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PRE-HISTOmC REMAINS 
 
 CAITHISIESS. 
 
3 
 
 3 
 
 -a 
 
 a 
 
PRE-HISTOmC REMAINS 
 
 CAITHNESS. 
 
 SAMUEL LAING, ESQ., M.P., F.G.S. 
 
 NOTES ON THE HUMAN REMAINS, 
 
 THOMAS H. HUXLEY, ESQ., F.E.S., 
 
 PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES. 
 
 WILLIAMS AND JSTOEGATE, 
 
 14, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN; AND 
 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH. 
 
 1866. 
 
PRE-HISTORIO EEMAOS 
 
 CAITHNESS. 
 
 IN presenting to the Museum of Scottish Antiquaries the 
 interesting series of Pre-historic remains which I have 
 had the good fortune to discover in Caithness, I think it 
 desirable to place on record the principal facts connected 
 with their discovery in a more complete form than was 
 possible in the papers on the subject, which have been read 
 at meetings of various learned Societies. I am further 
 induced to adopt this course by the opportimity which 
 it affords of giving illustrations of the objects for the 
 benefit of those who may not have seen the originals, and 
 more especially because it enables me to present to the scien- 
 tific world the valuable remarks of Professor Huxley on the 
 crania and skeletons, accompanied by accurate drawings 
 which have been made under his superintendence. 
 
 A few introductory remarks may be permitted in order to 
 explain the objects with which these researches were under- 
 taken by me during a short residence in Caithness in the 
 course of the past autumn. 
 
 The problem of British archeology may be thus stated. 
 We know the two extremes of a series. The one is that of 
 Quaternary man, whose relics have been found at Hoxne, in 
 the drift gravels of the Ouse and Thames, the caves of 
 
 1 
 
-i PKE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 Torquay and the Mendips, and other localities. These clearly 
 (5arry hack the existence of man on British soil to a period 
 contemporary with the fliat weapons of Abbeville and Amiens, 
 and with the river and cave-men of Prance and Germany ; 
 when very different conditions prevailed of climate, of sea 
 and river-level, and of configuration of sea and land. At this 
 period Britain was probably connected with the continent ; 
 the rigour of the glacial epoch had but partially abated ; the 
 great glacial rivers stiR poured forth volumes of muddy 
 water into valleys in which the loess was deposited which has 
 since been excavated for hundreds of feet ; the reindeer lived 
 in the south of France ; and the mammoth and wooUy- haired 
 rhinoceros roamed over the plains of what is now England. 
 
 In stating this as a fact, which by the mass of concurrent 
 testimony is now placed beyond doubt, I offer no opinion as 
 to the absolute antiquity of this period. That is a question 
 for authorities who, Hke Lyell and Prestwich, have devoted 
 their attention to " Quaternary Geology." If they are right 
 in supposing that none but existing causes, or rather causes 
 of the same order as those now existing, have brought about 
 these changes, the period required is immense. But if, as 
 some continental geologists believe, more intense and con- 
 vulsive causes have prevailed, this period may be indefinitely 
 shortened, for if we once depart from those operations of 
 nature of which alone we have experience, all calcidation 
 becomes conjecture, and our chronological scale may as well 
 be written in thousands as in tens of thousands of years. 
 However, for archaeological purposes this is a matter of indif- 
 ference, and in either case we start with the fact that at the 
 most remote period yet disclosed, when man existed on the conti- 
 nent along with the extinct animals, he also existed in Britain. 
 
 The other extreme of the series is defined by the first 
 dawn of history, which shows us man existing in the British 
 Isles with a knowledge of the metals and a certain amount of 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 6 
 
 civilisation. From this point downwards archaeology has so 
 far explored the field that we can distinguish and classify an 
 unbroken succession of the remains of the Keltic Britons ; 
 the Romans, and Romanized Britons ; the Pagan and Chris- 
 tian Anglo-Saxons ; and the Scandinavians ; down to the 
 Anglo-N^orman and Mediaeval periods where archaeology ends. 
 
 The intermediate, or Secondary period, has, as regards the 
 continent, been partially filled up by the result of researches 
 into the Danish Kjokkenmoddings and Swiss Lacustrine- 
 dwellings. The progression of a Stone, Bronze, and Iron 
 period with different races of men, implements, and modes 
 of sepulture, may be taken as established. In certain cases 
 the distinctions may be a little doubtful, and the formations 
 may, so to speak, overlap ; yet on the whole there is evidence 
 of a succession of races, and of a regular advance from rude- 
 ness to civilization and from lower to higher types of man. 
 
 In the case of the lowest Danish middens we are carried 
 very far back in the scale both of time and civilization, and 
 made acquainted with the race of the early Stone period who 
 lived when the configuration of sea and land in Denmark 
 was materially different ; on a platform of fir forests which 
 has been succeeded first by one of oak, and finally by that of 
 beech, which alone is recorded in history ; without a know- 
 ledge of the domestic animals, except the dog ; and ia a state 
 of rudeness which argues little, if any, progress siace the 
 date of the quaternary men of Abbeville and Les Eyzies. 
 
 In Britain, this Secondary period remains, however, in a 
 state of great confusion. The fundamental distinction of a 
 Stone, Bronze, and Iron period has never been either con- 
 clusively established or conclusively negatived. Every day 
 we hear of relics which in Denmark would be assigned with- 
 out hesitation to the Stone period, being found in connection 
 with bronze and iron ; and if the case rested solely on British 
 evidence, probably most antiquarians would have been of 
 
4 PEE-HISTOKTC REMAINS 
 
 opinion that there was no sufficient ground for any other 
 hypothesis than that the race found in. Britain, by the E-omans 
 had colonized an unoccupied country a few centuries before 
 the dawn of history. The utter uncertainty of what I have 
 called the Archaeology of the Secondary period in Britain is 
 sufficiently shown by the speculations respecting the most 
 important megalithic monument which we possess — that of 
 Stonehenge — which has been assigned by different learned 
 antiquaries with equal ingenuity and equal lack of solid 
 arguments, to the era of Yortigern and Arthur ; to that of 
 Phoenician worship introduced in the flourishing days of 
 Tyre and Tarshish ; or finally, to the remote antiquity of some 
 unknown Allophylian race. 
 
 The refuse heaps which have been the means of throwing 
 so much light on the Pre-historic periods of Denmark and 
 Switzerland appear to afford by far the best chance of ascer- 
 taining the habits and conditions of life of the pre-historic 
 populations ; but they reqiure, even more than the ancient 
 tombs and dwellings, the most accurate and systematic investi- 
 gation, not only to give us truth, but to escape giving us error. 
 
 The shell-mound, or midden, is of itself a formation of no 
 particular period. I have seen many a "Kjokkenmodding" 
 accumulating at the back door of an Orkney cottage, where 
 limpets were largely used for bait. It must be remembered 
 also that the same mound has frequently been used over and 
 over again for a succession of habitations. 
 
 There are many reasons why this must be the case, such 
 as convenience of situation, access to the shore, drainage, 
 supply of stones for building, and a richer soil and greener 
 pasture ; all of which are afforded to the new settler by the 
 old ruined mound. In point of fact, very many cottages in 
 Orkney and Caithness now stand on, or immediately adjoining 
 to, old mounds ; and a slight excavation, such as a child 
 might make in sport, might readily bring together the con- 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 tents of the recent and ancient middens, and place a half- 
 penny of Queen Victoria in juxtaposition with a stone celt or 
 flint arrow. In my own limited explorations I have seen 
 three or four instances which have taught me the necessity 
 of extreme caution, and of attaching no weight whatever to 
 the discovery of any article in connection with an old mound 
 or building, which has not been found in some original un- 
 disturbed stratum, and its situation accurately noted at the 
 time by a competent observer. In one case, a modern metal 
 button was thrown up by the spade amidst debris of an ancient 
 shell-midden. On investigation it was clearly proved to have 
 been torn off the waistcoat of one of the workmen on the 
 preceding day, and amidst a storm of wind and rain blown 
 into and apparently incorporated with the refuse heap. 
 Again, a coin of Elizabeth, which is now in my possession, 
 was found in digging the foundation of a barn in Orkney, at 
 about a foot below the surface, in a spot closely adjoining to 
 a mound or Picts' house, some of the debris of which are at a 
 level several feet higher than the site of the coin ; so that if 
 this estate were thrown into a large sheep farm, and the 
 buildings removed, a century hence this coin might have 
 been found in a green mound of shapeless ruins, at a level 
 distiactly below stone hammers and teeth of Bos lonyifrons. 
 
 I dwell at some length on these instances, because I am 
 convinced that nothing but error can result from attaching 
 any weight to the evidence of simple juxtaposition in the 
 same mound, refuse heap, or building, without accurate obser- 
 vation of the whole circumstances of each discovery ; and, 
 above all, that no reliance whatever is to be placed on anything 
 which is found within two or three feet of the surface, in soil 
 which is recent, or which may possibly have been disturbed. 
 
 As far as researches into the shell- middens of Scotland 
 have hitherto extended, they have done little to clear up the 
 imcertainty of British Pre-historic Archaeology. Sir John 
 
D PRE-HISTOKIC REMAINS 
 
 Lubbock, in tbe "Natural History Review" of July, 1863, 
 gives a very interesting account of some wbich be visited in 
 tbe neigbbourbood of Elgin. He succeeded, bowever, only in 
 finding sbeUs, witb fragments of bones of oxen, sbeep, and 
 pigs, and tbree small implements of bone. He remarks tbat 
 tbe absence of pottery, and of implements eitber of flint, 
 stone, or metal, is most "puzzling ;" and be mentions tbat a 
 bronze pin was sbown Mm, said to bave come from one of 
 tbe mounds, tbe fasbion of wbicb sbowed it probably to be 
 of quite recent date, or about a.d. 800 or 900. 
 
 Since tbe date of Sir Jobn Lubbock's paper, Mr. Roberts 
 bas described, in tbe "Antbropological Review" of February, 
 1864, tbe result of bis exploration of some sbell-mounds, witb 
 associated cairns, at Bennet Hill, near Burgbead. Two of 
 tbe cairns covered rude stone kists, in one of wbicb was 
 found a complete skeleton, witb a cranium of a decidedly 
 bracbycepbalic type, of wbicb a minute description is given by 
 Mr. Busk. In tbe sbeH-mound nearest to tbe kist were found 
 fragments of very rude pottery, and some flint arrow-beads. 
 
 Yarious incidental notices of refuse beaps of sbells and 
 bones are scattered tbrougbout tbe numerous accounts of 
 ancient tumuli, burgs, and Picts' bouses ; but tbese are 
 generally imsatisfactory and lead to contradictory results. 
 
 Hugb Mnier mentions bronze articles as being found along 
 witb rude implements of bone and flint, in sbell-mounds, 
 near Cromarty. Mr. George Petrie gives several instances 
 of bronze, and even iron, baving been found in apparent 
 association witb stone and bone, in Orkney, altbougb be 
 adds bis own opinion, tbat tbe former are probably of later 
 date. Mr. Rbind found bronze articles, along witb sbells, 
 bones, and rude implements of stone and bone, in tbe cbam- 
 bered cairns of Kettleburn, in Caitbness. 
 
 Tbe result, tberefore, bitberto bas been to leave tbe age of 
 tbese refuse beapa altogetber tincertaia. Tbey migbt be of 
 
OP CAITHNESS. 
 
 any age, from that of the Danisli " Kjokkenmoddings " to 
 tlie Mstorieal or even the Christian period. 
 
 To add to the confusion of this period of British archae- 
 ology, it appears that if there were ages of Stone, Bronze, 
 and Iron in Britain, and Allophylian, or races different from 
 the Indo-European fanuly, who preceded the historical Kelts, 
 the type of these races probably differed from those of the 
 corresponding periods in Denmark. The earliest race of the 
 Stone period ia Scandinavia seem to have had small round 
 heads like those of the Laplanders, and to have been suc- 
 ceeded in the Bronze period by a race whose skulls were 
 extremely flat- sided and elongated. In this country it is 
 held by Wilson and other authorities who maintain the 
 existence of two pre-historic AllophyHan races, that the long 
 heads came first and the round heads second in succession. 
 
 This question of the type of race is aKke difficult and 
 important. It is diSicult, for the type of a skull is not Kke 
 the finding of a fliut or bronze weapon, a definite fact. The 
 skulls of a mixed and civilized race include a great variety 
 of type, and although it is probable that primitive and 
 savage races may retain more uniformity, stUl a wide margin 
 must be allowed for accidental yariation; and we must be 
 quite sure that we have a considerable munber of skulls of 
 the same race under the same circumstances, aU presenting 
 the same marked type, before we can safely assume it as a 
 foundation for classification, and a fact to guide further 
 enquiry. It is worth any pains, however, to establish such 
 a fact, if it be possible, for the determination of the cranial 
 type of one of the early races, opens up questions of the 
 highest interest. For instance, the question of round or long 
 heads not only raises that of the priority or simultaneous- 
 ness of the earliest waves of population in Britain and 
 Scandinavia ; but also of their connection with other primi- 
 tive races still existing. Admitting the round and long- 
 
» PEE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 headed types in their superior forms to blend together in. 
 the more mixed and civilized races, it is stiU true that in 
 their extreme and inferior form they characterize totally 
 different sections of mankind. United with small brain and 
 especially with small frontal capacity, large siauses and prog- 
 natheus jaws, they indicate certainly an inferior, and probably 
 a barbarous and unimprovable race. The extreme of the 
 round-headed type is the Arctic Savage — the Laplander and 
 Samoeide ; the extreme of the elongated type is the Southern 
 Savage — the l^egro, Negrillo, and AustraKan. Did our 
 primitive population come with the hippopotamus, whose 
 bones are found in the Thames Yalley, northwards; or 
 with the reindeer and Siberian mammoth, southwards ? 
 This is a question which some day may be ripe for solution. 
 
 Again the question of type has a special interest from its 
 bearings on that of progressive development. Is it or is it 
 not a general rule that, speakiug broadly and of long 
 periods, the human race as we ascend in time, approximates 
 to the quadrumana ? The evidence thus far is conflicting ; 
 the Neanderthal skull giving us an answer in the affirmative, 
 and the Engis skull one as distinctly in the negative. It is 
 clear that facts are wanting to enable us to draw just con- 
 clusions, and that the class of facts is precisely that which 
 is required to clear up the pre-historic period of British 
 archaeology, and connect it with that of the Continent. 
 
 I may state, therefore, the problem which I proposed to 
 myself in commencing these explorations, in the following 
 terms: 
 
 By a careful and scrupulously accurate examination of 
 some of the middens or refuse-heaps of the North of Scot- 
 land, to ascertain their age and probable relations to those of 
 Denmark. 
 
 From their contents to infer the condition of the people 
 by whom they had been accumulated and specially to see 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 9 
 
 whether the distinction of a Stone, Bronze, and Iron period 
 could or could not be maintaiaed. 
 
 If possible to discover graves and skeletons of the earliest 
 race connected with these middens so as to ascertain their 
 mode of sepulture, and obtain some idea of their type. 
 
 In these objects I was unexpectedly successful, and al- 
 though I am far from saying that I have solved the problem, 
 I believe I may say that the facts which I am about to 
 record, and the collection which I am enabled to deposit iu 
 this National Museum of Scottish Antiquities, throw consider- 
 able light upon it, and advance it some steps towards solution. 
 
 It is right to add that I am personally responsible for the 
 accuracy of every fact which I am about to state, having 
 taken every sketch, section, and measurement on the spot, 
 and seen myself the exact position of every relic of interest. 
 
 The County of Caithness is exceedingly rich in monu- 
 ments of a pre-historic age. The rocky coasts and com- 
 manding heights are not more thickly studded with the 
 strongholds of Scandinavian pirates and mediaeval barons, 
 than are the shores and straths with large conical mounds 
 showing traces of concentric walls, which are in aU proba- 
 bility like the one I examined, the ruins of burgs or circular 
 towers. In addition there are numerous chambered cairns 
 and Picts' houses, Kke that at Kettleburn described by Mr. 
 Ehind, and barrows or sepulchral tumuli of various forms 
 and dimensions. There are also many traces of hut circles 
 and other pre-historic dwellings of a humbler class than the 
 circular burg ; and numerous shell-middens, or refuse-heaps 
 of the food of the ancient inhabitants, are found in connec- 
 tion with their dwellings. Those remains are all of precisely 
 the same character as in the adjoining Orkney Islands. In 
 the neighbourhood of Keiss Castle, where I resided for part 
 of the autumn, there are the following mounds within a 
 range of about two miles, beginning from the south : 
 
10 PRE-HISTOKIC REMAINS 
 
 1. Two large mounds, popularly known as the "Birkle 
 Hills," in the sandy links near the "Westerbum. 
 
 2. A long "Burial mound," containing numerous stone 
 kists and skeletons, about a mile and a half north of the former, 
 where the links end, and the first houses of Keiss begin. 
 
 3. A large green mound, a little to the north of the har- 
 bour of Keiss, which I shall designate as the "Harbour 
 mound," and immediately adjoining to it a smaller mound 
 and some traces of ancient dwellings. These are about half 
 a mile north of the Burial mound. 
 
 4. About a quarter of a mile inland from the "Harbour 
 moimd," close to the present churchyard, are two low, 
 irregxdar, green mounds, one of which has been partly cut 
 through by the road from "Wick to Huna, disclosing a mass 
 of shells. This I call the " Churchyard mound." 
 
 5. About three miles inland from Keiss, in the midst of an 
 expanse of heather, is a small green spot with some grey 
 stones scattered over it, which contains the remains of 
 ancient dwellings. This I caU the " Moorland mound." 
 
 There are many other mounds in this part of the country, 
 but I confine myself to those which I have examined per- 
 sonally. My time being limited, and subject to many 
 interruptions, I could not complete the exploration of all of 
 those I have mentioned, so as to disclose thoroughly their 
 structure and contents, and was obliged to confine myself to 
 those which promised the most immediate results for the 
 special object I had in view, which was not so much the 
 elucidation of architectural structure, as the collection of 
 facts bearing on the composition of the refuse heaps, and on 
 the type and age of the race whose graves were unexpectedly 
 disclosed while pursuing the former branch of research. 
 
 I begin with the " Burial mound," as the most important 
 and interesting. At the point where the sandy links end, 
 and the sand of the sea-shore changes into rock, a long, low, 
 
r 
 
 
 OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 11 
 
 1^ « 
 
 ,1.1 
 ^1 
 
 irregular mound of sand, overgrown with 
 green turf, extends for about three hundred 
 yards parallel to the beach 
 on its natural terrace, which \\ 
 
 is here composed of a raised 
 beach of sand and shingle. 
 The mound has, probably, 
 contiaued for four hundred 
 or five hundred yards further 
 north, over the space now oc- 
 cupied by cottages, gardens, 
 and farm-yards, as kists and 
 skeletons are said to have 
 been found up to the poiat 
 where the cliff of boulder clay 
 rises near the harbour. In 
 this case the mound has been 
 nearly half a mile long. ''. 
 
 Its shape is so far obliterated S 
 that it is not easy to assign its 
 precise breadth and height, and, 
 unless to an antiquarian eye, 
 sharpened by the knowledge 
 that kists had been found, the 
 existence of a mound at all 
 would escape notice. To this 
 circumstance it is probably \! H*? 
 owing that the graves had ia 
 no instance been previously 
 opened and the skeletons lay 
 quite undisturbed. It is quite- 
 possible also that the mound 
 may be composed principally of drift sand. 
 The maximum breadth may be taken roughly 
 
12 PEE-HISTOEIC KEMAINS 
 
 at eighty to ninety yards, and the height at ten feet above the 
 natural soil or raised beach, which is itself about ten feet 
 above the highest level of the present high water mark. 
 
 The fact of this mound containing graves was disclosed by 
 a road being cut through it about twenty years ago. 
 Hearing of this, I made several cross sections, in search 
 of kists, with the following results. 
 
 Kists were found in every instance with wonderful regu- 
 larity at about fifteen feet apart, in the central line of the 
 mound. They were all undisturbed and contained human 
 skeletons, and were all of the same structure, consisting of 
 walls of unhewn flag stones from the beach, with no floor, 
 Fi8. 3. but covered with large flat stones. 
 
 The kists generally lay north and 
 south, or at a slight angle to the 
 direction of the mound and sea- 
 shore, which was north-east and 
 south-west. The skeletons were all laid at full length, ex- 
 cept one, in which the head and legs seem to have been 
 partially crumpled up, but this may have arisen from subse- 
 quent displacement by pressure. 
 
 The skeletons lay in no particular direction, the heads being 
 generally towards the south, but in some cases to the north. 
 Nor were they laid in any particular position, most of them. 
 recKning on the right side, but one lying flat on its back, 
 and others with their faces almost downwards. The bones 
 were in various states of decomposition, according to local 
 accidents giving more or less access to air and water. In two 
 kists the skeletons had almost disappeared, or crumbled to 
 pieces on being exposed to the air. In five instances they 
 were nearly or quite perfect, but had lost much of their 
 animal matter, and adhered strongly to the tongue. 
 
 The skeletons lay on a layer of clean sand, about six inches 
 thick, laid on the natural soil, and above each kist was a 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 13 
 
 small cairn or pile of stones from the beach, from one to three 
 feet high, and above this, one to three feet of sand, covered 
 with a fine grassy turf. In one instance the kists lay in a 
 double tier, one over the other. The kists were generally 
 filled with clean sea-sand, in which the body seemed to have 
 been packed, or which had drifted in through the interstices 
 of the roof, though others contained nothing but the skeleton. 
 
 There were no traces whatever of dwellings, of the action 
 of fire, or of refuse heaps, in connection with the graves or 
 burial mound ; a few of the kists only containing some shells, 
 which may have been placed there as food for the deceased. 
 
 "We may consider this burial mound, therefore, as a pure, 
 unadulterated place of interment, which has never been dis- 
 turbed, or used for any other purpose, and in which we have 
 a series of probably sixty or seventy graves, taking the 
 mound at three hundred yards in length, or of two hundred, 
 if it extended, as there is every reason to believe, for half a 
 mile. The number and regularity of the kists preclude the 
 idea of a hurried interment of bodies slain, in battle ; and 
 some of the skeletons being of women, confirms the supposi- 
 tion that it was the regular burying-place of a surrounding 
 population. 
 
 I proceed to describe the articles found ia the kists with 
 the human skeletons, which is the point of real importance 
 in determining their age. In no instance was there a ves- 
 tige of hair, integument, clothing, wooden coffin, urn, pottery, 
 or, ia. fact, of anything whatever having been buried with the 
 body, with the following exceptions. 
 
 In one kist the lower jaw of a dog was found. In two 
 others were found stone weapons and implements, under the 
 following circumstances. Disappointed at finding nothing 
 to identify the age in any of the first nine or ten kists 
 opened, I considered that if any chief of superior rank were 
 buried, it woidd probably be in the centre of the mound, and 
 
14 
 
 PEE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 his grave ■would be the most likely place to discover relics. 
 Accordingly, I had two trenches cut across the mound as 
 nearly as possible at its centre, observing the rule which 
 had hitherto been found to prevail, of an interval of fifteen 
 feet between each grave. The northernmost trench disclosed 
 the kist No. 7, in which lay the skeleton of a man much 
 taller than any of the others previously opened, being nearly 
 six feet in height, while those previously found did not ex- 
 ceed five feet to five feet four inches; and by his side, in 
 ^"'- *• the clean sea-sand which filled the kist, 
 
 was a heart-shaped stone hammer or 
 celt (fig. 4), with some limpet shells. 
 It is a naturally rolled stone from the 
 beach of sandstone, 5 iaches long, 3f 
 inches broad, and about an iach thick, 
 and bears evident marks of having been 
 used at the smaller end. 
 
 The other trench hit upon the cor- 
 ner of a circular waU which we at first 
 took for the waU of a small burg or 
 roim.d tower, but on examination it 
 proved to be an inclosiag wall, eighteen feet in inner 
 diameter, about two and a half feet high, and niae inches 
 to one foot thick, of a cairn of stones, which as we ap- 
 proached the centre became large, and were disposed with 
 some care. On removing the cairn was disclosed a stone 
 
 stone Hammer or Celt from 
 Kist No. 7. — J nat. size. 
 
 Fio. 5. 
 
 Chief's Kiat. 
 
 kist of large dimensions (fig. 5), bmlt and roofed over with 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 15 
 
 massive flat stones, shown in the accompanying sketch and 
 section (figs. 6, 7). 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 CMef s Kist and Caim. 
 . Fio. 7. 
 
 Section of Chief's Kist and Caim. 
 
 The dimensions of the kist were : length, 6 feet 7 inches ; 
 width at head, 1 foot 10 iaches; width at foot, 1 foot 9 
 laches ; depth, 1 foot 10 inches. 
 
 It contained the skeleton of a taU 
 man of very massive proportions. 
 He lay with his head to the south, 
 ia the usual attitude, on his right 
 side; and ia the clean sand by his 
 side, about where the left hand 
 reached to, were a series of twelve 
 stone weapons, marked "Kist JSTo. 
 8," which may be safely said to be 
 among the very rudest ever used 
 by man. 
 
 They comprise,- 
 have been a battle-axe, two which 
 may have been spear-heads, one arrow-head, seven knives or 
 
 -one which maV ®*'°^^ Battle-axe. Chief's Kist. 
 *' i nat. size. 
 
16 
 
 PRE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 cutting instrxunents, and one wluch seems to be the fragment 
 of a broken celt or bammer. 
 
 Fio. 9. 
 ,'' 's FiQ. 10. 
 
 Spear-head. Chief's Est. 
 ^ nat. Bize, 
 
 Fig. 12, 
 
 Spear-head. Chief's Kist. 
 ^ nat. size. 
 
 Arro-w-head. Knife. Chief's Kist. Knife. Chief's Kist. Knife. Chief's Kist. 
 Chief's Kist. J nat. size. J nat. size. 4 nat. size, 
 
 i nat. size. Fio- 15. 
 
 Knife. Chief's Kist. ^ nat. size. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 17 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 Fro. 16. 
 
 Kmfe or bcrapei Chief s Ilist. 
 ^ nat =iize 
 
 Knife or Scraper. Chief's Kist. 
 ^ nat. size. 
 
 In addition to these, there were laid under the head, or 
 close to it, an oval sandstone disc (fig. 18) and knife, and a 
 
 Sandstone Disc. Chief's Kist. ^ nat. size. 
 
 smooth oval beach stone, apparently intended for a hammer. 
 This makes in aU fifteen stone weapons or implements found 
 in the chief's kist. 
 
 There were further found among the stones in the cairn 
 covering the chief's kist, five stone articles, viz. — 
 
 1. A sandstone block, 13 inches in diameter, with two 
 circular holes about 2 inches deep, on opposite sides, but not 
 pierced through. (See pi. vii., fig. 9.) 
 
 . 2. A thin plate, 18 inches by 14, rudely chipped to an 
 oval or circular form. 
 
 3. A similar round plate, about 7 iaches by 6. 
 
 4. A broken wrought circular stone, with a circular hole 
 in the centre, not pierced through. 
 
 5. A small granite stone from the beach, apparently used 
 as a hammer, 2| inches by If. 
 
 2 
 
18 
 
 PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 Several otlier stones were found, of very regular oval 
 F'o- 19- Fio- 20. form, which may have been 
 
 celts or hammers, but natural 
 stones of this description are so 
 common on the beach that I 
 made a rule of rejecting every- 
 thing which did not bear un- 
 equivocal marks of having been 
 wrought or used by man. 
 
 Since I left Keiss another 
 kist has been opened in this 
 mound containing, with a skel- 
 eton which crumbled to pieces, 
 another armoury of similar 
 weapons which by the kindness 
 of Mr. Anderson, of Wick, 
 who is well known for his 
 
 knowledge of the geology and 
 antiquities of Caithness, are 
 presented along with mine to 
 the museum. They are labelled 
 "Kist No. 9," and consist of 
 two small spear-heads of stone, 
 roughly ground or scraped to 
 shape, but better wrought 
 than any in Kist No. 8 ; two 
 stone arrow-heads very rudely 
 chipped ; a piece of quartz rudely chipped to a form which 
 
 Arrow-head. 
 Kist No. 9. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 19 
 
 may have been used as a cMsel; a small deer's-hom hol- 
 lowed out apparently to serve as a handle ; an oblong stone 
 hammer or pestle worn at both ends (figs. 19-24). 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 Deer's-hom Handle and Quartz Chisel. 
 Kist No. 9. h nat. size. 
 
 Stone Hammer. 
 Kist No, 9. ^ nat. size. 
 
 I proceed now to the other mounds, and begin with the 
 Churchyard mound, as affording the simplest state of facts, 
 and the closest analogy to the Danish Kjokkenmoddings. 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 Section of Churchyard Mound. 
 
 In this case, as shown in the accompanying section (fig. 25), 
 
20 PKE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 a great mass of shells, at least five feet deep, and covering an 
 area of several hundred square yards, rests on tlie natural 
 soil, and is itself covered by the foundation of a massive 
 building, which in its turn has all but disappeared, and 
 been converted into a low and shapeless green mound, af- 
 fording excellent pasture. 
 
 I am incKned to think that the old building may have 
 been a burg, or circular tower, like that presently to be 
 described, on the shore ; but even the ruins have almost dis- 
 appeared, having doubtless been used as a quarry for build- 
 ing adjoiaing houses and stone walls ; and nothing remains 
 but the massive pavement or floor of large flat stones, three 
 to four inches thick, and just enough of structure in one 
 place to show that the principle of overlapping stones was 
 used as a substitute for the arch. 
 
 However, the important fact remains, that this foundation 
 is super-imposed on the sheU-moimd as clearly as any secon- 
 dary is on a primary formation in geology ; and that the 
 refuse heap cannot have accumulated about the building, but 
 must have existed before it. 
 
 This heap is composed maialy of periwiakle shells, differ- 
 ing in this respect from the others nearer the shore, in 
 which limpets predominate. There are, however, mixed 
 with it several limpet shells, and a few of the other species 
 found on the shore, and a considerable number of animal 
 bones and teeth, almost all of which are chipped up into 
 small fragments. 
 
 The relics found in this heap, priacipaUy towards the 
 middle and lower strata, consist of chipped flints, and very 
 rude stone and bone implements and pottery. There are 
 specially two bone arrow-heads, and about eighteen skewers 
 or pins of fragments of bone and horn, worked roughly to a 
 point, which may be appealed to confidently as a proof of 
 the absence of metals, and extreme rudeness of the race by 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 21 
 
 wMcli they were used. They are, in fact, tlie ne plus ultra 
 of rudeness in bone, as tlie weapons found in the kist are of 
 a like rudeness in implements of stone (figs. 26-31). 
 
 Fio. 29. 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 Bone r^ Bone Bone Bone Pin or 
 
 Arrow-head. Arrow- Arrow-head. Skewer. 
 
 ^ nat. size. head. ^ nat. size. ^ nat. size. 
 ^ nat. size. 
 
 In the centre of the mass, at the point' marked X in the 
 section, was found a human tooth, with a small portion of 
 the jaw, which is important in connection with a similar 
 discovery in another mound. Wood ashes and charcoal 
 were common in this mound, and the shells and bones ap- 
 peared to have been generally subjected to the action of 
 fire. 
 
 The animal bones were less abundant, and more generally 
 chipped into small pieces than those found in the other 
 mounds. It seemed as if four-fifths of the food of the 
 people by whom this most ancient midden had been accu- 
 mulated, had consisted of periwinkles, and as if animal 
 bones had been a delicacy, from which every particle of 
 marrow was extracted by breaking them u^p. The extreme 
 
22 
 
 PEE-HISTOEIC REMAIXS 
 
 rarity of fish-bones in this and the other middens is a curious 
 feature in a locality where fish are so abundant. 
 
 The only stone implements were oval beach stones which 
 had been used as hammers or pestles, a rude stone mortar, 
 and several round pebbles or slingstones about the size of an 
 apple, which had evidently been selected from the beach. 
 These natural slingstones and hammers were the most 
 common objects in this and aU the other mounds. 
 
 The pottery was all in small fragments of the rudest de- 
 scription, and not distinguishable from the specimens I have 
 seen of hand-made unbumt pottery from the Danish Kjok- 
 kenmoddings. 
 
 Although chipped flints were abundant, and several of the 
 splinters might have been used as small knives or arrow- 
 heads, none of them showed such clear traces of definite 
 design as to justify their beiug called tools or weapons. In 
 fact, the whole series of relics from this midden show a 
 minimum of adaptive" ingenuity, with the exception of one 
 whorl, which I believe came from it (though not having 
 found this myself, I cannot speak with absolute confidence), 
 which may be taken to indicate a knowledge of spinning. 
 
 FiQ. 32. 
 
 Harbour Mound. 
 
 The next mound I shall describe is the Harbour mound, 
 which afforded the greatest number of relics, and showed 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 23 
 
 most clearly the architectural structure of these ancient 
 
 Fig. S3. 
 Harl)our Mouud. 
 
 dwellings. At first sight it consisted of a very irregular 
 grassy mound, with some loose stones lying about, and 
 showing faint traces of a low outer circular wall or ram- 
 part. On excavating, a ^'°- '*• 
 great mass of cyclopean 
 
 building and shell-midden -'/^ ^ — ITZT^^-^ ^^^a 
 was disclosed, with floors //f /Vb^L -p- '^ ^ 
 or pavements at different /^ // V^y^ 
 levels, which will be best [ll / j [^ ) 
 explained by the accom- , 'V\4V 
 
 panying sketches, ground u ,\ U;^ -^x^ \\^ s y/ ; ,■ *,/ 
 plan, and sections (figs. ^i\?5^:^-i;i^=3 
 32-36). -^^ -Crif: 
 
 It is clear that this build- 
 ins: had been of the class of • ^r*' 
 burg or circular tower, ^--r 
 
 rt 'xl- J Harbour Mound. Ground Plan. 
 
 common m Caithness and 
 
 ^-^ - T 1 1 J n Dimensions : feet. 
 
