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CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 p. 
 
 
ML 460.B87"" ""'""'''' ^"•"'' 
 
 3 1924 022 445 849 
 
'f D h 
 
 Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022445849 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 
 
 AND THEIR HOMES 
 
 BY 
 
 MARY E. BROWN AND WM. ADAMS BROWN 
 
 WITH 
 
 TWO HUNDRED AND SEVENTY ILLUSTRATIONS IN PEN AND INK 
 
 BY WM. ADAMS BROWN 
 
 THE WHOLE FORMING 
 
 A COMPLETE CATALOGUE OF THE COLLECTION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 
 
 NOW IN THE POSSESSION OF MRS. J. CROSBY BROWN 
 
 OF NEW YORK 
 
 NEW YORK 
 DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY 
 
 1888 
 
 K^ 
 
Copyright, iSS8, 
 By DODD, mead AND COMPANY. 
 
 All riirhis reserved. 
 
 Press of J. J. Little & Co., 
 Astor Place, New York. 
 
ICo the iDne 
 
 WHO HAS NOT ONLY GIVEN THE TRUE KEYNOTE TO OUR 
 
 HOME, BUT WHOSE FIRM YET GENTLE TOUCH 
 
 HAS RESOLVED ALL ITS TRANSIENT 
 
 DISCORDS INTO HARMONY, 
 
 Ihis Booh 
 
 IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED BY 
 HIS WIFE AND ELDEST SON. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 ^^HE present volume consists of two parts, distinct, yet complementary. 
 The first is a complete catalogue of the collection of musical 
 instruments in the possession of Mrs. John Crosby Brown of 
 New York, consisting of a drawing and description of each of the two hun- 
 dred and sixty-six specimens in that collection. To this catalogue has been 
 added a series of explanatory essays on subjects connected with the music 
 and musical instruments of savage and Oriental peoples. The history of 
 European instruments has often been treated by competent authorities. But 
 no comprehensive work on the musical instruments of the East and of 
 savage races has yet appeared. Special subjects, indeed, have been treated 
 with great learning and fulness. But such monographs, as a rule, are 
 inaccessible to the general reader. The sections devoted to the musical 
 instruments of different countries in the general histories of music, are of 
 very unequal value ; some going into unnecessary detail, while others are 
 superficial and unsatisfactory. The magnificent work of Hipkins and Gibb, 
 on " Musical Instruments, Rare, Historic, and Unique," devotes only nine of 
 its fifty plates to extra-European countries. The best single volume on the 
 subject in question is still Engel's " Catalogue of the Musical Instruments 
 in the South Kensington Museum." But this work, while indispensable to 
 the student, is not adapted for general use. In the very nature of the 
 case, the treatment lacks unity, and many of the most important points are 
 passed over without notice. 
 
 The present book, while far from claiming to give an exhaustive account 
 
vi Preface. 
 
 of all the musical instruments of Oriental and savage races, aims to put 
 within the reach of the general reader the most important facts connected 
 with this interesting subject. 
 
 In the plan of the work as originally conceived, the composition of the 
 letterpress was undertaken by Mrs. Brown, while the present writer was to 
 be responsible only for the drawings and the accompanying descriptions. 
 The following words, written by Mrs. Brown as a preface, six months ago, 
 will explain at once the origin of the book and its design as first contem- 
 plated : — 
 
 " Some years ago I became very much interested in the subject of 
 musical instruments, and a friend kindly procured for me from Florence two 
 or three fine old specimens. To these, others were added from time to time, 
 until I found myself really aspiring to make a collection, in which the more 
 important instruments of the different countries of the world should all be 
 represented. With the growth of this collection came naturally a desire for 
 definite intormation both as to the instruments themselves, and the music 
 of the countries from which they came. Finding that no one book con- 
 tained the desired material, I was forced to gather it from many scattered 
 sources, — volumes of travel and history, as well as of more special musical 
 research. The results of my reading and study were embodied for my own 
 use in a series of short papers. It has occurred to me that these sketches, 
 designed primarily for my own reference, might be helpful to others, who, 
 though interested in the subject, may not have the time or the opportunity 
 to collect the information for themselves. They are fragmentary and incom- 
 plete in character, consisting largely of quotations from the best authorities, 
 to whom full credit is given. In the words of Montaigne, ' I have here 
 only made a nosegay of culled flowers, and have brought nothing of my 
 own but the thread that ties them toeether.' 
 
 " In view of the many applications which have been made by those 
 interested in musical subjects, for a description of the instruments in my 
 possession, it seemed very important to prepare a careful catalogue of the 
 
Preface. vii 
 
 collection. Accurate drawings have been made of each instrument by my 
 son ; and it is believed that these illustrations, with the accompanying 
 descriptions, will prove a valuable contribution to the study of the history 
 of musical instruments, which, in this country, is still in its infancy. The 
 most important collections of this kind in the United States — those of 
 the National Museum in Washington, and of the Conservatory of Music 
 in Boston, as well as the Drexel Collection in the Metropolitan Museum in 
 New York — are still uncatalogued. It is hoped that the present volume may 
 serve as a stimulus both to the speedy carrying out of this important work, 
 and to the making of more complete collections, both private and national. 
 
 " I wish in this connection to express my great indebtedness to the 
 many friends who have assisted me in making this collection, and especially 
 to those missionaries in distant lands who have secured and forwarded many 
 of the most valuable specimens, often at great expense of time and trouble. 
 I desire also to express my obligation to my friend Miss Ella Russel, who 
 has not only assisted me in my musical studies, but who has been their real 
 inspiration." 
 
 Since these words were written, it has been found necessary in some 
 respects to modify the original plan of the book. Circumstances having 
 rendered it impossible for my mother to continue the preparation of the 
 sketches above referred to, the completion of the letterpress as well as of 
 the illustrations fell into my hands. As the work progressed, I became 
 convinced of the advisability of a somewhat more comprehensive and careful 
 treatment than had at first been contemplated. I was obliged, therefore, 
 largely to re-write the earlier chapters, in order to make them conform to 
 the method of treatment employed in the latter part of the work. 
 
 It is believed that the book in its present form will fill a useful place 
 in musical literature. It does not lay claim to the merit of original research, 
 the time and circumstances of the writer having rendered this impossible. 
 At the same time, all accessible authorities have been conscientiously con- 
 sulted ; and a free use has been made of several manuscript sources, of 
 
viii Preface. 
 
 which special acknowledgment will be made in the proper place. For the 
 convenience of those who may desire for special purposes to verify any of 
 the statements made in the text, full references have been given in foot- 
 notes ; and a complete list of authorities quoted has been added at the back 
 of the book. It has been the aim of the writer to make more than a 
 mere compilation. While for convenience the separate chapters have been 
 arranged in sets corresponding to the divisions of the catalogue, it will be 
 found that they form by themselves a connected whole. For a reason which 
 has already been explained, the subject of European instruments has been 
 passed over in silence. The musical instruments of the ancient Assyrians, 
 Egyptians, and Hebrews, as well as of the Greeks and Romans, have like- 
 wise been passed by without notice, as not properly falling within the scope 
 of the present work. With these exceptions, the writer has aimed to give 
 some account of the principal musical instruments in use the world over, — 
 particular attention being given to those specimens which are represented 
 in the catalogue. A brief account of the character, history, and place of 
 music in each of the more important extra-European countries, has been 
 given in a special chapter. 
 
 An additional word of explanation is needed as to the chapters on 
 savage music and musical instruments. The interest and importance of this 
 subject are so great, that I need not apologize for devoting to it consid- 
 erable space. In the chapter on savage music, I acknowledge my special 
 indebtedness to Mr. J. F. Rowbotham, who has brought together in the first 
 volume of his " History of Music " a vast number of suggestive examples, 
 in illustration of the ingenious theory there developed. In the later chap- 
 ters I have relied more upon my own independent reading. The chapter 
 on the instruments of North America especially contains a considerable 
 amount of information which has never before appeared in print. 
 
 The drawings of the catalogue were originally undertaken solely for 
 private use, and without any idea of publication. As they were made at 
 different times during a period extending over more than three years, there 
 
Preface. ix 
 
 are necessarily many inequalities in the accuracy and the artistic quality 
 of the work. Such corrections as were possible have, however, been faith- 
 fully made. Not a few of the instruments have been redrawn specially for 
 the book. Slight inaccuracies in the representation, which could not other- 
 wise be corrected, have been noticed as far as possible in the accompanying 
 description. 
 
 It has not been possible to follow any uniform system in the spelling 
 of names. Whenever possible, I have used the anglicized form given by 
 Engel, adding in parentheses the more exact spelling. In very many instances, 
 however, where the instrument is not mentioned by Engel, I have been 
 forced to rely upon the best authorities at my command. In conflicting 
 cases, I have regularly employed the simpler form. Thus, in the case of 
 Hindu names, I have preferred the forms given by Meadows Taylor to those 
 of Fetis or Tagore. In many instances I have taken the spelling given in the 
 written label accompanying a special instrument. Cases where verification was 
 doubtful have been noticed in foot-notes. In not a few instances it has been 
 impossible to assign any name. 
 
 No one can be more conscious than the writer of the imperfect quality 
 of his work. The inherent difficulty of the subject, the impossibility of 
 obtaining accurate information on many conflicting points, and, above all, 
 the limited time at his disposal, must stand as excuse for all shortcomings. 
 
 In addition to the general acknowledgments made by Mrs. Brown, I 
 desire to express my special indebtedness to the many friends who have 
 kindly assisted me in my work. Many of the facts stated have been drawn 
 from letters received from all parts of the world, which it is impossible to 
 acknowledge in detail. I wish, however, particularly to express my obliga- 
 tion to the Rajah Sourindro Mohun Tagore of Calcutta, India, for kindly 
 furnishing me with copies of his valuable treatises on Hindu music; to 
 Takenobu Kikuchy of Japan, for the use of a manuscript paper on "Japanese 
 Instruments of Popular Music ; " to Dr. Robert O. Sweeny of St. Paul, 
 Minn., for valuable information in reference to the music and instruments of 
 
Preface. 
 
 the Dakota Indians ; and to Professor Albert S. Bickmore of the American 
 
 Museum of Natural History in this city, for kindly giving me access to the 
 
 unpublished catalogue of the Emmons Collection of Alaskan curiosities. I 
 
 desire also specially to thank my friend Mr. Gaylord S. White, for valuable 
 
 help in the verification of references, in the making of the index, and with 
 
 the proofs. 
 
 WM. ADAMS BROWN. 
 
 New York, November, iS88. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 CHINA. 
 I. Chinese Music 13 
 
 Its general character. — Associated with religion and morality. — Traditional 
 history of Chinese music. — Destruction of musical books and instruments by 
 Huang Ti in 246 B.C. — Later revival of musical interest. — Chinese opinion 
 of European music. — Theory of Chinese Music. — The LUs. — The pen- 
 tatonic scale. — Notation and time. — The music of tlie present day. — 
 Ritual music. — Popular, or theatrical, music. — Blind musicians. — Stationary 
 character of Chinese music. 
 
 II. Chinese Musical Instruments 28 
 
 Classification according to qualities of sound. — Instruments of skin. — Drums. 
 ■ — Tambourine. — Instruments of stone. — King, or stone-chime. — Single 
 sonorous stone. — Flutes. — Conch trumpet. — Instruments of metal. — 
 Bells and bell-cliimes. — Gongs. — Trumpets. — Instruments of silk. — Kin. — 
 Se. — Pepa. — San-Heen. — Yue-Kin. — Violins. — Yang-Kin. — Instruments 
 of wood. — Chu. — Yu. — Mu-Yu. — Castanets. — Instruments of bamboo. 
 
 — Pai-hao. — Flutes. — Oboe. — Instruments of gourd. — Cheng, or mouth- 
 organ. — Instruments of baked earth. — Ocarina. 
 
 JAPAN AND COREA. 
 
 III. Japanese Music 59 
 
 Recent attempt to introduce European music into Japan. — General popularity 
 of music. — Mythological origin of Japanese music. — Outline of its history. 
 
 — Contrast between Japanese and Chinese music. — Notation. — Four classes 
 of Japanese musicians. — The Feki-bhnd. — The singing-girls. 
 
 IV. Musical Instruments of Japan 69 
 
 Perfect and imperfect instruments. — Instruments of the Ainos. — Stringed 
 instruments. — Koto. — Samisen. — Kokiu. — Biwa. — Wind instruments. — 
 Flutes. — Pandean pipes. — Oboes. — Sho. — Conch trumpet. — Instruments 
 of percussion. — Drums. — Gongs. — Cymbals. — Castanets. — Xylophone. 
 
 — Mokugyo. 
 
 V. Musical Instruments of Corea 79 
 
 Relation of Corean music to that of Japan. — Similarity to Chinese. — Nallari. 
 
 — Popularity of music. — Not used in religious ceremonies. — Orchestral 
 performances. — Description of instruments. 
 
 xi 
 
xii Table of Contents. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 VI. Hindu Music 9^ 
 
 Imaginative character. — Difficulties. — Mythological associations. — Antiq- 
 uity. — ■ Early character and history. — Bards. — Deterioration of later music. 
 
 — Theory of Hindu music. — The Srutis, or subdivisions of the octave. — The 
 thirty-six keys. — Rags and Raginis. — Time and notation. — State of music 
 at the present day. — Orchestral performances. — The Bayaderes. — Local 
 variations in character of music. — Hindu songs. 
 
 VII. Instruments oi'- India io6 
 
 Variety and beauty. — Defects in construction. — Divided by the Hindus into 
 four classes. — Tut, or stringed instruments. — Vina. — Tamboura. — Tou- 
 mourah. — Sitar. — Rabab. — India the home of the violin. — Ravanastron. — 
 Omerti, Sarinda, Sarungee, and Chikara. — Understrung violins. — Instru- 
 ments of percussion. — Bitiit, or instruments of skin. — Drums. — Mridung, 
 Pukhwaj, Dhol, Dholkee, and Tubla. — Kettledrums. — Tambourines. — 
 Gliiin, or instruments of metal. — -Gongs. — Bells. — Cymbals and castanets. 
 
 — Sooghiir, or wind instruments. — Bansee, or flute. — Flageolets. — Oboes. — 
 Bagpipe. — Poongi, or snake-charmer's pipe. — Nose-flute. — Nyastaranga. 
 
 — Horns and trumpets. 
 
 SIAM AND BURMAH. 
 VIII. Music and Instruments of Siam 131 
 
 Siamese band at International Inventions Exhibition. — Character of Siamese 
 music. — Scale — Lack of notation. — Musical guilds. — Private orchestras. 
 
 — Popularity of music. — Musical instruments. — Orchestral combinations. — • 
 Ranat. — Khong Yai, or gong-organ. — Drums. — Cymbals and castanets. 
 Ta'Khay, or alligator. — Violins. — Flutes. — Phan, or Pandean pipes. 
 
 IX. Music and Instruments of Burmah 140 
 
 Popularity of music. — Musical drama. — Scale. — Training of a musician. — 
 Musical instruments. — Harp. — Violins. — Megyoung. — Cocoanut banjo. — 
 Puloay, or flute. — Pattala, or harmonicon. — Gongs and cymbals. — Castanets. 
 
 — Drums. — Kyee-wain, or drum-organ. — Orchestral combinations. 
 
 ARABIA, SYRIA, AND NORTH AFRICA. 
 X. Music of the Arabs 167 
 
 Influence on European music. — Arabic poetry. — Early music. — yVttitude of 
 Mohammed. — Outline of later history. — Influence of conquest of Persia. — 
 Bagdad as a musical centre. — Celebrated singers. — Theoretical treatises. — ■ 
 Alfarabi. — Theory of Arabic music. — Scale. — Subdivisions of octave. 
 
 — Effect on European ear. — Arbitrary scales. — Time and notation. — Music 
 at the present' day. — Songs. — AwaUm, or singing-girls. — Alateeyeh. — 
 Improvisers. — Dancing-girls. — Instrumental music. 
 
Table of Contents. xiil 
 
 PAGE 
 
 XI. Musical Instruments of the Arabs 183 
 
 Importance of the subject. — Stringed instruments. — Lute. — Tambouras. — 
 Kuitra. — Gunibry. — Kissar. — Kanoon, or dulcimer. — Santir. — Violins. 
 
 — Kemangeh and Rebab. — Wind instruments. — Nay, or flute. — Flageolets. 
 
 — Oboes. — • Double pipes. — Zummarah and Arghool. — Bagpipe. — Nefyr, 
 or trumpet. — Instruments of percussion. — Drums. — Naggarah. — Large 
 kettledrums. — Dervish drum. — Darabukkeh. — Tambourine. — Cymbals 
 and castanets. 
 
 PERSIA AND TURKEY. 
 XII. Music of the Persians and Turks 213 
 
 Reason for connecting the two. — Lack of information as to early character 
 of Persian music. — Bass-reliefs of Tackt-i-Bostan. — Music in the time of 
 the Sassanides. — Different theories concerning early musical system of Per- 
 sians. — Period of the Caliphs. — Turks receive their present music from 
 Persia. — Present condition of music in Persia. — Universal popularity. — 
 Persian songs. — Greeks the best musicians of Turkey. — Jaiiissaiy music. 
 
 — Whirling Dervishes. 
 
 XIII. Instruments of the Persians and Turks 222 
 
 Chang, or Persian harp. — Gud. — Schtareh, or guitar. — Tar. — Sitar. — Stiz. 
 
 — Kamancha, or violin. — Rebab. — Wind instruments. — Instruments of 
 percussion. — Turkish instruments. — Fellahee. — Kemangeh. — Wind instru- 
 ments and instruments of percussion. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 XIV. Savage Music 237 
 
 Importance of the subject. — Necessity for a speedy study. — Scope and 
 difficulties. — Fondness of savage man for music. — -Wide diffusion of musical 
 instruments. — Theory of Rowbotham. — Vocal music. — Character of savage 
 songs. — ■ Monotony. — Rhythmic element in savage music. — Importance of 
 the dance. — Fondness of savage man for singing, illustrated by examples. — 
 Instruments of percussion the earliest. — Development of drum. — Mytholo- 
 gical associations. — Development of harmonicon illustrated by examples. — 
 Wind instruments. — The horn, the instrument of war. — The flute, the instru- 
 ment of love. — The syrinx. — Stringed instruments. — Importance in musical 
 history. — Development. — Sanko of Ashantees. — Bow instrument of Bechu- 
 anas and Bongo. — Examples of savage harmony. 
 
 XV. Instruments of the African Tribes 257 
 
 Fondness of negroes for music. — Songs. — Stringed instruments widely dif- 
 fused. — Possibly derived from Egypt. — Example of similar transfer in case 
 of nose-flute. — Instruments of percussion. — Drums. — Rattles, cymbals, and 
 
xiv Table of Contents. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 castanets. — Marimba. — Zanze. — Wind instruments. — Flutes, whistles, and 
 flageolets. — Wooden trumpets. — Horns. — Goura of Bushmen. — Bagpipes. 
 
 — Stringed instruments. — Musical bow of Kaffres and Zulus. — Zeze, or 
 banjo. — Nanga. — Harps. — Curious stringed instrument from Congo River. 
 
 — Kinanda. — Mittoo lyre. — Resemblance to Nubian kissar. — Guitars. — 
 Violins. — Orchestral combinations. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 XVI. Music of the North American Indians 291 
 
 Difficulty of subject. — Different grades of musical development. — Indian 
 poetry. — Indian fondness for nature. — Songs. — Rhythmic character. — • 
 Importance of the dance. — Different varieties. — Songs and instruments of 
 medicine-men. — Northern minstrels. — Instrumental music. — Orchestral 
 performances of Dakotas. 
 
 XVII. Instruments of North America 301 
 
 Instruments of Alaska. — Drums. — Rattles. — Stringed instrument. — Instru- 
 ments of British .'\merica. — Wind instruments of the Haidas. — Instruments 
 of the Dakotas. — Drums. — Rattles. — Tappers. — Moose-call. — Love-flute, 
 or flageolet. — War-whistle. — Instruments of the Apaches. — Flutes. — 
 Violins. — Instruments of the Pueblos. — Dance rattles. — Notched stick. 
 — Instruments of Mexico. — Aztec remains. — Creole instruments of Cuba. 
 
 CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA, AND OCEANICA. 
 
 XVIII. Instruments of Central and South America, and Oceanica . .323 
 
 The subject not yet thoroughly investigated. — Instruments of Central 
 America. — Rattles. — Marimba. — Instruments of South America. — Peruvian 
 remains. — Use of sonorous stone. — Drum. — Fife. — Rattle-box. — Bone 
 flute. — Pandean pipes. — Wooden trumpets. — Botuto. — Ture. — Ocean- 
 ica. — Papuan drum. — Nose-flute. — Conch-shell. — Concluding remarks. 
 
 LIST OF AUTHORITIES 367 
 
 INDEX 
 
 o 
 
 71 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Musical Instruments of China 3 
 
 San-Heen. — Yue-Kin. — Sona. — Pepa. — Kin. — Pai-pan. — Yang- Kin. — 
 Ur-Heen. — Pang-Kou. — King. — Tliai-pang-kou. — Cheng. — T'i-ch'in. — 
 Chi-sian. — Hai-lo. — La-pa. — Ti-tzu. — Pi"-a. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Japan 47 
 
 Sono-Koto. — Kokiu. — Samisen. — Biwa. — Shakuhachi. — Aino Jew's-harp. 
 — Taiko. — 0-Tzudzumi and Ko-Tzudzumi. — Sho. — Mokkine. — Shichiriki. 
 — Shinobuye. — Riyuteki. — Kagura-Taiko. — Rappakai. — Mokugyo. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Corea 55 
 
 Nallari. — Yang-Kuni. — Komounko. — Haggum. — T'oungsyo. — Saihwang. — 
 Chang-Gou. 
 
 Musical Instruments of India 85 
 
 Soorsringa. — Tamboura. — Flute and flageolets. — Castanets. — Zitty. — 
 Toomerie Nagassaran. — Head drum. — Drum. — Pukhwaj. — Vina. — Drum. 
 — Poongi. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Siam 125 
 
 Ranat. — Klong Khek. — Taphone. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Burmah 127 
 
 Soung. — Cymbals. — Puloay. — Oboe. — Drum. — Cocoanut banjo. — Kyeezee. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Arabia 151 
 
 Guitar. — Kemangeh. — Gunibry. — Hand-drum. — Derbouka. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Syria 153 
 
 Oud. — Bizug. — Faggeishah. — Naggarah. — Derbouka. — Tambourine. — 
 Mijwiz. — Urgun. — Minjairah. — Nay. 
 
 XV 
 
xvi List of Illustrations. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Musical Instruments of Palestine i57 
 
 Rebab. — Guitar. — Trumpet. — Flute. — Naggarah. — Kettledrum. — Der- 
 bouka. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Egypt i6i 
 
 Dervish drum. — Kissar. — Rebab. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Algiers 163 
 
 Kuitra. — Rebab. — Gunibry. — Raita. — Gasba. — Bendir. — Tar. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Persia 201 
 
 Sitar. — Tar. — Suz. — Kamancha. — Kouvval. — Shepherd's fife. — Shaberba. 
 
 — Dombeg. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Turkey 205 
 
 Kanoon. — Santir. — Tambouras. — Tanbour Kebyr Tourky. — Kemangeh. — 
 Gliaida. — Zourna. — Ge'le'-Masha. — Flutes and flageolets. — Cymbals. 
 
 — Fellahee. — Dervish drum. — Darabouka. — Daira. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Africa 231 
 
 Zanze. — Drum. — Marimbas. — Zulu stringed instrument. — Zeze. — Two- 
 stringed Zeze. — Drums. — Cymbals. — Trumpet. 
 
 Musical Instruments of North America 275 
 
 Conjuror's drum. — Conjuror's rattles. — Other rattles. — Bracelet rattle. — 
 Long flute. — Horn tapper. — Love-flute.— -Apache violins. — Apache flutes. 
 
 — Gourd rattles. — Turtle rattle. — Notched-stick rattle. — Sheep-bell. — 
 Haida rattles. — Squak. — Moose-call. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Alaska 283 
 
 Ke'-l-yau. — Rude stringed instrument. — Hand-drum. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Mexico 285 
 
 Guitar. — Pottery bell. — Bandolon. — Harp. — Notched stick. — Aztec 
 whistles. — Earthen whistle. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Cuba 289 
 
 Cacha. — Maruga. — Guiro. — Tin Guiro. — Tohona. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Central America 317. 
 
 Rattle. — Marimba. 
 
List of Illustrations. xvli 
 
 PACE 
 
 Musical Instruments of South America 319 
 
 Rattle-box. — Pandean pipes. — Flute. — El Pito. — Tambean. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Oceanica 321 
 
 Arpa. — Mbita ni Tangi. — Conch shell. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Europe 333 
 
 Lute. — Violin. — Clarionet. — Dulcimer. — Streichzither. — Tambouritza. — 
 Sclavonic bagpipe. — Mountain horn. — Scotch bagpipe. 
 
 Musical Instruments of France 337 
 
 Vielle. — Archilute. — Pochette. — Tambour. — Harpe. — Tambourin a cordes. 
 
 — Trompette. — Flute Palissy. — Viole d'amour. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Germany 341 
 
 Taschengeige. — Nagelgeige. — Fagott. — Clavichord. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Russia 343 
 
 Balalaika. — Torban. — Balalaikas. — Tamboura. — Guitar. — Oboe. — Bagpipe. 
 
 — Oboe. — Flageolet. — Drum. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Greece 349 
 
 Cav6nto. — Bouzouki. — Lyra. — Flutes. — Clarionet. — Floyera. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Italy 351 
 
 Mandolins. — Lyre. — Serpentine. — Mandohn. — Terzina. — Guitar Battente. 
 
 — Shepherd's pipe. — Harp. — Calascione. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Spain 357 
 
 Mandora. — Clarionet. — Tambourine. — Drum. — Castanets. — Psaltery. 
 
 Musical Instruments of Madeira and Teneriffe 359 
 
 Machete de Braga. — Machete Rajao. — Viola de Arame. — Viola Franceza. 
 
 — Guitarra. — Castanholas. — Pandeiro. — Tamboril. — Pito Pastoril. 
 
 Musical Instruments. — Miscellaneous 365 
 
 Drum. — Rattle. — Flute. — Clarionet. 
 
CHINA. 
 
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MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR HOMES. 
 
 L 
 CHINESE MUSIC. 
 
 ^MN Brande's Dictionary of Arts and Sciences," says Mr. 
 fe* Elson, " the whole fabric of Chinese music is swept 
 
 aw^ay in one short sentence, at the close of which the 
 compiler curtly says, ' We ought, perhaps, to apologize for saying 
 so nnich of it.' ' No right-minded and just reader," Mr. Elson 
 goes on to say, " will echo so flippant an opinion : a nation which 
 more than four thousand years ago had studied music as an 
 abstract science, and which understood the laws of musical proportion 
 centuries before Pythagoras was born, certainly deserves more 
 than a passing notice from the musical historian, no matter how 
 barbarous its present music may seem." 
 
 It is proposed in this chapter briefly to consider Chinese music, 
 its character and its history, and to try to discover whether the 
 subject be indeed as hopeless as most Europeans are apt to suppose. 
 
 The Chinese, as a nation, delight in what appeals to the senses, — 
 vivid color, original form, and striking sound. Their music, there- 
 fore, is characterized by little of the spiritual. " To the Chinese, 
 mere sensuous delight in tone presents such attractions, that their 
 musical system is occupied mainly wdth the analysis and classification 
 
 ' Curiosities of Music, p. 114. 
 
 13 
 
14 Mttsical Instruvieiits and their Homes. 
 
 of the different qualities of Sound, and only secondarily with those 
 sequences of Sounds which we call Notes." ' 
 
 The same tendency appears also in other branches of their art. 
 Thus, in their painting, they lay great stress upon brilliancy of color 
 and general effect, and comparatively little on correctness of outline 
 and accuracy of detail. As the latter art has been called a play with 
 color, so their music may be described as a fanciful play with sound.^ 
 The Chinese are skilful in all species of manufacture, and their 
 dexterity and originality are shown in their musical instruments as 
 well as in other directions. Their instruments have many strange 
 forms ; such, for instance, as birds' eggs, writing-tablets, and even 
 tigers. Many of them are richly carved, and ornamented with 
 streamers, tassels, and canopies. Indeed, they seem designed to 
 gratify the eye with their form and color, quite as much as the ear 
 with their tones. ^ 
 
 The musical history of the Chinese carries us back to days of 
 remote antiquity. Even in the very earliest times they are said to 
 have made thorough investigations in the science of music, but in 
 " that inventive inspiration which is the soul of art " "• they have 
 shown themselves lamentably deficient. In their inability to supple- 
 ment knowledge by execution, in the outrunning of the speculative 
 over the practical faculties, we see a touch of the real character of 
 "the people who were acquainted with gunpowder but never invented 
 a gun, who knew of the polarity of the magnetic needle and yet 
 never thought of employing it as a compass." ^ Up to a certain 
 point, they succeed in mastering all knowledge of a subject that can 
 be acquired by industry and observation. Beyond this, however, 
 even in an art like music, they cannot go.*^ 
 
 The Chinese, as well as the Greeks and other ancient nations, 
 speak of the mysterious influence of music. One of their writers 
 
 ' Rowbotham : History of Music, vol. i. p. 285. = Ibid., p. 309. ' jj^jj^ p^ ^^^ 4 Elson, p. 114. 
 
 5 Ro\vl)oth.im, i. p. 301. (. NLUimaiin : History of Music, ed. Ouseley, vol. i. p. 10. 
 
Chinese Miisie. i 5 
 
 declares that it has its cradle in the heart of man. It is the 
 essence of the harmony existing between heaven, earth, and man.' 
 With the Chinaman, therefore, music is closely associated with 
 religion. " The Chinese," says Naumann, " builds his world upon 
 the harmonious action of the heavens and earth ; regards the 
 animation of all nature, the movement of the stars, and the change 
 of the seasons, as a grand ' world music,' in which every thing keeps 
 steadfastly in its appointed course, teaching mankind thereby a 
 wholesome lesson." ^ He associates his music, therefore, with virtue 
 and morality. The different notes of the scale represent to him 
 moral precepts. Confucius himself is reported to have said, 
 " Music gives a finish to the character, which has first been 
 established by rules of propriety." And, again, " Wouldst thou 
 know if a people be well governed, if its manners be good or 
 bad, examine the music it practises." ^ He himself wrote a 
 song-book, which Riickert, the celebrated German poet, translated 
 in the year 1833.'^ In the later days of his wanderings, when one 
 of his disciples remonstrated with him for continuing to sing and 
 play as usual, even in the days of his poverty and starvation, he 
 replied, " The wise man seeks by music to strengthen the weakness 
 of his soul, the thoughtless one uses it to stifle his fears." '" 
 
 The Chinese base all sciences on music, and at one time the 
 purity of its prevailing type was considered to be the test of 
 the virtues of the reigning sovereign. Even to-day the Imperial 
 Board at Pekin still keeps a close watch over new compositions, 
 in order, as far as possible, to preserve the style of the ancient 
 music. 
 
 A few facts from the traditional history of Chinese music may 
 not be without interest. The art is said to have been invented 
 by the Emperor Fu Hsi, 2852 B.C.*^ Those readers, however, 
 
 ' Van Aalst: Chinese Music, p. 4. = Naumann, i. p. S. ' Ambros: Geschichte der Musik, i. p. 517. 
 
 * Naumann, i. p. 10. ^ Elson, p. 125. <■ Van Aalst, p. 4. 
 
1 6 Musical Instnivients and their Hofjies. 
 
 who are sceptical as to the accuracy of this statement, may adopt 
 without fear of contradiction their own theory of its origin. 
 
 According to Van Aalst/ the first invaders of China (supposed 
 to have come from a region south of the Caspian Sea) undoubt- 
 edly brought with them some knowledge of music. The aborigines 
 themselves had some kind of musical system, and the one was 
 grafted upon the other. At first music was not regulated by any 
 fixed laws ; but each emperor had his own system, which did not 
 always agree with that of his predecessor. Beginning, however, 
 with Huang Ti, or the Yellow Emperor, the Chinese King Alfred, 
 about 2700 B.C., music assumed its characteristic form. A certain 
 note was taken as the base ; various musical intervals Avere fixed, 
 and received names. Music is said to have become a necessity of 
 the State, and a key to good government. This supposed connection 
 of music with the State is shown by the names of the notes of 
 the oldest musical scale. The lowest note, F, was called Emperor ; 
 G, prime minister ; A, loyal subjects ; C, state of affairs ; D, mirror 
 of the world, etc." 
 
 In the year 2284 B.C., a certain Kouei was appointed censor 
 of music by the Emperor Shun (Chun), and the instructions he 
 received from the latter are certainly very sensible. " Music 
 should follow the sense of the words." " It should be simple and 
 unaffected." " Music is an expression of the soul of the musician." ^ 
 It is extremely difficult for us now to realize that such directions 
 were ever applied to Chinese music. 
 
 Many interesting stories have been preserved concerning the 
 power of the early musicians. Kouei himself, a thousand years 
 before the assumed era of Orpheus, said, " When I play upon my 
 King, the animals range themselves spell-bound with melody before 
 me." Of another performer we are told, that " his music was so 
 sweet, the very stars of heaven drew near to listen." 
 
 '\"an Aalst, p. 4. '^ Naumann, i. p. S. ^ Y^i^^w, p. 122. 
 
Chinese Music. 1 7 
 
 This idea of the effect of music 011 the beasts and the stars 
 corresponds closely with similar ideas which we meet with later 
 in India and Greece. 
 
 The Great Shun, about 2255 B.C., composed the piece called 
 " Ta Shao." This melody is said to have so delighted Confucius, 
 sixteen hundred years later, that for three months " he did not 
 know the taste of meat," saying he was not aware composers could 
 reach such a pinnacle of perfection.' Unfortunately, of this ancient 
 music nothing now remains but the most abstruse theories. 
 
 It is probable that the early Chinese music, like that of the 
 Greeks, was chiefly employed in regulating the movement of 
 dances and song. Indeed, the idea still continues, that music 
 without poetry is not music at all.^ In spite of this fact, however, 
 there is very little variety in the rhythm employed by the Chinese, 
 and the even measure in which most of their melodies are com- 
 posed sounds monotonous to our ears. " Their sense for uncouth 
 rhythm may, perhaps, partly explain their predilection for instru- 
 ments of percussion, a preference for which is always indicative of 
 a low musical organization, while a love for stringed instruments 
 evinces a higher order of mind."^ 
 
 The year 246 B.C. marks the most important date in the 
 history of Chinese music. In this year the Emperor She Huang 
 Ti ordered all books to be destroyed, excepting those on medicine, 
 divination, and agriculture. Musical treatises and instruments 
 shared the common fate. In proclaiming this edict, he gave as his 
 reason, that these ancient books, etc., were not suited to the times, 
 and their study caused people to neglect agriculture, which he 
 considered the only substantial basis for the happiness of a nation, 
 and thus gave them leisure to censure the reigning sovereign, and 
 consequently fostered disobedience and rebellion. After this whole- 
 sale destruction, a long night of ignorance rested on the country, 
 
 ' Van Aalst, p. 4. ° Van Aalst, p. 5. ' Naumann, i. p. 13. 
 
1 8 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 and little or nothing survived of the ancient music but the noise 
 of tinkling bells and dancers' drums." 
 
 Under subsequent dynasties, some old books and instruments 
 were discovered, and great efforts were made to regain that which 
 had been lost. Though the position of music was afterwards 
 re-established, we meet many complaints from the writers of that 
 era, about 140 B.C., to the effect that the art of regulating the 
 heart, as they expressed it, by its means, was irretrievably lost, and 
 that it only served to inflame the baser passions. 
 
 Pere Amiot tells us that in the eleventh or twelfth century 
 Tsai-yu studied deeply to place music upon a secure footing, and 
 his researches into the proportions of tones are said to have led 
 him to the same results that were afterwards discovered by the 
 best acousticians of Europe."" If this be indeed true, we can only 
 regret that his discoveries did not have more practical effect upon 
 his fellow-countrymen. 
 
 A strange change has taken place in the ideas of this people, 
 who are supposed to be so unchangeable. The musical art, once 
 held in such honor, is now deemed the lowest calling. ^ Profes- 
 sional musicians are looked upon with contempt, and their ranks 
 are recruited from the poorest classes. But we must not, therefore, 
 imagine that the people no longer care for music. The ceremonies 
 connected with birth, marriage, and worship are all accompanied by 
 music, though respectable Chinese do not consider it dignified to 
 perform in person, even as amateurs. The streets are full of 
 bands, mostly composed of blind men, who offer their services from 
 house to house. 
 
 Although several attempts have been made to introduce 
 European music into China, they have all failed ; and the Chinese 
 pity us for what they consider our inferiority, for they believe their 
 music to be the first in the world. Pere Amiot, who was a very 
 
 ■ Van Aalst, p. 5. - Elson, p. 135, 3 Van Aalst, p. 6. 
 
Chmese Music. 19 
 
 fair performer upon the flute and the clavichord, once asked some 
 Chinese musicians how they liked European music. They 
 answered in their most polite way, that " Western melodies were 
 not made for their ears, nor their ears for Western melodies." ' 
 
 THEORY OF CHINESE MUSIC. 
 
 According to the Chinese, music rests upon two fundamental 
 principles, — the spiritual, or immaterial, principle, represented by 
 the sound or essence of music ; and the substantial, or material, 
 principle, represented by the instruments themselves." 
 
 Their first step in the science of musical acoustics was the 
 discovery of what they call the Lus, which they consider the 
 basis of all their music. These are a series of tones, twelve in 
 number, nearly identical with our chromatic gamut. The history 
 of the Llis runs back into the age of fable. It is probable that 
 the division of the octave into twelve notes was suggested by the 
 combination of twelve pieces of bamboo of different lengths. The 
 name Lu was originally applied to these twelve tubes, the longest 
 of which measured nine inches ; but the term is now used to 
 designate not only the instruments, but the notes which they 
 produce. Various causes have been assigned for this division. It 
 is possible that it was suggested by the different tones in the 
 voices of men and women ; in the songs of birds, as of the magic 
 Feng, a sort of phoenix, and its mate Hoang, or even in the 
 roll of the waves of the Yellow River.^ Fable tells us that 
 the discovery was made by Ling-Lun about B.C. 2500, perhaps 
 accidentally, as he was cutting and experimenting with pieces of 
 bamboo. 
 
 At first, the Liis were carefully selected pieces of bamboo ; but 
 afterwards they were made of copper, of marble, or even of jade, 
 
 ' Elsnn, p. 138. ^ Van Aalst, p. 5. ^ Van Aalst, p. 7. 
 
20 
 
 Musical Instniments and their Homes. 
 
 materials less affected by atmospheric changes. The tubes were 
 all of the same thickness and diameter, but of different lengths, 
 and were closed at one end. The original Lus were never used 
 for playing, but only for regulating instruments, and giving a 
 uniform pitch to their music. It may be well to mention, in this 
 connection, that the pitch now in use in China is considerably 
 higher than our own. 
 
 In spite of the early date assigned by Chinese musicians for 
 the discovery of the Liis, only five notes of the scale were in 
 general use before B.C. 1300." These corresponded to F, G, A, 
 C, and D of our scale." Afterwards the two notes E and B were 
 added. Chinese theorists speak of this period as the beginning 
 of the decadence of their musical system. Naumann tells us that 
 " the enlargement of the scale from five to seven tones was owing 
 to the insertion of the two half-tones E and B, which were called 
 ' leaders ' and ' mediators.' " " These appellations," he continues, 
 " proceed from a very fine musical instinct, as indeed E and B are 
 ' leaders ' to F and C ; and they possess, also, for the modern 
 cultivated ear, the quality of resolving themselves into the half-tone 
 above, acting at the same time as mediators, and filling up the 
 void between D and F, A and C." -^ The scale formed by the 
 insertion of these two notes is as follows : F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F ; 
 or if we follow Van Aalst,-^ and assume C as corresponding to 
 Kiiug, or the keynote, C, D, E, F^ G, A, B, C. This differs from 
 our scale in that the first half-tone falls between the fourth and 
 fifth, instead of the third and fourth notes. With the rise of the 
 Yiian dynasty in the fourteenth century, the invading Mongols 
 introduced into China a new scale and system of notation. The 
 latter, being simpler than that in former use, found favor with the 
 Chinese; but the Mongol scale, in which the position of the half- 
 tones corresponded to that in our own, created no little confusion. 
 
 ' Van Aalst, p. 14. ^ Ambros, i. p. 514. = Naumann, i. p. 9. ^ Van Aalst, p. 15. 
 
Chiitese Music. 
 
 21 
 
 Kublai Khan, indeed, endeavored to obviate the difficulty by 
 introducing a scale of eight distinct tones, in which both F and 
 F" should have a place; but such a device naturally had little 
 result. In the fifteenth century the Chinese returned to their 
 original pentatonic scale (F, G, A, C, D),' to which, in spite of one 
 or two attempts to revive the old Yuan scale, they have been 
 faithful ever since. ^ 
 
 Theoretically, indeed, we find a vast variety of combinations in 
 Chinese music. The books recognize no less than eighty-four 
 scales,^ each one of which has some philosophical signification. In 
 practice, however, as has been said, the Chinese use only the 
 pentatonic scale. They never trespass beyond the limit of fourteen 
 sounds, finding within this compass an immense variety of tunes, 
 to which Chinese ears alone can become accustomed.** 
 
 The music of the Chinese, like their language, is written in 
 vertical rows of characters from right to left. The keynote is 
 indicated by stating to what Lit the piece corresponds. The 
 modern Chinese have a special sign for nearly every note in their 
 melodic system. " Their characters not only express the sounds, but 
 also indicate the pitch; that is, their position in the gamut.""* In 
 the case of several notes of the scale, however, there is no way of 
 distinguishing them from their respective octaves. This defect has 
 been partially remedied by the affixing of little signs to indicate 
 the octave higher ; but the use of this device is by no means 
 universal. 
 
 The most serious defect in Chinese notation, however, is the lack 
 of any sign to indicate the duration of a note. Certain arbitrary 
 devices are indeed employed. Thus, for instance, some notes may 
 be written larger than others, to emphasize them ; or a space may be 
 
 ' A correct idea of the pentatonic scale may be obtained by taking the five black notes on the piano, beginning 
 with FiJ (Engel: Musical Instruments in South Kensington Museum, p. 53). 
 
 "^ Van Aalst, pp. 15, 16. ^ Naumann, i. p. 10. ■* Van Aalst, p. 17. 
 
2 2 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 left between two notes, to indicate a rest ; or, again, small dots may 
 be written after certain notes, to increase their value. But no 
 uniform system is employed. Even the best Chinese musician, 
 therefore, can " only conjecture the general form of a written piece 
 shown him for the first time : to be able to decipher it, he must 
 first Jiear it played!' ' Tunes, therefore, are learned by tradition ; 
 and so much is left to the taste of the performer, that, after a lapse 
 of time, they become entirely altered. 
 
 " The only measure scientifically recognized by the Chinese 
 theorists is that in four time. In practice, however, several measures 
 are admitted, especially that in three time." ' 
 
 Many theories have been advanced to explain why the Chinese 
 use the pentatonic scale. Perhaps the most plausible is drawn 
 from the fact that children instinctively raise the scale by whole 
 tones instead of semi-tones. The Chinese, in the childhood of 
 their national life, had the same habit, which they have not yet 
 outgrown. The Chinese scale " being composed of irregular 
 intervals, and having no leading notes (without which there is 
 no possible modality), may be said to be neither major nor 
 minor, but to participate of the two. Chinese melodies are not 
 majestic, martial, sprightly, entrancing, as is our music in the 
 major mode ; and they lack the softness, the tenderness, the plain- 
 tive sadness of our minor airs."" When, however, their music is 
 expressed in our notes, and played on our instruments, it becomes 
 major or minor, and is less disagreeable to Western ears ; but 
 Chinese tunes so disguised are no longer Chinese. 
 
 We find a curious resemblance between some Scotch and 
 Chinese airs. Probably the former have remnants of the pentatonic 
 scale. 
 
 ' Van Aalst, p. i8. ^ Van Aalst, p. 22. 
 
Chinese Mtisic. 23 
 
 THE MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 The Chinese music of the present day may be divided into 
 two kinds, — ritual, or sacred, music, which is passably sweet ; and 
 theatrical, or popular, music. The former is the only scientific 
 music of China. It includes all music performed at court or at 
 religious ceremonies. 
 
 During the summer or autumn, lucky days are chosen for 
 the worship of Confucius and spirits of departed sages. The 
 Emperor attends in person, or, if unable to do so, sends a prime 
 minister as substitute. One special hymn is always sung in 
 honor of Confucius. According to a decree issued A.D. 1743, the 
 same words and music are always used, the only difference being 
 a change of Lii, or keynote. In all great ceremonies, — the most 
 important and characteristic of which is that in memory of 
 ancestors, — songs are used, but no female voices are allowed. The 
 music of this august ceremonial is entirely written in whole notes, 
 without any change of rhythm whatever. It is rather monotonous, 
 than distressing, to our ears. The Lii is chosen which corresponds 
 to the moon at the time of the ceremony. A remarkable peculiarity 
 of Chinese worship is a belief that the spirits in whose honor the 
 ceremony is performed descend from heaven to receive the offerings 
 prepared for them. The music is always accompanied by a very 
 grave kind of dancing. " With us," the Chinese assert proudly, 
 " all is done calmly and without precipitation." ' 
 
 At all grand festivals, the pitch, or keynote, of the hymn is 
 given by the stroke of the bell or bell-chime. After that the lute 
 sounds its note, which is taken up by all the other instruments 
 except the stone chime. That is struck after the others, in order 
 to receive the sound and to transmit it to the second note. At the 
 
 ' La Fage : Des Chinois, p. 269, quoted by Elson, p. 170. 
 
24 Musical Instruments and their Ho7nes. 
 
 end of a verse, a drum is beaten three times, and answered by a 
 second drum, after which the bell-chime gives the note again, and 
 the next verse begins. When the hymn is finished, the head 
 of the Yu, or tiger-box, is struck once, and a stick passed rapidly 
 along the projections of its back. It is easy to imagine that a 
 ceremony performed during the quiet hours of the night, with 
 all these curious and imposing accompaniments, is really well 
 worth seeing. 
 
 In all the many festivals of the Chinese, music plays an impor- 
 tant part. The eclipse of the moon is celebrated with more than 
 ordinarily discordant music. This is done to frighten away the 
 dragon which is supposed to be devouring the orb of night. On 
 such occasions, special prominence is given to instruments of 
 percussion. 
 
 Popular, or theatrical, music includes, besides theatrical music 
 proper, of which I shall not attempt to speak here,' the performances 
 of street orchestras and single itinerant musicians, together with 
 all ballads and street-songs. In its performance the following 
 instruments are used : The moon-shaped guitar, the three-stringed 
 guitar, the two-stringed violin, flutes, clarionets, drums, castanets, 
 etc.; all of which play, or try to play, in unison. Though little 
 practised as a recreation in China, the popularity of music is 
 proved by the number of musicians who parade the streets, 
 and by the constant singing of children, servants, peddlers, and 
 passers-by. 
 
 Professional musicians, like actors, usually belong to the 
 poorer classes of society. The upper classes generally keep their 
 private troops of musicians, whom they own almost as slaves. 
 Servants possessing musical talent command far higher remunera- 
 tion than those without it. All family festivals are celebrated by 
 music. Wandering minstrels keep a mental record of the birth- 
 
 " For information on this subject, see the chapter in Elson on The Chinese Theatre and Dances, p. 176 sq. 
 
Chinese Musie. 25 
 
 days of every individual for miles around; and when such d. fete 
 occurs, the family may rely upon the appearance of the musicians 
 without previous notice. Music is also played at funerals, though 
 the friends of the deceased are not allowed to perform. For 
 months after, indeed, etiquette forbids them even to touch a musical 
 instrument. 
 
 At Pekin most of the musicians are blind. Indeed, all ancient 
 tradition describes musicians as blind. The intellectual Chinese 
 Prince Tsai-yu finds a reason for this remarkable tradition in the 
 following fact. The ancient musicians, he relates, closed their 
 eyes while performing, so that no exterior object should engage 
 their attention; and it was from this habit that people gave them 
 the name of blind. This is certainly a charming poetical metaphor, 
 and the Chinese musical traditions and theories abound in such 
 ingenious ideas. In Canton, also, most of the female musicians 
 are blind, except those of doubtful character who live in flower- 
 boats. When women participate in orchestral music, they do it in 
 a manner rather astonishing to us, for they generally play the 
 wind instruments. This singular custom of allowing the weaker . 
 sex to play the parts requiring the stronger lungs was quite 
 universal among ancient nations. At present, however, women 
 seldom assist at concerts; the instrumental music as well as the 
 singing being performed almost wholly by men. 
 
 In spite of the fact that the Chinese carry their music into every 
 department of social life, it can never make any real progress, for 
 musical martinets are continually exclaiming against, any change 
 in the style of composition. In China, precisely as formerly in 
 ancient Egypt, no changes are possible. The music for each and 
 every event is as carefully prescribed and adhered to as is the cut 
 of garments or the exchange of civilities among this precise people. 
 The musical scale, once perfected, has been preserved by the national 
 religion from all change, and the Chinese of to-day sing the same 
 
2 6 Musical InstrumeJtts and their Homes. 
 
 melodies which were familiar to Confucius in the sixth century 
 before Christ. The same conservatism which has hitherto refused 
 admittance to our Western civilization has walled in their musical 
 culture. One of the nine tribunals which have charge of the general 
 affairs of the empire supervises the musical rites and ceremonies. 
 The mandarins of music rank higher than those of mathematics, 
 and have their college in the enclosure of the Imperial Palace. We 
 are told that the library at Pekin contains no less than four hundred 
 and eighty-two works on the subject of music alone. 
 
 It may be interesting to note, in this connection, that Amiot, 
 Barrow, and others complain of a want of appreciation of Chinese 
 music on the part of foreigners. The surprisingly profound 
 combinations of this musical system deluded them into a belief 
 that the practice of the Chinese was as perfect as their theory. Of 
 a similar opinion was Gladisch, a German savant, who died a few 
 years ago, who succeeded in proving the intimate connection 
 between the oldest Chinese theories and the philosophic conceptions 
 about music of the great Greek teacher Pythagoras. 
 
 If we ask why Chinese music does not produce a better 
 impression upon foreigners, the natural answer is, because it is 
 not adapted to them. First, the instruments are not constructed 
 with the precision of European instruments ; second, the melodies 
 are always in unison, and always equally loud ; and, third, the 
 intervals of the Chinese scale, being unlike those to which we are 
 accustomed, sound discordant to our ears.' The melodies are 
 neither major nor minor, but float between the two in a way that 
 is very distressing. Indeed, musically, as well as ethnologically and 
 philologically, the Chinese are a series of contradictions, and differ 
 from all our preconceived notions of right and propriety. For 
 many centuries music has been popular among them, and yet there 
 has been no such thing as musical progress. In the absence of 
 
 ' Van Aalst, p. 84. 
 
Chmese M 21 sic. 27 
 
 a staff, a clef, sharps, flats, rests, and signs to indicate the measure, 
 or the length of notes, or to distinguish a note from its octave, 
 major and minor scales, crescendi and diminuendi, harmony or parts, 
 it is not surprising that Chinese music compares unfavorably with 
 the music of the West. 
 
 /- 
 
11. 
 
 CHINESE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 ^lEARLY every instrument known to cultured Europe has 
 
 its rude prototype in China ; for its catalogue embraces 
 over four hundred different kinds, of which one hundred 
 and fifty are still in use. These may be divided into two general 
 classes, — those employed in religious ceremonials, which are 
 considered sacred ; and those used in popular music. 
 
 According to the Chinese, there are eight different kinds of 
 musical sound in nature, each having a well-marked and peculiar 
 characteristic. These are : — 
 
 First 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the sound of Skin. 
 
 Second 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the sound of Stone. 
 
 Third 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the sound of Metal. 
 
 Fourth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the sound of Silk. 
 
 Fifth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the sound of Wood. 
 
 Sixth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the sound of Bamboo. 
 
 Seventh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the sound of Gourd. 
 
 Eighth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the sound of Baked Earth 
 
 Man has utilized all of these substances for musical purposes, 
 and has fashioned : — 
 Skin into drums. 
 Stone into stone chimes. 
 Metal into bells, gongs, etc. 
 Silk into stringed instruments. 
 
 Wood into castanets and vibrating instruments. 
 28 
 
Chijiese Mitsical lnstru7neiits. 29 
 
 Bamboo into flutes. 
 Gourds into mouth-organs. 
 Baked earth into horns. 
 
 We shall consider the instruments under each of these heads 
 separately. 
 
 I. INSTRUMENTS OF SKIN. 
 
 From the most primitive times the Chinese have been acquainted 
 with instruments of percussion, in which the tanned skin of animals 
 was the vibrating medium. In spite of this fact, however, they do 
 not seem to have invented the drum ; but the idea was probably 
 derived by them from the natives of Central Asia. The first 
 drums were made of baked clay. Wood was, however, employed 
 very early for constructing the body of the instrument. While 
 we have no authoritative evidence in the ancient writings as to 
 the kind of wood used, tradition mentions cedar, mulberry, and 
 sandal-wood. 
 
 The Chinese name for drum is Kou. No less than eight 
 different kinds are found, varying in minute points of construction, 
 as in having a longer or a fuller barrel, or in general shape, or even 
 in the method of beating. The Chinese drums differ from our 
 European instruments in that the heads are fastened on by nails, 
 and cannot, like ours, be changed in pitch by the tightening of 
 braced cords. They are generally very richly and grotesquely 
 ornamented, even to the stands upon which they rest. 
 
 It is not necessary to describe in detail each of the eight 
 varieties, but a few of the most important may be mentioned. 
 
 The Ying Kou is a large drum, suspended perpendicularly in 
 a frame by four rings, and beaten on the upper surface with two 
 sticks. Another large drum is the Kin Ko7i, five feet in diameter, 
 and placed horizontally upon a pedestal which raises it about six 
 feet from the ground. Both of these drums, as also the Tsu Kou, 
 
30 Musical Instruments mid their Homes. 
 
 — a somewhat smaller variety, not unlike the Kin Kou, — are used 
 in the Confucian ceremonies, and are beaten responsively in the 
 service. The Tao Kou has a handle passing through the barrel. 
 Two balls are suspended from the sides, which strike against 
 the head as the drum is twirled. Two such drums are used 
 in the Confucian ceremonies, placed, respectively, one on the 
 east and the other on the west side of the room. In earlier 
 times, there was a form of Tao Kou which consisted of several 
 drums hung together on a frame, each having but a single head, 
 which was struck by the balls as it revolved. Such drums 
 have, however, quite passed out of use. Still another kind of 
 drum, called, respectively, Po Kou and Fo7i Kou according as it 
 is struck by the right or the left hand, has its barrel filled with 
 " the husk of rice, which has been beaten from the grain in a 
 mortar." This drum, therefore, modifies the pure sound of skin 
 by the admixture of the sound of rice, " which is a subordinate 
 sound of nature, and does not come into the universal gamut." ' 
 Moreover, the head of this drum is not only tanned, but boiled for 
 a long time in pure water. Its sound, therefore, is marvellously 
 sweet and mellow. The drums used in popular music are of 
 various kinds. The Pang Kou {stt Fig. ii) is small and flat, and 
 stands upon a slender wooden tripod. Another variety is the 
 T/mi-pang-kou, a species of hand drum (Fig. 13). The CJii-sian, 
 or tambourine, is in common use (Fig. 16). 
 
 The Chinese use drums for various other purposes besides 
 music, as to announce persons desiring audience, and to give the 
 hour of the night. The itinerant vender uses a small form of 
 the Tao Kou to make known his whereabouts. In time of war, 
 the drum is relied upon to excite warriors to deeds of valor. Its 
 most important function, however, is in connection with religious 
 ceremonies. It is used by the priests to drive away evil spirits, 
 
 ' Rowbotham, i. p. 2S7. 
 
Ckmese Mtisical Instrufueiits. 
 
 J 
 
 I 
 
 and attract good ones. In all the great temples of Confucius, the 
 drum plays an important part, and most of the eight varieties 
 mentioned above are specially employed for ceremonial purposes. 
 They are generally found in pairs, one at each side of the hall of 
 the temple, and are beaten three or more times at the end of each 
 verse in the service. On special occasions, as during the presence 
 of the emperor, the drums are mufiled, which is done by covering 
 the instruments with ornamented draperies of cloth, which absorb 
 part of the sound. 
 
 II. INSTRUMENTS OF STONE. 
 
 The use of sonorous stone for musical purposes is peculiar to 
 China, where, however, instruments of this kind are very highly 
 esteemed. " The Sound of Stone," says Rowbotham, ' " is extolled 
 by Chinese theorists as one of the most beautiful of all the 
 sounds." Its place is midway between the Sound of Metal and 
 the Sound of Wood ; being " less tart and rasping than the Sound 
 of Metal, and much brighter than the Sound of Wood, — more 
 brilliant and sweet than either." The Chinese use stone in the 
 construction of several different instruments, the most important 
 of which is the Kijig, or great stone chime, which is presently to 
 be described. The stone chiefly used for this instrument is called 
 Yu. It has never been accurately analyzed, but closely resembles 
 marble in appearance. It is probably a species of agate, into the 
 composition of which iron is said to enter to a certain extent. 
 The best specimens of this stone are picked up from the ground 
 near the banks of the River See ; others are found near the 
 mountain streams and torrents of Yun-nam. It is thought that 
 their peculiar clearness and purity of tone are due to their long 
 exposure to the sun and to atmospheric changes. The size of the 
 
 ■ I. p. 2S7. 
 
 ^=\ 
 
32 Musical Ifistntvicnts and their Homes. 
 
 stones rarely exceeds two feet. Those which Amiot ' saw at the 
 Imperial Palace were three feet eight inches in height, and were 
 considered unique. The Yu is very hard, and is polished like agate 
 and the precious stones. Its specific gravity is also very high, so 
 much so that specimens which do not appear too heavy for a single 
 man to handle require four men to move them. The different stones 
 vary greatly in color, and, according to Rowbotham,^ are valued 
 quite as much for their color, as for their tone. The timbre, indeed, 
 is said to vary with the color ; but this explanation he considers 
 as an afterthought. The whey-colored Yu is considered the best ; 
 then light blue, sky blue, indigo blue, light yellow, orange, dark red, 
 and pale green, in the order named. In different centuries, however, 
 the favorite color is said to have varied. Specimens of uniform 
 color, without shades or streaks, are most highly prized, though 
 those in which live colors blend are also esteemed. " The Chinese 
 consider the Yu specially valuable for musical purposes, because 
 it always retains exactly the same pitch. All other musical 
 instruments, they say, are in this respect unreliable ; but the tone 
 of the Yu is neither influenced by cold nor heat, nor by humidity 
 nor dryness." ^ Beside the Yu, there are three other species of 
 sonorous stone in use in China. 
 
 As has been said, the most important instrument of the stone 
 class is the King, or great stone chime, used only in court and 
 religious ceremonies. The more modern form of this instrument, 
 and the one now in general use, is called Pien-King. This consists 
 of sixteen stones cut in the general shape of a carpenter's square, 
 and suspended in two rows of eight, one above the other, in a 
 handsomely decorated frame. The individual stones vary in 
 thickness : the thicker the stone, the deeper the sound. Though 
 the tones in the different stone chimes correspond to the twelve 
 Liis with the four immediately above or below, the chimes themselves 
 
 ' Essai siir les pierres sonores, quoted by Elson, p. 146. ^ i. p. 310. ^ Engel, p. 47. 
 
