€null Utttomitg pitat^g THE GIFT OF M/-rvV"<-^-A^^.. .A.L'L..iq..b..q...^. 2i. .li.Ur... Cornell University Library TE 24.W6H83 Rural highways of Wisconsin 3 1924 022 788 032 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022788032 Wisconsin Ceolooical and natural History Survey A. BjB0^,'PH4iPi; $c. e;;:f>irector .-•'v'V' ^-i--r' --'-■■-''■' P\ E. ., , BULLETIN NO. XVIIL'^- \r\ '^>^ ,-> \coNOMIC SERIES NO, 11 Rural Highways OF WISCONSIN BY WiL,L,iA.M Otis Hotchkiss B. S. IN ENGINSBRINC Instructor in, Geology, University of Wisconsin In Charge of Economic Geology for Wisconsin Geologicai. and Natural Histort? Survey MADISON, WIS. Published by the State 1906 WISCONSIN GEOL, AND NAT. HIST. SURVEY. BULLETIN NO. XVIII., PL. 1. eX'TSMp 3' Iran Plata 3'lron Plate SPUT-I-OG Of^AC. TWO PLANS FOR A ROAD -DRAG Directions for using the split log drag: After each rain drive along each wheel track at least once, with the drag in position to ' throw the dirt to the center of the road. Put a cleated platform over the connecting bars and ride on the drag, shifting, your weight as needed to leave the dirt in the low places. Haul at an angle of 45 degrees. Gradually widen the strip dragged as the road improves. Bead the text on this in the chapter on maintenance. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History survey B. A. BIRQB, Ph. D., Sc. O., Director BULLETIN NO. XVIII ECONOMIC SERIES NO. 11. Rural Highways OP WISCONSIN Vf "WiXii-iAM Otis Hotoseisb, B. s. IN : Instructor in Geology, University at Wisconsin. la Chabob or EcoKomo Geology for Wibcoksih. Gsologioal ukd Natubii, BiSKoa SVKVJS7, MADISON, WIS. Published by the Statk 1906 tnusconsin (Seoloatcal and Tlatutal f>t0totB Sutvei!. BOARD OP COMMISSIONBRS. Jambs O. Davidson, aoremor of the Stata, Obablbs H. Tan Hibh, President, President of the University of Wlscongia. Ohablbs p. Cart, Tice- President, State Saperintendent of Public Instmetion. CAfiTBKT SFBiniX.lIT, President i ( the Commissioners of Fisheries. Louis KAHLKKBOBa, Secretary, President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arti, and Iietters. STAPH OF THE SURVEY. E. A. BiKan, Director of the Survey. S. Weidhan, Qeologistt. Survey of Central and Noi'theru Wisoonsin. W. O. HoTOHKiss, Geolo^st. In charge of Economic Geology. n. a. Qbant, Gteologiat. Survey of Southwestern Wisconsin. H. Bibs, Geologist, Clays of Wisconsin. TlOTOB Lbnhbb, Chr'inist, Chemistry of Lakes. ChA2(oi» Jddat, Biologist. Biology of Lakes. J. W. 801.DTHWAIT, Geologist. Physical Geography. R. C. Bbhnbb, Chemist, Assistant, Chemistry of Lakes. Consulting Geologist. T. C. ChaubebiiIN, Pleistocene <3leology. Investigation of Water Power*. L. S. SnrTH, Civil Engineer. Engineer in Charge. P. H. BiiiNKiNa, Assistant. D. H. DusAir, Assistant. In charge of Field Parties. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. Tablb of Contents iii IliliUSTEATIONS ▼ Pkepaob vii Inteoduction 1-3 Purpose of highways 1 Permanent improvement of highways 1 Btatemeut of the general purpose of this volume 3 PART I. HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 7-73 Chapter I. What Constitutes A Good Road. 7-10 Definition of a road 7 Proper location 7 Proper construction 8 Maintenance Chapter II. Location of Roads 10-17 Location in level country 10 Location in hilly country 11 Grades 12 Effect of varying grades and road surfaces on the size of load a horse can draw 13 Standard grades in other states and foreign countries 16 Effect of steep grades on maintenance 16 Chapter III. Methods op Construction as Applied to DrppEEBNT Kinds of Soil 18-33 General principles of road construction 18 It contents. Chapter III — Methods of Construction, etc. — continued. Page Foundation materials 19 Sand 19 Clay 20 Cross sections of various forms of clay roads 20 Drainage 21 Depth of under-drainage 22 Pall of the drain 22 Outletof thedrain 22 Size of tile 23 Kind of tile 23 Loam B8 Swamp soils B3 Surface materials 23 Sand 2S Clay and shale 24 Gravel 24 Constituents of a good gravel 85 Crushed rock tS Wearing tests of various Mnds of roek S6 Cementing tests 97 Building gravel and crushed stone roads 86 Construction: Preparation of the grade to receive surface material. 88 Spreading the material 99 Boiling the material 89 Cost of gravel and macadam 30 Table of quantities necessary for roads of difEering width and thickness II Miscellaneous road coverings S2 Corduroy 32 Other surface materials 33 Slag S3 Cinders 33 Shells 38 Mine tailiugfs 33 Chapter IV. Road Machinery S4-38 Graders 34 Advantage of having a regular road grading crew 84 Proper time to use a grader 35 Prices of road machines S5 Cost of tarn-piking with the grader SS ▼i CONTENTS. PART II. CONDITIONS IN WISCONSIN AND EOAD LAWS IN OTHEB STATES. Chapter I. Phesent Highway Conditions in Wisconsin... 77-96 Sources of intormatiou 77 Observation 77 Circular letters of questions addi-e.ssed to — town clerks 78 —rural free delivery carrit-rs 83 — farmers 85 Condition of Wisconsin roads 89 Bad conditions 89 Poor location 89 Poor construction 90 Poor drainage 92 Lack of maintenance 92 Politics in road work 94 Good conditions 95 Good plans pursued by various towns 05-96 Chapteb II. KoAD Laws and Conditions in Othee Statks. 97-122 State roent of present »latus of State Aid 97 atliue of plan lor tabulating liigh way laws 98 New Jersey 99 Massachusetts 102 Vermont 104 Connecticut 105 New York 106 Maryland 109 Maine 110 Pennsylvania 112 Michigan 113 Iowa 116 Illinois 117 Ohio 117 Minnesota 119 Washington 120 Zable showing the states having SLate aid or state control of kigbways 122 OONTEKTS. Til Ghapter III. DbsibabijE Changes in the Present Road System 123-133 Larger road districts 123 Permanence of road officers 124 Cash tax 12fj Need of trained m«n 127 Road accounts 129 Section system 129 Gounty road system 130 Automobiles 130 State aid 131 Chapter IV. Advantages op Making Some op These Changes in the Present Highway System op the State 134-136 Town highway commissioners 134 Highway accounts 134 Cash tax 136 County system 135 State aid 136 CONTENTS. ▼ Chapter IV.— Road Machinery eoi'tinaed *age Scrapers . 36 Capacities of various I 'rif); «• * Cost of earth worir ou- It- with drag scrapers «>» ^' Cost of earth tiFortc Miilt with wheel scrape b* "/ Rollers - . 88 Harrows ........ . - 38 Other implem&itts •». 38 Chapter V. Boad Maintenance 39-48 Advanta.g'os of continuous maintenance 39 Section system 39 Principles of the care of roads 43 Split-log drag 43 Mud and dust 4<' Wide tires 4() Snow roads .' 47 Chapter VI. Culverts and Bridges 49-73 General considerations: Size of opening 49 Method of determining amount of water to be pro- vided for 50 Location of bridges and culverts 51 Culverts 51 Culvert materials 51 Tile culverts 52 Steel and iron culverts S2 Stone culverts 53 Concrete culverts 53 Moulds 54 Concrete 56 Mixing 57 Filling the forms 57 Strength of concrete 58 Quantities of materials per cubic yard of concrete ... 59 Bridges 60 Bridge material 60 Causes of failure 60 Steelbridges 62 Stone bridges 64 Concrete bridges 64 Life and cost of bridge and culvert materials 64 Life of bridges and culverts 64 Cost of bridges and culverts ^ 65 Cost of concrete work 70 Contours 72 LIST OP ILLUSTKATIONS. Platb Paob I. The split-log road drag Frontispiece U. Pig. 1. Sandy roads 19 Pig. 2. Sand road recently covered with sti-aw 19 III. Fig. 1. Sandy road covered with straw which is nearly worn out , 20 Fig. 2. Sandy road covered with crushed rock 20 ly. Cross sections of various kinds of roads 21 Fig. 1. Itoam road 21 Fig.2. Glayroad 21 Fig. 3. Secondary ditch 21 Fig. i. Koad as ordinarily left by the grader 21 Fig. 5. Neglected road 21 Fig. 6. Flat-topped clay road 21 Fig. 7. Boad with side slopes graded too straight 21 Fig. S. Boad graded too wide 21 y. Fig, 1. Undrained road in wet place on a hillside 22 Fir;. 2. Same road as fig. 1, showing effect of drain 23 Fig. 3. Boad la a wet place in a cut where two drains are needed 22 Fig. i. Boad in wet place in level country; drained by one lineoftile 22 Fig. 5. Irregular settling of tile drain 22 VI. Fi^. t. Cross section of road ready for surface material 30 Fig. 2. Cross section of completed macadam or gravel road. . 30 VII. Trench across a dragged road showing old road surface and effect of dragging 44 VIII. EHg. 1. Undragged road la Waupaca county 45 Pig. '2. Part of same road cared for with the split-log drag. . 45 IX. Boiling snow 47 X. Plan for concrete culvert 54 XI. Poorly located roads in hilly country 89 Xll. Fig 1. A. ilat- topped clay road in Clark county. Dry 90 Fig. 2. A flat-topped clay road in Clark county. Wet 90 Plate Paot XIII. Clay road covered with gravel which is left just as dumped by the wagons 91 XIV. Fig. 1. Clay road in Calumet county with shallow ruts filled with water 92 Fig. 2. More heavily traveled clay road in Calumet county. . 