 Orkney. i doubt, how- Diameter of inner circle, about 24 
 
 ^ Thickness of inner wall 2 
 
 ever, whether it ever had Passage between inner and second waU... 3 
 
 Thickness of second wall 4 
 
 the bee-hive shape, as no '''''' vlSf!'.!!"""^.™*. °.'!'!'.T.'!!!:1 4 to is 
 
 „• „i? „ _„ „ „ „ Thickness of outer wall li to 2 
 
 sign 01 convergence ap- ^ 
 
 pears in any of the circular walls, one of which remained 
 standing in parts to the height of twelve feet. It seems 
 
24 
 
 PRE'HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 rather as if the passages only between tlie circular walls 
 had been covered ia, and used as dwellings in bad weather 
 or winter, the inner circle, which is twenty-four feet in 
 diameter, remaining open. 
 
 The whole upper part of the building, however, has fallen 
 
 in, and a great part of 
 
 it, including nearly all 
 the circular walls on the 
 northern side, removed for 
 building purposes. No 
 vestige of timber was 
 found, though there was 
 abundance of wood char- 
 coal in the lower strata, 
 apparently of a small 
 
 Harbour Mound. 
 
 Krst Section at C. 
 
 scrubby underwood of birch and hazel. 
 
 The remarkable fact in this mound is, that it indicated 
 successive occupation, and adaptation of the older parts of 
 
 the building by newer 
 inhabitants. The primi- 
 tive part of the structure 
 seemed to be the second 
 or middle circular wall, 
 which was by far the 
 most massively built, and 
 went down to a lower 
 pavement of large flags, 
 resting on a layer of flat beach stones, laid on the natural rock. 
 The space for five feet above this level was filled up with a mid- 
 den, or accumulation of shells, bones, ashes, etc. Then came 
 a second pavement of large flag-stones, on a level with which 
 are the foundations of the two other — or inner and outer 
 circular walls. Above this was another midden, one-and-a- 
 half feet deep, and then an upper pavement, forming the 
 
 Harbour Mound. Second Section at B, 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 25 
 
 floor of the inner circle. This, again, was covered by a 
 midden of its own, mixed with a mass of stones and rubbish 
 which had fallen in and choked up the building. There 
 were thus three distinct middens, separated by superimposed 
 pavements, which, without expressiag any theory, and simply 
 as a convenient mode of representing the facts, I may call 
 the primary, secondary, and tertiary middens. 
 
 Outside the walls, these middens were of course less dis- 
 tinct, there being no pavements to separate them ; but it 
 was evident that as the refuse had accumulated at each 
 stage on the floors iaside, it had accumulated still more 
 rapidly on the outside at certain spots where it had been 
 commonly thrown out ; and thus the same distiaction of a 
 primary, secondary, and tertiary midden must approximately 
 apply nearly to the same levels of the outside strata. 
 
 In addition to the evidence from superposition of pave- 
 ments, there is clear proof of successive occupation, from 
 other sources. The doorways of the inner and second cir- 
 cular walls do not correspond. The former has two entrances, 
 as shown on the ground-plan, nearly opposite to each other, 
 or east and west. The other has one very massive doorway 
 
 Fio, 37. 
 
 
 
 only, to the south-west. On coming up to this doorway in 
 exploring the passage, between the two circular waUs, it 
 
26 
 
 PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 presented the appearance of a fire-place and cliimney, rudely 
 constructed with loose ruhbly stones, overlapping one another, 
 as shown in the accompanying sketch (fig. 37). 
 
 On removing these, the solid massive doorway of the 
 
 second wall appeared, which had obviously been converted 
 from the entrance of a strong fort into a chimney (fig. 38). 
 
 Just outside this doorway was a massive stone staircase of 
 eleven steps, leading down to the level of the second 
 pavement. 
 
 I am particular in stating these facts, as they have an 
 important bearing on this other fact, that the class of relics 
 found in the upper and lower middens were essentially dis- 
 tiact. Among the various relics from this and the other 
 mounds, there is no exception to the rule, that the rude 
 forms of bone and pottery are exclusively confined to the 
 two lower middens, while the few iustances of metallic ob- 
 jects, finer pottery, and well- wrought bone implements are 
 as exclusively confined to the upper one. The same rule 
 applies generally to the stone implements, but these are 
 more intermixed, as might be expected of heavy objects 
 where so much of the original building has fallen in, or 
 been quarried and disturbed. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 27 
 
 The skulls, and animal teeth and bones, were of the same 
 character throughout, and very abundant, so that many cart 
 loads might be taken, in addition to what had been already 
 taken — as I was told — to manure the land. The larger 
 bones had generally been broken to extract the marrow; 
 but not into such small fragments as in the Churchyard 
 mound, though the same rule seemed to apply here to some 
 extent, that the bones were broken into smaller pieces in the 
 lower strata. The large deers' horns especially seemed to be 
 most abundant towards the top. Several of them bear marks 
 of sawing or cutting, so clean that they must have been 
 made by better instruments, either of m.etal or sharp flint, 
 than any of those found in the kists or middens. The shells 
 
 are principally limpet, a mass of which, cemented by oxide 
 of iron, is preserved as a specimen (fig. '69). 
 
28 
 
 PRE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 Wood charcoal and ashes were common in the lower mid- 
 dens, while higher up the ashes seemed to be of peat. 
 
 The relics found in this mound consisted of — 1. Rude 
 
 stone implements, chipped flints, rude implements of bone 
 
 and horn, and coarse, hand-made pottery, which correspond 
 
 in character with those found in the Churchyard middens 
 
 Fig. 40. and burial mound. 2. A bronze implement 
 
 resembKng a sugar tongs ( fig. 40 ), and an 
 
 iron object, apparently the two blades of a pair of 
 
 scissors rusted together, which were found close 
 
 I together in the upper midden, at or near the spot 
 
 I marked a in the section with some thinner and 
 
 iuier pottery. The iron is probably comparatively 
 
 recent, and a relic of the last occupants of the 
 
 dwellings by whom the chimney and fireplace 
 
 were constructed. 
 
 In the secondary midden, b, at the spot marked 
 X , in the midst of a mass of limpet shells, and 
 broken jaws, teeth, and bones of animals, I found 
 the fragment of a human lower jaw. It is that of 
 OT tweezmf ^ ^^^^ about six years of age, the permanent 
 i nat. size. ^QQ^-j^ being formed, but not having yet displaced 
 the milk teeth. No trace of any other human bone was 
 found with it, and coupling it with the fact of another iso- 
 lated fragment of human jaw having been found in another 
 midden, both under circumstances precisely similar to those 
 of the deer, pigs, and oxen by which they were surrounded, 
 it raises a strong presumption that these aborigiaal savages 
 were occasionally cannibals. 
 
 The fact is the more remarkable, as the extensive re- 
 searches in the Danish Kjokkenmoddings have failed to 
 discover any trace of human bones, whence Lyell infers, in 
 his " Antiquity of Man," that the primeval Danes were not 
 cannibals. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 29 
 
 I may add, in confirmation of tbe fact of occasional canni- 
 balism, that fragmentary human remains have been found in 
 several other refuse heaps in Caithness, and that Professor 
 Owen, whose attention has been specially directed to the 
 
 Child's Jaw from Midden, nat. size. 
 
 subject, considers that the child's jaw above referred to, has 
 been splintered open precisely in the manner in which ani- 
 
 Child's Jaw, showing splintering to extract marrow. 
 
 mal jaws are frequently opened by human agency to extract 
 the juices of the dentary canal, and not in the way in which 
 a dog or woK would have gnawed the bone. 
 
 The question of cannibalism is, however, one of little 
 scientific interest, as there are historical notices of such a 
 
30 PEE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 practice reputed to prevail among the barbarous tribes of 
 Caledonia as late as the time of St. Jerome, and human 
 flesh may have been eaten under the pressure of famine by 
 races who were not habitual cannibals. I notice it princi- 
 pally as affording a point of contrast to the Danish Kjokken- 
 moddings. 
 
 The next mounds to be described are the Birtle Hills. 
 
 These are two mounds situated on the Wester links, large 
 enough to be taken — as their name implies — for small natural 
 hois, as shown by the accompanying sketch (fig. 43). They 
 stand amidst the hiUocks of blown sand, about two hundred 
 
 BuMe mils 
 
 yards from the sea-shore, on the raised beach of sand and 
 flat shingle stones, which can here be traced distinctly for 
 some distance. The larger mound is roughly conical, about 
 forty feet high, and one himdred and twenty yards in cir- 
 cumference at the base. The lower mound commences about 
 one hundred yards north-east of the other, and is a long, 
 irregular mound, which may be taken roughly at thirty feet 
 high, one hundred yards long, and thirty yards wide. The 
 surface of both mounds is of sand, covered with small stones 
 from the adjacent raised beach, and, in the case of the 
 smaller mound especially, with a vast nimiber of Hmpet and 
 periwinkle shells, and animal teeth and bones. Traces of 
 small cairns of massive stones remain on the summits of 
 both mounds and round their base, but these seem all to have 
 been opened, and disclosed no structure or relics. At the 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 31 
 
 base of the smaller mound, on tlie side next tlie sea, was a 
 stone kist, exactly like those of the Burial mound, the head 
 stone of which just projected above the sand. It had been 
 opened — I believe a few years ago, by a medical man now in 
 India — ^but the skeleton, with the exception of the skull, which 
 was wantiag, had been replaced in the kist. The remains of 
 three or four other lasts of similar construction lay scattered 
 about the base of the small mound; and on the west side of the 
 large mound one was found containing some small fragments 
 of human bones, with some skulls and portions of animal 
 bones, but these latter may have fallen into the kist from the 
 Fio. 44. surrounding soil. One of these kists has 
 
 ^' since been found to contaia six stone 
 
 weapons of the same rude type as those 
 of the Burial mound, which, by the kind- 
 ness of Mr. Anderson, I am enabled to 
 add to this collection. One is 
 an extremely rude spear-head ; 
 another apparently a small curved 
 spear-head made from the con- 
 choidal fracture of a piece of 
 sandstone from the beach ; two 
 very rude sandstone knives or 
 scrapers like those from Kist 
 
 Spear-head, Spear-head, -ivt rt m j i • i ti 
 
 Birkie Hill Kist. Bu-kie HUl Kist. JN o. o ; a Small quartz cnisel like 
 
 ^ nat. size. ^ nat. size. 
 
 that from JNo. 9 ; and a stone 
 hammer or pestle somewhat more regularly formed than 
 those of Nos. 8 & 9 and abraded into a circular spot at 
 each end (figs. 44-48). 
 
 The most important point about these kists is, that they 
 serve to connect the mounds on the links with the Burial 
 mound, the age of which is defined by the implements found 
 ia the chief's kist. The kists are of precisely the same size 
 and construction, except that some of them at the Birkie 
 
 Fio. 45. 
 
32 
 
 PEE-HISTOKIC REMAINS 
 
 Hills seem to have had two memorial pillars or small stand- 
 ing stones, ahout three feet in height, one ^'°' *'■ 
 on each side of the head-stone of the kist. 
 
 As regards the structure of these mounds, 
 I had no time to inyestigate it thoroughly. 
 The larger mound shows traces of Cyclopean 
 
 Fio. 47. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 Sandstone Enife. 
 
 Birkle Hill Kist. 
 
 i nat. size. 
 
 Quartz Chisel. 
 Birkle Hill Kist. 
 
 Stone Hammer. 
 
 Birkle Hill Kist. 
 
 ^ nat. size. 
 
 architecture, and I am disposed to think it is of the same 
 class as the other large conical mounds of Caithness, viz., 
 consistiag of concentric circular walls with cells or cham- 
 bers in the interspaces between the walls. I am somewhat 
 doubtful, however, of its having been a fort or dwelling, 
 from the circumstance that, with the exception of a few 
 shells and bones scattered sparingly over the surface, no 
 trace of any midden or refuse heap was seen. 
 
 The smaller mound, on the other hand, was completely 
 covered with shells, teeth, and bones ; and, in excavating, 
 considerable masses of midden were disclosed. Everywhere, 
 also, the action of fire was apparent, and several of the 
 cairns seemed to be the remains of small circular ovens or 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 33 
 
 fire-places which had been used for roasting the animals 
 whose bones lay around them. 
 
 The only instance of complete structure disclosed was at 
 the top of the small Fm. 49. 
 
 mound, as shown by 
 the accompanying plan 
 and section (figs. 49, 50). 
 
 A very massive stone 
 closed the entrance on 
 the east side next the 
 sea. From this a pas- 
 sage, enclosed on each 
 side by upright flag- 
 stones, about two feet 
 long by one and a half 
 deep, descended by a 
 very gentle decline for 
 six feet. It then be- 
 came horizontal for 
 about eight feet, widening out from three to five feet, and 
 taking a turn from nearly north-west to west, in which direc- 
 tion a similar ascending passage emerged on the west side 
 of the mound. Between the upright flags were placed, in 
 several instances, oblong stones about three feet high, similar 
 to the memorial stones of the kists. The stones were all 
 unhewn, and must have been brought from the beach from 
 a distance of at least two miles. They were built with some 
 care, stones being placed in some cases to fill interstices and 
 break joint. There was no trace of a roof, but the pavement 
 was careftdly fitted. 
 
 Refuse of shells, bone, animal matter, and charcoal had 
 accumulated on this floor to the depth of about niae iaches, 
 and when the pavement was taken up it showed a few inches 
 of similar refuse below on which the flags had been laid. 
 
 Birkle Hill. Small Mound. Section. 
 
34 
 
 PKE-HISTOKIC REMAINS 
 
 Fio. 51. 
 
 The refuse matter and pavement all showed signs of fire, 
 which became more intense in the central chamber where the 
 bones were aU. charred and many of the stones split by heat. 
 The west end of the passage was not closed, but was par- 
 tially ruined, and outside of it was a considerable midden of 
 the usual shells and bones. 
 
 The relics found were: — 1. In the lower midden, two 
 small whorls of stone and one of bone ; the 
 latter (fig.51) is worth noticing. It is made 
 of the ball of a femiir, and from its light- 
 ness and hemispherical form seems to nega- 
 tive the idea that it coiild ever have been 
 used for the purpose of spinning. Some 
 pieces of flint which have been artificially 
 chipped. A broken sandstone block, six inches by four, 
 resembling a ship's block, having 
 a deep groove running round it, 
 with a notch at one end for the 
 purpose of attachment ; I have seen 
 a stone exactly similar, though 
 smaller, in the collection of Mr. 
 George Petrie, which was found at {'fi' 
 Grain, near Kirkwall, in Orkney, 
 in cutting a road near the site of a 
 ruined Pict's house. Such grooved 
 stones have also been found in Den- 
 mark, where they are supposed to 
 have been sinkers for fishing lines or nets. I feel some doubt 
 whether such was the object in the present case, as the ex- 
 treme rarity of fish bones in all the middens described, makes 
 it improbable that they were accumulated by a race of fisher- 
 men. The notch at the lower end also seems to have been 
 intended for inserting a handle to be secured by lashing a 
 thong round it in the Line of the groove. It is singular that 
 
 Sandstone Block.— ^ Dat. size. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 35 
 
 a similar grooved block is figured among the objects from tlie 
 Lake -habitations of Italy, in the translation of Gastaldi's 
 work published by the Anthropological Society, pi. 1, fig. 2. 
 A stone hammer or oval beach stone, showing signs of 
 pounding at the end. 2. In the upper strata of the outside 
 midden were found a bone skewer and particularly well- 
 
 Bone Pin. 
 fashioned bone pin (fig. 63) with a regular head, and ap- 
 parently fashioned after one in metal; being the only 
 instance of a skilfully wrought bone relic among these 
 remains. Above these, in the clean sand about two feet 
 below the surface of the mound, was found a large iron 
 nail, much corroded, and some small fragments of rusted 
 iron. On the surface of the mound were found, amidst the 
 numerous shells and bones and ordinary beach stones, some 
 flint pebbles and splinters of fliat, two small pieces of chalk 
 much weatherworn, part of a belemmite, bits of rock crystal, 
 and large iron pyrites, one or two rusty naUs, apparently 
 recent, one of them sticking in a piece of wood ; some frag- 
 ments of light vegetable matter, probably highly dried 
 peat ; and a large lump, not waterworn, of black magnetic 
 iron ore, with one or two small pieces of the same slightly 
 fused. 
 
 There were, however, no traces of slag or of iron 
 furnaces; and what is singular, considering the extent 
 and varied nature of the debris exposed and turned over, 
 not a trace was found of pottery. In fact the small 
 proportion of relics found in these as compared with the 
 other mounds leads to the supposition that they may not 
 have been regular dwellings, but rather places of worship or 
 sacrifice, when the neighbouring tribes met to regale 
 themselves with rude banquets. Further excavations, 
 
36 PRE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 however, would be necessary to disclose the structure of 
 these mounds, as to which, all that can he said with 
 any certainty is that they are of the same period as the 
 Burial mound and the lower strata of the other mounds, 
 as is clearly proved by the construction and contents of 
 the kists. 
 
 The remaiaiag or Moorland mound is of a different cha- 
 racter, and falls rather withia the class of pre-historic 
 dwelliugs described by the Rev. Mr. Joass, in Mr. Roberts's 
 paper. The dwelliug explored, however, is not circular, but 
 nearly square, with an entrance passage as shown by the 
 subjoiaed sketch and plan (figs. 64-56). 
 
 The walls are made of large flags set on edge ; there was 
 no trace of any roof, but the floor was paved with flat stones, 
 over which were a few inches to a foot of shells, bones, and 
 ashes. The shells were principally periwinkles, though the 
 distance from the shore was about three miles, and there were 
 several large fish bones. The other bones were principally 
 of deer, pigs, and birds. Along the wall on each side of the 
 principal room was a row of square boulder stones, forming 
 a bench or bed. The inner end was divided by two large 
 upright flagstones into three compartments. The fire- 
 place had been on the stone floor near the passage or 
 doorway. 
 
 The relics found on clearing out the floor of this dwelling 
 were, — 
 
 Some fragments of pottery, apparently wheel -made, and 
 newer than that of the other mounds, one of the pieces 
 having a coarse blue glaze. 
 
 A sandstone hammer or oval beach stone, used at the end. 
 
 Two small stone whorls. 
 
 Several smooth round pebbles from the beach, which I 
 take to be sHngstones. 
 
 A piece of porphyry, polished on one side. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 37 
 
 From tlie nature of tlie pottery, I do not consider this 
 
 ElG. 64. 
 
 Moorland Mound. 
 
 dwelling or cluster of dwellings ia the middle of the 
 
 Fio. 55. 
 
 Moorland Mound. 
 
 moor as of the same antiquity as the mounds near the 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 13 
 
 rxzEiJCprc: 
 
 Sf.Si. 
 
 <1 
 
 .VI 
 
 
 Sfl-. 
 
 Moorland Mound.— Ground Plan. 
 
 shore, with which there is no evidence to connect them. 
 
38 PBE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 Having now completed tlie description of these mounds, I 
 proceed to state the leading results. 
 
 Antiquity. — I have no hesitation in assigning the burial 
 mound, kists, and lower strata of the middens, to the early 
 Stone period. 
 
 In using this term I do not mean to prejudge the question 
 of absolute antiquity, for it may well be that an aboriginal 
 tribe of savages have lingered on little changed in a remote 
 corner of Britain, to a comparatively recent period. What 
 I think certain is that these people were too rude to have 
 known anything of the arts or metals current among the 
 people of the later Stone or Bronze periods of the Continent 
 and Britain ; or to have superseded any earlier and less 
 civQized races of prior aborigines. The evidence for this 
 conclusion rests mainly on the weapons buried with the 
 dead. 
 
 Those who have seen the admirable Museum of Northern 
 Antiquities at Copenhagen must be aware that its whole 
 classification rests on the axiom that greater rudeness implies 
 greater antiquity. It is as difficult to believe that the 
 Enfield rifle preceded the cross-bow, as that the beautifullj'- 
 fashioned stone battle axes and flint arrow-heads of the later 
 Stone period, preceded the rudely chipped celts and mauls of 
 the Kjokkenmoddings. Now, tried by this test, the weapons 
 and tools of the Caithness kists and lower middens are 
 ruder and show less adaptive ingenuity than those of the 
 Kjokkenmoddings, or even than those of Abbeville and 
 Les Eyzies. The supposition has been started that they may 
 have been merely models or "dummies," representing more 
 perfect weapons, too valuable to be consigned to the grave. 
 But this is contrary to all experience, which proves that 
 when the idea of a future state was once entertained by a 
 primitive people, no sacrifice was thought too costly to ac- 
 company the honoured dead. Nine-tenths of the richest 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 39 
 
 contents of our museums come from tombs where they were 
 deposited by affectionate reverence for the dead; and the 
 Museimi of Copenhagen has abundant iastances to show that 
 if, in a later age, models were deposited, they were always, 
 although of miniature size, carefully fashioned; and that 
 such an idea as that of depositiag in the tomb of a great 
 chief a rude fragment of sandstone, to do duty for a finely- 
 finished spear-head of agate or bronze, was wholly unknown. 
 
 In fact, the articles deposited were the property of the 
 deceased, and were buried with him precisely because they 
 were valued. Moreover, in this case many of the weapons 
 show traces of having been actually used ; the points of the 
 spear-heads are broken or blunted; the ends of the ham- 
 mers are abraded ; and to complete the link of evidence, 
 spear and arrow-heads, hammers, and a deer-horn handle, of 
 precisely similar patterns have been found in the middens. 
 
 The presence of such weapons in the kists affords, how- 
 ever, very different evidence from that furnished by finding 
 similar remains in the middens. In the latter case it may be 
 argued that if rude forms are foxmd they may have been 
 used concurrently with more perfect implements, the remains 
 of which are wanting simply because they were too valuable 
 to be thrown aside. Or it may be said that the rude remaias 
 are those of poor peasants, who may have lived at the s^me 
 period as the chiefs, whose finer weapons are found ia costly 
 tombs. 
 
 But neither of these arguments can apply to a case like 
 the present, where a series of weapons of the rudest possible 
 material and construction, are found ia the kist of a chief 
 upon whose interment evidently great labour had been ex- 
 pended. 
 
 Admitting the weapons to be genuine, the argument for 
 great relative antiquity becomes very cogent. Stone imple- 
 ments, like hammers or querns, might be used down to a 
 
40 
 
 FEE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 late period, and buried with the dead as part of their house- 
 hold furniture, and finely-finished stone weapons might be 
 placed in a kist of the Bronze or Iron period from some super- 
 stitious notion that they were elf-arrows or thunderbolts. 
 But an armoury of the most rude and primitive possible 
 forms of spear- and arrow-heads, knives, and hatchets, could 
 hardly have been used by a people who had known, even by 
 tradition, I will not say the use of metals, but even the more 
 advanced forms of stone and bone which are so commonly 
 found throughout Scotland, and in this very district. 
 
 To appreciate the full force of this argument it is neces- 
 sary to inspect the articles referred to, as no drawings can 
 give an adequate idea of their extreme rudeness. A reference, 
 however, to the figures in the text, and to the plates at 
 the end, may serve to give some conception of the primi- 
 tive and archaic style of the weapons and tools of these 
 Caithness aborigines, which contrasts so strikingly with that 
 of the beautifully fashioned implements of polished stone 
 and bronze of a later period, found in the same district. 
 
 It is to be observed that the stone weapons and tools are 
 all of the native sandstone or common beach stones of the 
 district. They are for the most part rounded or fractured by 
 nature, or by a single blow, with the least possible adapta- 
 tion by rough chipping. The hammers or celts are almost 
 all natural stones from the beach. 
 
 The few which have been more carefully wrought into 
 shape have been scraped or roughly ground, and are 
 never polished. There is no instance of a hole in which 
 to insert a handle, or even of a groove to facilitate 
 attachment, except in the siagle case of one sandstone 
 block which was not found in a kist or lower midden ; and 
 it may even be doubted whether some of the larger weapons 
 and stone hammers were not simply held in the hand. In 
 the two or three instances in which one end of the weapon 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 41 
 
 was clearly inserted in a socket or haft, nothiag can be ruder 
 than the workmanship. In no instance is there the slightest 
 trace of ornament even on the handles of bone and horn, 
 which are so elaborately carved by the cave-dwellers of Les 
 Eyzies. The same remark applies to the pottery ; the rude 
 specimens of which from the lower middens appear precisely 
 similar to those of the Danish Kjokkenmoddings. To sup- 
 pose, as some have done, that these relics may be as recent as 
 the Christian era, is to cut away from under our feet all 
 possible ground for archaeological classification. It is un- 
 doubted that the Romans found Caledonia inhabited by races 
 acquaiuted with iron, and possessiug sufficient civilization 
 and capacity for military and poKtical organization, to op- 
 pose a formidable resistance to the legions of Agricola. 
 What likelihood is there, that a people worse armed than 
 the savages of the Andamans could have lived in the open 
 defenceless plains of Caithness in contact with such races ? 
 Again, if a people Kttle advanced beyond the Stone period 
 of Abbeville lived in Caithness and Orkney down to the 
 Christian period, where can we intercalate the people to 
 whom belong the innumerable cairns, bowl barrows, and other 
 sepulchral and moniunental remains of those two counties, 
 which show evident signs of greatly advanced culture? 
 These latter people were Pagans, for they burned their dead 
 in the later barrows, and in the earlier ones buried them in 
 a contracted posture in megalithic kists, under cairns or 
 mounds, which may truly be called stupendous, and, having 
 regard to their means may vie with the Pyramids. They 
 reared temples. Like the Stones of Stenness, which imply 
 considerable population,] and civilization up to the poiut 
 where priests could wield the labour of masses by appeahng 
 to religious ideas. If the limpet-eating savages, with their 
 rude sandstone knives, lived ia these regions vntil the 
 Christian era, the classification of the Copenhagen Museum 
 
42 PEE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 must be inverted, and the sepulchral urns and finished orna- 
 ments of the Bronze period assigned to an earlier date than 
 the rude implements of the Kjokkenmoddings. 
 
 I by no means contend for a high geological antiquity for 
 these remains. On the contrary, the position of the moimds 
 on the terrace of the present beach, which is itself a raised 
 beach of the last slight elevation of ten or twelve feet, 
 affords a presumption against great antiquity ; and the 
 existence of whorls may, as I shall hereafter poiat out, 
 possibly indicate a knowledge of spinning, which, notwith- 
 standing the rudeness of their weapons and cuttiag imple- , 
 ments would place them at a higher level than the men of 
 the Kjokkenmoddings. 
 
 But I think the evidence establishes that, whatever may 
 be the period at which they lived, they must have been the 
 earliest or aboriginal race, and prior to the people who at 
 some later period, but antecedent to the Christian era, rai&ed 
 in these same regions ,so many remarkable monuments, and 
 left so many relics in their tombs in the form of finely- 
 wrought stone, bronze, sepulchral urns, and ornamented 
 pottery. 
 
 I have heard but one objection raised to this conclusion. 
 Some antiquarians hold that the burial in extended kists of 
 necessity implies Christian influences and a recent period. 
 
 I believe this to be a complete fallacy. Some highly 
 artificial modes of interment, like mummyfying or burning, 
 may prove the contiuuance of certaiu religious ideas and 
 lead us to infer identity of race and period ; though even 
 this is not always certain as there are savage races, like the 
 Australians, who practise various modes of sepulture indis- 
 criminately. But a method of iaterment can prove Kttle, 
 which is so obvious and simple as that of extended sepul- 
 ture ; or, in other words, iaclosing the body, as it lies in its 
 natural attitude on the ground, in a rude kist of flat beach 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 43 
 
 stones set on edge, and covering it with a little grave 
 mound of sand and stones. Indeed, so far as the matter can 
 be reasoned out, it seems almost certain that such a simple 
 mode of sepulture must have preceded the more ambitious 
 attempts of a more advanced period to erect massive monu- 
 ments. A large cairn or mound implies a megalithic and 
 contracted kist, to support the weight; and a contracted 
 kist necessitates contracted sepulture. Moreover, much may 
 have depended on the nature of the material, and what is 
 true where nothing but large schistose blocks were available, 
 may not be true where, as in Orkney and Caithness, flags 
 of moderate size and regularly squared by Natui-e, are the 
 readiest material. 
 
 It is admitted that extended sepulture superseded crema- 
 tion, as Christianity superseded Paganism, among the 
 Anglo-Saxons ; and that kists very like those of Keiss are 
 found containing iron and even Christian relics. But in 
 these cases there is something to mark the influence of 
 Christianity, which is entirely wanting in the older kists. 
 The head is laid towards the west, so as to catch the first 
 glimpse of the Saviour's rising in the east ; the arms or 
 legs are frequently crossed, and the cross figured on the 
 grave ; and, above all, the contents of the grave, if there 
 are any, show a knowledge of iron and a state of civilization 
 corresponding to the period. None of these circumstances 
 occur in the Keiss kists. The heads lay sometimes north, 
 oftener south, but never west ; the arms and legs are never 
 crossed, and not a vestige of any Christian emblem or in- 
 fluence appeared in any of the ten or twelve kists examined. 
 
 But it is idle to argue a question which can be decided by 
 an appeal to facts. The fact is that in the two northern 
 counties, at any rate, of Orkney and Caithness, the graves 
 which may be safely pronoimced to be the oldest — ^from 
 their being on the natural surface of the ground, and 
 
44 PEE-HISTOBIC REMAINS 
 
 covered with simple grass mounds or long barrows; and 
 stni more conclusively from their contaioing only rude 
 stone weapons without sepulchral urns or metals — are in 
 many instances similar to those of Keiss; i.e. consisting of 
 an extended kist of flag-stones set on edge. I state this 
 fact on the authority of my friend Mr. George Petrie, of 
 Kirkwall,* who is better acquaiated with the antiquities 
 of Orkney than any man living. Nor is other authority 
 wanting to controvert the statement that extended kists 
 belong exclusively to the early Christian period. Dr. Daniel 
 Wilson, ia his Pre-historic Scotland, ia describiag the con- 
 tracted kists ia which the warrior was iaterred, seated, with 
 his weapons at his side, as those most commonly found under- 
 neath ancient cairns and tumuli, expressly adds, " that som.e 
 few kists of full proportions belong to a period prior to this 
 custom;" and "that examples of a full-sized kist with the 
 enclosed skeleton extended at length are met with under 
 circumstances, and attended with relics, which leave no- 
 doubt that they belong to both of the primitive periods." 
 
 The result of Mr. Bateman's extensive researches in ancient 
 British tumuli, of which an abstract is given by Sir John 
 Lubbock in the Transactions of the Ethnological Society,, 
 vol. iii., p. 310, confirms the conclusion that extended sepul- 
 ture, though more common in the age of Iron, was not con- 
 fined to one period, several instances being given where it 
 was found in exclusive connection both with bronze and 
 stone. It must be remembered also that such slight sepul- 
 chral remaias of a barbarous aboriginal race as are indi- 
 cated by the Caithness kists, would be the first to disappear 
 in settled and cultivated districts ; so that the fact of con- 
 tracted sepulture in megalithic kists beiag shown as a 
 
 » Since -writing the above, the Eev. Mr. Joass, who has explored many tumuli 
 in Eoss-shire, tells me that the only instance in which he found a rude flint 
 arrow, unaccompanied by any metal or funeral urn, was in an extended kist with 
 an unburnt skeleton. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 45 
 
 general rule in the earliest existing remains in southern 
 Britain, does not disprove the possibility of a simpler mode 
 of burial having prevailed during part of the long period 
 which must have elapsed between the earliest cromlech and 
 the first occupation of the British Islands by man in the 
 drift period. 
 
 A striking instance of such primseval extended kists is 
 given in the Proceedings of the Society of Scottish Anti- 
 quaries (vol. ii., p. 251), where several stone kists are 
 described, which were discovered at Ardyne, near Castle 
 Toward, Argyleshire, and are exact counterparts of my 
 Caithness kists. 
 
 ARDYNE KIST. 
 
 Ft. in. 
 
 Length (inside) ..52 
 
 Width 13 
 
 Height 11 
 
 This kist contained an extended male skeleton with a rude 
 flint spear-head; and several other similar kists are de- 
 scribed bearing every mark of extreme antiquity. 
 
 I have dwelt at some length on this point of the extended 
 sepulture, because it has been urged by some eminent anti- 
 quaries in a way which seems to me subversive of all rules 
 of evidence. Because extended sepulture in stone kists was 
 practised in early Christian times, is there such an irresisti- 
 ble presumption that this most obvious and simple mode of 
 burial could never have been practised previously, as to 
 compel us to admit the most glaring anomalies, such as the 
 existence of a race of rude limpet-eating savages ignorant of 
 metals in the days of St. Columbus, in districts which had 
 been for centuries previously the seats of a comparatively 
 civilized people, who reared massive tombs and temples, 
 placed the ashes of the dead in sepulchral urns, and manu- 
 factured elegant weapons and ornaments of bronze ? 
 
46 PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 In the Life of St. Columbus it is stated tliat tlie Saint 
 chancing to meet a Prince of the Orkneys at the palace of 
 King Brude, commended to his care some monks who had 
 lately sailed to the northern seas, and the missionaries after- 
 wards owed their lives to his intercession. The theory that 
 all extended kists necessarily show Christian influence, leads 
 to the absurd supposition that the savage who lay in the 
 extended kist at Keiss, with his rude stone weapons by his 
 side, and a handful of limpets for his food in another world, 
 may have been the identical prince who visited the Court of 
 Scotland, conversed with St. Columbus, and entertained his 
 missionaries. 
 
 For my own part, I feel satisfied that under the particular 
 circumstances of this case, the simple mode of sepulture 
 does not miKtate with the evidence of primitive antiquitj' 
 from other sources, and specially from the rudeness of the 
 stone and bone implements and absence of metals. 
 