Chinese Musical htstruments. -i^-}^ 
 
 vary in pitch, some being higher than others. Even the best stones 
 fail to give a complete octave. In carving and manipulation, they 
 require most skilful handling, lest the pitch be affected. When 
 out of tune, however, a stone can be either flattened by taking a 
 thin slice off the back, or sharpened by cutting a piece from the 
 end. The skill of the performer is shown in the degree of shading 
 he imparts to the tones by varying the force of his blows. 
 
 The King is a very ancient instrument. According to Engel," 
 the Chinese records testify to the existence of highly prized Kings, 
 as long ago as 2200 B.C. ; and in an outbuilding of one of the 
 temples there are still to be seen ten sonorous stones, said to 
 have been cut three thousand years ago. In past centuries the 
 different stones of the King were cut into curious shapes, as of 
 animals, fishes, etc. The angular shape already mentioned was, 
 however, the earliest, and has been retained in the modern Pien 
 King, though even to-day other shapes are to be found. At one 
 time, the art of making Kings was lost for many years ; but in 32 
 B.C. a complete set was found in a pond where it had been 
 thrown in the general destruction 246 B.C.^ This has served as a 
 model for modern instruments. There is one of these Kings 
 in each Confucian temple and Imperial place of worship, and 
 doubtless the Imperial palace and residences contain many of the 
 best kind. It is, however, impossible to find a complete Pien King 
 for sale, though separate stones may easily be obtained. Of all 
 instruments, the Chinese claim that the King blends best with the 
 human voice. Their chronicles teem with praises of this peculiar 
 instrument. Confucius is said to have been thrown into ecstasy 
 on hearing it for the first time. So highly was it prized, that 
 two thousand years before Christ we read of musical stones 
 being received as tribute. Their use was forbidden to any but 
 emperors. We are, however, forced to rely on our imagination for 
 
 ' p. 46. '^ Vail Aalst, p. 48. 
 
34 Musical Instniincnts and their Homes. 
 
 an idea of the mellow tones of these musical stones, which are 
 said to be softer and sweeter than any gong or silver bell. 
 
 Next to the Pien King in importance is the Tse King, or 
 single sonorous stone. This, like the stones of the Pien King, is 
 usually cut in the shape of a carpenter's square ; the side which 
 is struck by the performer's hammer measuring two feet and a 
 quarter, and the other side one foot and three-quarters. It is 
 suspended from a frame by a cord passing through a hole bored at 
 the apex. Like the other stone chimes, it is used only at religious 
 ceremonies. It stands outside the temple, and is used to give a 
 single note at the end of each verse in the service.' 
 
 Besides its use in the chimes just described, the Chinese employ 
 stone in the construction of certain wind instruments. Yu-ty and 
 Yn-/isiao are the names of two flutes made of this material. The 
 object in using stone for this purpose is to avoid the change of 
 temperature to which bamboo is liable. 
 
 The Hai-lo, or conch-trumpet (Fig. 17), is, for convenience, 
 classified by Van Aalst under the head of stone instruments. Its 
 use is principally confined to soldiers and watchmen, with whom 
 it serves the same purpose as the bugle with us. 
 
 III. INSTRUMENTS OF METAL. 
 
 Far the most important under this head are the various bells 
 and bell-chimes, though gongs, cymbals, and trumpets are also found. 
 The use of bells in China dates back to the earliest ages ; and we 
 find mention of them as early as 2697 B.C., when the Emperor 
 Hoang-Ti ordered Ling-Lun to cast twelve bells to agree with the 
 twelve Lus and the five sounds. The ancient bells were principally 
 made of copper, alloyed with tin, in the proportion of six to one. 
 Their original use seems to have been analogous to that of our 
 
 ■ Fig. 12 shows a small specimen. It is, however, of irregular shape, and is probably for private use. 
 
Chinese M^tsical Instnanents. 35 
 
 tuning-fork or pitch-pipe, for which purpose they are still employed 
 in the Confucian temples. But they very early began to be 
 used, either singly or united into chimes, in court and religious 
 ceremonials. 
 
 The Chinese name for bell is Chung. In general, we may 
 distinguish two varieties, — those with clappers, and those without. 
 The former were used for military and other purposes, and were called 
 To. Their existence from a very early date has been clearly proved. 
 There is on record a wish of Confucius that he might be " a wooden- 
 tongued bell of heaven," — in other words, according to Engel,' "a 
 herald of heaven to proclaim the divine purposes to the multitude ; " 
 — bells of this kind being frequently used to precede proclamations. 
 " At present, however, the To is used only by Bonzes to mark the 
 rhythm of their prayers." ^ To this class of tongued bells also 
 belong the Feng-Lmg, or wind bells, hung from the eaves of pagodas, 
 to the clappers of which streamers are attached, which are swung 
 by the wind. The more common and important variety of Chung, 
 however, is without clapper, and is sounded by a wooden mallet. 
 Bells of this kind may be seen of every size, from those weighing 
 more than fifty tons down to the very smallest. Thus the great 
 bell in the temple at Pekin is fifty-five feet in diameter, twenty 
 feet high, and weighs fifty-three tons. These bells are used in 
 two general ways, corresponding to the two varieties of King, — 
 the first, like the Po-Chung, being single bells suspended in a frame, 
 corresponding to the single sonorous stone ; and the second, or Piejt- 
 Chimg, being united into a chime of sixteen bells, tuned to accord 
 with the Llis, and corresponding to the Pien-King, or great stone 
 chime. The two latter instruments, indeed, are always found 
 together in the Confucian temples. "They are necessary, one to 
 the other ; the bell-chime sounds, and the stone-chime answers. "^ 
 
 In addition to the bells which have been mentioned, a brief refer- 
 
 ' p. 50. " Van Aalst, p. 57. ^ Van Aalst, p. 55, 
 
^6 Musical Instrtuneiits and their Hoines. 
 
 ence to the Hiiien-C/iuiig may not be out of place. This was a very 
 ancient form of bell, of a peculiar oval shape, and ornamented with 
 raised knobs of metal, of such a character, that, by striking them 
 successively with a wooden mallet, the notes of the entire musical 
 scale might be obtained. The largest of these bells were about 
 twenty inches in length. They were covered with curious and 
 mystical figures, every one of which was supposed to have some 
 hidden meaning. They have, however, entirely passed out of use.' 
 
 It is not necessary to describe at any length the Lo, or Chinese 
 gong. This instrument is cast " in the shape of a platter or a 
 Chinese straw hat with large brim, " - and varies greatly in size. 
 Its use is very general, — to announce visitors, to sound retreat, to 
 drive away evil spirits, and in time of eclipse " to frighten the 
 heavenly dog when about to devour the moon." "" Occasionally a 
 number of individual Los are united into an instrument known as 
 the Yun-lo, or gong chime. This is used at court, mainly on joyful 
 occasions, and also not infrequently among the common people 
 in wedding and funeral processions. 
 
 It is unnecessary to do more than mention by name the Po, or 
 cymbals; the La-pa, or long-trumpet (Fig. i8), not unlike our 
 trombone ; and the Hao-fung, a long, cylindrical instrument, " in 
 arrangement and form not unlike a telescope," and " having a sliding 
 tube which can be drawn out when wanted for use." ^ 
 
 IV. INSTRUMENTS OF SILK. 
 
 Silk holds a place among the most ancient natural substances 
 employed for musical purposes. Pere Amiot has preserved for us 
 the statement that 'silk was applied to music before it was to 
 manufactures.''' The first sounds are said to have been produced 
 
 ■ Engel, p. 49. 2 Van Aalst, p. 57. 
 
 ' Van Aalst, p. 5S. •• Amiot : Memoires concernant I'histoire . . . des Chinois, vi. p. 62. 
 
Chinese Musical htstruments. 37 
 
 by twisting- silken threads into cords, and twanging them with the 
 fingers. Little by little men began to notice that the sound so 
 produced gave definite musical notes. " The cords were then 
 pegged down on a flat board, and the number of threads in each cord 
 counted, so as to preserve the note unaltered for the future. Next 
 the board was gradually curved to bring the strings together, 
 and the number of strings was limited to seven." ' The instrument 
 thus formed was called the Kin (Ch'in), and is the most ancient and 
 highly esteemed of all Chinese stringed instruments. The name 
 Lung-Kin \\-ould seem to imply that the aboriginal inhabitants were 
 acquainted with this instrument before the arrival of the present 
 Chinese.- 
 
 The Kin (Fig. 6) is pre-eminently the instrument of the educated 
 classes, as its name, " the scholar's lute," implies. Confucius and 
 the sages of antiquity are said to have played it, and it is therefore 
 considered sacred to men of letters. Its use is, however, at present 
 confined to imperial and religious ceremonies, where it is considered 
 very important. Six Kins are found in each Confucian temple, three 
 on each side of the hall. 
 
 Three varieties of Kiji are in use, varying considerably in size. 
 The largest are five feet six inches long. The strings, as has been 
 said, are seven in number, and are tuned as follows : G, A, C, D, E, 
 G, A, — thus giving only five distinct tones. The thickest string 
 is composed of two hundred and forty threads of silk. The Kin is 
 an extremely difficult instrument to play. The mastery of each 
 air requires months of application. This may account for the fact 
 that at the present day it seems to be going out of general use. 
 
 Another instrument of the same species is called Se (Che). This 
 is nine feet long, and has twenty-five strings, each having a separate 
 
 ' Rowbotham, i., p. 291. 
 
 ^ The Lung were a powerful people inhabiting a portion of north-west China. The first use of the Kin is 
 probably traceable to them. 
 
1 
 
 8 M^isical Instrmnents and their Homes. 
 
 movable bridge. The Se corresponds very closely to the Japanese 
 Sono-Koto (see Figs, i and 3 under Japan). Originally, the 
 number of strings of the Se is said to have been fifty. It is 
 recorded that once, when a certain Miss Su performed upon this 
 instrument before the Emperor Huang Ti, he was so impressed 
 by its strains, and rendered so sorrowful, that he ordered the 
 number of strings to be reduced from fifty to twenty-five.' 
 The sound of the Se is extolled by Pere Amiot ' as superior to 
 that of any European clavichord, and in it the sound of silk attains 
 its highest perfection. Like the Kin, the Se is used in the 
 Confucian temples, where the number ordinarily to be found is 
 four. The music for both instruments is written in the simplest 
 manner, but the players are expected to embellish their parts to 
 the utmost extent of their skill. In early times the Chinese 
 connected the dimensions, the form, and the number of strings of 
 both the Kin and the Se, with certain principles in nature. Thus, 
 the original length of the Kin (^^ inches) corresponds to the number 
 of days in the year ; the original number of strings (five), to the 
 number of elements. The upper part was made round, to represent 
 the firmament; the lower part fiat, to represent the ground. The 
 very name " Kin " signifies " to guard from ; " and it is thought to 
 have been so called because its music was considered so pure that 
 it checked the evil passions, and protected both player and hearer 
 from all harm. The Chinese have, moreover, given to each position 
 of the hand in playing some appropriate name connected with their 
 study of nature. One is a butterfly flitting over a flower ; another, 
 a bird catching a cicada on the wing ; a third, a flower floating on 
 the water ; and so on up to thirty-three positions. 
 
 We shall consider next the stringed instruments used in popular 
 music. These are of two general classes, — the guitar class and the 
 fiddle class. Under the first head we find three different kinds. 
 
 ' Van Aalst, p. 62. = vi. p. 60. 
 
CJiinesc Musical Instrtujients. 39 
 
 First, the Pepa (P'ip'a), or balloon guitar (Figs. 4, 5), which 
 corresponds in outline to the harp of Pythagoras. This has four 
 silk strings, said to represent the four seasons. It closely resembles 
 the Japanese Biwa. To play it ^vell requires great delicacy of touch, 
 as most of the notes are played in tremolo. Second, the San Heen 
 (San-Hsien) (Fig. i), or three-stringed guitar. This has a narrow, 
 cylindrical body covered with snake-skin, and is played with the 
 fingers or with a plectrum. It is ordinarily made of swan-wood 
 brought to China from Siam and Tonquin. This is a hard wood, 
 like our cherry. Third, the Yue-Kin (Yue-ch'in), or moon guitar 
 (Fig. 2), so called because the shape of the body resembles the 
 full moon. This is sometimes strung with copper as well as silk. 
 All three of these are popular instruments, and are never employed 
 in connection with religious ceremonies. They are used in orchestral 
 playing, and to accompany ballads and songs in the streets and other 
 places, and are often played by blind people. 
 
 We find many instruments of the violin family in China. One 
 of the most important of these is the Hu Kin (Hu-ch'in), which is 
 most popular in the neighborhood of Pekin. This has a hollow, 
 cylindrical body, the upper end of which is covered with snake- 
 skin, while the lower is left open. The body is pierced by a long 
 arm, to which are attached four silk strings, and the bow passes 
 between the strings and the instrument. Sometimes the body is 
 made of a round tube of bamboo, of wood, or of copper. It is of 
 various sizes, the smallest having only two strings. 
 
 The Ur-Heen (Erh-hsien), or two-stringed violin (Figs. 9, 10), 
 is made on the same principle, and is found all over China. The 
 form of the body varies, sometimes consisting of only half a 
 cocoanut-shell (Fig. 15). The strings are tuned at an interval of 
 a fifth. The lower classes are very fond of the fiddle, as it is not 
 difficult to learn, except the management of the bow, which requires 
 considerable practice. Mr. G. Tradescant Lay has advanced the 
 
40 Mitsical Instr2i]]icnts and their Iloines. 
 
 theory that the Ur-Heen is the ancestor of our own violin ; but 
 the best authorities do not support this opinion, attributing the 
 origin of our violin to India. 
 
 One more instrument remains to be described. This is the 
 Yang-Kin, or foreign harpsichord (Fig. 8), the use of which is by no 
 means peculiar to China, as it is found also in Syria, Turkey, and 
 Egypt. This is an instrument of the zither family, consisting of 
 a rectangular or oval box about two feet long, one foot broad, and 
 four inches high. It has sixteen sets of metallic strings (sometimes 
 fourteen), arranged in sets of two, three, or four to each note, 
 decreasing in length from the base upwards. These pass over two 
 metal bridges, and are fastened on both sides with nails. They 
 are beaten with two light strips of bamboo ; and, when well played, 
 the instrument produces very agreeable sounds. 
 
 V. INSTRUMENTS OF WOOD. 
 
 The time of the introduction of wooden instruments is unknown, 
 but it must have been very early. Those in use to-day are four 
 in number. 
 
 The Chu is a sort of rectangular box, broader at the top than 
 at the bottom, and beaten with a hammer from the inside. One 
 is found in each Confucian temple. 
 
 The Yu is in the form of a crouching tiger, resting on a 
 rectangular box. It is about three feet and a half long. Upon 
 its back are projections resembling the teeth of a saw. It is 
 used in the Confucian temples. " At the end of each strophe, the 
 attendant strikes the tiger three times on the head, and rapidly 
 passes his stick three times along the projections on the back." ' 
 It is thought by some that the tiger represents the empire of 
 man over the animal creation. 
 
 ' Van Aalst, p. 74. 
 
Chinese Mtisical Insti'iuiicnts. 
 
 41 
 
 The Mu-Yit, or "wooden fish," is a hollow block of wood shaped 
 somewhat like a skull, and painted red. " It is used by priests to 
 mark time in the recitation of prayers, when begging from door 
 to door, or in performing their ceremonies." ' 
 
 The Pai-pan, or castanets (Fig. 7), " are two small slabs of a 
 kind of red wood, attached together with silk cord, on which a third 
 slab of the same kind of wood is struck to beat time." ' They are 
 used in popular orchestras.' Another kind of castanet is called 
 Shon-pan, and is used in the Confucian ceremonies. 
 
 VI. INSTRUMENTS OF BAMBOO. 
 
 At first thought, it may seem strange to distinguish bamboo 
 from wood; but, according to Chinese ideas, there is a great difference 
 between the two substances. Rowbotham calls attention to the 
 fact that bamboo, by its very nature, lends itself most easily to 
 musical uses. " The hollow tubing between one knot and the 
 other, the distance between each knot, and the proportions of the 
 distances, the hardness of the cane, etc., all seem to invite man to 
 blow into it ; and the instruments made of bamboo were, by conse- 
 quence, the earliest that were invented, and served as pitch-pipes for 
 tuning the other instruments, especially those of silk."^ But 
 bamboo has a special importance in Chinese music, because the 
 Chinese scale was founded upon the succession of sounds obtained 
 from a series of bamboo pipes. 
 
 In spite of this fact, however, this unpractical people "were a 
 long time in discovering that a tube pierced at different places may 
 be made to produce as many sounds as there are holes, by merely 
 stopping those holes, one after the other." ^ The ancient Chinese 
 used a separate tube to obtain each musical sound. Thus we have 
 seen that the original Liis were obtained by a series of separate 
 
 ' Van Aalst, p. 74. ^ Rowbotham, i. p. 295. ' Van Aalst, p. 69. 
 
42 
 
 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 pipes. Their first instrument of bamboo, therefore, was the Pai-hao, 
 which consisted of " a collection of ten tubes, gradually decreasing 
 in length, and connected together in a rough manner by silk 
 cord." ' It was only in comparatively recent times that they began 
 to fashion single bamboos into flutes. 
 
 The instruments of bamboo are of three general kinds : — 
 
 First, the Pai-Jiao (Pai-hsiao), or pipes. The number of these 
 pipes, originally ten, was subsequently increased to twelve, and 
 later to sixteen, which is the present number. These tubes corre- 
 spond to the twelve Liis, and the first four Liis of the grave series.' 
 They are arranged upon an ornamented frame, the form of which 
 is supposed to typify the phoenix with wings outspread. The use 
 of the Pai-hao is confined to ritual ceremonies. 
 
 Second, the Ty, or flute. There are many varieties of this instru- 
 ment, which it is unnecessary to describe. The most common is 
 the Ti-tzu (Figs. 19, 20). This is a tube bound round with waxed 
 silk, and often ornamented with tassels. It has six finger-holes, 
 and two holes for the breath. The pitch varies according as the 
 wind passes through one or the other of the latter. The hole not 
 in use is covered with a thin membrane. The Ti-tzu is indis- 
 pensable in every Chinese orchestra. It is very popular, being 
 used constantly at weddings and funerals, and " various other 
 occasions, both joyous and mournful." ' It is a favorite instrument 
 for solos. "^ 
 
 The flutes used in religious ceremonies differ in no respect from 
 the common flutes, save that the former are adorned at the ends 
 with a dragon's head and tail. Hence they are called " dragon 
 flutes " {Lnng-ti). 
 
 It remains only to mention the Sona, or Chinese clarionet 
 (Fig. 3). This is a small instrument, having a reed mouthpiece 
 not unlike that of a European oboe. It gives a most shrill and 
 
 • Van Aalsl, p. 69. ^ Van Aalst, p. 72. ' Another variety of flute is sliown in Fig. 21. 
 
Chinese Musical Instruments. 43 
 
 piercing sound, quite unendurable to Western ears. In spite of 
 
 this fact, however, it is one of the commonest and most popular 
 
 of Chinese instruments. No wedding or funeral procession is 
 considered complete without the Sona. 
 
 VII. INSTRUMENTS OF GOURD. 
 
 Under this head we have the Cheng (Sheng), or Chinese mouth- 
 organ (Fig. 14). This is one of the most ancient of Chinese 
 instruments, going back to mythical ages. It consists of a 
 body of gourd, which is fitted with a wooden mouthpiece, and 
 into which are inserted seventeen bamboo pipes, varying in length. 
 Thus in this instrument we do not have the sound of gourd in 
 its purity, but combined with the sounds of bamboo, wood, and 
 metal. For the sound of the pipes is produced " by means of the 
 vibration of a little tongue of metal, which is fitted, by means of 
 beeswax, in the lower end of each pipe."' The Cheng, according 
 to Dr. Eastlake, is the most perfect of Chinese instruments, both 
 in sweetness of tone and delicacy of construction. Its use is 
 confined to the Confucian ceremonies, in which six Chengs are used. 
 It is played by sucking in the breath ; and long-continued playing 
 is said to bring on inflammation of the lungs and bronchial tubes, 
 so that no good performer lives more than forty years. The prin- 
 ciple embodied in this instrument is really that of our grand organ. 
 " Indeed," says Dr. Eastlake, " according to various writers, the 
 introduction of the Cheng into Europe led to the invention of 
 the accordion and the harmonium." " The same instrument is found 
 in Japan under the name of Sho. 
 
 ' Rowbotham, i. p. 295. "= Quoted by Van Aalst, p. 82. 
 
44 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 VIII. INSTRUMENTS OF BAKED EARTH. 
 
 Under this head we have the Hsuan, a species of ocarina 
 said to have been invented in the year 2700 before our era. This 
 consists of " a reddish yellow cone of baked clay or porcelain, 
 ornamented with designs of dragons, clouds, etc., and pierced with 
 six holes, — one at the apex to blow through, three in front, and two 
 behind." ' The tones of the Hslian conform to the pentatonic scale. 
 It is almost impossible to procure a specimen of this instrument, 
 the use of which is confined to the Confucian ceremonies, and for 
 an idea of which we are obliged to rely upon Chinese accounts. The 
 tact that baked earth was very early used to form the bodies of 
 instruments of percussion has already been mentioned. 
 
 Van Aalst, p. 83. 
 
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III. 
 
 JAPANESE MUSIC. 
 
 jT is only within the last thirty years that the islands of 
 Japan have been open to intercourse with Western nations. 
 During that period they have made immense progress in 
 government, in industries, and in science; but until very recent 
 years Western civilization has had but little influence upon their 
 music. It has often been remarked that the Japanese are not an 
 inventive, but an imitative people. They have imported our rail- 
 roads, our telegraphs, our school-system. It should therefore cause 
 no great surprise, that, within the last few years, this great movement 
 should have reached the art of music also. Our familiar melodies 
 may now be heard whistled on every street-corner of Yokohama, 
 and that with great accuracy; for the Japanese is blessed with a 
 very true ear.' Nor is this movement popular only. In the year 
 1878 the Government, recognizing the important sphere played by 
 the musical art in the education of a people, appointed a commission 
 to inquire into the character of European music, and its fitness 
 for introduction into the school -system of Japan. In 1880 a 
 national institute of music was opened in connection with the 
 normal school of Tokio, and the services of Mr. Luther Whiting 
 Mason secured as instructor of music. The aim of the institute 
 was threefold : " First, the compilation and composition of pieces, 
 taking the best out of both European and Oriental music,"' with 
 a special view to discover which system was best adapted for use in 
 
 ' Japanese Music and Musical Instruments. Musical Herald, May, 1SS7. 
 ^ Extracts from the report of S. Isawa, Tokio, Japan, p. 2. 
 
 59 
 
6o Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 Japan ; " second, to train special students who shall be fitted to 
 undertake the improvement of our music in the future; third, 
 to introduce the new music into schools, so as to test its adaptability." 
 For the past eight years this work has been carried on, not without 
 the accomplishment of great results." In view of these facts, the 
 future of Japanese music is at present a question of special interest 
 to the student. The Japanese themselves are divided in opinion. 
 While many admit the superiority of European music, and favor 
 its introduction in its purity, a strong party oppose this on the 
 ground that the music, like the language of a people, is the develop- 
 ment and outgrowth of their national life through many ages, and 
 that it would be as difficult to change the mother tongue of a people 
 as to alter their music." It has been the aim of the commission to 
 combine what is best in each of these views. How far they will 
 succeed in their attempt, must be left to the future to decide. A 
 recent writer in "The Musical Herald" speaks as follows, in reference 
 to the future of Japanese music: "That it will be an exquisitely 
 finished reproduction of our own, can scarcely admit a doubt. That 
 a new and quaint flavor will be found in the original music which 
 shall be produced, is, of course, to be expected. Whether a great 
 and original Japanese school shall soon appear, is less certain."^ In 
 any case, it is certainly to be hoped that the undoubted beauties of 
 the native music may be cultivated and enriched by further study, 
 rather than that a mere servile imitation of our own should be 
 introduced. Whatever the future may bring in this direction, no 
 lover of music can fail to be interested in a brief consideration of 
 the past history and present condition of music in Japan. 
 
 The average European who has had the opportunity of listening 
 to a Japanese orchestra may smile at the idea of their music having 
 
 ' The military music of Japan i^ said to have been entirely remodelled on the European plan; and musical 
 instruction, both vocal and instrumental, finds a place in the curriculum of several of the schools. 
 = Isawa, pp. I, 2. ^ May, 1SS7. 
 
yapaiicse Music. 6i 
 
 any real value. Miss Bird, indeed, compares her sensations on one 
 such occasion to those caused by an attack of acute neuralgia.' But 
 here again, as in the case of China, it must be remembered that the 
 lack of appreciation is mutual. Dr. Miiller was on one occasion told 
 by a Japanese noble, that, while European music might be all very 
 well for women, coolies, and children, no well-educated Japanese 
 could endure it.^ Music is, after all, a matter of the emotions rather 
 than the intellect ; and when a Japanese, all insensible to the charms 
 of Rossini and Bellini, is melted to tears by the melodies of his 
 country, we must agree with M. Kraus ^ in admitting the true and 
 legitimate influence of music, however incapable our ears may be of 
 appreciating it. In the Japanese civilization, as in the Chinese, 
 music has been for centuries one of the chief factors. It takes a 
 prominent place in all ceremonies, both religious and secular, and 
 plays a no less important part in private life. At every corner one 
 meets improvisators, who accompany themselves upon the Saniise^i. 
 At his arrival in a strange village, the traveller is sure to be greeted 
 by female musicians, with whose melodies he may be entertained 
 during his repast. Street bands are as numerous as in China, and 
 the use of musical instruments, among the people in general, much 
 more universal. Unlike the sister kingdom, Japan considers it no 
 disgrace for her subjects to perform in person. Especially is the 
 contrast noticeable in the case of women, all classes of whom are 
 proficient in music. Scarcely a house which does not possess a 
 musical instrument of some kind ; and even the humblest bride does 
 not consider her trousseau complete without a Samisen, the guitar 
 of the country, and, if possible, a Koto.'' 
 
 The Japanese mythology attributes to music a divine origin. 
 According to their tradition, Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun, 
 offended by the other divinities, hid herself in a cave, which she 
 
 • Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, vol. ii. p. 212. ■ Kraus : La Musique au Japon, p. II. 
 
 3 p. 12. "' Kraus, p. 15. 
 
62 Musical InstriLments and tJieir Homes. 
 
 obstinately refused to leave until charmed thence by the sound of 
 music, which the gods, desolated by her absence, had invented to 
 lure her from her retreat.' So much for the traditional origin of 
 Japanese music. The historical question is not quite so simple. 
 Most writers agree in tracing the origin of Japanese music 
 to China. Whatever may have been true of the music of the 
 aboriginal inhabitants of Japan, of which nothing now is known, 
 certain it is that no one can fail to be struck by the marked 
 similarity between the present classical Japanese music and that of 
 China. The instruments of the two countries, also, are largely 
 identical. It is true that recent Japanese students of the question, 
 as S. Isawa," trace the ultimate origin of the music of their country 
 to Hindustan. But if this be true at all, it is so only indirectly, as 
 the roots of Chinese music itself may be traced to India. Unques- 
 tionably, the direct source of the present music of Japan must be 
 found in the sister kingdoms of China and Corea. The date of 
 the first introduction of these musical influences cannot be exactly 
 determined. The relations between Japan and Corea date back two 
 thousand years, but the first authentic mention of musical relations 
 between the two countries occurs in the year 453 A.D. In this 
 year " the King of Shiragi (in Corea), being deeply grieved at the 
 news [of the death of the Emperor of Japan], sent eighty ships full 
 of presents, with eighty musicians of different kinds," etc.^ From 
 this time certainly, if not from an earlier, the Japanese were 
 acquainted with the music of Corea. It seems, however, to have 
 made slow progress at first. With the introduction of Buddhism, 
 in 552, a great impulse was given to the study of music. Under the 
 regency of Prince Shotoku, himself a sincere believer in Buddhism, 
 the people were commanded to learn music; and it is said that 
 when this prince overthrew Moriganodaijin, " he led on his army to 
 the tune of ' Bairo,' a piece of classical music." * 
 
 ' Kraus, p. 12. = Report, p. 54. ' Isawa, p. 54. •< Isawa, p. 55. 
 
yapanese Alusic. 63 
 
 At the beginning of the seventh century, communication was 
 first opened between Japan and China; and, from this time on, 
 intercourse between the two countries became frequent and intimate. 
 As a result, " the flood of Chinese civilization at once inundated 
 the land." ' In no sphere was the effect of this more noticeable 
 than in that of music. The Chinese classical music was adopted 
 bodily, and many of the present Japanese instruments were 
 doubtless introduced at this time. From this time dates the ereat 
 popularity of music in Japan. No public or private rites could be 
 performed Avithout it. Even the emperors not unfrequently 
 distinguished themselves in this branch of art. Unfortunately 
 this period of musical prosperity was destined to be of short 
 duration. With the beginning of the tenth century, the relations 
 between China and Japan again became strained. Japanese 
 students could no longer enter China ; and with the cessation of 
 the former intercourse, seem to have ceased also most of its effects. 
 The study of classical music was discontinued. And to this day, 
 while retaining unchanged the theory of music as received from 
 China, Japanese musicians have done little or nothing to increase 
 or improve their knowledge of it. Japan can boast no such library 
 of theoretical works on music as is to be found in China. 
 
 Popular music happily did not share the above fate. Though, 
 like the classical music, derived directly from Chinese sources, it 
 seems only to have been brought into greater prominence by that 
 cessation of intercourse which proved so nearly fatal to the latter. 
 Moreover, the Japanese, freed from the iron rules which had 
 previously fettered him, seems, from this time on, to have developed 
 his music along new and original lines. Not troubling himself 
 much about theory, he yet introduced much variety into his practice, 
 and produced a music which has a marked individuality of its own. 
 The Japanese are a practical people, and their attention was given 
 
 ' Isawa, p. 56. 
 
64 Musical Instruments and their Hoines. 
 
 primarily to the production of new and pleasing effects of sound. 
 It will be impossible here to follow the vicissitudes in this musical 
 development. At different times, difterent types of music appear 
 to have been most popular. Singing received great attention from 
 the earliest times. The introduction of the drama was comparatively 
 recent, the present form of the theatre not dating back more than a 
 century.' It will be sufficient for our purpose to call attention to 
 certain marked contrasts between the present music of Japan, and 
 that of China. I have spoken already of the fact that in Japan 
 music is an art, rather than a science, and that the Japanese has 
 done nothing in the development of a theory of music. Officially, 
 to be sure, he accepts the Chinese pentatonic scale, and links with 
 it various mystical associations. Thus, for instance, Kui, the tonic, 
 means a temple ; Sho, the second, a trade, and so forth. Each 
 month is supposed to have its corresponding tone, and legend asserts 
 that with the varying months the wind also changes its key. The 
 keynote being given, the remaining notes of the scale are 
 obtained by a somewhat obscure process of computation, supposed 
 to prove some mysterious connection between the musical system 
 and the order of nature.'' But of all this the practical musician 
 knows nothing. He does not even adhere to the pentatonic scale. 
 " The tuning of the Koto (the Chinese Kin) yields a scale unlike 
 that of the Kin, in that the fifth (of the pentatonic) is sharped." ^ 
 Recent experiments have proved that the scale now employed 
 by Japanese musicians coincides essentially with our European 
 chromatic scale. Mr. Mason, after repeated trials, was unable to 
 detect any difference in tonality between Japanese music and our 
 own, but only a difference in the method of tonal combinations.-* 
 Still another contrast must be remarked between the music of 
 Japan and that of China. The former is less sensuous than 
 the latter. Mere brilliancy of sound presents less attraction to the 
 
 ' Isawa, p. 59. = Kraiis, p. 34. ' Musical Herald, .-\pril, 1SS7. " Isaw.i, p. 14. 
 
Japanese Music. 65 
 
 Japanese than to his Chinese brother.' This contrast appears, also, 
 in other sides of his life, as in the comparatively quiet color of his 
 garments. 
 
 The Japanese possess for their sacred music alone a relatively 
 complete system of musical notation.^ In works intended for 
 stringed instruments, they indicate by a number the string to be 
 used ; and in like manner, in the case of wind instruments, by a 
 series of numbers, the holes to be closed by the fingers. Accidentals 
 are indicated by little marks by the side of the note, which mean 
 that the finger must be raised or lowered. The duration of a note 
 may be indicated in two ways : first, by leaving between the signs 
 of the different notes (written one above the other), a space larger 
 or smaller, according to the greater or less value of the note ; 
 second, by placing to the right of the musical sign indicating the 
 note, a whole, half, or quarter circle, according as the note is 
 intended for a whole, half, or quarter note. The Japanese have no 
 sie^ns to indicate the time. Most of the melodies with which 
 travellers have made us familiar are in four-four or two-four time. 
 
 In secular music, certain monosyllables, varying according to the 
 instrument to be played, are added to the sign of the note, to 
 indicate the movement to be given. Thus, in the case of wind 
 instruments, the syllable ra is used, repeated thus, rarara, ra, vara? 
 
 The Japanese, like the Chinese, write their music in vertical 
 lines, from right to left. In vocal music, the words are written to 
 the left of the lines. Musical compositions are generally written 
 so as to be played either with or without the accompaniment of 
 the voice or a second instrument. In the former case, the song is 
 always written in unison, and is regarded as an accessory to the 
 leading instrument. In the latter, the second instrument preserves 
 throughout the piece the interval assumed at the beginning. In 
 secular music, however, there are exceptions to this rule. 
 
 ' Rowbotham, i. 318. " Kraus, p. 37. ' Kraus, p. 38. 
 
66 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 Japanese musicians are divided into four classes or corporations, 
 some of which are invested with a public character, meeting at 
 certain fixed periods in accordance with their regulations, and taking 
 part in great ceremonies, both religious and secular. Others devote 
 themselves to the service of individuals, receiving .compensation 
 according to their personal skill. The iirst class, called Gakkunine, 
 take rank with the most distinguished personages in the state, 
 even the Damios themselves having formerly been eligible for 
 membership. This class devote themselves exclusively to sacred 
 music, and in their midst is to be found all the theoretical musical 
 knowledge which still exists in Japan. Its members are all 
 distinguished instrumentalists, and the orchestra of the Mikado 
 is recruited from their ranks. This orchestra still renders at 
 certain seasons the ancient music of Japan. The words which 
 originally accompanied this music have long ago been lost^ and 
 even the names of the pieces are unknown.' 
 
 The second class, called Gueni'n, rank with the merchants, and, 
 with the occasional exception of some skilled Koto player, are 
 ignorant of musical theory. The Guenin perform secular music 
 exclusively, and to their numbers belong the orchestra of the grand 
 prince. 
 
 The third class consists of blind men, and is highly esteemed. 
 They form a close corporation, self-supporting, and with independent 
 officers. In former days they enjoyed exceptional privileges, and even 
 now their chief receives an annual pension of 4,300 tael, and has 
 the power of life and death over his subordinates." Each member 
 of the corporation works with his hands at some trade, and turns 
 over his earnings to the common treasurer. A romantic legend is 
 connected with the origin of the society. Feki, a prince, fell in 
 conflict with Joritomo, the Japanese Mars. His faithful general 
 was taken prisoner, and treated with such magnanimity by his 
 
 ■ Kraus, p. 26. = Kraiis, p. 28. 
 
yapanese Music. ^J 
 
 captor, that, unwilling to seem ungrateful, and yet unable to endure 
 without rage the sight of the hand that had slain his master, he 
 plucked out his own eyes and presented them to his captor. 
 Astonished at such courage, Joritomo immediately restored him to 
 liberty. He became a musician, and the founder of the society in 
 question, to which he gave the name of his beloved prince.' The 
 services of the Feki-blind, as they are called, are in great demand ; 
 they are found in the ranks of the court musicians, and they take 
 part also in ceremonies both religious and secular, in festivals and 
 weddings, and in processions. Their favorite instrument is the 
 Biwa. 
 
 The fourth class, which is also the most numerous, consists of 
 those women who devote themselves to music and song. Its 
 members are little esteemed, and forbidden to take part in sacred 
 music. Yet they are found on every street corner. No sight is 
 more familiar in Japan than the Gheko (Gueschia), or singing-girl, 
 and her Samisen. To its accompaniment she will sing you all the 
 popular songs of the day, with perhaps some romantic legend 
 founded upon the past history of Japan. In spite of the 
 temptations to which such a career is exposed, the Ghekos are 
 generally girls of good character; and it is no uncommon thing for 
 them to amass a snug little portion, and to find a good husband 
 in whose company to pass the rest of their days. 
 
 In time past, these four classes were subdivided into innumerable 
 corporations. Even to-day each has its grand master, who has 
 the right to confer rewards and honorary distinctions. Of these 
 the most appreciated is the right to tune the first string of the 
 instrument an octave higher or lower than the required tone.' 
 
 The theatre, in spite of its comparatively recent origin, is 
 extremely popular in Japan ; and, in connection with this, the 
 orchestra plays an important part. The representations last all 
 
 ' Kraus, p. 27. '^ Kraus, p. 29. 
 
68 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 day, and consist of a sort of variety show, including often a comedy, 
 a tragedy, an opera with a ballet, and concluding with the 
 performance of a melodrama based on some historical subject. 
 In martial scenes the effect is increased by the free use of the 
 Taiko, or bass drum. 
 
 Music does not play as important a part in connection with 
 religious ceremonies and processions as in China, though its use 
 on such occasions is very general. The chanting of the Buddhist 
 priests in their services is said to be very impressive. Each man 
 chants "not on a given key, but on that which best suits his 
 natural voice." The effect of this blurred and massive body of 
 sound is said to be very good, creating an impression, not unlike 
 that produced by a large congregation when repeating the Lord's 
 Prayer in unison. The chanting is often accompanied by the free 
 use of gongs and drums.' In all such ceremonies, and especially 
 in the religious processions, the drum plays an important part. 
 Indeed, the Japanese fully shares the fondness of the Chinese for 
 instruments of percussion. There has been preserved a picture 
 of a Japanese orchestra in which six instruments of this kind 
 are balanced against a single flute. ^ 
 
 I have already spoken of the fondness of the Japanese for 
 singing. The song has a place in all departments of his life. 
 The Gheko has no monopoly of it. It is no uncommon thing to 
 hear laborers singing at their work. The Japanese, being an 
 agglutinative language, lends itself charmingly to song ; though " the 
 strained and ear-rending falsetto, which all singers affect, witnesses 
 a barbaric taste, which a better knowledge, and especially an 
 acquaintance with harmony, will speedily expunge." ^ Here, at 
 all events, may be found a promising field for the early labors of 
 the institute. 
 
 ' Elson, p. 210, - Siebold : Pantheon of Nipon, Part €., plates. ' Musical llerald, June, 1887. 
 
IV. 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF 
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 T has been asserted that the instruments of Japan, while 
 resembling, in general appearance, their Chinese proto- 
 types, are much cruder/ Rowbotham goes so far as to 
 say that if a Japanese lute were placed by the side of a Chinese 
 one, it would appear like the work of some schoolboy who had 
 tried his hand at carpentering in the holidays.' Such at least has 
 not been the experience of the present writer. The Japanese 
 instruments which make part of the present collection certainly 
 compare very favorably, as to finish and workmanship, with those 
 of Chinese make. Nor is this an isolated experience. Fetis ^ 
 speaks of the Japanese instruments which had come under his 
 observation, as having a remarkable finish. This, indeed, is only 
 what might be expected of a people, the neatness of whose work- 
 manship is well known in every market of the world. 
 
 In considering the instruments of Japan, the student is con- 
 fronted by no such eightfold division as has been remarked in 
 the case of China. The Japanese cares little whether the sounds 
 to which he listens are produced by wood, skin, or clay. It is 
 enough for him if they be pleasing to his ear. He divides his 
 instruments simply into two great classes, — perfect and imperfect. 
 Perfect instruments are those used for sacred music : all others are 
 imperfect. This distinction, while doubtless satisfactory enough 
 
 ' Elson, p. 202. ^ Vol. i. p. 319. ' Histoire Generale de la Musique, vol. i. p. 82. 
 
 69 
 
70 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 to the Japanese, is not so well adapted for the present purpose, 
 inasmuch as the two classes often differ only in minute points of 
 construction and ornamentation, in the character of their strings," 
 or, at most, in the method of tuning. For the present, therefore, 
 this distinction may be ignored ; and we may content ourselves 
 with the time-honored division into stringed instruments, wind 
 instruments, and instruments of percussion. 
 
 Before taking up Japanese instruments proper, a word may be 
 in place as to those which still survive among the Ainos, or 
 aboriginal inhabitants, numbers of whom are to be found in the 
 island of Yesso. Their ideas of religion are crude and indistinct, 
 and their general state of civilization very low.^ Much musical 
 proficiency is not therefore to be expected. Miss Bird has, how- 
 ever, given an account of two instruments which she saw among 
 them. The first was a sort of rude guitar, with three, five, or 
 six strings, made of the sinews of whales cast up upon the 
 shore. The second (Fig. 7) consisted of "a thin piece of wood, 
 about five inches long and two and a half inches broad,^ with a 
 pointed wooden tongue, about two lines in breadth and sixteen 
 in length, fixed in the middle, and grooved on three sides. The 
 wood is held before the mouth, and the tongue is set in motion 
 by the vibration of the breath in singing." The sound is not 
 unlike that of a jew's-harp, though less penetrating. It is not easy 
 to obtain a specimen, as the people are unwilling to part with 
 them, owing to the difficulty of obtaining pieces of wood which 
 will stand the necessary fine splitting. 
 
 ' Those used for sacred instruments are manufactured at Kioto, and are very expensive. Tlie otliers are 
 mostly manufactured at Yeddo. 
 
 ^ Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, vol. ii. p. 103. 
 
 3 The specimen represented in Fig. 7 is not more than three-eighths of an inch broad. 
 
Musical Instruments of yapan. 7 1 
 
 STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 Returning to Japanese instruments proper, we begin our 
 consideration with the division of stringed instruments. Of these 
 the four most important are the Koto, the Samisen, the Kokiu, 
 and the Biiva. 
 
 The name Koto is applied to a large family of instruments, 
 varying greatly in size, construction, and number of strings, from 
 the Summa-Koto with its single string, to the Sono-Koto which 
 has thirteen. A full account of the difterent varieties is given by 
 Kraus, in his chapter on the stringed instruments of Japan.' It 
 will be sufficient here to mention a few of the most important. 
 An interesting legend is connected with the Summa-Koto just 
 mentioned, to the effect that it was invented by a certain noble 
 banished to the province of Summa (Souma), who, for want of 
 better materials, constructed a rude instrument out of his hat and 
 a bit of cord.^ I pass over various varieties of Koto, strung 
 respectively w4th two, three, five, and six strings (of which the 
 latter, called IVangong, is supposed to be of celestial origin, and 
 is used exclusively for sacred music ^), to speak of the Schikenkin, 
 or Kinno-Koto.'^ This instrument corresponds to the Kin, or 
 scholar's lute, of China.^ Like the Kin, it has a body of lacquered 
 wood, and is strung with seven silken strings, passing over a 
 common bridge. Though, like the Wangong, a perfect instrument, 
 it does not boast a celestial origin. The story of its introduction 
 into Japan is as follows: In the year 331 A.D., a certain old 
 ship, having become waterlogged, was taken to pieces, and the 
 wood burned to extract the salt. Out of the burnt fragments, 
 certain Corean workmen constructed a number of Kins, and from 
 that time dates the acquaintance of the Japanese Avith this 
 
 ' La Musique au Japon, chap. vi. "" Kraus, p. 62. ^ Kraus, p. 63. * Kraus, p. 64. 
 
 * See Fig. 6, under China. 
 
72 Mtisical Iiistntvients and their Homes. 
 
 instrument. By far the most important instrument of the Koto 
 
 family is the Soiw-Koto (Figs, i and 3), also called Tsukushi-Koto, 
 
 from the place of its supposed origin.' In general appearance, it 
 
 corresponds to the Che of China, though having a less number 
 
 of strings. This instrument is constantly used both for solo and 
 
 orchestral playing. In the latter case it is considered the base 
 
 of the orchestra. In a Sono-Koto of regulation size, the body 
 
 should be six feet long, ten inches broad, and three inches thick. 
 
 It should be made of Kiri wood (Pawlonia Imperialis), a tree 
 
 the blossoms of which form the household crest of the Mikado. 
 
 This wood, which is almost white naturally, is first charred, and 
 
 then rubbed with straw rope, — a process which brings the natural 
 
 marking into beautiful prominence. The Koto should be strung 
 
 with thirteen strings of silk, saturated with wax, each passing 
 
 over a separate movable bridge. In playing, the performer sits 
 
 cross-legged before his instrument, and picks the strings with the 
 
 ends of his fingers, protected with little ivory-tipped plectra.- For 
 
 travelling purposes, a smaller size of the instrument is employed 
 
 (Fig. i). The perfect Koto differs from the imperfect only in 
 
 richness of ornamentation. There is no regular single tuning for 
 
 the Sono-Koto. At least five are generally accepted. None 
 
 of the established tunings gives regular diatonic progression;^ 
 
 though in one of them, if the second string be assumed as the 
 
 tonic, the relations of the several tones are essentially the same 
 
 as in the natural minor scale.-* 
 
 Next to be considered are the instruments of the guitar 
 family, of which the most important is the Saniisen (Siamisen) 
 (Fig. 4). This instrument is the one most generally used in 
 Japan. The place of its origin is disputed ; some claiming that 
 it was imported from Loo-choo, others from " an old country of 
 Europe," ^ though the latter seems impossible. It has a body 
 
 ' Isawa, p. 60. ° Kiigel, p. [97. ' Alusical Herald, July, 1887. * Isawa, p. 20. ' Isawa, p. 59. 
 
Mitsical Instrtmieitts of yapait. 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 of wood, covered on both sides with cat-skin, and protected on the 
 side nearest the player by a guard of cloth. The handle is of 
 hard wood, long and thin, and the strings, three in number, of gut. 
 It is played with a large plectrum of ivory, tortoise-shell, or wood. 
 It may be tuned in five different ways. Like the guitar, the 
 Samisen is most frequently used to accompany singing. As has 
 been said, it is the instrument par excellence of the Gheko. 
 Beside the Samisen, there are found in Japan various other 
 instruments of the guitar family, for a detailed description of 
 which the reader is referred to M. Kraus. The San-Heen and 
 Yue-Kin of China re-appear in the sister kingdom. 
 
 Next in order come the violins, of which class the Kokiu 
 (Fig. 2) is the representative. This instrument is not unlike the 
 Samisen in appearance, though much smaller. It has four strings 
 of gut, and is played with a long horsehair bow (called Kioti). 
 The instrument is held perpendicularly in the left hand, the neck 
 uppermost, and the body resting on the lap. The bow is grasped 
 with the right hand, in such manner that the hairs may be 
 tightened or loosened at pleasure, between the fourth and fifth 
 fingers. In spite of this clumsy method of bowing, it is said to 
 yield tones which are remarkably sonorous and good. Like the 
 Samisen, the Kokiu is said to have been introduced from Loo-choo, 
 whither it was imported from China. The Kokiu has received 
 the hearty praise of European writers as the king of Japanese 
 instruments. Whatever may be true of the comparative merit 
 of the other instruments of the two countries, the superiority of 
 the Kokiu over the best Chinese violin must be admitted. It is 
 therefore a pleasure to hear that the Musical Commission has 
 recommended, that, with the pianoforte and organ, the Koto and 
 the Kokiu should have a place in the curriculum of the institute, 
 and in ordinary school instruction. Experiments for improving 
 
 ' Isawa, p. 59. 
 
74 Musical Instntineitts and their Homes. 
 
 its construction have already been made ; and, by substituting a 
 sounding-board of Kiri wood for the customary cat-skin, a much 
 finer quality of tone has been secured. Beside the Kokiu, we find 
 in use in Japan the ordinary violins of China and Corea. The 
 former is used especially in connection with theatrical performances. 
 It remains only to speak of the Biwa (Fig. 5), or lute, as it 
 has sometimes been called. This instrument, which is said to 
 have originated in Hindustan,' is identical with the Chinese Pepa, 
 or balloon guitar. It has an oval shape, not unlike that of the 
 lute, but its body is much less deep. One of the most beautiful 
 lakes of Japan, near Kioto, is called Biwa Lake, from the fact 
 that the outline of its shores resembles the body of that 
 instrument. The Biwa has four silk strings, which, like those of 
 the Samisen and the Koto, admit of a variety of tunings. It is 
 used both for classical and popular music. In the former case, it 
 has four frets, and is played with a small plectrum ; in the latter 
 it has five frets, and is played with a large plectrum. In this case 
 it is called Heike-Biwa ; the name being derived from a celebrated 
 piece of music several hundred years old, supposed to be the 
 ancestor of the present drama.^ I have already mentioned the fact 
 that the Biwa is the favorite instrument of the Feki-Blind. 
 
 WIND INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 Of these the most important is the flute, called Fiiye (Fouye) 
 or Teki. This is a very ancient instrument, dating back to 
 the most remote times. According to the code compiled by the 
 forty-third emperor Mommu, the flute was the only instrument of 
 music in use in his time.^ A Japanese legend relates that a 
 certain famous player of the Fuye, having hidden himself in a cave 
 to escape the consequences of a crime, was approached by an 
 
 ' Isawa, p. 5S. ^ Isawa, p. 59. ^ Js^^va, p. 55. 
 
Musical Instruments of yapan. 75 
 
 immense serpent. Terrified at tlie sight, the wretched man seized 
 his instrument, and, as a last farewell to life, began to play one 
 of the popular melodies of the day. To his surprise the monster 
 stopped, listened a while with pleased attention, and at length 
 retired, without doing the frightened musician the least harm.' 
 From this time dates the belief that the Fuye has power to 
 charm serpents and other venomous beasts. There are many 
 varieties of the flute in Japan, both traverse and vertical. Two 
 of the most common forms are shown in Figs. 14 and 15. 
 The ordinary flute consists of a bamboo tube, with a hole 
 for the breath near the top, and seven finger-holes near the base. 
 These holes are made oblong, in such a way, that, by closing them 
 more or less completely, the player can modify the tone produced. 
 In the Riyuteki, the body of the instrument is wound with a series 
 of layers of black cord. A more primitive instrument is the 
 Shakuhachi.^ This is a vertical flute, consisting of a thick tube of 
 bamboo about two feet long, having four holes in front and one 
 behind. It is said to be very difficult to play. Legend attributes 
 its origin to a sect of wandering Buddhist monks. To the family 
 of vertical flutes belong also the Seounofttye, or Pan pipes, consisting 
 of a series of twelve bamboo tubes of unequal lengths; and the 
 Shichiriki (Fig. 13), a single bamboo about seven inches long, which 
 has seven holes in front and two behind. The latter is furnished 
 with a reed mouthpiece, and is said to yield an astonishingly 
 shrill and piercing sound.^ The Ti-tzu of China is also found in 
 Japan ; and the Sona, or oboe, re-appears under the name of 
 Heang-ti. For a description of any further varieties, the reader 
 is again referred to the work of M. Kraus. I shall refer to but two 
 other wind instruments. The first of these is the 5//^ (Fig. 11), or 
 mouth-organ, which is identical with the Chinese Cheng, and the 
 construction of which need not therefore be described here. It is 
 
 ' Kraus, p. 49. ^ Fig. 6. ' Musical Herald, July, 1S87. 
 
76 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 interesting to remark, that, when considering the fitness of various 
 Japanese instruments for educational purposes, the Musical 
 Commission rejected the Sho on the ground of the difficulty 
 experienced in its manufacture, and the impossibility of keeping it 
 properly tuned.' In connection with the last point. Miss Bird 
 speaks of a concert which she attended, in which the player of the 
 Sho was obliged constantly to warm his instrument at a brazier 
 of coals, which stood conveniently near." Mr. Isawa mentions a 
 third objection to the popular use of the Sho, which, while obvious 
 enough, sounds somewhat strange to our ears. The trouble consists, 
 he says, in the fact that the musician cannot sing and blow at 
 the same time.^ It is unnecessary to do more than mention the 
 Rappakai, or conch trumpet (Fig. 17). This, like the similar 
 Chinese instrument, is used as a war horn. When not in use, it is 
 carried in a sort of bag or net of cord. It is employed also at 
 religious festivals ; and there exists in Japan an order of so-called 
 " mountain priests," who use a rude shell trumpet to excite the 
 charitable disposition of the traveller. 
 
 INSTRUMENTS OF PERCUSSION. 
 
 Last, but certainly not least, in the opinion of the Japanese, 
 come the instruments of percussion. Of these there are a great 
 variety, which may easily be classified under three heads, according 
 as the resounding substance consists of skin, metal, or wood. 
 To the first category belong the drums proper, to the second 
 the gongs and cymbals, and to the third the castanets and 
 xylophone. The Japanese name for drum is Taiko, so called 
 after a celebrated ancient warrior. The ordinary form of this 
 instrument is represented in Fig. 8. It consists of a frame of 
 wood covered with two projecting surfaces of skin. The latter 
 
 ' Isawa, p. 47. 2 Vol. ii, p. 210. ^ p_ ^-,_ 
 
Musical Instrttments of yapan. j^j 
 
 are connected by a cord of silk, by tightening which the tension 
 of the skin may be increased. The whole hangs upon a wooden 
 frame, and is beaten with two wooden drum-sticks. 0-Tzudziimi' 
 and Ko-Tzudzunii (Tossoumi) are the names of two hand-drums. 
 In form they somewhat resemble an hour-glass ; the body being of 
 wood, and the heads of skin, united, as in the Taiko, by a cord 
 of silk. The former is slightly the larger. It is held between 
 the left shoulder and the side, and beaten with the fingers of the 
 right hand. The Ko-Tzudzumi is held on the right shoulder by 
 the left hand, and is beaten with the fingers of the right hand. 
 Of the larger drums, the most important is the Jamagairou-guine- 
 taico; or great war-drum, the body of which is made of the hollowed 
 trunk of a tree. The sides are covered with tough skin, which 
 is fastened to the frame with round-headed nails. The whole is 
 suspended by three iron rings in a circular wooden frame, and 
 beaten with two wooden drum-sticks. Similar in appearance is 
 the Kagtira-Taiko (Fig. i6), a large drum which is used in the 
 Buddhist temples. 
 
 It will be unnecessary to do more than mention the second 
 class of instruments of percussion. The Japanese gong is called 
 Doo, and it appears in different sizes and in various shapes. 
 Some of these are quite elaborate, such as shields, fishes, tortoises, 
 etc. The most common form consists of a circle of bronze hung 
 in a frame of wood, and beaten with a single large drum-stick. 
 Several kinds of Nihdihagi, or cymbals, are also found. The 
 " mountain priests " also use a small instrument resembling an 
 Egyptian sistrum, consisting of a staff with a copper head, to 
 which are fastened four copper rings, which give a tinkling 
 sound on being shaken. 
 
 Of wooden instruments, castanets are the most common. These 
 are of different sizes, and are used both in sacred and profane 
 
 ' See Fig. 9. ^ Kraus, p. 79. 
 
78 Musical Iiistnnnents and their Homes. 
 
 music. The Mokkine (Fig. 12) is a kind of xylophone, consisting 
 of sixteen wooden keys of unequal length, fastened with nails 
 across the top of a hollow box of wood. It is played with two 
 wooden-tipped drum-sticks. In this connection also may be 
 mentioned the Mokitgyo, a hollow wooden drum, painted red, which 
 the Buddhist priests use to accompany their prayers. This seems 
 to be connected with the Mu-Yii of China, which the priest carries 
 with him as he begs from door to door. 
 
V. 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF COREA. 
 
 N most histories of music, Corea is passed over without 
 notice. The omission is probably to be explained partly 
 from the fact of the utter absence of all reliable information 
 on the subject, and partly from the idea that the music of Corea 
 is only a copy, on a less extended scale, of that of China. While 
 the latter is undoubtedly true to a large extent, there are yet 
 marked differences in the character and position of music in the 
 two countries. Through the kindness of the Rev. G. W. Gilmore, 
 for two years resident in Corea, I am able to add some facts to 
 the current knowledge of the subject. 
 
 The geographical position of Corea has had a marked effect 
 upon its history. Midway between the powerful nations of China 
 and Japan, it has been prevented from attaining any great and 
 independent development. Its best blood and intellect were drained 
 away centuries ago to feed the latter country, and the flourishing 
 condition of Japan to-day is the best witness to the early prosperity 
 of Corea. I have already called attention to the fact that the 
 present musical system of the Japanese, as well as many of their 
 instruments, first came to them through this channel. This 
 intimate historical connection has led me to classify the instruments 
 of Corea with those of Japan, rather than with those of China, 
 as might otherwise seem most natural. 
 
 The music of Corea is undoubtedly founded on that of China. 
 Unlike that of the Japanese, it seems to have varied little in 
 character from the early days. The Corean still uses the pentatonic 
 
 79 
 
8o Musical Instnnnents and their Homes. 
 
 scale ; and his use of whole tones only, and the consequent absence 
 of all modulation in his music, recall what we have learned of the 
 Middle Kingdom, far more than the present music of Japan. Of 
 harmony, it is unnecessary to say, the Corean knows nothing. 
 Like the Chinaman, he delights in sound, in and of itself. It is 
 not surprising, therefore, that his favorite instrument should be 
 the Nallari, or clarionet. This instrument, like the Sona of China, 
 is described by Europeans as having an unendurably shrill and 
 piercing sound. Yet it is the constant companion of the Coreans, 
 indoors and out. Nothing is more common than to see one of 
 them starting out for a stroll with his Nallari under his arm. 
 The tones of this instrument, as played by the wandering musicians 
 of the day, will gather a crowd of eager listeners in an incredibly 
 short space of time. It is always played as a solo instrument, for 
 the excellent reason, that, if used in concerted music, its tones 
 would hopelessly drown those of all the rest of the band. 
 
 Music is popular with all classes of the Coreans. It is true 
 that the more wealthy and respectable people share the Chinese 
 idea that it is undignified to take part in instrumental music, and 
 prefer to listen to the performances of paid musicians rather than 
 to play themselves. But the common people have no such feeling. 
 Those who can afford it have their own instruments, and delight 
 to play upon them. Singing is popular with both sexes, and among 
 all classes of the people. Women, however, seldom take part in 
 instrumental music, the Corean orchestra being composed entirely 
 of men. 
 
 Strangely enough, music seems to have little place in the religious 
 rites of the Coreans. Whereas in China it forms the basis of 
 all the Confucian ritual, it is never used in the Confucian temples 
 of Corea. The Buddhist monks, it is true, like their brethren of 
 China, use a small wooden drum to attract the attention of way- 
 farers, and to invite alms. But this seems to be all. Even in 
 
Musical InstrtLVients of Corea. 8i 
 
 connection with the theatrical representations which are conducted 
 by the Buddhists, and which are patronized only by the lower 
 classes, music is seldom employed. 
 
 Orchestral performances are, however, common in private houses, 
 especially at dances and dinner-parties. In the latter case, the 
 players usually occupy a room adjoining that in which the feast is 
 held. On such occasions the instruments most commonly used are 
 the Komounko, the Haggum (or violin), flutes, and the large drum 
 Chang Gou. Sometimes, but rarely, the Yang-Kum is added. 
 