92 XV. Fig. 1. Sandy road in Trempealeau county, covered with shale 98 Fig. 2. Gravel road in Washington county with sod and coarse gravel heaped in the center 93 XVI. Fig. 1. Good gravel road in Sheboygan county 96 Fig. 2. Good permanent stone culvert in the town of Wabeka, Washington county 86 mgnres in text. Fig. 1. Overturf steel mold for concrete cntverts 55 Fig. 2. Cut showing how contours are drawn T3 PREFACE. The improvement of the rural highways of this state is « , roblem whose proper solution is of the highest iiaportanoe t^ ■' he people. It is becoming quite generally recognized that road luilding and maintenance are as much special vocations n- luiring special training aa are any other engineering (k-- oupations. This volume makes no pretense of being anything but the most preliminary statement of problems that esist and no attempt is made to give detailed directions for build- ing roads in any particular localities Such directions musi be to a large extent valueless because of the infinite variety >f local conditions with reference to which the materials must be treated. Eather the purpose has been to give a few of the iriost fundamental principles and leave the working out of the local details to later opportunity or to local road officials. The first part is a summary of the principles of making roads. In this free use has been made of the pttblications of the highway departments of the various states, and credit is i^iven in each case Those which have been especially helpful are the reports of the highway commissioners of Maine, Ne'^* Tersey, Ohio, and Iowa. The second part is a summary of highway conditions in thib sition can be found, and screening made unnecessary. If gravel is compact enough to stand in straight walls in the pit and requires loosen- ing with a pick it is usually all right. Crushed Bock. In the larger part of Wisconsin there is plenty of rock available for crushing. There is limestone in plenty in the eastern and southern parts, granite in the central and northern parts and hardheads over almost the whole state. The relative values of different kinds of rock for road metal 26 RURAL, HIQHWAYB OP WISCONSIN. has been tested in several ways. The two teets of most practical value are the wearing test and the cementation test. In the wearing test a certain number of pieces of standard size are rotated for a definite time in a steel cylinder and the amount of dust worn off the pieces weighed. In the cementation test the powdered rock is moistened and made into a little cylinder. This cylinder is then broken by the blows of a hammer falling the same distance for each blow, and the cementing power of the rock measured by the nimiber of blows the rock is able to resist without breaking. The resistance to wear offered by many Wisconsin rocks has been tested by the State Geological and Natural History Survey under the supervision of E. K. Buckley. The following table from his report on Highway Construction gives the relative wearing qualities of some Wisconsin rocks when used for road metal. Tablb III, Report of wearing tests on crushed rook. Name of sender. Kind of stone. Per cent, of wear. Bank. Montello Granite Co 2.16 3.50 9.86 7.02 2.10 3.90 1.80 6.46 2.90 3.46 4.04 3.90 3.88 2.36 3.04 2.76 3 g F.Powell 16 ^orlici's li. & S. Co Limestone Flint Limestone 15 G. H. Chaffee, Sparta 2 Richwood Oushed Stone Co., Watertown .. 12 Waupaca Crashed Q-ranlte & Stone Co. . .. Granite 1 14 M. MaxoQ, Waukesha ...'. -Trap.* 6 C.F.Smith, Appleton 9 Menom. Falls-Lannon Stone Co., Lannon, Wis 13 u SheboyganL. &S. Co 10 .Quartzite Rhvolite 7 Utley 4 Berlin Rhyollte 6 Wisconsin (Jeol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, Bulletin X., 1903, Buckley, p. 294. The cementing property is important because it is this which causes a road made of crushed rock to become hard and smooth upon being travelled. The cementing property is due to the ability of the fine dust, into which rook is worn by the wheels, to set like cement into a more or less solid mass upon being METHODS or ROAD CONBTRUOTION. £7 moistened aoid packed. As this fine dust is continually being \? ashed off the road by the rain and blown away by the wind it must be replaced by the new dust worn off the stones by the wheels. If a very h^ard surface material, such as trap rock or granite, is put on & road which is comparatively little travel- led, the result is that there is not enough dust formed to re- place that blown and washed away and the surface "ravels" and becomes a mass of loose stones. On the other hand if a soft stone, such as some lime stonesj is used for the surface of a heavily travelled road more dxist is formed than is carried away, so that it forms a layer over the surface and makes dis- agreeable dust or mud, according as the weather is dry or damp. The kind of rock used on the surface of a road must accordingly be determined to a considerable extent by the amount of travel. The oementing tests on the powder of differect Wisconsin rocks have not been very satisfactory, as they do not agree among themselves. A table of their relative^merita is therefore not given. In general it may be said tiiat limestone, flint, and dark igneous rocks have good cementing qualities, while quartz ite and light colored, igneous rocks, such as granites, have poorer cementing qualities.. These last two are very hard and may do well as surface material where travel is heavy. Many granites, however, have fairly, high cementing qualities. . The proper size of crushed stone to use for a macadam sur- face depends partly upon the strength of the rock used. Each stone in the surface should be strong enough to support, with- out breaking, the weight which the wheel of a loaded wagon will put upon it. If the stones are too small to do this liiey will grind up rapidly under the traffic. If a relatively weak stone such as a soft limestone is used, the smaller stones should be at the bottom and the larger ones at the top. If a hard stone is used, the larger ones should be at the bottom and the smaller at the top, as the smaller stones make a more even surface and 28 RVBAL HIGHWAYS OF WISCONSIN. should be used there when they are strong enough to bear the weight put upon them. The usual sizes to which crushed stone is separated are 2^/2 inch, 1 inch, and % inch, or screenings. If soft limestone ia used the 1 inch pieces should go on the bottom and the 21^ inch pieces should be used for the surface; if hard rock, either granite or trap or hard limestone, is used the one inch pieces should go on the top. In both cases the screenings are spread over the top in a thin layer to fill the spaces between the larger stones. BtnXDING GEAVEL 5i.ND CETJSHED STONE EOADS. In making a gravel or crushed stone road the fundamental parts of a road must not be forgotten — the foundation and the surface. Care must be taken to see that the foundation is solid and well drained, and the surface must be well compacted so that it will act as a roof. It is a waste of good money to at- tempt to make a solid surface over a damp place in the road by dumping gravel or crushed rock on it, as it quickly pounds into the mud which is very shortly ready to swallow up more. The methods of applying gravel or crushed stone to secure this good roof are essentially the same and are therefore described together. Both gravel and crushed stone may be spread upon a well drained, well crowned earth road without any further prepara- tion and in time will be beaten down by the traffic into a fairly good surface. This packing process is hard on teams and vehicles, however, as weU as wasteful of the material, which is kicked to one side by the horses. It is more economical in the long run to exercise a little more care and spend a little more money in the preparation. After the roadbed is properly drained and graded a trench should be prepared as deep and wide as the surface material is to be applied. The material from the trench should be placed fllong the side to form straight vertical shoulders, as shown in METHODS OF ROAD G0N8TRV0TI0N. 29 figure 1, plate VI. The bottom of this trench should be thor- oughly rolled in order to be sure the dirt is well packed and will not settle after the gravel or crushed stone is put on. The roadbed is then ready for the surface material. The gravel or crushed stone is usually hauled on an ordinary wagon provided with dump boards and dumped in heaps. On a country road where the width surfaced is comparatively narrow the loads are dumped into a continuous ridge and for the most part spread with shovels when spread at all. This can often be done more quickly and cheaply by running a road machine over it, using shovel work only to trim up the surface after the machine has done what it can. The materials are also applied in automatic spreader wagons, of which there are various types. These wagons leave an even layer of rock of any desired thickness. After the layer of rock or gravel is spread evenly it is ready to roll. It is best to attempt to roll only a thin layer — 3 to 5 inches — at one time, as it is impossible to thoroughly compact a thick layer with any ordinary roller. If the layer is too thick only the top will be compacted, and when the road gets older it will settle more or less unevenly. The rock should be properly wet during the rolling in order to get the best results. This wetting prevents crushing and grinding the rock by the roller, and washes the screenings into the open spaces between the larger stones so as to make a solid mass. When the first layer is rolled down solid the second layer can be dumped upon it, spread as before, and rolled. If the material is crushed rock, after the surface layer is packed a half inch or so of screenings should be spread and rolled, so as to pack the small pieces into the openings between the larger stones. Tf no roller is available and it is necessary to depend on the travei to pack the surface, the material should be spread in layers as stated above and sufficient time allowed for each layer to be thoroughly compacted before the next is added. 