 The total want of metals may, I think, be certainly in- 
 ferred from the entire absence both of metals themselves, and 
 of forms of stone or bone showing the influence of metals 
 in such an extensive series of remains as were discovered 
 in the kists and middens. There are twenty- eight weapons 
 froin four several kists, and upwards of a hundred weapons 
 and implements from the middens, and the solitary instances 
 of metal (except two or three nails from the merely super- 
 ficial sand), are the shears of bronze and iron, and iron pin, 
 which came from the upper midden of the Harbour mound, 
 which was evidently connected with the last stage of occu- 
 pation at the highest level, by inhabitants civilized enough 
 to have converted the old doorway of the circular fort into 
 a fireplace with a chimney. 
 
 Indeed, the evidence goes further, and proves not only the 
 absence of metals but the absence of all stone except that of 
 the district. In the more advanced Stone period instances 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 47 
 
 are frequent in which the presence of finely -wrought 
 weapons of flint, greenstone, porphyry, and other hard 
 stones in districts where Nature provides no such materials, 
 testifies to some degree of intercourse with foreign parts. 
 Nothing of the sort occurs in these Caithness mounds. On 
 the contrary, it is evident that these aborigines were strictly 
 confined to the products of their own beaches for their tools 
 and weapons. They knew the value of flint, as is shown by 
 the numerous flint chips ; but having no flints but the small 
 rounded pebbles of some chalk formation which has long 
 since been washed away, and which are not large enough to 
 make serviceable tools or weapons, they were compelled to 
 use the sandstone of the district for the weapons even of 
 their chiefs. 
 
 This of itself shows their isolated condition, and that they 
 could not have come in contact with m.ore advanced races. 
 It makes it improbable also that they could have been de- 
 generate descendants of more civilized races, or a band of 
 emigrants or outcasts ; as we can hardly imagine a people 
 resting satisfied with such rude knives and arrows of bone 
 and sandstone, whose ancestors had brought with them 
 better forms and materials. The invention of the barb, for 
 instance, to the arrow is one hardly likely to be lost, if once 
 laiown ; and the flints of Caithness, though small, would 
 often have suflaced for the manufacture of barbed arrow- 
 heads. The bone arrow-heads also might easily have been 
 barbed, and the stone axes and hammers pierced or grooved 
 for attachment to a handle, had such arts ever been known. 
 
 Mr. Christy, whose authority stands so deservedly high 
 with regard to the arts and implements of primitive races, 
 has made a very ingenious supposition, viz., that these relics 
 may belong to a race who had relapsed into the barbarism 
 of a Stone period from the privation of metals in this remote 
 corner of Britain, as happened to the ancient Danish colonists 
 
48 
 
 PEE-HISTOKIC EEMAIXS 
 
 in Greenland, wlien severed by the accumulation of ice from 
 all communication with metal-producing countries. 
 
 But iu the very interesting remains from Greenland which 
 show the gradual retrogression to the use of stone, the im- 
 proved forms derived from a knowledge of metals are pre- 
 served; and it seems to me impossible to account for such 
 excessive rudeness of form as prevails among the weapons of 
 the Caithness kists on any other supposition than that of 
 primaeval barbarism. 
 
 There is, however, one fact which may argue the know- 
 ledge of more advanced arts by these Caithness savages, 
 than would be denoted by their tools and weapons, viz., the 
 occasional presence of the small perforated balls of stone or 
 bone, which are commonly known as "whorls," and sup- 
 posed to be used with the distaff for spinning. It is true 
 that some authorities doubt their having been used for 
 spinning, and Daniel Wilson in his Pre-historic Scotland 
 contends that they were personal ornaments, reljdng on 
 their form being often ill-adapted for spinning, and their 
 being found with other rude ornaments interred with male 
 skeletons. StiR the resemblance is such to whorls actually 
 used for spinning by savage races, as to afford a strong 
 inference that this was their destination ; if so, the presence 
 of a "whorl" implies a knowledge of the art of spinning. 
 
 The evidence, however, is very doubtful. If the " whorls " 
 often resemble those actually used in spinning, they equally 
 resemble those certainly used for ornament. There are 
 numerous necklaces and collars in the British Museum, the 
 Copenhagen Museum, and other antiquarian collections, com- 
 posed of perforated stones, pieces of clay and bone, in no 
 respect distinguishable from common whorls. Glass beads 
 of precisely the same size and pattern were made at a later 
 period, which were undoubtedly intended for ornament and 
 not for spinning. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 49 
 
 If to this we add tliat wliorls have often been found with 
 male skeletons, and that the form and want of density of 
 those made of porous bone often rendered them very unsuit- 
 able for spinning, the balance of argimient seems to inclitie 
 in favour of Dr. Wilson's view. There is, moreover, one 
 other argument which to my mind carries considerable force, 
 viz., that in secluded districts where the use of the distaff 
 has been continued almost down to the present day, no idea 
 seems to be entertained that the whorls, which are occa- 
 sionally picked up, are in any way connected with spinning. 
 In Cornwall they are known as " Pixies grindstones," and 
 in Lewis a curious account is given by Captain Thomas in 
 the Proceedings of the Society of Scottish Antiquaries, vol. 
 iv., p. 119, of the popular belief that they are what are 
 called " snake- stones," or formed by a succession of snakes 
 creeping through the same hole, and hardening the dust into 
 stone by the slime exuding from their bodies. It is evident 
 therefore, that the whorls stand in the same category as the 
 flint arrow-heads or elf-bolts, as objects the use of which has 
 been long since forgotten, and which have passed into the 
 domain of myth ; a conclusion which is hardly reconcileable 
 with the supposition that they have always accompanied the 
 distaff. 
 
 I may add that no whorls were found in any of the kists, 
 and most of them came from the upper strata of the mid- 
 dens ; but some came from the middle or secondary middens ; 
 and I cannot say positively that one or two may not have 
 come from the lower middens, as unfortunately my attention 
 had not been sufficiently called to the point to enable me to 
 identify the exact position in which every whorl was found. 
 There remaias, therefore, at the utmost some slight pre- 
 sumption that the primaeval savages of the kists may have 
 known the art of spinning, though further research will be 
 required to determine this point conclusively. 
 
 4 
 
50 PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 Fauna. — By the kind aid of Mr. Koberts and Mr. Carter 
 Blake, -who have been assisted in their identifications by Mr. 
 Davies, of the British Museum, I am enabled to give the 
 following complete list of the animal remains of the Keiss 
 middens. "We are indebted to Professor Owen for the im- 
 portant identification of the Alea impennis or Gfreat Auk. 
 
 Mollusca : — Limpet {Patella vulgaris) ; periwinkle {Lit- 
 torina litorea) ; lesser periwinkle {Littorina nontridia) ; whelk 
 {Buccinum undatum); cockle (Cardium) ; scallop {Pecten 
 mcyus) ; lesser scallop [Pecten Argus). 
 
 Annulosa : — Lobster (Serpula). 
 
 Fish : — Cod {Morrhua vulgata). 
 
 Mammalia : — Ox (Bos longi/rons) : horse {Equus caballus 
 (?)/ossilis) ; red deer {Gervus elephas) ; goat {Capra hircus) ; 
 hog {Susserofa); dog {Canisfamiliarisovfamiliarisfossilis); 
 fox ( Canis vulpes) ; rabbit {Lupus cuniculud), perhaps recent. 
 
 Cetacea: — Grampus {Delphinus orcd), or small whale; 
 dolphin {Delphinus dolphis), or some other small cetacean. 
 
 Birds: — Great auk {Alca impennis): lesser auk {Alca 
 tarda) ; cormorant {PJiilacrocorax carbo) ; shag {Philaero- 
 corax graculits) ; solon goose {Sula bassana). 
 
 The most interesting fact is the discovery of the "Alca 
 impennis/' which is now extinct in Europe, having but 
 lately died out in Iceland, but said to survive in Greenland. 
 Its bones are frequent in the Danish Kjokkenmoddings, 
 where they have been thought to imply great antiquity and 
 a more glacial climate, but it is believed that they have never 
 been found in any tumuli or deposits of a later date than 
 these primaeval middens. Hence their discovery in the 
 Caithness middens aflfords an important link of connection 
 with those of Denmark, and strengthens the evidence of 
 high antiquity drawn from the rudeness of the imple- 
 ments. 
 
 The fauna also corresponds with that of the Danish mid- 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 dens in its general characters, and contains just such an 
 assemblage of animals as are commonly found in quaternary 
 
 Fib. 57. 
 
 
 
 ^mv' 
 
 Bones of Alca impeimis. J nat. size. 
 
 deposits. The dog is the only one of which we may assume 
 with some certainty that it was in the domestic state. I 
 found this conjecture mainly on the jaw found in one of the 
 kists, apparently of the hunter's faithful dog to bear him 
 company ; but the size corresponds either to that of a large 
 shepherd's dog, or of the fossil dog of the quaternary 
 period ; and if dogs were domesticated, it is singular that so 
 few remaias should be found, and no trace of the gnawing of 
 other bones, which is so common ia the Danish middens. The 
 ox Was the bos long'ifrons ; the hog probably wild, from the 
 size of the tusks ; the horse, a large-headed animal of small 
 size, but considerably larger than the Shetland pony, cor- 
 responding perfectly with the Equus fossilis, and probably 
 wild, as it had been commonly used for food ; the goat pre- 
 cisely similar to the fossil goat from the newer pliocene 
 figured by Owen in his " British Fossil Mammals." 
 
52 PEE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 The absence of the sheep strengthens the inference against 
 domesticated animals ; and the horns of the red deer confirm 
 the supposition of considerable antiquity, some of them bemg 
 of unusually large size and very abnormal (fig. 58). It will be 
 
 Fia. 58. 
 
 Eed Deer's Horn. J nat. size. 
 
 recollected that in the earliest lake-dwellings of the age of stone 
 in Switzerland the goats outnumbered the sheep, but towards 
 the close of the same period the sheep were more abundant 
 than the goats. The presence of goats without sheep, there- 
 fore, in the Caithness middens, points to a connection rather 
 with the antecedent Danish middens than with the earliest 
 relics of the Stone period in Switzerland, agreeing completely 
 with the similar evidence derived from the presence of the 
 Alca impennis and the excessive rudeness of the stone and 
 bone implements. 
 
 I have since heard of the bone of a sheep having been 
 found in one of these m.ounds ; but as it came from the 
 surface it can hardly be relied on to disprove the inference 
 from the numerous jaws and other remains of goats which 
 come from the body of the several middens, though I should 
 fully expect that sheep's bones would be often found in such 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 53 
 
 Situations, as they must frequently have teen occupied down 
 to a date when the sheep was common in the North of Scot- 
 land, even if it be true that the goat only was known in the 
 earliest period. 
 
 More extensive researches, however, are requisite to 
 establish trustworthy conclusions as to the nature of the 
 fauna of the Scottish middens, and its relations to those of 
 the Danish Kjokkenmoddings and Swiss Lacustrine dwell- 
 ings. For the present all we can say is, that as far as the 
 evidence now goes the presumption is against a knowledge 
 of the domesticated animals, except the dog ; and that there 
 is a considerable general resemblance to the fauna of the 
 Danish Kj okkenmoddings. If the identification of the Caith- 
 ness remains with those of the wild and not the domestic 
 varieties should be confirmed, they would be identical with 
 those of the Kjokkenmoddings, with the following not very 
 material exceptions. The bos urtcs of Denmark is replaced 
 by the bos longifrons ; the horse and goat are present ; and 
 the bear, lynx, beaver, and marten are wanting. But as 
 both horse and goat existed in a wild state in Britaia before 
 and after the glacial period, their presence in such a collec- 
 tion does not invalidate its general character, unless it can be 
 shown that the remains are of the domestic species. 
 
 On the other hand, some of the poiats of resemblance 
 between the fauna of the Danish and North British Kjok- 
 kenmoddings are very remarkable. I have referred to the 
 presence of the " Alca impennis " in each. In each the stag 
 genus is represented by the red deer, often of larger size 
 than any now existiag, to the exclusion of the reindeer, 
 which figures so prominently in the cave period in latitudes 
 much further south. 
 
 Food. — This was evidently composed priacipally of shell- 
 fish from the adjoining shore, consisting in nine cases out of 
 ten of periwinkles and limpets. Fish and whales were also 
 
54 PKE-HISTOKIC REMAINS 
 
 eaten, but the latter were probably stranded. Even as 
 regards fish, the total absence of anything like fish-hooks or 
 tackle, and the very small proportion of fish bones on a coast 
 abounding with fish, suggests a doubt whether they did 
 more than pick up dead fish which are very frequently cast 
 up on this shore. 
 
 I never heard of canoes, which are so common further 
 south, being found in any of the peat mosses or lake marls 
 of Caithness or Orkney, and although the coimtry was 
 doubtless once covered with a scrubby underwood, I question 
 if trees of sufficient magnitude to form canoes ever existed 
 in sufficient munber near the sea-shore or navigable rivers 
 to teach the savages the art of boat-building. Be this as it 
 may, the fact is worth noticing that in these refuse heaps on 
 the shore of a sea abounding in fish, there are fewer bones of 
 fish than of Bos lonffifrons, and no traces of any fishing or 
 boating tackle. In this respect the contrast is remarkable 
 with the Danish Kjokkenmoddings, in which, as stated by 
 Sir John Lubbock, the fish bones are " almost innumerable." 
 
 The fauna enumerated all afibrded food, the whole of the 
 remains having been found in the middens, and in many 
 cases showing the action of fire. The two instances of 
 human jaws found in the middens affi)rd a strong presump- 
 tion that cannibalism was occasionally resorted to. Shell- 
 fish only being placed in the kists as food for the dead, 
 strengthens the presumption that they were the staple and 
 ordinary article of food. Of the mammalian remains those of 
 goat and ox were most numerous ; then pig, horse, and stag ; 
 and of dog and fox a single specimen only of each was found. 
 
 Did grain form any part of their food ? Upon this point 
 
 there is no sufficient evidence. In two cases large stones* 
 
 were found, nearly circular, in which holes had been bored 
 
 on opposite sides to a certain depth, as if an attempt had 
 
 * See Plate vii,, fig. 9. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 55 
 
 been made to bore a central bole whicb bad been abandoned. 
 Tbese may have been intended for quern stones, and if so, 
 grain was probably used. But there is no proof tbat tbese 
 were quern stones ; on tbe contrary, tbey seem unsuited for 
 sucb a purpose, from tbeir imperfect circular form and want 
 of density and bardness, and one at least of tbese stones 
 sbowed traces of tbe action of fire, and was covered witb 
 greasy black asbes and decomposed animal matter. 
 
 A large stone block was foimd witb a space excavated in 
 it, wbicb, if circular, migbt bave been tbe lower stone of a 
 small quern, but it was oblong and apparently intended as a 
 mortar in wbicb to pound witb tbe oval sandstone beacb 
 stones used as bammers. 
 
 Grain may bave been so pounded, but it is equally possible 
 tbat bones may bave been tbus reduced to tbe small splinters 
 in wbicb tbey are generally found, for tbe sake of extractiug 
 tbe marrow. I looked carefully among tbe asbes and debris 
 for any trace of grain or vegetable substance, but coidd 
 never find anytbiag but small pieces of wood cbarcoal; and 
 for tbe present all tbat can be said is tbat tbere is no proof 
 of tbe use of grain, and some assumption against it from 
 tbe absence of unmistakeable querns wbicb are so common 
 in connection witb later buildings. 
 
 Tbe attrition of tbe teetb may possibly afibrd an argu- 
 ment ; but I apprebend tbat this migbt equally result from 
 gnawing bones and eating large quantities of sbell-fisb 
 mixed witb sand. 
 
 Tbe absence of animal bones in any of tbe kists would 
 seem to imply tbat tbe capture of a wild ox or stag was a 
 rare event, and to strengtben tbe ioference against a know- 
 ledge of domestic animals, as otberwise we migbt bave 
 expected to find sometbing better tban limpets and peri- 
 winkles in tbe tomb of a cbief. 
 
 I tbink an increase in tbe number of animal remains was 
 
56 PRE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 discernible in the upper middens, as if tlie power of cap- 
 turing wild animals had increased with an improvement in 
 the weapons of chase. Stags' horns especially were certainly- 
 more numerous in the upper portions of the mounds. A 
 large proportion of the larger animals had been young, as 
 shown by the presence of the miLk teeth, which may lead to 
 the inference that with such very imperfect weapons the 
 savages could seldom succeed in killing an adidt. This fur- 
 ther strengthens the presumption that the remains are of 
 wild animals, as the domestic horse, for instance, would have 
 been too valuable to kill for food while young. 
 
 On the whole the diet of this people seems to have been 
 very like that of the savages of Tierra del Fuego, so ad- 
 mirably described by Darwia in his "Yoyage of a Naturalist," 
 as consisting mainly of shell-fish with an occasional feast on 
 a stranded whale or captured guanaco. 
 
 The apparent connection between the ancient shell-middens 
 and the burgs or circular towers, shown by the Harbour 
 Mound, is one of the most interesting features of the present 
 discoveries. These burgs, whose remains are so common in 
 the North of Scotland, have usually been assigned to a very 
 recent period. Although built of unhewn stones the ma- 
 sonry is so massive and regular that they have the appear- 
 ance of being the fortresses of a comparatively civilized and 
 warlike people, and in fact we know that they were used as 
 such by the Scandinavians as late as the ninth century. 
 Torfseus relates that Erlend carried off the mother of 
 Harold, Earl of Orkney, who was famed for her beauty, to 
 the Burg of Mousa in Shetland, where he was unsuccessfully 
 besieged by the Earl, who after a time came to terms with 
 Erlend, finding the fort impregnable. It seems difficult to 
 believe that such forts could have been built by the limpet- 
 eating savages, whose tools and weapons were ruder than 
 those of the caverns of Les Eyzies or the drifts of Abbeville. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 57 
 
 And yet sucli seems to be the evidence of the section of 
 the Harbour Mound. It is of course possible that the build- 
 ing may be posterior to the lower and more ancient midden, 
 and that the wall may have been sunk through it to the 
 natural rock to obtain a more secure foundation. But the 
 appearances hardly favoured such a supposition, especially as 
 the two other concentric walls, which were unquestionably 
 later additions, were not carried down to a lower level than 
 that of their respective floors, and had evidently been built 
 on the accumulated midden and rubbish of the origiaal 
 structure. Further investigation is necessary to clear up the 
 poiat ; but in the meantime there is a good deal of evidence 
 to show that the burgs really date back to a very remote 
 period. 
 
 The hypothesis of a Scandinavian origin is conclusively 
 refuted by the fact, vouched for by the high authority of 
 Worsaae and Munch, that nothing at all resembling them is 
 to be found in any Scandinavian country. The local names, 
 also so common in Orkney and Shetland, in which "burg" 
 enters, show clearly that these burgs existed when the names 
 were given by the Scandinavian invaders. 
 
 "Wilson, ia his "Pre-historic Scotland," after reviewing the 
 evidence respecting the burgs, states his opinion that they 
 are the work of a people "whose arts were extremely rude," 
 and he attributes their erection to a period "long prior to 
 the earliest recorded traces of Scandiaavian invasion." 
 
 I am enabled to state some stiH more conclusive evidence 
 of the high antiquity of the burgs on the authority of Mr. 
 George Petrie, of Kirkwall. 
 
 At the Burg of Okstro, in the parish of Birsa, Orkney, 
 graves of the Bronze period were discovered ia the super- 
 ficial soil of a green mound, which was itself the remaias of 
 a ruined burg. There could be no mistake here as to the 
 facts or the order of succession. Bronze riags and other 
 
58 PEE-HISTOEIC EEMAINS 
 
 ornaments were found witli urns containing burnt human 
 bones of the usual type of the Bronze period, in stone kists 
 scattered over the surface of a green hillock at a depth of 
 two or three feet from the surface. On digging deeper into 
 the mound the foundations of a massive circular burg were 
 disclosed, with a wall twelve feet thick, inclosing an area of 
 forty-five feet in diameter, with other concentric walls and a 
 subterranean well or chamber, in connection with which 
 were found several very rude implements of stone and bone, 
 some deer's horns with marks of cutting on them, and ex- 
 tremely coarse pottery. In other words, an assemblage of 
 objects closely corresponding with those of the Keiss Har- 
 bour Burg. 
 
 The Burgs of Burray, Hoxay, Burghar, and various other 
 Orkney Burgs, have furnished a similar collection of objects ; 
 for instance, that of Burray contained several rude stone 
 vessels resembling lamps or mortars; circular perforated 
 stones and pieces of bone (whorls) ; bone cup made of a 
 whale's vertebra ; five bone combs ; two bone pins ; several 
 pointed bones with and without heads; bone arrow-heads; 
 and worked deer's horn. 
 
 Although I have had no opportunity myseK of exploring 
 with sufficient care any of the numerous shell-mounds and 
 middens in Orkney ; yet a cursory examination of several of 
 them enables me to say that they correspond entirely in 
 character with those I have described in Caithness. In each 
 case periwinkles and limpets form the staple of the midden, 
 with the addition of cockles and oysters in some of the 
 sheltered bays where these molluscs are now found ; remains 
 are common of either sheep or goat, ox {bos longifrom), red 
 deer, and pig, with occasional horse, dog, and fox ; rude oval 
 beach stones used as hammers, and circular slingstones, are 
 the commonest form of stone implement; rude pins or 
 skewers of bone are frequent ; and the fragments of pottery 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 59 
 
 are of the same coarse hand-made description. The only 
 difference I have observed is that fish bones are certainly 
 more abundant in some of the Orkney middens which stand 
 on the shores of sheltered bays. These middens are in some 
 cases associated with burgs, in others with Picts' houses or 
 subterranean chambers, and in others stand alone without 
 any remaining trace of building. 
 
 The only reason why the evidence that such burgs as the 
 above belong to the Stone period has not been accepted as 
 conclusive is, that objects of a later date as bronze, gold, and 
 even iron, have been occasionally found with those of an 
 earlier type. But, as I have had so often occasion to urge, 
 the mere fact of the occasional presence of a modern object 
 in a site which has beyond all doubt been successively occu- 
 pied down to a recent period, proves little or nothing. A 
 solitary bronze ornament was found ia the debris of the 
 Burg of Okstro. Mr. Petrie believes this fell from the kists 
 above. This supposition, in itself highly probable, reconciles 
 all the facts; while how can we account otherwise for the 
 kists of the Bronze period beiag on the surface of the 
 mound, and for the anomaly of a people acquainted with 
 bronze having such extremely rude implements of stone, 
 bone, and pottery. 
 
 We know that the Scandinavians sometimes occupied these 
 burgs for purposes of dwelling and defence, as in the case 
 of Mousa, and if so, how could we do otherwise than dis- 
 cover occasional weapons and implements of iron, mixed up 
 with the relics of the primitive inhabitants. It is well ascer- 
 tained, moreover, that the Scandinavians often selected old 
 ruined burgs as bur3dng-places, and buried with the dead as 
 charms relics which they had found of older periods, such as 
 the so-called Elfin arrows, and Thor's hammers or celts, thus 
 adding to the apparent confusion of the Stone, Bronze, and 
 Iron periods. Further evidence of the great antiquity of 
 
60 PEE-HISTOKIC BEMAINS 
 
 many of the Orcadian Burgs is afforded by tte fact that in 
 several cases a great part of the original circle has dis- 
 appeared by the retreat of the coast line in situations so 
 sheltered that the present low cliff or terrace is rarely 
 touched even by the most violent gales. 
 
 On the whole, therefore, I see no difficulty in assigning 
 a high antiquity to many of these burgs, and considering 
 these primitive structures to have been the work of the 
 people, whoever they were, who reare^d the Stones of Sten- 
 ness, constructed the Picts' Houses, and covered the northern 
 coimties and islands of Scotland with their graves, long prior 
 to the general introduction of metals or the advent of any 
 historical race. But the difficulty remains how a people 
 so savage as is shown by their food and implements, could 
 have raised structures so massive and enduring. To this I 
 can only observe that the civilization of a primitive people 
 seems to depend very much on the materials with which 
 Nature has supplied them. Where Nature gave plenty of 
 sharp flints, but no sea beach with stones suitable for build- 
 ings, as in the Valleys of the South of France, where man 
 lived contemporary with the reindeer, he dwelt in caverns 
 but attained to considerable skill and even taste in the art of 
 decorative carving. In Caithness and Orkney, again, these 
 conditions were exactly reversed. The sandstone of the 
 district gave a material so bad for cutting purposes that the 
 weapons and tools of the primitive savages, and all arts and 
 ornaments depending on cutting tools, remained at the 
 lowest ebb; while on the other hand Nature provided a 
 boundless profusion of flags and blocks regularly squared 
 for building, and supplied the means, while by the in- 
 clemency of the climate and absence of shelter ia woods or 
 caves she afforded the inducement, to develope the innate 
 constructive faculty in. the direction of architecture. 
 
 I have often thought that the instinct of children affords 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 61 
 
 some clue to tliat of savages ; and on these sea shores I have 
 seen children, tempted by the facility of selecting stones of 
 regular form, build in sport very substantial miniature round 
 towers, of a form not unlike that of the ancient burg. In 
 fact, the solid circular tower is a simple idea which could 
 hardly fail to occur to a people, however savage, who felt the 
 want of shelter and defence, and had plenty of squared 
 blocks and flags ready to their hand ; and the modifications 
 of a second concentric wall and converging roofs are natural 
 developments of the original idea to provide shelter where 
 large timber was probably wanting. To realize the position 
 of primaeval man in Caithness we must recollect that he had 
 abundance of stone but little wood; and that his cutting 
 tools and weapons were as inferior to those of the flint-using 
 Esquimaux as these, again, are to the iron implements of the 
 modern European. Such a people might build solid towers 
 while they remained ignorant of fish-hooks and barbed arrow- 
 heads, and never attempted to carve ornaments on the han- 
 dles of their knives or lances. 
 
 Another consideration with reference to the burgs is that 
 in assigning them to the Stone period an immense duration, 
 comprising many changes, must be assigned to the Stone 
 period itself. It probably extended in Britain from the 
 commencement of the Quaternary period, while these islands 
 were still united to the continent, to within ten or twenty 
 centuries of the Christian era. During this vast period, in 
 comparison with which the historical and semi-historical 
 ages of Iron and Bronze dwindle to a point, how many must 
 have been the vicissitudes. The single fact of the existence of 
 such a structure as the Stones of Stenness with their accom- 
 panying monuments, tells us of a population sufiiciently 
 dense and civilized to be swayed by priests, and led by 
 religious ideas to attempt vast imdertaldngs. What the 
 Pyramids were to Egypt, the Stones of Stenness must have 
 
62 PEE-HISTOE.IC REMAINS 
 
 been to a once numerous people, the ruins of wtose graves 
 and dwellings meet the ploughshare in almost every field in 
 the remote Orkneys, hut of whom all historical traces and 
 even traditions have disappeared as completely as of the 
 moimd-builders of the Mississippi. 
 
 Unknown ages may have elapsed in a state of savagery 
 too dense and animal-like to leave records ; until some for- 
 tunate impulse from without, or improvement from within, 
 raised the race to the level where they buried their dead in 
 kists and raised tumuli and dwellings, at first simple and 
 humble, but by degrees more massive and complicated, until 
 at length the Stone civilization culminated in such national 
 monuments and temples as the circles of Stonehenge and 
 Stenness. 
 
 Type of Race. — The valuable memoir which Professor 
 Huxley has been kind enough to subjoin, places the ana- 
 tomical facts fully before the scientific world, and it only 
 remaias for me to add a few general remarks. 
 
 It is a most important and interesting fact that in asso- 
 ciation with these very rude and primitive remaias a type of 
 human race should have been discovered so savage and de- 
 graded, as to present more resemblance to the lowest 
 Australian than to any historical European race. Authori- 
 ties may difier as to the precise degree of the analogies 
 which Prof. Huxley points out between these Caithness 
 crania and those of the ancient river-beds and recent 
 Australians, but there can be no second opinion as to the 
 general facts. The difference of cranial type between a 
 savage and a civilized race consists broadly in the approxi- 
 mation of the former to the animal type. There is 
 generally less volume of brain, always a much less pro- 
 portion of it in front. The bony framework of the skull 
 preponderates more over the inclosed brain. The jaws 
 project more, the ridges and processes for muscular attach- 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 63 
 
 ment are more strongly marked. Now in all these par- 
 ticulars the type, of which, the Caithness skuU No. 1 is the 
 extreme example, is far more animal-Hke than that of any 
 European race either known in history or hitherto discovered 
 in pre-historic tombs of the Iron, Bronze, or later Stone 
 periods. If a line be drawn yerticaUy over the skuU from 
 ear to ear, half the brain lies in front of such a liae ia any 
 average well- formed European head ; while the proportion is 
 not one-fourth in the Keiss skulls. The degree of progna- 
 thism, as shown by the projection of the upper jaw and 
 teeth, and the narrowness of the ape-like palate, is equal to 
 that of the lowest specimens of the Negro and Australian 
 races. 
 
 In other anatomical peculiarities, so ably pointed out by 
 Prof. Huxley, and more especially in the anomalous forma- 
 tion of the pelvis, the difference from any known European 
 type and resemblance to, or rather exaggeration of, the 
 rudest Australian type, is equally remarkable. 
 
 No one can doubt that we have here an extremely savage 
 type. No one can doubt that among the family of savage 
 types the analogies are altogether with the Negro as opposed 
 to the Mongol; and that this tribe of aboriginal Britons 
 must have much more closely resembled the Australian or 
 Tasmanian than the Laplander or Esquimaux. 
 
 Thus far the evidence favours the views of the advocates 
 of progressive development. The theory which might ap- 
 pear best suited to the facts would be that the human type is 
 that of the first men who, while Britain was yet united with 
 a southern continent, migrated northwards as the rigour of 
 the glacial period subsided, with the other faima of the qua- 
 ternary period : that this race, whose skulls are occasionally 
 found ia caves and river-beds, lived on for an indefinite 
 period little changed, until they were exterminated, or en- 
 slaved and assimilated, by superior races ia times approaching 
 
64 PRE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 to the historical era, leaving, however, small fragments in 
 remote and secluded situations who preserved the primitive 
 type and savage rudeness down to a period sufficiently 
 modern to allow of their relics being occasionally discovered. 
 The whole story would then he consistent — strangeness and 
 extreme rudeness of weapons and implements would correspond 
 with strangeness and extreme rudeness of human type. 
 
 A fauna, corresponding generally with that of the Danish 
 Kjokkenmoddings would point to an antiquity sufficient to 
 give ample time for all requisite successions or modifications 
 of race. We could picture to ourselves some still ruder 
 cranial form of the early drift period gradually developing 
 itself iato the river-bed type and thence into the Kimibo- 
 Kephalic, which so many of the best authorities believe to 
 be the primitive British type. The invasion of a Brachy- 
 cephalic race, more advanced in the arts though still within 
 the Stone period, might be supposed to form a mixed people, 
 who either attained to the civilization of the first historical 
 Britons, by their own development, aided by iatercourse with 
 the Phoenician and other foreign traders ; or who were them- 
 selves again subjugated by fresh races of invaders acquainted 
 with the metals. 
 
 It is evident, however, that the time has not yet come 
 when we can safely venture on such complete and symmetri- 
 cal theories. The Neanderthal skull had scarcely begun to 
 popularize the theory of progressive human development, 
 before the accurate measurements of that of Engis proved 
 that men nowise differing from modern Europeans were con- 
 temporaries of the cave-bear and tiger. 
 
 In like manner the evidence of the Keiss skeletons is 
 greatly neutralized by the very remarkable fact that whUe 
 the majority approximate to the Australian savage, one at 
 least is a fair specimen of an ancient Briton differing in no 
 essential respect from a modern European. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 65 
 
 It is extremely difficult to account for a fact wMch, ante- 
 cedently would have appeared so improbable. Even if we 
 were to ignore the evidence derived from the low type of 
 most of the skulls, and consider these as accidental varieties, 
 the stni more conclusive proofs remaia from the rudeness 
 of the implements and nature of the fauna. These denote 
 an era, if not of absolute time at any rate of relative 
 progress ajad civilization, below that of the ordinary British 
 barrows and cromlechs, below even the oldest lake-dwelliags 
 of Switzerland, and similar in many respects to that of the 
 Danish Kjokkenmoddings. Our knowledge of the distribu- 
 tion of cranial types both in space and time is far too im- 
 perfect to enable us to place any conjectural evidence derived 
 from them in opposition to the positive evidence of contem- 
 poraneous relics. The Engis skull might have been taken 
 for that of a modern Belgian, and those of the Stone period 
 in Switzerland for modern Helvetians, if they had not been 
 associated with remaias which proved their antiquity. 
 
 We must take the age, therefore, of the Keiss graves from 
 their rude stone and bone implements and primitive fauna, 
 and accommodate as we best can the fact that the human 
 remains show types so widely different. One solution would 
 be to suppose, that there really had been an intermixture of 
 two entirely distinct races. But it seems difiScult to believe 
 that such an intermixture could have taken place without 
 some advance in the arts and weapons, and some relative 
 superiority of the European over the Australoid type. But 
 in this case, the man with the British type of skull was 
 neither chief nor slave, but lay in an ordinary kist with a 
 rude stone hammer and handful of limpets by his side, just 
 like one of the other savages. He may have been a refugee 
 or captive, or the descendant of such, but even in this case 
 it is difficult to account for the excessive rudeness of the 
 weapons. Intercourse with any foreign tribes or countries, 
 
 6 
 
66 PKE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 howeyer slight, must, one wotild haTe imagined, have led to 
 some knowledge of a better material than the native sand- 
 stone, and some improvement in the form of the lances and 
 arrow-heads on which they depended for their daily sub- 
 sistence. Instances, however, are not wanting ia Australia 
 where such occasional intercourse has taken place without 
 altering the habits of the savages, although its effects may 
 be traced in the cranial forms of some of their descendants. 
 In the very interesting account of the Australian abo- 
 rigines by Mr. A. Oldfield in the Transactions of the Ethnolo- 
 gical Society, New Series, vol. iii., p. 218, the following 
 passage occurs, which may possibly throw some light on the 
 question. "At Champion Bay, ia Western Australia, I was 
 much surprised to find in some of the old natives features 
 approaching the European type, although these, parts had 
 been settled but a very few years. I mentioned this fact to 
 a medical gentleman, who uiformed me that he had made the 
 same observation, and could account for it in no other way 
 than by supposing that a ship which had sailed from Cal- 
 cutta to Swan Eiver ia the early days of the colony, and had 
 never siace been heard of, was lost ia these parts, and that 
 some of her people who had escaped had miagled with this 
 tribe, a surmise strengthened by the traditions of the natives, 
 who to this day call Perth (the capital of Western Australia) 
 Ca-cat-ta, having probably mistaken the place of departure 
 for that of the destination of the rescued people ; added to 
 this they often asserted that in the event of the departure 
 of the whites from among them, there were many of 
 their females whom their laws would permit them to eat, 
 they having white blood in their veins. This approach to 
 the European type of features I have also observed among 
 the natives about Greographe Bay, where the •unfortunate Dr. 
 Vasse was so cruelly deserted by his inhuman superior. Ac- 
 cording to the account of these natives, this unhappy 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 67 
 
 naturalist lived many years among them, conforming to all 
 their habits, and at length dying a natural death." 
 