 The most characteristic instrument of Corea is the Komounko 
 (Fig. 3). This was probably the direct ancestor of the Japanese 
 instruments of the Koto family. It differs from the ordinary Koto, 
 however, in several marked particulars. Whereas in the latter all 
 the strings pass over movable bridges, this is the case with only 
 three of the six strings of the former. The three middle strings pass 
 over a series of fixed frets raised a considerable distance above the 
 surface of the sounding-board. The latter, as in all instruments of 
 the same class, consists of a thin hollow frame of wood. The cords 
 at the extremity of the sounding-board are used for tightening the 
 strings. Their ends are left long for ornamental purposes. In 
 playing, the body of the Komounko is usually held across the lap, 
 while the cords are thrown carelessly over the performer's shoulder. 
 
 The Yang-Kuni (Fig. 2), while a smaller instrument than the 
 Yang-Kin of China, is practically the same, and needs no special 
 description here. 
 
 The Haggum (Fig. 4), or violin, is the same in principle with the 
 Chinese Ur Heen. As in that instrument, the bow passes inside, 
 between the strings and the handle. The specimen in the present 
 collection is a very beautiful one, comparing favorably in finish with 
 the best of the Chinese and Japanese instruments. 
 
 Of wind instruments, the Nallari has already been described. 
 The T'owigsyb, or flute, is one of the commonest Corean instru- 
 
82 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 ments. Several varieties of this are found. The specimens in the 
 present collection (Figs. 5 and 6) are comparatively rude, consisting 
 only of a bamboo tube pierced by four or five frnger-holes. Others, 
 however, are more elaborate, being neatly wound with layers of cord, 
 as is common in the Ti-tzu (Fig. 19) of China. It is not easy to 
 obtain a specimen of this kind. A blind musician, from whom 
 Mr. Gilmore attempted to buy such a T'oungsyo, answered that he 
 would give it to him if the latter would engage to support him 
 during the rest of his natural life ; meaning thereby that he was 
 entirely dependent upon his flute for his livelihood. 
 
 The SaiJiwang of Corea corresponds to the Cheng of China and 
 the Shd of Japan. The present specimen (Fig. 7) is an exceedingly 
 beautiful one, and especially valuable because the instrument is 
 now comparatively rare in Corea. 
 
 This completes the list of the wind instruments of Corea. 
 Within the last five years, however, some brass bugles have been 
 introduced from America, which are played before the king in his 
 progress from place to place. 
 
 The most important of the Corean drums is shown in Fig. 8. 
 This consists of a frame of hollow wood, in the shape of an hour- 
 glass. It is covered on one end with horse-hide, and on the other 
 with cow-hide. The heads are not fastened to the body, but are 
 held in place by a series of cords which pass diagonally from one 
 head to the other, and by shortening which the tension of the skin 
 may be increased. The Chang Gou is beaten on one head with 
 a stick, and on the other with the fingers. A skilful player varies 
 the tone by beating now on the top, now on the edge, and again 
 between the two, and by using alternately the fingers of his hand 
 and the entire fists. In this way very elaborate effects may be 
 produced. 
 
 A second variety of drum in common use differs little in shape 
 from our ordinary kettledrum. 
 
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VI. 
 HINDU MUSIC 
 
 HE peninsula of Hindustan covers an immense area, and 
 embraces a wide range of climate, — from the extreme cold 
 of the Himalayas, to the tropical heat of Ceylon. It is 
 inhabited by a vast number of different tribes and races. The 
 Hindu proper jostles against the Turk, the Persian, the Rajpoot, 
 and the Sikh. Every grade of civilization is represented, — from 
 the savage tribes still dwelling among the hill regions, and in the 
 jungle, to the high-caste and highly cultured Brahmin. Nor is there 
 any greater uniformity of religion. The Brahmin, the Buddhist, the 
 Mohammedan, and the Christian are found side by side. It is not 
 strange that a country, including such varieties of climate, race, 
 civilization, and religion, should offer rare opportunities for the 
 musical student. 
 
 In passing from China and Japan to India, it becomes apparent 
 at once that here music must occupy a very different footing, finding 
 in " the country of the lotus-flower and the gazelle " a far more 
 congenial soil than among the prosaic and unemotional peoples of 
 the North. The contrast between the two is indeed a striking one. 
 While the Chinaman makes of his music a matter of science, and an 
 agency for moral improvement, with the Hindu it is pre-eminently 
 a thing of the emotions. " Science has nothing to do with it ; its 
 only vocation is to delight the imagination." ' Even the theory of 
 Hindu music is wrapped in a cloud of mystical and romantic legends. 
 The very names of the early musical treatises, such as " The Sea of 
 
 ' Ambros, i. p. 471. 
 
 91 
 
92 Mttsical Instntme7its and their Homes. 
 
 Emotions," "The Mirror of Melodies," suggest an unbounded play 
 of the fancy. 
 
 In entering upon this attractive field, the student is confronted 
 with a twofold difficulty, resulting partly from the inherent obscurity 
 of the subject, and partly from the lack of reliable sources of informa- 
 tion. Of the many ancient treatises on music, only a few have as yet 
 been translated from the Sanscrit ; and even these suffer from the 
 fact that none of the translators were professed musicians. To this 
 cause is doubtless to be attributed the confused, inaccurate, and 
 unsatisfactory way in which Hindu music is treated in many of 
 the musical histories. 
 
 The name Hindu is applied to the descendants of that branch 
 of the Aryan family which in prehistoric times overran the Indian 
 peninsula, subjugating the original inhabitants, and implanting upon 
 this foreign soil the old Aryan civilization. The language of this 
 people was Sanscrit ; their religion, a form of polytheism. In the 
 centuries which have intervened between that time and our own, 
 the Sanscrit, from a living, has become a dead language ; and the 
 early polytheism, with its cheerful nature-worship, has given place 
 to Brahminism, with its iron law of caste. It will not be surprising, 
 therefore, to find that the music of this people has undergone a 
 like change. 
 
 The Hindus attribute to their music a divine origin. The 
 legend runs as follows : After Brahma had lain in the ^g'g three 
 thousand billion four hundred million years, he split it by the 
 force of his thought, and out of the two halves made heaven and 
 earth. He then created Manu, who brought forth from chaos 
 "ten heavenly sages." These in their turn created heaven, the 
 gods, and, with other good and evil spirits, the Gandharven and 
 Apsarasen, or genii of song and dance. The latter became the 
 musicians of the gods.' But this is not all. The gods themselves 
 
 ' Naumann, i. p. 21 ; Anibros, i. p. 473. 
 
Hi7tdu Music. 93 
 
 are represented as musicians. " Nareda is the inventor of the 
 Vina, the principal musical instrument of Hindustan. Saraswati 
 — the consort of Brahma — is the goddess of music as well as 
 of speech ; to her is attributed the invention of the systematic 
 arrangement of the sounds into a musical scale. She is repre- 
 sented seated on a peacock, and playing on a stringed instrument 
 of the lute kind. Brahma himself we find depicted as a vigorous 
 man with four handsome heads, beating with his hands upon a 
 small drum ; and Vishnu, in his incarnation as Krishna, is repre- 
 sented as a beautiful youth playing upon a flute. . . . Ganesa, 
 the god of wisdom, is represented as a man with the head of 
 an elephant, holding a Tamboura in his hands." ' Similar 
 mythological associations are connected with all parts of their 
 theory of music. 
 
 The Sanscrit treatises carry Hindu music back as far as that 
 of Egypt and China. Indeed, the opinion has been advanced by 
 some scholars that India was civilized before either of these 
 nations, and was the root from which their civilization sprang. 
 Whatever may be the truth of this theory, it is probable, that, in 
 very early times, there was a marked similarity between the music 
 of all three of these countries. "" Willard ' has drawn out at some 
 length the comparison between the music of the Hindus and that 
 of the early Greeks, which was principally derived from Egypt. 
 He calls attention to " the same rhythmical measure ; the same 
 subdivision of semitones into minor divisions ; the same noisy 
 method of beating time, not only with the hand, but also with 
 instruments of percussion, — melody without harmony, in its present 
 acceptation, — and the similarity of the effects said to have been 
 produced by the music of the two nations." I have elsewhere called 
 attention to the theory of S. Isawa, which attributes the origin of 
 
 ' Engel, p. 53. ° Ambros, i. p. 475. 
 
 ^ The Music of Hindustan, p. 33, in Tagore's Hindu Music from Various Authors. 
 
94 MtLsical Instrtime7tts and their Homes. 
 
 the music of China and Japan to India. Whatever may be the 
 truth of this theory, the identity of the Chinese pentatonic scale with 
 the oldest of the Hindu scales seems to be established.' But leaving 
 the speculations suggested by these facts to the student of com- 
 parative history, I shall now attempt to give a brief account of some 
 of the most important facts in the history of Hindu music. The 
 connection between music and poetry seems to have been very close 
 in the early days of Hindu history. The Rigveda itself, the oldest 
 literary monument which has come down to us, contains hymns 
 to the gods, and songs of praise and victory.'' These hymns, which 
 were intended to be set to music,^ certainly date back as far as 
 1500 B.C. (probably earlier), though they were not committed to 
 writing until a later date. They introduce us to a patriarchal state 
 of society, in which the father of the family is also the priest, and 
 in which women are held in exceptional honor."* The latter devote 
 themselves to music and the dance. Poetesses also arise from 
 among their number. In these early days the poet is also the 
 composer, producing not only songs and hymns, but also the music 
 to which they are to be sung. The same connection between 
 music and poetry continued down to later times. The early bards, 
 or Rishis, were held in great reverence. Their favorite instrument 
 was the Vina, and to its accompaniment they sang their own com- 
 positions and the sacred songs of the gods.5 The ancient Brahmins 
 threatened with excommunication any of their tribe who should 
 betray the sacred writings or Shasters to any but members of the 
 elect.^ Thus protected by the power of religious associations, 
 the purity of Hindu music seemed to be assured. But here again, 
 as in the case of China, w^e meet with a defection from the old 
 standard. A crowd of upstart musicians sprang up, envious of the 
 fame and reverence enjoyed by the masters of the art. Unac- 
 
 ' Naumann, i. p. 21. - Ambros, i. p. 476. 3 Naumann, i. p. 20. 
 
 " ^"^'i^' "■ P- '88. s Rowbotham, ii. p. 7. <> Willard, p. 27, ed. cit. 
 
HindiL Alusic. 05 
 
 quainted with the ancient theories of music, and not havino- access 
 to the sources of such information, their productions were but poor 
 imitations of the classic models. Though often writing verses and 
 setting them to music, they were not true poets like the old Rishis." 
 In character, as Avell as in art, they fell below the older musicians. 
 They sought to influence the passions by their performances, instead 
 of ministering to the higher faculty. Music was prostituted to 
 licentious uses, and its professors became known as the most 
 immoral of men. Under these circumstances, men of honor would 
 have nothing more to do with the musical profession. Those who 
 still devoted themselves to such subjects confined their attention 
 to the theory of the ancient music. In India, as in Japan, the theory 
 and practice of music were thoroughly divorced. It is difficult 
 to-day to find anywhere in Hindustan a man who is versed in both 
 branches of the art. The only trace of the old music which survives, 
 save the Sanscrit treatises to which reference has been made, is the 
 popular belief, that, " to be a great musician, a man must live retired 
 from the world, like a Jogee." ^ 
 
 The time at which this deterioration in the musical art began 
 cannot be exactly determined. But, unquestionably, the process 
 was greatly accelerated by the Mohammedan conquests of the 
 eleventh century. From this time on, the arts and sciences, purely 
 Hindu, began to decline. Music proved no exception. The Arabs 
 brought with them many of their native instruments, and the 
 character of their music undoubtedly exercised no small influence 
 upon that of Hindustan. Indeed, the similarity between the 
 present Indian melodies, and those of Persia and Arabia, has often 
 been remarked. ^ 
 
 ' Willard, pp. 27, 28. ^ Ibid., p. 29. ' Naumann, i. p. 28. 
 
96 Musical htstruments and their Homes. 
 
 THEORY OF HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 The general term for music in Hindustan is Sangita (Sungeet). 
 The word is derived from the Sanscrit, and refers to the union of 
 song, stringed instruments, and dancing. Native authors, however, 
 divide Sangita into seven parts. The first treats of musical tones 
 and their subdivisions ; the second, of melody ; the third, of time 
 and measure ; the fourth, of dancing ; the fifth, of poetry ; the sixth, 
 of expression and gesture ; and the seventh, of the manner of 
 performing on different instruments.' 
 
 The gamut is called Swaragaiiia, or Surgum, the name being 
 derived from the first four notes of the scale, — sa, ri, ga, ma? The 
 number of tones in the simple scale is the same as that in our 
 own.3 But here the similarity ends. For the Hindu, not content 
 with the more simple division into half notes, subdivides his scale 
 into still smaller intervals. These are called Srutis ; and twenty- 
 two of them make up an octave. The exact definition of these 
 Srutis has given endless trouble to the students of Hindu music. 
 According to the Sanscrit of the Sangita Ratnavali, " every distinct 
 audible sound is a Sruti." + Again, " a Sruti is formed by the 
 smallest intervals of sound perceivable by the ear. It is of twenty- 
 two kinds," each of which, by the way, has its special name. 
 These twenty-two Srutis are combined in the Hindu scale in the 
 following way : Between the first two notes are inserted four 
 Srutis ; between the second and third, three ; between the third 
 and fourth, corresponding to our half tone, two ; between the fourth 
 and fifth, and fifth and sixth, respectively, four ; between the 
 sixth and seventh, three ; and between the seventh and eighth, 
 corresponding to our second half tone, two. Here we are confronted 
 
 ' Willard, p, 37. - Fetis, ii. p. 205, Willard, p. 39. 
 
 -' It is characteristic that the Uindu personifies his seven notes under the form of beautiful nymphs. 
 
 ■* Tagore: Hindu Music, p. 353. 
 
Hindu Music. 97 
 
 with the point of the difficulty. If, with Fctis," Ambros,= Naumann,^ 
 and most European students of the question, we assume the 
 twenty-two Srutis to be of equal value, we have a scale in which 
 only the first and fourth correspond to our European scale, and 
 which, therefore, " if not mathematically, is musically quite an 
 impossibility."-* If, with the Rajah Tagore, and the Hindu author- 
 ities, who certainly ought to know, we assume the Srutis to be of 
 unequal value, — being equal in certain fixed cases to a quarter, 
 and in others to a third, of a tone,' — we have a scale in which 
 the mathematical difficulties are no less formidable than were the 
 musical difficulties in the preceding. We must leave the reader 
 to make choice between the two theories, the comparative truth of 
 which can only be determined by a series of accurate musical 
 experiments. Whichever may prove to be the true one, certain it 
 is that, in practice, the scale used by the Hindu musicians to-day 
 differs in no degree from our own. This being the case, it makes 
 little practical difference whether, with Ambros,"" we hold that this 
 results from the unconscious correction demanded by the ear of 
 the performer ; or with Tagore, impatient at the mathematics 
 of European critics, maintain that the scale now in use is really 
 the true scale of Hindu theory. 
 
 Starting, then, with the seven fundamental tones as given, the 
 Hindu theorists combined these elements, according to three general 
 principles, so as to form thirty-six distinct keys. These principles 
 consisted, first, in successively assuming each different tone of the 
 scale as the base ; second, in increasing or diminishing certain of 
 the intervals between the notes by a Sruti ; and third, in arbitrarily 
 suppressing certain notes of the scale.^ The origin of the thirty-six 
 keys is attributed by the Hindu mythology to Krishna, "who 
 
 I ii. p. 205. ^ i. p. 480. ^ i. p. 21. '' Naumann, i. p. 22. 
 
 5 Tagore. Hindu Music, p. 355. See, also, by tlie same author, The Twenty-two Musical Srutis of the Hindus, 
 
 PP- 29, 
 
 * The scales of the keys thus formed are printed in full by Fetis in his Histoire de la Musique, ii. pp. 215-219. 
 
98 Musical Instriniients and tJicir I I 01 lies. 
 
 l3rought forth from his five heads five keys named Raga, to which 
 his consort Parbuti added the sixth. In addition to these, Brahma 
 himself created thirty subsidiary l<eys called Raginis." ' This 
 moderate number, however, was apparently far from satisfying the 
 Hindu imagination ; for at the time when Krishna dwelt upon 
 the earth as a shepherd boy, they asserted the existence of sixteen 
 thousand keys, which had been invented by as many Gopis, or 
 shepherdesses, each anxious to secure for herself the affection of 
 the charming youth. Theoretically, indeed, this conception is less 
 preposterous than it might appear ; for the rigid carrying out of the 
 principles laid down above would, indeed, yield a result not less 
 remarkable. But we are not recjuired to subject the pretty story 
 to any such dry test. The Hindu mythology soon reduced the 
 sixteen thousand keys to nine hundred and sixty, and these again to 
 thirty-six. Even this number proved too many; and Soma, one 
 of the most distinguished ancient musicians, puts the number of 
 those keys which are suitable for practical purposes at twenty-three.^ 
 It is with no little diffidence that I approach the subject of the 
 Hindu Rags (or Ragas) and Raginis. Rajah Tagore flatly asserts 
 that the English language contains no word which corresponds to 
 the Hindu Raga? The word has sometimes been defined as a 
 certain musical mode;'' but this definition is inaccurate, the true 
 word for mode being That? To each That there may be more than 
 one Rag corresponding. Neither is the word t^ine, w^hich has been 
 proposed, quite satisfactory. Perhaps we cannot do better than 
 follow the example of Mr. Hipkins, who defines Raga "as a melody 
 type founded upon the intervals of a mode, and having a succession 
 of notes so arranged as to excite a feeling of the mind."^ The 
 original Rags were six in number, corresponding to the six primary 
 
 ' Nauniann, i. p. 23. - Ibid., i. p. 22. ' Hindu Music, p. 345. 
 
 ■* So Sir William Jones : On the Musical Modes of the Hindoos, p. 142, in Tagore's Hindu Music. 
 ^ Willard, p. 64. ^ Musical Instruments, p. 84. 
 
Hindu Music. 99 
 
 keys ; and the Raginis were thirty, corresponding to the thirty 
 secondary keys. These are divided into various classes, according 
 to the combinations of notes which enter into them. They are 
 regarded with great reverence by musicians. From these original 
 Rags, the number of which is regarded as fixed and unalterable, a 
 number of compound Rags have been derived. Most of these are 
 of comparatively modern date, and may fairly be described by our 
 word tune. The fable relating to the origin of the Rags is as 
 follows : The six Ragas, children of Brahma and Saraswati, were 
 genii, who presided over the principal passions. Each of these was 
 married to five Raginis, or nymphs, who presided over the secondary 
 passions. To each of these corresponded one of the thirty-six 
 original Rags and Raginis, and all succeeding ones were their 
 offspring. 
 
 Many interesting fables have been handed down to us as to 
 the effect of these early Rags. With each season of the year was 
 associated its special melody, and even to-day it is considered a mark 
 of great musical ignorance for a person to ask for the performance of 
 a spring Rag in autumn, or vice versa. The day and the night 
 also had their appropriate Rags. In all this, we see traces of the 
 early nature-worship of our Aryan ancestors. It is related that 
 on a certain occasion a celebrated musician sang the night Rag at 
 mid-day ; and so great was the power of the music, that darkness 
 immediately extended as far as the sound of his voice reached. 
 Other Rags had the power to produce rain, fire, and other natural 
 phenomena. By the timely use of the first of these, a female singer 
 is said to have saved Bengal from drought and famine. Perhaps 
 the most interesting legend is connected with the fire Rag. The 
 emperor Akber, it is related, anxious to test the power of this Rag, 
 ordered one of his musicians to sing it. The unfortunate man tried 
 in vain to excuse himself. He finally yielded to the request, and, 
 having bidden farewell to his family, placed himself up to his neck 
 
loo Mtisical Instruvients and their Homes. 
 
 in the waters of the River Jumna, and began to sing. As the song 
 proceeded, the water began to boil ; and, in insupportable agony, the 
 musician begged to be allowed to stop. But the emperor was 
 inexorable. When the fatal song was renewed, flames burst forth 
 with violence from the wretched man's body; and, immersed in water 
 as he was, he was reduced to ashes. Such mighty power was 
 attributed to music by the Hindu legends. But, alas ! when we 
 inquire to-day for the miracle-working Ragas, we are referred from 
 Bengal to Cashmere, and from Cashmere again to Bengal, all in 
 vain. These magic melodies have been hopelessly lost.' 
 
 Having endeavored in this imperfect way to give an account 
 ot the musical scale of the Hindus, with its subdivisions and 
 derived keys, and of the Rags,' or ancient melodies, I shall dwell 
 very briefly on the time, the pitch, and the notation employed in 
 their music. 
 
 It has been asserted that Hindu music has nothing which 
 corresponds exactly to what we call the musical measure,^ but that 
 instead it is characterized by a certain rhythm incapable of being 
 brought under the laws of musical time. This view has been 
 sufficiently disproved by Fetis. " Not only," says this distinguished 
 author, "did the inhabitants of India possess from the most 
 ancient times words to express the duration of time in music, but 
 they had also signs intended to represent the partial intervals which 
 divide a certain unit of time considered as type of the measure." ^ 
 Unquestionably the metre in which the earliest Vedic hymns were 
 written had an effect upon the rhythm of the accompanying 
 music. Many of these hymns lend themselves easily to musical 
 
 ^ Elson, p. 14. 
 
 ^ The Rags and Raginis of the present day are described by Willard as having the four following character- 
 istics: (I) They are short, lengthened Ijy repetitions and variations. (2) They partake of the nature of arondo; the 
 piece invariably concluding with the first strain, and sometimes ^vith the first bar. (3) A bar, measure, or number 
 of measures, is frequently repeated, with slight variations, almost „,/ /./,. (4) Much liberty is allowed with respect 
 to pauses, which may be lengthened at pleasure, provided the time be not disturbed, (p. 62.) 
 
 3 Willard, p. 46. 4 \^ p_ 2,, 
 
Hindu Music. loi 
 
 arrangement ; others, however, are not so manageable, and must 
 have been chanted in a sort of recitative. Hence may, perhaps, 
 have arisen the idea that in these early melodies the musical 
 measure had no place. For a full discussion of this point, the 
 reader must be referred to the interesting chapter of Fetis.' 
 
 The present melodies of Hindustan are subject to the same 
 laws of musical value as our own ; but, in their execution, much 
 greater liberty is given to the performer, who now hastens, now 
 retards, certain passages, and, again, prolongs or shortens individual 
 notes, in such a way as to express with most force the sentiment 
 of the accompanying words. This freedom has given no little 
 trouble to those European musicians who have tried to reduce 
 Indian melodies to our musical notation. William Hamilton 
 Bird, who at the end of the last century devoted nineteen years 
 to the study of Indian music, speaks as follows : " The Raugnies 
 [Raginis] are so void of meaning, and of any degree of regularity, 
 that it is impossible to bring them into a form for performance 
 by any singers but those of their country (Hindustan) ; and they 
 appear to be the efforts of men enraptured by words, to which they 
 have added notes as their fancy and amorous flights have dictated." ^ 
 
 "The musicians of Hindustan never appear to have had any 
 determined pitch by which their instruments were regulated ; each 
 person tuning his own to a certain height, adapted by guess to the 
 power of the instrument and quality of the strings, the capacity 
 of the voice intended to be accompanied, and other adventitious 
 circumstances." ^ 
 
 I do not propose here to enter at any length into the subject 
 of the early musical notation of the Hindus. The Sanscrit char- 
 acters which represent the names of the seven notes are also signs 
 of musical notation. " By substituting long vowels, the time of 
 each note is doubled ; and other marks are used for a further 
 
 ' ii. chap. iii. pp. 224 seq. ' Quoted by Fetis, ii. p. 231. ^ Engel : Study of National Music, p. 46. 
 
I02 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 elono-ation of them. The octaves above and below the mean scale, 
 the connection and acceleration of notes, the graces of execution, 
 or manners of fingering the instrument, are expressed very clearly 
 by small circles or ellipses, by little chains, by curves, by straight 
 lines (horizontal or perpendicular), and by crescents, all in various 
 positions. The close of a strain is distinguished by a lotus-flower." ' 
 The exact interpretation of many of these signs, however, is still 
 doubtful ; and, in the opinion of Fetis,^ the secrets of Hindu 
 notation will never be penetrated by Europeans. 
 
 It is more than doubtful whether the present music of Hindu- 
 stan resembles in any degree the ancient music which has just 
 been described. The changes which have taken place in the last 
 eleven centuries, the successive invasions which have desolated 
 this unhappy country, have sufficed to sweep away many of the 
 traces of its early music. Yet, in the opinion of the best authorities, 
 many of the native instruments of India have come down to us 
 almost unchanged ; and, in a people with whom tradition has 
 so much power, it is possible that the style of the melodies may 
 have undergone less variation than might seem likely at first 
 thought. In any case, it is interesting to notice that in the last 
 few years there has been a remarkable revival of interest in the 
 old music of Hindustan. In this praiseworthy effort, no one 
 deserves more credit than the Rajah Sourindro Mohun Tagore, 
 whose learned and valuable words on the theory of Hindu music 
 have done much to arouse the interest of European students in 
 this much neglected field. However successful such efforts may 
 be in restoring to our knowledge the ancient music of the Vedas, 
 certain it is that the Hindu music of to-day will merit a more 
 careful consideration than it has yet received at the hands of 
 Europeans. To a brief notice of this subject will be devoted 
 the few concluding pages of this chapter. 
 
 ' Sir William Jones, ed. cit., p. 140. ^ jj_ p_ 2c\, 
 
Hindu Music. 103 
 
 Of the Hindu music of the present day, European writers have 
 expressed very different opinions. While some of the more 
 superficial have dismissed it with a sneer as barbarous and 
 uncouth, the majority have expressed, in no measured terms, their 
 admiration for the beauty of the Hindu melodies. Not a few 
 travellers have spoken with unqualified praise of the orchestral 
 performances which it was their fortune to hear in India. The 
 latter, indeed, are often very elaborate. Engel ' mentions the fact 
 that Dr. Campbell once heard an orchestra of more than fifty 
 instruments at one of the theatrical performances in Nepal. The 
 musical drama plays a part of no little importance in the life of 
 India. The Hindu theatre boasts a high antiquity, probably dating 
 back to the third century before Christ." Like the older Greek 
 plays, the early representations were, undoubtedly, based on mytho- 
 logical subjects, and consisted of a union of poetry, music, and 
 dance. Even to-day mythological representations are common in 
 Hindustan ; and we are told that the entrance upon the stage of 
 the wise god Ganesa, with his fat paunch and elephant head, is the 
 occasion for no little merriment among the audience. ^ 
 
 In Hindustan, as in almost every nation of the world, we find 
 an intimate union between music and religion. The Brahmin has 
 no monopoly of it. In the old Buddhist temples, we find near the 
 entrance a gallery which was evidently used for musical instru- 
 ments.3 At the present day this union finds its impersonation in 
 the Bayaderes. These are maidens whose lives are given to music 
 and the dance. They are divided into two classes. Those of the 
 first class are called Devadasi, or slaves of the gods. They are 
 maidens free from all bodily defects, who have been devoted by 
 their parents to the service of the temple, and who live within the 
 sacred precincts. They take part in the processions and festivities 
 
 ' Musical Instruments in South Kensington Museum, p. 135. ' Ambros, i. p. 476. 
 
 5 Ibid. p. 477. 
 
I04 Mttsical Instrunieiits and their Homes. 
 
 of the god whom they serve, chanting choruses in his praise, and 
 dancing before his image.' The Bayaderes of the second class 
 occupy an inferior position, and take the place of itinerant musicians, 
 performing either in public places or at private entertainments, as 
 their services may be required. 
 
 " There are two systems of music in vogue in India at the 
 present day, — the Karnatik, or southern system; and the Hin- 
 dustani, or northern. The latter is chiefly in the hands of 
 Mohammedan professors, who appear to have borrowed from the 
 Arabian and Persian systems. The Karnatik is more melodious, 
 and possesses fewer traces of foreign innovation." ' Even in 
 different provinces, the style of music varies widely ; and the 
 character of a melody, no less clearly than the dialect in which it 
 is sung, will serve to indicate the part of India to which it belongs. 
 Many of the Hindu songs are very beautiful, both as to poetry and 
 melody. They vary greatly in character according to the subjects 
 with which they deal. Some celebrate the loves of Krishna ; others, 
 the valor of heroes ; others still, the pleasures of wine. The love- 
 song is especially popular in Hindustan. Strange as it may appear 
 to our sense, the first advances in affairs of the heart invariably 
 come from the weaker sex. This, perhaps, is only natural in a 
 country where polygamy is the prevailing system. In such 
 a society, it is the man and not the woman who is supposed to 
 dispense the favors of Eros. The general tenor of the love-songs 
 of India is, therefore, that of supplication on the part of women to 
 their lovers, real or imaginary, or of lamentation over the obstacles 
 which prevent their meeting the beloved object. 
 
 It is in the field of pure melody that the music of the Hindus 
 excels. Of harmony, in our acceptation of the word, they know 
 little. In this lack consists the chief difi^erence in character between 
 the music of Hindustan and that of Europe. The former may 
 
 ' i'^'aumanii, i. p. 33. b Hipkins, p. 85. 
 
Hinchi Music. 105 
 
 well be called the music of the imagination, as opposed to our own 
 which is pre-eminently the music of the intellect. The Chinese, the 
 Hindus, and the Europeans represent, indeed, three distinct stages 
 of musical development. In the Chinese, with his drums and 
 cymbals, his uncouth and monotonous rhythm, we have a music 
 purely sensuous, delighting in musical sounds, in and of themselves. 
 In the Hindu, we rise higher, and find the melody, with its infinite 
 and pleasing variations, appealing to the imaginative faculty of man. 
 In the European, with his complicated harmony underlying, yet not 
 obscuring, the leading musical thought, we reach the highest musical 
 stage, in which, to the pleasure of the ear and of the imagination, 
 is added that loftier enjoyment which comes from the exercise of 
 the highest mental powers. 
 

 M" 
 
 n 
 
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 p) 
 
 \^ 
 
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 PS/' 
 
 
 i^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 VII. 
 INSTRUMENTS OF INDIA. 
 
 HE student of musical instruments finds in India a rich 
 field, not only on account of the vast number of specimens 
 which it aftords him, but also because of the beauty and 
 variety of their forms. Some of these, the ancient sculptures and 
 paintings at Ajunta show to have remained unchanged for the 
 last two thousand years ; others have been slowly perfected from 
 time to time, to suit the special requirements of the music of the 
 day ; others, again, are of comparatively recent origin. 
 
 It is not easy to draw the line of distinction accurately between 
 these three classes. There is said to exist in the Sanscrit a treatise 
 entitled " Sangita Rathnakara," which contains a full description of 
 the Indian instruments in existence at the time of its composition.' 
 But until this has been made accessible to European readers, we 
 can only speak with comparative certainty on the point in question. 
 
 India is the cradle of many European instruments, as well as 
 of many of those of other nations. To the Hindus we are indebted 
 for our knowledge of the principle of sympathetic vibration as 
 applied to stringed instruments ; and most students are agreed 
 
 Note, — It is a matter of I'egret to the writer, that, owing to circumstances beyond 
 control, a very beautiful and complete collection of Indian instruments, with which it 
 was hoped to illustrate the present chapter, had not arrived at the time set for publica- 
 tion. The instruments, thus unfortunately delayed, would have derived added interest, 
 from the fact that they were very carefully and kindly selected for the present purpose 
 by the Rajah Sourindro Tagore, the most competent living authority on the music of 
 
 Hindustan. 
 
 ' Fetis, ii. p. 274. 
 
 106 
 
Instrttvients of India. 107 
 
 that the king of all our instruments — the violin — had its first 
 rude progenitor on the banks of the Ganges. 
 
 In spite of the undoubted beauty of many of the instruments 
 of Hindustan, we find serious defects in the construction of most of 
 those in use at the present day. These defects are of two kinds ; 
 resulting, first, from the unsuitable nature of the material employed, 
 and, second, from actual faults of construction.' 
 
 In the choice of material, pecuniary considerations play an 
 important part; and the evil resulting from this unfortunate economy 
 is exaggerated by the ignorance of those engaged in the manufac- 
 ture. There are in India few, if any, professional instrument 
 makers. The work is generally intrusted to carpenters, and other 
 general artificers, who, even if they possessed the necessary ability, 
 "could not afford to waste their time in experiments for the 
 improvement of musical instruments ; the number rather than 
 the quality of which would insure the greater gain." - Therefore, we 
 are told, the better musicians prefer to patch up and repair the 
 old instruments which have been handed down to them from their 
 ancestors, rather than to attempt the construction of new ones, of 
 the correct proportion of which they are entirely ignorant. Willard 
 has preserved an interesting story,^ illustrating the ignorance of 
 many of the Hindus as to the effect produced on the quality of the 
 tone of an instrument by the material employed in its construction. 
 A certain Rajah, delighted with the performances of a favorite 
 player upon the Sarungee, presented him with a silver instrument 
 upon which to perform in his presence ; supposing, doubtless, that 
 if such beautiful strains could be produced upon a common fiddle 
 of wood, much more striking would be the effect of an instrument 
 made of the more precious substance."* 
 
 ' Willard, p. 90. ' Ibid., p. 91. ' Ibid., p. 92. 
 
 4 These remarks, it is only fair to say, while of general, are not of universal application. In certain parts of 
 India may be found instruments which compare favorably, as to material and finish, with the best productions 
 of the West. The reader is referred especially to the beautiful illustrations presented by Fetis, of the instruments of 
 Benares, to some of which special reference will be made later. 
 
io8 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 The Hindus divide their musical instruments into four classes. 
 The first, called Tut, includes all stringed instruments, and is 
 again subdivided into two classes {Augulistata and Dhamtstatd): 
 the former including the instruments of the guitar family, like the 
 Sitar, the Tamboiira, and the Vina ; and the latter the instruments 
 of the violin family, like the Santiigee and the C/iitsara. The 
 second class is called Bitut, and includes all instruments of percus- 
 sion in which skin forms the vibrating medium ; while the third, 
 called GJmn, consists of those instruments of percussion in which 
 the vibrating medium is furnished by metal. The last class, called 
 SoogJiur, consists of wind instruments.' I shall consider each of 
 these classes in succession. 
 
 I. As the King may be said to be the representative instrument 
 of China, and the Koto of Japan, so the Vina (Fig. 13) stands forth 
 as the national instrument of India. Reference has already been 
 made to the fact that its invention is attributed to Nareda, the son 
 of Brahma and Saraswati, who, indeed, in most illustrations, is 
 represented as playing upon this instrument. For the following 
 quotation from the ancient poem " Magha," we are indebted to Sir 
 William Jones. " Nareda once sat at his Vina, wrapped in deep 
 contemplation, when suddenly the gently moving zephyrs drew 
 forth from the strings sounds that enchanted his ear, and which, 
 proceeding in regular rhythm, varied continually, becoming at each 
 change still more and more beautiful." '^ 
 
 The antiquity of the Vina is undoubtedly very great. In the 
 celebrated Sanscrit treatise of Soma, a chapter is devoted to its 
 description. At the present day there are several varieties to be 
 found in India. That in use in Bengal seems to differ very little 
 from the ancient representations which have come down to us. It 
 is thus described by Francis Fowke : ^ " The Been [Vina] is a fretted 
 
 ■ I have followed the names given by WiUard, p. 93. = Quoted in Naumann, i. p. 20. 
 
 ^ On the Vina, or India lyre, p. 194, in Tagore's Hindu Music. 
 
Instrufnents of hidia. 109 
 
 instrument of the guitar kind. The finger-board is twenty-one and 
 six-eighths inches long. A little beyond each end of the finger-board 
 are two large gourds, and beyond these arc the pegs and tail-piece 
 which hold the wires. The whole length of the instrument is three 
 feet seven inches. . . . The gourds are very large, about fourteen 
 inches in diameter, and have a round piece cut out of the bottom 
 about five inches in diameter. The finger-board is about two inches 
 wide. The wires are seven in number, and consist of two steel ones, 
 very close together, in the right side, four brass ones on the finger- 
 board, and one brass one on the left side." They are tuned as 
 follows : The two steel strings on the right (treble), to A and its 
 octave below ; the four brass strings in the centre (bass), to D, A, 
 E, and C, respectively ; and the brass string on the left (also bass), 
 to A. 
 
 The frets are nineteen in number, varying in length from one and 
 one-eighth inch to seven-eighths of an inch. They are fastened to 
 the board with wax by the performer himself, who, in this arrange- 
 ment, is guided entirely by ear. Any little inaccuracy is corrected 
 by the pressure of the fingers. Indeed, in long notes, the player is 
 very apt purposely to vary the pressure ; thus producing an effect 
 not unlike the close shake on a violin, though, owing to the extent 
 of the variation, which seems often not less than half a tone, far 
 less agreeable to our ears. 
 
 In playing, " the Been is held over the left shoulder ; the upper 
 gourd resting upon that shoulder, and the lower one upon the right 
 knee." The frets are stopped with the left hand, the first and second 
 fingers being principally used. The little finger is sometimes used 
 to strike the left-hand string. The fingers of the right hand are 
 used to strike the remaining strings. The four strings on the finger- 
 board are played by the first and second fingers, protected with little 
 wire caps. The strings on the right side are played by the fourth 
 and fifth fingers. The third finger is never used. 
 
I lO 
 
 Musical InstnLinents cmd their Homes. 
 
 This, according to Fowke's description, is the Vina of Bengal, 
 or classical Vina. The specimen in the present collection (Fig. 13) 
 differs from the foregoing in that it has eight strings instead of 
 seven, of which five pass over the frets on the finger-board. Of the 
 proper tuning of the additional string, the writer is ignorant. The 
 frets, moreover, are twenty-two in number, instead of nineteen. 
 In all other respects the instruments are identical. 
 
 A more modern form of the Vina is that of Benares, more 
 properly called Been. The upper half of this instrument is not 
 unlike that of the one which has just been described ; but instead of 
 the lower gourd, the instrument terminates in a pear-shaped body 
 not unlike that of a Tamboura. The strings are eleven in number; 
 two of the pegs being inserted in the left side of the handle, and the 
 remaining nine in the right side. The latter are set at regular 
 intervals, the first being only a short distance removed from the 
 body. The frets are twenty-two in number, and, unlike those of 
 the ordinary Vina, are fixed. They give the regular chromatic scale, 
 save that the notes F and G are lacking in the upper octave. The 
 two strings on the left side are played with the fingers of the left 
 hand, and the three following with the fingers of the right hand. 
 The remaining six are not touched by the fingers at all, but sound 
 from sympathetic vibration. 
 
 In the Province of Delhi there is found a third variety of Vina, 
 differing considerably from both of those which have been described. 
 This is not more than a foot and a half long. It has three strings, 
 which pass over seven movable frets. The resonant gourds are 
 wanting. 
 
 Another important instrument of the first class is the Tamboura, 
 or Tumboora. This is one of the most ancient instruments of India. 
 Its primitive name is unknown, as the word " Tamboura " is of 
 Arabic origin ; but it may, perhaps, be derived from the proper name 
 of one of the Gandharvas, or divine musicians of Hindu mythology.' 
 
 ' Fetis, ii. p. 2S1. 
 
Iitstruments of India. 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 There are two chief varieties of Tamboura. The first is a kind of 
 rude guitar, with a long, thin handle and body of wood covered on 
 both sides with snake-skin. It is strung with three strings, which 
 pass through a little ivory bridge about three-quarters of the distance 
 up the handle. This rude instrument, which to-day is found only 
 in the hands of itinerant musicians of the lowest character, has 
 played no mean part in the musical history of the world. " In this 
 instrument," says Fetis, "we must, perhaps, recognize the earliest 
 Aryan conception of a sounding body with vibrating strings, and see 
 in it the source of the instrument of the same kind, so frequently 
 met with in Egyptian antiquities." ' In its simple form may prob- 
 ably be found the prototype of all the Persian and Arabian 
 instruments of the Tamboura family. At a later period its use 
 was introduced into China, where it is now played under the name 
 of San Heen. (See Fig. i, China.) 
 
 The more common form of the Tamboura differs considerably 
 from that which has just been described. The body of this is 
 usually made of two-thirds of a large gourd, the top of which 
 is covered with a thin board. It has a long, slender handle, without 
 frets, ordinarily bent back at the head." It is strung with four wire 
 strings, — one of brass, and the other three of steel. Sometimes it 
 has but three strings. " It is tuned to one chord in whatever key 
 is required, — generally of C, — and the finger passes rapidly across 
 the strings ; or the notes are played separately or quickly, so as to 
 form the chord in vibration." ^ The Tamboura, like the Samisen 
 of Japan, is used principally to accompany singing, and especially 
 to fill up the pauses between the strains. It is employed equally by 
 Hindus and Mohammedans. The accompaniment is generally of 
 the most simple kind, as the singer prefers to trust as far as possible 
 to the charms of his voice alone* 
 
 ' ii. p. 282. ^ This is not the case, however, with the specimen (Fig. 2) in the present collection. 
 
 ^ Capt. Meadows Taylor: On Col. French's Collection of Indian Musical Instruments, p. 253, in Tagore's 
 Hindu Music. 
 
 '' Ibid., p. 254. 
 
1 12 
 
 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 In the province of Delhi we find an instrument called 
 ToumouraJi, which, while having a name very similar to the 
 preceding, seems in construction rather to belong to the family of 
 Vinas. It has a long, thin handle, and a body somewhat resembling 
 that of the Vina of Benares, though more pointed at the bottom. 
 It is strung with wire strings, of which three are played with the 
 fingers, and the rest sound from sympathetic vibration." 
 
 One of the most important instruments of the guitar class in 
 India is the Sitar. This is said by Willard ' to have been invented 
 by Umeer Khosro (Amir Khusru), who lived in the thirteenth 
 century. According to Tagore,^ however, the instrument existed 
 long before Khosro's time, under the name of Tritantri Vina; 
 and he was responsible only for its improvement, and for giving it 
 its present name. The word Sitar itself is of Persian origin, and 
 means three-stringed {Seh, three ; and Tar, a string).'^ Varieties are 
 found, however, with five and seven as well as three strings. The 
 ordinary Sitar has five strings, of which three are of steel, and two 
 of brass. It has eighteen movable frets, by changing the position of 
 which the key may be altered. Its capacity for execution is consid- 
 erable, especially in chromatic passages. It is almost always used 
 for solo purposes, though Capt. Taylor = speaks of having heard 
 it used by Rajpoot minstrels to accompany their songs. 
 
 The several varieties of the Sitar differ greatly in form as well 
 as in the number of strings. Two of the most beautiful are the 
 Sitar of Benares and the Sitar of Dekan-Dedjapour. The former 
 of these is remarkable, from the fact that two of its seven strings 
 are attached to the same peg, and tuned in unison. It has a long 
 handle with seventeen frets, and the shape of the body is not unlike 
 that of the lower half of the European guitar. The Sitar of Dekan- 
 
 ' There is a beautiful drawing of the Toumourah on p. 2S4 of vol. ii. of Fetis. ^ p. 98. 
 
 ^ Short Notices of Hindu Musical Instruments, p. 40. See also Hipkins, p. 83. ■* Fetis, ii. p. 289. 
 
 ^ Hindu Music, p. 254. 
 
Instriiments of India. 1 1 3 
 
 Dcdjapour, indeed, is shaped almost exactly like our guitar.' Like 
 that of Benares, it has six pegs and seven strings. Variations of 
 the Sitar are the Kuchwa, the Soorsringa, and the Taoosee. The 
 first is described by Capt. Taylor as differing from the ordinary 
 Sitar, " not only in respect to size and power, but in having two 
 strings only to play upon, tuned in thirds, from strings in the centre, 
 which are tuned to the chord of the key or primary note ; and two 
 smaller strings at the side, which represent a high octave, and can 
 be struck as necessary."^ The Soorsringa (Fig. i) has sixteen frets 
 and eight strings ; " six from the top and two at the sides, which 
 lie under those played upon, and are used in combination with 
 them for peculiar resonant effects." ^ Both of these instruments are 
 rare. The Taoosee has seventeen frets with six playing strings. 
 Below these are eleven or twelve strings of fine wire, tuned to 
 eleven separate notes in the direct scale, and sounding from 
 sympathetic vibration. 
 
 The Rabab or Rubab, as its name indicates, is probably of foreign 
 origin. Unlike the instruments of the same name, so common in 
 Syria, Egypt, and Arabia, it does not belong to the violin, but to 
 the guitar class. Fetis conjectures that it may have been turned 
 from its original use. In shape, the present Rabab somewhat 
 resembles the Spanish guitar, though the body is deeper. It has 
 six playing strings and seven sympathetic strings. It is much used 
 in Persia, Afghanistan, and the north-west provinces of India.+ 
 
 There are no indigenous instruments of the harp family in 
 Hindustan, though a few have been introduced from Burmah. 
 
 We shall next consider the instruments of the violin class. In 
 India, as has already been said, we find the origin of " that powerful 
 interpreter of musical sentiment called the bow." ' In vain we 
 search among the ruins of the ancient monuments of Assyria, 
 
 ■ See Fetis, ii. p. 289 (Fig. 44). ' Hindu Music, p. 255. ' Taylor, p. 255. 
 
 ■• Tagore : Short Notices, etc., p. 32. = -petis,, ii. p. 291. 
 
1 1 4 Musical Instruments and tJieir Homes. 
 
 Egypt, Greece, and Rome, for any traces of it. All attempts to 
 identify it with the plectrum have failed. " Statues, bass-reliefs, 
 and the paintings on Greek vases, show us innumerable representa- 
 tions of the plectrum ; and in all these we see only a piece of wood, 
 bone, or ivory, either terminated by a hook with which to pluck 
 the strings, or intended to strike them with its back." ' Beyond 
 question, India is the cradle of the violin; and the rude Hu-chin of 
 China and the royal Stradivarius are alike derived from that 
 common source. " This," says Fetis,' " is no matter of conjecture, 
 for the Sanscrit has names both for the bow and for the sonorous 
 bodies intended to vibrate beneath its stroke." For the bow itself, 
 we find three distinct names (Kona, Garika, and Parivadas). While 
 the exact epoch at which these words were first used cannot be 
 determined, they are certainly very old, dating back probably two 
 thousand years, at least. 
 
 The oldest of the strmged instruments played with a bow is the 
 Ravanastron (Rabanastron). This consists of a hollow wooden 
 cylinder, four inches long by two inches in diameter, the top of which 
 is covered with snake-skin. It has a long wooden handle, slightly 
 curved back at the upper end, in the rear of which are inserted two 
 long wooden pegs. The two strings are made of the intestines of 
 the gazelle, and pass over a long, low wooden bridge. The bow is of 
 bamboo and horsehair. The use of this instrument has lontj since 
 been abandoned to the lowest class of the population, and to the poor 
 Buddhist monks, who carry it with them as they go from door to door 
 asking for alms. In China, however, the same instrument appears 
 under the name of Ur-Iieeu (Fig. 9), and its use is very general. 
 
 Of a later origin than the Ravanastrom is the Onierti (Amrita), 
 a rude fiddle in which the body is formed of half a cocoanut-shell 
 covered with gazelle-skin. This instrument also, like the Ravan- 
 
 ' Fetis, ii. p. 291. Engel, while dissenting from tliis opinion, and believing the bow to have been developed 
 from the plectrum, adds, " Howbeit, it is not improbable that the fiddle-bow originated in India, and came thence 
 to us through Persia and Arabia. Also the ancient Greeks and K^omans may have had it." (See his learned 
 discussion in The Violin Family, pp. 5-12.) 
 
Instruments of India. 1 1 5 
 
 astron, has passed into China.' Rude as such forms appear to us 
 now, surely none were more pregnant with mighty possibilities. 
 From the Ravanastron to the Stradivarius the road is a long one, 
 and with many turnings ; but it cannot be mistaken. 
 
 Of the other instruments of the violin class, the most important 
 are the Sarinda (or Saroh ^), the Sarungee, and the Chikara. 
 Compared with the Ravanastron, these are of relatively modern 
 origin, though the Sarinda certainly dates back farther than the 
 eleventh century.^ The lower part of this instrument is covered 
 with gazelle-skin ; while the upper part, which is crescent-shaped, 
 is left open, so that the whole interior of the instrument is visible. 
 The strings are three in number, passing over a bridge of medium 
 height. 
 
 The Sarungee is the ordinary violin of India. We find several 
 shapes of this instrument. In that of Benares, the face somewhat 
 resembles that of one of our own violins, in which the upper third 
 has been removed. The body, however, is rounder and fuller, 
 gradually diminishing at the upper end to form the handle. It 
 has three strings of gut, and five sympathetic strings of wire.^ 
 Another form of the Sarungee has an oblong body, and is strung 
 with four gut and eleven wire strings. The two lowest are tuned 
 to Khuruj, or the keynote, and the others to a perfect fourth. In 
 playing, it is held in front of the body like our violoncello. The 
 hairs of the bow are very loose, and are tightened by the hand in 
 playing. The tone of this instrument is very sweet, and it is often 
 used by the Hindu Nautch girls to accompany their songs.' Many 
 Europeans have remarked upon the power and quality of the 
 Sarungee. Capt. Taylor states that a friend of his, " an excellent 
 
 ' A very good idea of the Omerti may be obtained from Fig. 15, under China. 
 
 ^ For a clear idea of this somewliat complicated instrument, the reader is referred to the beautiful drawing in 
 Fetis, ii. p. 296. 
 
 3 Fetis, ii. p. 295. '' Fetis considers this the most perfect of all the Hindu instruments. 
 
 5 Tagore : Short Notices, etc., p. 33. 
 
ii6 Musical Instniincnts and their Ho7nes. 
 
 musician and violin player, used to prefer one of these instruments 
 to his own violin for concerted pieces, in which the violin took a 
 soprano part." ' The Sarrooda is a somewhat larger form of this 
 instrument, which takes the part of tenor or second fiddle in 
 concerted music. In Madras we find also a kind of bass viol, 
 called Kunjerry^ 
 
 The Chikara is the ordinary fiddle of the common people. It 
 is " mostly to be seen in the hands of strolling- players, or 
 mendicants, reciters of short plays or poems, and ballad singers." ^ 
 Its strings are generally of horsehair.* Fetis also mentions a large 
 variety of Chikara found in the province of Madras, which has four 
 strings, of which three are played by the bow, and the fourth, which 
 passes over the side of the bridge, is sounded by the fingers.' 
 
 The Indian instruments with understrung wires are of special 
 interest, as they undoubtedly explain the origin of those European 
 instruments, in which, as in the Viole d'Amour^ and Baryton of the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and the Norwegian violin of 
 the present day, the tones of the ordinary strings of gut are 
 re-enforced by the sympathetic vibration of a series of fine wire 
 strings passing beneath the others, and tuned at harmonic intervals. 
 In the opinion of Fetis, ^ the knowledge of this principle passed 
 from India to Constantinople, whence, in the seventeenth century, 
 it penetrated into Hungary and Bohemia, and so was carried to 
 the rest of Europe. 
 
 II. Instruments of percussion have always been very popular 
 in India. As long ago as the beginning of our era, Strabo 
 mentioned the fact, that, when the Indian kings went out to hunt, 
 
 ■ Hindu Music, p. 257. = Fetis, ii. p. 299, ^ Taylor, p. 257. 
 
 '' Tagore: Sliort Notices, etc., p. 5. 
 
 = Fig. 2 in the present collection so closely resembles the drawing of this Chikara, given by Fetis on p. 2S7 of 
 his Histoire, that I have been tempted so to classify it in the catalogue. It is probable, however, that the similarity 
 is deceptive, and that Fig. 2 is rightly catalogued as a simple Tamboura. 
 
 ^ See Fig. 9, France, in which specimen, however, the understrung wires are wanting. ' ii. p. 298. 
 
Instrujnents of htdia. 1 1 7 
 
 they were preceded by a band of drummers and cymbal-players.' 
 The same fondness for instruments of percussion still distinguishes 
 the Hindu people. In his " Short Notices of Hindu Musical 
 Instruments," the Rajah Tagore mentions no less than sixty-five 
 different varieties of instruments of percussion. y\n exhaustive 
 description of all these, even if possible, would only weary the 
 reader. I shall therefore confine my notice to a few of the more 
 important. 
 
 As has been said, the Hindus divide their instruments of 
 percussion into two classes, one of which includes all those which 
 are covered with skin, and the other all those in which metal forms 
 the vibrating medium. 
 
 The most ancient of the Hindu drums is the Mridmig 
 (M'ridang). This is "a hollow cylinder of wood resembling a cask, 
 open at both the ends, which are covered with crude goat's-skin of 
 different thicknesses, so as to produce different sounds. One end 
 has likewise a coating of a composition made of resin, oil, etc., 
 applied to the inside, and is tightened with leather braces like our 
 drums."" Fig. 14 is probably a kind of Mridung. The DJwl and 
 the Dholkee are common forms of drum ; the latter, or " little 
 drum," differing from the Mridung in that it is a lighter and more 
 delicate instrument, and is braced with cords instead of leather 
 straps. These instruments are principally used by amateurs, and 
 are either " played by hand as accompaniment to the voice, or struck 
 with a stick when in concert with pipes or loud instruments." ^ 
 
 The Piikhwaj (Fig. 12) is the standard drum of India. It is 
 ordinarily about a foot and a half long, and nine inches in diameter. 
 It has two heads of skin, — one tenor and one bass, — which are 
 tuned by tightening or loosening the side cords. A piece of dough 
 is usually put under the bass side, which tempers the skin and keeps 
 it in tune. The Pukhwaj is sometimes beaten with rubber-tipped 
 
 ' Strabo, xv. i, 55, quoted by Ambros, i. p. 474. = Willard, p. 95. ' Taylor, p. 259. 
 
1 1 8 Mttsical Instrtunents and their Hojnes. 
 
 drumsticks, but more often with the pahns and fingers of the hand. 
 It is used both to accompany the voice and also in concerted music, 
 and, in the hands of an expert player, is said to yield remarkable 
 effects.' 
 
 The Tttbla is also a very popular drum. The body of this is 
 usually made of copper. It is always played in pairs, ^ one tenor 
 and one bass. It is held in place by a cloth, which passes round 
 the waist, and is beaten with the fingers. It gives a mellow and 
 delicate tone, and, together with the Sarungee, is the instrument 
 par excellence of the Hindu dancing-girl. 
 
 Other varieties of drum, called Dak and Hoodook, are principally 
 used by " ballad singers, mendicants, and the like." 
 
 The family of kettledrums is well represented in India. They 
 are found of all sizes, from the Nobtit, or great kettledrum, with 
 its deep, mellow tone, which has given its name to a species of 
 orchestral music, to the Bahya and yUla, which are played by the 
 village musicians. 
 
 The tambourine family also is extremely popular. Of these 
 the Duff and the Dayra are the most common. They are beaten 
 both with the hand and with sticks, and their players are said to 
 be very expert. The tambourine is used in processions and festivals 
 of all sorts, and every little village is provided with at least one 
 such instrument with which to sound the alarm in case of attack.^ 
 
 III. The second class of instruments of percussion, and the 
 third of the four classes into which the Hindus divide their 
 instruments, is that of gongs, bells, cymbals, and the like. The 
 first, called Thalia, are used principally in temple music, or as calls 
 to sacrifice at different hours of the day. Professional religious 
 mendicants also use a form of gong, especially those who are 
 accompanied by performing bulls and goats. A great gong, called 
 Kansi, is used in the Brahmin temples. The bell, or Giinte, also 
 
 ' Taylor, p. 260. = Ibid, p. 259. 
 
Instrinnents of India. 1 1 9 
 
 plays an important part in Hindu ceremonies. Both male and 
 female dancers wear a string of small bells tied round the leg above 
 the ankle. These Goongooroos, or ankle bells, give a faint clashing 
 sound as the feet move, serving to keep the time, and forming 
 a not unpleasant accompaniment to the dance-music. They are 
 regarded as the symbols of the dancer's profession, and are, to a 
 certain extent, held sacred. After a dancer has once been solemnly 
 invested with these bells, it is impossible for him or her ever 
 to abandon the profession so adopted. So much is this the case, 
 that, when a Hindu desires to express that a person has taken an 
 irrevocable step, he speaks of him as " having tied on the bells." 
 
 I will not attempt to describe the various kinds of cymbals 
 and castanets which are found in India. The former are made 
 principally of silver or bell-metal, and, in the north of India, are 
 frequently used in religious ceremonies. Capt. Taylor ' mentions 
 a small cymbal used in the south of India, consisting of two cups 
 of bell-metal, united by a cord, which, in the hands of an adept 
 player, are said to yield remarkable effects. Castanets, both of 
 wood and metal, are in common use. Those used by the Bayaderes 
 in their dances are made of metal, and are called Tal (Fig. 7). In 
 India, also, we find the cradle of the instruments of the xylophone 
 and harmonicon family, whence their use has passed into Siam 
 (see Fig. i) and Burmah, and even into China and Japan (Fig. 12). 
 Of these the most important has seventeen keys, and is called 
 Kinnery.^ 
 
 IV. Last of all I shall consider the wind instruments of India. 
 The flute {Bansee or Bansulee) was formerly a very favorite instru- 
 ment, and in mythological days is said to have produced wonderful 
 effects in the hands of the god Krishna. It is little used to-day by 
 professional musicians, though its employment in certain ceremonies 
 is customary. Especially is this the case at the feast of Nila-Pooja, 
 
 ' Taylor, p. 244. " Fetis, ii. p. 308. 
 
I20 Musical Instmnnents and tJieir Homes. 
 
 wl 
 
 dien the bigots run sharp-pointed iron rods through their tongues, 
 and through the muscuLar part of the breast, the back, the arm, 
 the skin of the forehead, etc., and dance with stretched cords 
 passed through the integuments of the sides." ' It is also said 
 that the Bansee is used with remarkable effect in the taming of 
 elephants. 
 
 There are a number of instruments of the flageolet family in 
 India, three of which are represented in Figs. 4, 5, and 6. The 
 AlgJiosaJi (Algooja) of Bengal belongs to this class. Still more 
 numerous and important are the Oboes. Of these the oldest is 
 the Ottii (Otou), which is used to accompany the dance of the 
 Bayaderes. This instrument is a simple tube without finger-holes, 
 and yields but a single tone. Its players are said to have the 
 remarkable faculty of holding the breath and prolonging the tone 
 almost indefinitely." A more important instrument of this family 
 is the 1 oonierie Nagassaran (Fig. 9), which has twelve finger-holes, 
 and is made of wood mounted with brass. It is found in the 
 province of Madras. Other instruments, differing only in size and 
 in the number of finger-holes, are the Zounia, the Shena (Shanai, 
 Soo-nai), the MiLkha, etc.^ The use of these instruments is almost 
 universal. "They are, in fact, the only regular out-door instruments 
 of Indian music, and are employed on all occasions, whether in 
 domestic or public religious ceremonials, processions in festivals, 
 temple music, and the like. ... In the Mahratta country, the 
 simple melodies of the people, joyous or plaintive, are performed 
 with a style of execution which is often surprising; and combina- 
 tions of musical effect are introduced which are equally curious 
 and interesting."'^ 
 
 Several varieties of bagpipe are found in India. A rude 
 specimen, the Zitty (or Titthi), of Madras, is shown in Fig. 8. 
 Somewhat similar in appearance is the Poongi (or Magoudi, Fig. 
 
 ' Solvyns : The Costume of Indostaii, plate xxviii. - Fetis, ii. p. 301. ' Kngel, p. iCS. * Taylor, p. 250. 
 
Instruments of India. \ 2 \ 
 
 15), a peculiar instrument used by the snake-charmers. This 
 consists of a hollow gourd, in which are inserted two bamboo pipes, 
 which are fastened by wax or some resinous substance. The 
 performer blows through a mouthpiece cut in the end of the gourd, 
 opposite to the pipes. Although both the latter are furnished with 
 finger-holes, only one of them is used in playing ; the holes of the 
 other, which serves as a drone, being mostly closed with wax. The 
 Poongi is capable of producing about nine different notes. Strange 
 as it may appear, competent witnesses testify to the remarkable 
 effect produced upon all kinds of snakes, and especially upon the 
 cobra, by the plaintive tones of this instrument. 
 
