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AUTHORIZED PHTSIOLOGY SERIES, No. S. 
 
 LESSOISTS IN HYGIEJ^E 
 
 OR, THE HUMAN BODY 
 AND HOW TO TAKE CARE OF IT 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OP ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND nYGIENE 
 FOK INTERMEDIATE AND GKAMMAE, GEADES 
 
 BEIIWJ AN EDITION OP 
 
 HOW "WE LIVE 
 
 EBVISED TO COMPLY WITH THE LEGISLATION REQUIKINO 
 lEMPEKANCB INSTRUCTION IN SCHOOLS 
 
 By JAMES JOHONNOT and 
 EUGENE BOTJTON, Ph.D. 
 
 NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
INDOKSBMBNT. 
 
 The " Authorized Physiology Series," consists of! 
 No. I.—" Health for Little Folks." For Primary Grades. 
 
 No. IL — "Lessons in Hygiene," ) 
 
 A special edition of " How we Live," >-For Intennediat« Grades, 
 by Johonuot and Bouton. ' 
 
 No. in. — Eevised edition of " Anatomy, Physiolo- \ For High -Schools and 
 gy, and Hygiene," by Eoger S. Tracy, > Advaneed Classes in 
 M. D. ' Common Schools. 
 
 In this series good judgment has been shown in the selection of facts tint 
 should be taught each grade, and in representing these facts in language which 
 the pupils of the grades for which the books are designed can comprehend. 
 
 The treatment of the subjects of anatomy and physiology in the high- 
 school book covers the usual ground; in the books of the lower grades it 
 does not unduly preponderate, but is abundantly ample to enable the pupil to 
 comprehend the topic which is the real object of the study, viz., the laws of 
 health, and the nature of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics, and their 
 effects upon the human system. The treatment of this part of the subject, in 
 each book of the series, is full, clear, and in harmony with the latest teachings 
 of science, and represents the spirit as well as the letter of the laws that re- 
 quire these truths taught all pupils in all schools. We are therefore happy to 
 indorse and commend the same for use in schools. 
 
 MAEY H. HUNT, 
 JSaUonal and International Superintendent 
 Department of Scientific Imtrvction of the 
 Womai^s Christian Temperance Union, 
 
 Albbbt H. Plchb, D. D. 
 Daniel Dorohssti 
 Hon. William E. I 
 Bev. Joseph Cook. 
 
 Daniel Dorchester, D. D. ( ^^^^ board for the UnUtd State,. 
 Hon. William E. Sheldon, i ' » 
 
 //-/■: 
 
 COFTRIOHT, 1884, 1885, 1889, 
 
 Bt D. APPLETON and COMPANY. 
 
 W. P. 12 
 
WHY AOT) HOW. 
 
 Foe a long time the conviction has been growing that 
 there is a radical defect in an elementary course of study 
 which admits technical grammar, but excludes the warn- 
 ing knowledge of the consequences of violated hygienic 
 law. The urgent need has long been felt of giving more 
 attention to subjects pertaining to life, health, and hap- 
 piness. 
 
 LEGISLATIVE AOTTOIT. 
 
 These convictions seem to have been shared by the 
 kw-makers of many States and of the National Congress. 
 The recent enactments making the nature of alcoholic 
 drinks, tobacco and other narcotics, and their effects 
 upon the human system, in connection with physiology, 
 a paft of the course of instruction in the public schools 
 are evidences of this conviction; and from every point 
 of view the measures 'appear wise and beneficent. 
 
 If wisely carried out, this legislation must produce 
 great good. The attention of pupils wiU be directed to 
 the laws which govern their own being. The truths set 
 forth will find lodgment in the brain, and in time they 
 will find expression in daily practice. As a result, we 
 ■may look for improvements in food, in dress, in ventila- 
 tion, in habits, in hours of work snd. reor^Hon. and in 
 everything that pertains to living. 
 
4 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 PLAN OF THE BOOK. 
 
 The manifest importance of the subject is the " why ' 
 of the book. The " how " remains to be considered. 
 
 The book is elementary, not a scientific treatise for 
 advanced students. Beginning with obvious relations, its 
 method is inductive, each new topic growing out of the 
 one that precedes it. It aims to present the laws of life 
 in such a practical and reasonable way that they will be- 
 come a guide to hving. 
 
 In the treatment of each topic, function is considered 
 before structure. The first step is to show that, for pur- 
 poses of Hfe and growth, there is a need. Then, in answer 
 to the query as to what is done to satisfy the need, a full 
 description is given of the organs used and the methods 
 employed. This properly subordinates structure to use, 
 and shows the tnie relations of all the agencies of life. 
 
 The limitations set by the term " elementary " have 
 forbidden minute details, abstruse discussions, ultimate 
 a,nalyses, and the general use of technical terms. All 
 these are left for the " High-School Physiology." Where 
 technical terms are introduced in marks of parenthesis 
 they are not intended for the pupils to memorize. 
 
 HYGIENIC LAWS. 
 
 An endeavor has been made to present the relations 
 of part to function in such a way that the hygienic law 
 applicable to the case follows as a matter of course, and 
 scarcely needs to be stated. A law derived in this way 
 compels assent and commands obedience ; while one arbi- 
 trarily learned from the book is likely to remain in the 
 mind as a mere formula. 
 
 mCENTTVES TO STUDY. 
 
 At the close of each chapter a list of questions is ap- 
 pended, not on the text, but rather on subjects which the 
 
WET AND HO W- 5 
 
 text suggests. The answer to these questions will test 
 the pupil's powers of inference, and will incite to careful 
 observation and study in various directions. When the 
 questions are not mere naatters of inference, one at a time 
 should be given out at the close of each recitation, so as 
 to allow ample time for inquiry and study. The good 
 which will come from a judicious use of these topics may 
 be lost by a rigid demand for a specific answer in a speci- 
 fied time. 
 
 ALCOHOL, TOBACCO AND OTHEE NAECOTICS. 
 
 The provision in the new laws in regard to alcohol, 
 tobacco and other narcotics, seems to be another wise and 
 timely measure. It assumes that bad habits are largely 
 due to ignorance. It would diminish the evils by remov- 
 ing the cahise. It submits the solution of a great social 
 problem to science. It espouses no theories, but demands 
 the exact truth. It calls upon the teacher to f arnish the 
 weapons that shall conquer prejudice, and arm the in- 
 experienced against temptation. 
 
 In this work, alcohol, tobacco and other narcotics, in 
 their relations to life, are duly treated. The nature of 
 these as revealed by modem science is shown, and their 
 effects upon organ and function are fully described. 
 These effects, on the whole, are seen to be so pernicious 
 that a knowledge of them would seem to be an almost 
 sufficient safeguard against evil example, which is con- 
 tinually inciting to evil habits. 
 
 The error of over-statement has, however, been care- 
 fully avoided. Assertion without reason weakens a cause. 
 The facts are sufficient. 
 
 PEACTICAL APPLICATION. 
 
 This and all kindred works will be of little use if 
 thouffht stops with the text. What is said is valuable 
 
6 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 only as it "wakes up mind," and leads to furthef 
 study, and to the observance of hygienic laws in daily 
 practices. The teacher who allows his pupils to sit in 
 drafts, who pays no heed to ventilation and the arrange- 
 ment of light, who is careless in regard to his own diet, 
 dress, and hours of sleep, and who smells of tobacco — 
 or worse, of intoxicating drinks — will teach physiology 
 to little purpose. 
 
 The pupils should be made to see, to study, and to ex- 
 periment. The word should lead to work. Principles 
 should direct practices. The understanding of conditions 
 must precede conscious obedience to law, but obedience 
 is the desired end. Full mental conception of the sub- 
 ject in its relations will, in time, yield fruit in the direc- 
 tion of more healthful bodies, more vigorous minds, and 
 lives made richer by the accomplishment of good deeds. 
 
 The medical value of alcohol will not be discussed in 
 this book. As its lay prescription is condemned by the 
 medical profession, the question of its use as a remedy 
 may properly be relegated to medical treatises as out of 
 place in a school text-book. 
 
 The special matter relating to alcohol, tobacco, and 
 other narcotics has been almost entirely prepared by Mrs. 
 Mary H. Hunt, Superintendent of the Department of 
 Scientific Instruction of the National Women's Christian 
 Temperance Union, and her valuable suggestions have 
 been followed in many parts of the book. To her and 
 the eminent gentlemen constituting her Advisory Commit- 
 tee the thanks of the publishers and of the surviving au 
 thor are due for much labor bestowed and great interest 
 manifested in the preparation of the work. 
 
WHAT AND WHERE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Bodt and its Pabts 11 
 
 Why we should Study our Bodies : Some Things easily 
 seen — Others require Study — Natural to avoid injuring Out- 
 ward Parts of the Body — Study needed to know how to take 
 care of Organs within the Body — Why we should look well 
 and keep healthy. About Parts of the Body : The Arms 
 — The Legs— The Limbs and Joints — Parts of the Body in 
 Pairs — The Bodies of other Animals — Uses of the Parts of 
 the Body. Something to Find Out. Topical Analysis. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 EIating, and what Comes of It 18 
 
 Why we Eat: The Body always wearing out — We eat 
 that we may live. What we Eat : Kinds of Pood — Value of 
 Different Kinds — Special Poods — Mixed Foods. How wb 
 Eat : Chewing— The Teeth— Care of the Teeth— How to 
 keep the Teeth clean. How we Swallow : How Saliva 
 ilows — Amount of Saliva — How Saliva is wasted — Tobacco — 
 Water and the Body — Alcohol and Water — The Esophagus. 
 Hygiene op Bating. Something to Find Out. Topical 
 Analysis. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Alcohol and its Effects ....... 3S 
 
 The Nature of Alcohol: Decay a Law of Nature — 
 What causes Decay — Ferments and what they do — Alcohol 
 not like Water — What is a Poison ? — Alcohol a Poison — 
 Alcohol a Narcotic Poison. The Effects op Alcohol: 
 The Moderate Drinker — The Alcoholic Appetite. Hygiene. 
 Something to Find Out. Topical Analysis. 
 
8 LESSONS IN E7Q1ENE. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco 43 
 
 Clear Alcohol seldom used. Drinks containing Alcohol : 
 Cider — Effects of Cider- Drinking — Wine made from Grapes — 
 Home-made Wines — Wine and Drunlienness — Proof that 
 Cider and Wine contain Alcohol — Beer — Home-made Beer. 
 Effects of Fermentation : Why Fermentation makes Good 
 Bre^d and Poisonous Beer — Fermentation changes the Nature 
 of Substances — Vinous and Acetous Fermentation — A Serious 
 Mistake. Distilled Liquors: Distillation — Effects of Dis- 
 tilled Liquors. Tobacco: Nicotine — Cigarettes. Hygiene. 
 Something to Find Out. Topical Analysis. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 How Digestion gobs on 65 
 
 How Food nourishes the Body. Stomach Digestion: 
 Structure of the Stomach — Muscular Action — Gastric Juice — 
 Pood Changes — Absorbing Blood-vessels — Chyme — Drink. 
 Intestinal Digestion : Structure of the Intestines — Intesti- 
 nal Juices— The Pancreas — The Duodenum— Office of the 
 Pancreatic Juice— The Liver— Office of the Bile— Chyle— 
 The Lacteals— Absorption— The Portal System — Alcohol in 
 the Stomach — Another Way in which Alcohol hinders Di- 
 gestion — Tobacco and the Stomach — Alcohol and the Liver. 
 Other Narcotics — Opium — Morphine — Chloral. Hygiene 
 OF Digestion. Something to Find Out. Topical Analysis. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 How THB Blood gbtb Pueified 7] 
 
 The Heart : Its Position— The Plan of the Heart>-Auri- 
 oles and Ventricles— The Blood on its Way to the Lungs- 
 Nerves of the Heart. — Action of Alcohol upon the Heart. 
 The Lungs : Structure of the Lungs— Bronchial Tubes— The 
 Trachea— The Larynx— Breathing— Action in the Lungs- 
 Results of Breathing— Return of the Blood— Alcohol in the 
 Lungs— An Unnecessary Burden— Tobacco in the Lungs — 
 Produces Stupor — The Need of Pure Air — Ventilation. 
 Hygiene of Respiration. Something to Find Out. Topi- 
 cal Analysis. 
 
 CHAPTER VIL 
 
 How THE Blood Nuetueks the Body 
 
 Waste and Repair— Blood Corpuscles— The Arteries— The 
 Capillaries- The Veins— Action in the Heart— Action in the 
 Arteries— Action in the Capillaries— Action in the Veins— 
 AJoohol in the Blood— Does not become a Part of the Blood 
 
 87 
 
WSAT AND WHERE. 9 
 
 PAOB 
 
 —Hinders the BfEeot of Oxygen — Injures the Blood-vessels — 
 Enlarges Minute Divisions of the Arteries — Alcohol and Cold. 
 Hygiene op the Circulation. Somethino to Find Out. 
 Topical Analysis. 
 
 CHARTER VIII. 
 
 How THE Body is Able to Move 97 
 
 Motion necessary to Life. The Muscles : General Struct- 
 ure—Connective Tissue— Shapes of Muscles— Tendons— Hol- 
 low Muscles— How the Muscles act— Voluntary and Involun- 
 tary Muscles— How the Muscles gain Strength— The Muscles 
 need Rest— Exercise for Health, not for Strength— BfEeot of 
 Alcohol on the Muscles — Tobacco also injures the Muscles. 
 Hygiene of the Muscles. Something to Find Out. Topi- 
 cal Analysis. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 How THE Body is Able to Stand 110 
 
 The Need of a Bodily Frame. The Bones : Uses of the 
 Bones — Forms of Bones— Structure of the Bones — Materials 
 of which the Bones ai-e made — Growth and Repair of the 
 Bones — Bones of the Head — Sutures of the Skull — Bones of 
 the Trunk — Bones of the Arms — Bones of the Legs — Arch 
 of the Foot — Bony Cavities of the Body. Bodily Move- 
 ments : How the Muscles move the Bones — How Shocks are 
 distributed^Iuiuries to be avoided. Hygiene of the Bones. 
 Something to Find Out. Topical Analysis. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 How THE Body is Oovbbed 124 
 
 The Usefulness of the Bodily Covering. The Skin: 
 General Structure of the Skin — Layers of the Skin — How the 
 Skin is kept soft — How the Skin casts out Waste Matter — 
 Other Means of casting out "Waste — How the Skin regulates 
 Heat — How the Skin absorbs — Why the Skin should be kept 
 clean — How to keep the Skin clean — Alcohol and the Skin. 
 The Hair : What it is — How to keep the Hair healthy- 
 Thinning and Grayness of the Hair. Clothing : Why the 
 Body should be clothed — How the Body should be clothed. 
 Hygiene of the Skin. Something to Find Out. Topical 
 Analysis. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 How Bodily Motion is Diebctbd 14] 
 
 Bodily Organs must act in Harmony. The Nervous 
 System: How the Nerves are distributed — The Ganglions — 
 Nerve-Matter — The Brain — ^The Spinal Cord — Sympathetic 
 
10 LE8S0NS IN EYQIENE. 
 
 tkam 
 
 System. Nervous Action: What the Nervous System has 
 to do — How the Nerves carry Messages — Nerves of Feeling — 
 Nerves of Motion— Work of the Nervous Centers in General 
 —What some Special Nervous Centers have to do — Habit and 
 Training. Use and Abuse op thbNeeves: Exercise — Rest 
 of the Nerves — How Alcohol affects the Nerves — Staggering 
 —Effect on the Mind — The Lower Nature in Control — How 
 Tobacco affects the Nerves — Heredity Hygiene of the 
 Nerves. Something to Find Out. Topical Analysis. 
 
 CHAPTER XIl. 
 
 How THE Mind gets Ideas and Expeebsbs Them , . . 160 
 
 What the Body is for— The Five Senses. The Sense of 
 Touch: Both General and Special— Use. The Sense of 
 Taste : The Taste as a Sentinel — Flavors — Taste not a Per- 
 fect Guide in the Choice of Foods. The Sense of Smell . 
 Odors. The Sense of Hearing : Sound — Its Production — 
 The Ear— Care of the Ear. The Sense of Seeing : Light 
 —Need of Light — The Eves— Structure— The Three Humors 
 — Muscles of the Eye— Care of the Eye. The Organs of 
 Speech: The Need of Expression — The Voice — Speech — 
 Care of the Voice. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco upon 
 THE Special Senses and the Voice : Effects upon Touch — 
 Effects upon Taste and Smell — Effects upon Hearing — Effects 
 upon the Eyes and the Sight — Effects upon the Voice. 
 Hygiene of the Organs of Special Sense. Something to 
 Find Out. Topical Analysis. 
 
 Suggestions for peeserting the Health of Teachers and 
 Pupils in Public Schools 177 
 
 Seating — Cloak-Rooms — Lighting— Care of Eyes — Tem- 
 perature — Ventilation — Overwork — ^Exercise and Rest — Eat- 
 ing — Drinking — Cleanliness — Neatness — Provisions for ' 
 Decency — Outhouses — Contagious Diseases. 
 
 What the Words Mean . 185 
 
 Bones op the Body 200 
 
 Whebb to Find Things 803 
 
LESSONS IN HTGIEKE. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 THm BODY AND ITS PARTS. 
 WHY WE SHOULD STUDT OTIE BODIES. 
 
 When we look at our bodies, we see that they are 
 made up of parts. Each of these parts has a uame and 
 one or more uses. "We know the most common of these 
 names and uses ; but, unless we have studied them with 
 care, there are many' important and interesting things 
 about them that we do not know. 
 
 If any one should ask us the name of the highest part 
 of the body when standing erect, we would answer that 
 it is the head. "We could also tell the names and the 
 uses of the outer parts of the head. Perhaps we could 
 make pictures of them. 
 
 We would, Hkewise, be able to tell that the part of 
 the body next below the head is the neck; that the 
 largest part of the body is the trunk ; that the parts at- 
 tached to the upper portion of the trunk are the arms ; 
 and that those attached to the lower portion of it are the 
 
 But, if some one should ask us about what is inside of 
 the head, neck, or trunk, we would be unable to answer 
 
13 LESSONS IN HT&IENE. 
 
 from observation, and we could not tell either the names 
 or the uses of the parts. Yet each of these inside parts 
 or organs has a work to do in the support of life ; and 
 the peculiar work which each does and its curious way of 
 doing it are matters of great interest. 
 
 When a bee stings us, or we burn our fingers, we can 
 tell the cause of the pain ; and we shall be careful to 
 avoid it in the future. But when we have earache or 
 headache, we can not always tell the cause. By the study 
 of those parts of the body which we can not see, we may 
 so change oi;r course of conduct as to avoid many aches 
 and diseases. 
 
 If we see a person's tooth broken off, or his eye blind- 
 ed by some accident, we shall never knowingly expose 
 ourselves to the same danger ; yet, by want of knowledge, 
 we may neglect or abuse our teeth or eyes in such a way 
 that they will be as surely destroyed as by a visible ac- 
 cident. 
 
 Most of the internal organs are soft and delicate ; and 
 when once injured they are afterward, in many cases, 
 weak and nearly useless. By knowing what care they 
 need, we may avoid injuring them, and so escape pain 
 and disease. 
 
 It is necessary, therefore, that we should know a great 
 deal about the parts of the body. We should know not 
 only their names and uses, but also what will make them 
 stronger or weaker. Then we shall know how to preserve 
 our health, and thus be able to keep ourselves in the best 
 condition to do our work in the world. 
 
 Looks are important. We like to see good-looking 
 people. We should desire to look well, so that our ap- 
 pearance may not be displeasing to others. One of the 
 most important elements of good looks is health. A 
 fiickly person loses that clearness of complexion, thai 
 
THE BODY AND ITS PASTS. 
 
 13 
 
 sparkle of the eye, and that elasticity of step and vigor 
 of motion which we all admire. 
 
 By keeping in health we also enjoy life much better. 
 "We suffer less from bodily pain ; we see things more 
 clearly, and succeed better in what we undertake ; we can 
 take care of ourselves, and thus avoid becoming a bur- 
 den to our friends ; and we are more ready to perform 
 any duty that may present itself. Besides, we are more 
 cheerful. "We do not take gloomy views of Kfe, and 
 make ourselves generally disagreeable ; and, while we are 
 happier ourselves, we make others happier also. 
 
 ABOUT PAETS OF THE BODY. 
 
 The Anns. — We see that the arms form a pair, and are 
 fastened side wise to the trunk just below the neck. They 
 extend in opposite directions, and end in hands, which 
 continue in the same direction as the arms. The hands 
 terminate in fingers, and the ends of the fingers are pro- 
 tected by nails. 
 
 The Legs. — The legs are joined to the lower part of 
 the trunk and extend downward, ending in feet, which 
 are at right angles to the legs. 
 At one extremity the foot has 
 a heel, and at the other it ter- 
 minates in toes, which, like the 
 fingers, are protected by nails. 
 
 The Limbs and Joiats. — 
 The arms and legs when taken 
 together are called limhs. All 
 the limbs are attached to the 
 body in such a way that they 
 can move in every direction. 
 The point of attachment is 
 
 ^ . . I'm. 1.— Ball-and-socket joint of the 
 
 called a jmnt. hip. 
 
u 
 
 LESSONS IN ETQJENE. 
 
 ViQ. 2. — ^Hinge-joint of 
 the elbow. 
 
 If we examine a leg of mutton, or the leg of a chicken, 
 which we may have on the table at dinner, we find in 
 each a bone with a round head fitting 
 into another bone having a cup-like 
 cavity. These bones form what ia 
 called the haU-andrSOcket joint. 
 
 Such a joint we have at the shoul- 
 ders and the hips, where the arms and 
 the legs are attached to the body. The 
 sockets at the shoulders are not so deep 
 as those at the hips, and this arrange- 
 ment allows the arms much greater 
 freedom of movement. 
 
 We see that a door is attached to 
 the jamb in such a way that it can swing 
 in only two directions — backward and 
 forward. This kind of attachment is called a hinge. The 
 arms at the elbows, and the legs at the hnees, have only a 
 forward and backward movement, and hence these joints 
 are called hinge-joints. 
 
 The double or compound joints at the wrists and the 
 a/rikles admit of a great variety of movements, and are 
 made up of several small, rounded bones which move 
 about each other. The Tcnuckles and the toe-joints, like 
 those of the elbows and the knees, are hinge-joints. 
 
 The lower parts of the arms and legs have also a turn- 
 ing or twisting motion, so that we can turn our hands 
 completely over and our feet in and out. This motion is 
 brought about in the arm by an arrangement of two bones 
 which extend through the lower part of the limb, and 
 which turn about one another. 
 
 Parts of the Body in Pairs.— Besides the pairs of arma 
 and of legs, we have two ears, two eyes, and two cheeks. 
 If we take notice, we shall see that the nose has two no*- 
 
TEE BODY AND ITS PARTS. 
 
 15 
 
 irils, and that the two sides of the mouth are alike in 
 structure. This arrangement of the external parts of the 
 body in pairs makes it double ; so that, if it were divided 
 by a line running down from the middle of the forehead, 
 it would be in halves, each with the same parts turned in 
 opposite directions. 
 
 The Bodies of other Animals. — If we examine other 
 animals, we shall see the same general plan of structure- 
 parts in pairs, 
 and opposite 
 sides alike. 
 The parts of 
 other animals 
 correspond to 
 parts of our 
 own bodies in 
 many respects, 
 agreeing in 
 number, posi- 
 tion, and gen- 
 eral use, but 
 differing some- 
 what in form. 
 Thus, the cat 
 and the dog 
 
 have four limbs each ; but their arms are fore-legs ; their 
 hands, paws ; and their nails, claws. 
 
 The horse and the cow also have four Kmbs each; 
 but, in the place of toes, the horse has a single hoof, and 
 the cow a double one. The chicken's arms are wings ; 
 the bat's four limbs are connected by a thin, delicate 
 skin, forming wings with which it can fly; the frog's 
 four limbs terminate in feet, two of them webbed for 
 ewimming ; the fish's four limbs are fins ; and nearly all 
 
 Fig. 3. — Skeleton of tlie commQn frog. 
 
16 LESSONS IN HTOIENB. 
 
 the animals that have backbones are provided with the 
 same number of limbs, showing a general plan in crea- 
 tion, or, as Agassiz expresses it, " a thought of God." 
 
 TIses of the Parts of the Body. — In each one of us the 
 part that thinks — or the mind — is the most important. 
 The mind in thinking makes direct use of the hrain. 
 The brain is in the head, and is protected by the skull. 
 
 Every time the mind thinks, a tiny part of the brain 
 wears out and must be repaired.* The materials for the 
 repair come from the hlood. Hence we must have a way 
 of making blood. This is done in the part of the body 
 called the trunk, which is large, so that it may contain 
 everything necessary for the process. 
 
 To make blood, we must have food / and to get food, 
 we have arms to reach out and take it, and legs to go in 
 search of it. We th^is see that all the parts are made ex- 
 pressly for the service of the mind ; and that by their 
 proper action alone can the mind be kept in good condi- 
 tion. One would think, then, that the mind, if it is 
 sensible, woxdd take good care of the body. 
 
 SOMETHING TO FIND OUT. 
 
 1. "Why should we try to look as well as we can ? 
 
 2. What are some of the things necessary to good 
 looks that we all can attend to ? 
 
 3. Which of the ball-and-socket joints are most easily 
 put out of joint ? Why ? 
 
 4. What kind of joint unites the thumb to the hand i 
 
 5. How many joints have the fingers? the toes? 
 
 6. How does the great-toe differ from the thumb ? 
 Y. How does the ankle differ from the wrist ? 
 
 8. How do the cat's toec correspond in number to our 
 fingers and toes ? 
 
 9. How do the cat's fore-paws differ from our hands ? 
 
THE BODY AND ITS PART& 17 
 
 10. What joint in the dog's hind-legs corresponds to 
 our hips ? knees ? ankles ? 
 
 11. What bone in the cat's leg represents our heel ? 
 
 12. On what part of the foot do we tread ? On what 
 part does the dog tread ? 
 
 13. What animals use their fore-paws to hold their 
 food while eating ? 
 
 14. How does the duck's foot difEer from that of a 
 chicken ? 
 
 15. What do birds have in the place of mouth and 
 nose? 
 
 16. In what way can we best avoid mistakes in taking 
 care of the body ? 
 
 TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER L 
 The Body and its Parts. 
 
 Why we should 
 Study our 
 Bodies. 
 
 About Parts of 
 the Body. 
 
 1. The head, neck, trunk, and limbs seen. 
 3. The internal organs not seen. 
 
 3. To avoid injury of outward parts. 
 
 4. To care for organs within the body. 
 
 5. To secure health. 
 
 6. To improve looks. 
 
 7. To increase usefulness. 
 
 1. The arms. 
 3. The legs. 
 
 3. The joints : ball-and-socket — hinge — compound. 
 
 4. Parts in pairs. 
 
 5. Bodies of other animals. 
 
 6. Uses of parts of the body. 
 
 7. Intelligent care of the body. 
 
 Something to find out. 
 
 Note. — The topical analysis at the end of each chapter may be 
 made of great value to teacher and pupil, as showing the relations of 
 the topics and sub-topics to each other, and as affording a scientific 
 basis for examinations and reviews. 
 
 More of teehnical detail than is given in the hody of the hook will 
 be found on page 185, under the title, " What the "Words Mean," and 
 in the table of " Bones of the Body," on page 200. 
 
CHAPTEE n. 
 
 EATma, AND WHAT COMES OF IT. 
 WHY WE EAT. 
 
 EvEET motion that we make, and every thonglit that 
 we think, destroys some of the minute cells,* or particles, 
 of which the various parts of the body are composed. 
 If this waste goes on without repair, the body soon wears 
 out, and the life is destroyed. The process of repair is 
 called mutrition, and the materials for nourishing the 
 body are found in food. 
 
 Before the food can nourish the body, it must under- 
 go many changes. It must be broken up; the useful 
 parts of it must be dissolved; different parts must be 
 mixed with each other; and the useful parts must be 
 separated from those which are worthless. The first step 
 in this process is eating. "We eat, then, that we may live. 
 "We eat, that every part of our bodies may be strength- 
 ened, and that we may be able to do our daily wort. 
 
 WHAT WE EAT. 
 
 Upon our tables, for breakfast or dinner, we have 
 meat, bread, potatoes, fish, fruit, and many other articles 
 
 * The cells composing living bodies are parts so small that they 
 can not be further divided, and too small to be seen by the naked eye. 
 Every living thing is in fact a mass or collection of cells, each cell 
 being alive and playing its part in nourishing itself and the rest of 
 the plant or animal to which it belongs. Two or more cells united so 
 as to form one substance make tissue. 
 
EATING, AND WHAT COMES OF IT. 1«) 
 
 of food to eat; and water, milk, and other liquids to 
 drink.* We must take tliis food and drink at regular 
 times, to satisfy the feeling of hunger and the needs of 
 the system. 
 
 As the body is composed of some sixteen different 
 kinds of simple substances, our food and drink must con- 
 tain as much of each kind of substance as'our bodies 
 need. If we take no food, we starve; if we take food 
 that lacks some needed substance, after a time we starve 
 just as certainly. 
 
 The various articles of food are richer in certain sub- 
 stances than they are in others. As no one article con- 
 tains all the needed substances in sufficient quantity, we 
 are obliged to take a variety of foods to keep the body in 
 health. 
 
 Kinds of Food. — 1. One of the most valuable of all 
 the foods is the gluten, or sticky part, of flour. It con- 
 tains all the substances which the body needs, but not 
 all of them in sufficient qnantity.f Nearly the same sub- 
 stances are found in the white of eggs; in the princi- 
 
 * The pupil should here enumerate the different kinds of food in 
 common use, and find out all he can about each. jFor example : bread 
 is made of wheat ; the wheat grows in our fields ; the grain is taken to 
 the mill and ground ; and the meal or flour is made into bread. This 
 treatment of the subject serves to introduce both farming and manu- 
 facturing operations, and to show their relation to our needs. 
 
 Again, take rice, another common article of food. This grain is the 
 product of a warm, lowland region. The description of its place and 
 manner of growth serves to show the relations of food to geography, 
 and to give a new and vital interest to that branch of study. In like 
 manner, tea, coffee, sugar, salt, and many other articles may be made 
 to serve a similar purpose. 
 
 f Wheat, the most valuable of our grains, contains a large amount 
 of gluten. Pine white flour contains little gluten, and, when we make 
 bread of it, we lose the best part of the grain. The "new-process" 
 flour retains the gluten, and makes excellent bread. 
 
20 LESSOFS m EYOIENB. 
 
 pal part of lean meat ; in the curds of which cheese is 
 made ; and in the material which forms the clot, or thick 
 part, of blood when it is exposed to the air. These foods 
 contain a substance which is necessary for building up the 
 tissues of the body, and because they resemble albumen, 
 or the substance of which the white of egg is composed, 
 they are called aZbuminoids. 
 
 2. Another substance of great value as food is th« 
 starch that forms a large part of the grains and othej 
 vegetable products. Starch does not, however, contain 
 so many of the needed substances as gluten, and is there- 
 fore less valuable as food. The same substances in di£Eer 
 iug proportions are found in suga/r and ixi some othei 
 articles of food.* 
 
 3. The third class of foods includes all oily suDstanceSi 
 both animal and vegetable, and are known as_/afe. They 
 are composed of the same substances as starch and sugar, 
 but they so differ in form that they need a different 
 treatment before they can nourish the body. The sugars, 
 starches, and fats may be called heat-makvng foods.f 
 
 4. Mmerals form the fourth class of substances that 
 may be ranked as foods. They include lime, soda, potash, 
 iron, salt, and water. These are all in some form found 
 
 * Starch forms a Jarge part of all the grains. Potatoes contain but 
 little besides starch and water. Peas and beans are more than half 
 starch. Tapioca, sago, arrowroot, and rice are nearly all starch. Beets, 
 turnips, and other garden vegetables are principally made up of starch, 
 sugar, and water. 
 
 f All the kinds of food given above not only furnish the elements 
 of nutrition, but each helps to furnish the heat necessary for the well- 
 being of the body. But the albuminoids are by far the most impor- 
 tant tissue-builders, while the sugars, starches, and fats have most 
 heat-producing power. The starchy foods have great power of pro- 
 ducing heat, but the fats ha,ve still greater. In the frozen regions of 
 the extreme north, oil is one of the most necessary articles of diet. 
 
EATING, AND WHAT COMES OF IT. 21 
 
 in the body, and must be contained in the different arti- 
 cles of food. These substances, with the exception of 
 water and salt, are not used separately, but are found in 
 sufficient quantities in meat, in fruit, and in vegetables. 
 
 Special Foods. — Of the vegetable foods, wheat -flour 
 and oatmeal contain the greatest number of needed ele- 
 ments, and come the nearest to perfect foods. Corn-meal 
 is rich in starch and fats, but has little gluten. Peas and 
 beans have a large portion of a substance that resembles 
 gluten, and they are ranked very high as foods. As they 
 are not easily digested, however, they should be taken only 
 in small quantities by those who have weak stomachs.* 
 
 Beef is the best of all the kinds of meat. Next to this 
 comes mutton. Chicken and turkey furnish nearly the 
 same materials, with the exception of the fats. Veal, lamb, 
 and pork have less of the substances which the body 
 needs, and are harder to digest. Eggs and milk are near- 
 ly perfect foods. Fish and oysters are among the best 
 of foods. Clams, crabs, and lobsters are less easily di- 
 gested. f 
 
 Fruits are mostly made up of starch and sugar, but 
 they also contain more of the mineral matter needed by 
 the system than is found in most other foods. The acid 
 
 * Graham-flour, containing the whole of the wheat-grain, makes 
 sweet and wholesome bread. Rolls made of this flour, by simply mix- 
 ing the flour with water or milk, and then pouring the thin batter into 
 a hot roll-pan, and baking in a hot oven, are among the best forms of 
 bread that can be made. 
 
 f Meats are best when broiled or roasted. They should be exposed 
 to a hot fire at first, so that a crust may be formed on the outside to 
 preserve the inside juices. In making soups, the meat should be put 
 in cold water, and brought very slowly to the boiling-point, so as to ex- 
 tract the juices. When milk produces an unpleasant effect upon the 
 stomach, it should be mixed with a little lime-water. Pish and oys- 
 ters should not be eaten unless perfectly fresh. 
 
22 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 of fruits is also an aid to digestion. Fruits are chiefly 
 valued, however, for their agreeable flavors, which gently 
 excite the organs by which the food is made into blood ; 
 and when taken in moderate quantities they are very 
 wholesome.* 
 
 Mixed Foods. — Our study so far has shown us that no 
 one substance is a perfect food, and therefore that a mioet- 
 v/re of foods is necessary to properly nourish the body. 
 Experience has taught us the same lesson, and the custom 
 is general of mixing foods in such a way that one will 
 supply what the others lack. Thus bread, rich in gluten, 
 lacks starch or fat, and butter is added ; potatoes, mostly 
 starch, are eaten with meat, gravy, or butter. 
 
 HOW WE EAT. 
 
 Chewing. — The flrst step toward reducing food to a 
 condition in which it can nourish the body is chewing. 
 The organs directly used in chewing are the teeth, the 
 tongue, and the cheeks. The teeth grind the food. The 
 tongue and the cheeks keep the food between the teeth 
 so that it may be ground. 
 
 The Teeth. — If we examine the mouth of a cat or a 
 dog, we discover four prominent teeth that are long and 
 pointed. The other teeth, both front and back, are 
 shorter and smaller. These sharp teeth can easily pierce 
 
 * Ripe strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, currants, cherries, 
 neaohes, apples, melons, and oranges are all excellent, and their mod- 
 erate use each in its season, wQl, many times, make the doctor's visit 
 unnecessary, and save us from taking medicine. 
 
 The pulpy substance of unripe fruits is often hard and tough, and 
 the juice harsh and sour. When fruits, in this condition, are eaten, 
 they can not be digested, and both pulp and juice cause irritation and 
 often inflammation of the stomach and bowels. Unripe fruits may 
 be made wholesome by ripening and by <woking. 
 
EATING, AND WHAT COMES OF IT. 
 
 23 
 
 soft substances, and seem to be of just the right shape fop 
 tearing flesh. 
 
 A-^-' 
 
 Vis. 4.— A cat " Blowing Its teeth." 
 
 In the month of a squirrel or rabbit we find the promi- 
 nent teeth, four in number, directly in front. These teeth 
 are long; but, instead of being pointed, they have a sharp 
 edge like a chisel, which fits them for cutting hard sub- 
 stances or gnawing. 
 
 If we look into the mouth of a horse, we find the 
 prominent teeth broad and flat, the exact shape for grind- 
 ing grain, or for breaking in pieces the soft stalks of 
 plants. 
 
 In our own mouths we find teeth like those of the 
 dog, the rabbit, and the horse; but they are all nearly 
 alike in size. There are four cutting teeth on each jaw 
 in front; ionx pointed teeth, one on each side of each 
 jaw ; eight teeth having two points, next to the single- 
 pointed ones ; and twelve laoh teeth, six on each jaw.* 
 
 * Until children are from five to seven years old, they have only 
 twenty teeth, ten in each jaw. These are called temporaary or milk 
 teeth. 
 
24 
 
 LESSONS IN ETaiENE. 
 
 The parts of tlie teeth that lie inside the bones of 
 the jaw are the roots, and the part of each tooth that 
 
 appears outside the 
 gums is the crown. 
 Usually, the back 
 teeth of the upper 
 jaw have three roots 
 each, Mid those of 
 the lower jaw have 
 two. The others 
 have only one root 
 each. 
 
 If we carefully 
 examine a tooth, we 
 find that the crown 
 has a hard, smooth 
 outside. This is 
 called the enamel. 
 Under the enamel 
 is a softer kind of 
 bone called dentine. 
 In the middle of 
 the tooth, and ex- 
 tending to the end 
 of each root, is the pulp cavity, through which extend 
 a nerve and a net-work of blood-vessels. 
 
 Care of the Teeth. — When the enamel is broken the 
 tooth decays, causing severe pain and an unpleasant 
 breath. To prevent these troubles, the teeth should re- 
 ceive special and constant care. 
 
 Some boys try to crack hard nuts with their teeth, but 
 crack the enamel instead, and so spoil their teeth. Biting 
 hard substances of any kind has the same effect. Grind- 
 ing the teeth together also does harm. 
 
 Fig. 6.— The jaws and the teeth : 1, 2, incisors ; 3, 
 canine ; 4, 5, bicuspids ; 6, 7, 8, molars ; o, vein ; 
 ft, artery ; c, nerve ; d, vein, artery, and nerve. 
 
HATING, AND WHAT COMES OF IT. 
 
 25 
 
 'YliQ pulp, or soft core of nerve and blood-vessels in 
 the pulp cavity, may be injured by great heat or cold, es- 
 pecially sudden changes from very hot or cold food or 
 drink to the opposite — as from ice-cream to hot tea. 
 
 When food lodges between the teeth and remains 
 there, a kind of acid is formed which destroys the enamel 
 and causes the whole tooth to decay. 
 
 How to keep the Teeth Clean. — After each meal, the 
 food lodged between the teeth should be carefully re- 
 moved by a tooth-pick of wood or 
 quill. The use of a pin or a pen- 
 knife is apt to injure the teeth or 
 the gums. On rising in the morn- 
 ing, after each meal, and before 
 going to bed at night, the teeth 
 should be cleaned with water and 
 a tooth-brush.* Salt in water, cas- 
 tile soap, tincture of myrrh, or a 
 good tooth-powder will help to 
 keep the teeth clean and the breath 
 sweet. 
 
 It is best to have a good dentist 
 examine the teeth once a year, keep 
 them free from the injurious siibstance called ta/rtar, and 
 fill any cavities found. "When tartar begins to collect, 
 it may often be removed by scraping the teeth with the 
 broad end of a quill tooth-pick. 
 
 -^ 
 
 Fia. 6.— Section of a tooth ; 
 A, enamel ; B, nerve cav- 
 ity ; C, <7, roots ; 2J, den- 
 tine. 
 
 HOW WE SWALLOW. 
 
 After the food has been chewed enough, it is to be 
 swallowed. While being chewed, a fluid from the mouth 
 
 * The tooth-brush should be stiff enough to remove all food from 
 the teeth, but not so stiff as to injure the gums. 
 
26 LESSONS IN HYGIENE 
 
 called saliva is mixed with it, moistening it so that it can 
 be swallowed easily. 
 
 How Saliva Flows. — The saliva comes from gla/nd» 
 near the mouth. These do not pour out saliva all the 
 time, but are excited to action in various ways. 
 
 The movement of the jaws will produce a flow of 
 saliva. In chewing, this flow is enough to moisten the 
 food, and in talking it is usually sufficient to keep the 
 mouth moist. 
 
 Touching any part ol the mouth, or the presence of 
 anything in it, will cause the saliva to flow, as every one 
 knows who has been under the hands of the dentist. 
 
 The sight, smell, or taste of food when we are hungry 
 will also " make the mouth water." The same effect may 
 be seen by watching a cow when she is looking on while 
 her supper of turnips is in course of preparation. The 
 ealiva is produced in such quantities as to flow out of the 
 corners of her mouth. 
 
 Articles of a pungent taste, like mustard, pepper, and 
 horse-radish, make the mouth hot, causing a free flow of 
 saliva. 
 
 Amount of Saliva. — We need just enough saliva to 
 moisten our food. When we do not get enough, we find, 
 it difficult to swallow, and then there is trouble in the 
 stomach. To get this amount takes time. We need to 
 eat slowly and chew our food very fine, so that the 
 movement of the jaws will cause enough saliva to pour 
 out. Bread and vegetable foods need more chewing 
 than meats. Those whjo eat hastily, and bolt their food 
 without chewing, may look forward to a time when 
 they can not eat with any comfort, and when they will 
 have no strength for work, or play, or enjoyment of 
 any kind. 
 
 How Saliva is Wasted. — If we keep our jaws in mo. 
 
EATING, AND WHAT COMES OF IT. 27 
 
 tion when we are not eating, a useless flow of saliva is pro- 
 duced, which is waste of material and weakening to the 
 body. Chewing gum and aU like habits are therefore 
 hurtful. 
 
 Tobacco. — One of the most fruitful causes of waste in 
 saliva is the use of tobacco. The pungent qualities of 
 tobacco produce an excessive flow, and, when the exciting 
 cause is constantly kept up, the amount wasted often be- 
 comes serious and exhaustive. 
 
 Again, by this waste the materials of the blood by 
 which saliva is furnished gradually diminish. The saliva 
 itself becomes weak, inactive, and unable to perform its 
 special work. In this way also other materials needed 
 elsewhere are continually drained off. 
 
 One other effect of the use of tobacco needs to be 
 mentioned here. It gives an unpleasant, odor to the 
 breath, and often causes a disagreeable habit of spitting ; 
 so that clean, sensitive, and reflned persons do not like to 
 have those who use tobacco come near them. 
 
 Water and the Body.: — Water forms about seven parts 
 out of eight of the human body, and ninety-nine parts 
 out of a hundred of the saliva. Water is the principal 
 substance composing some of the most important organs 
 of a healthy body, such as the nerves, the brain, the mus- 
 cles, and the blood. Even the bones contain water. Water 
 helps to so dissolve the food in the stomach that the blood 
 can carry it as nourishment to each organ. Because every 
 part of the body needs water in order to do its work 
 properly, a certain quantity must every day be taken 
 in the form of food and drink. Whatever disturbs the 
 relation of the right amount of water to the muscles, 
 the nerves, and other portions of the body will injure 
 its health. 
 
 Alcohol and W^ter. — Alcohol has a strong affinity, or 
 
28 LESSONS IN EYQIENE. 
 
 Kking, for water.* When taken into the human system 
 alcohol will quickly unite itself with the water it finds, 
 and taken habitually will make each fluid and tissue less 
 fit to do its own essential work. You wiU learn more 
 about this fiery liquor in the next chapter. 
 
 The Esophagus. — The esophagus is the tube through 
 which the food passes from the mouth to the stomach. 
 When the food is sufficiently chewed and moistened, it is 
 pressed backward by the tongue and falls into the portion 
 of the throat lying immediately above the esophagus. 
 
 In passing < ver the entrance to the windpipe the food 
 is kept from falling into it by a valve, which shuts down 
 when the food comes along. Sometimes this valve does 
 not close quickly enough, and a particle of food getting 
 into the windpipe chokes us and causes us to cough un- 
 til it is thrown out. By eating slowly we avoid this 
 danger. 
 
 Muscles extend around the esophagus, and when the 
 food enters it they contract, the upper one first, and then 
 the ne"xt in order, thus gradually forcing the food into 
 the stomach. The process of eating is now done and 
 stomach digestion begins. 
 
 HTGIBNE OF EATING. 
 
 From the foregoing study of the subject we see that 
 we ought to observe the following rules in regard to 
 eating : 
 
 I. Take food that will best nourish the body. 
 
 II. Eat slowly, to give the time necessary for prepar- 
 ing the food to enter the stomach. 
 
 * If you place a piece of meat in a dish containing alcohol, in a few 
 hours it will become hard and shrunken. The alcohol has so strong a 
 liking for the water contained in the tissues of the meat that it draws 
 it away from them. ' 
 
EATING, AND WHAT GOMES OF IT. 29 
 
 III. Chew food until enough saliva is obtained to 
 moisten it. 
 
 IV. Do not injure the teeth by biting hard sub- 
 stances. 
 
 V. Avoid exposing the teeth to sudden changes of 
 temperature. 
 
 VI. Keep the teeth clean. 
 
 VII. Be sparing in the use of highly seasoned foods. 
 
 VIII. Do not keep the jaws in motion by chewing 
 gum and other substances not needed as food. 
 
 IX. Avoid the use of tobacco, as it wastes saliva, weak- 
 • ens the body, and makes the person using it disagreeable. 
 
 X. Never drink alcoholic liquors, for the alcohol in 
 them makes each fluid amd tissue of the body less fit to 
 do its work. 
 
 SOMETHING TO FIND OUT. 
 
 1. What other grains besides wheat are raised on our 
 farms ? 
 
 2. What garden vegetables do we raise to eat ? 
 
 3. What part of the corn-plant do we eat? of the 
 potato-plant? of the beet? of the onion? of asparagus? 
 of cabbage ? 
 
 4. What substance in dough makes it stick together ? 
 
 5. How is wheat-bread made Hght ? 
 
 6. Why is it more difficult to make corn-bread light ? 
 In making corn-bread, what is the effect of mixing the 
 white of eggs with the corn-meal ? 
 