30 RURAL HIGHWAYS OF WISCONSIN. The people should be compelled to drivie over all the surface and not allowed to travel in a single track. This can be done by placing obstructions, such as logs or boulders, in suitable positions to enforce their taking a new track after one is beaten down. These obstructions shonld be moved as of ten as neces- sary in order to compel the teams to pack the whole width of the roadbed. After one layet is beaten down in this way the second can be added and packed in the same manner. A road built without the uSe of a roller is shown in fig. 2, plate III. After rdlling the road should present a crowned surface, as shown in figure 2, plate VI, somewhat more flat than for an earth r6ad, in the slightly arched center of' which ia a strip of well compacted crushed rock or gravel. On each side of the crown should be good slopes into the ditches, and good clean ditches to quickly carry the water away., : Under this crown should be a thickness of earth which is well protected from moisture, so that it will always be firm. It should be protected from moisture from below — if there is any likelihood of water reaching it from that direction — by drain tile la'd deep enough to be effective; and from moisture from above by a hard com- pact surface of gravel or macadam. A good gravel road such as is common in the eastern part of the state is shown in figure 1, plate XVL Cost of Gravel and Macadam, The cost of these roads de- pends upon the price of labor and material, and the distance the material must be hauled. From the replies to the list of questions sent to town clerks, table iXVI on page Y9 is made shewing the average cost of gravel and macadam roads by coun- ties from which reports came. In many of these cases excessive prices are paid for the gravel. Some owners of gravel pits are re- ported to be charging 20 cents and even 25 cents per load. Considering the small loads that most farm wagons are equip- ped to carry in working road tax, it is not to be wondered at that gravel roads are reported costing as high as ten dollars per rod. With gravel costing 30 cents to 35 cents per cubic yard delivered on the road which is being constructed the cost a ■ Z0"-\ to (U Xr O -ti 0) CD o o. £■3 tr.6 a CO CO o £i a (D CD §■< to 10 s,^ O < OlOl o o o, i i k1 ItETBODS OF ROAD 002f8TRV0TI0N. 81 of a well constructed gravel road should be about $300 to $350 per mile, aside from the grading. This is evident from the number of yards necessajy for a 6' road 6" thick, as given in the following table taken from the 1902 report of the New Jersey Highway Commission. Table IV. Tabld IV. — Showing number of cubic yards of gravel required In the construction of one mile of gravel road, of widths varying from 6 feet to 80 feet, and depth from 6 to 12 Inches. These within quantities should ie multipKed hy 1% to give the number of culyie yards of loose gravel required to make the within depths of compact gravel. . . Road Road Road Road Road Road Boad Feet 6 inches 7 inches 8 inches 9 inches 10 inches 11 inches 12 inches wide. deep. deep. deep. deep. deep. deep. deep. Cubic yds. Cubic yds. Cubic yds. Cubic yds. Cubic yds. Cubic yds. Cubic yds. fl 586 684 782 880 977 1,075 1,173 7 684 798 912 1,026 1,140 1,254 1,368 8 782 912 1,042 1,173 1,303 1,434 1,364 9 880 1,026 1,173 1,320 1,466 1,613 1,760 M 977 1,140 1,303 1,466 1,629 1,792 1,955 U 1,073 1,254 1,434 1,629 1,792 1,971 2,151 12 1,173 1,368 1,564 1,792 1,935 2,151 2,364 Since the cost of roads depends mainly upon the local price for material, it is impossible to give a general statement that could be applied to any locality. A fair price for crushed stone at the quarry is from 60 to 90 cents per cubic yard for limestone. The city of Madison owns its quarry and makes its own crushed rock at a cost of 60 cents per yard. The rock used is a medium hard, limestone. !For rocks that are harder and more difficult to crush, such as granite and trap, a con- siderably higher price must be paid. As such rocks are not so widely distributed as limestone the freight rates will be greater in the average. To such . a price, which should include loading on cars at quarry, must be added freight and unloading charges and cost of hauling. In a favorable location a mile of limestone macadam 6 feet wide and 6 inches thick can be built for $800. Twelve hundred dollars is probably nearer the avera;ge cost of such roads in country districts, however. 32 RURAL BianWAYS OF WISCONSIN. MISCELLANEOUS EOAD COVEEINGS. Experiments have been tried in several states with tar as a road material. It has been very successful when used on a clean crushed rock surface. Its use on country roads is still rather, too experimental in nature to warrant any extended de- scription and the interested reader is referred to Circular l^o. 47 of the Office of Public Koads Inquiry, U. S. Department of Agriculture at Washington. It is suggested that tar may be a valuable material to use in some districts where the roads are very sandy and clay is not to be obtained within an eco- nomical hauling distance. If any one desires to try it in this state the writer will be glad to assist in every way possible, and would like to hear of any such experiments that are being made or have been made in the past. Corduroy. In the swamp lands of the state there are many soft springy places which cannot be avoided in laying out a road. These have usually been crossed by the use of corduroy, and it would be hard to devise a better method which would bo cheap enough to be useful. A few suggestions in regard to its construction may be of assistance, however. The logs used should not be large. If they are, too much timber is required. Three to five inch poles are usually just as serviceable as larger ones. These should be laid on stringers placed lengthwise of the road. The stringers serve to keep them even, as one log cannot sink below its neighbors without depressing the stringer, in which case all the logs vsdll sink to the same depth. If pos- sible the logs should be laid so that they will be under water all the time. It is a well known fact that logs in the bottom of a marsh are preserved perfectly for hundreds and probably thousands of years. The wood will not decay nearly so readily as when exposed so that the air gets at it. If the logs cannol; be laid low enough so as to keep them under water, they should at least be hurried completely, ends and all, by a covering of dirt preferably sand. This serves to keep out the air and METHODS OF ROAD C0N8TBVCTI0N. 88 nmch better tham to leave part of the logs exposed acoording to the usual custom. Other Surface Materials. There are many materials which are suitable for a road surface which are obtaiaable only in particular localities. These are applied in much the same way as gravel or crushed stone, but ordinarily do not give as good results. Such materials are slag, cinders, shells and mine tailings. Cinders are usually too soft and too dusty for use on an ordinary road which has any considerable amount of travel. Mine tailings are usually very fine and are objection- able on account of the dust they make, but their cheapness makee them valuable in the mining districts. Aside from these, low grade iron ore makes a most excellent covering, be- ing much the same as clay in its behavior. There are iron ore deposits in many parts of the state which are too low grade to use for smelting which would make excellent roads if used for this purpose. 3 34 BUBAL HIGHWAYS OF WISCONSIN. CHAPTER IV. ROAD MACHINERY. Graders, In the use of road macliiiies the importance of having men to run them who are thoroughly familiar with their use, and know the form in which the surface of the grade should be left, cannot be emphasized too strongly. The custom, altogether too common, of having three teams with a driver for each one, and two men to control the blade is aibout as wasteful as could be devised. Each driver is afraid his team will puU more than its proper share and the result is that the six horses do not accomplish the work that four should do. If ai trac- tion engine could be rented to pull the grader the cost of the work would usually be very decidedly decreased. The longer a man handles a road machiae the more profi- cient he becomes and the more valuable his services. The same rule is applicable to teams. Where teams are continu- ally being changed and new ones unfamiliar vn.th the work take the place of those that drop out on account of having fin- ished working their tax, no team has a chance to become thor- oughly familiar with the work and either accomplishes only a small part of what it should or is worried and fretted out of all proportion to the work accomplished. "The common custom of grading only the width of the traveled track and leaving a shoulder of earth on the outside which prevents the water from leaving the roadway (See fig. 3 plate IV), or of working this shoulder of sod and weeds ROAD MACHINERY. 35 up into the road to be turned into soft mud under the influ- ence of rain and travel, cannot be too strongly condemned, and any foreman or road overseer who persists in such prac tice should be kept entirely away from repair work. The grader should be run the fuU width of the roadway so as to provide a continuous slope from the middle of the road to the ditch on the side, and if this shoulder of earth has been scraped into the ditches by being thrown outward it must be hauled away and the ditches properly cleaned. * * * It is much better and more economical to madn- tain one experienced crew in a township than half a dozen crews made up of men and teams picked up at random to work out the statute labor taix. One season's work with the same force imder competent direction will convince any thoughtful supervisor of the wisdom of keeping up one reg- ular repair crew under the control of a competent road builder." * The only time a road machine should be used is ia the spring or summer. If, as in many towns, the road is tumpiked in the fall, the dirt does not have time to pack down before it freezes. As a consequence it is porous and fuU of water and when the frost comes out in the spring the newly made road becomes a sea of mud which is speedily tramped out to the sides. The grading is then ready to be done over again. One thing that should be carefully guarded against is the formation of secondary ditches as shown in figure 3 plate IV. The right side of the figure shows the proper way to leave the grade and the left shows the way many roads are left. The prices on road machines aire widely different. The Highway Commissioner of Maine gives the following table of prices paid by the towns in his state for different makes of ma- chines. A large part of the variation in price is due to dif- ferent sizes, weights, etc., of the machines, but some of the dif- ference is doubtless due to difference in bargains. •Bull., 1 Minn. Hiehway Commission, p. 18. 