 A variety of the Poongi, called Tooinerie, is played by the nose 
 instead of the mouth. Indeed, according to certain writers, the use 
 of the nose-flute originated in Hindustan, and was thence carried to 
 the Fiji Islands ' and other places, where it is now found. The 
 explanation of its origin is to be found "in the religious doctrine 
 of the Brahmins, that a person of superior caste is defiled by 
 touching with his mouth any thing which has been touched by the 
 mouth of an inferior." ^ In this connection we may mention another 
 curious instrument of Hindustan. This is the Nyastaranga (or 
 Upanga), consisting of a pair of pipes, the extremities of which are 
 placed on the throat, upon the vocal chords, and which, when 
 breathed upon strongly, produce a clear, reedy note.^ The same 
 effect is produced by placing them upon the cheeks or the nostrils. 
 
 The brass instruments of India are principally horns and 
 trumpets. The former are of various sizes and shapes, and are used 
 principally for signals, watch-setting, processions, and temple services. 
 Wailing blasts for the dead are played upon them, as well at the 
 funerals of Hindus of the lowest caste as at the cremation of Hindu 
 princes.* The most important of the numerous trumpets is the 
 Kurna, which is used chiefly in religious festivals and processions. 
 
 ' See Oceanica, Fig. 2. = Kiigel, p. 166. ^ Tagore : Short Notices, etc., p. 28. '' Taylor, p. 247. 
 
12 2 
 
 Mtisical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 It yields only a few hoarse bass notes. It is considered by the 
 Brahmins as the most ancient of all musical instruments, and its 
 sound is supposed to be especially pleasing to the gods. The 
 Tootoore is a small tenor trumpet, used for like purposes and on 
 like occasions with the Kurna.' As in China and Japan, so in India 
 also, we find a rude conch trumpet, which is " sounded during 
 religious ceremonials, in processions of Hindu worship, and before 
 idols." ^ 
 
 Here I conclude my account of the musical instruments of 
 Hindustan. While far from claiming to have exhausted the field, 
 I may yet hope that the survey has been complete enough to give 
 the reader some idea of the wealth of invention and resource shown 
 by this wonderful people in this most interesting field. In spite of 
 all that has been written on the subject, much still remains to be 
 learned concerning the musical instruments of India. If the 
 present chapter shall succeed in arousing any new interest in 
 this important subject, it will not have been written in vain. 
 
 ' Other forms of trumpet are described by Fetis on pp. 304, 305. " Taylor, p. 262. 
 
SIAM AND BURMAH. 
 
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VIII. 
 MUSIC AND INSTRUMENTS OF SIAM. 
 
 N his chapter on the music of Indo-China, Fetis ' laments 
 the lack of accurate information on the whole subject of 
 the music of Siam, Burmah, and the neighboring countries, 
 and expresses the hope that in the near future a closer acquaintance 
 with the music of these peoples may render possible a more 
 satisfactory treatment of the subject. It is only very recently that 
 this hope has seen its fulfilment, as far as Siam is concerned. 
 At the International Inventions Exhibition, held at South 
 Kensington, London, in 1885, there were exhibited, through the 
 kindness of the king of Siam, specimens of all the principal musical 
 instruments in use in that country ; and a well-trained Siamese 
 orchestra gave those interested in the subject an opportunity to 
 hear and study many of the most interesting Siamese melodies. 
 The information contained in the following chapter is largely 
 drawn from a little pamphlet, published in connection with this 
 exhibition, entitled " Notes on Siamese Musical Instruments." 
 The writer begins by calling attention to the almost universal 
 ignorance which prevails among Europeans as to the whole 
 subject of Eastern music. "To most of those that gazed at 
 the Siamese performers," he remarks, "such music was wholly 
 unintelligible. It seemed, no doubt, to them as though fitful shreds 
 of melody were wantonly immersed in waves of riotous sound. 
 The press, which in these days employs men of great experience 
 
 ' ii. p. 348. 
 
132 
 
 Musical Instrtmients and their Homes. 
 
 and culture, spoke of the band in accents of compassionate good- 
 nature. The public, to whom this music came as a surprise, 
 flocked to each performance with the highest expectations ; but 
 the great majority left with an impression that they had listened 
 to the capricious volubility of a strange confusion of sound."' In 
 spite, however, of the little favor which it found in the ears of its 
 Western hearers, in the opinion of Mr. Alexander Ellis' — a very 
 competent authority — Siamese music must take a high rank in the 
 scale of that of extra-European nations. Not only do we find in 
 the national music of the Siamese evidences of a very advanced 
 musical development, but the character of their musical instruments, 
 no less than the elaborate nature of their orchestral performances, 
 bears witness to a remarkable state of musical proficiency. 
 
 The music of Siam is far more closely allied in character to 
 that of Hindustan than to that of China. Unlike their neicrhbors, 
 the Anamese and Javanese, who use the pentatonic scale, ^ the 
 Siamese have seven notes in their scale. " The ideal Siamese 
 scale," says Mr. Ellis, " is an equal division of the octave into 
 seven parts : so that there are no semi-tones and no tones, when 
 the instrument is properly tuned, but only intervals a trifle less 
 than one and three-quarter semi-tones ; for seven of these would 
 give twelve and a quarter semi-tones, just over an octave."-* The 
 same name is applied by the Siamese both to a note and to its 
 octave. " There are three octaves, or rather septimes of seven 
 notes, called upper, middle, and lower septime. The eighth note 
 is reckoned as part of the next septime." ^ Before beginning, the 
 conductor announces in what septime the piece is to be played. 
 
 In spite of their fondness for music, the Siamese have not 
 developed any musical notation. "All their music is learned by 
 ear, — a method of teaching which is considered safer and more 
 
 PP- S, 9- ^ Quoted in Notes on Siamese Musical Instruments, p. 26. 
 
 3 Fetis, ii. p. 332. 1 Quoted as above, p. 24. s Ibid., p. 23. 
 
M^Lsic and InstrtLvients of Siam. 133 
 
 expeditious. Music thus learned is handed down traditionally, but 
 not necessarily from father to son." ' A good ear and a prodigious 
 memory are, therefore, in Siam, the two indispensable requisites 
 for a successful musician. The boys begin to study music at a 
 very early age, and devote themselves to the pursuit of their art 
 with remarkable assiduity. We are told that the " skill, nicety 
 of execution and precision, both as regards time and rhythm," 
 displayed by a skilful Siamese in playing his national instruments, 
 may well excite the surprise of even the best European performer. 
 
 There are, in Siam, musical societies, or guilds, which profess 
 to train musicians for public and other performances. But they 
 are not very prosperous, owing to the competition of private 
 orchestras. The latter absorb all the best musical talent ; and we 
 are told that there is no little rivalry, among those who can afford 
 it, for the possession of the best band. In Siam, however, the 
 happy practice obtains, among the noblemen and other wealthy 
 and distinguished persons, of admitting the general public to their 
 private concerts, when any thing of special merit is to be performed. 
 In this way the musical taste is kept from degenerating. The 
 Siamese are, indeed, a thoroughly musical people. Not only has 
 music a prominent place in theatrical performances, and at all 
 public feasts and shows, but almost every house has its Ranat ; 
 and the number of other instruments is limited only by the means 
 of the householder. Women, as well as men, are accustomed to 
 play on some instrument. Singing is also popular with both 
 sexes, both as a recreation and as a profession. Many of their 
 songs have a melancholy and plaintive character, whereas their 
 orchestral music is usually sprightly and cheerful.' Chorus singing 
 is frequent, but is always in unison. Indeed, Siamese music is no 
 exception to the general rule which we have thus far seen character- 
 izing all the nations of the East. Of harmony they know nothing ; 
 
 ■ Ellis, quoted in Notes on Siamese Musical Instruments, p. 24. ^ Fetis, i. p. 342. 
 
134 Mttsical histruments and their Homes. 
 
 and the effect produced by the performance of a Siamese orchestra 
 has been compared, by Mr. Ellis, to that probably produced upon 
 the contemporaries of Daniel, when they " heard ' the sound of the 
 cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of 
 music' playing together, and relying for their effects not on harmony, 
 but on diversity of quality of tone for the same note, or its octave." 
 "We may thus learn to see," continues Mr. Ellis, "that extensive 
 pieces of music can be put together, with a full appreciation of 
 parts to a whole, relying solely upon melody without harmony, 
 and come to understand that the latter art, however indispensable 
 to modern European music, is not essential to the existence or 
 enjoyment of music in general." ' 
 
 SIAMESE INSTRUMENTS.* 
 
 The Siamese distinguish two general kinds of instruments, — 
 Mahoree, or " light-sounding " instruments, which are principally 
 used for in-door performances ; and Bhimbhat, or " heavy-sounding " 
 instruments, which are used for out-door purposes. These are also 
 the names of the two principal orchestras of Siam. The Mahoree, 
 which performs in-door music of the highest class, consists of seven 
 stringed instruments, three wind instruments, and eleven instruments 
 of percussion, — twenty-one in all. The Bhimbhat, which corresponds 
 to our brass band, and which gives a far greater volume of sound, 
 is composed entirely of wind instruments and instruments of 
 percussion, combined in the proportion of three to sixteen. The 
 very large preponderance of the latter strikingly reminds us 
 
 Note. — The writer regrets that the illustrations which accompany this chapter 
 and the following should be so incomplete. Those who are interested in pursuing the 
 subject further are referred to the excellent illustrations in the little pamphlet referred 
 to on Siamese Musical Instruments. Hipkins also devotes plates 44 and 45 of his 
 elaborate work to the subject of Siamese instruments. 
 
 ' Quoted in Notes on Siamese Musical Instruments, p. 26. 
 
Music and Listrtmients of Siani. 135 
 
 of the neighboring countries of China and Japan. Other forms of 
 orchestra are the Klong Khek, which is composed partly of Malay 
 instruments ; and the Lao Phan, the instruments of which are 
 peculiar to the North of Siam. 
 
 The characteristic instrument of Siam is the Ranat, or har- 
 monicon (Fig. i). There are four varieties of this instrument, of 
 which two are made of metal (Ranat Thong and Ranat Lek), and 
 two of wood (Ranat Ek and Ranat T'hoom). "The principal 
 instrument of the Siamese," writes Mr. Ellis, " by which all others 
 are regulated, is the Ranat Ek, or treble wooden harmonicon. 
 This consists of bars of wood, slightly rounded on the upper 
 surface, suspended by strings passing through their nodes, and 
 strung over what may be called the elevated prow and stem of an 
 ornamental boat or cradle, which serves as a resonance chamber, and 
 also as a storage place for the bars themselves when rolled up, 
 and the hammers by which they are struck. The wooden bars are 
 tuned roughly by measurement, and hollowing out at the back 
 between the nodes as in the Javese gambangs,' and more accurately 
 by sticking lumps of wax mixed with lead and oil to the under parts 
 of the bars beyond the nodes. The intonation depends especially 
 on these tuning lumps. In attaching these lumps, the Siamese 
 tuner seems to be guided solely by ear ; and the peculiar intention 
 of their scale rendering this very difficult, the result obtained is by 
 no means always perfect." ^ 
 
 The Ranat T'hoom differs from the Ranat Ek only in being an 
 octave lower. The latter is the treble instrument, the former the 
 bass. 
 
 The only difference between the two metal harmonicons, the 
 Ranat Lek and Ranat Thong, is as follows : The first has seventeen 
 keys made of iron, and the second has twenty-one keys of brass. 
 " The bars [of these instruments] are not strung, but rest on a ledge 
 
 ' A kind of harmonicon. ^ Quoted in Notes on Siamese Musical Instruments, pp. 13, 14. 
 
136 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 passing under the nodes." ' They are tuned by filing the keys, and 
 retain their pitch better than the wooden harmonicons. 
 
 Instruments of the gong class are very popular in Siam. Not 
 only do we find many single gongs, differing very slightly from those 
 in use in China, but the Siamese combine a number of individual 
 gongs into a peculiar instrument called Klwng Yai. This consists 
 of a circular frame-work, in which are suspended by strings sixteen 
 gongs made of an alloy of brass. In the middle of the circle "the 
 player squats, so that he can reach the whole scale, which, on 
 account of the width of the Khongs, would be too long if displayed 
 in one line like the bars of the Ranat. The sound [of the gongs] 
 is bell-like, but, like [that of] bells, full of inharmonic proper tones. 
 They are tuned by lumps, like those of the Ranat, placed inside 
 the bell." ' A smaller instrument of the same kind, called KJiong 
 Lek, is made up of twenty-one gongs. 
 
 Among the many varieties of drum used by the Siamese, the 
 following may be mentioned : First, the Tatot Pote, a small hand- 
 drum principally used in the Laos states ; second, the Taphone 
 (Ta-P'ohn) (Fig. 3), a larger hand-drum, not unlike a small keg, 
 which, when played, is set horizontally upon a stand ; third, the 
 long drum, or Song-ndh, a third variety of hand-drum, of a narrow, 
 cylindrical shape; fourth, the Tlione, a small vase-shaped hand- 
 drum, like the Arab Darabukkeh. Of the drums which are beaten 
 by sticks, the most important are the Klong Khek, or Malay drum 
 (Fig. 2), and the Klong Yai, or kettledrums. The latter are of 
 a very large size, and are played in pairs. They " are tilted slightly, 
 so as to be easily played by one performer with a drumstick in each 
 hand, like our kettledrums. They have a sweet, musical tone. 
 They are tuned by placing, or sticking, a handful of mashed boiled 
 rice at the bottom of the drum." 3 
 
 Other instruments of percussion in common use are cymbals 
 
 ■ Ellis, quoted in Notes on Siamese Musical Instruments, p. 15. ^ Ibid,, p. i6. ^ Ibid., p. 19. 
 
Mtisic mtd histruvients of Suim. 1 3 7 
 
 and castanets. The name for the former is Cliarp. A small pair 
 of metal castanets, called C/img, is used by the conductor of an 
 orchestra to keep time during the performance. 
 
 The most characteristic stringed instrument of Siam is the 
 TdKhay (Tuk-Kay), or " alligator." This instrument " has some- 
 thing like a guitar body, and is placed on the ground, the player 
 squatting beside it. He touches the strings on the frets with his 
 left hand, and sounds the string by a plectrum,' like a large ivory 
 tooth, which is fastened to his fingers, and drawn rapidly back- 
 wards and forwards across the string, so as to produce an almost 
 continuous tone, which is not unlike that of a violoncello." ' 
 Another instrument of the guitar family is called Kra Chapee. 
 This is played with a small piece of horn, and yields fourteen 
 notes. 
 
 The most important instrument of the violin family is the Saw 
 Tai. " It has a heart-shaped body, wdth a very long neck and 
 a foot, both cylindrical ; the former carrying the pegs for the 
 strings, the latter forming a rest for the instrument when played. 
 The musician squats cross-legged, and holds the Saw Tai at a 
 slight slope. The foot is about twelve inches long, pointed, and 
 sometimes of ivory, beautifully carved." ^ The Saw Tai is usually 
 strung with three strings of silk cord, which are close together at 
 the upper end, " where they pass under a ligature round the top, 
 and then on to the pegs." Like the Rebab and the Chinese fiddles, 
 it has no finger-board. " The length of the string is, therefore, not 
 limited, as on the violin, by pinching it between the fingers and 
 the finger-board, but by pressing with the whole width of the 
 finger on the strings ; and, as this can be done with very different 
 weight, the note is not constant for the same length of string. 
 The string, also, not being sharply limited, the tone is not crisp 
 and well-defined, but rather hazy. Still, considerable execution 
 
 ' Ellis, quoted in Notes on Siamese Musical Instruments, p. i6. ^ Ibid., p. 3i. 
 
u8 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 J 
 
 is possible." " It is played with a bow larger than that of our 
 European double bass. Another kind of three-stringed violin is 
 called Saw Sa7nsai. The Sazv Duang and Saw Oo are two- 
 stringed violins, differing only in size. They closely resemble the 
 ordinary Chinese fiddle (see Fig. 9, China). 
 
 The principal wind instruments used in Siam are flutes. Of 
 these the most important is the Pee, which may be made either 
 of marble, ivory, or ebony. " This is a species of harsh oboe, fit 
 only for playing in the open air. Its effect is that of a very 
 powerful bagpipe. It is a reed instrument, rather thick, with six 
 holes, in groups of four and two, with a considerable space between 
 the two groups : but only three of the first four are covered with 
 the fingers of the left hand ; the fourth hole is covered with the 
 forefinger of the right hand." ' Another similar instrument is 
 the Peec/iawar, or Java flute, which has seven holes, and is gener- 
 ally made of ivory. Flutes of bamboo, with eight and ten holes 
 respectively, are also in use. The Siamese have also a kind of flute, 
 called Klui, in which the pitch may be altered by covering one of 
 the holes with a membrane. 
 
 A curious solo instrument is found in the northern part of Siam, 
 and in the Laos states. This is the P/ian, a kind of Pandean pipes, 
 almost exactly similar to that played by the natives of British 
 Guiana (see Fig. 2, South America). The pipes of this instrument 
 are " at least four feet long ; and it is blown, or sucked, at a hole 
 coming from the ivory cross band, against which the palms of the 
 hands rest to hold it in position, while the fingers touch the holes 
 in the pipes, which allow the reeds to sound, just as in the Chinese 
 Sheng." ^ 
 
 This completes the list of the principal Siamese instruments. 
 It may be interesting, in conclusion, to notice the manner in which 
 they are combined in orchestral playing. In the ordinary band 
 
 ' Ellis, quoted in Notes on Siamese Musical Instruments, p. 21. = Ibid., p. 17. 
 
Music and Instruments of Siam. 139 
 
 (Mahoree) the disposition of the instruments is as follows : In front 
 are placed the Ranats ; in the rear, the wind and stringed instru- 
 ments, save the Ta'Khay, or "alligator," which is to the left of the 
 audience. The middle row is composed of the drums and gong 
 organs (Klong Yai). In the midst of the orchestra, but slightly to 
 the left, stands the conductor, regulating the time by the tinkling 
 tones of his C/iiiig.^ 
 
 ' Set: the interesting diagram on p. 23 of Notes on Siamese ]\Iusical Instruments. 
 
IX. 
 
 MUSIC AND INSTRUMENTS OF 
 
 BURMAH. 
 
 HE Burmese, like the Siamese, are a distinctly musical 
 people. Both men and women are in the habit of singing 
 at their work. Almost every one can play some instrument. 
 As in Siam, every noble supports his private orchestra, to the 
 performances of which the common people are freely admitted. 
 Music takes a prominent place in the processions and ceremonies 
 which attend every important event of life. The sacrificial rites in 
 the Buddhist temples are accompanied by solemn chanting on the 
 part of the priests, and by the dancing of chosen maidens, like 
 the Bayaderes of Hindustan, to the tune of the oboe and of drums. 
 As in the latter country, so here, also, the musical drama is very 
 popular.' The Burmese plays, or operas as they should strictly be 
 called, consist of a combination of acting, singing, dancing, and 
 orchestral accompaniment. The dialogue is usually declaimed in 
 a sort of recitative, not unlike that in our modern opera. It is 
 occasionally interrupted by short airs, or by orchestral passages. 
 The subject of the play is usually mythological, the adventures of 
 the hero Rama being especially popular." 
 
 The Burmese scale, like the Siamese, consists of seven distinct 
 tones. Accurate experiments are, however, needed to determine the 
 exact intervals between these tones.^ The scale given by Fetis,^ 
 
 ' For a description, with c|uotations, of a Burmese play, see Engel : Musical Myths and Facts, vol. ii. pp. 15S sc;j. 
 See also Shway Yoe : The Eurman, vol. i. chap, x.xi.x. pp. 342 scq. 
 
 - Fc-tis, ii. p. 334. 3 ji^i^i _ p^ ,^g^ 
 
 140 
 
MtLsic and Instrznnents of Bztrmah. 141 
 
 on the authority of Col. Symes, is only approximately correct. 
 Whatever may be true of the theoretical scale, that used in practice 
 probably differs little from our own.' 
 
 We are told that the royal library at the capital contains a 
 number of theoretical works on music. None of these, however, 
 have yet been rendered accessible to European students, nor is it 
 probable that the natives themselves are any more familiar with 
 their contents. Whatever may have been true of their remote 
 ancestors, the modern Burmese, like the Siamese, have no musical 
 notation. Tunes are handed down by ear from generation to 
 generation. There are not even any professional music-teachers. 
 When a man desires to become a musician, he begins by " diligently 
 listening to the performance of a good band. By and by he enters 
 the village orchestra as a clapper-player, and so learns the time 
 and the peculiarities of various tunes. . . . As a natural consequence, 
 there are occasionally variations, and, indeed, every Puloay (or flute) 
 player, has his own particular mannerisms ; but these are never so 
 great as to materially alter the character of the air." ^ Still greater 
 variations are common in vocal music. " Each ' prince ' or ' princess ' 
 has individual peculiarities in the way of trills and staccatos 
 introduced into the legitimate air." ^ When a young man desires 
 to become a vocalist, he attaches himself to some singer of 
 acknowledged reputation, follows him about, and endeavors to 
 master his style, or at least his repertory. The profession of court- 
 singer, while honorable, is not without perils, as it is considered 
 treasonable to sing a new song before the king. We are told that 
 the great singer Moung Thah Byaw was several times condemned to 
 death for carelessly transgressing this law. On each occasion, how- 
 ever, he so charmed his executioners by the sweetness of his songs, 
 
 ■ See the tuning of the Burmese harp (Fig. i), taken from Engel : Musical Instruments in the South Kensington 
 Museum, p. 175. 
 
 " Yoe, ii. p. 9. ^ Ibid., p. 13. 
 
142 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 that they secretly spared his life, and executed a less gifted but more 
 hapless mortal in his place. For some time after his supposed 
 execution, he preserved a judicious retirement ; but at the next 
 palace fete, when the king was bitterly regretting his hasty decision, 
 who should appear, to the unspeakable delight of the company, but 
 the supposed dead man. 
 
 BURMESE INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The instrument par excellence of Burmah is the harp (Fig. i). 
 This is called Soung (Fetis : Soum), and is found principally in the 
 kingdom of Ava (Northern Burmah). In shape it " somewhat 
 resembles a canoe with a deck." ' The body is made of light wood, 
 hollowed, and usually covered with tough buffalo-hide. Its length 
 varies from two to five feet. It has a neck, or handle, of hard wood, 
 gracefully curved, and tapering at the end. The strings are of silk, 
 usually thirteen in number, neatly twisted, and fastened to the 
 handle by tasselled cords.' It is tuned by pushing the strings up 
 and down the handle, thus increasing or diminishing the tension. ^ 
 The Soung is principally used to accompany the voice, though 
 occasionally, also, as a solo instrument. Its tone is very sweet, even 
 to European ears. In playing, it is " held across the lap, the curved 
 neck being to the left ; the performer passes his hand round it, 
 and over the strings. . . . [He] occasionally produces a semi-tone, 
 by applying a finger of the left hand to a string near its end, which 
 has the effect of shortening it. He, however, generally twangs the 
 strings with both hands." ^ The use of the Soung is said to be 
 confined to young men.^ 
 
 ' Engel, p. 174. 
 
 = These tassels are used for tightening the cords in such a way as to explain - what has long puzzled antiquarians 
 — the use of similar tassels found in Egyptian and Assyrian sculptures. 
 ^ For tuning, see Fig. i. 
 " Engel, p. 175. s Yoe, ii. p. 11. 
 
Music and Instru7nents of Burma h. 143 
 
 A second kind of harp is found principally in the southern 
 part of Burmah. This is rectangular on three sides, the top being 
 inclined at a moderate angle. It is about three feet high by a 
 foot and a half long, and is furnished with twenty-five or twenty-six 
 wire strings.' 
 
 There are several instruments of the violin class in Burmah. 
 Of these the most important is the Thro or Tarau (Turr). In 
 appearance it is not unlike our own violin,' though the finger-board 
 is shorter in proportion to the body of the instrument. The top 
 of the handle is usually elaborately carved. The Thro has three 
 strings, and is played with a large bow not unlike that of our bass 
 viol. Its tone is nasal and unpleasant to our ears. It is often used 
 to accompany the voice, in which case it always plays in unison, 
 filling up the pauses, however, with more or less extended interludes. ^ 
 The Sarinda (Saroh) of Hindustan is also found in Burmah; 
 though, instead of three strings, the Burmese instrument has ten, — 
 four of gut, which are played by the bow, and six sympathetic wire 
 strings. Fetis also mentions^ a small three-stringed fiddle, in which 
 the finger-board is very short and defective. 
 
 The Ta'Khay of Siam re-appears in Burmah under the name of 
 Megyonng. It is usually about four feet long, and shaped like an 
 alligator. A specimen described by Engel ^ was painted red and 
 gilt, and furnished with a pair of glass eyes. The three silken 
 strings pass over two bridges, one being placed near the head, and 
 the other near the tail. The frets are ten in number, set at regular 
 intervals on the back of the alligator. The tuning pegs are situated 
 in the tail. The Megyoung, like the Ta'Khay of Siam, is used in 
 orchestral performances, and its players are said often to exhibit 
 surprising dexterity. 
 
 A sort of rude banjo, made of cocoanut-shell, with a handle 
 
 ' For a drawing, see Fetis, ii. p. 335. ^ See Fetis, li. p. 337. =■ Engel, p. 314. 
 
 * ii- P- 337- ' P- ■74- 
 
144 M^isical Instruments and their Hornes. 
 
 of bamboo, and two wire strings (Fig. 6), is used by the snake- 
 charmers, who manage to extract from it quite ehaborate tunes. 
 
 The principal wind instruments of Burmah are flutes and oboes. 
 The flute (Fig. 3) is called Puloay. It is a simple bamboo tube 
 with seven finger-holes. The best Puloay player, we are told,' 
 always leads the orchestra. The oboe (Fig. 4) is also an important 
 instrument in concerted music. It usually consists of a wooden 
 tube with seven finger-holes, fitted with a reed mouthpiece, and a 
 bell-shaped base of brass. Its tone is shrill and piercing. Engel ^ 
 .also mentions several "wind instruments of zinc and copper, chiefly 
 in twisted serpent form."^ 
 
 The Burmese instruments of percussion are many and various. 
 The Ranat of Siam is popular in Burmah, where it is known as 
 Pattala, or PatolaJif' Several sizes are found. One described by 
 Engel 5 was four and a half feet long, and had twenty-three bamboo 
 keys. The instrument is " played with one or two little sticks 
 about eighteen inches in length, and terminating in a rather 
 thick ball made of cloth." It is said that an old Pattala, " though 
 its materials are of no value, ... is prized by the owner like 
 a good old Cremona, and he can rarely be induced to part 
 with it."*^ 
 
 Gongs and cymbals of various kinds are found in Burmah. 
 The former are combined into an instrument called Kyee-wain, 
 corresponding to the Klong-yai, or gong-organ, of Siam. The 
 Kyee-wain usually contains fifteen gongs, or rather metal plates, 
 
 ' Voe, ii. p. II. = p. 2Q5. 
 
 ^ In this connection, I qtiote the following interesting statement : 
 
 "As regards the Ijrass wind instruments of the Hindus and Burmese, twisted like serpents and other reptiles, 
 it is said that in the beginning of the present century, some London instrument-makers took to manufacturing such 
 grote.sque-looking trumpets for exportation to the East. In order to meet the taste of the intended purchasers, they 
 made these articles e.xactly after Asiatic patterns. It is, therefore, not impossible that among the brass wind instru- 
 ments brought from Asia to England, and exhibited as Eastern curiosities, there may be occasionally a specimen 
 whose real birthplace is in the neighborhood of its present abode." — Engel, Appendix, p. 379. 
 
 ' The name Patola is incorrectly applied by Fetis to an instrument which seems to resemble the Megyoung. 
 P- ''"'S- <■ Capt. Henry Vule, quoted by Engel, p. 176. 
 
Music and Instruments of Burmah. 145 
 
 hung in a circular frame of wood. It is played with two little 
 sticks, the performer being seated in the middle of the frame. It 
 is considered an essential part of a Burmese orchestra ; and every 
 respectable theatre possesses two, one of which is played on each 
 side of the stage. The cymbals are of two principal sizes, called 
 respectively Ya-gwin (" big cymbals ") and Than-hwm (" small 
 cymbals ") (Fig. 2). A curious instrument of metal is the Kyee-zee 
 (Fig. 7), consisting of a plate of sonorous brass of triangular shape. 
 This is used by the righteous Buddhists to attract attention to their 
 offerings, and, in general, by heads of families on their way to the 
 pagoda. It " is suspended by a string to a stick carried over 
 the shoulder ; and as the sounds vibrate, rise and fall, quicken and 
 die away, with the winding or unwinding of the cord, those who 
 intend to keep the duty day well make ready for a start for the 
 pagoda." ' The Burmese have also a small bell called KJiew, which, 
 like the Feng-Ling of China, is suspended from the roofs of the 
 Buddhist temples. A thin plate of metal in the shape of a leaf is 
 attached to the clapper, and the wind setting the former in motion 
 causes the bell to ring. 
 
 We find in Burmah a kind of gigantic bamboo castanet, called 
 WaJdeKhoJit, which is sometimes no less than five feet long. 
 "These castanets are always in the hands of the most recently 
 joined, and therefore most zealous, members of the band, and 
 are clapped together with an energy which usually makes them 
 unduly prominent."' They play an important part in theatrical 
 orchestras. 
 
 There are several kinds of drums in Burmah, but they differ 
 little from those which have already been described under the head of 
 India. One of the most common is shown in Fig. 5. It is made 
 of hollowed wood, covered at the upper end with skin, and is one of 
 a series of nine of different sizes. A number of individual drums 
 
 ' Yoe, i. p. 259. - Ibid., ii. p. ii. 
 
146 Musical Instnnnents and their Homes. 
 
 are combined by the Burmese to form an instrument called Seing- 
 weiug, corresponding to the Kyee-wain, or gong-organ, to which 
 reference has been made. The Seing-weing is described as "an 
 elaborately carved circular wooden frame, painted in parts, standing 
 between two and three feet high, and five feet or more in diameter. 
 Round the inside of this are hung drums of graduated sizes, which 
 are struck with the hands of the performer, who sits in the middle. 
 The alternate dry and saturated state of the atmosphere renders 
 constant tuning necessary ; and this is effected by tightening the 
 drum-heads, and also by smearing on with the fingers a paste 
 made of burnt rice-husk. The music produced is rather thin in 
 itself, but by no means unpleasing." " This ponderous instrument, 
 together with the Kyee-wain, is usually carried about in a cart ; " the 
 owner keeping perpetual guard over them, sitting in the centre, 
 cheroot in mouth, for they cost a very considerable sum of money." ' 
 In processions, however, if we are to believe Rowbotham,- the 
 drum-organ is sometimes moved in a much clumsier way. " The 
 hoop, with its drums attached to it, is carried by two men, one at 
 the front and the other at the back, like chair-men carrying a sedan 
 chair, but without the poles ; and the player shuffles along in the 
 inside of the hoop as Ijest he can, playing as he goes." " This," 
 continues Rowbotham, " must be very difficult to do ; for he has to 
 turn round and round to strike his drums, and still keep moving 
 along inside his hoop at the rate of the procession." 
 
 So much for the instruments of Burmah. As to their 
 combination for orchestral purposes, what has been said in 
 reference to Siam applies also here. The ordinary Burmese 
 orchestra includes both the drum and the gong organ, together with 
 individual drums, gongs, cymbals, and castanets ; the Pattala, or 
 harmonicon ; and several flutes and oboes. In a full orchestra, 
 stringed instruments may also be used; but in any case we remark 
 
 ' Voe, ii. p. lo. = i, p. 315, 
 
Mttsic and histriiments of BTirmah. i^^j 
 
 the great preponderance of instruments of percussion. Indeed, 
 Rowbotham quotes Clement Williams as authority for the statement 
 that many of the small Burmese bands are composed altogether of 
 instruments of percussion, without the assistance of a single wind 
 or stringed instrument.' 
 
 ' Through TJurmah to Siam, quoted by Rowbotham, i. p. 315. 
 
ARABIA, SYRIA, AND NORTH AFRICA. 
 
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X. 
 MUSIC OF THE ARABS. 
 
 HE influence of the Arabs upon the world of European 
 life and thought has been, perhaps, even greater than that 
 which they have exerted upon the political history of 
 Europe. The Saracens, it is true, never succeeded in maintaining 
 a permanent footing in Spain ; but their influence still lives, not 
 only in the gorgeous tracery of the Alhambra, but in the arts and 
 sciences, which in the tenth and eleventh centuries passed from that 
 country to the rest of Europe. The geographical changes produced 
 by the Crusades were, to be sure, not great ; but the world of new 
 ideas, brought back from the East by the returning crusaders, was 
 a factor of the very highest importance in the future development 
 of the European nations. Not only in the fields of science, art, 
 and medicine, is Europe indebted to the Arab for stimulus and 
 instruction : in the sphere of music, also, the latter exercised no slight 
 influence upon the former. The lute, the guitar, and the rebec, 
 not to speak of other instruments which will be noticed later, 
 were undoubtedly derived by the Europeans direct from the Oud, 
 the Kuitra, and the Rebab of the Arabs.' In view of these facts, the 
 subject of the present chapter should be of exceptional interest 
 to the musical student. 
 
 The history of Arabic music may be divided into two great 
 sections, — the first extending from the earliest times to the conquest 
 of Persia, in the seventh century ; and the second, from that time to 
 our own. 
 
 ' Engel, p. 63. 
 
 167 
 
1 68 Musical I list mm cuts and their Homes. 
 
 "The musical endowments of the Arabians," says Naumann,' 
 " were undoubtedly of a very high order, and, indeed, such as were 
 only to be expected from a people so peculiarly developed as 
 were these children of the desert." Their enjoyment of nature was 
 remarkably keen, — a never-failing sign of a music-loving people. 
 Accordingly we find in their poetry a preference for rhyme as 
 distinguished from metre. It is lyric rather than epic. " Even 
 when the epic or dramatic element is paramount, the lyrical 
 is never entirely eliminated ; and in such exceptional instances is 
 shown its innate musical tendency." ' From the very earliest times, 
 the Arabs have been a nation of poets ; ' but their music seems 
 to have been slow in developing. One of their own authors says, 
 that, before their acquaintance with Islamism, the wandering Arabs 
 had poetry, but no music.^ In those early days their songs were 
 simple and rude. " All their music and song consisted in the cries 
 with which they drove their camels, so that their so-called singers 
 were known also as Hadi (drivers)." -* But whatever may have been 
 true of the wandering children of the desert, whose life was isolated 
 from all connection with the outside world, and who retained their 
 primitive customs unchanged for centuries, far different was the 
 case with the rich cities of Arabia Felix. In the life of its pros- 
 perous and cultivated traders, music played an important part. Of 
 the exact character of this music, we are ignorant ; but it probably 
 differed little from that of the neighboring cities of Egypt.' The 
 ancients undoubtedly referred to the inhabitants of this part of 
 Arabia, when they attributed to the Arabs the invention of the 
 Greek monochord. Although this derivation was probably mistaken, 
 
 ' i- P- S7. ^ Fetis, ii. p. 6. ^ Ambros, i. p. 427. 
 
 " Ibid. Yet we hear from Zenobius that the Arab shepherds, while watching their flocl<s at night, were 
 accustomed to pass the time by playing upon a long flute. Moreover, we know that some of the early Arab chiefs 
 had female singers, whom they esteemed of the highest value. The Arab proverb, "singing like the two locusts of 
 Moawijah," recalls two of the most celebrated singers of this class, whom their master was accustomed to speak 
 of as his locusts. 
 
 ^ Ambros, i. p. 428. 
 
Music of the Arabs. 169 
 
 and the monochord should be traced to Assyria/ the suggestion is 
 interesting as bearing witness to an advanced stage of musical 
 development among the Arabs, even at that early date. Certain it 
 is, that in Menander's time an Arabian flute was not only known, 
 but also popular, in Greece. 
 
 Perhaps nothing is more remarkable, in connection with the 
 music of Arabia, than the fact that it seems to have developed with 
 very little reference to, or aid from, religion. To this cause 
 Naumann attributes the fact that with the Arabs music never 
 rose into a real art, as with their neighbors and kinsmen the 
 Israelites." Mohammed himself was opposed to music, probably 
 looking upon it as enervating and beneath the dignity of a true 
 man, — an idea which still survives among the Egyptians of 
 the present day.^ Although the Koran nowhere contains any 
 definite reference to music, Arabic tradition tells us that it was 
 expressly condemned by the Prophet. " Singing and hearing 
 songs," he said, " cause hypocrisy to grow in the heart, like as 
 water promoteth the growth of corn." ^ Musical instruments he 
 declared to be among the most prominent means employed by the 
 Devil to seduce man, — an idea which is the foundation of many 
 later Arabic legends. 5 Though himself a man of marked poetic 
 spirit, in several places in the Koran he repels the charge of being 
 a poet. "We have not taught him [Mohammed] poetry," he 
 exclaims, " nor was it proper for him." '' And again we read : " And 
 the poets do those follow who go astray." ^ 
 
 ■ Ambros, i. p. 426. ^ i- P- S6. ^ Lane : Modern Egyptians, ii. p. 57. 
 
 ^ Lane's edition of the Arabian Nights, i. p. 200; Note on Music. = Ibid., p. 201 ; cf. story of Ibraheem. 
 
 <■ chap, xxxvi. 69; Palmer's tr., ii. p. 167. 
 
 ' chap. xxvi. 224, ed. cit. ii. p. 99 ; cf. also chap. xxi. 5, ii. p. 46. 
 
 The Koran itself is written in rhythmical language, and many of its verses end with a rhyme. Mohammed's 
 denial of poetic ability must, therefore, be explained on the ground of his desire to prevent himself from being 
 identified with the wandering bards of the day. " Amongst a people who believed firmly in witchcraft and sooth- 
 saying, and who, though passionately fond of poetry, believed that every poet had his familiar spirit who inspired 
 his utterances, it was no wonder that the prophet should be taken for a 'soothsayer,' for 'one possessed with an evil 
 spirit,' or for 'an infatuated poet.' " — Palmer, Intro., i. p. 56. 
 
I70 Musical Instruments and their Ho7nes. 
 
 Some of the caliphs who succeeded were, however, much less 
 rigid in their ideas. Many of the Ommiads and Abbassides were 
 not only fond of music, but were themselves the authors of melodies. 
 In spite of the position of the Prophet, later teachers found a way 
 to reconcile the practice of music with the precept of their religion ; 
 and to-day, not only is music used at religious ceremonies in 
 Mohammedan countries,' especially by the dervishes, but the Koran 
 itself is chanted in the schools.' So impossible does it seem for 
 any people utterly to divorce music from the service of religion. 
 It is a striking fact, that, strongly as Mohammed set his face against 
 music, it was only after his time, when the Arabs, under the mighty 
 impulse which he had imparted, began to come into contact with 
 the surrounding civilizations, that music rose to any real importance 
 among them. Though, in the early days, here and there a chief 
 may ha\'e delighted himself with the songs of a female slave ; 
 though, even in the time of Mohammed himself, we are told that 
 the Koraish marched out to meet the followers of the Prophet 
 at the battle of Ohod to the accompaniment of the songs and 
 tambourines of their women, — it was only in later days that the idea 
 gained ground, that music was worth study as an art, that a man 
 might honorably devote himself to it ; it was only under this new 
 impulse that the two sisters. Music and Poetry, who in early 
 Arabic history had been separated, were finally united ; and the 
 poet might become also the composer, — not only writing, but 
 also setting to music and singing his own productions. This 
 remarkable change is only part of the marvellous transformation 
 which took place in the Arab people when they entered upon that 
 career of conquest which has not ceased to be the wonder of the 
 world. It is, therefore, only fitting that the second great epoch in 
 the history of Arabic music should begin with the conquest of 
 Persia. 
 
 ' For a full account of the religious music of the Arabs, see Fetis, ii. p. 90 seq. 
 ^ Lane : Modern Egyptians, ii. p. 57. 
 
Music of the Arabs. 1 7 1 
 
 Even before the conquest, we are told, the Arabs had some 
 acquaintance with the music of Persia. In the last quarter of the 
 seventh century, the lute is said to have been brought to Mecca by 
 an Arab musician named Nadr Ben Kelde, who had studied music 
 at the Persian court.' Such cases, however, were only isolated. 
 But when the caliphs finally established themselves in the court of 
 Chosroes, they succeeded not only to the temporal power of the 
 Persian princes, but also to the arts and sciences of the great people 
 whom they had conquered. " With surprising quickness," says 
 Ambros, " the sons of the desert caught up the homogeneous Oriental 
 culture of the conquered land, — yes, in the course of the four 
 centuries of their rule, surpassed their teachers." ^ And this was 
 pre-eminently true of their music. "The theory of music which 
 they received from the Persians, they developed richly ; and so 
 thoroughly, that they themselves on their side could become 
 teachers of the Persians. From that time on, Persian and Arabian 
 music went on, like two streams flowing side by side and united ; 
 and the history of art cannot, therefore, well consider them 
 separately." ^ 
 
 Here, however, we are confronted with an interesting problem. 
 What was the exact state of music in Persia at the time of the 
 Arab conquest ? How much of the present Arabic system did 
 the conquerors bring with them, and how much did they receive 
 from their Persian masters ? What were the differences in theory 
 and in practice between the two systems, or were they practically 
 identical ? These questions are easier to ask than to answer. 
 Fetis holds that the two systems were essentially different, not 
 only in minor points, but in the structure and division of the octave ; 
 and that the development of the Arabic theory, while stimulated, 
 
 ' Engel, p, 60, Rowbotham, however, attributes its introduction to Ebn Musiddschidsch. See iii. p. 525 seq^ 
 where a number of interesting stories are given of the early Arab minstrels. 
 ^ i. p. 43°. 
 
172 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 was little modified by the Persian system.' He maintains, that, 
 for centuries after the conquest, the two musics still existed, side 
 by side, but yet essentially distinct.^ The greater number of 
 musical historians, however, including the latest and most reliable, 
 hold essentially the position of Ambros,^ that, whatever may have 
 been true of the early music of Persia, after the seventh century 
 it became practically identical with that of the Arabs. This position 
 I have followed in the present chapter, leaving to be discussed at 
 a later time the few facts which have come down to us from the 
 early history of Persian music. 
 
 In the eighth and ninth centuries, Bagdad was the great musical 
 centre of the day. Persian singers flocked in crowds to the court 
 of the caliphs. Poets and musicians alike received munificent 
 rewards. "On all sides," says Fetis, "were heard the voices of male 
 and female singers, accompanied by the tamboura and by the lute. 
 They were the delight of the palaces of Bagdad, Damascus, and 
 Aleppo in Asia ; of Cordova, of Toledo, and of Granada in Spain." "■ 
 The celebrated names which have come down to us from this period 
 must be numbered by hundreds.^ Many interesting stories have 
 been preserved of the skill of these early musicians. Haroun al 
 Raschid, we are told, was moved by the performance of the singer 
 Ishak el Mosilee to forgive a favorite concubine, who had in some 
 way offended him.*^ The father of this same Ishak, Ibraheem by 
 name, received from the caliph a monthly pension of ten thousand 
 dirhems, in addition to a present of a hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand dirhems on the occasion of his entering the latter's service.' 
 This Ibraheem had a pupil, Mukharik, of whom even more won- 
 derful tales are related. On one occasion, having been captivated by 
 the beauty of a female slave, he is said to have made his way into 
 
 " ii- PP- 33- 39- Mi. p. 369. M. p. 430. " ii. p. ii. 
 
 ^ See Fetis, ii. p. 13 seq., for an account of some of the most distinguished. '' Ambros, 1. p. 429. 
 
 ' Lane : Ai'aljian Niglits, i. [j. 202. 
 
Miisic of the Arabs. ijt^ 
 
 the house of her owner, and there to have so charmed the master 
 and his guests by his singing, that they all sprang to their feet and 
 kissed his head. He then sang a second air, and a third ; and " their 
 reason almost fled, from ecstasy." The master of the house, learning 
 who he was, gave him as a reward the girl of whom he \x2.s 
 enamoured ; the other guests adding a bountiful sum of money. 
 When the caliph, who had been angry at the long absence of his 
 favorite singer, heard the story, he laughed, and added to the 
 amount already received by the singer the sum of one hundred 
 thousand dirhems.' Equally remarkable stories are told of the skill 
 of the celebrated Alfarabi. The reputation of the latter was so 
 great, that he was summoned from his home in Spain to perform 
 before the caliph at Bagdad. Fearing lest he should be retained 
 at court, and so never see his native land again, he made the 
 journey secretly and in disguise. He succeeded in gaining 
 admittance to the presence of the caliph without being recognized, 
 and received permission to try his skill upon the lute. The story 
 of what followed is thus given by Engel : - " Scarcely had he 
 commenced his performance in a certain musical mode, when 
 he set all his audience laughing aloud, notwithstanding the efforts 
 of the courtiers to suppress so unbecoming an exhibition of mirth 
 in the presence of the caliph. In truth, even the caliph himself 
 was compelled to burst out into a fit of laughter. Presently the 
 performer changed to another mode ; and the effect was, that 
 immediately all his hearers began to sigh, and soon tears of 
 sadness replaced the previous tears of mirth. Again he played in 
 another mode, which excited his audience to such a rage that they 
 would have fought each other, if he, seeing the danger, had not 
 directly gone over to an appeasing mode. After this wonderful 
 exhibition of his skill, Alfarabi concluded in a mode which had 
 the effect of making his listeners fall into a profound sleep, during 
 
 ' See Lane ■. Arabian Nights, i. p. 203, where the anecdote is given at length. " p. 64. 
 
I 74 Musical Instntvicnts and their Homes. 
 
 which he took his departure." These and a host of like stories bear 
 witness to the wonderful effects attributed by the Arabs to these 
 early musicians.' 
 
 Ikit not only did musical practice reach a wonderful perfection 
 at the Court of the Caliphs : no less marked was the attention given 
 to the theory of music. Not only do we find a number of theoretical 
 works by professed musicians, such as the " Book of Sounds " of 
 Chalil, and the "Theory of Composition" of El Kindi, but men in 
 other departments of life began to interest themselves in musical 
 studies. Especially interesting are the treatises of a number of 
 medical men, such as Achmed ben Mohammed who lived in the 
 middle of the ninth century, and Ibnol Heisem who lived in 
 the eleventh. The latter wrote a treatise on " The Influence 
 of Musical Melodies on the Souls of Animals." The most 
 remarkable man of this class was the celebrated physician 
 Avicenna. He first recognized the power of music as a remedy 
 for cases of mental derangement.^ The thought of the moral 
 influence of music also was familiar to the Arabs. We read that 
 Hadji Chalfa taught that "the soul which has been ravished by 
 melody longs to behold higher beings, to share in a purer world ; 
 so that even spirits which are darkened by the grossness of the 
 body are by it prepared for, and rendered susceptible of, intercourse 
 with the figures of light which stand before the throne of the 
 Almighty." ^ 
 
 An attempt was made by Alfarabi, in the tenth century, to 
 establish a connection between the musical theory of the Arabs 
 and that of the Greeks, and to refashion the music of the former 
 after the model of the latter. Happily, or unhappily, this attempt 
 proved unsuccessful ; and for some time longer Arabic music 
 
 ' See Rowl50tham, iii. p. 517 seq. ; also 520 seq., for a description of a musical festival at the court of Haroun 
 al Raschid. 
 
 =^ Naumann, i. p. 92. 3 Quoted by Ambros, i. p. 468. 
 
Music of the Arabs. \ 7 5 
 
 continued to follow natural lines in its development. In the 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, however, it had to sustain a new 
 attack. At this time " certain doctrinaires of New Persia, in 
 conjunction with their Arabian colleagues, succeeded in destroying 
 what little there remained of practical utility in the Mussulman 
 theory. They abandoned the hard-won octave, substituting for it 
 a number of useless keys, and reverted anew to the tetrachord and 
 pentachord. At the same time, free invention was interdicted, and 
 the disciples of the tonal art were ordered to keep strictly \vithin 
 the limits of the theory. Thus all inspiration was checked, and 
 its products discarded unless they bore the brand of scholasticism ; 
 and only those phrases were deemed worthy of acceptance which 
 were formed by the interweaving of a number of short and rigidly 
 prescribed tone-formulae." ' These theorists especially emphasized 
 musical expression, and assigned to each sentiment its peculiar key, 
 in which alone corresponding melodies could be composed.- At 
 a somewhat later period, if we are to believe Ambros," still further 
 confusion was caused by the attempt to introduce into Arabic music 
 our own scale of seven whole, and five half, tones. The difficulties 
 caused by this were not only practical, but theoretical ; for the Arabs, 
 like the ancient Hindus, began to represent the relations of the 
 scale in pictorial forms, personifying the various notes under the 
 figure of the elements, the planets, day and night, etc., — a procedure 
 which tended only to obscure and confuse, even if it did not destroy, 
 their former theory. 
 
 " Under such circumstances," says Naumann, " one can only 
 regard it as a piece of good fortune that the people began to treat 
 the theory of their teachers with disdain. In defiance of arbitrary 
 rules, they improvised songs, responsive to their inner promptings, 
 accompanying themselves according to their own inclination. 
 Naturally the divergence of the people from any recognized system 
 
 ■ Nauniann, i. p. 92. ' Ambros, i. p. 443. 
 
1/6 M^isLcal Instruvients and their Homes. 
 
 was as powerless to create a perfect art as the dogmatic professors 
 who affected contempt for the unrestrained outpourings of national 
 sentiment. To this schism between abstract theory and intuitive 
 practice, we owe a number of songs, dances, and marches, possessing 
 a peculiar and even romantic charm characteristic of the Arabs, 
 Bedouins, Saracens, and Moors, and exhibiting their great aptitude 
 for music." ' 
 
 I do not propose to weary my readers with a long account of 
 the theory of Arabic music," but shall confine my attention to a few 
 of the most important points. "With the Arabs," says Ambros, 
 " music developed in a characteristic way ; and their theory of music 
 is not behind that of the Greeks in subtle penetration. It is even 
 more difficult, because in them correct views of musical principles 
 run off into all kinds of fantastic. Oriental, transcendental tracery ; 
 just as, in the Koran, lofty ideas of religion and morality are 
 overgrown, almost to the point of being unrecognizable, with 
 all sorts of fantastic stories in the spirit of the Thousand and 
 One Nights." ^ 
 
 Many attempts have been made, both in ancient and modern 
 times, to trace a connection between the theory of Arabic music 
 and that of the Greeks. Certain it is that there is a marked 
 similarity between the old Arabic scale (D, E, F", G, A, B, C, D) 
 and the Phrygian scale of the Greeks. Possibly this similarity 
 may be explained on the theory that the music of the Arabs was 
 founded on the remnants of some old Asiatic system.^ But the 
 whole question is an obscure one. The Arabs divided the scale in 
 two ways: First, at G, into two parts, — the first of four notes 
 (tctrachord), and the second of five notes (pentachord) ; and second, 
 also at G (omitting the final D), into two united tetrachords. In 
 
 ■ i.p. 93, 
 
 ^ For full information on this subject, the reader is referred to the learned discussions of Fetis, Ambros, and 
 Rowbotham. 
 
 ' i- P- 425- " Ibid., p. 431. 
 
Mttsic of the Arabs. i 7 7 
 
 this case, the last note, C, became " the root of new tetrachords, and 
 each tone and half-tone the basis of new scales." ' 
 
 The Arabs divided each whole tone into three equal divisions. 
 Seventeen of these made up the octave, a third tone taking the 
 place of the half-tone in our scale. Their musical system embraced 
 forty of these small intervals, the total compass being a little over 
 two octaves. In theory they recognize still smaller intervals." Many 
 attempts have been made to account for the peculiar subdivisions 
 of the Arabic scale.^ According to Naumann, it " may, perhaps, be 
 attributable to their nasal method of singing, and the habit of 
 gliding from note to note." "* The intervals of the Arabic scale are 
 disagreeable to the European ear, and many travellers have 
 complained of the discordant character of their music ; yet familiarity 
 seems, in this case, to breed the reverse of contempt. The noted 
 Arabic scholar. Lane, who spent many years in Egypt, speaks with 
 unqualified praise of the performances of the female singers of that 
 country.' Still more striking is the experience of Salvador Daniel, 
 quoted at length by Fetis. " At first," says this excellent musician, 
 " like every one else, I could perceive nothing but an awful 
 charivari, destitute of melody or of measure. Nevertheless, by 
 force of habit, — or, if you like it better, by a sort of education of the 
 ear, — there came a day when I could distinguish something like an 
 air. I tried to note it down, but could not succeed : the tonality and 
 the measure always escaped me. . . . 
 
 " Yet, where I heard only noise, the Arabs found an agreeable 
 melody, in which their voices often joined ; where I could not find 
 any regular time, the dance forced me to admit that there was one. 
 
 ' Naumann, p. 89. - Ambros, i. p. 433. 
 
 ^ Clement, the recent French historian of music, who is inclined to receive with allowance the learned 
 theories of his predecessors, while admitting that in practice the Arab musicians employ minute intervals of sound, 
 is inclined to be sceptical as to the exact and scientific nature of these divisions. — Histoire de la Musiquc, p. 6i. 
 
 ■• i. p. 89. 
 
 5 Modern Egyptians, ii. p. 60. "I have heard the most celebrated Awalim in Cairo," he says, "and have 
 been more charmed with their songs than . . . with any other music that I have ever enjoyed." 
 
lyS NUisical Instrunicitts and their Homes. 
 
 In this difference of sensation there was an interesting problem. 
 I attempted to get to the bottom of it. With that end, I associated 
 with native musicians ; I studied with them, in order to account to 
 myself for a sensation which others experienced, and yet which did 
 not touch me in the least. 
 
 " I am now passionately fond of the music of the Arabs. It is 
 no longer the pleasure of a conquered difficulty that I seek. I desire 
 my share of the delights which Arabic music furnishes to those who 
 understand it. In fact, in order to judge the music of the Arabs, 
 it is necessary to understand it ; just as to appreciate at their true 
 value the beauties of a language, one must be a master of it. Now, 
 the music of the Arabs is a music by itself, resting upon altogether 
 different laws from those which govern our musical system. We 
 must accustom ourselves to their scales, or rather to their keys, and 
 that laying aside all our own ideas of tonality." ' Other similar 
 instances could be added.'' 
 
 I do not propose to enter upon the intricate combinations of 
 the Arabic theory. " By a simple and combined augmentation 
 of the notes of the tetrachord (called ' Thabaka '), the Arabians 
 obtained the great number of eighty-four scales,^' twelve of which 
 were selected as the principal keys. We find, therefore, with them, 
 just as with so many other nations of antiquity, practical and 
 impractical scales. When an Arabic theorist satisfied himself of 
 the uselessness of one of his arbitrarily concocted scales, he silenced 
 his doubts in that truly stolid Oriental manner, with ' God knows 
 it."' + 
 
 According to Fetis,' the Arabic theorists have failed properly 
 
 to discriminate in their treatises between movement that is to 
 
 say, the greater or less rapidity of execution — and measure. Their 
 different hesedschi do not vary in regular, but in irregular, proportion. 
 
 ■ The passage is quoted in full by Fetis, ii. pp. 26, 27. = See Fetis, ii. p. 27, foot-note. 
 
 ' The ^vhole eighty-four are printed in full by Fetis, pp. 43-48. 4 Naumann, i. p. 89. = ii. p. 65. 
 
MtLsic of the Arabs. 179 
 
 They correspond rather to our terms largo, andante, allegretto, etc., 
 than to what we understand by musical measure. Thus, in a given 
 time, the fast hesedschi has seventeen beats ; the next slower has ten ; 
 the next, eight ; and the slowest of all, six. In practice, however, 
 most of the Arabic melodies with which we are acquainted are 
 composed either in four-four, two-four, three-four, or six-eight time.' 
 The Arabs delight especially in mixed measure, which they employ 
 in dancing-music, alternating one kind of measure with another ; 
 " as two-four with three-four, or four-four with iive-four, giving 
 one bar to each in turn." ' 
 
 It is only in comparatively recent times that the Arabs hit upon 
 the device of representing the notes of the scale by the letters of the 
 alphabet. 3 Practically, however, no use is made of this discovery. 
 Tunes are handed down by ear from one musician to another, and 
 tradition is the sole guide as to the method of execution. All 
 music is played in unison, harmony being regarded " not only as 
 a superfluous, but even as a disturbing, element." '' 
 
 Such is a brief account of the chief characteristics of Arabic 
 music, as it was in the days of Haroun al Raschid, and as it still 
 continues among all the peoples over whom this wonderful race has 
 extended its sway. I shall conclude this chapter with a few remarks 
 on the present state of music in Arabic countries. ^ 
 
 Singing is extremely popular with all classes. " Mothers soothe 
 their infants with plaintive lullabies ; children accompany their 
 games with melodious rhymes ; . . . the muezzin chants the call 
 to prayers five times a day from the top of the minaret ; and the 
 church-beadle in similar tones exhorts to matins as he passes along 
 
 " Fetis, ii. p. 64. ^ Van Lennep : Bible Lands, p. 606. ^ Ambros, i. p. 446. 
 
 '' Ambros, i. p. 447. Naumann (i. p. 90) dissents from this opinion, but is not sustained by his English editor, 
 Sir Gore Ouseley. 
 
 ' Under this head I mean to include Arabia proper, Syria, Palestine, and the surrounding regions, and the 
 north coast of Africa, including Egypt and the Barbary States. The music of the Turks will, for convenience, be 
 considered with that of Persia. 
 
i8o Musical Instritnients and their Homes. 
 
 the streets at early dawn, the pavement resounding to the strokes 
 of his heavy stick. The venders of all manner of eatables and 
 drinkables, and indeed of every species of manufacture, extol their 
 wares in musical cadences. . . . Among all sects, the rite of baptism 
 or of circumcision, of marriage or burial, is accompanied by music 
 and singing." ' Travellers often while away their journey with 
 a song. " In short," concludes Van Lennep,' " no opportunity is 
 lost by these people to gratify their natural fondness for music." 
 Many of the Arab songs are soft and plaintive in character. Others, 
 however, arc cheerful and sprightly, such as those of the " Egyptians 
 of the Nile valley, who go out in the quiet of the evening to meet 
 the returning fishermen with jubilant songs and merry dances." ^ 
 Most Arab melodies are simple, but (save those of wandering 
 Bedouins, which still preserve their early character unchanged) so 
 overlaid with trills and ornaments as to be almost unrecognizable. 
 These ornaments and variations are improvised by each singer for 
 himself, and constitute the chief charm of the performance to the 
 audience. 
 
 "The Oriental voice is naturally extremely fine, and is often raised 
 to the falsetto." -' Good singers are highly esteemed, and receive 
 remuneration, which, if less extravagant than that given to the 
 favorites of the old caliphs, is still very handsome. In Egypt there 
 is a class of female singers, called Awalim (singular, Almeh), whose 
 performances are extremely popular. A good Almeh will often 
 receive two hundred and fifty dollars for singing at the evening 
 entertainment of some wealthy man. So enthusiastic are the 
 auditors on such occasions, that they frequently lavish upon 
 the singer more than they can really afford.^ When a party of 
 men are present, the singer sits at a window in the harem, concealed 
 from sight by a screen of lattice-work. Some of the Awalim also 
 
 ' Van Lennep, p. 619; c£. also Lane, ii. p. 57, ' Naumann, p. 96. 
 