 7. Why is fat meat eaten more in winter than in sum- 
 mer ? 
 
 8. How is the oil necessary for food obtained in the 
 frozen regions ? 
 
 9. Why is more wholesome food made from, Graham- 
 flour than from fine white flour ? / 
 
30 LESSONS IN BTaiENE. 
 
 10. "Why is beef as a food better than pork \ 
 
 11. AV hy are oysters better than clams ? 
 
 12. Why is it better to roast beef than to boil it ? 
 
 13. In boiling meats, should they be put into cold or 
 hot water at first % 
 
 14. In what condition should oysters and fish be when 
 used for food ? 
 
 15. Of what benefit is the acid of fruits ? 
 
 16. Why are green fruits unwholesome ? 
 
 17. How may green fruits be made wholesome ? 
 
 18. What kind of food should be mixed with the 
 albuminoids ? What with the starchy foods % 
 
 19. In cooking, what is usually mixed with macaroni ? 
 Why? 
 
 20. Mention other foods that are usually eaten together. 
 
 21. What are milk-teeth, and what care do they need ? 
 
 22. When the permanent teeth show signs of decay, 
 what should we do ? 
 
 23. Why should we be sparing in the use of mustard 
 and horse-radish ? 
 
 24. When people know that the use of tobacco is 
 hurtful, why do they not leave it off ? 
 
 25. What is the best way to avoid the trouble of 
 leaving off the use of tobacco ? 
 
 26. How much of the body is water ? 
 
 27. Why must a certain quantity of water be taken 
 every day in our food or drink ? 
 
 28. What will be the result of depriving any tissue of 
 its proper amount of water ? 
 
 29. What relation exists between alcohol and water % 
 
 30. How does alcohol act when taken into the human 
 system. ? 
 
 31. What effect does this have upon the tissues ! 
 
 32. What evils follow from eating too rapidly ? 
 
MATING, AND WHAT COMES OF IT 
 
 31 
 
 TOPICAL ANALYSIS OP CHAPTER II. 
 
 Why we Eat. 
 
 What we Eat. 
 
 How we Eat. 
 
 How we Swal- 
 low, 
 
 4. Kinds of food. 
 
 Bating, and what comes of it. 
 
 ■ 1. The body always wearing out. 
 
 2. It needs repair. 
 
 3. We eat to live. 
 
 4. We eat to do the work we have to do, 
 
 ■ 1. Different elements needed. 
 
 3. Food related to the industries. 
 3. Food related to geography. 
 
 ' 1. Albuminoids : gluten — white 
 of eggs— flbrine of blood — 
 cheese. 
 3. Sugars and starches. 
 
 3. Fats: animal and vegetable 
 oils. 
 
 4. Minerals : lime — soda — pot- 
 ash — iron — salt — water. 
 
 5. Special foods : vegetables — meats — fruits. 
 
 6. Value of different foods. 
 
 7. Ways of cooking. 
 
 8. Mixed foods necessary. 
 
 1. Chewing. 
 
 3. The teeth : structure — names — uses. 
 
 3. Care of the teeth : necessity — implements. 
 
 1. How saliva flows — exciting causes. 
 3. Amount of saliva. 
 
 3. How saliva is wasted. 
 
 4. Tobacco : wastes saliva — vitiates saliva — defiles 
 
 the breath. 
 
 5. Water in the body : abundance — importance. 
 
 6. Affinity of alcohol for water. 
 
 7. The esophagus : structure — action. 
 
 Hygiene of eating. 
 Something to find out. 
 
CHAPTER HI. 
 
 ALCOMOL AND ITS EFFECTS. 
 THE NATUEE OF ALCOHOL. 
 
 Decay a Law of Nature. — It is a law of nature that 
 all that lives must die, and all that dies mnst decay or 
 go to pieces, in order that the substances of which it is 
 composed may be set free to make new forms of life. 
 All plants and fruits are composed of certain elements 
 which were once a part of the earth, air, and water. 
 Therefore, when a plant dies, or a fruit is fully ripe, it 
 decays or falls to pieces, and the materials composing it 
 are set free to make up new fruits and plants. 
 
 What causes Decay, — Fruits and plants do not decay 
 of themselves, but their decay is the work of minute 
 living forms,* which cause them to change and go to 
 pieces. 
 
 There are many kinds of these called by various names, 
 and each doing a different kind of work. Although too 
 small to be seen by the naked eye, the microscope has 
 shown that they, or the tiny germs or seeds that produce 
 them, float in the air ready to attack any substance they 
 can work upon. Those of one kind are the molds. You 
 
 * These minute living forms are in reality plants. The mold of 
 leather, dried fruit, bread, and cheese, mildew, and other forms of 
 mold that cause fruits to rot, all belong to this class of plants, called 
 fungi. (See article on "Fungi" in Appletons' "American Cyelo- 
 psedia.") 
 
ALOOEOL AND ITS EFFECTS. 33 
 
 have seen mold on cheese, bread, and other things, and 
 know how soon it will spoil what before was good food. 
 
 Ferments and what they Do. — Others of these minute 
 living forms are the ferments that cause fermentation, 
 or decay, in sweet liquids.* 
 
 Magnified 2,000 diameters. Magnified 250 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 7.— Ferments illustrated by yeast-cells. 
 
 It is these ferments that turn the juices of good fruit 
 and grain into alcoholic liquors. They can not do this if 
 the juice is in the whole or unbroken fruit,-]- but when 
 
 * These ferments are one-celled plants which multiply themselves 
 by budding. The buds before fully grown are called spores. In 
 sweet liquids they live singly or in united bud-colonies, where they 
 multiply rapidly and excite fermentation. (See " Bacteria and Yeast 
 Fungi," by W. B. Grrove, B. A., of t^^e Birmingham Natural History 
 and Microscopical Society, Eng., p. 57.) Ferments fasten in an inact- 
 ive state on the skin of fruit, by which means they are introduced into 
 its juice when squeezed out to be fermented. The spores are trans- 
 ported through the air until they rest on the downy surface of fruit or 
 berry. It has been asked what becomes of these ferments between last 
 year's vintage and the succeeding summer, and in what way they pass 
 the winter. According to Hansen's researches they are washed ofE 
 from the fruit by the rain, dispersed by the wind, and fall to the 
 ground with the fruit, where they remain through the winter as dor- 
 mant spores, ready to return to' the fruit of the same plant when it 
 has ripened in summer. (Trouessart's "Microbes, Spores, and Fer- 
 ments," p. 77.) 
 
 f It is not these ferments, but germs of another kind, that cause 
 apples and other fruit to decay. (Trouessart's " Microbes, Spores, and 
 Ferments," p. 46.) 
 
34 LESSONS IN HTQIENE, 
 
 it is pressed out and left exposed to a moderately warm 
 air these ferments do their work. 
 
 Some plants, as sugar-cane and maple, are sweet be- 
 cause there is sugar in their juices. This sugar is obtained 
 in a dry state by boiling o£E the water. Maple-sugar and 
 the sugar used for food and for making candy are made in 
 this way. Many fruits, as apples^ grapes, and berries, are 
 more or less sweet because sugar is formed in them as 
 they ripen. When such fruits are crushed and their 
 juices are drawn off, the sugar is the part of the juice 
 that first begins to decay, or go to pieces. As we have 
 said, it does not decay of itself. These ferments ^r their 
 germs from the air, or from the stems and surfaces of the 
 fruit,* easily pass into this juice, and if it is moderately 
 warm and sweet, each ferment will soon produce a large 
 number of other ferments like itself, f 
 
 * M. Louis Pasteur, in his " Studies on Fermentation," pp. 153^157, 
 describes an experiment by which he was able to examine with a micro- 
 scope the germs of ferments and molds which gather upon the stems 
 and surface of fruits. He cut off a cluster of fine grapes with a pair of 
 scissors that had been passed through a flame to destroy all germs that 
 might be clinging to them, wrapped them in a piece of paper that 
 had been slightly scorched for the same purpose, and carried it very 
 carefully to his laboratory. Here the grapes were washed in some 
 distilled water, perfectly free from dust or germs, and the water ex- 
 amined with a microscope. It was found to contain many little 
 organized bodies, consisting chiefly of simple, transparent, colorless 
 cells. Some of larger size had a yellowish-brown color, and were 
 detached. Others were united in irregular masses. 
 
 Other fruits were examined in the same way with similar results. 
 Som^ of these cells M. Pasteur put into fresh grape-juice which had 
 been heated so as to kill all the germs of ferments it before contained, 
 whereupon these ferments began to bud in it, and produce alcoholic 
 fermentation. 
 
 •j- On October 12, 1881, at 10 o'clock in the morning, we crushed 
 some grapes, without filtering the juice that ran from them; after- 
 ward, at differeot times during the day, we examined the juice under 
 
ALCOHOL AND ITS EFFECTS. 35 
 
 As these ferments increase in number they change 
 the sugar of the liquid into two other substances. It is 
 then no longer sugar, but a gas,* and a poisonous liquor 
 called alcohol. The gas may be seen rising in bubbles 
 through the liquid. It escapes into the air at the top, 
 but the alcohol remains in the liquid. 
 
 Alcohol not Uke Water.— The alcohol that thus forms 
 in fruit, grain, and vegetable juices, is a clear, colorless 
 fluid. As you will soon learn, it can be separated from 
 the rest of the liquid, and is then found to look like 
 water, but its nature is not at all like water. Water will 
 neither bum of itself, nor will it bum those who drink 
 it. If alcohol is touched with a lighted match, it will 
 burn as easily as kerosene oil. "Water satisfies thirst. 
 Alcohol creates an almost uncontrollable thirst. 
 
 What is a Poison ? — A substance whose nature it is 
 when absorbed into the blood to injure health or destroy 
 life is a poison. The rapidity with which a poison acts 
 depends upon the quantity taken. 
 
 Alcohol a Poison. — The nature of alcohol is that of a 
 
 the microscope, until at last, although not before 7 o'clock in the 
 evening, we deteoted a couple of cells. From that time we kept these 
 contiguous cells constantly in view. At 7.10 we saw them separate, 
 and remove to some little distance from each other. Between 7 and 
 7.8O we saw on each of these cells a very minute bud originate and grow, 
 little by little. At 7.45 the buds had increased greatly in size. By 8 
 o'clock they had attained the size of the mother cells. By 9 each cell 
 of each couple had put forth a new bud. We did not follow the mul- 
 tiplication of the cells any further, having seen that in the course of 
 two hours two cellules had furnished eight, including^ the two mother 
 cells. An increase like this, which would have been more rapid at a 
 higher temperature, may indeed seem surprising. It is really, how- 
 ever, nothing to what sometimes occurs. (Pasteur's " Studies on Fer- 
 mentation.") 
 
 * Carbonic ctcid gas, or carbon dioxide, the gas used in charging 
 soda fountains. 
 
36 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 poison. When taken in small quantities it acts injuriously 
 upon the nerves and other important parts of the body. 
 If taken in this way continuously, it acts as a slow poison. 
 "When taken in sufficiently large quantities it is capable 
 of causing death in a few hours. In a few cases it has 
 done so in less than an hour.* Every drunken man may 
 be considered a case of poisoning by alcohoL Because 
 alcohol especially affects the brain it is called a hrain 
 poison, and through its influence on that organ it is 
 capable of greatly changing and finally ruining the 
 cha/racter. 
 
 Alcohol a Narcotic Poison. — Any drug that benumbs, 
 that takes away the sense, that deadens or causes stupor, 
 is called a 7ia/rcotic.\ Because alcohol does this through 
 its effect upon the nerves and brain it is classed as a nar- 
 cotio poison. 
 
 THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. 
 
 The Moderate Drinker. — It is often urged that men 
 have been known to drink alcoholic liquors a long time 
 and yet live. A great English physician J said concern- 
 ing this : " The stomach and other organs of the body 
 
 * Dr. Alfred S. Taylor tells of " a man who died in hall an hour 
 after swallowing a bottle of gin for a wager, although a large quantity 
 of the spirit had been in the mean time removed by a stomach-pump." 
 (Taylor's " Treatise on Poisons," p. 610.) 
 
 f A primary stage of stimulation sometimes precedes the true 
 narcotic effect, but much of what is called stimulation, as for instance 
 the noisiness or restlessness of alcohol, is in reality the beginning of 
 narcotism, being due to a gradual removal of the restraints imposed 
 by the higher faculties, by custom, or by timidity, upon the lower 
 impulses. In the later stages of narcotism the faculties of sensation, 
 of voluntary and reflex motion, are abolished, and death may result 
 from paralysis of the centers that govern the circulation and respira- 
 tion. Familiar examples of this class of drugs are cipium, alcohol, and 
 chloroform. (" American Cyclopedia,'' article " Narcotics.") 
 
 X Dr. B. W. Richardson, " Diseases of Modern Life,'' p. 236. 
 
ALCOHOL AND ITS EFFECTS. 37 
 
 may be so hardened and changed by alcohol that it may 
 seem to fit them for a long time, but the alcohol will all 
 the while be silently doing its fatal work." 
 
 Such a drinker is less of a man or woman in both 
 health and character because of this poison, which one 
 person may be able to bear longer than another. 
 
 The Alcoholic Appetite. — We have seen that a little 
 *lcohol taken at frequent intervals affects the drinker as 
 d slow poison ; and that in large quantities taken at one 
 time it will speedily destroy life. But one of its most 
 dangerous characteristics is the fascinating power that a 
 little alcohol has, in such liquors as beer, wine, and cider, 
 to create a craving desire for more alcohol. 
 
 The drinker does not at first seem to realize his dan- 
 ger ; but the more he takes of this poison the more he 
 cares for it, and the less he cares about doing right. As 
 he keeps on, the time comes when anything may be sac- 
 rificed for this selfish gratification of the appetite which he 
 seems to have no power to resist. The alcoholic appetite 
 once fastened upon a person persistently clings to its 
 victim. After being long resisted it may be roused to 
 redoubled f ary by a shght taste, or even smell, of an alco- 
 holic liquor. 
 
 The nature of alcohol is not changed by its being put 
 into food. A little there, as anywhere else, haa the power 
 to rouse an appetite for more. The only safe course for 
 a person who has an alcoholic appetite is to at once and 
 forever refuse to take any form of alcohol. 
 
 HYGIENE, 
 
 I. Decay changes the nature of any substance, making 
 what was before good unfit for its previous uses. Molds 
 are the cause of one form of decay. Therefore we should 
 not eat moldy bread, fruit, or moldy food of any kind. 
 
38 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 II. Ferments and yeast cause a fermentation or decay 
 in some sweet liquids. They turn the sugar in these to 
 alcohol. We should never drink liquors that contain 
 alcohol, because alcohol is a poison. 
 
 III. Pure water and good milk are the natural and 
 healthful drinks. We may safely take them to quench 
 our thirst. 
 
 IV. Because alcohol is a narcotic poison, and takes 
 away the sense and makes those who use it stupid, is 
 another reason why we should never drink anything that 
 contains it. 
 
 V. It is not safe for us to take a little alcohol, be- 
 cause it is the nature of a little alcohol to create a craving 
 desire for more alcohol, and the more one drinks the more 
 he wants, until alcohol finally destroys him. 
 
 VI. The use of wine, brandy, cider, or any alcoholic 
 liquor in flavoring jellies, pudding-sauces, pies, or any 
 form of food is dangerous, especially to those who have 
 a taste or craving for alcohol. 
 
 SOMETHmG TO FIND OUT. 
 
 2. What is the great law of nature in regard to decay ? 
 
 2. What reason can you give for this ? 
 
 3. Of what were the substances composing all plantf 
 and fruits once a part ? 
 
 4. What becomes of these substances when the fmit 
 or plant dies ? 
 
 5. What causes fruit and plants to decay ? 
 
 6. What can you tell of the various kinds of these 
 living forms ? 
 
 7. What can you teU of their size ? 
 
 8. What has the microscope shown concerning them \ 
 
 9. What name is given to one kind of these living 
 forms J 
 
ALCOHOL AND ITS EFFECTS. 39 
 
 10. Where axe they often seen ? 
 
 11. How do they affect articles of food? 
 
 12. What name is given to another kind of minute 
 living forms ? 
 
 13. In what do they cause decay % 
 
 14. What do these ferments do to good fruit and 
 grain juices ? 
 
 15. What can you say of the ferments and the juice 
 while it is in the fruit ? 
 
 16. Do the ferments change the sugar in fruit juices 
 to alcohol while it is in the fruit ? 
 
 17. How do we know that the juices of some plants 
 contain sugar ? 
 
 18. Why are such fruits as apples, grapes, and berries 
 sweet ? 
 
 19. What part of fruit juice first begins to decay after 
 it is pressed out from the fruit ? 
 
 . 20. What causes this decay ? 
 
 21. How do the ferments get into the fruit juices? 
 
 22. If the juice is moderately warm and sweet, what 
 will each ferment do ? 
 
 23. As the ferments increase how do they affect the 
 sugar of the liquid ? 
 
 24. What new substances are thus produced ? 
 
 25. Tell what you can of the gas thus formed ; also 
 of the alcohol. 
 
 26. What is the appearance of the alcohol formed in 
 fruit, grain, and vegetable juices ? 
 
 2Y. In what respect does it differ from water ? 
 
 28. Which will quench thirst ? 
 
 29. Which will create it ? 
 
 30. What effect will a lighted match have upon 
 alcohol? 
 
 31. What is a poison ? 
 
40 LESSON'S IN HTOIENE. 
 
 32. Upon what does the rapidity with which a poison 
 acts depend ? 
 
 33. What is the nature of alcohol ? 
 
 34. How does it act when taken in small quantities ? 
 
 35. What kind of a poison may it then be called ? 
 
 36. What effect may follow taking large quantities 
 of alcohol? 
 
 37. What may every drunken man be considered ? 
 
 38. Why is alcohol called a brain poison ? 
 
 39. What is likely to be the eflEect of alcohol upon 
 the character? 
 
 40. What is a narcotic ? 
 
 41. Why is alcohol a narcotic ? 
 
 42. What two important facts have you learned con- 
 cerning alcohol ? 
 
 43. What is one of the most dangerous characteristics 
 of alcohol ? 
 
 44. What can you say of the drinker in regard to this 
 danger? 
 
 45. What is his condition as he takes more and more 
 of the poison ? 
 
 46. What showb the strength that the appetite for al- 
 coholic drinks may come to have ? 
 
 47. When the alcoholic appetite has once fastened upon 
 an individual what is the usual result ? 
 
 48. How may such an appetite when long resisted be 
 again roused ? 
 
 49. What does this teach in regard to flavoring arti- 
 cles of food with wine, brandy, or other alcoholic liquors ? 
 
 50. What is true of the nature of the alcohol thus 
 used? 
 
 51. What has it still the power to do ? 
 
 52. How can the alcoholic appetite be conquered ? 
 
 53. What is the best way to avoid all these evils 1 
 
ALCOHOL AND ITS EFFECTS. 
 
 41 
 
 Nature of Al- 
 cohol. 
 
 Effeets of Al- 
 cohol. 
 
 TOPICAL ANALYSIS OP CHAPTER IIL 
 Alcohol and its Effects. 
 
 ' 1. Decay necessary to new forms of life. 
 3. Decay the work of minute living forms. 
 
 3. Action of ferments. 
 
 1. Hastened by warmth. 
 
 3. Sugar in juices first acted upon. 
 
 3. Sugar separated into alcohol and gas. 
 
 4. Alcohol : clear — colorless — burns — creates thirst. 
 
 5. A poison, absorbed into the blood, injures or de- 
 
 stroys life. 
 
 6. Alcohol a poison. 
 
 1. In small quantities a slow poison. 
 3. In large quantities a deadly poison. 
 
 3. A brain poison. 
 
 4. A narcotic poison. 
 
 ' 1. Moderate drinking injurious. 
 3. The alcoholic appetite. 
 
 1. Fascinating power of alcohoL 
 
 3. A little creates a desire for more. 
 8. At last overpowering. 
 
 4. May be roused by alcohol in food^ 
 
 5. Abstinence the only safety. 
 
 Something tojmd out. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ALCOHOLIC DRINKS AND TOBACCO. 
 
 Oleae alcoliol is so strong and fiery that few persons 
 care to drink it. The harm that comes from the use of 
 this poison is chiefly caused by beginning with liquors 
 that contain some alcohol with more water. 
 
 DEESTKS CONTAINING ALCOHOL. 
 
 Cider is a drink made from the juice of apples. This 
 juice is largely composed of water that is more or less 
 sweet, with a peculiar apple flavor. There is no alcohol 
 in it while it is still in the unbroken apple. But ferment 
 germs that float in the air, or that may be resting on the 
 stem or skin of the apple, enter the juice as it is squeezed 
 out. Very soon little bubbles may be seen rising in this 
 juice. These bubbles are the gas * that is always formed, 
 with alcohol, when ferments cause the sugar in such a 
 fluid to decay. This gas bubbles up through the cider 
 and goes off into the air, but the alcohol remains in the 
 cider. As alcohol is a poison it makes cider a poisonous 
 drink. 
 
 If the weather is moderately warm, alcohol will ap- 
 pear in apple-juice in about six hours after it has been 
 pressed out, and sometimes sooner. The mill is often wet 
 with the juice left from another day's grinding, in which 
 ferments have begun to work. This will act as yeast to 
 
 * Carbonic-acid gas (carbon dioxide). 
 
ALOOHOLIO DRINKS AND TOBAGOO. 43 
 
 hasten fermentation and the earlier appearance of alcohol 
 in the next cider that is made. 
 
 Effects of Cider - Drinking. — The quantity of alcohol 
 in a given amount of cider is constantly increasing from 
 the time when the ferments first begin to change the 
 sugar of the apple-juice until they have iinished their 
 work. Such cider is said to be growing "hard." " Hard 
 cider " sometimes contains one part of alcohol to ten parts 
 of cider. A person who begins to drink from a bafrel of 
 cider when it is sweet, and . continues to do so until it be- 
 comes hard, gets every day a little more of the dangerous 
 poison, whose nature it is to make those who use it wish 
 to drink more and still more. Some of the worst drunk- 
 ards learned at the cider-barrel the liking for alcohol that 
 led them on to ruin. The narcotic power of alcohol, even 
 in cider, is capable of so deadening right feelings and 
 taking away the sense that cider-drinkers are likely to 
 be cross and ugly-tempered. Cider in any quantity is a 
 dangerous liquor, and should not be drank. 
 
 Wine is made from grapes. The grape is a delicious 
 and healthful fruit, more or less sweet, with no alco- 
 hol in its juice while in the grape. But here, as in the case 
 of the apple, the ferments in the air and those gathered 
 upon the surface of the fruit easily pass into the grape- 
 juice that has been pressed out. If the air is moderately 
 warm they quickly begin to work upon the sugar^ causing 
 it to turn into carbonic-acid gas and alcohol. The gas 
 passes out of the liquid in small bubbles, but the alcohol 
 remains in the wine to work injury upon all who drink it. 
 
 Home-made Wines, put up by the housewife, made 
 from currants, elderberries, or other fruits, are as danger- 
 ous as any. Ferments turn the sweet principle, or sugar, 
 in such juices into alcohol and gas just as they do in wine 
 made on a larger scale. If — as is often the case— a small 
 
44 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 amount of sugar is added to these juices when they are 
 left to ferment, the wine will be more poisonous, as there 
 will be so much more sugar to be turned to alcohol. 
 
 Wine and Drunkenness. — It was once thought that if 
 people would use "light wines" — that is, wines like claret, 
 which contain only a small quantity of alcohol — they 
 would not want the stronger liquors, and there would be 
 less intemperance. But that does not prove to be true. 
 
 It is the nature of alcohol in wine, cider, or any such 
 liquor to create a craving desire, not only for more wine, 
 but for stronger drinks. At the same time the narcotic 
 effect of the alcohol deadens the sense of right that should 
 restrain the drinker from indulging this perilous appetite. 
 Therefore wine-driuking tends to greatly increase rather 
 than to lessen drunkenness.* 
 
 How can we prove that there is Alcohol in Cider or 
 Wine ? — -Put a long, close-fitting pipe into the cover of a 
 vessel containing cider or wine, and place the vessel over 
 alighted lamp. In a short time, and before the cider 
 boils, a vapor will rise from the liquid and pass into the 
 pipe. Because alcohol turns to vapor with less heat 
 than water this vapor will consist chiefly of alcohol. If 
 the pipe be now laid across a piece of ice, the vapor pass- 
 ing through it will condense into a liquid again and col- 
 lect in drops at the farther end of the pipe, where a ves- 
 sel may be placed to receive it. The first few drops of 
 liquid so collected wiU consist almost entirely of alcohol, 
 
 * Rev. A. L. Stone, D. D., after spending some years in California, 
 said : " I had entertained a sort of hope that the manufacture of pure 
 ■wines and their introduction into general use would crowd out the 
 gross strong liquors, and diminish intemperance. I am now f uUy con- 
 vinced that this hope was groundless and delusive. It appears that in 
 wine-growing districts intemperance is on the increase, extending even 
 to the youth of both sexes." Like testimony is reported from France, 
 Persia, and other countries where wine is extensively manufactured. 
 
ALOOBOLia DBINES AND TOBAOOO. 45 
 
 the water with which it was mixed being nearly all left 
 behind in the vessel over the lamp. If the hquid is al- 
 lowed to boil, the water will also turn to vapor, and passing 
 through the pipe it will collect in drops and mix again 
 with the alcohol. 
 
 Beer is a fermented drink made from barley or other 
 grain. Grains, unlike fruits, contain no sweet juices to 
 be changed to alcohol. They are composed mostly of 
 starch. The brewer moistens the grain and keeps it warm 
 for a httle while, and this turns the starch to sugar .j Then 
 he dries it to prevent further sprouting. This sprouted 
 grain when dried is called malt. It is ground or mashed, 
 and water is added to dissolve out the sugar {glucose), 
 when it becomes a sweet liquid that can be fermented. 
 
 The ordinary brewer does not wait for the ferments 
 from the air to find their way into this liquid, but sup- 
 plies them by adding yeast, which is one kind of ferment. 
 The yeast works upon the sugar in the grain-juice as the 
 ferments do upon that in the fruit juices, in turning it to 
 carbonic-acid gas and alcohol. The gas passes off into 
 the air, and the alcohol remains in the beer, making it 
 a poisonous liquor. 
 
 Thus grain, which was once good food, is changed into 
 a poison. The beer-drinker is not likely to be long satis- 
 fied with a little beer, for it is the nature of the alcohol 
 in beer, as in cider and wine, not only to do direct harm, 
 but to create a craving for more. 
 
 The use of beer injures the health and lessens the 
 strength of the body and weakens the higher faculties of 
 the mind. It tends to make the drinker selfish, cruelj 
 and brutal, while it stupefies the reason and judgment. 
 
 Home-made Beer. — Herbs, barks, and roots are some- 
 times steeped in water, and sugar and yeast added, to 
 make " domestic " beer. Fermentation soon follows. The 
 
46 LESSONS IN HTGIENE. 
 
 sugar turns to gas that passes off into the air and to alciv 
 hoi that remains in the liquor. The presence of alcohol 
 always makes any liquor a dangerous drink. 
 
 EFFECTS OF FEEMENTATION. 
 
 Why Fermentation makes Good Bread and Foisonons 
 Beer. — The yeast which the cook uses in making bread 
 is one kind of ferment. In the flour is a very small 
 quantity of free sugar. When the flour is moistened and 
 kept warm, this sugar is acted upon by the ferments of 
 the yeast, and changed into carbonic-acid gas and alcohoL 
 As the gas forces itself out through the dough it makes 
 little spaces or holes, which remain after the bread is 
 baked, and we say the bread is " light." 
 
 Alcohol does not stay in the bread, as it does in beer, 
 cider, and wine, to create an appetite for more alcohol ; 
 it is turned to vapor by the heat as the bread is baking, and 
 passes off in the oven. There is no alcohol in well-baked 
 bread. The fact that alcohol remains in the beer, but 
 not in the bread, explains why beer is a poisonous liquor 
 whUe bread is a healthful food. 
 
 Fermentation Changes the Nature of Substances. — Fer- 
 ments, you remember, change the sugar in sweet fruit 
 juices, which are wholesome and healthful, to alcohol, 
 which is a poison. But if these changed juices, that are 
 now cider or wine, are allowed to stand in a warm place 
 open to the air, another kind of ferment enters the liquid 
 and causes another change. This time the alcohol, the 
 result of the first fermentation, is changed and becomes a 
 sharp acid (acetio acid). Wine or cider thus affected is 
 no longer wine or cider, but another substance, called 
 vinegar. There is no alcohol in vinegar. The nature 
 of vinegar is very different from that pf a liquor con- 
 taining alcohol. If a person uses a little vinegar to flavor 
 
ALGOnOLIO DRINKS AND TOBAOGO. 4*^ 
 
 food, he is in no danger of forming an appetite that will 
 make him want to drink more and more vinegar eveiy 
 day. Lemon or lime-juice is a more healthful acid than 
 vinegar. 
 
 Vinous and Acetous Fermentation. — There are several 
 kinds of fermentation. 
 
 Vinous fermentation is that which changes the sugar 
 of sweet juices to alcohol. Acetous fermentation changes 
 alcohol and other substances into vinegar. 
 
 What we have observed of these two kinds of fermen- 
 tation is true of all, viz., that fermentation changes the 
 nature of the substance it works upon. 
 
 A Serious Mistake. — Once people did not know this 
 fact. They thought that because grain and fruit are good 
 for food, the wine, cider, and other liquors made from 
 them must be good also. But this is not true, and is a 
 mistake that has led many to ruin. The nature of the 
 grain and fruit substances from which beer, wine, and 
 cider are made is entirely changed by fermentation ; the 
 sugar in these, which was once a food, is turned into a 
 treacherous and enticing poison. 
 
 DISTILLED LIQUOES. 
 
 The habit, as you have learned, of drinking wine, 
 beer, or cider usually leads to a desire for liquors that 
 contain more alcohol. 
 
 Distillation. — To obtain such, the alcohol in cider, 
 wine, etc., is separated from a portion of the water which 
 makes up a large part of these liquids. The process by 
 which this is done is called distillation. Brandy is a 
 liquor distilled from wine. JRum. is distilled from the 
 fermented juice of sugar-cane. Whisky is distilled from 
 fermented liquids made from corn or other grains, some- 
 times from potatoes. 
 
48 
 
 LESSONS IN ETOIENE. 
 
 Eflfeots of Distilled Liquors. — Such liquors are usually 
 about one half alcohol, and are therefore capable of doing 
 
 rapid and great 
 damage to those 
 who use them. 
 While the crav- 
 ing thirst for 
 more alcohol is 
 growing with its 
 indulgence the 
 strength of the 
 drinker's will is 
 being weakened 
 by the effect of 
 the alcohol. He 
 then finds it very 
 hard to resist the 
 use of the poison- 
 ous drams that 
 only increase the 
 thirst and short- 
 en the road to ruin. To stop drinking any form of al- 
 cohol at once and forever is his only chance to escape the 
 drunkard's fate. 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 The tobacco plant is a native of the United States. 
 Its broad, pale-green leaves when dried are used for 
 chewing, smoking, and snuff. 
 
 Nicotine. — Tobacco contains a sharp, biting, oily 
 liquid called nicotine, which is a powerful l)rain and 
 heart poison. Nicotine disolves freely in the saliva and 
 is then absorbed. Therefore chewing is one of, the most 
 injurious forms of the tobacco habit. 
 
 Cigarettes do a great amount of mischief. There is 
 
 Fig. 8. — A still. a,f, 6, c, d, retort in which the liquid 
 is changed to vapor ; d, d, worm ; K, h, e, i, cooler 
 and arrangements for condensing the vapor in the 
 worm. 
 
ALOOEOLIO DRINKS AND TOBACCO. 49 
 
 abundant evidence tliab boys and young men are now 
 being greatly injured by tlie use of tobacco in tbis form. 
 No person wbo is in training for rowing or otber test of 
 strength or physical skill is allowed to use tobacco in 
 any way. 
 
 " In an experimental observation of thirty-eight boys, 
 of all classes of society and of average health, who had 
 been using tobacco for periods ranging from two months 
 to two years, twenty-seven showed severe injury to the 
 constitution and infeufficient growth ; thirty-two showed 
 the existence of irregularity of the heart's action, dis- 
 ordered stomachs, cough, and a craving for alcohol ; thir- 
 teen had intermittence of the pulse; and one had con- 
 sumption. After they had abandoned the use of tobacco, 
 within six months' time one half were free from all their 
 former symptoms, and the remainder had recovered by 
 the end of the year." * 
 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 Ferments will ordinarily begin to turn the sugar in 
 apple-juice to alcohol in about six hours after it has been 
 squeezed out, and sometimes sooner. 
 
 I. We should not drink cider, because it is the nature 
 of the alcohol in eider to create an appetite for more al- 
 cohol. 
 
 II. Cider deadens the sense and tends to make its 
 drinkers ill-tempered and careless about doing right. 
 
 III. We should get our grape-juiee by eating the 
 healthful and delicious grapes. 
 
 IV. When the grape- juice has been squeezed out and 
 its sugar turned to alcohol, it is a poisonous drink, and 
 we should not take it. 
 
 * C. W. Lyman, in " New York Medical Journal," Sept. 8, 1888. 
 
50 LESSONS IN MTQIENE, 
 
 Y. Home-made wines, if produced by fermentation, 
 are unsafe drinks because they contain alcohol. 
 
 VI. It is the nature of alcohol in even the weakest 
 wines to create an appetite for more alcohol. Thus wine 
 tends to increase intemperance rather than to decrease it, 
 as some have supposed. 
 
 VII. Fermentation is a part of the process of making 
 bread, but the alcohol is all evaporated out of well-baked 
 bread. We should not eat bread that is not well baked. 
 It is not digestible. 
 
 VIII. Beer, like other alcoholic liquors, tends to debase 
 the morals and make the drinker brutal. 
 
 IX. Home-made beers produced by fermentation con- 
 tain alcohol. We should not drink beer of any kind. 
 
 X. There is no alcohol in vinegar. We may safely 
 flavor our food with it. Lemons and limes furnish more 
 healthful acids than vinegar. 
 
 XI. Fermentation entirely changes the character of 
 anything it works upon. The germs that cause stewed 
 fruit and preserves to ferment are not the alcoholic fer- 
 ments, but they spoil the stewed fruit or preserves, and 
 make them unfit for us to eat. 
 
 XII. The habit of chewing tobacco is not only dis- 
 gusting, but very injurious, as the poison of the tobacco, 
 the nicotine, is dissolved in the saliva and absorbed by the 
 system. 
 
 XIII. The use of cigarettes by young boys weakens 
 the muscles and hinders growth, besides causing other 
 serious injuries. The healthy body does not require 
 tobacco in any form and it should never be used. 
 
 SOMETHma TO FIND OUT. 
 
 1. What is cider ? 
 
 2. Of what is it largely composed ? 
 
ALCOHOLIC DRINKS AND TOBACCO, 61 
 
 3. When is there no alcohol in apple- juice ? 
 
 4. "WTiat enters the juice when it is squeezed out '{ 
 
 5. How may we know when the ferments are at work 
 in the apple- juice ? 
 
 6. What are the rising bubbles ? What becomes of 
 this gas ? 
 
 7. What becomes of the alcohol ? 
 
 8. How does this affect the cider ? 
 
 9. How soon after apple- juice is pressed out is alcohol 
 present in it ? 
 
 10. What may hasten the formation of alcohol in ap- 
 ple-juice ? 
 
 11. How does the amount of alcohol in cider vary as 
 the ferments keep at work ? 
 
 12. What is then said of the cider ? 
 
 13. How much alcohol may hard cider contain ? 
 
 14. Under what circumstances will a person drinking 
 the same quantity of cider every day get an increasing 
 amount of alcohol ? 
 
 15. What is it the nature of this alcohol to do ? 
 
 16. Where have many drunkards learned their liking 
 iai alcohol ? To what has it led them ? 
 
 IT. What is the alcohol in cider capable of doing ? 
 
 18. From what is wine made ? 
 
 19. What can you tell of the grape ? 
 
 20. What is true of its juice while in the grape ? 
 
 21. What happens when the juice is squeezed out ? 
 
 22. What change is made iu it by these ferments ? 
 
 23. What remains in the wine ? 
 
 24. What is the alcohol capable of doing ? 
 
 25. Why are home-made wines dangerous ? 
 
 26. How does alcohol get in them ? 
 
 27. What will be the effect of adding a little sugar to 
 the juice from which these wines are made ? 
 
52 LESSONS IN HTGIENK 
 
 28. What are " light wines " ? Why do they lead to 
 intemperance ? 
 
 29. How does the narcotic effect of alcohol increase 
 the liability to drunkenness ? 
 
 30. Describe a simple process of separating the alco- 
 hol in cider or wine from the rest of the liquid. 
 
 31. How may the alcohol be collected ? 
 
 32. What does this prove concerning cider and wine ? 
 
 33. How do grains differ from fruits in regard to juices ? 
 
 34. Of what are grains mostly composed ? 
 
 35. How does the brewer make the starch sweet ? 
 
 36. When is the brewer's grain called malt ? 
 
 37. How is a sweet liquid obtained from this ? 
 
 38. How does the brewer make this liquid ferment ? 
 
 39. How does yeast affect grain juices ? 
 
 40. How does the alcohol affect the beer ? 
 
 41. What change is thus made ? 
 
 42. Why does the beer-drinker soon want more beer ? 
 
 43. What effect has beer - drinking on health and 
 strength ? Wliat effect has it on the mind ? 
 
 44. How does it affect the character ? 
 
 45. How are home-made beers sometimes made ? 
 
 46. What becomes of the sugar in such liquids ? 
 
 47. Why are these home-made beers dangerous drinks ? 
 
 48. What is the yeast used in making bread ? 
 
 49. What is there in the flour upon which the fer- 
 ments can work ? Into what is it changed by the yeast ? 
 
 50. What makes bread light ? 
 
 51. What becomes of the alcohol formed in dough ? 
 
 52. Why is bread healthful, though alcoholic liquors 
 made from the same kind of grain are poisonous ? 
 
 53. What happens when cider or wine is allowed to 
 stand in a warm place open to the air ? 
 
 54. What part of the cider or wine is changed ? 
 
ALCOHOLIO DRINKS AND TOBACCO. 53 
 
 55. What is the liquid called which is produced by 
 these other ferments ? Does vinegar contain alcohol ? 
 
 56. "What can yon tell of the nature of vinegar ? 
 
 57. What fact shows the difference between vinegar 
 and a liquor containing alcohol ? 
 
 58. What acids are more healthful than vinegar % 
 
 59. What is vinous fermentation ? 
 
 60. What is acetous fermentation \ 
 
 61. What is the effect of all fermentation ? 
 
 62. What mistakes have people made concerning al- 
 coholic liquors made from fruits and grains ? 
 
 63o What has been the result of this mistake ? 
 
 64. What effect has fermentation on the nature of 
 grain and fruit substances ? 
 
 65. What is the character of this change ? 
 
 66. To what do habits of drinking wine and beer 
 usually lead ? 
 
 67. How are strong alcoholic liquors obtained ? 
 
 68. What is this process called ? 
 
 69. What liquor is distilled from wine ? 
 
 70. What from the fermented juice of sugar-cane ? 
 
 71. What from fermented liquids made from com, 
 other grains, or potatoes ? 
 
 72. What is the usual proportion of alcohol in such 
 liquors ? 
 
 73. What can you say of their power to harm ? 
 
 74. Why is it so difficult for the habitual drinker to 
 leave off his dram ? 
 
 75. How may he escape being a drunkard ? 
 
 76. What is tobacco ? 
 
 77. In what ways is it used % 
 
 78. What poison is contained in tobacco % 
 
 79. Why is chewing one of the most injurious forms 
 of the tobacco habit ? 
 
54 
 
 LESSONS IN HYGIENE, 
 
 80. "What is the objection to cigarette smoking ? 
 
 81. Mention some facts showing the injurious effects 
 of cigarette smoldng upon young persons. 
 
 TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Drinks con- 
 taming Al- 
 cohol. 
 
 Distilled lAq- 
 ■uors. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 fl. 
 
 Effects of Fer- 
 mentation. 
 
 U: 
 
 Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco. 
 
 Cider. 
 
 1. Made from apples. 
 
 2. No alcohol in the unbroken apple. 
 
 3. Its sugar changed to alcohol and gas by fer- 
 
 ments. 
 
 4. Injurious effects of cider. 
 
 5. Unsafe to drink cider as it grows " hard." 
 Wine. 
 
 1. Made from grapes. 
 
 3. Grape-juice turned to alcohol by ferments. 
 
 3. Home-made wines also dangerous. 
 
 4. " Light " wines increase drunkenness. 
 Proof that there is alcohol in cider or wine. 
 Beer. 
 
 1. Made from barley or other grain. 
 
 3. Starch turned to sugar and sugar to alcohoL 
 
 3, Harm of drinking beer. 
 
 4. Danger from home-made beer. 
 
 Makes good bread and poisonous beer. 
 
 Changes the nature of substances. 
 
 Vinous and acetous. 
 
 Acetous fermentation does not produce alcohoL 
 
 A serious mistake. 
 
 Distillation. 
 
 Brandy distilled from wine. 
 
 Rum distilled from juice of sugar-cane. 
 
 Whisky distilled from liquids made from com and 
 
 other grains and potatoes. 
 Effects of distilled liquors. 
 
 Nicotine. 
 
 Cigarettes and their effects. 
 
 Something to find out. 
 
CHAPTEE V. 
 
 BOW DIGESTION GOES ON. 
 
 To nourisli the body, the food we eat must be eon- 
 verted into blood, A part of the work of digestion, or 
 of preparing food to enter the Kood, takes place in the 
 stomach. For this reason the stomach is one of the most 
 important organs of the body. Any part of the body 
 that has some special work to do is called an organ. 
 
 STOMACH DIGESTION. 
 
 Structure of the Stomach. — The stomach is a sack or 
 bag in the lower cavity of the body, and holds from one 
 to two quarts,* 
 It has two open- 
 ings. Through the 
 wpper opening, 
 the food comes in 
 from the esopha- 
 gus ; and through 
 the lower open- 
 m^j the food, 
 when in a proper 
 condition, passes 
 out into the in- ,>- n n.,, * i. 
 
 PiQ. 9.— The stomach. 
 
 testines. 
 
 * The trunk has two cavities, the chest and the abdomen. These cavi- 
 ties are separated by a thic^, muscular membrane, called the diaphragm. 
 
56 LESSONS IN HTOIENE. 
 
 The stomach is mado up of three coats. The outer 
 coat is strong and smooth. Its glossy surface is moist- 
 ened by a fluid so that when it rubs against the walls of 
 the trunk, or against any of the other organs, there is no 
 friction. 
 
 The middle coat is made up of muscles, which extend 
 around the stomach in both the longest and shortest ways,- 
 These muscles contract and expand, giving motion to the 
 stomach and churning its contents. 
 
 The vnner coat is soft, and lies in little ridges or folds, 
 giving a great amount of surface. It has in it many little 
 sacs or glands. These glands separate from the blood a 
 fluid called gasl/rio juice, an important fluid in the work 
 of digestion. When food is taken into the stomach these 
 glands pour out their contents upon it. The churning 
 process brings the gastric juice into contact with the food, 
 and thoroughly mixes the contents of the stomach. 
 
 Food Changes. — The saliva, mixed with the food, helps 
 to change starchy foods, such as rice and potatoes, into a 
 kind of sugar. This process is necessary to fit this class 
 of foods to enter the blood. 
 
 The gastric juice dissolves such foods as the white 
 of eggs, the gluten of grain, and the solid part of meat, 
 and makes them fit to enter the blood. 
 
 A small portion of the food thus dissolved soaks 
 through the walls of the stomach into very small blood- 
 vessels, and through them passes into a large vein, called 
 the portal vein.^ But by far the greater part is eon- 
 
 This membrane is attached to the walls of the trunk, and forms the 
 floor of the chest and the roof of the abdomen. 
 
 * The portal vein is formed by the veins from the intestines, spleen, 
 pancreas, and stomach, and passes into the liver by two branches. Thus 
 all the blood from the digestive organs passes through the liver before 
 entering the general circulation. 
 
EOW DIGESTION GOES OK 57 
 
 verted into a slimy, fluid mass, called chyme, and passes 
 out of the stomach through the lower opening. 
 
 Drink. — At each meal no more drink should be taken 
 with the solid food than is sufficient to moisten the mass 
 in the stomach. If too much is taken, the gastric juice 
 is so diluted and weakened that it can not properly per- 
 form its work. 
 
 If the stomach and its contents become too cool, its 
 inner and muscular coats will not act properly in dissolv- 
 ing and churning the food into a fluid, neither will the 
 . small veins take up the food as they should and send it 
 on to the portal vein. By drinking ice-water, or any very 
 cold drinlcs, with our meals, the heat of the stomach is 
 diminished, and the work of digestion goes on slowly, or 
 not at all, until the heat is restored. 
 
 INTESTINAL DIGESTION. 
 
 Structure of the Intestines. — The small intestine is a 
 tube, lying in a coil, through which the food passes after 
 leaving the stomach. It is about one inch in diameter 
 and twenty feet long. The large intestine is twice as 
 large and five feet in length. This gives to the whole 
 canal below the stomach a length of about twenty-five 
 feet. 
 
 Like the stomach, the intestines have three coats 
 The inner, or mucous, coat sends out fluids called the in. 
 testinal juices. These mix with the chyme coming from 
 the stomach, and convert into sugar a portion of the starch 
 which has before escaped digestion. 
 
 The middle coat of the intestines consists mostly of 
 rings of muscle, and is called the WMSCula/r coat. These 
 rings, beginning with the one nearest the stomach, con- 
 tract, one after the other, like those of the esophagus. 
 This action forces the contents onward, and finally expels 
 
58 
 
 LESSONS m HTQIENE. 
 
 the waste portion from the body. The outer coat ib 
 
 similar to the outer coat of the stomach. 
 
 The Pancreas. — ^Lying back of the stomach is an irreg- 
 ularly shaped organ, 
 about six inches in 
 length, called the 
 pancreas* ItsoflSce 
 is to secrete a fluid 
 called ^G pancreatic 
 juice, and send it out 
 into the upper part 
 of the small intes- 
 tine, t to mix with 
 the chyme as it pass- 
 es through this place 
 from the stomach. 
 
 When the chyme 
 leaves the stomach, 
 the oily portion Kes 
 on the surface. The 
 pancreatic juice then 
 unites with it and 
 divides it into minute 
 particles and mixes it 
 through the whole 
 mass of chyme, as 
 the oily particles of 
 
 cream are divided and mixed in milk. A part of the oil 
 
 is converted into a substance resembling soap. 
 
 The Liver. — The liver is a large organ lying on the 
 
 * In animals whose flesh we eat, the pancreas is called the sweet- 
 bread. 
 
 t This part is called the duodenum because it is about twelve 
 ^ger-breadths in length. 
 
 I k j 
 
 Fig. 10. — The organs of digestion : a, duodenum, 
 reading out of the pylorus ; 6, liver ; c, esopha- 
 ^s ; d, pancreas ; e, stomach ; /, spleen ; g^ i, 
 j, k, m, n, parts of large intestine ; A, I, small 
 intestine. 
 
HOW DIGESTION GOES OK 
 
 59 
 
 right side under tlie lower ribs. It is an important or- 
 gan, having several kinds of work to do. One of these 
 is to pour a fluid, called hile, upon the food passing 
 through the upper part of the intestines. 
 
 That the bile contains waste matter which the blood 
 must get rid of is shown by the fact that when it does 
 not pass ofE as it ought to, the body becomes yellow, and 
 the person is said to have jaundice. The bile assists the 
 pancreatic juice in preparing the fats and other food 
 substances in the 
 chyme for entering 
 the blood. It also ex- 
 cites the intestines, or 
 howels, to pour out a 
 juice that renders easy 
 the passage of waste 
 matter through them. 
 