86 RURAL EIOHWATS OF WISCONSIN. Table V. NahkofMaohinb. No. nsed. Pbiob. Lowest, Highest. 327 41 5 12 57 IG 10 7 i 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 64 fl25 110 21 JO 210 125 150 200 165 100 250 210 150 200 250 250 2S0 $375 Western Keverslble 350 235 350 275 Victor 330 235 Indiaaa Reversible of Fort Wftyue 250 205 Bnciseye 225 Great Western • McConniok Penrock .....•• Patten Machines no name reported One town reports "price confidential.' The cost of numing a road machine is given by the Maine Commissioner as varying from $2.00 to $35.00 per day with an average of $10.42 for 373 replies to his question. The average length of road turnpited per day was .842 of a mile. These figures will give the careful highway supervisor some idea of the work he is getting done in comparison to what is done in other districts. Scrapers. The scrapers in oommon use are the "wheeler" and the "slip" or drag scraper. The wheeler holds from 9 to 17 cubic feet, and the slip from 5 to 7 feet. This small •apacity — about % of a yard — ^limits the efficient use of the slip to hauls of very short length, usually not much greater than the width of the road. Where the haul is greater the wheeler should be used as it is almost as quickly loaded and carries from 1-3 to 1-2 cubic yard ; or, stated differently, from 60 to 100 per cent more work can be done with this than with the slip at not appreciably greater coet. The wheeler also has Hie advantage of giving a better grade as it spreads the dirt and does not leave it all in a heap like the slip. Up to hauls of 300 feet the wheeler is usually cheaper than wagon haulage because of the quickness with which it is loaded, but beyond BOAD MACEINERY. 31 that wagons should be used. The slip is often used to load wagons by providing a slide up which it can be run on to the box and using a long evener so that the horses can walk on each side of the wagon. If any considerable amount of dirt is to be moved it is cheaper to provide one of these and load with a team than it is to load with shovels. The relative cost of earth work when built with wheelers and slips is given in the following tables from Baker's "Eoaxis & Pavements." Table VI. Cost of moving earth with drag sooop-soraper. Per cubic yard. Items. 25 Ft. HauIi. SOFT. Haui., 100 Ft. Hadi,. 200 Ft. Hath. Character of earth. Loose. Hard. Loose. Hard. Loose. Hard. Loose. Hard. Loosening earth Filling scrapers Hauling Cents. 1.25 1.25 5.83 0.40 0.69 0.25 0.16 Cents. 2.50 1.50 6.50 0.40 0.69 0.38 0.16 Cents. 1.25 1.00 7.00 0.40 0.69 0.33 0.16 Cents. 2.50 1.50 7.70 0.40 0.69 0.50 0.16 Cents. 1.25 1.00 8.75 0.40 0.69 0.42 0.16 Cents. 2.50 1.25 9.62 0.40 0.69 0.63 0.16 Cents. 1.25 1.00 10.00 0.40 0.69 0.53 0.16 Cents. 2.50 1.00 11 00 40 Superintendence Wear and tear Water boy 0.69 0.80 16 Total cost 9.83 12.13 10.83 12.95 12.67 15.25 14.03 16.55 Tabm VII. Cost of moving earth with wheel scrapers. Per cubic Yard, Length op Haui. in Feet. iTJfiMS. Usin^ scraper No. 1. 9 cubic ft. capacity. Using scraper No. 3, 16 cnbic ft. capacity. 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 LooseuinfiT Cents. 1.25 1.25 5.83 0.40 0.69 0.41 0.16 Cents. 1.25 1.00 7.00 0.40 0.69 0.58 0.16 Cents. 1.25 1.00 8.00 0.40 69 0.75 0.16 Cents. 1.25 1.80 7.77 0.40 O.pn 0.53 O.IS Cents. 1.25 1.80 8.77 0.40 0.69 064 0.16 Cents. 1.25 1.80 9.77 0.40 0.69 0.75 0.16 Cents. 1.25 1.80 10.77 0.40 0.69 0.8S 0.16 Cents. 1 25 Filling scrapers 1.80 11 TV Leveling 4D Saperintendence 0.69 0.97 16 Totalcost 9,99 11.08 12.25 12.60 13.71 14.82 15.93 n 04 38 RURAL HIGHWAYS OF WISCONSIN. Boilers. These are little used on earth, roads in Wisconsin and their value is little appreciated. It is just as important in the construction of a good earth road that it should be left in a hard compact condition as it is in making a gravel or stone road. If the dirt is rolled thoroughly it is much less subject to rutting than if left loose. The roller packs the soft spots and shows them up so that more material can be added and the road left even surfaced and evenly hard in all places. The usefulness of the roller in building stone and gravel roads is better understood, but it may be mentioned that for these harder surfaces the rolling should begin at the should- ers and progress inward toward the center. Harrows. One implement that should be more used than at present is the common steel toothed harrow. It aids in smooth- ing the rough surface left by the grader or scrapers and is also useful in filling the ruts that may form in the newly made surface. For this last purpose it is not so good as the split-log drag which is described in the chapter on maintenance, but it is very useful if the split-log drag is not at hand. Other Implements. Plows, wagons, shovels, wheelbarrows, etc., need no description. Many forms of patent spreading dump-wagons are on the market and are particularly useful in spreading gravel or crushed stone. The elevating grader is used in some states where they have long stretches of level or slightly rolling country in whidi they wish to throw up grades of some considerable height, but it is too expensive a machine to be used under the system of road work existing in Wisconsin. ROAD MAINTENJJfOE. 39 CHAPTER V. ROAD MAINTENANCE. One of the causes for the high cost of and poor results sKown for the money spent on Wisconsin roads is the abnoat total lack of any idea of the necessity of mamtainmg the road after once constructed. The valuable old maxim, 'a stitcli in time saves nine,' is altogether too rarely applied, either by cities with reference to their streets and pavements, or by towns and counties, with reference to tbeir roads. Any one who is fa- miliar with conditions can tell numerous instances of wbere a few shovels of dirt or a few hour's work applied in time would have prevented a serious washout or the destruction of a road almost beyond repair which later cost much time amd effort to replace. If the truth could be ascertained it is highly probable that it would appear that the greater part of the great sum. of over two millions, which roads are at present coating the people, is spent in rebuilding roads that could have been kept in good shape by a much smaller amount if the work had been done in time. Section System. The ideal way of maintaining a road is that used by the railroads — ^the section system — in which a man is given charge of a certain stretch and required to keep it in first class shape. The more progressive parts of the country are already beginning to care for their roads in this way. The following letter, quoted by the Highway Commissioner of 40 RURAXt BICtHWAYS OF WISCONSIN. Maine, gives &i good account of how one man carried out this principle and the success he met. "Ordinarily., the chief work done by country people on highways is repairing the damage consequent upon neglect. Why this neglect ? Simply because the people are trying to follow old, obsolete methods poorly adapted to these times of intense business energy and economy. Much may be learned from the methods employed in main- taining the railroads. The means adopted to keep up our highways would be considered extravagant for them. The principle of economy forces them to a better system — one of constant and continuous work of repairing. In the spring of 1894, with the purpose of adopting better methods for road management, I asked the people of my town for the office of road commissioner, and being elected to that office I proceeded to institute a system of continuous inspection and repairs. Being familiar with all the roads of the town and the uses to which they were put, I divided them into sections and made choice of the men who should have charge of aaid keep each section. My next task was to see other men and endeavor to enthuse each with some spirit of improving. They were reminded that the value of their farms depended upon the condition of the road. They were assured that the roads were to be improved, and urged to use their best endeavors in inaiigurating reform in our method of road management. Each man was furnished with a good new shovel and a pass book in. which to charge for each and every hour he spent upon the road. He was instructed to gO over each section as soon as the ground was bare of snow, or as soon as the water began to flow to see to it ihat the water was kept off the road ; to go over the road every day if necessary while the snow was going and during the rainy season, for it is then that the most damage is done ; and that when so passing over the road he should remedy aill slight defects where a few ROAD MAFNTENAIfOE. 4.