 Some such accident may possibly have thrown on the 
 coasts of Caithness a few isolated individuals of superior race, 
 from the southern parts of the island, before any wave of 
 conquest extended their dominion to the extreme north and 
 introduced, with superior arts, those relations of slavery of 
 the iaferior race of which we find traces in some of the 
 Orkney tumuli. I know of two instances in which kists 
 were found there containing two skeletons, one of which had 
 been apparently laid first in the grave and disposed with 
 care, whUe the other had been huddled in at the feet of the 
 former. In each case the skull of the first skeleton was of 
 the superior or ancient British type, while that of the other 
 or presumed slave, was very similar to the degraded Keiss 
 type. 
 
 The only other supposition is that the two types may have 
 developed themselves spontaneously in the same race. In 
 favour of this it may be said that the river-bed type, which 
 is probably the original one, is in some respects intermediate 
 between the extreme forms. Lengthen it out and narrow it, 
 and it approximates to the Australoid No. 1 ; improve its 
 frontal development and diminish its prognathism, and it 
 approximates to the ancient British 'No. 7. But it would be 
 difiicult without more evidence than we at present possess of 
 intermediate forms shading off the various gradations between 
 No. 1 and No. 7, to admit that what Professor Huxley calls 
 "the most remarkably degraded European skull which has 
 hitherto been discovered" is of the same family as one 
 which " differs in no important respect from a well-formed 
 Englishman of the present day ;" especially when we find 
 the difference of cranial characters confirmed by the still 
 more remarkable differences of pelvic conformation, and that 
 not in one instance only but in several. 
 
bo PRE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 The result of recent researclies is certainly rather to 
 establish the existence of two distinct primitive types in 
 Europe at the earliest known period. The comprehensive 
 review of the mass of facts accumulated by recent explora- 
 tions of tumuli and sepulchral caves in Britain and France, 
 by Dr. Thurnam in his Memoir "On the Two principal 
 Forms of Ancient British and Gaulish Skulls," published in 
 the Anthropological Society's Memoirs, vol. i., appears to 
 establish certain conclusions which have an important bear- 
 ing on the questions raised by the Keiss crania. 
 
 In England the distinction is well marked between the 
 skulls of a tall race of brachycephalic type, which are found 
 in round barrows of the Later Stone or Bronze age, and 
 those of an earlier and less robust dolichocephalic race, 
 which are found in the primary interments of chambered 
 tumuli and long barrows, associated with nothing but rude 
 implements of stone and bone. So marked and uniform is 
 the distinction that Dr. Thurnam lays down the axiom — 
 Long harrows, long skulls ; round harroics, round or short skulls. 
 
 The Keiss crania confirm this axiom, as they are all more 
 or less long skulls, and come from a long barrow ; which, 
 from the associated remains, belongs to a very rude and 
 primitive Stone period. They difier, however, from the 
 primitive English dolichocephali described by Dr. Thurnam, 
 firstly, by showing in some specimens a much more savage 
 and degraded type, characterised by extreme prognathism ; 
 secondly, by furnishiag other specimens of a very superior 
 type. 
 
 But in this respect they find plenty of parallels on the 
 Continent, and thus add another link to those discoveries 
 which tend gradually to unite the scattered facts relating to 
 the early history of man into one harmonious whole. In 
 France, the evidence from numerous tumuli of the Stone 
 period establishes the simultaneous existence of two races. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 69 
 
 Dr. Thurnam thus sums up tte evidence derived from 
 accurate measurements of the crania of a large number of 
 tumuli : — " So far as our knowledge of the skull- forms of the 
 people of ancient Graul extends, the table before us shows a 
 mixture, in the same tomb, of the long and short types, such 
 as certainly does not occur in the ancient British barrows 
 of England. Conclusive proof of priority of a dolichoce- 
 phalous race, in the order of succession, has not yet been 
 obtained for Gaul. On the contrary, two races — one dolicho- 
 cephalous, the other brachycephalous — appear to have come 
 into contact in that country at a very early epoch ; and 
 apparently, during the later Stone period, were more or less 
 mixed or blended. Which of the two first occupied the soil 
 of Gaul, further researches must determiae, though the pre- 
 sumption is in favour of its having been the dolichocephalous, 
 as was clearly the case in Britain." 
 
 Vogt even goes so far as to say that in France " the 
 further we go back the greater is the contrast between 
 individual types ;" and the description of several of the 
 crania given by Thurnam goes far to bear out this asser- 
 tion. The contrast between the Keiss skulls, No. 1 and 
 No. 7, is scarcely greater than that between the skull No. 
 209 bis of the Paris Museum from Bougon (Deux Sevres), 
 distinguished "by great depression of the very retrocedent 
 frontal, and extreme negro-like prognathism ; the inter- 
 maxUlaries projecting almost as in the gorilla," and the 
 Lombrive skull of the Reindeer period, which Vogt truly 
 calls " on the whole a noble one :" or between the extremely 
 dolichocephalous and extremely brachycephalous skuUs found 
 in the same sepulchres at Nogent and at Orrony. 
 
 The same contrast seems to exist, in a greater or less 
 degree, between the skulls of the Early Stone period 
 throughout the Continent of Europe. Those of Scandi- 
 navia are decidedly brachycephaKc ; but even in the tombs 
 
70 PEE-HISTORIC KEMAINS 
 
 of Borreby and Moen, nearly one-fourth of tte whole num- 
 ber deviate from that type, and a few are dolichocephalic. 
 
 The Neanderthal and Engis skulls are dolichocephalic, 
 which seems to be the general type of the early cave skulls 
 of Belgium and Germany, though there are some instances 
 of the opposite type ; while in Switzerland the oldest type 
 seems to be, like that of the modern Swiss, square-headed; 
 with some instances of very long and narrow skulls, known 
 as " Apostle skuUs," and thought to be of a later period. 
 
 On the whole, the tendency of opinion seems to be towards 
 the conclusion that as the Quaternary geological period in 
 Europe shows traces of two distinct influences in its fauna — 
 one African, as shown by the remains of the hippopotamus, 
 elephant, and large carnivora ; the other Arctic, as shown 
 by those of the Siberian mammoth and musk ox, and most 
 conclusively by the presence of the reindeer in the South 
 of France — so does it disclose in the earliest traces of man 
 yet discovered two distinct types, one presumably of 
 Southern, the other of Northern origin. 
 
 The great Iberian family, of which an isolated branch 
 still survives among the Basques, seems to have been of the 
 same race as the Berbers of Northern Africa, and both may 
 be modified descendants of a primitive dolichocephalic po- 
 pulation which extended itself northwards, while Western 
 Europe formed one continent with Africa. The discovery 
 by Broca that the Basque type is really dolichocephalic, 
 and not, as formerly supposed, akin to the short-headed 
 Turanian, adds considerable weight to this supposition. 
 The primitive Brachycephali, on the other hand, present a 
 type resembling that of the Turanian races of the North 
 and East, and it can hardly be accidental that skulls re- 
 sembling those of Fins and Lapps should be found asso- 
 ciated with the reindeer and other Arctic animals, wherever 
 their range has extended. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 71 
 
 These two primitive barbarous races meeting probably at 
 the same low ebb of civilization, and equally unprovided 
 with. eflScient weapons, may have occasionally intermingled 
 during the long period of the Stone age, and given rise to 
 intermediate types ; while at a later period superior races of 
 Indo-European origin may have partly extirpated and 
 partly assimilated, or been assimilated by, the old races, 
 on whom they imposed their own language. 
 
 This, I believe, comes nearest to a theory which would 
 account for the great mass of interesting and often appa- 
 rently conflicting facts which have been accumulated during 
 the last few years by the labours of so many distinguished 
 men in the various sciences of geology, anthropology, an- 
 tiquities, and language. On this supposition the Caithness 
 relics described in these pages 'would be those of a secluded 
 tribe of that branch of the primitive race, whose ancestors 
 were the dolichocephali, or long-headed men of the river- 
 beds and long barrows or earliest British tombs, with whom 
 a few of the subsequent and superior races had occasionally 
 mingled, but not in sufficient numbers to alter their arts 
 and habits of life. 
 
 I have hazarded the above observations because I believe 
 that some degree of theory is necessary to explain facts, and 
 useful in inciting that discussion which leads to their verifi- 
 cation. But I am fully sensible that researches into the 
 Scottish Kjokkenmoddings, as extensive and as carefully 
 conducted as into those of Denmark and Switzerland, are 
 required before we can pronoiince with confidence on any 
 one of the important points which has been raised in the 
 preceding pages. All I pretend to say is this, that the result 
 of the first considerable exploration of the Kjokkenmoddings 
 of the North of Scotland, which has yet been made with 
 sufficient accuracy, establishes a prima fade case in sup- 
 port of the following propositions — 
 
72 PKE-HISTOKIC REMAINS 
 
 The succession of a Stone, Bronze, and Iron period, whicli 
 has been established in Scandinavia and Switzerland, has 
 existed also in Scotland. 
 
 The Stone period comprises an early and later period, the 
 former showing a condition of extreme rudeness which con- 
 nects it in all probability with the earliest race of human 
 inhabitants in Britain. 
 
 The character of these remains and of the associated fauna 
 show much analogy with those of the Kjokkenmoddings of 
 Denmark. 
 
 The general type of the race, however, appears to have 
 been very different, and to confirm the theory of "Wilson and 
 other writers, that the earliest inhabitants of North Britain 
 were Kumbo-cephalic, approximating to a Negroid or Aus- 
 traloid rather than to a MongoKan or Arctic type. 
 
 Along with this type, however, appears one of very 
 superior character, similar to that of ordinary ancient 
 Britons, showing that some mixture of races had taken 
 place, while remote tribes stiU lingered on in the rude con- 
 ditions of the early Stone period. 
 
 No conclusive inference can be drawn from the mode of 
 sepulture, it beiag proved in several instances that the simple 
 m.ode of extended interment in a stone kist, covered by a 
 slight mound, which prevailed in early Christian times, was 
 practised also in ages long antecedent by a people ruder and 
 more primitive in their tools, weapons, and food than those 
 who interred their dead in a contracted posture, in massive 
 kists or cromlechs, under more ambitious tumuli. 
 
 It only remains in conclusion to add a few remarks in 
 explanation of the subjoined Plates. It seemed to me that 
 the best mode of presenting a summary of the facts relating 
 to these North British Kjokkenmoddings in the way most 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 73 
 
 likely to lead to useful comparison and further discovery, 
 would be to give, in addition to tlie figures in the text, a 
 series of figures of the most characteristic weapons and im- 
 plements, classified according to their objects, and showing 
 as far as possible the different types, and the progression 
 from the rudest to the most perfect forms of the same type 
 that were found. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 Battle Axe and Spear-heads. 
 
 Fig. 1. Battle Axe from Chief's Kist. 
 ^ actual size. 
 
 This is a block of hard sandstone of the rudest possible 
 form, showing no traces of chipping or griuding. It is in. 
 fact a gigantic flake, apparently struck off at a blow, though 
 it would be a most effective weapon in cleaving the skull of 
 an enemy or wild animal, if used as a chopper in the hand 
 of a brawny savage. It shows so Kttle trace of design that 
 had it not been found in a kist with a number of other 
 weapons, it would certainly have been thrown aside as show- 
 ing no sufficient proof of having been used or manufactured 
 by man. It is interesting from its dissimilarity to any of 
 the rude forms of axes or celts of the Early Stone period, 
 which have been found elsewhere. 
 
 Tig. 2. Spear-head from Chief's Kist. 
 
 ■|- actual size. 
 Fig. 3. Spear-head from Birkle Hill Kist. 
 
 ■| actual size. 
 Fig. 4. Spear-head from Kist No. 9. 
 
 ^ actual size. 
 Fig. 5. Spear-head from Kist No. 9. 
 
 ^ actual size. 
 Fig. 6. Spear-head from Chief's Kist. 
 
 J actual size. 
 
74 
 
 PKE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 Of these spear-heads fig. 2 is excessively rude, heing chipped 
 roughly on one face only ; the others presenting the natural 
 surface of the stone. Fig. 3 is also very slightly chipped 
 into shape. Fig. 4 shows more chipping ; and fig. 5 is stiE 
 more carefully chipped and scraped into shape, and is made 
 to taper at the lower end for insertion into a socket. One 
 of the same pattern as fig. 5, but rather larger, was found in 
 the Harbour Midden. Fig. 6 is of a difierent type, and has 
 been broken at the point, the dotted lines showing the con- 
 jectural restoration. 
 
 PLATE n. 
 
 AeEOW-HE ADS. 
 
 'Fig. 1. Arrow-head from Chief's Kist. 
 
 •J actual size. 
 Figs. 2, 3. Arrow-head from Kist No. 9. 
 
 actual size. 
 Figs. 4, 5. Arrow-heads or small spear-heads, from Kist 
 No. 9. 
 
 actual size. 
 Figs. 6-8. Arrow-heads of bone from Churchyard and 
 Harbour Middens. 
 
 •J actual size. 
 
 Figs. 1, 2, and 3 are very rude ; fig. 4 is more carefully 
 chipped ; and fig. 6 is of improved construction, having been 
 scraped or roughly ground into regular shape, though not 
 polished. 
 
 The bone arrow-heads are extremely rude, and must have 
 been very inefB.cient as weapons. 
 
 All these arrow-heads present more or less of the same 
 type as the spear-heads (figs. 2-5, pi. 1), which is more 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 75 
 
 simple and rude than that of any of the five varieties of 
 flint arrow-heads mentioned by Sir W. R. "Wilde ia his Cata- 
 logue of the Museum of Irish Antiquities, having neither ' 
 barbs, nor any notch, groove, or projection to facilitate at- 
 tachment to a shaft (except in the case of the bone arrow- 
 head, fig. 8). 
 
 The contrast of these to the beautifully finished stone 
 arrows of a later period which are often foimd in the same 
 district, is most striking. 
 
 PLATE m. 
 
 Knives, Sorapbes, ok Chisels. 
 
 Pigs. 1-4. Sandstone knives from Chief's Kist. 
 
 ^ actual size. 
 Fig. 5. Knife from Harbour Midden. 
 
 ■| actual size. 
 Figs. 6, 7. Knives or scrapers from Chief's Kist. 
 
 ■| actual size. 
 Fig. 8. Quartz scraper from Birkle Hill Kist. 
 
 ^ actual size. 
 Fig. 9. Knife or scraper of bone from Harbour Midden. 
 
 •J actual size. 
 Fig. 10. Chisel or scraper of bone from Harbour Midden. 
 
 •| actual size. 
 
 Figs. 1 and 2 are specimens of sandstone knives so very 
 rude and destitute of cutting edge that it is difiicult to 
 imagine their use. Had they not been found in kists with 
 other weapons, they could not have been accepted as showing 
 traces of human construction. 
 
 Figs. 3-5 are sandstone flakes with a tolerably sharp edge, 
 and figs. 6 and 7, though showing little construction, have a 
 very keen edge, considering the nature of the material, and 
 
76 
 
 PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 might have been well used in cutting flesli or Mdes, or even 
 in cutting fresh bone. I have a fac-simile of fig. 7 from a 
 Kjokkenmodding, near Stronness, Orkney, which tends to 
 show that this form was characteristic of the period. It 
 is, in efifect, nothing but a thin flake struck off the flatly 
 circular end of a block of hard sandstone. Fig. 8 was 
 found in a kist with weapons, and being of hard quartz 
 is conjectured to have been used as a scraper to grind the 
 sandstone spears and knives into shape, and give them a 
 sharp point or edge. A similar one was found in another 
 kist with a small deer's horn handle adjoining, which is 
 figured plate v., fig. 8. 
 
 Fig. 9 is a bone knife or scraper very rudely made from a 
 rib. Fig. 10 is a bone implement, much better fashioned, 
 of the form of a chisel, though the edge is hardly sharp 
 enough to have been used otherwise than as a scraper. 
 
 PLATE rV. 
 
 Hammers, Pestles, ob Mauls. 
 
 Fig. 1. Broken oval beach stone used as a hammer. 
 From Midden. 
 ^ actual size. 
 Fig. 2. Beach stone used at smaller end as hammer. 
 From Kist No. 7. 
 ■J actual size. 
 Fig. 3. j^ Stone hammer used at both ends. 
 From Kist No. 9. 
 ^ actual size. 
 Figs. 4r-7. Stone hammers from Middens. 
 
 J actual size. 
 Fig. 8. Stone maul worn at smaller end. 
 From Harbour Midden. 
 J actual size. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 77 
 
 These stone hammers or pounders are the most common 
 and characteristic implements of the North British Kjokken- 
 moddings. They are found in all those which I have 
 examined even cursorily in Caithness and Orkney, though I 
 am not aware that they have been previously noticed in kists. 
 They are mostly smooth beach stones, evidently used without 
 a handle ; but fig. 6 shows a rude commencement of a cir- 
 cular groove or depression for attachment to a handle, and 
 fig. 7 shows some approximation towards the form of the 
 ordinary celt. 
 
 It is remarkable that with this exception there is hardly a 
 single one among the numerous stone relics which shows the 
 least approach to the form of the polished stone celt, which 
 at a later period became the most common tool or weapon 
 used by the living and buried with the dead. 
 
 Fig. 8 is a ponderous block of rather soft sandstone of 
 different and more regular form than any of the others. I 
 conjecture it to have been a maul, used in battle, or for 
 feUiag large animals, as it would have been a deadly 
 weapon for such purposes, while it is not hard enough to 
 have been used for pounding in a stone mortar. It seems to 
 have been fashioned at the base for the reception of a round 
 pole as a handle, in which respect it shows a marked ad- 
 vance; but it must be recollected that it came from the 
 Harbour Midden, where there had been successive occupa- 
 tion, and I cannot be quite certain that it is of the same 
 period as the ruder implements. Connected with these stone 
 hammers or pounders are the stone mortars, which are 
 simply solid blocks of stone with a rudely formed cavity or 
 depression on one side. None of them were circular enough 
 to have been used as querns ; some may have been used as 
 lamps or to hold water ; but on the whole they have more 
 the appearance of being simply mortars, in which bones or 
 possibly grain were pounded by the hand hammers. 
 
78 PKE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 Hefts or Handles. 
 
 Pig. 1. Heft or handle of bone. 
 
 From Harbour Midden. 
 ^ actual size. 
 Fia. 2. Small deer's born bollowed out as a handle. 
 From Churchyard Midden. 
 •J actual size. 
 Fig. 3-7. Hefts or sockets of bone. From Middens. 
 
 ^ actual size. 
 Fig. 8. Deer's horn handle with small quartz chisel or 
 scraper. From Kist No. 9. 
 ■J actual size. 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 Pins, Bodkins, oe Skewees. 
 
 Figs. 1-8. Pias, bodkins, or skewers of bone. 
 From Middens. 
 
 •| actual size. 
 Fig. 9. Well finished bone pin from Upper Midden. 
 
 ■| actual size. 
 
 Figs. 1-6 illustrate the rudest forms, which are Tery 
 common, consisting of mere chips or fragments of bone 
 worked roughly to a point at one end. 
 
 Figs. 7 and 8 show more careful construction, being cut 
 into something like shape with rude heads. Fig. 7 is a 
 common form. Fig. 8 is unique and curious from its rude 
 resemblance to a large iron nail. 
 
 Fig. 9 from the Tipper Harbour Midden of the later occu- 
 pants, illustrates the great progress which had been made 
 from the first rude implements. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 79 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 MlSOELLANEOTTS. 
 
 Figs. 1-3. "WTiorls of stone, from Middens. 
 
 ^ actual size. 
 Figs. 4-6. Whorls of bone, from Middens. 
 
 ^ actual size. 
 Fig. 7. Thin piece of bone cut into the form of a 
 triangle. From Harbour Midden. 
 ^ actual size. 
 Fig. 8. Broken circular stone plate, showing indenta- 
 tion on opposite sides. From outside 
 of Chief's Kist. 
 ^ actual size. 
 Fig. 9. Stone block with circular indentation on oppo- 
 site sides. From outside of Chief's 
 Kist. 
 ^ actual size. 
 
 Fig. 7 is cut very exactly into the form of an equilateral 
 triangle. I never saw anything like it, and conjecture it to 
 have been a charm or amulet. It was from the upper half 
 of the Harbour Midden, and may have belonged to the later 
 occupants. 
 
CPLJi9:E I. 
 
 Ecbttle fixs and Spear-heads. 
 
;firrow-heads. 
 
Knives, Scrapers, or Ghisels. 
 1 
 
 <PLji1E III. 
 
<PL:fi1E ir. 
 
 Hammers, (Pestles, or Jdauls. 
 
 S 8 
 
Hefts or Handles. 
 
 cpl^.9:e V. 
 
 III! 
 
 (^ 
 
 
 
 v^y 
 
 
 
 f' , . 
 
 
 
 ^^- 
 
 V. 
 
 
(PLjiiE ri. 
 
 (Pins, ^odkins, or Bkewers. 
 
 S 3 4- S 
 
J^isaellaneous. 
 S 3 
 
 (PLsfiTE VII. 
 
 ^01 (\' ,n r 
 
NOTES 
 UPON THE HUMAN EEMAINS, 
 
 THOMAS H. HTJXLET, ]F.R.S. 
 
NOTES 
 
 UPON THE 
 
 HUMAN REMAINS FEOM KEISS. 
 
 BY 
 
 THOMAS H. HUXLEY, P.E.S. 
 
 THE tuman remains from Keiss submitted to me by Mr. 
 Laing consist of the greater part of one skeleton ■with 
 many portions of others; and comprise nine skulls and 
 fragments of skulls, with four more or less complete pelves 
 belonging to certain of the skulls, besides bones of the limbs 
 and of other regions of the body. 
 
 What I have to say respecting them will be arranged 
 under the following heads : 
 
 I. A description of the human remains from Keiss. 
 
 II. A comparison of these remains with one another and 
 a discussion of their ethnological characters. 
 
 In describing the crania I shall adopt, in principle, and 
 mainly, in detail, the convenient nomenclature which has 
 been gradually developed by Retzius, Broca, Welcker, and 
 Thurnam, and which is employed by the latter writer in his 
 valuable essay " On the Principal Forms of Ancient British 
 and Gaulish Skulls." The term cephalic index, in this no- 
 menclature, indicates the ratio of the extreme transverse to 
 the extreme longitudinal diameter of a skull, the latter mea- 
 surement being taken as unity. Skulls with a cephalic index 
 of 0.8, or more, are Brachy cephalic* or "round." Those 
 
 * " BracliycephaUo " is of course in strictness applicable to the people to whom 
 the skulls belong ; but custom has sanctioned the looser use of the word. 
 
 7 
 
84 PEE-HISTOEIC EEMAINS 
 
 with the cephalic index less than 0.8 are Dolichocephalic. 
 It is in this sense that the terms dolichocephalic and bra- 
 chycephalic were used by their inventor Retzius, so far as he 
 defined them at all : 
 
 "Vous me demandez les caracteres distinctifs entre la 
 forme brachycephale et dolichocephale ! Je ne yeux pas 
 encore determiner quelques mesures fixes pour les distinguer ; 
 mais, eL I'ordinaire, le diametre longitudinal des dolichoc^- 
 phales surpasse la largeur d'environ J, tandis que chez les 
 brachj^c^phales cette difference varie entre 3-|." ("Ethno- 
 logische Schriften," p. 118). 
 
 As Retzius considers the Swedish skulls with an index 
 of .773 {I.e. page 4) to be eminently dolichocephalic, he 
 must mean by the above expression, that, in a dolichoce- 
 phalic skull, the long diameter exceeds the short by at 
 least a fourth of that short diameter. In other words that 
 the length is, at least, as 1000 : 800. If he had meant 
 that the long diameter exceeds the short only by one- 
 fourth of the long diameter, no skull would have been doli- 
 chocephalic unless the long diameter had to the short the 
 proportion of 1000 : 750, a definition which would exclude 
 his Swedish skulls from the dolichocephalic group. For this 
 reason I must dissent from the interpretation which the 
 editor of Retzius' Ethnologische Schriften puts upon his 
 author's words {I.e. page 121, note). But apart from any 
 question as to what may have been Retzius' meaniag, the 
 terms brachycephalic and dolichocephalic have been so exten- 
 sively used, in this country and elsewhere, to denote skulls 
 with the cephalic index above and below 0.8 respectively, 
 that great inconvenience would result from attaching any 
 other signification to them. 
 
 While objecting, however, to the use of " dolichocephalic " 
 in any new sense, I quite agree with Broca, Welcker and 
 Thurnam in thinking it expedient to sub-divide the dolicho- 
 
The ahull f[o. 7. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 1. — Norma lateralis. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Norma verticalw. 
 
 *H5* In the lateral, front, and back views of this and all other slralls figured, Mr. 
 Busk's method of placing the skull has been adopted. A plane traversing the 
 auditory meatuses and the junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures is vertical. 
 In the "norma vertiealis" the centre of such a plane is traversed by the line of 
 sight. AH the drawings are reduced to one-third of the natural size of the skulls. 
 
e'h.e Skull JTo. 7. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 vw 
 
 Fig. 3. — Norma frontalis. Fig. 4. — Norma occipitalis. 
 
 Fig. 5. — TAe palate. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 85 
 
 cephalic division ; and, in doing this, I shall adopt the very 
 conTenient grouping suggested by Dr. Thurnam, who ar- 
 ranges the cephalic indices below .80 into four groups : 
 
 I. II. III. IV. 
 
 (.79 .78 .77) ; (.76 .75 .74) ; (.73 .72 .71) ; (.70 and below). 
 
 To 1^0. I. Dr. Thurnam gives the name suh-hrachycephalic 
 used by M. Broca, and which I shall adopt, though not without 
 some reluctance, on account of its etymological hybridity. 
 
 lio. II. is the orthocephalic division. 
 
 No. III. is called suMoUchocej^halic, and No. IV. dolichoce- 
 phalic, by Dr. Thurnam ; but I object to both names for the 
 reasons given above, and I substitute for No. II. the title of 
 mecocephalic, and for No. III. meeistocephalic. Finally, I pro- 
 pose to sub-divide the Brachycephali into Eurycephali, with 
 the cephalic index .80 to .84, and Brachistocephali, with the 
 cephalic iadex .85 and above. The following table will 
 make this terminology plain, and exhibit its relations to 
 that already in use : 
 
 Cephalic index, at or a'bove .80= I. Bkachtcephali, round skulls. 
 
 ,, at or above .85= Srachistoeepliali, 
 
 „ below .85 and at or above .80= Eurycephali. 
 
 Cephalic index, below. 80 = 11. Dolichocephali, long stuUs. 
 
 „ below .80 and at or above .77= a. Sub-brachyeephali, 
 
 „ below .77 ,, .74 = b. Orthocephali, 
 
 „ below .74 „ .71 = V. Mecocephali, 
 
 „ below .71 = d. Mecistocephali, oblong 
 
 skulls. 
 
 I.— A DESCEIPTIOlSr OF THE HUMAN EEMAINS 
 EROM ZEISS. 
 
 I now proceed to describe the six skulls from Keiss and 
 the other bones associated with them, indicating each set by 
 the numbers affixed to them by Mr. Laing. 
 
 1. The Bones marked N'o. 7. 
 The skull (figs. 1 to 5), though slightly damaged, is in a 
 
 oval 
 skulls. 
 
86 
 
 PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 very fair state of preservation, and is a remarkably well 
 formed and spacious cranium. The cephalic index is 0.78, 
 and it therefore belongs to the sub-brachycephalic division. 
 
 The nasal depression and the supraciliary prominences are 
 moderate ; the forehead is well arched, though not high, and 
 rises almost vertically from the brows. The superior curved 
 Hne is well developed, and the occipital spine is strong ; but 
 the broad and convex occiput projects beyond it, when the 
 glabello-occipital line is made horizontal. 
 
 The coronal suture is traceable throughout ; the sagittal 
 and the middle part of the lambdoidal are almost completely 
 obliterated. A flat, broad depression runs along the middle 
 line of the skull, in the region of the posterior half of the 
 sagittal suture (fig. 2). 
 
 The upper contour of the squamosal is nearly straight ; the 
 mastoid processes large and prominent ; the nasal bones well 
 developed and projecting. The upper jaw is massive, with 
 a sharp and strongly marked spina nasalis anterior. But there 
 is no prognathism and the outer surface of the alveolar re- 
 gion is almost perpendicular. The lower jaw has very massive 
 horizontal and perpendicular branches, and the mental pro- 
 minence is so well marked that, when the zygoma is hori- 
 zontal, the chin projects as far as the level of the extremities 
 of the nasal bones. 
 
 In the upper view (or norma verticalis) of the skull (fig. 2) 
 its broad and rounded figure is well displayed, and it will 
 be observed that no part of either the jaws or the zygomata 
 is visible. The front view {norma frontalis) (fig. 3) exhibits 
 the massiveness of the jaws, which yet in no wise pre- 
 dominate over the brain case. The upper jaw, in fact, is 
 not so round and full iu front as might be anticipated 
 from the general mass of the facial region. The arch of the 
 palate is consequently (fig. 5) particularly acute, and the fore 
 part of the face looks, as it were, pinched. In accordance 
 
Pelvis of JTo. 7. 
 
 
 Pio. 6. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Front view. Fig. 7. — Side view. 
 
 Fig. 8.— View perpendicular to the plane of the brim. 
 
 ♦»* In tiiese and all the other figures of pelves, the front and eide views are ta^en 
 from the pelvis in such a position that the body of the ischium is vertical. The 
 figures are one-fourth of the natural size. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 87 
 
 witL. this, the nasal bones are prominent, and meet at an acute 
 angle, so as to form a dorsal ridge in the upper part of their 
 extent. The back view [norma occipitalis) (fig. 4) shows the 
 rounding off of the parietal and sagittal regions, so that 
 the contour is more arched than pentagonal, and, further- 
 more, reveals a slight want of symmetry in the two sides. 
 The palate (fig. 5) is remarkably deep and rather narrow, 
 measuring 1.95 in. from the incisor alveolar margin to the 
 level of the posterior boundary on each side ; 1.6 in. opposite 
 the two last molar teeth where it is broadest ; and having a 
 depth of 0.67 in. from the roof to the alveolar margin, where 
 it is deepest, which is at a point close to the posterior edge. 
 
 The occipital foramen is directed downwards and forwards. 
 The mastoid processes are large, the supra- auditory ridges 
 strong, and the styloid processes are strong and well ossified. 
 The left upper caniae is thrust iawards out of its place, 
 while in the lower jaw the teeth are regular. In both jaws, 
 the enamel of the incisors and of the molars is worn away so 
 as to expose the dentiue, but there is no symptom of decay 
 in any of the teeth. 
 
 The sacrum and three fragments of the left innominate 
 bone belonging to the same skeleton as the skull No. 7 were 
 obtained by Mr. Laing. When they were carefully put 
 together, and the right innominate bone was restored after 
 the model of the left, the result was the pelvis represented in 
 figs. 6-8, which are reduced to one-fourth of the natural size. 
 The transverse diameter of the brim of the pelvis is, as nearly 
 as I can judge from measurement of the specimen, 4.6 in. — the 
 figure making this diameter slightly too small. The oblique 
 diameter is equal to the transverse. The promontory of the 
 sacrum is broken away, whence the precise ascertainment of 
 the antero-posterior diameter becomes impossible, but it 
 cannot have exceeded 3.8 in. The sacrum is markedly eon- 
 cave forwards, the pubic angles acute, the descending rami 
 
00 PEE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 of the pubis are straight and not arcuated, and the true 
 pelvis is deep. In fact, this is a well marked male pelvis 
 differing in no important respect from the ordinary pelvis 
 of the European male, though it is rather smaller than the 
 average. From the measurements of the sacrum and those 
 of the acetabulum, I conceive that the stature of No. 7 
 must have been below, rather than above, the middle height, 
 perhaps five feet four or five iaches. 
 
 2. The Bones marked No. 8. 
 
 The skull is orthocephalic, the cephalic index being 0.76. 
 The calvaria is remarkable for the projection of the supra- 
 ciliary ridges, caused by the great development of the frontal 
 sinuses, the prominences formed by which are separated by 
 ^ but a very slight median depression. The forehead is low, 
 narrow and receding, and the median contoiir of the skull 
 slopes from it, gradually upwards, towards the vertex. The 
 occipital spine is very strong, curved, and prominent, and -the 
 cerebellar region below it, strongly convex downwards. The 
 supra-auditory ridge and the mastoid processes are very 
 strong, and the styloid processes seem to have been no less so. 
 The norma verticalis (fig. 10) shows that the skull is narrower 
 in the frontal region and widens out towards the parietal 
 tuberosities. The sagittal and lambdoidal sutures are open 
 throughout ; the coronal is open above, but is obliterated for 
 about an inch and a half at each of its outer ends. There 
 is a large Wormian bone in the right cms of the lambdoid 
 suture. The norma occipitalis (fig. 12) shows that the trans- 
 verse contour of the skull inclines to be pentagonal and wall- 
 sided. 
 