 By the action of 
 the pancreatic juice 
 and the bile in the 
 upper part of the 
 intestines, the chyme 
 is converted into a 
 milk-like substance, 
 called chyle. 
 
 The Lacteals. — All 
 along the intestines fis. u 
 are little absorbing 
 tubes known as lac- 
 teals.* These unite in little groups and form larger tubes. 
 These at last all terminate in a single tube, about the size 
 
 * It is estimated that these lacteals number about seven thousand 
 in each square inch of surface, and that in the entire length of the in- 
 testines they number from three to five millions. 
 
 The lacteals and tlieir connections ! tn, 
 portal vein ; b, g, thoracic duct ; c, groups of 
 lacteals ; d, e, intestine ; /, lacteals. 
 
60 LESSONS m HYGIENE. 
 
 of a goose-quill, which lies ia front of the spinal column, 
 and is known as the thoracic duct. '■'■{ 
 
 Absorption. — As the chyme passes through the upper 
 part of the intestines, the portions fit to make blood soak 
 into little tubes that run through the inner lining of the 
 intestines like fine net -work. These little absorbing 
 tubes are of two classes, (1) the lacteals and (2) the small 
 Uood-vessels like those in the inner lining of the stomach. 
 The food that soaks into the lacteals consists chiefly of 
 fats, and is carried by them to the thoracic duct. As- 
 cending through that duct the fatty food is poured into 
 a vein which lies under the left collar-bone,* and finds its 
 way to the heart through the large vein coming from the 
 upper parts of the body. 
 
 The food that enters the small blood-vessels of the 
 intestines is carried by the blood in them to the portal 
 veiuj where it is joined with blood coming from the 
 stomach and carrying the food matter taken up by the 
 tiny absorbing tubes there. From the portal vein this 
 blood, rich in new food material, is poured into the blood- 
 vessels of the liver. There it is still further changed and 
 prepared for building up the body, as it flows with the 
 blood to all the various parts. This process by which 
 food is taken up by the lacteals and small blood-vessels 
 is called absorption. 
 
 Alcohol in the Stomach. — When a person drinks wine, 
 beer, whisky, or any intoxicating liquor, the hot, biting 
 alcohol it contains irritates the inner coat of the stomach. 
 The glands of the stomach will then quickly pour out 
 their watery fluids to soothe the irritated coat, just as the 
 glands of the eye send out tears when anything hurts the 
 eyeball. If the stomach is often irritated in this way the 
 
 * This vein is called the sub-chman. 
 
sow DIGESTION GOES OK 61 
 
 glands are exhausted by being compelled to provide so 
 much extra fluid. Then, when food enters the stomach, 
 the glands of the inner coat do not pour out enough 
 gastric juice to properly digest the food. 
 
 As alcohol has great power of absorbing water, it takes 
 moisture out of the mucous coat of the stomach. In this 
 way the stomach of the habitual drinker becomes hard- 
 ened and unable to supply gastric juice enough for di- 
 gestion. If the drinking is then kept up, more or less 
 active inflammation always sets in, often causing long ill- 
 ness, or death. 
 
 Alcohol will also absorb the water from the food itself 
 that it finds in the stomach, thus hardening it. In this 
 way the food of the drinker is made more difficult for 
 the digestive organs to dissolve to a fluid that may enter 
 the blood. This hardening effect may be seen by pour- 
 ing a little alcohol upon the white of an egg. The egg is 
 quickly hardened as if it had been cooked. Instances are 
 on record where alcoholic drinks, taken freely with food, 
 have rendered the food so indigestible that it has re- 
 mained for hours in the stomach undissolved, and has 
 been ejected in much the same state in which it was 
 swallowed. 
 
 Another way in which Alcohol hinders Digestion. — The 
 power of the gastric juice to dissolve certain kinds of food 
 depends upon a substance contained in it which is called 
 pepsin. If a small quantity of gastric juice is put into a 
 bottle, and to it is added ah alcoholic liquor, the pepsin 
 may at once be seen, in the form of a fine white powder, 
 settling to the bottom of the bottle. If an alcoholic 
 liquor is taken into the stomach while food is being di- 
 gested by the gastric juice, the pepsin in it is separated 
 as in the bottle. The gastric juice will not then have 
 the effect upon the food that it had before; and fresh 
 
62 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 juice must be poured out by the glands until the al- 
 cohol is so weakened that it will no longer separate the 
 pepsin. 
 
 Alcohol has another peculiar eflfect. Its action on the 
 stomach often leaves a sickly, sinking sensation, which can 
 be relieved by nothing but alcohol ; and so driiik induces 
 drink, until the habit is formed from which no one can 
 escape without great sufEerihg. 
 
 In many instances an appetite for alcoholic drinks has 
 been formed by people who have taken them under the 
 false impression that they would assist' digestion, but they 
 hinder instead of helping it. Alcohol may cause ulcerous 
 sores and other serious diseases of the stomach, while it 
 creates the dreadful appetite that craves nothing so much 
 as the liquor that caused the disease. 
 
 While the alcohol is working injury in the stom- 
 ach, the little blood-vessels are trying to get rid of it. 
 They take it up unchanged, and pass it on into the 
 larger ones. These carry it to other parts of the body, 
 where it , repeats the mischief it has begun in the 
 stomach. 
 
 Tobacco and the Stomach. — Tobacco contains a dark, 
 bitter, resinous substance that irritates the inner lining of 
 the stomach in persons who chew or smoke it. It is this 
 substance that produces the deathly sickness when tobacco 
 is smoked or chewed for the first time. The stomach 
 may be made, by continual use, to accustom itself to the 
 presence of this irritating matter, and its effects may not 
 for some time be apparent; but the tobacco diminishes 
 the amount of gastric juice, hinders digestion, and often 
 brings on dyspepsia. 
 
 A sharp, biting fluid often gathers in the stomach of 
 the tobacco-user after digestion is completed, causing him 
 hea/ribum and nausea. Sometimes he has an unnatural 
 
sow DiaESTION GOES OK 63 
 
 craving for vinegar or other acids to overcome the alka- 
 line * effects of the tobacco. 
 
 Tobacco also weakens the muscles in the walls of the 
 stomach that keep np the churning motion during di- 
 gestion, and the muscles in the intestines that keep their 
 contents in motion. 
 
 The tobacco-user often loses his appetite for food while 
 his craving for tobacco remains the same. He sometimes 
 argues from this that the tobacco is serving him as food, 
 and is therefore good for him. But instead of giving 
 strength, as food would, tobacco reduces the strength, and 
 makes the system more liable to disease and less able to 
 resist unhealthf ul influences. 
 
 Dyspepsia is a disease of the stomach quite com- 
 mon to tobacco-users. Dr. Taylor says : " A poison- 
 ous substance like tobacco, whether in powder or 
 juice or vapor, can not be brought frequently into 
 contact with an absorbing surface like the mucous 
 membrane (the lining of the mouth and stomach) with- 
 out in many cases producing disorder of the system 
 which the consumer is probably quite ready to attribute 
 to any other cause than that which would render it ne- 
 cessary for him to deprive himself of what he considers 
 not merely a luxury, but an article necessary to his ex- 
 istence." 
 
 Alcohol and the Liver. — The liver is especially liable to 
 injury from the use of alcohol, for the reason that when- 
 ever alcohol is taken into the stomach it is carried directly 
 to the liver by the same veins that carry the food. The 
 liver is so constructed that it wiU retain for some time, in 
 
 * An alkali is the opposite of an acid, and when the two are united 
 in* the right proportions the one destroys the effects of the other. 
 Ammonia is an alkali, and so is soda. Each of these may be neutralized 
 by vinegar, lemon-]'uioe, or other acids. 
 
64 LESSORS m HTOIENE. 
 
 its fine mesh-like tissues, substances that are unfit to dr 
 culate in the blood. 
 
 Dr. B. W. Eichardson says : " The liver of the con- 
 firmed user of alcohol is probably never free from the 
 influence of the poison ; it is too often saturated vdth it." 
 
 When two or three glasses of wine are drank every 
 day the liver-tissues may become irritated, inflamed, and 
 after a time seriously diseased. When the liver becomes 
 thus disordered from the irritating effects of alcohol it 
 can not do its work properly. The food matter brought 
 to it by the blood from the stomach and intestines is not 
 prepared as it should be to nourish various parts of the 
 boay. An overabundance of sugar may be produced, 
 leading co a serious disease of the kidneys, or an over- 
 abundance of fat, resulting in the flabby muscles and 
 bloated body of the beer-drinker. When too much fat is 
 produced the Uver itself often becomes overloaded with 
 it. Minute oily drops gather in between the little liver- 
 cells and crowd them, or the liver-tissue itself changes to 
 fat, which can by no means perform the work of the 
 tissue it has displaced. Fatty livers can be produced in 
 animals by feeding them with alcohol. 
 
 The continued irritation of the liver by small quan- 
 tities of alcohol, as in the case of the wine, beer, or cider 
 drinker, often leads to an incurable disease called " gin- 
 liver," or " hob-nailed liver." The connective tissue of 
 such a liver often becoming inflamed contracts, causing 
 the Hver in some places to shrink, while in others it is 
 expanded. In some cases of this kind, the Kver after 
 death has been found so hard that it could scarcely be cut 
 with a knife. 
 
 OTHEE NARCOTICS. 
 
 Opium is the dried juice of the seed-pod of the poppy. 
 It is a powerful narcotic that deadens the nerves, and is 
 
sow DIGESTION GOES ON. 65 
 
 capable of causing stupor that ends in death. It is some- 
 times given by physicians to deaden pain. Like alcohol, 
 it has the power of creating an almost uncontrollable crav- 
 ing for itself. The habit of using it is easily formed and 
 very hard to break. Its use causes disease of the digest- 
 ive organs, waste of flesh, feebleness of blood circulation, 
 but worst of all, great impairment of the brain. The 
 mind becomes dulled and the will weak, while the craving 
 for the drug grows stronger and stronger with every repe- 
 tition of its use. 
 
 MorpMne is extracted from opium, and affects the 
 human system in much the same way as opium. 
 
 Chloral is a narcotic substance sometimes prescribed by 
 the physician to produce sleep. Its effects upon the sys- 
 tem are similar to those of other narcotics, and it should 
 never be resorted to except under a physician's direc- 
 tions. 
 
 Opium, morphine, and chloral are usually taken at 
 first to relieve pain or induce sleep. The use of repeated 
 doses of either of these drugs is quickly followed by a 
 craving desire for more that is found very hard to resist. 
 Such a craving gratified wiU destroy the health, the mind, 
 and the character. 
 
 HTGIENE or DIGESTION. 
 
 Like other parts of the body, the digestive organs need 
 rest. If kept constantly in action, they become exhausted 
 and unable to perform their proper work. From this 
 fact, and from the lessons which have gone before, we 
 derive the following hygienic laws ; 
 
 I. Take food that can be digested. 
 
 II. The food should be so prepared as to digest most 
 easily. 
 
66 LESSONS IN HTOIENE. 
 
 III. Enough food should be taken to nourish the body, 
 and no more.* 
 
 IV. Food should be taken at regular times, with suffi- 
 cient intervals to give the digestive organs a chance to 
 rest.f 
 
 Y. At meal-times, and until digestion in the stomach 
 is nearly finished, water and other liquids should be taken 
 sparingly. 
 
 YI. Avoid all substances, like unripe fruits, that have 
 a tendency to create disturbance in the intestines. 
 
 YII. Avoid the use of tobacco, as it prevents the 
 changes which should be made by the saliva and does 
 other damage. 
 
 VIII. Avoid the use of alcoholic drinks, because they 
 prevent the changes which should be madp cy the gastric 
 juice and by the liver. 
 
 IX. Alcohol irritates the coats of the stomach, injures 
 its gastric juice, and hardens the food that should be dis- 
 solved in the stomach. It is injurious to digestion. We 
 should not drink wine or any liquor that contains al- 
 cohol. 
 
 X. Opium, morphine, and chloral are dangerous nar- 
 
 * The best guide to the proper kind and amount of food is a health- 
 ful appetite. As there is a pleasure in eating, however, there is danger 
 of eating too much, especially if the food is taken rapidly. The appe- 
 tite, too, may be spoiled by various indulgences, and then it ceases to 
 be a guide. In such cases the only way we can determine what is best 
 for us is by the study of the nature of foods and by experience as to 
 what seems to suit our own conditions best. 
 
 f If children must eat candy and sweetmeats, the best time for 
 them is directly after a meal, as the habit of eating between meals 
 is very injurious. After a long process of digestion, the digestive 
 organs become tired, and it is wrong to overtax them. We ourselves 
 need a rest after a hard task, and are discouraged, if, when our work 
 seems to be done, more is given us to do. So it is with the digestive 
 organs. It is not fair to keep them constantly at work. 
 
HOW DIQESTION GOES ON. 67 
 
 cotics. Frequent doses will create a craving' for more. 
 Ayoid the use of either of these poisons. 
 
 SOMETHING TO FIND OUT. 
 
 1. What is the work of the outer coat of the stomach ? 
 What does the muscular coat do ? -/ C 'on uta.3 fi^Y---e>% 
 
 2. What good results from the arrangement of the 
 muscular coat in layers acting in difEerent directions ? ^\ o 
 
 3. What effect has the gastric juice upon starch ? cl\ '''>' 
 
 4. When the niouth is full of food, should we take 
 drink to " wash it down " ? f^' ^(jT^ 
 
 5. Why, is it better to take drink toward tie end of a ^ 
 meal than at the beginning ? f?^"o cvj t i Co a!<i , , . ■'//, 
 
 6. What is the effect of taking ice cream after a 
 meal? fHWwi. oU/^e j^, u. \ rl\_Cj ,' »■ .- , 7;_ , , ,xA-v,\ 
 
 7. How do vinegar and sour fruit sometimes improve 
 digesdon'i Qt<ri^i<c<yl^'^ruzaje>^'3^ gCio/ <- ' »-- ' ■-•'r- x. X 
 
 8. Why arC: biscuits contaiqing a large quantity of f 
 Boda hurtful ?, ^W^C^TnX -x^ \, /wix^.Tv_, OoU^t i 
 
 9. Under what circumstances may it be proper ito take 
 
 a little soda into the stomach? ^tafu^^-ofe^. '^'^^^^^''^^ 
 
 10. Should we take food " between meals " ? j^WTiy ? Xj 
 
 12. what iffthe harm or eating when we are tired'? , ,"€ ^ 
 
 13. Should we eflgagein violent exercise just after a 
 meal? CYUX^ 
 
 14. What is the best condition to be in foe the. half- 
 hour before and after meals '^ -;' mL- /\J~.^^PZAyV;sj\ 
 
 15. What are the best foods for invalids and persAs a 
 with weak stomachs 1 /^rv^i, -^ •'-- ' ' ^ f^^U^C^HM- 
 
 16. What is the general difference between a, diet 
 
 proper for summer and one proper for winter?^^tC^^[^71_ ff 
 
 17. How can we avoid the evil effects which tobacco 5^> 
 causes in the stomach ? ('>Vj2^4_>~p^>. a i n ^ a 
 
68 LESSONS m HTOIENR 
 
 18. In what way is, the habit of takin 
 formed? 'iK^ ^^^"^c^^i-n^at ^ri^ C 
 
 19. How can we avoid t^ sjdfering ya' 
 ing off such a habit? r<\irt>W'n^.,^ 
 
 20. Why do people begin #ie Jhse of afcrong drink ? 
 
 21. What isTOemMmf ^Mig so mnch at a mei 
 to overload the stomach ? p-iTTJ'l^ --^^ - -fi 
 
 22. Mention some remedy for the evil of over; 
 eating. --C / r .' '■ , , , ^^ ' ' <. ('■- --^-j. JuL/t- 
 
 23. What is better than medicine to preserve a healthy 
 digestion ? r<^' o^l"^f~zrs/^ '■ ^ ,_,ay^ <x. 
 
 - -t^ 
 
 24. What effect. do liquors containing alcohol have 
 upon the lining of the stomach ? 
 
 25. How does irritation affect the glands of the 
 stomach ? 
 
 26. What is the effect of repeatedly irritating the 
 stomach in this way ? 
 
 27. How does alcohol affect tUe moisture of the i mer 
 coat of the stomach ? 
 
 28. What does it produce "n the case of the habi'nisi 
 drinker ? 
 
 29. How does it afEect tlie gastric juice ? 
 
 30. How does alcohol make the food in the stomajt 
 less fit for digestion ? 
 
 31. By what simple experiment may this be illus- 
 trated ? 
 
 32. What is pepsin, and what does it do? 
 
 33. What does alcohol do to the pepsin in the gastric 
 JTiice ? 
 
 34. What experiment a'iiows this ? 
 
 35. When alcohol disturbs the relation of the pepsin 
 to the gastric juice, what follows ? 
 
 36. What sensation is created in the stomach by the 
 use of alcoholic drinks ? 
 
BOW DIGESTION GOES ON. 69 
 
 3Y. What is the result of taking more alcohol to re- 
 lieve this sensation ? 
 
 38. What serious diseases sometimes result from the 
 same cause ? 
 
 39. How is alcohol carried from the stomach to other 
 parts of the body ? 
 
 40. What substance is found in tobacco ? 
 
 41. How does it affect the gastric juice ? Digestion ? 
 
 42. To what disease does it give rise ? 
 
 43. What effect does tobacco have upon the muscles 
 in the walls of the stomach ? What effect upon the ap- 
 petite ? 
 
 44. Does tobacco give strength ? 
 
 45. To what does it make the system more liable ? 
 
 46. What disease is quite common among tobacco- 
 users? 
 
 47. What does Dr. Taylor say about tobacco ? 
 
 48. What organ of the body is especially liable to in- 
 jury from the use of alcohol ? 
 
 49. What does Dr. Kichardson say concerning the 
 confirmed alcohol-user ? 
 
 50. How is the liver affected when two or three glasses 
 of wine are drank every day ? 
 
 51. How does this affect its work ? 
 
 52. To what disease of the Hver does the continued 
 use of small quantities of alcohol often lead ? 
 
 53. What is opium, and what is its character? 
 
 54. Why is its use dangerous ? 
 
 55. What is the effect of its use upon the digestion ? 
 
 56. What will it do to the mind ? 
 
 57. What is morphine ? 
 68. What is chloral? 
 
 59. Why should we not use opium, morphine, or 
 chloral ? 
 
70 
 
 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 TOPICAL ANALYSIS OP CHAPTBE V. 
 
 How Digestion goes on. 
 
 Stomach 
 qeation. 
 
 Di- 
 
 Inteatinal Di- 
 gestion. 
 
 Other Nar- 
 cotics. 
 
 Digestion af- 
 fected by 
 Alcohol ana 
 Tobacco. 
 
 ' 1. Structure of the stomach. 
 
 2. Muscular action. 
 
 3. The gastric juice. 
 
 4. Starchy foods changed to sugar by action of saliva. 
 
 5. Albuminoid foods dissolved by gastric juice. 
 
 6. Absorbing blood-vessels. 
 
 7. Chyme. 
 
 8. Character and amount of drink. 
 
 ' 1. The intestines : small — large — structure — juices — 
 action. 
 
 2. The pancreas : pancreatic juice — uses. 
 
 3. The duodenum. 
 
 4. The liver : bile — nature — uses. 
 
 5. Chyle. 
 
 6. The lacteals : thoracic duct. 
 
 7. Absorption : lacteals — blood-vessels — portal vpin. 
 
 1. Alcohol in the stomach. 
 
 1. Irritates and excites. 
 
 2. Exhausts the glands. 
 
 3. Hardens the stomach and the food. 
 
 4. Continuous use inflames. 
 
 5. Separates the pepsin. 
 
 6. Produces peculiar cravings. 
 
 2. Tobacco in the stomach. 
 
 1. Irritates. 
 
 2. Hinders digestion. 
 8. Causes dyspepsia and heartburn. 
 4. Weakens the muscles. 
 
 3. Alcohol in the liver. 
 
 1. Irritates and inflames. 
 
 2. Changes tissue to fat. 
 
 3. Hardens and causes " gin-liver." 
 
 4. Produces disease of the kidneys. 
 
 f 1. Opium : juice of poppy — creates unnatural craving 
 I — weakens the body — injures the mind. 
 
 I 2. Morphine extracted from opium. 
 
 1. 3. Chloral — efEects like other narcotics. 
 
 Hygiene of digestion. 
 Something to fi/nd mU. 
 
CHAPTER YI. 
 
 HOW THE BLOOD GETS PURIFIED. 
 
 Thf. new blood made from the dissolved food brought 
 by the lacteals and small blood-vessels is poured into 
 veins, where it min- 
 gles with the other 
 blood in the body. 
 This blood is laden 
 with worn-out ma- 
 terials which the 
 body has used, and 
 before it can go to 
 build up the body 
 it must be purified. 
 For this purpose, it 
 must come in con- 
 tact with air. 
 
 THE HEAET. 
 
 On its way to 
 the lungs, the blood 
 carried by the veins 
 first enters the heart. 
 This organ is placed 
 in the chest between 
 and partly behind 
 the two lungs, and 
 
 Pio. 12.— The heart and large hlood-vessels. A, 
 right ventricle ; B, left ventricle ; 0, right 
 anricle ; V, left auricle ; E, aorta ; F, pul- 
 monary artery. 
 
72 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 slightly on the left side. It is about as large as the fist, 
 and is shaped somewhat like a pear. It points dovm- 
 ward toward the front. It is made up chiefly of strong 
 muscular fiber, so that it can contract with very great 
 force.* 
 
 The Plan of the Heart. — The right and left sides of 
 the heart are entirely separated by an unbroken wall of 
 muscle. In structure, the two sides are nearly alike, but 
 each has its o^vn separate work to do. The right side 
 receives the blood from the veins and sends it to the lungs 
 to be purified. The left side receives the blood from the 
 lungs and sends it out to build up the system. 
 
 Each side of the heart has two cavities, the smaller 
 one being above, and the larger below. The upper cavi- 
 ties are called auricles, and the lower ones ventricles. As 
 the blood flows from the veins into the auricles gently, 
 the walls of the upper part of the heart are not so thick 
 and strong as if they were intended to sustain a heavy 
 strain. 
 
 By the ventricles the blood must be forced, or driven, 
 through the blood-vessels, and, in consequence, the mus- 
 cular walls of the ventricles are thick and strong. 
 
 Between the auricles and ventricles are valves opening 
 dovraward, which admit blood freely from above, but 
 which close and prevent its return. The blood-vessel 
 
 * It has been found that, during twenty-four hours, the average 
 healthy human heart does an amount of work equivalent to raising 
 92.425 tons one foot high, or of raising one ton over 92 feet. A good 
 climber can only raise his own weight 9,000 feet in nine hours, or 1,000 
 feet an hour ; while the work done by the heart is equivalent to rais- 
 ing its own weight (ten ounces) 13,860 feet an hour. The most power- 
 ful engine ever made by man, the " Bavaria " locomotive of the Vienna 
 and Trieste Railway, can only raise itself through 2,700 feet in an 
 hour ; that is, its energy is less than one fifth of that of the human 
 heart. (" The Heart and its Function.") 
 
HOW THE BLOOD GETS PURIFIED. 73 
 
 leading from the right ventricle to the lungs is called the 
 jml/monary artery. 
 
 The Blood on its Way to the Lungs. — 1. The currents of 
 blood from the veins, one from the upper extremities of 
 the body and one from the lower,* unite and empty into 
 the right auricle of the heart. 2. The walls of the right 
 auricle force the blood through the valve into the right 
 ventricle. 3. The powerful muscular walls of the ven- 
 tricle then contract, the valve shuts, and the blood is 
 driven through the large artery to the lungs, where it 
 comes in contact with the air to be purified. 
 
 Nerves of the Heart. — Besides the nerves in the mus- 
 cular walls of the hearb which cause it to contract and 
 force out the blood, there are two sets of nerves that act 
 as regulators of the heart's action. Those belonging to 
 one setf have an exciting influence, causing the heart 
 to beat faster. Those belonging to the other set % act as 
 a check or restraint, and keep the lieart from going too 
 fast, somewhat as a brake that is put upon the wheels of 
 a wagon keeps it from going too fast down a steep hill. 
 If the brake is taken off, the wagon is in danger of 
 running upon the horses. 
 
 Action of Alcohol upon the Heart. — We have learned 
 that alcohol is a narcotic, or deadener of the nerves. 
 When from the stomach it passes into the blood, it very 
 soon comes into contact with the many nerves of the body. 
 The restraining nerve of the heart is one of the first to be 
 affected by it. Yery quickly this nerve becomes so dead- 
 ened or paralyzed bytSealcahol that its power of holding 
 the heart in check is greatly reduced. Just as the wagon- 
 wheels begin to fly around faster when the brake is taken 
 
 * The large vein from above is called the awperior vena cava; and 
 that from below, the inferior vena cava. 
 
 f Accelerator nerves. J Inhibitory nerves. 
 
74 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 off, so the heart begins to beat faster when its brake, the 
 restraining or inhibitory nerve, is deadened or partially 
 paralyzed by alcohol. 
 
 The heart of a man in good health beats about seventy- 
 three times in a minute. At each beat it Ufts about six 
 ounces of blood, which in an hour amounts to 26,280 
 ounces, or 1,642 pounds. A small quantity of alcohol, 
 as for instance that contained in three glasses of beer 
 drank in the course of a day, or a couple of wine- 
 glassfuls of wine at each meal, will by paralyzing the in- 
 hibitory nerves of the heart cause it to beat two hundred 
 and fifty extra strokes every hx)ur. This would mean 
 lifting ninety-three and three-quarter more pounds of 
 blood every hour than it ought. No wonder such a 
 drinker feels tired after his heart has been thus over- 
 worked ! This increase of work is thrown upon the heart 
 without increase of nourishment, for there is no nourish- 
 ment in alcohol, and with a shortening of the usual time 
 for rest between the heart's beats. The heart in a healthy 
 condition rests for a brief instant between its beats. 
 
 Thus we see that the frequent use of alcohol, though 
 in small quantities at a time, puts extra work upon the 
 heart and renders it liable to disease. Sometimes the 
 muscles enlarge and partially fill up the cavities which 
 the blood should occupy. Sometimes the cavities enlarge 
 and the muscular walls grow thin. Sometimes the sub- 
 stance of the muscles gradually changes to a fatty sub- 
 stance which has no power to contract forcibly upon the 
 blood, or to bear the strain put upon it by the pressure of 
 the swift-flowing blood-current. Each of these diseases 
 of the heart is exceedingly dangerous, and liable at any 
 time to cause sudden death. We are assured by the tes- 
 timony of able physicians who have investigated the mat- 
 ter that alcohol is a frequent cause of these and other 
 
HOW THE BLOOD GETS PURIFIED. 
 
 75 
 
 diseases of the heart. We have also evidence furnished 
 by carefully prepared tables, which shovrs that those who 
 frequently take alcohol even in small quantities are more 
 liable to heart-diseases than those who do not.* 
 
 THE LUNGS. 
 
 The lungs are in two divisions, occupying the right 
 and left sides of the npper part of the chest. The 
 
 Via. 13.— The cavity of the chest, showing the positions of the heart and the Innge , 
 A, left lung ; j?, heart ; D, palmonary artery ; E^ trachea, or windpipe. 
 
 right side has three distinct parts called lobes, the lefl 
 two. 
 
 Structure of the Lungs.— The lungs are made up ol 
 
 * Dr. George Harley, "London Lancet," March 10, 1888, 
 
76 LESSONS IN HYQIENE. 
 
 soft, elastic tissue arranged in the form of minute cells. 
 These cells are connected with small passages, which open 
 into larger ones, uniting in a single pipe — the small pas- 
 sages are the hronchiaZ tubes ; the two larger ones are 
 the hronohi / and the pipe into which these open is the 
 
 Fio. 14. — Air-passages iu the human lungs; a, larynx; b, trachea; c^dj bronchi; 
 e, bronchial tabes ; /, clostere of air-cells. 
 
 wind-pipe, or trachea. Lying next ahove the trachea 
 is the larynx* which opens directly into the throat, 
 and through the nasal passages and the mouth into 
 the air. 
 
 The artery which brings the blood to the lungs from 
 the right ventricle of the heart is a single tube ; but it 
 finally divides into five branches, one extending to each 
 of ^he five lobes of the lungs. 
 
 Entering the lungs, these blood-vessels divide into 
 minute passages, which extend to every pai-t of the lungs 
 and surround every air-cell. Indeed, the lungs may be 
 
 * The larynx makes a lump in the neck which we can feel, and 
 which is called " Adam's-apple." 
 
HOW THE BLOOD GETS PURIFIED. 77 
 
 coDsidered as made up of air-passages and blood-vessels, 
 v/ith just enough tissue to form the necessary cells and 
 tubes.* The lungs are surrounded by a smooth mem- 
 brane. 
 
 Breathing. — When we breathe certain muscles attached 
 to the ribs contract, and move the ribs outward and up- 
 ward. At the same time other muscles attached to the 
 diaphragm contract, and draw this partition down, making 
 the cavity of the chest broader and deeper. When these 
 muscles relax, the ribs droop downward, the diaphragm 
 returns to its arched position, and the chest is narrowed 
 and shortened. 
 
 When the ribs are elevated and the diaphragm is de- 
 pressed, the air forces its way into the air-passages of the 
 lungs, and expands the lung-tissue so that it fills the en- 
 larged space within the chest. When the ribs and the 
 diaphragm return to their passive condition the elastic 
 tissue contracts, forcing the air out. . 
 
 Action in the lungs. — The air, when it is breathed in, 
 enters through the nose f or the mouth into the bronchials, 
 and finds its way into every little air-ceU. The walls of 
 these cells, separating them from the blood-vessels, are so 
 thin that air and gas readily pass through. In this way 
 the impure matter in the blood finds its way into the 
 
 * If two small trees with bushy tops were placed together in such a 
 way that the branches and twigs of one were closely interlaced with 
 the branches and twigs of the other, they would show how the divisions 
 of the pulmonary artery and those of the air-passages are brought to- 
 gether in the lungs. 
 
 f The outer nasal passages are supplied with fine hairs, so that the 
 air on its way to the lungs is filtered, and no dust is allowed to pass. 
 The nose has also the sense of smell, and whenever it detects foul 
 odors the air is unfit to breathe. The nose thus becomes a sentinel at 
 the gate of the lungs. For these reasons we should alwa/ys breathe 
 through the nose instead of through the mouth. 
 
78 LESSONS IN HYOIENK 
 
 air-cells, and the oxygen* of the air enters the blood- 
 vessels. 
 
 Results of Breathing. — The air, which comes into the 
 lungs pure, goes out laden with carbonic-acid gas f and 
 other impurities. It is so foul that it is unfit to be 
 breathed again. 
 
 The blood, which comes into the lungs laden with 
 impurities, gives off waste matter, and receives life-giving 
 oxygen. Its color is changed from a dark, dull red to a 
 bright scarlet, and it is fiUed with the strength and health 
 necessaiy to nurture the body. 
 
 "Eetum of the Blood. — The blood, thus purified and 
 strengthened, flows from the small blood-vessels in the 
 air-cells into larger ones that carry it back to the heart, 
 where they pour it into the left auricle. The blood is 
 now purified and ready to be sent out to nourish all the 
 parts of the body. 
 
 Alcohol in the Lungs. — The alcohol which entered the 
 blood-vessels from the liver is soon carried to the lungs. 
 As it does not become a part of the blood, or furnish it 
 with any needed element, an effort is here made to get rid 
 of it, and the effect is shown in the peculiar and disagree- 
 able odor of the breath of habitual drinkers. 
 
 * Oxygen is a gas which makes up a little more than one fifth of 
 the weight of ordinary air, and about eight ninths of the weight of 
 water. It is the action of oxygen that makes our fires burn and our 
 lamps give light. It is by a similar action of oxygen upon the tissues 
 of their bodies that all animals are kept alive. Pishes get oxygen 
 from the water by means of their gills. 
 
 f Carbonic-acid gas is one of the products of worn-out animal tissue. 
 It is also produced by burning wood and coal, and in other ways. Air 
 that contains much of it is unfit to breathe. It is, however, one of the 
 principal supporters of vegetable life. Vegetation takes up carbonio 
 acid and pours out the oxygen necessary to animals. The two great 
 divisions of living things thus continually work for one another. 
 
sow TEE BLOOD GETS PURIFIED. 79 
 
 But the lungs have enough to do to relieve the blood 
 of its waste matter. If the amount of alcohol is large, the 
 lungs can not get rid of the whole of it, and a portion is 
 carried hack from the lungs to the heart, and thus mingles 
 again with the currents that circulate through the body. 
 Here, as before, the alcohol is in the blood, but not a part 
 of it, and efforts are made to expel it wherever it appears. 
 
 We have seen that the lungs are composed of very 
 delicate tissues. Alcohol has a hardening and injurious 
 effect upon the tissues of the body, especially upon those 
 of the lungs. Eor a time after an alcoholic drink has 
 been taken, the blood-vessels of the lungs, as well as those 
 of other parts of the body, are overcharged with blood, 
 increasing the liability to inflammation of the lung sub- 
 stance. The continuation of the practice of drinking leads 
 often to serious changes in the tissues of the lungs, render- 
 ing them liable to hemorrhage, or bleeding. A noted 
 English physician,* who has made a study of chest and 
 lung diseases, says that this condition of the lungs is com- 
 mon among free beer-drinkers, and that after death traces 
 of such hemorrhages may be found in the lungs together 
 with' a thickened condition of lung-tissue. "When lungs 
 in this condition break down, he says their destruction is 
 likely to be very rapid.f 
 
 * Dr. R. E. Thompson, of Brompton Hospital for Consumptives. 
 
 f In California, where wine-drinking is commonly practiced, a form 
 of consumption resembling that of beer-drinkers is common. These 
 facts go to show that alcohol is not, as some have supposed, a prevent- 
 ive of consumption, but rather a cause. Still further evidence is the 
 fact that among British soldiers stationed at home — where intemper- 
 ance is a prevailing vice — the two most frequent serious diseases are 
 delirium tremens and consumption. It is also found that among the 
 diseases which the children of intemperate parents are likely to inherit 
 consumption has a prominent place. (Palmer's " Science and Practicd 
 of Medicine," vol. ii, p. 294.) 
 
80 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 Tobacco in the Lungs. — In smoking, the fumes of to- 
 bacco are frequently drawn into the lungs. This is espe- 
 cially the case in smoking cigarettes. The effect of the 
 tobacco upon the lung-tissue is to make it unfit to do its 
 work, so that all the changes effected by breathing axe 
 more slowly performed. In this way the blood goes on 
 in its course without being sufiiciently purified, and is 
 therefore less able to properly nourish the body. The 
 first result of this is a feeling of languor, and this, if fre- 
 queadv repeated, often becomes torpor and stwpidity. 
 
 ■Tobacco affects children most unfavorably before they 
 have attained their full growth. The action of the organs 
 necessary for growth and bodily and mental activity is 
 retarded ; the body becomes feeble, and is often stunted. 
 The mind is rendered as weak as the body, and many 
 times it loses all power of effective study. 
 
 The Need of Pure Air. — ^We have already seen that the 
 air once breathed is no longer pure. It is just as unfit 
 for breathing again as muddy water is for drinking or 
 decayed food for eating. But air is rendered impure in 
 many other ways. From stagnant water and from decay- 
 ing animal and vegetable substances gases arise which 
 make the air unfit for breathing. Whenever foul air is 
 breathed, the blood is not fully purified, and the body is 
 not properly nourished. Some of the most fatal diseases 
 result fron) breathing air laden with foulness. 
 
 Ventilation. — Enough poisonous and waste matter to 
 Bpoil half a barrel of air is thrown out by the lungs at 
 every breath. Thus in a short time the air of a small 
 sleeping-room is made impure, even if only one pereon is 
 breathing it. In this way the air of a close school-room 
 filled with pupils, or that of an unventilated church, hall, 
 or parlor crowded with people, soon becomes wholly unfit 
 to breathe. Each pupil or person in such a room is makinff 
 
HOW THE BLOOD GETS PURIFIED. 81 
 
 the air more poisonous for himself and others with every 
 breath. Fresh air should be let in and bad air let out. 
 
 Unless a room is very large, no one should remain 
 long in it with" the doors and windows closed. Every in- 
 habited room should have some good means of ventilation. 
 
 As no one should stay long in a room without some 
 kind of ventilation, if nothing better can be done the 
 doors and windows on opposite sides of the room should 
 be opened for a short time every hour, allowing the bad 
 air to escape and fresh air to enter. If this is done in a 
 school-room, the pupils should meanwhile march or go 
 through some form of gymnastic exercise to prevent their 
 taking cold. In very cold weather the drafts of stoves or 
 furnaces should be turned on when the windows are first 
 opened, so that the cold air thiis admitted may be warmed 
 as quickly as possible.* 
 
 If cold air from an open window in the sleeping-room 
 can not be borne, a door in the warm room occupied 
 may be left open into one adjoining where there is an 
 open window. The chill of the pure air will thus be 
 taken off by the warmth of the stove or furnace heat in 
 the occupied room before it comes to the lungs of the 
 sleeper. 
 
 Sleeping-rooms that have been used the night before, 
 with their beds and bedding, as well as other rooms of 
 the house, should be thoroughly aired every morning^ 
 Doors and windows should be opened until all the foul 
 air is driven out, and fresh, pure air has taken its place. 
 
 * A simple way of ventilating a room in cold weather is to raise the 
 lower sash and fit a board underneath it, to keep the air from pouring 
 in and causing a draft. A supply of fresh air will enter through 
 the opening between the two sashes in the middle of the window, and 
 coming in with an upward motion will become warm before falling 
 down upon the heads of those sitting near the window. 
 6 
 
82 LESSONS IN HTOIENE. 
 
 Fresh air should be let into sohooWooms, cJvwrchea^ 
 and public halls for the people to breathe while they are 
 there. After the school or audience has left, these rooms, 
 before being closed, should be thoronghly' aired by open- 
 ing windows that are opposite each otlier. To heat these 
 rooms for use the next day without thus changing the air 
 within their walls is to give their occupants warmed-over 
 impurities to breathe. 
 
 HYGIENE OF EESPIEATION. 
 
 As air is a necessity of Hfe, some of the rules that 
 should guide us in regard to air become obvious : 
 
 I. When the nose detects an unpleasant odor, the a,ir 
 is foul, anc^-we should avoid breathing it, if possible. 
 
 II. We should -lOt breathe air that is made foul by 
 our own breath, or by that of other persons. 
 
 III. We should not stay long in a crowded room, un- 
 less it is well ventilated. 
 
 lY. We ought not to sleep in small, ill-ventilated 
 bedrooms. 
 
 V. Impurity of air in a room may not be detected 
 except when coming in from fresh air ; hence extra care 
 should be taken to thoroughlj zentilate all occupied 
 rooms every day. 
 
 VI. We ought to keep away from the vicinity of 
 stagnant water. 
 
 VII. We should never permit decaying animal or 
 vegetable matter to remain near our houses. 
 
 VIII. We should carefuUy avoid breaithing the gas 
 from sewers, sinks, and cess-pools. 
 
 IX. We should avoid alcohol, fdbacco, and other arti- 
 cles that give extra foulness to the breath. 
 
 X. No article of dress should be worn so tight as to 
 prevent the expansion of the chest in respiration. 
 
EOW TEE BLOOD GETS PURIFIED. 85 
 
 XI. The weight of the clothes should hang from the- 
 Bhoulders, and not be supported by bands about the waist. 
 
 XII. We should never sit or stand in such a way as- 
 to cramp the chest and prevent full and free respiration. 
 
 SOkETHING TO |IND OUT. 
 
 1. What parts of the body He next to the heart ? , 
 
 2. With what nerves is the heart supplied ? ^ * 
 
 3. What effect does alcohol have upon the nerves 2 
 
 4. How does it affect the restraining nerve of the 
 heart? . ' ■ ' ' ~ ' 
 
 ^ 5. What effect doei; this have upon the, heart's ac- 
 tion? "^ ■""'--_ , '"r'^'Ai A' 
 6. How often should the heart of a health v man beat 
 in a minute? V i t j 
 v( T. What effect will three glasses of beer per day have 
 on the beating of the heart ? — ' . 
 
 8. How many extra pounds of blood will this oblige 
 the heart to lift every hour ? 
 
 9. Does alcohol furnish any nourishment to sustain the 
 heart in its extra work ? 
 
 10. How does alcohol affect the time for rest between 
 the heart's beats duriij'itthis extra exertion ? ^ ^ 
 
 11. In what does this extra work often result ? 
 
 12. What evidence shows that the use pf alepholic 
 drinks gives rise to heart-disease ? 
 
 13. How may the lungs of a sheep or a calf, which 
 we get from a butcher, be filled with air ? 
 
 14. When these lungs are full, how is the air driveo 
 out? ^ 
 
 15. About how TL ach force is required to inflate our 
 lungs? 
 
 16. Why is it more diflicult to breathe on the top of 
 a high mountain than at the bottom ? 
 
84 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 17. "Why is < it more healthful to travel after a rain 
 thanbefore?'A P^'^ ' ' ' '• ^ - 
 
 18. What organ serves the lungs by giving warning 
 of the presence of foul substances % 
 
 19. "What should we do when we get a strong smell 
 of carrion ? 
 
 20. Why should we not take a pan of live coals into 
 the bedroom which we occupy. \.^^\* ^■^ c }- 
 
 21. What shall we do when we detect the presencfe of 
 carbonic-acid gas in our rooms \'{j^. • ' ^ U i_ 
 
 22. In what way does foul air affect the pupils of a 
 school \ _ ^ _L '. 1 
 
 23. How should the cellar of a house be kept ? -^^''■ 
 
 24. What kind of sink in a kitchen is harmful ? 
 
 25. Why would it be well to bum in the kitchen 
 stove or range all potato parings, the waste part of vege- 
 tables, and any pieces of tainted meat? ^ -^-^—u.-- 
 
 26. Why should we particularly avoid taking the 
 breath of persons who are ill ? ' . ■ ' , ^ ' ». / 
 
 27. When resting after violent exercise, what precau- 
 tion should we take ? 
 
 28. Why does tobacco affect children vrorse than it 
 does grown people ? ' '(f ^ '"-''^^ . , • , t/. 
 
 29. How do we know that the lungs remove alcohol 
 from the blood? X^^s^ • ; ,' <U>'^~ I- •^') )\X^^.,' 
 
 30. "Why should not this work be put upon the 
 lungs ?£ 
 
 31.^ "What is the condition of the blood-vessels of the 
 lungs after an alcoholic drink is taken ? 
 
 32. How may the tissues of the lungs suffer ? J' , 
 
 33. What lung-diseases are often the result of the use 
 of alcohol? Ct/-, Xi '-^^i,/- C(,fr^,>, 
 
 34. What does an English physician say concerning 
 the lungs of severe beer-drinkers after death ? ,^ 
 
HOW THE BLOOD GETS PURIFIED. 85 
 
 35. What effect has tobacco smoke upon the tissues of 
 the lungs? ^> -U'-^ 
 
 36. What is the condition of the blood when the lungs 
 are made unable to do their work ? I'D-- "y 
 
 37. At what time of life does tobacco work the great- 
 est injury to those who use it ? 
 
 38. How does it affect the whole body ? 
 
 39. What does it do to the mind ? 
 
 40. What can be done when no better means of ven- 
 tilation has been provided ? 
 
 41. Ho\^ may the air of a sleeping-room be kept pure 
 and not too cold in severe weather '\ 
 
 42. What should we be careful to do to our sleeping- 
 rooms, beds, and bedding every morning ? 
 
 43. Why should not school-rooms, halls, churches, and 
 parlors be immediately closed after the pupils or other 
 occupants have left ? 
 
 44. What is the best way to avoid the stupefying effect 
 of tobacco in the lungs ? 
 
 I 45. How much air does a person spoil at every breath ? 
 
 46. Why should no one sleep in a room with all the 
 windows and doors closed ? 
 
 47. In building a school-house or a dwelling-house, 
 why should we place it at a distance from a swamp ? 
 
 48. ,Why will a person coming into a room from the 
 outdoor air detect impure air in a room, while the inmates 
 are unconscious of the impurity ? li-ix. (x/ Ti U 
 
 49. In building halls, churches, and places of public 
 resort, what matter needs special attention ? 
 
 50. When the people at church or while attending a 
 lecture become sleepy, what is probably the matter ? 
 
 51. As the cost of ventilating a single school-room, 
 does not exceed twenty doUars, what excuse has the dis- 
 trict for not providing means of ventilation ? 
 
 w 
 
86 
 
 LESSOirS IN EYQIENB. 
 
 TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER VL 
 How THE Blood gets purified. 
 
 Movement of the 
 Blood. 
 
 Breathing. 
 
 Alcohol in 
 Lungs. 
 
 Tobacco in 
 I/wngs. 
 
 the 
 
 the 
 
 ' 1. The heart : shape — position. 
 3. The plan of the heart : 
 1. The right side. 
 3. The left side. 
 3. The auricles, ventricles, and valves. 
 
 3. The blood on its way to the lungs : 
 
 1. Prom vein to right auricle. 
 
 3. Prom auricle to right ventricle. 
 
 3. From ventricle to the lungs. 
 
 4. Nerves : exciting — restraining. 
 
 5. Effects of alcohol upon the heart. 
 
 1. Makes it beat too fast. 
 
 3. Enlarges its cavities. 
 
 3. Changes its muscle to fat. 
 
 ' 1. The lungs : the lobes — elastic tissue. 
 
 1. Air-spaces: air-cells — bronchial tubes — 
 
 trachea — larynx. 
 3. Blood-flow around air-cells. 
 3. The chest varies in capacity : 
 
 1. By action of muscles attached to ribs and 
 
 diaphragm. 
 3. Movement of ribs and diaphragm. 
 
 3. Forces in breathing. 
 
 1. The pressure of the air. 
 
 3. The elastic force of the lungs. 
 
 4. Action in the lungs : 
 
 1. Oxygen passes from air-cells into the blood. 
 
 2. Impure matter from blood passes into the 
 
 air-cells. 
 
 5. Blood returns to left auricle of the heart. 
 
 1. Effort to expel alcohol with the breath. 
 3. Enfeebles the lungs. 
 
 3. Induces disease. 
 
 4. The blood imperfectly purified. 
 
 1. Tobacco-fumes drawn into the lungs. 
 
 3. Retards lung action. 
 
 3. Produces languor and stupidity. 
 
 4. Retards bodily growth. 
 
 5. Enfeebles the mind. 
 
 TheNeedofPwreAir. Ventilation. 
 
 Hygiene of respiration. 
 Something tofmd out. 
 
CHAPTEE YII. 
 
 HOW THE BLOOD NURTURES THE BODY. 
 
 Waste and Eepair, — Every time we take a step or raise 
 an arm, portions of the muscles that move *are used up. 
 By every motion some part of the body is destroyed. 
 Each action of the stomach, each breath, each beat of the 
 heart, consumes tissue ; and, indeed, it may be said that 
 every part of the body is all the time wearing out. 
 
