be spent in feasting, and all man- ner of rejoicing, and military exercise." (Travels, vol, ii. p. 278.) This extract affords some illustration of Psalms xxiv. and xlv. Luke xxii. 25. They that exercise authority upon them are called benefactors.^ In this expression there is an allusion to the titles affected by monarchs and conquerors in those ages, amongst which benefactors, Euergetes, was one. CampbelPs Translation of the Gospels, note. Rev. v. 8. When he had taken the booh.'[ Some interpreters understand the delivering of this book into the hands of Christ, as an act of inauguration, or investiture, into his regal power and authority, and that many of the expressions here used are taken from the ceremonies of solemn investitures, in which there are several instances of its having been done by the delivery of a book. SUBORDINATE RULERS. Gen. xli. 40. Thou shalt be over my house, and according to thy word shall all my people he ruled.'] The Easterns kiss what comes from the hand of a superior. The editor of the Ruins of Balbec observed, that the Arab governor of that city respectfully applied the firman of the grand seignior (which was presented to him) to his forehead, when he and his fellow-travellers first waited on him, and then hissed it, declaring himself the sultan's slave's slave (p. 4). Is not this what Pharaoh refers to in these words ? 2 B 370 ORIENTAI. CUSTOMS. " Thou shalt be over my house, and according unto thy word," or " on account of thy word shall all my people kiss (for so it is in the original) ; only in the throne will I be greater than thou ;" that is, I imagine, the orders of Joseph were to be received with the greatest respect by all, and kissed by the most illustrious of the princes of Egypt. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 48. Gen. xli. 42. And arrayed him in vestures of fine linen."] To be arrayed in a rich dress, and to ride in great pomp and ceremony were the ancient modes of investing with the highest degree of subordinate power in Egypt : and, with a small variation, still remain so. The history of the revolt of Ali Bey (p. 43) informs us, that on the election of a new sheik bellet, the pasha who approves of him invests him with a valuable fur, treats him with sherbet, and when the sheik bellet departs, the pasha presents him with a horse richly caparisoned. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 308. Dan. ii. 48. Then the king made Daniel a great man."} For various purposes and services the eastern princes honoured and dignified men of wisdom and particular abilities : but they some- times carried their attachment to a very singular excess ; even im- prisoning them if they suspected them of an intention to retire. If they happened to escape, an embassy with presents and apologies sometimes followed the man of learning ; and a peremptory demand was often made, where gentler methods had not the desired effect : a demand, however, seldom complied with, if the power of the sovereign with whom they had taken refuge bore any proportion to that of his competitor. See Richardson^ s Dissert, on the.Eastern Nations, p. 30. Dan. v. 13. Then was Daniel brought before the king.] Char- din gives an account of a very singular kind of honour paid the Persian princes after their deaths — that it was usual to drive their physicians and astrologers from court. This he supposes to be of great antiquity, and to have been the cause of Daniel's absence, when Belshazzar saw in the hand-writing his doom on the wall, which writing nobody that was then with him could explain. Daniel was not, it is certain, only occasionally absent from this solemnity, which was conducted in a manner affronting to the God of Israel; for it appears from ver. 13, that he was not at- all per- sonally known to Belshazzar. This has been supposed to have been owing to his having been a vicious and 'a weak prince. Chardin supposes, on the other hand, that the ceremonial of the Persian court required it. The first reason hardly accounts for his absence, since weak and vicious as he might be, Nicotris, his mother, who appears to have been no stranger to the great abilities of Daniel, who is said to have been a lady of great wisdom, and who is believed to have had the chief management of aflpairs, might have employed Daniel in matters of state, which, in all probability, eOVEUNORS. 371 considering his eminence, would have made him known to the king ; he did not however know him ; she did not therefore employ Daniel. From the queen mothei-'s recommending Belshazzar to consult Daniel, I collect, says Chardin, that Daniel had been mazouled (displaced) at the death of the king ; for in the East, when the king dies, the physicians and astrologers are displaced ; the first, for not having driven away death ; and the other, for not having predicted it. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 165. ExoD. xxiv. 11. And upon the nobles of the children of Israel he laid not his hand.'] It is usually said, that God laid not his hand in a way of terror, or anger, on these nobles on account of their intrusion : but in the Monthly Magazine for January, 1804, is the following description of the appearance at court of the Mogul's officers, who partake of his bounty or rewards. " Those officers of the districts, whose time has expired, or who have been recalled from similar stations, repair to the imperial presence, and receive the reward, good or evil, of their administration. When they are admitted into the presence, or retire from thence, if their rank and merit be eminent, they are called near to his majesty's person, and allowed the honour of placing their heads below his sacred foot. The iemperor lays his hand on the back of a person, on whom he means to bestow an extraordinary mark of favour. Others from a distance receive tokens of kindness, by the motion of the imperial brow or eyes." Now if the nobles of Israel were not admitted to the same nearness of approach to the deity as Moses and Aaron, perhaps this phrase should be taken directly contrary to what it has been. He laid not his hand in a way of special favour, nevertheless they saw God, and did eat and drink in his presence. This sense of laying on the hand is supported by a passage in BelFs Travels to Persia, p. 103. " The minister received the credentials, and laid them before the shah, who touched them with his hand, as a mark of respect. This part of the ceremony had been very difficult to adjust : for the ambassador insisted on delivering his letters into the shah's own hands. The Persian ministers, on the other hand, affirmed, that their king never received letters directly from the ambassadors of the greatest emperors on earth." Theological Magazine, vol. iv. p. 140. 2 Cor. viii." 19. Who was also chosen by the churches.] This choice was by the suffi-age of the churches, performed by holding up hands. It was derived from an fincient custom of the Atheni- ans in the choice of their magistrates. The candidates being pro- posed to the people, they showed their choice by holding up their hands. He who had the most was declared duly elected. Thus there was a brother appointed by the suffrage of the churches to travel along with Paul, and convey their alms to the poor saints in Judea. See also Acts xiv. 23. 2 B 2 372 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. ENVOYS. 2 Cor. v. 20. We are ambassadors.] Ambassadors were usually persons of great worth or eminent station, that by their quality and deportment they might command respect and attention from their very enemies ; and what injuries or affronts soever had been committed, their persons were held sacred by all sides. Gods and men were thought to be concerned, to prosecute with the utmost vengeance all injuries done to them ; whence we read that the Lacedaemonians having inhumanly murdered Xerxes' ambassadors, the gods would accept none of their oblations and sacrifices, which were all found polluted with direful omens, till two noblemen of Sparta were sent as an expiatory sacrifice to Xerxes, to atone for the death of his ambassadors by their own. Whence this holiness was derived upon ambassadors, has been a matter of dispute. Fabulous authors deduce it from the honour paid by the ancients to the ^jjpuKEe or heralds, who were either themselves ambassa- dors, or when others were deputed to that service, accompanied them, being held sacred on account of their original, because de- scended from Ceryx, the son of Mercury, who was honoured with the same employment in heaven which these obtained on earth. The Lacedaemonian ambassadors carried in their hand a staff of laurel or olive, called kjjovkiov, round which two serpents, without their crests erected, were folded, as an emblem of peace and con- cord. The Athenian heralds frequently made use of the Ejpso-tojvt/, which was a token of peace and plenty, being an olive-branch covered with wool, and adorned with all sorts of fruits of the earth. Potter's ArchcBologia Greeca, vol. ii. p. 66. Matt. v. 4L Whosoever shall compel thee.] Our Lord in this passage refers to the angari, or Persian messengers, who had the royal authority for pressing horses, ships, and even men, to assist them in the business on which they were employed. In the modern government of Persia there are officers not unlike the ancient angari, called chappars, who serve to carry despatches between the court and the provinces. When a chappar sets out, the master of the horse furnishes Jiim with a single horse, and when that is weary, he dismounts the first man he meets, and takes his horse. There is no pardon for a traveller that should refuse to let a chappar have his horse, nor for any other who should deny him the best horse in his stable. (See Hanway's Travels, vol. i. p. 262.) The Jews, and inhabitants of other provinces, were compelled by the Roman governors or the tetrarchs to furnish horses, and themselves to accompany their public messengers, as those on public business might compel the horse of those on the road to attend them. The Persian couriers wore a dagger as a mark of authority, called a hanger, from which the name of angari is sup- GOVERNORS. 373 posed by some to be derived. {Chardin's Travels, vol. ii. p. 2^2.) A very full and clear account of these messengers is afforded us in Campbell's Travels, part ii. p. 93. " As I became familiarized to my Tartar guide, I found his character disclose much better traits than his first appearance bespoke. I began insensibly to think him a very entertaining fellow. Perceiving that I was very low- spirited and thoughtful, he exhibited manifest tokens of compassion, and taking it into his head that I was actually removed for ever from my friends and my family, he spoke in a style of regret and feeling that did honour to his heart ; and, to say the truth, he did every thing in his power to alleviate my feelings, conversing with me either by means of the interpreter, or in broken lingua Franca, supplying all my wants cheerfully and abundantly, changing horses with me as often as I pleased, and going slowly or galloping for- ward just as best suited my inclination or humour. " The" first object he seemed to have in view on our journey was to impress me with a notion of his consequence and authority, as a messenger belonging to the sultan. As all these men are employed by the first magistrates in the country, and are as it were the links of communication between them, they think themselves of great importance to the state, while the great men, whose busi- ness they are employed in, make them feel the weight of their authority, and treat them with the greatest contempt. Hence they become so habitually servile to their superiors, and by natural consequence insolent and overbearing to their inferiors, or those who, being in their power, they conceive to be so. " As carriers of despatches, their power and authority wherever they go are in some points undisputed, and they can compel a sup- ply of provisions, horses, and attendants, whenever it suits their occasion ; nor dare any man resist their right to take the horse from under him, to proceed on the emperbr's business, be the ovvner's occasion ever so pressing. " As soon as he stopped at a caravanserai, he immediately called lustily about him in the name of the sultan ; demanding, in a menacing tone of voice, fresh horses, victuals, &c. on the instant. The terror of this great man operated like magic ; nothing could exceed the activity of the men, the briskness of the women, and the terror of the children (for the caravanserais are continually attended by numbers of the very lowest of the people), but no quickness of preparation, no effort could satisfy my gentleman, he would show me his power in a still more striking point of view, and fell to belabouring them with his whip, and kicking them with all his might." REVENUES. 1 Kings iv. 7. And Solomon had twelve officers over all Israel, who provided victuals for the king and his household,] These are 374 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. doubtless to be considered as his general receivers ; for " the revenues of princes in the East are paid in the fruits and produc- tions of the earth ; there are no other taxes upon the peasants." Chardin, MS. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 284. Jer. xxxiii. 13. The flocks shall pass again under the hands of him that telleth them.'] The revenues of princes in the East are paid in the fruits and productions of the earth. There are no other taxes upon the peasants. {^Chardin.) The twelve officers of Solomon, mentioned 1 Kings iv. 7 — 19, are to be considered as his general receivers. They furnished food for all that belonged to the king ; and the having provisions for themselves and attend- ants seem to have been, in those times of simplicity, all the ordi- nary gratification his ministers of state, as well as his meaner ser- vants, received. Silver, gold, horses, armour, precious vestments, and other things of value, came to him from other quarters ; partly a kind of tribute from the surrounding princes (1 Kings x. 15 — 25), partly from the merchants, whom he suffered to pass through his conntry to and from Egypt and elsewhere (ver. 15), .partly from his own commerce by the Red Sea. (ver. 22.) The horses and armour he seems to have distributed among the most populous towns, which were to find horsemen, and people to drive chariots, to such a number, when called for ; and out of the silver and othec precious things that came to him, he made presents upon extra- ordinary occasions to those that distinguished themselves in his service. (1 Kings x. 26, 21.) Sir J. Chardin supposes the telling of the flocks was for the purpose of paying tribute, it being the custom in the East to count the flocks, in order to take the third of the increase and young ones for the king. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 284. 2 Chron. ix. 24. And they brought every man his present, vessels of silver, and vessels of gold, and raiment.] Thevenot tells us (part i. p. 253), it was a custom in Egypt in his time, for the consuls of the European nations to send the bashaw a present of so many vests, and so many besides to some officers, both when a new bashaw came, and a new consul entered his office, as were rated at above a thousand piastres. Doth not this last account remind us of the presents that were made to Solomon by the neigh- bouring princes at set times, part of which, we are expressly told, consisted of raiment ? Harmer, vol. ii. p. 89. 1 Sam. X. 27. And brought him no presents.] When D'Ar- vieux was attending an Arab emir, a vessel happened to be wrecked on the coast. The emir perceived it from the top of the mountains, and immediately repaired to the shore to profit by the misfortune. Staying some time, it grew so late that he determined to spend the night there under his tents, and ordered supper to be GOVERNORS. 375 • got ready. He says that nothing was more easy, for every body at Tartoura vied with each other as to the presents they brought, of meat, fowl, game, fruit, coffee, &c. Were they not presents of this kind that the children of Belial neglected to bring? Harmer, vol. ii. p. 15. Malachi i. 8. Offer it now to thy governor.] This is designed as a reproof to Israel for offering such sacrifices for the service of God's altar as were imperfect; and such as, if offered to a superior, would not be accepted. Presents in general are acceptable ; but circumstances in the East make a considerable difference on this head, as to the ideas which would be attached by those people to gifts, and those which are commonly entertained in this part of the world. Presents were indispensably necessary to obtain the favour of the great. Frequently indeed the royal revenue was paid in the necessary articles of subsistence ; so also was that of individuals ; of course such persons would be particularly careful to have what was good and perfect, and would disdain to receive what was otherwise. Agreeably to this statement, Mr. Bruce {Travels, vol. i. p. 353) tells us, that " the present governor of Dahalac's name is Hagi Mahomet Abd el Cader. The revenue of this governor consists in a goat brought to him monthly by each of the twelve villages. Each vessel that puts in there pays him also a pound of coffee, and every one from Arabia a dollar, or pataka." Chardin observes that " it is the custom of the East for poor people, and especially those in the country, to make presents to the lords of lambs and sheep, as an offering or tribute." Presents to men, like offerings to God, expiate offences. See more in Harmer, vol. ii. p. 25. Matt. ii. 11. Gold, frankincense, and myrrh.] Some of the ancients are of opinion, that in the presents which these eastern sages made, they had a mystical meaning, and designed to signify their acknowledgment both of the divinity, royalty, and humanity of our Lord; for the incense, they say, was proper to be given him as a God; the gold, as a king; and the. myrrh, as a mortal man, whose body was to be embalmed therewith. It is certain that the eastern people never came into the presence of their princes without some presents, and that their presents were usually of the most choice things that their country afforded. All that they meant, therefore, was to do homage to a new-born prince of a neighbouring nation, in the best manner they could ; and if what naturalists tell us be true, that myrrh was only to be found in Arabia, and frankincense in Sabaea, which is a part of Arabia, and that this country was not destitute of gold (2 Chron. ix., 14), and at the same time was famous for men conversant in astronomy, it makes a very probable argument that the wise men came from thence. 376 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. INSIGNIA. Gen. xlix. 10. The sceptre shall not depart from Judah,'] Sceptres, or staves of some kind or other,^ have been among almost all nations the ensigns of civil authority, as they are to this day, being in themselves very proper emblems of power extended, or acting at a distance from the person. . Achilles, who was the chief of a Grecian tribe or clan, is described in Homer as holding a sceptre or staff which The delegates of Jove, dispensing laws. Bear in their hands. II. i. 238. Numb. xvii. 6. The rod of Aaron.'] It has been the custom in all ages for elderly men, and for those in authority, to carry, as. a mark of dignity, a rod or walking-staff, which at length became the sceptre peculiar to princes, Minos, king of Crete, is repre- sented in Hesiod as bearing the sceptre of Jupiter ; and Homer (11. i. 14) says, the priest Chryses had a sceptre of gold. The priests among the Greeks and Romans had their recurved rods j and bishops in later ages have their crosiers ; all which are ensigns of dignity and office.^ Expository Ind. p. 69. 1 Sam. xxii. 6. Having his spear in Ms handJ] By his spear is to be understood his sceptre, according to the mode of expression prevalent in these times. So Justin (lib. xliii. cap. 3), speaking of the first times of the Romans, says, " Per ea adhuc tempora reges hustas pro diademate habebant, quas Graeci sceptra dixere," &c. " In those days kings hitherto had spears as signs of royal autho- rity, which the Greeks called sceptres : for in the beginning of things, the ancients worshipped spears for immortal gods ; in memory of which religion, spears are still added to the images of the gods." Thus the kings of Argos, according to Pausanias, called their sceptres, spears. EzEK. xix. 11. She had strong rods for the sceptres of them that bear rule,] ■ The allusion here is evidently to the sceptres of the ancients, which were no other than walking-sticks, cut from the stems or branches of trees, and decorated with gold, or studded with gold nails. Thus Achilles is introduced as swear- ing by a sceptre, which being cut from the trunk of a tree on the mountains, and stripped of its bark and leaves, should never more produce leaves and branches, or sprout again. Such an one the Grecian judges carried in their hands. See Homer, II. i. 234. 1 Kings x. 20. There was not the like' made in any kingdom,] In after ages we read of thrones very glorious and majestic. AthensBus says, that the throne of the Parthian kings was of gold, GOVERNORS. 377 encompassed with four golden pillars, beset with precious stones. The Persian kings sat in judgment under a golden vine, and other trees of gold, the bunches of whose grapes were made of several sorts of precious stones. To this article may be very properly annexed the following account of the famous peacock throne of the Great Mogul. " The Great Mogul has seven thrones, some set all over with diamonds ; others with rubies, emeralds, and pearls. But the largest throne is erected in the hall of the first court of the palace ; it is, in form, like one of our field-beds, six feet long and four broad. I counted about a hundred and eight pale rubies in collets about that throne, the least whereof weighed a hundred carats; but there are some that weigh two hundred. Emeralds I counted about a hundred and forty, that weighed some threescore, some thirty carats 1 The under part of the canopy is entirely embroidered with pearls and diamonds, with a fringe of pearls round the edge. Upon the top of the canopy, which is made like an arch with four panes, stands a peacock, with his tail spread, consisting entirely of sapphires and other proper-coloured stones; the body is of beaten gold, enchased with numerous jewels ; and a great ruby adorns his breast, to which hangs a pearl that weighs fifty carats. On each side of the peacock stand two nosegays, as high as the bird, consisting of various sorts of flowers, all of beaten gold enamelled. When the king seats himself upon the throne there is a transparent jewel, with a diamond appendant, of eighty or ninety carats weight, encompassed with rubies and emeralds, so suspended that it is always in his eye. The twelve pillars also that uphold the canopy are set round with rows of fair pearl and of an excellent water, that weigh from six to ten carats a-piece. At the distance of four feet, upon each side of the throne, are placed two umbrellas, the handles of which are about eight feet high, covered with diamonds ; the umbrellas themselves being of crimson velvet, embroidered and fringed with pearl. This is the famous throne which Timur began and Shah Johan finished, and is really reported to have cost a hundred and sixty millions and five hundre3 thousand livres of our money. Tavernier's Indian Travels, tom. iii. p. 331, edit. 1713. Matt, xxvii. 29. And when they had platted a crown of thorns, they put it vpon his head.J Amongst other circumstances of suffering and ignominy which accompanied the death of Christ, it is said that they plaited " a crown of thorns, and put it upon his head." Hasselquist {Travels, p. 288) says, " The naba or nabka of the Arabians is in all probability the tree which afforded the crown of thorns put on the head of Christ : it grows very common in the East. This plant is very fit for the purpose, for it has many small and sharp spines, which are well adapted to 378 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. give pain ; the crown might be easily made of these soft, round, and pliant branches; and what in my opinion seems to be the greatest proof is, that the leaves much resemble those of ivy, as they are of a very deep green. Perhaps the enemies of Christ would have a plant somewhat resembling that with which em- perors and generals were used to be crowned, that there might be calumny even in the punishment." Other writers have advanced different opinions on this subject. Some have asserted that it was the acacia, or the whitethorn, or the juncus marinus ; but after all, the matter must be left indeterminate. See Bartholin. Dissert, de spinea Corona. Lamentations ii. 1. And remembered not his footstool in the day of Ms anger.'] The footstool was not only a great convenience as an appendage to the throne, but was a peculiar mark of regal honour : on this account the earth is called the footstool of the throne of God. In this manner it is mentioned by Homer : A splendid footstool, and a throne, that shine With gold unfading, Soainus, shall be thine. 1l. xiv. 273. Pope. Romans xiii. 4. He beareth not the sword in vain.] This is spoken agreeably to the notions and" customs of the Romans at the time when the apostle wrote. Thus Suetonius says (in Vitell. cap. 15) that Vitellius gave up his dagger, which he had taken from his side, to the attending consul, thus surrendering the authority of life and death over to the citizens. So the kings of Great Britain are not only at their inauguration solemnly girt with the sword of state, but this is afterwards carried before them on public occasions, as a sword is likewise before some inferior ma- gistrates among us. Prov. iii. 16. Length of days is in her right hand, and in her left riches and honour.] Wisdom is here represented as a queen, holding in one hand, instead of a sceptre, length of days, and in the other, instead of a globe, riches and honour. The allusion is thought by some to be to an ancient custom of numbering things - and the ages of men by the hand and fingers, beginning with the left hand; and when they came to a hundred, going on to the right. So that in her right hand might be said to be length of days, few persons arriving to that number. {Alex, ab Alex. Genial. Dier. l..i. c. 14.) To this Juvenal refers when speaking of Nestor, Suos jam dextra computat annos. Sat. x. 249. EccLEs. X. 7. / have seen servants riding upon horses, and princes walking as servants up6n the earth.] Riding on a horse is a very honourable thing in the East, and what Europeans are not in common permitted to do. They are ridden in a very stately GOVERNORS. 379 manner. It is contrary to the Turkish dignity to go on a horse faster than a foot pace in the streets. When they appear thus abroad they are attended with a number of servants. Ideas of stateliness consequently attach themselves to riding on horseback. In other instances, asses were very much used both by the men and by the women, but the former practice became so prevalent in the time of Solomon, that speaking of state and pomp, he says, " I have seen servants upon horses, and princes walking as ser- vants upon the earth." Harmer, vol. ii. p. 104. Zech. i. 8. A red horseJ] The word here translated red, signifies blood-red, not any kind of bright bay, or other colour usual amongst horses. But the custom of painting and dyeing horses for riding, whether asses or horses, explains the nature of this description. Tavernier ( Travels, p. 11 1), speaking of a city which he visited, says, " Five hundred paces from the gate of the city we met a young man of a good family, for he was attended by two servants, and rode upon an ass, the hinder part of which was painted red." And Mungo Park informs us, that the Moorish sovereign Ali always rode upon a milk-white horse, with its tail dyed red. See also Zech. vi. 2 ; Rev. vi. 4. Fragments Supp. to Calmet, No. 478. Esther vi. 8. And the horse that the king rideth upon, and the crown royal which is set upon his head."] Herodotus relates, that the kings of Persia had horses peculiar to themselves, which were brought from Armenia, and were remarkable for their beauty. If the same law prevailed in Persia, as did in Judea, no man might ride on the king's horse, any more than sit on his throne, or hold his sceptre. The crown royal was not to be set on the head of the man, but on the head of the horse ; this interpretation is allowed by Aben-Ezra, by the Targum, and by the Syriac version. No mention is afterward made of the crown as set upon the head of Mordecai ; nor would Haman have dared to advise that which could not be granted. But it was usual to put the crown royal on the head of a horse led in state ; and this we are assured was a custom in Persia, as it is with the Ethiopians to this day; and so with the Romans. Horses drawing triumphal chariots were crowned. Gill, in loc. Judges v. 10. Ye that ride on white asses.] In this song Deborah expressly addresses herself to those whosit in judgment, whom she describes as riding upon white asses. Officers of jus- tice, it seeitis, form a part of the procession, and they are going up to the high place, as usual, for the purpose of holding their annual judgment. They ride on asses, which appear to be white from the garments which have been spread over them for the accommoda- tion of their riders ; none but white garments being worn by the 380 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Hebrews during their public festivals and days of rejoicing. When Alexander the Great came to Jerusalem, we are informed by Josephus (Ant. 1. xi. c. 8) that he was met by the people in white raiment, the priests going before them. Philo also, in his book TTtpi apsrwv, describing the public rejoicings in Europe and Asia, speaks of sacrifices, men dressed in white and garlands, solemn assemblies, and nightly feasts, with pipe and harp. It was cus- tomary to throw the white garments thus worn, over animals that carried persons of distinction. Hurdis's Diss. p. 62. Dr. Gill seems rather to favour the idea, that they were really white asses, and not such as were made to appear so from having white gar- ments thrown over them. He observes, that a traveller in those parts (Cartwright) tells us, that on the banks of the Euphrates they had beheld every day great droves of wild beasts, as wild asses, &c. all white. Esther iii. 10. And the king took his ring from his hand, and gave it unto Haman.^ This he did both as a token of affec- tion and honour. With the Persians, for a king to give a ring to any one was a token and bond of the greatest love and friendship imaginable. {Alex, ab Alex. Genial. Dier. 1. i. c. 26.) . It may be this was given to Haman to seal with it the letters that were or should be written, giving orders for the destruction of the Jews. Among the Romans, in after times, when any one was put into the equestrian order, a ring was given to themj for originally none but knights were allowed to wear them. It was sometimes used in appointing a successor in the kingdom : as when Alexander was dying, he took his ring from off" his finger, and gave it to Perdiccas, by which it was understood that he was to succeed him. See 1 Mace. vi. 14, 15. " Sit annulus tuus, non ut vos aliquod, sed tanquam ipsetu: non minister aliense voluptatis, sed testis tuse." Cic. ad Q. Fratr. Rev. vii. 2. And I saw another angel ascejiding from the east, having the seal of the living GodJ\ The bearing of a seal is a token of a high office, either by succession or deputation. (Gen. xli. 42 ; Esther viii. 2.) Josephus gives several instances of this, (lib. xi. cap. 6, lib. xii. cap. 14.) Thus in Aristophanes, the taking away of the ring signifies the discharging of a chief magistrate. Matt. xvi. 19. I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven.'] As stewards of a great family, especially of the royal household, bore a key, probably a golden one, in token of their office, the phrase of giving a person the key naturally grew into an expression of raising him to great power. (Comp. Isaiah xxii. 22, with Rev. iii. 7.) This was with peculiar propriety applicable to the stewards of the mysteries of God. (1 Cor. iv. 1.) Peter's GOVERNOKS. 