 ' Van Lennep, p. 606. 4 L^nc : Modern Egyptians, ii. p. 60. 
 
Music of the Arabs. i8i 
 
 perform instrumental music, and those of an inferior class some- 
 times dance in the harem. They are not, however, to be confounded 
 with the common dancing-girls, — a mistake which has often been 
 made by travellers.' The male professional musicians of Egypt 
 are called Alateeyeh. They are both vocal and instrumental 
 performers. They are generally a dissolute set of fellows, and, 
 when hired to amuse the company at a grand entertainment, are 
 " usually supplied with brandy and other spirituous liquors, which 
 they sometimes drink until they can no longer sing nor strike a 
 chord." ^ 
 
 We find also in Mohammedan countries a number of wandering 
 bards, or improvisers, who compose extempore verses for the 
 amusement of the crowd gathered in the street or at some cafe. 
 They usually accompany themselves upon a rude sort of violoncello 
 with one string, called Rebab esh-shaer, or "poet's viol."^ Their 
 performances are extremely popular. 
 
 The professional dancing-girls, or Ghawazee, of Egypt, accompany 
 their performances with little castanets of brass, in the use of which 
 they are very skilful. They are usually accompanied also by 
 musicians (mostly of the same tribe), whose instruments are " the 
 Kemangeh, or the Rebab wdth the Tar, or the Darabukkeh with 
 the Zummarah, or the Zemr. The Tar is usually in the hands of 
 an old woman." "* 
 
 Though respectable Moslems rarely perform instrumental music, 
 they are very fond of listening to it. Orchestral performances are 
 common, both in public and private. The instruments most 
 frequently used for such purposes are the Nay (or flute), the 
 Kemangeh (or violin), the Tamboura, the Oud, the Kanoon, and 
 the Santir. Sometimes also the Darabukkeh is added. For 
 
 ■ Lane : Modern Egyptians, ii. p. 60. " Ibid, ii. p. 59. 
 
 3 Engel, p. 211. For a fuller description of tliese improvisers, see Fetis, ii. p. 104, and Van Lennep, p. 621. 
 
 ■* Lane, ii. p. 87. 
 
i82 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 the music which is performed in the public cafes, the Nay, the 
 Kemangch, the Tamboura, and the Tar generally suflice. It is 
 worth remarking, that, in the instrumental music of the Arabs, the 
 place of honor is given to the strings. This bears witness to an 
 advanced stage of musical development ; such, indeed, as is only to 
 be expected among a people with whom poetry and song are as 
 highly esteemed as they are among the followers of Mohammed. 
 
XI. 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE 
 
 ARABS. 
 
 lESEWETTER, in his learned treatise on the music of 
 the Arabs, gives the names of over two hundred musical 
 instruments which have been in use among them, either in 
 ancient or modern times. Even this number does not exhaust the 
 list, for the Spanish historians mention many which are not 
 included in the above number." No other people of the Orient 
 have shown such a predilection for instrumental music, or have 
 carried it to so high a point of development.^ We hear of their 
 having thirty-two kinds of lute, twelve kinds of dulcimer, fourteen 
 instruments of the violin family, twenty-eight double pipes, twenty- 
 two oboes, eighteen trumpets, five bagpipes, etc. ; not to mention at 
 least thirty instruments which are known to us only by name. Out 
 of so extensive a list, it will be possible to select for consideration 
 here only the most important. We shall take up first the stringed 
 instruments of the Arabs ; second, their wind instruments ; and 
 third, their instruments of percussion. 
 
 I. " The crown of the Arabian instruments," says Ambros,^ " is 
 the lute." This is called Oud (Fig. i, Syria), or, with the article, 
 el Olid, meaning literally " wood." The Arabs attribute its invention 
 to Pythagoras, though this idea seems to be entirely without 
 foundation.^ Less open to doubt, however, is the statement, found 
 in many of their writers, that they first derived their acquaintance 
 
 ' Engel, p. 63. ^ Ambros, i. p. 466. ^ i. p. 458. '' Fetis, ii. p. 107. 
 
 183 
 
184 Musical Instntments and their Homes. 
 
 with the lute from the Persians. The learned theory of Kiesewetter, 
 
 that the latter took their idea of the instrument from drawings 
 
 on Egyptian monuments, while attractive, cannot be regarded as 
 
 proved.' For centuries the lute has been popular with Arabian 
 
 musicians. It was the favorite instrument in the time of the 
 
 Abbassides. At the time of the conquest, it was introduced into 
 
 Spain by the invading Saracens, and thence passed into the rest 
 
 of Europe. Even the name " lute " is an exact reproduction of the 
 
 Arabic " el Oud." The praises of the lute have been sung by many 
 
 Arabic poets. It was by the strains of this instrument that 
 
 Mukharik so charmed his auditors, that he received as a reward 
 
 the slave girl whom he loved.^ Upon the lute, we are told, Aboo- 
 
 Murrah (the Devil) played so exquisitely, on one occasion, in the 
 
 hearing of the celebrated musician Ibraheem, that it seemed to him 
 
 that " the lute spoke in his hands with an eloquent Arab tongue." ^ 
 
 Originally the lute had but four strings. Alfarabi has preserved 
 to us a careful description of this instrument as it existed in the 
 tenth century. According to his account, there were two methods 
 of tuning the lute, and of regulating the divisions on the finger- 
 board. The oldest method gave the diatonic scale, whereas the 
 other produced twenty-eight smaller intervals, " called, by Farabi, 
 melodic intervals." These intervals followed the Persian division 
 into quarter-tones.'* Another variety of lute, with five strings, was 
 also found in Farabi's time. Later, however, the number of strings 
 was increased. To-day, the ordinary lute has fourteen strings, tuned 
 
 ' Ambros, i. p. 459. " See p. 172. 
 
 ' Lane: Arabian Nights, i. p. 201. "The Arabs," says Naumann (i. p. in), "attribute to the lute, their chief 
 instrument, miraculous powers of healing. Their philosophers clann to see in it a reflection of nature, and liken the 
 highest of its four strings to fire, the two middle ones to air and water, and the lowest to the earth. The}' further 
 add, that a musician should not play without pursuing some systematic method of procedure: for instance, 
 starting from the lowest string, the melody should speak comfort to the hearer ; this should be succeeded by a song 
 of love, gradually giving place to a seductive dance-rhythm, and concluding with sounds inviting to peaceful 
 slumber." 
 
 " Fetis, ii. p. 108. 
 
Musical Instnmients of the Arabs. 185 
 
 in pairs. This is the case with the Egyptian lute, in which the 
 strings are made of lamb's gut.' The Syrian lute has but twelve 
 strings, — four of wire, and eight of gut (see Fig. i, Syria). The 
 form of the modern Arab lute differs little from that of our own. 
 It is usually from twenty-five to thirty inches long, and some 
 fourteen inches in diameter. A representative specimen, described 
 by Lane in his " Modern Egyptians," - was made of fine deal, with 
 edges and neck of ebony. To prevent the wood from being worn 
 away by the plectrum, a piece of fish-skin was glued across the 
 face beneath the strings. The Oud is held across the performer's 
 lap, like our guitar, and is played with a small plectrum, sometimes 
 of steel, and sometimes of the quill of an eagle.^ The tuning of 
 the Egyptian instrument is thus given by Lane : * Taking the lowest 
 pair of strings as the tonic, the second pair is tuned to the fifth, the 
 third to the seventh, and the others to the second, fourth, sixth, 
 and third. 
 
 Next we shall consider the instruments of the mandolin and 
 guitar family. Far the most important under this head are the 
 Tambouras. We have already met the Tamboura in India; and I 
 there called attention to the suggestion of Fetis, that all the Persian 
 and Arabian instruments of this class were originally derived from 
 that country. Whether this be true or not, the name Tambotwa 
 is certainly Arabic, and the instrument has been for centuries one 
 of the most common in all Mohammedan countries. Its use has 
 passed from the Turks into Europe, and many popular Greek and 
 Roumanian instruments belong to this class. Very many different 
 kinds are found, varying greatly both in size, shape, and number of 
 strings. Numerous specimens are included in the present collection. 
 I refer especially to Figs. 2 under Syria, i and 3 under Persia, 
 3 to 7 under Turkey, and i and 2 under Greece. I will not attempt 
 
 ■ Lane : Modern Egyptians, ii. p. 68. - li. p. 67. 
 
 3 Naumann, i. p. loS. '' Modern Egyptians, ii. p. 68. 
 
i86 MtLsical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 to distino-uish all the different varieties, but will only mention two" 
 or three of the most important. 
 
 Even in Alfarabi's time two different kinds of Tamboura Avere 
 in common use. That most used in Arabia was the Tamboura of 
 Bagdad, which had but two strings. The Tamboura of Khorassan, 
 or Persian Tamboura, was, however, a more elaborate instrument. 
 Its form and dimensions varied according to the locality. Its 
 strings were tuned in pairs, and the frets on the finger-board were 
 numerous. In some instruments, also, they were movable, as is 
 the case with most of those in use to-day.' 
 
 Almost all the Tambouras of the present day are alike in having 
 an oval body, and a long, thin handle. The largest and most 
 important is the Tanbour Kebyr Toiirky, or great Turkish Tam- 
 boura (Fig. 7, Turkey). The use of this instrument is common in 
 Egypt and in Turkey, where the Turks have adopted it from the 
 Persians. The body is rounded in shape, the face forming an 
 almost complete circle. The handle is very thin and long, that in 
 the present collection being three feet and a quarter long. The 
 diameter of the head is thirteen inches. It is strung with eight wire 
 strings, and is furnished with a large number of movable frets of gut 
 (generally thirty-five),- by the use of which the small intervals of the 
 Arab scale may be produced. Its tuning is given in connection with 
 the illustration. 
 
 In the most common form of the Tamboura, the body is 
 pear-shaped. This is the case with the Tanbour Charqy 
 (Oriental Tamboura), Tanbour Boiilgliary (Bulgarian Tamboura), 
 Tanbour Bouao?irk (great Tamboura), and Tanbour BagJilama 
 (small Tamboura).3 The Tanbour Charqy and the Tanbour 
 Boulghary have four strings each, the Tanbour Bouzourk has 
 either six or ten, and the Tanbour Baghlama either four or six.-* 
 
 ' See the elaborate account given by Fetis, ii. p. 112 seq. 
 
 - The present specimen has, however, only twenty-three frets. ^ Engel, p. 209. 
 
 * For a full description of each of these varieties, the reader is referred to Fetis, ii. pp. 1 19-127. 
 
Musical Insti^uments of the Arabs. 187 
 
 The Bizug of Syria (Fig-. 2) is a Tamboura with seventeen frets 
 and six strings. 
 
 The Arabs of Algiers have a sort of guitar, called Kuifra, which 
 is often very elaborate and graceful. The specimen in the present 
 collection (Fig. i) is beautifully inlaid with mother-of-pearl. It has 
 four pairs of catgut strings, and is played with a small plectrum of 
 tortoise-shell. A smaller variety is also found, which has only three 
 pairs of strings.' The body is sometimes made of the shell of a 
 tortoise. 
 
 The Arabs of the North of Africa, as well as those of Arabia 
 proper, have also a small stringed instrument, called Gunibry 
 (Kuniberi), which somewhat resembles a banjo. Two specimens of 
 this are included in the present collection (Fig. 3, Algiers ; Fig. 3, 
 Arabia). In the Algerian specimen, the body is made of the shell 
 of a tortoise. The handle is of rough wood, without frets. Two 
 strings of gut pass over a low bridge, and are tuned at the top by 
 two rude pegs of wood. In the Arabian Gunibry, the body is made 
 of half a gourd covered with sheepskin. It is decorated with a 
 number of little strips of leather, to which are attached small shells. 
 The strings are two in number, also of catgut, and the handle 
 resembles that of the Algerian instrument. The Gunibry is played 
 with a small plectrum, usually consisting of half a split quill. 
 
 A curious instrument of the guitar family is shown in Fig. i, 
 under Arabia. The body of this consists of a rectangular frame 
 of wood, covered with red plush, and decorated with a border of 
 shells. Its head is covered with skin, in the surface of which 
 a square hole has been cut just below the bridge. The strings are 
 of gut, two in number, and are fastened at the lower end to a 
 piece of wood, which projects a little beyond the edge of the opening 
 referred to. The handle is round, without frets, as in the case of 
 the Gunibry ; and the strings are fastened directly to the handle 
 
 ' Engel, p. 307. 
 
1 88 Musical Instmments and their Homes. 
 
 by a leather band, without the use of tuning- pegs of any kind. A 
 rough bridge of wood raises the strings a little above the surface 
 of the sounding-board. 
 
 Another interesting instrument is the Kissar of Egypt (Fig. 2) 
 and Nubia. This is not strictly an Arabian instrument, but I speak 
 of it here for convenience. The modern Egyptians call it " Qytdrah 
 bavbaryeJi, which indicates that it is considered the national 
 instrument of the Barabras, or Berbers, who are believed to be 
 descendants of the original inhabitants of Egypt." ' The body 
 is circular in shape, and made of leather stretched over a frame of 
 wood. From this project, at an angle, two pieces of wood, which 
 are united by a third at the top, thus making the appearance of 
 the instrument not unlike that of the modern lyre. The strings are 
 of gut, five in number, and are fastened at intervals to the cross- 
 bar at the top. Curiously enough, they are tuned to the pentatonic 
 scale, — a fact which attests the great antiquity of the instrument. 
 In the specimen in the present collection, three of the strings 
 are wanting. " Such," says Fetis, " is the ancient lyre ; such is the 
 instrument with which were produced the marvellous effects of 
 the music of the Greeks." ^ 
 
 One of the most important of the Arabic stringed instruments is 
 the Kanoon (Kanun, Oanon), or dulcimer (Fig. i, Turkey). This 
 is interesting, not only because of its beauty of form and power of 
 musical execution, and of the important part which it plays in the 
 music of the Arabs, but also because it is the model from which 
 were derived all the European instruments of the same family.^ 
 
 The name Kanoon " is from the Greek k'ai^wy, or from the same 
 origin, and has the same signification ; that is, ' rule,' ' law,' 
 ' custom.' " ■* The ordinary form of the instrument is as follows : 
 The body is in the shape of a trapezoid, in which the diagonal 
 
 ' Engel : Music of the Most Ancient Nations, p. 157. =^ ii. p. 133. 
 
 3 Ambros, i. p. 460. " Lane, ii. p. 64. 
 
MiLsical Iiistrtt7nents of the Arabs. 189 
 
 forms a very acute angle with the longest side. The greatest length 
 varies from about three feet to three feet and a half, and the breadth 
 from fourteen to sixteen inches. The depth is a little over two 
 inches. It may be made of various kinds of wood. Walnut is 
 commonly used in Egypt; but in a fine specimen, deal, beech, and 
 poplar wood are also employed." The face of the specimen in the 
 present collection, which is Turkish, is very beautifully carved. 
 A piece of fish-skin, nine inches wide, is ordinarily glued over the 
 lower part of the face, upon which the bridge rests.' Two (some- 
 times three) openings in the sounding-board increase the resonance. 
 The strings are usually of lamb's-gut, and are tuned by pegs either 
 of wood or metal. They may be either seventy-two or seventy-five 
 in number.-' In either case, they are tuned in sets of three each,^ 
 giving, therefore, only twenty-four or twenty-five distinct notes, as 
 the case may be. It is played with two plectra, one of which 
 is attached to the forefinger of each hand. Each plectrum consists 
 of a small piece of buffalo-horn, which is held in place by a ring or 
 thimble of brass or silver, which passes over the finger.* The 
 instrument is held across the knees of the performer. It is used 
 both for solo and concerted music, and is extremely popular in the 
 harems of Turkey to-day. Lane speaks in the highest terms of 
 the effects produced by this instrument. 
 
 A less elaborate form of dulcimer is the Santir. This differs 
 little from the instruments of the same family which are found all 
 over Asia, even in China and Corea. The strings of the Santir 
 are of wire, and are tuned by means of metal keys, as in the modern 
 zither. In the specimen described by Eetis, the strings are thirty- 
 six in number, and are tuned in sets of two each, so as to produce 
 eighteen distinct notes.' In that in the present collection, however, 
 
 ' Lane, ii. p. 64. 
 
 ^ A smaller variety is found in Algiers, which has sixty-three strings. Fetis, ii. p. 130. 
 ^ For tuning, see Engel : Musical Instruments in the South Kensington Museum, p. 208. 
 ■* Lane, ii. p. 66. ' ii. p. 132. 
 
1 90 Musical Instnnimits and their Homes. 
 
 w 
 
 'hich is Turkish, the number of strings is doubled. In this 
 instrument, four strings instead of two are tuned in unison. The 
 strings pass over a series of movable bridges, not unlike chessmen, 
 which are arranged in two rows, so as to divide the instrument into 
 three parts, as in some European dulcimers (see Fig. 4, Europe). 
 They are struck with little wooden hammers. The Santir is not 
 found in Egypt ; but it is played at Bagdad and at Damascus/ and 
 is especially popular in Turkey. 
 
 It remains to consider the stringed instruments of the violin 
 family. These may all be classified under two heads : First, the 
 Kemangehs ; and second, the Rebdbs. 
 
 The name KemangeJi is of Persian origin, and signifies a " bow- 
 instrument." Both name and instrument were derived by the Arabs 
 from Persia (see Persia, Fig. 4). The most common form of 
 Kemangeh is the Kemangeh agouz (Fig. 2, Arabia). Its total length 
 is a little over three feet. The body is usually made of three-fourths 
 of a cocoanut-shell, and is pierced with many small holes. The 
 face is covered with fish-skin, upon which rests the bridge. Below 
 the body projects a long foot of iron, which rests upon the ground, 
 and supports the instrument, as in our violoncello. The ordinary 
 Kemangeh has two thick strings of horse-hair, each consisting of 
 about sixty hairs. At the lower end these are fastened to an iron 
 ring just below the body, and at the upper to two short pieces 
 of lamb's-gut, by which they are attached to the wooden tuning-pegs. 
 Just below the junction of the horse-hair and the gut strings, a 
 double band of leather passes round the neck of the instrument 
 outside the strings. The bow is nearly three feet long, and is 
 usually of ash. " The horse-hairs, passed through a hole at the head 
 of the bow-stick, and secured by a knot, and attached at the other 
 end to an iron ring, are tightened or slackened by a band of leather, 
 which passes through the ring just mentioned, and through another 
 
 ' Fetis, ii. p. 131. 
 
Musical Insti'uvients of the Arabs. 1 9 1 
 
 ring at the foot of the bow."" In playing, the bow is held in the 
 right hand, between the thumb and first finger; the second, third, 
 and fourth fingers passing between the strings and the wood. In 
 passing the bow from one string to another, the performer usually 
 turns the instrument an angle of about sixty degrees." As might 
 be expected from the above description, the tones of the Kemangeh 
 are " dull, hoarse, and confused." ^ It is, however, extremely popular 
 with the Arabs, especially in Egypt and Syria. It is an indispensable 
 part of every orchestra ; its player usually sitting opposite to the 
 player of the Kanoon, or on his right hand. 
 
 Other varieties of the Kemangeh are mentioned by Fetis.'* The 
 Kemangeh Farkh is a smaller form of that which has just been 
 described. The Kemangeh Ronniy resembles our own violin in 
 shape. It is strung sometimes with twelve, sometimes with 
 fourteen, strings. A second form of the Kemangeh Roumy has a 
 long, narrow body, in which the handle is made of the continuation 
 of the same piece of wood. It is usually about a foot and a half 
 long, and has four strings of gut. The Kemangeh of the Turks 
 will be described later. 
 
 The Rebab or Rabdb (Fig. i, Palestine; Fig. 3, Egypt) is one 
 of the most ancient of the Arab stringed instruments. Unlike the 
 Kemangeh, which was derived from Persia, it probably originated 
 with the Arabs themselves. ^ Two kinds of Rebab are found in 
 Mohammedan countries to-day. They differ only in the number 
 of strings, — the Rebab esh moganny^ox "singer's Rebab," having 
 two ; while the Rebab esh shaer, or " poet's Rebab," has but one. 
 In both the body is formed of a square frame of wood, covered on 
 both sides with skin. In some cases, however, as in the Egyptian 
 specimen in the present collection, the back is left open as in the 
 modern banjo. The Rebab, like the Kemangeh, has a long iron 
 
 ' Lane, p. 6[. ' Ibid., p. 63. ^ Fetis, ii. p. 137. 
 
 * ii. pp. 138-142. ' Fetis, ii. p. 144. 
 
192 Musical Instntvients and their Homes. 
 
 foot, by which it is supported. Its strings are of horse-hair, and 
 fastened as in the Kemangeh. The bow also resembles that of the 
 latter instrument. Its compass is narrow, extending only from 
 D to B.' It is never employed in orchestral music, but is used 
 to accompany singing and reciting. I have already mentioned 
 the fact that the Rebab esh sha'er is the favorite instrument of the 
 Egyptian improvisers. According to Naumann,'' the Rebab was 
 introduced by the Arabs into Southern Europe in the eighth and 
 ninth centuries, and may be regarded as the precursor of many 
 of our modern stringed instruments. In the twelfth century, we 
 meet with it " as the Rebek, or Rebec, of the Provengal troubadours, 
 who imported it from the East during the Crusades." ^ 
 
 The Rebab of Algiers (Fig. 2), though having the same name as 
 the preceding, is really a different instrument. Its body is made of 
 \vood, and is short and narrow. That of the present specimen 
 is shaped in imitation of a fish. The strings are of gut, — two in 
 number, — and are played with a short curved bow. 
 
 II. The wind instruments of the Arabs are many and various. 
 Only the most important can be mentioned here. 
 
 The Arab name for flute is Nay (Fig. 10, Syria; Fig. 4, 
 Palestine). Many varieties are found, differing both in size and 
 in construction. Some are adapted to render thirds of a tone, others 
 only half tones. Different Nays are tuned in different keys. So, 
 also, different classes have their special Nay. Thus we distinguish 
 the Dervish Nay, the Nay of the beggars, etc. As a result of 
 this extreme diversity, few musicians can play more than four or 
 five of the different varieties. The celebrated Mohammed Kachoueh 
 of Cairo is reported to have been able to play on eight difi"erent 
 kinds, but his case was exceptional.^ The two most common varieties 
 
 ' Ambrus, i. p. 461. = ; p jq-, 
 
 " i. p. 107. It should, however, \,<t said that the European rebec was probably derived not from the Arab, but 
 from the Persian form of the instrument, which is described later. 
 •* Fetis, ii. p. J 54. 
 
Musical Instruvients oj ike Arabs. 193 
 
 are the Nay-cha/i, or "large Nay," which has seven holes, — six in front 
 and one behind (Fig. 10, Syria); and the Nay-giref, or "little Nay," 
 which has eight holes, — six in front, one behind, and one on the side. 
 The Nay of Palestine (Fig. 4) has seven holes in front, one behind, 
 and one on each side near the top. When not in use, it is usually 
 carried in a case of hollowed wood. The Nay is neither a traverse 
 nor a vertical flute ; but the extremity is placed against the lips at 
 an oblique angle, the performer " blowing through a very small 
 aperture of the lips against the edge of the orifice of the tube, and 
 directing the wind chiefiy within the tube. By blowing with more 
 or less force, sounds are produced an octave higher or lower. In 
 the hands of a good performer, the Nay yields fine, mellow tones ; 
 but it requires much practice to sound it well." ' 
 
 Various instruments of the vertical flute and flageolet families 
 are found. To the former class belong the MinjairaJi of Syria 
 (Fig. 9), and the Gasba of Algiers (Fig. 5). Both are simple reed 
 pipes, each having six finger-holes. To the latter class belongs the 
 Shaberba (Chabbabeh), a Persian instrument (Fig. 7), which is also 
 found among the Arabs. This has eight finger-holes, — seven in front, 
 and one behind. According to Villoteau,' the Shaberba can produce 
 with great ease intervals of a third (sometimes also of a quarter) of 
 a tone. 
 
 Instruments of the oboe family are very common among the 
 Arabs. The ordinary name in Arabia and Asia Minor is Zourna 
 (Sourna) (Fig. 10, Turkey). The Egyptian Zemr and the Algerian 
 Rdita (Fig. 4) are other names for the same instrument. The oboe 
 is a very old Arabic instrument, several varieties having been 
 described by Alfarabi, under the name of Sournay, as early as the 
 tenth century. The form commonly found at the present day 
 consists of a tube of wood pierced with eight large finger-holes 
 (seven in front, and one behind), and five (sometimes seven) small 
 
 ■ Lane, ii. p. 70. ^ Quoted by Fetis, ii. p. 153. 
 
194 Miisical I]isti-2nnents and tJieir Homes. 
 
 holes near the base. At the top of the tube, just below the mouth- 
 piece, is fastened a movable neck of wood, the lower end of which 
 projects down some distance into the interior of the instrument. 
 This is cut in a peculiar way, so that, when placed in one position, 
 it allows the air to pass freely through all the holes ; and when 
 turned to another, it closes the top hole, together with the eighth 
 hole in the rear. In this way the pitch may be altered. When the 
 top holes are closed, the small holes near the base come into use. 
 The Zourna is furnished with a reed mouthpiece, such as is found 
 in all instruments of the oboe family. Three different sizes are 
 found. Fig. 3, under Palestine, which is catalogued as a trumpet, 
 is probably an oboe of the largest size. 
 
 Another form of oboe, called Eraqyeh, is probably of Persian 
 origin." This has nine fimger-holes, — seven in front, and two 
 behind, — and is composed of a single piece of wood. Its compass 
 is a little over an octave, and it produces intervals of a quarter of 
 a tone. 
 
 Several double reed pipes are found among the Arabs. Such 
 are the Ziiminarah and Arghool of Egypt, and the Mijwiz and 
 Urgun (Irghun) of Syria (Figs. 7 and 8). The Zummarah consists 
 of two parallel pipes from ten to fourteen inches long, each of which 
 is pierced with six finger-holes, and furnished with a movable 
 mouthpiece of split wood. (See illustration of Mijwiz.) The player 
 takes both of these mouthpieces quite within his lips, and blows 
 while fingering the holes. The sound is harsh and disagreeable. 
 The Zummarah is frequently used by the Egyptian boatmen as 
 an accompaniment to their Darabukkehs, or earthen drums.^ The 
 Mijwiz of Syria is only another name for the same instrument. 
 A more striking instrument is the Arghool, or Irghun. This 
 resembles the bagpipe in having only one of its tubes pierced with 
 finger-holes, the other serving as a drone. The mouthpiece is the 
 
 ' Fetis, ii- p. 150 seq. ^ Lane : Modern Egyptians, ii. p. 74. 
 
Mttsical Instruments of the Arabs. 195 
 
 same as in the Zummarah. The characteristic feature of the Arfhool 
 
 o 
 
 is the fact that it has three movable pieces of different length, by the 
 addition of one or more of which the length of the longer tube may 
 be increased, and the pitch consecjuently altered. The different 
 sections are connected by cords, to prevent them from being lost or 
 displaced. The total length of the Arghool, when increased by all 
 three pieces, is a little over three feet. Its tone, as might be 
 expected, resembles that of the bagpipe. Like the Zummarah, it 
 is a favorite instrument with the Egyptian boatmen. 
 
 A rude bagpipe, called Ziiniinarah Bi-soau, is also occasionally 
 seen in Egypt. Its bag is made of a small goat's-skin.' 
 
 The Nefyr, or Arab trumpet, is of special interest, as it was 
 probably the ancestor of all the brass wind instruments of modern 
 Europe. " From the most ancient times," says Ambros,^ " the 
 peoples of the North were led forth to battle, not to the blast of 
 trumpets, but to the noise of wild-sounding horns, — of whose horrible 
 roaring the old writers cannot say enough, — and to the harping of 
 their bards, and the singing of the war-song." It was only through 
 the Saracens of Spain, and later through the returning Crusaders, 
 that the Europeans were made acquainted with the military music 
 of the Arabs. The latter brought back with them the knowledge of 
 the Nefyr, and the other military instruments of the Arabs, which, 
 in turn, became the foundation of the military music of modern 
 Europe. 
 
 The Nefyr is a long, straight tube of brass, with bell and mouth- 
 piece resembling that of our own trumpet. Its compass is consider- 
 able; but it is used rather to emphasize the rhythm of the war-music, 
 than to give any distinct air. " In the midst of the horrible hubbub 
 produced by the drums of all kinds, the kettledrums, castanets, and 
 other noisy instruments, in their military processions, the Arab 
 
 ■ Lane, ii. p. 74. The same instrument seems to be described by Fetis under tire name of Souqqarali 
 (ii. p. 160). ' i- P- 465- 
 
196 Musical Instnniicnts and their Homes. 
 
 trumpeters content themselves with sending forth the shrillest 
 possible sounds at random, and without concerning themselves 
 about the discords which they produce." ' 
 
 Another trumpet, called Cheipoiir, used by the Arabs of Asia 
 Minor, is principally interesting " because it resembles the trumpet 
 played by an Assyrian warrior on a bass-relief of Nineveh, and the 
 Hebrew trumpet represented on the Arch of Titus at Rome." ^ 
 
 III. Finally we consider the instruments of percussion of the 
 Arabs. These, while not playing relatively so important a part 
 as those of most of the other nations which we have been con- 
 sidering, are yet numerous and interesting. 
 
 One of the most characteristic of the Arab drums is the 
 Naggarah ■' (Nakkarah, pi. Nakakeer). (See Fig. 4, Palestine, and 
 Fig. 4, Syria). This consists of a pair of small drums, something 
 like the Indian Tublas. They are ordinarily made of copper, and 
 covered with skin. The Palestinian specimen in the present 
 collection is, however, made of china. The heads are beaten with 
 a pair of little wooden sticks. Larger varieties are also in common 
 use. Such are the great Nakakeer, or kettledrums, which are carried 
 in the religious processions in Cairo and other large cities. These 
 are of unequal dimensions ; the diameter of the larger being at least 
 two feet, while that of the smaller is less than a foot and a half. 
 "They are placed upon a camel, attached to the fore part of the 
 saddle upon which the person who beats them rides. The larger 
 is placed on the right." ^ A single kettledrum of the same kind is 
 called Tad/ Shamee, or " Syrian drum " (Fig. 6, Palestine). It 
 is usually from a foot to a foot and a half in diameter, and is 
 suspended by a string passing round the neck of the performer. 
 It is beaten with two slender sticks.* 
 
 " Fetis, ii. p, 156. 2 Ibid., p. 157. 
 
 ' According to Engel (p. 63), the European Naker was derived from tliis instrument. 
 
 "* Lane, ii. }i. 72. 
 
Musical Instruments of the Arabs. 197 
 
 To the family of kettledrums belon'^s, also, the Baz, or dervish 
 drum (Fig. i, Egypt; Fig. 21, Turkey), which is usually about six or 
 seven inches in diameter. This is used by the dervishes in religious 
 processions and in begging. It is " held in the left hand by a little 
 projection in the centre of the back, and beaten by the right hand 
 with a short leathern strap or a stick." ' 
 
 The Tabl Beledee, or " country drum," of Egypt resembles our 
 ordinary military drum, but is not so deep. It is hung obliquely in 
 front of the body, and is beaten with a stick." A drum of similar 
 character is the Davool, or " bass drum." ' This is beaten on one 
 side with a peculiarly shaped thick drumstick, and on the other with 
 a " long, thin, tapering rod, which touches at once the entire length 
 of the opposite surface." 
 
 The Arabs have a peculiar kind of hand-drum, called Dara- 
 bukkeh 3 (Darabouka, Derbouka, Dirbukkeh). This has a vase- 
 shaped body, sometimes made of pottery and sometimes of wood, 
 and open at the bottom. The top is covered with fish-skin. Four 
 specimens are found in the present collection (Fig. 5, Arabia ; Fig. 5, 
 Syria ; Fig. 7, Palestine ; and Fig. 22, Turkey). The first three are 
 made of pottery ; the fourth, which is a handsomer specimen, of 
 wood. The wooden Darabukkeh is commonly found in the harems 
 of persons of moderate wealth, and is used by the women for their 
 diversion. The body is often beautifully decorated with mother-of- 
 pearl and tortoise-shell. The Darabukkeh is held under the left 
 arm, and is beaten with both hands. The player varies the tone by 
 striking the head, now on the middle, and now near the edge.'^ The 
 earthen Darabukkehs are most frequently used by mountebanks, 
 jugglers, and the w^andering musicians who accompany the dancing- 
 girls. ^ The boatmen of the Nile also use an earthen Darabukkeh 
 of large size. 
 
 ' Lane, ii. p. 72. ° Van Lennep, p. 608. 
 
 ^ The form of this drum is very ancient. According to Van Lennep, it " has been found in Egyptian tombs, and 
 is represented on Egyptian and Assyrian monuments." 
 
 ■* Lane, p. 74. ' Fetis, ii. p. 164. 
 
198 Musical InstrtLments and their Homes. 
 
 The ordinary tambourine of the Arabs is called Tar (Fig. 6, 
 Syria ; Fig. 7, Algiers). It is usually from nine inches to a foot in 
 diameter, and is furnished with five sets of brass clappers. It is 
 a favorite instrument in the harem. A smaller tambourine, called 
 Rikk, is often used at private concerts. The Bendir (Bendyr) of 
 Algiers (Fig. 6) is really a large tambourine. This has no clappers ; 
 but across the back of the head are stretched five strings of gut, to 
 increase the resonance, as in our own snare-drum. 
 
 Cymbals and castanets are in common use among the Arabs. 
 The former are used in military music, and by the dervishes in 
 religious processions. The latter are called Sagai, and are used by 
 the public dancers, both male and female. They are usually made 
 of brass. Each dancer has two pairs of these instruments, which are 
 fastened by loops of string to the thumb and second finger,' and 
 are beaten together with greater or less rapidity, so as to keep time 
 with the motions of the dancer. A set of Syrian castanets, called 
 Faggeishah, is shown in Fig. 3, under Syria. 
 
 ' Lane, p. 72. 
 
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XII. 
 
 MUSIC OF THE PERSIANS AND 
 
 TURKS. 
 
 HAVE elsewhere spoken of the intimate connection, both 
 historical and theoretical, between the music of the 
 Persians and that of the Arabs. The same remarks may 
 be applied with equal truth to the relation between Persian music 
 and that of the Turks. The latter, like the Arabs, not only received 
 from the Persians most of their musical instruments, but were 
 profoundly influenced by them in their theory of music also. Yet 
 the musical history of the Arabs and that of the Turks differs in 
 one very important respect. Strongly as the former were stimulated 
 by the advanced musical culture which they found among the 
 Persians, it was only to the development and modification of a 
 music which was already their own. The Persian system and that 
 of the Arabs acted and re-acted upon each other, and produced 
 a new music, the roots of which cannot be exclusively traced to 
 either. The Turks, on the other hand, when in their turn they 
 conquered the Persians, seem to have adopted bodily the musical 
 system of their new subjects. Their music, therefore, unlike that 
 of the Arabs, does not demand a separate treatment, but may 
 properly be classified with that of the Persians. 
 
 Little information has come down to us concerning the character 
 or history of the music of the ancient Persians. We know that 
 hymns had a place in the religious rites of the followers of Zoroaster, 
 and that the rough shepherds of Medea were fond of listening to 
 the simple music of a rude flute or pipe.' In the rich cities of 
 Persia the art undoubtedly reached a high state of development 
 
 ' Ambros, i. p. 393. '213 
 
2 14 Musical Instriiiiicnts and their Homes. 
 
 at an early date. According to Ambros/ the music performed at 
 the courts of Susa and Persepolis, where the Great King felt himself 
 the successor of the mighty monarchs of Nineveh and Babylon, 
 probably resembled in character that of Assyria and Babylonia. 
 We hear from AtheucTusr that Darius had in his harem no less 
 than three hundred and twenty-nine female musicians. Xenophon 
 also, in his " Anabasis," speaks of the myriad female musicians 
 of the Persian king. But these few facts form almost the sum of 
 our knowledge of the music of I^ersia before the Christian era. 
 
 In the time of the Sassanides, music was employed in all the 
 festivities of the Persian Court. The celebrated bass-reliefs of 
 Tackt-i-Bostan, supposed to date from the latter half of the sixth 
 century, A.D., shed some interesting light upon the state of music 
 at that time. These sculptures are thus described by Engel : ^ 
 " They form the ornaments of two lofty arches, and consist of 
 representations of field sports and aquatic amusements. Some 
 boats are filled with women playing upon harps. ... In one of the 
 boats is seated a man in an ornamental dress, with a halo round 
 his head, who is receiving an arrow from one of his attendants ; 
 while a female, who is sitting near him, plays on a Trigonon. 
 Towards the top of the bass-relief is represented a stage, on wdiich 
 are performers on small, straight trumpets and little hand-drums ; 
 six harpers ; and four other musicians, apparently females, — the first 
 of whom plays a flute, the second a sort of Pandean pipe, the 
 third an instrument which is too much defaced to be recognizable, 
 and the fourth a bagpipe." The use of music to accompany the 
 hunt recalls what we have heard in a previous chapter of the practice 
 of the early Indian kings. In the time of Khosrau (Chosroes) 
 Parviz, we hear of wonderful singers, "whose voices surpassed in 
 sweetness the song of the nightingale." ' Especially celebrated was 
 a certain Barbud, whose singing was so sweet that no heart could 
 withstand it.^ The high esteem in wdiich music was held at this 
 
 ■ i. p. 393- = xiii. S7, quoted by Ambros, i. p. 393. 3 p. 5S. 4 Ambros, i. p. 429. 
 
Mtisic of the Persiaits ajtd Turks. 2 1 5 
 
 time is attested by the story of the dream of Chosroes. The latter, 
 having been banished from the court of his father Hormizd, had 
 fallen into a deep despondency, when one night his grandfather, 
 Nushirvan the Just, appeared to him in his sleep. " Why are you 
 sorrowful, my son ? " he said. " Dismiss your care ; for you shall 
 have for your possession four things, each one of which is worth 
 as much as the government of Iran. For the horse which you have 
 lost, you shall receive two others, whose names will be Schabdiz 
 (dark) and Giilgun (rose-color). The nails of your favorite harper 
 are worn away : you shall have in his place two others, whose like 
 the world does not contain, and whose names will be Barbud and 
 Nekisa. The third gift will be a painter, more skilful than Mani 
 of Chin. But the last gift will be Schirin, the fairest of women, 
 whose beauty casts the sun into the shade." ' This story well 
 illustrates the esteem in which music was held by the Persians, 
 when they succumbed to the irresistible onset of the followers of 
 Mohammed. The history of Persian music after the Arab conquest 
 has already been outlined. 
 
 Unfortunately no definite information has reached us as to the 
 character of the early musical system of the Persians. Neither in 
 the Zend nor the Parsee has any musical treatise been preserved ^ 
 corresponding to the Sanscrit treatises from which is drawn our 
 knowledge of the music of the Hindus. The field is therefore 
 open for the speculations of the musical historians. According to 
 AmbroS;^ as we have seen, the music of the early Persians, like their 
 architecture, preserved the traditions of the old Assyrian culture. 
 Fetis, however, in his history,-* propounds and defends at consider- 
 able length the theory that the music of the ancient Persians 
 closely resembled that of their Aryan kinsmen the Hindus. This 
 resemblance he traces not only in points purely theoretical, — such 
 as their mystical association of the notes of the scale, etc., with the 
 
 ' Ambros, i. p. 430. ° Fetis, ii. p. 351. 
 
 3 i. p. 429. '- ii. p. 351 seq. 
 
2 1 6 Mtisical Instruvients and their Homes. 
 
 various powers of nature,' ^ but even in the construction and 
 divisions of the octave. Whereas the Hindus divided the octave 
 into twenty-two Sruti, the Persians, according to Fetis, divided 
 it into twenty-four intervals, differing in value according to their 
 position.^ Their keynote, or base, was A, and their system 
 embraced forty-nine sounds. By a system of combination, resem- 
 bling that employed by the Hindus, they obtained the number of 
 eighty-four keys, some principal and others secondary. Yet this 
 combination must be traced to a comparatively late date ; for the 
 scales of these keys are founded, not on the old Persian division 
 into fourth tones, but on the later Arabic intervals of third tones. 
 No better proof could be desired of the impossibility of distinguishing 
 between the musical systems of the two peoples after the time of 
 their union.* 
 
 * Note. — Those who are interested in pursuing the subject further are referred to 
 Fetis (ii. hvre vi.), where the whole argument for the division of the Persian octave into 
 twenty-four intervals is very fully and ingeniously presented. Wo. lays down the theory 
 (p. 358 scq.) that the music both of the Hindus and the Persians was originally based 
 upon a scale made up of quarter-tone intervals ; and that "the division of the octave into 
 twenty-two Srutis, as set forth by the Hindu theorists, instead of twenty-four intervals 
 a little smaller, was a change of the original tonality brought about by time." " More- 
 over," he continues, "it must not be forgotten, that, from the very nature of these 
 conceptions of little intervals of sound, variations in their form must have been frequent, 
 and, as a matter of fact, were so. The differences in the conformation and character of 
 the keys of the music of India, as found in the different provinces, give us the proof 
 of this. The same was true in Persia, according to the testimony of Farabi ; and we 
 shall find the plainest demonstration of it in the fact of the introduction of the third tone 
 among the elements of tonality among the Persians, at the time of the conquest of their 
 country by the Arabs." I have already mentioned the fact, that, according to P'etis, 
 traces of the old Persian division into quarter-tones survived in certain provinces long 
 after the Arab conquest, — a fact which is attested by the divisions of the handles of 
 some of their stringed instruments (ii. p. 370). It must be said that Clement considers 
 the theory of Fetis utterly without foundation. "It seems to me," he says, "that these 
 subdivisions of tone had but a single object, — that of making the intonation of one half- 
 tone slide over to that of the half-tone following or preceding ; an effect analogous to 
 that obtained by players of the violin and the guitar. Moreover, the comparatively little 
 importance attached by the Orientals to simultaneous sounds, to harmony, and especially 
 to counterpoint, makes them concentrate their attention upon the variation and nice 
 expression of melodic effects." {Histoire de la Musiqiic, p. 79.) 
 
 ■ ii- p- 371 -f?- ^ ii. p. 353. 
 
Music of the Persians and Tttrks. 2 1 7 
 
 The period of the caliphs was the golden age of Persian music. 
 I have already spoken of the prominent place held by Persian 
 musicians at the court at Bagdad. But after the power of the 
 caliphate began to wane, and Persia fell under the domination of 
 the Seljuk Turks, and later of the Mongols, the history of Persian 
 music is enveloped in a long obscurity. The first certain fact 
 which has come down to us is in connection with the capture of 
 Bagdad by Amurath IV., in 1638. At this time, five Persian 
 musicians were taken back by the conqueror to Constantinople. 
 From these the Turks learned the musical system of the Persians, 
 and their passionate and plaintive melodies.' An interesting story is 
 told of Amurath (whose reputation is any thing but an enviable one), 
 to the effect, that, during the execution of the barbarous sentence 
 which condemned to death thirty thousand of the gallant defenders 
 of the captured city, he was approached by the celebrated Persian 
 musician Schah-Kuli. The latter, accompanying himself with his 
 harp, began to sing in so touching a way of the misfortunes of 
 Bagdad and its inhabitants, that Amurath was moved to tears, and 
 ordered the carnae^e to cease.'' Whether we choose to believe this 
 story or not, it is certain that this Schah-Kuli was one of the five 
 musicians whom Amurath carried back to Constantinople in order 
 to instruct his people in the system of Persian music. 
 
 Thus were the Turks made acquainted with the music of Persia. 
 According to Fetis,^ they long preserved the old Persian tradition of 
 the division of the octave into twenty-four intervals. Whether this 
 be true or not, it is certain that the system in use among the Turks 
 of the present day is practically identical with that Persian-Arabian 
 system which has been described in a previous chapter. One 
 interesting point of difference should, however, be mentioned. 
 Whereas the base, or keynote, of each of the eighty-four scales of 
 the Persians is A, that of their pupils, the Turks, is one note 
 lower, or G. 
 
 ' Fetis, ii. p. 389. " Ibid., p. 353. 
 
2 1 8 Musical Instrmnejits and their Homes. 
 
 The remarks which have ah-cady been made as to the present 
 state of music among the Arabs apply largely also to the modern 
 Persians and Turks. A few additional points of interest may be 
 added. In Persia, to-day, music is extremely popular among all 
 classes. Those who can afford it have troops of paid musicians 
 attached to their service. Sir William Ouseley, the well-known 
 traveller, speaks frequently of having been entertained after dinner 
 with music, both instrumental and vocal. In describing one such 
 occasion, he says, " After we had sat about an hour, a 7mrza, who in 
 his [the minister's] absence received guests, called for the musicians ; 
 and a band of saziiideh, or instrumental performers, immediately 
 assembled, — the most excellent that Teheran, or perhaps any other 
 Persian city, could afford. With these was one man who exerted 
 his voice only. The instruments were two KemancheJi [or violins] ; 
 . . . one Santyr, or dulcimer, the wire strings of which were struck 
 with little crooked sticks ; one SchtareJi, or guitar; and two Daireh, 
 or tambourines. All the performers occasionally joined their voices 
 to the tones of the instruments ; and the man who led this band 
 (playing on the Kcmancheh) seemed, at some passages, to be 
 delighted and inspired both by the words and music, which was 
 of a solemn or rather plaintive kind, and, I confess, gratified me 
 exceedingly." ' But not only is music popular among the wealthy 
 and educated Persians : all classes of the people are fond of it. 
 Wandering musicians are found everywhere who play the Kemangeh, 
 the Tamboura, and the Schtareh. At Teheran, Ouseley heard on 
 all sides the sound of musical instruments, which continued till 
 quite late at night. The police, who are otherwise extremely strict, 
 and arrest any one found in the street after a certain hour, are 
 lenient in all matters where music is concerned." Especially popular 
 is music at all social reunions or family festivals. It has an 
 
 ' Travels in Various Countries of the East, more particularly Persia, iii. p. 350. 
 - Fetis, ii. p. 415. 
 
Music of the Persians and Turks. 2 1 9 
 
 important place in marriage festivities. Wlien the bride is escorted 
 to tlie bath on the morning of the wedding, the procession of women 
 is preceded by six or eight musicians playing the oboe, the flute, 
 and the drum. The marriage feast is accompanied by convivial 
 songs, and the tones of the Kemangeh and the Schtareh.' 
 
 The Persians, as a rule, have the finest voices in the East. 
 They are free from the nasal tone so common, and so disagreeable, 
 among the people of Western Asia, of Egypt, and of North Africa." 
 " The guttural tones are more softened by the Persian singers than 
 by the Arabs. They sing with more taste, more expression ; and 
 the ornaments of their melodies are less numerous, and better 
 adapted to the character of the phrases." ' European travellers 
 commonly speak with pleasure of the Persian songs. Yet we must 
 not suppose that the Persian melodies differ altogether in character 
 from those of the Arabs, which have been described. Ouseley 
 speaks of the tunes which he heard, as being " little more than a 
 succession of trills and shakes." ^ It seems, in truth, as if what 
 to our ear appears but superfluous ornament, is to the Oriental a 
 necessary part of true music. 
 
 In Persia, as in other Mohammedan countries, music has an 
 important place in the service of the mosques, as well as in the 
 monasteries of the dervishes. The voices of the Persian dervishes 
 are especially fine. Some real virtuosos are found among them, 
 whose services are eagerly sought by the rich and great. They are 
 especially celebrated for their love-songs, which they are said to 
 render with remarkable, and in some cases even with dangerous, 
 effect.* 
 
 In general, we may say, that, in spite of the many shocks to 
 which the Persians have been subjected, both by conquest and 
 otherwise, and the consequent changes in the character of their 
 music, they have yet preserved a musical organization superior both 
 
 ' Fetis, ii. p. 415. '^ Ibid., p. 412. ^ Quoted by Fetis, ii. p. J90. ■* Fetis, ii. p. 394. 
 
2 20 M2Lsical Instyitvients and their Homes. 
 
 to that of the Arabs and that of the Turks. This superiority is 
 evident, not only in the works of their poets, and in the composition 
 of their songs, but also in the character of their execution, both 
 vocal and instrumental.' 
 
 I need add but a word as to the present state of music in Turkey. 
 What has been said as to the music of the Arabs applies here even 
 more closely than to what precedes. Up to the time of the Greek 
 revolution, the most able musicians of Turkey were Greeks of 
 Constantinople and of Smyrna." Many of the Persian instruments 
 have, indeed, passed through the Turks to the modern Greeks. 
 (See Greece, Figs, i, 2, 3, and 6 '). Indeed, the relation of the two 
 latter peoples in musical history is not unlike that existing at an 
 earlier time between the I^ersians and the Arabs. 
 
 Singing is popular with the Turks, as with all Mohammedan 
 peoples. The favorite songs have to do either with love or with 
 • war. Those of the former class are usually accompanied by the 
 Tamboura Bouzourk. 
 
 Instrumental music is common, both within doors and without. 
 In the former case, it is exclusively performed by female slaves.-* 
 The lute, the tamboura, and the tambourine are the instruments 
 most commonly used in the harems of Turkey, and, with the 
 castanets of the dancers, seem to possess a peculiar charm for 
 the stolid and dreamy Turk.5 The music of the cafes and the 
 streets does not differ essentially in character from that in all 
 other Mohammedan countries. 
 
 For their military, or Janissary, music, the Turks employ a 
 special group of percussion and wind instruments. " Belonging to 
 
 ' Fetis, ii. p. 416. 
 
 ^ Many of the most popular Turkish songs of the present day are of Greek composition. The favorite singer 
 of the Sultan Mahmoud was a Greek named Chiveli-Oglou Zorgaki. Fetis, ii. p. 395. 
 
 5 Fig. 6, catalogued as a clarionet, is really an oboe. It differs from the Zourna only in having seven small 
 holes near the base, instead of five. 
 
 " Musical ability greatly increases the value of a slave. 5 Naumann, i. p. 94. 
 
Music of the Persians and Titrks. 221 
 
 this class are ' Mohammed's standard,' the national instrument of 
 the Turks, consisting of a brass frame with numerous bells, carried 
 on a long, perpendicular pole, the point of which is surmounted 
 by the crescent and the well-known streamers of horsehair ; an 
 elongated roll-drum, narrowed towards the base ; a big drum, 
 triangle, metal clappers, shrill piccolos and oboes, trumpets and 
 horns, — forming an ensemble most effective and warlike."' 
 
 The whirling dervishes of Constantinople accompany their 
 performances not only with the voice, but also with the plaintive 
 tones of the Nay, or flute. They devote themselves especially to 
 the study of this instrument, and are considered the most skilful 
 flute-players of Turkey. It is interesting to notice in this connection 
 that they were once banished from Constantinople on the ground 
 that they introduced music into the Mohammedan worship ; but 
 they were subsequently restored by the Sultan, on claiming that the 
 Koran contained nothing to forbid the use of song or of the flute 
 in connection with prayer or religious exercises." 
 
 ■ Naumann, i. p. 109. " Fetis, ii. p. 398. 
 
XIII. 
 
 INSTRUMENTS OF THE PERSIANS 
 
 AND TURKS. 
 
 IFTER what has already been said, it may seem superfluous 
 to devote a separate chapter to the instruments of the 
 
 I Persians and the Turks. I shall therefore confine myself 
 strictly to the points which have not already been touched upon, 
 and to the few additional statements which may seem necessary in 
 further explanation of the drawings in the Catalogue. 
 
 I. INSTRUMENTS OF PERSIA. 
 
 In olden times, the harp, Chang, was a favorite instrument with 
 the Persians.' It is represented on the bass-relief of Tackt-i-Bostan, 
 to which reference has already been made. According to this 
 representation, its shape was triangular ; the frame consisting of 
 two pieces of wood united at a right angle. The form of the Chang 
 continued essentially unchanged down to comparatively modern 
 times. Drawings of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries show 
 us a form of the instrument in which one arm is gracefully curved ; 
 but in these, as in the earlier representation, the front pillar is 
 wanting."" The use of the Chang passed from the Persians to the 
 Arabs, who gave it the name of Junk, and to the Turks, as is 
 shown by an interesting illustration of the seventeenth century.^ 
 At the present day, however, the harp has almost entirely gone out 
 of use among all these peoples. 
 
 ' Engel, p. 58. ^ Lane: Arabian Nights, i. p. 205. ^ Engel, p. 60. 
 
 222 
 
Instruments of the Persians and Turks. 223 
 
 The stringed instruments now in use in Persia are the Oud (or 
 lute), the Schtareh (or guitar), the Tar, various kinds of Tamboura, 
 the Santir, the Kemangeh, and the Rebab. The first has ahxady 
 been sufficiently described. Unfortunately, owing to the difficulties 
 experienced in fingering the lute, it is now rarely found among the 
 Persians. It is seldom or never mentioned by modern travellers. 
 The Sc/itare/i, or guitar, corresponds to the Kuitra (or Oitarah) of 
 the Arabs and Moors. This instrument Fetis believes to have 
 been received by the Persians from the Arabs, as the name is not 
 of Persian origin. The Tar (Fig. 2), although classified by Fetis 
 with the Tambouras {Tamboura Boiisoiirk), seems rather to belong 
 to the guitar family. The name Tar signifies literally "a string." 
 The body of the instrument is made of wood, covered with thin 
 skin or parchment, through which, in some cases, the colors of the 
 ornamented handle are clearly discernible. (See Fig. 6, Russia.) 
 The handle is often beautifully inlaid. The Tar has twenty-four 
 frets of gut. It is strung with five wire strings, two of steel and 
 three of brass, tuned to three distinct tones, and is played Avith a 
 small plectrum of wax and brass. It is the most popular instrument 
 among the Persians of the present day.' 
 
 The Sitar (or Seh-Tar) (Fig. i) is a small instrument of the 
 Tamboura family, strung with five wire strings, and played with 
 the finger-nail of the right forefinger." It has nineteen frets of gut. 
 The derivation of the name has been already explained in connection 
 with the Indian instrument of the same name. Formerly the 
 Persian Sitar was even more popular than the Tar. The Siiz 
 (Fig. 3) is a larger Tamboura, also with five wire strings. It is 
 played with a small wooden plectrum, and yields an exceedingly 
 
 ' The same instrument is described by Engel (p. 157) under the name of Ujuk, or Qitar. 
 
 ^ The similarity of the names Silar, Qitar, and Schtareh, together with the fact that the Tar in the present 
 collection is an instrument of the guitar family proper, and not a Tamboura, would incline me to think that the names 
 of the Tar and the Sitar should be exchanged, had not the specimens been carefully labelled, as in the Catalogue, 
 by the gentleman through whose kindness they were secured. 
 
2 24 Mtisical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 clear and pleasing tone. Its frets are fourteen in number, and, like 
 those of the Tar and the Sitar, are formed by little bands of gut 
 passing round the handle. The Tamboura is used in Persia, as 
 elsewhere, to accompany the voice in singing. 
 
 The Santir is a popular instrument with the Persians. As we 
 have seen, it formed part of the orchestra described by Ouseley. 
 
 The Persian Kamancha (Kemangeh), or violin (Fig. 4), is of 
 exceptional interest, as it is the ancestor of all the Arabic 
 instruments of the same name. A representative specimen is thus 
 described by Sir William Ouseley : It was made at Shiraz, " of tut, 
 or mulberry-tree wood ; the body, about eight inches in diameter, 
 globular, except at the upper part, over which was stretched and 
 fixed by glue a covering of parchment. It had three strings of 
 twisted sheep-gut, and a bridge placed obliquely. A straight piece 
 of iron strengthened the whole instrument, from the knob below, 
 through the neck to the hollow which received the three pegs. It 
 was carried hanging from the shoulder by a leathern strap." The 
 total length of the instrument was nearly three feet. " The bow 
 was a mere switch about two feet and a half long, to which was 
 fastened at the end some black horsehair; at the other end, this hair 
 was connected by a brass ring with a piece of leather seven or eight 
 inches long. The ring was managed with the second and third 
 fingers of the performer's right hand ; and, by its means, he 
 contracted or relaxed the bow, which was occasionally rubbed on 
 a bit of wax or rosin stuck above the pegs." ' The specimen in the 
 present collection (Fig. 4) is a ruder variety, found principally 
 among the rural population. The bow is less than two feet long. 
 Though the body of the Kamancha is usually made of wood, a 
 hollow gourd or the shell of a cocoanut is often used for the 
 purpose, especially in the cheaper instruments. The Kamancha is 
 often used in Persia to accompany the voice. " Many Persian 
 
 ' Ouseley, quoted by Engel, p. 15S. 
 
histruments of the Persians and Tttrks. 225 
 
 singers," says Fctis,' " prefer the accompaniment of the Kemangeh 
 to that of any other instrument for leading the voice, because its 
 intonation is more easily perceptible and more sustained." It is 
 also frequently used to accompany the dance. In the latter case, 
 "the dancing-girl does not sing the air herself, but it is sung by 
 another woman or by a young boy." 
 
 The Rebab found in Persia resembles that of Algiers and 
 Morocco far more than that of Arabia and Egypt. It is an almost 
 exact counterpart of the rebec, formerly popular in Western 
 Europe.^ 
 
 Fetis mentions also a small two-stringed violin used by the 
 wandering musicians of Central Persia, in which the body is formed 
 by a cocoanut-shell covered with a thin piece of wood. 
 
 The wind instruments of Persia do not require special notice. 
 The Nay, or flute ; the Zourna, or oboe ; the Shaberba (Chabbabeh), 
 or flageolet (Fig. 7), and the bagpipe have all been sufficiently 
 noticed. A rude shepherd's pipe, or fife, is shown in Fig. 6. 
 
 Of instruments of percussion, the tambourine is one of the most 
 popular. Several varieties are found, one of the largest of which 
 is the Kouwal (Fig. 5). Drums, castanets, and cymbals are also 
 common. A curious hand-drum, called Dombeg, is shown in 
 Fig. 8. This is really a kind of Darabukkeh, made of heavy wood, 
 with a head of skin. It is beaten with the flat of the fingers of both 
 hands, and is very popular, being especially used to accompany 
 social dances and singing. Another common drum is the Dohl, 
 which is described by Ouseley ^ as a wooden cylinder covered at each 
 end with parchment, one of the heads of which is drawn so tight as 
 to give a tone an octave higher than the other. 
 
 ' ii. p. 407. ^ Engel, p. 310. ' Quoted by Fetis, ii. p. 410. 
 
2 26 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 II. INSTRUMENTS OF TURKEY. 
 
 The Santir and Kanoon are both popular in Turkey. The latter 
 (Fig. i) is the favorite instrument in the harems of the wealthy 
 classes. It has already been sufficiently described. 
 
 Instruments of the Tamboura family are found in Turkey in 
 great variety. Five different kinds are shown in Figs. 3 to 7.' 
 
 A rude instrument of the guitar family, called Fellahee, is shown 
 in Fig. 20. The body consists of an octagonal frame of wood, 
 covered with parchment. The strings — live in number — are of 
 coarse gut. 
 
 The Kemangeh of the Turks (Fig. 8) seems to call for special 
 notice. This is not an instrument of the violoncello class, like the 
 Kamancha of the Persians and the Kemangeh of the Arabs, but an 
 instrument of the violin class, much more nearly resembling in 
 general shape the Rebab of Persia and of Algiers. It has a shallow 
 body of wood, decreasing in width at the upper end to form the 
 finger-board, and having two sound-holes near the bottom, just below 
 the bridge. The strings are three in number, either all of gut, or, 
 as in the present specimen, two of gut and one of wire. They are 
 attached to three long tuning-pegs of wood or ivory. The total 
 length of the instrument is less than a foot and a half. The same 
 instrument appears in Greece under the name of Lyra (Fig. 3). The 
 latter, however, has five strings instead of three. 
 