 But, during life, the nourishment of the body is also 
 always going on. No sooner is one worn-out particle re- 
 moved than another takes its place. On one side of each 
 tiny cell the invisible sexton is hurrying away matter 
 which is dead ; on the other, the unseen builder is filling 
 the vacant space with matter which is living. From 
 birth to death these changes are going on. The agent 
 that brings them about 
 is the blood. 
 
 Blood Corpuscles. — 
 In order that action 
 and repair may go on, 
 every part of the body 
 must have not only 
 food but oxygen, which 
 is a part of the air we 
 
 breathe. Oxygen is ab- Pio. 15.— Blood corpuscles as they appear under 
 SOrbed from the air in *"« microscope : B, C,B, E, red corpuscle* 
 
 seen in different positions; F, Q, white 
 
 the lungs by minute corpuscles.- 
 
88 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 little bodies that float in the watery part of the blood. 
 These little solid bodies are called Mood corpuscles. They 
 are of two kinds, red and white. The red corpuscles are 
 hollowed a little on each side and shaped somewhat like 
 small flat shirt-buttons, and are so small that three thou- 
 sand five hundred of them could be placed side by side 
 on a line an inch long. The white corpuscles are a little 
 larger, and globe-shaped. There is one white one to 
 about three hundred red ones. 
 
 The Arteries. — The channels leading out from the 
 heart are called a/rteries. They are made of a tough, 
 elastic material, so that they retain their shape when 
 pressed upon, and regain it when stretched or bent. Like 
 the stomach, they have three coats. 
 
 The great artery leading out of the left ventricle of 
 the heart is the aorta, and divides into large branches, 
 which are sent upward to the head and upper extremities, 
 and downward to the lower extremities. These branches 
 divide again and again, until they terminate in minute 
 tubes distributed to every part of the body. 
 
 The Capillaries. — From the extremities of the small 
 arteries a net-work of fine, hair-like tubes, called capiUon 
 ries, extends through nearly all the tissues of the body. 
 These tubes lie so close together that we can scarcely 
 thrust the point of a fine needle into any part of the body 
 ■without piercing some of them. 
 
 The Veins. — The capillaries open into minute veins, 
 "which join together and form larger ones, until they aU 
 tmite in the two large veins, one from the upper extremi- 
 ties and the other from the lower. These two receive the 
 Wood and pour it into the right auricle of the heart. The 
 walls of the veins yield more readily to pressure than 
 those of the arteries. 
 
 Action in the Heart. — 1. As we have already seen, the 
 
HOW THE BLOOD NURTURES THE BODY. 89 
 
 purified blood from the lungs pours itself into the left 
 auricle of the heart. 2. The muscular walls of the auricle 
 contract, and force the blood into the left ventricle. 
 3. Then the walls of the ventricle contract, the valve open- 
 ing from the auricle shuts, and the blood is driven through 
 the arteries into every part of the body.* To drive the 
 blood so far and so rapidly requires a great amount of 
 force, and therefore the walls of the left ventricle of the 
 heart are very thick and strong. 
 
 Action in the Arteries. — The arteries are usually placed 
 deep in the flesh, to be out of the way of harm. The 
 blood is forced into them by jets at each heart-beat. 
 Their elastic walls yield to the rush, but contract again, 
 helping the blood along its course.f In this way the 
 minute vessels are filled, and the beating, or pulsation, 
 which began at the heart is carried on to the extremities, 
 so that every part of the body is quivering with motion 
 and life. 
 
 Action in the Capillaries. — From the extremities of the 
 small arteries the blood enters the capillaries. In. each the 
 stream is very minute and fiows at an even rate. Here 
 nutrition takes place. Oxygen from the blood unites 
 with particles of tissue, causing both the heat and the 
 motion of the body. The particles thus destroyed by 
 
 * The' average number of heart-beats in a minute is greater in 
 children than in adults, and greater in women than in men. With 
 the body in a standing position, the heart has not only to force the 
 blood to all parts of the body, but has to lift it from the chest to the 
 head, and from the feet to the chest. When we lie down, the heart is 
 relieved from this necessity of lifting, and its action is diminished. 
 
 f At the wrist, and at some other parts of the body where the ar- 
 teries come near the surface, we can feel the pulse. Each beat of the 
 pulse is the yielding of the artery to a beat of the heart. One of the 
 surest means by which the physician finds out the condition of the body 
 is the beating of the pulse. 
 
90 LKasoMS rjn HraiJUNis. 
 
 use are taken up and carried away, and new particles foil 
 of life and strength are deposited in their place. In this 
 way tissue is repaired, vigor is restored, health is kept up, 
 and life is continued. 
 
 Action in the Veins. — The blood as it enters the veins 
 from the capillaries is changed. The limpid current has 
 become thick and turbid ; the bright scarlet has deepened 
 to a dark, duU red.* The jets have ceased, and the cur- 
 rent flows on smoothly and evenly. All along the courses 
 of the veins, val/oes open toward the heart, so as to allow 
 the blood to freely flow in that direction ; but they shut, 
 so as to prevent its return. In action, the muscles press 
 upon the veins and hasten the flow ; so that work, play, 
 and exercise of every kind, help the blood along its 
 course.f From the veins the blood flows, as we have 
 seen, into the right auricle of the heart. 
 
 Alcohol in the Blood. — The alcohol which the lungs 
 can not expel returns to the heart and enters the general 
 circulation. Although never becoming a part of the 
 blood, its power for mischief continues. It causes blood- 
 corpuscles to shrink, probably by absorbing moisture from 
 them. As these corpuscles are oxygen- carriers, when 
 they are injured they can not absorb and carry from the 
 
 * The rule that the ar/enes carry scarlet blood, and that the veins 
 carry dark blood, has two exceptions. The artery leading from the 
 heart to the lungs carries dark blood, and the veins leading from the 
 lungs back to the heart carry scarlet blood. 
 
 \ Persons who are obliged to stand much of the time are often 
 troubled with what are called varicose veins. The forces that cause 
 circulation are not sufficient to raise the blood from the feet to the 
 heart through so many hours without rest ; and in consequence the 
 blood presses back on the veins until they yield to the pressure and 
 gradually enlarge. The valves soon become useless, increasing the 
 pressure and the enlargement. The only remedy is a change to some 
 employment that will require less standing. 
 
MOW THE BLOOD NURTURES THE BODY. 91 
 
 lungs tlie oxygen which the body needs, "fhen the blood 
 is not properly purified ; dead matter enters the arteries, 
 vitiating the blood ; and the repair of waste is inter- 
 rupted or imperfectly performed. 
 
 The arteries of the habitual drinker are likewise in- 
 jured by alcohol. The walls of all these blood-tubes are 
 elastic. They may be expanded so as to hold more than 
 their due amount of blood. The degree of expansion at 
 which even the smallest blood-tubes are kept, is regulated 
 by nerves in their walls. When these nerves are weak- 
 ened or relaxed, the pressure of the blood-current causes 
 the tubes to unduly expand and hold more than their 
 usual supply of blood. 
 
 Alcohol has the same effect on these nerves in the walls 
 of the blood-vessels that it has on the inhibitory nerve of 
 the heart. They become deadened or paralyzed, and that 
 allows the blood-vessels to expand, so that the blood flows 
 too freely and to wrong places. Evidence of this paralysis 
 is shown in the red face, red nose, and red eyes of the 
 drinker. From these nerves being often paralyzed the 
 walls of the blood-vessels lose their power to contract, and 
 thus become permanently stretched. They then contain 
 all the time more blood than they should. Blood-vessels 
 in this condition are also liable to grow thin and to 
 burst. 
 
 Alcohol and Cold. — After alcohol is drank, the blood 
 begins to flow to the surface of the body in larger quanti- 
 ties than it ought to, and a feeling of warmth is experi- 
 enced. This has led to the belief that a little alcohol is 
 good to warm the body, and the man who has to work 
 out in the cold, thus misled, takes a drink to " warm him- 
 self up." The warmth which he feels lasts only a few 
 minutes after the drink, and then he grows colder. 
 
 Alcohol paralyzes the nerves in the walls of the little 
 
92 LESSON'S IN HYGIENE. 
 
 blood-vessels that are in or near the skin ; these vessels 
 then expand and let too much blood come to the surface. 
 There this excess of blood is much more quickly cooled 
 than if it had remained, as it ought to, in the blood-vessels 
 that are farther from the surface, and the whole body is 
 thereby made colder for the alcohol, and less able to bear 
 exposure to severe cold. 
 
 Tests with the thermometer prove this, as well as nu- 
 merous instances on record in which men have been ex- 
 posed to intense cold. These instances show that great 
 cold can be better endured without a drop of alcohol than 
 with it.* 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE CIECULATION. 
 
 I. "We should breathe pure air, and frequently take 
 long, deep breaths, so that the blood may be properly 
 purified. 
 
 II. We should avoid the use of anything that dis- 
 turbs the regular action of the heart and prevents the full 
 nutrition of the body. 
 
 III. We should relieve the heart of much hard labor 
 by taking regular and sufficient exercise. 
 
 * A party of men crossing a "Western plain were once obliged to 
 spend a very cold night in the snow on the open prairie with no 
 shelter but their wagons. They were advised by their leader not to 
 use alcoholic drinks to help them in keeping warm, but only a few 
 heeded this counsel. In the morning three men who drank themselves 
 drunk during the night were dead. Pour others who became only 
 partially intoxicated were so badly frozen that they died from the 
 effects within a few weeks. Six others who drank a little less than 
 these, never recovered entirely from the effects. Seven others who 
 drank still less had their toes and fingers frozen. Three who drank 
 only a very little suffered intensely from the cold, but were not frozen. 
 While the leader and two others who did not touch a drop of liquor, 
 not only escaped being frost-bitten, but suffered less with the cold 
 during the night than those who drank. 
 
HOW THE BLOOD NURTURES THE BODY. 93 
 
 lY. Should the heart show signs of weakness, we may 
 favor its recovery by taking a reclining position. 
 
 Y. We may also greatly assist circulation, and so 
 relieve the heart, by daily rubbing the skin briskly with a 
 brush or coarse towel. 
 
 YI. We should avoid the use of all alcoholic liquors ; 
 for they paralyze the nerves that control the circulation 
 of the blood, causing too much blood to flow to some 
 places, and, if long continued, permanent enlargement of 
 the blood-vessols. 
 
 YII. The danger of taking cold or of freezing, aris- 
 ing from exposure to severe cold, is increased by alcoholic 
 liquors. Such liquors are bad for the mind and body in 
 all climates and should never be used. 
 
 SOMETHUq-G TO FIND OUT. 
 
 1. When, and by whom, was the circulation of the 
 blood first discovered ? 
 
 2. If the heart beats seventy-three times a minute, how 
 many times does it beat in an hour ? in a day ? in a year ? 
 
 3. The heart is said to do work equivalent to raising 
 ninety-two and four hundred and twenty-five thousandths 
 tons one foot high in twenty-four hours. How many feet 
 could the same force raise one pound of blood in a minute ? 
 
 4. How can we tell the difference between a vein and 
 an artery that is near the surface ? 
 
 5. Which way does the blood flow in the arteries ? in 
 the veins ? 
 
 6. When a blood-vessel is ruptured, how can we tell 
 whether it is an artery or a vein ? 
 
 7. If a vein is wounded in one of our limbs, how may 
 the flow of blood be stopped ? 
 
 8. On which side of the wound should the band be 
 placed ? 
 
94 LE8S0N8 IN HTOIENE. 
 
 9. In case an artery is wounded, where should the 
 band be placed ? Why ? 
 
 10. When an accident occurs, and blood is flowing 
 freely, what should we use as a band ? 
 
 IL How can we draw the band tight enough to stop 
 the flow of blood ? 
 
 12. If the wound is on the head, neck, or trunk, what 
 is to be done ? 
 
 13. In case of serious wounds, what next is to be done 
 after stopping the flow of blood ? 
 
 14. When blood flows from the veins, what change in 
 it takes place from exposure to the air 1 
 
 15. How does this change affect the flow of the blood 
 from small veins ? 
 
 16. Why do some beer and wine drinkers bleed more 
 freely from a small wound than they would if their blood 
 were in a healthy condition ? 
 
 17. What forces besides the heart-beat assist in the 
 circulation of the blood ? 
 
 18. How does a reclining position relieve the 
 heart? 
 
 19. In its effect upon circulation, how does the work 
 of a farmer compare with that of a clergyman ? 
 
 20. How does the work of a cook compare with that 
 of a sewing-girl in its effect upon the heart ? 
 
 21. How may a person whose business confines him 
 to a sitting posture relieve his heart of extra work, and so 
 preserve his health ? 
 
 22. Why should clerks in stores be permitted to sit a 
 portion of the time ? 
 
 23. In regard to circulation, to what particular danger 
 are conductors on railroads exposed ? 
 
 24. When attending school, what should we do to pro- 
 mote circulation ? 
 
HOW THE BLOOD NURTURES THE BODY. 95 
 
 25. Why is exercise out-of-doors usually better for the 
 health than exercise in the school-room ? 
 
 26. If a person is found exhausted, with his skin pale 
 and cold, -syhat is the trouble as regards circulation ? What 
 is the remedy ? 
 
 2Y. When a sudden chill drives the blood away from 
 the surface, what should be done at once ? 
 
 28. What are some of the common causes of chills ? 
 
 29. What are some of the ways of stopping persistent 
 bleeding at the nose % 
 
 30. When persons faint, in what position should they 
 be placed, and what remedies should be applied ? 
 
 31. What may alcohol in the blood do to the ar- 
 teries ? 
 
 32. What does it do to the nerves in the walls of the 
 blood-vessels ? 
 
 33. How does this cause them to hold more blood than 
 they should? 
 
 34. What evidence of this do we see in the face of 
 the drinker ? 
 
 35. Why does the surface of the body feel warm after 
 an alcoholic drink has been taken % 
 
 36. To what belief has this led respecting alcohol and 
 cold? 
 
 37. How long does this feeling of warmth last ? 
 
 38. What is the cause of the feeling of warmth ? 
 
 39. Why does the person soon grow colder than he 
 would have been without the drink ? 
 
 40. What evidence can you give to sho'W that cold can 
 be better endured without alcohol than with it ? 
 
 41. In what way can we avoid the red blotches on the 
 skin which come from the use of " strong drink " % 
 
96 
 
 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER VIL 
 
 Waste mid Be- 
 pair. 
 
 Channels of 
 Circulation. 
 
 Action in the 
 Heart. 
 
 Action in the 
 Arteries. 
 
 Action in the 
 Capillaries. 
 
 Action in the 
 Veins. 
 
 Alcohol in the 
 Blood. 
 
 Alcohol and 
 Cold. 
 
 How THE Blood nuetuees the Body. 
 
 j 1. Action wears out tissue. 
 
 j 2. The blood the agent of repair. 
 
 C 1. The arteries : structure — the aorta — branches. 
 
 < 3. The capiilaries : size — extent. 
 
 L 3. The veins : structure — termination. 
 
 ■ 1. From lungs to left auricle. 
 3. From auricle to left ventricle. 
 3. Prom ventricle to aorta. 
 
 ■ 1. Where the arteries are placed. 
 3. Jets of blood with each heart-beat. 
 
 3. Elasticity of the walls of the arteries. 
 
 4. The pulse, and what it indicates. 
 
 ■ 1. Worn-out particles are removed. 
 
 2. Kew particles are deposited. 
 
 3. The color of the blood is changed. 
 
 ' 1. The current flows evenly. 
 
 3. The valves open toward the heart. 
 
 3. Muscular action assists the blood-flow. 
 
 4. Varicose veins. 
 
 1. Does not become a part of the blood. 
 
 2. Causes red-blood corpuscles to shrink. 
 
 3. Deprives the blood of oxygen. 
 
 4. Interrupts repair. 
 
 5. Gorges minute arteries with blood. 
 
 1. Sends the blood to the skin. 
 
 2. The blood is thus cooled very rapidly. 
 
 3. Those who do not use alcohol endure cold bettei 
 than those who do. 
 
 Hygiene of the cvrculation. 
 Something to find out. 
 
CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 HOW THE BODY IS ABLE TO MOVE. 
 
 Motion necessary to Life, — In finding out how the body 
 is nourished, we have seen that motions are required. To 
 get and prepare the food which the body needs, we must 
 make many movements of the arms, the legs, and various 
 other parts of the body. To chew the food, we must 
 move the jaws. The rings of the esophagus must suc- 
 cessively contract, in order to force the food into the 
 stomach. The stomach must keep up a vigorous action, 
 in order to churn its contents into chyme. The heart 
 must keep on contracting and expanding, in order to send 
 the blood through the arteries to the various parts of the 
 system. The movements by which breathing is carried 
 on must never cease. The head must move in various 
 directions, in order to pay attention to what is going on 
 about it. In fact, the parts of the body are always in 
 motion. Besides the motions which we notice, there are 
 always going on within ns many movements which we do 
 not notice, but which are necessary to our existence ; and, 
 when there is no longer any motion in the body, we know 
 that it is dead. 
 
 THE ImTJSOLES. 
 
 It is plain that the body must be provided with some 
 means of producing all these motions, and, on examina- 
 tion, we find that the greater part of what we call flesh 
 7 
 
98 
 
 LESSONS IN EYOIENE. 
 
 is collected into bands, and so fastened to the various 
 parts of the body as to pull them in the different direc- 
 tions required. These fleshy bands are 
 called muscles. They are about five hun- 
 dred in number, and have many different 
 sizes, shapes, and lengths, according to 
 the work they have to do. Besides their 
 use .in producing, bodily motion, in which 
 they may be compared to the ropes of a 
 ship, they are so arranged as to give beauty 
 and symmetry to the form.* 
 
 General Structure of Muscles. — The steak 
 which we eat for breakfast, and all the 
 other lean meat which we have, is muscle. 
 When we examine such a piece of meat, 
 especially after it has been boiled, we find 
 that it is made up of fibers, all extending 
 in the same direction, and bound together 
 by a thin membrane called connective tis- 
 sue. When the fibers are placed under a 
 microscope, th6y are seen to be composed 
 of a collection of still finer strands, or 
 FiQ. 16.— The mus- threads. Some of the muscles are round, 
 
 cles and tendons « , , ,i 
 
 of the lower arm, somc are flat ; some are not more than a 
 
 ahowing also the gixth of au iuch long, while othsrs are 
 
 cling the wrist. morc than two feet in length. Most of 
 
 them have a large body, or swell, in the 
 
 middle, and gradually grow smaller toward the ends ; but 
 
 a few are small in the middle and large at the ends. 
 
 Tendons. — Some of the muscles are joined directly to 
 the bones upon which they act ; but most of them become 
 
 * The plumpness of the body is still further increased by the layers 
 9f fat with which the muscles are surrounded. 
 
EOW THE BODY 18 ABLE TO MOVE. 
 
 smaller and tougher toward the ends, and at last terminate 
 in strong, bluish-white cords, called tendons. The tendons 
 are directly attached to the bones. They have no power 
 of contraction. Wherever the tendons or muscles have a 
 tendency to pull away from their positions, as at the wrist 
 and the ankle, they are bound in place by stout bands, 
 called ligaments. 
 
 Hollow Muscles. — Some of the muscles are not intended 
 to connect one part with another, but form vessels to con- 
 tain fluids. Such are the heart and the middle or mus- 
 cular coat of the stom- 
 ach, which have al- 
 ready been described.* 
 
 How the Muscles 
 Act, — All the muscles 
 have power to cont/ract 
 or become shorter ; 
 and, when the exciting 
 cause, is removed, to 
 return to their ordi- 
 nary forms. Those 
 whose contraction is under the control of the will are 
 called voluntary muscles. Such are those by which the 
 motions of the limbs are produced. Those which contract 
 without any conscious action of the mind, as the heart 
 and the stomach, are called involuntary muscles. Some, 
 like those which enable us to breathe, usually act of their 
 own accord, but may to a certain extent be influenced by 
 the will. Many of the muscles are arranged in pairs, one 
 causing motion in a certain direction, and the other caus- 
 ing motion in the opposite direction. 
 
 * The muscular fibers of the blood-vessels, of the lymphatic vessels, 
 of the alimentary canal, of the ducts of the glands, and of the iris of 
 the eye, are so arranged as to form hollow muscles. 
 
 Fig. 17. — The left arm, showing the muscles in 
 action. 
 
100 
 
 LESSONS IN EYQIENE. 
 
 When there is a great variety of motions in a single 
 joint, or in any organ, each distinct movement requires a 
 separate muscle. The swing of the arm at the shoulder, 
 the roll of the eye, the twisting of the wrist and of the 
 ankle, are examples of this arrangement. The contrac- 
 tion of muscles at- 
 tached to bones gives 
 motion to the limbs, 
 the trunk, and the 
 head. The action of 
 the hollow muscles 
 gives the motions nec- 
 essary to carry on the 
 work of the internal 
 organs and for the 
 circulation of the 
 blood. 
 
 How the Muscles 
 gain Strength. — We 
 have already seen how 
 the blood carries off 
 the worn-out tissues 
 of the body, and leaves in their place new material to 
 repair the waste. The muscles are thus nourished by the 
 food in the same manner as the other parts of the body. 
 But Nature has also provided that those parts of the body 
 which work the hardest shall have the most help and the 
 most abundant nourishment. So, whenever a muscle is 
 used a great deal, the blood carries to it an unusual amount 
 of material to make and to keep it strong. It therefore 
 happens that those muscles which are used most become 
 largest and strongest.* 
 
 * The arm of a blacksmith is used so much and so vigorously that 
 its muscles become, not only much larger than those of an ordinary 
 
 FiQ. 18.— The muscles of the legs, as in the act 
 of walking. 
 
sow THE BODY IS ABLE TO MOVE. 101 
 
 The Muscles need Rest. — So long as the muscles are in 
 motion they are wearing out. To give time and oppor- 
 tunity for the repairs which are needed and which I^a- 
 ture desires to make, the motion of the muscles must 
 cease from time to time. .After we have used any muscle 
 a proper length of time, it becomes exhausted. This is 
 Nature's signal that it has done enough, and needs to be 
 repaired. "When a muscle is thus weakened and Nature 
 has given the signal for rest, it is just as unwise to use it 
 as it is to use a bridge which has been pronounced unsafe, 
 or a rope with broken strands. Its use may perhaps con- 
 tinue for a time without serious consequences, but it may 
 result in permanent injury of the weakened part, and 
 possibly the death of the offender. 
 
 f. " Exercise for Health, not for Strength." — It is the duty 
 of every person to be as healthy as possible, end to so 
 train the body that it can carry out the direction^ of the 
 mind. Therefore, any kind or amount of exercise that 
 will keep the whole body fresh and vigorous is desirable ; 
 but any kind or amount of training that is designed to 
 develop one part of the body at the expense of the rest, 
 solely for the purpose of display, should be discouraged. 
 The amount of vitality at our disposal, and our capacity 
 for work, may probably be increased by judicious exer- 
 cise ; but there seems to be a limit to this increase. If 
 we perform exhaustive bodily labor, the mind can not 
 have so large a share of our vitality as would otherwise 
 be the case. On the other hand, long and vigorous ac- 
 tion of the mind exhausts so much of our vital power 
 that the body can not be so active. 
 
 person, but also muoh harder. The same is true of those who practice 
 rowing, or who engage in any business requiring unusual muscular 
 effort. 
 
102 LESSONS m HYGIENE. 
 
 This inclination of Nature to give the most help to 
 the part that is working hardest or has the most to do, is 
 the reason why we should not try to do any bodily or 
 mental work immediately after a hearty meal, as the vital 
 powers are then needed in the processes of digestion. 
 For the same reason we should not eat more Hmu we 
 need; for, if we do, so much vitality will be spent in 
 digestion that we can not do the bodily or mental work 
 of which we would otherwise be capable. 
 4^ Effect of Alcohol on the Muscles. — Muscles, as we have 
 seen, consist of fibers of lean meat ; fat meat will not 
 contract as muscle does in moving parts of the body. 
 The lean muscles of those who drink alcoholic liquors, 
 especially beer, often become changed into fat, or fatty 
 globules are deposited so thickly in between the layers 
 of muscles as to crowd and weaken them. One reason 
 for this accumulation of fat in wrong places is an in- 
 sufficient supply of oxygen in the tissues. The fat is not 
 there changed as it should be by the oxygen to furnish 
 heat and force to Ae body. We have seen that alcohol 
 in the blood is capable of diminishing the supply of 
 oxygen by injuring the oxygen-carriers, i. e., the little 
 red-blood corpuscles.* In proof of this, the blood of a 
 a person who drinks beer, or other alcoholic liquors, is 
 often found, upon analysis, to contain a much larger pro- 
 portion of fatty globules than the blood of those who do 
 not take these drinks. 
 
 If a drinking man should measure the strength of his 
 muscles, that is, the weight he can lift before and after 
 an alcoholic drink is taken, he would find he could lift less 
 
 * Dr. Flint, in his well-known work on the " Theory and Practice of 
 Medicine,'' says (page 54) : " The accumulation of fat in the organism 
 is the result of incomplete oxidation. . , . The use of alcohol favors 
 the accumulation of fat by diminishing its normal oxidation." 
 
HOW THE BODY IS ABLE TO MOVE. 103 
 
 after the dram than before. He may think he can lift 
 more, but the test will prove that he can not. The 
 tipsy man often boasts of his strength until his limbs 
 are scarcely able to sustain him, because the alcohol has 
 so deadened his nerves of feeling that he does not know 
 his real condition. 
 
 Ifumerons experiments have proved that alcohol does 
 not render people better able to endure severe labor or 
 hardships, as some have supposed. On the contrary it 
 reduces the power of endurance.* 
 
 An English physician who had watched the effect of 
 alcohol upon soldiers during a campaign said : " Alcohol 
 is injurious to soldiers while on the march, the reviving 
 effect passing off after, at the utmost, two and a half miles 
 have been accomplished, and being succeeded by languor 
 and exhaustion as great or greater than before." An emi- 
 nent American doctor, associated with the United States 
 Army during the recent war, says : " The men who drink 
 spirits habitually are the first to fail when strength and 
 endurance are required, and they are less likely to recover 
 from wounds and injuries." 
 
 Tobacco also injiires the Muscles. — Both alcohol and to- 
 bacco impair the steadiness and precision of muscles that 
 are necessary to do fine and good work. You will see the 
 reason for this when you come to study about the nerves 
 
 * A soldier in India one day missed, for some reason, iiis iisual al- 
 lowance of rum, in tiie middle of the day's march. Upon reaching 
 their halting place at night he found, contrary to his expectation and 
 that of his comrades, that he did not feel as much exhausted as usual. 
 The next day, he and several of his mates tried going without their 
 rum until night, and found that they felt much better than usual. 
 They therefore continued the practice of reserving their rum until 
 night, after the day's march was over. They had not yet learned 
 enough about the nature of alcohol to give it up entirely, but they had 
 found out by experience that they could march better without it. 
 
104 LESSORS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 that control all muscular motions and the effect tobacco 
 and alcohol have upon them. Proofs of these injurious 
 effects can be seen in the shaking hand of the drinker 
 and the weak and -unsteady muscles of most boys and 
 young men who use tobacco. Prof. Oliver, head of the 
 drawing department in one of the naval academies, says 
 that he can invariably recognize the user of tobacco by 
 his tremulous hand in using a pencil and " his absolute 
 inability to draw a clean straight line." A distinguished 
 American author says : " No smoker who ever trained se- 
 verely for a race or a game needs to be told that smoking 
 reduces the tone of the system and diminishes all the 
 forces of the body. He knows it." 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 I. We should eat plenty of wholesome food, in order 
 that the muscles may be kept strong. 
 
 II. We should exercise all the muscles of the body, so 
 that they may become strong and healthy. 
 
 III. We should exercise all the muscles frequently, to 
 quicken the flow of blood in the veins, so as to take off 
 some of the strain from the heart. 
 
 IV. We should not exercise to such an extent that all 
 the vital forces of the body are used up in muscular 
 action. 
 
 V. Any kind of exercise may become more injurious 
 than useful, if it is allowed to overstep the bounds of 
 moderation. 
 
 VI. After each period of activity, the muscles need 
 rest — daily rest after daily toil, and a long period of rest 
 after the exhaustive strain of long-continued work. 
 
 VII. We should carefully avoid all habits of posture, 
 movement, or dress that will interfere with the free de- 
 velopment and action of all the muscles. 
 
HOW THE BODY IS ABLE TO MOVE. 
 
 105 
 
 VIII. In sitting, we should always keep the body as 
 nearly erect as we can without special inconvenience.* 
 
 Fig. 19. — ^Improper and proper positions in sitting. 
 
 IX. All the movements of the body should be afa 
 graceful as possible, in order that they may be agreeable 
 to others. 
 
 X. Calisthenics and gymnastics are well adapted to 
 give grace to the movements of the body, and also fur- 
 nish excellent exercise for young persons. They should, 
 therefore, be generally used in schools. 
 
 XI. With all their other exercise, children need plenty 
 of active play to keep their muscles in a healthful con- 
 dition. 
 
 XII. All kinds of athletic sports and manly exercises 
 
 * We can accustom ourselves to sitting erect by always being care- 
 ful to sit well back on a chair, and not upon its edge, as the latter po- 
 sition distorts the spine and produces round shoulders. 
 
106 
 
 LESSONS m HYGIENE. 
 
 that are not actually dangerous should form a part of 
 every boy's education. 
 
 Pig. 20.— Proper and improper positions in standing : 1, a vertical line ; 2, the spi- 
 nal column. 
 
 XIII. Lawn-tennis, croquet, horseback-riding, or simi- 
 lar exercises, should form a part of the life of every girl 
 vrho is not otherwise provided with active physical em- 
 ployment. " 
 
 XIV". When work distorts the body by giving excess- 
 ive exercise to the muscles that throw the shoulders for- 
 ward, we should remedy the evil by purposely exercising 
 the muscles that draw the shoulders back. 
 
 XV. We should avoid the use of beer, because it 
 has a tendency to turn healthy muscle into fat. 
 
HOW THE BODY IS ABLE TO MOVE. 107 
 
 XYI. When in health, we should avoid the use of all 
 alcoholic liquors and narcotics, as they tend directly to 
 weaken the muscles and to diminish muscular action. 
 
 SOMETHING TO FIND OUT. 
 
 1. Why are the muscles.of the right arm usually larger 
 than those of the left? -^7 --^^ ' ^- '<^(U:^ ^ ^ ' '<• ^ 
 
 2. Why are so many men, who work hard, round- 
 shouldered ? 
 
 3. In what way can the tendency to become round- 
 shouldered be prevented ? 
 
 i. What good comes from the practice of the game of 
 base-ball ? What caution needs to be observed ? 
 
 5. What is the effect of a tight band around a mus- 
 cle? 
 
 6. When the fist is clinched, where do the muscles 
 contract and become rigid ? 
 
 7. Does the expansion as well as the contraction of a 
 muscle upon one of the limbs produce motion ? -1 
 
 8. Why is better exercise obtained by rowing than by 
 walking ? 
 
 9. Why is it wrong to keep children still for a long 
 period at a time ? 
 
 10. When children are restless in school, what are 
 some of the probable causes ? 
 
 11. What are some of the advantages to be gained by 
 " going a-fishing " ? 
 
 12. What is the best time for muscular rest ? 
 
 13. Will it tire a horse more to travel on a level road 
 or on a moderately hilly one ? 
 
 14. Why can not the arm hold out a weight for a long 
 time? 
 
 15. Why should we not engage in active musculai 
 exercise just before eating ? 
 
108 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 16. After a period of hard study, what kind of exer- 
 cise should be taken ? 
 
 17. In running, or other violent exercise, what pecul- 
 iar symptom tells us when to stop ? \^ 
 
 18. What is the consequence if we do not obey the 
 command? 
 
 19. What is the best employment for the half-hour 
 before going to bed ? 
 
 20. When a boy or a girl is not really ill, what do 
 stooped shoulders and a shuffling gait indicate ? 
 
 21. Why does going half a mile on an errand sometimes 
 tire a boy more than walking fi^ miles to see a circus ? 
 
 22. If a person is free to choose his work, what prin- 
 ciple should guide his choice ? 
 
 23. Of what do the muscles consist ? 
 
 24. Why will not fat answer the purpose of the lean 
 fibers in moving parts of the body ? (^ \( J , k 
 
 25. What changg does beer-drinking often make in 
 the muscles ? "-jo^ \ 
 
 26. What reason can you give for this ? "tc-VA^ Oi 
 
 27. How has the blood of habitual drinkers been found 
 to differ from the blood of people who do not use alco- 
 holic drinks? ^- I i\w »i u^ Inx V ^' -" i '-<^^' - " i-f '-^<~«-« 
 
 28. How do alcpholic drinks affect the strength of the 
 muscles ? M^ ,, \-^-: ^ 
 
 29. Why does the tipsy man boast of his strength ? ^-^0( 
 
 30. What effect does alcohol have upon those \^ho 
 have to endure hardships? i^^ ' '^\\l^f " ^-^ "-"-^^ ^^ 
 
 31. What evidence on this point is to be found in the 
 experience of soldiers ? ""_ «. w^ , , "-t. , , ^ c ;-^n , ^ . 
 
 32. How do alcoholic drinks affect the steadiness and 
 precision of the muscles ? ■ivv^kU^.^ /m- ^va A: 
 
 33. How does tobacco-smoking affect a boy's ability 
 to make a " clean straight line" I hji -tl- : ■ -,'■ --<2 a 
 
BOW THE BODY IS ABLE TO MOVE. 
 
 109 
 
 34 What is always forbidden to those who are train- 
 ing for a race, or other athletic sports ? ■ ' c r- i 
 
 (1 
 
 TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER VIIL 
 How THE Body is able to Move. 
 
 Motion necei 
 sary. 
 
 The Mttscles. 
 
 Muscula/r 
 Hon. 
 
 Ac- 
 
 Care of the 
 
 Alcohol and the 
 
 Tobacco and 
 the Muscles, 
 
 1. The motion of the body and its parts indicates life. 
 3. "Want of motion is the sign of death. 
 
 1. The muscles produce motion and give beauty to 
 
 the form. 
 3. General structure: connective tissue — shapes — 
 
 hollow muscles — tendons — ligaments. 
 
 1. Contraction and expansion. 
 
 3. Voluntary and involuntary action. 
 
 3. Peculiar movements. 
 
 ' 1. Repair of muscles : 
 
 1. The blood supplies nourishment. 
 3. Muscles most exercised receive most nour- 
 ishment. 
 3. Exercise of muscles : work — games — calisthenics. 
 
 3. Rest of muscles : after exercise — after injury, » 
 
 4. Proper position : in sitting — in standing. 
 
 5. Dress must leave the muscles free. 
 
 _ 6. Agreeable occupation lightens labor. 
 
 ' 1. Exercise should be for health. 
 3. The body should serve the mind. 
 
 3. Muscular development not for display. 
 
 4. Exercise should not exhaust the energies. 
 
 ' 1. Alcohol changes muscular fiber to fat. 
 3. Weakness of a drunken man. 
 [ 3. Soldiers endure more without alcohoL 
 
 ( 1. Tobacco makes the muscles unsteady. 
 } 3. Diminishes strength. 
 
 Hygieiie of the muscles. 
 Something to fmd out. 
 
CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 HOW THE BODY IS ABLE TO STAND. 
 
 The Heed of a Bodily Frame.^-If the body were made 
 up entirely of soft materials like the muscles, it might be 
 capable of motion in its different parts and some move- 
 ment as a whole. But it would not be able to stand 
 erect, or to retain any permanent shape. Its beautiful 
 proportions, its graceful motions, and its dignified bear- 
 ing would all be impossible; and a human being would 
 be nothing more than a mass of flesh physically inferior 
 to almost every other animal in existence. That it may 
 be able to stand erect and keep its proper form, the body 
 needs a strong and solid frame-work. This is furnished 
 by the bones. 
 
 THE BONES. 
 
 ITses of the Bones. — The bones have three distinct uses. 
 1. They give shape and strength to tbe body, and keep the 
 various parts and organs in position. 2. They protect or- 
 gans which would otherwise be exposed to injury. 3. 
 They afford a solid place for the attachment of muscles 
 by means of which motion may be given to the various 
 parts of the body. 
 
 Forms of Bones. — In order to meet these requirements, 
 the bones are of different sizes and shapes, and are arranged 
 in the various ways best suited to the purposes for which 
 they are designed. Those whose chief use is to protect 
 
EOW THE BODY IS ABLE TO STAND. ' HI 
 
 T» 
 
 are made strong and thick, and of such shape as to offer 
 most resistance with the least material. Where several 
 bones unite to protect any organ, they are placed around 
 it in such a manner as will defend it most effectually. 
 Those whose chief use is to furnish support to the body, 
 or a firm part to which other portions are fastened, are 
 very thick and solid, and of such shape as will best adapt 
 them for staying in place. Those designed to strengthen 
 upright portions of the body, or to produce motion, are 
 long and straight. Others, which 
 have more than one of these ofiices 
 to perform, are so ingeniously con- 
 structed that they combine two or 
 mor« of these features. 
 
 Structure of the Bones. — The long 
 bones, which' form the frame-work 
 of the limbs, consist of a slender 
 shaft of hard, compact material, and 
 have enlarged extremities composed 
 of a softer, spongy material.* The 
 shaft is hollow in the middle, and 
 contains marrow. This is composed 
 chiefly of blood-vessels and fat, and 
 supplies the bone with nourishment. ' 
 The other bones are spongy inside, ^'°- 21— Upper portion of 
 
 TIT An ' , , ,1 t^e right femur, sawn in 
 
 and hard and fine m texture on the two lengthwise, showing 
 outside, f The bones are covered ''"' difference of texture 
 
 . . i 1 ^1 1 between the shaft and the 
 
 With a tough, nbrous membrane, ex- extremity. 
 
 * The increased size and the spongy character of the extremities 
 furnish better attachments for the tendons, and the increase in size 
 makes up for the decrease in hardness. 
 
 f The bones are full of fine tubes from 5^5 to -sTshii; of ai inch in 
 diameter. Through these the blood passes to carry on the worlc of 
 repair, as in the other portions of the body. 
 
112 LESSONS IN HTOIENE. 
 
 cept at the joints, wliere they are covered with cariUage. 
 If this fibrous membrane is removed, the bone dies. 
 
 Materials of which the Bones are Made. — When a bone 
 has been burned for a sufficient lengtli of time it will be 
 so brittle that it can be easily broken. If it be soaked in 
 diluted muriatic acid it will entirely lose its stiffness, and, 
 if of sufficient length, can be tied in a knot. By these 
 experiments it will be seen that the bones contain a min- 
 eral or earthy substance, which makes them stiflE and 
 hard, and a certain amount of animal matter, or gela- 
 tine, which binds them together and gives them a slight 
 degree of elasticity. The earthy substance is mostly 
 lime, and composes about two thirds of the weight of 
 the bone.* 
 
 In childhood the bones are more largely composed of 
 animal matter than in old age. On this account, children 
 are less likely to have their bones broken by blows and 
 falls ; but, for the same reason, thev are more likely to 
 become deformed by remaining in an improper position. 
 The legs of young children are often bent out of shape 
 by too much use of them before their bones are firm 
 enough to support the weight of the body. In old per- 
 sons the bones are so brittle as to break very easily, and 
 when broken they do not readily unite again. 
 
 Growth and Bepair of the Bones. — The bones do not 
 reach their full development before the age of twenty- 
 five, and in persons who use the brain a great deal the 
 skull is said to continue its growth much longer. The 
 continual repair of worn-out parts is carried on in the 
 
 * The color of bone in the living person is a pale-rose tint, inclining 
 in early life to red, in old age to a yellowish white. Bones assume a 
 beautiful white when deprived of the oily fluids which pervade thera. 
 The specific gravity of fresh bone is greater than that of any other 
 aoimal substance. 
 
HOW THE BODY 18 ABLE TO STAND. 113 
 
 bones as in the rest of the body.* In order that bones 
 may be strong and healthy they must he nourished by 
 good blood, having in it the materials out of which bone 
 is built up. Alcohol, by its injurious effects upon the 
 blood, prevents, in many cases, the proper growth and 
 healthy condition of the bones. Tobacco also interferes 
 with the nourishment of the bones and in many eases 
 checks their growth. 
 
 When a bone is broken and the parts are brought 
 together again, a jelly-like substance is poured out of the 
 fractured ends until the break is closed by a gristly forma- 
 tion. In due time, mineral matter is supplied to stiffen 
 the gristly matter thus provided, and the bone is finally 
 restored to its original form and strength. 
 
 Bones of the Head. — The bony case which gives shape 
 to the head, and protects the brain lying within, is the 
 sJcull. It is smaller and stronger in front than behind, 
 and rounded or oval on top, so that its form is much like 
 that of the upper half or three quarters of an egg, as it 
 appears when lying at rest. In front and on the sides it 
 has socJcets for the eyes and passages for the nose and the 
 ears. The skull is composed of two compact armor-like 
 plates, with a layer of spongy bone between them. The 
 dome-like top is the best possible form for resisting press- 
 ure or blows, and the spongy layer tends to prevent the 
 jar of a blow being felt by the brain. The upper jaw 
 and the bones of the nose and the cheeks belong- to the 
 skull, to which they are firmly attached. The mouth is 
 opened and shut by means of the lower jaw. 
 
 Sutures of the Skull. — The skull is made up of several 
 .^ — . ( 
 
 * If any red coloring-matter, snoh as madder, be mixed with the 
 food of a young animal, its effect 'will appear within a day or two in 
 the changed color of the hones. 
 
114 
 
 LESSONS m HTaiENE. 
 
 parts joined by irregular, saw-like projections and depres= 
 sions on each side, very much as we can lock the fingers 
 of our two hands together. In childhood tlie parts of 
 
 the skull are not very 
 firmly nnited, but as 
 the person grows older 
 the union becomes more 
 and more complete. 
 The use of having the 
 skull in several parts 
 is to allow the brain to 
 grow and to prevent a 
 jar from affecting the 
 
 Fig. 22. — The skull, showing the sutures. -i i i n 
 
 whole skull. 
 
 Bones of the Trunk. — The bones of the trunk are the 
 pelvis, the spinal column, the ribs, the breast-bone, the 
 shoulder-blade, and the collar-bone.* The pelvis is situ- 
 ated at the bottom of the trunk, and gives shape to that 
 part of the body. It furnishes a solid part upon which 
 the spinal col'imn may rest to support the upper part of 
 the body, and is itself supported upon the large bones of 
 the thighs, or upper parts of the lower limbs. It is thus 
 one of thd most important parts of the frame-work of the 
 body. It is formed of four large bones firmly united 
 and arranged in the form of a basin. 
 
 Attached to the pelvis, and extending up the middle 
 of the back to the head, is the spinal column, or back- 
 bone. It is made up of twenty-four small, flat bones 
 
 * Strictly, the shoulder-blade and the collar-bone form a class by 
 themselves. " The Upper Extremity consists of the Arm, the Forearm, 
 and the Hand. . . . The Shoulder is placed upon the upper part and 
 side of the chest, connecting the upper extremity with the trunk; it 
 consists of two bones, the Clavicle and the Scapula.'' (Gray's " An . 
 atomy.") 
 
ROW TEE BODY IS ABLE TO STAND. 
 
 115 
 
 called vertehrcB,* placed one upon another with a pad of 
 rubber-like cartilage between each two. The spine is the 
 
 main connecting struct- 
 ure of bone in the body. 
 
 It bolds the trunk in 
 
 position, and contains a 
 
 channel through which 
 
 passes the spinal cord, 
 
 which, next to the brain, 
 
 is the most important 
 
 part of the nervous 
 
 Fis. 23.— The pelvis, show- BJStem.f 
 ing the hip-joint and the rpj^^ ^^-j twentv- 
 
 relative positions of the „ . 
 
 spine and the femur. four in number, are 
 in pairs inclosing the 
 chest. They are attached to the spinal 
 column by a kind of joint which allows 
 them to move up and down enough for the 
 purpose of breathing. In front the upper 
 seven pairs are attached to a strong, flat 
 bone extending up and down and called 
 fhe ireast-hone.^ -i- , 
 
 * Of the vertebrse, seven belong to the neck, 
 twelve to the back, and five to the loin. The sacrum 
 and the coccyx are consolidated vertebvje, and may 
 be included in the spinal column. 
 
 f When we look at the spine from the side, we 
 see that it has a double curve bending back from 
 the neck to the shoulders, then forward to the waist, 
 and then back as it nears its lower extremity. A 
 pivot-joint connects the two upper vertebrse, and a 
 hinge-]oint connects the vertebrae with the skull, 
 enabling us to turn the head and move it backward and forward. 
 
 % The lowest two on each side are not attached in front, and are 
 called floating ribs. The remaining three pairs are connected by bands 
 of cartilage, and are called false ribs. 
 
 Fig. 24. —The spine 
 or spinal column. 
 
116 
 
 LESSONS IN EYQIENE. 
 
 Extending downward from the top of the tmnk 
 behind the arms, on each side of the spine, is a strong 
 
 plate of bone, shaped like 
 a triangle and called the 
 shoulder-Uade. From the 
 part of the shoulder-blade 
 nearest the arm to the 
 upper part of the breast- 
 bone, extends a slender 
 bone shaped much like the 
 italic f, and called the 
 
 Fig. 25.-Bones of the thorax, sho\ymg the collaV-hone. This braceS 
 
 Bhoulder-joint, the relative positions of , -i tj ui j -i 
 
 the spine and bones of the upper cavity the shouldcr - blade and 
 
 of thetranlc, and the shape of the ribs ]jgj ^.^ -^ J^. -j^ rAaXX. 
 
 in a healthy chest. "^ r r 
 
 Bones of the Arms. — 
 
 The bones of the arm consist of a single long bone be- 
 tween the shoulder and the elbow ; two be- 
 tween the elbow and the wrist ; * 
 tight in the wrist ; five in the 
 palm of the hand ; and the 
 bones of the fingers and 
 thumbs which can be readily 
 counted. 
 
 , Bones of the Legs. — The 
 bones of the legs correspond al- 
 most entirely to those of the 
 arms — a long one between the 
 trunk and the knee ; a small fis^ ^- -Bonesj 
 iftr"r"ight bone which protects the knee- 
 
 -Bones 
 
 Fig. 
 of 
 
 arm, showing 
 their ordinary 
 positions. 
 
 joint; two bones between the 
 knee and the ankle ; seven in 
 
 of the left arm, 
 showing the ul- 
 na and the ra- 
 dius in a twist- 
 ed position. 
 
 * Of these two the ulna is the one more closely joined to the hu- 
 merus. The radius is more closely joined at the wrist, and moves 
 around the ulna. 
 
sow THE BODY IS ABLE TO STAND. 
 
 117 
 
 the ankle ; and five in the body of the foot. The bones of 
 the toes, like those of the fingers, can be easily counted. 
 