881 opening the kingdom of heaven, as being the first that preached it both to the Jews and to the Gentiles, may be considered as an illustration of this promise ; but it is more fully explained by the power of binding and loosing afterwards mentioned. Luke xi. 52. Key of knowledge.'] It is said, that authority to explain the law and the prophets was given among the Jews by the delivery of a key ; and of one rabbi Samuel we read, that after his death they put his key and his tablets into his coffin, because he did not deserve to have a son to whom he might leave the ensigns of his office. If the Jews really had such a custom in our Saviour's time, the expression, the key of knowledge, may seem a beautiful reference to it. Isaiah xxii. 22. The key of the house of David will I lay upon his shoulder.'] The difficulties which commentators have found in this passage are judiciously removed by the learned Bp. Lowth, whose note is as follows : " As the robe and the baldrick, men- tioned in the preceding verse, were the ensigns of power and au- thority, so likewise was the key the mark of office, either sacred or civil. The priestess of Juno is said to be the key-bearer of the goddess, icXEtSou^^oe Hpac. JEschyl. Suppl. 299. A female high in office under a great queen has the same title : KaWjfioij kXuSovxos OXvfiTriaSoe BaaiXurig. (Auctor Phoronidis ap. Clem. Alex. p. 418, edit. Potter.) This mark of office was likewise among the Greeks, as here in Isaiah, borne on the shoulder: the priestess of Ceres KaTWfia^iav i\E KXaiSa. {Callim. Ceres, ver. 45.) To comprehend how the key could be borne upon the shoulder, it will be necessary to say some- what of the form of it : but without entering into a long disquisi- tion, and a great deal of obscure learning concerning the locks and keys of the ancients, it will be sufficient to observe that one sort of keys, and that probably the most ancient, was of consider- able magnitude, and as to the shape very much bent and crooked. Aratus, to give hjs reader an idea of the form of the constellation of Cassiopeia, compares it to a key. It must be owned that the passage is very obscure; the learned Huetius has bestowed a great deal of pains in explaining it {Animadvers. in Manilii, lib. i. 355), and I think has succeeded very well in it. Homer {Odyss. xxi. 6) describes the key of Ulysses's store-house, as tuKajuTrijc, of a large curvature, which Eustathius explains by saying it was SptTravottSjjc, in shape like a reap-hook. Huetius says, the constellation Cas- siopeia answers to this-description : the stars to the north making the curve part, that is, the principal part of the key ; the southern stars the handle. The curve part was introduced into the key- hole ; and, being properly directed by the handle, took hold of the 382 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. bolts within, and moved tliem from their places. We may easily collect from this account, that such a key would lie very well upon the shoulder ; that it must be of some considerable size and weight, and could hardly be commodiously carried otherwise. Ulysses's key was of brass, and the handle of ivory ; but this was a royal key ; the more common ones were probably of wood. In Egypt they have no other than wooden locks and keys to this day ; even the gates of Cairo have no better. {Baumgarten, Peregr. i. 18. Thevenot, part ii. ch. 10.) Isaiah ix. 6. The government shall be upon his shoulder.'] Raphelius, in his note on this text, says', " I believe that because we carry burthens upon our shoulders, therefore government is said to be laid upon them." Herodotus (lib. ii. cap. 106) mentions a statue of Sesostris king of Egypt, on which some sacred Egyp- tian letters were engraved, reaching from one shoulder to the other, of this import, " I obtained this country by my shoulders."' HOMAGE. Isaiah xlix. 23. They shall bow down to thee with their face toward the earth.'] It is well known, that expressions of submis- sion, homage, and reverence, always have been, and are still carried to a great degree of extravagance in the eastern countries. When Joseph's brethren were introduced to him, "they bowed down themselves before him with their faces to the earth." (Gen. xlii. 6.) The kings of Persia never admitted any one to their presence without exacting this act of adoration, for that was the proper term for it. The insolence of eastern monarchs to conquered princes, and the submission of the latter, is astonishing. Mr. Harmer (vol. ii. p. 43) gives the following instance of it from D'Herbelot: — A certain prince threw himself one day on the ground, and kissed the prints that his victorious enemy's horse had made there, reciting some verses in Persian, which he had composed, to this effect : The mark that the foot of your horse has left upon the dust serves me now for a crown. The ring, which I wear as a badge of my slavery, is become my richest ornament. While I shall have the happiness to kiss the dust of your feet, I shall think that fortune favours me with its tenderest caresses, and its sweetest kisses. These expressions, therefore, of the prophet are only general poetical images, taken from the manners of the country, to denote great respect and reverence : and such splendid poetical images, which frequently occur in the prophetical writings, were intended only as general amplifications of the subject, not as predictions to be understood and fulfilled precisely according to the letter. Bp. Lowth, in loc. GOVERNORS. 383 Psalm Ixxii. 9 — 11. His enemies shall lick the dust.] In Mr. Hugh Boyd's account of his embassy to the king of Candy in Ceylon, there is a paragraph which singularly illustrates this part of the psalm, and shows the adulation and obsequious reverence ■with which an eastern monarch is approached. Describing his introduction to the king, he says, " The removal of the curtain was the signal of our obeisances. Mine, by stipu- lation, was to be only kneeling. My companions immediately began the performance of theirs, which were in the most perfect degree of eastern humiliation. They almost literally licked the dust ; prostrating themselves with their faces almost close to the stone floor, and throwing out their arms and legs ; then rising on their knees, they repeated in a very loud voice a certain form of words of the most extravagant meaning that can be conceived : — that the head of the king of kings might reach beyond the sun ; that he might live a thousand years, &c." Compare this with the passage of Scripture now referred to. " He shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth. They that dwell in the wilderness shall bow before him, and his enemies shall lick the dust," i. e. the wild unconquered Arabians shall be brought to abject submis- sion. This is beautifully emblematic of the triumph of Christ over those nations and individuals, whom it appeared impossible for the gospel to subdue. " The kings of Tarshish and of the isles shall bring presents ; the kings of Sheba and Seba shall offer gifts. Yea, all kings shall fall down before him ; all nations shall serve him." Rev. xix. 10. I fell at his feet to worship him."} This appears to have been the act of homage usually paid to great men in the East, and which was now performed under impressions more so- lemn than those which were made by the presence of princes and kings. Mr. Bruce thus describes the ceremony now alluded to : " The next remarkable ceremony in which these two nations (Per- sia and Abyssinia) agreed, is that of adoration, inviolably observed in Abyssinia to this day, as often as you enter the sovereign's presence. This is not only kneeling, but absolute prostration ; you first fall upon your knees, then upon the palms of your hands, then incline your head and body till your forehead touches the ground, and, in case you have an answer to expect, you lie in that posture till the king, or somebody from him, desires you to rise." (Travels, vol, iii. p. 270.) Matt. xxi. 8. Others cut down branches from the trees, and strewed them in the way.] It was usual in the East to strew flowers and branches of trees in the way of conquerors and great princes. So we find that those who esteemed Christ to be the Messiah and their king acted towards him, A similar instance '^°* ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. may be found in Herodotus, (vii. p. 404.) He informs us that people went before Xerxes passing over the Hellespont, and burnt all manner of perfumes on the bridges, and strewed the way with myrtles. 2 Kings x. 15. And he gave him his hand.] In token of ac- knowledging a newly-elected prince it was not uncommon, or inconsistent with the reverence due to his character, to take him by the hand. D'Herbelot (p. 204), in explaining an eastern *^™' ^hich he tells us signifies the election or inauguration of a khahf, informs us, that this ceremony consisted in stretching forth a person's hand, and taking that of faim that they acknowledged for khalif. This was a sort of performing homage, and swearing fealty to him. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 330. This was also sometimes done as a token of friendship and fidelity. Gal. ii. 9. With this view it was also practised by the Romans, as appears from Virgil : — Ipse pater dextram Anchises, baud multa moratus, Uat juveni; atque animum prsesenti pignore firmat. jEn. iii. 610. " My father Anchises frankly gives the youth his right hand, and fortifies his mind by that kindly pledge." Job xxxi. 35, 36. That mine adversary/ had written a book .' surely I would take it upon my shoulder, and bind it as a crown to me.'] From the following extracts it appears, what is the cus- tomary kind of homage, which, in the East, is paid, not only to sovereignty, but to communications of the sovereign's will, whether by word or letter. " When the mogul, by letters, sends his com- mands to any of his governors, these papers are entertained with as much respect as if himself were present ; for the governor, having intelligence that such letters are coming near him, himself, with other inferior officers, rides forth to meet the * patamar,' or messenger, that brings them, and as soon as he sees those letters, he alights from his horse, falls down on the earth, and takes them from the messenger, ' and lays them on his head, whereon he binds them fast :' then retiring to his place of public meeting, he reads, and answers them." (Sir Thomas Roe's Embassy, p. 453.) " 'The letter which was to be presented to the new monarch was delivered to the general of the slaves, it was put up in a purse of cloth of gold, drawn together with strings of twisted gold and silk, with tassels of the same, and the chief minister put his own seal upon it ; nor was any omitted of all those knacks and curio- sities, which the oriental people make use of in making up their epistles." " The general threw himself at his majesty's feet, bowing to the very ground : then rising upon his knees, he drew out of the bosom of his garment the bag, wherein was the letter which the assembly GOVERNORS. 38,') had sent to tlie new monarch. Presently he opened the bag, took out the letter, kissed it, laid it to his forehead, presented it to his majesty, and then rose up." {Chardins Coron. of Soleiman, p. 44.) To such a custom as is here described, Job- seems to allude in this passage. Prov. xxiv. 26. Every man shall kiss his lips that giveth a right answer.'] The rescripts of authority used to be kissed whether they were beheved' to be just or not ; and the letters of people of figure were treated in this manner ; but it is possible these words may refer to another custom, which D'Arvieux gives an account of in his description of the Arabs of Mount Carmel, who, when they present any petition to their emir for a favour, offer their billets to him with their right hands, after having first kissed the papers. (Fot/. dans la Pal. p. 155.) The Hebrew manner of expression is short : every Up shall kiss, one maketh to return a right answer, that is, every one shall be ready to present the state of his case, kissing it as he delivers it, when there is a judge whose decisions are celebrated for being equitable. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 52. DISTINCTIONS. I 2 Kings v. 18. And he leaneth upon my hand."] This might be done out of state, or on account of weakness. In the additions to the book of Esther (xv. 4) mention is made of two young women that waited on that queen, upon one of whom she leaned, and the other held up her train. It was not only the custom amongst the Persians and Syrians, but the Israelites also. 2 Kings vii. 2, 17. J'airick, in loc. 1 Kings ii. T. But show kindness unto the sons of Barzillai the Gileadite, and let them he of those that eat at thy table.] The privilege of eating at court was both private and public. Those passages which speak of a right to eat at a royaf table, may be understood as referring to public and solemn feasts. Chardin thus understood the dying advice of David to Solomon, which, he says, may be referred to the megelez, not the daily and ordinary repasts ; at these megelez many persons have a right to a seat ; others are present only from special grace. We are therefore to consider it, of their receiving a right to a constant attendance there. Harmer, vol. i. p. 351. Dan. v. 12. Dissolving of doubts.] Literally from the He- brew, untying of knots. In the copy of a patent given to Sir John Chardin by the king of Persia, we find ;t is addressed, " To the lords of lords, who have the presence of a lion, the aspect of Deston, the princesses who have the stature of Tahem-ten-ten, 2 c 386 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS, I who seem to be in the time of Ardevon, the regents who carry the majesty of Ferribours, the conquerors of kingdoms, superintendents that unloose all manner of knots, and who are under the ascendant of Mercury," &c. Judges iii. 19. yill that stood by him went out from him.] From a circumstance mentioned by Mr. Bruce, it appears that Ehud acted in strict conformity to the customs of the time and place, so that neither the suspicion of the king nor his attendants should be excited by his conduct. It was usual for the attendants to retire when secret messages were to be delivered. " I drank a dish of coffee, and told him that I was a bearer of a confidential message from Ali Bey of Cairo, and wished to deliver it to him without witnesses, whenever he pleased. The room was accord- ingly cleared without delay, excepting his secretary, who was also going away, when L pulled him back by the clothes, saying, stay, if you please : we shall need -you to write the answer." Travels, vol. i. p. 153. • Esther vi. 1. The book of records.] In these diaries (which we now call journals), wherein was set down what passed every day, the manner of the Persians was, to record the names of those who had done the king any signal service. Accordingly, Josephus informs us, " that, upon the secretary's reading of these journals, he took notice of such a person, who had great hpnours and pos- sessions given him, as a reward for a glorious and remarkable ac- tion ; and of such another, who made his fortune by the bounties of his prince for his fidelity : but that when he came to the parti- cular story of the conspiracy of the two eunuchs against the per- son of the king, and of the discovery of this treason by Mordecai, the secretary read it over, and was passing forward to the ne'xt, when the king stopped him, and asked if that person had any reward given him for his service." This shows a singular provi- dence of God, that the secretary should read in that very part of the book, wherein the services of Mordecai was recorded, vide Jewish Antiq. lib. xi. cap. 6. Esther vi. 7^ — 9. And Haman answered the king, For the man whom the king delighteth to honour. Let the royal apparel be brought which the king useth to wear, and the horse that the king rideth upon, and the crown royal which is set upon his head: and let this apparel and horse be delivered to the hand of one of the king's most noble princes, that they may array the man withal whom the king delighteth to honour, and bring him on horseback through the street of the city, and proclaim before him, Thus shall it be done to the man whom the king delighteth to honour.] Pitts gives an account (p. 198) of a cavalcade at Algiers upon a person's GOVERNORS. 387 turning Mahonimedan, which is designed to do him, as well us their law, honour. " The apostate is to get on horseback on a stately steed, with a rich saddle and fine trappings; he is also richly habited, and hath a turban on his head, but nothing of this is to be called his own ; only there are given him about two or three yards of broad cloth, which is laid before him on the saddle. The horse, with him on his back, is led all round the city, which he is several hours in doing. The apostate is attended with drums and other music, and twenty or thirty Serjeants. These march in order on each side of the horse, with naked swords in their hands'. The crier goes before, with a loud voice giving thanks to God for the proselyte that is made." The conformity of custom in the in- stance now cited, and the passage alluded to in Esther, must appear remarkable. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 102. Isaiah xliv. 18. Shut their eyes.Jy One of the solemnities at a Jewish wedding at Aleppo is, fastening the eyelids together with gum. The bridegroom is the person who opens the bride's eyes at the appointed time. {Russell's History of Aleppo, p. 132.) To this custom there does not appear to be any reference in the Scrip- tures ; but it was used also as a punishment in these countries. Sir T. Roe's chaplain, in his account of his voyage to the East Indies, mentions a son of the great mogul, whom he had seen, who had been cast into prison by his father, where " his eyes were sealed up (by something put before them which might not be taken off) for the space of three years, after which time that seal was taken away, that he might with freedom enjoy the light, though not his' liberty." (p. 471.) Other princes have been treated after a different manner, when it has been thought fit to keep them under: they have had drugs administered to them to render them stupid. Thus Olearius tells us (p. 915) that Schach Abas, the celebrated Persian monarch, who died in 1629, ordered a certain quantity of opium to be given every day to his grandson, who was to be his successor, to render him stupid, that he might not have any reason to fear him. Such are probably the circumstances alluded to in this passage, as also in Isaiah vi. 10; and in this view how beautiful do. these words appear ! The quality of the, persons thus treated, the tenderness expressed in these sorts of punishments, the temporary nature of them, and the after design of making them partakers of the highest honours, all which cir- cumstances appear in these quotations, serve to' throw a softness over this dispensation of Providence towards those who deserved great severity. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 278. 2 c 2 388 CHAPTER XV. CUSTOMS RELATING TO CRIME, LAWS. Isaiah x. 1. Woe unto them that decree unrighteousness.'j The manner of making Eastern decrees differs from ours ; they are first written, and then the magistrate authenticates or annuls them. D'Arvieux {Voyage dans la Pal. p. 61, 154) tells us, that when an Arab wants a favour, he applies to the secretary, who draws up a decree according to the request of the party. If the emir grants the favour, he prints his seal upon it ; if not, he returns it torn to the petitioner. Hence we learn wherein the wickedness of those persons consisted, who wrote those decrees to be thus authenticated or annulled by great men. The latter only confirmed or rejected, whereas all the injustice and iniquity contained in those decrees originated with the petitioner and the scribe, who might so concert matters as to deceive their superiors. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 289. Prov. xvi. l\i A just weight and balance are the Lord's, all the weights of the bag are his work.} The Jews were required to be exact in their weights and measures, that the poor might not be defrauded. Hesychius remarks upon this point, as a reason for Such great care, that what the possession of a field or house is to a wealthy man, that the measure of corn, or wine, or the weight of bread is to the poor, who have daily need of such things for the support of life. " The Jewish doctors assert, that it was a consti- tution of their wise men, for the preventing of all frauds in these matters, that no weights, balances, or measures, should be made of any metal, as of iron, lead, tin, (which were liable to rust, or might be bent or easily impaired,) but of marble, stone, or glass, which were less subject to be abused : and therefore the Scripture, speaking of the justice of God's judgments, observes (according to the Vulgate), that 'they are weighed with all the stones in the bag.' " Lewis's Origines Hehrcem, vol. iii. p. 403. Deut. xix. 14. Thou shall not remove thy neighbour's land- marks, which they of old time have set in thine inheritance.'] It was the common practice, both with the Hebrews and with' the Romans, t'o erect land-marks to distinguish the boundaries of par- ticular estates : and in setting apart land for any use, they erected a pillar, upon which was marked its length and breadth. From many ancient inscriptions it is evident that the Romans added the following letters : H. M. H. N. S. " Hoc monumentum haeredes CRIME. 389 non sequitur." See Horace, b. i. sat. viii. 13. The heathens had a deity called Jupiter Terminalis, appointed to preside over bounds and land-marks. Nunia Pompilius appointed stones to be set as bounds to every man's land, and dedicated them to Jupiter Termi- nalis. He ordered that those who removed them should be slain as sacrilegious persons, and they and their oxen devoted to de- struction. Eph, iv. 28. Let him that stole steal no more.] This exhort- ation, though agreeing with the first and most obvious principle of all moral duties, was necessary in the present instance, because in many nations it was not counted a sin to steal, nor were they ashamed of it when it was charged on them. Whithy, in loc. 1 Tim. i. 10. For men-stealers."] There were persons who made it their business to decoy servants and free-men, that they might steal and sell them for slaves. Against this practice there were particular laws enacted, Exod. xxi. 16; Deut. xxiv. 7. It was also condemned by the Flavian law among the Romans, and was not allowed of among the Greeks. The death with which such -persons were punished, according to the Jews, was strang- ling. Genesis xlviii. 20. And he set Ephraim before ManassehJ] The preference given in this instance to the younger brother, has in many cases been paralleled. Some nations have even gone so far as to form institutions upon this very principle. For the younger son to succeed his father in preference to his elder brothers, was a custom long prevalent in Tartary, and among the northern nations : and it is to be found in our old Saxon tenures, under the description of Borough-English. Sir William Black- stone, after mentioning the opinions of Littleton and other emi- nent lawyers, in regard to the origin of this strange custom, conjectures, with great judgment, that it might be deduced from . the Tartars. Amongst those people, the elder sons, as they grew to man's estate, migrated from their father with a certain portion of cattle ; and the youngest son only remaining at home, became, in consequence, the heir to his father's house and all his remain- ing possessions. Richardson's Dissert, on Eastern Nations, p. 162. Matt. xxii. 40. On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets.] These words allude to a custom mentioned by Tertullian, of writing the laws and hanging them up in a public ' place, that they might be seen by all the people. It imports that in these two commandments is contained all that the law and the prophets require, in reference to our duty to God and man ; for though there are some precepts of temperance which we owe to 390 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. ourselves, yet they are such as we may be inclined to perform frorii the true love of God and of our neighbour; for the love of. God will preserve us from impatience, discontent, and evil lusting, it will make us watchful over ourselves to keep a good conscience, as being solicitous for our eternal welfare : and the love of our neighbour will restrain us from all angry passions, such as envy and malice, which arise against him : so that these two command- ments may be very justly called an abridgement or compendium of the whole scriptures. Whitby, in loc. Dan. vi. 8. Tlie law of the Medes and Persians which alter- eth not.l Chardin says that in Persia, when the king has con- demned a person, it is no longer lawful to mention his name, or to intercede in his favour. Though the king were drunk or beside himself, yet the de£ree must be executed ; otherwise he would contradict himself, and the law admits of no contradiction. Sol. SoNft iii. 3. The watchmen that go about the city found me.] In Persia the watch is kept up very strictly. In the night they suffer no person to go about the streets without a lantern. They incessantly walk about the streets to prevent mischief and robberies, with vigilance and exactness, being obliged to indemnify those who are robbed. "It is reported, that one night Shah Abbas, desirous to make trial of the vigilance of these people, suffered himself to be surprised by them, and had been carried to prison, had he not been known by one of the company, who dis- covering him to the rest, they all cast themselves at his feet to beg his pardon." Ambassador's Travels, p. 328. See Ezek. xxxiii. 2. Deut. xiii. 8. Neither shalt thou conceal him.] This law, which requires that relations should both reveal and punish the wickedness of those who were the nearest in blood to them, though apparently severe, is actually the law of several countries ; where the subjects are commanded, on pain of death, to disclose con- spiracies, in which they are not so much as even concerned. In Japan, where the laws subvert every idea of human reason, the crime of concealment is applied even to the most ordinary cases, A certain narrative {Collection of Voyages which contributed to the Establishment of the East India Company, p. 423), makes mention of two young ladies, who were shut up for life in a box thick set with pointed nails, the one for having had a love intrigue, the other for not disclosing it. Gen. xxxiv. £7. The sons of Jacob came upon the slain and spoiled the city, because they had defiled their sister.] " In the east, as well as in Europe, the relations of the principals in a quarrel, seem to have been bound by honour and custom to espouse CRIME. 391 their party, and to revenge their death ; one of the highest re- proaches, with which one Arabian could upbraid another, being an accusation of having left the blood of his friend unrevenged." Richardson's Dissert, on Eastern Nations, p. 214. It was on this principle that the sons of Jacob acted towards Shechem, for his conduct towards their sister. Numb. xxxv. 21. The revenger of blood shall slay the mur- derer when he meeteih him.] " The civil law declared a man to be unworthy to enjoy the inheritance of one that was murdered, if he neglected to prosecute the person that killed him, in some court of justice. But the Jewish law allowed, or rather required, a great deal more — that the next of kin should kill the murderer with his own hands if he met-him. Thus the Abyssinians at this day (as Ritterhusius observes out of Alvarez) deliver the murderer into the hand of the next kinsman to torture him." Patrick, in loc. The ancient Greeks had no public officer chargeci by the state to look after murderers. The relations of the deceased alone had a right to pursue vengeance. (Homer, II. ix. 628.) Pausanias, in many places, speaks of this ancient usage, (lib. v. c. 1, p. 376, lib. viii. c. 34, p. 669) an usage that appears to have subsisted always in Greece. Goguet's Origin of Laws, vol. ii. p. 71. ACCUSATION. Acts xxii. 23. They cried out and cast off their clothes, and threw dust into the air.] A great similarity appears between the conduct of the Jews, when the chief captain of the' Roman garrison at Jerusalem presented himself in the temple, and the behaviour of the Persian peasants, when they go to court to complain of the governors under whom they live, upon their oppressions becoming intolerable. Sir John Chardin tells us respecting them, that they carry their complaints against their governors by companies, con- sisting of several hundreds, and sometimes of a thousand ; they repair to that gate of the palace near to which their prince is most likely to be, where they set themselves to make the most horrid cries, tearing their garments, and throwing dust into the air, at the same time demanding justice. The king, upon hearing these cries, sends to know the occasion of them. The people deliver their complaint in writing, upon which he lets them know that he will commit the cognizance of the affair to such or such a one. In consequence of this justice is usually done them. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 203. 2 Sam. xvi. 13. And cast dust.] When the consulj whom Pbcocke attended, entered Cairo, " acording to an ancient custom of state, a man went before, and sprinkled water on the ground to 392 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. lay the dust" (vol. i. p. 17.) In hot and dry countries this prac- tice must have been very convenient. If it was used in Judea before the time of David, it will explain Shimei's behaviour, and give it great energy. He threw stones and dust at him, who pro- bably had been honoured by having the ground moistened, that the dust might not rise when he walked out. So also Acts xxii. 23, Chardin has made an observation, which places this matter in a different point of view. He says that " in almost all the East those who accuse a criminal, or demand justice against him, throw dust against him ; as much as to say, he deserves to be put under ground : and it is a common imprecation of the Turks and Persians — ' Be covered with earth.' " The Jews certainly thought Paul deserved to die ; and Shimei might design to declare, by what he did, that David was unworthy to live. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 109. Psalm Ixix. 9. The zeal of thine house hath eaten me up.] Peysonnel, in his remarks on Baron Du Tott (p. 45), describes a custom which probably is alluded to by the Psalmist. " Those who are aggrieved stand before the gate of the seraglio : each carries on his head a kind of match, or wick, lighted and smoking, which is considered as the allegorical emblem of the fire that con- sumes his soul." The LXX., acquainted with this practice, have given a version of the passage more bold than our own, and more agreeable to the Hebrew. " The zeal of thine house hath melted me" — i. e. consumed me by fire. Luke xviii. 5. Weary me,] The word virwrnaZuv properly signifies to beat on the face, and particularly under the eye, so as to make the parts black and blue. Here it has a metaphorical meaning, and signifies to give great pain, such as arises from severe beating. The meaning therefore is, that the uneasy feelings which this widow raised in the judge's breast, by the moving representation which she gave of her distress, affected him to such a degree that he could not bear it, but to get rid of them, resolved to do her justice. The passage understood in this sense, has a peculiar advantage, as it throws a beautiful light on our Lord's argument (ver. 6, 7), and lays a proper foundation for the conclu- sion which it contains. Maclcnight's Harmony, vol. ii. p. 78. JUDE 4. For there are certain men crept in unawares, luho ijbere before of old ordained to this condemnation.] Those who were summoned before the courts of judicature, were said to be ■n-poysypafx/jievot cig Kpimv, because they were cited by posting up their names in some public place, and to these judgment was pub- lished or declared in writing. Eisner remarks, that the Greek writers apply the term vpoyey pafinEvovg,. to those whom the Roman called prosoriptos, or proscribed, i. e. whose names were CRIME. 393 posted up in writing in some public place, as persons doomed to die, with a reward offered to whoever would kul them. He says also, that those persons who are spoken of by St. Jude, as " before of old ordained to this condemnation," must not only give an ac- count to God for their crimes, arid are liable to his judgment, but are destined to the punishment they deserve, as victims of the divine anger., ASYLUMS. 