 The wind instruments of the Turks are many and various. The 
 most important are the Zourna and the Nay. Many instruments 
 of the flageolet family are also found. (See Figs. 12-18.) The 
 Ghdida, or Turkish bagpipe, is shown in Fig. 9. The Nefyr, or 
 trumpet, has already been described. 
 
 ' Figs. 3 and 4 have each fourteen frets of gut. Fig. 5 has seventeen frets of gut, and seven raised wooden 
 frets upon the body of the instrument. Fig. 6 has twenty-three frets of gut, and ten raised wooden frets. The 
 Taiihonr Kdyr Tunrky lias already been described. 
 
Instruments of the Persians and Turks. 227 
 
 The instruments of percussion of the Turks are those in 
 general use in Mohammedan countries, — drums of various kinds, 
 tambourines, cymbals, and castanets. The Gele-Masha, or bell- 
 tongs (Fig. 11), is a kind of cymbal, consisting of a frame of iron 
 furnished with clappers of brass. I have already referred to the 
 character and variety of the instruments of percussion used by 
 the Turks in their military, or Janissary, music. 
 
AFRICA. 
 
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 red a)\<J 
 
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 Jr, 
 
 Jn 
 
 h ""a^ "^^^'^y ^-i^^is ^r -TT^GiU. 
 
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 ere ^5^ ^''f^ '*"^i°" 
 
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 oV ^;fr-(ca. «^e erv^ Uol^cr^ . ct. If. ^ '>v. 
 
XIV. 
 SAVAGE MUSIC 
 
 N the whole history of music, no branch is more interest- 
 ing and important than that which deals with the first 
 rude beginnings of the art, as found among the savage 
 races which still form so large a proportion of the inhabitants of 
 Africa, South America, and the islands of the sea. In the rude 
 songs and monotonous rhythm of these sons of nature, we may 
 find much that sheds light upon many an otherwise dark page 
 in the history of music. Especially interesting, for the suggestion 
 which it affords, is a study of the savage instruments of music. 
 Beside these earliest attempts of man to turn to the service of 
 melody the inanimate things which he found about him, the rude 
 instruments which we have been considering among the peoples 
 of the East seem finished and perfect. 
 
 There is a special reason for directing the immediate attention 
 of the music-loving world to this interesting subject. The study 
 of the savage instruments of music must be undertaken at once, 
 or it will be too late. Already many of these witnesses to the early 
 musical history of man have been destroyed by the advancing 
 march of so-called civilization. The accordion is replacing the 
 Marimba in Central Africa. The native instruments of Microne- 
 sia and Melanesia have almost entirely disappeared. Dr. Otto 
 Finsch, who was endeavoring to make a collection of the instru- 
 ments of these islands, on asking a native where he could obtain 
 a specimen of a certain instrument, received the following suggest- 
 ive answer : " No more Pagolo ; Pagolo dead — the Jew's harp has 
 
238 Musical I list nunc Ills and their Homes. 
 
 killed him." The same statement holds true in reference to the 
 instruments of our own Indians. They are rapidly disappearing, 
 and in a few years it will be impossible to obtain any more speci- 
 mens. 
 
 This being the case, the savage instruments in the present 
 collection have a special interest, and I need not apologize for 
 devoting to them a somewhat extended consideration. For con- 
 venience I have divided them into three groups. First, the instru- 
 ments of the African tribes; second, the instruments of the North 
 American Indians (including the Eskimos of Alaska on the north, 
 and the natives of Mexico on the south) ; and, third, the instru- 
 ments of Central America, South America, and Oceanica.' The 
 specimens in the first group, while few in number, are important 
 and representative. The second group contains more than thirty 
 fine specimens. The third, I regret to say, contains only a few 
 relatively unimportant specimens. 
 
 Before taking up the special consideration of each of these three 
 groups, some introductory remarks on the general character and 
 history of savage music may not be out of place. The subject, 
 while most interesting, is an intensely difficult one. This is true 
 for two reasons : first, because of the immense amount of ground 
 to be covered ; and, second, because of the difficulty of obtaining 
 exact information. The Eskimos of Greenland and of Alaska ; the 
 rude natives of Northern Siberia ; the Indians of British America 
 and of the United States ; the natives of Mexico, Central America, 
 and of the vast and still partially unexplored tracts of South 
 America; the hundreds of tribes of Central and Southern Africa; 
 the degraded natives of Australia, and the more intelligent inhab- 
 itants of New Zealand; the natives of the Malay Archipelago; 
 and last, but not least, the dwellers in the thousand islands of 
 the Pacific— all these fall legitimately within the scope of such 
 an inquiry as the present. It is true that we have no lack of 
 
 ■ Under this general tern. I include Australia, New Zealand, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polvuesia. 
 
Savage MiLsic. 239 
 
 information, either as to the music or the musical instruments 
 of many of these races. Almost every book of travel contains 
 at least some mention of the musical customs of the people of 
 whom it treats, but much of such information is worthless, either 
 because of its insufficiency or of its inaccuracy. Travellers are 
 too apt to dismiss the subject with some such sentence as the 
 following : " What they call music seems to be very popular 
 among them. Great bands of men, playing on various uncouth 
 instruments, made night hideous to us for weeks." 
 
 In the present chapter I shall attempt only to state such broad 
 principles as to the character of savage music, and the general line 
 which it has taken in its development, as may fairly be regarded 
 as established. 
 
 The love of music seems to be inborn in man. It is found 
 in the rudest and most savage tribes, no less real and no less 
 intense than in the cultivated inhabitants of Europe. Indeed, I 
 think it may almost be said that a love for music is more widely 
 diffused among savage than among civilized men. By this I 
 mean that a greater proportion of individuals in uncivilized 
 countries are affected by what to them is music than of those in 
 civilized countries. Music is a real power in the life of the sav- 
 age. It seems to make little difference where we look. The 
 degraded inhabitants of Western Australia are passionately fond 
 of singing. " To a sulky old native," says George Grey, " his 
 song is what a quid of tobacco is to a sailor. Is he angry, 
 he sings, — is he glad, he sings, — is he hungry, he sings, — if he 
 is full, provided he is not so full as to be in a state of stupor, 
 he sings more lustily than ever." ' The Fiji Islanders are pas- 
 sionately fond of music and dancing — taking as much delight 
 in their rude conch-shells and Pandean pipes as the cultivated 
 Europeans in the performances of the best orchestra. The orches- 
 tral performances of the Dakota Indians of North America last 
 
 ' Grey : Journals of Two Expeditions ... in North West and Western Australia, ii, p. 299. 
 
240 Mnsica/ Iiistnuncnts and their Homes. 
 
 for weeks. Nowhere is the love for music so highly developed 
 as in the African negro. It is found among the cannibal tribes 
 no less than in those most advanced in civilization. Schwein- 
 furth has preserved a horrible story of a sight he once saw among 
 the Niam-Niams. A father of a family sat in the door of his 
 hut, playing softly upon the mandolin, while hard by an old 
 woman was preparing a meal of a little child's . flesh.' The 
 inhabitants of Dahomey, we are told, delight in " singing, dancing, 
 and cutting off heads." ' The last account of the death of Major 
 Barttelot attributes its immediate cause to his attempting to inter- 
 fere with the singing and drumming of some Manyemas, by which, 
 as it was carried on both morning and evening, he had been much 
 annoyed. '^ Burton ^ says of the music of the Krumen : " It is 
 monotonous to a degree, yet they delight in it, and often after a 
 long and fatiguing day's march, will ask permission to ' make play,' 
 and dance and sing till midnight. When hoeing the ground, they 
 do it to the sound of music ; in fact, everything is cheered with a 
 song. The traveller should never forget to carry a tom-tom, or 
 some similar instrument, which will shorten his journey by a fair 
 quarter." Such examples could be indefinitely multiplied, but 
 these may suffice. 
 
 It is doubtless impossible satisfactorily to penetrate the veil of 
 obscurity which hides from our sight the early musical history of 
 man. Go back as far as we may, we cannot find a time when 
 he did not have musical instruments of some kind. Among the 
 relics of the cavemen of France, two bone whistles or flutes have 
 been discovered — carrying back our acquaintance with the music of 
 primitive man to prehistoric times. There is scarcely a savage 
 tribe on the face of the earth to-day which does not possess musi- 
 cal instruments of some description.' According to Engel,'^ " there 
 
 ' The Heart of Africa, ii. p. 22.4. = Forbes : Dahomey and the Dahomans, i. p. ig. 
 
 '■N. y. Times, Oct, iS, iSSS. -"West Africa, ii. p. 31. 
 
 ' The only l<nown exceptions are the Veddahs of Ceylon, the tMincopies of the Andamans, and the inhaliitants 
 of Tierra del Fuego. (Rowbotham, i. Introduction, p. xiii.) *■ Musical Instruments, p i 
 
Savage Music. 241 
 
 exist even at the present day some savage tribes in Australia and 
 South America, who, although they have no more than the five 
 first numerals of their language, and are thereby unable to count 
 the fingers of both hands together, nevertheless possess musical 
 instruments of their own contrivance, with which they accompany 
 their songs and dances." 
 
 Although it is impossible to lay down any invariable rule for 
 the development of savage music, we may yet accept with con- 
 fidence the general lines proposed and ably defended by Mr. 
 Rowbotham in the first volume of his History of Music. Accord- 
 ing to his ingenious theory, the first instruments to be invented 
 were instruments of percussion ; the second, wind instruments, and 
 the last, stringed instruments. Vocal music preceded instrumental, 
 and developed side by side with it. Without following out this 
 theory in detail, it will yet be convenient for me to group what 
 I have to say on the subject of savage music about the four 
 heads thus suggested. I shall consider first the vocal music of 
 savage men ; second, their instruments of percussion ; third, their 
 wind instruments ; and, fourth, their stringed instruments. 
 
 I. VOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 According to Engel, ' " The origin of vocal music may be sur- 
 mised to be coeval with, if not antecedent to, that of language." 
 It is possible to find men who have no musical instruments, but 
 it is impossible to find any man, however degraded, who does 
 not sing. This is true even of the Mincopies, the Veddahs, and 
 the Fuegians, with whom musical instruments are unknown." The 
 origin of song is wrapped in the same impenetrable mystery 
 which conceals the origin of language. At some time man began 
 to sing. That we know, and that is all we know. 
 
 If we examine the songs of the savage races of the present 
 
 ^ p. I. -Rowbotham, i., p. 71- 
 
242 
 
 Musical Instnuiicnts and their Homes. 
 
 day, we shall find that while differing in many respects, they are 
 almost all marked by two characteristic features. The first is a 
 decided prominence of the rhythmic as opposed to the melodic ele- 
 ment, and the second is a certain monotony which results from 
 the fact that most of them are contained within a very narrow 
 compass, and have consequently little room for variety. Thus the 
 songs of the Tierra del Fuegians are really chants intoned upon 
 a single note. Similar songs are found among the Fiji Islanders 
 and the North American Indians. The Brazilians have songs 
 entirely composed in two notes, and the same is true of certain 
 tribes of Africa.' Examples of songs with three notes are com- 
 mon. Rowbotham' gives instances from the Fijians, the Nubians, 
 the Samoans, and the negroes of South America. The Malays, 
 like the Chinese, use the pentatonic scale, and are therefore rela- 
 tively far advanced in musical development. In general, we may 
 say that the number of distinct tones used by any savage tribe 
 in the construction of their melodies forms a very fair index of 
 the point of musical advancement which they have reached. 
 
 The monotonous character of savage melodies has been 
 remarked by many travellers. The songs of the West Australians 
 are described by Grey^^ as being short, "containing generally 
 only one or two ideas, and one constantly repeated over and over 
 again in a manner doubtless grating to the untutored ear of a 
 European, but to one skilled in Australian music, lulling- and 
 harmonious in the extreme, and producing much the same efi'ect 
 as the singing of a nurse upon a child." Williams,^ in referring 
 to the musical performances of the Fiji Islanders, speaks of the 
 song by which the monotonous beating of their drums is accom- 
 panied, as being "often very dull." Schweinfurth= says of one of 
 the Niam-Niam stringed instruments that " its music is very monot- 
 onous, and it is very difficult to distinguish any actual melody 
 
 ■ Rowbotham, i. p. 92. = pp. 95-97. 3ii. p. 300. 4 Fiji and the Fijians, p. 141. 
 
 5ii. p. 30. 
 
Savage Music. 243 
 
 in it." Similar testimonies could easily be multiplied. We must, 
 however, be careful not to press our generalization too far. Many 
 of the songs of the negroes of Africa have clearly-marked and not 
 unpleasing melodies. Thus Burton' speaks of the natives of 
 East Africa as being "admirable timists, and no mean tunists," 
 and Bowdich' says of the Ashantees that " their airs have a 
 sweetness and animation beyond any barbarous composition " 
 he ever heard. The effect of many of the African songs is, 
 moreover, not a little increased by marked variations in the 
 expression with which they are rendered. A good example of 
 such changes of expression is given by Schweinfurth in describ- 
 ing the singing of the Bongo. " It consists," he says, " of a bab- 
 bling recitative, which at one time suggests the yelping of a 
 dog, and at another the lowing of a cow, whilst it is broken 
 ever and again by the gabbling of a string of words, which are 
 huddled up one into another. The commencement of a measure 
 will always be with a lively air, and every one, without distinction 
 of age or sex, will begin yelling, bellowing and screeching with 
 all their strength ; gradually the surging of the voices will tone 
 down, the rapid time moderate, and the song be hushed into a 
 wailing, melancholy strain. Thus it sinks into a very dirge, such 
 as might be chanted at the grave, and might be interpreted as 
 representative of a leaden and a frowning sky, when all at once, 
 without note of warning, there bursts forth the full fury of the 
 negro throats; shrill and thrilling is the outcry, and the contrast 
 is as vivid as sunshine in the midst of rain." ^ 
 
 I have spoken of the prominence of the rhythmic element in 
 savage music. This is almost universally recognized by travellers. 
 The sense for time seems to have been highly developed in man 
 long before he had the faintest conception of what we call mel- 
 ody. The rude chants upon a single note of the Fuegians and 
 
 "Lake Regions of Central Africa, ii. p. 291. = Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, p. 361. 
 
 3i. p. 289. 
 
2 44 Musical Instiiniicnts and t/icir Homes. 
 
 the North American Indians derive a certain life and meaning 
 from their clearly-marked and often-varied rhythm. In the devel- 
 opment of this rhythmic sense in man, the dance certainly played 
 an important part. As a matter of fact we find among savage 
 peoples, especially the lowest, an intimate connection between 
 the song and the dance. Many of the most characteristic savage 
 melodies are dance songs. "The wild, painted warrior," says 
 Ambros, " breaks out in song before the battle — gives expres- 
 sion to his contempt for his enemy, his assurance of victory, in 
 words which he chants in improvised fashion, the rhythm of the 
 regular tones compelling his limbs to harmonious movement — 
 swinging his club, he dances his war dance. Here the arts 
 lie in the germ undivided, and only at a higher stage of devel- 
 opment do they separate into Poetry, Music and the Drama."' 
 Here, of course, we are interested only in tracing the influence 
 of the dance on the history of music proper. This Rowbotham 
 considers to have been very great, not only in the earlier stages 
 of which we have been speaking, when the range was narrow, 
 and its effect was purely rhythmic, but in the later also, when the 
 compass of five or six notes had been reached. " The dance," 
 he says, " has introduced a lot of artificial elements whose ten- 
 dency would be to gain in complexity every day, and ever more 
 and more to deflect song from that primitive form in which it 
 left the bosom of speech." ^^ But an extended consideration of 
 this interesting question would carry us beyond the proper limits 
 of the present chapter. 
 
 What was said above as to the fondness of savage man for 
 music in general applies with special force to vocal music. Sing- 
 ing seems to the savage the natural vehicle for the expression 
 of his emotions. If we are to believe George Grey, the old 
 Australian, who sits in the door of his hut, furiously brandish- 
 
 ' Geschichte der Musik, i. p. 537. For an interesting practical example, see George Grey's account of the 
 war-song of an old Australian chief, ii. p. 300 scq. 2- q 
 
Savage Music. 245 
 
 ing his spear, and singing of his neighbor, who has insulted 
 him: 
 
 " I'll spear his liver, 
 I'll spear his lights, 
 I'll spear his heart, 
 I'll spear his thigh," etc., 
 
 this old native, I say, seems to derive a very real comfort and 
 satisfaction from the performance. Passing to the other extreme, 
 we find among the Niam-Niams minstrels who " are as sparing 
 of their voices as a worn-out prima doiiiia."' And not only is 
 the song popular as an individual recreation ; chorus singing also is 
 common all over Africa. Among the Ashantees, who are rela- 
 tively highly developed in musical culture, women never perform 
 instrumental music, but both sexes alike join in singing choruses. 
 The dirges of the Ashantee w^omen, we are told, excite them to 
 such a frenzy that their singing becomes little more than a mix- 
 ture of yells and screeches, bidding defiance to all musical nota- 
 tion,' but they are none the less the natural and real expression of 
 the grief of this excitable people. The Bamanwato " dance and 
 sing nearly every night, keeping up their revels till next day."^ 
 Among the Fiji Islanders " nocturnal serenading is practised by 
 companies of men or women." ^ An original use of the song is 
 described by Cranz.' At the time when he wrote his history 
 (1765) the natives of Greenland used to settle their quarrels by a 
 sort of musical duel. "When one Greenlander thinks he has been 
 offended by another," says Cranz, " he does not allow any spite 
 or anger to be detected, still less any spirit of revenge ; but he 
 prepares a satirical song, which he repeats over and over in the 
 presence of his household, and especially of the women-folk, danc- 
 ing as he sings, until they all know it by heart. He then lets it 
 be known in the whole neighborhood that he proposes to sing at 
 
 'Schvveinfurth, i. p. 445, = Bowdicli, p. 364 jvi/. 
 
 3 Chapman : Travels in South Africa, i. p. 271. ■• Williams, p. 140. 
 
 5 Historic von Grimland, p, 231 seq. 
 
246 Musical Insti-uiiicnts and tJicir I Ionics. 
 
 the expense of his adversary." The neighbors being assembled 
 and the offending party with them, the injured man stands forth 
 in the midst and sings his song, dancing and beating his drum the 
 while, his family joining in the chorus. Each witty personality is 
 received with laughter and applause. His opponent then answers 
 in a song of like kind, and the spectators sit as umpires upon 
 the whole performance. " He who has the last word," concludes 
 Cranz, " has won the case, and from that time on is looked upon 
 as worthy of no little consideration." Further instances of the 
 important part played by the song in savage life will come 
 under consideration in another connection. 
 
 II. INSTRUMENTS OF PERCUSSION. 
 
 The special instruments of percussion of the different savage 
 races will be noticed in the proper place. I shall confine myself 
 here to a few remarks on the general subject. There is little doubt 
 that instruments of this kind were the first to be invented by man. 
 The natives of West Australia accompany their dances by clap- 
 ping their hands and stamping their feet upon the ground.' 
 The natives of Central Australia beat two pieces of stick 
 together or two green branches." A still nearer approach to 
 the instrument proper is found in the use of their spear-boards 
 by the West Australians. Grey thus describes their perform- 
 ances : " A rounded stick is held in its centre, and its ends 
 alternately struck against the flat board with which they throw 
 their spears. Although this appears so simple," he continues, 
 " it requires some practice, and by young men, who desire the 
 reputation of being exquisites, to play it is considered to be a 
 very necessary accomplishment."^ The step from these rude forms 
 to the finished drum is a long one, and we cannot here trace 
 
 ' Grey, ii. p, 305. The same is true of the Andaman Islanders, who may, therefore, in strictness be removed 
 from the list of tliose who have no musical instruments. (Rowbotham, i. 22) 
 
 2 Kowbotham, i. p. 22, jj; , ^^. 
 
Savage Music. 247 
 
 the development through the inverted bowls of the Sandwich 
 Islanders and the hollowed logs of the Fijians" to the final 
 form in which the hollow body is covered with a resounding 
 head of skin. 
 
 It is a curious fact that many different races attribute to the 
 drum a divine origin, or at least regard it with superstitious awe. 
 " A hundred years ago it could be said that ' the Drum was the 
 only object of worship from the Orinoco to the La Plata.'"" 
 Even to-day, drum, or rather rattle-worship, "is to be found in full 
 vitality in the interior of Brazil." The Laplanders have a similar 
 veneration for the drum. " Without his drum," says Rowbotham, 
 " the Lapland sorcerer was powerless, but with it, and by its aid 
 alone, he could do all his wonders He could project his soul 
 to far distant countries, send it riding through the air or travelling 
 under the earth, while his body lay in a trance in Lapland ; he 
 could predict the future, especially could he foretell ' what the 
 success in hunting will be ' ; ' if a tame reindeer be lost, he can 
 tell how they may get him again ' ; he could predict whether the 
 net-fishing would be successful, or even if a sick man would 
 recover." ' The legends of the North American Indians carry 
 back the drum to the time of the Deluge. The Greenlanders 
 use it to conjure up spirits, the Samoyedes to drive them 
 away.^ In view of these facts, it is only natural to find that 
 one of the chief uses to which the drum is put among the 
 savages of the Western world, is to assist the mysterious rites of 
 the sorcerers and medicine men. But even among the Indians 
 and the Laplanders, it is by no means confined to such uses. 
 It is employed to accompany singing and the dance, and is an 
 important part of whatever orchestral performances may take place. 
 
 It is wonderful what an effect the sound of the drum has upon 
 the savage, and what meaning he is able to put into its monoto- 
 
 ' Rowbotham, i. p. 24. ^ Rowbotham, i. p. 7. '^ i. p. 11. 
 
 ■iCranz : Historie von Cninland, p. 271 ; Rowbotham, i. p. 15. 
 
248 Musical I list rum cuts and their Homes. 
 
 nous tone. It animates the warrior to deeds of bravery, and 
 enables the lover to express the depth of his emotion. The 
 Eskimos use the drum to give expression to their passions.' The 
 Manganjas of Africa employ it "to express their joy and grief." ^ 
 " In the Marquesas we read of mammoth drums fifteen feet in 
 height, whose sound resembles thunder, and with two rows of 
 these playing in their midst from morning till night, the people 
 will lie feasting under the trees for days together."' The Amer- 
 ican brave believes he can show his affection by the force of his 
 beating. " Hear my drum," he cries to his absent love, " though 
 you be at the uttermost part of the earth, hear my drum." And 
 again, "Do you 1 in dei' stand \N\i2X my drum says?"-* 
 
 It would be interesting to trace the growth of the different 
 instruments of percussion ; to follow the development of the rattle, 
 the bell, the cymbals, and the harmonicon, as evidenced by the 
 various specimens, more or less rude, which are found among 
 different savage races to-day. But such an undertaking will carry 
 us too far. I will therefore confine myself to but a single illus- 
 tration. Perhaps no better example could be taken of the gradual 
 growth of the conception of a musical instrument than that of 
 the harmonicon or xylophone. One of the crudest forms of this 
 is to be found in the Augrenuit of the inhabitants of New Britain. 
 This consists of two pieces of wood, dried by artificial means, and 
 hardened by being held in the fire as long as possible. They 
 are of unequal size, the larger being burnt on one side 
 only, and the other on both. They are slightly curved in shape. 
 The manner of playing the Angremut is thus described by M. 
 Kraus : " The islanders of New Britain," he says, " dig in the sand 
 during the night a trench which is longer than it is wide, and 
 pointed at both extremities. One of them then seats himself 
 across this trench, and the two Angremuts are placed across it 
 
 ■ Rowbotham, i. p. 30. = Livingstone, quoted by Rowbotliam, i. p. 30. f Rowbothara. i. p. 141. 
 
 ■t Sclioolcraft, quoted by Rowbotliam, i. p. 31. 
 
S(77'age Music. 249 
 
 symmetrically, and struck [with two little rounded sticks], thus 
 producing sounds, which, if we may believe the account of travel- 
 lers who have visited these islands, are anything but agreeable." " 
 Strangely enough a halo of mystery surrounds this somewhat 
 simple contrivance. Women are never allowed to see the Angre- 
 mut. It is only played in the dead of night, and the specimens 
 sold to Dr. Finsch for the museum at Florence were brought to 
 him at night " carefully enveloped in leaves, so that the women 
 might not see them." = A somewhat similar form of the instru- 
 ment is found among some of the natives of East Africa. Fig. 5, 
 in the present collection, is a very interesting specimen of this 
 kind. It consists of five rude pieces of wood, flattened on the top, 
 which are placed across two pieces of fresh-cut banana wood, laid 
 side by side upon the ground. They are beaten with two short 
 wooden drumsticks. In this instrument, as in the Angremut of 
 New Britain, we see the first crude attempts to increase the simple 
 sound of the wood by the support of some kind of resonant body. 
 The further development of this idea is shown in two more 
 finished specimens in the Catalogue (Fig. 4, Africa, and Fig. 2, 
 Central America). In the first of these the resonant bodies are 
 supplied by gourds, two of which are fastened, by a resinous 
 substance, under each of the twelve flat wooden keys of the instru- 
 ment. The whole is surrounded by a frame of wood, and is 
 suspended at the performer's waist by a cord passing round his 
 neck. In the Guatemalan specimen, the resonant bodies are sup- 
 plied by pieces of hollow wood. The number of keys in this 
 instrument is much greater than in the preceding, being no less 
 
 ' Kraus : Musical Instruments of Micronesia and Melanesia. This treatise is in Italian, As I have access 
 only to a manuscript translation, I am unable to give a more definite reference. 
 
 = Ibid. A similar mystery surrounds the _/7/;7//(?;7>, or wooden trumpet of the Brazilian Indians. "Women 
 are never permitted to see it. So stringent is this law that any woman ol'jtaining a sight of it is put to death — 
 usually by poison. No youths are allowed to see it, until they have been subjected to a series of initiatory fastings 
 and scourgings. The Jiiruparis is usually kept hidden in the bed of some stream, deep in the forest ; and no one 
 dires to drink out of that sanctified stream, or to bathe in its water. At feasts Vne. Jtiy2iparis is brought out during 
 the night, and is blown outside the houses of entertainment." Engel, p. 72. 
 
2sO 
 
 Musical Instruincnts and their Homes. 
 
 than twenty-eight. The whole rests upon a large frame of wood, 
 and is beaten with rubber-tipped drumsticks, sometimes as many 
 as three persons performing at the same time. 
 
 III. WIND INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 Wind instruments imply a stage of development more 
 advanced than that which is satisfied simply with instruments 
 of percussion. The question how the idea of their use first 
 originated, while an interesting one, need not concern us here. 
 We shall content ourselves with certain general observations as 
 to the nature and the use of the wind instruments found at 
 present among savage peoples. These may be divided into two 
 great classes — the horn class and the pipe class. The question 
 which was the earliest is still an open one, but I am inclined 
 to follow Mr. Rowbotham in assigning the first place to the 
 horns. The most simple instrument of this kind, and the one 
 from which all the others may well have been developed, is the 
 conch-shell. This is found to-day among savage peoples all 
 over the world, especially in the islands of the Pacific. In Africa 
 we find the negroes using trumpets of horn or ivory. Instru- 
 ments of wood are also common. The Indians who live alone 
 the banks of the Orinoco have wooden trumpets nearly seven 
 feet long." The use of instruments of this class seems to be con- 
 fined to w^arlike purposes. The savages who from time to time 
 attacked Orellana on his expedition down the Maranon, " almost 
 invariably preluded their onset by a tremendous din of horns and 
 trumpets. The Muras, who were the scourge of the colonists in 
 South America, would always perform a wild overture on horns 
 before commencing their attack. The people of the Orinoco used 
 horns for a similar purpose. The Samoans blow conch-shells as a 
 prelude to the war. The savages of Guiana commence their 
 
 ■ Engel, p. 72. 
 
Savage Music. 251 
 
 attacks with a screech of horns and trumpets."' The effect pro- 
 duced by some of these wild war-horns is really frightful. Ellis 
 says of the conch-shells of the Samoans that their sound is the 
 most " horrific " he has ever heard." 
 
 When we turn to the instruments of the pipe family, we find 
 a marked contrast. If the horn is pre-eminently the instrument of 
 war, the flute is, par excellence, the instrument of love. Row- 
 botham has gathered a most formidable collection of testimonies 
 which go to prove that Shakespeare's " lascivious piping of the 
 flute " was no idle term.^ I will quote but one of them. " ' In 
 the island of Formosa,' says an old Dutch voyager, ' they do not 
 buy their wives with moneys ; and the fathers and mothers are in 
 nowise consulted. But the young man appeareth for many days 
 before the hut of his sweetheart, and playeth on a flute or little 
 pipe, till she hath given her consent to espouse him, or told him 
 he may depart for she will have none of him.'"* A similar cus- 
 tom obtains among many tribes of the North American Indians. 
 
 The history of the flute is an interesting one, from the simple 
 reed with its single note, through such intermediate stages as the 
 rude pipe found among the Ashantees of Africa, which has three 
 holes, and the flute of the Apache Indians (Fig. 15, North 
 America), which has four, to such a finished instrument as 
 the love flute of the Dakotas (Fig. 10, North America). We 
 have seen, in the case of China, how long a time passed 
 before even the first step in this development was taken, 
 and the Chinaman learned that by cutting a single bamboo 
 it might be made to produce more than one note. In 
 like manner the savage, when he wished to produce more than 
 one tone, cut two or three different reeds and placed them side 
 by side. In this way must be explained the origin of the 
 Syrinx, or Pandean pipe. This is one of the most common 
 of savage instruments. It is found both in South America and 
 
 ■ Rowbotham, i. p. 37. = Quoted by Rowbotliam, i. p. 39. 3 See p. 47 scq. 4 Rovvbotham, i. p. 47. 
 
25 2 Musical Iiistruuicnts and their Homes. 
 
 among the inhabitants of Polynesia. The length of the reeds of 
 which it is composed varies from a few inches to four or f^ve 
 feet. A study of some of these syrinxes goes to confirm what 
 has already been said about the narrow compass of early sav- 
 age melodies. Fetis ' gives an example of a Polynesian syrinx 
 of nine pipes, in which the range extends only from B^ to F, 
 
 the exact order of notes being as follows : F, D, C, B!^, C, 
 
 E^ D, B', D. The examples given by Rowbotham^ have, how- 
 ever, a considerably wider range. " One of these syrinxes," says 
 this writer, " is to us as good as a piece of savage music 
 noted down by the savage himself, and by examining the melody 
 which is made by blowing it from end to end, we can see 
 clearly enough what sort of melodic ideal floated in the head of 
 the man who made it." ' 
 
 The interesting question of the origin of the nose-flute will 
 be touched upon in another connection. 
 
 IV. STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 With stringed instruments we reach the last and highest stage 
 in the history of musical instruments. The first rude beginnings 
 of this kind found among savage races are therefore of excep- 
 tional interest. Many theories have been advanced to account 
 for the invention of the first stringed instruments, but none of 
 them are thoroughly satisfactory. Rowbotham" believes that they 
 first came into use as instruments of accompaniment, and as a 
 matter of fact we find them used chiefly by those peoples among 
 whom the chant or song is most highly developed. With the 
 invention of the strings begins the period of " real musical cult- 
 ure." Through hearing melodies played upon the instrument, 
 the discovery was made that this alone, even without the voice, 
 was able to satisfy man's innate longing for music. " And 
 
 'i. p. 17. = i. p. 58. 3i. p. 57. +i. p. 161. 
 
Savage Music. 253 
 
 so instrumental music branches off from vocal music, and music 
 first fully separates itself from poetry." ' 
 
 In its primitive form the stringed instrument is nothing but 
 " a string or two stretched over a board or a stick." " Thus the 
 Fijians, we are told, have " a little Jew's harp which they twang 
 with their fingers." 3 Out of this rude form were developed alike 
 the Kin of China, the Vina of Hindustan, the Lute of Persia, and 
 the Harp of Egypt. But here again, as in the case of the flute, 
 the road from the first rude beginning to the finished instrument 
 is a long one. And just as among wind instruments the syrinx, 
 in which each reed gives a distinct tone, preceded the flute, in 
 which a number of tones are produced by a single reed, so in the 
 first stringed instruments each string probably gave but a single 
 note, and it was only later that man hit upon the idea of increas- 
 ing the number of notes produced by a single string by the 
 stopping of frets. ^ An interesting instance, showing how strong, 
 even among comparatively advanced tribes, is the association 
 between the individual string and the single tone which it is 
 supposed to produce, is given by Bowdich in describing the Sanko 
 of the Ashantees. This is " a narrow box, the open top of which 
 is covered with alligator or antelope skin. A bridge is raised on 
 this, over which eight strings [of vegetable fibre] are conducted to 
 the end of a long stick fastened to the forepart of the box, and 
 thickly notched," = and the strings are raised or depressed into 
 these notches as occasion requires. The strings are tuned quite at 
 
 ' Ambros, i. p. 540. = Rowbotham, i. p. 161. ' Williams, quoted by Rowbotham, i. p. 143. 
 
 •• " The stopping of the Lute's strings," says Rowbotham (i. p. 165), " was found out as soon as the Lute got a 
 neck, for in the primitive form of a piece of straight board with strings lying over it, there was no likelihood that 
 the art of stopping would be discovered, but the instrument would be played as we should play an ^diolian harp 
 nowadays (which indeed it very much resembled), or as the Chinese play their Lute [the Kin] at the present day, 
 resting on the knee, or on some artificial support, or perhaps on the left arm, while the thumb of the right hand 
 steadied it underneath, and the four fingers twanged the strings. But when, for convenience of holding, one end of 
 the instrument was made narrower, so as to be grasped by the left hand, directly, I say, the left hand went round 
 the strings, it could not help pressing them sometimes as it held them, and the difference of tone which the pressure 
 caused would be at once noticed, and in course of time would be acted on. And this was how the Lute's strings 
 got to be stopped." ^ p. 361. 
 
2 54 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 random. On one occasion, out of curiosity, Bowdich changed the 
 tunino- of some of the strings of the Sanko, and then called the 
 attention of the player to the fact that they now gave a different 
 tone. But the mind of the native seemed to be quite unable to 
 grasp the idea. " I put the same string," he said ; " it must be the 
 same tune." ' Yet although in strictness, instruments the strings 
 of which produced only a single tone must have preceded those 
 in which the number of tones of each string could be increased 
 by stopping, we find examples of the latter even among people 
 of comparatively low development. The Bechuanas, says Chapman, 
 have " a musical bow with a hollow calabash attached to one end, 
 on which is stretched a twisted string made of sinews, on which 
 the performer strikes with a thin stick, nwdifyijig the tones ivitlt 
 liis fingers by running ttieni along ttie string^ " This is a selfish 
 kind of music," he continues, " intended more for their own gratifi- 
 cation than for that of an audience, who can scarcely hear anything 
 of it, while the performer, having the one end of the bow con- 
 stantly between his teeth, the sounds vibrate powerfully to his 
 own ears, and are lost on the bystanders." = The same instrument 
 is found among the Bushmen. A modification of the idea is 
 found among the Bongo. " This consists of a bow of bamboo, 
 with the string tightly strained across it, and this is struck by 
 a slender slip of split bamboo." ' As in the Bechuana instrument, 
 one end of the bow is held in the teeth. The resonant gourd, 
 however, is wanting. " Performers may often be seen sitting for 
 an hour together with an instrument of this sort: they stick one 
 end of the bow into the ground, and fasten the string over a 
 cavity covered with bark, which opens into an aperture for the 
 
 ■ p. 361. The example, to be sure, does not quite cover the case. The idea that without altering the length 
 of a string it may be made to yield different tones by increasing or diminishing its tension is quite distinct from the 
 idea that different tones may be obtained from the same string by increasing or diminishing its length. The latter 
 principle the Ashantees seem already to have grasped. Yet the story is instructive as showing us how the mind of 
 savage man works on such questions. 
 
 " '■ P- 271. -< Schweinfurlli, i, p. 2S7. 
 
Savage Music. 255 
 
 escape of the sound. They pass one hand from one part of the 
 bow to the other, and with the other they play upon the string 
 with the bamboo twig, and produce a considerable variety of 
 buzzing and humming airs, which are really rather pretty." ^ The 
 principle of stopping reaches its full development in the Ztzt or 
 banjo (Fig. 4, Africa), which will be described later. 
 
 It does not fall within the scope of the present chapter to 
 follow the ingenious theory of Mr. Rowbotham as to the develop- 
 ment of the different forms of the stringed instrument. After 
 showing how savage man constructed the first rude lute, and 
 how out of that was developed the Lyre, he goes on to show how 
 " they each gave birth to a firstborn ; and the Lute gave birth to 
 the Harp, and the Lyre to the Dulcimer ; or, in other words, the 
 Lute got its increase in power by increasing the size and ten- 
 sion of the strings themselves, the Lyre got it by increasing the 
 force with which they were struck."' The theory is interesting, but 
 after all only tentative, and to be accepted with caution. In the 
 early history of music, as in other branches of the history of prim- 
 itive civilization, we find many facts that seem conflicting and hard 
 to reconcile. A study of the savage musical instruments sheds light 
 on many otherwise obscure points, but it leaves the darkness 
 which covers others all the more impenetrable. For the present, 
 at least, we must be content to leave much unexplained. I can- 
 not better close this chapter than by calling attention to but one 
 of the many seeming contradictions which meet us in this inter- 
 esting but baffling field. 
 
 We are accustomed to think of harmony as peculiarly the 
 characteristic of modern European music. Even to the most 
 highly civilized nations of the East, it seems to be practically 
 unknown. Not only does the matter-of-fact Chinaman, and the 
 
 ' Schweinfurth, i. p. 287. " This," he continues, " is quite a common pastime with the lads who are put in 
 charge of the goats. I have seen them apply themselves very earnestly and with obvious interest to their musical 
 practice, and the ingenious use to which they apply the simplest means for obtaining harmonious tones testifies to 
 their penetration into the secrets of the theory of sound." ^i. p. 164. 
 
256 Musical Instninients and their Homes. 
 
 practical Japanese care nothing- for it, but even the imaginative 
 Hindu contents himself with the delights of pure melody. The 
 Arabs themselves, who have carried the development of the 
 strings to a point of perfection higher than that found among 
 any other extra-European nation, while acquainted with some of 
 the principles of harmony, regard it, as we have seen, rather as a 
 " disturbing element." In view of these facts, we should surely 
 expect to find in the music of savage peoples examples of melody 
 only. Yet while this is true as a rule, we are confronted by a 
 number of interesting and puzzling exceptions. Thus the Ashan- 
 tees produce thirds, and even, occasionally, fifths, on their rude 
 flutes.' "The harmonies which they [the Niam-NiamsJ elicit from 
 their favorite instrument, the mandolin, seem almost to thrill 
 through the chords of their inmost nature." ' But the most 
 interesting case is that of the New Zealanders. Here " for 
 unknown ages a combination of simple thirds in a short vocal 
 strain has been known "^' — a fact which may indeed illustrate, as 
 Mr. Elson phrases it, " the force of accident in the rise of music," 
 but which I prefer to recognize as the first faint utterings of that 
 higher sense in man, which, after lying dormant in the human 
 constitution for centuries, has at last voiced itself in the wonder- 
 ful harmonies of a Beethoven and a Wagner. 
 
 ■ Bowdich, p. 361. 2 Schweinfurth, ii. p. 29. 
 
 3 Elson : Curiosities of Music, p. 233 ; Aml-)ros, i. p. 545. Still other e.xamples of savage harmony are 
 given by Rowbotham, i. pp. 168, 169. 
 
XV. 
 
 INSTRUMENTS OF THE AFRICAN 
 
 TRIBES. 
 
 '^^^^HE remarks which have already been made as to the 
 fondness of savage man for music apply with special 
 force to the African negro. Not only does this love 
 characterize him in his native land and among his own people, 
 but he carries it with him wherever he goes. The negroes of 
 our own Southern States are a case in point. Some one has 
 ventured the prediction that at some future time, when the Afri- 
 can race shall have attained a stage of civilization not inferior 
 to that of the European nations, they will become " the most 
 universally and thoroughly musical race on the face of the globe." 
 
 But whatever may take place in the future, we must be con- 
 tent to-day to study these musical capabilities in the germ. 
 Compared with the savages of the Western world, the negroes 
 are relatively far advanced in musical development. Many of 
 their melodies are clearly marked and pleasing." Passionately 
 fond of singing and the dance, says Ambros," they have the 
 faculty of striking up jolly dance-songs, which, following the 
 natural intervals of their horns and trumpets, bring out with 
 marked emphasis the significance of the tonic triad as well as 
 of the dominant. The first beginnings of harmony among the 
 Ashantees have already been noticed. 
 
 When we turn to consider the musical instruments of the 
 
 ■ Note especially the examples given by Ambros, i. p. 546. - Ibid. 
 
258 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 African tribes, we find that almost all of them possess at least 
 some form of the stringed instrument. Now, the stringed instru- 
 ment, as we have seen, indicates a relatively high stage of 
 musical advancement. Yet here we find it among a people who 
 are still pure savages. This presents an interesting problem for 
 the musical historian. Mr. Rowbotham tells us that he under- 
 took to make a catalogue of the diff"erent African tribes, with 
 a view to discover "whether the absence of stringed instruments 
 prevailed in the centre, the north, or in what direction it might 
 be, of the continent. It seemed to me," he says,' " from the 
 tale this catalogue told, that the tribes in the lowest state of 
 musical development — that is, those who have not yet acquired 
 the use of stringed instruments — were principally in the East of 
 the continent, and the East of the Central part of it. But this 
 tabulation I was obliged to discard, owing to the conflicting 
 accounts of travellers." The problem is still further complicated 
 by the fact that some tribes who possess stringed instruments 
 seem to be entirely unacquainted with wind instruments. In 
 view of these facts, the ingenious theory has been advanced by 
 Mr. Rowbotham, that as " the art of smelting metals was passed 
 down from the ancient Egyptians through the negroes on their 
 borders, and from thence spread through the whole continent 
 of Africa," so in like manner the negroes derived their acquaint- 
 ance with stringed instruments from the Egyptians." Nor is 
 this theory by any means without the support of facts. The 
 African harps are remarkably like those of ancient Egypt in 
 shape. Especially striking is the evidence of the Nanga of 
 the Soudan. This instrument, which is " a peculiar cross 
 between the lute and the harp," is an exact copy of one of the 
 most characteristic of the Egyptian instruments. Nor are the 
 points of resemblance confined to stringed instruments alone. 
 " The negroes of the Soudan call their drums by the same 
 
 ■Appendix A, i. p. 185. = i. p. jgg. 
 
Instruments of tJie Afiican Tribes. 259 
 
 name as the ancient Egyptians, Daltika, and the drums are pre- 
 cisely identical." ' In further confirmation of his theory that 
 the stringed instrument has been " prematurely " introduced 
 among the negroes, Mr. Rowbotham cites the use to which it is 
 put by most of them. " For it is generally used as a mere idle 
 instrument, and often fitted with keys of iron, or struck with rods 
 like a dulcimer, and has pieces of shells and tin hung to it, to 
 make a jingling accompaniment. It serves the same office which 
 the pipe does among other savages — to accompany the dance or 
 to amuse the ear ; but as to being an instrument for poets, as to 
 being the companion of bards and minstrels, we do not find any 
 such fate has befallen the Lyre of Africa. So we prefer to con- 
 sider it a premature importation from civilized neighbors, which 
 has not taken root and flourished, because the new possessors were 
 not prepared to receive it."' 
 
 Examples of similar transfers of musical instruments from 
 people in one stage of civilization to those in a lower are very 
 common in musical history. An interesting case in point is that 
 of the nose-flute, the use of which was probably carried from 
 India, its original home, through Siam to Borneo ; thence " across 
 to Fiji, the Society, Friendly and Hervey groups, and down to 
 New Zealand, while it has even been met with in North Austra- 
 lia, where it had probably been brought by Malay trading canoes 
 from the other islands."^ Not to refer to the many cases of 
 similar transfers which have already been touched upon in the 
 history of Eastern musical instruments, we may find a number of 
 interesting examples within Africa itself. Thus Burton'' speaks of 
 the instruments of the natives of the Lake regions of Central 
 Africa, as being " all of foreign invention, imported from various 
 regions, Madagascar and the coast." 
 
 •Rowbotham, i, p. 187, where other instances also are given. The resemblance between the Mittoo lyre and 
 the Nubian Kissar will be noticed later. = Ibid. 
 
 3 E. B. Tylor, Macmillan's Magazine, May, 1S82, p, 81. 4 Lake Regions of Central Africa, ii. p. 291. 
 
2 6o Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 The general statement of Mr. Rowbotham as to the use of 
 the lyre in Africa, while doubtless true in the main, must be 
 corrected by several very interesting exceptions. Thus the Niam- 
 Niams of the Soudan have a class of professional bards or min- 
 strels, called Nzangah, who use a combination of harp and man- 
 dolin,' " the thin jingling of which accords perfectly well with the 
 nasal humming of the minstrel's recitative.'" Nor are such 
 bards found among the Niam-Niams alone. "Under minor 
 differences of aspect, these men may be found nearly everywhere 
 in Africa." ^ Unlike the bards of the Northern nations, they are 
 looked upon with contempt by their hearers, as the name 
 HasJiash (buffoon), applied to them by the Arabs of the Soudan, 
 well indicates.^ 
 
 In taking up the special consideration of the African instru- 
 ments, we shall find it convenient to follow an order the reverse 
 of that employed in considering the instruments of the Eastern 
 nations. I shall, therefore, first give some account of the instru- 
 ments of percussion of the negroes; second, of their wind instru- 
 ments, and, last of all, of their stringed instruments. 
 
 I. INSTRUMENTS OF PERCUSSION. 
 
 In approaching the subject of the African instruments of per- 
 cussion, we are embarrassed by the richness of the material. A 
 full catalogue would embrace almost every kind of resonant con- 
 trivance that the brain of man can conceive. The Ashantees, 
 says Bowdich,'' use in their music " drums, castanets, gong-gongs, 
 flat sticks, rattles, and, even old brass pans." The Wajiji, an 
 East African tribe, have a rude tom-tom made of " a pair of 
 foolscap-shaped plates of thin iron, joined at the apices and con- 
 nected at the bases by a solid cross-bar of the same metal." ' 
 
 ' Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, i. p. 446. ^Ibid., ii p. 30. 
 
 3 The Niam-Niam Nzangah, signifying prostitute, is still more expressive. 
 
 ■•Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, p. 363. 5 Burton. Lake Regions, etc., ii. p. 98. 
 
Instruments of the African Tribes. 261 
 
 Upon this they beat with a muffled stick " with painful persever- 
 ance." The Niam-Niams have an instrument which has been 
 described by Colonel Long as " a Sinon-like wooden horse, that 
 was beaten on its sides with drumsticks."' The inhabitants of 
 Dahomey ornament their drums with skulls. In the great pro- 
 cession of the King's Wealth, which Forbes witnessed in 1850, 
 there passed " twenty men carrying the royal drums, one orna- 
 mented with twenty human skulls," " six men carrying a drum, 
 ornamented with twelve human skulls," etc' In another similar 
 procession, the same traveller saw thirty women carrying a single 
 drum ornamented with twenty-four skulls.' Fig. 3, in the. present 
 collection, shows a pottery drum, the head of which is said to be 
 covered with human skin. Sir Samuel Baker was once quar- 
 tered near the town of Masindi, where dwelt Kabba Rega, King 
 of the Unyori. One evening, after a somewhat unusual stillness, 
 he was startled by " the deep tones of a nogara or drum. This 
 ceased in a moment ; and then came a burst of terrific noise, 
 which caused every man in camp to rush to his post. It was a 
 din, caused by many thousands yelling and shrieking like maniacs. 
 At least a thousand drums were beating ; horns, whistles and 
 every instrument which could add to the confusion was blowing 
 and sounding, yet no human being was visible." ** Upon being 
 informed by the dragoman that the purpose of this terrific com- 
 motion was to " make Imn afraid',' Sir Samuel ordered his own 
 regimental band to strike up their loudest — a proceeding which 
 had the happy result of causing the horrible din to cease. These 
 examples, which might be indefinitely multiplied, sufficiently 
 illustrate the variety, both in character and in use, of the African 
 instruments of percussion. A few of the more important kinds, 
 however, call for special description. 
 
 " The drum," says Burton, = " is ever the favorite instrument 
 
 'Long, Central Africa, p. 278. ' = Dahomey and the Dahonians, ii p. 217. 
 
 3ii. p. 237. "Elson. p. 276. 5 Lake Regions, etc., ii. p. 294. 
 
262 Musical Iiistruiiients and their Homes. 
 
 with the African, who uses it as the alarum of war, the promise 
 of mirth, the token of hospitality, and the cure of disease : with- 
 out drumming life would indeed be a blank." The largest of 
 the African drums is called Ngonia Kit. It is described as 
 " the hollowed hole of a mkenga, or other soft tree, with a 
 cylindrical solid projection from the bottom, which holds it 
 upright when planted in the ground. The instrument is from 
 three to five feet in length, with a diameter of from one to 
 two feet ; the outside is protected with a net-work of strong 
 cord. Over the head is stretched a rough parchment made of 
 calf's skin, and a cap of green hide, mounted when loose, and 
 afterwards shrunken by exposure to fire, protects the bottom. 
 It is vigorously beaten with the fist, and sometimes with coarse 
 sticks." ' The Niam-Niams and Monbuttoo of the Soudan have 
 large signal drums of somewhat similar shape. " They stand 
 sometimes upon four and sometimes upon two feet, and are like 
 the instruments which are seen upon the West Coast." = One 
 of these drums is probably referred to in the " Sinon-like wooden 
 horse " mentioned above. Many smaller wooden drums are also 
 found. Some are "shaped like an hour-glass or a double ' dara- 
 bukkah,' and provided with a head of iguana skin."^ Schwein- 
 furth^ describes one of the Monbuttoo drums as being " of a 
 semicircular shape, very compressed and fitted with a handle at 
 the top; the opening for the sound is below, and the instru- 
 ment may be compared to a flattened bell." Two forms of 
 drum very common on the East Coast are shown in Figs. 9 
 and 10. 
 
 I have already referred to the drums of the Ashantees. These 
 are usually made of the hollowed trunk of a tree, open at one 
 end and covered with skin on the other. They are of two 
 sizes. The largest are borne on the head of a man, and struck 
 
 ■ Burton, ii, p. 295. Drums of this kind are found among the Bongo. (See Schweinfurth, i. p. 288.) 
 'Schweinfurth, ii, p. 113. 3 Burton, ii. p. 295. 4 ii. p. 113. 
 
Instruments of the African Tribes. 26 
 
 d 
 
 by one or more followers ; the smaller are strung round the 
 neck or rest on the ground. The former are beaten with sticks, 
 shaped like a " crochet rest " ; the latter are played with the 
 fingers.' The most highly esteemed of the Ashantee drums are 
 covered with leopard skin, and played, like a tambourine, with 
 two fingers. 
 
 The Bushmen use, to accompany their dances, a peculiar water- 
 drum, which is " merely a wooden bowl into which a little water 
 has been poured, and over which a skin is tightly drawn." ' 
 
 The Saiije, or rattle, is found among many African tribes. It 
 usually consists of a gourd filled with pebbles. It is used chiefly 
 by women and children, and by the Mganga, or rain-maker.^ At 
 the great festivals of the Bongo, says Schweinfurth," " women 
 and children by the hundred fill gourd-flasks with little stones, and 
 rattle them away as if they were churning butter ; or again at other 
 times they will get some sticks or dry fagots and strike them 
 together with the greatest energy." In some cases hollow gourds 
 are used as drums, and beaten with sticks.^ The negroes of the 
 Soudan have a kind of cymbals (Fig. 11), consisting of two thin 
 plates of iron, with leather handles, which they use to accompany 
 the beating of their heavy drums. I have already referred to 
 the fact that the Ashantees use brass pots as instruments of per- 
 cussion. 
 
 Two of the most important of the African instruments of percus- 
 sion still remain to be noticed. The first of these is the Marimba ; 
 the second the Zanze. The Marimba, which is also called MiJiairibi, 
 
 ' Bowdich, p. 363. 
 
 - Elson, p. 256. This drum " is struck regularly in time with the movements of the dancer ; the latter, when 
 partially exhausted, falls upon the floor, but still singing and kicking in time with the music ; after a short rest of 
 this description, he jumps up and continues as at first. When utterly exhausted, he retires among the spectators, 
 and, unfastening his leg rattles, hands them to the next dancer. The music to this odd performance is not in unison. 
 The dancer sings one air, the spectators another, and the drum gives a species of ' ground bass' to the whole." This, 
 therefore, is another interesting instance where an acquaintance with harmony is found among a people in all 
 other respects most degraded. 
 
 3 Burton, ii. p. 295. 4 i, p. 288. s Burton, ii. p. 295. 
 
264 Musical Iiistrunients and tJicir Homes. 
 
 Timbila, or Ba/afo, according to the part of the country in which 
 it is found, is one of the commonest of African instruments. Its 
 ruder forms have been sufficiently described in the previous chapter. 
 A representative specimen of this kind, from the East Coast of 
 Africa, is shown in Fig. 5. The perfected Marimba is thus 
 described by Engel : ' It has twelve keys, made of " slabs of 
 sonorous wood, beneath which are fastened, by means of a dark- 
 colored cement, twelve gourds, to increase the sound. In each 
 gourd are two holes, one of which is at the top, and the other at 
 the side. The latter is covered with a delicate film, to promote 
 the sonorousness. Several African travellers have noticed this 
 curious acoustic contrivance. Du Chaillu says that the film con- 
 sists of the skin of a spider ; Livingstone mentions spider's web 
 being applied to instruments of this kind, used by certain native 
 tribes in Southern Africa." The Marimba is a favorite instrument, 
 both of the negroes and of the Kaffres. A fine specimen is 
 shown in Fig. 4. In this, however, the resonant body, instead of 
 being furnished by a single gourd under each key, consists of 
 two, a larger and a smaller, which are fastened together with resin, 
 so as to form the shape of a figure eight. As has already been 
 said, the instrument is suspended at the waist by a cord passing 
 round the neck, and is beaten by two rubber-tipped drumsticks. 
 
 The Zanze (Figs, i and 2) consists of a hollow wooden box, 
 the top of which is furnished with a number of iron toneues, which 
 are set in vibration by the thumbs of the player. In the first of 
 these specimens, the keys are twenty-three in number; in the 
 second, only eleven. Both pass over a low iron bridge, which 
 raises them from the wooden surface, and causes them to vibrate 
 clearly. Instruments of this kind are common all over Africa. 
 The Zanze proper is found among the negro tribes of upper and 
 lower Guinea. "Similar instruments are the Kassangah of Dela- 
 goa Bay and the neighboring district. Southeastern Africa; the 
 
 ' p. 156. 
 
Instruments of the African Tribes. 265 
 
 Ibeka of the Balakai, a negro tribe in Western Africa, near the 
 Gaboon River ; the Anibira, popular at Mozambique, Hast Africa ; 
 the VissandscJii, at Congo and Benguela, and others." ' In some 
 of these the tongues are made of iron ; in others of hard wood. 
 In several of them they are so inserted as to allow of their being 
 pushed deeper into the wood, or drawn out to a greater length, 
 at pleasure. Engel suggests that this may be " an expedient for 
 the purpose of tuning them in conformity with any particular 
 melody which the performer wishes to play, and which, as the 
 negro melodies are generally very short, he may produce by means 
 of the tongues thus arranged, if he vibrates them in succession, 
 meanwhile observing the rhythm of the melody." ' Among the 
 Banabea, the body of the instrument consists of a fiat piece of 
 wood placed inside of a large gourd, which acts as a sounding- 
 board.^ The Ooinpoochwa of the Ashantees, described by Bowdich, " 
 seems to be a sort of rude Zanze with five wooden keys. 
 
 II. WIND INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The wind instruments of the negroes are not nearly as numer- 
 ous or important as their instruments of percussion. As we have 
 already seen, there are not a few tribes which have no wind 
 instruments at all. Those which are found are chiefly flutes, 
 whistles, horns, and trumpets. 
 
 The Dliete or Kidete, used by many tribes of the interior, is 
 described by Burton = as " a hollowed holcus-cane, pierced with four 
 holes at the further end ; the mouth-piece is not stopped in any 
 way, and the instrument is played upon solely by the lips, a drone 
 being sometimes supplied by the voice." The reed flute of the 
 Ashantees, with three holes, has been more than once referred to. 
 The Karague, a tribe of Central Africa, have a kind of flageolet, 
 beside certain " reed instruments made in telescopic fashion." ^ 
 
 ' Engel, p. 297. = Ibid. 3 Chapman, i. p. 272. ' p. 363. 5 ;i. p. 293. (• Elson, p. 262. 
 
2 66 Musical Instnimcnts and their Homes. 
 
 The Bechuanas also have reeds "with which they make a very 
 monotonous and discordant noise at their moonlight dances.'" 
 The Mittoo are many of them quite skilful players of the flute, 
 and have been described by Nubian travellers as "equal to the 
 best Prankish (European) performers who reside in Cairo." ^ The 
 Kaffres have a rude flute or flageolet, but their favorite instrument 
 is an "ear-piercing whistle," with but a single note.^ Among the 
 Bongo " the youngsters, down to the small boys, are all musicians. 
 Without much trouble and with the most meagre materials, they 
 contrive to make Httle flutes."-* 
 
 The Bongo have also some large trumpets called Manyinyee. 
 These are huge wooden tubes varying in length from four to five 
 feet, " closed at the extremity, and ornamented with carved work 
 representing a man's head, which not unfrequently is adorned with 
 a couple of horns. The other end of the stem is open, and in 
 an upper compartment towards the figure of the head is the ori- 
 fice into which the performer blows with all his might. There 
 is another form of Manyinyee which is made like a huge wine- 
 bottle ; in order to play upon it the musician takes it between his 
 knees, like a violoncello, and when the build of the instrument is 
 too cumbrous, he has to bend over it, as it lies on the ground." ^ 
 The Mittoo substitute for the wooden trumpet of the Bongo, a 
 long gourd flask with holes in the side.' The people of the 
 East Coast have a " huge bassoon of black wood," called SiwaJ 
 
 One of the most important of the negro instruments is the 
 horn. This is made either of horn or of ivory, and is of several 
 kinds. "The Barghnmi is made by cutting an oblong hole, 
 about the size of a man's nail, within two or three inches of the 
 tip of a koodoo, an oryx, or a goat's horn, Avhich for effect and 
 appearance is sometimes capped with a bit of cane, whence pro- 
 jects a long zebra's or giraff"e's tail."' By altering the force of the 
 
 ' Chapman, i. p. 271. = Elson, p. 26S. 3 Elson, pp. 253, 255. 4 Schweinfurth, i. p. 2S7. 
 