 The facial bones of this skull were entirely detached, and, 
 like the base of the skull, much broken. However, of the 
 lower jaw rather more than the left half was entire j and 
 
Fio. 9. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 .^^ler 
 
 
 »■■:;::" -^^ 
 
 •-^n-,. 
 
 
 Fig. 9.— iVo?-)na lateralis. Fig. 10.— iVOT-ma verticalis 
 
g:he Skull jvo. ^. 
 
 Pio. il. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Fig. n. 
 
 \wv 
 
 Fig ll.-iVbm« /rmta/is. ]?IG- I'i.-Norma occipitalis. 
 
 Fig. 13.— JPa^afe andpai-t of the lower, jaw. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 89 
 
 of the face tlie left jugal, left maxilla, and part of the right 
 maxilla were preserved. Consequently, by articulatiag the 
 mandible, making its median line coincide with that of the 
 skull, and then adjusting the teeth of the fragmentary upper 
 jaw to those of the lower, and the jugal to the external 
 orbital process of the frontal, it was possible to restore the 
 left half of the face, as in fig. 9. The prognathism of the 
 skull thus restored is remarkable, especially since the front 
 walls of the alveoli, in the-premaxillary region and in the 
 front part of the lower jaw, are broken away ; the front tooth 
 shown in the figure, being the canine in the upper jaw, and 
 the outer incisor in the lower. 
 
 The axis of the foramen magnum — that is, a line drawn 
 perpendicularly to its plane and through its centre — of this 
 skull is directed, not downwards and forwards, as in human 
 skulls in general, but downwards and backwards. 
 
 The sacrum, though it consists of only the ordinary five 
 vertebrae, is as long as it is broad, and has a well marked 
 anterior concavity. The greater sacro-sciatic notch is not 
 more open than usual ; the true pelvis is deep, and all the 
 ridges and tuberosities of the bones are well developed. The 
 axes of the acetabula are directed well forwards as well as 
 outwards (figs. 14, 15, 16). 
 
 The vertebral fragments consist of the neural arches and 
 attached posterior segments of the bodies of the second and 
 third lumbar vertebrae. The fragments are naturally ad- 
 justed, and the distance from the upper face of the body of 
 the one to the lower face of the body of the next, under 
 these circumstances, is 2.6 ia., which gives a height of 1.3 ia. 
 for each vertebra. The spinous processes, transverse pro- 
 cesses, metapophysial and anapophysial tubercles are all re- 
 markably strong and well developed. 
 
 The other bones belonging to ISTo. 8 are the greater 
 part of each innominate bone, the right and left femora 
 
90 
 
 PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 and tiMsB, the two humeri, minus their proximal ends, 
 and some fragments of the fibulae and lumbar vertebrsB. 
 On carefully joining the sacrum with the fragmentary in- 
 nominate bones, the result was the pelvis represented in 
 figs. 14-16. As the pubis and the ascending ramus of the 
 ischium of each side are wanting, aU the measurements of 
 the brim cannot be ascertained. Its transverse diameter, 
 however, is 4.7 in., and from the direction of what is pre- 
 served of the lateral boundaries (fig. 16), I do not believe 
 the conjugate diameter exceeded 4.0 in. 
 
 There is nothing worthy of special notice about the other 
 bones, except that they are strong, and have aU their pro- 
 cesses and ridges well developed. The femur is 18.7 in. long, 
 which, by computation, would give the stature at 5 ft. 8 in. 
 But the tibiae are only 14.7 in. long, or nearly an inch 
 shorter than they should be, in proportion to the length of 
 the thigh bone. This deficit may have been made up by an 
 unusual length of the strong spine, but it is quite safe to 
 assume sixty-eight inches as the maximum height which 
 this iadividual can have possessed. 
 
 3. The Bones marked No. 2. 
 
 The skull is small, measuring only 6.9 in. ia length by 
 5.4in. in breadth. It belongs, consequently, to the sub- 
 brachycephalic group, the cephalic index being 0.78. The 
 supraciliary ridges are but little developed, and though the 
 nasal bones are absent, the space for their insertion extends 
 so far as to show that the nasal depression must have been 
 very slight and shallow. The contour of the forehead ia 
 somewhat receding, the occiput rounded and projecting be- 
 yond the occipital spine, which is but feebly marked, and 
 below which the cerebellar regions are full and convex. The 
 styloid and mastoid processes are not large, but the upper 
 

 
 
 FlO. 14. 
 
 r 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 r'j. 
 
 
 FiQ. 15. 
 
 Fig. le. 
 
 Fig. 14. JiVoni otot. 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 Fig. 15. Side view, 
 to the plane of the hrim. 
 
The Skull JTo. S. 
 
 Fio. 17. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 Fig. 17. — Norma lateralis. 
 
 Fig. 18. — Norma vertiealis. 
 
Ihe Skull JTo. S. 
 
 t S. 
 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 V/* 
 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 Fig. 19. — Norma frontalis. Fig. 20. — Norma occipitalis. 
 
 Fig. 21. — Palate and horizontal rami of the lower jaw. 
 
Pelvis of JTo. S. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 Figs. 22, 23, 24. — Three views corresponding with those given in Figs. 6, 7, 8. 
 
or CAITHNESS. 91 
 
 boundaries of tte temporal fossae are defined by well-marked 
 ridges and grooves (fig. 17). 
 
 In tbe norma verticalis (fig. 18) tbe contour of the skull 
 appears pretty evenly oval, and in the norma frontalis (fig. 19) 
 and occipitalis (fig. 20) it is well rounded and free from angles. 
 
 Corresponding with the posterior half of the sagittal 
 suture, there ia a remarkable flattening of the vertex, which 
 is hardly noticeable in the true profile view of the skull, 
 but becomes very obvious when the skull is turned a little 
 obliquely. The middle three-fifths of the sagittal suture 
 are obKterated, but the coronal and lambdoidal sutures are 
 open throughout. The axis of the occipital foramen looks 
 downwards and a little forwards. 
 
 The facial region is relatively small, and the bones deli- 
 cate. The upper jaw exhibits a distinctly marked alveolar 
 prognathism; the palate is narrowed, and its arch some- 
 what acuminated in front (fig. 21). The lower jaw has a 
 weU. developed mental prominence. The wisdom teeth have 
 been cut, on both sides, in this jaw, but that on the left side, 
 which is alone retained, is not much worn. 
 
 The other bones belonging to JSTo. 2 are a complete pelvis, 
 a right femur, tibia, and fibula, a left humerus, radius, and 
 ulna. The length of the femur is 16.75 in. ; the mutilated 
 right tibia could not have been less than 14 in. long. The 
 humerus is 12.5 in. long, the radius not more than 9.1 in. 
 The stature of this individual, therefore, probably did not 
 exceed 5 ft. or 5 ft. 1 in. Taking this circumstance, together 
 with the slenderness of the bones and the general aspect of 
 the skull, into consideration, I should be disposed to suspect 
 the sex to be female, apart from the characters of the pelvis, 
 which are in many ways remarkable and indeed anomalous. 
 
 The pelvis, in. fact, is not more like that of the ordinary 
 European female than it is like that of the ordinary European 
 male (figs. 22-24). The bones composing it are light and 
 
 9 
 
92 PKE-HISTOKIC REMAINS 
 
 slender. The sacrum consists of five vertebrae, and has a 
 strongly marked anterior concavity. The ilia are as vertical 
 as ia an ordinary male pelvis. The axes of the acetabula 
 are not more backwardly directed ; the arch of the pubis 
 does not exceed 60°, and the edges of the descending 
 rami of the pubes are not widely arcuated. Further 
 more, the depth of the true pelvis, from the Oiopectiiieal 
 eminence to the tuberosity of the ischium, is 3.9 in., which, 
 though not so great as in a characteristic male pelvis, 
 is considerably greater than in a characteristic female one. 
 The distance between the inner faces of the tuberosities of 
 the ischium is not more than 3.8 in., or more than is usual in 
 the male, less than is usual in the female. In the ordinary 
 European pelvis, both male and female, the transverse 
 diameter of the brim usually greatly exceeds the conjugate, 
 or antero-posterior, diameter. In this pelvis the conjugate 
 diameter exceeds the transverse by about three-tenths of an 
 inch, and amounts to fully 4.9 in. Again, the antero-posterior 
 diameter of the cavity of the true pelvis is 6.4 in., which 
 far exceeds any dimensions of an ordinary pelvis of either 
 sex ; and, in correspondence with this circumstance, the 
 greater sacro-sciatic notch is exceedingly wide and open 
 (fig. 23). 
 
 Notwithstanding the many male characters of this pelvis, 
 I am led, partly, by its absolute spaciousness ; partly, by the 
 resemblance which it presents to the aberrant form of pelvis 
 sometimes observed in the European female, and described 
 by Weber as "wedge-shaped;" and, partly, by the features 
 of the rest of the skeleton, to consider it as really that of a 
 female. I may add, that though the pelvis is quite sym- 
 metrical, and exhibits no sign of distortion, there are exos- 
 toses upon the front faces of the two pubes near the sym- 
 physis, and upon the iHa and sacrum in the region of the 
 synchondroses. 
 
Ihe Skull JJo. 1. 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 fflG. 26. 
 
 \N-H/ 
 Fig. 25. — Norma lateralis. 
 
 Pig. 26. — Norma verticalis. 
 
Ihe Skull J^o. 1. 
 
 Pig. 27. 
 
 
 ■Vk. ^»«i. 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 Pig. 2,7-— Norma frontalis. 
 PiQ. 29.— PaZote. 
 
 Fig. 28. — Norma occipitalis. 
 Pig. 30. — TAe WjA< clavicle. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 93 
 
 4. The Bones marked No. 1. 
 
 Tlie bones marked No. 1 constitute the greater part of one 
 skeleton, which is, ia many respects, the most remarkable of 
 all those obtained from Keiss. 
 
 The cranium (figs. 25-29) is mecocephalic, the cephalic 
 index being as low as .73. The nasal depression is but slight, 
 and the supracHiary prominences small. The longitudinal 
 contour (fig. 25) of the long, low, and narrow calvaria passes 
 from the prominent glabella upwards and backwards ; and, 
 from the frontal angulation, slopes still upwards and back- 
 wards to the vertex, which lies at about the middle of the 
 length of the parietal bones. The occiput is rounded, and 
 projects beyond the occipital spine, which, like the superior 
 curved lines, is hardly at all developed. The cerebellar 
 region, or concepiaculum cerehelli, is indicated by a strong 
 convexity ; the mastoid processes are small, and the supra- 
 auditory ridges moderate ; the styloid processes are long and 
 strong. 
 
 The coronary, sagittal, and lambdoidal sutures are all 
 open, and there is a marked median depression corresponding 
 with the posterior half of the sagittal suture. The parietal 
 foramina are inconspicuous. The axis of the occipital fora- 
 men looks downwards and forwards. 
 
 The face is not large in relation to the skull, but it is sin- 
 gularly prognathous, the inclination of the alveolar margin 
 being very marked, and causing the upper incisor teeth to 
 project beyond the lower ones. The angles of the lower jaw 
 are rounded ofi', and the mental prominence projects strongly. 
 The palate is elongated (fig. 29). The outer surfaces of the 
 nasal bones meet at an acute angle, so as to give rise to a 
 median ridge. 
 
 The norma occipitalis (fig. 28) shows the transverse contour 
 of this skull to be nearly pentagonal. 
 
94 PKE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 The teeth are not larger than is usual among Europeans. 
 The wisdom teeth are cut in both jaws ; they are distinctly 
 smaller than the other molars and are slightly worn. 
 
 The femora are 15.8 in. long, whence the stature should 
 not exceed fifty-eight inches, or 4 ft. 10 in., a conclusion 
 which is confirmed by the dimensions of other parts of the 
 body. Thus, when the bones of the thigh, leg, and foot are 
 adjusted together in their natural position, the whole length 
 of the limb from the upper surface of the head of the femur 
 to the under surface of the calcanexun is 30| inches. But 
 the length of the leg measured in this way is always more 
 than equal to the half height of the body, and in this case 
 was probably from one to two inches less, which would bring 
 us to the same stature as by the preceding computation. The 
 limb bones are remarkable for the combination of strength 
 and slenderness which they present. 
 
 The pelvis (figs. 31-33) is unfortunately incomplete in its 
 symphysial region, but what there is of it is exceedingly 
 interesting. The sacrum is broad, wider than it is long, 
 and its anterior concavity is well marked. The ilia have 
 broad, concave, and obliquely inclined upper surfaces. 
 
 The transverse diameter of the brim of the pelvis is 
 5.1 in. In consequence of the absence of the symphysis, and 
 the broken state of the promontory of the sacrum, the con- 
 jugate diameter cannot be accurately ascertained, but it was 
 certainly not less, while it probably was more, than 4.5 in. 
 The subpubic arch has the characteristic width, rounded 
 summit, and flanged out pubic boundaries observed in a well- 
 formed European female. The distance from the ilio-pecti- 
 neal eminence to the ischial tuberosity is only 3.6 in., which 
 is rather less than the average depth in the well formed 
 female European, so that the true pelvis has the charac- 
 teristic female shallowness. 
 
 But this pelvis departs from the ordinary type of the well 
 
OF CAITHNESS, 95 
 
 formed European female in the great antero-posterior diame- 
 ter of its cavity, wMcli must have amounted to at least 
 5.3 in. while in the average European female this dimension 
 does not exceed 4.8 in. In correspondence with this devia- 
 tion from the ordinary type the sacro- sciatic notch is un- 
 usually wide. 
 
 There can he no douht from the characters of the pelvis 
 and from those of other parts of this skeleton, that it apper- 
 tains to a female. 
 
 5. The Bones marked No. 3. 
 
 These hones consist of a very perfect and heautiful skuU 
 (figs. 34-38), a left femur, and a right humerus. 
 
 The skull is orthocephalic (.76) and is that of an adult hut 
 young person ; as the last molar tooth has made its appear- 
 ance only on the right side of the upper jaw, and the enamel 
 is preserved on all the molars, though the edges of the 
 incisors are worn flat. 
 
 The nasal depression is very slight, the glabella prominent, 
 but the supraciliary ridges little developed. The forehead is 
 well formed and high. There is a slight flattening of the 
 calvaria in the posterior parietal region, which is not quite 
 sufficiently indicated in fig. 34. The occiput above the 
 superior curved line is protuberant ; the occipital spine is but 
 slightly developed, and the cerebellar region is convex. The 
 axis of the occipital foramen looks downwards and forwards. 
 
 The mastoid and styloid processes are moderately developed. 
 The supra-auditory and supra-temporal ridges are but little 
 marked. The spina nasalis anterior is well developed, and 
 the alveolar surface of the premaxiUee is nearly perpen- 
 dicular. The coronal and sagittal sutures are becoming 
 obliterated. The parietal foramina are remarkably con- 
 spicuous, and symmetrically disposed. 
 
PKE-HISTORIC BEMAINS 
 
 In the norma occipitalis (fig. 37) all the angles of the 
 transverse contour are completely rounded off. 
 
 The mandible has a strong mental prominence, its angles 
 are incurved, and the lower contour of the horizontal por- 
 tion of each ramus is convex. The palate is well arched, 
 and symmetrically proportioned. All the characters of this 
 skull indicate that it belongs to a female under thirty years 
 of age. 
 
 The left femur and the right humerus of this skeleton are 
 preserved. The former is 16.75 in. long, which, if we 
 reckon the length of the femur as .275 of the height, 
 would 'give a stature of about 5 ft. 1 in. The humerus has a 
 length of twelve inches, which is somewhat more than it 
 should be in proportion to the femur. The bones are 
 slender, but the linea aspera of the femur is sharp and 
 prominent. 
 
 6. The bones marked No. 6. 
 
 No. 5 is represented only by a skull, which is a good deal 
 damaged (figs. 39-43). The skull belongs to the orthoce- 
 phalic division, its cephalic iadex being .75. 
 
 The nasal bones unite into a sharp longitudinal ridge. 
 The nasal depression is slight ; the supraciliary protuberances 
 moderate ; the glabella prominent. The forehead is well 
 arched, and the contour of the skull rises as far as a point 
 a little way behind the coronal suture. The upper part of 
 the occipital squama is produced into a protuberance, which 
 projects far beyond the superior curved line and the occipital 
 spine, the latter being hardly distinguishable. The cerebellar 
 region is very convex. The axis of the occipital foranjen 
 looks downwards and forwards. The mastoid processes are 
 small, the supra- auditory and temporal ridges little marked. 
 
 The sagittal suture is completely obliterated ; the coronal 
 is obliterated at its outer ends. 
 
^he BkuU JJo. S. 
 
 Fio. 39. 
 
 «a„„^i.r'"*l 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 Fig. 39. — Norma lateralis. 
 
 Fig. 40. — Norma verticalis. 
 
 The right half of this skull happens to be more perfect than the left. — In 
 the norma lateralis, therefore, the right half of the skull has been drawn 
 and not reversed, so that it conies out as the left half, and can be compared 
 with the corresponding aspects of the other skulls. The other views oi this 
 skull have been taken in the same way. 
 
2'^e Skull f!o. S. 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 , Fig. 42. 
 
 ■*» , Fig. 43. 
 
 Pig. 41. — No^-ma frontalis. Fig. 42. — Norma occij 
 
 Fig. 43.— The palate. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 97 
 
 The palate is long and narrow, and there is marked 
 alveolar prognathism. The mental prominence of the lower 
 jaw is well developed. The wisdom teeth seem all to have 
 been cut, but that on the right side in the lower jaw, which is 
 alone preserved, is hardly at all worn. The other teeth have 
 their cutting and crushing surfaces ground flat. 
 
 The bony framework of this skull is remarkably thin and 
 light ; and its numerous fractures appear to arise, at any 
 rate in part, from this circumstance. 
 
 The norma occipitalis (fig. 42) and frontalis (fig. 41) of the 
 skull show its transverse contour to be much rounded. 
 The norma verticalis (fig. 40) is remarkable for the elongate 
 ovoid figure of the circumference, and for the inequality of 
 the two sides. This appears more marked in the figure than 
 it really is, from the circumstance that one-half of the most 
 protuberant portion of the occiput is fractured, while the 
 other is entire. 
 
 I entertain no doubt that the skull appertained to a female, 
 probably under thirty years of age. 
 
 I am indebted to my friend, William Turner, M.B., 
 Demonstrator of Anatomy in the University of Ediaburgh> 
 for the following very interesting account of some remains 
 of a female skeleton from Keiss, in his possession, which I 
 have not seen. 
 
 " The skull, pelvis, and thigh bones described below were 
 given me some months ago by my friend Dr. Arthur 
 Mitchell. They were found in a stone kist in the ancient 
 burying place on the links of Keiss. The kist was in the 
 same line of graves from which Mr. Laing obtaiaed a female 
 skull in the course of his excavations. The bones form part 
 of a female skeleton, and are in a good state of preservation. 
 The woman to whom they had belonged had apparently 
 reached the middle period of life. 
 
98 
 
 PRE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 The craniiim possesses an elongated oval form. The fore- 
 head is smooth and not receding, the supraciliary ridges and 
 glabella are only faintly marked. The upper region of the 
 frontal bone is somewhat roof- shaped, and the same character 
 is displayed by the anterior part of the parietal region. 
 Posteriorly, the parietal bones curve gradually, backwards and 
 downwards, to the lambdoidal suture, below which the upper 
 squama of the occiput bulges backward in a very decided 
 manner. The occipital muscular ridges and protuberance 
 are faintly marked. The cerebellar fossae are well seen. 
 The sides of the skull are rather flattened. The cranial 
 sutures are all marked externally. 
 
 The nasal bones are aquiline in form. The face is narrow, 
 especially in the region of the upper jaw, and there is no 
 prognathism. The teeth are much worn down on the sur- 
 faces of the crowns, which are flattened, and the dentine is 
 exposed, but there is no decay. This condition of the teeth 
 I have seen, not only in crania fotmd in the more ancient 
 graves, but in those obtained from mediaeval tombs. The 
 angle of the lower jaw is gently rounded, and the symphysis 
 is somewhat pointed. 
 
 The bones of the cranium and face exhibit that general 
 delicacy of structure and absence of strong ridges and pro- 
 cesses which are so characteristic of the female skull. In its 
 general proportions the cranium is strongly dolichocephalic, 
 the bulging of the occipital squama contributing materially 
 to its length. The cranial capacity, taken with fine sand, is 
 89 cubic inches, which places the brain-case quite on a par 
 with, if not somewhat in excess of, the average cranial 
 capacity of the women of our island at the present day. 
 
 The relative proportions of the difierent regions of the 
 skull may be gathered from the following measurements :* — 
 
 * Most of the measurements are taken after the method of Mr. Busk. In 
 estimating the maxillary radius the line is drawn to the most projeotin" part of 
 
(Pelvis of J^o. 1. 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 Pig. 33. 
 
 Figs. 31, 32, 33. — Three views corresponding with those given in Figs. 6, 7, 8. 
 
Ihe Bkull JTo. 3. 
 
 Fw. 34. 
 
 Pio. 35. 
 
 Fro. 34. — Norma laterals. Fig. 35. — Norma verticalis. 
 
<3:he Skull J\^o. 3. 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 rt^mc 
 
 Fig. I 
 
 Fig. &&.— Norma frontalis. Fig. Z7.— Norma occipitalis. 
 
 Fig. SS.—Tlie palate. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 99 
 
 Extreme length, 7.2 in. ; breadth, 5.1 ; height, 5.2. 
 
 Greatest frontal breadth, 4.3 ; parietal, 5.0 ; occipital, 4.3 ; 
 zygomatic, 4.75. 
 
 Maxillary radius, 3.7 ; fronto-nasal, 3.6 ; frontal, 4.3 ; 
 vertical, 4.7 ; parietal, 4.85 ; occipital, 4.3. 
 
 Easi-cranial length, 3.7. Horizontal circumference, 20.3. 
 
 Longitudinal frontal arc, 4.8 j parietal, 5.0 ; occipital, 4.9 ; 
 sum, 14.7. 
 
 Frontal transverse arc, 11.6 ; vertical, 12.0 ; parietal, 13.2; 
 occipital, 10.6. 
 
 Proportion of length to breadth, 70 ; height, 72 ; occipital 
 radius, 59 ; maxillary radius, 5L 
 
 Lower jaw : — Distance between rami, 3.8 in. ; depth at 
 symphysis 1.0; from symphysis to angle, 3.4. 
 
 The pelvis, from the delicacy of the bones, the expanded 
 iliac foss«, the rounded form of the pubic arch, the size of 
 the outlet and inlet, and the roomy cavity, is undoubtedly 
 that of a female. The coccyx and last sacral vertebra, with 
 one antero-superior iliac spine are broken off; in other 
 respects it is complete. Its chief dimensions are as 
 follows : — 
 
 Diameters : — Of the brim — Transverse, 4.5 ia. ; left ob- 
 lique, 4.6 ; right oblique, 4.9 ; conjugate, 4.4. Of the outlet — 
 Between ischial tubera, 4.6 ; between ischial spiaes, 4.3. 
 
 Between most projecting parts of iKac crests, 9.4. 
 
 Between sacro-iliac joints, 4.0. 
 
 Depth of true pelvis — At symphysis, 1.2 ; from pectiaeal 
 eminence to ischial tuber, 3.8. 
 
 Depth of whole pelvis — Between iliac crest and ischial 
 tuber, 7.0 ; between antero-superior spine and ischial tuber, 
 6.0. 
 
 the alveolar arch, teeth not iucluded; similarly, in estimating the depth at the 
 symphysis the teeth are not included. The basi-cranial line is from the anterior 
 margin of Has foramen magnum to the fronto-nasal suture. 
 
 10 
 
100 PEE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 In comparing the various diameters of this pelvis with 
 each other, and with the dimensions of the average female 
 pelvis, certain points of interest may be noted ; the diameters 
 of the inlet, for instance, are considerably below, whilst the 
 transverse diameter of the outlet, at the tubera, is in excess of, 
 the average ; the increased breadth at the latter spot being 
 due to the weU marked eversion of the tuberosities. The 
 transverse diameter at the brim is much below the average, 
 and almost exactly corresponds with the antero-posterior. 
 The difference between the oblique diameters on the right 
 and left sides is due to a want of symmetry in the form of 
 the two innominate bones, which imparts an oblique charac- 
 ter to the entire pelvis. 
 
 The two thigh bones are slender and well formed ; neither 
 they nor the pelvic bones have the muscular ridges strongly 
 developed. Their extreme length is seventeen inches. Cal- 
 culating the height of the skeleton from the length of the 
 thigh bone, one might place it at 5 ft. 4 in." 
 
 .11.— A COMPARISON OP THE HUMAN EEMAINS FROM 
 KEISS WITH ONE ANOTHER AND A DISCUSSION 
 OF THEIR PECULIARITIES. 
 
 A. — The Crania. 
 
 The remains which have been described appertain to 
 seven individuals; of whom two are male and five are 
 female. 
 
 Of the males : 
 
 Cephalic index. 
 No. 7 is (?) in. high; is sub-brachycephalic (0.78) and has an ordinary pelvis. 
 No. 8 is 67-8 in. high; is orthocephalio (0.76) and has an ordinary pelvis. 
 
 mean 0.77 (or sub-brachycephalic). 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 101 
 
 Of the females : 
 
 Cephalic index. 
 
 No. 2 is 61 iu. high; is sub-braohycephalic (0.78) and has an aberrant pelyis. 
 
 No. 1 is 58-9 in. high; is mecocephalic (0.73) and has a pelvis of less re- 
 
 markable character,though 
 slightly modified in the 
 same direction. 
 
 No. 3 is 61 in. high; is orthocephalic (0.76) and no pelvis is preserved. 
 
 No. 5 is (?) in. high ; is orthocephalic (0.75) and is devoid of pelvis. 
 
 No. 9* is 61-2in. high; is mecistocephalic (0.70) has a pelvis nearly re- 
 sembling that of No. 2. 
 
 mean 0,744 (or orthocephalic.) 
 
 Thus the males are, the one somewhat above and the other 
 probably about, the average stature ; while the females are 
 short, none exceeding five feet two or three inches in height. 
 
 The males are, in the mean, shorter headed than the 
 females, in accordance with the usual rule. 
 
 The males both have ordinary pelves ; while it is a most 
 remarkable circumstance that all the female pelves which 
 are preserved differ from the ordinary female pelvis, in the 
 circumstances that the conjugate diameter of the brim or 
 the antero-posterior diameter of the cavity, or both, are un- 
 usually great. In two of the three this aberration goes so far, 
 that the conjugate diameter nearly equals, or even exceeds, 
 the transverse. In the recent state, the transverse diameters 
 were, doubtless, somewhat greater than they appear to be in 
 pelves put together without their synchondrosial cartilages 
 and interpubic ligaments ; but when due allowance is made 
 for this circumstance, the differences between these and the 
 ordinary female pelvis remain but little diminished. 
 
 None of the skulls exhibit paramastoid or pneumatic pro- 
 cesses of the occipital bone ; in none does the squamosal 
 meet the frontal, so as to exclude the parietal from junction 
 with the alisphenoid. None exhibit a persistent iafraorbital 
 
 * That described by Mr. Turner. I should estimate the stature of this indi- 
 vidual at an inch or two less than he does. 
 
102 PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 suture, or a second lachrymal ; or that separation of the 
 lachrymal from the os planum of the ethmoid by the junction 
 of the frontal with the maxiQary, which I have met with in 
 some rare cases in the human skull, and which is a curious 
 pithecoid variation, observed in the gorilla and the chim- 
 panzee, but not in the orang. In all, the occiput forms a 
 distinct projection above the superior curved line and spina 
 occipitalis. There is no excessive development of the supra- 
 ciliary ridges. Only the faintest traces of the premaxillo- 
 maxillary suture are to be seen in any of the skulls. 
 
 Taking the seven skulls as a whole, it will be observed 
 that three are orthocephalic ; two are sub-brachycephalic ; 
 one is mecocephalic ; and one mecistocephalic. None of 
 the skulls come withia the proper brachycephalic group. 
 Nevertheless there are very marked and obvious differences 
 between No. 7 and Nos. 1 and 9. 
 
 The two male skulls Nos. 7 and 8 offer clear differences, 
 which are even more apparent when the skulls themselves 
 are placed side by side, than they seem to be in the figures. 
 Of the five female skulls, Nos. 2 and 3 present resemblances 
 to the male skulls ; but Nos. 5 and 1 difier widely both from 
 one another and from the male skulls. From some camera 
 lucida sketches of No. 9, with which Mr. Turner has kindly 
 favoured me, I judge that No. 9 resembled No. 1 more than 
 any other skull in the collection. 
 
 Four forms — two male and two female — are distinguish- 
 able in this small collection of crania from Keiss. 
 
 Firstly. That characterised by its spacious and broad 
 calvaria, wi^h moderate nasal depression, wide and well- 
 developed forehead, somewhat flat occiput, macrognathous 
 and orthognathous face (No. 7). 
 
 Secondly. That characterised by a calvaria narrower in 
 proportion to its length, especially ia the frontal region, 
 with a strong nasal depression, a narrower and more re- 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 103 
 
 treating forehead, a very promiaent occipital protuberance 
 or prohole, well marked parietal protuberances, and a ma- 
 crognatbous and more prognatbous face (No. 8). 
 
 Tbirdly. Tbat cbaracterised by a long narrow calvaria, 
 witb a pentagonal contour of tbe norma occipitalis, witb a 
 sKgbt nasal depression, a low and retreating forebead, a 
 moderately prominent occiput, and witb jaws wbicb, tbougb 
 not large, are exceedingly prognathous (No. 1). 
 
 Fourthly. That characterised by an elongated oval thin 
 calvaria, with a rounded contour of the norma occipitalis, with 
 a slight nasal depression, moderately well formed forebead, 
 prominent occiput, ill-marked parietal protuberances, and 
 small and but slightly prognathous jaws (ISTo. 5). 
 
 So much for the relations of these skulls to one another. 
 Before I can make their affinities with other forms of 
 European crania apparent, I must attempt to sum up, briefly, 
 the results of tbe researches which, of late years, have been 
 made into the cranial characters of the ancient and present 
 inhabitants of central and north-western Europe. 
 
 In 1864 the Swiss naturalists, Professors Eiitimeyer and 
 His, published their important work entitled " Crania Hel- 
 vetica," which embodies the results of their extensive in- 
 vestigations into the cranial characters of the present and 
 former population of Switzerland, as determined by the skulls 
 contained in ancient and modern burying-places and bone- 
 houses. The work of these learned inquirers has an especial 
 value, from the circumstance that they conducted their in- 
 vestigations and classified their materials as naturalists ; and 
 only when they had arrived, in this way, at a definite classi- 
 fication of the crania, inquired how far their zoological 
 combinations and separations tallied with tbe data furnished 
 by history and archseology. 
 
 Working in this fashion, Messrs. Eiitimeyer and His 
 
104 
 
 PEE-HISTORIC EEMAINS 
 
 found it necessary to distinguisli, among the skulls of the 
 ancient and modern Swiss, four typical forms, which they 
 named after the localities in which they severally predomi- 
 nated, or were first met with. These types are — Firstly, the 
 Disentis type ; secondly, the Sion type ; thirdly, the Hohberg 
 type ; fourthly, the Belair tjrpe.* Of these four types, the 
 Disentis type is brachistocephalic, the average cephalic index 
 of the skulls examined being .865 ; the Sion type is sub- 
 brachycephalic, with the average cephalic index .772 ; the 
 Hohberg type is mecistocephalic, the average cephalic 
 index being .707 ; while the Belair type is orthocephaHc, 
 and has the cephalic index .758. The cephalic index of the 
 Disentis skull varies between .975 and .818 ; that of the 
 Sion type between .819 and .730 ; that of the Hohberg type 
 between .729 and .678; and that of the Belair type be- 
 tween .762 and .728. 
 
 Besides this range of variation within the limits of each 
 type, Eiitimeyer and His recognise many transitional forms 
 between the several types, which they term " Sion-Disentis," 
 " Hohberg-Sion," etc. 
 
 The Disentis skull is short and broad, with the occiput 
 flattened and set almost at a right angle to the vertex and 
 base. The forehead is, for the most part, tolerably broad and 
 high, the face generally orthognathous. The supraciliary 
 ridges are moderately, or little, developed. There is reason 
 to think that skulls of the Disentis type date back to pre- 
 Roman and perhaps to still earlier periods, f However this 
 may be, it is the predominant modem type ; three-fourths 
 of the people of Switzerland having such skulls at the 
 present day. 
 
 • I have not enumerated these types in the same order aa that adopted by 
 Messrs. Eiitimeyer and His. 
 
 t Eiitimeyer and His, I. cit. p. 42. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 105 
 
 The 8ion cranium is characterised by the considerable de- 
 velopment of the occiput backwards, as "well as in breadth 
 and height ; by the strength of the supraciliary arches and 
 the deep nasal depression ; with the smooth rounding of all 
 the contours of the skull. The face is orthognathous, and the 
 nose broad at the base as compared with the Disentis type. 
 
 This form predominates among the skulls of pre-Roman 
 age in Switzerland ; while, at the present day, though it has 
 not altogether diappeared, its occurrence is very scanty. 
 The relative proportions of this and the Disentis type, in 
 ancient times, are therefore the reverse of those which they 
 bear to one another at present. 
 
 The Eohberg tjrpe is marked by the length and narrowness 
 of the skull ; the diminished prominence of the parietal pro- 
 tuberances ; the facet-like manner in which the occipital 
 protuberance projects ; the excess of the height over the 
 breadth of the skull and the occurrence of a sharp sagittal 
 ridge along the vertex. The face is orthognathous. 
 