1 Kings ii. 28. And caught Ivold of the horns of the altar.] That it was customary to fly to the altar as to a place of safety, is evident from this and various other passages of scripture. It was equally practised by the Jews and other nations. With the Greeks it certainly prevailed. Of the altar of Jupiter Hercseus it is said to one, .fly To Jove's inviolable altar nigh. Odyss, xxii. 372. Pope The altar mentioned by Virgil was of the same nature : to this Priam fled at the taking of Troy. See ^n. ii. EsTHKR vii. 8. y4nd Haman was fallen upon the bed whereon Esther ivas.] They sat, or rather lay, upon beds, as they eat and drank; and Haman fell down as a supplicant at the feet of Es- ther, laying his hand upon her knees, and beseeching her to take pity upon him. It was the custom amongst the Greeks and Romans to embrace the knees of those whom they petitioned to be favourable to them. It was indeed usual in their religious worship to touch the knees of their gods. Sulpitius Severus apprehends this to have been done by Haman in the present instance. Patrick, in loc. OATHS. Heb. vi. 1 6. An oath for confirmation is to them an end of all strife."] The manner in which an oath was taken amongst the Jews, and to which the apostle, writing to such, must be supposed to refer, was this : " He that swore took the book of the law in his hand, and stood and swore by the name of God, or by his surnames : the judges did not suffer any to swear but in the holy tongue : and thus he said. Behold, I swear by the God of Israel, by him whose name is merciful and gracious, that I do not owe this man any thing." Herodotus says that the Arabians, when they swore at making covenants, anointed the stones with blood. QUI, in loc. Gen. xxi. 23. Swear unto me here by God,] This kind of oath 394 - ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. appears not only to have been generally in use in the time of Abraham, but also to have descended through many generations and ages in the East. When Mr. Bruce was at Shekh Ammer, he entreated the protection of the governor in prosecuting his journey. Speaking of the people who wfere assembled together at this time in the house, he says {Travels, vol. i. p. 148), " the great people among them came, and, after joining hands, repeated a kind of prayer, of about two minutes long, by which they declared themselves and their children accursed, if ever they lifted up their hands against me in the tell, or field in the desert ; or in case that I, or mine, should fly to them for refuge, if they did not protect us at the risk of their lives, their families, and their fortunes, or, as they emphatically expressed it, to the death of the last male child among them." See also Gen. xxvi. 28, 29. Gen. xxiv. 2, 3, ^nd Abraham said unto his eldest servant of his house, that ruled over all that he had, put, I pray thee, thy hand under my thigh, and I will make thee swear by the Lord.'\ The present mode of swearing among the Mohammedan Arabs, that live in tents as the patriarchs did, according to de la Roque (Voy. dans la Pal. p. 152), is by laying their hands on the Koran. They cause those who swear to wash their hands before they- give them the book ; they put their left hand underneath, and the right over it. Whether, among the patriarchs, one hand was under and the other upon the thigl), is not certain ; possibly Abraham's Servant might swear with, one hand under his master's thigh, and the other stretched out to Heaven. As the posterity of the patriarchs are described as coming out of the thigh, it has been supposed, this ceremony had some relation to their believing the promise of God, to bless all the nations of the earth, by means of one that was to descend from Abraham. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 477. Gen. xlii. 15. By the life of Pharaoh.] Most authors take this for an oath, the original of which is well explained by Mr. Selden (in his Titles of Honour, p. 45), where he observes, that the names of gods being given to kings very early, from the excellence of their heroic virtue, which made them anciently great benefactors to mankind ; thence arose the custom of swearing by them : which Aben Ezra saith continued in his time (about 1170), when Egypt was governed by caliphs, If any man swore by the king's head, and ^ere found to have sworn falsely, he was punished capitally. t i j e Extraordinary as the kind of oath which Joseph made use ot may appear to us, it still continues in the East. Mr. Hanway says, the most' sacred oath among the Persians is "by the kmgs head" (Trav. vol. i. p. 313); and among other instances of it we read in the Travels of the Ambassadors, p. 204, " there were but CRIME. 395 sixty horses for ninety-four persons. The meheniander (or con- ductor) swore ' by the head of the king' (which is the greatest oath amongstthe Persians), that he could not possibly'find anymore." And Thevenot says (TVav. p. 97, part ?), " his subjects never looked upon him but with fear and trembling ; and they have such respect for him, and pay so blind an obedience to all his orders, that how unjust soever his commands might be, they performed them, though against the law both of God and nature. Nay, if they swear ' by the king's head,' their oath is more authentic, and of greater credit, then if they swore by all that is most sacred in heaven and upon earth." ExoD. xvii. 16. Because the Lord halh sworn.\ Saurin (Dissertations, vol. i. p. 433) says, that the Hebrew of this text is equivocal : it signifies literally, " because the hand on the throne of God, war of God against Amalek from generation to generation :" and from Patrick he observes that it is pretended, that to put the hand upon the throne was in some countries a ceremony that attended a solemn oath, as laying it on the altar was in other places. This was as much as our laying the hand on the Bible, a principal external character of an oath : whence Juvenal (Sat. xiii. 89), says, atheists do " intrepidos altaria tangere," touch the altars boldly without trembling ; that is, make no conscience of an oath. Deut. xxxii. 40. For I lift up my hand unto heaven.} This was an ancient mode of swearing, or taking an oath. Gen. xiv. 22. So when God promised to bring the Israelites into Canaan, he is said " to lift up his hand," Exod. vi. 8; Nehem. ix. 15, from hence some think the word promittere is derived, signifying, to engage by stretching out the hand ; and that from thence sprang the custom of stretching out and lifting up the hand when they took an oath. Thus also Virgil, — Sqspiciens ccclum, lenditque ad sidera dextram. ^En. xii. 196. Thus Agamemnon swears in Homer : — TO CFKrivrpov aveaxiOe iracri Beoicriv. II. vii. 412. To all the gods his sceptre he uplifts. Judges xxi. 18. Cursed he he.] The ancient manner of adjuring subjects or inferiors to any conditions, was by their superiors denouncing a curse on them, in case they violated those conditions. To this manner of swearing our blessed Lord himself submitted. Matt. xxvi. 63. It maybe further remarked, that when the curse was expressed in general terms, as cursed be he, i. e. whosoever doth so or so, the superior who pronounced it was as much bound by it as the inferior who heard it ; thus there can be 396 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. no doubt but the curses pronounced, Deut. xxvii. 14, obliged the Levites who pronounced them ; and those also, Joshua vi. 26, and 1 Sam. xiv. 24, obliged Joshua and Saul, who pronounced them, as much as the other people : they therefore, by pronouncing those curses, sware or took an oath themselves. Parkhurst's Heb. Lex. p. 20, 3rd. ed. 1 Kings viii. 31. And the oath come before thine altar in this house.'] It was the custom of all nations to touch the altar when they made a solemn oath, calling God to witness the truth of what they said, and to punish them if they did not speak the truth. Patrick, in loc. Prov. xi. 21. Though hand join in hand.] To join hands was anciently, and still continues in the East, a solemn method of taking an oath, and making an engagement. This circumstance is probably alluded to in these words of Solomon ; its present ex- istence is clearly ascertained by what Mr. Bruce (Travels, vol. i. p. 199) relates: " I was so enraged at the traitorous part which Hassan had acted, that, at parting, I could not help saying to Ibrahim, now, shekh, I have done every thing you have desired without ever expecting fee or reward ; the only thing I now ask you, and it is probably the last, is, that you avenge me upon this Hassan, who is every day in your power. Upon this, ' he gave me hand,' saying, ' he shall not die in his bed, or I shall never see old age.' " (See also 2 Kings x. 1 5.) Matt. v. 35. Neither by Jerusalem.] It was common with the Jews both to swear and vow by Jerusalem. " As the altar, as the temple, as Jerusalem," are expressions frequently to be met with in their writings. In the Gemara it is, " He that says as Jerusalem does not say any thing, till he has made his vow con- cerning a thing which is offered up in Jerusalem." Matt. v. 36. Neither shall thou swear by the head, because thou canst not make one hair white or black.] It was ordinary among the ancients to swear by the head, thus Virgil : Per caput hoc juro, per quod pater ante solebat. j5En, ix. 300. I swear by this head of mine, by which my father before me was wont to swear. So also Horace, reproaching Baring, says, Sed tu simul obligasti Perfidum votis caput. B. ii. od. 8. 1. 5. But you, as soon as you have bound your perfidious head with vows. It may also be observed, that many used to swear by the ashes of their parents : we have the form of this oath in Propertius. Ossa tibi Juro per matris, et ossa parentis ; Si fallo, citiis, heu ! sit mihi uterque gravis. 15. ii el. 20. CRIME. 397 See also Horace, b, ii. od. 8. 1. 9. Martial refers to this custom of swearing by the head : Per tua jurares sacra caputque tuuin. Lib. ix. epig. 49. Homer likewise mentions the adjuring of another by his head. — ■■ Yirep Si;f t' avTOV KC0aX)]f. Odyss. lib. xv. 261. O thou, that dost thy happy course prepare With pure libations and with solemn pray'r ; By that dread pow'r to whom thy vows are paid, By all the lives of these; thy own dear head; Declare sincerely to no foe's demand Thy name, thy lineage, and paternal land. This also was a common form of swearing among the Jews. " If any one be bound to his friend by an oath, and gay to him, vow unto me by the life of thy head, R. Meir says he may retract it, but the wise men say he cannot." See also Juvenal, Sat vi. 17. ' TRIALS. Job xxix. 7. When I prepared my seat in the street,'\ Job here speaks of himself as a civil magistrate, as a judge upon the bench, who had a seat erected for him to sit upon whilst he was hearing and trying causes : and this was set up in the street, in the open air, before the gate ,of the city, where great numbers might be convened, and hear and see justice done. The Arabs to this day hold their courts of justice in an open place, under the heavens, as in a field, or a market-place. See Norden's Travels in Egypt, vol. ii. p. 140. Rev. iv. 4. Round ahout the throne.] The situation of the elders is agreeable to the ancient manner of sitting in council or consistory among the Jews. There is a representation of this in Daniel vii. 9. " I beheld till the seats or thrones were pitched," not " thrown down," as in our translation, " and the ancient of days did sit" in the midst of the other thrones, as the father or head of the consistory, " and the judgment was set" (ver. 10), that is, the whole sanhedrim ; the rest of the elders were seated on those thrones which were round about, and the books were opened preparatory to the judicature. Hammond, in loc. Luke xiii. 33. It cannot be that a prophet perish out of Jeru- salem.'] " The (Jewish) Sanhedrim could be held nowhere but at Jerusalem, in a place called Liscat Hagazit, the stone conclave, which was contiguous to the temple, or rather a part of it. This Liscat Hagazit was much the same thing with that which was formerly called at Constantinople, In TruUo. The Talmudists call it a Basilica ; and all causes of considerable importance were 398 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. finally determined in that place. This remark gives light to those words of Christ, ' it cannot be that a prophet perish out of Jerusalem.' " Picari's Religious Ceremonies, vol. i. p. 115. Zech. iii. 3. Now Joshua was clothed with filthy garments.'] It was usual, especially among the Romans, when a man was charged with a capital crime, and during his arraignment, to let down his hair, suffer his beard to grow long, to wear filthy ragged garments, and appear in a very dirty and sordid habit. Hence such were called Sordidati. When the accused person was brought into court to be tried, even his near relations, friends, and acquaint- ance, before the court voted, appeared with dishevelled hair, and clothed with garments foul and out of fashion, weeping, crying, and deprecating punishment. {J/ex. ab Alex. Genial, Bier. 1. iii. c. 5.) The guilty person sometimes appeared before the judges, clothed in black, and his head covered with dust. John xviii. 28. The hall of judgment.'] The party accused, when he was upon his trial, stood in an eminent place in the court, that the people might see him, and hear what was alleged against him, and the defence made by the criminal. There were two notaries in court ; one stood on the right hand of the judge, to write the sentence of absolution ; the other stood on the left, to write the sentence of condemnation. These tribunals were ex- ceeding strict in the examination of witnesses, and would not admit their testimony before their behaviour and reputation were inquired into. Generally it was a rule, that whoever gave a false testimony was subject to the same penalty that the person should have suffered if he had been cast by his false accusation. No man was to be found guilty but by two witnesses at least, and those of a competent age, of good fame, and not convicted of ever having given a false testimony ; it was a law among the Jews, that no man was to suffer his neighbour to perish in judgment when he could free him by his testimony. After the cause had been carefully examined, and all parties impartially heard, sentence was pro- nounced in this manner: Thou, Simeon, art just. Thou, Reuben, art guilty. When the sentence was delivered, the witnesses, if the case was capital, put their hands upon the head of the con- demned person, and said, thy blood be upon thy own head. Then was the malefactor led to execution, and no one was allowed openly to lament his misfortune. The distance between the court of judicature and the place of execution contributed often to save • the life of the criminal ; for as he was led to be executed, a public crier went before, saying, with an audible voice, such an one is going to be punished with such a death, &c. ; if there be any one who knows of any thing that may be offered to his advantage, let him come forth and give his evidence. For this purpose a person was appointed to stand at the door of the consistory, with an CRIME. 399 handkerchief or hnen cloth in his hand, and if any one offered to speak in his defence, he who stood at the door waved the hand- kerchief in the air, upon which another, who was ready at a small distance, with a fleet horse, rode with all possible speed, and called back the condemned prisoner. So tender were they in cases of blood, that if the malefactor could think of any thing to say for his own purgation, he was indulged the liberty of returning back four or five times. When the criminal came within ten cubits of the place of execution, two of the scholars of the wise men exhorted him to confess ; and after giving him a stupifying di;aught, the execution took place. Lewis's Origines Hebrceee, vol. i. p. 69. Matt. xii. 42. Tke queen of the South shall rise up in the judgment with this generation, and, shall condemn it."] This is spoken in allusion to a custom among the Jews and Romans, which was, for the witnesses to rise from their seats when they accused criminals, or gave any evidence against them. Matt, xxvii. 11. And Jesus stood before the governor.] It was the custom for the judge to sit, and those who were judged to stand, especially whilst witness was given against them. The rabbins observe, that the witnesses in giving their testimony should also stand. Gill, in loc. James ii. 2. If there come unto your assembly a man with a gold ring.'] By the assembly here mentioned we are not to under- stand a congregation convened for public worship, as-is commonly represented, but a court of judicature, in which men are too apt to favour the cause of the rich against the poor. The phrase, " sit thou under my footstool," naturally refers to courts of justice, where the judge is commonly exalted upon a higher seat than the rest of the people. The apostle also says, that such a respect of persons as he here speaks of, is contrary to the law, and that those who are guilty of it, " are convinced of the law as transgressors." Now there was no divine law against distinction of places in wor- shipping assemblies, into those which were more or less honour- able; this must therefore refer to the law of partiality in judgment. "Ye shall do no unrighteousness in judgment; thou shalt not respect the person of the poor, nor honour the person of the mighty." (Lev. xix. 15.) The Talmudists say it was a rule, that when a poor man and a rich man pleaded together in judg- ment, the rich should not be bid to sit down, and the poor to stand ; but either both shall sit, or both shall stand. To this rule or custom the apostle seems to refer, when he insinuates a charge against them of saying to the rich man, " sit thou here in a good place, and to the poor, stand thou there." Jennings's Jewish Ant. vol. ii, p. ^. 400 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Acts xvii. 22. Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars-hill.'] The court of the Areopagites, before which St. Paul was now brought, was so named from the place in which it was held, being on an hill not far from the city, called Areopagus. This court was of high antiquity ; it was instituted before the time of Solon, but when, is uncertain. It is also equally unknown of what num- ber this assembly was composed. It is however certain, that it was the most sacred and venerable tribunal in Greece. They were very particular in examining the characters of such persons as were admitted members of it. Any evidence of intemperance excluded from the office ; and though the dignity was usually held for life, yet if any of the senators were convicted of immorality, they were expelled. The utmost gravity was preserved in this assembly, and to laugh in their presence was an unpardonable act of levity. Demosthenes tells us, that so impartial were they in their proceed- ings, that to his time there never had been so much as one of their determinations of which there had been anyjust reason to complain. Foreign states frequently referred to their decision. They had three meetings every month ; and always sat in the open air, a custom practised in all the courts of justice that had cognizance of murder. They heard and determined all causes in the night, and in the dark, that they might not be biassed by the sight of either plaintiff or defendant. ExoD. xxviii. 30. The Urim and the'Thummim.] There was a remarkable imitation of this sacred ornament among the Egyp- tians ; for we learn from Diodorus (lib. i. p. 68, ed. Rhod.) and from ^han {Far. Hist. 1. xiv. c. 34) that " their chief priest, who was also their supreme judge in civil matters, wore about his neck, by a golden chain, an ornament of precious stones called truth, and that a cause was not opened till the supreme judge had put on this ornament." Numb. v. 17. And the priest shall take holy water in an earthen vessel.] Similar to this ordeal by the water of jealousy, is the practice of some of the Africans, among whom Mr. Park travelled. He says, that ^' at Baniferile, one of our slatees (slave merchants) returned to his native town ; as soon as he had seated himself on a mat by the threshold of his door, a young woman, his intended bride, brought a little water in a calabash, and kneel- ing down before him, desired him to wash his hands ; when he had done this, the girl, with a tear of joy sparkling in her eyes, drank the water : this being considered as the greatest proof she could give him of her fidelity and attachment." Travels, p. 347. " At Koolkorro, my landlord brought out his writing-board, or walha, that I might write him a saphie, to protect him from wicked men. I wrote the board full, from top to bottom, on both sides : and ray landlord, to be certain of having the whole force of the CRIME, 401 charm, washed the writing from the board into a calabash with a little water; and having said a few prayers over it, drank this powerful draught : after which, lest a single word should escape, he licked the board until it was quite dry." Travels, p. 236. In the Asiatic Researches (vol. i. p. 389) is a curious account of the trials by ordeal, practised amongst the Hindoos. They have no less than nine different methods of conducting this test, one of which is strikingly conformable to the trial by the water of jealousy. " Trial by the cosha is as follows : the accused is made to drink three draughts of the water in which the images of the Sun, of Devi, and other deities have been washed for that purpose; and if, within fourteen days, he has any sickness, or indisposition, his crime is considered as proved." 1 Sam. iii. 21. The word of the Lord.l Without recurring to the learned explanations which have been given of this ex- pression, it may possibly receive an agreeable illustration from the following extracts. " In Abyssinia there is an officer named Kal Hatze, who stands always upon steps at the side of the lat- tice window, where there is a hole covered in the inside with a curtain of green taffeta; behind this curtain the king sits." {Bruce's Trav. vol. iv. p. 76.) The king is described in another place as very much concealed from public view. He even *' covers his face on audiences, or public occasions, and when in judgment. On cases of treason he sits within his balcony, and speaks through a hole in the side of it, to an officer called Kal Hatze, the voice or word of the king, by whom he sends his questions, or any thing else that occurs, to the judges, who are seated at the council table." (Bruce's Trav. vol. iii. p. 265.) If such a custom ever obtained among the Jews, the propriety of the expression, " the word of the Lord," is obvious, as the idea must have been very familiar to them. This clearly appears to have been the case as to Joseph and his brethren, Gen. xlii. 23. Joseph spake by an interpreter, not of languages, but of dignity and state. Other instances of the same nature may pro- bably be traced in 2 Kings v. 10 ; Job. xxxiii. 23, Esther vii. 8. They covered Hainan's face. 1 The majesty of the kings of Persia did not allow malefactors to look at them. As soon as Haman was so considered, his face was covered. Some curious correspondent examples are collected together in Poole's Synopsis, in loc. From Pococke, we find the custom still con- tinues. Speaking of the artifice by which an Egyptian bey was taken off, he says {Travels, vol. i. p.. 172), " A man being brought before him like a malefactor just taken, with his hands behind him as if tied, and a napkin put over his head, as malefactors com- monly have, when he came into his presence, suddenly shot him dead.'* Harmer, vol. ii. p. 96. 2d 402 ORIENTAt CUSTOMS. Acts xxii. 24. The chief captain commanded him to be brought , into the Castle, and bade that he should be examined by scourg- ing..'] To put one to the question was a punishment among the Romans. They put criminals to the question, or endeavoured to extort confession from them by scourging them. Some think that the offender was stripped to his waist, and that his hands were tied to a pillar, that his back might be stretched out to receive the blows. Others are of opinion, that his hands were fastened to a stake, driven into the ground of a foot and a half or two feet high, so that the criminal stooping with his face towards the ground, might present his naked back to such as were appointed to scourge him. Acts xxii. 25. And as they bound him with thongs, Paul said unto the centurion that stood by, is it lawful for you to scourge a man that is a Roman, and uncondemned ?] " Roman citizens were secured against the tyrannical treatment of the magistrates, first by the right of appealing from them to the people, and that the person who appealed should in no manner be punished till the people determined the matter; but chiefly by the assistance tof their tribunes. None but the whole Roman people in the Comitia Centuriata could pass sentence on the life of a Roman citizen. No magistrate was allowed to punish him by stripes, or capitally. The single expression, ' I am a Roman citizen,' checked their severest decrees. Cic. in Ver. v. 54 and 57." Adam's Roman Aniiq. p. 45. Acts xxiii. 2. And the High Priest Ananias commanded them that stood by him to smite him on the mouth.] A similar modern instance of the brutality with which criminals are treated in the East occurs in Hanway's Travels, vol. i. p. 299, whenSadoc Aga, one of the chiefs of the Persian rebels at Astrabad, in the year 1744, was brought before Nadir Shah's general, and examined by him, he answered the questions put to him, but lamented his miserable change of circumstances in very pathetic terms ; upon which the general ordered him to be struck across the mouth, to silence him ; which was done with such violence that the blood issued forth. Neh. v. 15^ £ven their servants tare -rule over the people,] By these words it is evident, that some oppressive practices are referred to. They probably relate to the forcible taking away of provisions from the people by the servants of former governors. In these countries this was no uncommon thing : many instances of it might be easily produced : the one which follows may how- ever suffice. After the jealoiisy of the poor oppressed Greeks lest they should be pillaged, or more heavily loaded with demands by the Turks, had prevented their voluntarily supplying the Baron CRIME. 403 Du Tott for his money, Ali Aga undertook the business, and upon the Moldavian's pretending not to understand the Turkish , language, he knocked him down with his fist, and kept kicking him while he was rising ; which brought him to complain in good Turkish of his beating him so, when he knew very well they were poor people, who were often in want of necessaries, and whose princes scarcely left them the air they breathed. " Pshaw ! thou art joking, friend," was the reply of Ali Aga, " thou art in want of nothing, except of being basted a little oftener. But all in good^ time. Proceed we to business. I must instantly have two sheep, a dozen of fowls, a dozen of pigeons, fifty pounds of bread; four oques (a Turkish weight of about forty-two ounces) of butterj with salt, pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon, lemons, wine, salad, and good oil of olives, all in great plenty." With tears the Moldavian replied, I have already told you that we are poor creatures, without so much as bread to eat ; where must we get cinnamon ? The whip was taken from under his habit, and the Moldavian beaten till he could bear it no longer, but was forced to fly, finding Ali Aga inexorable, and that those provisions must be produced. A quarter of an hour was not expired, within which time Ali Aga required these things, before they were brought. {Memoirs^ vol. L part ii. p. 10.) Matt, xxvii. 24. He took water, and washed his hands before the multitude.'] This was in conformity to a custom among the Jews, whereby they testified their innocence as to the commission of murder, Deut. xxi. 6, 7 ; Psalm xxvi. 6 ; or to a gentile one used when murder was committed, for the lustration or expia- tion of it. (Ovid. fast. 1. 2.) There are two ways in which Pilate is said to have given testi- mony to the innocence of the life, and the reality of the death of Jesus Christ. First, by an express written to Tiberius ; and by him presented to the senate ; and also by records written on tables, of all things of moment which occurred during his government. These proceedings were agreeable to a general custom, whereby all the governors of the provinces gave an account to the emperor, of all such passages as were most remarkable {Euseb. Eccles. Hist. lib. ii. c. 2) ; with regard to the written records, it may be observed, that the ancient Romans constantly preserved the remembrance of all such remarkable things as happened in the city. This was -done either in their acta senatus, or acta diurna popuU, which were diligently made and kept at Rome. In the same manner the governors of the provinces took care that everything worthy of notice should be written on public tables, and properly preserved. Agreeably to this custom Pontius Pilate kept the memoirs of the Jewish affairs, which were therefore called acta Pilatij and in which was given a particular account of Christ. To these memo- rials the primitive Christians appealed in their disputes with the 2 V, 2 404 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. gentiles, as to a most undoubted testimony. Pearson on the Creed, p. 198, 8th edit. (See Jones's New Method, vol. ii. p. 404.) 2 Sam i. 16. TAi/ blood be upon thy headJ] The malediction expressed in these words occurs in the same sense in other pas- sages of Scripture, particularly Josh. ii. 19, and 1 Kings ii. 37. It appears to have been customary so to speak both with the Jews and Greeks, as repeated instances of it are found in the best writers of the last-mentioned people. Homer has this expression : — O (7q Kc0aX>j ava/iaKng, " which you shall wipe upon your own head," or, as Eustathius ^explains it, a crime which you shall make to cleave to your own head. A similar expression occurs in Sophocles : KaTt XovrpoLffiv Kaga From whence it appears, that the blood which was found upon the sword was wiped upon the head of the slain ; an intimation that his own blood was fallen upon the head of the deceased, and that the living were free from it. It was usual with the Romans to wash their hands in token of innocence and purity from blood. Thus the Roman governor washed his hands, and said respecting Christ, " I am innocent of the blood of this just person." Matt, xxvii. 24. Titus iii. 11. Knowing that he that is such is subverted and sinneth, being condemned of himself.'] " In order to induce the criminal to confess his crimes, they (the Jews) said to him, give 'glory to God, that is, confess the truth, and be your own judge. For the Jews were of opinion that criminals who confessed their crimes would partake in the happiness of a future state : and there- fore they exhorted and pressed criminals not to draw down the hatred of God upon them, by obstinacy and stubbornness in con- cealing their crimes : St Paul sometimes alludes to this custom ; •as when he says, happy is he that condemneth not himself in that thing which he alloweth, Rom. xiv. 22, that is, who, being con- vinced of the truth of a thing, is not weak enough to give testimony against himself, notwithstanding his conviction : and when he says, that a heretic is- condemned of himself, Titus iii. 11." Lamy's Apparatus Biblicus, p. 206. Prov. xxiv. 11. iy thou forbear to deliver them that are drawn ■unto death, and those that are ready to be slain.'] It was allowed among the Jews, that if any person could offer anything in favour of a prisoner after sentence was passed, he might be heard before execution was done: and therefore it was usual, as the Mishna shows, that when a man was led to execution, a crier went before CRIM£. 405 him and proclaimed, " This man is now going to be executed for such a crime, and such and such are witnesses against him ; who- ever knows him to be innocent, let him come forth, and make it appear." Doddridge's Works, vol. iii. p. 236, note. Isaiah liii. 8. And who shall declare his generation ?'] It is said in the Mishna, that before any one was punished for a capital crime, proclamation was made before the prisoner by the public crier, "Whoever knows anything of his innocence, let him come and declare it of him." On the original passage the Gemara of Babylon adds, that before the death of Jesus this proclamation was made for forty days, but no defence could be found. It is truly- surprising to see such falsities, contrary to well known facts. Bp. Loioth, in loc. Amos ii. 6. They sold the righteous for silver, and the poor for a pair of shoes.'\ Maillet {Lett. x. p. 86), amongst other articles which are carried before a bride on the day of marriage, mentions wooden sandals; these in the East are called cobcal. They are not of much value, though sometimes they are orna- mented. What RauwolfF says, in connexion with the above cir- cumstance, greatly illustrates this passage of Amos. " The Turkish officers, and also their wives, go very richly clothed, with rich flowered silks, artificially made, and mixed of several colours. But these clothes are commonly given them by those that have causes depending before them (for they do not love to part with their own money), to promote their cause, and to be favourable to them." See also Amos viii. 6. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 21. Rev. ii. 17. A white stone.'] The stone here referred to is such an one as was used in popular judicature, or in elections, the custom being to give the votes in either of these by such stones. These were either white or black ; the white was a token of abso- lution or approbation, the black of condemnation or rejection. There were judges in the agonistical games, who awarded the prizes to the conqueror by the use of these stones, a white one, with the name of the person and the value of the prize, being given to such as were victorious. Ovid expressly mentions, that black and white stones were used to absolve or condemn persons at Argos. Mos erat antiquus, niveis atrisque Inpillis, His damnare reos, illis absolrere culpa. Metam. lib. zv. lin. 42. Matt. xxv. 33. He shall set the sheep on his right hand, but the goats on the left.'] This seems to allude to the custom in the sanhedrim, where the Jews placed those to be acquitted on the right, and those to receive sentence of condemnation on the left hand. Whitby, in loc 406 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Matt. xiv. 8. Jnd she being before instructed of her mother.] The word 7rpo^ij3a?w, according to Bud and protection of an almighty hand. ^ Jeremiah vi. 1. Set tip a sign of Jire in Beth-haccerem.} In this place there might possibly be a very high tower. Kimchi observes, that the word signifies a high tower, for the keepers of the vines to watch in. If it were so, it was a very proper place to set up the sign of fire in, to give notice to all the surrounding country. It was usual with the Persians, Grecians, and Romans, to signify in the night by signs of fire, and by burning torches, either the approach of an enemy, or succour fi-om friends. The former was done by shaking and moving their torches ; the latter by holding them still. {Lyd. de Re Militari, 1. i. c. 3. p. 185.) * Isaiah xxi. 6. Go, set a watchman ; let him declare what he seethJ] " During our stay at Suwarrow," says J^r. Bucking- ham, " there were continual arrivals of persons from all quarters, most of whom halted here without intending fo proceed farther, until the road was clear : and by a small party of the townsmen themselves, who came from the eastward, we learnt that the horse- men now intercepting the road in that quarter, were pireparing for movement, and intended making a tour northward, in the course of the night. Many of the incidents of our present situation reminded me forcibly of being at sea in an unprotected merchant- ship in time of war, when every distant sail is magnified into an enemy, and all eyes are on the stretch for discovery. Look-outs were stationed on the terraces of the houses, and on the heaps of rubbish formed in different parts of the town ; and messengers were repeatedly sent by them to the sheikh's house, to report what they saw. One man, for instance, arrived to say that three horsemen were in sight to the southward, going westerly ; another followed soon after to say, that five men on foot were seen in the western quarter, apparently bound this way ; then came another announcement stating, that two horsemen, strangers, who had passed through Suwarro, without halting, about an hour before, were seen stopped by the plunderers to the eastward, by whom they were stripped, and were now returning on foot to the town ; the whole of this affair being distinctly seen from the terrace of the sheikh's house, and without a glass, so acute has nature and 2 rg 486 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. habit together- rendered the vision of these people: the transac- tion, though on a plain, taking place at the distance of at least three miles from the spot in which it was observed." Travels among the Arab Tribes, pp. 181, 182. TACTICS. Judges xix. 29. And when he was come into his house, he took a knife, and laid hold on his concubine, and divided her, together with her bones, into twelve 'pieces, and sent her into all the coasts of Israel.} Interpreters say but little concerning the real views of the Levite in this transaction: they merely intimate, that it was done to excite a general indignation against the authors of the injury he had sustained. His motives certainly were good and regular. He intended to unite the whole nation in vengeance against a crime, in which it was interested : but as they might be checked in the extent of the punishment by the number, the creditj and the power of the offenders ; by the natural commiseration which is felt for those who are of the same blood; or by an aver- sion to involve a city in destruction ; he sought and seized a method .which put them to the indispensable necessity of espousing his cause. The only part which he had to take was, to cut in pieces the body of his wife, which he did, or else that of an ox, or other like animal, which had been either devoted or oflfered in sacrifice, and to send a part of it to each tribe. In consequence of thisj every tribe entered into an indissoluble engagement to see justice done him for the injury he had received. This is what the inter- preters of scripture seem not to have known, and which it is ne- cessary to explain. The ancients had several ways of uniting themselves together by strict ties, which lasted for a stipulated time : amongst these may be noticed the sacrifice of Abraham, the circumstances of which .are mentioned Gen. xv. 9, &c. Another method was, to take a bullock offered or devoted in sacrifice, cut it in pieces, and distri- bute it. All who had a piece of this devoted bullock were thence- forward connected, and were to concur in carrying on the affair which had given occasion for the sacrifice. But as this devoting and dividing was variously practised, it also produced different engagements. If he who was at the expense of the sacrifice were a public person, or in high office, he sent of his own accord a piece of the victim to all who were subject to him ; and by this act obHged them to enter into his views. If the "sacrifice were offered by a private person, those only who voluntarily took a piece of the sacrifice entered into a strict engagement to espouse his interest. Connexions of this kind derived their force from the deities, in honour of which the sacrifice was offered: from the true Godj when made by the Jews ; from idols, when made by the Gentiles. The Jews were content to invoke and take the Lord to witness : WAR. 437 whereas the pagans never failed to place upon an altar of green turf the deities which presided over their covenant. These deities were called common, because they were the common deities of all who were thus united, and received in common the honours which they thought proper to pay them. A direct proof of these facts is recorded in 1 Sam. xi. 7 : " And Saul took a yoke of oxen, and hewed them in pieces, and sent them throughout all the coasts of Israel by the hands of messen- gers, saying, Whosoever cometh not forth after Saul and after Samuel, so shall it be done unto his oxen. And the fear of the Lord fell on the people, and they came out with one consent." Another proof is drawn from the customs observed by the Scy- thians and Molossians. Lucian thus speaks of what passed between these people upon urgent occasions. " When any one had received an injury, and had not the means of avenging himself, he sacrificed an ox, and cut it into pieces, vvhich he caused to be dressed and publicly exposed ; then he spread out the skin of the victim, and sat upon it, with his hands tied behind him. All who chose to take part in the injury which had been done took up a piece of the ox, and swore to supply and maintain for him, one, five horses ; another, ten ; others still more ; some infantry, each according to his strength and abiHty; They who had only their. person engaged to march themselves. Now an army composed of such soldiers, far from retreating or disbanding, was invincible, as it was engaged, by oath." These circumstances, compared with the account given of the Levite's conduct and the subsequent behaviour of the tribes, clearly point out, that the method used by the Levite to obtain redress was consistent with the established usages of the times, and effected the retribution he desired to see accomplished. 1 Sam. xxi. 13. And he changed his behaviour before them, and feigned himself mad in their hands.'\ David is not the only instance of this kind. Among the Easterns, Baihasus the Ara- bian, surnamed Naama, had several of his brethren killed, whose death he wanted to revenge. In order to it he feigned himself mad, till at length he found an opportunity of executing his in- tended revenge, by killing all who had a share in the murder of his brethren (Anlhol. Vet. Hamasa, p. 535, edit. Schuiten). Amongst the Greeks, Ulysses is said to have counterfeited mad- ness, to prevent his going to the Trojan war. Solon also, the great Athenian lawgiver, practised the same deceit, and by appear- ing in the dress and with the air of a madman, and singing a song to the Athenians, carried his point, and got the law repealed that prohibited, under the penalty of death, any application to the people for the recovery of Salamis. Plut. Vit. Solon, p. 3^, Chandler's Life of David, vol. i. p. 102, note. 4)38 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS, Job V. 23. For thou shdlt he in league with the stones of the field.'] It has been supposed that these words refer to a custom called seopilism, which is thus described by Van Egmont and Heyman {Travels^ vol. ii. p. 156.) " In the province of Arabia there is a crime called erK07riXt(r/iQe> or fixing of stones ; it being a frequent practice among them to place stones, in the grounds of those with whom they are at variance* as a warning that any per- son who dares to till that field should infaUibly be slain by the contrivance of those who placed the stones there." This mali-^ cious practice is thought to have had its origin in Arabia Petrsea. See 2 Kings iii. 19, 25. Job xvi. 9. He gnasheth upon me with his teeth.] Homer describing Achilles arming to revenge the death of Patroclus, among other signs of indignation mentions the grinding of his teeth :. — Ton sat oSovrtitv /iiv Kavaxi iri\i. Jl. ^^i^- 365. Grief and revenge bis furious heart iuspire. His glowing eye-balls roll with living fire : He grinds his teeth, and, furious with delay, O'erlooks th' embattl'd host, and hopes the bloody day. Pope. Thus in Virgil, Hercules is described furens animis, denlibus infrendens, rAging in mind, and gnashing his teeth. {jEn. viii. 228.) So also Polyphemus :— Pentibus infrendensi gemitu, ^En. iii. 664. 1 Sam. xvii. 44. And the Philistine said to David, come to me, and I will give thy Jlesh to the fowls of the air, and to the beasts of the field^ This mode of speaking and challenging was very common with the Orientals. Homer gives the same haughty air to his heroes ; and it was doubtless a copy of the manners and hyperbolical speeches of the times. Thus he makes one say to another : Bold as thou art, too prodigal of breath. Approach, and enter the dark gsites of death, 11. ii. 107. 1 Sam. xvii. 45. / come to thee in the name of the Lord of Hosts.] The decision of national controversies by the duels of the chiefs was frequent in ancient times. That between the Horatii • and Curiatii is well known : and even before that, Romulus, and Aruns, king of the Ceninenses, ended their national quarrel by the like method; Romulus killing his adversary, taking his capital, and dedicating the 'spoils to Jupiter Feretrius. ( Val. Max. 1. viii. c. 2. § 3.) Chandler's Life of David, vol. i. p. 70, note. EzEKiEL xvii. 13. The mighty of the land.] The seventy, WAR. 439 ApxovTig. Vulg, Arietes, rams. Thus Homer, speaking of Ulysses marshalling the Greeks : AvTOs ^£, KriXoc ii>£, tTTHriuXsirat arixtQ av^pwv, k. t, X. II. iii. 196. Nor yet appear his care and conduct small ; From rank to rank he mores, and orders all. Tlie stately ram thus measures o'er ihe ground. And, master of the flock, surveys them round. Pope. Aristotle (H. A. vii 19) -says, that in every flock they prepare a leader of the males, which, when the shepherd calls him by name, goes before them. Judges vii. 13. And when Gideon was come.] Gideon, raised up by God himself> and made general of the army of Israel, yet goes as a spy into the camp of Midian. To this conduct there was not formerly any reproach attached, as it was esteemed honourable to go on such expeditions by night, or to perform those offices which are now the task of the common soldiers only. Homer- (/^. b. x.) represents Tydides as thus answering a com- mand to penetrate the Trojan camp : — '■ The man you seek is here: Through yofi black camps to bend my dang'rous way Some god within commands, and I obey. Fope, y. ^60, Isaiah xxxiii. 18. Where is he that counted the towers?] That is, the commander of the enemy's forces, who surveyed the fortifications of the city and took an account of the height, strength, and situation of the walls and towers, that he might know whiere to make the assault with the greatest advantage. As Capaneus before Thebes is represented in a passage of the Phoenissae of Euripides (v. 187), which Grotius has applied as an illustration of this passage. Bp. Lowth, in loc. Matt. xx. 16. For many are called, hut few chosen.] There was not an Israelite that did not carry arms; the priests and Levites not excepted. 2 Sam. xxiii. 20 ; 1 Kings ii. 3^. All were reckoned soldiers that were of age for service, and that M'as at twenty years old and upwards. Numb. i. 3, 23. They were like the militia in some countries, always ready to assemble at the first notice. The difference is, that with us all ecclesiastics are forbidden the use of arms, and that we have moreover an infinite number of people unfit for war ; whereas they were all husband- men and shepherds, inured from their childhood to labour and fatigue. Nor is it improbable that they used tfcem to handle arms from the time of David and Solomon. Thus at Rome, all the citizens of such an age were obliged to serve a certain number of campaigns, when they were commanded; from whence if comes that they did not use the expression of levying troops, but called 440 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. it choosing {delecfum habere) them, because they had always a great many more than they wanted. This is what our Lord refers to when he says, many are called, but few chosen. The great mass of the people were called together, and a choice was made of those who were most fit for service. Pleura's Hist, of Israelites, p. 152. Rev. xlv. 4. These are they who follow the Lami whithersoever he goelh.'] It has been suggested, that these words are probably an allusion to the oath taken by the Roman soldiers, part of which was, to follow their generals wherever they should lead. See 2 Sam. xv. 21. Lydli Dissert, de Jurament. c. ii. p. 258. Rev. xix. 13. A vesture dipped in blood."] This may probably be an allusion to the vesture worn by the Roman generals, which was sometimes purple or scarlet. This was the garb in which they fought; and this circumstance is particularly recorded of Lucullus. {Alex. ab. Alex. Genial. Dier. 1. i. c. 20.) 2 Chron. vi. 34. If thy people go out to war against their enemies.] The most usual time of going forth to war was at the return of spring. In the beginning of spring, says Josephus {Ant. 1. vii. c. 7) David sent forth his commander-in-ehief Joab, to make war with the Ammonites. At another place he says of Adad, that as soon as spring was begun he levied and led forth his army against the Hebrews. {Ant. 1. viii. c. 8.) Antiochus, in the same manner, made ready to invade Judea at the first appearance of spring. Vespasian likewise, earnest to put an end to the war in Judea, marches with his whole array to Arjtipatris at the com- mencement of spring. Holofernes also receives his -orders to lead forth the army of the king of Assyria on the two and twentieth day of the first month, that is, a few days after Easter. Judith ii, 1 . . Hurdis's Diss. p. 30. Psalm cxlix. 5. Let them sing aloud upon their beds.] Among some of the most celebrated of the ancients war was proclaimed by the ministers of religion, and military expeditions were opened by devout processions and public sacrifices. The 149th Psahn was doubtless composed on such an occasion. It was sung when David's army was marching out to war against the remnant of the devoted nations, and first went up in solemn procession to the house of God, there as it were to consecrate the arms he put into their hands. The beds referred to, on which they were to sing aloud, were probably the couches on which they lay at the banquet attending their sacrifices; which gives a noble sense to a passage on any other interpretation hardly intelligible. Doddridge's JVorks, vol. iii. p. 52. WAR. 441 Deut. XX. 2. And it shall be, when ye are come nigh unto th e battle, that the priest shall approach and speak unto the people."} Maimonides and the Talmudical writers speak much of a " sa- cerdos ad bellum unctus:" a priest anointed for war, who they say was anointed with the same oil that the high-priest was, being' little inferior to him in dignity, though in the sanctuary he minis- tered only as a common priest, and wore no other garments than they did. His proper office was to attend the camp in time of war, and encourage the people to the battle. When he had pronounced the words contained in Deut. xx. 3, 4, standing on a high place before the whole army, another priest proclaimed it to- all the people with a loud voice. Dr. Jennings (Jewish Ant. vol. i. p. 207) does not, however, seem satisfied with this account, and infers from the silence of scripture on the point, that there really was no such officer. EzEK. xxxiii. 26. Yc stand upon your sword."] You make your strength the law of justice, according to the character given of un- godly men. (Wisdom ii. 11.) Spencer {de Legib. Heb. lib. ii. cap. 11) thinks that the expression alludes to a custom of the heathens, who put the blood of their sacrifices into a vessel or pit, in order tb call up and consult evil spirits, and then stood with their swords drawn, to keep the demons off from doing them any harm. Judges xi. 30. And Jephthah vowed a vow unto the Lord.} Though he did not doubt, yet he supposed that he should be more certain of the victory, if he made a religious vow before- hand of being grateful to God for it. In this he acted conform- ably to the general practice of great warriors in all ages. Livy frequently mentions it as the custom of the Roman generals, who used to vow to "Jupiter or Apollo part of the spoil they should take in war, or tp build temples to their honour. Thus the Is- raelites, when Arad came against them as they Were going to Canaan, made a vow respecting his country, if God would deliver it into their hands. Numbers xxi. 2. 1 Sam. vii. 5. Arid Samuel said, Gather all Israel to Mizpeh, and I will pray for you unto the Lord.] Apprehensive of the chances of war, it was usual anciently to perform very solemn de- votions before they went out to battle : and it seems that there were places particularly appropriated for this purpose. (See 1 Wacc. iii. 46.) It appears that Samuel convened the people at Mizpeh, in order to prepare them by solemn devotion for war with the Philistines. The following account from Pococke ( Travels, p. 36) may possibly serve to explain this custom. " Near Cairo, beyond the mosque of Sheik Duise, and in the neighbourhood of a burial-place of the sons of some pashas,-on a hill, is a solid build- ing of stone, about three feet wide, built with ten steps, being at 44'3 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS, the top about three feet square, on which the sheik mounts to pray on any extraordinary occasion, when all the people go out at the beginning of a war, and, here in Egypt, when the Nile does not rise as they expect it should : and such a place they have without all the towns throughout Turkey." Harmer, vol. ii. p. 265. Psalm xx. 5. In the name of our God we will set up our banners.'] The banners formerly so much used were a part of military equipage, borne in times of war to assemble, direct, dis- tinguish, and encourage the troops. They might possibly be used for other purposes also. Occasions of joy, splendid pro- cessions, and especially a royal habitation, might severally be dis- tinguished in this way. The words of the Psalmist may, perhaps, be wholly figurative : but if they should be literally understood, the allusion of erecting a banner in the name of the Lord, acknowledging his glory, and imploring his favour, might be jus- tified from an existing practice. Certain it is, that we find this custom prevalent on this very principle in other places, into which it might originally have been introduced from Judea. Thus Mr. Turner {Embassy to Tibet, p. 31) says, "I was told that it was a custom with the soobah to ascend the hill every month, when he sets up a white flag, and performs some religious cere- monies, to conciliate the favour of a dewta, or invisible being, the genius of the place, who is said to hover about the summit, dis- pensing, at his will, good and evil to every thing around him." Isaiah Ixii. 10. Liift up a standard for the people."] The original word here used is of a general signification, and means not a standard only, but any sign. This may receive some illus- tration from a passage in Irwin's Travels, p. 139. He says, that it was customary to light up fires on the mountains within view of Cossir (a town near the Red Sea), to give notice of the approach of the caravans that came from the Nile to Cossir ; this was of great importance, at they required the assistance of the inhabitants of that place. It is to some such management as this that Isaiah refers in these words. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 267. 1 CoR. xiv. 8. Who shall prepare himself to the battle.] The allusion to the custom •of many nations, who, when about to engage in war, made use of musical instruments, particularly the trumpet, to gather the soldiers together, prepare them for the bat- tle, give them notice of it, and animate them to it. {Alex. ah. Alex. Genial. Dier. 1. iv. c. 2.) The sound of the trumpet was the alarm of war. Jer. iv. 5. There may also be a reference to the two silver trumpets, which the Lord ordered to be made of one piece for ihe Jews, for the journeying of the camps, and for war. Numbers x. 1, 2. Gill, in loc. WAR. 443 Habbakkuk i. 8. Tlieir horsemen shall spread themseloes.'] The account which the Baron Du Tott has given of the manner in which an army of modern Tartars conducted themselves, greatly illustrates this passage. " These particulars," says he, "informed the Cham (or prince) and the generals what their real position was ; and it was decided that a third of the army, composed of volunteers, commanded by a sultan and several mirzas, should pass the river at midnight, divide into several columns, subdivide successively, and thus overspread New Servia, burn the villages, corn, and fodder, and carry off the inhabitants of the country. The rest of the army, in order to follow the plan concerted, marched till it came to the beaten track in the snow made by the detachment. This we followed till we arrived at the place where it divided into seven branches, to the left of which we constantly kept, observing never to mingle, or confuse ourselves, with any of the subdivisions, which we successively found, and some of which were only small paths, traced by one or two horsemen, &c. Flocks 'were found frozen to death on the plain ; and twenty columns of smoke, already rising in the horizon, completed the horrors of the scene, and announced the fires which had laid waste New Servia. (ilfemoira, part ii. pp. 170 — 175.) The diffi- culties which have attended the explanation of these words are thus happily removed, and the propriety of the expression fully established. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 230. Lam. i. 3. All her persecutors overtook her between the stiaits.] It was the practice with those who hunted wild beasts to drive them, if possible, into some strait and narrow passage, that they might more effectually take them, as in such a situation an escape could hardly be effected. It is to this circumstance that the pro- phet alludes in these words. The same metaphor is supposed also to occur in Psalm cxvi. 3 : " The sorrows of deatL com^. passed me, and the pains of hell gat h^ld upon me : I found trou- ble and sorrow." Judges vii. 21, 22. And they stood every man in his place round about the camp : and all the host ran, and cried, and fled :. and the three hundred men blew the trumpets, and the Lord set every man's sword against his fellow.'] A modern piece of Arab history very, much illustrates the defeat of the Midianites by Gideon, and at the same time points out wherein the extraor- dinary interposition of God appeared. It relates to a contest between two chiefs for the imamship of Oman ; and the substance of it is, that one of them, whose name was Achmed, finding him- self at first too weak to venture a battle, threw himself, with a few soldiers, into a little fortress built on a mountain, where he had deposited his treasures. Bel Arrab, his rival, at the head of four or five thousand men, invested the place, and would have forced 444 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. the new imam to surrender, had he not quitted the fortress, with two of his domestics, all three disguised like poor Arabs, who were looking out for grass for their camels. Aohmed withdrew to a town a good day's journey from the besieged fortress, where he was much beloved ; he found no difficulty in gathering togetheT some hundreds of them, with which he marched against his enemy. Bel Arrab had placed his camp between some high mountains, near the above-mentioned fortress. Achraed ordered a coloured string to be tied round the heads of his soldiers, that they might be distinguished from their enemies. He then set several detach- ments to seize the passes^of those mountains. He gave each detachment an Arab trumpet to sound an alarm on all sides, as soon as the principal party should give the signal. Measures being thus laid, the imam's son gstve the signal at day-break, and the trumpets sounded on every, side. The whole army of Bel Arrab being thrown into a panic at finding all the passes guarded, and judging the number of the enemy to be proportionate to the noise that was made, was routed. Bel Arrab himself marched with a party to the place where the son of the new imam was keeping guard ; he knew Bel Arrab, fell upon him, killed him, and, according to the custom of the Arabs, cut offhis head, which he carried in triumph to his father. Niehukr Trav. p. 263. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 231. . > ... ; 2 Kings vii. 12. And the king arose in the nigJit, and said unto his servants, I will now show you what the Syrians have done to us : they know that we are hungry, therefore are they gone out of the camp to hide themselves in the field, saying, when they come out of the city, we shall catch them alive, and getinto the city.'] In the history of the revolt, of 'Ali Bey (p. 99), we have an account of a transaction very similar to the stratagem supposed to have been practised by the Syrians. The pasha of Sham (Damascus) having ^larched near to the sea of Tiberias, found Sheik Daher encamped there : but the sheik deferring the engagement till the next morning, during the night divided his arniy into three parts, and left the camp with great fires, all sorts ^f provisions, and a large quantity of spirituous liquors, giving strict orders not to hinder the enemy from taking possession of the camp, but to come down and attack them just before dawn of day.' " In the middle of the night, the pasha of Sham thought to surprise Sheik Daher, and marched in silence to the camp, which, to his great astonishment he found entirely abandoned, and thought the sheik had fled with so much precipitation, that he could not carry off the baggage and stores. The pasha thought proper to stop in the camp to refresh his soldiers. They soon fell to plunder, and drank so freely of the liquors, that, overcome with the fatigue of the day's march, and the fumes of the spirits, they were not long ere they were ii;i a sound sleep. At that time WAR. 445 Sheik Sleby and Sheik Crime, who were watching the enemyj came silently to the camp ; and Sheik Daher, having repassed the sea of Tiberias, meeting them, they all rushed into the camp, and fell on the confused and sleeping enemy, eight thousand of whom they slew on the spot; and the, pasha, with the remainder of his troops, fled with much difficulty to Sham, leaving all their bag- gage behind." Harmer, vol. iv. p. 244. Judges v. 11. They that are delivered from the noise of archers in the places of drawing water. '\ Shaw mentions {Travels, p. 20) a beautiful rill in Bai-bary, which is received into a large bason called shrub we krub (drink and away), their being great danger of meeting there with rogues and assassins. If such places be proper for the lurking of murderers in times of peace, they must be suitable to lie in ambush in times of war ; a circum- stance that Deborah takes notice of in her song. Harmer, vol. ii. p. ^S5. PsAi.M xviii. 33. He maketh my feet like hinds' feet] This was reckoned a very honourable qualification amongst the ancient writers, who, as they generally fought on foot, were enabled by their agility and swiftness speedily to run from place to place, to give orders, attack their enemies, defend their friends, or for any other purposes the service might require of them. Achilles was TToSae (OKvg, swift-footed. Virgil's Nisus is hyperbolically de- scribed, Et renlis et fulminis ocior alis. ^n. v. It was one of the warlike Camilla's excellences that she was able Cursu pedum praevertere ventos. ^n. vii. See also 2 Sam. i. 23. 1 Chron. xii. 8. Isaiah xliii. 2. When thou walkest through the fire thou shall not be burnt.'} The setting of the grass and undergrowth on fire in the East was practised to annoy their enemies, and sometimes occasioned great terror and distress. So we find in Hawkes- worth's account of the late voyages to the South Seas^ the wild inhabitants of New South Wales endeavoured to destroy some tents and stores belonging to Captain Cook's ship, when he was repairing it, by setting fire to the long grass of that country. From the words of the prophet it appears to have been a very ancient stratagem. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 151. Isaiah xi. 15. With Ms mighty- wind shall he shake his hand over the river, and shall smite it in the seven streams, and make men go over dry-shod-] Herodotus (i. 189) tells a story of his 446 ORIKNTAI, CUSTOMS. Cyrus (a very different character from that of the Cyrus of the Scriptures and Xenophon) which may somewhat illustrate this passage; in which it is said that God would inflict a kind of pu- nishment and judgment on the Euphrates, and render it fordable, by dividing it into seven streams. " Cyrus being impeded in his march to Babylon by the Gyndes, a deep and rapid river which falls into the Tigris ; and having lost one of his sacred white horses that attempted to pass it, was so enraged against the river, that he threatened to reduce it, and make it so shallow that' it should be easily fordable even by women, who should not be up to their knees in passing it. Accordingly he set his whole army to work ; and cutting three hundred and sixty trenches from both sides of the river, turned the waters into them, and drained them off." Prov. XXV. 26. A righteous man falling down before the wicked is as a troubled fountain, and a corrupt spring.^ One method of rendering streams of water unfit for use to an enemy was, by throwing filth into them. This was sometimes practised {Gesta Dei per Francos, p. 1031), and in particular it was done by the people at a place called Bosseret. Accident has also some- times had the same effect. The same writer mentions a large quan- tity of water collected in cisterns, as being spoiled by locusts perishing in it. A circumstance of this kind might be alluded to by Solomon in these words. Harmef, vol. ii. p. 234. Gen. xxvi. 15. For all the wells which his father's servants had digged in the days of Abraham his father, the Philistines had slopped them, and filled them with earth.'] The same mode of taking vengeance which is here mentioned has been practised in ages subsequent to the time here referred to. Niebuhr {Travels, p. 302) tells us, that the Turkish emperors pretend to a right to that part of Arabia that lies between Mecca and the countries of Syria and Egypt, but that their power amounts to. very little. That they have however garrisons in divers little citadels built in that desert, near the wells that are made on the road from Egypt and Syria to Mecca, which are intended for the greater safety of their caravans. But in a following page (p. 330) he gives ^ us to understand, that these princes have made it a custom to give an- nually to every Arab tribe which is near that road, a certain sum of money and a certain number of vestments, to keep them from destroyingi,the wells that lie in that route, and to escort the pilgriiris across their country. We find in D'Herbelot (p. 396), that Gianabi, a famous rebel in the tenth century, gathered a number of people together, seized on Bassora and Coufa, and afterwards insulted the reigning caliph, by presenting himself .boldly before Bagdat his capital : after which he retired by little and little, filling up all the pits vf\t\i sand, which WAR. 447 had been dug in the road to Mecca for the benefit of the pilgrims. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 247. 2 Kings iii. 25. Felled the good frees.] In times of war it was formerly very common for one party to injure the other by " de- stroying their valuable trees." Thus the Moabites were punished, and thus the Arabs of the Holy Land still make war upon each other, burning the corn, cutting down the olive-trees, &c. Has- selquist, Travels, p. 143. Rev. ix. 19. For their power is in their mouth and their tails.'] The power in the mouth and in the tails, as serpents, is plainly an allusion to those serpents which are supposed to have two heads, one at each end of their body, as Pliny describes the amphisboe- na; "geminum caput amphisboenae, hoe est ad Caput, et ad caudam, tanquam parum esset uno ore fundi venenum." {Hist. Nat. lib. viii. cap. 23.) A proper representation of a furious and terrible invasion. Lowman, in loc. Gen. xvi. 12. His hand tuill be against every man, and every man's hand against him.'] " The one is the natural and almost necessary consequence of the other. Ishmael lived by prey and rapine in the wilderness : and his postei'ity have all along infested Arabia and the neighbouring countries with their robberies and incursions. They live in a state of continual war with the rest of the world, and are both robbers by land, and pirates by sea. As they have been such enemies to mankind, it is no wonder that mankind have been enemies to them again ; that several attempts have been made to extirpate them ; and even now, as well as for- merly, travellers are forced to go with arms, and in caravans, or large companies, and to march and keep watch like a little army, to defend themselves from the assaults of these freebooters, who run about in troops, and rob and plunder all whom they can by any means subdue. These robberies they also justify, by alleging the .hard usage of their father Ishmael, who being turned out of doors by Abraham, had the open plains and deserts given him by God for his patrimony, with permission to take whatever he could find there : and on this account they think they may, with a safe conscience, indemnify themselves, as well as they can, not only on the posterity of Isaac, but also on every body else ; always sup- posing a kind of kindred between themselves and those they plun^ der ; and in relating their adventures of this kind, they think it sufficient to change the expression, and instead of, " I robbed a man of such and such a tiling," to say, "I gained it." Sale's Prelim. Discourse, 30. Newton on the Prophecies, vol. i. p. 42. VICTORS. Isaiah ix. 5. For every battle of the warrior is with confused 44S ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. noise, and garments rolled in blood; but this shall be with burn- ing and' fuel of fire.'] The burning of heaps of armour gathered from the field of battle, as an offering made to the god supposed to be the giver of victory, vpas a custom that prevailed among-some heathen nations : and the Romans used it as an emblem of peace. A medal, struck by Vespasian on finishing his wars both at home and abroad, represents the goddess Peac'E, holding an olive-branch in one hand, and, with a lighted torch in the otJier, setting fire to a heap of armour. {Addison on Medals, series ii. 18.) Virgil mentions the custom : O mihi preseteritos referat si Jupiter annos ! Qualis eram, cum primam aciem Prasoeste sub ipsa, Stravi, scutorumque incendi victor acervos. ^n. viii. 560. Would heaven, said he, my strength and youth recal, Such as T was beneath Praeneste's wall, * ^ Then when I made the foremost foes rt^tire, • And set whole heaps of conquer'd shields on fire. Dryden. See also Joshua xi. 6 ; Nahum ii. 13 ; Psalm xlvi. 9 ; Ezek. xxxix. 8, 10. Bp. Lowth, in loc. Judges v. 30. Have they not divided the prey — to Sisera a prey of divers colours, a prey of divers colours of needle work, of divers colours of needle-work on both sides."] These were the richest parts of the spoil, being highly esteemed by all people. Pliny (lib. viii. cap. 48) mentions a great variety of them, both in his own and in ancient times; for he takes notice that Homer speaks of painted garments, pictas vestes, which shone with flowers and trees in beautiful colours. The Phrygians afterwards wrought these with needles, and Attalus invented the interweaving of gold into them. But for these garments, Babylon was above al] places famous ; from whence they had the name of Babylonish garments, and were much valued, Josh. vii. 21. In later ages Peter Martyr observes that they were so esteemed that only the greater sort of persons were allowed to wear them ; which may be the reason that they are here appropriated to Sisera as his part of the spoil. Eph. iv. 8. And gave gifts unto men.] Here is an allusion to the custom of conquerors, who used to give largesses to their sol- diers after a triumph. Though the Roman instances of this custom are perhaps most familiar to our minds, yet all who are acquainted with antiquity know that it was not peculiar to them. (Judges v. 30.) Doddridge, in loc. 1 Chron. xxvi. 27. Out of the spoils won in battle did thei^ dedicate to maintain the house of the Lord.] According to the law of Moses, the booty was to be divided equally, between those who were in the battle and those who were in the camp, whatever WAR. 449 disparity there might be in the number of each party. The law farther requires, that out of that part of the spoils which was assigned to the fighting-men, the Lord's share should be separated : and for= every five hundred men, oxen, sheep, &c. , they were to take one for the high priest, as being the Lord's first-fruits, and out of the other moiety belonging to the children of Israel, they were to give for every fifty men, oxen, sheep, '&c., one to the Le- vites. 'Amongst the Greeks and Romans, the plunder was byought together into one common stock, and divided afterwards amongst the officers and soldiers, paying some respect to their rank in the distribution. Sometimes the soldiers made a reserve of the chief part of the booty, to present by way of compliment to their respec- tive generals. The gods were always remembered. And the priests had sufficient influence to procure them a handsome offer- ing, and other acceptable presents. See Homer, II. vii. 81. Eu- rip. Here. Fur. 476. Virgil, JEn. iii. 286, et vii. 183. Wilson's Archeeol. Diet, art. Booty. Rev. vi. 2. A white horse."] White horses were formerly used in triumphs in token of victory. To see a white horse in a dream was accounted a good sign by the Jews : and Astrampsychus says, a vision of white horses is an apparition of angels., One of those angels, which the Jews suppose to have the care of men, is said to ride by them, and at their right hand upon a white horse. Gill, in loc. Psalm cxxxii. 18. Upon his head shall the crown Jlourish."] " This idea seems to be taken from the nature of the ancient crowns bestowed upon conquerors. From the earliest periods of history the laurel, olive, and ivy furnished crowns to adorn the heads of heroes who had conquered in the field of battle, gained the prize in the race, or performed some other important service to the pub- lic. These were the dear-bought rewards of the most heroic ex- ploits of antiquity. This sets the propriety of the phrase in full view. The idea of a crown of gold and jewels flourishing is at least unnatural : whereas flourishing is natural to laurels and oaks. These were put upon the heads of the victors in full verdure." Pirie's Works, vol. iii. p. 124. Rev, vii. 9. And palms in their hands."] Conquerors used to carry palm-tree branches in their hands (A. Gell. Noct. Att. 1. iii. e. 6). Those who conquered in the Grecian combats not only had crowns of palm-tree given them, but carried branches of it in their hands. {Alex, ab Alex. Genial. Dier. 1. v. c. 8.) The Romans did the same in their triumphs. They sometimes wore toga palmata, a garment with the figures of palm-trees upon it, which were interwoven in it. Gill, in loc. 2 G 450 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Numbers xxiii, 23. What hath God wrought !] When the Baron Du Tott was endeavouring to make the Turks better gun- ners, for want of which they suffered such great losses in the war with the Russians, which terminated in 1774, he was fosced by them, very contrary to his wish, to fire a cannon at a certain mark. Upon redoubled solicitations he was prevailed on to point the piece, and was not less surprised than those around him, to see the bullet hit the piquet in the centre of the butt. The cry Ma- challa! resounded on all sides. {Mem. vol. ii. part 3, p. 96.) At the bottom of the page is this note : Machalla ! what God has done ! an expression of the greatest admiration. There is a sin- gular-coincidence between this and the exclamation of Balaam. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 462. 1 Chron. xxii. 8. Thou shall not build a house unto my name, because thou hast shed much b/ood upon the earth.'] The custom which prohibits persons polluted with blood to perform any offices of divine worship before they were purified, is so ancient and uni- versal, that it may almost be esteemed a precept of natural reli- gion, tending to inspire an uncommon dreadand horror of blood- shed. In the case of David it amounted to a disqualification, as it respected the building of the temple. And with regard to some of the Israelites, it was the cause of the rejection of their prayers, Isaiah i. 15. The Greeks were influenced by the same principle. Euripides represents Iphigenia as arguing that it was impossible for human sacrifices to be acceptable to the gods, since they do not permit any defiled with blood, or even polluted with the touch of a dead body, to come near their altars {Iphig, in Taur. v. 380.) Homer makes Hector say, 111 fits it me, with human gore distain'd, To the pure sties these horrid hands to raise, Or offer hearen's great sire polluted praise. Pope, II. vi. 333. Virgil also makes .^Eneas say, Me belle e tan to digressnm et cjede recenti Attrectare nefas, donee me flumine vivo Abluero. ^n. ii. 7ir. 1 Kings ii. 5. And shed the Mood of war in peace, and put the blood of war upon his girdle that was about his loins, and in his shoes that were on his feet.] Ii, is evident that David meant by these words to describe the violence of Joab, the effects of which seem to have been coincident with the sentiment of Abdol- lah, who " went out and defended himself, to the terror and asto- nishment of his enemies, killing a great many with his own hands, so that they kept at a distance, and threw bricks at him, and made him stagger ; and when he felt the blood run down his face and WAR. 451 beard, he repeated this verse, * the blood of our wounds doth not fall down on our heels, but on our feet,' meaning that he did not turn his back on his enemies." OcJcleys Hist, of the Saracens, vol. ii. p. 291. In like manner the blood shed by Joab fell on his feet, on his shoes ; it was not inadvertently, but purposely shed ; shed with ferocity, rather than valour. Fragments, No. 321. 1 Sam. xiv. 15. So it was a great trembling.'] In the Hebrew it is, a trembling of God, that is, which God sent upon them. This was called by the heathens a panic fear: and, as it was thought to come from the gods, made the stoutest men quake. So Pindar excellently expresses it : • Ev yap Aatiiovwiat (potoiQ *ewyoj/rai ic«i Ua'iSeg Qtiov. Nemea ix. 63. " When men are struck with divine terrors, even the children of the gods betake themselves to flight." Psalm cxxxvii. 9. Happy shall he be that taketh and dasheth thy little ones against the stones.] This was an instance of cruelty frequently exercised in the sacking of towns. Thus Isaiah (c.xiii. v. 16) foretels to Babylon, that her children shall be dashed in pieces before her eyes by the Medes. See also Hosea xiii. 16. So also in Homer, one exclaims, My city burnt. My bleeding infants dasb'd against tbe floor ; These I have yet to see, perhaps yet more. II. j3. v. 22. Poff. He also repeats Andromache lamenting over Hector : Thou too, my son ! to barb'rous climes shall go, The sad companion of thy mother's woe ; Driv*n hence a slave before the victor's sword ; Condemn'd to toil for some inhuman lord ; Or else some Greek, whose father press'd the plain, Or son, or brother, by great Hector slain,. In Hector's blood his vengeance shall enjoy. And liurl thee headlong from the tow'rs' of Troy. II. xxiv. 732. Pope. Isaiah xiii. 17. Behold, Twill stir up the Medes against them, who shall not regard silver ; and as for gold, they shall.not delight in it.] That is, they were not to be induced by large offers of gold and silver for ransom to spare the lives of those whom they have subdued in battle ; their rage and cruelty will get the better of all such motives. We have many examples in the Iliad and the .^neid of the addresses of the vanquished to the pity and avarice of the vanquishers, to induce them to spare their lives, ^ G 2 452 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Est domus nlta ; jacent penitus defossa talenta Cailati argeuti : sunt auri pondeia facti, &c. Mk. x. 526. High in my dome are silver talents roU'd, With piles of laboured and unlaboured gold : These, to procure my ransom, I resign — The war depends not on a life like mine. One, one poor life can no such difference yield. Nor turn the mighty balance of the field. Thy talents (cried the prince^, thy treasured store, Keep for thy sons. Pitt. 2 Sam. viii. 2. Measured them with a line.] These words seem to allude to a custom among the kings of the East, when they were thoroughly incensed against any nation — to make all the cap- tives come together in one place, and prostrate themselves upon the ground, that, being divided into two parts, as it were, with a line, their coftqueror might appoint which part he pleased, either for life or for death, which was sometimes determined by casting lots. Stackhouse's Hist, of Bible, vol. i. p. 689, note. 2 Sam. viii, 2. Casting them down to the ground.] The opinion of the learned authors of the Universal History, {Anc. Hist. vol. ii. p. 135, note 5) is, that David caused them to fall down flat, or prostrate on the ground. Le Clerc also says, that it seems to have been the manner of the eastern kings towards those they con- quered, especially those that had incurred their displeasure, to command their captives to lie down on the ground, and thento put to death such a part of them as were measured by a line. Both Dr. Chandler (Life of David, vol. ii. p. 157, note) and Bp. Patrick (Comment, in loc.) are of opinion, that there is no evidence to prove the existence of such a practice amongst the Hebrews. JuDGKs viii. 20. And he said unto Tether his first-born, up and slay them.] In these ages it would be thought barbarous for a king to command his son to perform an execution, like that men- tioned in this passage : but anciently it was thought no dishonour. Homer {Odyss. b. xxii.) represents Ulysses as enjoining such a task upon his son, which was instantly performed. See also Vir- gil, JEn. xi. 15. 1 Sam. xvii. 51. Therefore David ran, and stood upon the Philistine, and took his sword, and drew it oitt of the sheath there- of, and slew him and cut off his head therewith^ Niebuhr pre- sents us with a very similar scene in his Descript. de VArabie," p. 263, where the son of an Arab chief kills his father's enemy and rival, and, according to the custom of the Arabs, cuts off his head, and carries it iff triumph to his father. In a note he adds, " cut- ting off the head of a slain enemy, and carrying it in triumph, is an ancient custom." Xenophon remarks, that it was practised by WAR. 453 the Chalybes. (Retreat of the Ten Thousand,\\\i.\y.) Herodo- tus attributes it to the Scythians, hb. iv. cap. 60. 1 Sam. xxvii. 9. And David smote he land, and left neither man nor tooman alive.'] Camillus, after the burning of Rome by Brennus the Gaul, beat his army in two battles, and made such a thorough slaughter of them, as that there was not a messenger left to carry the. news of their destruction. (Z«». 1. v. c. 49.) In like manner Mummius the Roman general, when the Lusitanians had .invaded some of the allies of Rome, killed fifteen thousand of those ravagers, and, just as David did, killed all those who were carrying away the booty, so that he did not suffer a single messen- ger to escape the carnage. (Appian. al. de Bell. Hispan. p. 485.) In like manner Gelo gave orders to take none of the Carthaginians alive ; and they were so entirely cut off, that not so much as a messenger was left alive to escape to Carthage. {Diodor. Sic. 1. xi. § 33.) Chandlers Life of David, vol. i. p. 220, note. Obadiah ver. 18. There shall not be any remaining of the house of Esau.] They shall all be cut off by, or swallowed up among,, the Jews : not so much as a torch-bearer left, one that carries the lights before an army, as the Septuagint and Arabic versions ; which versions, and the custom alluded to, serve very much to illustrate the passage. It was usual with the Greeks [Alex, ah Alex. Genial. Dier. 1. v. c. 3) when armies were about to engage, that before the first ensigns stood a prophet or priest bearing branches of laurels and garlands, who was called Pyro- phorus, or the torch-bearer, because he held a lamp or torch ; and it was accounted a most criminal thing to do him any hurt, be- cause he performed the office of an ambassador. This sort of men were priests of Mars and sacred to him, so that those who were conquerors always spared them. Hence, when a total destruction of an army, place, or people, was hyperbolically expressed, it used to be said, not so much as a torch-bearer, or fire-carrier, escaped. {Herodot. Urania, sive 1. viii. c. 6.) So Philo the Jew, speaking of the destruction of Pharaoh and his host in the Red Sea, says, there was not so much as a torch-bearer left to declare the calamity to the Egyptians. And thus here, so general should be the de- struction of the Edomites, that not one should be left in such an office as just described. Amos ii. 1. He burnt the bones of the king of Edom into lime.] " To plaster the walls of his house with, it," as the Chaldee para- phrase explains the text, which was a cruel insulting over the dead. A piece of barbarity resembling this is told by Sir Paul Rycaut {Present State of the Greek Church, ch. ii.), that the wall of the city of Philadelphia was made of the bones of the besieged, by the prince who took it by storm. 454 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. John xxi. 18. When thou shalt be old, thou ihalt stretch forth thy hands, and another shall gird thee,'\ It was customary in the ancient combats for the vanquished person to stretch out his hands to the conqueror, signifying that he declined the battle, acknow- ledging that he was conquered, and submitting to the direction of the victor. Thus Theocritus : — And hands uprais'd with death-presaging mind. At once the fight and victory declin'd. Idyll, xxii. So also Turnus in Virgil : — Vicisti et victum tenders, &c. Thine^s the conquest ; lo, the Latian bands Behold their gen'ral stretch bis suppliant hands, Pitt. In the instance now above-cited the stretching out of the hands was to be a token of submission to that power, under which he would fall and perish. Isaiah li. 23. Who have said to thy soul, Bow down, that we may go overJ] This is a very strong and expressive description of the insolent pride of eastern conquerors- The following is one out of many instances of it. The emperor Valerian being through treachery taken prisoner by Sapor king of Persia, was treated by him as the basest and most abject slave ; for the Persian monarch commanded the unhappy Roman to bow himself down, and offer him his back, on which he set his foot in order to mount his cha- riot or his horse, whenever he had occasion. Lactantius de Mort. Persec. cap. 5., Aurel. Victor. Epitome, cap. S2. Bp. Lowth, in loc. 2 Sam. xv. 32. And earth upon his head.'] One method whereby submission was formerly expressed was by presenting earth to a conqueror. Hence we find it related of Darius, that being weary of a tedious and fatiguing pursuit, he sent a herald to the king of the Scythians, whose name was Indathyrsus, with this message in his name : " Prince of the Scythians, wherefore dost thou continually fly before me ? why dost thou not stop somewhere or other, either to give me battle, if thou believe thyself able to encounter me, or, if thou think thyself too weak, to acknowledge thy master, by presenting him with earth and water ?" Rollin, Anc. Hist. vol. iii. p. 31. Gen. xilix. 8. Thy hand shall he in the neck of thine enemies.] This expression denotes triumph over an enemy, and that Judah should subdue his adversaries. Tiiis was fulfilled in the person of David, and acknowledged by him. " Thou hast also given me the necks of mine enemies, that I might destroy them that hate me." Psalm xviii. 43. Treading on the neck of a vanquished WAR. 455 foe has been a very common practice. Arhongst the Franks it was usual to put the arm round the neck as a mark of superiority on the part of him that did it. When Chrodin, declining the office of mayor of the palace, chose a young nobleman, named Gogen, to fill that place, he immediately took the arm of that young man, and put it round his own neck, as a mark of his dependence on him, and that he acknowledged him for his general and cliief." "When a debtor became insolvent, he gave himself up to his creditor as his slave, till he had paid all his debt: and to confirm his engagement, he took the arm of his patron, and put it round his own neck. This ceremony invested, as it were, his creditor in his person." Stockdale's Manners of the jincient Nations, vol. i. p. 356. See Gen. xxvii. 40 ; Deut. xxviii. 48; Isaiah x. 27; Jer. xxvii. 8; Joshua x. 24; Lam. v. 5. Nahum iii. 10. They cast lots for her honourable men.] The custom of casting lots for the captives taken in war appears to have prevailed both with the Jews and Greeks. It is mentioned by an- other of the prophets, besides the one now referred to. Strangers carried away captive his forces, and foreigners entered, into his gates, and cast lots upon Jerusalem. Obadiah, ver. 11. With respect to the Greeks, we have an instance in Tryphiodorias : Shared out by lot^ the female captives stand ; Tlie spoils dirided with an equal hand : Each to his ship conveys liis rightful share, Price of their toil, and trophies of the war. Destruction of Troy, Merrick, ver. 938. Isaiah iii. 17. The Lord will expose their nakedness.'] It was the barbarous custom of the conquerors of these times to strip their captives naked, and to make them travel in that condi- tion, exposed to the inclemency of the weather, and, the worst of all, to the intolerable heat of the sun. But this to the women was the height of cruelty and indignity, and especially to such as those here described, who had indulged themselves in all manner of deli- cacies of living, and all the superfluities of ornamental dress ; and even whose faces had hardly ever been exposed to the sight of man. This is always mentioned as the hardest part of the lot of captives. (Nahum iii. 5, 6.) Bp. Lowth, in loc. Eph. iv. 8. And led captivity captive.] This is an allusion to the pubhc triumphs of the Romans, in which captives were led in chains, and exposed to open view. Jer. xxix. 18. And deliver them to he removed to all the king- doms of the earth.]' The transplanting of people or nations has been practised by modern conquerors. Thus in the year 796, Charlemagne transplanted the Saxons from their own country, to oblige them to remain faithful to him, into different parts of his kingdom, either Flanders or the country of the Helvetians. Their 456 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. own country was re-peopled by the Adrites, a Sclavonian nation. (Henault abrege Chronol. de I'Hisioire de France, torn. i. p. 65.) It was the pohcy of Abbas the First, who ascended the throne of Persia in 1585, to transplant the inhabitants of conquered places from one country to another, with a view not only to prevent any danger from their disaffection, but likewise of depopulating the countries exposed to an enemy. Hanway's Revolutions of Per- sia, vol. iii. p. 164. Jer. xxvi. 18. Zion shall he ploughed like afield.l The Jews suppose this prophecy to be fulfilled in the utter destruction of the second temple by Titus ; when Terentius, or, as some of the modern Jews call him, Turnus Rufus razed the very foundations of the city and temple, and so fulfilled the prediction of Christ, "that there should not be left one stone upon another." See Joseph. Bell. Jud. lib. vii. c. 7. When conquerors would signify their purpose that a city should never be rebuilt, they used to break up the ground where it stood. Judges ix. 45. Horace alludes to this custom : Imprimeretque maris Hostile aratrum exercitus insolens. Lib. i. od, 16. Hence also Ovid : Et seges est ubi Troja fiiit. See Micah iii. \2. Deut. xxix. 23. The whole land thereof is brimstone, and salt, and burning.'] The effect of salt, where it abounds, on vegeta- tion, is described by burning. Thus Volney, speaking of "the bor- ders of the Asphaltic Lake, or Dead Sea, says, " the true cause of the absence of vegetables and animals, is the acrid saltness of its waters, which is infinitely greater than that of the sea. The land surrounding the lake being equally impregnated with that saltness, refuses to produce plants ; the air itself, which is by evaporation loaded with it, and which moreover receives vapours of sulphur and bitumen, cannot suit vegetation : whence the dead appearance which reigns around the lake." {Voyage en Syrie, torn. i. p. 282.) Thus also Virgil, Georg. ii. lib. 238. Hence the ancient custom of sowing an enemy's city, when taken, with salt, in token of per- petual desolation. Judges ix..45. And thus in aftertimes (An. 1162) the city of Milan was burnt, razed, sown with salt, and ploughed by the exasperated emperor Frederick Barbarossa. Complete Syst. ofGeog. vol. i. p. 822. Josh. x. 11. The Lord oast down great stones from heaven.l Some writers are of opinion that this was hail, larger and more violent than usual ; others maintain that Joshua is to be understood literally, of a shower of stones. Such a circumstance, so far from FUNERALS. 457 being impossible, has several times occurred. The Romans, who looked upon showers of stones as very disastrous, have noticed many instances of them. Under the reign of Tullius Hostilius, when it was known to the people of Rome that a shower of stones had fallen on the mountain of Alba, at first it seemed incredible. They sent out proper persons to inquire into this prodigy, and "it was found that stones had fallen after the same manner as a storm of hail driven by the wind. {Tit. Liv. lib. 1, decad. 1, p. 12. Idem, lib. 25, 30, 34, 35, et alibi passim.) Some time after the battle at Cannae, there was seen upon the same mountain of Alba a shower of stones, which continued for two days together. In 1538, near a village in Italy, called Tripergola, after some shocks of an earthquake, there was seen a shower of stones and dust, which darkened the air for two days, after which they observed that a mountain had risen up in the midst of the Lucrine Lake. (Mont- faucon, Diar. Italic, cap. 21.) CHAPTER XVII. CUSTOMS RELATING TO FUNERALS. MOURNING. 1 Kings xxi. 21. And went softly.] Going softly seems to have been one of the many expressions of mourning commonly used among the eastern nations. That it was in use among the Jews appears from Ahab ; and by mistake it has been confounded with walking barefoot. It seems to have been a very slow, solemn manner of walking, well adapted to the state of mourners labour- ing under great sorrow and dejection of mind. 2 Sam. XV. 30. And had his head covered.] Covering the head was used by persons in great distress, or when they were loaded with disgrace and infamy. Esther vi. 12; 2 Sam. xix. 4; Ezek xii. 6. Thus Darius, when he was informed by Tyriotes the eunuch that his queen was dead, and that she had suffered no violence from Alexander, covered his head, and wept a long while, and then throwing off the garment that covered him, gave the gods thanks for Alexander's moderation and justice. (Curtius, 1. iv. c. 10, § 33.) So also, when the same prince was in the power of Bessus, who soon after murdered him, he took his leave of Arta- bazus with his head covered. Id. 1. v. c. 12, § 8. Chandlers Life of David, vol. ii. p. 304. Esther vi. 12. Having his head covered.] This was so 458 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. natural and significative a method of expressing confusion or grief^ that it was adopted by other nations as well as the Jews. De- mosthenes, being on a particular occasion hissed by the people, went home with his head covered. (Plutarch in Demosthene.) More instances of this may be found in Lively' s Chronology of the Persian Monarchy, pp. 18, 19. Jer. xxxi. 19. I smote upon my thigh.'] In deep mourning it appears to have been one method by which the Jews expressed their sorrow, to smite upon the thigh. This is mentioned as an accompanying circumstance of the repentance of Ephraim. In this manner also was Ezekiel commanded to act, to express that sorrow which should be produced by the divine threatenings against Israel. (Ezek. xxi. \2.) The practice was adopted and retained by the Greeks. Homer describes his heroes as using this circumstance of grief among others : ' Kai ill TTtirXriyeTo iitjoiij. 11. ji' vei. 162. So in Xenophon {Cyrop. 7), the brave Cyrus smites his thigh, upon receiving the news of the death of his generous friend Abradatas. Luke xviii. 13. But smote upon his breast.] This appears to have been a token of distress, and especially of penitent sorrow. We meet with frequent instances of it. Srij^of Se ■K\ri%aQ, KpaSirjv r]vnraice /ivSrw. Odyss, xx. t^. Smiting upon his breast, he began to chide his heart. EfTusas laniata comas, concussaque pectus Verberibus crebris sic moesta profatur. Lucan. I. ii. 335. > With dishevelled hair, and smitten breast ; 'twas thus she spoke her grief. Mark xiv. 35. He went forward a little, and fell on the ground.] Amongst other circumstances by which the ancients expressed the greatness of their distress, they frequently threw themselves down upon the ground, and rolled in the dust. Thus Homer introduces Priam lamenting the death of Hector: — Permit me now, belov'd of Jove ! to steep My careful temples in the dew of sleep : For since the day that number'd with the dead My hapless son, the dust has been my bed. Iliad, xxiy. lin. 804. Thus also Ovid represents Oeneus behaving himself upon the death of his son Meleager : — Pulvere canitiem genifor, vultusque seniles, Foedat humi fuses, spatiosumque inorepat Kvum. His hoary head and furrow'd cheeks besmears With noisome dirt, and chides the tedious years. Metam, lib. viii. v. 628 . FUNEEALS. 495 Thus we find our Lord, when " exceeding sorrowful," leaving his disciples, and expressing his agony in a way that was chiefly appropriated to scenes of peculiar distress. 2 Sam. xii. 20. Then David arose from the earth, and washed and anointed himself, and changed his apparel.^ During the tirae that David continued to mourn, it may be presumed from these words, that he was negligent of "his apparel, and that it was not changed. This was also the custom of the Persians: they mourned forty days : and for a relation or a friend, it was denoted by a total negligence of dress, without any regard to the colour ; during the forty days. they affected not to shave, and refused to change their clothes. Goldsmith's Geography, p. 220. 2 Sam. xii. 20. David arose from the earth."