^ shovelf Tills of eaxth or gravel would prevent a bad mud-liole later on. These men were told that the old way of working the roads once a year had been abandoned, amd that it was expected that a few hours work each week, when it would not seriously interfere with their farm work, would accom- plish aU that was expected. The main road through the town, six miles long, not only takes the travel of the other roads, but is the thoroughfare by which the inhabitants of other towns reach the city with their produce, lumber, wood, and a great deal of heavy trucking. The best farmers live along this road and have enough busi- ness of their own without caring for a section of the road. Because of thls> and for various other reasons, I conceived the idea of employing one man to keep this road, and there- fore engaged a faithful man with his horse, the town furnish- ing a cart. He was employed from spring till fall, and his instruo- tions were to begin at one end and work one mile each day, covering the entire route each week, and fixhig the worst mud-holes (and there were many), using the best road ma- terial at hand ; and at the close of each day to pass over the mile worked, gathering the loose stones, putting them where they would give no more trouble. I will say here that the maintenance of this road was and had been a great burden to the town, and its condition was far from satisfactory to the traveling public. When the man employed learned what was expected of him he shrank from the task, saying, "What can I do to keep this road when a large gang of men with great expense failed to keep it?" He was only persuaded to make the attempt by the assurance that the responsibility and any bad results would rest on the commissioner. There waa much ridicule and prejudice against this sys- tem of management for a time. The man employed was in- structed not to participate in any discussion of the subject, 42 RURAL BiaSWAYB OF WIBCONBIN. not to answer questions relative to thte road or his work upon it, smd to refrain from talking about the matter generaJly on penalty of being discharged. Other people talked and ridiculed, but the work went on, and after a few weeks the condition of the road improved and people noticed the fact. They also discovered that the expense was not large ; that all the work done was remedying defects and at the same time preventing greater ones. And so the work went on and the prejudice died out. At the next annual town meeting the people without opposition continued the system, and at the last town meeting elected the road commissioner for three years with the same system of road management. The general results are that much better roads are secured at less expense, and the tax rate for highways has been re- duced each year, as the roads grew better, and as we learned to maintain them free from damage at less cost, I wiU say that we do somiething more for the roads than is here indicated. What we do is for maintaining or hold- ing them, and at the same time improving. But these roads should be built according to modem ideas of road construc- tion; so we set apart a portion of the road fund for perma- nent improvement, building up for each year a piece or sec- tion of the main road in a thorough manner and of good material, and constructing culverts of stone in a permanent way. After the road is put in good condition one man can easily keep and care for a long stretch. [Very truly yours, (Signed) J. O. Sasvosd, Vermont Board of Agriculture. Stamford, Vt., November 10, 1896." A few general principles as to the care of roads are here given. They are all dependent on the fact that water is the one great foe to good roads of any kind except sand, and a sand road is not properly to be classed with good roads. ROAD MAINTENANCE. 43 Keep ruts and pitch-liolea filled, always with tHe same Jcmd of material as that of which the road is composed, in order to force the water to run quickly into the ditches. Keep weeds, grass and hrush cut away from the sides to per- mit rapid drying. Keep the ditches and culverts free from obstruction by dead weeds, etc., to permit the water to run away before it has time to soak into the foundation and soften it. Keep loose stones, etc., off the surface. Split-log drag. One of the best and cheapest methods of maintaining a clay or gravel road is to use the split-log drag. This implement is figured as the frontpiece to this volume as it is one of the most important single factors in the betterment of our dirt road conditions. Its construction is evident from the illustration. The principle on which it works is familiar to any one who has ever made mud pies. It depends upon the fact that clay which has been thoroughly mixed with water will bake into a hard compact mass on drying. The drag is used right after a rain when the ground is full of water, and it works up about half an inch of well puddled clay toward the center of the roads. The back log, not being shod, acts as a sort of packer to press down the puddled surface left by the front log. The ruts are thus filled with wet packed material which is further packed by the wheels and eventually baked on drying into a hard compact mass. The following suggegstions for using the drag are taken from the monthly bulletin of the Missouri Board of Agriculture for April, 1906. 1st. "The length of the chain, which is regulated hy slip- ping it backward or forward through the hole in ditch end of drag. The length of the chain regulates the hold taken on the earth. To make the chain longer is equivalent to putting weight on the drag. If your drag is too heavy shorten the chain." , ^4 RURAL HIOEWATS OF WISCONSIN. 2d. "The position of the snatch hooh, which attaches the double-trees. To move much dirt or cut small weeds hitcli the hook close to the ditch end of the drag and stand as nearly on the end of the front slab as is safe. Drive very slowly when thus hitched. This one hitch seems to be the hardest to learn. The others suggest themselves." 3d. "Position of the driver on the drag. To move dirt see above. In a soft spot stand on rear slab. On a hard spot stand on front slab and drive slowly. If the drag clogs with straw, weeds, sod or mud, step to a point as far as you can get from ditch end of the drag. To drop dirt in a low place step quickly from ditch end to other extreme. To fill a low place or mud hole nicely is the severest test of skill with a drag." "I suspect you will become thoroughly disgusted when you first make the effort. But remember it will not be the fault of the drag if you fail." 4th. "Presence or absence and sharpness or dullness of the steel. The steel may project half an inch below the wood at the ditch end of the steel, but should come up fiush with the wood at other end of the steel. After a clay or gumbo road has been dragged four or five years the soil becomes so tough and putty-like that one must study it closely to know what to do. Some times I use shaa^p edge of steel ; sometimes dull edge (holes are bored in both edges of steel so that I can turn it up side down and use same bolt holes), and some times the plain wood." "This can be learned only by eixperience and you have sev- eral years in which to study the problem." "I hope these details and fancy points will discourage no one. Never forget that the poorest drag used in the poorest manner by a man who wants to learn will surely improve the highway." The effect of proper use of the road dra^ is shown in platee iVII and VIII. The second road (plate IX) is located In a IB ^ p p ac a.'o «£ (t o ".'^ PS ■ ■ <» 3 ROAD MAINTENANCE. 43 Waupaca couaty and was one of the worst stretdies in the c intry round about. It was low and almost always wet and soft. The road supervisor, Mr. Ohas. W. Gibson, believed that he ooidd better it and so graded it up with his road ma>- chine and conscientiously dragged it after every rain. The cost or is satisfied in most cases by a simple shift- ing of a few yards up or down stream in order to avoid quick- sands. The second factor of a good location is secured by plac- ing the bridge in such a position that the water comes to it in a channel which is straight for at least fifty yarda up stream. Ac- co ding to this a bridge should not be located on a bend if it is possible to avoid it. If it is located so that the water has to change its direction the bridge or culvert is exposed to the ed- dies or washing of water where it turns to go through and is much more subject to washing out than (me which is located properly. Eor this reason it ia often advantageous to locate cul- verts in a diagonal direction across the road in case it is nec- essary to permit the water to flow alongside of the road for any distance. OTJIiVBETS. Culvert Materials. — The common materials which are used for culverts are wood, vitrified tile, steel or cast iron tubing, concrete and stone. Wood is hardly worthy of consideration as 53 BVRAL HiaEWAYB OF WISOONSnT. ordinarily used without any treatment to preserve it. The life of the ordinary wooden culvert is too short and it must he replaced so often that when the cost of its maintenance is con- sidered it is more expensive than the more permanent forms. Tile Culverts. — ^Double strength vitrified pipe is very sat- isfactory for small culverts, providing it can be laid deep enough so that it will not be crushed by traction engines and other heavy loads. This depth will, of course, vary in different circumstances. If the road is of macadam or gravel construction and does not rut, twelve inches between the top of the pipe and the surface of the road will be sufficient — if too heavy engines or rollers are not used. In the case of a clay road, which ruts deeply and is poorly cared for, there should be at least two feet of earth over the top of the pipes. The failure of tile culverts is due also to the fact that they are so often laid improperly,. The following rules should be followed carefully in laying tile culverts: (1) The trench should be cut rounding on the bottom so that pipes rest solidly at all points along their length on the undisturbed earth. (2) The joints should be filled with cement mortar to prevent the escape of water through them, which might wash away the earth surrounding the pipe. (3) The ends of the tile where they project at the sides of the road should be protected with a wall of some sort, at least of plank or loose stones placed around them, but preferably of masonry or concrete. If built in this manner a tile culvert is a good permanent improve- ment to the road and not one which will have to be renewed every few years. Steel and Iron Culverts. — Steel pipe culverte are of lees value than cast iron because they are much more subject to rust. Another objection to steel culverts is that they are usually made of very light steel and although they are well able to support the load upon them when they