 Arch of the Foot. — The bones of the foot are arranged 
 in such a way as to form an arch. "When the weight of 
 the body is thrown upon the 
 foot, as in walking and leap- 
 ing, the top of the arch is 
 pressed downward, and the 
 bones spread outward, mak- 
 ing the foot wider than be- 
 fore. In this way the body 
 is preserved from shocks 
 which would otherwise great- 
 ly injure it.* ■ 
 
 Bony Cavities of the Body. 
 — The cavities of the body 
 which are formed and pro- 
 tected by the bones are now 
 seen to be the skuU, the ^'^' 
 chest, and the abdomen. 
 The skull contains the brain, which is the most sensitive 
 organ, and has no motion. Hence the skull is absolutely 
 unyielding. The chest not only protects the organs with- 
 in, but varies in size to accommodate the lungs in breath- 
 ing. Accordingly, it is not only strong, but is made so 
 that it can expand. The pelvis supports the organs of 
 
 * Tight shoes, and shoes made of coarse, heavy leather, are injuri- 
 ous in many respects. They prevent the spreading of the foot, and 
 change the act of walking from a free, springing motion, to a stiff un- 
 natural gait. The bones become distorted and overlap one another, 
 producing permanent deformity. The continued pressure upon the 
 flesh produces corns, Iwnions, and ingrowing toe-nails. High heels 
 throw the weight too far forward, and heels placed under the hollow 
 of the foot not only prevent the spring of the arch, hut quickly pro- 
 duce deformity. 
 
 —Bones of the legs, in their rela- 
 tive positions. 
 
118 LESSON'S IN ETOIENE. 
 
 digestion, and for this purpose is shaped like a basin, Xt 
 also sustains the body on the pillars formed by the legs. 
 It is, therefore, thick and unyielding. 
 
 BODILY MOVEMENTS. 
 
 How the Muscles move the Bones. — The cause of mo- 
 tion in the body is the contraction of the m/uscles. In 
 the hollow muscles the result of contraction is to dimin- 
 ish the capacity of the vessels which the muscles form. 
 Where the muscles connect two bones, the contraction 
 draws the connected bones toward each other. The lower 
 jaw is drawn upward by a strong muscle attached to 
 the cheek-bone, which acts directly to bring the jaws 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 39 — The arrangement of bones and muscles by which the arm is bent ; j4, the 
 radius ; B, the elbow ; C, biceps ; M, ulna ; F, triceps ; ff, shoulder-joint. 
 
 together. The arm is bent by a strong muscle called 
 the biceps. This is attached at one extremity to the 
 shoulder-blade, and at the other to one of the bones 
 just below the elbow.* The opposite movement, by 
 
 * When the biceps contracts, the bone below the elbow (the radius) 
 is drawn upward toward the shoulder ; but, as the tendon of the biceps 
 is attached to the radius so near the elbow, it plainly requires more 
 muscular effort to bond the arm than would be required were the ten- 
 don of the biceps attached nearer the wrist. The enlargement of the 
 
HOW THE BODY IS ABLE TO STAND. 119 
 
 wMcli the arm is straightened, is caused by a similar 
 njiisele on the opposite side of the arm. The muscle 
 which throws one leg across the other reaches from above 
 the hip on the outside to below the knee on the inside, 
 and is called the tailor' a muscle, because it is the one 
 which a tailor uses in taking his peculiar position on the 
 bench. Wherever a twisting motion is to be produced, 
 there is a similar arrangement. A rotary movement of 
 the eyeball is produced by a muscle passing through a 
 pulley-like loop. 
 
 How Shocks are Distributed. — Every one knows that 
 when a person needs to jump from a high place the shock 
 felt will be much less if the body is allowed to bend 
 freely than if it is kept rigid. The hand of a catcher 
 who wishes to feel the sting of the ball as little as possible 
 is allowed to move backward when the ball is caught. It 
 will be readily seen that, if in these cases the limbs were 
 held rigidly in a straight line, the iirm ends of the bones 
 could not fail to strike heavily against each other, much 
 as the buffers of two railway-cars do when the cars collide. 
 But when the joints are bent and the muscles are relaxed, 
 the main force of a shock is expended in further bending 
 the joints, and the shock felt by the limbs in the direction 
 of their length is very slight. 
 
 In jumping, if we strike upon the toes, the shock is 
 first moderated by the arch of the foot, which acts like a 
 spring. The force of the shock is further distributed at 
 the ankles, the knees, and the hips, by the three curves in 
 the spine, and lastly at the joint which connects the 
 spine with the skull. 
 
 elbow-joint, by raising the tendon away from the arm, brings it more 
 nearly at right angles to the radius, and thus gives it more effect in 
 bending the arm than it would have were it parallel to the radius. 
 
120 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 lajuries to be Avoided. — The bones axe often hrdken 
 or fut out of joint by falls, sudden blows, etc., or bent 
 out of shape by improper positions or long-continued 
 pressure. Curvature of the spine may be caused by 
 keeping one shoulder higher than the other, as by habile 
 ually resting one arm higher than the other on a desk at 
 school. Of the same nature are deformed waists, and 
 the deformities of com,pressed feet Pulling the joints 
 apart " to make them crack " is also a dangerous practice. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 
 
 I. The food and drink that we take must contain 
 enough lime to nourish the bones.* 
 
 II. In childhood, before the bones harden, they should 
 not be made to bear heavy burdens or endure any severe 
 or long continued pressure or strain.f 
 
 III. Exercise, giving the proper amount of pressure 
 and strain, is necessary to promote the growth and nurture 
 of the bones. 
 
 rV. The bones of the foot should not be compressed 
 so as to prevent the free spring of the arch and the spread- 
 ing of the bones, when the foot is called upon to sustain 
 the weight of the body. 
 
 V. No tight clothing or tight bands should be worn 
 about the ribs or waist. They interfere vdth the move- 
 ment of the bones in breathing. \ 
 
 * Farmers have long noticed that cattle often do not thrive in an 
 old pasture. Their bones become tender and are easily broken, and 
 the whole body suffers in health. The reason is that those elements of 
 the soil that make bones have been used up, and the remedy is to sup- 
 ply fertilizers that contain lime. 
 
 t A baby's legs are often made crooked by trying too early to make 
 it walk. In school, many a child has been deformed by sitting on so 
 high a bench that its feet could not touch the floor. 
 
 % The errors in woman's dress are : 1st. The corset, which reduces 
 
HOW THE BODY IS ABLE TO STAND. 121 
 
 VI. "W"e should sit and stand erect, so as to prevent 
 the distortion of the bones which comes from the habit 
 of bringing the shoulders forward and bending the head 
 down, , 
 
 VII. We should avoid resting one arm higher than 
 the other, as this practice tends to produce a permanent 
 curvature of the spine. 
 
 VIII. "When a bone is injured or a joint sprained, we 
 should keep perfectly CLuiet until the part is fully recov- 
 ered. 
 
 SOMETHDirG TO FIND OUT. 
 
 1. What are the appearance and composition of a bone 
 after it has been thoroughly burned ? ', , , ,' ' / 1"^-*^ i^ . l_;^ ^ 
 
 2. What are the appearance and condition ra^a bone 
 after it has been soaked in diluted muriatic acid ? 
 
 3. In making soups, what ingredient is derived from 
 the bones, and how is this ingredient obtained ? 
 
 4. What is the comparative effect of a sudden blow 
 upon the bones of young and of old persons ? What is 
 the effect of pressure ? 
 
 5. When bones are broken, what are some of the con- 
 ditions necessary for th^ir repair 1 
 
 6. In what plays is there particular danger of getting 
 bones broken ? 
 
 the waist from three to fifteen inches, and pushes the organs within, 
 downward. 
 
 2d. Unequal distribution. While her chest and hips are often 
 overloaded, her arms and legs are so thinly clad that their imperfect 
 circulation compels congestion of the trunk and head. 
 
 3d. Long, heavy skirts, which drag upon the body, and impede the 
 movements of the legs. 
 
 4th. Tight shoes, which arrest circulation, and make walking diffi- 
 cult. High heels, which increase the difficulties in walking, and so 
 change the center of gravity in the body as to produce dislocatioivs in 
 the pelvic viscera. — Dr. Dio Lewis. 
 
122 LESSONS IN HTaiENE. 
 
 7. Why is the skull at the top rounded in the shape 
 of a dome ? 
 
 8. What animal is so constructed that it appears to 
 throw back its upper jaw ? 
 
 9. Why are the bones of the pelvis large and very 
 strongly constructed? 
 
 10. What is the use of the rubber-like cartilages be 
 tween the vertebrae of the spinal column ? 
 
 11. After a day of active exercise in work or play, why 
 are we shorter than when we first arose in the morning ? 
 
 12. What effect does wearing a tight band around the 
 waist have upon the shape of the ribs ? upon the move- 
 ment of the ribs ? upon the movement of the diaphragm I 
 upon breathing? upon the position of the organs of the 
 chest and abdomen ? upon the circulation ot the blood ? 
 
 13.^^hy should the soles of shoes be broad ? Why 
 should the heels be broad and low? Why should the 
 upper leather be soft and pliable ? i 
 
 14:. Why do people wear tight clothing and tight 
 shoes ? -*-6 '^^ ^ 
 
 15. What reason is there for making shoes with high 
 heels, or with the heel in the hollow of the foot ? 6^ .f~^--^ <W: 
 
 16. In what way are corns produced ?'tA'^ ^-Z ku'x. J. 
 
 17. What name is applied to the lower limbs when 
 the bones have become permanently bent? v , -j^ -tt^T'c<;C 
 
 18. In the bones of' the lower arm, which bone ^is 
 attached at the elbow, and which at the wrist ? \'tK>j:^-^^^^^H^ 
 
 19. When you saw in two, lengthwise, a beef or mut- 
 ton bonsi taken out of the leg, how does the interior ap- 
 pear ? vvi>2£oix-^ 
 
 20. Why are the bones and joints of the toes so fre- 
 quently deformed ? "to /2i'W~L i -^ [\V<-' <' 
 
 21. Why does a person in catching a ball draw his 
 hands back the moment the ball touches them ? J^Ji^yu-ZW^ 
 
\ 
 
 E017 TEE BODY IS ABLE TO STAND. 
 
 123 
 
 22. Why do we strike on^ the ball of the foot when 
 we jump? pajLA,r-evct:.X)^ -|«>4. 
 
 23. Why, in W9,lking or jnmpiag, is it best to keep 
 the joints bent ? ' ''"•U .vi ■ ' - -^v- ' .ui^ (X' >,/, ' nf^ 
 
 24. When we unexpectedly step down a ^few inches, 
 what effect is produced 2 Why? QjMd^^i^UiSL^ 
 
 25. Why do so many people have a stiff, ^awkward 
 gait? L,o,^£ i^t" x: L-^MlZc^^ ^'^^^^-^^^^va^' ' " 
 
 dJU. 
 
 
 TOPICAL ANALYSIS OP CHAPTER IX. 
 
 How THE Body is able to stand. 
 
 The Need of a {1. 
 Bodily Frame. \ 3. 
 
 The Bones. 
 
 Bodily Move- 
 ments. 
 
 Distribution of 
 the Bones. 
 
 \k 
 
 Oare of the 
 Bones. 
 
 To enable the body to stand erect. 
 To keep the body in proper form. 
 
 Uses of the bones. 
 
 1. To give shape to the body. 
 
 3. To protect delicate organs. 
 
 3. To afEord attachment for muscles. 
 Forms of the bones. 
 Structure of the bones. 
 Materials : animal matter — mineral matter. 
 Growth and repair. 
 
 Bones of the head : skull. 
 
 Bones of the trunk : pelvis — spinal column — 
 ribs — breast-bone — shoulder-blade — collar- 
 bone. 
 
 Bones of the arm: the. wrist-bones — the hand. 
 
 Bones of the legs : ankle — foot — arch of the foot 
 
 Bony cavities : skull — chest — pelvis. 
 
 How produced. 
 
 How shocks are distributed. 
 
 Proper food. 
 
 Suitable exercise. 
 
 Moderate exercise in childhood. 
 
 Proper positions. 
 
 Easy clothing. 
 
 Shoes of proper form and materiaL 
 
 Rest after injury. 
 
 Hygiene of the Bones. 
 Something to find out. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 HOW THE BODY IS COVERED. 
 
 The XTsefulness of the Bodily Covering. — Every one who 
 has had a piece of the skin torn off, can understand how 
 important it is that there should be a covering for the 
 muscles and other sensitive organs which lie near the sur- 
 face of the body. Besides the pain caused, the removal 
 of the skin allows poisonous or irritating substances to 
 enter and injure the body. In addition to the protection 
 which it gives, there are many other offices which the 
 skin performs. It helps in removing waste matter from 
 the system, absorbs matters brought in contact with it, 
 serves as the organ of the sense of touch, aids the lungs 
 in taking in oxygen and giving out carbonic acid, helps 
 to regulate the heat of the body, and, in general, not 
 only defends the organs within, but helps them when 
 they are unable to do their full amount of work, It also, 
 with the hair and its other appendages, does much to 
 beautify the person and give expression to the emotions 
 and the thoughts. 
 
 THE SKTS. 
 
 General Structure of the Skin. — The thickness of the 
 skin varies in different parts of the body. Where it is 
 much exposed to wear, as on the soles of the feet or the 
 palms of the hands, it becomes very thick and is called 
 
sow TEE BODY IS COVERED. 125 
 
 a callus.* In other parts it is very thin and delicate. At 
 the ends of the fingers and the toes, where unusual pro- 
 tection is required, it grows into shield-like plates called 
 nails. On the scalp, where special protection of the brain 
 is needed, it puts forth a thick covering of hair. 
 
 Layers of the Skin. — The skin is divided into two 
 principal layers. The outer one is called the scarf-skin 
 or cuticle. It is made up of little cells flattened into 
 scales. It has no blood-vessels or nerves, and may be cut 
 or pinched without giving pain. As the cells near the 
 surface become dry and hard from lack of nourishment, 
 they fall off and new ones from beneath take their place.f 
 The lower part of the scarf-skin contains the coloring- 
 matter to which the color or complexion of different races 
 and different individuals is due.:}: The inner layer of the 
 
 * When this thickened skin is at the same time continually sub- 
 jected to hard pressure, as by tight shoes, it forms an excessively hard, 
 horny lump called a corn. Any means of softening the lump, as soak- 
 ing.it in warm warter, together with the removal of the cause will often 
 remedy the evil. 
 
 f It is these worn-out cells, or scales,, that separate from the skin 
 in bathing. They also constitute the dandruff which forms on the 
 head and comes ofE in small, white particles, especially when the hair 
 is combed or brushed. 
 
 X When the amount of coloring-matter in the pigment-cells is 
 very slight, it produces a blonde complexion ; when greater, that of a 
 brunette. The colors of the different races depend upon the kind and 
 amount of pigment in these cells. The amount of coloring-matter is 
 increased by exposure to heat and light. Every one knows that those 
 who spend much time in the open air, especially in summer, become 
 tanned or freckled, and that when winter comes again, or they remain 
 indoors for a time, the tan and freckles mostly pass away. This is 
 because the light and the heat increase the pigment. When this takes 
 place in spots, it causes freckles only ; when it affects the whole exposed 
 surface, it causes tan. 
 
 When persons of a light complexion go from countries distant from 
 the equator into the very warm regions between the tropics, they be- 
 
126 
 
 LESSONS m EYQIENE. 
 
 skin is called the cutis, or true shin. The part of this 
 nearer the surface is composed of little elevations, which 
 contain blood-vessels and nerves, and from some of which 
 arise the openings through which the hairs reach the sur- 
 
 Fio. 30.— Vertical section of the sltin, magnified : a, Bcart-sliin ; b, pigment-cells j 
 c, papillie ; d, true akia ; e, /, fat cells ; g, sweat-glands ; h, outlets of sweat- 
 glands ; i, their openings on the surface of the skin ; 7c, hair-follicle ; I, hairs 
 projecting from the skin ; m, hair-papilla ; ?i, hair-hulb ; o, root of hair ; p^ 
 openings of oil-glands. 
 
 face of the skin. Below these elevations lies the main 
 part of the true skin ; and between the true skin and the 
 flesh is a layer of fat, which varies in tliickness in differ- 
 ent persons. 
 
 come almost as dark as the native inhabitants. When the natives of 
 very hot countries live for a long time in cooler latitudes, their com- 
 plexion gradually becomes lighter. In some persons the pigment is 
 entirely wanting. Such persons have a pallid complexion and pink 
 eyes, and are called albinos. 
 
HOW THE BODY IS OOVEBEB. \%% 
 
 How the Skin is kept Soft. — All over the surface of the 
 body are little tubes which descend into the true skin, 
 like the finger of a glove with the end downward. Some 
 of these tubes end in little bags somewhat resembling 
 clusters of grapes. These groups of bags collect oil from 
 the blood and pour it out through the openings upon the 
 scarf-skin to keep its cells from falling off too rapidly, 
 and in this way the skin and the hair are kept soft and 
 pliable. 
 
 How the Skin easts out Waste Matter. — ^In the layer of 
 fat beneath the true skin lie the coiled ends of tubes, 
 which reach to the surface of the skin. These filter oflf 
 from tbe blood the perspiration, and are called the sweat- 
 glands.''' The perspiration consists chiefly of water, but 
 contains also a certain amount of waste material. In this 
 way the skin aids in keeping the body free from im- 
 purities. 
 
 Other Means of casting out Waste. — A considerable 
 part of the waste matter of the body passes off through 
 the kidneys. These organs lie in the abdominal cavity, 
 one on each side, just below the " small of the back." 
 They absorb from the blood impurities which can not be 
 expelled at the lungs. The waste which passes off 
 through the kidneys and through the skin is much alike, 
 and in their action they assist each other. When the kid- 
 
 * A magnifying-glass will disclose on the ridges on the palm of the 
 hand over three thousand openings of the sweat-tubes in every square 
 inch. There are also great numbers on the soles of the feet ; and even 
 where least numerous, as on the back, there are about four hundred 
 present to every square inch of surface. Indeed, it has been calculated 
 that there are twenty-eight hundred sweat-glands, on the average, in 
 every square inch of the body, making a total in an average-sized man 
 of about seven million, which is equivalent to twenty-eight miles of 
 the tubing, since each tube is a quarter of an inch long. (" The Skin 
 and its Troubles.") 
 
128 LESSONS IN BTGIENE. 
 
 neys are diseased, the skin does more work ; and when 
 the skin is out of order, as from the the effects of a cold, 
 the kidneys become more active. 
 
 How the Skin regulates Heat. — It is a familiar fact 
 that, in very warm weather, the heat of a room can be 
 lessened by sprinkling the floor. This is because heat is 
 used up in changing the water into vapor, and so is not 
 able to increase the temperature. The same is true of 
 the perspiration which is thrown out from the sweat- 
 glands. Usually the perspiration is poured out so gently 
 that it is not noticed, and is said to be insensible.* But, 
 in very warm weather, or when the body is heated by ex- 
 ercise, it forms visible drops. The more rapidly the per 
 spiration flows out, and is changed to vapor, the less we 
 feel the heat.f But we need to drink much more, in 
 order to keep a proper amount of moisture in the body.-J^. 
 How the Skin Absorbs. — The true skin contains a great 
 number of blood-vessels,:]: which distribute nourishment 
 to the roots of the hair, the oil-glands, and the other parts 
 of the skin ; and which carry back the exhausted blood 
 to the heart. It also contains, like other parts of the 
 body, what are called iymph-vessels. These seem to start 
 out of the part in which they are foimd like the roots of 
 plants in the soil, and gradually unite to form larger and 
 larger tubes, emptying finally into the veins. "With the 
 
 * The insensible perspiration of an adult person amounts to about 
 twenty ounces in twenty-four hours. 
 
 + It is on this account that a man may remain alive in an oven 
 heated as high as 600°. 
 
 X The presence of red blood in these blood-vessels gives to the skin 
 its ruddy color. When from any cause the blood rushes to the skin, 
 this ruddiness is increased. When this rush of blood is supposed to bp. 
 caused by some emotion, the effect is known as blitshing. When 
 from any cause the blood is withheld from these vesgels, its absence 
 is known as pallor, or paleness. 
 
HOW THE BODY IS OOVEEED. 129 
 
 exception of the lacteals, which form one class of lymph- 
 vessels, they carry a colorless fluid called lymph, which 
 helps the blood in nourishing the body and carrying away 
 waste matter. Whenever any substance soaks through the 
 scarf-skin, it is caught up by the lymph- vessels and the 
 veins, and is hurried away to various parts of the system.* 
 Why the Skin should be kept Clean, — It is plain that 
 the natural waste of ihe scarf-skin, and the pouring out 
 of oil and perspiration from the glands, must result in 
 the accumulation. of much impv/rity xipon the surface of 
 the skin. It is plain, also, that if this mass of impurity 
 is allowed to remain, it must not only be in itself offen- 
 sive, bnt must derange the action of the organs of the 
 skin. The amount of impurity thus thrown out of the 
 body is much increased by any unusual excitement of the 
 nerves caused by excessive emotion. Besides these collec- 
 tions, the dust and dirt which come upon the skin in the 
 course of our ordinary work require frequent removal. 
 If these impurities are not speedily removed, they derange 
 the action of the skin, and, through the skin, diminish 
 the comfort and capacity of the whole body.f 
 
 * The power of the skin to absorb is illustrated by the fact that 
 persons have been kept alive by baths of soup and other nourishment. 
 On the other hand, it is well known that persons whose work compels 
 them to handle poisonous substances frequently lose their health by 
 continual contact with the materials used. Similar effects are some- 
 times produced by so slight a cause as a kiss from one who is affected 
 by disease. 
 
 f Other animals show us the good of being clean : a badly groomed 
 horse is never sound or spirited, and a dirty pig puts up one fourth 
 less flesh than a clean one. Yet it may be feared that some human 
 beings are only thoroughly washed at birth and at burial. — (Mapother.) 
 
 Many an evil action is the remote result of a neglect of cleanliness. 
 When it is habitual, it brings about a degraded state of mind ; and 
 even when it is temporary, its irritating effect upon the disposition is 
 often noticeable. It is a fair question whether in many cases, a bad 
 
130 LESSONS IN HYQIENE. 
 
 How to keep the Skin Clean. — The only means of keep- 
 ing the skin clean is frequent and thorough lathing of 
 the entire body. This should be attended to every day, 
 if possible. If from any cause this frequency is not pos- 
 sible, the nearest approach to it should be made. Under 
 any ordinary circumstances, such a bath may be taken by 
 every person at least once a week. Besides this bathing 
 of the whole body, those parts which especially need it 
 should be washed as often as any impurity is discovered 
 upon them. For merely cleansing the body, tepid or 
 warm water is the most efifective. But such a bath 
 is relaxing in its effect, and should not be used very 
 often. The cold morning-bath is very beneficial to per- 
 fectly healthy persons, not only for its cleansing power, 
 but also for its stimulating eiiect. If a bath-tub is used, 
 a simple plunge will in most cases be sufficient. The 
 most convenient and profitable morning-bath within the 
 reach of a majority of persons is the sponge-bath. This 
 requires only a basin of water, a sponge or wash-cloth, 
 and a towel. Only so much soap as is necessary should 
 be used. 
 
 If the skin does not recover its warmth in a short 
 time by vigorous rubbing of the body with a coarse towel, 
 the person is not in proper condition to profit by cold 
 baths. The other forms of bathing are either medicinal 
 in their nature, or partake of the nature of luxuries.* 
 
 boy might not be converted into a good one by means of a bath and a 
 change of clothes. The public baths in many cities are really very 
 important agencies in suppressing wrong-doing. 
 
 * Sea-bathing is a very popular form of the natural bath, and it is 
 preferable to bathing in river-water or spring-water, because the sea is 
 seldom so cold as are the latter. A sea-bath has also another great 
 advantage over all other forms of bath, and that is that it is taken in 
 the purest air possible ; and in considering the effects of sea-bathing, 
 it is impossible to separate the effects of sea-air from that of the sea- 
 
sow THE BODY IS COVERED. 131 
 
 No kind of full bath should be taken within less than 
 two hours after a hearty meal, because the process of di- 
 gestion will not allow so much distraction of bodily en- 
 ergy. The soap used in bathing should not be very 
 strong, because such soap will remove too much of the 
 scarf-skin, and, in cold weather especially, will cause the 
 skin to chap. 
 
 Alcohol and the Skin. — The blood-vessels of the skin, 
 as we have seen, often become permanently enlarged by 
 the continued use of alcohol. We can see these expanded 
 blood-tubes underneath the skin. They make what are 
 often termed " rum-blossoms " on the nose of the drinker. 
 The blood flows through them sluggishly, and being poor 
 in oxygen, and containing waste matter, it does not nour- 
 ish the skin as it should. The outer or "scarf" skin re- 
 mains on in dry scales, blocking up the openings of the 
 oil-ducts and sweat-tubes. Then the skin can not properly 
 perform its part in getting rid of waste matters, and the 
 kidneys have to do more than their share, from which 
 cause they often become weakened or diseased. 
 
 When blood containing alcohol reaches the kidneys 
 they try to remove as much of it as they can, together 
 with the other impurities which it is their duty to take 
 from the blood. The alcohol which the kidneys try to 
 remove causes irritation and inflammations which, if re- 
 peated often enough, produce serious diseases of these im- 
 portant organs. It is now admitted that a large proportion 
 
 water. The sea-bather is also constantly inhaling the spray of the sea- 
 water, and thus obtains whatever benefit is to be got in this way. II 
 he can swim, he enjoys all the benefit of exercise. The motion of the 
 water and the buffeting he gets from the waves act as a powerful ex- 
 citant to the skin ; and, lastly, the salt in the water adds considerably 
 to the stimulating action. Eeaotion more readily occurs after a sea- 
 bath than alter a river-bath. — (" Baths and Bathing.") 
 
132 LESSONS m HYGIENE. 
 
 of kidney-diseaees are caused by the use of alcohol. Not 
 those alone who use alcohol " excessively " are liable to 
 diseases of the kidneys from the use of this drug. A 
 small quantity of wine or beer, as we have seen, causes 
 the little blood-vessels in all parts of the body to become 
 distended with blood. The person who takes three or 
 four drinks every day keeps these blood-vessels of the 
 kidneys in a distended state much of the time. An Eng- 
 lish physician * says : " The result of this must be an in- 
 jurious pressure of the distended blood-vessels upon the 
 tissues of the kidneys which interferes with the proper 
 nourishment, and also that it renders the organs more lia- 
 ble to the effects of chills, which are well known to be a 
 fruitful cause of kidney-disease."» 
 
 THE HAIE. 
 
 What it Is, — The hairs are modified forms of the scarf 
 skin. Human hairs are solid, but the central parts are 
 made up of cells loosely packed together to form a pith. 
 The shaft of a hair is the part outside the skin. The 
 root is the part which lies below the surface. At the 
 side of the hair are little muscles, by which it may be 
 made to "stand on end." The color of the hair is due to 
 a coloring matter in the cells. The flatter the hairs are, 
 the more readily they curl, f 
 
 How to keep the Hair Healthy. — The health of the 
 hair depends mainly on the general health of the body. 
 
 * George M. Harley, London " Lancet," March 3, 1888. 
 
 f The hair upon the head and the face protects from cold, and 
 shields the head from the rays of the sun in hot climates. It also 
 breaks the force of a blow upon the head. The eyebrows prevent the 
 perspiration from running from the forehead upon the lids. The eye- 
 lids protect the eyes from dust and other injurious matters. The short, 
 stifE hairs of the ears and the nose are also for protection to these open- 
 ings. 
 
HOW THE BODY IS OOVEBED. 133 
 
 A slight, continuous shedding of the hair, especially in 
 the spring and autumn, does not indicate ill health. The 
 hair should always be kept clean hy frequent washing^ 
 and by thorough hut not rude iruahing. Cutting the 
 hair tends to promote its growth. Great care should be 
 taken to keep the scalp from undue pressure from any 
 cause, and any covering of the head which prevents the 
 free access of air is to be avoided. 
 
 Thinning and Grayness cf the Hair. — Whatever leads to 
 weakness of the body will injure the hair. Sometimes 
 early grayness, or the loss of the hair, is common in a 
 family. Sometimes they result from a local disease of the 
 Bcalp ; but usually they indicate a general weakness of the 
 body, or some overtasking of the mind or the emotions. 
 Severe illness, fear, worry, anxiety, or hard mental work, 
 may cause either of these results.* Various hair-dyes 
 and similar preparations are sometimes used to restore the 
 growth or the color of the hair ; but most of them contain 
 poisonous substances, which are liable to enter the skin by 
 absorption, and often produce serious results. 
 
 CLOTHING. 
 
 Why the Body should be Clothed. — The body needs to 
 be protected by clothing as much as the flesh and other 
 organs need the protection of the sMn. Savages, and 
 people who live in warm countries, wear much less cloth- 
 ing than those who are refined, or who live in colder 
 
 * The hair may become white or gray in the course bf a few hours. 
 In most cases this has occurred in connection with intense mental 
 agitation. The cases of Marie Antoinette and Sir Thomas More are 
 widely known, and more carefully authenticated cases leave no doubt 
 that such a change may occur. It is supposed to be caused by the 
 entrance of air into the pith of the shaft; but how its entrance there 
 is effected is di£Scult to imagine. 
 
134 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 climates. Those wlio go without shoes come to have the 
 skin on their feet so tough and thick that they can walk 
 and run without pain, even over stony surfaces ; and in 
 savages somewhat the same effect is produced by the gen- 
 eral exposure of the body. But in civilized countries the 
 general use of clothing has made it necessary, not only as 
 a protection from hurt and from extremes of heat and 
 cold, but also as a means of adornment. 
 
 How the Body should be Clothed, — The clothes we wear 
 should be carefully adapted to the needs of the body and 
 the demands of good taste. Parts specially exposed to 
 injury, as the feet, need the strong protection of shoes ; 
 and these need to be heavy or light according to the serv- 
 ice which they are intended to perform. The head needs 
 such a covering as will keep it warm in cold weather, and 
 cool in warm weather. It should also be such as will 
 shield the eyes from excessive light. Flannels, other 
 woolen goods, and furs, are best adapted to retain the heat 
 of the body. Hence they should be used in cold weather. 
 Cotton, linen, and silk readily conduct the heat from the 
 body, and should therefore be worn when the weather is 
 warm. Light colors are warmer in winter and cooler in 
 summer. 
 
 Special care should be taken to keep all parts of the 
 body absolutely dry at all times. "Whenever it is neces- 
 sary to walk in the wet, the feet should be protected by 
 overshoes, and water-proof garments and an umbrella 
 should always be used when they are needed. But, as 
 overshoes and water-proofs not only keep the moisture 
 out, but also prevent the perspiration from escaping, they 
 should never be worn in dry weather, or kept on in doors. 
 If, from unavoidable causes — as from excessive perspira- 
 tion, being caught in a shower, or stepping into the water 
 — any portion of the clothing becomes wet, it should 
 
HOW THE BODY IS COVERED. 
 
 136 
 
 be immediately removed, and dry clothing should be 
 put on.* 
 
 The clothing should never be worn so tight as to in- 
 terfere with the entire freedom of the body. Yery tight 
 
 Fio. 31.— Deformity of the ribs, caused by wearing clothing tight at the waiet. For 
 the natural position of the ribs see Fig. 26. 
 
 shoes and tight clothing at the waist, are the two most 
 serious evils in modern dress.f 
 
 * The neglect of these simple precautions has caused almost num- 
 berless colds, catarrhs, and more serious diseases. Pneumonia and con- 
 sumption often follow such, apparently slight, carelessness as wearing 
 insufficient wraps or wetting the feet. 
 
 f The apparent tendency of the times to more freedom in these ar- 
 ticles of dress is an evidence of the benefits of physiological study ; but 
 a great amount of instruction is still needed. Shoes with high heels, by 
 throwing the feet out of their natural position, frequently cause serious 
 injury to various parts of the body, especially the eyes. Care should 
 be taken to avoid any article of clothing which contains poisonous col- 
 oring-matter. No clothing should be worn which leaves any indica- 
 tion of color upon the skin. 
 
136 LESSONS m HYGIENE. 
 
 "Never allow yourself to feel cold if you wish to 
 avoid being ill," was the advice of a wise physician. " If 
 you feel chilly," said he, " put on more clothing, go into 
 a warm room, or exercise until you feel warm. In some 
 way get warm and keep warm." Much sickness may be 
 avoided, and many valuable lives lengthened by observ- 
 ing this rule.* \ / 
 
 HYGIENE .OF THE SKIN. 
 
 Since the skin is full of pores, some erf which give off 
 waste, and some of which absorb matter from the outside, 
 it is very important that these pores be kept open. As 
 the skin covers the entire body, it is also important that 
 every part of it should be kept soft and elastic, so as not 
 to press uncomfortably upon the delicate organs beneath. 
 
 From these facts, and from the foregoing discussion, 
 the following hygienic laws in regard to the skin become 
 obvious : 
 
 I. The skin should be kept clean, so as to allow waste 
 matter to be readily carried off. 
 
 II. We should exercise freely, so that the blood may 
 circulate properly in the skin. 
 
 III. The skin should be frequently rubbed, to help 
 the circulation of the blood, to excite the secretion of oil 
 which softens the skin, and to keep the scarf-skin from 
 clogging the pores. 
 
 IV. Drafts of air and sudden chills should be avoid- 
 ed, as they drive the blood away from the surface, cause 
 the skin to shrink, and close up the pores. 
 
 Y. In handling poisonous matter of any kind, we 
 
 * Very many colds are caused by insuffleient clothing. Whenever 
 a sense of chilliness is felt in any part of the body, it is a signal from 
 the nerves that more protection is needed ; and this warning should 
 be heeded, no matter in v?hat season of the year, or at what time of 
 day, it is given. 
 
EOW THE BODY IS COVERED. \Z1 
 
 shoulU' be careful not to let it come in contact with the 
 broken skin, lest it be absorbed. 
 
 VI. When, from any cause, we have but little vitality^ 
 we should not take a cold bath, because there is danger 
 that reaction may not follow. 
 
 VII. That the hair may be vigorous, it should be kept 
 clean, and brushed often, and the dry, harsh ends should 
 be clipped off. 
 
 VIII. The scalp should be kept clean and be some- 
 times gently rubbed; then it will supply the hair with all 
 needed nourishment, and will render the use of oil and 
 " hair-in vigorators " unnecessary. 
 
 IX. If you would have a clear and healthy complex- 
 ion, avoid the use of all kinds of alcoholic liquors. 
 
 X. Clothing should be changed with the temperature, 
 to protect the skin from extremes of heat and cold. 
 
 XI. Clothing worn next to the skin is soon filled with 
 waste matter, and should be frequently changed. The 
 same clothing should not be worn day and night. 
 
 XII. The clothing should not be worn so tight as to 
 keep the blood away from the surface of the skin, to in- 
 terfere with breathing, or to prevent the free use of the 
 muscles. 
 
 XIII. "We should never allow ourselves to feel cold. 
 If chilly, we should at once put on more clothing, go 
 where it is warmer, or in some way get warm and keep 
 warm. 
 
 SOMETHING TO FESTD OUT. 
 
 1. Why are the nails upon the fingers and^toes harder 
 than other parts of the skin ? p- I- ''.'"' i_ ■ ' '. 
 
 2. Why is the skin of the head furnished with a thick 
 covering of hair ? < ,- ..'X/.-;'''; 
 
 3. What becomes of the waste ma,tter throwp oat by 
 the pores of the skin ? ti>' - ■-^' " , 
 
138 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. . Ar\ ' 
 
 4. How does vigorous exercise affect the amount of 
 waste matter thrown off ? ^ "j ', ^-'!'^' -^l ^j"'^^ 
 
 5. What harm domes from breathing air filled with 
 this waste matter ? G-t-^v .u^ ^ t'.;., ). 
 
 6. Why should the plaster walls and ceiling of a 
 school-room be frequently whitewashed with lime? '*'' 
 
 7. Why is outdoor air better to breathe than the air 
 of inhabited rooms? (•^-'(A i„e 1. ^ ^ rui_c , q^ 
 
 8. How may^ tl^e- air of inhabited rooms be kept 
 pure? uUfcx-i v^L^ (_;,.. ' '■; 
 
 9. What causes the peculiar effect upon the skin 
 which is called " goose-flesh " ? C (■ ' . 
 
 10. When "goose-flesh" appears, or the skin becomes 
 suddenly pallid, what should be done ? ^'it. ^■c^ c^'^'^ 
 
 11. Howdoes the sldn appear when the blood circu- 
 lates freely through it ? '^ \ - . 
 
 12. What internal organs are relieved by the free cir-| 
 culation of the blood in the skin? -^ WH ^ v-k-'ic. J > r^^^*-^ 
 
 13. To .what danger are nurses exposed by being with 
 persons who are ill ? ' ^ ' If^ ^ >. ( , 
 
 14. What particular danger should be guarded against 
 in surgical operations ? /L ' _/»-\_j^./^ 'I' ^^ "l .^^ ^ - 
 
 15. Why, in taking a bath, is slightly warm water 
 usually safer than very cold water ? 0' ' " . ;' cac 
 
 16. In what way is an excessive use of soap in a bath 
 injurious? tc ^^^^-U/1 i. f^c-^' QjU^ '-''^\^ 
 
 17. Why is a boy, when dirty, more liable to do a 
 mean thing, than when he is clean ? . ^ . ^ ^^ -y^ •*/'-*'' ^n 
 
 18. y^fW^'alMchildren to blame for an untidy appear- 
 ance ?(i^hould they be reproached for it? \i f- .0. n^<.- v 
 
 19. Why is the practice of wearing fur caps and closfe- 
 fitting hoods injurious % Oi/h'Syyy^A. '- C ' ~ , ^^ O) 
 
 20. What kind of head-coverings are the best ^ far 
 summer? .4 ' ^^ : , j/ ^ , A ^^"Ct^rUt C^-et^ 
 
HOW THE BODY IS COVERED. 139 
 
 21. What peculiar head-coverings are wom by people 
 in very hot climates? v? ^^TY^ ' ' jTiJ^^^^J'^-^ 
 
 22. Why do we need more clothing when asleep ati 
 night than when we are about in the day-time ? ' ' '' '"^ '"^ 
 
 23. Why should we take off rubber overcoats and 
 overshoes immediately on coming into the house ? ■'r.^ \ 
 
 24. When we are exposed to great cold or heat, why 
 is woolen clothing better than cotton ? '-'*-^';^;J^S(^f3'^ 
 
 25. When our feet become wetland cofdjnowmay we 
 avoid chilblains ? ClAAy /" /^^ ^€«vv. uu.gja^- 
 
 26. Why do people in the Arctic regiops dress in th^ 
 skins of fur-bearing animals ? ^ -•x\j;Loa^'^'^ 
 
 27. In case of a slight burn or a scald, what part of 
 the skin rises into a blister ? , i^C-^^- L- 
 
 28. When the skin is burned, why should the air be 
 at once excluded ? ^4 .o<-^ KJv..^*-^<^n^ -a^^ ^'^<' rtt vx-^ 
 
 29. Of what use are linseed-oil, plasters of flour 
 mixed with water, and plasters of clay, in case of a burn ? f 
 
 30. Wha,t indicates, that the true skin has been cut or 
 burned ? J /'..- /^^ ^ ^ ^ • 
 
 31. How do the blood-vessels of the skin often become 
 permanently enlarged « C>oa.^ ^f c ^- (-. .^ . ( 
 
 32. How does the ,blood flow through these enlarged 
 vessels? 'S-^t^^-t^^^M^ . \ 
 
 33. What conMon of the skin often results? °Y^^ 
 
 34. When the skin fails to perform its work, ^on 
 what other organ does the work fall ? "^ ' ^' ',, l^ <- 1,,^ 
 
 35. What is the work of the kidneys ? i/"lL \ i ;. J ( «- 
 
 36. How are they affected by alcohol ^ - l , Y I ( ^' 
 
 37. What may the continued use of small quantities 
 of alcoholic drinks do to the kidneys? Q^^-t-c-L 'j.^, ' i-' '■ ..^ L 
 
140 
 
 LESSONS IN HTQIENB. 
 
 TOPICAL ANALYSIS OP CHAPTER X. 
 
 J7ses of Cover- 
 
 Fwictions 
 the Skin. 
 
 Care of 
 Skin. 
 
 the 
 
 The Hair. 
 
 Clothmg. 
 
 \i 
 
 Structure of the 
 Skin. 
 
 of 
 
 ^- 
 
 Alcohol and the 
 Skin. 
 
 How THE Body is covered. 
 
 Protects internal organs. 
 Performs important functions. 
 
 Structure varies : callus^orns — nails — hair. 
 Layers of the skin : 
 
 1. The soarf-skin : dandruff — coloring-matter 
 — complexion. 
 
 3. The true skin : elevations — openings. 
 How the skin is kept soft: oil-tubes— oil-glands. 
 
 1. Casting out waste: the sweat-glands — ^the kid- 
 neys. 
 
 3. Regulating heat : sensible and insensible perspi- 
 ration. 
 
 3. How the skin absorbs. 
 
 Cleanliness of the skin : necessity — ^bathing. 
 Temperature of the skin : clothing — artificial 
 heat. 
 
 1. Alcohol causes blood-vessels of the skin to en- 
 large. 
 3. Makes the skin dry. 
 
 3. Gives the kidneys too much work. 
 
 4. Small amounts injurious. 
 
 1. Uses of the hair : 
 
 1. Protects from extreme heat and cold. 
 
 8. Breaks the force of blows. 
 
 3. Shields organs of sense from injury. 
 3. Structure of hair : the pith — the shaft— the root- 
 3. Health of the hair : 
 
 1. Dependent on general health of the body. 
 
 8. Necessity of cleanliness. 
 
 3. Grayness and loss of hair. 
 
 4. Effect of emotion. 
 
 1. Clothing protects and adorns. 
 
 3. It should be sufficient in quantity. 
 
 3. It should he suited to circumstances. 
 
 4. It should be clean and dry. 
 
 5. It should be easy. 
 
 6. It should always keep the body comfortaUiy 
 
 warm. 
 
 Hygiene of the Skin. 
 Something to find out. 
 
OHAPTEE XI. 
 
 HOW BODILY MOTION IS DIRECTEI>, 
 
 fiodily Organs must act in Harmony. — If each internal 
 organ of the body should act without regard to the other 
 Organs, life could not exist ; for life can be sustained only 
 by the various organs acting together in harmony. If 
 the external parts, as the arms and the legs, could not be 
 made to act together, the body as a whole could do no 
 useful work, and the mind could not carry out its plans. 
 In order, therefore, that growth or repair may go on in 
 the body, and that the mind may make good use of the 
 body, all bodily movements must be under orderly confrol. 
 This control is effected by means of the nerves. 
 
 THE NEEVOTJS SYSTEM. 
 
 How the Nerves are Distributed. — Throughout the body 
 there is a nervous system, which in some respects is very 
 much like the system of blood-vessels; the parts that 
 correspond to the heart being nervous centers, and those 
 that correspond to the veins and the arteries being nerv- 
 ous cords. Starting from the nervous centers, these cords 
 divide and subdivide until they branch into great num- 
 bers of exceedingly minute, hair-like threads, extending 
 to every part of the body. In the skin they form a net- 
 work so close that the finest needle can not pierce the 
 skin without coming in contact with some of them. The 
 
142 
 
 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 most important nervous centers have special names, but 
 the cords are generally spoken of as " nerves." * 
 
 Nerve-Matter. — There are two kinds of nerve-matter, 
 ' white and gray. Under the microscope the white matter 
 appears as minute threads and the gray as tiny cells. 
 The white matter is much greater in quantity than the 
 gray, but the two are found together in all the nerves of 
 the body. 
 
 The Brain. — The principal nerve-center, correspond- 
 ing to the heart in the circulation, is the brain. It occu- 
 
 Fia. 82.— The brain inclosed in its membranes, and the sknll: a,b,c, folds, or con- 
 volutions, of the cerebrum ; d, the cerebellum; e, medulla oblongata;/, upper 
 end of the spinal cord ; g,h,i,k, central parts. 
 
 pies the main cavity of the head, and is carefully pro- 
 tected from injury by the skuU-. The front and upper 
 
 * The nervous centers are of various sizes, from the 'brain, 'whioh 
 ordinarily -weighs about three pounds, down to the little knots, or 
 ganglions, found in the course of the nerves in various parts of the 
 body. These knots are called "ganglions," or ganglia, as they 
 were called by the ancient Greeks, in whose language "ganglion" 
 
HOW BODILY MOTION IS DIRECTED. 
 
 143 
 
 part of the brain, about seven eighths of the whole, is 
 called the cerebrum ; the back and lower portion, the 
 cer^ellum, or " little brain." 
 
 The interior mass of the brain is composed of white 
 matter, but the entire surface has a thin covering of gray. 
 The surface of the cerebrum is made up of irregular 
 rounded ridges, ov folds, 
 giving to it a large amount 
 of surface.*- -In the cere- 
 bellum the ridges are 
 parallel and less rounded. 
 A deep indentation ex- 
 tending from front to back 
 divides the brain into 
 parts, so that in reality the 
 brain is double, corre- 
 sponding to the pairs of 
 the external portions of 
 the body. From the 
 nervous mass within the 
 skull twelve pairs of 
 nerves extend to different 
 parts o|-the head and face. 
 
 --Tne Spinal Cord. — From the brain a mass of nerves, 
 called the spinal cord, extends downward through the 
 
 Fio. 33. 
 
 Upper surface of the cerebrum, 
 showing the convolutions of the brain 
 and its double structure. 
 
 meant the same that " knot " does in ours. The word " nerve " comes 
 from the Greek word neuron, which means " cord." The word came 
 to be used because the Greek physicians, though they were the most 
 noted of ancient times, thought that the nerves were the same as the 
 tendons, which look much like the nerves and which we generally 
 speak of as " cords." 
 
 * The ridges of no two brains are exactly alike. In infancy they 
 are plainly visible, but they deepen and become more marked with 
 age. /In the civilized races the brain folds are deeper and much more 
 nuB&erous than in savages. They are also more extensive in a studious 
 
144 
 
 LESSONS IN HTQIENE. 
 
 spinal column to the lower extremity of the trunk. An 
 enlarged part of this cord, which lies next to the cere- 
 bellum and within the 
 skull, is called the meduUa 
 oblongata. 
 
 Thirty -one pairs of 
 nerves issue from the 
 spinal cord and extend to 
 the different parts of 
 the trunk and the limbs. 
 These are called sjrnial 
 nerves. Each of these 
 nerves issues from the 
 spinal cord in two parts, 
 or roots, one coming out 
 of a groove on the back 
 portion of the spinal cord, 
 and the other from a 
 similar groove in front. 
 Each back root brings 
 feeling to the spinal cord, 
 and each front root car- 
 ries orders to muscles. 
 These roots soon unite 
 
 Fio. 34. -The cerebram, the cerebellum, the ^nd form a single nervC, 
 epinal cord, and the general distribution -i • • i 
 
 of the nerves. and near their point of 
 
 and thoughtful person than in one who does little thinking. The 
 greater the number and depth of the folds the greater is the amount of 
 brain-surface, and the greater the amount of gray matter which covers 
 the surface. It is therefore supposed that the gray matter increases 
 with study and thought, and with any active business which depends 
 upon thinking and demands intelligent control. It is estimated that 
 in some of the most perfect human brains there are nearly eight hun- 
 dred square inches of surface. 
 
HOW BODILY MOTION IS DIREOTED. 145 
 
 meeting is a little knot of nervous matter.* These knots 
 form a row on each side of the spinal cord ; but, as each 
 lies in the course of a single nerve, they have no direct 
 communication with eacli other. 
 