} Chardin informs us, that " it is usual in the East to leave a relation of a person deceased to weep and mourn, till on the third or fourth day at farthest, the relations and friends go to see him, cause him to eat, lead him to a bath, and cause him to put on new vestments, he having before thrown himself upon the ground." The surprise of David's servants, who had seen his bitter anguish while the child was sick, was excited at his doing that himself, which it was cus- tomary for the friends of mourners to do for them. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 495. EzEKiEL xxiv. 17. Cover not thy lips.'] Dean Addison, in his account of the Jews of Barbary (p. 218) thus describes one of their mourning rites. " They return from the grave to the house of the deceased, where one, who as chief mourner receives them, with his jaws tied up with a linen cloth, after the same manner that they bind up the dead. And by this the mourner is said to testify, that he was ready to die with his friend. And thus muffled the mourner goes for seven days ; during which time the rest of his friends come twice every twenty-four hours to pray -with him." This certainly explains what is meant by covering the lips, or the mouth, fi-om which Ezekiel was commanded to abstain. The same rite was to be made use of by the leper when pronounced such by the priest. (Levit. xiii. 45.) Ezekiel iv. 7. Thine arm shall be uncovered.] Among other rites of mourning inade use of by the oriental Jews in the time of St. Jerome, was the beating of their arms with such vehemence as to render them black and blue. It will not then be an unna- tural supposition to consider Ezekiel's uncovering of his arm, when he was personating the Jewish people at the time Jerusalem was besieged, as the exposing the bruises of lamentation he had inflicted on that part. Jerome tells us, that on the return of the day on which Jerusalem was taken by the Romans and demolished, the 460 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. Jews annually assembled in great numbers, many of them decrepit old women and aged men in rags, bearing the marks of God's dis- pleasure, both in their persons and dress, and while the memorial of the death and resurrection of the Lord appeared with great splendour, arid the figure of the cross shone on the top of Mount Olivet, these miserable people mourned over the ruins of their temple; and ' though their cheeks were covered with tears, their arms black and blue, and their hair all in disorder, the soldiers demanded money of them for the liberty of protracting their lamentations a little longer. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 413. Gen. xxxvii. 34. Jacob rent his clothes.] This ceremony is very .ancient, and is frequently mentioned in scripture. Levi {Rites and Ceremonies of the Jews, p. 174) says, it was per- formed in the following manner : " they take a knife, and holding the blade downwards, do give the upper garments a cut on the right side, and then rend it an hand's breadth. This is done for the five following relations, brother, sister, son, or daughter, or wife ; but for father or mother, the rent is on the left side, and in all the garments, as coat, waistcoat," &c. 2 Sam. i. 2. And earth upon his head.] In several passages of Scripture mention is made of dust strewed on the head, as a token of mourning (Joshua vii. 6; Job ii. \2), or earth {2 Sam. i. 2), or ropes carried on the head, as a token of submission (1 Kings XX. 31). The following instance is remarkably analogous to these acts of humiliation : " He then descended the mountain, carrying, as is the custom of the country, for vanquished rebels, a stone upon his head, as confessing himself guilty of "h capital crime." (Bruce's Travels, vol. ii. p. 650.) Joshua vii. 6. And put dust upon their heads.] This was an expression of great grief, and of a deep sense of their unworthi- ness to be relieved. With this view it was a very usual practice with the Jews, 1 Sam. iv. 12; 2 Sam. i. 2; it was also imitated by the Gentiles, as in the case of the Ninevites, Jonah iii. 6." Homer also describes Achilles lamenting the death of Patroclus, by throwing dust upon his head, and lying down in it. {Iliad S. 23, 21.) Thus also Virgil: ' It sciss^ veste Latinus, Conjugis attonitas fatis, urbisque ruin^, Caoitiem immundo perfusam pulvere turpans. ^n, xii. 609. Latiaus tears his garments as be goes, Botb for his public and his private woes : With filth his venerable beard besmears, And sordid dust deforms his silver hairs. Drvden. 2 Sam. xiii. 19. And Tamar put ashes on her head.] This FUNERALS. 461 was a general practice with the people of the East, in token of the extremity of sorrow, and was common both to the Hebrews and the Greeks. Job ii. 12: " They rent every one his mantle, and sprinkled dust upon their heads towards heaven." Ezek. xxvii. 30 : " And shall cast up dust upon their heads." Homer affords some instances of the same kind, as it respects the Greeks. Thus of Laertes he says : Deep from his soul he sigh'd, and sorrowing spread A cloud of ashes on his hoary head. Odyss. xxiv. 369. Pope. And of Achilles : His purple garments, and his golden hairs. Those he deforms in dust, and these he tears. Ii,. xviii. Let men lament and implore ever so much, or pour ever so much dust upon their heads, God will not grant what ought not to be granted. Maximus Tortus, Diss. xxx. p. 366. Isaiah iii. 26. And she being desolate shall sit on the ground.] Sitting on the ground was a posture that denoted mourning and deep'distress. Lam. ii. 8. " We find Judaea on several coins of Vespasian and Titus in a posture that denotes sorrow and capti- vity, — sitting on the ground. I fancy the Romans might have an eye on the customs of the Jewish nation, as well as those of their own country, in the several marks of sorrow they have set on this figure. The Psalmist describes the Jews lamenting their captivity in the same pensive posture. ' By the waters of Babylon we sat down, and wept when we remembered thee, O Sion.' But what is more remarkable, we find Judaea represented as a woman in sor- row sitting on the ground, in a passage of the prophet that foretells the very captivity recorded on this medal." Addison on Medals, Dial. ii. Luke x. 13. Sitting in sackcloth and ashes.] This expression of mourning and sorrow was frequent in the East. Thus Tamar signified her distress when dishonoured by Amnon. (2 Sam. xii. 19.) Thus also " when Mordecai perceived all that was done, Mordecai rent his clothes, and put on sackcloth with ashes." (Esther iv. 1.) Thus Job expressed his repentance. Job xlii. 6. Thus Daniel " set his face unto the Lord God, to seek by prayer and supplica- tion, with fasting, and sackcloth, and ashes." (Dan. ix. 3.) Other nations adopted the practice, and it became a very common method, whereby to exhibit grief and misery. That it.prevailed among the Greeks is clear and certain. Homer thus represents Achilles acting upon the news of the death of Patroclus. AfKpoTfpriai St xepffii' tXwv koviv aiOaXotaaav, Xtvaro KaKKifaXtjc. A sudden horror shot through all the chief. And wrapt bis senses in a cloud of grief: 462 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS.- Cast on'thd ground, with (urioua hands he spread The scorching ashes o'er his graceful head : His purple garments, and his golden hairs. Those he deforms with dust, and these he tears ; On the hard soil his groaning breast be threw, And roU'd and grovell'd as to earth he grew. Iliad xviii. yer. S3. Agreeably to this practice our Lord, in declaring the miserable state of Chorazin and Bethsaida for disregarding his miracles and ministry, says, " if the mighty works had been done in Tyre and Sidon which have been done in you, they had a. great while ago repented, sitting in sackcloth and ashes." ' 1 Kings xx. 32. They girded sackcloth on their loins, and put ropes on their heads.'] Approaching persons with a sword hanging to the neck is, in the East, a very humble and submissive act. Thevenot has mentioned this circumstance (part i. p. 289) in the account he has given of the taking of Bagdat by the Turks, in 1638. When the besieged entreated quarter, the principal officer went to the grand vizier with a scarf about his neck, and his sword wreathed in it, and begged mercy. The ropes men- tioned in this passage were probably what they suspended their swords with. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 258. Job i. 20. And shaved his head."] Among the Jews and neigh- bouring nations, it was an usual sign of mourning to shave the head. This was the practice of Job : and in Jer. xli. 5, we read of fourscore men \vho were going to lament the desolations of Jerusalem, having their beards shaven, and their clothes rent. It was also usual among the Persians. {Quint. Curt, de GeStis Alexand, 1. x. c. 5, § 17.) Suetonius in his Life of Caligula ob- serves, that on the death of Ceesar Germanicus, some barbarous nations at war among themselves and vpith the Romans, agreed to a cessation of hostilities, as if their grief had been of a domestic nature, and on an occasion which alike concerned them both ; he adds, " Regulos quosdam (ferunt) barbam posuisse et uxorem capita rasisse ad indicium maximi luctus." See also Jer. vii. 29; Micah i. 16; Isaiah vii. 20. Ezra ix. 3. And plucked off the hair of my head."] In ordi- nary sorrow they only neglected their hair, and let it hang down scattered in a careless manner; the practice mentioned in these words was used in bitter lamentations ; and that also amongst the heathens. Thus Homer, speaking of Ulysses and his companions bewailing the death of Elpenor, says : E^o/itvot Si tvravBa yooiv tiWovto ti x""'«£- Odyss, X. 15. They, sitting down there, howled and plucked off their hairs. FUNERALS. 463 Jer. vii. 29. Cut off thy hair, O Jerusalem, and cast it away,'] Michaelis {Supplem. ad Lex. Heb. p. 288) remarks, that this was done in token of great grief, and cites Curtius (lib. x. c. 14) in pro'of that the Persians did the same on the death of Alexander the Great, according to their custom in mourning; and refers to Lucian {de Sacrijic.) that thus likewise the Egyptians lamented the funeral of their Apis, and the Syrians the death of Adonis. Lev. xix. 27. Ye shall not round the corners of your heads."] The Hebrew word translated corners, signifies also the extremities of any thing : and the meaning is, they were not to cut their hair equal, behind and before ; as the worshippers of the stars and the planets, particularly the Arabians, did. There are those, however, who think it refers to a superstitious custom amongst the gentiles, in their mourning for the dead. They cut off their hair, and that round about ; and threw it into the sepulchre with the bodies of their relations and friends ; and sometimes laid it upon the face or the breast of the dead, as an offering to the infernal gods, whereby they thought to appease them, and make them kind to the deceased. See Maimonides de Idol. c. xii. 1, 2, 5. Jer. xvi. 6. Neither shall men lament for them, nor cut them- selves, nor make themselves bald for them.] Cutting the flesh was designed to express grief; the practice was very general ; the Jews adopted it, Jer. xlviii. 37. It has also been observed in modern, times, and at Otaheite, with circumstances remarkably similar to those alluded to by Jeremiah in this passage. There the women wound the crown of their head under the hair, with a shark's tooth. Cutting off the hair is still more general. This they throw on the bier of the dead. Jer. xlviii. 37. Upon all the hands shall be cuttings.] " We find Arabs," La Roque tells us from D'Arvieux, " who have their arms scarred by the gashes of a knife, which they sometimes give themselves, to mark out to their mistresses what their rigour and the violence of love make them suffer." From this extract we learn what particular part of the body received these cuttings. The scripture frequently speaks of them in a more general manner. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 516. Mark v. 38. Wailed greatly.] The custom of employing mourning women by profession still prevails in the East. Shaw {Travels, p. 242) speaking of the Moorish funerals, says, '" there are several women hired to act on these lugubrious occasions, who, ' like the prcBJiccB or mourning women of old, are skilful in lamenta- tion (Amos V. 16),- and great mistresses of these melancholy ex- pressions, (that is, as he had before remarked, of squalling out several times together, loo, loo, loo, in a deep and hollow tone, 464 ORIENTAI, CUSTOMS. with Several ventriloquous sighs) : and indeed they perform their part with such proper sounds, gestures, and commotions, that they rarely fail to work up the assembly into some extraordinary pitch of thoughtfulness and sorrow. The British factory has often been very sensibly touched with these lamentations, whenever they were made in the neighbouring houses." So Niebuhr {Voyage en Arable, torn. i. p. 150), says, " the relations of a dead Mahometan's wife, not thinking themselves able to mourn for him sufficiently, or finding the task of continual lamentation too painful, commonly hire for this purpose some women who understand this trade, and who utter woeful cries from the moment of -the death of the deceased until he is interred." (See Jer. ix. 17, 18.) Gen. 1. 10. They mourned with a great and very sore lamen- tation.'] This is exactly -the genius of the people of Asia, espe- cially of the women ; their sentiments of joy or grief are properly transports, and their transports are ungoverned, excessive, and outrageous. When any one returns from a long journey, or dies, his family bursts into cries that may be heard twenty doors off; and this is renewed at different times, and continues many days, according to the vigour of the passion. Especially are these cries long in the case of death, and frightful ; for their mourning is rightdown despair, and an ima^ of hell. I was lodged, in the year 1676, at Ispahan, near the royal square ; the mistress of the next house to mine died at that time; the moment she expired, all the family, to the number of twenty-five or thirty people, set up such a furious cry, that I was quite startled, and was above two hours before I could recover myself. These cries continue a long time, then cease all at once; they begin again as suddenly, at day- break, and in concert. It is this suddenness which is so terrifying, together with a greater shrillness and loudness than one would easily imagine. This enraged kind of mourning continued for forty days, not equally violent, but with diminution from day to day : the longest and most violent acts were when they washed the body, when they perfumed it, when they carried it out to be in- terred, at making the inventory, and when they divided the effects. You are not to suppose that those who were ready to split their throats with crying out, wept as much; the greatest part of them did not shed a single tear through the whole tragedy, Chardinin Harmer, vol. ii. p. 136. Makk v. 38. And he cometh to the house of the ruler of the synagogue, and seeth the tumult, and them that wept and wailed greatly-l The assembling together of multitudes to the place where persons have lately expired, and bewailing of them in a noisy manner, is a custom still retained in the East, and seems to be considered as an honour done to the deceased. Chardin, MS. informs us that the concourse in places where persons lie dead is FUNERALS. 465 incredible. Every body runs thither, the poor and the rich ; and the first more especially make a strange noise. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 135. 2 Sam. i. 12. ^nd they mourned and wept, and fasted until even, for Saul, and for Jonathan his «ore.] History has recorded similar instances of conduct in persons remarkable for their mili- tary greatness. When the mangled body of Darius was brought to Alexander, and he had taken a view of it, his historians remark that he openly expressed his sorrow for his misfortunes, and shed tears over a prince that died in a manner so unworthy his former rank and dignity.' {Plutarch, Fit. Alex. p. 690.) In like manner, when Caesar saw the head of his son-in-law Pompey, after it had been separated from his body, forgetting that he had been his enemy, he put on the countenance of a father-in-law, and paid the tribute of tears due to Pompey and his own daughter. \Faler. Max. 1. V. c. 10.) Augustus also, when he heard of the death of Antony, retreated into the innermost part of his tent, and wept over the man that had been his relation, fellow-consul, and com- panion in many public affairs. Liv. Hist. 1. 25, c. 24, § 15. See other cases cited in Chandler's History of David, vol. i. p. 278, note. 2 Sam. i. 17, And David lamented with this lamentation over Saul, and over Jonathan his son.'\ Threnetic strains on the un- timely decease of royal and eminent personages were of high antiquity amongst the Asiatics, Instances of this kind frequently occur in the sacred writings. See 1 Kings xiii. 30; Jer. ix. 17; AmOs v. 1,2, 16. They are also to be met with in profane au- thors; as in Euripides; Iphigenia in Taur. ver. 177; Orestes, ver. 1402. Amos vi. 10. Then shall he say, hold thy tongue, for we may not make mention of the name of the Lord.'\ One of the ceremo- nies attending the funerals of the Jews was that of conducting the corpse to the grave with singing. For this purpose mourning- women were retained in the East. On these occasions, Maillet says, " the lower class of people are wont to call in certain women who play on the tabor, and whose business it is to sing mournful airs to the sound of this instrument, which they accompany with a thousand distortions of their limbs as frightful as those of people possessed by the devil. These women attend the corpse to the grave,' intermixed with the female relations and friends of the deceased, who commonly have their hair in the utmost disorder, like the frantic bacchanalian women of the ancient heathens, their heads covered with dust, their faces daubed with indigo, or at least rubbed with mud, and howling like mad people." It was also cus- tomary to accompany the body to its last home, with devout sing- 2 H 466 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. ing of men. Russell says {Hist, of Aleppo, p. 116), " when the corpse is carried out, a number of sheiks, with their tattered ban- ners, walk first ; next come the male friends, and after them the corpse, carried with the head foremost, upon men's shoulders. The bearers are relieved very often, for every passenger thinks it meri- torious to lend some little help on such solemn occasions. The nearest male relations immediately follow, and the women close the procession with dreadful shrieks, while the men all the way are singing prayers out of the Koran." Dean Addison particularly mentions that he found this custom practised by the Jews of Bar- bary, and that they commonly made use of the forty-ninth Psalm for this purpose. (Present State of the Jews, Tp'. 218.) Mr. Har- mer (vol. iii. p. 411) conceives that this latter custom of men recit- ing portions of Scripture gives us the true meaning of the prohibi- tion in these words of Amos : " we may not make mention of the name of the Lord :" it is to be understood of the more sedate sing- ing of parcels of holy writ, according to the modern practice of these countries : and certainly this is confirmed from chap. viii. ver. 3, of the same prophet, where he speaks of many dead bodies in every place, and says, " they shall cast them forth with silence." ' Matt. ix. 23. The minstrels.'] The custom of having musi- cal instruments in funerals came to the Jews from the manners of the Gentiles. In the Old Testament there is no mention of any such custom. They used indeed to mourn for the dead, and commended them, thereby to excite the living to the imitation of their virtues. The use of instruments on these occasions was adopted not by the ancient, but more modern Jews. They might receive it into their ceremonies from ' other nations where it pre- vailed. It is frequently mentioned among the Romans under the style of sicinnium ; and in Apule'ius monumentarii choraulce ; and among the Grecians under that of rvfi^avkot. The custom in the time of our Lord was, for the musicians to begin the dirge, and for those who were present to follow, beating their breasts, accord- ing to what was played by the instruments. Hammond, in loc. % Chron. XXXV. 25. And Jeremiah lamented for Josiah, and all the singing men and the singing women speak of Josiah in their lamentations to this day, and made them an ordinance in Israel.'] Public characters were lamented in anniversary solemni- ties with mournful music, and oftentimes in such a manner as might represent the circumstances of their afiliction or death, as far as they could with propriety. The Persians annually mourn for Houssain (the grandson of Mohammed), and visit his sepulchre near the ancient Babylon. The mourning continues ten days ; all pleasures are suspended ; they dress as mourners ; and they pro- nounce discourses relating to his death to numerous assemblies : all this is done in the royal palace in the hearing of the prince FUNERALS. 467 himself, as well as in other places among the common people. Chardin. The mourning for the death of Josiah, and the mourn- ing for the daughter of Jephthah, were probably of this kind. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 435. Jer. xxxi. 15. A voice was heard inRamah, lamentation and hitter weeping : Rahel, weeping for her children, refused to he comforted for her children, because they were not.l From Le Bruyn's Voyage in Syria (p. 256) we learn, that " the women go in companies, on certain days, out of the towns to the tombs of their relations, in order to weep there ; and when they are arrived, they display very deep expressions of grief. While I was at Raman, I saw a very great company of these weeping women, who went out of the town. I followed them, and after having observed the place they visited, adjacent to their sepulchres, in order to make their usual lamentations, I seated myself on an elevated spot. They first went and placed them- selves on the sepulchres, and wept there ; where, after having remained about half an hour, some of them rose up, and formed a ring, holding each other by the hands, as is done in some country- dances. Quickly two of them quitted the others, and placed themselves in the centre of the ring ; where they made so much noise in screaming and in clapping their hands, as, together with their various contortions, might have subjected them to the suspi- cion of madness. After that they returned, and seated themselves to weep again, till they gradually withdrew to their homes. The dresses they wore were such as they generally used, white, or any other colour ; but when they rose up to form a circle together, they put on a black veil over the upper parts of their persons." EzEKiEL viii. 14. Then he brought me to the door of the gate of the Lord's house, which was toward the north, and behold there eat women weeping for Tammuz.'] The ancient Greeks used to place their dead near the doors of their houses, and to attend them there with mourning. {Potter's Archceol. Grcec. b. iv. cap. 3.) Chandler observed the continuance of this custom when travelling in Greece. "A woman was sitting at Megara, with the door of her cottage open, lamenting her dead husband aloud." (p. 195.) The weeping for Tammuz is described as performed near a door of the temple, perhaps with a view to such a custom. Possibly the mourning of Jsrael at the door of each of their tents, in the wilderness, which so much displeased Moses, was a bewailing of their relations, as if actually dead, which they might apprehend would be the sure consequence of their wandering there without any support but manna. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 378. Jeb. xvi. 8. Thou shalt not also go into the house of feasting, to sit with them to eat and to drink.'] To make a funeral feast 2 H 2 468 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. was anciently a method of honouring the dead, and is still con- tinued in the East. Chardin says, " the oriental Christians still make banquets of this kind, by a custom derived from the Jews ; and I have been many times present at them among the Ar- menians in Persia." The seventh verse speaks of those provisions which used to be sent to the' house of the deceased, and of those healths which were drank to the survivors of the family, wishing that the dead may have been the victim for the sins of the family. The same, with respect to eating, is practised among the Moors, Thus the bread of men (Ezek. xxiv. 17), signifies the bread that the neighbours, relations, and friends, sent to mourners. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 137. 2 Sam. iii. 35. And when all the people came to cause David to eat meat, while it was yet day — ] This was the usual practice of the Hebrews, whose friends commonly visited them after the funeral was over, to comfort the surviving relations, and send in provisions to make a feast. It was supposed that they were so sorrowful as not to be able to think of their necessary food. Jer. xvi. 5, 7, 8 ; Ezek. xxiv. 17. Patrick, in loc. John xi. 19. Many of the Jews came to Martha and Mary to comfort them.] " The general time of mourning for deceased relations, both among Jews and Gentiles, was seven days. During these days of mourning their friends and neighbours visited them, in order that by their presence and conversation they might assist them in bearing their loss. Many, therefore, in so populous a part of the country, must have been going to and coming from the sisters while the days of their mourning for Lazarus lasted. The concourse too would be the greater as it was the time of the pass- over. Besides, a vast multitude now attended Jesus on his journey. This great miracle, therefore, must have had many witnesses." Macknighfs Harmony, vol. ii. p. 529. John xi. 19. And many of the Jews came to Martha and Mary, to comfort them concerning their brother,] This was the common practice of the Jews after a funeral ; but they did not allow of it before. The first ofiice of this kind was done when they returned from the grave : the mourners stood in their place in a row, and all the people passed by : every man as he came to the mourner comforted him and passed on. Besides these conso- lations, there were others administered at their own houses during the first week : and it was on the third day more particularly that these consolatory visits were paid. It was reckoned an act of great piety arid mercy to comfort mourners. Gill, in loc. 2 Sam. xii. 23. But now he is dead, wherefore should I fast ? Can I bring him back again ?] Maimonides s.a.js, that the Jews FUNERALS. 469 did not lament infants who died before they were thirty days old, but carried them in their arms to the gfave, with one woman and two men to attend them, without saying the usual prayers over them, or the consolations for mourners. But if an infant were above thirty days old when it died, they carried it out on a small bier, and stood over it in order, and said both the prayers and consolations. If it were a year old, then it was carried out upon a bed. This custom Gierus thinks that David followed, in making ' no mourning for his child when it was dead. Bishop Patrick, however, doubts whether the practice were so ancient as to "have prevailed in his reign. Deut. xxxiv. 8. And the children of Israel wept for Moses in the plains of Moab thirty daysJ] It was usual in the East to mourn for such persons as were absent from home, when they died and were buried at a distance from their relations. Irwin relates {Travels, p. 254), that one of the inhabitants of Ghinnah being murdered in the desert, gave birth to a mournful procession of females, which passed through the different streets, and uttered dismal cries for his death. Josephus expressly declares it was a Jewish custom, and says that upon the taking of Jotapatait was reported that he (Josephus) was slain, and that these accounts oc- casioned very great mourning at Jerusalem. It was after this manner that the Israelites lamented the death of Moses. He was absent from them when he died, neither did they carry him to the grave, but they wept for him in the plains of Moab. The mourn- ing for Aaron, who died in mount Hor, might probably be of the same kind. Numb. xx. 25 — 29. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 392. John xi. 17. He had lain in the grave four days.\ It was csistomary among the Jews to go to the sepulchres of their de- ceased friends, and visit them for three days, for so long they supposed that their spirits hovered about them ; but when once they perceived that their visage began to change, as it would in three days in these countries, all hopes of a return to life were then at an end. After a revolution of humours, which in seventy- two hours is completed, the body tends naturally to putrefaction ; and therefore Martha had reason to say, that her brother's body (which appears by the context to have been laid in the sepulchre the same day that he died) would now on the fourth day become offensive. Siackhouse's History of the Bible, vol. ii. p. 1386. John xi. 31. She goeth unto the grave to iveep there.] The Jews used to go to the graves of their friends on various accounts, either to see whether they were dead or not ; or from superstitious motives, frequenting the graves of the prophets and wise men to pray and weep. Dr. Pococke has given a form of prayer used by them at such times. Sometimes they went only to vent their grief. 470 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. and lament the loss of thei* friends. Such a custom as this pre- vails among the Turks, whose women on Friday, their day of wor- ship, go before sun-rising to the grave of the deceased where they mourn, and sprinkle their monuments with water and flowers. The Persians also visit the sepulchres of the principal imams or prelates. Gill, in loc. ' A striking conformity between the customs of the Jews and the East Indians may be traced in many instances. In mourning for the dead they appear to have expressed their sorrow much in the same manner. The evangelist has informed us that Mary went to the grave of Lazarus to weep there ; and from the journal of the Baptist missionaries in the East Indies it appears that they do the same. Mr. Fountain says, " March 13. This morning when I awoke I heard a great noise by a number of people on the bank of the tank near my bungalow, an accommodation boat, used as an occasional residence. I went to see what was the matter, and found a number of women and girls assembled to lament over the grave of a lad, who had been killed by a wild buffalo ten days be- fore. The mother sat on the earth at one end of the grave, lean- ing herself upon it, and bitterly exclaiming. Amor Banban ! Amor Banban ! oh my child ! my child ! On the other end of the grave sat another female, who was expressing her grief in a similar man- ner. This was not occasioned, however, by the affecting accident which befel the lad ; but is one of the usual customs of the Mahommedans, who make lamentation for their friends ten days after their decease. There seems something feigned in it, as I have often observed that they leave off abruptly on the approach of a stranger. They did so this morning almost as soon as I appeared." Authors that speak of the eastern people's visiting the tombs of their relations, almost always attribute this to the women : the mwi, however, sometimes visit them too, though not so frequently as the other sex, who are more susceptible of the tender emotions of grief, and think that propriety requires it of them ; whereas the men com- monly think that such strong expressions of sorrow would misbe- come them. We find that some male friends came from Jerusalem to condole with Mary and Martha on account of the death of their brother Lazarus, who, when they supposed that her rising up and going out of the house was with a view to repair to his grave to weep, " followed her, saying, she' goeth unto the grave to -weep there." It is no wonder that they thought her rising up in haste was to go to the grave to weep, for Chardin informs us, that the mourning in the East does not consist in wearing black clothes, which they call an infernal dress, but in great outcries, in sitting motionless, in being slightly dressed in a brown or pale habit, in refusing to take any nourishment for eight days running, as if they were deter- mined to live no longer. Her starting up then with a sudden FUNERALS. , 471 motion, who, it was expected, would have sat still without stirring at all, and her going out of the house, made them conclude that it must be to go to the grave to weep there, though, according to the modern Persian ceremonial, it wanted five or six days of the usual time for going to weep at the grave : but the Jews possibly might repair thither sooner than the Persians do. Harmer, vol. iii. p. 459. Psalm Ivi. 8. Put my tears into thy bottle.] Doth not this seem to intimate, that the custom of putting tears into the ampullce, or urncB lachrymales, so well known amongst the Romans, was more anciently in use amongst the eastern nations, and particu- larly amongst the Hebrews ? These urns were of different mate- rials, some of glass, some of earth ; as may be seen in Montfaucon's Antiq. Expliq.. vol. v. p. 116, where also may be seen the various forms or shapes of them. These urns were placed on the sepul- chres of the deceased, as a memorial of the distress and affection of their surviving relations and friends. It will be difficult to ac- count for this expression of the Psalmist, but upon this supposi- tion. If this be allowed, the meaning will be, " let my distress, and the tears I shed in consequence of it, be ever before thee, ex- cite thy, kind remembrance of me, and plead with thee to grant me the relief I stand in need of." Chandler's Life of David, vol. i. p. 106. EMBALMING. Gen. 1. 