are new, they are so reduced in strength by the rust of a few years that they must be r^laced. Cast iron culverts rust out much more slowly and usiially give very good service. The cost of these CULVERTS AND BKIDO-ES. 53 cast iron culverts, however, is in almost all localities higher, than that of carefully built tile or concrete culverts. In cases where careless methods of construction of tile or concrete cul- verts are the rule the cast iron culverts will probably give much better satisfaction. Where tile culverts are properly con- structed they are more permanent and cheaper in first cost than the cast iron. The cast iron culverts are made in two general forms : The solid cast tubes and the sectional three-piece forms which usu- ally have a triangular cross section. Of these triangular forms the ones which nearest approximate a circular cross section are the best, since it is undesirable to have the section of the cul- vert grow smaller as the water rises higher in it. The tri- angular form wiU accommodate a large amount of water when the water, is low, and as the water rises the space becomes nar- rower and the water is held back, instead of having provided for it a wider channel of flow as it rises. The prices given by the manufacturers of the rounding forms and the triangular forms are given on page 66. The rounding forms must be made heavier to stand the same weight and are therefore more expensive, but the same size will carry more water than the corresponding size in a triangular form. Stone Culverts. — In many parts of the state where large flat stones are available stone culverts can be constructed at a rela- tively low cost and make a good permaneat feature of the road. They should ordinarily be provided with a stone Soor and an apron wall at each end extendiug down into the soil at the side of the road to prevent them from under-mining and wash- ing out. In the eastern and southern parts of the state are many limestone quarries from which large flagstones can be secured to make the tops, thus doing away with the necessity of constructing an arch. Concrete Culverts. — Concrete culverts are probably the best and most permanent that can be constructed. They are easily made by any iutelligeiat road supervisor after a little instruo- 54 BUBAL EiaaWAYS OF WISCONSIN. tion from one who is familiar with concrete work. If properly made they are better the older they get. It has been found that by imbedding steel "reinforcing bars" in the lower part of a flat sheet or beam of concrete where cracks first develop in breaking, that such beams can be made much stronger. This principle is used very extensively and large structures are made of this "reinforced concrete." In building culverts or bridges of concrete they can either be built with arched tops without reinforcing or with flat tops using reinforced bars. In smaller types of culverts it is cheapest and most satisfactory to make them of the arched type, as this does away with the extra expense of putting in the reinforcing bars. The small extra amount of concrete which is necessary is not sufficiently great to offset the extra labor and cost of putting in reinforcing bars. For the laxger types — ^those with an opening of over two feet — ^it is often more economical to Tise the flat topped forms and the rein- forced construction. Plate X shows one of the standard forms of flat topped reinforced concrete culverts prepared by the Iowa Highway Commission. They have made standard pL.nB for various sizes of these culverts up to "/i fpot span, which show, as in this particular plate, the amount of rein- forcement required and just where it is placed. The College of Engineering of the State University plans to make stand- ard designs for such culverts and bridges ior use in this state. For the small arched top culverts forms may be made quite cheaply in the manner described on page 68. The best form for small culverts which I have seen, however, is one which was exhibited at the road school held at Ames by the Iowa State Highway Commission. The makers of this mould, 0. W. Overturf & Co., of Dumont, Iowa, have very kindly furnished the accompanying cut, figure 1, and the table of sizes, amounts of materials needed, and price of mould. The mould is composed of a sheet of heavy galvanized steel bent into cylin- drical shape and held together along the edges by bolts which are removed aiter the concrete has set, the steel being them SI J" I > V' b Q) 1 Ol « > tii Pi .J lii * ? J 2 lb 1 b a 1 N 1 3 s "1 Dr o V b (ft ft C It «) ID or V > '< i CULVERTS AND BRIDOES. 55 rolled into a more compact form to separate it from the walls so that it can be easily pulled out. This makes practically a concrete pipe culvert in a single piece. Fig. l.-.-4>irertuTt Bteel mold for concrete colTerta. UATBRIAL8 "These figures cffi from igaterway tWi seven pA,rts gravel TABLE VIII. O I'OR DIFI'EIiENT SIZED OULVHllTB MAlOi WITH THE ;. OVEET0BI' HOLD. 6n the basis oflS-ft, culverts, with toping to extend two feet |»^ver<, and eonorete in proportion of one part cement emd Diameter ' of cnlvert. ThipJ^iess of^tt^m. t Thickness of sides. Thickness of top. Amt, of sand required. Amt. of cement required. Width' to die trench. 8-incb 11-ineh i inches S inches S inches 4 inches i% inches i'A inches 5 inches 4 inches i inches 5 inches 9 inches 5^ inches 5H inches 6 inches IH inches 5 inches 6 inches S inches 6^ inches 6^ inches 7 inches SOcn. ft. 36 en. ft. 18 ca. ft. 59 cu. ft. 85 cu. ft. 90 en. ft. 124 cu. ft. IfiSlbs.. 558 lbs.. 744 lbs.. 915 lbs.. 1,317 [ba.. 1,395 lbs.. 1,922 lbs.. 16 inches, 19 mches. 13-inch 23 inches* 15-inch 19-inch 30 iHches, 22-iQoh S7-inch 49 inches. "Under ordinary conditions, with cement at 65c. per hundred pounds, the cost of this kind of concrete work is close to 14o. per cuibic foot of concrete used, and as cement in the propor- tions mentioned does not increase the bulk of gravel, to esti- mate the cost of any sized culvert, completed, multiply the estimated amount of gravel in cubic feet by .18 — ^lihis will give 56 KORAJj HI&HWATS OF WISCONSIN. tte cost completed. Multiply by .11 to get the cost of material, by .14 for cost of material on ground, and by .04 to get cost of labor." TABLE IX. DIAMBTKE, WBIGHT AND PRICB OV OVEETUBF MOLDS. Diameter o( mold. Gauee of steel. Weight per foot. Price per foot. Bight inch 20 20 20 18 16 16 14 14 3 1b. 5 1b. 6 1b. 9 1b. 13 Jb. 17 lb. 25 lb. 40 1b. $0.76 Ktevwi inch .85 1.05 'JRfteen inch 1.25 1.55 Twenty-two inch 1.75 2.65 Tliirty-aiz inch 3.40 For culverts over two feet in diameter the u^e of these col- lapsible moulds is less advantageous than the use of the square wooden moulds, with which steel reinforcing bars can be ap- plied, and with which therefore less concrete is needed. CONCEETE. A matter of fundamental importance in concrete work is the kind of cement used. Cements are ordinarily classed as Portland and natural. The portland cement is made by burn- ing and grinding together certain definite proportions of pure limestone and clay. This results in a product of imiform strength. The natural cements are made by burning and grind- ing certain naturally impure limestones which are approxi- mately of the proper composition. As these natural cement rocks are never even in their composition, the cement manufac- tured from them is for this reason never as even in its quali- ties as the Portland cement. Consequently portland cement is the only Jijnd which can be depended upon to give sufficiently uniform results to make it worth while using it in bridge and culvert work. Concrete is made by mixing together cement and crushed rock ; or cement, sand and gravel. There is so little advantage in using crushed rock in place of gravel that in ordinary cases CULVERTS AND BBIDOES. 57 the one which is most easily obtainable should be used. If either can be had at the same price the crushed rock should be used. The gravel or crushed rock should have enough of small particles or of sand so that the spaces between the larger pieces will be completely filled. If they are not completely filled there will be vacant spaces left which will weaken the concrete. The custom is to use about one part of small material to two parts of coajTse. If gravel is used it is very important that all clay and loam^y material be screened out. This can be done on an ordinary plaster's screen at an expense which will be well repaid by the betteor character of the concrete produced. This screening also enables sand to be mixed with the gravel in more exact proportions. Mixmg. — Concrete may be mixed either by machinery or by hand. In mixing by hand a tight board platform is used to spread the material on. The dry sand is laid in a long heap and cement spread evenly over the top of it. Pairs of shovelers working opposite then turn the sand and cem&nt over in such a manner as to mix it thoroughly. This process should be gone through with a number of times so that the cement will be thoroughly mixed with the sand. After it is thoroughly mixed the heap should be moistened and mixed again until it is of the sanne consistency throughout. The broken stone and gravel is then put on and mixed with the mortar. Iowa Highway Commission recommends a wet mixture (which is one containing all the water it will hold) for ordinary use especially where the slab of concrete is to be thin. The forms must be practically water tight for such a wet mixture, how- ever, or the water wUl escape and caary with it considerable cement. If there is much concrete work planned it is economical and also better to use a mixing machine as the resultiij? concrete is more uniform. FilUng the Forms. — ^After it is thoroughly mixed the con- crete can be shoveled into the forms. The mixing board should 58 RVR4L EiaHWATS OF WISCONBIN. if possible be so close by the forms that the concrete can be shoveled in directly