 Skulls of this type, older than the Roman epoch, have not 
 been met with. They are to be found, but not abundantly, 
 among the present population of Switzerland. 
 
 In the Belair type the skull is long, with small absolute 
 height and flattened vertex ; the contour of the forehead 
 and of the occiput make an angle with that of the vertex >' 
 the supraciliary arches are hardly at all developed ; and the 
 dorsum of the nose is almost vertical ; the face is moderately 
 orthognathous. 
 
 Only half a dozen of these skulls, from graves of the 
 Burgundian epoch, are described. 
 
 South-western Germany is conterminous with the northern 
 frontiers of Switzerland, and it therefore becomes exceed- 
 ingly interesting to compare the conclusions of the Swiss 
 naturalists with the investigations of Professor Ecker as de- 
 
106 PRE-HISTOMC REMAINS 
 
 tailed in Ms "Crania G-ermam£B meridionalis occidentalis," 
 a description of tlie crania of the ancient and modern in- 
 habitants of South-western Germany, pubKshed between 
 1863 and the present year. 
 
 In general, Professor Ecker's results agree in a remarkable 
 manner with those of Eiitimeyer and His, as to the facts of 
 the case. Marked brachycephaly predominates among the 
 modem inhabitants of this part of Grermany ; and to such 
 a degree, that the average cephalic index of two hundred of 
 their skulls was as great as .835. "With some minor dif- 
 ferences, the skulls of the modern Swabians, Bavarians, and 
 Wurtemburgers are formed upon the Disentis type, and 
 resemble those of the modem Swiss. 
 
 But skulls of this form occur only rarely and isolatedly, in 
 the ancient burying-places of south-west Germany, and are 
 especially infrequent in those of the kind called Reihen- 
 grdber. The German archaeologists, in fact, distinguish two 
 kinds of ancient burying-places, one called Hiigel-graher, 
 " grave-mounds ;" and one termed Reihen-graher, " grave- 
 rows," in which last the graves are arranged, side by side, in 
 long series, the feet of the corpse being commonly turned 
 towards the east. Each skeleton is usually buried either in a 
 sarcophagus formed of rough slabs of stone, or in a cof&n 
 consisting of a split trunk of a tree, the two halves of which 
 have been hollowed out with axes, and so converted into a 
 sort of rude box for the body. The dates of these burying- 
 places appear to range, on the one hand, not earlier than 
 the period of the Roman rule in these parts, and, on the 
 other hand, as late as the eighth century. The "grave- 
 rows" are more modern than the "grave-mounds," and 
 good reasons are given for ascribing them to the Franks 
 and Alemanni of the Merovingian period, between the fifth 
 and sixth centuries a.d. The associated weapons are, in the 
 main, of iron. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 107 
 
 The Grace-row skulls, thougli mecooeplialic, are almost me- 
 cistocephalic, tlie mean ceplialic index not rising above .713, 
 wMle the maxima and minima are .784 and .666. The brow 
 is narrow and often low, and the supraciliary ridges generally 
 strongly developed in male skulls, in which case there is a 
 deep nasal depression. The norma occipitalis of the skull 
 may be flatly arched, or gable-like and pentagonal above, the 
 latter being usually the case in male skulls. Their most 
 characteristic feature is the strong development of the upper 
 part of the occipital squama, which projects, and is usually 
 marked off from the vertex by a depression in the region 
 of the smaller fontanelle. 
 
 Professor Ecker justly identifies these "grave-row" skulls, 
 in general, with the Hohberg forms of Riitimeyer and His ; 
 and he considers the Belair type to be no distinct form, but 
 simply one of the female modifications of this type. Among 
 two hundred modern skulls of north-west Germany only one 
 even approximated to this form, so that it may now be con- 
 sidered to be practically extinct in that part of Europe ; but 
 Professor Ecker demonstrates that the type of skull pre- 
 dominant among the present Swedes is identical with it. 
 
 On the other hand, in the old grave-rows, this type pre- 
 dominates, to the exclusion of the modern form of south-west 
 German cranium. In the grave-mounds, which it wiQ be 
 remembered are older than the grave-rows, on the contrary, 
 the crania do not exactly resemble either the grave-row, or 
 the modern, type, but present a form transitional between 
 the two. The grave-mound skulls have a mean cephalic 
 index of .788 ; the maxima and minima beiag .752 and .829- 
 The norma occipitalis is not pentagonal, and the occiput is 
 evenly rounded. 
 
 I am not acquainted with any investigations into the 
 cranial characters of the North Germans made with the same 
 
108 PRE-HISTOKIC REMAINS 
 
 care and detail as those of Professor Ecker, except those of 
 Professor Welcker, of Halle,* who has given the measure- 
 ments of thirty male skulls. It is important to note that 
 Halle is separated from South-western Germany hy the cen- 
 tral European high lands and the region of the old Her- 
 cynian forest. And though it is neither certain nor probable 
 that all the skulls measured by "Welcker proceeded from 
 Halle and its neighbourhood, it is very likely that a large 
 proportion did so, and therefore belonged to the basin of the 
 Elbe and "Weser, and not, like Ecker's crania, to that of the 
 Rhine and Meuse. 
 
 The average cephalic index of all these "Halle" skulls is 
 .805. Twelve are dolichocephalic, or range between .74 and 
 .80 ; eighteen are brachycephalic, or between .80 and .88. 
 None are mecistocephalic or mecocephalic, and only five 
 belong to the orthocephalic division ; thirteen are below 
 .85 (eurycephali), and five range above it (brachistoce- 
 phali). Clearly, therefore, as Welcker was the first to 
 point out (thereby reversing the dictum of Retzius) the 
 Halle Germans are a brachycephalic and not a doli- 
 chocephalic people. But it is no less important to ob- 
 serve, that though absolutely broad-headed, they are long- 
 headed relatively to their south-western countrymen. For 
 we have seen that in a hundred skulls of the latter people 
 the mean cephalic index is .835 ; and none fall into the 
 mecistocephalic, mecocephalic, or orthocephalic division ; 
 only fifteen are even sub-brachycephalic ; while thirty-six 
 are brachistocephalic, the cephalic index risiag to .85 or 
 more. Thus, taking per-centages, there are twice as many 
 skulls with the cephalic index above .85 in South Germany 
 as in Halle, while there are between two and three times 
 as many dolichocephali in Halle as in South Germany. 
 
 • Untersucliimgen iiber 'Waclisthtim und Ban des Menschlichen Schadels. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 10 
 
 Wltli respect to tlie ancient population of this part of 
 Germany very few data have fallen into my hands, or exist, 
 so far as I know. 
 
 Dr. Adolph Friederich,* however, has figured and described 
 seven crania, forming a part of a collection of human 
 skeletons, forty-six in number altogether, discovered in 
 course of levelling an ancient tumulus (" Altgermanische 
 Todtenhugel," — apparently a Grrave-row) at the village of 
 Minsleben, near Wernigerode, in Prussian Saxony, at no 
 very great distance from Halle ; like it lying in the drainage 
 area of the Elbe and adjacent rivers, and separated from the 
 Rhine by the forests and mountains of central Germany. 
 The skeletons, with one exception, lay with their skulls to 
 the west and their feet to the east. In the same mound as 
 that, in and about which, these skeletons were found, lay urns, 
 covered with flat stones and containing burnt bones. But the 
 urns were not inclosed in a stone chamber, and in this 
 respect were like the urns found a quarter of a league further 
 to the east, each of which had a flat, inverted, saucer-like 
 cover. The mound contaiaed urns and fragments of urns of 
 variously formed and ornamented patterns ; with many flint 
 knives and flint arrow-heads. Only in two cases, one the 
 body of a child and the other that of an adult, were rusty 
 iron knives, Ijang on the left side of the thorax, discovered. 
 Of animal bones, only a horse's skull with its upper cervical 
 vertebrae at the feet of a man, and an ornamented horse's 
 lower jaw, were found. Many large fire-places were met 
 with at the bottom of the mound. 
 
 The largest skeleton measured 5 ft. 9 in. in height ; the 
 middle size, 5 ft. 
 
 • In a work entitled " Crania Germanica Hartagowensia, Beschreibung nnd 
 Abbildung Altdeutscher Schadel aus einem Todtenhiigel bei Minsleben in der 
 Grafschaft Wernigerode," 1865. 
 
110 PEE-HISTOKIC EEMAIKS 
 
 On measuring the figures of these skulls, I find their 
 cephalic indices to be as follows : — 
 
 Length. Breadtli. Cephalic index. 
 
 ^°'"; 7:25 5.05 :69 } °^^''i«t°'=eP^^^°- 
 
 III. 7.75 5.5 
 VI. 7.1 5.15 
 
 IV. 7.30 5.45 .74' 
 
 71 ) 
 
 ■yn j mecocephalic. 
 
 vii. 6.8 5.15 .75 j orthocephaKc. 
 
 V. 7.25 5.65 .77 suh-brachycephaKc. 
 
 mean = .72 
 
 Thus these skulls all belong to the dolichocephalic division 
 and the mean measurement of the seven would even place 
 them in the mecocephalic group. 
 
 Dr. Friederich justly remarks upon the resemblance of 
 some of these skulls to the Sion and Hohberg types of His 
 and Riitimeyer. They are, in fact, strikingly like these and 
 the Grave-row skulls of Ecker, but are more prognathous. 
 This prognathism reaches its extreme in No. iii. 
 
 Proceeding stiU further northward, the modern Danes, 
 Swedes, and Norwegians are remarkable for the length of 
 their skulls, and the very general development of an oc- 
 cipital tuber, or prolole. Professor Ecker further points out 
 that the Grave-row skulls of South Germany (and conse- 
 quently the Hohberg forms of E,iitinieyer and His) com- 
 pletely belong to the Scandinavian type; and he figures, not 
 only modern Swedish skulls, but some ancient ones, which 
 with the figures and descriptions given in the recently pub- 
 lished collection of Retzius, "Ethnologische Schriften," fully 
 bear out this conclusion. But since the investigations of 
 Nilsson, Eschricht, and Retzius it has been known that 
 some of the most ancient inhabitants of Denmark and 
 Sweden possessed skulls of far broader form than those of 
 
OF CAITHNESS, 111 
 
 the modern Scandinavians, whence has arisen the doctrine 
 that the latter were preceded by a brachycephalic race. 
 
 Upon this point, Messrs. Davis and Thurnam have given 
 very important information (" Crania Britannica," p. 246-7) 
 by the help of which the precise value of the term " brachy- 
 cephalic," as applied to the ancient Scandinavian skulls, may 
 be tested. 
 
 In thirty- three male skiills from barrows, tumuli, and peat- 
 mosses of Denmark and Sweden measured by these authors, 
 the mean cephalic index does not rise above .78 ; and the 
 average of thirteen female skulls is the same. The highest 
 cephalic index, .85, is attained by only two skulls, one male 
 and one female. 
 
 Of the thirty-three males, one is mecistocephalic, six are 
 mecocephalic, four are orthocephalic, ten are sub-brachyce- 
 phalic ; so that there are twenty-one in the dolichocephalic 
 division : while there are only twelve brachycephaK ; and, of 
 these, but one reaches the limits of brachistocephaly. The 
 cephalic index of an average modern Swedish skull is, ac- 
 cording to Retzius (" Ethnologische Schriften," p. 4) .773. 
 Unfortunately, he gives no series of measurements so as to 
 enable one to classify the skulls in the fashion already 
 adopted. Four Swedish skulls, the measurements of which 
 are stated by Professor Ecker, have the indices .726, .722, 
 .718, .695 = average, .715. Therefore, if Eetzius is right 
 in taking .773 as the average cephalic index, it would appear 
 that a good many Swedish skulls must reach .80, in order to 
 bring the average so high. It is more probable, however, 
 that Eetzius has assumed too high a mean index for 
 the crania of his countrymen. 
 
 On considering the results obtained for the existing popu- 
 lations of Europe, from Switzerland to Scandinavia, we find:* 
 
 * The per-centages given must be regarded merely as approximatively correct. 
 
112 
 
 PEE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 1. That tte Swiss are three-fourtlis brachyceplialic ; bra- 
 chistoceplialy being of frequent occurrence. 
 
 2. That of the South-west Germans, 85 per cent, are 
 brachy cephalic, 36 per cent, brachistocephalic, while only 
 15 per cent, are dolichocephalic. 
 
 3. That of the Halle Germans, a smaller proportion (60 
 per cent) are brachycephalic, and, of these, only 16 per cent, 
 brachistocephalic, while the dolichocephali increase to 40 
 per cent. 
 
 4. That, among the modern Scandinavians, it is almost 
 certain that none are brachistocephalic, and very few even 
 brachycephalic ; the great proportion being dolichocephali, 
 and a large per-centage meco- and mecistocephali. 
 
 Thus, looking to the modern populations alone, there is 
 every stage from brachistocephaly to mecistocephaly to be 
 met with between Switzerland and Scandinavia — ^brachyce- 
 phaly diminishing and dolichocephaly increasing with the 
 latitude. 
 
 On the other hand, 
 
 1. The ancient Swiss, whose remains are preserved, were, 
 at a certain epoch, almost whoUy dolichocephali, with a 
 small per centage of brachycephali. 
 
 2. The cephalic index of the ancient South-west Germans 
 — Grave-mound and Grave-row skulls together — varied be- 
 tween .839 and .666 : the average of the two types being 
 .75. They were, therefore, mainly dolichocephali, with a 
 small per centage of brachycephali, and no brachisto- 
 cephali. 
 
 3. The cephalic iadices of the crania of the ancient North 
 Germans of Minsleben vary between .77 and .68 and have a 
 mean of .72. These people were, therefore, eminently doli- 
 chocephalic. 
 
 4. The ancient Scandinavians of Borreby, Moen, and other 
 localities, have an average cephaKc index of .78 ; the range 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 113 
 
 being between .85 and .72. Thirty-six per cent, are brachy- 
 cepbalic ; but only one in a hundred is bracMstocepbalic. 
 
 Leaviag the North Germans of Minsleben out of con- 
 sideration for the present, on account of the small number of 
 skuUs examined, it appears that, at the epoch to which the 
 skulls, here called " ancient," belonged, the extreme brachy- 
 cephaly of the modern Swiss and South Germans was not 
 to be met with in any of the localities hitherto examined ; 
 but that the most brachycephalic people were the Scan- 
 dinavians, and the least so the ancient Swiss and Germans, 
 thus, in a measure, reversing the existing order of things. 
 
 But it is to be carefully observed that the brachycephaly of 
 ancient Scandiaavia is a very diflferent matter from that of 
 modern Switzerland or South Germany; that, in fact, the 
 ancient Scandinavians are far below even the Halle Ger- 
 mans (with 60 per cent, of brachycephaly) in this respect, 
 and are but very little above the ancient South Germans, 
 (if we combine both Grave-mound and Grave-row types,) 
 while they are, as nearly as may be, equal to the Grave- 
 m.ound type, the mean cephalic index of which is .788. 
 
 Thus, so far as our evidence goes, no ancient European 
 people from Switzerland to Scandinavia was, as a whole, 
 brachycephalic in the sense that the Halle Germans, still 
 less in the sense that the Swiss and South Germans, are so. 
 Brachycephaly amountiag to 50 per cent, is a characteristic 
 of modern populations in the localities, and within the period, 
 now under discussion. 
 
 If, instead of taking a north and south line from Switzer- 
 land we attempt to follow an east and west one, and work 
 out the craniology of France in the same way, we find that 
 precise and detailed information concerning the cranial cha- 
 racters of the inhabitants of ancient and modern France is 
 still a desideratum. The best data for ancient skulls are 
 
114 PEE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 those furnished by Dr. Thurnam, who gives measurements 
 of thirty-six, probably male, GtauUsh skuUs. Of these, niae- 
 teen are dolichocephali, seventeen brachycephali; and three 
 of these last are brachistocephali. In other words, there 
 is rather less than forty-eight per cent of brachycephaly, and 
 nine per cent, of brachistocephaly. The average cephalic 
 index is .78. 
 
 Among the ancient British and Irish skulls of which 
 m.easurements are given by Drs. Davis and Thurnam, ninety- 
 nine 'are English : of these, thirty-six are brachycephalic — 
 twelve brachistocephalic. The average cephalic index is a 
 Uttle below .80. 
 
 Compariag the ancient Gaulish and British crania, as a 
 whole, with those of other parts of Europe, they present 
 much the same mixture of types as those from the tumuli of 
 Denmark ; and therefore I was not greatly surprised, though 
 much pleased, when some time since Mr. Brown, of Burton- 
 on-Trent, was so obliging as to send for my inspection the 
 fragmentary cranium figured in the accompanying woodcuts 
 (figs. 44-47). 
 
 This calvaria was found near Ledbmy Hall, the seat of 
 Lord Vernon, in. Derbyshire. It was imbedded six to seven 
 feet below the surface, in what seems to be an alluvial de- 
 posit formed by the river Dove, which runs at a short dis- 
 tance from the spot. Mr. Brown writes that " a very fine 
 front of Bos primigenius, an equally characteristic one of 
 Bos longifrons, horns of red deer, an oak tree, and other 
 similar objects were disinterred in the course of the same 
 works." 
 
 The calvaria has a brown colour as if it had lain in peat ; 
 but is otherwise but little different from a churchyard bone. 
 It is 7.15 in. long, by 5.5 in. in greatest width ; its cephalic 
 index, therefore, is .77. The supracHiary ridges are pro- 
 minent and contain very large frontal sinuses, the walls of 
 
The Ledhury Skull. 
 
 Fig. 44 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 Fig. 44. — Norma lateralis. Fig. 45. — Norma verticalis. 
 
9"?ie Ledhury Bk-J,IL 
 
 ;e. 46, 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 I'lO. 46,— iVisr»M j-rontaiis.. Pie. 47.— iVbrxsa occipitalis. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 115 
 
 wMch are troken away in tlie region of the glabella. The 
 middle part of the coronal suture, between the temporal 
 ridges, is completely obliterated. The sagittal suture is, for 
 the most part, obliterated. The parietal bones are raised up 
 into a strong broad flattened ridge in about the middle of 
 their length, in correspondence with the remarkable depth 
 of the longitudinal sinus in this region. This peculiarity 
 is not seen in fig. 47, owiag to the position of the skuU. 
 The middle of the lambdoidal suture is obliterated. The 
 superior curved line and occipital spiae are very strong. 
 The squama occipitis is particularly excavated, internally, so 
 as to give ample room for the projection of the posterior 
 lobes of the brain. The lateral sinus is distinct only on the 
 right side, the longitudiaal sinus seeming to pass completely 
 into it on that side. 
 
 A Kttle flattening and elongation, with a rather greater 
 development of the supraciLiary ridges, would convert this 
 into the nearest likeness to the Neanderthal skull which has 
 yet been discovered.* 
 
 Taking together the data furnished by Professor Wilson 
 and by Drs. Davis and Thurnam, the measurements of thirty- 
 six ancient Scotch skulls give twenty-four per cent, of bra- 
 chycephaly ; nine per cent, of brachistocephaly. The average 
 cephaKc index is only .760, beiag brought down by the 
 large increase in the per centage of meco- and mecistocephaKc 
 skulls, which amount altogether to thirty-six per cent. In 
 none of the previous groups does the per centage of these 
 skulls rise to more than two-thirds that amount. 
 
 Mr. Turner has been so good as to supply me with the 
 
 measurements of ten skxills from "long built-up stone cists, 
 
 such as are not uncommon in various parts of Scotland. 
 
 The cists were formed of slabs of stone, those constituting 
 
 * See Appendix A. 
 
 11 
 
116 PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 the ends and sides being placed on their edges, wliilst the 
 slabs which formed the roof and floor of the cist were laid 
 flat and rested upon the upper edges of the end and side 
 slabs. The skeletons found in these cists were laid out in 
 the extended position. The cists were generally placed due 
 east and west, and the skull was situated at the west end of 
 the cist." The extreme cephalic indices of these skidls are 
 .78 and .72 ; the mean, .741. 
 
 The mean cephalic index of thirty-three ancient Irish 
 skulls, for measurements of which I am indebted to my 
 friend Dr. E. P. "Wright, Professor of Zoology ia Trinity 
 College, Dublin, is about .75. Calculating the per centages 
 from this number, three would be mecistocephalic, twenty- 
 four mecocephalic, fifteen orthocephalic, twenty-seven sub- 
 brachycephalic, thirty brachycephalic ; and of these last, 
 sis brachistocephalic. But it is right to add, that, of the 
 two brachistocephalic skulls ia the thirty-three, one is ex- 
 ceptional in possessing an open frontal suture, while its 
 general features and its well-deTeloped probole are quite in 
 accordance with those of other ancient Irish skulls ; the 
 other is from a monasterial burying-ground, formerly occu- 
 pying the site of St. John's Chapel, Dublin, and may be of 
 foreign origin. The only remaining very broad skull (.84) 
 in the series was obtaiaed from the same burying-ground. 
 Not one of the remaining skulls has a cephalic index exceed- 
 ing .82. 
 
 Thirty-five Anglo-Saxon skulls measured by Messrs. Davis 
 and Thurnam have a mean cephalic index of .750 ; with only 
 nine per cent, of brachycephaly, and no brachistocephaly ; 
 while the mecisto- and mecocephalic skulls amount to thirty- 
 nine per cent. 
 
 Thus it appears that none of the ancient inhabitants of 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 117 
 
 North-western Europe, whose remains have yet been ex- 
 amined, were, on the whole, nearly so brachycephaHc as the 
 HaUe Germans of the present day ; still less were they com- 
 parable, in this respect, to the Swiss, or the South-west Ger- 
 mans. Furthermore, brachycephaly, even in ancient times, 
 seems, so far as the imperfect data allow us to judge, to 
 have been more abundant in Switzerland and France, than 
 in Scandinavia and England; in these last than in Scot- 
 land; and more abundant in Scotland than among the 
 Anglo-Saxons, or the South Germans of the Grave-rows. 
 In all these countries a long-headed people has existed, side 
 by side with a broader headed one, for a longer or shorter 
 period. In Scandinavia, Ireland, Scotland, England, the 
 long-headed type has overcome the other, and predomi- 
 nates at the present day. In Germany and Switzerland, on 
 the other hand, it is the broad head which has vanquished. 
 
 If we now look at the populations of Europe beyond the 
 limits of the countries which have been named, all the evi- 
 dence before us tends to show the existence, at all times, of an 
 exclusively, or predominatingly, dolichocephalic population in 
 the extreme west — ^in Ireland, in the Basque provinces, and 
 in Spain; while in the extreme east, the Slavonic and Finnish 
 populations, conterminous with the south and central Ger- 
 mans, are universally broad-headed. Dr. Thurnam well 
 remarks : " I must confess that the correspondences between 
 the skull form of the ancient brachycephalous Britoii, Gaul, 
 and Scandinavian, and that of the modern Finn, so very 
 much exceed any differences which may be traced in them, 
 that I should have no difficulty, on sufficient evidence, in 
 admitting their common parentage and descent." 
 
 But this pregnant suggestion may be followed out much 
 further. What Dr. Thurnam says of the skull of the Finn 
 is no less true of the Swiss Disentis skull, the modern South 
 German skull, and the Slavonian skull. The cranium of a' 
 
118 PRE-HISTOEIC KEMAINS 
 
 Soutli Eussian, figured in the " Bericlit " of Von Baer and 
 Wagner, is altogether of the same general type as the 
 Disentis, or hrachycephalic ancient Briton. 
 
 More than this. AU these people, whether Pinns, modem 
 Swiss, South Germans, or Slavonians, are, in the main, a 
 tall, fair, blue-eyed, and light-haired stock — Xanthochroi, as 
 I have elsewhere termed them. The ancient inhabitants of 
 Belgic Gaul, the Kimry of Thierry, were also a taU, blue- 
 eyed and fair-haired people. As regards the nature of their 
 skulls, W. Edwards and M. Broca assume, and the Baron 
 de Belloguet has recently endeavoured to prove, that they 
 were elongated ; but the evidence he adduces would lead me 
 to the contrary conclusion. His typical portrait of an 
 ancient Gaul from the ces grave of Rimini would, with a 
 little alteration of the chin, do very well for one of Ecker's 
 Black-foresters, and the position of the ear with relation 
 to the extreme hinder contour of the skull is such as to 
 render it far more probable that the subject figured was 
 short-headed than long-headed.* 
 
 But apart from the insufficiency of M. de BeUoguet's 
 evidence for the long-headedness of the Belgic Gauls, Dr. 
 Thurnam's reasoning in favour of the contrary conclusion 
 appears to me to be almost conclusive. For, in the first place, 
 he shows that there is a broad distinction to be drawn between 
 the crania found in the long barrows of Britain and those 
 met with in the round barrows. In the latter, brachycephaly 
 prevails, the mean cephalic index being .810 — the maximum 
 .870, and the brachycephaly amounting to sixty-six per cent- 
 The average stature is at least 5 ft. 9 in. ; two individuals 
 reaching 5 ft. 11 in. and 6 ft. 2 in., respectively. Some of 
 these crania closely resemble the Disentis and modem South 
 
 * Eoget, Baron de Belloguet, " Ethnogdnie Gauloise," 1861. M. de Belloguet 
 strangely mixes up long faces ■with long skulls, as if a long face implied a long 
 skuU. For a further discussion on this subject, see Appendix B. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 119 
 
 German forms ; but, on the whole, they are probably nearer 
 the Grave-mound and Borreby skulls. 
 
 And, in the next place. Dr. Thumam brings forward 
 strong reasons in favour of the opinion that these broad- 
 headed, tall people of the rovmd tumuli of Britain were the 
 Belgse of our islands and of continental Gaul. In this case 
 they were certainly a fair and blue-eyed people of the same 
 stock as those whom Thierry, rightly or wrongly, called 
 "Kimry," and who entered very largely into the popula- 
 tion of Gaul between the Seine and the Rhiue. If this 
 stock is represented, as I believe it to be, by the broad- 
 headed folk who constituted a certain proportion of the popu- 
 lations of Switzerland, South-west Germany, and Scandiaavia, 
 in the most ancient times of which we have any archaeological 
 records — if, as I follow Dr. Thurnam iu believing to be the 
 case, no physical line of demarcation can be drawn between 
 all these and the Finns : if further, as I believe, they 
 are not more defined from the Slavonians, it follows that 
 at one period or another, one great swarm of broad-headed 
 Xanthochroi has extended across Europe from Britain to 
 Sarmatia, and we know not how_ much further to the East 
 and South. 
 
 Dr. Thurnam has further endeavoured to prove (and with 
 much show of reason) that, in Britaiu, the broad-headed 
 Belgae were intruders upon more ancient dwellers in the 
 land, who buried their dead in long barrows and had elong- 
 ated crania. Whatever may be the truth as regards the 
 relative antiquity of the two stocks, there can be no doubt 
 respecting their physical differences. Dr. Thurnam figures a 
 typical skull of these long-barrow Britons, which he thus 
 describes {I.e. p. 25) : 
 
 "The greatest length is 7.3 inches (the glabeUo-inial 
 diameter 7.1 inches) ; the greatest breadth is 5.5 inches, 
 
120 
 
 PEE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 being In the proportion of 75 to tlie length, taken as 100- 
 The forehead is narrow and receding, and moderately high 
 in the coronal region, behind which is a trace of a transverse 
 depression. The parietal sutures are somewhat full, and 
 add materially to the breadth of this otherwise narrow skull. 
 The posterior borders of the parietals are prolonged back- 
 wards, to join a complex chain of Wormian bones in the 
 line of the lambdoid suture. The superior scale of the 
 occiput is full, rounded,, and prominent ; the inion more pro- 
 nounced than usual in this class of dolichocephalic skulls. 
 The supracHiaries are well marked, the orbits rather small 
 and long ; the nasals prominent ; the facial bones short and 
 small; the malars flat, and almost vertical; the alveolars 
 short, but rather projecting ; the mandible is comparatively 
 small but angular ; the chin square, narrow, and prominent." 
 The crania of the form just described appertain to a short 
 race of people, not exceeding five feet six or seven inches in 
 average height. 
 
 I can discern no differences of importance between these 
 skuUs from the long barrows and the crania (a typical exam- 
 ple of which is represented in figs. 48-51) which I described, 
 some years ago under the name of E.iver-bed skulls, in a 
 paper from which the following is an extract :* — 
 
 "The skull from Muskham, ia the valley of the Trent, 
 like the animal bones with which it was associated, is stained 
 of a dark-brown colour. The whole of those parts of the 
 cranial bones which bound the cranial cavity are weU pre- 
 served ; but the facial bones, with the exception of a small 
 portion of the nasals, are broken away, so as to expose the 
 whole of the under-surface of the base of the skull. 
 
 * " Notes upon Human Remains from the Valley of the Trent." — The 
 Geologist, June, 1862. I have made two or three corrections and additions to the 
 original. 
 
OP CAITHNESS. 121 
 
 " The considerable development of the frontal sinuses and 
 of the different ridges and processes of the skull, shows it to 
 be that of an adult, and the same characters lead me to 
 believe that it belonged to a male. Otherwise it is small 
 enough for a female, as its extreme length does not exceed 
 7.1 in., its extreme breadth 5.4 in.,* and its horizontal cir- 
 cumference 20J inches. 
 
 "The skull has a very peculiar form. If a line drawn 
 from the glabella to the superior curved line of the occiput 
 be made horizontal, the highest point of the longitudinal 
 median contour of the skull will be seen to be situated about 
 the middle of the length of the sagittal suture ; and, from 
 this point the contour shelves rapidly downwards, to the 
 brow on the one hand, and to the centre of the space be- 
 tween the apex of the lambdoidal suture and the occipital 
 protuberance on the other. This last is the most promi- 
 nent portion of the back part of the skull, the median 
 contour below it bending forwards to the occipital spine, 
 which is a very strong, projecting, triangular process. It 
 follows from this description, that a line taken from the 
 glabella to the occipital spine is shorter than one from 
 the glabella to a point midway between this and the lamb- 
 doidal suture. The difference between the two is about 
 0.3 of an inch. I iind that crania differ a good deal 
 in this respect, the occipital spine being ia many, especially 
 the lower races of mankind, the most backwardly situated 
 part of the skull, when the glabello-occipital line is made 
 horizontal, while in others, as in the present instance, 
 the most posterior part of the skuU is situated much 
 higher up. 
 
 "The line of greatest breadth of the skull is situated 
 nearly in the same plane as that of its greatest height, in 
 the position indicated, and the auditory foramina may also 
 * The cephalic index is, consequently, .76. 
 
122 PEE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 be said, roughly, to be intersected by that plane. The fore- 
 head is low and narrow, but not retreating. The supra- 
 ciliary prominences are Tery well developed and, by their 
 form, indicate the existence of large frontal siauses. The 
 space between the glabella and the nasal suture is not really 
 very depressed, though on the side view of the skull it ap- 
 pears to be so, by reason of the projection of the supra- 
 orbital prominences. 
 
 " The vertical height of the skull, from the centre of the 
 auditory foramen to the vertex, is 4.8 inches, and the centre 
 of the auditory foramen lies about 0.8 of an inch below the 
 level of the glabello-occipital line. 
 
 " The mastoid and styloid processes are well developed. 
 
 " The base of this skull is remarkable ia several respects. 
 The occipital foramen is placed far back, and its plane is 
 directed more backwards than is usual in human skulls. 
 When the base of the skull is turned upwards, and the gla- 
 bello-occipital line is horizontal (its length being 6.7 inches), 
 the anterior edge of the occipital foramen lies 1.5 inch above 
 the line, and a perpendicular let fall from it would cut the 
 line 3.9 inches from its anterior end. A similar line let fall 
 from the posterior edge woiild cut the glabello-occipital line 
 at 5.3 inches from its anterior end, and that edge is only 
 0.9 of an inch above it. In a length of 1.4, the plane of 
 the occipital foramen, therefore, has a fall of 0.6 towards the 
 glabello-occipital Une. 
 
 "In a well-formed European skull, whose glabello-occi- 
 pital line measures 7.0 inches, while its extreme length is 
 7.25, the distance of the anterior edge of the occipital fora- 
 men from the glabella, measured in the same way along the 
 glabeUo-occipital line, is 3.8; of its posterior edge, 5.3. 
 The anterior edge is 1.1 vertically above the line, and the 
 posterior edge 1.0 above it. Thus, in a length of 1.5, the 
 occipital foramen has a elope of only 0.1 inch, so that. 
 
The Jduekham, BhulL 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 Fig. 48. — Nvrma lateralis. Fig. 49.— iVbrina veHicalis. 
 
Ihe Jduskham Bhull. 
 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 .^"T^^^i^ 
 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 Fig. 50. — Norma frontalis. Fig. 51. — Norma occipitalis. 
 
Ihe Tcvjyn-y-Qapel Skull. 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 Fig. 52.— JVorma lateralis. Fig. 53. — JVorma verticalis. 
 
The Towyn-yGapel BkuU. 
 
 , ilKSEii 
 
 F£G. 54. 
 
 I J?ia. 55. 
 
 I'lG, 54.— iVormo frontalit. Fig. 55.— iVorma occipitalis. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 123 
 
 instead of being greatly inclined backwards, it is nearly 
 borizontal. 
 
 "The skull from the Yalley of the Trent belongs to a 
 cranial type which seems at one time to have been widely 
 distributed over the British Islands. I have seen skulls 
 from rude stone tombs in Scotland with similar characters, 
 and others obtained from the VaUey of the Thames. There 
 are skuUs in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, 
 exhibiting like proportions, from the remarkable tumulus at 
 Towyn-y-Capel, Anglesea, described by the Hon. W. 0. 
 Stanley, M.P., in the 'Archaeological Journal' (Institute) for 
 1846 ; and my friend, Mr. Busk, has shown me others from 
 Cornwall. But the skulls which most closely resemble the 
 Muskham cranium are some, also from river-beds, which I 
 saw in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, and in 
 the collection at Trinity College, Dublin, and of which my 
 friend, Dr. E. P. Wright, the curator of that collection, has 
 been good enough to supply me with excellent casts. Two 
 of these skulls are from the bed of the Nore,, in Queen's 
 County, and two from that of the Blackwater river, in 
 Armagh, and one of the latter has the most extraordinary 
 resemblance to the Muskham skull, as the following table of 
 measurements will show : — 
 
 Muskham. Blackwater. 
 