3. And forty days were fulfilled for him, {for so are fulfilled the days of those who are embalmed) and the Egyptians mourned for him threescore and ten days.] We learn from two Greek historians (Herodotus, lib. ii. cap. 85, 86. Dlodorus, lib. i. Bibl. p. 58) that the time of mourning was while the body remained with the embalmers, which Herodotus says was seventy days. During this time the body lay in nitre, the use of which was to dry up all its superfluous and noxious moisture : and when, in the compass of thirty days, this was reasonably well effected, the re- maining forty (the time mentioned by Diodorus) were employed in anointing it with gums and spices to preserve it, which was the proper embalming. The former circumstance explains the reason why the Egyptians mourned for Israel threescore and ten days. The latter explains the meaning of " the forty days which were ful- filled for Israel, being the days of those who are embalmed." Warburton's Divine Legation, b. iv. sec. 3, § 4. Gen. 1. 2Q. So Joseph died, being an hundred and ten years old, and they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt."] When Joseph died he was not only embalmed, h\xi put into a coffin. 472 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. This was an honour appropriated to persons of distinction, coffins not being universally used in Egypt. Maillet, speaking of the Egyptian repositories of the dead, having given an account of several niches that are found there, says, " it must not be imagined, that the bodies deposited in these gloomy apartments were all enclosed in chests, and placed in niches ; the greatest part were simply embalrned and swathed after that manner that every one hath some notion of; after which they laid them one by the side of another without any ceremony : some were even put into these tombs without any embalming at all, or such a slight one, that there remains nothing of them in the linen in which they were wrapped but the bones, and those half rotten." (Letter vii. p. . 281.) Antique coffins of stone, and sycamore wood, are still to be seen in Egypt. It is said that some were formerly made of a kind of pasteboard, formed by folding and glueing cloth together a great number of times ; these were curiously plaistered and painted with hieroglyphics. Thevenot, part i. p. 137. Mark xvi. 1. Had bought sweet spices, that they might come and anoint him.'] This was the practice of the Jews : hence we read of the spices of the dead. It was one of these things that it was customary in Israel to perform to the dead. Maimonides ob- serves, that they anoint them with various sorts of spices. Gill, in loc. John xix. 39. And there came also Nicodemus, (who at the first came to Jesus ty night,) and brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about a hundred pounds weight.'] Notwithstanding the Jews object to the quantity of spices brought to embalm the body of Jesus, as being unnecessarily profuse and incredible, it appears from their own writing, that they were used in great abundance on some such occasions. See 2 Chron. xvi. 14. In the Talmud (Massecheth Semacoth viii.) it is said, that no less than eighty pounds of spices were used at the funeral of Rabbi Gamaliel the elder : and at the funeral of Herod, Josephus {Antiq. xvii. 8, 3) informs us that the procession was followed by five hundred of his domestics carrying spices. INTERMENT. Acts ix. 37. When they had washed.] It was usual, imme- diately upon the decease of a person, to lay out the corpse, and then to wash it. This office was commonly performed by women related to the party deceased ; only in cases of necessity others were employed therein. Among the Greeks this custom was very particularly observed : there were vessels in some of their ancient temples for this purpose : these were called in Latin labra. The Greeks used warm water on this occasion; the modern Jews, FUNERALS. 473 warm water with roses and camomile. It was designed to prevent precipitate interment. See Virgil, JEn. vi. ver. 218. Gen. xlvi. 4. Put his hand upon thine eyes.] This appears to have been a very ancient and general custom, as there are evidences of its existence amongst the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Among the Jews, Tobias is said to have shut the eyes of his wife's father and mother, and to have buried, them honourably. Tobit xiv. 15. Maimonides represents it as a customary rite. Homer describes Ulysses thus expressing himself on the death of Socus : Ahy wretch ! no father' shall thy corpse compose, Thy dying eyes no tender mother close. II. xi. 570. Pote, See also the Odyss. xi. 424, and xxiv. 294. Eurip. Hecuh. 430. Virg. Mfi. ix. 487. Ovid, Trist. iii. EI. iii. 43, and iv. El. iii. 43. Rev. ii. 10. I will give thee a crown of life.] A crown of life is promised to those who are faithful unto death as art everlasting reward for their fidelity. Dr. Gill considers it to be an allusion to the practice of some nations, who used to crown their dead. See Minut. Felix, p. 42. Numb. xix. 11. He that toucheth the dead body of any man shall he unclean seven days. We meet with a remarkable account of the notions of certain modern heathens concerning pollution by the dead, and of their ceremonies respecting it, in Captain Cook's Third Voyage, vol. i. p. 305. Speaking of a walk he took in Ton- gataboo, one of the Friendly Islands in the Pacific Ocean, he says, " In this walk we met with about half a dozen women in one place at supper. Two of the company, I observed, being fed by the others, on our asking the reason, they said, taboo mattee. On further inquiry we found, that one of them had, two months before, washed the dead corpse of a chief, and that on this account she was not to handle any food for five months. The other had per- formed the same office to the corpse of another person of inferior rank, and was now under the same restriction, but not for so long a time. At another place-, hard by, we saw another woman fed, and we learnt that she had assisted in washing the corpse of the - above-mentioned chief." " At the expiration of the time the interdicted person washes herself in one of their baths, which are dirty holes, for the most part of brackish water (compare Numb. xix. 19), she then waits upon the king, and, after making her obeisance in the usual way, lays hold of his foot, and applies it to her breast, shoulders, and other parts of her body. He then embraces her upon each shoul- der, after which she retires, purified from her uncleanness." Vol. i, p. 410. 474 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. 3 Sam. iii. 31. The bier.] The word here translated the bier is in the original the bed : on these persons of quality used to be carried forth to their graves, as common people were upon a bier. Kings were sometimes "carried out upon beds very richly adorned; as Josephus tells us that Herod was ; he says the bed was all gilded, set with precious stones, and that it had a purple cover curiously wrought. Patrick, in loc. Luke vii. 12. Behold, there was a dead man carried out, the only son of his mother ; — and much people of the city was with her.] The Jews had different ways of carrying their dead to the grave. A child under a month old was carried out in the bosom of a per- son : if a full month, in a little cofEn which they carried in their arms : one of a twelvemonth old was carried in a little coffin on the shoulder : and one of three years old on a bier or bed : in this manner was this corpse carried out. According to the age of persons was the company that attended them to the grave. If it wer« an infant not a month old, it was buried by one woman and two men ; but not by one man and two women. If a month old, by men and women : and whoever was carried out on a bier or bed, many mourned for him. Persons well known were accom- panied by great numbers of people. It was looked upon as an act of kindness and mercy to follow a corpse to the grave : and, what must have tended to increase the number of persons who attended at such a time, it was forbidden to do any work at the time a dead man was buried, even one of the common people. Gill, in loc. HosEA xii. 1. And oil is carried into Egypt.] Oil is now presented in the East to be burnt in honour of the dead, whom they reverence with a religious kind of homage. It is most natu- ral to suppose that the prophet Hosea refers to a similar practice in the times of antiquity, when he upbraids the Israelites with carrying oil into Egypt. The Algerines, according to Pitts {Account, p. 17), when they are in the Streights Mouth, make a gathering of . small wax candles, which they usually carry with them, and bind them in a bundle ; and then, together with a pot of oil,' throw them overboard, as a present to the marabbot or saint, who lies entombed there on the Barbary shore near the sea. Harmer, vol. iv. p. 305. 2 Chron. xvi. 14. And they made a very great burning for him.] The Greeks and Romans burnt dead bodies, throwing frankincense, myrrh, cassia, and other fragrant things into the fire : and these were used in such vast quantities, that Pliny represents it as a piece of profaneness to bestow such heaps of frankincense upon a dead body, when they offered it to their gods by crumbs. {Nat. Hist, lib, xii. cap. 18.) The Israelites had no such custom; but from the ancient Egyptians perhaps adopted the practice, not of burning bodies, but of burning many spices at their funerals FUNERALS. 475 (2 Chron. xxj. 19; Jer. xxxiv. 5.) Kimchi here says, that they burnt the bed on which they lay, and other household stuff, that none might have the honour to use them when they were gone. Patrick, in loc. Mark ix. 44. Where their worm dieth not, and the fire is not quenchedJ] Dr. Rymer {Representation of Revealed Religion, p. 155) supposes that both the worm and the fire are meant of the body, and refer to the two different ways of funeral among the ancients, interment and burning ; so that our Lord may seem here to prevent an objection against the permanent misery of the wicked in hell, arising from the frail constitution of the body ; as if he should have said, the body will not then be as it is at pre- sent, but will be incapable of consumption or dissolution. In its natural state, the worms may devour the whole, and die for want of nourishmen,t ; the fire may consume it, and be extinguished for want of fuel ; but there shall be perpetual food for the worm that corrodes it, perpetual fuel for the fire that torments it. The words of the apocryphal writer, in Judith xvi. 17, greatly illustrate this interpretation. It is said, " the Lord Almighty will take ven- geance on the wicked in the day of judgment, putting fire and worms into their flesh, and they shall feel them, and weep for ever." Hebrews ii. 15. And deliver them who through fear of death were all their lifetime subject to bondage^ The apostle describes the state of the Jews as a state of bondage through fear of death., The reason of this fear is given in the preceding verse ; the devil had the power of death. Hence he was called the angel of death ; and the destroying angel. They imagined that this destroying angel -had a power over men, even after death. The Midrash ^vers, that when a man is buried, the devil, the angel of death, comes and sits upon the grave, bringing with him a chain, partly of iron, partly of fire. Then causing the soul to return into the body, he breaks the bones, and torments variously both soul and body for a season. Thus one of their solemn prayers on the day of expia- tion is, that they may be delivered from this punishment of the devil in their graves. Their prayer to this purpose in their Bera- choth is, " that it may please thee, good Lord, to deliver us from evil decrees or laws ; from poverty, from contempt, from all kinds of punishment, from the judgment of hell, and from beating in the grave." A similar form of prayer is still in use among the Maho- metans. Pirie's Works, vol. iii. p. 151. SEPULCHRES. Jer. xxxvi. 30. His dead body shall be cast out in the day to the heat, and in the night to the frost."] The want of burial was considered as a great misfortune, and was therefore particularly 476 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. dreaded. The Romans were of opinion that the soul had no rest unless the body were properly interred. So Virgil : HiEC omuis, quam cerni's, inops inbumataque tnrba est : Poi titor ille, Chaion; hi, quos vehit, undi sepulti, &c. Mn. vi. 325. The ghosts rejected are the unhappy crew, DeprivM of sepulchres and fun'ral due : The boatman Cliaron : those, the buried host. He ferries over to the farther coast. Dryden. Job xxvii. 19. He shall not be gathered.'] " The heathens had a conceit that the souls of such persons as had not had the due rites of burial paid them, were not admitted into Hades, but were forced to wander a hundred years, a parcel of vagabond ghosts, about the banks of the Styx. Hence we find the ghost of Patroclus supplicating Achilles to give him his funereal rites. ' Bury me,' says he, ' that I may pass as soon as possible through the gates of Hades.' So speaks Palinurus in Virgil : ' Throw upon me some earth, that at last I may obtain rest in death, in quiet habitations.' Here the self-conceited philosopher smiles at the rite of sprinkling the body three times with dust ; but this, although misunderstood and tihged with the fabulous, was bor- rowed from the Hebrew nation. " To gather denotes, as to the dead, the bringing of their souls to Paradise. Although this cannot be effected by mortals, yet they expressed the benevolent wish that the thing might be. On the other hand. Job says of the rich man, ' he shall lie down, but he shall not be gathered.' In the ages which followed, the per- formance of this rite was termed sealing. Of this we have a bright instance in the second book of Esdras : ' Wheresoever thou findest the dead, seal them, and bury them ;' that is, express the benevo- lent prayer which is in use amongst the Jews to this day : ' May he be in the bundle of life, may his portion be in Paradise, and also in the future world which is reserved for the righteous. ' It would also appear that, in this act of sealing a corpse, they either wrote upon the head with ink, or simply made the form with the finger (Le-hovah). This at bottom could make no difference in the state of the deceased, but it expressed their desire that such a person might be among those ' who are written unto life.' From a passage in Isaiah it appears, that persons were in use to mark with indelible ink on the hand, the words {Le-hovah) the contracted form of this sentence, ' I am the Lord's.' This agrees with what Rabbi Simeon says, ' The perfectly just are sealed, and in the moment of death are conveyed to Paradise.' This sealing St. Paul applies, as far as wishes can go, to Onesiphorus. ' May the Lord grant to Onesiphorus, that he may obtain mercy of the Lord in that day ! As many,' says the same apostle, ' as walk according to this rule, peace be on them, and upon the Israel of God!' (Gal. vi. 16.) FUNERALS. 477 " Such being marked in death with the expression ' belonging to the Lord/ explains this sentence, ' the foundation of the Lord standeth sure, having this seal, the Lord knoweth them that are HIS.' 'Hurt not the earth, nor the trees,' says the angel in the book of Revelation, ' until we have sealed the servants of our God in their foreheads.' This seal, we are told, is their father's name ; that is, Le-hovah, the Lord's, alluding to the Old Testament form. This name Christ says he himself writes, and by doing so, acts the part oi ihe Kedosh-Israel, opening where none can shut. This sealing, then, is taking them off by death, and placing them in his father's house ; for, after they are so sealed, we find them before the throne, ' hungering and thirsting no more,' and the Lamb in the midst of them, and leading th^ta forth into pastures. " This ancient rite St. Paul improves upon. Men can, in seal- ingj go no farther than wishes, but the Spirit of God can do more ; ' ye are sealed by the Spirit, until the day of redemption ;' that is, what others of old may have done symbolically, he will do in reality — he will write upon you Le-hovah. This is a seal which no power can erase ; it will last until the day of redemption. So in another place he says, ' ye are sealed with the holy spirit of promise.' Now the seal Le-hovah, the Lord's, not only says they are his, but it is also their memorial through the hidden period, that he will appear, and receive them unto himself, and in this way the seal itself has in it the nature of a promise." Bennet's View of the Intermediate State, p. 353 — -356. Psalm cxli. 7. Our hones are scattered at the grave's mouth.l Whether this expression wasdesigned to be understood literally or figuratively, Mr. Bruce relates a circumstance which shows that it might be literally verified. " At five o'clock we left Garigana, our journey being still to the eastward of north, and at a quarter past six in the evening arrived at the village of that name, whose inhabitants had all perished with hunger the year before, their wretched bones being all unburied, and scattered upon the surface of the ground where the village formerly stood. We encamped among the bones of the dead ; no space could be found free from them." {Travels, vol. iv. p. 349.) To the Jews such a spectacle must have been very dreadful, as the want of burial was esteemed one of the greatest calamities which could befal them. / Matt, xxiii. 27. Ye are like unto whited sepulchres, which indeed appear beautiful outward, but are within full of dead men's bones, and of all uncleanness.'] Of the tombs of the ancients, accurate descriptions have been given by eastern travellers. Shaw presents us with the following account of these sepulchres. " If we except a few persons who are buried within the precincts of some sanctuary, the, rest are carried out at a small distance from their cities and villages, where a great extent of ground is allotted 478 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. for that purpose. Each family hath a particular portion of it walled in like a garden, where the bones of their ancestors have remained undisturbed for many generations : for in these inclosures the graves are all distinct and separate, having each of them a stone placed upright, both at the head and feet, inscribed with the name of the person who lieth there interred, whilst the interme- diate space is either planted with flowers, bordered round with stone, or paved all over with tiles. The graves of the principal citizens are further distinguished by some square chambers or cupolas, that are built over them. (Mark v. 3.) Now as all these different sorts of tombs and sepulchres, with the very walls like- wise of the inclosures, are constantly kept clean white-washed and beautified, they continue to this' day to be an excellent comment upon that expression of our Saviour's, where he mentions the garnishing of the sepulchres (Matt, xxiii. 29) ; and again, ver. 27, where he compares the scribes, pharisees, and hypocrites, to whited sepulchres." {Travels, p. 285, fol.) What is here narrated fur- nishes a comment upon Matt. viii. 28, where mention is made of the demoniacs who came out of the tombs. It is obvious that they might dwell in places that were constructed like chambers or rooms. It may be agreeable to add to the above citation, that it was a customary thing to plant herbs and flowers either upon or close to the grave. The women in Egypt, according to Maillet, go " at least two days in the week to pray and weep at the sepulchres of the dead; and the custom then is, to throw upon the tombs a sort of herb which the Arabs call rihan, and which is our sweet basil : they cover them also with the leaves of the palm tree." (Lett. x. p. 91.) Myrtle, which has been frequently used on joyful occa- sions, is employed by the people of the East to adorn the tombs of the dead ; for Dr. Chandler tells us, that in his travels in the Lesser Asia (p. 200), he found some Turkish graves there, which had each a bough of myrtle stuck at the head and the feet. Rauwolff mentions the same circumstance, (p. 65.) At Aleppo, there grow many myrtles, which they diligently propagate, because they are beautiful, and remain long green, to put about their graves. The Jews used to mark their graves with white lime, that they might be known, that so priests, Nazarites, and travellers might avoid them, and not be polluted. Now because when the rains fell, these marks were washed away, on the first of Adar (Febru- ary), when they used to repair the highways, they also marked the graves with white lime ; and so also on their intermediate feast days. They made use of chalk, because it looked white like bones. Gill, in loc. 2 Chron. xxviii. 27. And Ahaz slept with his fathers, and they buried him in the city, even in Jerusalem ; but they brought him FUNERALS. 479 nol into the sepulchres of the kings of Israel,'] The Israelites were accustomed to honour, in a peculiar manner, the memory of those kings who had reigned over them uprightly. On the contrary, some marks of posthumous disgrace followed those monarchs who left the world under the disapprobation of their people. The pro- per place of interment was in Jerusalem. There, in some appoint- ed receptacle, the remains of their princes were deposited : and, from the circumstance of this being the cemetery for successive rulers, it was said, when one died and was so buried, that he was fathered to his fathers. Several instances occur in the history of the ings of Israel, wherein, on certain accounts, they were not thus in- terred with their predecessors, but in some other place in Jerusalem. So it was with Ahaz, who though brought into the city, was not buried in the sepulchres of the kings of Israel. In some other cases, perhaps to mark out a greater degree of censure, they were taken to a small distance from Jerusalem. It is said that " Uzziah was buried with his fathers in the field of the burial which belonged to the kings ; for they said, he is a leper." (2 Chron. xxvi. 23.) It was doubtless with a design to make a suitable im- pression on the minds of their kings while living, that such dis- tinctions were made after their decease. They might thus restrain them from evil or excite them to good, according as they were fearful of being execrated, or desirous of being honoured, when they were dead. The Egyptians had a custom in some measure similar to this ; it was however general as to all persons, though it received very particular attention, as far as it concerned their kings. It is thus described in Franklin's History of Ancient and Modem Egypt, vol. i. p. 374. " As soon as a man was dead, he was brought to his trial. The public accuser was heard. If he proved that the deceased had led a bad life, his memory was condemned, and he was deprived of the honours of sepulture. Thus, that sage people were affected with laws which extended even beyond the grave, and every one, struck with the disgrace inflicted on the dead person, was afraid to reflect dishonour on his own memory, and that of his family. " But what was singular, the sovereign himself was not exempt- ed from this public inquest upon his death. The public peace was interested in the lives of their sovereigns, in their administra- tion, and as death terminated all their actions, it was then deemed for the public welfare, that they should suffer an impartial scrutiny by a public trial, as well as the most common subject. Even some of them were not ranked among the honoured dead, and consequently were deprived of public burial. The Israelites would not suffer the bodies of some of their flagitious princes to be carried into the sepulchres appropriated to their virtuous sovereigns. The custom was singular : the effect must have been powerful and influential. The most haughty despot, who might trample on laws human and divine in his life, saw, by this solemn 480 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. investigation of human conduct, that at death he also would be doomed to infamy and execration." What degree of conformity there was between the practice of the Israelites and the Egyptians, and with whom the custom first originated, may be difficult to ascertain and decide, but the conduct of the latter appears to be founded on the same principle as that of the former, and as it is more circumstantially detailed, affords us an agreeable explanation of a rite but slightly mentioned in the Scriptures. Josh. xxiv. 30.] There is a remarkable addition in the Sep- tuagint to the Sacred History concerning Joshua, which deserves attention, and naturally engages the mind to inquire whether it was made by the Egyptian translators of the Jewish Scriptures, in conformity to what they knew was practised in the burials of Egypt, or whether it was on that account expunged by the Jew- ish critics from the Hebrew original. The Vatican copy of the Septuagint has given us this addition to the account that appears , in the Hebrew copies of the interment of Joshua. (Ch. xxiv. v. 30). " These they put with him, into the sepulchre in which they buried him, the knives of flint with which he circumcised the children of Israel in Gilgal, when he brought them out of Egypt, as the Lord commanded them, and there they are unto this day." On the contrary, the famous Alexandrine copy of the Septuagint, and some others, have not these clauses. Whether this superadded account is spurious or not, there seems to be a manifest allusion to the manner in which the ancient Egyptians were accustomed to bury their dead. Maillet informs us, " that some time before he wrote, the principal person of Sacara, a vil- lage near the plain where the mummies lie buried, caused some of these subterraneous vaults to be opened, and as he was very much my friend, he communicated to me various curiosities, a great number of mummies, of wooden figures, and inscriptions in hieroglyphical and unknown characters, which were found there. In one of these vaults they found, for instance, the coffin of an embalmed body of a woman, before which was placed a figure of wood, representing a youth on his knees, laying a finger on his mouth, and holding with his other hand a sort of chafing-dish, which was placed on his head, and in which, without doubt, had been some perfumes. This youth had divers hieroglyphical cha- racters on his stomach. They broke this figure in pieces, to see if there was any gold inclosed in it. There was found in the mummy, which was opened in like manner, for the same reason, a small vessel, about a foot long, filled with the same kind of balsam with that made use of to preserve bodies from corruption ; perhaps this might be a mark by which they distinguished those persons who had been employed in embalming the dead." (p. 277.) He goes on ; "I caused another mummy to be opened, which was the body of a female, and which had been given me FUNERALS. 481 by the Sieur Bagaia^y, it was opened in the house of the Capuchin fathers of this city (Grand Cairo). This mummy had its right hand placed upon its stomach, and under this hand were found the strings of a musical instrument, perfectly well preserved. From hence I should conclude, that this was the body of a per- son that used to play on this instrument, or at least of one that had a great taste for music. I am persuaded, that if every mummy were examined with the like care, we should find some sign or other by which the character of the party would be known." The burying of those knives of flint with Joshua, must have been done, or supposed to have been done, as a mark of an event the most remarkable of his life, in conformity to the Egyptian modes of distinguishing the dead, by tokens of a similar nature. Harmer, vol. iv. p. Isaiah xiv. 9. The deadJl " The sepulchres of the Hebrews, at least those of respectable persons, and those which hereditarily belonged to the principal families, were extensive caves, or vaults, excavated from the native rock by art and manual labour. The roofs of them in general were arched : and some were so spacious as to be supported by colonnades. All round the sides were cells for the reception of the sarcophagi ; these were properly orna- mented with sculpture, and each was placed in its proper cell. The cave or sepulchre admitted no light, being closed by a great stone, which was rolled to the mouth of the narrow passage or entrance. Many of these receptacles are still extant in Judea : two in particular are more magnificent than all the rest, and are supposed to be the sepulchres of the kings. One of these is in Jerusalem, and contains twenty-four cells ; the other, containing twice that number, is in a place without the city." LowtKs "Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, vol. i. p. 159. Gregory's Translation, In the introductory observations to Isaiah xiii. the same learned writer, speaking of these sepulchres of the kings, says, " you are to form to yourself an idea of an immense subterraneous vault, a vast gloomy cavern, all round the sides of which there are cells to receive the dead bodies : here the deceased monarchs lie in a dis- tinguished sort of state, suitable to their former rank, each on his own couch, with his arms beside him, his sword at his head, and the bodies of his chiefs and companions round about him. Ezek. xxxii. 27." See Lowth's Isaiah. The account which Maundrell gives of such sepulchres is too interesting to be omitted. " The next place we came to was those famous grots, called sepulchres of the langs : but for what reason they go by that name is hard to resolve ; for it is certain none of the kings, either of Israel or of Judah, were buried here, the holy Scriptures assigning other places for their sepultures ; unless it may be thought, perhaps, that Hezekiah was here interred, and 2 I 482 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. that these were the sepulchres of the sons of David, mentioned 2 Chron. xxxii. 33. Whoever was buried here, this is certain, that the place itself discovers so great an expense, both of labour and of treasure, that we may well suppose it to have been the work of kings. You approach to it at the east side, through an entrance cut out of the natural rock, which admits you into an open court of about forty-paces square, cut down into the rock, with which it is encompassed instead of walls. On the south side of the court is a portico, nine paces long and four broad, hewn likewise out of the rock ; this has a kind of architrave running along its front, adorned with sculpture of fruits and flowers, still discernible, but by time much defaced. At the end of the portico, on the left hand, you descend to the passage into the sepulchres. The door is now so obstructed with stones and rubbish, that it is a thing of some difficulty to creep through it; but within, you arrive in a large fair room, about seven or eight yards square, cut out of the natural rock. Its sides and ceiling are so exactly square, and its angles so just, that no architect with levels and plummets could build a room more regular; and the whole is so firm and en- tire, that it may be called a chamber hollowed out of one piece of marble. From this room you pass into (I think) six more, one within another, all of the same fabric with the first. Of these the two innermost are deeper than the rest, having a second descent of about six or seven steps into them. In every one of these rooms, except the first, were coffins of stone, placed in niches in the sides of the chambers : they had been at first covered with handsome lids, and carved with gar- lands ; but now most of them were broke to pieces by sacrilegious hands. The sides and ceiling of the rooms were always dropping, with the moist damps condensing upon them ; to remedy which nuisance, and to preserve these chambers of the dead polite and clean, there was in each room a small channel cut in the floor, which served to drain the drops that fall constantly into it." Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, p. 76, 7th edit. Isaiah xxii. 16. He heweth out a sepulchre on high, and graveth an habitation for himself in a rock.'] Persons of high rank in Judea, and in most parts of the East, were generally buried in large sepulchral vaults, hewn out in the rock, for the use of themselves and their families. The vanity of Shebna is set forth by his being so studious and careful to have his sepulchre on high in a lofty vault, and that probably in a high situation, that it might be more conspicuous. Hezekiah was buried in the chiefest, says our translation ; rather, in the highest part of the sepulchres of the sons of David, to do him the more honour. (2 Chron. xxxii. 33.) There are some monuments still remaining in Persia of great antiquity, called Naksi Rustam, which give one a clear idea of Shebna's pompous design for his sepulchre. They FUNERALS. 483 consist of several sepulchres, each of them hewn in a high rock near the top ; the firont of the rock to the valley below is adorned with carved work in relievo, being the outside of the sepulchre. Some of these sepulchres are about thirty feet in the perpendicular from the valley, which is itself raised perhaps above half as much by the accumulation of the earth since they were made. Diodo- rus Siculus (lib. 17), mentions these ancient monuments, and calls them the sepulchres of the kings of Persia. Bp. Lowth in loc. Job xxi. 33. The clods of the valley shall be sweet unto him.] These words seem to suppose, that the person buried in a grave may partake, in some respects, of the prosperous state of the tomb which contains him. Such an idea seems to have been indulged by Sultan Amurath the Great, who died in 1450. " Presently after his death, Mahomet his sonne, for feare of some innouation to be made at home, raised the siege, and returned to Hadriano- ple : and afterwards with great solemnitie buried his dead body at the west side of Prusa, in the suburbs of the citie, where he now lieth, in a chapell without any roofe, his graue nothing differ- ing from the manner of the common Turks ; which they say, he commanded to be done in his last will, that the mercie and bless- ing of God, as he termed it, might come vnto him by the shining of the sunne and moone, and falling of the raine and dew of heauen upon his graue." Knolles's Hist, of the Turks, p. 332. Matt, xxvii. 60. And laid it in his own new tomb, which he had hewn out in the rock ; and he rolled a great stone to tho door of the sepulchre^ The Jews distinguish between a new grave and an old one. " A new grave may be measured, and sold, and divided : an old one may not be measured nor sold nor divided." The sepulchres were not only made in rocks, but had doors to go in and out at : these doors were fastened with a large and broad stone rolled against them. It was at the shutting up of the sepul- chre with this stone that mourning began : and after it was shut with this sepulchral stone, it was not lawful to open it. Mark xvi. 5. And entering into the sepulchre'.'] The sepul- chres of the Jews were made so large that persons might go into them. The rule for making them is this : " he that sells ground to his neighbour to make a burying-place must make a court at the mouth of the cave, six by six, according to the bier, and those that bury." It was into this court that the women entered. Here they could look into the sepulchre and the several graves in it, and see what were in them. John xi. 44. And he that was dead came forth, hound hand and foot with grave-clothes.] The Jewish sepulchres were gene- rally caves or rooms hewn out of rocks. And as the Jews did not make use of coffins, they placed their dead separately in niches or 2 I 2 484 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. little cells cut into the sides of these caves or rooms. {]\^aundrell'» Travels, p. 76.) This form of the Jewish sepulchre suggests an easy solution of a very iinportant difficulty in the history of Laza- rus's resurrection. It is said, that when Jesus called upon Lazarus to come forth, he camfi out bound hand and foot. But deists, talk- ing of this miracle commonly ask with a sneer, how he could come out of a grave who was bound in that manner ? The answer how- ever is obvious. The evangelist does not mean that Lazarus walked out of the sepulchre, but that, lying on his back, he raised himself into a sitting posture, then putting his legs over the edge of his niche or cell, slid down, and stood upright upon the floor ; all which he might easily do, notwithstanding his arms were close bound to his body, and his legs were tied straight together by means of the shroud and rollers vrith which he was swathed. Accord- ingly, when he was come forth, it is said, that Jesus ordered them to loose him and let him go ; a circumstance plainly importing, that the historian knew that Lazarus could not walk till he was unbound. Macknight's Harmony, vol. ii. p. 799. Gen. 1. 13. His sons carried him info the land of Canaan, and buried him in the cave of the field of MacpelahJ] That Jacob after his decease should be carried from Egypt into Canaan for interment, and Joseph also when he died, is perfectly conformable to the practice of the East. Homer represents the shade of Patroclus as thus addressing Achilles : — Hear then ; and qs in fate and love we join, Oh suffer that my bones may rest with thine i Together have we lived, together bred. One house received us, and one table fed ; That golden urn, thy goddess mother gave, May mix our ashes in one common grave. Pope, II. zxiii. 103. 1 Kings ii. 10. So David slept with his fathers, and was buried in the city of David.] In general the dead were buried out of the eastern cities : and as this was the usual practice, it was not departed from, but upon very particular occasions. It was a mark of distinguished honour to be interred within a city. " Hali Dey,. as a very eminent mark of distinction, was buried within an inclosed tomb within the city." Hist, of the Piratical States of Barlary, p. 163. Harmer, vol. ii. p. 141. Jer. xlix. 3. Lament, and run to and fro by the hedges.] The places of burial in the East are without their cities, as well as their gardens, and consequently their going to them must often be by their garden walls, not hedges. The ancient warriors of dis- tinction, who were slain in battle, were carried to the sepulchres of their fathers; and the people often went to weep over the graves of those whom they would honour. These observations FUNERALS. 485 put together sufficiently account for this passage. Harmer,\o\.i. p. 464. 2 Samuel xviii. 18. iVoto Absalom in his life-time had taken and reared up for himself a pillar, which is in the king's dale ; for he said, I have no son to keep my name in remembrance 1] There seems to have prevailed amongst almost all nations a com- mon sentiment of respect for the dead. The Jews appear to have been inspired by it equally with other people. The following lextract will furnish us with a curious illustration of the fact, and a singular coincidence of circumstances with the case of Absalom. The Scythians and Indians are remarkable for the great venera- tion which they pay to the memory of their ancestors. " When upbraided by Darius for flying before his army, the former ex- claim. Pursue us to the sepulchres of our ancestors, and attempt to violate their hallowed remains, and you shall soon find with ■what desperate valour the Scythians can fight." The Indians, we learn from Mr. Holwell, have so profound a veneration for the ashes of their progenitors, that on the fast of Callee, worship and offerings are paid to tlieir names : and Mr. Wilkins, in a note upon the Heetopades, favours us with additional information, that the offerings consisted of consecrated cakes ; that the ceremony itself is denominated stradha ; and that a Hindoo's hopes of hap- piness after death greatly depend upon his having children to perform this ceremony, by which he expects that his soul will be released from the torments of narraka or hell. In his sixth note upon the text of the Geeta his account of this ceremony is still more ample : for in that note he acquaints us that the Hindoos are enjoined by the vedas to offer these cakes to the ghosts of their ancestors, as far back as the third generation; that this greater ceremony of the stradha is performed on the day of the new moon in every month ; but that they are commanded by those books daily to propitiate them by an offering of water, which is called tarpan, a word signifying to satisfy, to appease. A speech of the Indian emperor Dushmanta, in the Sacontala, remarkably exemplifies this observation. That emperor, struck with horror at the idea of dying childless, exclaims. Ah me! the departed souls of my ancestors, who claim a share in the funeral cake which I have no son to offer, are apprehensive of losing their due honour when Dushmanta shall be no more on earth; who then, alas! will perform in our family those obsequies which the vedas prescribe ? My forefathers must drink, instead of a pure libation, this flood of tears, the only offering which a man who dies childless can make them. Maurice's Ind. Jnt. vol. ii. p. 80. Job XXX. 23. Death, the house appointed for all living.] Those expressions in which the grave is described as " the house appointed for all living :" the " long home" of man ; and " the ever- 486 ORIENTAL CUSTOMS. lasting habitation ;" are capable of much illustration from antiquity. Montfaucon says, " We observed in the fifth volume of our -Anti- quity, a tomb styled quietorum, a resting-place. Quiescere, to rest, is often said of the dead in epitaphs. Thus we find in an ancient writer, a man speaking of his master who had been long dead and buried; 'cujus ossa bene quiescant;' may his bones rest in peace. We have an instance of the like kind in an inscrip- tion in Gruter (p. 596), and in another (p. 594), ' fecit sibi requie- torium,' he made himself a resting-place. " This resting-place is called frequently, too, an eternal house. In his life-time he built himself an eternal house, says one epitaph. He made himself an eternal house with his patrimony, says ano- ther. He thought it better, says another, to build himself an. eternal house, than to desire his heirs to do it. They thought it a misfortune, when the bones and ashes of the dead were removed fi'om their place, as imagining the dead suffered something by the removal of their bones. This notion occasioned all those precau- tions used for the safety of their tombs, and the curses they laid on those who removed them." Isaiah xxvi. 19. Thy dead men shall live, together with my dead body shall they arise.'] It was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the graves of the dead. Might not this custom originate from the belief of the doctrine of the resurrection, or perhaps from this passage of Isaiah : " Thy dead men shall live ; together with my dead body shall they arise : awake and sing, ye that dwell in dust : for thy dew is as the dew of herbs, and the earth shall cast out the dead !" If it were prac- tised still earlier, might not this passage have some reference to that custom ? The women in Egypt, according to Maillet -{Lett. X. p. 91), go, at least two days in the week, to pray and weep at the sepulchres of the dead ; and the custom then is, to throw upon the tombs a sort of herb, which the Arabs call rihan, and which is ouy sweet basil. They cover them also with the leaves of the palm-tree. Myrtle is also made use of to adorn the tomb. Chand- ler found some graves in Lesser Asia, which had each a bough of myrtle stuck at the head and the feet (p. 200). Dallaway, on ancient and modern Constantinople, describing the tombs of the Turks, says, " as even the humblest graves are marked by cy- presses planted at the head and feet, the groves of these trees are extensive, and In every state of vegetation. The tombs of men are known by turbans, which, like coronets among us, denote the rank of the deceased : those of women have a plain round top. The inscriptions are delicately wrought, in raised letters of gold, on a dark ground. Between some of these tombs is placed a chest of ornamented stone, filled with earth, in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cultivated by females of the family, who assemble in groups for that duty." INDEX. Genesis ii. 10 ' . Page Page . 97 Genesis xxviii. 18 . 173, 235 -iii. 15 . . 220 22 . . 239 iv. 3 . 179 xxix. 2 . 112 4 . - 177 6 . . 503 15 . . . 412 24 . . . 314 V. 24 . . 221 26 . .267 viii. 11 106, 139, 237 32 . . . 282, 303 ix. 4 . 15 XXX. 32 . 109 21 • . 171 xxxi. 27 . . 338 xii. 7 . • . 173 34 . 343 xiii. 10 . 97 40 . . , 111 18 . . . . 173 46 .319 xiv. 9 . . 303 48 . . . 173 18 . 174 54 . . 183, 301 XV. 9 . . 300, 436 xxxii. 22 . 345 9, 10, 17 . 178, 182, 299 xxxiii. 3 . . . 349 xvi. 12 . . 447 4 . 290 13 i . 303 13 . . . 349 xvii. 10 .. . . . 299 19 . 118 xviii. 1 . 63 xxxiv. 12 . . . 269 ~ 1—8 . . . 293 27 . 390 4 . 293 xxxv. 4 . . . 53 6 . . 17, 292 xxxvii. 3 . 43 7 . 17 34 . . . 460 xix. 1, 2 . 291 xxxviii. 2 . 169 24 . 353 16 . . 11 26 . . 310 xl. 13 . . 316 XX. 12 . . . 267 xli. 5, 47 . 114 xxi. 10 . . 284 40 . . 369 19 . .256 42 . 370,380 . . 382 23 . 393 xlii. 6 xxii. 3 . . 343 15 . 394 9 . 247 xliii. 29 . . 288 xxiii. 11 . 120 34 . . . 37, 332 16 .118 xlir. 1 . . 341 11 . . 317 5 . . 249 15 . Ill x\v. 14 . . 290 20 . . 112 xlvi. 4 . . 473 22. . 52 xlWi. 19 . 124 S3 . . 52 xlviii. 14 . . 200 59 . 276 20 . . 389 60 . . . 271 xUx. 1 . . . 221 xxr. 30 . 4 3,4 . . 284 xxvi. 12 . . 96, 173 S . . 454 15 . 446 9 . , 161 20 . . . 22 10 . 376' 28, 29 . . 394 11 . . . 107 30 . . . 183, 301 12 . 61 xxvii. 33 . 173 1. 2 . . 141 39 . . . 100 3 . . 471 40 . 455 ^- 11 , . . . 464 xzviii. 17 . . 85 13 . . 484 488 Genesis I. 23 25 . 26 Exodus i. 16 . ii. 5 iii. 2 . 6 14 iv. 16 25 V. 7 . vi. 8 vii. 18 19 ix. 8 . X. 26 xi, 5 . 8 xii. 3 9 10 11 . 15 26, 27 . 34 xiii. 2, 11 4 11— ir xiv. 29 . xv. 20 20,21 23 27 xvi. 15 xvii . 1 6 16 xviii. 12 xix. 13 XX. 5 12 24 xxi. 6 7 16 xxii 5 6 31 xxii . 12 16 19 zxiv . 11 XXV. 10 20 xxviii. 30 33 xxix . 4 20 22 24 XXX 19 INDEX. Page 281, 283 Exodus xxxii. 2 . 285 6 . 471 xxxiii. 5 . . 282 6 . . 266 xxxiv. 15 . . 222 xxxriii. 8 . 200 Leviticus ii. 1 : 303 4 . 155 13 . . 222 vi. 13 . . 71 vii. 8 . 395 11,12 . 25 15,16 . 25 ix. 24 . . 259 xi. 2 . . 127 33 . . 19 35 . 5 xiii. 45 . . 213 XV. 13 . 214 xvi. 8 . . 215 14 . . 339 22 19, 213 xviii. 21 . 213 xix. 15 . . . 19 27 . 56 28 . . . 101 32 . 66 36 . . . 361 xxiii. 24 . 361 40 257, 327 xxi V. 11 145, 327 xxvi. 26 . . 25 xxvii. 32 . 3 Numbers i. 3, 32 . . 5 49 . 360 V. 17 . . 223 vi. 5 . 394 24 . . 310 vii. 17 . . 414 - 87 . 419 viii. 16 . 283 X. 1,2 . . 173 31 . 316 xi. 1 . . 12S 5 . 389 xii. 14 . 107 xiii. 23—27 . 115 33 . 166 XV. 37 . 204 xvii. 6 . 217 xix. 2 . 260 11 . 371 , XX. 19 . 223 XX. 25—29 . 164 xxii. 6 . 400 31 . 175 xxiii. 1 . 190 23 . 242 xxiv. 17 . . 11 21 . 187 XXV. 8 . 190 xxvi. 55 xxxi. 23 . . 56 . 240 . . 50 . 50 . . 187 . 54, 55 . 184, 187 . 20 . . 301 . 173 * . .184 . 185 . 14 . . 178 . 14 . . 191 . 21 . 459 . 190 . 180 . 258 . 181 . 245 . 399 . 463 . 60 . 310 . 126 . 216 . 186 . 224 20, 195 . 224 . 439 . 174 . 400 . 260 . 175 . 185 . 180 . 244 . 442 . 361 . 353 1,3, 13 . 408 . 67 . 67 . 57 . 376 . 179 . 473 . 22 . 469 . 254 . 255 . 202 . 449 . 257 . 70 . 415 . 313 . 189 INDEX. 489 Numbers xxxv, 21 .\Ti Judges iii. 18 Page . 297 ? ■• ^^ . . 415 19 . . 386 ig Deuteronomy i. 28 ' . . 90 20 . . 82 "* iv. 20 . . 133 21 . . 94 vi. 4, 10 . 56 31 . . 94 7 . . 283 iv. 17—20 . . . 292 9 . 87 19 . ,. . 8 vii. 15 . . 259 21 . . 64 22 . . 555 V.6 . 339 viii. 7 . . 113 10 . 379 %i. 10 . . : If 11 . 445 10, 11 . 25 . 9 13,22 . 56 ■^30 . 448 xii. 31 . . 244 vi. 2 . 66, 68 xiii. 8 . 390 19 . . 13 xvi. 14 . . 315 21 . 178 xWi. 18 . 153 37 . . 102 xix. 14 . . 388 vii. 13 . 439 XX. 2 . . 441 16 . . 342 3,4 . . 441 21, 22 . 443 5 . 78 viii. 20 . . 452 xxi. 13 . 47 24 . . 56 19 . . 86, 123 26 . 43,307 22,23 . 422 ix. 13 . 25 xxii. 5 . . 45 27 . 26 8 . . 73, 76 45 . . . 456 12 . . . 57 51 . 431 xxiv. 1 . . 268 xi. 30 . . 441 7 . . 389 34 . 327 20 . 105 zii. 6 . 156 XXV. 4 102, 103 xiv. 8 . 268 5 . . 279 10 . . 274 9 . . 408 12 276, 335 xxvi. 14 . 212 XV. 1 . 1 10, 11 xxvii. 2, 3 . . . 147 5 . . . . 129 14 . 396 8 . 321, 433 xxyiii. 5 . . 342 xvi. 17 . ,. 171 24 . 352 19 . 318 48 . . . 455 21 . . 408 58 . 410 27 . 75, 76 xxix. 9 . . 410 xvii. 3 . 230 23 . 456 7 . 292 xxxi. 19 . .157 xviii. 14 . . 230 xxxii. 13 . 7, 105 xix. 5 1 36 . . . 433 9 . . 63 40 . 394 29 . . 436 xxxiii. 19 . . . 135 XX. 10 . . 19 22 . 161 16 . , . . 428 xxxiv. 8 . . 469 xxi. 18 . . 395 Joshua ii. 19 . 403 Ruth i. 13 . 225 T. 15 . . . 225 ii. 4 . . 288 vi. 26 . 396 14 . 32 vii. 6 . . «. . 460 iii. 3 . . . . 294 21 . . 448 9 . 271 ix. 4 . . . 27 iii. 11 . . 85 X. 11 . 4S6 iv. 7 . 121 24 . . . 455 11 . 271 xi. 6 . . . . 448 1 Samuel i. S . 37 XV. 50 . . 66 ii. 8 . 21 xvii. 16 . . 429 19 . 47 xxiv. 5 . . 480 iii. 21 . . 401 30 . . 480 iv. 12 . 460 Judges i. 14 . . . 291 V. 4 . . ; 231 490 1 Samuel vi. 4 vii. 5 ix. 3 . 7 ' . 24 . 25. 26 X. 1 . 5,6 24 27 xi. 7 siii, 6 19, i xiv. 9 14 15 24 33 XV. 12 xvi. 1 12 17 20 23 xvii. 16 42 43 . 44 45 49 , 51 xviii. 3 . 4 6 . 7 . 25 XX. 5 30 xxi. 7 9 . 13 xxii. 2 . 6 . xxiv. 12 . XXV. 2 11 . 41 xxvi. 5 . 7 20 xxvii. 9 xxviii. 7 XXX. 11 21. xxxi. 10 '■ Samuel i. 2 . 12 . 16 17 . 21 J. 23 . 46. INDEX. Page Paga . .258 2 Samuel iii. 31. , . 471 . • 442 34 . . 411 . Ill 35 . . 468 296 iv. 2—7 . 18 . 11 12 , . 416 • . 73 V. 6—8 . . 434 . 74 vi. 14 . 219, 327 . . 290 19 . . 37 . 312 vii. 18 . . 20O . . 365 viii. 2 . 452 . 374 X. 4 . . 59 . . 437 xi.4 . . . 267 . 69 8, 10 . 298 . 423, 460 xii. 8 . . 281 . 252 19 . . 461 . . 92 20 . . . 459 . 451 23 . . 468 . . 396 xiii. 8 . 17, 20 . 16 18 . . 43 . . 309 xiv. 17 . . 168 . 32 26 . . 57 . . 61 XV. 30 . 49, 547 . 144 32 . . . 454 . . 10 xvi. 13 . 391 . 144 xvii. 17. . 317 . . 428 28 20,24 . 61 zviii. 11 . . 297 . 166,254 18 . . 485 . 438 xix. 4 . 457 . . 438 8 . 86 . 425 35-. . . 145 . . 452 XX. 3 " . . 279 82, 298 9 . . 290 , 297, 299 xxi. 19 , . 422 . . 327 xxii .6 . 128 . 145 xxiii. IS • 24 . . 269 20 . 429 . 216 xxiv. 18 . 102 . . 286 1 Kings i. 2 . . 82 . . 109 39 . . 365 . 261 ii. 5 . . 450 . . 437 1^ ' • • . 385 . 122 9 . . . . 412 346, 376 10 . 484 . . 68 23 . . 280 . 308 28 . . 393 . Ill 35 . 439 . 22 . 37 . . 404 . 293 iv. 7 . . 373 . 430 7—19 . . 374 . . 430 vii. 21 . . 266 . 131 viii. 31 . 396 . . 453 * 48. . 199 . 255 63 . 186 . 362 65 . . 186 . 345 J..16 ; 32, 428 261, 415 20 . .376 . 460 21 ' 32' 64 . 465 22 '. . 125 . 404 26, 27 . . 374 . 465 ati. 3 . . 277 . 428 xii. 36 . 85 . 445 xiii. 26 , ■ '419 INDEX. *yi Page Page 1 Kings xiii. 30 . . . . 465 2 Kings xxi. 11 . 260 xiv. 10 . 432 xxiii. 3 . 366 XV. 2 . . . . 304 7 . 80 xvii. 12 . 429 XXV. 7 . 408 xviii. 1 . . . . 302 19 . . 153 26 . 198, 236 1 Chronicles ii. 16 . 285 26—28 . . . 237 35 . . 267 28 . 262 55 . 153 38 . 178 xii. 1 . . 433 42 . . . . 201 8 . . 445 44 . . 351 33 . 106 45 . . . 117 40 . . 344 xix. 13 . 200 xvi. 36 . . 202 18 . . 237 xxi. 26 . . 178 19 . 94 xxii. 8 . . 450 XX. 12 . . 63 xxiii. 29 . . 17 31 . 460 xxvi. 27 . . 448 32. . 462 xxvii.28 . .-434 34 . 432 2 Chronicles vi. 1 . . 207 xxi. 4 . . 81 34 . 440 8 122, 151 vii. 13 . . 178 23. . 416 ix. 24, . 374 37 . 457 xi. 21, 22 . 277 xxii. 10 . 103 xvi. 14 . . 474 38 . 416 xviii. 9 . 103 43. . 263 xxi. 19 . . . 474 2 Kings i. 4 . . 80 XXV. 12 . 415 ii. 19 . . 113 xxvi. 23 . . 478 iii. 11 191, 314 xxviii. 23 . 231 15 . . 144 27 . . 478 17 - 117 xxxii. 33 . 482 25 . . 447 xxxiv. 13 . . 153 27 . 246 XXXV. 25 . . 466 iv. 1 . . 123 xxxvi. 15 . 165 10 . 77 Ezra iii. 11 . . . 145 23 . . 338 iv. 14 . 302 24 . 342 vi. 11 . . . 423 39 . 2 15 . 115 V. 6 . . 139 16 . . . 78 7 . . 154 ix. 3 . 462 10 401 8 . . 80 17 . . 192 Nehemiah ii. 8 . 125, 225 18 . 385 iv. 7 . . 96 23 . . 119 V. 5 . . 123 vii. 2, 17 . . 385 11 . . 124 10 . . 431 15 . . 402 12 . 444 vi. 6 . . 152 viii. 9 ■ . 297 vii. 64 . . 286 13. . 166 viii. 10 . - 298 ix. 30 . 61 15 . . 139 X. 15 . . 384, 396 ix. 15 . . 395 27 . . 423 38 . 150 xi, 2 . • .81 X. 29 . . 150 12 . . 318 xii. 24 . . 145 14 . 366 xiii. 25 . 408 xii. 10 . . 119 Esther i 4 . . . 328 xiii. 7 . 104 6. . 79 xiv. 26 . . 433 7 ; . 26 xix. 7 . 353 9. . 336 XX. 2 . 1 11 . . . 336 11 . . 143 ii .11 . 83 13 . 366 19 . 85, 86 ysj IND EX. Page l^age Esther iii. 7 , 248 Job XXX. 23 . . 48S 10 , . . 380 xxxi. 20 . Ill iv. 1 . , . 461 26, 27 . . 290 16 . 2l2 35, 36 . 384 V. 1 . . . 75 xxxii. 21 . . 307 6 . . 36 xxxiii. 23 . . 401 12 . . . 308 xxxvii. 9 . 350 vi. 1 . 154, 386 18 . . 54 7—9 . . 386 22 . . 164 8 . 379 xxxviii. 14 . . 168 12 . . . 457 xli. 1 . 133 vii. 8 . 393, 40l 7 . . . 133 viii, 2 . . . 380 20 . 38 15 43, 4* xlii. 6 , . . 461 ix. 19 . . . 298 14 . 304 26 . 2H Psalm i. 3 . . . 98 Job i. 3 . . 114, 343 ix. 18 . 413 5 ! 337 xvi. titk . . 162 20 . . 462 5 . 37 ii. 4 . . Il7 xviii. 33 , . 445 10 . . . 258 31 . . 426 12 . 460 43 . , 454 iii. 1 . . 3ll xix. 5 . 270, 275 3 . 248 10 . 7, 163 12 . . . 28l XX. 3 . 178 iv. 19 . 139 5 . . . 442 V. 23 . . . 438 xxii. 13 . 161 vi. 4 . 427 xxiii. 5 . . . 294 •6 6 xxiT. 9, 10 . 34 17, 18 . . 102 xxvi. 6 . 190 vii. 12 . . . 132 xxvii. 13 . . 423 19 . 29I xxviii. 2 . . 199 ix. 18 . . . 35O XXX. title . . 78 2S . 343 xxxii. 4 . . 100 xiv. 17 . . . 129 XXXV. 6 . 355 xvi. 9 . 438 7 . 128 XTii. 3 . 121 16 . . 387 9 . 191 xxxviii. 1 . . 413 xviii. 4 . . .168 xlii. 3 . 13 5 . 85 . xliii. 4 . . . 190 IS. . . 78 xliv, 20 . 199 xix. 23 . 146 xlv. 3 . . . 424 XX. 17 . 9 9 . 277 xxi. 17- . . 85 9—13 . . 62 33 . 483 10 . 285 xxii. 25 . . - 163 xlvi. 9 . . . 448 xxiii. 10 . 163 xlvii. 1 . 319 xxiv. 8 . . . 66 Iv. 17 . . . 196 16. . . 7O Ivi. 8 . 471 xxvii. 15 . .3l9 Ivii. 4 . . . 424 16 . . 46 Iviii. 5 . 133 18 . . 64 6 . . 134 19 . . 476 lix. . 166 21 . .349 7 . . . 425 xxix, 3 65, 335 14 . 106 6 . . . 9 Ixlii. 5 . . 10 7 . 307, 397 Ixiv. 3 . 425 8 . . .311 Ixviii. 24 . . 218 19 . lOl 25 . . 218 XXX. 4 . . . 2 30, . . 132 22 . 350 Ixix. 9^ . 392 INDEX, 493 PsMm Ixix. 21 . Ixxii. 9—1 1 10 16 IxxT. 4, 5 5 8 . Ixxvii. 19 Ixzriii. W 38 47 Ixxx. 13 17 Ixxxi. 16 Ixxxiii. 13, 14 14 Ixxxiv, 7 Ixxxvii, 5 Ixxxviii. 5 xc. 4 xcii. 10 xcviii. 8 cii. 26 civ. 2 . 26 oix. 24 . CXT. 5, 7 cxvi. 3 . 13 cxviii. 27 cxix. 83 cxxiii. 2 cxxvi. 4 5,6 cxxvii. 5 cxxix. 6 cxxxii. 18 cxxxiii. 2 2,3 cxxxv. 7 cxxxyii. 9 cxl. 9, 10 cxli. 7 cxlvii. 16, 17 cxlix. 5 Proverbs i. 1 . iii. 8 16 V. 15 vi. 1 ix. 3 xi. 21, 22 fxii. 9 27 XT. 17 . ^9 XTl. 11 14 xrii. 6 . 18 19 Page . 297 . 101 . 51 . 413 . 332 . 341 . 360 . 410 . 3 - 132 . 38 . 7 . 105 . 130 . 345 . 166 . 225 . 318 . 51 . 3J9 . 46 . 77 . 363 , 195 . 434 . 443 . 333 . 186 . 64 314 , 102 , 95 , 86 . 73 , 449 , 174 , 159 , 354 , 451 , 135 477 160 440 157 138 378 97 120 330 396 55 313 17 11 105 388 417 285 121 87 I Proverbs xix. 13 . 18 24." xxi. 1 . 8 . 9 . 17. xxii. 14 . 26. xxiii. 6 20 29 30 . xxiv. 11 12 26 31 xxr. 13 18 . 26 27 . xxvi. 8 xxvii, 6 . 9 15 22 27 XXX. 8 17 33 xxxi. 13—19 18 22 24 Ecclesiastes ii. 5, 6 iii. 7 . iv. 11 vii* b' . 26 ix. 7, 8 X. 1 7 xii. 4 11 Sol. SoDg i. 5 9 10 . 13 ii . 3 14 15 . 17 iii. 1 . 2 3 . 8 11 . iv .9 12 v. 13 VI . 10 . 30, Page 75 123 8 98 168 75 31 355 121 233 14 61 31 404 413 385- 106 31 425 446 7 261 243 337 75 418 S 40 418 9 47 48 ■48 124 98 48 82 162 . 360 . 294 . 139 . 378 . 18 . 155 . 65 . 161 . 53 . 53 . 345 . 69 .107 . 158 . 328 . 273 . 390 . 424 . 274 . 54 88, 89 . 338 . 15T 494. INDEX. Page Page Sol. Song vii. 5 . . 58 Isaiah xxix. 8 . . . 24 viii. 2 . . 30 xxxii. 20 . . 96 10 . . 432 xxxiii. 18 153, 439 Isaiah i. 14 . . . 204 XXXT. 7 . 354 15 . 181 xxxvii. 29 . . 132 22 . 29 xxxviii. 10 . . 85 30 . . . 97 12 . . 63 ii. 4 . 95 xl. 3 . 340 5 . . . 328 8 . . . 70 19 . 68 12 . 143 iii. 16 . . 54 xli. 15 . . 103 17 . 455 16 . . . . 350 22 . . 68 xlii. 11 . Ill 23 . 42 xliii. 2 . 445 26 . . . 461 xliv. 5 . . . 150 V. 2 . . 107, 137 13 . - 229 6 . 106 18 . . 387 11 . 31 xlv. 3 . 256 '22 . 30 xIti. 2 . . 230 24 . 105 xlvii. 13 . 144 26 . 106 xlix. 2 . 424 28 . . . 344 16 . 149 vi. 2 . 200 23 . 382 6 . . . 208 1. 1 . . . 123 Tii. 15. . 10 6 . 499 20 . 462 li. 11 . . . 344 Tiii, 1 . . . 147 17 . 30 6,7 . . 160 23 . . 454 ix. 5 . . . 447 Hi. 15 . 295 6 . 287, 382 liii. 8 . . . 405 A. 1 . . . 388 lir. 12 . 79 27 . 45.5 Iri. 10—12 . . 167 xi. 15 . . 445 Iviii. 6 . 260 xiii ,10 . . 142 13 . . 205 17 . 451 Ix. 4 . 282 18. . 426 8 . .15 1, 188, 325 xiv. 4 . 163 13 , . 327 9 . . . 481 Ixii. 5 . . . 267 13 . 264 6 . 348 xvii. 6 . . . 138 10 . .16 6, 340, 442 xviii. 1, 2 . . 114 IXT. 4 . 255 2 . . 116 Ixvi. 17 . 239, 251 xix. 1 . . . 225 Jeremiah iii. 2 . 349 xxi. 5 . 427 iv. 5 . 4<12 6 . . . 435 17 . 105 xxii. 1 . 73 30 . 00, 61 6 . . . 428 vi. 1 . . 435 16 . 482 vii. 13 165 22 . . 381 29 . 462 23 . 80 ix. 8 425 24 . . 32 17 . 465 xxiv. 17 . 129 17, 18 . 464 22 . . 407 xi. 7 . . 165 XXT. 6 . 27 xiv. 4 100' xxvi. 3 . . 166 XV. 10 . . 124 19 . . 486 17 226 xxviii. 1 . . 336 18 . . 354 27 . . 103 xvi. 5,7, 8 . 468 xxix. 1 . . . 14 6 . ; . 463 4 . . 255 8 467 INDEX. 495 Jeremiah xyii. S . Page. 98 Ezekiel xiii. 6, 7 Page. 325 13 148 9 . . 148 xviii. 3 . 134 10 70 13 31 11 . . 72 XX. 15 . 282 18 83 xxii. 14 82 19 . . 20 xxiii. 21 325 XT. 3. 80 XXV. 10 18, 84 xvi. 18, 19 . 337 16 . 419 xvii. 13 438 xxTi. 18 456 xix. 11 . . 376 xxvii, 8 , 455 XX. 47 170 xzix. 18. . ib. xxi. 12 . . 458 xxxi. 15 467 21 . 170,251 19 . 458 27 . . 51 xxxii. 11 121 xxiii. 12—16 240 xxxiii. 13 . 374 15 . 42 zxxiv. 5 475 40 60, 273 18 . 182 , 299 xxiv. 5 . 12 xxxT. 7 : 62 , 400 17 49, 459, 468 14 . 165 xxvi. 2, 3 . 164 xxxvi. 22 . ' 72, 84 14 90 30 . 475 xxvii. 11 . 434 xxxvii. 15 406 30 . 461 xxxviii. 7 . 315 xxviii. 14 . 164 xxxix. 14 285 xxxii. 3 133 xli. 8 . 355 ,434 27. 431, 481 9 . 69 xxxiii. 2 . 390 xliv. 17 . 238 26 . 441 xM. 11 . 141 30 . 311 xlviii. 11 . 27 xxxiv. 25 . . 110, 355 28 69 xxxvi. 25 . 189 37 . 463 xxxix. 8, 10 448 xlix. 3 . 484 xliii. 8 . . 86 8 433 xlir. 2 . • 367 19 . 162 xlv. 12 . . 119 30 433 Daniel i. 4 . 315 35 . 426 8 . 36 1. 15 91 15 . 7 li. 41 . 316 ii.4 . 367 44 91 5 . 422 Lament, i. 3 . 443 48 . 370 " ii. 1 378 y. 2 . 333 8 461 12 . 385 15 319 13 , 379 iT. 5 21 27 . 367 T.4 125 29 44 6 455 vi. 8 . 390 10 22 10 . 196, 198 14 85 11 . 199 Ezekiel iv. 7 459 vii. 9 397 9 1 viii. 5 . . 165 iv. 13 . 36 ix. 3 461 16 195 xi. 45 . . 430 V. 1 — 5 . 59 Hosea ii. 6 . 105 viii. 7 233 iii. 2 . 269 17 . 241 4 . 230 ix. 2 152 iv. 12 . 250 4 263 viii. 11 238 X. 2 135 ix. 10 3 xii. 3 . 348 13 36 6 457 xi. 2 . 229 8 . 249 xii. 1 . 474 4j96 INDEX. Page. Hosea xiii. 2 . 245 3 . 102, 104 8 . 161 XIT. 5 101 6 . 160 Amos i. 15 . 231 ii. 1 . 453 6 405 8 . 81 iii. 8 131 12 83, 110 15 ?2 iv. 10 . . 140 T. 1, 2, 16 . 465 16 . . 463 19 73 25,26 . 257 26 232 vi. 4 10, 83 10 . . 465 ' 11 72 vii. 14 . 3 viii. 6 405 9 . . 158 ix. 6 80 13 . . 107 Obadiah v, 4. 70 11 . 455 15 252 18 . . 453 Joel i. 5 . 26 17 . 355 19 . 137 iii. 3 . 123 10 . 95 Mioah i. 16 . 462 iii. 5 . 257 12 . 466 iv. 4 . 89 V. 8 . 161 vi. 7 . 247 Til. 19 . . 217 Nahum i. 14 . 230 ii. 7. . 308 10 , 158 13 . 448 iii. 5, 6 465 10 . . 455 Habakkuk i. 8 . 129, 443 ii. 2 148 9 70 16 . . 333 iii. 5 170 9 . 427 Zephaniah ii^ 6 60 14 . . 262 Zecfaariah i. 8 379 iii. 3 . 398 8 265 10 . 38 vi. 2 379 ix. 3 . 71 Zecbariab ix. 7 jc. 4 xii. 3 xiv. 20 Malachi i. 8 . iv. 2 3 Matthew i. 18 ii. 2 11 iii. 4 11 12 15 iv. 23 v.l. 13 14 18 24 28 35 36 41 47 vi. 1 2 4 5 7 16 28,30 29 vii. 13 29 viii. 12 28 ix. 1 6 9 14 15 20 23 X. 9 14 17 27 38 xi. 16 xii. 42 50 xiii. 4 xiv. 6 8 10 11 xiv. 20 31 XV. 5 27 Page. 237 . 80 320 . 429 375 . 141 71 . 268 257 . 375 .7,42 50 . 104 190 . 209 155 6 91 . 148 186 415 396 . ib. 372 288, 291 201, 320 . 321 , 227 . 197 198 194, 196 21 . 336 86, 88 . 211 335 . 478 312 . 81 126 . 195 275 56,57 466 . 49 339 . 410 73, 155 410 . 320 399 . 170 96 . ,329 405 . 417 416 . 342 . . 169 - 188 . . 40 INDEX. 497 Matthew XTi. 18 19 xviii. 6 25 . 34 xix. 13 24 XX. 16 23 . xxi. 8 12 21 . 34 xxii. 3 4 11 13 24 30 . 40 xxiii. 2 . 5 6 . 14 15 24 27 29 . 38 xxiv. 17 18 41 51 . XXV. 1- . 4 6 II 21 30 . 33 xxvi. 20 . 26 26, 27 28 29 . 30 . 39 63 . 67 68 xxTii. 2 6 . 11 24 25 26 29 31 . 34 S5 . 36 .53 . 60 46 Page . 85 . . 380 . 418 . . 123 . 407 . . 201 . 87 . . 439 . 332 . . 383 . 208 . . 167 . 217 . . 329 . 11 276, 330 . 335 . . 280 . 281 . . 38.9 1.52, 211 . . 56 . 331 , . 198 . . 226 . 27 . . 477 . 478 . . .79 . 74 . . 92 . 18 411,417 209, 271 . 136 . . 271 . 88 , . 81 . 335 . . 405 . 37 . . 215 . 214 . . 215 . 215 . 35, 215 . 201 . 395 . . 409 . 409 . . 399 . 226 . 398 . . 404 . 422 . . 420 . 377 . . 420 . 33 . . 421 . 421 . . 226 . 483 Page Matthew xxviii. 1 . . < 206 Mark i. 6 . • 12 ii. 4 76 v. 3 . . 463, 478 38 , 464 vi. 66 . . . 138 vii. 3 . 191 5 . , 191 28 . 40 ix. 41 . . 23 43 . 423 44 . 475 j£. 4 . . . 278 12 . 278 xii. 41 . . 188 xiv. 3 . 28 15 . . 82 35 . 143, 458 51 . 41 61 . . 227 XV. 26 . 421 xvi. 1 . . . 472 5 . 483 Luke i. 9 . . 176 63 . 148 ii. 7 . - 70, 346 25 - 226 44 . . . 348 46 . 154 iii. 4 . . 341 iv. 1 . 356 16 . . 210 17 . 210 18 . . 407 20 . . 209, 211 V. 19 . . . 76 39 . 26 TJ. 1 . . . 206 38 . . 49, 126 48 . . . 73 vii. 12 . ~ . 74 36 . . 33 33 . 243, 290, 294 40 . 311 44 . . 293 X. 4 . 288 13 . . . 461 30 . 366 34 . . . 138 42 . • .36 xi. 5 . ■ . .125 5,6 . 341 7 . . . 81 52 . 381 xii. 35 . 339 37 , . 315 55 . 352 xiii. 8 . . . 106 26 . 226 33 . . 397 xiv. 10 . 330 13 . . 329 16, 17 . 329 498 INDEX. John Luke xiv, S6 xr. 12 16 20 25 . 29 xvi. 12 20 21 22 xriii. 5 12 13 xix. 20 xxii. 25 42 64 xxiii. 33 54 xxlv. 30 50 i. 12 42 . ii. 1 8 9 10 16 . iii. 3 10 . 29 V. 10 13 35 . Ti. 11 27 . vii. 37 viii. 20 36 57 59 ix. 6 . X. 1 1, 2, 7, 9 3 4 11 xi. 9 16 19 31 . 44 Iiii. 23 24 xviii. 3 11 16 28 xix. 17 xiz. 20 23 29 . Page . 285 John xix. 31 120, 283 39 . 2 xxi. 1 . 290 18 . . 11 20 . 334 Acts i. 26 . 10 ii. 13 . 126 iii. 1 . 319 ri. 1 . 40 9 . . 38 vii. 30 . 392 ix. 34 . . 94 36 . 458 37 . . 120 X. 9 . 369 xii. 6 . 332 10 . 320 xiii. 9 . . 420 14, 15 . 203 43 . .. . 35 xiv. 11 . 176 12 . . 286 13 . 306 23 . 270 XV. 20 . 331 xvi. 13 . 331 16 . 29 22 . . 127 24 . 172 xvii. 17 . 193 18 . 275 22 . 203 23 . 169 xviii. 3 . 169 xix. 9 . 34 12 . . 308 29 . 184 ■34 . . 188 XX. 7 . 3)7 9 . . 310 37 . 415 xxi. 24 . . 140 33 . 108 xxii. 3 . . 88 9 . 108 23 . 109 24 . 108 25 . . 142 xziii. 2 . 306 12 . 468 XXT. 11 . 469 XX ri. 1 . 483 5 . 38 xxvii. 27 . 336 29 • . . 136 34 . 332 35 . . 88 40 . . . 398 xxviii. 1 1 . 420 16 . . . . 420 Romans vi. 13 . 41 vii. 24 . 33 viii. 19 . Page INDEX. 499 Romans viii. 33 . xii. 13 15 xiii. 4 , 13 xiv. 22 xvi. 23 1 Corinthians iii. 10 iv. 1 9 13 21 vi. 20 viii. 10 ix. 25 26 27 X. 4 16 17 26 30 31 xi. 4 14, 15 21 ziii. 1 xiy. 8_ 16 26 27 XT 29 32 xvi. 9 22 2 Corinthians iii 1 V. 20 vi. 7 . viii. 19 X. 14,16 zi. 2 29 Galatians ii. 9 , iii. 1 , 28 iv. 6 10 , V.7 , 81 , vi. 16 , 17 , Ephesians ii. 18 , ii. 12 , iv. 8 , 26 28 V. 14 18 , vi. 16 Fhilippians i. 23 ii. 15 iii. 2. 12 , Page . 287 Fhilippians iii. 14 . . 292 iv. 3 . 227 Colossiansii. 14 . 378 18 . . 335 21 . 404 2 Thessalonians iii. 1 . 219 1 Timothy i. 10 . . 136 ii.8 . 380 iii. 2 . . 326 13 . . 247 r.lO . 410 2 Timothy ii. 15 . 270 19 . . 244 26 . 322 iv. 6 . 322 Titus ii. 5 . 323 iii. 5 . 185 11 . 36 Philemon v. 19 . 313 Hebrews ii. 15 . 15 iv. 13 - 202 V. 7 . 36 vi. 16 . 201 vii. 26 . 57 X.X . 219 22 . 266 35 . 442 xi. 35 . . 202 xii. 2 . 328 3 . . . 211 4 . 193 11 . 326 xiii. 1 5 . 323 James i. 14 149, 212 27 . 296 ii.2 . 372 iv. 15 . 428 V. 5 . 371 14 . 313 1 Peter i. 5 . 268 7 .318 18, 19 . 384 ii. 4 . 253 iii. 3 . . 228 18 . 287 iv.3 . . 249 9 . 325 V. 4 . 334 8 . 476 2 Peter i. 5 . 263 20 . . 296 1 John iii. 17 . 312 Jude V. 4 455, 448 12 . 228 13 . . 389 23 . . 216 Revelations i. 9 . 243 i.l6 . 427 ii. 1 . . 364 10 . 364 17 . 167 ^ iii. 5 324 ^ 12 Page . 324 312 . . 122 . 266 . 196 . . 326 . . 389 . . 191 . 292 . 176 . 294 . 316 . . 78 . 131 , . 187 . 277 . 281 . 404 . 122 . 475 . 187 . 168 . . 393 . 208 . 169 . 189 . 428 . 411 . 325 . 167 . 326 . . 325 . 185 . 133 229 308, 399 . 228 . . 336 . 138 . 435 . 163 . . 118 . 169 52,58 . 244 . 335 . 292 . 109 . 131 . 167 . 325 . 171 . . 392 . . 219 . 335 . 45 . . 411 . . 424 . . 209 . 473 306, 405 . 312 . 306 500 INDEX. Page ions iv. 3 . . 229 4 . . . 397 V. 8 369, 207 14 . 207 vi.2 . . . 449 4 . . .. . 379 8 . . . 167 . 12 . 45 vi. . . 149 vii. 2 . ' . 380 2,3 . . 150 3 . 263 9 . 207, 449 viii. 1 . 206 ix. 19 . 447 20 . . . 236 X. 9, 10 . . 8 xi. 2. . . 208 Revelations xi.3 zii. 1 xiii 16, 1 17 xiv. 4 10 XV. 7 xvL 5 . IS xvii . 5 . xix. 8 . 10 12 13 16 xxi. 2 19 xxii .15 Page . 45 . . 309 . mo . . 127 . 440 30, 419 . 163 . . 192 . 208 . . 151 . . 276 . 383 . . 307 . 440 . . 149 . 273 . . 92 . 167 ■J. Iladdnn, Castle Street, Finsbury. ^liiiiiii .; i i i ^m i