 5 Schweinfurth, i. p. 288. (■ Ibid., p. 412. ^ Burton, ii, p. 293. s Burton, ii. p. 294. 
 
Iiisti'unicnts of the African Tribes. 267 
 
 breath, it may be made to yield four or five notes. Its tone is 
 not unlike that of a French hunting-horn. The Ashantees have 
 a similar horn made of ivory' (see Fig. 12). The Bongo have a 
 number of signal-horns made of the horns of different antelopes. 
 " These are called Mangoal, and have three holes like small 
 flutes, and in tone are not unlike fifes." ' They have also a long, 
 narrow wooden pipe, called Mburrah, " which has a widened air- 
 chamber close to the mouth-piece, very similar to the ivory 
 signal-horns which are frequently to be seen in all the negro 
 countries." ^ 
 
 The King of the Monbuttoo is said to have horn-men " who 
 can modulate their tones from infinite tenderness to the sound of 
 a lion's roar; and can perform upon a horn so cumbrous that it 
 can scarcely be held passages of runs, trills and shakes which 
 would be difficult upon a flute." ' 
 
 A curious wind instrument is described by Burton. =^ This 
 consists of " a gourd a few inches in circumference, drilled with 
 many little apertures ; the breath passes through one hole, and 
 certain notes are produced by stopping others with the fingers." 
 It yields " loud, shrill, ear-piercing quavers," somewhat resembling 
 those of the European piccolo. Another curious instrument is 
 the Gotira of the Bushmen. This is shaped like a bow, but 
 has a piece of quill inserted at one end of the string. This 
 quill is blown in the same manner as an ordinary Jew's harp. 
 A modified form of the same instrument, called youm-jotim, is 
 used by the women. This, however, is not played by the 
 breath, but struck by a stick, the performer catching it up 
 quickly and putting it to her ear in order to catch the vibra- 
 tions.^ 
 
 The negroes of the Congo have a kind of rude bagpipe, with 
 a shrill and piercing tone.' The Ashantees also have a bag- 
 
 'Bowdich, p. 361. = Schweinfurth, i. p. 289. 'Ibid. -lElsoii, p. 268. 
 
 5 ii. p. 294. 'Elson, p. 257. ? Ambros, i. p. 547. 
 
2 68 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 pipe, in which, however, the drone is rarely heard/ This com- 
 pletes the list of the principal African wind instruments. 
 
 III. STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The commonest of the African stringed instruments is the 
 musical bow, which has already been described. This is found 
 both in the centre and the south of the continent. It is used 
 by the Bongo of the Soudan, the Bechuanas, the Kaffres, and 
 the Zulus. Its form differs according to the locality. The Kaf- 
 fre instrument is nearly five feet long, and is furnished with a 
 resonant gourd. That of the Zulus, which is called Gubo, has 
 no gourd, and is less than two feet long (see Fig. 6). Those of 
 the Bechuanas and of the Bongo have been sufficiently described. 
 
 One of the most important instruments of the East Coast is 
 the Zeze (Tzetze) or banjo (Figs. 7 and 8). This is thus described 
 by Burton : ' " The sounding-board is a large hollow gourd, open 
 below; on the upper part, fastened by strings that pass through 
 drilled holes, is a conical piece of gourd, cleft longitudinally to 
 admit the arm or handle, which projects at a right angle. The 
 arm is made of light wood from eighteen inches to two feet 
 in length ; the left-hand extremity has three frets formed by 
 two notches with intervals, and thus the total range is of six 
 notes. A single string made of nwndo, the fibre of the mwate, 
 or raphia-palm, is tied to a knob of wood projecting from the 
 dexter extremity of the handle; thence it passes over a bridge 
 of bent quill, which for tuning is raised or depressed, and lastly, 
 it is secured round another knob at the end beyond the frets. 
 Sometimes, to form a bass or drone, a second string is similarly 
 attached along the side of the arm, whilst the treble runs along 
 the top." 3 
 
 One of the most characteristic of African stringed instruments 
 
 'Bowdich, p. 361. =n. p. 292. 3 So in Fig. 8. 
 
Instniniciits of fJic African Tribes. 269 
 
 is the Nanga, or harp, of the Niam-Niams, to which reference 
 has already been made. This is described by Schweinfurth ' as 
 being " something between a harp and a mandohn. It resem- 
 bles the former," he says, " in the vertical arrangement of its 
 strings, whilst, in common with the mandolin, it has a sounding- 
 board, a neck, and screws for tightening the strings. The sound- 
 ing-board is constructed on strict acoustic principles. It has two 
 apertures ; it is carved out of wood, and on the upper side is 
 covered by a piece of skin ; the strings are tightly stretched by 
 means of pegs, and are sometimes made of fine threads of bast, 
 and sometimes of the long wiry hairs from the tail of the 
 giraffe." The music of the Nanga is described as very monoto- 
 nous, and it is difficult to distinguish any actual melody in it. 
 Yet Schweinfurth declares that he has not unfrequently " seen 
 friends marching about arm-in-arm, wrapped in the mutual enjoy- 
 ment of their performance, and beating time to every note by 
 nodding their heads." ' 
 
 Other instruments of the harp family are found in Western 
 Africa. The Oinbi of the Bakalai " is made of thin pieces of a 
 resonant wood, covered with leather prepared from the ear of 
 an elephant, or with snake, gazelle or goat skin. It has eight 
 stringfs cut from the dried root of some tree"^ The Bouloii of 
 the negroes of Senegambia has ten strings, and " long tuning 
 pegs of a peculiar shape." ■* Other harps from the same region 
 have respectively seven and eighteen strings.^ 
 
 A curious stringed instrument from the Congo River, West 
 Africa, is contained in the American Museum of Natural History 
 of this city. This has a narrow wooden body, ornamented at the 
 upper end with two small horns. Five strings of vegetable fibre 
 pass over a low wooden bridge, and are attached to as many 
 curved rods of bamboo which project some two feet above the 
 body, taking the place of the single handle of the Nanga or 
 
 'ii. p. 30. = Ibid. 3 Engel, p. 15T. ■> Ibid. 5 Muiigo Pai-1<, cpioted by Engel, p. 151. 
 
2 70 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 Niam-Niam harp. A small movable loop is passed about each 
 rod and its appropriate string, about five inches below their point 
 of juncture, thus increasing the tension of the string, as in the 
 Chinese violins. (See Figs. 9 and 10, China.) 
 
 The tribes in the neighborhood of Kilwa, south of Lake 
 Nyassa, have an instrument called Kinanda. This is " a shallow 
 box cut out of a single plank, thirteen inches long by five or six 
 HI breadth, and about two inches in depth : eleven or twelve 
 strings are drawn tightly over the hollow.'" The instrument is 
 placed upon the lap and played with the fingers of both hands. 
 " A combination of the Zeze and Kinanda is made by binding a 
 dwarf hollow box with its numerous strings to the open top of a 
 large circular gourd, which then acts as a sounding-board." ' The 
 Saiilzo of the Ashantees has already been described. 
 
 The Mittoo of the Soudan have a rude lyre which remarkably 
 resembles the Kissar of the Nubians (Egypt, Fig. 2). The 
 sounding-board of this is quadrangular, covered with skin, with 
 a circular sound-hole at each corner. It has five strings, which 
 pass over a bridge made of " the large shell of the Anodont mus- 
 sel," and are fastened at regular intervals to a cross-bar at the 
 top.3 
 
 Several instruments of the guitar family are found in Africa. 
 Thus the Karague have " a kind of guitar," in which six of the 
 seven strings accord perfectly with our diatonic scale, only the 
 seventh being discordant.-* The Lol^aiiga of Madagascar is 
 described as " a kind of native guitar," with four strings and a 
 wooden body grotesquely carved, painted and decorated with 
 feathers. The Rev. Wm. Ellis relates that he has often seen more 
 than a hundred men dragging a single tree past his house, 
 " keeping time with the Lokanga played on the way before 
 them." ' 
 
 'Burton, ii. p. 293. = Ibid. ' Schweinfurlh (i. p. 413) gives a picture of this lyre. 
 
 ■tElson, p. 263. ^Quoted by Engel, p. 151. 
 
Instnnucnts of the African Tribes. 2 7 1 
 
 A few negro tribes possess a sort of rude violin. Thus some 
 of the tribes of the Western Interior have an instrument in which 
 the body is made of a gourd with a deerskin top, pierced with 
 two sound-holes. It has a single string of cow's hair, and is 
 played with a bow of the same material.' A similar instrument, 
 which Major Laing heard played by a Griot or royal musician, at 
 Semira, was strung with a horse-hair string, and had a compass 
 of about four tones." 
 
 So much for the instruments of the negroes of Africa. The 
 character of their concerted music has already been sufficiently 
 indicated by what has preceded. I cannot do better in closing 
 than to quote the following eloquent description from Schwein- 
 furth of one of the performances at the great festivals of the 
 Bongo. "On those occasions," says this traveller,^ "the orches- 
 tral results might fairly be described as cat's music run wild. 
 Unwearied thumping of drums, the bellowings of gigantic trum- 
 pets, for the manufacture of which great stems of trees come 
 into requisition, interchanged by fits and starts with the shriller 
 blasts of some smaller horns, make up the burden of the unearthly 
 hubbub which re-echoes miles away along the desert." Yet it 
 would not be fair to judge all negro concerts from this descrip- 
 tion. The performances of the Karague, a tribe of the Lake 
 region of Central Africa, are described as being far less barbarous 
 than those of most of the other tribes of the interior. Speke " 
 gives an interesting picture of one of these concerts in which 
 seven performers are represented as taking part. One of them 
 plays upon a harp with seven strings, a second upon a flute, a 
 third upon a trumpet, and a fourth upon a Marimba. The fifth 
 beats an enormous kettle-drum, while a pair of smaller drums are 
 beaten by each of the two remaining performers. Who shall say 
 
 'Bowdich, p. 363. =Ambros, i. p. 548, ^ i. p. 288. 
 
 "Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile, p. 212. Fetis (i. p. 38) reproduces this picture on 
 a larger scale. 
 
272 Musical InstruiJicnts and their Homes. 
 
 that such a representation as this does not bear witness to a 
 musical sense quite as ad\'anced as that evidenced by a certain 
 Japanese picture already referred to," in which six instruments of 
 percussion are balanced against a single flute ? 
 
 ' Siebold : Nippon, vol. ii., Plates, Pt. IV., No. XI. 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 
 
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XVI. 
 
 MUSIC OF THE NORTH AMERICAN 
 
 INDIANS. 
 
 O part of the history of savage music is more interestin 
 
 .■-.^■.^■J^iy^A'TOT 
 
 
 K-j ■fj^T);=r^->> 
 
 S) 
 
 than that which treats of the music of the various Indian 
 tribes of North America. Yet perhaps there is no subject 
 in all musical history of which so little is known. " One of the 
 first things we hear of the Indians, after their discovery," says 
 Schoolcraft, " is their proneness to singing and dancing. But how- 
 ever characteristic these traits may be, and we think they are 
 eminently so, it has fallen to the lot of but few to put on record 
 specimens which may be appealed to as evidences of the current 
 opinion on these heads. With favorable opportunities of observa- 
 tion among the tribes, we have but to add our testimony to the 
 difficulties of making collections in these departments which shall 
 not compromise the intellectual character of the tribes, whose efforts 
 are always oral, and very commonly extemporaneous." ' These 
 words were written forty years ago by the best living authority on 
 all matters connected with the North American Indians. I can 
 only attempt here to give the reader a general idea of the rich 
 field which still waits to be explored. 
 
 As in the case of the negroes of Africa, so among the various 
 Indian tribes of North America, we find very different degrees 
 of musical development. While it may be said with confidence 
 that all Indians are fond of music of some kind, the character of 
 
 ' The Indian in his Wigwam, p. 221. 
 
292 Musical Listnnnciifs and their Homes. 
 
 that music varies greatly with the locality and the tribe. The 
 rude natives of Alaska content themselves with rattles and drums. 
 As we proceed southward, wind instruments come into use. The 
 Haidas of the west coast of British America have a great variety 
 of rude wooden pipes and flutes. Among the Sioux or Dakotas 
 we find flageolets with six and seven finger-holes. Whereas, with 
 many other tribes, musical instruments are used only to accompany 
 singing and the dance, the orchestral performances of the Dakotas 
 are quite elaborate. The Apaches possess a rude violin with one 
 string, while the Pueblos of New Mexico are contented chiefly 
 with instruments of percussion. Scarcely less marked are the 
 differences in the character of the songs of the various tribes. 
 Some are extremely monotonous, and contained within a very 
 narrow compass. The range of others is no less than two octaves. 
 In general we may say that the character of the music of any 
 particular tribe is a very fair index of its general development. 
 
 In view of such differences, it is difficult to make any satisfac- 
 tory generalizations on the subject of Indian music. The remarks 
 in the present chapter are necessarily of this character; and unless 
 it is otherwise stated, are to be taken as applying chiefly to those 
 tribes which, like the Sioux and the Apaches, have reached a 
 relatively high state of musical development. 
 
 The North American Indian is naturally a poet. His war 
 songs "contain flights of the finest heroic sentiment, clothed in 
 poetic imagery."' The addresses of his orators abound in eloquent 
 and poetic thought. He is a wonderfully close observer of nature. 
 " He pays a religious attention to every sound that strikes upon his 
 ear; when the leaves softly shaken by the evening breeze, seem 
 to sigh through the air, or when the tempest, bursting forth with 
 fury, shakes the gigantic trees that crack like frail reeds. The 
 chirping of birds, the cry of the wild beasts— in a word, all those 
 sweet, grave, or imposing voices that animate the wilderness, are 
 
 I Schoolcraft, p. 221. 
 
Mtisic of tJic North Aiiiciican hidians. 293 
 
 so many musical lessons which he easily remembers." ' The great 
 storehouse of his imagery is the heavens. " The clouds, the 
 planets, the sun and moon, the phenomena of lightning, thunder, 
 electricity, aerial sounds, electric or atmospheric, and the endless 
 variety produced in the heavens by light and shade, and by ele- 
 mental action, — these constitute the fruitful themes of allusion in 
 his songs or poetic chants." ' 
 
 The poetry of the Indian's nature finds special expression in 
 his love songs. " When the son of a chief wishes to get married," 
 says Domenech,^ " he takes his flute and goes at night towards 
 the cabin wherein she rests whom he has chosen for his future 
 spouse. He begins by playing a melancholy tune ; then he sings 
 words of his own composition, which enumerate the charms of his 
 beloved. He compares her to the sweet perfume of the wild 
 flowers, to the pure water that flows from the rocks, to the grace- 
 ful trees of the forests, and to the verdant banks of the river in 
 which she bathes. He afterwards promises her a long series of 
 happy days in his wigwam, until the hour when they should 
 depart for the enchanted prairies where joy is without end. 
 When the songs are ended, he commences with airs on the flute, 
 which render as well as possible the sentiments that animate 
 him." 
 
 It is very difficult to reproduce in English the spirit of these 
 Indian songs. The following specimen has, however, been very 
 happily rendered by Domenech, and will serve excellently to 
 illustrate the remarks that precede. It is the serenade of a 
 young Indian to his beloved. 
 
 " My dove's eye, listen to the sound of my flute ; 
 Hearken to the voice of my songs, it is my voice. 
 Do not blush : all thy thoughts are known to me. 
 I have my magic shield, thou canst not escape. 
 
 ' Domenech : Seven Years' Residence in the Great Deserts of North America, ii. p. 146. 
 = Schoolcraft, p. 224. ' ii. p. 14S. 
 
2 94 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 "I shall always draw thee to me, even shouldest thou be 
 In the most distant isle, beyond the great lakes. 
 
 "The Great Spirit is for me, my betrothed. 
 Hearken to the voice of my songs, it is my voice." " 
 
 I quote also from the same author the following interesting 
 experience in further illustration of what has been said as to the 
 fondness of the Indian for nature, and its effect upon his musical 
 conceptions. The writer had on one occasion taken refuge 
 from a violent storm in an Indian wigwam. " Our host," he 
 says, " was an Indian, with sparkling eyes, clad with a certain 
 elegance, and wrapped majestically in a large fur cloak. Seated 
 close to the fire, which cast a reddish gleam through the interior 
 of his wigwam, he felt himself all at once seized with an irresist- 
 ible desire to imitate the convulsions of nature and to sing his 
 impressions. So, taking hold of a drum which hung near his 
 bed, he beat a slight rolling resembling the distant sounds of 
 the approaching storm ; then raising his voice to a shrill treble, 
 which he knew how to soften when he pleased, he imitated the 
 whistling of the air, the creaking of the branches dashing against 
 one another, and the particular sound produced by dead leaves 
 when accumulated in compact masses on the ground. By degrees 
 the rollings of the drum became more frequent and louder, the 
 chants more sonorous and shrill, and at last our Indian shrieked, 
 howled and roared in a most frightful manner; he struggled and 
 struck his instrument with extraordinary rapidity. It was a real 
 tempest, to which nothing was wanting, not even the dismal howl- 
 ing of the dogs, nor the bellowing of the affrighted buffaloes. 
 One could not possibly carry further the talent of imitation." = 
 
 The songs of the Indian are the natural expression of his 
 feelings. Every event in life is celebrated with its appropriate 
 song. The medicine man sings, or rather chants, as he performs 
 
 ■ Domenech, ii. p. 148. .-■ ;; p j^y 
 
Music of the North American Indians. 295 
 
 his mysterious rites ; the chief incites his followers to battle with 
 a song ; the warriors sing as they rush into the fray ; the hunters 
 console themselves by singing for ill success in the chase ; the 
 mother sings as she rocks her infant to sleep ; the youth 
 expresses the depth of his affection by a song. " There is no 
 feast and no religious ceremony among them," says Schoolcraft/ 
 " which is not attended with dancing and songs." The character 
 of special songs naturally varies greatly with the occasion. " The 
 Indian chants," says Domenech," " are generally monotonous reci- 
 tations stamped with a vague sadness, a kind of wailings in a 
 minor key, which it would be impossible to translate literally 
 without mutilating them or stripping them of their principal 
 interest." They are usually improvised for the occasion. Thus, 
 when warriors returning from an unsuccessful expedition desire 
 to console themselves by singing, " the cleverest extemporize 
 music and couplets, and at the end of each stanza all the com- 
 pany repeat the first or the first two verses, in a tone full of 
 languor and originality." ^ The death-chant for a fallen warrior 
 is always an improvisation, " dictated by the circumstances which 
 have inspired it." ■* The sacred or religious chants of the Indians 
 are described by Domenech as being incoherent and fantastic. 
 " Generally speaking," he says,^ " the second stanza appears to 
 have no connection with the first, and the sound which unites 
 them, when there is one, remains in the singer's mind." Far 
 different is the character of the Indian war-songs. When a chief 
 wishes to attack a neighboring tribe, he enlists the voluntary 
 services of his warriors by couriers. " Then, in a preparatory 
 ceremony, he extemporizes a few stanzas of lively, energetic 
 poetry, which he sings with a fiery enthusiasm, gesticulating and 
 accompanying himself with drums and raqnettes^ ^ A song of this 
 kind must be anything but monotonous. Schoolcraft' has pre- 
 
 ' Indian in his Wigwam, p. 222. ^ ii. p. 149. ^ Il)i(l 
 
 ■» Ibid. ii. p. 162. 5 ii. p. 151. ''i.e., rattles. Domenech. ii. p 155. 
 
 ^ Information respecting the History, Condition, etc., of the Indian Tribes of tlie United States, vol. v. p. 562. 
 
296 Musical Insfnimcnts and tJicir Homes. 
 
 served the words and the music of a Chippewa war-song, in which 
 the range of notes was ahiiost two octaves. 
 
 A striking feature of the Indian songs is their rhythmic char- 
 acter. This is only what we might be led to expect, both from 
 the fondness of the Indian for instruments of percussion, and the 
 important place in his life occupied by the dance. 
 
 "It is certain," says Schoolcraft,' "that the Indian ear is exact 
 in noting musical sounds and in marking and beating time. But 
 little observation at their dances will be sufficient to establish this 
 fact. Nor is it less certain, by attention to the philology of their 
 language, that they are exact in their laws of euphony and syllabi- 
 cal quantity. How this remark may consist with the use of 
 unmeasured and fluctuating poetry in their songs it may require 
 studied attention to answer. It is to be observed, however, that 
 these songs are rather recited or chanted than sung. . . . Most 
 of the graver pieces which have been written out are arranged in 
 metres of sixes, sevens, and eights. The lighter chants are in 
 threes and fours, and consist of iambics and trochees irregularly." 
 
 Among the Ahts of Vancouver Island, " the required expression 
 is usually given by uttering the sounds in quick or slow suc- 
 cession, rather than by any attempt at musical cadence." ° Yet 
 the accuracy of their ear is attested by the fact that after a few 
 hearings they are able to reproduce perfectly both the notes and 
 the expression of European songs. 
 
 The Indians accompany most of their songs with the free use 
 of instruments of percussion, especially the drum and the rattle. 
 Catlin speaks of the use of drums by the Sioux to accompany 
 " their numerous and never-ending songs of amusement, thanks- 
 giving, and medicine, or nietair ^ The same traveller witnessed 
 some voluntary tortures at a certain religious ceremony of the 
 Mandans, during part of which the music was furnished by " four 
 
 ■ Indian in his Wigwam, p. 225. = Sproat : Scenes and Studies of Savage Life, p. 64. 
 
 ' Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, etc., of the North American Indians, i. p. 241. 
 
Music of the North Aincrican Indians. 297 
 
 very aged and patriarchal looking men, " who sang at the highest 
 possible pitch, accompanying themselves by " thumping with mal- 
 lets or drumsticks " upon four sacks full of water, while a fifth 
 " brandished and shook the ceti-ua-dces, or rattles." ' Even those 
 tribes which possess numerous and comparatively perfect wind 
 instruments use them only for solo purposes, never as instruments 
 of accompaniment." The Indian lover precedes his song by a pre- 
 lude upon the flute, but he relies for his most potent effects upon 
 the unaided charms of his voice. Whether the Apaches use their 
 violin as an instrument of accompaniment or not I am unable to 
 state, though the former would seem probable. 
 
 One of the most potent factors in the life of the Indian is 
 the dance. Singing and dancing are so closely connected in his 
 thought, that it is almost impossible to separate them. " Danc- 
 ing," says Schoolcraft, " is interwoven throughout the whole 
 texture of Indian society, so that there is scarcely an event, 
 important or trivial, private or public, which is not connected, 
 more or less intimately, with this rite. The instances where sing- 
 ing is adopted, without dancing, are nearly all confined to occur- 
 rences of a domestic character." =' The dance is practised both as 
 a religious ceremony and a secular amusement. " Thanks are 
 thus expressed for success in hunting, for triumphs in war, and 
 for ordinary providential cares. Public opinion is called to 
 pressing objects by a dance, at which addresses are made, and 
 moral instruction is given to the young, in the case of their being 
 assembled at social feasts and dances. Dancing is indeed the 
 common resource whenever the mass of the Indian mind is to 
 be acted on."" It is almost invariably accompanied by the beat- 
 ing of drums and the shaking of rattles, as well as by the singing 
 of the performers. The Apache dances, which last from sunrise 
 
 ' i. p. 165. 
 
 = An exception, however, must be made in tlie case of the whistle, which is often used in orchestral music. 
 
 3 Indian in his Wigwam, p. 222. 'Ibid. p. 222. 
 
29S Musical Instniincufs and their Homes. 
 
 to sunset, are accompanied by the beating of drums and tom- 
 toms. " Old squaws and young children dance till they can 
 stand it no longer, and cease from exhaustion and fatigue ; a ces- 
 sation of but a few moments, and they are up and at it again." ' 
 Among some tribes a notched stick is used to keep time, which 
 is " drawn on a resisting medium, being supported by a reversed 
 ])an or the shell of a gourd." ' A curious dance of the Moquis of 
 New Mexico, in which twenty men and twenty women, all fantas- 
 tically dressed, took part, is thus described by Schoolcraft.' The 
 pertormers carried in their hands gourds filled Avith small peb- 
 bles, which they rattled to keep time to the dancing. " They all 
 furnished their own music, and a most strange sound it was, 
 resembling very much the noise, on a large scale, of a swarm of 
 blue-bottle flies in an empty hogshead. Each one was rolling 
 out aw, aw, aw, in a deep bass tone ; and the sound coming 
 through a hollow visor, produced the effect described." At the 
 dances of the Ahts of Vancouver Island, " the spectators sing, and 
 beat time on their wooden dishes and bearskin drums."" In some 
 cases, the performers join in the song themselves.^ The ordinary 
 dances of the Indian tribes of the United States are too well 
 known to need description. 
 
 One of the most important figures in connection with Indian 
 music is that of the prophet or medicine man. " These men," says 
 Schoolcraft,' " more than any other class, have cultivated their 
 national songs and dances, and may be regarded as the skalds or 
 poets of the tribes. They are generally the composers of the 
 songs, and the leaders in the dance and ceremonies, and it is 
 found that their memories are the best stored, not only with the 
 sacred songs and chants, but also with the traditions and general 
 lore of the tribes." Their special instruments are the drum and 
 
 ' Schwatka : Among the Apaches ; Century Mlagazine, May, 1S87. 
 
 = Schoolcraft: Information respecting . . . the Indian Tribes, ii. p. 514. ? Ibid iv p 83 
 
 ' ^P™"'' P- ^^- = Ib'^- P- 67. ^ Indian m his Wigwam, p. 222! 
 
Music of the North American Indians. 299 
 
 the rattle. The use of the former by the sorcerers of Lapland 
 and Greenland has already been referred to.' The Shamans or 
 conjurers of Alaska have drums sometimes three feet in diameter, 
 and rattles of a peculiar shape and construction, presently to be 
 described. Among the Ahts are found sorcerers whose perform- 
 ances are thus described by Sproat:' "The whole gamut of the 
 most frightful noises which the human voice, the collision of hard 
 substances, and the beating of bearskin drums can produce, is 
 run up and down by them with ease. The howling of the Aht 
 sorcerers is perfectly demoniacal ; no wild beast could utter sounds 
 so calculated to strike sudden terror into the heart." The per- 
 formances of the medicine men of the Indian tribes of the United 
 States are too familiar to need description here. 
 
 In this connection I may mention a class of bards or minstrels 
 found among the Indians of the west coast of British America. 
 " In almost every tribe," says Sproat,^ " there is an old man who 
 sings war-chants and songs of praise at public feasts. One old 
 man from Klah-oh-quaht Sound, blind from age, accompanied by 
 his two sons who lead him about, visits the different tribes of his 
 own nation, the Aht, every summer. ... On landing at a camp, 
 this gray-haired minstrel praises the tribe and the chief, and makes 
 a song to which they listen quite pleased, and some one, whose 
 benevolence or whose vanity has been touched, gives him a pres- 
 ent." Though in reality one of the richest men in the tribe, he 
 sings in quite pathetic fashion of his poverty. " I have come far," 
 he says, "and am old, and will need blankets for the winter." 
 This venerable beggar will sing for an hour at a time, if enough 
 gifts are forthcoming. If not, he asks for them "in most unbard- 
 like manner." 
 
 A word in conclusion as to the instrumental music of the 
 Indians. As might be expected, this occupies a relatively unim- 
 
 ' Schoolcraft (Information, etc., i. p. 425) gives a drawing of a Lapland sorcerer's drum, on which are 
 inscribed no less than 150 talismanic figures. ° p. 170. ^ P- ^4- 
 
300 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 portant place. I have already stated that wind instruments are 
 principally used for solo purposes, the most important being the 
 love-flute or flageolet, the moose-call, and the war-fife/ The drum 
 also, though usually associated with the voice, is occasionally used 
 as a solo instrument. Orchestral performances are common, but 
 almost always take place in connection with singing and dancing. 
 On such occasions, as has already been said, instruments of per- 
 cussion are principally used. In the Dakota orchestra, however, 
 wind instruments have an important place. A full band usually 
 consists of three drums, from three to twelve wind instruments, 
 from three to twenty different kinds of rattles, and as many tap- 
 pers.' The performances of such an orchestra often continue for 
 days and weeks at a time. I have been informed by Dr. Sweeny 
 that he once heard a tune two weeks long, which had already been 
 going on ten days before he arrived at the performance, and lasted 
 three weeks after he left. The impression produced upon his ear 
 by this lengthy entertainment was anything but pleasing. " It 
 seemed to me," he remarked in describing his impressions after- 
 wards, " that the less harmony there was among the instruments, 
 the more there was among the performers." Yet he speaks in 
 emphatic terms of the rhythmic character of the whole performance. 
 This testimony, therefore, goes to confirm the fact which has already 
 been established, that the distinguishing characteristic of savage 
 music, wherever found, whether in the islands of the Pacific, the 
 interior of Africa, or among the mountains and prairies of our 
 own continent, is a prominence of the rhythmic as contrasted 
 with the melodic element. 
 
 ■ A special description of each of these will be given in the following chapter. 
 ^ The nature of the tapper will be explained in the following chapter. 
 
XVII. 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF NORTH 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 N taking up the subject of the musical instruments of 
 North America, I shall consider, first, the instruments of 
 Alaska ; second, those of the Indians of British America ; 
 third, those of the tribes of the United States, especially of the 
 Dakotas, the Apaches, and the Pueblos, and finally those of the 
 natives of Mexico. 
 
 I. The only instrument of the Eskimos who live along the 
 north coast of Alaska is the drum. This consists of a circle of 
 wood, usually between twelve and eighteen inches in diameter, 
 over which a head of skin is tightly stretched and lashed with a 
 cord of braided sinews. Two specimens of this kind are shown in 
 Figs. I and 3. In the first, called Ke'-l-yau, the handle is formed 
 of a piece of bone, fastened to the hoop with whalebone. In the 
 second, the handle is of wood, and is held in place by a cord of 
 sinews. The instrument is held in the left hand, and played by 
 beating the back of the hoop with a stick. Similar drums are 
 found among almost all northern peoples, especially among the 
 Laplanders and the Greenlanders. In describing the dances of the 
 latter, Cranz says : " Their only instrument is the drum, which is 
 made of a circle of wood or of whalebone, about two fingers 
 broad, covered on one side only with a thin piece of hide, or of 
 the skin of the whale's tongue. It is somewhat oval in shape, 
 about a foot and a half in diameter, and is furnished with a 
 handle by which to hold it. This the Greenlander takes in his 
 
302 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 left hand, and beats with a httle stick upon the under surface of 
 the hoop, skipping- up a Httle way into the air at every stroke, 
 yet so as never to move from one spot, and making all sorts of 
 wonderful motions with his head and with his whole body — and 
 all this in four-four time, two strokes of the drum falling to 
 every quarter beat."' At the same time he sings of the seal-hunt, 
 celebrates the deeds of his ancestors, or expresses his joy at the 
 return of the sun, the voices of the bystanders furnishing a sort 
 of running accompaniment to the whole. 
 
 Passing now to the Indians proper, we find that the more 
 northern tribes are contented solely with instruments of percussion. 
 It is true that among the Thlinkets various wind instruments may 
 be found, but in the opinion of the best authorities' these have all 
 been introduced from the more southern tribes. The native instru- 
 ments of the Alaskan Indian are the drum and the rattle. The 
 first consists either of a wooden box or of skin stretched on a 
 circular frame of wood.^ " The drum," says Lieut. Emmons, " is 
 an important feature in the practice of Shamanism, "* as indeed it 
 is present on all ceremonial occasions to accompany the songs and 
 chants." Its size varies greatly. A large Shaman's drum from 
 Chilcat, contained in the American Museum of Natural History, is 
 not less than three feet in diameter, while the same collection 
 contains also a small specimen which is not more than seven 
 inches in diameter. The drumstick of the former is made of a 
 thin piece of wood bent back at the end so as to form a loop, and 
 ornamented with eagle's feathers. 
 
 The rattle plays an important part in the music and in the life 
 of the Alaskan Indian. It is used by the Shamans in their mys- 
 terious rites and by the chiefs in their dances. " From the earliest 
 accounts we have of the natives of the northwest coast," says 
 
 ' Historic von Groiiland, p. 229 
 
 = So Lieut. Enimnns, in tine unpublished Catalogue of his valuable collection in the American Museum of 
 Natural History, New York City. 
 
 3 Emmons. 4 The Shaman is the Alaskan prophet or medicine man. 
 
Musical Instrtiments of Noith America. 303 
 
 Lieut. Emmons, " rattles in their various forms are used on all 
 occasions of ceremony and dancing, and so ancient is this use that 
 they can account for them only as something that their ancestors 
 have handed down to them. The following tradition was given 
 by a Sitka native : ' In the first days of life an old man with 
 his nephew lived in the Nass River country. The nephew was 
 idle and worthless, and would spend his days sleeping and sitting 
 about. At last the uncle became provoked, and put an axe in 
 the nephew's hand, and sent him out in the wood to cut down a 
 tree for fire-wood. The boy wandered out, and having selected 
 a large tree, felled it, and commenced splitting it up, when in the 
 centre he discovered a box, and upon opening it found a rattle, 
 waist cloth, and other dancing materials. These he took back to 
 the old man, who immediately put them into use, and from these 
 all others were copied by visitors.' " ' 
 
 There are many different varieties of the rattle. That used by 
 the chiefs in their dances seems to be conventional in form. " It 
 is generally in the form of a crow, the under half carved to repre- 
 sent an owl, and on the back a dead man with protruding tongue, 
 and such other figures as the frog, land otter, kingfisher, etc." ' In 
 general dances the rattle is used not only by the chiefs, but also 
 by all the members of the tribe, men, women, and children alike. 
 
 The rattle is an indispensable part of the Shaman's furnishing. 
 He uses it both in his exhibition dances, and when treating the 
 sick. In its construction he follows his own fancy. Sometimes 
 it is carved " to represent the crow, or the oyster-catcher, and on 
 the outside the land otter, mountain goat, mink, devil-fish, and 
 the witches and spirits, all of which are supposed to assist him 
 in his practice." It is usually ornamented with the skin of the 
 ermine. Some of the Shaman rattles represent Knsh-tar-kar, or 
 "Spirit of the drowned," a creature midway between man and 
 otter, who cannot sing, but only whistle, and is supposed to be 
 
 ' Catalogue. = Ibid. Cf. the Haida Rattle, Fig. 23, North America. 
 
304 iMusical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 always playin.^ tricks on mortals. Many of the Shaman rattles 
 are very old, some being supposed to date back more than a hun- 
 dred years. . 
 
 A curious rattle from Rasbonisky, Alaska, is represented m 
 Fig. 2 (Miscellaneous). This consists of a long stick ornamented 
 with feathers, to which is attached, by a cord of sinews, a small 
 wooden box filled with pebbles.' Its use is confined to religious 
 
 ceremonies. 
 
 In addition to the drum and the rattle, the Shamans use in 
 their ceremonies a number of wooden sticks. These are distributed 
 to the various members of the Shaman's family, and are beaten by 
 them upon the floor of the house in which he is to practise, as 
 an accompaniment to the drum and the chant of the Shaman 
 
 himself ' 
 
 A rude stringed instrument from Yac-a-tat, Alaska, is repre- 
 sented in Fig. 2. The body of this is made of thin pieces of 
 wood, neatly fastened together, and painted or stained with a 
 variety of rude figures in red and blue. Two strings pass over a 
 low bridge and are fastened to the handle by a single key. 
 Although this instrument was obtained from a tribe of Indians 
 who are rarely visited by a white man, it seems quite inconceivable 
 that a form so far advanced, and so entirely unparalleled among 
 the instruments found in other parts of Alaska, should have been 
 developed by these Indians without external assistance. It is 
 probably a rude copy of a European instrument carried to that 
 region by some white man years ago.^ 
 
 ^ Not seeds, as erroneously stated in the description accompanying the drawing. - Emmons. 
 
 3 Though there is no evidence that it is intended to be played with a bow, I incline to think it copied after a 
 violin, which instrument it resembles in general shape, especiaiiy in the handle. 
 
 Note. — While this volume was passing through the press, I received, through the kindness of Mr. Fdliott F. 
 Shepard, two stringed instruments of similar character from the same locality. The larger was two feet long by 
 ten inches broad, and the smaller one foot long by five inches broad. Both alike were strung with two strings, each 
 of wliich, however, was attached to its special peg. Tl j gentleman who forwarded the specimens expresses the 
 opinion that the Indian who made them " must have seen something of the kind on some whaler or some Russian 
 vessel when they had possession of the country," thus confirming the opinion expressed above. 
 
Musical Instniniciits of Nortli America. 305 
 
 II. As we move southward and reach the tribes of the west 
 coast of British America, we find them using- drums and rattles of 
 the same kind as their northern neighbors. Thus the dance-rattles 
 of the Haida Indians of British Columbia (Fig;s. 22 and 23) are 
 almost identical with those which have been described as found 
 among the Thlinkets of Alaska. The bearskin drums of the Ahts 
 have already been referred to. We find also among the Haida 
 Indians a great number of curious wooden pipes and wind instru- 
 ments. These are of different kinds and shapes, varying in length 
 from a few inches to two or three feet. One of the smaller 
 specimens is shown in Fig. 24. This consists of a funnel-shaped 
 piece of wood, about seven inches long, through the interior of 
 which run three nearly parallel holes, which come together at the 
 top, and are furnished with a common mouth-piece. Other instru- 
 ments of the same kind are found of various lengths, some with 
 a single opening, others with more than one ; some consisting of 
 a single tube, others branching out at the base into two : all alike 
 are furnished with a mouth-piece of split wood, made on the prin- 
 ciple of the oboe.' The mouth-piece of the specimen in the present 
 collection has unfortunately been lost. Besides pipes of this kind, 
 the Haidas possess also a small instrument with two tubes on 
 the syrinx principle, and a well-constructed flute with four finger- 
 holes. The Emmons collection contains also a very curious wind 
 instrument, in which the wind, instead of being furnished by the 
 breath of the performer, is supplied by the action of a small bel- 
 lows of wood and skin. 
 
 III. Turning now to the Indian tribes of the United States, I 
 take up first the instruments of the Sioux or Dakotas. These 
 consist of drums, rattles, tappers, whistles, flutes, and flageolets. 
 
 The Sioux drums rarely exceed eighteen inches in diameter. 
 They are of three kinds : the war drum, the medicine man's drum, 
 and the common drum. The first consists of a frame of wood, 
 
 " A large number of these instruments are contained in the Emmons collection of Alaskan curiosities. 
 
3o6 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 furnished with a single head of skin. In order to secure the 
 proper or approved tone, the head is moistened. " The effect," 
 says Dr. Sweeny,' " is particularly weird and awful ; the sound 
 seems as if it were smothered, and yet pervades the air — you feel 
 it as much as hear it. It can be heard in the woods a long 
 distance, and yet when you are close to it, it seems as far away 
 as ever." The war drum is usually painted black, or at least 
 decorated on the sides and back with mysterious black figures. 
 It is beaten with a curved drumstick of the same shape as that 
 used by the Shamans of Alaska. The Indians attribute to this 
 drum a great antiquity, and claim that it has not changed in form 
 since the earliest days. 
 
 The conjurer's or medicine man's drum is shown in Fig. i. 
 This has two heads, which are usually profusely smeared with ver- 
 milion. It rarely exceeds a foot in diameter. It is never moist- 
 ened, like the war drum, and is beaten with a drumstick of wood, 
 with a head of hollow rawhide. 
 
 The common or layman's drum may be of two kinds. In the 
 first, which differs little in shape from our own drum, the frame 
 consists of an empty keg covered on both sides with skin. The 
 second differs from the conjurer's drum only in being larger and 
 thicker. A fine specimen of this kind, with a remarkably soft and 
 sweet tone, is shown in Fig. i (Miscellaneous). The common 
 drum is usually undecorated, or at least only with a few mysteri- 
 ous pictographs, the meaning of which is known only to the artist 
 who makes them. So great is the popularity of this instrument, 
 that on entering an Indian village at any time, the traveller will 
 be almost sure to be greeted by the tones of at least two or 
 three of these drums. " The fact is," remarks Dr. Sweeny, 
 " Indians are nervous and excitable, and when one of them feels 
 the need of a sedative, he takes his drum, pulls down and fastens 
 
 ■ I quote here and elsewhere from an unpublished paper by Dr. Sweeny, of St. Paul, Minn., which he has 
 very kindly furnished me for the present purpose. 
 
Musical Iiistniments of North America. 307 
 
 the door-curtain of his lodge, to let the world know he is engaged 
 and not to be disturbed, retires to the seat of honor (furthest from 
 the door), and with his drum between his knees, pounds and sings 
 himself into the desired condition of placidity and enjoyable state 
 of health." 
 
 Hardly second in importance to the drum in the estimation of 
 the Sioux is the rattle. It would be quite impossible even to 
 enumerate all the different varieties of this instrument. All sorts 
 of materials are used in its construction — wood, bits of copper 
 and tin, bells, thimbles, pieces of horn, elk tusks, deer toes, bones, 
 wampum, quills, turtle shells, and even the rattles of the rattle- 
 snake. Three rather picturesque specimens are shown in Figs. 4, 
 5 and 6. Fig. 7 is a bracelet rattle, consisting of a piece of raw- 
 hide, to which are attached bits of tin and bone. This is fastened 
 about the wrist, and gives a rhythmic sound, as the hand is moved 
 up and down in regular time. 
 
 The most important of the Sioux rattles is that of the conjurer 
 or medicine man. This he usually makes himself with very dark 
 and mysterious ceremonies. Special rattles are prepared for special 
 occasions, each having somewhere about it an image or images of 
 the special Wa-kon (spirit), who is supposed to preside over the 
 performance at which it is to be used. The most common form 
 of the conjurer's rattle is shown in Fig. 3. " This is made of 
 rawhide, stretched over a tightly-blown bladder, which contains 
 pebbles and charms of various kinds, and some red-colored objects 
 (for red is the sacred or mysterious color) which impart Wa-kon, 
 and make it efficacious ' medicine.' " ' Another form of the con- 
 jurer's rattle is shown in Fig. 2. 
 
 One of the most important instruments in the Sioux orchestra 
 is the Tapper. This is the name given by Dr. Sweeny to " a 
 smooth, hard rod about twelve or eighteen inches long, held 
 lightly with the fingers of the right hand, and tapped briskly upon 
 
 ■ Sweeny. 
 
3o8 Musical lustniiucnts and tJicir Homes. 
 
 some sonorous object, such as the back of a bow, a pipe-stem, 
 the blade of a tomahawk or a buffalo rib. The tapper is made 
 sometimes of wood and sometimes of horn (Fig. 9). In some 
 -cases it consists of a single rod; in others, of a double, or even 
 of a triple one. The triple tapper gives to the note a peculiar 
 shake. The intervals between the blows are short yet distinctly 
 appreciable, and in the lift and motion to the right, the springing 
 together of the rods repeats the notes in a softer tone and 
 different key. The object upon which the tapper is struck also 
 gives out its peculiar tone, so there are several distinct notes 
 produced at a single stroke." ' By moving the forefinger up the 
 blade of the tomahawk, towards the edge, the note is sharpened, 
 and by taking the finger from the blade a low and ringing note 
 results. The effect produced by ten or twelve of these tappers, 
 combined with a number of rattles, drums and whistles, and with 
 the chanting of many low-pitched voices, must certainly be very 
 curious and striking. 
 
 It remains to consider the wind instruments of the Sioux. 
 One of the most peculiar of these is the Long Flute or Moose- 
 Call [He-ha-kha-zo-zo) (Fig. 8), the notes of which are supposed 
 to resemble " the whistling tones of the love-sick elk." This 
 instrument is from three to four feet in length. " It has no keys 
 or holes, except where the reed is placed, which is made of birch 
 bark, and secured to the body of the wooden instrument by glue 
 and finely-wrapped sinews. The compass is about an octave, and 
 the scale is ascended by the force of the breath. On the water it 
 can be heard a long distance, and its sound is very sweet, but 
 rather melancholy and depressing when heard in the twilight still- 
 ness." ° 
 
 The Love-flute [Cho-tonkd) of the Dakotas has been more 
 
 ' Sweeny. 
 
 = Ibid. This seems to be the same instrument referred to by Catlin as the " mystery whistle." whose 
 peculiarly sweet tone could be elicited only by the Indians themselves (North American Indians, Letter 30). 
 
Musical Instruments of North America. 309 
 
 than once referred to. (See Fig. 10.) This is a " kind of iiageolet 
 without a reed," which produces a " clear, distinct, mellow, vibratory 
 note." It is made of a single piece of wood, and is furnished 
 with six finger-holes. Melodies produced by the performers upon 
 this instrument are said by Dr. Sweeny to resemble in character 
 many Scotch and Irish airs. No young Indian ever goes wooing 
 without the Cho-tonka. Standing before the cabin of his lady- 
 love, he will blow " for hours together and from day to day." " 
 The use of this instrument is common to many other tribes. An 
 Apache specimen is shown in Fig. 14. In some cases it is made 
 of two pieces of wood, instead of one. Thus the Pib-be-gwim , 
 described by Schoolcraft," consists of " semi-cylindrical pieces of 
 cedar glued together. Often they are further bound together by 
 rings of pewter. The Chippewas frequently draw a snake's skin 
 over the cedar tube." The number of finger-holes varies from 
 five to seven. 
 
 The last of the Sioux wind instruments is a rude whistle 
 made of a hollow bone, with two or three holes, varying in size 
 and tone to suit the taste of the performer. This is a very 
 popular instrument, forming a necessary part of every Sioux 
 orchestra. " Other whistles are made of bones, quills and wooden 
 cylinders (used as a boy blows over the end of a key), sometimes 
 singly and sometimes in pairs or three," ^ but never more than 
 three together. 
 
 Catlin mentions also a war-whistle, which is used exclusively 
 by the chiefs. This is made of a piece of bone, and may be blown 
 through either end indifferently. It yields two distinct tones, 
 according as it is blown through one end or the other.'' 
 
 'Catlin, Letter 30, where the same instrument is described as the Winnebago Courting Flute. 
 
 ^ii. p. 514. 3 Sweeny. 
 
 "t North American Indians, Letter 30. The same instrument is described by Domenech (ii. p. 139), who says 
 that it is usually carried suspended from the neck or underclothes. By blowing at one end, you draw from it a shrill 
 note, which serves as the signal for attack, and by blowing at the other extremity, the instrument produces a softer 
 sound, which indicates the rallying or the retreat. 
 
3IO Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 The drums, rattles, and wind instruments of the Apaches of 
 Arizona are similar in character to those of the Sioux. A small 
 flute, consisting of a reed pierced with four finger-holes, two in 
 the middle and two near the top, is shown in Fig. 15. This is, 
 however, very rare, and it is almost impossible to procure a 
 specimen. 
 
 The Apaches also possess a small violin, with a single string. 
 (See I-igs. 11, 12,' and 13.) The body is made of a piece of soft 
 wood, rounded and hollowed, and usually ornamented with simple 
 figures or with bands of different colors. A narrow opening in 
 the lower part, directly beneath the string, serves as a sound hole. 
 The length of the body varies from twelve to fifteen inches. The 
 string is made of a number of horse-hairs, passing over a little 
 bridge at the lower end, and fastened to a small round piece of 
 wood, which passes through the upper part of the body and serves 
 as a key. The small specimen (Fig. 11) has no bridge, but instead 
 is furnished with two such keys, one at each end. The bow, which 
 rarely exceeds ten inches in length, is furnished with a coarse 
 string of horsehair. 
 
 The instruments of the Pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico 
 are principally rattles of different kinds, though Domenech = speaks 
 of the Moquis^ as using a "pastoral flute." The most common form 
 of rattle is a gourd filled with small stones. (See Figs. 16, 17, and 
 18.) In their dances they often keep time by moving a wand of 
 willow along the unequal surface of a notched stick. (See Fig. 19, 
 also Fig. 5, Mexico.^) Fig. 20 is probably a leg rattle. This is 
 made of the shell of a turtle, to which are attached by strips of 
 rawhide a number of bits of bone, horn, etc. It is fastened above 
 the knee by a cord of rawhide, and like the dancing-bells of the 
 Hindus, sounds in time with the motions of the dancer's body. 
 
 Fig. 21 represents a rude bell made out of the horn of a Rocky 
 
 ■ Fig. 12, though coming from Florida, is probably of Apache origin. = ii. p. 139. 
 
 5 A tribe of Tueblos. < The same principle has already been noticed in the Vu or tiger-box of China. 
 
Mtisical Ijistmnnents of North America. 3 1 1 
 
 Mountain sheep. The clapper consists of a small stone fastened 
 to the end of a strip of rawhide. 
 
 IV. In considering the musical instruments of Mexico, we must 
 distinguish three different classes. The first consists of those which 
 have been introduced by the European invaders. To this class 
 belong Figs, i, 3, and 4, in the Catalogue. The second consists 
 of the instruments of native origin now in actual use. Of these, 
 drums and rattles are the most common. Pottery whistles, flutes, 
 and bells are also found. (See Fig. 2.) Engel ' also mentions a 
 long wooden trumpet called Acocotl, or Clarin. " This consists of a 
 very thin tube, from eight to ten feet in length, and generally not 
 quite straight, but with some irregular curves. This tube, which 
 is often not thicker than a couple of inches in diameter, terminates 
 at one end in a sort of ' bell,' and has at the other end a small 
 mouth-piece, resembling in shape that of a clarionet. The tube is 
 made of the dry stalk of a plant which is common in Mexico, 
 and which likewise the Indians call Acocotl. The most singular 
 characteristic of the instrument is, that the performer does not blow 
 into it, but inhales the air through it, or rather he produces the 
 sound by sucking the mouth-piece. It is said to require strong 
 lungs to perform on the Acocotl effectively, according to Indian 
 notions of taste." 
 
 The third class of Mexican musical instruments consists of the 
 relics which have been preserved in the various mounds and pyra- 
 mids of the Aztecs. To this class belong the specimens shown in 
 Figs. 6 to 9. I cannot attempt here to discuss the interesting 
 subject of the music of the Aztecs,^ but will content myself with 
 remarking that this wonderful people undoubtedly possessed a great 
 variety both of wind instruments and instruments of percussion. 
 Most of the specimens which have come down to us are of the 
 former class, consisting principally of flutes and whistles of pot- 
 
 ' Musical Instruments, etc., p. 73. 
 
 = For information on this subject the reader is referred to Engel, pp. 65-89, and Rowbotham, i. pp. 327-342. 
 
3 I 2 Musical Instrmnents and their Homes. 
 
 tery or bone. These are found of all possible shapes, — some with 
 finger-holes and some without. The following interesting pas- 
 sage from Rowbotham will give the reader some idea of the variety 
 in the character and the form of these early Mexican instruments : ' 
 " They made their whistles," he says, " in the shape of birds, ' 
 frogs, men's heads ; their teponaztlis, even the ordinary ones, were 
 covered with carvings, but the teponaztlis used in war — the war 
 drums, as we should call them — were cut in the figure of a man 
 crouching on his knees; his back was the drum, and he had eyes 
 of bone and beautifully braided hair, ear-rings, necklaces, and 
 boat-shaped shoes on his feet, all carved in a mulberry-colored 
 wood, and highly burnished. And while other nations have been 
 content to make their tambourines of a round frame covered 
 with a piece of skin, the Mexicans made theirs in the form of 
 a snake biting a tortoise's head. The snake was coiled up in 
 three coils on the tortoise's back, and the arch of its neck served 
 as a handle, and the belly of the tortoise served as the tam- 
 bourine, being made of a flat slice of tortoise shell (the rest of 
 the tortoise was of wood) and struck by the right hand, while the 
 instrument itself was held by the left. And here was a peculiar 
 thing about these snakes and tortoise tambourines : there were holes 
 in the tortoise's back which served as stops, and were covered by 
 the fingers. So delicate an ear had the Mexicans for all the 
 shades of percussional sounds, that they could appreciate the vari- 
 ation caused by the stopping and unstopping of a hole in the body 
 of a tambourine no bigger than the hole of an ordinary flut^ 
 stop. And they had rattles made in the shape of a snake crush- 
 ing a toad in its coils; and things very much like the Chinese 
 egg-instruments,^ that were really flageolets with two mouth-pieces, 
 that could play a bass and a treble at the same time; and pipes 
 and rattles combined in the form of three human heads, support- 
 
 " '• P- 336. = See Fig, 9. 
 
 3 A reference is proiiably intended to the Hsuan or Ocarina. (See p. 44.) 
 
Musical Instnmieiits of North America. 313 
 
 ing a pedestal — the pedestal was the pipe, and the heads, which 
 were filled with stones, were the rattles." 
 
 This passage will give the reader some idea of the wealth 
 of invention displayed by the Aztecs in the construction of their 
 musical instruments. It is to be hoped that the interesting place 
 occupied by this extraordinary people in musical history may soon 
 be recognized by American students, and that our musical litera- 
 ture may speedily be enriched by a monograph on Aztec music 
 worthy of the importance of the subject. 
 
 It is unnecessary to add anything here as to the musical 
 instruments used by the negroes of Cuba, and of the West Indies 
 generally. These are principally drums and rattles of various 
 kinds. Some of the most important forms are shown in the Cata- 
 logue, to which the reader is referred for a sufficient description. 
 
CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA, 
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XVIII. 
 
 INSTRUMENTS OF CENTRAL AND 
 SOUTH AMERICA AND OCEANICA. 
 
 HE subject of the musical instruments of South America, 
 Australia, and the various islands of the Pacific has 
 never been satisfactorily treated. Indeed, I doubt whether 
 the materials for such a treatment are in existence. It would 
 be necessary to gather the requisite information from a very large 
 number of scattered, inaccurate, and insufficient sources. The time 
 at the writer's disposal has been so limited as to render such 
 an attempt out of the question. I shall, therefore, add to the 
 general statements made in the chapter on savage music only 
 such special facts as may seem necessary in further explanation 
 of the drawings in the Catalogue. 
 
 The native instruments of Central America, like those of 
 Mexico, are chiefly drums, rattles, whistles, and flutes. A small 
 rattle from Costa Rica is shown in Fig. i. This consists of a 
 gourd filled with pebbles. The handle is made of a small bone, 
 and is held in place by a cord of sinews. The Marimba (Fig. 
 2) has already been described. It is interesting as furnishing 
 another case of the migration of a musical instrument from one 
 part of the world to another. The Marimba, as we have seen, 
 is an African instrument, yet it has been introduced by the negroes 
 into Guatemala, where it is extremely popular, being looked upon 
 by the natives as the national instrument. 
 
 The musical instruments of South America are many and 
 varied. Like those of Mexico, they may be divided into three 
 
324 Musical Instnnnents and their Homes. 
 
 c 
 
 lasses : first, those of native origin ; second, those of European 
 introduction; and, third, the musical relics which have come 
 down from the older civilization of Peru. These last resem- 
 ble in character the remains of the Aztecs of Mexico. They con- 
 sist principally of drums, rattles, pipes, flutes and whistles.' Sin- 
 gularly enough, the Peruvians, like the Chinese, seem to have 
 employed stone for musical purposes. " The traveller G. T. 
 Vigne," says Engel,= "saw among the Indian antiquities preserved 
 in the town of Cuzco, in Peru, a musical instrument of green 
 sonorous stone, about a foot long, and an inch and a half wide, 
 flat-sided, pointed at both ends, and arched at the back, where 
 it was about a quarter of an inch thick, whence it diminished to 
 an edge, like the blade of a knife. ... In the middle of 
 the back was a small hole, through which a piece of string was 
 passed ; and when suspended and struck by any hard substance, 
 a singularly musical note was produced." 
 
 The character of the instruments in present use among the 
 natives of South America varies widely according to the tribe 
 and the locality. The most important are drums, rattles, flutes, 
 whistles, trumpets and Pandean pipes. A few representative 
 specimens are shown in the Catalogue. 
 
 Fig. 5 represents an Indian drum from Carthagena, Colom- 
 bia. It is made of a single piece of cork wood, hollowed and 
 covered with a head of skin, which is held in place by a rope made 
 of the bark of the same tree. A number of wooden wedges are 
 inserted between this rope and the body of the drum, so that by 
 pushing these in further the tension of the skin may be increased. 
 
 Fig. 4 shows a rude fife with four finger-holes, from the same 
 locality. The mouth-piece is furnished with a tongue of split 
 wood, after the fashion of the Syrian Mijwiz. (See Fig. 7, Syria.) 
 
 A curious rattle from one of the remote valleys of the Andes 
 is shown in Fig. i. This consists of a round wooden box, about 
 
 ' For further information on this subject, see Engel : Musical Instruments, etc, p. 65, seq. - Ibid. p. 81. 
 
Central and South America and Oceanica. 325 
 
 nine inches long, in the interior of which a number of wooden 
 pins are crossed at right angles, in such a way as to obstruct 
 the free motion of the seed with which the box is filled. It is 
 used to accompany singing and dancing, and the eftects pro- 
 duced by a skilful performer are said to be quite remarkable. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows a small wind instrument, made of a piece of 
 hollowed bone. It has four finger-holes, and is ornamented with 
 a number of carved lines. 
 
 One of the most important instruments of South America is 
 the Syrinx, or Pandean pipes. This is a very ancient instrument, 
 a number of specimens having been discovered among the relics 
 of the early Peruvians. The name given by them to this instru- 
 ment was Huayra-p2tJnira. Two interesting specimens are 
 described by Engel.' The first consists of " fourteen reed pipes, 
 of a brownish color, tied together in two rows by means of thread 
 so as to form a double set of seven reeds. Both sets are almost 
 exactly of the same dimension, and are placed side by side. 
 The shortest of these reeds measure three inches, and the longest 
 six and a half inches. In one set they are open at the bottom, 
 and in the other they are closed. Consequently octaves are pro- 
 duced." The range of each set of pipes is ten notes. The other 
 specimen is still more interesting. This is made of " a greenish 
 stone, which is a species of talc. It contains eight pipes. . . . 
 Its height is five and three-eighths inches, and its width six and 
 a quarter inches. Four of the tubes have small lateral finger- 
 holes, which, when closed, lower the pitch a semi-tone. These 
 holes are on the second, fourth, sixth and seventh pipe. . . 
 The other tubes have unalterable tones." ' The following is the 
 succession of notes produced : E, F, F* G, G^*, A, C, C^f, D, E, 
 F,A. 
 
 Very different in character is the modern specimen from 
 British Guiana, shown in Fig. 2. This consists of fourteen reed 
 
 ■ p. 70. 2 Ibid. 
 
326 Musical Instruments and their Homes. 
 
 pipes, arranged in sets of two, and varying in length from four 
 feet two inches to five feet ten inches. These are set in a hol- 
 lowed and rounded piece of wood, one end of which is furnished 
 with a hole for the breath. The hands of the performer rest 
 against the sides of this, while the fingers cover a series of small 
 holes in the pipes, just above the wooden handle. The instru- 
 ment is held and played like the Chinese Cheng. As has 
 already been remarked,' a form almost identical is found in the 
 north of Siam and in Laos. 
 
 The wooden trumpets of the different Indian tribes of South 
 America have been already more than once referred to. Although 
 no specimen is represented in the Catalogue, I may mention par- 
 ticularly the Botiito, the Jitrupans and the TurL The first is 
 used by a number of tribes in the vicinity of the Orinoco, and is 
 regarded as an object of great veneration. " To be initiated into 
 the mysteries of the Botuto," says Humboldt," " it is requisite to 
 be of pure morals, and to have lived single. The initiated are 
 subjected to flagellations, fastings, and other painful exercises." 
 The number of these sacred trumpets, however, is very small. 
 The Juruparis has already been described in another connection. 
 The Ture is common to many Indian tribes on the river Amazon, 
 who use it chiefly in war. " It is made of a long and thick bam- 
 boo, and there is a split reed in the mouth-piece. It therefore 
 partakes rather of the nature of an oboe or clarionet. Its tone is 
 described as loud and harsh. The Ture is especially used by the 
 sentinels of predatory hordes, who, mounted on a lofty tree, give 
 the signal of attack to their comrades." ^ The conch is also used 
 as a trumpet by many South American tribes. 
 
 I need add but a word as to the three specimens catalogued 
 under the head of Oceanica. The first is a hand-drum from the 
 Gulf of Papua, New Guinea. The Papuans possess both wind 
 instruments and instruments of percussion, the forms of many of 
 
 'p. 138. = Quoted by Engel, p. 75. 'Engel, p. 73. 
 
Central and South America and Oceanica. 327 
 
 which are quite elaborate. The drum (Fig. i) is a case in point. 
 It is carved out of a single piece of wood, and represents the 
 head and jaws of the crocodile. The head is made of snake skin. 
 It is about two feet and a half long, and is held by a wooden 
 handle in the centre. 
 