 Sympathetic System. — Besides the nerves which branch 
 from the brain and the spinal cord, there is another set 
 or system of nerves by which such organs as the heart, 
 the stomach, and the liver are connected with one another. 
 The knots which serve as centers for these nerves are 
 linked together so as to form two rows, which extend, one 
 on each side of the spinal column, through the cavities of 
 the trunk, and along the neck into the head. This is 
 called the symjaathetic system, because through it the 
 organs thus connected can act together, or in " sympathy " 
 with one another. SmaR threads of nervous matter con- 
 nect this system with the nerves that issue from the 
 spinal cord and the brain. 
 
 NEEVOUS ACTION. 
 
 What the Nervous System has to Do. — Without nerv- 
 ous action the body and its organs would be as quiet 
 and as useless as a factory and its machinery witliout a 
 superintendent and workmen ; it would, in fact, be dead. 
 It is, therefore, plainly the worh of the nervous system 
 to carry on the processes of life in our bodies, and to 
 see that we get such knowledge, and make such use of 
 it, that our lives shall be of the greatest possible value to 
 ourselves and to every one else. To enable the nervous 
 system to accomplish as much as possible of this great 
 
 * In fact, every collection of gray matter, which is separated from 
 other masses of gray matter by intervening white matter, is called a, 
 gcmglion, and so even the difEerent parts of the brain are included 
 under this name. (Tracy.) 
 10 
 
146 LESSONS IN EYGIENE. 
 
 undertaking, each part of it has some special work to 
 perform. 
 
 How the Nerves carry Messages. — It is the special busi- 
 ness of the nervous cords to carry messages to and from 
 the nervous centers. Of the threads which make up 
 these cords, some report to the nervous centers as fully as 
 possible all that is going on in the part of the body where 
 they are placed and everything of importance that they 
 can find out by any means in their power. Because they 
 are able to do this work only by the sense of feeling, or 
 through some one of the special senses, these are called 
 nerves of sense or of feeling. It is the business of an- 
 other set of nervous threads to carry orders from the 
 nervous centers to the muscles whenever the nervous 
 centers decide that the muscles ought to make certain 
 motions. As the muscles move in obedience to the mes- 
 sages carried by them, these nerves are called nerves of 
 motion. Most nervous cords contain both these kinds of 
 threads, but some are made up of one kind only.* 
 
 "^e have an example of both these kinds of messages 
 when the naked toe comes in contact with a live coal. 
 A message is immediately sent along the nerve of feeling 
 to the brain, telling the mind that the toe is burning. 
 The mind at once telegraphs back along the nerve of 
 motion to the proper muscle an order to draw tlie toe 
 
 * The nervous threads that carry messages to the nervous centers 
 are conmonly called sensory nerves, and those that carry orders to the 
 muscles motor nerves. In just what way or by exactly what means 
 messages are carried by the nerves we do not know. Dr. Mapother 
 says : '^Nerve-force is, at least, a cousin of electricity, for the eleotrio 
 eel and ray give their shock by the masses connected with the brain ; 
 electric sparlcs may issue from the body, and, when dead, its. muscles 
 act by that great power as it the will directed them. The forces are 
 not the same, for electricity travels millions of times faster than 
 thought or will. At any rate, the nerves are like telegraph wires." 
 
sow BODILY MOTION IS DIRECTED. 147 
 
 away from it8 dangerous position. The muscle obeys, 
 and the toe is saved. 
 
 Work of the Nervous Centers in General. — It is the 
 business of the nervous centers (1) to receive the reports 
 brought to them by the nerves of sense; (2) to decide 
 what use shall be made of the information thus obtained ; 
 and (3) to direct the actions of the muscles when their, 
 action seems necessary or desirablcjA^ '■ • -' \ 
 
 What Some Special Nervous Centers have to Do;-^The 
 kind of work done seems to be about the same in all the 
 nervous centers, but the purpose of the work, or the part 
 of the body for which it is done, differs in different 
 centers. 
 
 1. The cerebrum is the seat of the mind, or the part 
 of the brain that acts when a person is studying, planning, 
 or doing other ment.al work. It is the part of the brain 
 that is used when we are deciding between right and 
 wrong actions.* 
 
 2. The cerebellum is the center which makes the 
 lirribs move together so as to help one another in per- 
 forming such acts as walking, skating, and swimming. 
 
 3. Sometimes the spinal ccrd receives messages from 
 the nerves of sense and gives orders to the muscles with- 
 out consulting the brain at all, and some of the smaller 
 centers can do the same thing. Because the spinal cord 
 and these centers can do this, they have charge of those 
 movements of the 'body which cam, he performed with 
 
 * When a pupil is intent on the study of a subject, and takes all 
 possible pains to understand it, the mind controls every step, the nerve- 
 action is direct, and both the brain and the mind grow. When he is 
 engaged in learning and reciting merely the words of a text-book, 
 with little or no attention to the thought, the mind is only half con- 
 scious, the nerve-action is almost mechanical, and neither the braio 
 nor the mind is much benefited. 
 
148 LESSONS IN ETQIENE. 
 
 little or no distinct thougkt.* The process of breatiiing 
 is chiefly under the control of the medulla oblongata.f 
 
 4. The small centers of the sympathetic system have 
 almost the entire charge of the heart, the stomach, and 
 the other vital organs, in which " they arrange the due 
 amount of blood to flow, and the heat or growth which 
 , results." Besides regulating the action of these organs, 
 the nerves of this system make any disturbance in one of 
 them felt in all the others. 
 
 The mind has no direct control over the action of 
 the heart, the liver, or any other of the vital organs, so 
 that the processes of life go on without the action of the 
 will. If the brain had to pay close attention to these 
 organs and processes, it could probably attend to but 
 little else ; and, besides, life would cease if ever the mind 
 should forget or fall asleep. 
 
 * If it [the spinal cord] is cut, thersfore, say in the loins, the man 
 feels no pain if his legs be hurt, nor can his will move them. The feet 
 of such a poor palsied fellow were tickled, and, being asked if he felt 
 it, he said, " No, but you see my legs do," for they were kicking about 
 Thus it was seen that the cord can receive feelings and call forth mo- 
 tions of itself. The brain of a sleeping child is at rest, but if you put 
 your finger on his palm it is grasped at once, the feeling being brought 
 to the cord, and the order for motion from it by reflex action, as we 
 say. Peelings are also sent downward ; thus, if you hit the nerve at 
 the elbow — the funny-bone — the little and ring fingers will tingle, 
 <Mapother.) 
 
 t Breathing is partly under the control of the will. We can sus- 
 pend our breath for a brief time, but soon the motion of breathing will 
 be resumed in spite of the will. A case is on record of a man who 
 could by an effort of his will control the beating of the heart. He tried 
 the experiment of stopping his heart " once too often," and it never 
 began again. 
 
 Coughing is caused by this kind of nervous action operating upon 
 the muscles in the lungs. When a bit of food gets into the windpipe, 
 the cough' throws it out. Diseases of the lungs produce the same 
 feelings as the presence of foreign substances, and hence lung-diseases 
 
HOW BODILY MOTION 18 DIRECTED. 149 
 
 HaMt and Training. — In whatever is done on purpose, 
 the mind, through the brain, directs the first steps. But 
 when actions are repeated a sufficient number of times, 
 the muscles become accustomed to the movement, and 
 the acts are performed with ease. "When this is the case, 
 the direction of such acts is given over to the lower nerv- 
 ous centers* and the actions are performed almost with- 
 out thinking. 
 
 The name given to this unconscious repetition of an 
 action is habit.\ The precision and rapidity of action 
 which come from habit constitute skilly and the method 
 by which skill is obtained is training. \ The training 
 which converts acts into habits relieves the mind and the 
 brain, and leaves them free to study new things and to 
 perform new acts. 
 
 are aooompanied by coughing. Sneezing is a similar action produced 
 by foreign substances or disease in the nose. The hiccough is a sudden 
 action of the diaphragm, caused by exhaustion, as from excessive laugh- 
 ter, or from the effect of alcohol. 
 
 * The lower centers are those residing in the backbone, and known 
 , as the spinal column. The higher centers, lodged within the skull, 
 are called the brain. (Sully's " Hand-Book of Psychology.") 
 
 f Habits once formed are diflBcult to overcome. Habits formed in 
 youth are the most lasting. The old man is slovenly because as a boy 
 he was untidy. The fine scholar can not in his oration entirely get rid 
 of the inelegant expressions of his childhood. The cruel boy, who is 
 unkind to his playmates or careless about inflicting pain upon ani- 
 mals, becomes the brutal man. 
 
 Good habits are equally durable. The kindly acts of the boy or 
 the girl ripen into kindness in the man or the woman. When effort to 
 do things well becomes a fixed habit, it makes life rich in well-doing. 
 
 % A young lady beginning to play the piano is obliged to fix her 
 whole attention upon the position of her hands and upon the keys she 
 is to strike. When training has given her skill, she strikes the keys 
 correctly without thinking, and she is able to give her whole attention 
 to the music. In like manner, skill enables the workman to do his best 
 work with the least conscious attention. 
 
150 LESSONS IN HYQIENE. 
 
 USE AJSTD ABUSE OF THE NEEVES. 
 
 Exercise. — Like the other parts of the body, the nerves 
 can neither become strong nor keep so unless they have 
 proper exercise. When we observe objects, find out their 
 qualities, and compare them with other objects, we exer- 
 cise the nerves of sense or feeling. When our hands do 
 something under the direction of the mind, we exercise 
 the nerves of motion. In both these cases, and m all 
 thinking, the hrain is exercised. 
 
 As all bodily action depends upon the nerves, the 
 whole body suffers if nerve-exercise is neglected. The 
 vital organs are then feeble in their action, the blood 
 moves slowly in the veins and the arteries, the muscles 
 become flabby and weak ; and the starved mind, working 
 through the starved brain, gradually loses its vigor, until 
 it becomes little better than idiotic. To prevent this 
 result, the mind requires daily activity in careful study, 
 or through some useful work.* 
 
 Rest of the Nerves. — The nerves also need rest. Like 
 the muscles, they become exhausted with exercise. Night- 
 ly sleep furnishes the necessary rest for proper daily ex- 
 ercise. If, during the day, the nerves are unduly exer- 
 cised or strained, they become enfeebled, and sleep does 
 not restore their vigor. If the strain is continued, sleep 
 is broken, the weariness increases, and the nervous system 
 breaks down, leaving the person a helpless burden to 
 
 * The nerves are greatly affected by emotion. By a joyous and 
 happy mood nervous action is increased, the vital organs are stimulated 
 to do their work well, and a glow of health pervades the whole body. 
 Orief diminishes nervous action. Sudden bad news sometimes so para- 
 lyzes the nerves that the heart ceases for a time to beat, and faintness, 
 or even death, is the result. Ill-temper, envy, sulkiness, and aU kinds 
 of selfishness and meanness, diminish nerve-force, and tend to derange 
 the action of the vital organs. 
 
HOW BODILY MOTION IS DIRECTED. 151 
 
 others. Excessive study, or excessive work of any kinds 
 which requires brain-labor, often results in congestion or 
 softening of the hrain, or in paralysis. 
 
 How Alcohol affects the Nerves. — Alcohol and other 
 narcotics deaden the nerves, and so diminish their action. 
 This eflfeet first shows itself in the nerves which control 
 the passage of the blood through the small arteries. The 
 half-torpid nerves can not keep the muscular walls of the 
 blood-vessels from expanding too much, and the minute 
 vessels are gorged with the unusual amount of blood 
 within them. This gives to the skin a peculiar redness, 
 which quickly shows itself in the delicate skin of the 
 face. 
 
 If the alcohol is continued until the habit of drinking 
 is formed, the derangement of the nerves becomes more 
 marked. The heart is weakened and grows feeble in its 
 action ; the nerves lose control of the muscles and the. 
 Kmbs stagger ; and all the organs are more or less out of 
 order, because the nerves which ought to produce har- 
 mony of action are paralyzed. 
 
 EflFect on the Mind. — You have learned that water is 
 an important part of the human body. A healthy brain 
 is more largely composed of water than is any of the 
 other organs. Anything that will deprive the brain of 
 this water, that should at all times saturate its tissues, 
 will injure it and make it unable to do good work. Al- 
 cohol has a strong affinity, or liking, for water. As it is 
 carried by the blood to all parts of the body, fewill not 
 only unite itself to the watenit finds but wilR'subftact^/^ 
 wate^ from the tissuesNleavirig them shrunken and unfit 
 to do their proper worg. 
 
 This is one of the ways in which alcohol injures the 
 brain. Such injuries of the brain cause injurious changes 
 in the character and ability of the drinker. The brain of 
 
162 LE8S0m IN HYGIENE. 
 
 the habitual user of alcohol is often found after death to 
 be unnaturally firm and hard as if it bad lain for some 
 time in alcohol. Alcohol has been found in such quan- 
 tities in the brain of a drinker after death that it might 
 be detected by its odor or by other tests. 
 
 When alcohol is taken, though only in small quanti- 
 ties, the brain of the drinker is gorged with blood. The 
 mind may then appear unusually active, but it can not do 
 as good thinking as it could without the alcohol. The old 
 notion that a little wine, brandy, or any alcoholic liquor 
 will help a person to do better brain work is a great 
 mistake.* Alcohol is an enemy to the brain and to good 
 brain work. ■ 
 
 Alcohol paralyzes the cerebrum much more quickly 
 than the cerebellum, ("in consequence, its effect is to de- 
 thron^for a time both the intelligence and the moral 
 nature,While the appetites and passions have sway in 
 proportion to the amount of alcohol drank. The drinker 
 loses his reason and judgment, and is left to do and say 
 many things that he would not if his mind were clear. 
 Kindness is thus turned to cruelty, honesty to dishonesty, 
 and truth to falsehood. The natural affections of the 
 drinker seem blunted. He does not hesitate to cause the 
 keenest pain to father or mother. He often deserts his 
 wife and children, leaving them to starve or freeze whUe 
 he spends his last cent for drink. In this way a man is 
 
 * With wine inflated, man is all upblown, 
 And feels a power which he believes his own ; 
 With fancy soaring to the skies, he thinks 
 His all the virtues all the while he drinks ; 
 But when the gas from the balloon is gone. 
 When sober thoughts and serious cares come on, 
 Where then the worth that in himself he found! 
 Vanish'd — and he sank grov'lling on the ground. — Crabbe. 
 
now BODILY MOTION IS DIRECTED. 163 
 
 often converted into a brute, dangerous to his family, to 
 his neighbors, and to himself. Continued drunkenness 
 often ends in delirium and death. 
 
 How Tobacco affects the Nerves. — The general use of 
 tobacco diminishes nervous action. It is a substance 
 which enters into the system without famishing any 
 needed element. It is in the body, but not of it. In suf- 
 ficient quantities it has a particularly paralyzing effect upon 
 the nerves which control the muscles of the heart and is 
 capable of weakening the heart's action to such a degree 
 as to cause spasms and insensibility. 
 
 Tobacco leads to uncleanly Jiahits and to carelessness 
 of the comforts and rights of others. Smokers and chew- 
 ers befoul with their tobacco the air which others must 
 breathe, and eject upon steps, floors, and sidewalks its 
 offensive juice. 
 
 Heredity. — Dr. B. "W. Eichardson says of the evil ef- 
 fects that result from the use of alcoholic liquors : " In 
 whatever way the physician turns his attention to deter- 
 mine the persistent effects of alcohol, he sees nothing but 
 disease and death, mental disease and mental death, phys- 
 ical disease and physical death." But great as these evils 
 are they do not stop with the health, character, and life 
 of the drinker. We say a child looks like his father. 
 That resemblance may not be confined to the face alone ; 
 the brain, nerves, and other organs, may be as much like 
 the fathers as the face. Alcohol will shrivel the nerves 
 and brain of the drinking parent, weaken his will, sear 
 and blunt the conscience, and give him a craving appe- 
 tite for more alcohol. It will make him coarse, cruel, and 
 brutal. As the face of the child may look like the face 
 of the parent, so the child may inherit any of these con- 
 ditions that alcohol has produced in the parent. 
 
 An appetite for alcoholic liquors with a weak will with 
 
154 LESSONS IN HTGIENK 
 
 wWeh to control it, i/nsanity, idiocy, epilepsy, and otlier 
 diseases of the brain and nervous system are frequent 
 results inherited by children from the drinking habits of 
 parents. The late Dr. Willard Parker said of such cases : 
 " When alcoholism does not produce insanity, idiocy, or 
 epilepsy, it weakens the conscience, impairs the will, and 
 makes the individual the creature of impulse and not of 
 reason." 
 
 Children inherit from their parents nerves weakened 
 by the use of tobacco as well as of alcohol, and the lives 
 of thousands of innocent persons are thus made miserable. 
 Usually the first drink and the first smoke are found to 
 be very disagreeable, but sometimes an inherited appetite 
 shows itself, and the sweet breath of the child becomes 
 foul with the whisky and tobacco which can not be kept 
 out of his way. Beginning with this unnatural appetite, 
 habits are speedily formed which make his life a burden 
 to himself and to others. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE NEEVES.^ 
 
 As the nerves control all the movements of the body, 
 both conscious and unconscious, and thus affect its nour- 
 ishment, we need to take the greatest care to keep them 
 healthy, and especially to avoid all courses likely to injure 
 them. 
 
 I. We must observe all the laws of digestion, so that 
 the brain and the nerves may be supplied with pure 
 blood. 
 
 II. We must avoid breathing foul air, or the nerves 
 will be paralyzed by the impurities of the blood. 
 
 III. To keep it in health, the brain should every day 
 be brought into vigorous action by some form of study or 
 thinking. 
 
 IV. Active daily exercise, by either work or play, is 
 
sow BODILY MOTION IS DIRECTED. 155 
 
 necessary to secure the healthful action of the nerves dis. 
 tributed through the body. 
 
 V. "We need a great variety of objects to observe, to 
 handle, and to study, in order that the nerves of sense 
 may receive sufficient exercise. 
 
 YI. We need a great variety of work, having for its 
 end some useful purpose, that the nerves of motion and 
 the brain may be excited to healthful action. ■ 
 
 VII. When we are tired we need rest, because as 
 much nervous force as we can spare has been used up. 
 Sleep, the natural rest from daily toil, should be regular, 
 and should continue until the vigor of the nerves is re- 
 stored. 
 
 VIII. The hardest study and the closest thinking 
 should be done when the nerves are most vigorous, and 
 that is usually during the first half of the day. 
 
 IX. We should never try to think or study when we 
 are sleepy. In the first place, we then need sleep more 
 than knowledge; and, in the second place, we gain very 
 little knowledge when the mind is weary. 
 
 X. We should avoid continued and excessive mental 
 work, because it may become so exhausting as to break 
 down the whole nervous system. 
 
 XI. When the nerves have become so exhausted that 
 we can not sleep, we must give up all labor and thinking 
 until the nerves have recovered their lost strength. 
 
 XII. Cramming for an examination is much more 
 exhausting than a much longer period of regular study, 
 and should be avoided. 
 
 XIII. We should try to do those things which will 
 form good habits, so that we may easily and certainly 
 perform good deeds throughout life. 
 
 XIV. We should take special pains to avoid doing 
 anything which tends to form bad habits, because it will 
 
156 LESSONS IN HYQIENE. 
 
 be always diflScult, and sometimes impossible, to correct 
 such habits when they have once been formed. 
 
 SOMETHING TO FIND OUT. 
 
 1. In study, what should always be our object ? 
 
 2. In the study of science, what evils come from try- 
 ing to learn merely the exact words of a text-book ? 
 
 3. What is the effect of adding careful experiment to 
 the study of a subject ? 
 
 4. In case we do not understand a subject that we 
 have studied, what is to be done ? 
 
 5. Why is it injurious to attempt to hold the breath 
 for any considerable time ? 
 
 6. When we have eaten too much, what symptoms, 
 besides sickness at the stomach, may we expect ? 
 
 To After we have learned to walk, what part of the 
 nervous system controls the act of walking ? 
 
 8. What trouble would there be if the mind had to 
 give constant attention to walking and similar acts ? 
 
 9. Why is it easier to perform an act the second time 
 than at first? 
 
 10. What is the result of doing one act repeatedly ? 
 
 11. When we perform acts without much thinking, 
 what have we acquired ? 
 
 12. What kinds of acts lead to the formation of good 
 habits'fof evil habits ? 
 
 13. What does a person need in order to become a 
 good base-ball player? 
 
 14. What term is applied to persons who do not like 
 to exercise either body or mind I 
 
 15. What good do we get from play that we do not 
 get from work? 
 
 16. What good results from work that does not come 
 from play? 
 
HOW BODILY MOTION IS DIBEOTED. 157 
 
 17. Why is night the best time for sleep ? 
 
 18. Wh^t good comes from having sleep at regukr 
 hours ? 
 
 19. Why should we give up study when we ai-e 
 sleepy ? 
 
 20. What kind of games are beneficial to students 
 while attending school ? 
 
 21. What kind of games would rather injure than 
 benefit them? W - , ■, ,Oj X-O^ .'- ' ^ 
 
 22. Explain how a game may be beneficial to a farmer 
 when it would injure a student. 
 
 23. "What class of people is most benefited by a week's 
 fishing in summer ? ■"•-'00 
 
 24:. How does alcohol cause the minute blood-vessels 
 to become gorged with blood ? / '•"' *"-" ' 
 
 25. How does work done by the brain, when it is 
 under the influence of alcohol, differ from that done 
 when it is in a healthy state ? 
 
 26. What part of the brain is first paralyzed by 
 alcoholic drink? 
 
 27. What part of the drinkerjs nature is then left 
 without restraint? \^ ^ ij^'\' ''^- ,l ■^' <^^' "^''t^ 
 
 28. What acts does the drinker com'mit-which show 
 how alcohol injures his moral nature? 
 
 29. In what condition is the brain of the drinker 
 often found after death ? 
 
 30. What do the childreji..of drinking parents fre- 
 quently inherit ?^ C\ v -■ 0-|ivii,^ I 
 
 31. What is the effect of alcohol on the nerves ? ^^-G-Q*- <^ 
 
 32. In what nerves does this effect first show itself ? vry 
 
 33. What is the result? (lP\/^ryU}T CC^yi/^Uf ^yy^% 
 
 34. What is the condition of the brain when the 
 blood-vessels of the skin are thus gorged ? Ccv . • oy\,rf~iyl4. -t 
 
 35. Will alcohol help the brain to do better work? (Y\^ 
 
158 LESSONS IN HTOIENB. 
 
 36. What kind of work does the brain do when thus 
 excited? i, t.( ' 
 
 37. "What can you say of the reason and judgment 
 after alcohol has been taken ? f^:. ^ Cr. ; 'jS\XOl . 
 
 3^. What is the result ? ^^' ' ' .- ■'>'''' U- '-' ' *!-■ 
 ZW. What is the conditioii of the nerves of the habitual 
 user of alcohol? ^^uc^aXXJ^ H ^ w 'aX'-jj-^Pc/ Q , >C \A- 
 
 40. "What movements are directed rand controlled 
 through the cerebellum ? O "L 'A i^ <- '-^ '" :. 
 
 41. Of what is the healthy brain largely composed ? '^ 
 
 42. What will be the effect if anythiog deprives the / 
 brain .of its due amount of water ? - - 1 '^''-t / ''--^ ' '-' ;- 
 
 43. What liquid has a strong aifinity for water? -^.^a>C 
 
 44. What does alcohol do as it is carried by the^ood' 
 to all parts of the body ? C>^:r5-^p^^t^J^:^r--"^'*'^^* r ' 
 
 45. What proof can you /cite that large quantities of 
 alcohol go to the brain ? O^^ l)- k.^ -^^ ■ ' ^ ' - -^ 
 
 46. What must be the effeqt of this upon the tissues 
 of the brain? "KaA..^ V.»3 
 
 47. When the brain is injured what is the eflfect upon 
 character and ability? ^"^ ';■ '"t^ ■ ■'' -.^^'M- ; " 
 
 48. Of what is the cerebrum the seat ? "L . ' t % \ * 
 
 49. Which part of the brain does alcohol most quickly 
 paralyze? Q-t/l/^^ijXM/Yyy - 
 
 50. What follows from this ? « .5-' a j ^ 
 
 51. When is a man like a brute ? U^iUi- "f^ U) /^> v 
 
 52. How does tobacco afEect the neryes ? \ ■ j^i^- 
 
 53. How does its action upon tha nerves affect the 
 heart? -*^ '^ ' .«- u ' j^C^i/h -^ -xi 
 
 54. What effects upon the habits and manners does 
 the use of alcohol often produce ? T" "* 
 
 55. In what way can we best avoid the dangers and 
 miseries which come from drunkenness ? \ Vc \ M^ > u 
 
ROW BODILY MOTION IS DIREOTED. 
 
 159 
 
 TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER XL 
 
 How Bodily Motion is directed. 
 
 Direotionnecea- j 1. To nurture the body. 
 1 3. - 
 
 sa/ry. 
 
 The Nervous 
 System. 
 
 fl- 
 
 Use and 
 . of Nerves. 
 
 To execute plans. 
 
 Distribution of nerves. 
 1. Centers : special names — various sizes — knots, 
 
 or ganglions. 
 3. Cords : start from centers — reach every part 
 of body. 
 Nerve-matter : gray cells — white threads. 
 Nerve-centers. 
 
 1. Brain : cerebrum — cerebellum — folds — 
 
 double structure — twelve pairs nerves. 
 
 2. Spinal cord : medulla oblongata — thirty-one 
 pairs spinal nerves — ^roots — knots. 
 
 Sympathetic system : knots — connections. * 
 
 Work of nervous system : carry on processes of 
 
 y\j life — get and use knowledge. 
 
 ' ing messages: nerves of feeling — nerves of 
 
 motion — nerve-force. 
 Generalwork of centers : receive reports — use in- 
 
 UtoTormation — direct actions. 
 Work of special centers. ' 
 
 1. Cerebrum : seat of mind and higher nature. 
 
 3. 'Cerebellum : harmonious movement of limbs. 
 
 3. Spinal cord: movements requiring little 
 thought. 
 
 4. Sympathetic centers : vital organs. 
 
 Exercise : thinking — daily activity. 
 Rest : sleep — joyous emotions. 
 Effects of alcohol. 
 
 1. Deadens nerves and diminishes action. 
 
 3. Gorges small arteries with blood. 
 
 3. Weakens heart and leaves muscles without 
 
 control. 
 
 4. Injures brain work and debases character, 
 
 5. Evil effects inherited by children. 
 Effects of tobacco. 
 
 1. Diminishes nervous action. 
 
 3. Causes filthy habits. 
 
 3. Evil effects inherited by children. 
 
 Hygiene of the nerves. 
 Something tofi/nd out. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 iJOW THE MIND GETS IDEAS AND EXPRESSES THEM. 
 
 What the Body is for. — The body and all the wonder- 
 ful organs and processes by which it is kept alive are of 
 no real use except to furnish a dwelling-place for the 
 mind, and the means hy which the mind can get Tcnowl- 
 edge and make good use of it. All that we know of 
 the world and the things in it we learn through the 
 nerves of sense. When anything found out by^the 
 nerves of sense is fully known to the mind it is called an 
 idea. 
 
 The Five Senses.^Though all the nerves of sense re- 
 port to the mind whatever they can find out, we know 
 that some of them can find out things which the others 
 can not. From nerves in the muscles we get ideas of 
 pressure and weight. Through the nerves of feeling in 
 the skin we get from the surface of objects the ideas 
 which are expressed by such terms as square and round, 
 large and small, hard and soft, rough and smooth, hot and 
 cold. But these ideas are not enough. The mind needs 
 to know about flavors and odors ; it must get from sound 
 its meaning and its music; and from light it must learn 
 the beauty of form and color. For these purposes some 
 of the nerves of feeling take the form of special nerves 
 of sense^ as those of taste, smell, hearing, and sight. As 
 there are at least five diflferent kinds of knowledge which 
 the nerves of sense bring to the mind, or five different 
 
BOW TEE MIND GETS IDEAS. 161 
 
 wajs in wliich the nerves of sense get information about 
 objects, we say that there are five senses. 
 
 THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 
 
 The sense of louoh is shared by the whole surface of 
 the body, and so can hardly be called a "special sense," 
 except when it is used for the purpose of getting knowl- 
 edge of objects. The skin is the special organ of this 
 sense. The nerves of touch end in the little elevations 
 or points of the skin, which we can see arranged in curved 
 rows at the tips of the fingers where the sense of touch is 
 most perfect. This is a very important senpe, and gives 
 us a great deal of information Ithat we could get in no 
 other way. It also makes' it easier for us to do many 
 things that we have to do, and it often gives us warning 
 of things that might do us harm. We should, therefore, 
 try to make it, and keep it, as perfect as possible. By 
 means of this sense the blind get, from objects which they 
 can reach, much of the knowledge which ordinary persons 
 get through the sense of sight. By it they learn, also, to 
 do many things for which most persons need to see. 
 
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 
 
 The Taste as a Sentinel. — Special J'care must be taken 
 that improper food be not admitted into the stomach. 
 The mind must keep close watch over all things eatdn, 
 and must reject such as will be likely to injure any part 
 of the body. One means by which the mind tells whether 
 food is good or bad is the sense of taste. 
 
 riavors. — When food is taken into the mouth, it gives 
 an effect which we ca\\ flMVor.* The nerves which flavors 
 
 * The primary and strongest flavors are sweetness, sourness, salt- 
 ness, and bitterness. Besides these, there are the flavors peculiar to 
 
162 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 affect give us the sense of taste. They are distributed 
 over the tongue and the back part of the mouth. Many 
 substances when taken into the mouth may be felt but 
 not tasted. Touch takes notice of certain qualities of all 
 substances ; taste notices flavors only, but not until the 
 surface of the substance yielding the flavor is dissolved 
 by saliva. We can get no idea of flavor except through 
 the nerves of taste. 
 
 Before flavors can be perceived, the substance must 
 come in direct contact with the nerve. When a strong 
 flavor has been tasted, the effect wiU remain for some 
 time, and will prevent us from noticing other flavors. 
 Except in disease, the flavor of nearly all healthful foods 
 is pleasant, and the necessary act of daily eating is thus 
 rendered agreeable.* 
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 
 
 Odors. — Another of the means employed to test foods 
 is the sense of smell. Certain substances give off some- 
 thing that we call odor. The nerves which odors affect, 
 giving us the sense of smell, are distributed through the 
 cavities of the nostrils.f Substances smelled do not come 
 
 different fruits, such as pesiches, grapes, etc., and the flavors peculiar 
 to the different varieties of the same fruit, as that of Catawba and of 
 Delaware grapes. It is thought by some that all possible flavors are 
 made up of different combinations of the four primary ones ; but this 
 point is not settled. 
 
 * The sense of taste is not a perfect guide in the choice of foods. 
 One condition of good digestion is that food shall be pleasant to the 
 taste. But such food is not always wholesome, and the mind must 
 have other means of deciding what shall be eaten. 
 
 The act of eating is agreeable ; but, if we give ourselves up to the 
 pleasures of the appetite, swine have an advantage over us, as they ap- 
 pear to enjoy eating even better than we do. 
 
 f The nerve of smell notices nothing but odors. Unpleasant odors 
 denote the presence of something hurtful. Pood that is tainted, or 
 
HOW THE MIND GETS IDEAS. 163 
 
 in contact with the nerves of smell, but when brought 
 near the nose make an impression through the odors 
 which they give off. Agreeable odors give us a sense 
 of pleasure, and also stimulate the whole nervous system. 
 
 THE SENSE OF HEAEING. 
 
 Sound. — Whenever an object of any kind moves, a 
 portion of the air is disturbed and set in motion. When- 
 ever an object has a continued motion to and fro, a simi- 
 lar wave-like motion, or vtbration, is set up in the air. 
 These vibrations strike upon the ear, and produce an 
 effect which is called sownd* The nerves by which 
 sound is perceived are the auditory nerves, and the 
 sense that has sound for its object is the sense of hear- 
 ing. 
 
 It is necessary that the mind should know what move- 
 ments are going on around it, so that it may avoid dan- 
 ger, and take advantage of circumstances to carry out 
 its purposes. It should be able to distinguish different 
 sounds for the pleasure that anusic affords. The mind 
 must also be able to distinguish and produce the sounds 
 used in speech for the purpose of understanding and of 
 
 that which gives off an unpleasant odor, is generally unfit for the 
 human stomach. Air that smells vile is unfit to breathe. A keen 
 sense of smell is very desirable, and it will be well to always •' follow 
 the nose " when it leads away from bad odors. 
 
 * The least number of vibrations that produce a sound which the 
 ear can perceive is sixteen per second. As the vibrations increase in 
 rapidity, the sound becomes higher in pitch. The highest sound that 
 the ear perceives is made by about thirty-two thousand vibrations per 
 second. Vibrations below sixteen and above thirty-two thousand per 
 second are silent to the human ear. 
 
 The sense of hearing may be cultivated so that the ear will detect 
 sounds which are not audible to other ears, and will observe differences 
 which were before unnoticed. This cultivation makes life richer by 
 the new enjoyments which it affords. 
 
164 
 
 LESSONS IN HYOIENB. 
 
 expressing thought. These ends it accomplishes by means 
 of the ear, or by its aid. 
 
 The Ear. — The ear, which is the organ of hearing, has 
 three parts: (1) the outside or external ear, which we 
 see ; (2) the middle ear, which is a small passage through 
 the bones, and is called the tym,pam,um, or drum; and 
 (3) the internal ear, which consists of several winding 
 passages in the bony structure of the skuU. The three 
 
 parts of the ear are 
 separated by thin 
 membranes which 
 stretch across each 
 end of the middle 
 ear like the heads of 
 a drum. A little tube 
 leads from the middle 
 ear into the throat.* 
 
 The vibrations of 
 the air striking the 
 outer membrane of 
 the drum, cause it to 
 vibrate, and the mo- 
 tion is reported to the 
 
 Pig. 85.— The parts of the ear; o, external ear; Tjpaijj thrOUffh the 
 
 nerve of hearing, 
 
 fl, passage ; c, membrane of the tympanum ; 
 
 <?— m, bones and their connections ; n — r, in- 
 
 terior canals and openings; 1,2, 3, small bones ^^^^^^ jg spread OVCr 
 
 of the ear, highly magnified. ^ 
 
 the passages of the 
 internal ear. Thus the effect of sound is produced upon 
 the mind. The quality and intensity of the vibrations 
 
 * Through this tube, air is admitted to the inside of the " ear- 
 drum" for the same purpose as through the hole in the side of a 
 common drum. When we have a cold and the throat is swollen, the 
 mouth of this tube may be closed, and we may become quite deaf for 
 a time. The remedy is, not to doctor the ears, but to cure the throat. 
 
HOW THE MIND GETS IDEAS. 165 
 
 are in some measure regulated by a chain of minute bones 
 within the middle ear, and by the limpid fluid which fills 
 all the passages of the internal ear. 
 
 Care of the Ear. — The ear needs but little care except 
 to be kept clean ; otherwise it should be let alone. The 
 wax which lines the outer passage is bitter, and prevents 
 insects from crawling in.* It should not be removed. 
 In summer, boys, while in swimming, often get water 
 into their ears. It frequently remains for a considerable 
 time, and is very disagreeable. This difficulty may be 
 prevented by stufling a little cotton into the ears before 
 going into the water. 
 
 " Boxing the ears," or striking them with the palm 
 of the hand, may seriously injure the hearing. The outer 
 head of the ear-drum may even be split or broken in this 
 way ; just as children, to make a loud noise, sometimes 
 force the air through a leaf or a piece of thin paper by 
 tucking it between the thumb and forefinger of one hand 
 and then striking it with the palm of the other hand. 
 Similar injury may be caused by making a deafening or 
 "ear-splitting" noise, in a person's ear, or by exposing 
 one's own ears to such a noise.f 
 
 THE SENSE OF SEEmG. 
 
 Light. — It is now generally believed that light, as 
 well as sound, is produced by vibrations. But while 
 sound comes from vibrations of the air, light is the result 
 
 * In spite of all oare, an insect sometimes gets into the ear, where 
 its movements sound exceedingly loud. When this happens, oil may 
 be used to destroy the life of the intruder, and then the ear may be 
 cleansed by means of a soft cloth. 
 
 f Blows upon the ear have rendered persons deaf for life, and in 
 some cases young children have died from the effects of sudden and 
 deafening noises. 
 
166 LESSONS m HYGIENE. 
 
 of vibrations of a fluid much thinner than air, and which 
 fills all the space between the earth, the sun, and the 
 stars. These vibrations have no efEect upon any of the 
 nerves of the body except the optic nerve, as the nerve 
 of the eye is called. Here it gives the effect which is 
 called light. 
 
 Need of Light. — The mind needs to know the forms 
 and positions of objects. The body, in traveling in 
 search of food, must avoid the abrupt precipice, the 
 dangerous pit, the deep water. It must have some sure 
 guide to the things necessary to its existence. The mind 
 must be able to judge of distance for purposes of use and 
 protection. It also has higher needs. For its own growth 
 and happiness it must be able to see the beauty which 
 color unfolds, and which is found in the shifting scenes 
 of mountain and sea, and in the varying forms of animal 
 and vegetable life. All these come to the mind by means 
 of light and through the eye.* 
 
 The Eyes. — The eyeballs are spherical bodies about 
 one inch in diameter, and are placed in bony sockets in 
 the front part of the skull. On . all sides, except the 
 front, they are protected by strong bones and cushions of 
 soft tissue. The eyelids, with rows of eyelashes along 
 their edges, can close over the front of the eyes, so as to 
 protect them from dust and insects. The eyebrows turn 
 the sweat on the forehead away from the eyes. Tears 
 keep the eyes moist, and winking spreads the tears over 
 their surface.f 
 
 * By noting the colors and shapes of plants, animals, and the 
 clouds about us, we train our eyes, and many artists have been thus 
 educated. Such beauties of nature give a constant joy, and every 
 cottage should have round it flowers like sweet-pea or wall-flowers, 
 which a few pence will buy. — (" The Body nnd its Health.") 
 
 t A tube connects the tear-qland with the nose, so that extra tears 
 
EOW THE MIND GETS IDEAS. 
 
 167 
 
 Structure. — The eye has three coats. 1. The outside 
 coat {sderotio), which is strong and tough, serves to keep 
 the eye in shape, 
 
 and also as a place "y^^^ — "^^X"^" 
 
 for attaching mus- ■- />^ y- ^s-X 
 
 eles. This coat 
 has an opening in 
 front, in which is 
 placed a trans- 
 parent membrane 
 {cornea), very 
 much as a crystal 
 is inserted in the 
 case of a watch. 
 2. The middle 
 {choroid) coat of 
 the eye is made 
 of softer tissue, 
 and contains the 
 blood-vessels that 
 supply the eye. The interior part of this coat is black 
 or very dark-colored.* 3. The inside coat {retina) is 
 formed by the spreading out of the optic nerve over the 
 back part of the eye.f 
 
 Fig. 36.— Horizontal section of the eyeball : 8d, sclerotic 
 coat ; C7n, cornea ; CA, choroid coat ; Ir, iris ; Aq^ 
 aqueous humor ; Cry^ crystalline lens ; Yty vitreous 
 humor ; Bt, retina ; Op^ optic nerve. 
 
 usually flow through it. In ease of great grief, or anger, the tears 
 overflow, and this excess of tears is called weeping. Sometimes the 
 tube leading to the nose gets obstructed, producing what is termed 
 a "weeping eye." 
 
 * The dark interior surface of the middle coat absorbs the light 
 which is not needed for clearness of seeing. When this black coloring- 
 matter is wanting, as in the ease of albinos, vision is defective. 
 
 f Get from the butcher the eye of an ox ; carefully cut away the 
 outer coats on the back side ; then darken a room, except one ray of 
 light. In this opening place the eye, as though looking out. On the 
 retina can then be seen a distinct image of objects outside, but they 
 
168 LESSONS IN HYQIENK 
 
 In that part of the eye which lies behind the trans- 
 parent membrane, the middle coat takes the form of a 
 colored curtain, which is called the wis.* If the curtain 
 is blue, the person is said to have blue eyes ; if gray, gray 
 eyes. There is an opening in the center of this curtain 
 through which we can see the black, or dark, color of the 
 middle coat. This opening is called the pujoU. 
 
 The Three Humors, — The eye contains three very clear 
 substances called humors. 1. The one just back of the 
 transparent membrane covering the front of the eyeball 
 is called the aqueous humor, because it is almopt entirely 
 composed of water. 2. The one just behind the pupil is 
 like crystal in appearance, and like a lens in shape, and so 
 is called the crystalline lens. 3. The humor which lies 
 behind the crystalline lens and fills the main central 
 cavity of the ball is called the vitreous humor, because 
 it looks so much like glass. These humors are so clear 
 that the light can easily pass through them.f 
 
 Muscles of the Eye, — Muscles in the interior of the eye 
 change the form and position of the crystalline lens, and 
 enlarge and diminish the curtain, or iris, for the purpose 
 of regulating the light. The motion of the eyeball is 
 mainly controlled by four straight muscles which turn it 
 up and down, and from right to left. Two other muscles, 
 
 appear upside down. Prom the same eye may be obtained an idea of 
 the brilliancy and transparency of the vi/reous humor, the jelly-like 
 substance filling the space back of the crystalline lens. 
 
 * The effect of light upon the iris may be seen by observing the eyes 
 of a oat. In a strong light the pupil closes so nearly that it appears 
 only as a faint line. In a dim light the pupil enlarges so much that 
 the iris nearly disappears. 
 
 f The structure of the eye may be seen by dissecting the eye of an 
 ox or a sheep ; if frozen, it can be cut and examined much more easily. 
 The lens of a fish's eye is round, and when placed upon a written or 
 printed page magnifies the letters beneath it. 
 
EOW THE MIND EXPRESSES IDEAS. 169 
 
 one of which goes through a pulley, roll the eye around 
 in its socket.* 
 
 Care of the Eye. — When we read or study, the light 
 should be thrown upon the book or object, and not into 
 the eyes. A glare of light in the eyes makes objects ap- 
 pear dim. On the other hand, we should avoid trying to 
 read or see small objects in a dim Ught. If the strain 
 which such a practice occasions is continued, it is likely 
 to weaken the eyes and produce temporary or permanent 
 blindness. Cross-lights, or lights coming into a room at 
 different angles, are hurtful to the eye. As these lights 
 are of different intensity, the muscles of the iris become 
 weary of trying to properly adjust the ever-changing 
 light"t 
 
 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH. 
 
 The mind has need to express thought as well as to 
 receive it. It needs not only to learn from the experience 
 of others, but also to give to others the result of its own 
 
 * When the interior muscles are too strong, the eyes are turned 
 toward the nose, producing what are called "cross-eyes." When the 
 exterior muscles are too strong, the eye is turned outward. These diffi- 
 culties can usually be remedied by a skillful surgeon. 
 
 f The eyes may be injured by looking directly at the sun or any 
 intense light, by keeping them steadily fixed for a long time on books 
 or other objects, by tight-fitting collars, by overheated rooms, by lack 
 of outdoor exercise, and in general by any practice or disease which 
 injures the health and vigor of the body. Weak eyes may sometimes 
 be strengthened by bathing them once or twice a day with water in 
 which a moderate amount of salt has been dissolved. They may also 
 be greatly protected by the use of a green shade for evening work. 
 Great care should be taken not to overtask the eyes after they have 
 been weakened by measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, or any like disease. 
 Near-sightedness and similar defects, whether inherited or caused by 
 abuse of the eyes, generally require the use of glasses. When possible, 
 those thus afficted should secure and follow the advice of a competent 
 oculist. 
 
170 LESSONS IN EYOIENE. 
 
 experience. The most effectiv^e means by which this 
 interchange of ideas is brought about is the voice aa 
 heard in speech. Certain combinations of sounds are 
 called words, and words express ideas. 
 
 The Voice. — The la/rynx\s, the prominence which lies 
 just above the windpipe. The slit-shaped opening from 
 the mouth into the larynx is called the glottis. Along 
 the sides of the glottis are thin membranes called vocal 
 cords. These membranes usually hang loose, but they 
 can be stretched and made to vibrate. They then pro- 
 duce sound in much the same way as it is produced by 
 the vibrating strings of a musical instrument. The sound 
 is the voice. 
 
 Speech. — The sounds of the voice will be higher or 
 lower as the vocal cords are more or less tightened, and 
 so vibrate faster or slower. By slight changes in the 
 opening of the glottis the sound can also be made to vary 
 in quality and quantity. The voice, coming out through 
 the mouth, is shaped into speech by the teeth, tongue, 
 palate, roof of mouth, and Hps, under the direction of 
 the mind.* 
 
 Care of the Voice. — Scarcely anything is more to be 
 desired than a pleasant voice. The possessor of such a 
 voice is sure to be heard when no heed is given to others, 
 and his presence gives pleasure where that of others 
 would give pain. To secure the possession of these pleas- 
 ant tones, care must be taken not to put too great a 
 strain upon the vocal cords in youth. Screaming, loud 
 
 * Speech is chiefly a matter of imitation. Children who are accus- 
 tomed to hear correct speech will usually speak correctly. During the 
 first three or four years of school-life, distinctness of speech may be 
 promoted by giving rather more than the usual prominence to the syl- 
 lables of words. Later the same object may be gained by short dail; 
 drills upon the vooal elements of the language. 
 
sow THE MIND GETS IDEAS. 171 
 
 wrangling, boisterous singing, and hallooing, all have a 
 tendency to break or harden the vocal cords, so that 
 afterward they can make none but coarse and harsh tones. 
 Care must also be taken not to use the vocal cords much 
 when the throat is sore from any cause. 
 
 EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL AND TOBACCO UPON THE SPECIAL 
 SENSES AND THE VOICE. 
 
 Like the rest of the nervous system, the health and 
 vigor of the special senses sufEer from the use of alcoholic 
 drinks, tobacco and other narcotics, not only because the 
 general tone of the body is reduced but also because the 
 nerves themselves are made less sensitive and steady. 
 Both alcohol and tobacco, by their deadening influence on 
 nerve-matter, make the nerves of sense less able to get 
 information and carry it to the brain; they make the 
 brain less able to take notice of the reports brought to it 
 by the special nerves of sense, less able to make good use 
 of the information received, and less prompt and clear in 
 the commands which it sends out through the nerves of 
 motion ; they also make the muscles to which commands 
 are sent less able to do as they are directed. 
 
 EflEects upon Touch. — Alcohol and tobacco deaden the 
 nerves of the skin and thus make them less able to notice 
 the peculiar qualities of objects with which they come in 
 contact. It is said that drunken men have sometimes 
 been fearfully burned without noticing the heat. The 
 trembling hand of one whose nerves are thus " unstrung " 
 is plainly unfitted for any work requiring steady nerves 
 or delicacy of touch. 
 
 Effects upon Taste and SmeU. — Alcohol dulls the sense 
 of taste by its powerful effects upon the tongue. The 
 biting effect of tobacco when chewed has a similar tend- 
 ency, and smoking not only dulls the nerves but some- 
 
X72 LESSONS m HYGIENE. 
 
 times causes cancer on the lips and on the tongue. The 
 delicacy of taste is also injured by disorders of the digest- 
 <<4ve organs caused by these articles. Tobacco-smoke dries 
 the lining membrane of the nose, and thus diminishes its 
 power to distinguish odors. The habitual use of snufE 
 destroys the sense of smell almost entirely. 
 