 Maximum length 7-0 7.25 
 
 Length of glabello-occipital line 6.7 7.0 
 
 Greatest vertical height from centre of auditory foramen, 
 
 the glabello -occipital line heing horizontal ... 4.8 4.7 
 
 Distance of auditory foramen below glabeUo-occipital line 0.8 0.7 
 
 Greatest transTcrse diameter 5.4 5.75 
 
 Transverse diameter at the lower ends of the coronal 
 
 suture 4.4 4.75 
 
 Horizontal circumference 20.5 20.75 
 
 Transverse arc from one auditory foramen to the other . 13.25 13.0 
 Anterio-posterior arc from glabella to occipital pro- 
 tuberance 12.5 12.5 
 
 Aiitero-posterior arc from glabella to posterior edge of 
 
 the occipital foramen 14.25 14.4 
 
 12 
 
124 PKE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 " The edges of the occipital foramen of the Blackwater 
 skull are broken, but its plane seems to be less inclined, so 
 that this feature may be accidental ia the Muskham skull. 
 The frontal sinuses are less developed in the Blackwater 
 skull, and it is broader, its cephalic index amounting to .79. 
 The other Blackwater skull and one of the Nore skulls are 
 also very like the Muskham skull, but the remaining Irish 
 skull from the Nore is much larger (having a length of 
 8.0 inches) and more depressed. It exhibits in a very 
 marked manner, however, the projection of the superior 
 part of the occipital bone beyond the occipital spine which 
 characterises the other skulls, and it retains a strong resem- 
 blance to them in its other peculiarities. 
 
 " The Muskham skull was found associated with bones of 
 the Bos longifrons, goat, red-deer, wolf, and dog; so that 
 neither on this ground, nor on any other that I am ac- 
 quainted with, does there seem to Jbe any good reason for 
 assigning to it a date earlier than the historic, or imme- 
 diately pre-historic, epoch. 
 
 " I have dwelt thus long upon the Muskham skull because 
 of its comparatively perfect condition, and because, so far as 
 the imperfect condition of the fragments from Heathery Burn 
 Cave allows me to judge, they appear to belong to the same 
 race of rather small and lightly-made men, with prominent 
 supraciliary ridges and projecting nasal bones. The few 
 animal remains associated with them are all of recent spe- 
 cies, and I see no reason for believing them to be of older 
 date than the river-bed skulls." 
 
 One of the Towyn-y-Capel skuUs, mentioned above, is 
 represented in figs. 52-55. 
 
 An account of the discovery of these skulls by the Hon. 
 W. 0. Stanley, entitled " Towyn-y-Capel and the ruined 
 Chapel of St. Bride, on the West Coast of Holyhead Island, 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 125 
 
 witli notices of the curious interments there discovered," is 
 published in the third volume of the " Archaeological Journal 
 of the Archaeological Institute," 1846. The graves are con- 
 taiaed in a mound of sand, 30 feet high by 750 in circum- 
 ference; and are disposed in four or five tiers, one above 
 another, at intervals of three or four feet. Each grave was 
 commonly formed of about twelve flat stones, three on either 
 side, three at the bottom, and three at the top ; and no 
 clothiag, weapons, or ornaments were discovered in them. 
 According to tradition, a battle took place here in the fifth 
 century, between the Irish and the "Welsh. If the inter- 
 ments in question really followed upon this event, it is pos- 
 sible that the skull figured is an Irish skull. The cephalic 
 index of the Towyn-y-Capel skuU (5712 M. Mus. CoU. Chir.) 
 is 7.2. The calvarial sutures are all open, and the bones 
 which they unite have become partially separated. There is 
 a curious, deeply constricted. Wormian bone ia the outer 
 half of each crus of the lambdoidal suture. The parietal 
 foramiaa are iaconspicuous. The probole is well developed, 
 and the norma occipitalis (fig. 56) sharply pentagonal. 
 
 Of the Irish crania referred to I have here given figures of 
 the most characteristic, the one from the river Blackwater 
 in Armagh, the other the remarkable skull from Borris. 
 
 The Blackwater skull (figs. 56-59) is, it will be observed, 
 strikingly similar to the Muskham cranium in its general 
 characters. A second skull from the same locality has the 
 same features, but is still wider, its index amounting to .80. 
 Of the skulls from the bed of the If ore, at Borris, one, with 
 a general similarity to the foregoing, has a strongly de- 
 veloped probole and a cephalic index of only .738. The 
 larger skull from the same locality is one of the most re- 
 markable European skulls I have met with. Two views of 
 it are given in figs. 60, 61. 
 
126 PEE-HISTOKIC REMAINS 
 
 This skull is 8 in. long, and 5.9 in. broad, whence its 
 cephalic index is .737. The height from the front margin 
 of the occipital foramen to the vertex is only 5.45 inches, or 
 0.68 of the length, so that the skull is greatly depressed. 
 The supraciliary ridges are prominent, the forehead re- 
 treating, the probole large, and the superior curved line 
 and occipital spine well marked. The supra- auditory ridges 
 are strong, the mastoid processes well developed, and that on 
 the left side somewhat recurved at it apex. The axis of the 
 occipital foramen inclines, if anything, a little backwards. 
 The lower jaw is wanting, as well as the right upper maxilla, 
 and all the alveolar part of the left. Bnt the left jugal arch 
 and orbit and the upper part of the nasal bones, are pre- 
 served. The strength of the zygoma is notable, but its pro- 
 jection is more forward than lateral, so that it is hardly seen 
 in the norma verticalis. The face must bave been very prog- 
 nathous. 
 
 So far as I can judge from the cast, neither the coronal, 
 sagittal, nor lambdoidal sutures are completely closed in this 
 skull. A strong depression or groove follows the course of 
 the sagittal suture. 
 
 From what has been stated above, it would appear that 
 the ancient Irish skull was predominantly dolichocephalic, 
 more so even than the ancient Scotch skull. The contrary 
 opinion seems to have generally prevailed, to some extent, 
 I think, in consequence of a mistake on the part of Retzius, 
 who ascribes to the Phoenix Park skull a cephalic index of 
 .82, whUe it is really, according to Messrs. Davis and Thur- 
 nam, only .79. Of the two skulls found in the Knock- 
 maraidhe tumulus, near Dublin, the cephalic index of the 
 one not figured in the " Crania Britannica " is .77, while 
 that of the figured example is only .73. Of these crania, 
 Dr. Davis remarks : " "We may well believe that in these 
 
The glaokwater I^iver-bed Bkull. 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Fia. 57- 
 
 
 J I 
 
 Fig. 56. — Norma lateralis. Fig. Hl.^Norma verticalis. 
 
The ^laohwcbier I^iver-hed Skull. 
 
 ...«»''~^!!Sv 
 
 f 
 
 f Fig. 58. 
 
 ,59. 
 
 Fig. 58. — Norma frontalis. Fig. h^.— Norma occipitalis. 
 
The ^orris Skull. 
 
 iv- 
 
 Fig. go. 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
 ^UW 
 
 Fig. 60. — Norma lateralis. Fig. 61. — Norma occipitalis. 
 
OP CAITHNESS. 127 
 
 skulls we have tlie most faithful and the most intimate 
 representations of the aborigines of lerne that can be re- 
 vealed to the light of modern days. Every evidence educed 
 by the opening of the Knock-maraidhe kistvaen goes to 
 confirm this. No appearance whatever renders it probable 
 that the sepulchral chamber had been disturbed since the 
 day on which the tumulus was raised. Even the secondary 
 interments met with on the outskirts of the mound are 
 unequivocally of the primeval period ; and these cistic tombs 
 themselves, constructed according to the customs of incre- 
 mation, when this practice prevailed, are most likely sub- 
 sequent, perhaps by a considerable time, to the large kistvaen. 
 This, latter, so carefully built and covered by so vast a mound 
 of earth and stones, ia every feature speaks of the most 
 remote antiquity ; the brief space of its chamber, the con- 
 tracted position of the bodies thrust into it, and the objects 
 found with them — the flint speculum, the bone pin, and 
 shell necklace — the constant coincidents of pristine rudeness 
 among all uncivilised tribes, all concur in this testimony." 
 (" Crania Britannica," Decade iii.) 
 
 Sir W. Wilde speaks of long-headed, dark, Irish (Eir- 
 bolgs) west of the Shannon, and of a more globular-headed, 
 light-haired, stock north-east of that river. But I imagine 
 that by " globular-headed " Sir. W. WUde means only that 
 the people in question have broader heads than the others 
 — not that there was any really brachycephalic stock in 
 Ireland. At any rate. Sir William claims the TJley Barrow 
 skull as that of " a fellow-countryman," and the cephalic 
 index of this skull is only .71. And, according to Dr. 
 J. B. Davis, the mean cephalic index of fourteen male 
 skulls from the old Abbeys of Mayo, Galway, Avonmore, 
 and Kerry, is .750 : that of thirty-two Living men in Kerry 
 being .776. (" Crania Britannica," Decade vi.) 
 
 As the evidence stands at present, I am fully disposed to 
 
128 PEE-HISTOEIC EEMAIXS 
 
 identify the ancient population of Ireland witli the " long- 
 barrow" and " river-bed " elements of the population of 
 England, and with the long-headed, or " cumbecephalic " 
 inhabitants of Scotland; and to belieye that the "round- 
 barrow," or Belgic, element of the Britannic people never 
 colonised Ireland in sufficient numbers to make its presence 
 ethnically felt. 
 
 Reviewing the forms of ancient elongated skulls observed 
 in Britain and Ireland, it appears to me that a middle form, 
 and two, or perhaps three, extremes are distinguishable. 
 
 The middle form is the Long-barrow and the River-bed 
 skull, exemplified by the Muskham, Towyn-y-Capel, and 
 Blackwater skulls figured above. One extrem.e is repre- 
 sented by the low, broad, depressed Borris skull (figs. 60, 
 61) which, singular as it is, by no means stands alone, but 
 has its analogues in the South German Alt-Lussheim skull 
 of Ecker (I.e. PL xvi.), and the skuU 'No. iii. of Friederichs. 
 Furthermore, the " Batavus genuinus" of Blumenbach, the 
 skull from Sennen figured by Mr. Busk ("Natural History 
 Review," 1861, PI. v., fig. 9), and the cranium, of which a 
 representation is given by Mr. Turner ("The Quarterly 
 Journal of Science," April, 1864, fig. 1), are all similarly 
 elongated depressed crania, with retreatiag forehead, great 
 supraciliary ridges, and (except the last) large probole. Ano- 
 ther extreme is the elongated narrow skull from Kinaldie, 
 figured by Drs. Davis and Thurnam. The third, if it may 
 be said to differ essentially from the last, is the "cumbe- 
 cephalic" skull of Wilson. 
 
 Both these last-mentioned types are repeated over and over 
 again in the Hohberg and Grave-row series of the Swiss and 
 South-west German skulls, which, as we have seen reason to be- 
 lieve, are of one and the same class as the Scandinavian skull. 
 This resemblance between some forms of elongated British 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 129 
 
 and Irisli skulls and those of Scandinavia, has already been 
 noted by Retzius, who speaks, on more than one occasion, of 
 the Kkeness between the proper Scandinavian and what he 
 calls the " Celtic " skull ; and he mentions {op. c. p. 8) that 
 having exchanged, with Sir W. Wilde, a typical Scandi- 
 navian for a typical Irish skull, both observers agreed that it 
 would be difficult to find any important difference between 
 the two. Hetzius has given good figures of the Scandi- 
 navian type, so there is, fortunately, no difficulty in under- 
 standing what he means ; even had not the characters of 
 that skuU been fully defined by Ecker, and its likeness to 
 the Hohberg and Grave-row forms recognised. 
 
 Furthermore (as was indeed to be expected from the 
 known relations of the people) there seems to be no cha- 
 racter by which the crania of the Anglo-Saxons (which, 
 by the way, are generally more or less prognathous) can 
 be distinguished from those of the Scandinavians. And 
 thus, the elongated ancient crania are traceable from Swit- 
 zerland to Scandinavia ; from Scandinavia to Ireland, 
 where they predominate so as to exclude all others ; and 
 to the British Islands and Gaul, where they co- existed with 
 (whether they preceded or not) a broad-headed stock. 
 
 The Scandinavians form at present a sort of ethnological 
 island. On the east, they are bounded by Finns and Sla- 
 vonians ; on the south, by the central and southern Germans, 
 who, though similar in complexion, are different in cranial 
 form. In ancient times they were an encroaching race — 
 extending, as Saxons and Frisians, to the right bank of the 
 Rhine ; and stretching far south and west as Alemanni, 
 Franks, and Normans ; while southward and eastward they 
 overlapped the Slavonians. Manifest traces of them are left 
 in all the regions indicated ; but whence they came, and how 
 far they and the origiaal Goths and Germans are of one and 
 
130 PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 the same stock, are problems which seem to be beyond solu- 
 tion at present. On the north, the Scandinavians are 
 sharply defined in stature, complexion, and cranial form 
 against the Lapps ; nor have they any neighbours nearer 
 than Greenland on the one hand, or north-eastern Asia on 
 the other, who at all approach them, in cranial character. 
 However, in Greenland, the Esquimaux have skulls which are 
 in many respects very similar to those of the European long- 
 heads ; except that the jugal arches of the European are 
 hardly ever, if ever, so wide and everted as those of some 
 Esquimaux. 
 
 But, if it be true, as I believe it is, that close craniological 
 affinities unite the Hiberno-British long-heads on the one 
 hand with the Scandinavians, is it not equally true that 
 as close affinities connect the dolichocephali of our islands 
 with a southern type ? On this point I must again quote Dr. 
 Thurnam : " During the last summer I had the advantage of 
 examining the series of sixty Basque skulls, lately added to 
 the collection of the Anthropological Society of Paris. I 
 was at once struck with their great resemblance to the doli- 
 chocephalic skulls from the long barrows of this country, 
 and this impression was much confirmed by the perusal of 
 the two memoirs on these skulls by M. P. Broca, so rich in 
 details necessary for the comparison before us." {I.e. p. 41, 42) . 
 
 And Dr. Thurnam is evidently inclined to carry on this 
 line of affinity to the ancient Iberians and Phoenicians. I 
 am by no means disposed to stop even here. The same form 
 of skuU appears in the " type grossier " of the ancient 
 Egyptian : I suspect it will be found in the inhabitants of 
 Southern Hindustan : and it is finally traceable to Aus- 
 tralia, the natives of which country, as I have already 
 pointed out, in the largely developed prohole, the wall-sided- 
 ness, pentagonal norma occipitalis, prognathism, and strong 
 brow ridges, and even ia the remarkable vertical depression 
 
The Australian, Bhult- 
 
 
 Fro. \. 
 
 i#w^r*^' 
 
 ^£t^' 
 
 Fig, 62. — Norma lateralis. 
 
 !FiG, 63.— iVormo' verticulis. 
 
<r7ie jfiuetraUan Skull. 
 
 FiQ. 64. 
 
 f lo. 65. 
 
 
 Fig. 64. — Worma frontalis. Fig. 65. — Norma oecipitalis. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 131 
 
 exhibited by some extreme forms of their skulls, come nearest , 
 to the ancient long skulls of Europe. In order to render the 
 amount of this resemblance to the river-bed forms obvious, 
 I have figured (figs. 62-65) an Australian cranium in the 
 Museum of the Eoyal College of Surgeons (No. 5334 C), 
 which happens to have the jaw broken away in the same 
 fashion as most of the river-bed skulls. If the reader will 
 make a tracing of the difierent views of this skull on 
 transparent paper, and will apply the outlines thus ob- 
 tained, over the corresponding views of the Muskham, 
 Towyn-y-Capel, Blackwater, No. 8 and No. 2 Keiss skulls, 
 he will, I think, be surprised at the extensive coincidences 
 of form. The norma occipitalis is more sharply pentagonal 
 in the Australian skull, owing to the flattening of the 
 parietal bones ; and the frontal region is a little higher and 
 narrower in proportion ; but the dififerences between difierent 
 Australian skulls, in these respects, are far greater than those 
 between the Australian and the European. It is worth 
 notiag that, in the skull figured, the sagittal, lambdoidal, 
 and occipito-mastoid sutures are open throughout ; while the 
 left end of the coronal is closed for more than an inch, and 
 the right end is nearly closed. 
 
 Some of the skuUs from Nordendorf, and the Swedish 
 skulls, figured by Ecker, are, in contour and proportions 
 characteristically Australioid. The Neanderthal skull, as I 
 have elsewhere shown, is more nearly approached by exist- 
 ing Australian skulls, than by any other; and though the 
 Australian cranium hardly attains the breadth of the Ledbury 
 and Borreby skulls, it is singular how closely some Austra- 
 lian skulls approach them in longitudinal contour. 
 
 So far as cranial characters go then, it appears to me that 
 all the people whom I have enumerated are affined, but the 
 ethnological value to be attached to the osteological resem- 
 blances wUl depend upon a number of considerations. 
 
 13 
 
132 
 
 PEE-HI8T0KIC REMAINS 
 
 It does not seem to be more difficult to admit that two 
 sections of mankind may be very similar cranially, and yet 
 very different in other respects, than it is to believe — as the 
 facts compel us to do — that the Hon and the tiger, the fox 
 and the jackal, the ass and the zebra, are far more strikingly 
 differentiated by their pelage than by their skuUs. In fact, 
 looking at ethnological classification as a whole, the conclu- 
 sion of Bory de St. Vincent, and others, that it is the hair 
 and skin which give us characters of primary importance, 
 whU^ osteological peculiarities are secondary, seems to be 
 inevitable. 
 
 Admitting Bory de St. Vincent's two primary divisions of 
 the genus Homo, the Leiotrichi, or smooth-haired, and the 
 Ulotrichi, or crisp-haired, — the Leiotrichi may be best sub- 
 divided, according to their complexion, into ^anthochroi,* 
 Melanochroi, Xanthomelanoi, and Melanoi. In several, if 
 not the whole, of these secondary divisions, tertiary divisions 
 based upon the form of the skull may be established, thus : 
 
 Xanthoohroi 
 
 Melanochroi 
 
 LEIOTRICHI 
 
 SBrachycephali, JEx. 
 Dolichocephali. £x, Scandinavians. 
 
 Belgfe ; Modern S. Germans and 
 Swiss ; Fins, Slavonians. 
 
 Melanoi 
 
 XiNTHOMELANOI 
 
 t Brachyeephali^ 
 \ Dolichocephalic 
 
 f Dolichocephali, 
 \ Brachycephali, 
 
 {Dolichocephali, 
 Brachycephali, 
 
 Ex. 
 Ex. 
 
 Ex. 
 Ex. 
 
 Ex. , 
 
 Silures, Iberians, Ancient Egyp- 
 tians. Dark Aryans generally (?) 
 
 Australians. 
 
 Drawidians. 
 
 >■ 
 
 Esquimaux, Tunguses (?) 
 j Americans, Polynesians. 
 Ex. Mongolians. 
 
 It wiU be observed, in this table, that the existence of 
 brachycephali in either the Melanochroi, or Melanoi, is marked 
 as doubtful ; by which I mean to indicate, not that people of 
 this coloured hair and complexion may not occasionally have a 
 cephaKc index of 0.8 ; nor that people with broad heads, Kke 
 
 • See " On the Methods and Eesults of Ethnology," Fortnightly Review No. m. 
 
or CAITHNESS. 133 
 
 the Thibetans, may not occasionally have dark skins ; but 
 that brachycephaly, and still more brachistocephaly, is a rare 
 phenomenon among these two groups. Among the Xantho- 
 melanoi of America (excluding the Esquimaux) and of Poly- 
 nesia, both dolichocephaly and brachycephaly are found, 
 though the latter predominates. 
 
 It further appears that though the Esquimaux, the Scan- 
 dinavians, the Iberians, and the Australians are all dolicho- 
 cephalic, and present other points of similarity in cranial 
 structure, they respectively belong to diiferent divisions of 
 the Leiotrichi, and must be regarded as representatives of 
 different sections of mankind, whatever the taxonomic value 
 of those sections may be. 
 
 Eor anything we know, or have other than philological 
 reasons for believing to the contrary, fair brachycephali 
 (" Belgse," Fins, etc.) ; fair dolichocephali (Scandinavians) ; 
 dark but pale-complexioned dolichocephali (Iberians, etc.) ; 
 and dark and yellow skinned brachycephali (Lapps), may 
 have inhabited some part or other of the area they now 
 respectively occupy in Europe, for long ages before the 
 dawn of history. 
 
 Hence, it is worth while to reflect, that the current notions 
 respecting the migrations of races from east to west may 
 be myths developed out of the facts of philology; and that 
 successive waves of language may have spread over Europe 
 by washing over, instead of being carried by, its populations. 
 
 That this is what has happened and is happening in our 
 own islands appears to me sufficiently probable. Our popu- 
 lation contains three distinct ethnological elements : I. Xan- 
 thochroi brachycephali; II. Xanthochroi dolichocephali; and 
 III. Melanochroi. In Oeesar's time, and for an indefinitely 
 long preceding period, Graul contained the first and third of 
 these elements, and the shores of the Baltic presented the 
 
134 PRE-HISTOKIC REMAINS 
 
 second. In other words, the ethnological elements of the 
 Hiberno-British Islands are identical with those of the 
 nearest adjacent parts of the continent of Europe, at the 
 earliest period when a good observer noted the characters of 
 their population. 
 
 Dr. Thurnam has adduced many good reasons for be- 
 lieving that the "Belgic" element intruded upon a pre- 
 existing dolichocephalic " Iberian " population ; but I think 
 it probable that this element hardly reached Ireland at all, 
 and extended but little into Scotland. However, if this 
 were the case, and no other elements entered into the popu- 
 lation, the tall, fair, red-haired, and blue-eyed doKchoce- 
 phaK, who are, and appear always to have been, so numerous 
 among the Irish and Scotch, could not be accounted for. 
 
 But their existence becomes intelligible, at once, if we 
 suppose that long before the well-known I^orse and Danish 
 invasions, a stream of Scandinavians had set in to Scotland 
 and Ireland, and formed a large part of our primitive popu- 
 lation. And there can be no difficulty in admitting this 
 hypothesis when we recollect that the Orkneys and the 
 Hebrides have been, ia comparatively late historical times, 
 Norwegian possessions. 
 
 Admitting that in the prehistoric epoch, central Europe 
 was peopled by short-headed Xanthochroi; northern (Baltic) 
 Europe by long-headed Xanthochroi; and Western Europe 
 by dolichocephalic Meknochroi, the present and past states 
 of the population of the same area become intelligible 
 enough. 
 
 In ancient times when, to use Dr. Dasent's words, " Scan- 
 dinavia was the great slave market of Europe," the intro- 
 duction of fair hrachycephali iato the Baltic area may as 
 readily be understood (without having recourse to any 
 special "Finnic" hypothesis), as the elimination of this ele- 
 ment, and the return of the Scandinavians to the long- 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 135 
 
 headed type, in modern times, when the brachy cephalic 
 infusion ceased. 
 
 In another fashion, the fair and hroad-headed "Belgae" 
 intruded into the British area; but, meeting with a 
 large dolichocephalic population, which at subsequent times 
 was Yastly reinforced by Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Danish 
 invasions, this type has been almost washed out of the 
 British population, which is, ia the main, composed of fair 
 doKchocephali and dark dolichocephali. 
 
 The reverse process has- obtaiaed in central Europe, 
 When the great Teutonic stocks swarmed into the Roman 
 Empire, as the Gauls, with less success, had attacked the 
 Hepublic, they spread the type of the dolichocephalic Xan- 
 thochroi far beyond its primitive bounds. But, however 
 they might seem to be conquerors, the Franks and Alemanni, 
 who settled in central Europe, were ethnologicaUy defeated. 
 On their right flank were more numerous "Belgse" and 
 people of like stock; on the left flank innumerable Sla- 
 vonians. Under these circumstances, while complexions 
 might remaia unchanged, doHchocephaly had no chance 
 against braohycephaly, and accordingly the latter has elimi- 
 nated the former. 
 
 But language has, in. no respect,, followed these physical 
 changes. The fair dolichocephali and fair hrachycephali of 
 Germany, Scandiaavia, and England speak Teutonic dialects ; 
 while those of France have a substantially Latin speech ; and 
 the majority of those of Scotland and, withia historic times, 
 all those of Ireland, spoke Celtic tongues. As to the Melano- 
 chroi, some speak Celtic, some Latin, some Teutonic dialects ; 
 while others, like the Basques (so far as they coriie under 
 this category), have a language of their own. 
 
 To return from this long digression upon the general 
 characters of the population of Europe to the particular 
 
136 
 
 PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 case with the consideration of which I commenced these 
 notes. 
 
 None of the skulls from Keiss is a typical example of 
 the "Belgic," or brachycephaHc constituent of the British 
 population; No. 7 approaches that type, however, and I 
 suspect exhibits the result of admixture between it and the 
 dolichocephali. 
 
 Of the three other forms of skull discriminated, I am dis- 
 posed to doubt whether No. 5 is other than a female modifi- 
 cation of the River-bed type, represented by Nos. 8 and 2; 
 and thus the really distinct types would be reduced to the 
 River-bed form and that of No. 1, which, although a female 
 skull, has far other peculiarities than its sexual ones. 
 
 The questions arise — are the River-bed skulls and No. 1 
 simply extreme forms of the same type, or are they substan- 
 tially different ? In the former case, are they Scandinavian 
 or Iberian ? in the latter, which is Scandinavian and which 
 Iberian ? 
 
 Without very much larger data, I should not venture to 
 give any positive answer to either of these questions ; but I 
 confess I am greatly disposed towards the hypothesis that, if 
 the two are distinct, the River-bed skull is of Iberian, the 
 other of Scandinavian descent. 
 
 B. — The Bones of the Body and Limbs. 
 
 Except the pelves (and the other bones in the case of No. 
 1), these bones are too imperfectly preserved, or too ordinary 
 in character, to admit of, or need, detailed description. 
 
 In order to render the significance of the peculiarities of 
 the pelves clear, it will be necessary to put before the reader 
 a brief digest of the present state of knowledge on this 
 subject. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 137 
 
 Vrolik, in his " Considerations sur la diversity des Bassins 
 de differentes Eaces Immaines," published in 1826, suggested 
 rather than asserted, the existence of racial differences among 
 the pelves of mankind, running parallel with the racial 
 difference of their skulls discovered by Blumenbach. Weber, 
 ("Die Lehre von den TJr- und Eacen-Formen der Schadel 
 und Becken des Menschen,") investigating the same ques- 
 tion more thoroughly, distinguished four typical forms of 
 pelvis — 1. the oval; 2. the round; 3. the quadrate; and 4. 
 the wedge-shaped. 
 
 1. In the oval type the transverse diameter of the brim 
 exceeds the conjugate, or antero-posterior, diameter. In 
 spaciousness and height this pelvis occupies a middle 
 position between the round and the wedge-shaped. The 
 latter is as a rule narrow and high, the roimd, on the con- 
 trary, is wide and lower. Weber distinguishes, within the 
 limits of this type, the female, round-oval, and the male, oval, 
 forms without giving any very clear definition of either. 
 
 As examples he cites the oval pelvis of an European male, 
 with its diameters 4 in. 3 lines : 3 in. 9 lines ;* the oval pelvis 
 of a Botocudo, 4 in. 7 liaes : 4 in. ; and the transversely oval 
 pelvis of an European female (as an example of the farthest 
 poiat the oval type can reach without passing into the round) 
 5 in. : 3 in. 10 liaes. 
 
 2. In the round type the transverse and the conjugate 
 diameters are nearly equal. The examples given are the 
 pelvis of a female European, 4 in. 5 lines : 4 ia. 2 lines ; and 
 the pelvis of a negress of 37 years of age, 4 in. 7 lines : 4 in. 
 3 lines. 
 
 3. The quadrate pelvis is that which is compressed an- 
 teriorly, laterally, and posteriorly, but especially in the 
 symphysial region, so that the brim is almost quadrangular. 
 
 * For brevity's sake I shall write the two diameters in this way, always 
 puttiDg the transverse first. 
 
138 
 
 PEE-HISTORIC REMAINS 
 
 The transverse is greater than the conjugate diameter. The 
 examples are, the pelvis of a European woman, 4 in. 11 lines 
 : 3 in. 10 lines ; and Yrolik's tvro Javanese and one Mestizo 
 pelves (Jav. 4 in. 2 lines : 3 in. 8 lines ; Jav. 4 in. 3 lines : 
 4in. ; Mest. 5 in. 6 lines : 4 in. 3 lines). 
 
 4. The wedge-shaped pelvis. This is compressed laterally, 
 so as to be narrower from side to side than from before back- 
 wards ; the pubes unite at an acute angle, and the horizontal 
 branches of those bones, therefore, take a more straight direc- 
 tion backwards than is the case in the oval pelvis ; the linece 
 arcuatce of the sacrum and of the ilia are less excavated. 
 The conjugate is consequently greater than the transverse 
 diameter, and the brim is not oval, but wedge-shaped. The 
 ilia are high and converge considerably below; their dis- 
 tance is consequently less than in any of the preceding forms. 
 When the characters of -this pelvis are less distinct and 
 rounded off, it approximates to the oval type. As exemplifi- 
 cations of this type are cited : — The wedge-shaped pelvis of a 
 European woman, exhibiting the most extreme form of this 
 pelvis which had fallen within Weber's observation. The 
 diameters are 4 in. 6 lines : 4 in. 9 lines. The pelvis of a 
 Botocudo woman, 4 in. 3 lines : 4 in. 6 lines. The pelvis of 
 a Caffre, 3 in. 9 lines : 4 in. Weber adds the outlines of 
 the brim of the pelvis of a negress in Von Soemmering's 
 collection (3 in. 9 lines : 3 in. 11 lines), and that of the 
 pelvis of one of Yrolik's negroes. 
 
 The general conclusion which Weber draws is, that any 
 form of pelvis may occur in any race; but that "as in 
 Europeans the oval type is that which occurs most fre- 
 quently, so the round form is the primitive type of the 
 American race, the quadrate that of the Mongolian race, and 
 the cuneiform that of the Ethiopian race ; and that, in each 
 of these races, the typical form is that which presents itself 
 most frequently, though it does not exclusively occur. In 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 139 
 
 Europeans, according to my observations, after tlie oval form 
 the round, after that the square, and most rarely the cunei- 
 form type occurs. How it may be with other races I cannot 
 say." 
 
 Since "Weber, the only author who has devoted a treatise to 
 this subject is Dr. Joulin, who, in his "Memoire sur le 
 Bassin considere dans les Races Humaines," published in 
 the "Archives Gren^rales de Medicine," for 1864, endeavours 
 to prove that the most important anatomical peculiarities 
 which have been afBxmed to characterise Negro and Mon- 
 golian pelves do not exist; that the slight differences ob- 
 servable in the pelves of the three human races are not 
 characteristic, appearing only when the comparison extends 
 over a number of examples ; that the Mongolian and Negro 
 races have indistiaguishable pelves ; and that, if the form of 
 the cranium leads to the division of man into three priacipal 
 races, that of the pelvis affords but two groups — ^the Aryan, 
 and the Mongolic-negro. 
 
 However, an objection of some importance must be taken, 
 in limine, to these conclusions. Among the " Mongolic " 
 pelves of Dr. Joidin there is not one which belongs to a 
 typical Mongol. Three of the nine are Bushwomen, who 
 are as different from the Mongols as can well be imagined, 
 two are South American, and four are Javanese. There is 
 not a single proper, or continental, Asiatic Mongol on the 
 list. So far as they profess to show the character of the 
 typical Mongolian pelvis, therefore. Dr. Joulin's observa- 
 tions tell us nothing. As to the seventeen so-called 
 Negro pelves, eleven appear to be those of truly African 
 Negresses ; but the other six belong not to Negroes, but 
 to Negritoes, one being Papuan, the others New Cale- 
 donian. 
 
 After criticising Vrolik's statements respecting the charac- 
 ters of the Negro pelvis (and not without justice, though I 
 
140 
 
 PRE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 cannot find in Yrolik's Memoir all of the opinions which Dr. 
 Joulin ascribes to him), Dr. Joulin states — 
 
 " I may then assert, in an absolute manner, that, in all the 
 races of mankind, the transverse diameter of the brim of the 
 female pelvis predominates over the conjugate diameter. I 
 know of not a single observation to the contrary ; on the 
 other hand, not only does this law apply to the female sex 
 in general, but it is equally applicable to both sexes, and the 
 predominance of the transverse diameter is alike observed 
 in the male. In about sixty subjects which I have examined 
 in reference to this point, I have only met with a single ex- 
 ception, and this was not in a Negro, but in a Caucasian of 
 the Berber division ; it is a Kabyle whose pelvis has an alto- 
 gether peculiar form, explicable only by some anomaly of 
 development. In Negro pelves, I have observed a peculiarity 
 which is very important, for it is almost characteristic — it is 
 the little difference which exists between the oblique and 
 transverse diameters. In the Aryan this difference is fifteen 
 millemetres, in the Negro two, in the Mongol six. This point 
 has not been noted and has escaped Vrollk ; its effect is to ren- 
 der the brim a little more square than it is in the white race." 
 