 Fig. 2 represents a nose-flute from Fiji. It is twenty-seven 
 inches long and about two inches in diameter, and is pierced with 
 six small holes, five in front and one at the back. Of the former, 
 one is situated at each end, and the other three at nearly equal 
 distances between the two. It is ornamented with a number of 
 charred lines and figures of various kinds. The origin of the 
 nose-flute has already been explained. It ought, however, in fair- 
 ness to be said, that while the theory given seems to the present 
 writer the most probable one, opinions are divided on the ques- 
 tion. Mr. Rowbotham, for instance, believes the nose-flute to be 
 indigenous to the many islands where it is now found, and bases 
 upon the fact of its wide diffusion the somewhat remarkable 
 theory that the flute was first played through the nose.' But 
 whatever may be the correct explanation of the origin of the nose- 
 flute, it is certainly one of the commonest instruments among the 
 islanders of the Pacific. I quote from Ellis,° the following inter- 
 esting description of its form as found in the Sandwich Islands : 
 "The Vivo or flute," he says, "was the most agreeable instrument 
 used by the islanders. It was usually a bamboo cane, about an 
 inch in diameter, and twelve or eighteen inches long. The joint 
 in the cane formed one end of the flute ; the aperture through 
 which it was blown was close to the end ; it seldom had more 
 than four other holes, three on the upper side covered with the 
 fingers, and one beneath, against which the thumb was placed. 
 Sometimes, however, there were four holes on the upper side. It 
 was occasionally plain, but more frequently ornamented by being 
 partially scorched, or burned with a hot stone, or having fine and 
 
 •i. p. 60. = Polynesian Researches, i. p. igV- 
 
328 Musical Instruments and t heir Homes. 
 
 beautifully plaited strings of human hair wound round it, alter- 
 nately with rings of braided sennit. It Avas not blown from the 
 mouth, but the nostril. The performer usually placed the thumb 
 of the right hand upon the right nostril, applied the aperture of 
 the flute, which he held with the fingers of his right hand, to the 
 other nostril, and, moving his fingers on the holes, produced his 
 music. The sound was soft and not unpleasant, though the notes 
 were few ; it was generally played in a plaintive strain, though 
 frequently used as an accompaniment to their pehes, or songs." 
 
 The conch trumpet (Fig. 3) has already been so often referred 
 to that it may seem unnecessary to linger over it here. I venture, 
 however, to quote from Ellis the following description of a vari- 
 ation of the common form, which is found among the Sandwich 
 Islanders. " The largest shells," he says, " were usually selected 
 for this purpose, and were sometimes above a foot in length, 
 and seven or eight inches in diameter at the mouth. In order 
 to facilitate the blowing of this trumpet, they made a perforation 
 about an inch in diameter, near the apex of the shell. Into this 
 they inserted a bamboo cane about three feet in length, which 
 was secured by binding it to the shell with fine braid ; the aperture 
 was rendered air-tight by cementing the outsides of it with a resin- 
 ous gum from the bread-fruit tree. These shells were blown when 
 a procession walked to the temple, or their warriors marched to 
 battle, at the inauguration of the king, during the worship of the 
 temple, or when a tabu or restriction was imposed in the name 
 of the gods. . . . The sound is extremely loud, but the most 
 monotonous and dismal that it is possible to imagine." ' 
 
 Here I must bring this short chapter to a close. I cannot, 
 however, refrain from repeating in this place the hope already 
 expressed, that the rich field which I have been able to sketch 
 only in outline may soon receive the attention of competent and 
 
 ■ Ellis, i p. Iy6. 
 
Central and South America and Oceanica. 329 
 
 scholarly investigators. When the subject of savage music shall 
 have been conscientiously studied and definite results obtained, I 
 feel confident that no branch of anthropological science will be 
 found more full of suggestion and interest, not only to the special 
 musical student, but to all those who are interested in the history 
 of art, of civilization, and of humanity. 
 
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LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 Ambros (A. \V.). Geschichte der Musik. Dritter ganzlich umgearbeitete Auflage. Vol. I. 
 Leipzig, 1887. 
 
 Amiot (Joseph). De la Musique des Chinois, tant anciens que modernes. 4to. Paris, 1780. 
 Vol. VI. of M^moires concernant I'histoire, les sciences, les arts, les mceurs, les usages, etc., 
 des Chinois, par les missionaires de Pekin. 
 
 Sur les Pierres Sonores. Appendix to his treatise " De la Musique des Chinois." Paris, 1780. 
 
 Anonymous. Japanese Music and Musical Instruments. Musical Herald, April, May, June, and 
 July, 1887, Boston. 
 
 Notes on Siamese Musical Instruments. London, 1885. 
 
 Barrow (John). Travels in China. London, 1S04. 
 
 Bird (Isabella L.). Unbeaten Tracks in Japan: an Account of Travels on Horseback in the 
 Interior. 2 vols. New York, no date. 
 
 Bird (Willlam Hamilton). The Oriental Miscellany; being a Collection of the most Favorite Airs 
 of Hindostan, compiled and adapted for the Harpsichord, etc. Calcutta, 1789. 
 
 Bowdich (T. Edward). Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, London, 1819. 
 
 Burton (Richard F.). The Lake Regions of Central Africa. 2 vols. London, i860. 
 
 Wanderings in West Africa from Liverpool to Fernando Po, by a F. R. G. S. 2 vols. London, 
 
 1863. 
 
 Catlin (George) . Illustrations of the Manners and Condition of the North American Indians ; with 
 Letters and Notes, etc., during eight years of Travel and Adventure. 2 vols. London, 1857. 
 
 Chapman (James). Travels in the Interior of South Africa. 2 vols. London, 1868. 
 
 Clement (Felix). Histoire de la Musique, depuis les temps les plus anciens jusqu'a nos jours. 
 Paris, 1885. 
 
 Cranz (David). Historie von Gronland, enthaltend die Beschreibung des Landes und der Ein- 
 wohner, etc. ; insbesondere die Geschichte der dortigen Mission der Evangelischen Bruder in 
 Neu-Herrnhut und Lichtenfels. Barby und Leipzig, 1765. 
 
 Daniel (F. Salvador). La Musique Arabe, ses rapports avec la Musique Grecque et le Chant 
 Gr^gorien. Algiers, 1863. 
 
 Domenech (Abbe Em.). Seven Years' Residence in the Great Deserts of North America. 2 vols. 
 London, i860. 
 
 367 
 
-> 
 
 68 Lis^ of Authorities. 
 
 Eastlake (F. Warrington). Article on the Sheng, China Review, August, 1882. 
 
 Ellis (Alexander J.). Appendix to a paper on "The Musical Scales of Various Nations," 
 published in the Journal of tiie Society of Arts, Oct. 30, 1S85. London. 
 
 Ellis (William). Polynesian Researches during a Residence of nearly Eight Years in the Society 
 and Sandwich Islands. Second edition. 4 vols. London, 1832-1836. 
 
 Elson (Louis C). Curiosities of Music: a Collection of Facts not generally known regarding the 
 Music of Ancient and Sa\'age Nations. Boston, 1880. 
 
 Engel (Carl). An Introduction to the Study of National Music. London, 1866. 
 
 Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical Instruments in the South Kensington Museum. Second 
 
 edition. London, 1S74. 
 
 Musical Myths and Facts. 2 vols. London, 1876. 
 
 Researches into the Early History of the Violin Family. London, 1883. 
 
 The Music of the most Ancient Nations, particularly of the Assyrians, Egyptians, and Hebrews. 
 
 London, 1864. 
 
 Fetis (F. J.) Histoire G^n^rale de la Musique, depuis les temps Ics plus anciens jusqu'a nos jours. 
 5 vols. Paris, 1869. 
 
 Forbes (Frederick E.). Dahomey and the Dahomans ; being the Journals of two Missions to the 
 King of Dahomey, and Residence at his Capital in the years 1849 and 1850. 2 vols. London, 
 1851. 
 
 Fowke (Francis). On the Vina, or Indian Lyre (pp. 193-197 in Tagore's "Hindu Music from 
 Various Authors " ). 
 
 Grey (George). Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-western and Western Australia, 
 during the years 1837, 1S38, and 1839. 2 vols. London, 1841. 
 
 Hipkins (A. J.). Musical Instruments, Historic, Rare, and Unique. Folio. Edinburgh, 1888. 
 
 Isawa (S.). Extracts from the Report of S. Isawa, Director of the Institute of Music, on the Result 
 of the Investigations concerning Music, undertaken by order of the Department of Education. 
 Tokio, no date. 
 
 Jones (Sir Willlam). On the Musical Modes of the Hindus (pp. 125-160 in Tagore's "Hindu 
 Music from Various Authors "). 
 
 Kiesewetter (R. G.). Die Musik der Araber nach Originalquellen dargestellt. Leipzig, 
 
 1842. 
 
 Kraus (Alexandre, fils). Di Alcuni Strumenti Musicali della Micronesia e della Melanesia, regalati 
 al Museo Nazionale d'Antropologia e di Etnologia dal Dott. Otto Finsch. Estratto dall' 
 Archivio per F Antropologia e la Etnologia, Vol. XVII., Fascicolo 1°, 1887. 
 
 La Musique au Japon. 2'"= (Edition. Florence, 1879. 
 
 Lane (Edward William). An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians. 
 Fifth edition, edited by his nephew, Edward Stanley Poole. 2 vols. London, 1871. 
 
 The Thousand and One Nights, commonly called in England The Arabian Nights' Entertain- 
 ments. A new translation from the Arabic, with copious notes. A new edition, edited by 
 Edward Stanley Poole. 3 vols. London, 18S3. 
 
List of AzttJwritics. 369 
 
 Lay (G. Tradescant) . The Chinese as they are : their Moral, Social, and Literary Character. 
 London, 1S41. 
 
 Long (Charles Chaille). Central Africa: Naked Truths about Naked People. An account of 
 expeditions to the Lake Victoria Nyanza, etc. London, 1876. 
 
 Naumann (Emil). The History of Music. Translated by F. Praeger. Edited by the Rev. Sir 
 F. A. Gore Ouseley, Bart. 2 vols. London, no date. 
 
 Ouseley (Sir Willia.m). Travels in Various Countries of the East, more particularly Persia. 3 vols. 
 London, 1819. 
 
 Palmer (E. H.). The Qur'an. Translated by. 2 vols. (Vols. VL and IX. in Max Muller's 
 "Sacred Books of the East.") London, 1880. 
 
 Rowbotham (John Frederick). A History of Music. 3 vols. I^ondon, 1S85. 
 
 Schoolcraft (Henry R.). Information respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects of the 
 Indian Tribes of the United States ; collected and prepared under the Bureau of Indian Affairs. 
 Published by authority of Congress. 6 vols., 410. Philadelphia, i860. 
 
 The Indian in his Wigwam ; or. Characteristics of the Red Race of America. From original 
 
 Notes and Manuscripts. New York, 1848. 
 
 Schwatka (Frederick). Among the Apaches. Century Magazine, Md.y, 1887. New York. 
 
 Schweinfurth (Georg). The Heart of Africa: Three Years' Tra\els and Adventures in the 
 Unexplored Regions of Central Africa, from 1S6S to 187 1. Translated by Ellen E. Frewer. 
 2 vols. New York, 1874. 
 
 Siebold (Ph. Fr. von). Nippon; Archiv zur Beschreibung von Japan und dessen neben, und 
 Schutslandern, etc. 2 vols. 4to, with 2 vols. fol. of plates (Part IV. plates i.-xii., inclusive, on 
 Japanese musical instruments). Leyden, 1832. 
 
 Solvyns (Balt.). The Costume of Indostan, elucidated by sixty colored engravings, with descrip- 
 tions in English and French, taken in the years 1798 and 1799. Folio. London, 1830. 
 
 Speke (John H.anning). Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile. Edinburgh and 
 London, 1863. 
 
 Sproat (Gilbert Malcolm). Scenes and Studies of Savage Life. London, 1868. 
 
 Tagore (R.^jah Sourindro Mohun). Hindu Music from Various Authors. Compiled by. 
 Second edition. Calcutta, 1882. 
 
 Hindu Music. Reprinted from the Hindu Patriot, Sept. 7, 1874 (pp. 339-397 in Tagore's 
 
 " Hindu Music from Various Authors "). 
 
 Short Notices of Hindu Musical Instruments. Calcutta, 1S77. 
 
 The Twenty-two Musical Srutis of the Hindus. Calcutta, 1882. 
 
 Taylor (Meadows). Description of a Collection of Indian Musical Instruments, presented to the 
 Royal Irish Academy by Col. P. T. French (pp. 243-273 in "Tagore's Hmdu Music from 
 Various Authors "). 
 
 Tylor(E. B.). The Study of Customs. Macmillan's Magazine, \\.z.y, \'&'&2. London. 
 
 Van Aalst (J. A.). Chinese Music. Shanghai and London, 1884. 
 
 Van Lennep (Henry J.). Bible Lands: their Modern Customs and Manners, illustrative of 
 Scripture. New York, 1875. 
 
3 70 List of Authorities. 
 
 3 
 
 Villoteau. Description Historique, Technique et Litteraire des Instrumens de Musique des 
 Orientaux. Contained in Vol. XIII. of " Description de I'Egypte ; ou, Recneil des Observations 
 et des Reclierclies (jui ont tSte faites en Egypte pendant I'expedition de I'armee frangaise." 
 2""= edition. Paris, 1S23. 
 
 Willard (N. Augustus). A Treatise on the Music of Hindustan (pp. 1-122 in Tagore's "Hindu 
 Music from Various Authors "). 
 
 Williams (Thom.as). Fiji and the Fijians. London, 1S70. 
 
 Yoe (Sh\v,-\y). The Burman ; his Life and Notions. 2 vols. London, 1882. 
 
 Yule (Henry). A Narrative of the Mission sent by the Governor-General of India to the Court of 
 Ava. London, 1S5S. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Names of Musical Instrumefits in Italics. 
 
 Abbassides and Music, 170. 
 
 Achmed Ben Mohammed. 174. 
 
 ^tf ft;// (Mexican trumpet), 311. 
 
 African tribes, instruments of, 257-272. 
 
 Wide diffusion of stringed instruments, 25S ; prob- 
 ably derived from Egypt, 258 ; reasons for this 
 opinion, 258; instruments of percussion, 260-265; 
 great variety, 260, 261 ; drums, 262, 263 ; rattles, 
 263 ; Marimba, 263 ; Zaiize, 264 ; wind instru- 
 ments, 265-268 ; stringed instruments, 268-271 ; 
 Zeze, 268 ; harps, 26g ; lyre, 270 ; violins, 271 ; 
 orchestral performances of Bongo, 271 ; of Kara- 
 gue, 271. 
 
 Ahts, bards of, 299. 
 dances of, 298. 
 music of, 2g6. 
 sorcerers of, 299. 
 
 Ainos, aboriginal inhabitants of Japan, 70. 
 
 Ajunta, 106. 
 
 Akber, Emperor, 99. 
 
 Alateeyeh, Egyptian professional musicians, iSi. 
 
 Alfarabi, Arab musician, 174, 193 ; wonderful skill of, 
 
 173- 
 
 Alghosah (India), 120. 
 
 Al^ooja ; see Alghosah. 
 
 Amaterasu, Sun-goddess of Japan, 61. 
 
 Ainbira (Africa), 265. 
 
 Atnrita ; see Omerti. 
 
 Amurath IV., 217. 
 
 Angyemut (New Britain), 248 ; superstition concerning, 
 249. 
 
 Angulistata, class of Hindu instruments, 108. 
 
 Apaches, dances of, 298. 
 
 Apache, flute, 310. 
 
 love-flute, 309. 
 violin, 310. 
 
 Apsarasen, 92. 
 
 Arab music, 167-182. 
 
 Influence upon European music, 167 ; musical 
 development of Arabs, 168 ; music not associated 
 with religion, 169 ; opposition of Mohammed to. 
 169; Caliphs more lenient to, 170; influence of 
 conquest of Persia, 171 ; music in 8th and 9th 
 centuries in Bagdad, 172 ; tales of wonderful skill 
 of Arab musicians, 172, 173 ; theory of music 
 
 studied under the Caliphs, 174 ; moral influence 
 of music, 174 ; attempts to remodel theory of, 175 ; 
 schism between theory and practice, 176 ; scale, 
 177 ; failure to distinguish between movement 
 and measure, 178 ; time, 179 ; notation, 179 ; pres- 
 ent state of music, 179-182 ; popularity of, 179 ; 
 vocal music, 180, 181 ; music of bards, dancing 
 girls, etc., iSi. 
 
 Arab musical instruments, 183-198. 
 
 Over two hundred different varieties, 183 ; stringed 
 instruments, 183-192 ; violins, igo-192 ; wind in- 
 struments, T92-T96 ; instruments of percussion, 196-- 
 198. 
 
 Arab musical theory, relation to Greek, 174, 176. 
 
 Arghool (Egypt), 194. 
 
 Ashantee airs. 243. 
 
 choruses, 245. 
 
 dirges, 245. 
 
 instruments, 253, 256,260, 262, 263, 265, 267. 
 
 Avicenna, 174. 
 
 Awalim, Egyptian female singers, 180. 
 
 Aztec instruments, 311-313. 
 
 Bagdad, musical centre in 8th and 9th centuries, 172 ; 
 
 capture of, 217. 
 Bagpipe, Arab, 195. 
 
 Ashantee, 267. 
 
 Hindu (Madras), 120. 
 
 negro (Congo), 267. 
 
 in Persian bass-reliefs, 214. 
 
 Turkish (Ghaida), 226. 
 Bahya (India), 118. 
 Bakalai, 269. 
 
 Baked earth, Chinese instruments of, 44. 
 Balafo (African Slarimba), 264. 
 Bamanwato, 245. 
 
 Bamboo, Chinese instruments of, 41, 
 Banabea, 265. 
 Banjo, African {Zczc), 268. 
 Bansee (India). 119. 
 Banstilee ; see Bansee. 
 Barbud, old Persian singer, 214.215. 
 Bards among JN. A. Indians, 299. 
 Barghumi (African horn), 266. 
 Barttelot, Major, death of, 240. 
 
372 
 
 Index, 
 
 Bayaderes (Hindu), 103. 
 Baz (Egypt and Turkey), 197. 
 Bechuanas, inslruments of, 254, 266. 
 Been (Vina, India), 108, no. 
 Bell-clnme, Chinese, 35. 
 Bells, Burmese, 145. 
 Chinese, 35, 36. 
 Hindu, IiS, irg. 
 Pueblo Indian, 310. 
 Bcndir (Algiers), IgS, 
 Bendy r ; see Bendir. 
 Bhimbhat, Siamese orchestra, 134. 
 Bitut, class of Hindu instruments. 108. 
 Biwa (Japan), 39, 74. 
 Bizug (Syria), 1S7. 
 Bone whistles of cavemen, 240. 
 Bongo, instruments of, 254, 263, 266, 267. 
 
 singing of, 243. 
 Bonzes, use of J'o by, 35. 
 Botiito (S. America), 326. 
 Boulou (African harp), 269. 
 Bow, musical (Bechuana), 254. 
 (Bongo), 254. 
 (KaiYre), 268. 
 (Zulu), 268. 
 Bracelet rattle (Siou.x), 307. 
 Brahma, 92, 99. 
 
 Bugles, American, in Corea, 82. 
 Burmese instruments, 142-147; stringed, 142, 143; wind, 
 
 144 ; percussion, 144-147. 
 Burmese music, 140-142. 
 
 popularity of, 140 ; musical drama, 140 ; scale, 140; 
 no notation, 141 ; musical instruction, 141- 
 Bushmen, instruments of, 254, 263, 267. 
 
 Castanets, Arab, 181, 198. 
 Burmese, 145. 
 Chinese, 41. 
 Hindu, 119. 
 Japanese, 77. 
 Siamese, 137. 
 Cavemen of France, musical instruments of, 240. 
 Central America, instruments of, 323, 
 Chabbabeh ; see Sluiberba. 
 Chalil, 194. 
 Chang (Persia), 222. 
 Chang Gou (Corea), 81, 82. 
 Charp (Siam), 137. 
 Che (China), 37. 
 Cheipottr (Arabl, 196. 
 Cheng (China), 43, 75. 
 Chikara (India), 115. 
 Ch'itz ; see Kin. 
 Chinese music, 13-27. 
 
 traditional history, 15; origin according to Van 
 Aalst, 16 ; traditional effect of early music, 16 ; con- 
 nection with the dance, 17 ; rhythm of, 17 ; failure 
 to introduce European music, i8 ; theory of, 19; 
 
 the Liis, Tg ; pentatonic scale, 20 ; new scale and 
 notation introduced by Mongols, 20 ; notation, 21 ; 
 of the present day, 23; popular or theatrical, 24; 
 professional musicians, 24 ; progress practically im- 
 possible, 25 ; works on, contained in library at 
 Pekin, 26. 
 Chinese musical instruments, 28-44. 
 
 destruction of, by Emperor She Huang Ti, 17 ; 
 divided according to eight kinds of musical sound 
 in nature, 28 ; materials used for, 28, 29 ; of skin, 
 29 ; of stone, 31 ; of metal, 34 ; their use in Con- 
 fucian temples, 35 ; of silk, 36 ; Kins used in Con- 
 fucian temples, 37 ; of wood, 40 ; of bamboo, 41 ; 
 of gourd, 43 ; of baked earth, 44. 
 Ching (Siam), 137. 
 Chippewas, love-flute of, 309. 
 war song of, 296. 
 Chi-sian (China), 30. 
 Cho-tonka (Sioux)/ see Love-flute. 
 Chrosroes, dream of, 215. 
 Chu (China), 40. 
 Cltn}ig {Q,h\T\^), 35. 
 Clarin ; see Aeoeoll. 
 
 Conch-shell, primitive type of trumpet, 250. 
 Conch-trumpet, Chinese, 34. 
 Hindu, 122. 
 Japanese, 76. 
 Sandwich Island, 328. 
 South American, 326. 
 Confucius, 15, 17, 35. 
 Conjurer's drum (Sioux), 306. 
 Conjurer's rattle (Sioux), 307. 
 Corean music, 79, 80. 
 
 lack of information upon, 79 ; origin and character, 
 79, 80 ; popularity of, 80 ; small place in religious 
 rites, 80. 
 Corean musical instruments. Si, 82 ; stringed instru- 
 ments. Si ; wind instruments, 81; instruments of 
 percussion, 82. 
 Courting-flute (Formosa), 251. 
 
 (N. A. Indian) ; see Love-flute. 
 Cuba, instruments of, 313. 
 Cymbals, Arab, 198. 
 
 Burmese, 145. 
 Chinese, 36. 
 Hindu, 119. 
 Japanese, 77. 
 Siamese, 137. 
 Soudan, 263. 
 Turkish, 277. 
 
 Dahomey, 240. 
 
 Daireh (Persia), 218. 
 
 Dak (India), 117. 
 
 Dakotas, orchestral performances of, 239, 300. 
 
 Daliika (negro drum), 259. 
 
 Dance among N. A. Indians, 297. 
 
 Dance, effect on development of music, 244. 
 
Index. 
 
 m 
 
 Dance-rattles (Haida'), 305. 
 
 (Thlinket), 303. 
 Dance-songs (negro), 257. 
 Darabouka ; see Darabtikkeh. 
 Darabukkch (Arab), 197. 
 Darius, 214. 
 Davadasi (Hindu), 103. 
 Davool (Arab), 197. 
 Dayra (India), 118. 
 Derboiika ; see Darabukkch. 
 Dervishes, Persian, 219. 
 Turlcish, 221. 
 Dhanustata, class of Hindu instruments, 108. 
 Chcte (African flute), 265. 
 ZJ/ic/ (India), 117. 
 Dkolkee (India), I17. 
 Dirbukkeh ; see Darabukkeh. 
 j9i>/// (Persia), 225. 
 Z'o/Hfe^ (Persia), 225. 
 Doo (Japan). 77. 
 Drums, African, 259, 261-263. 
 
 Alaskan, 301, 302. 
 
 Arab, 196, 197. 
 
 Aztec, 312. 
 
 Burmese, 145. 
 
 Ciiinese, 29-31. 
 
 Greenland, 301. 
 
 Hindu, 117, 118. 
 
 Japanese, 76. 
 
 Lapland, 247. 
 
 North American, 247. 
 
 Persian, 225. 
 
 Sioux, 306. 
 
 South American, 324. 
 
 superstitions concerning, 247. 
 
 uses of, 24S. 
 Drum organ (Burmese), 146. 
 Duel, musical, of Greenlanders, 245. 
 Duff{.\\\A\A), 118. 
 
 Eeh-na-dees (N. A. Indian), 297. 
 El Kindi, 174. 
 E'raqyeh (Arab), 194. 
 Erh-hsien, see Ur-Heeh. 
 Eskimos of Alaska, 301. 
 
 Faggeishdh (Syria), 198. 
 
 Feki, mythological Japanese prince, 66. 
 
 Feki-blind, class of Japanese musicians, 66. 
 
 Fellahee (Turkey), 226. 
 
 Feng, Chinese phoenix, 19. 
 
 Feng-Ling (China). 35. 
 
 Fife (S. America), 324. 
 
 Fiji Islanders, 239, 242, 245, 253, 327. 
 
 Flageolet, African. 265. 
 
 Aztec, 312. 
 
 Hindu (Alghosak), 120. 
 
 N- A. Indian (Cho-tanka'), 309. 
 
 Flageolet, Persian (Shaberba), 193. 
 Flute, Apache, 310. 
 
 Arab [Nay), 192, 193. 
 
 Ashanlee, 265. 
 
 Aztec, 311. 
 
 Bongo, 266. 
 
 Burmese, 144. 
 
 Chinese (Ty), 42. 
 
 Hindu {Bansee), 119. 
 
 Japanese, 74, 75 . 
 
 Mittoo, 266. 
 
 Moqui, 310, 
 
 Siamese, 138. 
 
 the instrument of love, 251. 
 Fou Kou (China), 30. 
 Fouye ; see Fiiye. 
 Fu Hsi, Emperor, 15. 
 Fuye (Japan), 74. 
 
 Gakkunine, first class of Japanese musicians, 66 
 
 Gambangs, Javese, 135. 
 
 Gandharven, 92. 
 
 Ganesa, 93, 103. 
 
 Gasbd (Algiers), 193. 
 
 Ge'le'-Masha (Turkey), 227. 
 
 Gha'ida (Turkey), 226. 
 
 Ghawazee, Egyptian dancing girls, 181. 
 
 Ghekos (Gueschia), Japanese singing-girls, 67. 
 
 Ghun, class of Hindu instruments, 108. 
 
 Gongs, Burmese, 144. 
 
 Chinese (Zo), 36. 
 Hindu {Thalia), 118. 
 Japanese {Doo). 77. 
 
 Siamese. 136. 
 Gong-chime, Chinese ( Yun-lo), 36. 
 Gong organ, 'Rwrm&'ie (ICyee-waiti), 144. 
 Siamese {Klong Vai), 136. 
 Goongooroos (India). 119. 
 Gopis, 98. 
 
 Goura (Bu.shmen), 267. 
 Gourd, Chinese instruments of. 43. 
 Greek instruments (modern) derived from Persia, 220. 
 Greek musical theory, relation to Arabic, 176. 
 Greek musicians in Turkey, 220. 
 Greenlanders, drums of, 301. 
 songs of, 245. 
 Gubo, Zulu (musical bovjf), 268. 
 Guenin, second class of Japanese musicians, 66. 
 Gueschia, see Ghekos. 
 Guilds, musical, Siamese. 133. 
 Gunibry (Arabia), 187. 
 Guitar, African, 270. 
 
 Arabian {R'ldtra), 187. 
 
 Chinese (San-Heen), 39. 
 ( Yue-Kin). 39. 
 
 European, origin of, 167. 
 
 Hindu (Si far), T12. 
 
 Japanese (Samisen), 72. 
 
374 
 
 o 
 
 Index. 
 
 Guitar, Persian {Schlarch). '2.1'},. 
 {Tar), 223. 
 Turkish (F,'llalu-e), 226. 
 Gunlc (India), liS. 
 
 Iladi (Arab singers), 168. 
 Hadji Chalfa, 174. 
 Hagguni (Corea), Si. 
 Haida Indians, instruments of, 305. 
 Ilai-lo (Cliina), 34. 
 Hao'tiing (Cliina), 36. 
 Harems of Turkey, music in, 220, 
 Harmonicon, African {Mariiiibii), 249, 264. 
 Burmese {Pal/ala), 144. 
 Central American, 249. 
 Hindu (Kinnery), 119. 
 Japanese (A'Jokkiin^, 78. 
 Micronesian (Angrennit), 249. 
 Siamese (Jianal), 135. 
 Harmonicon, development of, 24S-250. 
 Harmony, savage, instances of, 256. 
 Harouu al Raschid, 172. 
 Harps, African, 269. 
 Harp, Arab (JunH), 222. 
 
 Burmese iySoitng), 142. 
 Niam-Niam {h'anga), 25S, 269. 
 Persian {Chang). 214, 222. 
 Hashash ; sa Nzangah. 
 Heang-ii (Japan), 75. 
 Hebrew trumpet, 196. 
 llc-lia-kha-zo-zo (Sioux) ; scl Moose Call. 
 Heike-Biwa (Japan), 76. 
 Hindu music, gi-105. 
 
 contrast with Chinese and Japanese, 91 ; obscurity 
 of, and lack of information respecting, 92 ; divine 
 origin, 92 ; antiquity of, 93 ; compared with early 
 Greek music, 93 ; history proper, 94 ; religious 
 association and purity of, 94 ; deterioration from 
 early standard, 94 ; prostituted to licentious uses, 
 95 ; theory and practice divorced, 95 ; influence 
 of Mohammedan conquests, 95 ; theory of. 96 ; 
 Sangita, 96 ; division of Sangita, 96 ; Srutis, 96 ; 
 scale, 96 ; keys, 97 ; Ragas, 98 ; fabulous origin of 
 the Ragas, 99 ; fables as to effect of early Ragas, 
 99 ; measure, 100 ; pitch, lOI ; notation, loi ; 
 ancient and modern music compared, 102 ; musi- 
 cal drama, 103 ; religious music, 103 ; Bayaderes, 
 103 ; systems of music, 104 ; son.gs, 104 ; melody 
 and harmony, 104. 
 Hindu musical instruments, 106-122. 
 
 vast number and variety, 106 ; defects of, 107 ; 
 four classes of, 108 ; stringed instruments, loS- 
 116 ; oricin of principle of understrung wires, 116 ; 
 instruments of percussion (skin), 116-118 ; instru- 
 ments of percussion (metal), 118-119 ; wind instru- 
 ments, 119-122. 
 Hindustani system of music, 104. 
 Hoang-Ti, Emperor, 34. 
 
 Iloodoak (India), 117. 
 
 Ilormizd, 215. 
 
 Horn, the instrument of war, 250. 
 
 Horns, African, 266, 267. 
 
 risiian (China), 44. 
 
 Huang Ti (the Yellow Emperor), 16, 38. 
 
 Hu-Cli'hi ; see Hu-Kin. 
 
 Huayja-Puhura (South America), 325. 
 
 Huieit-Chung (China), 36. 
 
 Hu-A'in (Hu-ch'in) (China), 39. 
 
 Ilicka (Africa), 265. 
 
 Ibnol Heisem, 174, 
 
 Ibraheem, 184. 
 
 Imperial Board of Music at Pekin, 15. 
 
 India, instruments of, sec Hindu musical instruments. 
 
 India, music of ; see Hindu music. 
 
 Institute of Music, Tokio, organization and aim, 59. 
 
 International Inventions Exhibition, 131. 
 
 Irghitn ; see Urgnn. 
 
 Ishak el Mosilee, 172. 
 
 Jainagair'ii-guine-iaico (Japan), 77. 
 Janissary music, 220. 
 Japanese music, 59-68. 
 
 introduction of European music, 59 ; popularity, 
 
 61 ; mythological origin, 5i ; origin traced to China 
 and Corea, 62 ; assigned by Isawa to Hindustan, 
 
 62 ; impulse given by Buddhism, 62 ; direct Chi- 
 nese influence on, 63 ; stationary character of 
 classical music, 63 ; character of popular music, 
 
 63 ; contrasted with Chinese music, 64 ; scale, 64 ; 
 notation, 65 ; musicians organized in four classes, 
 
 66 ; tradition respecting Feki-blind, 67 ; theatre, 
 
 67 ; religions music, 68 ; vocal music, 68, 
 Japanese musical instruments, 69-7S. 
 
 resemblance to Chinese, 69 ; division of, 69 ; 
 stringed instruments, 71-74 ; wind instruments, 
 74-76 ; instruments of percussion, 76—78. 
 
 Jew's harp (Aino), 70. 
 
 Jew's harp of Fijians, 253. 
 
 Jilla (India), 118. 
 
 Jogee, 95. 
 
 Joritomo, Japanese Mars, 66. 
 
 JoLim-joum (Bushmen), 267. 
 
 Jumna, river of India, 100. 
 
 luriipayis (South America), 249. 
 
 Kaffres, 264, 266. 
 Kagiira J^aiko (Japan), 77. 
 Kanidncha (Persia), 224. 
 Kansi (India), 118. 
 Ivaiwon (Arabia!, i83. 
 (Turkey), 226. 
 Kamin ; see Kanooii. 
 Karague, 265, 270. 
 
 Karnatik, system of Hindu music, 104. 
 Kassaiigali (Africa), 264. 
 
Inde. 
 
 X. 
 
 375 
 
 Ke'-l-yau (Eskimo drum), 301. 
 Keinancheh ; see Kamancha. 
 Keiiiangeh a'gouz (Arab), igo. 
 Kemangeh Farkli (Arab), 191. 
 Kemangeh Roumy (h\ah), igi. 
 Kemangeh (Persia) ; see Kamancha. 
 Kemangeh (Turkey), 22O. 
 Kettle drums, Arab, 196, igy. 
 Hindu, Ii8. 
 Siamese, 136. 
 Kheui (Burmah), 145. 
 Khong Lek (?>\a.VLi), 136. 
 Khong Yai (Siam), 136. 
 Khosrau Parviz, 214. 
 Khosro, Umeer, 112. 
 Kidete ; see D'hete. 
 Kin (Cli'in), Cliina, 37. 
 Kin KoH (China), 29. 
 Kinanda (Africa), 270. 
 A'/«,^ (China), 31. 
 
 traditional effect of, 16. 
 Kinnery (India), 119. 
 Kinno-Koto (Japan), 71. 
 ^/j-j-ar (Egypt), 188. 
 
 tuned to pentatonic scale, 188. 
 Klong Khek (Siam), 136. 
 Klong Khek, Siamese orchestra, 135. 
 Klong Yai (Siam), 136. 
 Klui (Siam), 138. 
 Kokiti (Japan), 73. 
 Komounko (Corea), 81. 
 
 Koran, contains no reference to music, i6g, 221. 
 Koto (Japan), 61, 71. 
 Ko-Tsudziimi {Tossumi), Japan, 77. 
 Kou (China), 29. 
 
 Kouei, or the Chinese Orpheus, 16. 
 ^02<TOa/ (Persia), 225. 
 Kra Chapee (Siam), 137. 
 Krishna, 93, 97, 104. 
 Krumen, music of, 240. 
 Kublai Khan, 21. 
 Ktichwa (India), 113. 
 Kuitra (Arab), 187. 
 Kunjerry (^■i.&x^.'i), 116. 
 Kurna (India), 121. 
 Kyee-wain (Burmah), 144. 
 Kyee-zee (Burmah), 145. 
 
 Lao Phan, Siamese Orchestra, 135. 
 
 La-pa (China), 36. 
 
 Lapland drums, 247. 
 
 Lay, G. Tradescant, theory of, respecting violin, 40. 
 
 Leg rattle (Moqui), 310. 
 
 Ling-Lun, 19, 34. 
 
 Lo (China), 36. 
 
 Lokanga (Madagascar), 270. 
 
 Long flute (Sioux) ; see Moose Call. 
 
 Love-flute, Apache, 310. 
 
 Love-flute, Sioux, 309. 
 
 use in courting, 293. 
 Love-song, North American Indian, 293. 
 Lnng-kin (China), 37. 
 Lung-ti (Cliina), 42. 
 Llis, Chinese. 19. 
 Lute, Arab, 183. 
 
 development of, 184. 
 
 miraculous powers attributed to, 184. 
 
 wonderful effects produced by, 184. 
 
 tuning, 185. 
 
 European, origin of, 167. "■ 
 
 Japanese [Biwa), 74. 
 
 Persian (Oud), 223. 
 Lyra (Greece), 226. 
 Lyre, Mittoo, 270. 
 
 Magoudi (Poongi, India), 120. 
 Mahoree, Siamese orchestra, 134. 
 Alangoai {'Bongo horn), 267. 
 Mandan Indians, 296. 
 Mandarins of music, 26. 
 Manu, 92. 
 Manyemas, 240. 
 
 Afanyinyee (Bongo trumpet), 266. 
 Maiimba (Harmonicon), African (East), 249, 264. 
 
 (Southeast), 249. 
 Guatemalan, 249, 323. 
 Mason, Luther Whiting, instructor of music in National 
 
 Institute of Tokio, 59. 
 Mburrah (Bongo pipe), 267. 
 Medicine man, Alaskan ; see Shaman. 
 
 North American Indian, importance in 
 connection with music, 298. 
 Medicine man's drum ; see conjurer's dram, 
 rattle ; see conjurer's rattle. 
 Alegyoung (Yivec'ca'iA^), 143. 
 Metal, Chinese instruments of, 34. 
 Mexico, instruments of, 311. 
 Mganga (African rain-maker), 263. 
 Alijwiz (Syria), 194. 
 Mihambi (African jMatimba), 264. 
 Mmcopies, 240, 241. 
 Minjairah (Syria), 193. 
 Minstrels, Niam-Niam, 245, 260. 
 Mittoo. 266, 270. 
 
 Mohammed, opposed to music, i6g. 
 Mohammed's standard, national instrument of Turkey, 
 
 220. 
 Alokkinc (Japan), 77. 
 Mokugyo, (Japan), 78. 
 
 Resemblance to Chinese A/it-Yn, 78. 
 Mommu, Emperor, 74. 
 Monbuttoo, 262, 267. 
 Monochord, Greek, derivation of. 168. 
 Moose Call (Sioux), 308. 
 Moquis, 310 ; dances of, 29S. 
 Moung Thah Byaw, Burmese court singer, 141- 
 
J 
 
 76 
 
 Inde: 
 
 X. 
 
 Mouth organ, Chinese, 43. 
 
 Corean, 82. 
 
 Japanese, 75. 
 Mukha (India), 120. 
 Mukharik, Arab musician, 184. 
 
 wonderful skill of, 172. 
 Music, love of, inborn in man, 239. 
 
 power of, in life of savage, 239. 
 Musical bow ; see Bow, musical. 
 Muras, 250. 
 Mu-Yii (China), 41. 
 M'ridang ; see Mridung. 
 Mrid?ing- (India.), 117. 
 
 Nadr Ben Kelde, 171. 
 
 NaggaraJi (Arab), 196. 
 
 Nakakeer, plural of Nakkarah, g.v. 
 
 Nakkarah ; see Naggarah. 
 
 Nallari (Corea), 80. 
 
 Nanga (Niam-Niam harp), 258, 269. 
 
 Nareda, inventor of f-'/wa, 93. 
 
 Nay (Arab), 192. 
 (Persia), 225. 
 (Turkey), 226. 
 used by dervishes of Turkey, 221. 
 
 Nay-chah (Arab), 193. 
 
 Nay-giref (kx3!a), 193. 
 
 Nefyr {hx-A>), 195. 
 
 (Turkey), 226. 
 
 New Zealanders, 256. 
 
 Ngoma Kit (African drum), 262. 
 
 Niam-Niams, 240, 245, 256, 260, 262, 269. 
 
 A^ihoihagi (Japan), 77. 
 
 Nila Pooja, Hindu feast of, iig. 
 
 7\^o*«(/ (India), 117. 
 
 Nogara (African drum), 261. 
 
 North American Indians, music of, 291-300. 
 
 obscurity of the subject, 291 ; poetic nature of the 
 Indian, 293 ; translation of love-song, 293 ; vocal 
 music, 293 ; instruments of percussion in accompani- 
 ment, 296 ; wind instruments only used for solo 
 purposes, 297 ; dancing, 297 ; medicine man, 298 ; 
 sorcerers of Ahts, 299 ; bards, 299 ; instrumental 
 music, 299 : unimportant place, 230 ; orchestral 
 performances, 230. 
 
 North America, musical instruments of, 301-313. 
 
 Eskimo drums, 301 : instruments of Alaskan 
 Indians, 302 ; drums, 302 ; rattles, 302 ; legend of 
 origin of rattle, 303; stringed instrument from Yac-a- 
 tat, 304 ; instruments of British America, 305 ; wind 
 instruments of Haida Indians, 305 ; instruments 
 of the Sioux or Dakotas, 305-309 ; of the Apaches, 
 310 ; of the Pueblos, 310 ; native instruments of 
 Mexico, 311 ; Aztec musical instruments, 312 ; in- 
 struments of the negroes of Cuba, 313. 
 
 Nose-flute, 259, 327. 
 origin of, 121. 
 
 Notation ; see under Music of particular country. 
 
 Notched stick (Moqui), 310. 
 Nushirvan, the Just, 215. 
 iVyastaranga (India), 121. 
 Nzangah (Niam-Niam minstrels), 260. 
 
 Oboe, Arab {Zourna), 193. 
 Burmese, 144. 
 Chinese {Sena), 42. 
 Corean (Nallari), 80. 
 Hindu {Ottu), 120. 
 Japanese (Heang- Ti), 75. 
 Persian, 225. 
 Siamese, 138. 
 Turkish, 226. 
 Oceanica, instruments of, 326-329. 
 Ombi (African harp), 269. 
 Omerti (India), 114. 
 Ommiads and music, 170. 
 Oompoochwa (Ashantee), 265. 
 Orchestra, Arab, iSl. 
 
 Burmese, 146. 
 Hindu, 103. 
 Japanese, 68. 
 
 North American Indian, 300. 
 Persian, 21S. 
 Siamese, 131, 134, 135. 
 Orchestral performances of Bongo, 270. 
 Dakotas, 239. 
 Karague, 270. 
 Orellana, 250. 
 0»a'(Arab), 183. 
 
 (Persia), 223. 
 Otou ; see Otti(. 
 Ottu (India), 120. 
 O- Tzudzunii ( Tossuvii) Japan, 77. 
 
 Pagolo (New Britain), 237. 
 
 Pai-hao (China), 42. 
 
 Pai-hsaio ; see Pai-hao. 
 
 Pai-pan (China), 41. 
 
 Pandean pipes (Syrinx), Chinese, 41. 
 
 Japanese, 75. 
 
 Peruvian, 325. 
 
 Polynesian, 252. 
 
 Siamese, 138. 
 
 South American, 325. 
 
 in Persian bass-reliefs, 214. 
 
 origin of, 251. 
 Pang Kou (China), 30. 
 Parbuti, consort of Krishna, 98. 
 Patolah ; see Pattala. 
 Pattala (Eurmah), 144. 
 Pee (Siam), 138. 
 Peechaioar (Siam), 138. 
 Pentatonic Scale (Chinese), 20. 
 
 identified with oldest Hindu scale, 94. 
 found in Corea, 79. 
 used by Malays, 242. 
 
IiidcA 
 
 ?>77 
 
 Pepa (China), 3g, 
 
 Percussion, savage instruments of, 246. 
 
 Persian instrumtnts, 222-225. 
 
 harp, 222 ; stringed instruments, 223-225 ; wind 
 instruments, 225 ; instruments of percussion, 225. 
 
 Persian music, 213-22T. 
 
 relation to Turkish, 213 ; ancient Persian music, 
 213, 214 ; music in time of the Sassanides, 214; 
 early system, 215 ; scale, 216 ; music in period of 
 the Caliphs, 217 ; present state of, 218-220 ; vocal 
 music, 219 ; religious music, 219 ; superiority to 
 Arab and Turkish music, 219, 220. 
 
 J'hdn (Siam), 138. 
 
 Pib-be-gwun (N. A. Indian flageolet), 309. 
 
 Pieii-Cliuiig (China), 35. 
 
 Pien-King (China), 32. 
 
 P'ip'a ; see Pepa. 
 
 Po (China), 36. 
 
 Po-Chiing {<Z\ivna), 35. 
 
 Poet's Rebab (Arab), 191. 
 
 Poongi (India), 120. 
 
 Pottery whistles, Aztec, 311, 312. 
 
 Pou-Kou (China), 30. 
 
 Private orchestras, Siamese, 133. 
 
 Pueblos, 298, 310. 
 
 Pukh'ivaj (\x\A\&), 117. 
 
 Puloay (Burmah), 144. 
 
 Pythagoras, 183. 
 
 Qdnon; see Kanoon. 
 
 Qitar (Persia) ; see Tar. 
 
 Qytdrah barbaryeh (Kissar, Egypt), 188. 
 
 Pabdb ; see Hebdb. 
 Rabab (India), 113. 
 Rabanastion ; see Ravanastron. 
 Raga (Rag) ; see Rags. 
 Raginis (Hindu melodies), 98. 
 Rags (Hindu), definition of, 98. 
 fabulous origin of, 99. 
 miraculous powers of, gg. 
 Ra'ita (Algiers), 193. 
 Ranat (Siam), 133, 135. 
 Ranat Ek (Siam), 135. 
 Ranat Lek (Smm), 135. 
 Ranat Thong (Siam), 135. 
 Ranat T'koom (Siam), 135. 
 Rappakai (Japan), 76. 
 
 Rathnakara, Sangita ; see Sangita Rathnakara. 
 Ratnavali, Sangita ; see Sangita Ratnavali. 
 Rattles, African, 263. 
 
 Alaskan, 303, 304. 
 
 Shaman's, 303. 
 Central American, 323. 
 Pueblo, 310. 
 Sioux, 307. 
 
 Conjurer's, 307. 
 South American, 324. 
 
 Rattles, legendary origin of, 303. 
 
 worshipped in Brazil, 247. 
 Ravanastron (India), 114. 
 Rebdb (Arab), 191. 
 
 (Persia), 225. 
 Rebdb esJi moganny (Ars.\S), 191. 
 Rebdb esh sha'er (Arab), 181, igi. 
 Rebec, origin of, 167. 
 Reed instruments of Karague, 265. 
 
 of Bechuanas, 266. 
 Rhythm in savai^e music, 243, 300. 
 
 in North American Indian songs, 296. 
 Rigveda, 94. 
 Rikk (Arab), 198. 
 Rishis, early bards of India, 94. 
 Riyuteki (Japan), 75. 
 
 Rowbotham, J. F., theory of, 241, 244, 255, 258, 327. 
 Rubab ; see Rabab. 
 Ruckert, translator of Confucius' song-book, 15. 
 
 Sagat (Arab), 198. 
 
 Saihwang{(i(ix'ici), 82. 
 
 Samisen (Japan), 61, 72. 
 
 Samoans, 250. 
 
 Sangita, g6. 
 
 Sangita Rathnakara, Sanscrit musical treatise, 106. 
 
 Sangita Ratnavali, g6. 
 
 San-Heen (China), 39. 
 
 re-appears in Japan, 73. 
 
 corresponds to Hindu Tamboura, ill. 
 
 San-Hsie}i ; see San-Heen, 
 
 Sanje (rattle), Africa, 263. 
 
 Sanko of Ashantees, 253. 
 
 ^ab/zV (Arab), i8g. 
 (Persia), 223. 
 (Turkey), 226. 
 
 Santyr J see Santir. 
 
 Saraswati, Hindu goddess of music, g3, gg. 
 
 Sarinda (India), 115. 
 
 (Burmah), 143, 
 
 Saroh ; see Sarinda. 
 
 Sarrooda (India), 116. 
 
 Sarungee (India), 115. 
 
 Savage music, 237 256. 
 
 love of music inborn, 239 ; vocal music, 241-246 ; 
 monotony of savage songs, 242 ; exceptions, 243 ; 
 rhythmic element in savage music, 243 ; effect of 
 the dance, 244 ; importance of singing in savage 
 life, 244-246 ; savage musical instruments, 246- 
 256 ; examples of savage harmony, 256. 
 Savage musical instruments. 
 
 rapid disappearance of, 237 ; necessity for imme- 
 diate study, 237 ; wide diffusion of musical instru- 
 ments, 240 ; theory of Rowbotham, 241 ; instru- 
 ments of percussion, 246-250; rude forms, 246; 
 superstitions connected with drum, 247 ; develop- 
 ment of harmonicon, 248-250 ; wind instruments, 
 250-252 ; the horn family, 250 ; the pipe family. 
 
378 
 
 Index. 
 
 251 ; development of the flute, 251 ; the syrinx, 
 251; stringed instruments, 252-255; importance 
 in musical history, 252 ; primitive form, 253 ; Sanko 
 of Ashantees, 253 ; development of principle of 
 stopping, 254. 
 
 Saw Diiaug (Siam), 138. 
 
 Saw Oo (Siam', 138. 
 
 Saw Sanisai (Siam), 138. 
 
 Saw Tai (Siam), 137. 
 
 Sazindeh, Persian musicians, 218. 
 
 Scale ; see under Music of particular country. 
 
 Schah-Kuli, Persian musician, 217. 
 
 ScJiikenkin (Japan), 71. 
 
 Scholar's lute {Kin), China, 37. 
 
 Schlan-Ii (Persia), 21S, 223. 
 
 Se (China), 37. 
 
 Sch- Tar ; see Si/ar. 
 
 Seing-weiiig (Burmah), 145. 
 
 Scounofiiye (Japan), 75. 
 
 Serenades of Fijians, 245. 
 
 Shaberba (Arab), 193. 
 (Persia), 225. 
 
 Shakuhachi (]3.-^axi), 75. 
 
 Shaman (Alaskan medicine man), 302, 303, 304. 
 
 Shanai ; see Shcna. 
 
 Shasters, Hindu sacred writings, 94. 
 
 She Huang Ti, emperor, 17. 
 
 Shena (India), 120. 
 
 Shepherd's fife (Persia), 225. 
 
 Shichiriki (Japan), 75. 
 
 Shiragi (Corea), King of, 62. 
 
 Sho (Japan), 43, 75. 
 
 Sho2t-pan (China), 41. 
 
 Shotoku, Prince, commands study of music, 62. 
 
 Shun, Chinese Emperor, 16, 17. 
 
 Siamese band in London, 131. 
 
 Siamese iirstruments, 134-139. 
 
 two classes of, 134 ; Mahoree, or indoor orchestra, 
 134 ; Bhimbhat or indoor orchestra, 134 ; Klong 
 Khek, Malay orchestra, 135 ; Lao Phan, 135 ; in- 
 struments of percussion, 135-137 ; stringed instru- 
 ments, 137, 138 ; wind instruments, 138 ; arrange- 
 ment of orchestra, 138. 
 
 Siamese music, 131- 134. 
 
 lack of information concerning, 131 ; high quality 
 of, 132 ; allied to that of Hindustan, 132 ; scale, 132; 
 absence of notation, 132 ; requisites for success in, 
 133 ; musical guilds, 133; private orchestras, 133 ; 
 fondness of Siamese for, 133 ; character of songs, 
 133 ; absence of harmony, 133. 
 
 Silk, Chinese instruments of, 36. 
 
 Singer's Rebab (Arab), 191. 
 
 Sioux, instruments of, 305-309. 
 
 Sitar (India), 112. 
 (Persia), 223. 
 
 Siwa (African bassoon), 266. 
 
 Skin, Chinese instruments of, 29. 
 
 Soma, ancient Hindu musician, 98, 108. 
 
 Sana (China), 42. 
 
 re-appears in Japan, 75. 
 Song-7iah (Siam), 136. 
 Songs, African, 243. 
 
 Arab, 170. 
 
 Australian, 239, 242, 244. 
 
 Brazilian, 242. 
 
 Burmese, 141. 
 
 Fiji, 242. 
 
 Hindu, 104. 
 
 Japanese, 68. 
 
 negroes (S. America), 242. 
 
 N. American Indian, 242, 293, 296. 
 
 Nubian, 242. 
 
 Persian, 219. 
 
 Samoan, 242. 
 
 .Siamese, 133. 
 
 Tierra del Fuegians, 242. 
 
 Turkish, 220. 
 Sono-Koto (Japan), 38, 72. 
 Sonorous stone (China), 31. 
 (Peru), 324. 
 Sooghur, class of Hindu instruments, 108. 
 Soo-nal ; see Shena. 
 Soorsringa (India), 113. 
 Soicerers, Aht, 299. 
 
 Lapland, 247. 
 Sown ; see Soung. 
 Soung (Burmah), 142. 
 Sonrna ; see Zozirna. 
 Sournay (Arab), 193. 
 
 South America, instruments of, 323-326 ; division of, 
 323 ; sonorous stone, 324 ; drums, 324 ; fifes, 324 ; 
 rattle box, 324 ; syrinx, 325 ; wooden trumpets, 
 326. 
 Sruti, divisions of Hindu scale, 96. 
 Stone, Chinese instruments of, 31. 
 Stringed instrument (Alaska), 304. 
 
 from Congo River, 269. 
 primitive form of, 253. 
 Sum ma Koto (Japan), 71. 
 Surgum, Hindo gamut, 96. 
 Siiz (Persia), 223. 
 Swaragama, see Surgum. 
 Syrinx ; see Pandean Pipes. 
 
 Tabl Bckdee {¥,gjft), 197. 
 Tabl Shainee (Arab), ig6. 
 Tackt-i-Bostan, bass-reliefs of, 214. 
 Taiko (Japan), 68, 76. 
 Ta' Khay (Siam), 137. 
 
 found in Burmah, 143. 
 ro/ (India), 119. 
 Taht /'o/.- (Siam), 136. 
 Tamboiira (Arab), 185. 
 
 wide diffusion of, 185. 
 
 many varieties of, 185. 
 
 described by Alfarabi, 186. 
 
Index 
 
 379 
 
 Tamboura (India), no. 
 (Persia), 223. 
 (Turkey), 226. 
 Tamboura Bouzourk (Turkey), 220. 
 Tambourine, Arab, ig8. 
 
 Ashantee, 263. 
 Aztec, 312. 
 Chinese, 30. 
 Hindu, 118. 
 Persian, 225. 
 Syrian, 198. 
 Tanbour Bagklaina (Arab). 186. 
 Boul^hary (Arab), 186. 
 Bouzourk (Arab), 186. 
 Charqy (Arab), 186. 
 Kehyr Tourky (Arab), 186. 
 Tao Kou (Cliina), 30. 
 Taoosee (India), 113. 
 Tap/tone (Siamese), 136. 
 Ta-p' ohn; see Taphone. 
 Tapper (Sioux), 307. 
 Tdr (Arab), 198. 
 Tar (Persia), 223. 
 Tarau ; see Thro. 
 Ta Shao, a Chinese melody, 17. 
 Teki (Japan), 74. 
 Teponaztlis (Aztec drums), 312. 
 Thai-pang'kott (China), 30. 
 Thalia (India), 118. 
 Than-hwin (Burmah), 145. 
 That, Hindu mode, g8. 
 Theory of Arabic music, 176. 
 Chinese music, 19. 
 Hindu music, g6. 
 Persian music, 216. 
 Thlinkets (Alaskan tribe), 302. 
 Thone (Siam), 136. 
 Thro (Burmah), 143. 
 Tierra del Fuegians, 240, 241. 
 
 songs of, 242. 
 Timbila (African Maritnba), 264. 
 Titthi ; see Zitty. 
 Ti-tzu (China), 42. 
 
 re-appears in Japan, 75. 
 To (China), 35. 
 Toomerie (India), 121. 
 Toomerie Nagassaran (Madras), T20. 
 Tootoore (India), 121. 
 Toumourah (India), 112. 
 T'oungsyo (Corea), 81. 
 Ttigonon, old Persian instrument, 214. 
 Tritantri Vina, 112. 
 Trumpets, Arab (Nefyr), 195. 
 
 Bongo (Manyinyee), 266. 
 Chinese (La-pa), 36. 
 Hindu (Kurna), 121. 
 Mexican (Acocotl), 311. 
 Mittoo, 266. 
 
 Trumpets, South American, 250, 326. 
 
 Tsai-yu, Prince, acoustic discoveries, 18. 
 
 Tse King (China), 34. 
 
 Tsu Kou (China), 29. 
 
 Tsukushi-Kolo (Japan), 72. 
 
 Tubla (India), 117. 
 
 Tuk-kay ; see Ta'Khay. 
 
 Tur^Ci. America), 326. 
 
 Turkish instruments, 226, 227. 
 
 stringed instruments, 226 ; wind instruments, 226 ; 
 
 instruments of percussion, 227. 
 Turkish music, 217, 220, 221. 
 
 derived from Persia, 217; present state of, 220; 
 
 vocal music, 220 ; military or Janissary music, 220. 
 Turr ; see Thro. 
 
 Tut, class of Hindu instruments, 108. 
 Ty (China), 42. 
 Tzetze ; see Zeze. 
 
 Ujuk (Persia) ; see Tar. 
 Unyori, 261. 
 Upanga (India), 121. 
 Urgun (Syria), 194. 
 Ur-Heen (China), 39. 
 
 correspondence to Hindu Ravanastron, 114. 
 
 Veddahs of Ceylon, 240, 241. 
 Vina (India), 108. 
 
 invented by Nareda, 93. 
 
 favorite instrument of the early bards of India, 94. 
 Violins, African, 270. 
 
 Apache, 310. 
 
 Arabian, 190. 
 
 Burmese, 143. 
 
 Chinese, 39. 
 
 Corean, 81. 
 
 Greek, 226. 
 
 Hindu, 113-116. 
 
 Japanese, 73. 
 
 Persian, 223. 
 
 Siamese, 137. 
 
 Turkish, 226. 
 Violin, origin of the, 40. 
 
 India, the cradle of, 114. 
 Vishnu, 93. 
 
 Vissandshi (Africa), 265. 
 Vivo (Sandwich Islands), 327. 
 Vocal music, origin of, 241. 
 
 Wahle khoht (JiMXxaabv), 145. 
 Wajiji, 260, 
 Wangong (Japan), 71. 
 
 War-whistle (North American Indians), 309. 
 Water-drum (Bushman), 263. 
 Whistles, Aztec, 312. 
 Kaffre, 266. 
 Sioux, 309. 
 Winnebago courting-flute, 309. 
 
;8o 
 
 Wood, Chinese instrumenls <>f, 40. 
 
 Ya-gic'in (Burmah), 145. 
 
 Yang-Kin (China), 40. 
 
 Yang-A'nni (Corea), Si. 
 Yellow Emperor, the (Huang Ti), 16. 
 
 Ymg Kon (China), 29. 
 Yu (musical stone). 31. 
 
 Yii (wooden instrument), China, 40, 
 
 Yue-CkHn ; see Yiie-Kin. 
 
 Yue-Kin (China), 39. 
 
 re-appears in Japan, 73. 
 
 Yu-hsiao (China), 34. 
 
 Yiin-lo[Oi\\xvz), 36, 
 
 Yii-ty (China), 34. 
 
 Index. 
 
 Xenophon, 214. 
 Xylophone; sec Harmonicon. 
 
 Zanze (Africa), 264. 
 Zemr (Egypt), 193. 
 Zczc (African banjo), 268. 
 Zilty (Madras), 120, 
 Zoroaster, 213. 
 Zotirna (Arab), 193. 
 
 (India), 120. 
 
 (Persia), 225. 
 
 (Turkey), 226. 
 Zummara]i (Egyptl, 194- 
 Zummarah-bi-soan (Arab), 195.