 Eflfects upon Hearing. — The use of tobacco tends also 
 to dry the delicate membrane of the ear and thus weaken 
 the power to distinguish sounds. Tobacco sometimes 
 produces inflammation of the middle ear and causes the 
 nerves of hearing to bring to the mind false reports of 
 ringing and roaring noises. 
 
 Effects upon the Eyes and the Sight. — Alcoholic drinks 
 often cause congested, or "bleared," eyes in those who 
 use them, in the same way as they cause red blotches on 
 the skin. Alcohol may also injure the interior parts of 
 the eye and produce what is known as "feebleness of 
 sight of drinkers." Sometimes it causes the optic nerve 
 to waste away until the images which fall upon the retina 
 are no longer correctly reported to the mind. When this 
 occurs, the sight is of course practically destroyed. To- 
 bacco causes the pupil to open unduly, the sight to be- 
 come confused, bright lines and "cobweb specks" to 
 appear, and the images to remain on the retina much 
 longer than they should. 
 
 Effects upon the Voice. — Both alcohol and tobacco are 
 very injurious to the voice, both by their direct efEects 
 upon the organs of speech and by diminishing the ability 
 of the mind to control their action. The " thickened " 
 speech of the drunkard is generally recognized. The 
 " smoker's sore throat " and " smoker's tongue " are dis- 
 eases familiar to medical men ; they diminish the smooth- 
 ness and purity of the tones and render the voice rough 
 and disagreeable. 
 
BOW THE MIND GETS IDEAS. 173 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 I. When tilings taste bad, we should examine them 
 with great care, and know that they are not harmful be- 
 fore we eat them. 
 
 II. We should be careful not to injure the sense of 
 taste by the use of tobacco and other pungent sub- 
 stances. 
 
 III. Things that smell bad should be avoided. 
 
 IV. We should try to know and enjoy pleasant odors 
 and sounds, especially those occurring in nature. 
 
 V. Keep all hard instruments out of the ear-pa»- 
 
 VI. Do not sit facing the light. 
 
 YII. Do not use the eyes much in a dim light. 
 
 VIII. Do not try to study or look closely with cross- 
 lights or other uncertain and varying lights. 
 
 IX. Do not attempt to see much when the eyes give 
 notice of exhaustion by sleepiness or pain. 
 
 X. Do not strain the vocal cords by continued loud 
 and high tones in singing or in speech. 
 
 XI. Use the voice gently at the period when it is 
 "changing," and always when there is any inflamma- 
 tion of the throat. 
 
 SOMETHING TO FIND Oin. 
 
 lyWhat-oart of the skin is best supplied with nerves 
 of senseJaEaisimerefore the most sensitive ? j 
 
 2. What can we find out by the sense' of touch ? i4\J/y\ 
 
 3. Why does a piece of marble feei cooler thaa a 9 
 piece of fur that lies by its side ? ^'^y(~^n£^ - g y ^^^ flcu 
 
 4. Does it ever happen that the marble^^fe warmer 
 than the fur under the same conditions ? l^^^^ ^ '*^ 
 
 5. Why can we not taste a piece of marble ? Ol^T^iX^ 
 
174 LESSONS m SYOIENE. 
 
 6. How can we tell the flavor of afruit ttiat we hare 
 heard described but have never seen. ^-**' "^Mf 
 
 7. What old fable shows the folly of decidingjupon 
 the flavor of grapes that grow out of reach ? ^^^/^frCOC - 
 
 8. Why can we notirelish thdLfl£^^jotf a oeach just 
 after taking quinine ? q^-^^^^^ T^"<?t-C C^<X>L. ' 
 
 9. What difference does the nerve of taste perceive 
 between the surface of a piece of .koft^ld^l 
 
 of soft cotton cloth ? ^^-:% "/)W<*^^^V 
 
 10. Why should we tek^ considerable time for each 
 of our meals ?-t4<X AXjU>J>^ ajg^- ^T >U ^ \M^ 
 
 
 11. Why should we not lUSHallvBpettd several hotuB 
 atameal? ''l>t-«"tX>SH-^ AJ 
 
 12. Why aife ^roses and lilacs bo freqiuently blanred 
 about houses? ■^^:i^^^'(yYy>--^^ -bWM>^-<^■<C 
 
 13. What would be the effect, if fragrant flowers 
 could be planted around all homes ? 
 
 14. Why should we object to having a tannery or a 
 slaughter-house put up near our dwelling ? 
 
 15. In what way can we turn to profitable account the 
 decaying vegetable and animal substances which give off 
 bad odors. 
 
 16. Why shonld we cultivate a liking for pleasant 
 odors, and learn to discriminate between them ? 
 
 17. What animals are noted for keenness of scent? 
 Of what use is this sense to them ? 
 
 18. What are some of the disadvantages of being deaf i 
 
 19. What pleasures of a high character do we get 
 through the ear ? 
 
 20. What special charms has an early morning walk 
 in the country in summer ? 
 
 21. When near by, why is the shrill whistle of a loco- 
 Jaotive or the clang of a gong disagreeable ? 
 
 22. Eead from Goldsmith's " Deserted Village" the 
 
, HOW THE MIND GETS IDEAS. 175 
 
 description of summer evening sounds. Wliat sounds 
 /are described, and why do they all make so pleasant an 
 impression ? 
 
 23. What advantage has the cultivated musician over 
 one who has no taste for music ? 
 
 24. What difference in shape do you notice between 
 the.^pil of a cat's eye and that of your own ? 
 
 ^0^ What differences do you notice in the iris of the 
 eyes of different persons ? 
 
 26. What in other parts of the body corresponds to 
 the coloring of the iris, and the black coloring-matter of 
 the interior of the eye ? 
 
 27. What is the color of the eyes of an albino, and 
 why is his sight defective ? 
 
 28. What are some of the useful ideas which we get 
 through the eye ? 
 
 29. What pleasurable emotions come from traveling 
 among the mountains ? 
 
 30. What from observing the sea ? What from a 
 walk in the garden ? 
 
 31. How does voice differ from speech ? 
 
 32. What are some of the disadvantages of a harsh 
 roice ? 
 
 33. What does a pleasant voice indicate ? 
 
 34. Why should njt little children be permitted to 
 eing " at the top of their voices " ? 
 
 35. What advantage comes from always hearing clear 
 and pleasant tones in speech ? 
 
176 
 
 LESSONS IN HTOIENE. 
 
 TOPICAL ANALYSIS OP CHAPTER XIL 
 
 How THE Mind gets Ideas and expresses them. 
 
 Use of the Spe- i 1. 
 cial Senses. ( 3. 
 
 T?ie Sense of] 3. 
 
 Touch. ] 3. 
 
 U. 
 
 14 
 
 The Sense of] 2. 
 
 Smell. 1 3. 
 
 U. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 The Sense of 
 Taste. 
 
 The Sense of 
 
 The Sense of 
 
 The Organs of 
 Speech. 
 
 of Al- 
 cohol akd To- 
 bacco. 
 
 To carry sensations to the mind. 
 To produce ideas in the mind. 
 
 A general as well as special sense. 
 Special when used for getting knowledge, 
 very important for many purposes. 
 The blind use it in place of sight. 
 
 Taste a sentinel guarding the stomach. 
 The nerves of taste. 
 How flavors are perceived. 
 Palatable foods. 
 
 The nerves of smell. 
 How odors are perceived. 
 Agreeable and disagreeable odors. 
 A guard to eating and breathing. 
 
 Sound-vibrations : the auditory nerve — hearing. 
 The ear : external — middle — internal. 
 Care of the ear. 
 
 1. Light-vibrations : the optic-nerve — sight. 
 
 2. Need of light: 
 
 1. To protect the body from injury, 
 
 2. To observe beauty in the world. 
 
 8. The eye : form and position — structure — muscles. 
 4. Care of the eye: direction of light — intensity of 
 light — injuries and remedies. 
 
 1. The need of expression. 
 
 2. The voice : the larynx — the glottis — the vocal 
 
 cords. 
 
 3. Speech : pitch — quality — quantity — articulation. 
 
 4. Care of the voice — pleasant tones — avoid strain- 
 
 ing the voice. 
 
 1. General and special. 
 
 2. Destroy delicacy of touch. 
 
 3. Dull the nerves of taste and smell. 
 
 4. Weaken and confuse the hearing. 
 
 5. Enfeeble and confuse the sight. 
 
 6. Render the voice rough and disagreeable. 
 
 Hygiene of the organs of special sense. 
 Something to find out. 
 
SUGGESTIONS FOE PEESERVING THE HEALTH 
 OP TEACHEES AND PUPILS IN PUBLIC 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 {/amed Sy the Depa/rtment of Public Instruction of the State of Nem 
 York and unanvmously a/pproved lyy the State Board of Health.') 
 
 Seating — Cloak - Booms. — Over - crowdiog endangers 
 health and life of teacher and pupil. Not more than fifty, 
 or at most sixty, children should be committed to the 
 care of one teacher. To accommodate this number, not 
 less than twelve hundred square feet of floor and eighteen 
 thousand cubic feet of air-space will suffice. Such an 
 amount of space is represented by a room forty feet long, 
 thirty feet wide, fifteen feet high. 
 
 Comfortable and convenient seats and desks should be 
 provided. Desk accommodation should be graded and 
 seats usually assigned according to size of pupils. Many 
 bad habits of posture^ sometimes deformity, may thus be 
 avoided. 
 
 Cloak-rooms or wardrobes, with pegs or hooks on 
 which to hang outer garments and wet clothing, should 
 be provided for each school-room. 
 
 Lighting — Care of Eyes. — Connected series of broad 
 windows afford better light than separated narrow ones. 
 Ordinary rooms are best lighted by a connected series of 
 broad windows on one side only, or, if wide, on opposite 
 sides. 
 
 Place desks so that the light comes from the left side, 
 
 or from left and right sides, as pupils sit. FupUs should 
 13 
 
1T8 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 never sit facing the light. Cross-lights, excessive, dim 
 and flickering lights, are also injurious. Curtains may 
 partially remedy defects of ill-lighted rooms, and should 
 be provided by the trustees. 
 
 Urge pupils to avoid excessively fine print, bringing 
 eyes close to books or work, and long-continued fixing of 
 the sight on any object. Urge the importance of ade- 
 quate and shaded light for evening study. Do not require 
 pupils to strain the eyes by reading dim blackboard work 
 or indistinct charts at long distances. 
 
 Examination of objects and models, molding-boards, 
 outline maps, blackboard exercises, and oral instruction 
 tirfe the eyes less than the use of text-books. Apparently 
 defective eyes shonld be examined by a competent oculist. 
 Pupils with imperfect vision should be favored accord- 
 ingly. Pupils having contagious disease of the eyes (pro- 
 ducing excessive purulent secretion) should leave school 
 and seek medical treatment. 
 
 Temperature — Ventilation. — From opening to closing 
 of sessions, school-rooms should be kept constantly at 68" 
 to 70° Fahr. At least once each hour note the indication 
 of a reliable thermometer so placed as to show the mean 
 temperature of the room at the level of pupils' desks. 
 
 Every school-room should be large, and should have 
 some special well-devised system of ventilation. If such 
 a system is provided, teachers are responsible for its intel- 
 ligent and regular use. If not provided, it should be the 
 first concern of every district. Much money expended 
 oa schools is wasted because of impure air in school- 
 rooms. 
 
 Open windows wide and thoroughly change the air in 
 the room at least once each hour of every session and at 
 all intermissions. Do not open windows at other times, 
 unless certain that no pupil is chilled thereby. Do not 
 
THE HEALTH OF TEACHERS AND PUPILS. 179 
 
 require pupils to remain in their seats when the room is 
 aired. Caution them to avoid drafts of air at all times. 
 
 If any part of the room is excessively cold or hot, 
 allow pupils to occupy the most comfortable positions 
 consistent with good order. Stoves which heat only by 
 radiation should never be used in school-rooms, but should 
 be replaced by some efficient method of convection to 
 supply pure air properly warmed, in connection with out- 
 lets to provide thorough movement of the room-atmos- 
 phere. If ordinary stoves are used, they should be so 
 surrounded as to protect pupils sitting near them from 
 excessive heat. Caution pupils to keep their clothing 
 perfectly dry and avoid needless exposure to wet. Give 
 every opportunity, consistent with good order, to dry wet 
 clothing. Caution against improper clothing. 
 
 Nearly all colds and kindred diseases result from im- 
 proper temperature, impure air, drafts, or improper 
 clothing. 
 
 Overwork — Exercise and Rest. — Avoid overtaxing the 
 powers of pupils, especially young children and those 
 having feeble bodies and excitable natures. Life-long ill- 
 health or early death is, in many cases, the result of over- 
 work in school. Do not confine young pupils to their 
 work long at a time or many hours a day. Do not expect 
 them to study at home. Avoid needless excitement in 
 connection with examinations, promotions, and prize con- 
 tests. Dissuade pupils not entirely strong from attempt- 
 ing too much. 
 
 Allow all pupils, especially young children, abundant 
 opportunities for the recreation afforded by free and 
 hearty outdoor play. Encourage systematic exercise by 
 means of calisthenics, gymnastics, and . proper athletic 
 sports. If necessary, instruct pupils to avoid rudeness 
 and dangerous violence. 
 
180 LEssoars in hygiene. 
 
 Urge pupils to avoid whatever has a debilitating effect 
 upon the system. Urge them to avoid late hours and to 
 obtain sufficient sleep. Teachers and pupils should rest 
 when fatigued as conscientiously as they work when 
 rested. Allow and advise pupils evidently ill to go home 
 and remain until able to return with safety. 
 
 Eating — Drinking. — Advise pupils who take their 
 midday meal at school to bring sufficient food and eat it 
 at the accustomed hour. Discourage eating at other times 
 unless the system really demands food. The habit of 
 eating hurriedly and immediately afterwards rushing out 
 to play, or of eating while at play, is injurious. 
 
 Be certain that drinking-water is not impure from 
 stagnation or poisoned by drainage from vaults and 
 similar sources of contamination. Many schools and 
 communities have been poisoned in that way. Do 
 not keep water in pails painted on the inside. Deter 
 pupils from frequent drinking as a mere habit. Teach 
 them to avoid waste of saliva by expectoration. Espe- 
 cially inculcate the injurious effects of stimulants and 
 narcotics. 
 
 Cleanliness — Neatness. — Keep school-rooms and out- 
 buildings scrupulously clean and school premises free 
 from malarial or unsightly accumulations of all kinds. 
 
 Urge upon pupils cleanliness of person and of cloth- 
 ing. Unclean bodies and soiled clothing may do much 
 to vitiate the air of school-rooms. Neglect of cleanliness 
 produces bodily discomfort and frequently disease, ren- 
 ders pupils vicious in various ways, and causes many evil 
 actions. 
 
 Trustees should provide at the expense of the district 
 wash-basins, towels, looking-glass, and other necessaries 
 for this purpose. Teachers should encom-age pupils to 
 use these articles when occasion demands. Pupils should 
 
TEE HEALTH OF TEA0HEB8 AND PUPILS. 181 
 
 remember that habits of neatness, good taste, and polite- 
 ness may be as useful in life as the lessons learned from 
 their books. 
 
 Provisions for Decency — Outhouses. — In numerous dis- 
 tricts there is a disgusting, degrading, and in every way 
 harmful, neglect of sanitary cleanliness about the school 
 premises, especially as regards outhouses. Such neglect 
 is a relic of barbarism, and should not be tolerated in any 
 civilized community. Public health, the bodily welfare 
 of children, and their moral safety require careful and 
 persistent attention to this matter. 
 
 An entirely separate and well-constructed building 
 should be provided for each sex. It and its approaches 
 should be carefully protected from prurient observers. 
 Great care should be exercised to prevent these buildings 
 from becoming offensive. 
 
 Trustees are responsible for this. Unsuitable out- 
 houses are nuisances, and any trustee has a legal right, 
 upon the order of the School Commissioner, to abate such 
 nuisances at an expense of not more than twenty-five dol- 
 lars. When the district is wholly unprovided with out- 
 buildings the trustee has a right, upon the order of either 
 the School Commissioner or the State Superintendent, to 
 make such provision at an expense of not more than fifty 
 dollars. 
 
 Trustees should see that these buildings are kept 
 scruptdously clean. Teachers should know their condi- 
 tion at all times, and should enforce needed regulations 
 concerning them. Pupils especially . should remember 
 that they are chiefly responsible for cleanliness and de- 
 cency in respect to these matters, and that in regard to 
 them their conduct at school will be taken by others as 
 an index of their training and habits at home. 
 
 Contagious Diseases. — Trustees may, after ten daya^ 
 
183 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 notice, debar unvaccinated papite from attending scliod 
 until vaccinated. 
 
 Pupils found to have any contagious disease-small- 
 pox, diphtheria, typhus fever, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, 
 measles, whooping-cough — should at once and continu- 
 ously absent themselves from school until a competent 
 physician certifies that their return involves no exposure 
 to others. 
 
 In case of reasonable doubt as to matters affecting the 
 health of pupils, consult the local Health Officer, or, if 
 necessaiy, the State Board of Health at Albany. 
 
 Statk Boabd or Health of Niw Tobk, 
 Albant, Januaxy 14, 1886. 
 Jaubs B. Mobbison, Esq., Superintendent of Ptiblie Instruction: 
 
 Dbab Sm : I have much pleasure in transmitting to you the 
 inclosed resolution, unanimously adopted by the State Board of 
 Health, in approval of the suggestions for preserving the health of 
 teachers and pupils in public schools, forwarded by you for con- 
 aideration. I am, sir, faithfully yours, 
 
 AitFBBO Ludlow Cakboll, Seereta/ry. 
 
 At a special meeting of the State Board of Health, on the 14U1 
 of January, 1886, the above suggestipns for preserving the health 
 of teachers and pupils in public schools were considered, and, on 
 motion, it was 
 
 Sesohed, That the suggestions for school-teachers, submitted by 
 the Superintendent of Public Instruction, be and herein are ap- 
 proved. 
 
 Beml/eed, That the paper be returned to the Superintendent of 
 Public Instruction, with the request that it be printed and ciico- 
 Jated by him. 
 
 Alfbed Ludlow Cabboll, Secr^tury. 
 
 January IB, 1886. 
 
THE HEALTH OF TEACHERS AND PUPILS. 183 
 
 State of New York: Department op Publio Instruction, 
 Superintendent's Opfioe, Albany, January ^6, 1886, 
 To School Commissioners : 
 
 It is hereby ordered that one or more copies of the above sug- 
 gestions be transmitted by the School Commissioners to the local 
 school authorities of every School District under their charge, for 
 the information and guidance of school oflScers, teachers, and 
 pupils. 
 
 James B. Mokrison, 
 State Superintendent of Public Inatruetion, 
 
WHAT THE WOKDS MEAN. 
 
 Ab-do'men (Latin, aido, to hide). The largest cavity of the body, 
 situated beneath the level of the diaphragm, and containing the 
 liver, stomach, intestines, etc. ; the belly. 
 
 Ab-sor'bents (Latin, ai and sorbeo, to suck up). The lymphatic 
 vessels which take part in the process of absorption. 
 
 Ab-sorp'tion. The process of sucking up fluids by means of an ani- 
 mal membrane. 
 
 Ac-oeVer-a-tor (Latin, eehr, quick). That which quickens motion 
 or action. 
 
 A-cet'ic (Latin, aceo, to be sour). Relating to the essential constit- 
 uent of vinegar. 
 
 Ac'id (Latin, acidus, from aceo, to be sour.) A substance usually 
 sour, sharp, or biting to the taste. 
 
 Ad'am's-ap'ple. An angular projection of cartilage in the front of 
 the neck. It is particularly prominent in males, and is so called 
 from a notion that it was caused by the apple sticking in the throat 
 of our first parent. 
 
 Al-bi'no (Italian, albino, whitish). A person having a peculiar white- 
 ness of the skin and hair, and a redness of the iris and pupU of the 
 eye. 
 
 Al-bu'men (Latin, dlhus, white.) An organic substance resembling 
 white of egg. 
 
 Al-bu'mi-noids (Latin, albumen, and Greek eidos, form). A class of 
 substances resembling albumen ; they may be derived from either 
 the animal or the vegetable kingdom. 
 
 Al'00-h.ol (Arabic, al Tcohl, a powder to paint the eyebrows with). The 
 intoxicating element of spirituous liquors. 
 
 Al-i-ment'a-ry Ca-nal' (Latin, alimentarius, from alo, to nourish). A 
 long tube, of varying form and size in its different parts, in which 
 the digestion of the food, or " aliment," is performed. It comprises 
 
186 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 the mouth, the pharynx, the esophagus, the stomach, and the small 
 
 and large intestine. 
 Al'ka-li (Arabic, al Tcali, the soda plant). A name given to certain 
 
 substances, such as soda, potash, and the like, which have the power 
 
 of combining with acids to form salts. 
 A-nat'o-my (Greek, anatome, cutting up, dissection). The study of 
 
 the diilerent parts and the structure of the body. 
 Am'y-loid (Greek, amnion, fine meal, and eidoa, form). A substance 
 
 similar to amyle, which is composed of ten parts of carbon and eleven 
 
 of hydrogen. 
 A-or'ta (Greek, aorteomai, to be lifted up). The largest artery of the 
 
 body, and main trunk of all the arteries. It arises from the left 
 
 ventricle of the heart. The name was first applied to the two large 
 
 branches of the trachea, which appear to be lifted up by the heart. 
 Ap-pend'age (Latin, ad, to, and pendeo, to hang). Something added 
 
 to a principal or greater thing. 
 A'que-ous Hu'mor (Latin, aqua, water). A few drops of watery, 
 
 colorless fluid occupying the space between the cornea and crystal- 
 line lens. 
 A-ro'ma (Latin). The agreeable odor of plants or other substances. 
 Ar-te'ri-al Blood. The bright-red blood in the left side of the heart 
 
 and the arteries of the general circulation. 
 Ar'ter-y (Greek, aer, air, and tereo, to keep). A vessel conveying the 
 
 blood from the heart outward to the organs ; so called because the 
 
 ancients thought these vessels contained air. 
 Ar-tio-u-la'tion (Latin, artieulo, to form a joint). The movable 
 
 union of bones ; a joint. 
 Ath-lefic (Greek, athleo, to contend for a prize). Belonging to 
 
 wrestling, boxing, running, and other manly exercises and sports. 
 Au'di-to-ry Nerve (Latin, aitdio, to hear). The special nerve of the 
 
 sense of hearing. 
 Au'ri-ole (Latin, auricula, the outer ear). The smaller and thinner 
 
 chamber of the heart on each side, which receives the blood directly 
 
 from the veins ; so caUed from a fancied resemblance in shape to a 
 
 dog's ear. 
 Au-to-mat'ic (Greek, automatos, self-moving). Self-acting ; not de- 
 pending on the will. 
 Bi'ceps (Latin). A muscle situated upon the front part of the arm 
 
 above the elbow, which serves to bend the elbow-joint. 
 Bi-cus'pid (Latin, hi, two, and cuspis, prominence). The name of 
 
 the fourth and fifth teeth on each side of the jaw ; possessing two 
 
 prominences. 
 
H'BAT THE WORDS MEAA. 187 
 
 Sile. The gall, or peculiar secretion of the liver; a sticky, yellowish 
 fluid, and very bitter to the taste. 
 
 Blonde. Of a fair, or light, color or complexion. 
 
 Bone. A firm, hard substance, of a white or pale-rose color, compos, 
 ing the skeleton or firmer part of the body. 
 
 Brain. The mass of nervous substance contained in the cavity of the 
 skull. 
 
 Bron'ch.i (Greek, bronchos, the windpipe). The branches into which 
 the trachea is divided, and which end in the air-cells of the 
 lungs. 
 
 Bru-nette'. Of a brown or dark color or complexion. 
 
 Ga-lis-th.en'ics (Greek, kalos, beautiful, and sthenos, strength). The 
 practice of healthful exercise of the body and limbs, to give strength 
 and grace of movement. 
 
 Callus (Latin, calleo, to be thick-skinned). Any excessive hardness of 
 the skin, caused by friction or pressure. 
 
 Ca-naV (Latin, canna, a pipe). In the body, any tube or passage. 
 
 Ca-nine' Teeth (Latin, canis, a dog). The pointed teeth situated just 
 outside the incisors, one on each side in each jaw ; so called because 
 they are very prominent in the dog, as well as in other flesh-eating 
 animals. 
 
 Cap'il-la-ries (Latin, capillus, hair). The smallest blood-vessels, be- 
 tween the arteries and the veins ; so called from their minute or 
 hair-like size. 
 
 Car-bon'ic Ac'id. (Latin, earho, coal). The gas which is present in the 
 air expelled from the lungs ; a waste product of the animal king- 
 dom, and a food of the vegetable kingdom. 
 
 Oar'di-a (Greek, hardia, heart). The upper opening of the stomach, 
 through which the food enters from the esophagus ; so called be- 
 cause it is situated near the heart. 
 
 Car'di-ao. Pertaining to the heart or to the cardia. 
 
 Car'ri-on (Latin, caro, flesh). The dead and decaying bodies of animals. 
 
 Car'ti-lage (Latin, cariilago). A firm, elastic substance, like India- 
 rubber, attached to the bones in various parts of the body, forming 
 a part of the joints, air-passages, nostrils, and ear. 
 
 Cav'i-ty (Latin, cavus, hollow). A hollow, inclosed space. 
 
 Ca'se-ine (Latin, caseus, cheese). The albuminoid substance of milk, 
 forming the basis of cheese. 
 
 Cer-e-berium (Latin, diminutive of cerebrum, brain). The little 
 brain, situated at the back and lower part of the head. 
 
 Cer'e-brom. (Latin). The brain proper, occupying the entire upper 
 portion of the skull. It is nearly divided into two equal parts, 
 
188 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 called hemispheres, by a cleft extending backward from the front 
 part of the head. 
 
 Chest. The upper part of the trunk of the body, inclosed by the spi- 
 nal column behind, the ribs on the sides, and the breast-bone in front. 
 
 Chlo'ral (a name formed from the first syllables of Marine and 
 alcoJwl). A liquid narcotic obtained by the action of chlorine 
 upon alcohol. 
 
 Cho'roid (Greek, chorion, skin, and eidos, like). A brownish-black 
 membrane forming the middle coat of the eye-ball. 
 
 Chyle (Greek, chulos, juice). Chyme changed in the duodenum, and 
 turned white by the emulsion of fats. 
 
 Chyme (Greek, chumos, juice). The pulpy liquid formed by digestion 
 within the stomach. 
 
 Cir-cu-la'tion (Latin, circulus, a ring), The circuit or course of the 
 blood through the blood-vessels of the body, from the heart to the 
 arteries, through the capillaries into the veins, and from the veins 
 back to the heart. 
 
 Clav'i-ole (Latin, clams, a key). A slender bone, shaped somewhat 
 like a key, placed horizontally at the bottom of the neck, between 
 the top of the breast-bone and the point of the shoulder. The col- 
 lar-bone. 
 
 Col'Iar-Bone. The clavicle. 
 
 Con'cave (Latin, concavus, hollow). Curved or rounded, like the in- 
 side surface of a hollow globe. 
 
 Con-ges'tion. (Latin, con, together, and^ero, to bring). An unnatural 
 gathering of blood in any part of the body. 
 
 Oon-nect'ive Tis'sue. A tissue consisting of loose fibrous bundles, 
 which is placed between the muscles and other parts. 
 
 Con-sump'tion (Latin, consumo, to take entirely). A disease of the 
 lungs, attended with a fever and cough, and causing a gradual de- 
 cay of the bodily powers. 
 
 Con-trac'tion (Latin, con, together, and traJio, to draw). The active 
 shortening of a muscle or muscular fiber. 
 
 Oon'vex (Latin, conveho, to bring together). Curved or rounded, like 
 the outside of a globe. 
 
 Con-vo-lu'tions (Latin, convolvo, to roll together). The foldings of 
 the external surface of the brain. 
 
 Cor'ue-a (Latin, comu, a horn). The transparent, horn-like substance 
 which covers the front part of the eye-ball, through which the light 
 
 Cor'pus-ole (Latin, diminutive of corpus, a body). One of the mi- 
 nute disks, concave on both sides, which give to the blood its red 
 
WHAT THE WORDS MEAN. 189 
 
 color; 01 one of the larger white globular bodies which the blood 
 
 contains. 
 Crys'tal-line Lens (Latin, crystallv/m, ice). A transparent, circular 
 
 body, rounded on its front and back surfaces, situated in the eye- 
 ball, just behind the pupil. 
 Cus'pid. (Latin, cvspis, a point). A pointed tooth next back of the 
 
 incisors. 
 Cu'ti-cle (Latin, diminutive of cutis, the skin). The scarf-skin ; also 
 
 called the epidermis. 
 Cu'tis Ve'ra (Latin). The true skin, lying beneath the cuticle ; also 
 
 called the derma. 
 Dan'druff. The small scales, or particles, which separate from the 
 
 scarf-skin of the scalp. 
 De-lir'i-um (Latin). A state in which the ideas of a person are wild, 
 
 irregular, and unconnected. 
 Den'tine (Latin, dens, a tooth). The bony or ivory-like part of the 
 
 teeth, lying directly beneath the enamel. 
 Der'ma (Greek, the skin). The soft, moist, and thick underlying layer 
 
 of the skin ; the true skin, or cutis vera. 
 Di'a-pliragm (Greek, diaphragma, a partition). The muscular sheet 
 
 which separates the cavity of the chest from that of the abdomen. 
 Di-ges'tion (Latin, di, apart, and gero, to bear). The preparation of 
 
 the food in the alimentary canal. 
 Dig'i-ti-grade (Latin, digitus, finger, and gradior, to walk). An ani- 
 mal that walks or steps on its toes. 
 Dis-ease'. An unhealthy condition of some part of the body. 
 Dis-til-la'tion (Latin, desiillo, to drip). The extraction or separa^ 
 
 tion of a liquid by making it take the form of vapor and then 
 
 condensing the vapor. 
 Duct (Latin, diuio, to lead). A narrow tube, usually designed to con- 
 vey away a secretion from the gland in which it is produced. 
 Du-o-de'num (Latin, duodeni, twelve each). The first division of the 
 
 small intestines, about twelve finger-breadths long. 
 Dys-pep'sia (Greek, dus, ill, and pepto, to digest). A disordered 
 
 condition of the stomach in which the process of digestion is 
 
 difiieult or painful. 
 E-las-tie'i-ty. The property of bodies by which they recover their 
 
 former figure or size after the removal of outside pressure or 
 
 force. 
 En-am' el. The dense material which covers the crown of the tooth. 
 Ep-i-der'mis (Greek, epi, upon, and derma, skin). The outer layer of 
 
 the skin ; the scarf-skin, or cuticle. 
 
190 LESSONS IN ETGIENE. 
 
 £p-i-glot'tis (Greek, epi, upon, and glottis). A leaf-shaped pieoe of 
 cartilage which covers the top of the larynx during the act of swal- 
 lowing. 
 
 Ep'i-lep-sy (Greek, epilambcmo, to seize or attack). A disease of the 
 brain causing the patient to faU suddenly to the ground, and 
 marked by loss of consciousness and by convulsions of the muscles. 
 
 I!-soph.'a-g^s (Greek, oiao, to carry, and phago, to eat). The tube 
 leading from the throat to the stomach, through which the food and 
 drink pass in eating. 
 
 Ex-cre'tion (Latin, excemo, to purge out). The process by which the 
 waste materials of the body are removed; also the materials ex- 
 creted. 
 
 Ex'er-cise (Latin, exerceo, to keep busy). BfEort or action of the body 
 for the sake of training, or of keeping its organs and functions in a 
 healthy state. 
 
 Ex-pan'sion (Latin, ex, out of, anipando, to open). The act of extend- 
 ing or spreading out. 
 
 Ex-pi-ra'tion (Latin, expiro, to breathe out). The act of forcing aii 
 out of the lungs. 
 
 Ex-ten'sor (Latin, ex, out, and lendo, to stretch). A muscle which 
 serves to straighten or extend a joint. 
 
 Eu-sta'chi-an Tube. A membranous canal, extending from the foro 
 part of the tympanum of the ear to the side of the pharynx; from 
 Eustachi, an Italian anatomist. 
 
 Fe'mur (Latin). The thigh-bone. 
 
 Fer'ment (Latin, ferveo, to boil). One of the minute living forms to 
 which the process of fermentation is believed to be due. 
 
 Eer-men-ta'tion. The change, or falling to pieces, of substances- 
 and the recombination which takes place under the influence of 
 the ferments. 
 
 Fi'ber (Latin, /Jra, a thread). One of the string-like portions which 
 constitute a part of the tissues of plants and animals. 
 
 Fi'bril (diminutive of fiber). A very small branch of a fiber. 
 
 Fi'brine (Latin, fihra, a fiber). The fibrous animal matter which con- 
 stitutes the clot of blood. 
 
 Fib'u-la (Latin, that which serves to fasten two things together). The 
 outer and smaller bone of the leg. 
 
 Plex'or (Latin, flecto, flexwm, to bend). A muscle which serves to 
 bend a limb or joint. 
 
 FUp'per. The broad fin of a fish. " 
 
 Fol'li-ole (Latin, diminutive of foUis, a bag). A little pouch or de- 
 pression in a membrane ; it has generally a secretory function. 
 
WHAT TEE WORDS MEAN. 191 
 
 Fanc'tion (L&tia,fwigor, fvnctua, to perform). The office performed 
 by any organ of the body. 
 
 Fun'gus (Latin, mushroom). A plant, like the mushroom, which 
 almost always grows upon and gets its nourishment from other 
 plants to which it attaches itself. 
 
 Gan'gli-on (Greek, ganglion, a knot). A knot-like swelling in the 
 course of a nerve ; a smaller nerve-center. 
 
 Gas'tric (Greek, gaster, the stomach). Pertaining to the stomach. 
 
 Gel'a-tine (Latin, gelo, to congeal). An animal substance which dis- 
 solves in hot water, and forms a jelly on cooling. 
 
 Gland (Latin, glans, an acorn). An organ consisting of foUieles and 
 ducts, with numerous blood-vessels; it separates some particular 
 fluid from the blood. 
 
 Glot'tis (Greek, gloita, the tongue) The narrow opening between the 
 vocal cords in the upper part of the larynx, by which it communi- 
 cates with the throat. 
 
 Glu'cose (Greek, glucus, sweet). A sugar less soluble and less sweet 
 than cane-sugar. 
 
 Glu'ten (Latin). Literally, glue; the gluey, albuminous matter of 
 wheat-flour. 
 
 Gus'ta-to-ry Nerve (Latin, gusto, to taste). The nerve of taste sup- 
 plying the front part of the tongue. 
 
 Gym-nas'tics (Greek, gumnazo, to exercise). The practice of athletic 
 exercises. 
 
 Hem'or-rliage (Greek, haima, blood, and regnumt, to burst). Bleed- 
 ing, or loss of blood. 
 
 He-red'i-ty (Latin, hereditas, heirship). The law by which living 
 beings tend to repeat themselves in their descendants. 
 
 Hic'cough. A spasm of some of the muscles used in breathing, accom- 
 panied by a shutting of the glottis and a sudden sound. 
 
 Hu'me-rus (Latin). The large bone of the arm between the shoulder 
 and the elbow. 
 
 Hu'mor (Latin). Moisture : the humors are transparent contents of 
 the eyebaU. 
 
 Hy'gi-ene (Greek, hugieia, health). The art of preserving health and 
 preventing disease. 
 
 I-de'a (Greek, outward appearance). The complete conception of an 
 object. 
 
 In-oi'sor (Latin, incido, to cut). Applied to the four front teeth of 
 both jaws, which have sharp, cutting edges. 
 
 In-den-ta'tion (Latin, in, and dens, a tooth). A notch in the margin 
 of anything. 
 
192 LESSONS IN ETGIENE. 
 
 In-fe'ri-or Ve'na Ca'va (Latin, lower hollow vein). The chief vein 
 
 of the lower part of the body. 
 In-flam-ma'tion (Latin, prefix in, &nd flammo, to flame). A peculiai 
 
 diseased condition of any part of an animal body. 
 In-gre'di-ent (Latin, ingredior, to go into). That which enters into 
 
 a compound as one of its constituents. 
 In-h.ib'it-o-ry (Latin, in, not, and habeo, to have). Tending to 
 
 check or hold back. 
 In-spi-ra'tion (Latin, in, and spiro, apiratum, to breathe). The act 
 
 of drawing in the breath. 
 In-ter-cos'tal Mus'cles (Latin, inter, between, and eosta, a rib). The 
 
 muscles which are situated between the ribs, and which move the 
 
 ribs in respiration. 
 Izi-tes'ti-nal Juice. A sticky secretion produced by the lining mem- 
 brane of the small intestine. 
 In-tes'tine (Latin, intus, within). The part of the alimentary canal 
 
 which is continuous with the lower end of the stomach ; also called 
 
 the bowels. 
 I'ris (Latin, iris, the rainbow). The thin, muscular ling which lies 
 
 between the cornea and crystalline lens, and which gives the eye its 
 
 brown, blue, or other color. 
 Jaun'dice (French, javme, yellow). A disease in which the skin as- 
 sumes a yellowish color, supposed to be caused by an excess of bUe. 
 Xjac'te-als (Latin, lac, lactis, milk). The absorbent vessels of the 
 
 small intestines ; during digestion they are filled with chyle, which 
 
 has a milky appearance. 
 Lar'ynx (Greek). The box of cartilage situated at the top of th» 
 
 windpipe, through which the air passes from the throat into the 
 
 trachea ; the organ of the voice. 
 Lens (Latin). Literally, a lentil; a piece of transparent glass or 
 
 other substance so shaped as either to bring together or disperse the 
 
 rays of light. 
 Lig'a-ment (Latin, ligo, to bind). A fibrous band or cord, serving to 
 
 bind bones or other solid parts together. 
 Liv'er. The largest gland in the body, reddish in color, situated 
 
 mainly on the right side, below the diaphragm. From the venous 
 
 blood passing through it, it secretes bile. The liver produces from 
 
 the blood an animal starch. 
 Lobe. A round, projecting part of an organ, as of the liver, hmgs, 
 
 or brain. 
 Loin. That part of an animal just above the hip-bona 
 Lu'bri-cate. To make smooth or slippery. 
 
WSAT THE WORDS MEAN. 193 
 
 Lung. One of the two organs of respiration in an air-breatliing 
 animal, 
 
 Lymph (Latin, lympha, spring-water). Tlie colorless, watery fluid 
 conveyed by the lymphatic vessels. 
 
 Lym-phat'io Ves'sels. A set of very thin, delicate vessels, which 
 absorb tho lymph from the tissues of tho body, and convey it in- 
 ward toward the center of the venous system. 
 
 Uac-a- o'ni (Greek, malcar, blessed). An article of food, composed 
 chiefly of wheat-flour made into long, slender tubes, and much used 
 in Italy. 
 
 Mar'row. The soft, fatty substance contained in the central cavities 
 of the bones : the spinal marrow, however, is composed of nervous 
 tissue. 
 
 iUas'se-ter (Greek, massaomai, to chew). A strong muscle situated 
 upon the side of the face, which moves the lower jaw from below 
 upward in chewing. 
 
 Ilas-ti-ca'tion (Latin, mastico, to chew). The act of cutting and 
 grinding the food to pieces by means of the teeth. 
 
 lle-dul'la Ob-lon-ga'ta (Latin). The "oblong marrow," or nerv- 
 ous cord, which is continuous with the spinal cord within the skull. 
 
 Uem'brane (Latin, memhrwm, a, limb or member). A thin layer of 
 tissue serving, to cover some part of the body. 
 
 Mi'cro-scope (Greek, mikros, small, and sJcopeo, to look at). An op- 
 tical instrument which magnifies objects. 
 
 SEo'lar (Latin, mola, a mill). The name applied to the three back 
 teeth of each side of the jaw, which are adapted for grinding the 
 food like millstones. 
 
 Mold (Latin, molo, to grind or bruise). The downy growth of micro- 
 scopic plants, which forms on bodies that lie long in warm and 
 damp air. 
 
 Mor'phine (Greek, Morpheus, the god of dreams or sleep). A nar- 
 cotic, or sleep-producing drug, extracted from opium. 
 
 Mo'tor (Latin, moveo, motum, to move). Causing motion ; the name 
 of those nerves which conduct to the muscles the stimulus which 
 causes them to contract. 
 
 SIu'cous lyCem'brane. The thin layer of tissue which covers those 
 internal cavities or passages which communicate with the externa' 
 air. 
 
 jyiu'cus (Latin). The sticky fluid which is secreted by mucous mem- 
 branes, and which serves to keep them in a moist condition. 
 
 Mu-ri-at'ic Ac'id. An acid consisting of one part of hydrogen and 
 one of chlorine. 
 U 
 
194 LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 lyCus'cles (Latin, nvusculus, a little mouse). A band of fibers acting 
 
 as an organ of motion in animal bodies. The voluntary muscles 
 
 act in obedience to the will, and contract suddenly ; the involitn- 
 
 ta/ry muscles do not obey the will, and contract slowly. 
 Nar-cot'ic (Greek, narkao, to benumb). A medicine which, in poi- 
 sonous doses, produces stupor, convulsions, and sometimes death. 
 Na'sal (Latin, nasus, the nose). Pertaining to the nose ; the nasal 
 
 cavities contain the special nerve of smell. 
 Nau'se-a (Greek, naus, a ship). A sickness of the stomach similar to 
 
 that caused by the motion of a ship at sea. 
 Nerve (Greek, neuron, a cord or string). A glistening, white cord, 
 
 shaped like a tube, and connecting the brain or spinal cord with 
 
 some other organ of the body. The nerves are the telegraph-wires 
 
 of the body. 
 Nerve-Fi'ber. A very slender thread of nervous tissue found in the 
 
 nerves ; it is of a white color. 
 Nos'tril (Anglo-Saxon, nosu, nose, and thyrl, a hole). One of the 
 
 two outer openings of the nose. 
 Nurfure. To train up with care; the food and attention necessary to 
 
 such training. 
 Nu-tri'tion (Latin, nutria, to nourish). The processes by which the 
 
 nourishment of the body is accomplished. 
 Ol-fac'to-ry (Latin, olfacio, to smell). Pertaining to the sense of 
 
 smell. 
 O'pi-um. A narcotic drug obtained from the juice of the white poppy. 
 Op'tic (Greek, opto, to see). Pertaining to the sense of sight. 
 Or'gan (Greek, organon, an instrument). Any part of the body which 
 
 is adapted to perform a particular service, such as the heart, the 
 
 stomach, the brain. 
 Ox-id-a'tion. The combination of oxygen with metals and other 
 
 substances. 
 Ox'y-gen. (Greek, oxris, sharp, and genein, to bring forth). A gas 
 
 forming one fifth part, by bulk, of the atmosphere, and essential to 
 
 respiration. 
 Pal'ate (Latin, palatum, the palate). The roof of the mouth, consists 
 
 ing of the hard and soft palate. 
 Pan'cre-as (Greek, pas, pantos, all, and hreas, flesh). A long, flat 
 
 gland placed behind the stomach; in the lower animals this organ 
 
 is called the sweet-bread. 
 Pan-cre-at'ic Juice. The secretion produced by the pancreas. 
 Pa-pil'lsB (Latin, plural of papilla). The minute elevations in which 
 
 terminate the fibers of the nerves of touch and taste. 
 
WSAT THE WORDS MEAN. 195 
 
 Pa-ral'y-sis (Greek, paraliio, to loosen). A disease of the nervous 
 system marked by the loss of sensation, or voluntary motion, or 
 both; palsy. 
 
 Pa-tel'la (Latin, diminutive oi patina, a pan). The knee-pan. 
 
 Pel'vis (Latin, a basin). The bony cavity at the lower part of the 
 trunk ; the hip-bone. 
 
 Pep' sin (Greek, pepto, to digest). The essential principle of the 
 gastric juice. 
 
 Per-i-car'di-um (Greek, peri, about, and kardia, heart). The sac 
 inclosing the heart. 
 
 Per-i-os'te-um (Greek, peri, around, and osteon, a bone). A fibrous 
 membrane surrounding the bones. 
 
 Per-spi-ra'tion. (Latin, perspiro, to breathe through). The sweat, or 
 watery fluid poured out from the skin ; when visible, it is called 
 sensible perspiration ; when invisible, insensible perspiration. 
 
 Phar'ynx (Greek, jjTiarwia;, the throat). The muscular passage lead- 
 ing from the back part of the mouth to the esophagus. 
 
 Phys-i-ol'o-gy (Greek, phusis, nature, and logos, a discourse). The 
 science of the functions of living, organized beings ; the study of 
 the natural actions of the living body. 
 
 Pig'ment (Latin, pingo, to paint). Coloring-matter. 
 
 Plant'i-grade (Latin, planta, the sole of the foot, and gradior, 
 to walk). An animal that walks on the sole of the foot, as the 
 bear. 
 
 Pleu'ra (Greek, a rib). A membrane covering the lung and lining the 
 chest. There is one for each lung. 
 
 Pneu-mo'nia {dreik, pneuma, air, and^eo, to breathe). An inflam- 
 mation affecting the air-cells of the lungs. 
 
 Foi'son (Latin, poto, to drink). Any substance whose nature it is, 
 when absorbed into the blood, to injure the health or destroy life. 
 
 Por'tal Vein (Latin, porta, a gateway). The venous trunk formed by 
 the union of all the veins coming from the intestines, spleen, pan- 
 creas, and stomach. It conveys the blood to the liver. 
 
 Proc'ess (Latin, procedo, processus, to proceed, to go forth). Any pro- 
 jection from a surface. Also, a method of doing anything. 
 
 Pro'te-id (Greek protos, first, and eidos, form). An element allied to 
 nitrogen ; a substance containing such elements ; an albuminoid. 
 
 Pul'mo-na-ry (Latin, pulmo, pulmonis, the lungs). Pertaining to the 
 lungs. 
 
 Pxilse (Latin, ^eWo, pulsum, to beat). The striking of an artery against 
 the finger, occasioned by the contraction of the heart, commonly 
 felt at the wrist. 
 
196 LESSONS IN EYOIENE. 
 
 Pun' gent (Latin, pwngo, to prick). Sharply painful or biting. 
 Pu'pil (Latin, pupilla). The central, round opening in the iris, through 
 
 which light passes into the depths of the eye. 
 Py-lo'rus (Greek, puloros, a gate-keeper). The lower opening of the 
 
 stomach, through which the food passes into the intestine ; so called 
 
 on account of a circular band of muscular fibers by which the pas- 
 sage is guarded. 
 Qtii'nine (Spanish, guina, Peruvian bark). An extract of Peruvian 
 
 bark used to cure fever, and give vigor to the system. 
 £a'di-us (Latin, a spoke of a wheel). The bone on the thumb-side of 
 
 the fore-arm. 
 Be'flex Ac'tion. An involuntary action of the nervous system, by 
 
 which an external impression conducted by a sensory nerve is re- 
 flected, or changed into a motor impulse. 
 Res-pi-ra'tion (Latin, re, denoting repetition, and spiro, to breathe). 
 