without the necessity of using wheelbar- rows. It should be deposited in layers of 6 inches inches thick- ness and thoroughly rammed into place so as to fill the forms tightly and leave no open spaces in the finished work. It should not be thrown any considerable distance as this will cause the heavy pieces to settle and will therefore destroy the uniformity of the mixture. When work is left unfinished over night the surface should be left as rough as possible so that the new con- crete will make a good bond. At the beginning of the next day's work the surface should be cleaned and wet and a little cement sprinkled over it. The strength of concrete, and consequently its durability, depends upon four factors: (1) the quality of the cement, (2) texture, (3) th« proportion of cement used, and (4) the density of the concrete. To insure uniform quality portland cement should be used for the reason stated above. A concrete of the proper texture is secured by mixing the sand and gravel, or the large and small sizes of crushe^d stone so that the spaces between the larget pieces are completely fiUed. The proportion of cement used is a matter of choice. The density ai the con- crete depends upon the mixture used and somewhat upon the care with which it is tamped into the mould. The following table gives the strength oi portland cemant mortars of various compositions. Tablb X. BTBBNO'na as fobtland cement mobtars in oomfbesbion. Aob 4 months. ( Watertown Arsenal). Pbopoetions by Volumi. Compressive strength pnnnds per sqnare inch. Cement. Sand. 1 2 3 4 5 6 4,370 2,506 1,812 830 532 169 CVLYEBTS AITD BRIDQEB. 59 From this table it appears that the strength of a mortar of one part of cement to three of sand — a "1 :S mixture" — ^is over twice that of a mortar having one part of cement to four of sand. If concrete of differing strength is needed for different parts of structures, such mixtures are used as will give the strength required. The Iowa Highway Commission gives the following proportions as a guide for general practice: For arches and flat tops for culverts; 1 piurt cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts broken stone; or 1 part cement, 1^ parts sand, i parts screened gravel. For wing walls, or piers or abutments: 1 part cement, 3 parts sand, 6 parts broken stone; or 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 5 parts screened gravel. Where a gravel concrete is used engineers ordinarily require about ten per cent additional cement to be used over broken stone concrete." In determining what the cost of a concrete structure will be it is necessary to know the amounts of material which go to make up a cubic yard of finished concrete work. Oemfint should be measured in its packed bulk, not as loosely poured out. A sack of cement is just about 95 per cent of a cubic foot. Table XI gives the proportions of cement, sand and stone to make a cubic yard of eoncrete- Tablx XI. QnANTITIBS OV UATEBIAM VOn ONE CUBIC TARD 0V BAMMBD 00':S<}RBTE Cement =3. 8 cubic ft. per barrel. Fbopobtions bt Volume. Pbopobtions by Bbi,. AND Cu. Yd. Cement, Sand. Stone. Bbl. cement. Cable yards of sand. Cubic sards screened graTel or broken stone. 1 1 1 2 4 6 1.75 1.3, 1.10 0.44 0.46 0.47 0.88 0.92 0.94 60 RURAL HIGHWAYS OF WI8G0NBIN. In making small culverts wheire the mixing is done by hand four men can work to advantage and should mix and put in place seven or eight cubic yards in ten hours, providing the forms ar© already built and the materials are close by the work. BBIDOBS. The materials of which bridges are made are wood, steel, stone, and concrete. A large proportion of the highway bridges at present being erected are of steel. Lumber has been so high as almost to prohibit its use as a bridge material and the use of concrete has not become so common as the merits of the ma- terial warrant. It is diflBcult for any custom in bridge build- ing to be changed because of the large number of people who must be convinced of the value of the change, ffhere are over four thousand town and county officers having to deal with bridge construction and the adoption of any new method must necessarily be slow. However, it is to be hoped that the use of concrete will extend more rapidly. Causes of Failure of Bridges. — When one stops to consider the matter it is strange what a small number of bridges can be named that have "died a natural death" from decay. Even the old wooden bridges that one remembers, which ordinarily rot out in the course of fifteen years, were almost all destroyed by floods or by undermining before their period of usefulness was ended by natural decay. There are three chief causes for the failure of a bridge. These are, (1) natural decay, (2) floods which lift the hridge iodily and carry it awoAj, and (3) poor abutments which are easily undermined by a moderate freshet, letting the bridge down and destroying it. Of these tihree causes the blame for a very large portion of bridge destruction is due to poorly constructed abutments. The common prac- tice in building abutments is so well stated in a letter which was received from a gentleman of OrfordviUe, Wisconsin, that it is here quoted: "I enclose a table (table XIV) which I hope will give you an idea of what we are doing in the line of bridges. I will 0ULVEBT8 AND BRIDQES. Ql say ttat bridge No. 1 was built in quickaand by laying a plank on the sand, then building cement abutments on the plank with the expectation that they would settle into the sand enough to give a good foundation. This answered very well as long as we had no heavy rains, but the heavy rains of last August undermined the abutments, they toppled over and the bridge went iato the ditch. Bridge No. 6 is being built in its place. This same rain undermined the "mud sill" at one end of bridge "No. 2 to a depth of five feet, allowing that end of the bridge to settle about three feet. This was raised with jack screws and the excavation filled with rock. We have now concluded that the only practical foimdation for these small bridges when they must be built in mud or quick-sand is the "tubular pier," consisting of steel tubing well sunk into the soil with pile driven inside and the space fi'Ued with thin cement. As suggested in your former communication, the mud sill bridges were used at the suggestion of the bridge firm and to the sorrow of the tax payers. However, I wish to say before closing that I am not a member of the town board, and never have been, consequently have had nothing to do with these bridges, but am a tax- payer and have watched these matters quite closely. We know that no farmer would think of btiilding a $600.00 building on "mud siUs," especially if the building were to span a stream, but when it comes to building bridges when the town foots the bill, we have a different proposition." In the same manner as strong emphasis was laid upon the necessity for having a solid foundation for a road, so must strong emphasis be laid upon the necessity of having good foundations for bridges. If the foundations of a bridge are so constructed that the water can undermine them easily, or can wash out behind them leaving the bridge standing in the midst of a stream with no approaches, the tax-payer can figure on the fact that taxes to the amount of the cost of this bridge have been thrown away, as it will soon have to be replaced. 62 RURAL BIQHWAYB OF WIBC0N8I1I. Sted Bridges. — In letting the contract for the construction of an ordinary steel highway bridge it is impossible for the ordinary town board to draw up proper specifications. For those who are interested in looking up this matter it is suggested that they can refer to the specifications for highway bridges which are issued by the American Bridge Co. These specifica- tions are those which are used by that company in their bidding and insure a bridge of good grade. Other bidders should be made to furnish material and designs of an equal grade in put- ing in competitive bids. It is advisable that counties and towns should adopt some standard form for the ordinary small bridges, such as the En- gineering College of the State University plans to provide at an early date. With such standard plans it wiU be unneces- sary to have special designs drawn for each span, and bidders wiU be placed on an equal plane with regard to the material which they must furnish. As many bridges made of steel I beams are being erected the following table published by the state engineer of New York is here given in order to impart an idea of the depth and weight of beams necessary for spans of various lengths. If plank floor is used the depth need not be quite so great, as the depths given are for concrete or stone slab floors. The spans are designed to support a 10 ton traction engine or road roller. OVLYERTB A^D BBIDOE8. 63 Table XII. BHOWING SIZES AKD WEIGHTS 01' I BEAMS TO BE USED VOB VABIODS LENGTHS OB' SPAN FOB BRIDGES OB OULVEETS, USING STONE OB CONORETB SLABS. Width of flange in inches. Weight of I beam per foot of length. Founds. Thickness of web of I beam. Inches. LmiTma Lenqths op Spans. Depth of I beam. Inches. I beams spaced 2 feet between cen- ters. I beams spaced 3 feet between cen- ters. 5 S 9f 0.21 ft. in. 4 6 ft. in. , 3 6 5 3i 12i 0.36 5 4 6 3A 1*1 0.50 5 6 4 6 sA 12i 0.23 6 6 6 6 sA 14f . 