 "There is an important point on which Yrolik has not 
 laid sufficient stress : it is that, in capacity, the Negro and 
 Mongolian pelves are inferior to the white in all diameters, 
 except in the antero-posterior diameter of the cavity, and 
 the coccy-pubic of the inferior outlet, which are almost equal 
 in the three races." , 
 
 I have measured all the pelves of savage races of mankind 
 which have come in my way, and I have cqUected all the 
 admeasurements by other observers which I have been able 
 to discover. The results as to the relations of the transverse 
 and conjugate diameters of the brim of the pelvis are shown 
 in the following tables, in which I have arranged, in the first 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 141 
 
 two columns, absolute measurements, as given by other ob- 
 servers or taken by myself; and in the last column the pelvic 
 index, or ratio of the conjugate diameter to the transverse 
 diameter, taken as unity : — 
 
 PELVES OF AFRICAN NEGEOES. 
 
 12 Females. 6 Males. 
 
 mm. mm. index in. in. index 
 
 Joulin No. 2... 138 : 134 .97 (Vrolik) No. 1... 4i :4J 103 
 
 „ 3. ..128 : 107 .83 in. 1. in.l. 
 
 , 4...125:100 .80 " ^...S.IO : 4.0 104 
 
 6...114:110 .96 '• ^...S.IO : 4.0 104 
 
 JouHn (Vrolik) 6.. .119 : 97 .81 ^'"^ Soemmering ...3.1U : 3.7^ .91 
 
 " » 7...119:102 .85 Male Negro (College in. in. 
 
 Joulin 8...126 : 98 .77 of Surgeons Mus.)4.15 : 4.1 .98 
 
 Joulin (Vrolik) 9...119 . 97 .81 Male Negro (Wood, 
 
 Joulin 10. ..112 : 104 .92 U.) 3.9 : 4.1 105 
 
 , 11. ..112: 90 .60 
 
 „ 12. ..103: 85 .82 mean, 100 
 
 in. in. 
 
 Dr. Hull (Wood*) 4i : 4| 1.06 
 
 mean, .87 
 
 PELVES OF NEGRITOES. 
 € Females. 1 Male. 
 
 mm. mm. index in. in. index- 
 
 Joulin, New Guinea. ..135 : 115 .85 Isle of Pines (Mua. 
 
 „ New Caledonia 125:125 100 Eoyal College of 
 
 „ „ 130:115 .88 Surgeons) 4.55:4.45 .97 
 
 „ „ 123 : 111 .82 
 
 „ „ 125 : 101 .80 
 
 „ „ 108 ; 100 .92 
 
 mean, .87 
 
 PELVES OF BUSHMEN. 
 
 5 Females. 2 Males. 
 
 in. in. index in- in. index 
 Eoyal Coll. of Sur- Eoyal College of Sur- 
 geons No. 1... 3.75 : 3.85 102 geons 3.6:3.3 .91 
 
 „ 2. ..4. 35 : 3.75 .86 Dr. Grey's specimen 3.95 : 3.85 .97 
 
 Joulin, Hottentot "" 
 
 tr -I on on T<> mean, 94 
 
 Venus ... 122 : 89 .73 
 
 ,, Museum ... 125 ; 98 .78 
 
 „ (Vrolik) ... 125 : 103 .82 
 
 mean, .84 
 
 * " Cyclopedia of Anatomy."— Article " Pelvis." 
 
142 PRE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 PELVES OF AUSTRALIANS. 
 1 Female. 5 Males. 
 
 in. in. index in. in. index 
 Royal College of Sur- Eoyal College of Sur- 
 geons 5.15 : 4.5 .87 
 
 geons .. 
 
 ....No. 1., 
 2.. 
 
 ,.4.25 ; 
 ,.4.2 
 
 ;4.25 
 : 4.3 
 
 100 
 102 
 
 
 3.. 
 
 ,.4.25 
 
 : 4.4 
 
 103 
 
 
 4.. 
 
 .4.3 ; 
 
 4.15 
 
 .96 
 
 Middlesex 
 
 Hospital 
 
 3.76 
 
 : 3.9 
 
 104 
 
 mean, 101 
 
 On comparing the indices of these twenty- four female and 
 fourteen male pelves, it will be observed that not a single 
 male falls below .90 ; while in eight, or more- than half, the 
 index is at or above 100 ; or, in other words, in these, the conju- 
 gate equals or exceeds the transverse diameter. On the other 
 hand, in the series of female pelves, there are only three (or 
 about 12 per cent.) with an index at or above 100 ; seventeen 
 (or about 70 per cent.) have it below .90 ; and only four (or 
 about 16 per cent.) at or above .90 and below 106. Taking 
 an index of .90 as the middle term in the female series, more 
 than two-thirds are below, and less than one-third above, 
 this mean. 
 
 In the carefully-written article "Pelvis," in the "Cyclo- 
 paedia of Anatomy and Physiology," Mr. Wood brings 
 together the average measurements of the male and female 
 European pelvis,, as stated by divers authorities, and adds 
 his own results, derived from the measurem,ents of eighteen 
 female and fourteen male, European pelves. 
 
 The average dimensions of the transverse and conjugate 
 diameters in the two sexes in Europeans adopted by Meckel, 
 "Watt, and Wood are as follows : 
 
 
 
 
 MALE. 
 
 
 
 
 FEMALE. 
 
 
 
 in. 
 
 lines. 
 
 in. lines. 
 
 index. 
 
 in. 
 
 lines. 
 
 in. lines. 
 
 index. 
 
 Meckel . 
 
 . 4, 
 
 . 6 : 
 
 4. 
 
 .88 
 
 5. 
 
 . 0' : 
 
 : 4.4 
 
 .86 
 
 Watt . 
 
 . 4, 
 
 , 6 : 
 
 4.0 
 
 .88 
 
 5, 
 
 .6 : 
 
 : 4. 9 
 
 .86 
 
 Wood . 
 
 . 4 
 
 .7 : 
 
 4. 
 
 .87 
 .876 
 
 5 
 
 .2 
 
 : 4.5 
 
 .85 
 
 
 4 
 
 .61 
 
 4.0 
 
 5 
 
 . 2f 
 
 4.6 
 
 .856 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 143 
 
 It is remarkable how closely the indices of the average 
 numbers given by these different observers agree — though 
 the numbers themselves differ a good deal for the female 
 pelvis. Still more singular is the near approximation of the 
 mean index of the European female pelvis (.856) to that of 
 Negresses (.87), Negrito women (.87), Australians (.87), and 
 Bushwomen (.84). Thus, although Dr. Joulin goes too far 
 when he asserts that the conjugate diameter of the female 
 pelvis never exceeds the transverse, he would appear to be 
 fully borne out in his conclusion that the diameters of the 
 brim of the female pelvis do not, on the average, present very 
 great differences in proportion in the different races of man- 
 kind. There is some ground for suspecting, however, that 
 the conjugate diameter more frequently bears a large propor- 
 tion to the transverse in the savage races, than in Europeans. 
 On the other hand, there is a vast difference between the 
 savage and the European male pelvis. The brim of the 
 latter is much smaller in all its dimensions than the female, 
 but its proportions are very little different. In the savage, 
 on the other hand, there is the further difference, that the 
 conjugate diameter nearly or quite equals, or may frequently 
 exceed, the transverse. 
 
 "With respect to the male pelves, as I have already said, I 
 find nothing to distinguish them from well formed and strong 
 European male pelves, except that the conjugate diameter of 
 No. 7 is less than usual, so that its index is only .82, while 
 that of No. 8 is .87. They have not the excessively nar- 
 row intersciatic diameter which characterises the Australian 
 male pelvis ; and though the more perfect one is very like 
 the pelvis of a male Esquimaux in the Museum of the Royal 
 College of Surgeons, I do not know that there is anything 
 specific about the resemblance. 
 
 The pelvis of No. 2, so far as the dimensions of its brim 
 
144 
 
 PRE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 are concerned, agrees with the female European pelvis 
 which Weber figures (PI. xxix.,*) as the most extreme exam- 
 ple of the " wedge-shaped " type. I have seen but two female 
 pelves of other than European origin which in any way 
 approach it ; one of these is the pelvis of the Bushwoman 
 in the Royal College of Surgeons, the other that of a female 
 Esquimaux in the same collection. In its general charac- 
 ters, the Esquimaux pelvis comes nearer that of JSTo. 2 than 
 the Bushwoman's. 
 
 The height of No. 2 pelvis is about 7.2 in., that of the Esqui- 
 maux 6.75 ; the extreme distance between the outer edges of the 
 iliac crests is only 9,9 in. ia the Esquimaux, while it is still 
 less in No. 2 (9.1 in.) In an European woman of nearly the 
 same stature the same measurement gave 11.5 in., and in an 
 Australian 10.8 in. : even in the male Esquimaux it was 
 10.2 in. Again, the Esquimaux pelvis has the sciatic notch 
 almost as open as that of No. 2 ; the distance from the 
 edge of the acetabulum to the nearest point of the fifth 
 sacral vertebra (a measurement which roughly expresses the 
 openness of the notch), beiag 4ia. in the Esquimaux as 
 against 4.25 in. in No. 2. In this width of the sciatic notch, 
 which, in a less degree, is eminently characteristic of the 
 female pelvis, in general, the pelves of the male and female 
 Esquimaux are as strongly contrasted as those of No. 7 and 
 No. 2. 
 
 The pelvis of the female Esquimaux further departs from 
 the ordinary type in the circumstance that, while the trans- 
 verse diameter of the brim is 4.7 ia., the conjugate is 4.6 in., 
 or very nearly equal to the former. Again, the antero-pos- 
 terior measurement of the cavity of the pelvis is great 
 amounting to as much as 6.45. in. On the other hand 
 the sub-pubic arch is tolerably wide, its angle amounting to 
 fully 90°. 
 
 * Marked xxviii. by mistake in the original. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 145 
 
 In such respects as the pelvis of No. 2 differs from that of 
 Esquimaux it departs further from the ordinary character. The 
 transverse diameter of the brim is slightly narrower (4.6 in.), 
 the conjugate diameter three- tenths of an iach longer (4.9in.) ; 
 the index therefore ^104. The antero-posterior measurement 
 of the true pelvis is an inch greater. The sub-pubic angle 
 is acute. In this poiat, the pelvis of 'No. 2 differs from the 
 Bushwoman's pelvis as well as from the Esquimaux's ; and, 
 in fact, the acuteness of the pubic arch of No. 2 long led me 
 to doubt its being a female pelvis. 
 
 While the pelvis No. 2 is, if I may use the expression, 
 some distance on the abnormal side of the Esquimaux, that 
 of No. 1 approaches near to the normal type. The width of 
 the haunches is the same as in the Esquimaux ; the sciatic 
 notch is about as open ; the antero-posterior diameter of the 
 cavity may have been very similar. On the other hand, the 
 transverse diameter of the brim, is greater, so that the brim 
 more nearly approaches the ordinary transversely oval form. 
 It is to be recollected, however, that in this pelvis, as it is now 
 restored and figured, the symphysial interval is certainly too 
 great, and that every diminution of this interval would in- 
 crease the conjugate and lessen the transverse diameter. In 
 other words, the difference between it and the Esquimaux 
 would certainly have been lessened had the pelvis been 
 entire. I did not feel justified in giving the parts any other 
 position than that into which they fall, when coadapted in 
 their present condition. 
 
 It would be very unsafe to assume that the peculiar forms 
 of the single female Esquimaux pelvis, and of the two 
 Keiss pelves, are other than accidental. And yet until they 
 are shown to be accidental, by the examination of a greater 
 number of pelves of both kinds, I think the fact, as it stands, 
 must be carefully borne in mind. 
 
 Since this passage was written, Mr. Turner has supplied 
 
146 PKE-HISTOEIC REMAINS 
 
 me with the measurements of the only other female pelvis 
 obtained from Keiss, given above at p. 99. The pelvic 
 index is .97. In other words, it exhibits the same remark- 
 able peculiarity as the others ; and thus of the known three 
 female pelves from Keiss, the pelvic index of two is far 
 above .90, and that of the third is not below .90 ; while had 
 they been pelves of savage races, only one should have been 
 in this position ; and had they been modem European pelves, 
 it may be doubted if, on the ordinary doctrine of chances, 
 one in twenty should have had this conformation. 
 
 I have compared the bones of the Hmbs and spine of 
 No. 1 with the corresponding parts of the skeleton of a well- 
 formed European female, and of the female AustraKan, in the 
 Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. As mounted, 
 each of these skeletons stands about 5 ft. 2 ia. high. 
 
 The calcaneum of the European is broad, and from the 
 lower edge of the cuboidal facet to the extreme end of the 
 calcaneal process measures 2.55. In No. 1 it is narrower, 
 and measures 2.75 in length. In the Australian, the same 
 measurement gives 2.9. On the whole, I should say that 
 the calcaneum of No. 1 is somewhat narrower and longer 
 than the average European heel-bone. 
 
 The tibia of the European female measured from the 
 femoral to the astragalar articular surfaces, along its posterior 
 face, is 13.4 in. long ; in No. 1, 13.2 in. ; in the Australian, 
 13.9 in. There is nothing remarkable about this bone in No. 1. 
 
 The fibula in the European is 13.2 ia. long ; in No. 1 it has 
 the same length; while in the Australian it is 14 in. long. In 
 the European and the Australian its shaft has the ordinary 
 trihedral form, the posterior surface being tolerably flat and 
 broad. In No. 1, on the other hand, this face is very nar- 
 row, and the outer surface of the shaft is broad and deeply 
 excavated, so that the bone has quite a peculiar aspect. 
 
OF CAITHNESS. 147 
 
 The femur of the European, measured along a straight line 
 drawn from the upper surface of the head to a flat surface 
 on which both condyles rest, is 16.7 in. long (proportional, 
 according to the ordinary rule, to a stature of 60.07 in.) ; 
 that of 'No. 1 measures only 15.9 in. (proportional to a 
 stature of 57.8 in.) ; that of the Australian measures 17.3 in. 
 (proportional to a stature of 62.9 in.). Thus supposing the 
 rule of proportion, as length of femur : length of body :: 
 275 : 1000, to hold good, the Australian ought to be 
 tallest, the European next, and No. 1 last. As a matter of 
 fact, the European skeleton stands a little higher than the 
 Australian. And it wiU be observed that the fibula and 
 tibia of No. 1, instead of beiag shorter than those of the 
 European, are exactly of the same length. 
 
 So far as this may show a tendency of the distal di- 
 vision of the extremity to bear an increased proportion to 
 the proximal division, it is a character of degradation. At 
 the same time, it indicates that the stature of No. 1 was pro- 
 bably higher than the calculation would make it. 
 
 But this character is not repeated in the upper extremities. 
 The radius of No. 1 is 8.75 in. long from the centre of one 
 articular face to that of the other, and that of the European 
 has the same length. That of the Australian measures 9.35. 
 
 The humerus, from the centre of the upper surface of the 
 head to the middle of the distal articular surface, is, in both 
 the European and No. 1, 11.7 in., while, in the Australian, it 
 measures 12.25 in. 
 
 While the bones of the upper extremity of No. 1 are very 
 similar to those of the European woman, except that they 
 are stronger, and have better developed ridges and processes, 
 the clavicles are very different (fig. 30). They are 5.5 in. in 
 extreme length, while neithcBithe European nor the Austra- 
 lian clavicles exceed 5.3 in. ; and, furthermore, they are much 
 stronger and more curved bones, more Uke male than female 
 
 14 
 
148 PSE-HISTOMC KEMAINS OF CAITHNESS. 
 
 clavicles. The scapulae of No. 1 are also decidedly long in 
 proportion to their height. 
 
 Putting all the elements of the picture together, No. 1, 
 with her long shias and heels, narrow hips, relatively broad 
 shoulders, retreating forehead and projecting jaws, can hardly 
 have been either a graceful, or a comely, personage. 
 
 In the spinal column the bodies of the vertebrae have the 
 same size as those of the European female, but the processes 
 are coarser and stronger, and the lower oblique processes of 
 the last lumbar are unusually far apart. The transverse 
 processes of this vertebra are also somewhat stouter and 
 coarser ; but they exhibit no such sacrum- Hke enlargement 
 as is not unfre^uently seen in the Bushmen and Australians. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 NOTE A. 
 
 THE volume of "Memoirs read before the Anthropologi- 
 cal Society," for 1863-4, contaias a paper by Dr. J. B. 
 Davis, entitled "The Neanderthal Skull; its peculiar con- 
 formation explained anatomically." The insufficiency of the 
 "explanation" thus offered by Dr. Davis, was, immediately 
 afterwards, clearly demonstrated by Dr. Thurnam — to whose 
 valuable memoir, "On Synostosis of the Cranial bones," 
 published in the "Natural History Review," for April, 1866, 
 I may refer those who are desirous to learn the conditions 
 imder which, alone, the doctrine of synostosis is applicable to 
 the explanation of cranial peculiarities. Nevertheless, as I 
 find that Dr. Davis' " explanation " is stiU quoted as all-suffi- 
 cient, to the delusion of those who are unable to examine 
 the matter for themselves, I will say a few words upon the 
 subject here ; though, really, after Dr. Thurnam's paper, 
 controversion of the " synostotic " explanation is as much a 
 work of supererogation as would be that of the "idiotic" 
 hypothesis, which was so long held by other instructors of 
 the public. 
 
 Dr. Davis' views are thus stated by himself: {I.e. p. 286) 
 " In the application of these remarks to the famous Nean- 
 derthal calvarium, the first striking peculiarity that demands 
 attention is the great magnitude of the frontal sinuses, and 
 the enormous ridge of bone covering them, which are not 
 affected by irregularity in the ossification of sutures. The 
 size of these sinuses differs greatly in different persons, and 
 
150 APPENDIX. NOTE A. 
 
 to have them remarkably large is merely an individual pecu- 
 liarity. Some living persons among EngHshmen might be 
 brought forward exhibiting this peculiarity. (1) And ia the 
 example figured, No. 1029, the same peculiarity wiU be seen 
 to exist. (2) Still it should be remarked that the unusual 
 depression of the frontal bone above the superciliary ridges 
 gives^an exaggerated prominence to this part of the Nean- 
 derthal calvarium. (3) This depression, only slightly di- 
 minished ia degree, will be seen in the example figured. 
 The fact of its being less is at once explained by the open 
 state of the sutures surrounding the alisphenoid, all of which 
 appear to have been prematurely ossi&ed in the Neanderthal 
 skull. (4) 
 
 " It is precisely this early synostosis of the bones forming 
 the temporal regions that has prevented the development and 
 arching of the frontal bone, and given rise to the great de- 
 pression and flatness of this bone, one of the most remark- 
 able features of the Neanderthal calvarium.*(5) Indeed, it 
 is the enormous superciliary ridge and the depressed forehead 
 which have led so many excellent observers to the verge of 
 a declination towards pithecoid forms. (6) In these par- • 
 ticulars, and ii^ the great gap separating it from the body 
 of the frontal bone, the Neanderthal calvaria may be said at 
 first view to be suggestive of the crest of the gorilla. But 
 there is no real resemblance between the two ; for the latter 
 crest is a solid buttress of bone, and does not correspond to 
 the hoUow superciliary ridge. (7) It wiU thus be seen that 
 there is nothing either of a simious character, or that might 
 not have been expected ia the low forehead of the Neander- 
 thal skull, in which the brain had to grow and expand under 
 a plate of bone which appears to have been, ia a great 
 degree, iii one solid piece. It was impossible to raise this 
 
 * "That is, in addition tp the ossification of the coronal suture," Dr. Davis 
 adds in a note. 
 
APPENDIX. — NOTE A. 151 
 
 plate of bone upwards, and tlie result, as will be seen, was a 
 development in another direction. In tlie middle region of 
 the calvaria, the sagittal suture being closed, the contained 
 cerebral substance could only expand at the sides in the 
 situation of the squamous sutures ; and here the Neanderthal 
 cranium seems not to lack development. (8) But in the pos- 
 terior region its greatest expansion took place, precisely be- 
 cause in this part was the open lambdoidal suture, which 
 admitted of the growth of the brain. In the iigures of this 
 imperfect calvarium the superior occipital scale is seen to be 
 bulged out, and the whole of what remains of the occipital 
 bone is full and large — the compensatory result for the con- 
 tracted anterior regions. 
 
 "The extreme length of the Neanderthal cranium is given 
 by Professor Huxley, and is eight inches, which is a very 
 unusual length. In skulls in which such a length occurs 
 it is most frequently the result of synostosis. That such is 
 the case in the Neanderthal example there is not any doubt. 
 This feature is the unequivocal effect of premature ossifica- 
 tion of longitudinal sutures." (9) 
 
 Upon these statements I have to oifer the following 
 remarks : — 
 
 (1) We all know that the large size of the frontal sinuses 
 is very often merely an individual peculiarity. But the 
 question is, whether frontal sinuses and supraciliary ridges, 
 so large as those of the Neanderthal skull, are known in any 
 other human skull. I have ventured to answer that question 
 in the negative, and Dr. Davis produces not a tittle of evi- 
 dence agaiost the justice of that negation. 
 
 (2) If the figure at p. 288, of the work cited, is a correct 
 representation of the skull 1029, nothiag like "the same 
 peculiarity " exists in it. In fact, the form of the skuU in 
 question, is nowise more remarkable than that of the Batavus 
 
152 
 
 APPENDIX. NOTE A. 
 
 genuinus of Blumenbach, a figure of which, compared with 
 
 Fio. 66. 
 
 Reduced copy of Blumeubacll's figure of a " Batavus genuiuus." The contour 
 of the Neanderthal skull, reduced to the same length, is drawn upon the figure ; 
 the glabella; being made to correspond, and the superior curved line of the 
 Neanderthal skull being adjusted to the point a of the other. The skulls are not 
 reduced to the same scale, and hence this figure only gives the difi'erent propor- 
 tions of the two. 
 
 that of the Neanderthal skull, I have already given ("Na- 
 tural History Review," July, 1864), and here reproduce 
 (fig. 66). 
 
 (3) Exactly the reverse is the case, as will be seen by 
 compariag the casts of the inner cavities of the Australian 
 and the Neanderthal skulls (fig. 67). It is not the frontal 
 contour of the Neanderthal skull which really differs so 
 much from that of ordinary skulls ; but it is the enormous 
 development of the supraciliary ridges which make that con- 
 tour look more retreating than it really is. 
 
 (4) How does Dr. Davis know what was the condition of 
 the sutures " surrounding the alisphenoid " in the Neander- 
 thal skull ? No observer who has seen the skull says a word 
 
APPENDIX. NOTB A. 153 
 
 about either the alispheno-frontal, or the alispheno-parietal, 
 sutiires. Dr. Fuhlrott is cited by Dr. Davis, as sayiag, " 5. 
 Of all the other sutures^ namely, those taking their course on 
 the points of examination, on the frontal, parietal, and squa- 
 mosal bones there is nothing to be found, even no partial 
 indication ' einseitige Andentung.' " I cannot but think 
 that Dr. Fuhlrott's words have here been "overset," as his 
 countrymen would say, into English — for in their Anglican 
 dress they are not very intelligible, though I have reason 
 to know that Dr. Fuhlrott expresses himself with much clear- 
 ness in his native tongue and in French. For my own part, 
 I venture very greatly to doubt that the region which should 
 exhibit the alispheno-frontal and alispheno-parietal sutures is 
 preserved in the Neanderthal calvaria. And if this be the case, 
 while Dr. Fuhlrott may very properly speak of the absence of 
 the sutures, it is surely not very proper for anyone else to con- 
 found the absence of a suture, in virtue of the absence of 
 the part of the skull which should show it, with its oblitera- 
 tion by synostosis. Furthermore, if aKsphenoidal synostosis 
 is the cause of the frontal depression of the Neanderthal 
 skuU, why is that depression " only slightly diminished in 
 degree " in the skull 1029, in which the " sutures surround- 
 ding the aHsphenoid " are in an " open state " ? It is surely 
 odd to find an effect " only slightly diminished," when the 
 cause of that effect is absent. 
 
 (6) The "synostotic" hypothesis is apparently cumulative in 
 its effect on those who hold it. Two or three lines above. Dr. 
 Davis was content with "premature" alisphenoidal synostosis, 
 now he assumes " early synostosis of the bones forming the tem- 
 poral regions." But, the temporal bones themselves take a 
 certain, not inconsiderable, share in " forming the temporal 
 regions;" and yet Dr. Fuhlrott, as quoted by Dr. Davis, 
 tells us, "of the squamous suture, the middle portions on 
 both sides of the skuU, are obviously present upon the pa- 
 
154 APPENDIX. — NOTE A. 
 
 rietal bone." Surely Dr. Davis has not again taken Dr. 
 Fuhlrott's silence touching that part of the skuU which is 
 absent for evidence of more synostosis ? But if he. has not, on 
 what ground does he assert that such synostosis exists ? And 
 furthermore, 'supposing any synostosis to exist in the tem- 
 poral region, what shadow of evidence is there that it took 
 place early ? The Neanderthal skull, judging from the 
 great development of the frontal sinuses and other marks, 
 is that of a man verging on, if he were not in, the middle 
 period of life ; and we have no means of judging at what 
 time any of its sutures closed. But, on this point I refer the 
 reader to the excellent criticism of Dr. Thurnam. 
 
 (6) Which of us has been brought to this pass ? I have not 
 the pleasure of knowing Dr. Fuhlrott, or Professor Schaaf- 
 hausen, Professor King, or Dr. Davis, personally, but I have 
 noted no sign approaching even "the verge of such declina- 
 tion towards pithecoid forms " in either Mr. Busk, Mr. 
 Turner, or myself, though such a phenomenon would cer- 
 tainly attract my attention strongly ; and would, indeed, be 
 a notable judgment upon such of us as may be believers in 
 progressive modification, convicted, henceforth, rather of re- 
 trogression. Absit omen ! 
 
 (7) "Why does Dr. Davis venture broad statements about 
 matters concerning which he is not well informed ; especially 
 when those statements have already been refuted ? In reply- 
 ing to Professor Mayer, who fell into the same error as Dr. 
 Davis, I have already affirmed ("Natural History Eeview," 
 July, 1864) : "There are to be seen, at the present moment, 
 in the Museum of the Eoyal College of Surgeons, two bi- 
 sected skulls, one of a gorilla and one of a chimpanzee, in 
 which the frontal sinuses are enormous, their walls being 
 no thicker, in proportion, than in man." I ask no one to 
 take this, or anything else, for granted, on my authority; 
 but surely my assertion might have furnished Dr. Davis with 
 
APPENDIX. NOTE A. 165 
 
 some primA facie inducement to look at the skulls to wliich 
 I refer, and submit to their authority. 
 
 (8) But if " the early synostosis of the bones forming the 
 temporal regions prevented the development and arching of 
 the frontal bone" in the Neanderthal cranium, surely it 
 must have no less prevented expansion at the sides, in the 
 situation of the squamous sutures. By Dr. Davis' hypothe- 
 sis, the premature synostosis of the sagittal suture prevented 
 the brain from growing in width under the parietal bones ; 
 in what way, then, could it have developed in the region of 
 the squamous suture without dislocating the squamosals from 
 the parietals ? 
 
 (9) By way of reply to all this I reproduce a figure which I 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 \ 
 
 Side view of the cast of the interior of the Neanderthal skull reduced to one 
 half of the natural size. The outline represents the contour of a like cast of an 
 Australian skull in the Museum of the Eoyal College of Surgeons (No. 6331) 
 reduced to the same scale, n. Cast of the inner face of the lambdoidal suture. 
 Sy. the Sylvian fissure. 
 
 published in the paper in the " Natural History Review," for 
 
156 
 
 APPENDIX. NOTE A. 
 
 1864, already cited, exhibiting the interior casts of the Nean- 
 derthal skull and that of an Australian skuU (No. 5331 in the 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 Represents the same objects as Fig. 67, viewed from above ; scale the same. 
 a a. as before. 
 
 Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons). What is essen- 
 tial about the form of a skull is the form of its interior ; 
 the external skull may be modified in many adventitious 
 ways, when the interior, which corresponds with the form of 
 the brain, is once completely moulded. 
 
 It wUl be observed that these casts correspond so closely 
 that their differences are insignificant. On the whole, the 
 Australian is absolutely longer than the Neanderthal (7.1 in. 
 to 6.85 in.) and absolutely narrower (5.3 in. to 5.45 in.) ; 
 
APPENDIX. — NOTE B. 167 
 
 and, furthermore, the protuberance of the occipital lobes is 
 more marked and more sharply defined in the Australian 
 skull. In point of depression of the frontal region the 
 Neanderthal cast slightly exceeds the Australian, but the 
 depression of the parietal lobes is equal in the two. But 
 whatever other peculiarity the Neanderthal brain had, the 
 Australian braia had in a greater degree ; and if these pecu- 
 liarities are due to synostosis in the Neanderthal skull, there 
 ought to be as much, or more, synostosis in the Australian. 
 What are the facts ? In the Australian skull every suture 
 of the calvaria normally present in an adult skiill, viz., the 
 coronal, sagittal, lambdoidal, occipito-mastoid, squamosal, 
 alisphenoidal, is open ; not one showing the smallest sign of 
 obliteration. Would it not have been worth Dr. Davis' 
 while (as he has read the paper from which he has done me 
 the honour to quote a phrase) to have looked at No. 5331, as 
 well as at the gorilla skull, in the College Museum, before he 
 undertook to "explain the Neanderthal skull anatomically"? 
 
 NOTE B. 
 
 M. Bkoca, in his very able and instructive paper "Sur 
 I'Ethnologie de la France " (M^moires de la Societe d' An- 
 thropologic de Paris, i., 1860), thus sums up the views 
 adopted by M. W. Edwards and himself. 
 
 " The Celtic and the Kymric races are certainly the two 
 chief sources of the French people. In the midst of our 
 variously mixed populations, M. W. Edwards was able to dis- 
 cover the principal distinctive characters of these two great 
 Graulish races. The Gaels (Galls) or Celts, properly so 
 called, had a middle stature, the forehead arched, receding 
 towards the temples, the nose nearly straight and ending in 
 a rounded lobule, the chin round, the head round. The 
 
158 APPENDIX. KOTE B. 
 
 Kymry, or Belgee of Caesar, had a much greater stature : 
 their heads were long, the forehead wide and high, the chin 
 projecting and strongly marked, the nose curved, with the 
 point directed downwards, and its alae raised laterally. I 
 add, to complete the contrast, that the Celts had their hair 
 and eyes brown, or black, while the Kymry had the eyes 
 light and the hair blonde " [I.e. p. 8). 
 
 And in another place, in describiag the remarkable dif- 
 ferences between the Kymric colony of Leon in Brittany, 
 and the Gaelic inhabitants of the adjacent "pays de Cor- 
 nuaille," M. Broca states, on the authority of a correspondent, 
 familiar with the country, that the people of Leon are very 
 tall, blonde, light-eyed, with long heads, long noses, pointed 
 chins, and very fair skins. The inhabitants of ComuaUle, on 
 the other hand, are short, dark complexioned, and with dark 
 hair and eyes, round heads, and roimd chins {I.e. p. 21). At the 
 same time, M. Broca identifies the " Celts " of Cornuaille 
 with those of Ireland {I.e. p. 24), and the Kymri of L^on with 
 the Belgse of Southern England {I.e. p. 20). 
 
 Thus M. Broca exactly reverses the conclusions of Dr. 
 Thurnam. But it is to be remarked — 
 
 Firstly : that M. Broca's conclusions do not seem to be 
 based upon measurements. 
 
 Secondly : that the Irish " Celts," with whom he identi- 
 fies the French " Celts," are certainly not a round-headed 
 people. 
 
 Thirdly : that Dr. Thurnam's position, that the broad-headed 
 people of Southern England were Belgse, and consequently 
 identical with the French Kymri, is very strong ; and that, 
 in any case, the broad-headed people were the only tall 
 ancient people of Southern England. 
 
 Fourthly : that Professor "Wilson has recently brought for- 
 ward some curious indirect evidence which tells in exactly 
 the same direction, in his " Inquiry into the physical charac- 
 
APPENDIX. NOTE B. 159 
 
 teristics of the ancient and modern Celt of Gaid and 
 Britain."* 
 
 In Lower Canada, according to this careful investigator, 
 the French inhabitants of Quebec are derived, almost 
 wholly, from Normandy; while those of Montreal, on 
 the other hand, are a colony from Brittany. On exam- 
 ining the patterns of the heads of Canadians taken by 
 hatters, with an instrument termed the " conformateur," 
 Prof. "Wilson found, that of nearly 100 Quebec French skulls, 
 only nine were other than oval and nearly round. On the 
 other hand, the Montreal French heads were almost all 
 elongated. Now a great part of Normandy was included 
 in Belgic Gaul, and M. -Broca briags forward evidence to 
 prove that, in their stature, its population shows clear evi- 
 dence of the iafiuence of Belgic blood, and is very sharply 
 marked off from the closely adjacent Brittany. 
 
 I cannot support the view to which Professor Wilson 
 seems incHned, that among the Norsemen of historical times 
 there was any notable infusion of Finnic elements : all the 
 information we possess respectiag the old Scandinavian in- 
 vaders being, I think, adverse to such an opinion. But if 
 the Norsemen were all, as I believe they were, long-skulled, 
 and the Franks who preceded them in Normandy were 
 also dolichocephalic (as they certaialy were) the brachy- 
 cephaly of the Norman-French colonists of Quebec, can only 
 come from their atavic ancestors, the Belgae. 
 
 In like manner, the dolichocephaly of the Breton colo- 
 nists of Montreal is dead against the notion that the French 
 " Celts " are broad-headed, but in perfect accordance with 
 what we know of the short and dark-haired population of 
 the British Islands. I have yet to meet with good evidence, 
 in favour of the existence, in Europe, of any short, dark, 
 
 » "The Canadian Journal," 1864. 
 
160 APPENDIX. ^NOTE B. 
 
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 time immemorial, these people have spoken Slavonic dialects 
 in the centre of their area ; while, at its margin, they have 
 been, and are, found using those of the nations with whom 
 they came into contact : Celtic, and afterwards French, in 
 Gaul ; Ugrian, in Finmark ; German, Romance, or French, 
 in Switzerland and Germany ; Latin, in Italy ; modern 
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