 The function of breathing, comprising two acts : inspiration, or 
 
 breathing in, and expiration, or breathing out. 
 Bet'i-na (Latin, rete, a net). The membranous expansion of the optic 
 
 nerve in the interior of the eyeball, which receives the impressions 
 
 resulting in the sense of vision. 
 Bib. One of the long bones inclosing the cavity of the chest. In man 
 
 there are twelve on each side. The upper seven are called true 
 
 ribs; the other five are the false ribs, of which the last two are 
 
 called floating ribs. 
 Sa-li'va (Latin). The moisture or fluids of the mouth, secreted by 
 
 the salivary glands. 
 Sal'i-va-ry Gland. A gland which produces saliva. 
 Sar-to'ri-us (Latin, sartor, a taUor). The muscle which throws one 
 
 leg across the other. 
 Scalp (Latin, sealpo, to cut). The part of the skin of the head usually 
 
 covered with hair. It is the part cut off by Indian warriors as a 
 
 token of victory over an enemy. 
 Scap'u-la. The shoulder-blade. 
 Scarf-Skin. The outer layer of the skin; the cuticle, or epider- 
 
 m/is. 
 Scle-rot'io (Greek, shleros, hard). The tough, fibrous outer coat of the 
 
 eyeball. 
 Se-ba'ce-ous (Latin, sebum, fat). Resembling fat ; descriptive of the 
 
 oily secretion by which the skin is kept fiexible and soft. 
 Se-ore'tion (Latin, secemo, seeretum, to separate). The process of 
 
 separating from the blood some important fiuid ; the fluid is also 
 
 called a secretion. 
 
WHAT THE WORDS MEAN. 197 
 
 Sen-sa'tion (Latin, sensus, sense). The conscious perception of an ex- 
 ternal impression by the nervous system ; a function of the brain. 
 
 Sen'so-ry Nerve (Latin, seniio, to perceive). A nerve of sense. 
 
 Se'rum (Latin, whey, buttermilk). The clear, watery fluid which 
 separates from the clot of the blood. It contains, besides water, 
 albumen and mineral substances. 
 
 Shaft. A long, slender body, lilse a stem or stalk. 
 
 Shoul'der-Blade. The flat, triangular bone of the shoulder; the 
 scapula. 
 
 Skere-ton (Greek, a dried body). The bony frame-work of an ani- 
 mal, the diflerent parts of which are kept in their proper relative 
 positions, 
 
 Skull (a shell or bone). The bony case which incloses the brain. 
 
 Sock'et (Latin, soccus, a kind of low-heeled shoe). An opening into 
 which anything is fitted. 
 
 Spasm (Greek, spasmos, convulsion). A sudden, violent, and invol- 
 untary contraction of one or more muscles or muscular fibers. 
 
 Spe'cial Sense. A sense by which we receive particular sensations, 
 differing from those of general sensibility ; such as those of sight, 
 hearing, taste, and smell. 
 
 Spe-cif ic Grav'i-ty. The ratio of the weight of a body to the weight 
 of an equal bulk of some other body, usually water, taken as the 
 standard. 
 
 Spher'i-cal (Latin, sphera, a globe). Having the form of a sphere. 
 
 Spi'nal CoVumii. The connected vertebras of the back ; the back- 
 bone ; the spine. 
 
 Spi'nal Cord. A cylinder-shaped mass of nervous matter situated in 
 the cavity of the spinal column. 
 
 Spine (Latin, spina, a thorn). A projecting point or ridge of bone. 
 
 Spleen. An organ largely made up of small vessels, and situated 
 within the abdomen, near the left extremity of the stomach. 
 
 Spore (Greek, sporos, a seed). One of the minute grains which in 
 flowerless plants perform the function of seeds. 
 
 Ster'num (Greek, stemon, the bieast). A flat, rectangular bone, ex- 
 tending vertically along the middle of the chest, to which the seven 
 upper ribs are attached. 
 
 Stim'u-lant (hai,m.,stimulo, to prick or goad on). An agent which 
 causes an increase of vital activity in the body or any of its parts. 
 
 Stri'a-ted (Latin, strio, to furnish with channels). Marked with fine 
 parallel lines. 
 
 Sub-claVi-an Vein (Latin, sub, under, and clams, a key). The great 
 vein bringing back the blood trom the arm and side of the bead; 
 
198 l,J!;iiliON8 IJS RyQIENE. 
 
 so called because it is situated underneath the clavicle, or collar 
 
 bone. 
 Su-pe'ri-or Ve'na Ca'va (Latin, upper hollow vein). The great vein 
 
 of the upper part of the body. 
 Sur'ger-y. That branch of medical science which treats of manual 
 
 operations for the healing of diseases or bodily injuries. 
 Sut'ure (Latin, auo, to sew or stitch). The seam or joint which unites 
 
 the bones of the skull. 
 Sym-pa-thet'ic Sys'tem of Nerves. A double chain of nervous 
 
 ganglions connected together by numerous small nerves, situated 
 
 chiefly in front of and on each side of the spinal column. 
 Symp'tom (Greek, sun, with, and ptoma, a fall). A sign or token of 
 
 disease. 
 Sys-tem'ic. Belonging to the system, or body, as a whole. 
 Tar'tar. A hard crust which forms on the teeth, and is composed of 
 
 salivary mucus, animal matter, and a compound of lime. 
 Tem'ple (Latin, iempus, time, and iempora, the temples). The part 
 
 of the head between the ear and the forehead; so called be- 
 cause the hair begins to turn white with age in that portion of the 
 
 scalp. 
 Ten'don (Latin, iendo, to stretch). The white, fibrous cord or band 
 
 by which a muscle is attached to a bone ; a sinew. 
 Text'ure (Latin, texo, to weave). The particular arrangement of tis- 
 sues that form an organ. 
 Tho-rac'ic Duct (Greek, thorax, the chest). A narrow tube running 
 
 from below upward within the back part of the chest, which is the 
 
 main trunk of the lymphatic vessels. 
 Tho'rax (Greek, thorax, a breast-plate). The upper cavity of the 
 
 trunk of the body, containing the lungs, heart, etc. ; the chest. 
 Tib'i-a. The principal bone of the leg below the knee. 
 Tis'sue. Any substance or texture in the body formed of various 
 
 elements, such as cells, fibers, blood-vessels, etc., interwoven with 
 
 each other. 
 To-bac'co (Indian, tabaco, the tube or pipe in which the Indians 
 
 smoked the plant). A plant used for smoking and chewing and in 
 
 snuff. It has a strong smell and a pungent taste. 
 Tra'ch.e-a (Greek, trachus, rough). The windpipe, or the largest of 
 
 the air-passages ; composed in part of rings of cartilage, which 
 
 render its surface rough and uneven. 
 Trans-par'ent (Latin, trarts, through, and pareo, to appear). Capable 
 
 of allowing light to pass through. Transparent bodies con be seen 
 
 through. 
 
WHAT THE WORDS MEAR. 199 
 
 Tri'ceps (Latin, tria, three, and caput, head). The large muscle which 
 
 straightens the arm, or that which extends the leg. 
 True Skin. The inner layer of the skin ; the cutis vera, or derma. 
 Trunk. The body, apart from the limbs. 
 Tym'pa-num (Greek, tumpanon, a drum). The cavity of the middle 
 
 ear resembling a drum in being closed by two membranes, and in 
 
 having communication with the atmosphere. 
 trrna (Latin, the elbow). The bone of the fore-arm on the little- 
 
 flnger side. 
 Var'i-oose (Latin, varix, a dilated vein). Unnaturally enlarged — ap- 
 plied only to veins. 
 Vein. A vessel serving to convey the blood from the various organs 
 
 inward to the heart. 
 Ve'nous (Latin, vena, a vein). Pertaining to, or contained within a 
 
 vein. 
 Ven-ti-la'tion (Latin, ventus, wind). The introduction of fresh air 
 
 into a room or building in such a manner as to keep the air within 
 
 it in a pure condition. 
 Ven'tri-cle (Latin, ventriculua, a little stomach). The larger and 
 
 thicker chamber of the heart, on each side, which receives the 
 
 blood from the corresponding auricle, and discharges it into the 
 
 artery. 
 Ver'te-bra (Latin, vertebra, a joint). One of twenty-six separate 
 
 bones, called vertebrae, firmly jointed together to form the spinal 
 
 column. 
 Ver'te-brate. Having a backbone formed of vertebrae. 
 Vi-bra'tion (Latin, vibro, to move to and fro). Quick motion to and 
 
 fro. 
 Vi'nous (Latin, vinum, wine). Pertaining to wine. 
 Vi-tal'i-ty (Latin, vita, Hfe). The state or quality of being full of 
 
 life. 
 ViVre-ous (Latin, vitrvm, glass). Having the nature bf glass. 
 Vo'cal Cords (Latin, vox, vocis, the voice). Two elastic bands or 
 
 ridges situated in the larynx ; they are the essential parts of the 
 
 organs of the voice. Their vibrations, communicated to the air, 
 
 produce the sound of the voice. 
 Vol'un-ta-ry (Latin, voluntas, wUl). Under control or direction of 
 
 the will. 
 Yeast (Anglo-Saxon, gist). A fungus, or low order of vegetable life, 
 
 which is made up of cells that grow and multiply in a fermenting 
 
 liauid, and to which the fermentation is understood to be due. 
 
BONES OF THE BODY. 
 
 The Head— 29 bones. 
 
 Skull. 
 (8 bones.) 
 
 Ears. 
 (6 bones.)* 
 
 Face. 
 (14 bones.)t 
 
 ' Front'al (froniale, frontlet — one in forehead). 
 
 Pa-ri'e-tal (paries, wall — one on each side of head). 
 
 Tem'po-ral (tempus, time — one in each temple). 
 
 Sphe noid (sphenos, wedge — one at base of skull, be- 
 tween temples and cheeks). 
 
 Eth'moid (etnmos, sieve — one between cavity of skull 
 and upper part of nose). 
 
 Oc-eip'i-tal (occiput, back of head — one at base of 
 skull). 
 
 Mal'le-us (mallet — outermost of chain, one in each ear). 
 In'cus (anvil — middle of chain, one in each ear). 
 Sta'pes (stirrup — innermost of chain, one in each ear). 
 
 Lach'ry-mal (lacryma, tear — one in each orbit). 
 
 Na'sal (nasus, nose — two, forming bridge of nose). 
 
 Malar (mala, cheek — one in each cheek). 
 
 Tur'bi-nate (twben, whirl — one in outer wall of each 
 nostril). 
 
 Pal'a-tal (palatum, palate — two, completing skeleton 
 of hard palate). 
 
 Vo'mer (plowshare — separating nostrils). 
 
 Su-pe'ri-or Max'il-la-ry (superior maxilla, upper jaw- 
 bone — two, forming upper jaw). 
 
 In-fe'ri-or Max'il-la-ry (inferior, lower — one in lower 
 
 Hy'oid (u and ddos, form, i<-shaped — one in neck at 
 base of tongue). 
 
 * In early life there is a fourth bone between the incus and the 
 stapes in each ear, but later it becomes a part of the incus. 
 
 f As the teeth are developed from the mucous membrane, they are 
 not usually looked upon as belon^ng to the skeleton. The temporary, 
 or " milk," set contains eight incisors, four canines, and eight molars. 
 Th^ permanent set may be tabulated as follows : 
 
 ' In-ci'sors (incido, to cut — four in the front of each jaw). 
 Ca-nines' (canis, dog — one on each side of each jaw, behind the 
 
 incisors). 
 Bi-cus'pids (bi, two, and cuspis, prominence — two on each side 
 H a of each jaw behind the canines). 
 
 Mo'lars (mola, mill — three on each side of each jaw, behind the 
 bicuspids). 
 
BONES OF THE BODY. 
 
 201 
 
 The Trunk* — 57 Bones. 
 
 Spine. J 
 
 (34 bones.) ' 
 
 Cer'vi-cal Ver'te-brse (cervix, neck — seven in the 
 
 neck). 
 Dor' sal Ver'te-brse (dorswm, back — twelve in the 
 
 back). 
 Lum'bar Ver'te-brse (lunibus, loin — five in the loins). 
 
 (Scap'u-la (shoulder-blade — one on upper part of back 
 on each side). 
 Clav'i-cle (clavis, key — one on each side, between top 
 of breastbone and point of shoulder). 
 
 Sternum (stemon, breast — one extending vertically along middle of 
 chest). 
 
 Bibs. 
 (34 bones.) 
 
 I'elvis. 
 (4 bones.) 
 
 ' True (upper seven pairs attached to spine, and tied 
 directly to breastbone .by cartilages). 
 False (lower five pairs attached to spine ; three pairs 
 tied to cartilages of preceding rib ; two pairs " float- 
 ing " unattached in front). 
 
 In-nom'i-nate {in, not, and nomino, to name — two 
 
 main bones of pelvis, forming hips). 
 Sa'crum (sacred — one between innominate bones, 
 
 formed of five consolidated vertebrse). 
 Coc'cyx (cuckoo — one below sacrum, formed of four 
 
 consolidated vertebrse). 
 
 The Limbs — 130 Bones. 
 
 Upper. J 
 
 (60bones.)f' 
 
 Hu'me-rus (upper arm — one in each arm). 
 
 Ul'na (elbow — one in each fore-arm, joined to the 
 
 humerus). 
 Ra'di-us (spoke — one in exterior of each fore-arm, 
 
 moving around ulna). 
 Car'pal {cwrpua, wrist — eight in each wrist). 
 Met-a-car'pal ijneta, beyond, ca/rpos, wrist — five in 
 
 each hand, between wrist and fingers). 
 Pha-lan'ges (battalions — three in each finger, two in 
 
 each thumb). 
 
 * Strictly, the scapula and the clavicle belong neither to the trunk 
 nor the arms, but simply connect them. The sacrum and the coccyx 
 may be classified as belonging to the spine. 
 
 f At the joints of the thumbs and great-toes are pairs of small 
 bones, eight in all, called sesamoid bones {aesamon, sesame-seed, and 
 eidos, like). 
 
202 
 
 LESSONS IN EYOIENE. 
 
 Lower. 
 (60 bones.) 
 
 Fe'mur (thigh-bone— one in each leg). 
 
 Pa-tel'la (little pan — one covering each knee-joint). 
 
 Tib'i-a (shin-bone — one in each leg, between knee and 
 
 ankle). 
 Fib'u-la (clasp— one bracing tibia in each leg). 
 Tar'sal {tarsos, flat of the foot — seven in each instep). 
 Met-a-tar'sal (meta, beyond, and ta/rsos — ^flve in each 
 
 foot, between ankle and toes). 
 Pha-lan'ges (battalions — two in each great-toe, three 
 
 in each of the others).* 
 
 * The confusion about the number of bones in the body arises from 
 counting them at difiEerent ages and omitting different sets. The fol- 
 lowing successive additions wUl explain the various numbers : 
 
 General bones of the skeleton 300 
 
 Bones of the ear in adults 6 
 
 206 
 Additional bones in the ear in children 3 
 
 208 
 The permanent teeth. . . 33 
 
 240 
 The sesamoid bones 8 
 
 15 
 
WHERE TO FIND THINGS. 
 
 (These references do not include the definitions under the title " What the Words 
 
 Mean.") 
 
 Abdomen, 55. 
 Absorption, 60. 
 
 by blood-vessels, 56, 60. 
 
 by the lacteals, 59, 60. 
 
 by the skin, 128. 
 
 of the food, 56, 60. 
 Accelerator nerves, 13. 
 Acid, acetic, 46. 
 
 muriatic, 112. 
 Adam's-apple, T6. 
 Air, carbonic acid in, IS. 
 
 changes in, in respiration, T8, 80. 
 
 dust in the, 77. 
 
 effects of impure, 80, 154, 180. 
 
 impure, 80, 163. 
 
 need of ventilation, 80-82. 
 
 pressure of, 11. 
 Air-cells of the lungs, 16, 11, 
 Albinos, 126, 167. 
 Albumen, 20. 
 
 Albuminoid substances, 20. 
 Alcohol, 5, 28, 32, 35, 36, 42, 44, 60. 
 
 and cold, 91-93. 
 
 effects upon digestion, 60, 61. 
 
 effects upon the bones, 113. 
 
 effects upon the brain, 86, 151, 
 152. 
 
 effects upon the face, 91, 131. 
 
 Alcohol, effects upon the heart, 73, 
 74. 
 
 effects upon the mind, 151, 152. 
 
 effects upon the muscles, 102, 103. 
 
 effects upon the nerves, 73, 149, 
 161, 158. 
 
 effects upon the special senses and 
 the voice, 171, 172. 
 
 habit of drinking, 37, 62. 
 
 hostUe to life, 61, 153. 
 
 in the arteries, 91, 151. 
 
 in the blood, 78, 79, 90, 91. 
 
 in the breath, 78, 154. 
 
 in the food, .37, 38. 
 
 in the liver, 63, 64. 
 
 in the lungs, 78, 79. 
 
 in the stomach, 36, 60-62. 
 
 narcotic effects of, 36, 43, 171. 
 
 nature of, 28, 32, 36, 36, 42. 
 
 poisonous effects of, 35, 36, 42, 
 48. 
 Alimentary canal, 99. 
 Alkali, 63. 
 Ankle, 116. 
 Animal heat, 20, 67. 
 
 how produced, 20. 
 
 regulated by perspiration, 128. 
 Antoinette, Marie, 133. 
 
204 
 
 LUSSONS IN HYGIENE. 
 
 Anxiety affects the hair, 133. 
 
 Aorta, 88. 
 
 Appetite, 66, 152, 162. 
 
 alcoholic, 37, 38, 45, 48, 62, 153, 
 154. 
 Apples, 22, 34, 42, 49. 
 Application of knowledge, 5, 6, 160. 
 Aqueous humor, 168. 
 Arch of the foot, 117, 119. 
 Arms, 13, 9.9, 116, 118. 
 Arrowroot, 20. 
 Arteries, 73, 88-91. 
 Athletic sports, 101, 105, 106, 179. 
 Auditory nerves, 163. 
 Auricles of the heart, 72. 
 
 Backhone, 15, 114, 115. 
 Ball-catcher, 119. 
 Barley, 45. 
 Bathing, 130, 131. 
 
 of eyes, 169. 
 Baths, 130, 131. 
 
 of soup, 129. 
 Beans, 20, 21. 
 Beauty in the world, 166. 
 Beef, 21. 
 
 Beer, 37, 45-47, 50, 60, 64, 102. 
 Beets, 20. 
 
 Biceps muscle, 118. 
 Bile, 59. 
 Bitterness, 161. 
 Blackberries, 22. 
 Blacksmith, 100. 
 Bleeding, 79, 94, 95. 
 Blonde complexion, 125. 
 Blood, 16, 71, 87. 
 
 arterial, 78, 89, 90. 
 
 change of color, 78, 90. 
 
 circulation of, 89, 90. 
 
 clotting of, 20. 
 
 corpuscles, 87, 88, 90, 102. 
 
 injured by alcohol, 90, 91. 
 
 Blood, injured by chewing tobacco, 
 27. 
 
 making of, 16, 55. 
 
 purification of, in lungs, 71, 73. 
 
 venous, 71, 78, 90. 
 Blood-vessels, 72, 99, 111, 167. 
 
 absorption by, 56, 60, 128. 
 
 injuries to, 90, 91, 93. 
 
 of the skin, 131. 
 Blows on the ear, 165. 
 Blushing, 128. 
 Bodily covering, 124. 
 Bodily motion, 97, 118, 141. 
 Body, 11. 
 
 cavities of, 117. 
 
 clothing of, 104, 133-136. 
 
 movements of, 97, 104, 118. 
 
 of other animals, 15. 
 
 plumpness of, 98. 
 
 repair of, 87, 91. 
 
 temperature of, 128, 135, 136, 179. 
 
 uses of, 16, 160. 
 
 why we should study the, 11. 
 Bones, 110. 
 
 affected by alcohol and tobacco, 
 113. 
 
 color and composition of, 112. 
 
 deformity of, 117, 120, 135. 
 
 growth and repair of, 112, 113. 
 
 of arras, 116. 
 
 of head, 113. 
 
 of legs, 116. 
 
 of trunk, 114. 
 
 structm-e and uses of, 110, 111, 
 117, 118. 
 Bowels, 59. 
 Brain, 142. 
 
 care of, 154, 155. 
 
 effects of alcohol upon, 151, 152. 
 
 exercise of, 150, 154. 
 
 function of, 147. 
 
 injuries of, 160-158. 
 
WHERE TO FIND TEIN08. 
 
 206 
 
 Brain, gensitiveness of, 117. 
 
 structure of, 148. 
 Brandy, 38, 47. 
 Bread, 19, 26, 46. 
 
 and butter, 22. 
 Breast-bone, 114, 115. 
 Breath, effect of alcohol upon, 78, 
 164. 
 
 effect of tobacco upon, 27, 154. 
 Breathing, 77, 78, 80, 97, 148, 163. 
 Brewing, 45. 
 
 Bronchi and bronchial tubes, 76. 
 Brunette complexion, 126. 
 Bunions, 117. 
 Bums, 139. 
 Butter, 22. 
 
 Calisthenics, 106, 179. 
 
 Callus, 125. 
 
 Candy, 66. 
 
 Capillary blood-vessels, 88, 89. 
 
 Carbonic acid, 35, 42, 78. 
 
 Cartilage, 112, 115. 
 
 Cat, teeth of, 23. 
 
 Catarrh, 135. 
 
 Cavities of body, 65, 99. 
 
 Cells, 18, 125. 
 
 nerve, 142. ^ 
 Cerebellum, 143, 144. 
 
 function of the, 147. 
 Cerebrum, 143, 144. 
 
 function of the, 147. 
 Chapping of the skin, 131. 
 Cheek-bones, 113- 
 Cheeks, 22. 
 Cheese, 20. 
 Cherries, 22. 
 Chest, 55, 77. 
 
 frame-work of, 116, 117. 
 Chewing of food, 22, 29. 
 
 of tobacco, 48, 163. 
 Chicken, 21. 
 
 Chilliness, 81, 132, 130. 
 
 Chloral, 65. 
 
 Chloroform, 36. 
 
 Choroid coat of the eye, 167. 
 
 Churches and halls, 82. 
 
 Chyle, 59. 
 
 Chyme, 67, 97. 
 
 Cider, 37, 42-44, 47, 49, 64. 
 
 Cigarette- smoking, 48-50, 80. 
 
 Circulation of the blood, 73, 74, 78, 
 
 89, 90, 92. 
 Circus, 108, 
 Clams, 21. 
 
 Cleanliness, 129, 130, 180, 181. 
 Clavicle, 114. 
 Cloak-rooms, 177. 
 Clot, 20. 
 Clothing, 133, 134, 137, 179. 
 
 not to be worn tight, 82, 120, 135. 
 
 poisonous,- 135. 
 
 should hang from shoulders, 83. 
 Coccyx, 115. 
 Coffee, 19. 
 
 Colds, 128, 136, 136, 164, 179. 
 Collar-bone, 114, 116- 
 CoUars, tight-fitting, 169. 
 Coloring-matter, 125, 136, 167. 
 Colors, 166. 
 
 Column, spinal, 114, 116. 
 Comfort, 129, 177, 179. 
 Complexion, 126. 
 
 affected by heat and light, 125. 
 Congestion, 151. 
 Connective tissue, 64, 98. 
 Consumption, 49, 79, 136. 
 Contagious diseases, 181. 
 Contraction of heart, 73, 74, 89, 97, 
 
 of muscles, 97, 99, 118. 
 Convolutions of the brain, 148, 
 
 143. 
 Cooking, 21, 22. 
 Cooler, 48. 
 
206 
 
 LESsoura in HraiENE. 
 
 Cords, vocal, 170, 171. 
 
 nervous, 141-143. 
 Cornea, 167. 
 Corn, 21, 29, 47. 
 Corns on the feet, 117, 125. 
 Corpuscles, 87, 88, 102. 
 Corsets, 120. 
 Cotton, 134, 166. 
 Coughing, 148. 
 Covering, bodily, 124. 
 Crabs, 21. 
 
 Cramming for examination, 166. 
 Cross-eyes, 169. 
 Cross-lights, 169, 178. 
 Crown of teeth, 24. 
 Crystalline lens, 168. 
 Currants, 22, 43. 
 Curtains, 178. 
 Curvature of spine, 120. 
 Cuticle, 125. 
 Cutis, 126. 
 
 Dandruff, 125. 
 Danger from eating, 162. 
 Deafness, 165. 
 ^eath, 97. 
 
 caused by alcohol, 86, 61, 163. 
 Decay, 82, 37, 80. 
 Decency, provisions for, 181. 
 Deformity, 120, 136. 
 
 of feet, 117, 135. 
 
 of legs, 120. 
 
 of shoulders, 106, 106. 
 
 of waist, 120, 186. 
 Delirium, 79, 168. 
 Dentine, 24. 
 
 " Deserted Village," 174. 
 Desks, 177. 
 
 Diaphragm, 65, 77, 149. 
 Diet, mixed, 22. 
 
 necessity of a regulated, 66. 
 Digestion, 55, 66. 
 
 Digestion, circumstances affecting, 
 66, 66, 131, 162. 
 
 effects of alcohol upon, 60, 61, 63, 
 66. 
 
 effects of tobacco upon, 62, 66. 
 
 in the intestines, 67, 68. 
 
 in the stomach, 65, 66. 
 
 organs of, 65, 67, 68. 
 Diphtheria, 169, 182. 
 Direct nerve-action, 147. 
 Dirt, 129. 
 
 Diseases, contagious, 181. 
 Distillation, 47, 48. 
 Drafts of air, 81, 179. 
 Drainage, defective, 82, 180. 
 Drink at meals, 57, 180. 
 Drinks, alcoholic, 42. 
 Drunkenness, 43, 44, 162. 
 Duct, thoracic, 60. 
 Duodenum, 58. 
 Dyspepsia, 63. 
 
 Earache, 12. 
 Ears, 113, 163. 
 
 care of, 166. 
 
 structure of, 164. 
 Eating, 18, 180. 
 Eat, what we, 18. 
 Eggs, 19, 20, 56, 61. 
 Elbow, 116, 118. 
 Elderberries, 43. 
 Electricity, 146. 
 Emergencies, 94, 96. 
 Emotion, 129, 160. 
 
 affects the nerves, 160. 
 Enamel of the teeth, 24. 
 Envy, 160. 
 Epilepsy, 154. 
 Esophagus, 28, 97. 
 Exercise, 100, 101, 104. 
 
 different modes of, 106, 106. 
 
 effects of, 90, 179. 
 
WEERE TO FIND THINGS. 
 
 20Y 
 
 Exercise, excessive, 101. 
 
 for health, not strength, 101. 
 
 importance of, 92, 120, 136, 154. 
 
 of the nerves, 150. 
 
 open-air, 95. 
 Eyes, 166-169. 
 
 care of, 136, 169, 172, 173, 177. 
 
 muscles of, 119, 168. 
 
 of a cat, 168, 175. 
 
 of an ox, 167. 
 
 structure of, 167, 168. 
 Eyeball, 119, 166. 
 Eyelashes, 166. 
 Eyelids, 1.S2, 166. 
 
 Faintness, 160. 
 
 False ribs, 115. 
 
 Farming, 19. 
 
 Fat, 20, 102, 111. 
 
 Fear affects the hair, 133. 
 
 Femur, 111, 115. 
 
 Fermentation, 33, 42, 46, 47, 50. 
 
 acetous and vinous, 47. 
 Ferments, 33, 38, 42^ 43, 49. 
 Fever, typhoid, 182. 
 
 typhus, 182. 
 Fibers, muscular, 98, 99. 
 
 nerve, 142. 
 Fibula, 117. 
 Fire-kings, 128. 
 Fish, 21, 78, 168. 
 Five senses, 160. 
 Flannels, 134. 
 Flavors, 161, 162. 
 Flesh, 21, 97. 
 Flint, Dr., quoted, 102. 
 Floating ribs, 115. 
 Flour, 19. 
 Flowers, 166, 174. 
 Foods, 19-22, 162. 
 
 changes of, 66. 
 
 necessity for, 16, 18. 
 
 Foot, IS, 117. 
 
 care of, 117, 120, 185. 
 Frame-work of body, IKX 
 Freckles, 126. 
 Frog, 15. 
 Fruits, 22. 
 Full bath, 131. 
 Function, 4. 
 Fungi, 32. 
 Furs, 134. 
 
 Ganglions, 142, 146, 148. 
 Gas, sewer, 82. 
 Gastric juice, 66, 57. 
 
 effect of alcohol upon, 61. 
 Gelatine, 112. 
 Geography, 19. 
 Glands, 99. 
 
 of stomach, 66, 60. 
 
 oil and sweat, 126-128. 
 
 salivary, 26. 
 
 tear, 166. 
 Glasses, 169. 
 Glottis, 170. 
 Glucose, 45. 
 Gluten, 19, 22, 66. 
 Goldsmith's " Deserted Village," 17*. 
 Graham flour, 21. 
 Grains, 19, 33, 45, 47. 
 Grapes, 34, 43, 49, 162. 
 Grayness of the hair, 133. 
 Grief, 150, 167. 
 Gristle, 113. 
 
 Growth of brain and mind, 144, lif^ 
 Gum, chewing, 27. 
 Gymnastics, 81, 105, 179. 
 
 Habit, 149, 154, 156, 180, 181. 
 Hand, the, 13, 116. 
 Hair, 124, 126, 132, 133, 137. 
 Barley, Dr., quoted, 76, 132. 
 Hsrmouj of bodily organs, 141. 
 
208 
 
 LESSONS IW HTOIENE. 
 
 Headache, 12. 
 
 Health, importance of, 12, 13, 101. 
 
 of teachers and pupils, 111-\SZ. 
 Hearing, sense of, 163, 172. 
 Heart, 71, 72, 97, 148. 
 
 affected by alcohol, 73, 74. 
 
 affected by tobacco, 168. 
 
 circulation through the, 73, 89. 
 
 frequency of action, 73, 74. 
 
 work of, 72, 74, 89. 
 Heartburn, 62. 
 Heat, animal, 20, 67, 89, 91, 92.' 
 
 regulation of, 128. 
 Hemorrhage, 79, 
 Heredity, 163. 
 Hiccough, 149. 
 High heels, 117, 135. 
 Hollow muscles, 99, 100. 
 Homes, 166. 
 Humerus, 116. 
 Humors of the eye, 168. 
 Hunger, 19. 
 Hygiene, 4. 
 
 in relation to alcohol and narcot- 
 ics, 37, 49. 
 
 of respiration, 82. 
 
 of digestion, 66. 
 
 of eating, 28. 
 
 of the bones, 120. 
 
 of the circulation, 92. 
 
 of the muscles, 104. 
 
 of the nerves, 164. 
 
 of the organs of special sense, 178. 
 
 of the skin, 136. 
 
 ice and ice-water, 44, 67. 
 Ideas, 160. 
 Idiocy, 164. 
 ni-temper, 43, 160. 
 Impurities of the skin, 129. 
 Incentives to study, 5. 
 Inferior vena cava, 72. 
 
 Inflammation, 61. 
 
 Ingrowing-nails, 117. 
 
 Inhibitorv nerves, 73, 74. 
 
 Insanity, 164. 
 
 Insensibility caused by tobacco, iZ% 
 
 Insensible perspiration, 128. 
 
 Intestinal digestion, 67. 
 
 Intestines, 57. 
 
 Involuntary muscles, 99. 
 
 Iris, 99, 168. 
 
 Iron, 20. 
 
 Jaundice, 69. 
 Jaws, 113, 118. 
 Joints, 13, 14. 
 
 pivot, 115. 
 Juice, gastric, 66, 61, 62. 
 
 intestinal, 67. 
 
 of plants and fruits, 33, 34, 42, 4& 
 
 pancreatic, 68, 69. 
 Jumping, 119. 
 
 Kidneys, 64, 127, 131, 132. 
 Kissing, sometimes dangerous, 129 
 Knee, 14, 116. 
 Knots, or ganglions, 142, 143, 146 
 
 Lacteals, 69, 129. 
 Lamb, 21. 
 
 Large intestines, 57, 68. 
 Larynx, 76. 
 
 production of the voice in, 170. 
 Layers of the skin, 126. 
 Leaping, 117. 
 Legislative action, 3. 
 Legs, 13, 100, 112, 116, 120. 
 Lemon-juice, 47, 60. 
 Lens, crystalline, 168. 
 Lewis, Dr. Dio, quoted, 121. 
 Ligaments, 99. 
 
 Light, 166, 166, 168, 169, !«. 
 Lighting, 177. 
 
WHERE TO FIND THINQS, 
 
 20l» 
 
 Limbs, IS. 
 
 Lime in the bones, 112, 120. 
 
 Lime-juice, 47, 50. 
 
 Linen, 184. 
 
 Liver, 56, 58, 59. 
 
 alcohol in, 63, 64. 
 Lobes of lungs, 76. 
 Lobsters, 21. 
 Looks, importance of, 12. 
 Lungs, 75, 76. 
 
 action in, 77. 
 
 effects of tobacco upon, 80. 
 Lyman, Dr., quoted, 49. 
 Lymph, 129. 
 
 vessels, 99, 128. 
 
 Macaroni, 30. 
 
 Madder, 113. 
 
 Malt, 45. 
 
 Manufacturing, 19. 
 
 Mapother, Dr., quoted, 129, 148. 
 
 Marie Antoinette, 133. 
 
 Marrow of the bones, 111. 
 
 Meanness, 160. 
 
 Measles, 169, 182. 
 
 Meats, 21. 
 
 the cooking of, 21. 
 Medulla oblongata, 144. 
 
 function of the, 148. 
 Melons, 22. 
 
 Membranes of the tympanum, 164. 
 Microscope, 32, 142. 
 Mildew, 32. 
 Milk, 21, 38. 
 
 mixed with lime-water, 21. 
 Mind, effects of alcohol upon, 151. 
 
 growth of, 150, 1B4. 
 Minerals, 20. 
 
 Moderate drinking, 86, 38, 44, 64. 
 Molds, 32. 
 
 More, Sir Thomas, 133. 
 Morning-bath, ISO, 
 1 
 
 Morphine, 66. 
 Motion, 89, 97, 146. 
 Mucous coat, 57. 
 Muriatic acid, 112, 
 Muscles, 97. 
 
 Muscles, afiected by alcohol, 102, 
 103. 
 
 affected by tobacco, 103. 
 
 function of, 97, 118. 
 
 hollow, 99. 
 
 in pairs, 99. 
 
 need rest, 101, 104. 
 
 of the eye, 119, 168. 
 
 structure of, 98. 
 
 voluntary and involuntary, 98. 
 Muscular coat, 56, 67. 
 
 fi]3ers, 98, 99. 
 
 sense, 160. 
 Muscular contraction, 97, 99, IISS 
 Music, 160, 163, 175. 
 
 Nails, 18, 125. 
 
 ingrowing, 117. 
 Narcotics, 36, 64, 65, 104. 
 Nasal passages, 14, 77, 162. 
 Nausea, 62. 
 Near-sightedness, 169. 
 Neatness, 180. 
 Nerve-action, 145-148. 
 Nerve-matter, 142. 
 Nerves, 141. 
 
 affected by alcohol, 73, 151, 162. 
 
 affected by emotion, 150. 
 
 affected by tobacco, 153. 
 
 auditory, 125. ' 
 
 centers and cords, 141, 143, 3 46i 
 147, 149. 
 
 exercise and rest, 160. 
 
 motor and sensory, 146. 
 
 of the heart, 73. 
 
 of smell, 162. 
 
 of taste, 162. 
 
210 
 
 LESSONS m HYQIENE. 
 
 Nerves, optic, 166, 167. 
 
 spinal, 144. 
 
 sympathetic system of, 146, 148. 
 Nervous system, 14I-14S. 
 Ficotine, 48. 
 
 Nose, 14, 77, 113, 162, 163. 
 Nurture, 87. 
 Nutrition, 18, 89. 
 
 Odors, 77, 162, 163. 
 Oil as food, 20. 
 Oil-glands, 126, 127, 129. 
 Oliver, Prof., quoted, 104. 
 Opium, 36, 64, 65. 
 Optic nerve, 166, 167. 
 Oranges, 22. 
 Organs of body, 55. 
 
 of circulation, 71, 72, 88, 148. 
 
 of digestion, 56-58, 148. 
 
 of hearing, 163, 164. 
 
 of respiration, 76, 76. 
 
 of sight, 166-169. 
 
 of smell, 162, 163. 
 
 of taste, 161, 162. 
 
 of touch, 161. 
 
 of voice, 169, 170. 
 Orris-root, 25. 
 Outhouses, 181. 
 Overshoes, 134. 
 Overwork, 179. 
 Oxygen, 78, 89, 90, 181. 
 
 given off by plants, 78. 
 
 received into the blood, 78, 87, 
 102. 
 Oysters as food, 21'. 
 
 Pairs of parts of the body, 14, 99. 
 
 Palate, 170. 
 
 Paleness, 128. 
 
 Palmer, Dr., quoted, 79. 
 
 Pancreas, 66, 68. 
 
 Pancreatic juioe, 68, 69. 
 
 Paralysis, 73, 74, 91, 161, 162. 
 
 Passages, air, 76, 77. 
 
 Passions, 152. 
 
 Pasteur's experiments, 84, 86. 
 
 Peaches, 22. 
 
 Peas, 20, 21. 
 
 Pelvis, 114. 
 
 Pepsin, 61. 
 
 Perfumery, 173. 
 
 Perspiration, 126-129, 134. 
 
 Physical strength, 71. 
 
 culture, 106, 106. 
 Piano-playing, 149. 
 Pigment, 125. 
 Pitch of sound, 163. 
 Plays, 105, 106, 156, 179. 18C. 
 Pneumonia, 136. 
 Poison, 35, 47, 48, 180. 
 Poppy, 64. 
 Pork, 21. 
 
 Portal vein, 56, 60. 
 Posture, 104. 
 Potash, 20. 
 Potato, 20, 47, 84. 
 Preservation of the teeth, 24, 26, 2ft 
 Pudding sauces, 38. 
 Pulmonary artery, 73, 76, 77. 
 Pulsation of the heart, 89. 
 Pulse, 49, 89. 
 Pupil of the eye, 168, 
 
 Radius, 116, 118, 119. 
 Raspberries, 22. 
 Redness caused by drink, 1£1 
 Reflex action, 147, 148. 
 Repair, 87. 
 
 of bones, 112, IIS. 
 
 of muscles, 100, 101. 
 Respiration, 77. 
 
 change of blood bi, Tt. 
 
 object of, 71. 
 
 organs of, 76, 76. 
 
WHERE TO FIND THINGS. 
 
 211 
 
 Rest, 101, 150, 155, 180. 
 Retina, 167, 172. 
 Retort, 48. 
 Ribs, 115. 
 
 movements of, in respiration, 77. 
 Rice, 19, 56. 
 
 Richardson, Dr., quoted, 36, 64. 
 Roof of moutli, 170. 
 Roots of nerves, 144. 
 
 of teeth, 24. 
 Round shoulders, 106. 
 Rum, 47. 
 
 Sacrum, 115. 
 
 Sago, 20. 
 
 Saliva, 26, 27, 50, 56. 
 
 Salivary glands, 26. 
 
 Salt, 20, 21, 131, 169. 
 
 Saltness, 161. 
 
 Scalp, 126, 133, 137. 
 
 Scapula, 114. 
 
 Scarf-skin, 125, 131. 
 
 Scarlet fever, 169, 182. 
 
 Sclerotic coat of the eyeball, 167. 
 
 Screaming, 170. 
 
 Seating, 177. 
 
 Selfishness, 150. 
 
 Sense of hearing, 16S. 
 
 of sight, 165. 
 
 of smell, 162. 
 
 of taste, 161. 
 
 of touch, 161. 
 Sense, muscular, 160. 
 Senses, special, 160. 
 Sensory nerves, 146. 
 Serous coat, 56, 58. 
 Shocks, how distributed, 117, 119. 
 Shoes, 117, 126, 134, 136. 
 Short-sight, 169. 
 Shoulder-blade, 114, 116, 118. 
 Shoulders, round, 106. 
 Sight, 165-169. 172. 
 
 Silk, 134. 
 
 Sir Thomas More, 138. 
 
 Sitting, 105. 
 
 Skeleton, 110, 113-117. 
 
 Skill, 149. 
 
 Skin, 124. 
 
 absorption by, 124, 128, 
 
 casts out waste matter, 124, 127,. 
 
 how kept soft, 127. 
 
 layers of, 126. 
 
 regulates heat, 124, 128. 
 
 rubbing of, 130, 136. 
 
 should be kept clean, 129, 130. 
 Skull, 113, 114, 119. 
 
 uses of the, 113, 117. 
 Slaughter-house, 174. " 
 Sleeping, 81, 150, 155, 180, 
 Small intestines, 67, 68. 
 Small-pox, 182. 
 Smell, sense of, 77, 162, 171. 
 Smoking, effects of, 80, 163. 
 Sneezing, 149. 
 Soap, 130, 131. 
 
 Sockets for eyes, 113, 166, 169. 
 Soda, 20, 63, 67. 
 Softening of the brain, 151. 
 Soles of the feet, 124, 127. 
 Something to find out, 16, 29, 38, 50, 
 67, 83, 93, 107, 121, 137, 1 56. 
 173. 
 Sore throat, smoker's, 172. 
 Sound, 163, 170. 
 Soups, 21. 
 Sourness, 161. 
 
 Spasms caused by tobacco, 1 5S. 
 Special senses, 160. 
 Speech, 163, 169, 170. 
 Spinal column, 114, 116. 
 Spinal cord, 116, 143. 
 
 reflex action of, 147, 148. 
 Spinal nerves, 144. 
 Spine, curvature of, ISO. 
 
312 
 
 ZJESSOJi'S IN HTQIENR 
 
 Spleen, 66, B8. 
 Sponge-bath, 130. 
 Spores, 33. 
 Starch, 20. 
 
 its change into sugar, 46, 66. 
 Sternum, 116. 
 Still, 48. 
 Stimulants, 36. 
 Stomach, 66, 56, 97, 148. 
 
 absorption in, 66, 60. 
 
 alcohol in, 60-62. 
 
 digestion in, 66, 67. 
 
 tobacco in, 62, 63. 
 Stone, Dr., quoted, 44. 
 Stoves, 179. 
 Strawberries, S2. 
 Strength, 101-103. 
 Study, 144, 147, 148, 154, 156. 
 Subclavian vein, 60. 
 Sugar, 20, 34, 36, 42, 43, 45, 47, 64. 
 Sulkiness, 160. 
 Sully, Prof., quoted, 149. 
 Superior vena cava, 78. 
 Sutures, 113, 114. 
 Swallowing, 25, 26, 28. 
 Sweat-glands, number of, 127. 
 Sweet-bread, in animals, 68. 
 Sweetmeats, 66. 
 Sweetness, 161. 
 Swell of muscles, 98. 
 Swine, 162. 
 Sympathetic nerves, 146, 148. 
 
 Tailor's muscle, 119. 
 
 Tainted food, 84, 162. 
 
 Tan, 125. 
 
 Tannery, 174. 
 
 Tapioca, 20. 
 
 Tartar, 25. 
 
 Taste, 161, 162,, 171, 17S. 
 
 Taylor, Dr., quoted. 86, 68, 
 
 Tea, 19. 
 
 Teachers and pupils, health of, 177- 
 
 183, 
 Tear-gland, 166. 
 Tears, 60, 166. 
 Teeth, 22-26, 170. 
 
 preservation of, 29, 
 Temperature of the body, 128, 160 
 
 of school-rooms, 178. 
 
 extremes of, 25, 128, 184. 
 Tendons, 98, 119, 143. 
 Thighs, 114. 
 ThinHng, 150, 162, 165. 
 Thirst, 128. 
 
 Thompson, Dr., quoted, 79. 
 Thoracic duct, 60. 
 Thorax, 116. 
 Throat-deafness, 164. 
 Tibia, 117. 
 Tight clothing, 136. 
 Tight shoes, 117, 18B. 
 Tissue, 18. 
 
 connective, 64, 98. 
 Tobacco, 27, 48, 50. 
 
 effects upon the body, 49, 80, 
 
 effects upon the bones, 113. 
 
 effects upon the breatn, 27, SS. 
 
 effects upon the heart, 49, 153. 
 
 effects upon the lungs, 80. 
 
 effects upon the mind, 80. 
 
 effects upon the muscles, 103, 104 
 
 effects upon the nerves, 163. 
 
 effects upon the special senses 
 and the voice, 171, 172. 
 
 effects upon the stomach, 49, 62. 
 
 filthiness of, 27, 153. 
 
 saliva wasted by chewing, 27. 
 Tongue, 22, 162, 170, 172. 
 Tooth-brush, 26. 
 Tooth-pick, 2B. 
 Touch, 161, 162, 171. 
 Trachea, 76. 
 Tracy, Dr., quoted, 145. 
 
WHERE TO FIND THINQS. 
 
 2ia 
 
 Training, 49, 104, 149, 181. 
 Triceps muscle, 118. 
 True skin, 126. 
 Trunk, 11, 16. 
 
 bones of, 114-116. 
 
 cavities of, 66. 
 Trustees, duties of, 178, 180, 181. 
 Turkey, 21. 
 Turnips, 20. 
 Tympanum of the ear, 164. 
 
 Ulna, 116. 
 
 Jnconsoious movements, 148. 
 
 Valve at top of larynx, 28. 
 Valves of the heart, 72. 
 
 of the veins, 90. 
 Vapor, 44, 46, 63. 
 Varicose veins, 90. 
 Veal, 21. 
 Vegetable food, 21, 26. 
 
 respiration, 78. 
 Veins, 56, 57, 71-73, 88, 90. 
 
 circulation in, 90. 
 
 valves of, 90. 
 
 varicose, 90. 
 Venous blood, 78, 90. 
 Ventilation, 80-82, 178. 
 Ventricles of the heart, 72. 
 VertebriE, 116. 
 Vibration, 163-166. 
 
 Vinegar, 46, 47, SO, 63. 
 Vitreous humor, 168. 
 Vocal cords, 170, 171. 
 
 elements, 170. 
 Voice, 169-171, 172. 
 Voluntary muscles, 99. 
 
 Walking, 117, 147. 
 
 as a means of exercise, 108. 
 Waist, deformity of, 120, 121, 136. 
 Waste, 87, 124, 127. 
 Water, 20, 21, 27, 28, 38, 38, 12ff 
 
 180. 
 Water-proofs, 134. 
 Weeping, 167. 
 Wheat, 19. 
 Wheat-flour, 19. 
 Whisky, 47, 60, 154. 
 Whooping-cough, 182. 
 Will, impairment of, 158. 
 Windows, 177, 178. 
 Windpipe, 76. 
 Wine, 37, 43, 44, 47, 60. 
 Winking, 166. 
 Woolens, 134. 
 Words, 170. 
 Worm of still, 48. 
 Worry affects the hair, ISt. 
 Wrist, 116. 
 
 Teast, 33, 42, 4a- 
 
 fHK ijXiU 
 
Pupils' Outline Studies 
 
 IN THE 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
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An Advanced English Grammar 
 
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