0.35 7 5 6 6 StV 17i 0.48 7 6 6 7 sH 15 0.25 8 6 7 7 3f 17i 0.35 9 7 6 7 3j 20 0.46 9 6 7 6 8 1 18 0.27 11 8 6 S 4A 20S .0.36 11 6 9 8 41% 23 0.45 12 9 6 8 4i 25j 0.54 12 6 10 9 4A 21 0.29 13 6 11 9 4A 25 0.41 14 6 11 6 9 4f 30 0.57 15 6 12 6 9 4l 35 0.73 16 6 13 6 10 4H 25 0.31 16 6 13 6 10 m 30 0.46 17 6 14 10 iU 35 0.60 18 6 15 10 5j 10 0.75 19 6 16 12 5 31i 0.35 21 17 6 12 5A 35 0.44 21 6 18 12 5J 40 6.46 22 6 19 15 5i 42 0.41 27 6 23 15 5A 45 0.46 28 6 23 6 15 5f 50 0.56 29 6 24 6 g4 RURAL HIGHWAYB OP WIBOONBIN. Stone Bridges. — Stone bridges are gaining in favor in the state wliei"ever building stone suitable for sucL purposes is ob- tainable. Owina; to their greater cost than wooden bridges, they have been comparatively little used up to recent years, but the desire for permanent structures and the increased cost of lumber have both aided in promoting the use of stone. Stone bridges are as permanent as any structure can be made, if properly built. If any large sum of money Is to be invested in such an undertaking careful plans should be made and the construction inspected in order to see that the masons are doing their work in such a way that it will last. Bridges which were built by the Romans nearly two thousand years ago are still in use, and if stone bridges are constructed, carefully today there is no limit which can be set upon their length of life. Concrete Bridges. — The use of concrete as a bridge building material has been developed comparatively recently. The whole subject of reinforced concrete is relatively new and it is not strange, therefore, that so few highway Bridges are built of this material. A properly built concrete bridge is, as a gen- eral thing, cheaper than stone, and while more expensive than steel, is a structure which grows better with age rather than rusting out as steel is bound to do. Owing to the desirability of issuing this bulletin at as early a date as possible it was found impossible to prepare designs or to give exact information as to proper methods of construction of concrete bridges here. These wiU be given in the previously mentioned plans to be made by the Engineering College. The concrete for use in bridge structure is prepared as indicated on pages 58 and 59 for concrete culverts. XrFB AND COST Off BEIDGE AND OTTLVEET MATEEIAXS. Life of Bridges . B.R. Kails ■ Its 00 DlokiDson 6x5 ft Top H in. round rods 2 in. o. to 4ft ■ 6 SO Hnmbcddt 80 ft. long 165 00 2x2 W40 it 90 2i2 40 ft. long, barbed wire Poweshiek 4 ft. . . . 60 ft. long, steel bars eonetete $7.50 per yard 4x8 750 00 Washington !!.'.'!! MO 00 8ft 3 in. gae pipe IS in c« 60.f t. long, bars and wire mash, ing.. 190 00 Woodbnr/ „.. 6ft now 'This means that the cross-section of the reinforcing bars is one per eent. of the total area of the orera-seetion of the reinforced concrete slab. Tablb XVI. ABOHBO TOP ODLYEBTS OB BKIDOBa ODuntv. No. Span. Beinforeemsnt, Coat. Blackhawk . .. 17.5feet 6-8feet 1 per eent see. area, Thatcher 6 Cl,a»oo Barbed mreave 40 feet long, 200 lb. barbed wire 40 feet lone, barbed wire 40 feet long. IS) lb. barbed wire xt 5x6 feet 4 in M Sxlfeet^in 30 Rtory 5feet tro 00 Tama 3-6 $.45 pAr ca. yd Woodbury .... ISfeet'SSUin. z22ft. 20 « in. X 14 feet lOfeet Sfeet MO 00 Worth 210 00 Kone • ,. 75 00 Table XVII. BRICK AND STONE ABCHES. Connty. Boone Unioo Brick arch, 5 ft. span, 50 ft. long Stone arch, 5 ft. 8pan,Mft. Idns Brick arch, 6x6— 20ft. long, $13 00 per ft Brick arch, 6x6—26 ft. long, $15.00 per ft Cost. tssooo 164 00 260 00 WOB YO RURAL HiasWATB OF WIUvONtilN. "Cost of Concrete Work. "''Particular attention is •alle^ t« the range in prices aa given for the different counties. This may be accounted for in a measure by the variation in price of the materials delivered, and also the relative difficulty of pur- suing the work under cotiditionfi imposed by the location of the structures. However, these reasons are not altogether satis- factory when the range of prices is so wide. For instance, one county reports the work to cost 35c per cubic foot, which means $9.45 per cubic yard. A good example of the reason- able cost of concrete work under favorable circumstancefc is the reinforced concrete bridge reported from Boone county. The abutments and wing walls are about seven feet high and eighteen inches wide on top, with a batter of about 1/^" to the foot on the outside. The top is a 14" slab of concrete with a clear span of fourteen feet reinforced with seven 6" I beams having their ends imbedded in either abutment. There is a 16 foot roadway with a 10" felloe-rail on either side and a two- rail gas pipe railing. Sand and gravel cost $1.00 per cubic yard and oement $2.00 per barrel plus haulage. The structure completed cost $271.00." "The following itemized statements of concrete work are taken from a paper read before the Iowa Grood Roads Associa- tion by Henry Haag, supervisor of Greene County: — ' TABLB or ITKMIZBD COSTS. 6 ft. bj 8 ft. Reinforced Concrete Culvert. Fonndation reqaired pUinsr and three feet of excavation below bed of stream. 40 yards river gravel hauled SVi miles at 75o .,„ ftO.OD 40bbl. Portlanl cement at $2.00 80.00 7 DCS. 7-inch I beams, 1,070 lbs. at $1.00 „ 10.70 800 lbs. old jnnk, rods and bars at 60c per hundred „„ 4.80 28 Stub pilins, 10 teet, at 50o. each _„ 14.00 3 m™ and team two days driving piling at $6.00 „„ 12.00 4 men excavating two days at $1.50 , 4.50 Use of lumber and wastage in forma 15.00 Hauling piles, pilo driver, lumber, cement and tools ^^^^ g.OO Filling in bridge and completion, 2 men and team one day ..,.. 4.50 2 menl day taking off forms and false work at $1.50 S.OO OULVBRTB AlTD BBIDOEB. 71 '"Tite cost of the concrete in this bridge waa $6.00 per yard, there being 33 yards of concrete in the bridge, as followa : — Pemdations contained 232 en. ft. Walls and mnga 393ci.ft. Slab floor 220 en. ft. Wheel gaaid 43 cu. ft. 88T cu. ft. or S3 yds. "The following is the coat of different items per yard : — Oeroent »2.40 I-abor 1.75 Steel 4S Oravel 90 Adimbn 50 ts.oo TABLE OF rrEUIZBD COST. T ft. by 8 ft, Beinforeed Concrete Culrert. Ponndatlem on bine clay three feet below bed of stream. SVds. pit grarel donated and used in fonudatioos. SO yds. river gravel at $1.00 lEO.OO OSbbls. Portland eerae lit at $2.00 130.00 Kahn truasedbars for re inforeinK slab floor 50.00 E,400ibs. old jnnk rods, bars and angles at 60a 11.40 SzoaTation, 2 teams, 3 men, 3 days at $8.00 24.00 Lumber, use of, wastage for forms 20.00 Considerable bridge lumber that we had on hand wai naed, joists, etc., not dam- aged and no nharge was made against the work. Building forms 10.00 4 men, 6 days, at (2.00, mixing concrete 48.00 If au and team at $3 00 hauling water, graTel and cement to mixing board, E days 18.00 5 men 1 day, taking off forma 4.00 Team hauling lumber and tools back 3.00 Filling in dirt on and around bridge after completion, ! teams one day at $3.00. . 6.00 Total cost $385.40 "The cost of the concrete in this bridge was $7.30 per yard, there being 53 yards of concrete in the bridge, as follows: — Foundations contained 220 en. ft. Walls and wings 612 cu. ft, Whe>lguard 85cu,ft. Handrail '.. lOOcn. ft Blab floor 396 cu. ft. 1,413 cu. ft. or S3 on. ydt. "The following is the cost of the different items per yard : — Cement $2.35 per yard Gravel 1.00 tiabor : 2.30 Steel 1.15 Immbei 50 72 RURAL EIGHWAYB OF WISCONSIN. While it was not possible to obtain much information as to the cost of bridges in Wisconsin each town board will know what their stiiictures are costing them and can compaie costs with the figures given here for these Iowa bridges and culverts In making such comparisons the length of life of the structures whose costs are compared must be continually kept in mind. CONTOUES. In dealing with bridges, culverts and general drainage prob- lems as well as in location of roads, the lay of the surface of the country is of such great importance that a short explana- tion is given to show the common method of indicating the ir- regularities of the surface. The accompanying cut, fig. 15, is taken from one used by the United States Gieological Survey in explaining the use of contour lines. The figure includes an ordinary view as seen by the eye and a map of the same object The contours which are diown on the man are Hnes on the surface which are dfrawn so that all points on a single line are at an equal distance above some level surface, whidi is usually taken as sea level, aa indicated in the figure by the level of the water. A conception of the way these lines appear can be obtained if the water in the bay were imagined to rise by 50 ft. intervals, stopping long enough at each interval to enable the shore line to be traced. All points in this shore line would evi- dently be at the same level. A succession of lines thus drawi. covering the country as closely as desired enables one who un derstands such a map to tell at once the slope of the ground, whether it is steep or gentle, and the extent of the drainage areu of any stream. It is evident that where the surface of the land is steep, as on the face of the hiU, the water would not go shore- ward much in rising the 50 feet between contours and the con- tours would consequently be close together. While in places where the slope of the land is gentle the water would move shore- ward a much longer distance in rising the 50 feet and the con- tours would be a much greater distance apart on the map. 0VLTEBT8 AND BRIDOES. 73 Therefore in reading a contour map it is evident that widely spaced contours indicate gentle slopes while closely spaced con- tours indicate steep slopes. Fig. >.— Cut Bhowlng a Tletf of bills and a stream Talley yrltb a contour mav be- low. From U. S. Geological Surrey. Such maps have been made of a considerable area in the .southern part of the state by the United States Geological Sur- vey, and it is hoped for the purpose of aiding in good road vork that they may be extended rapidly to cover the whole state. They are usually made, however, only on condition that the state appropriate money to pay for half the expense. PART 11. CONDITIONS IN WISCONSIN AND KOAD LAWS IN OTHER STATES. CHAPTER I. PRESENT fflGHWAY CONDITIONS IN WISCONSIN. In the beginning of the present study of the road situation in Wisconsin the fact was taken into consideration that the largest part of the roads of the state must continue to be made of the ordinary soil of the districts through which they pass. As a consequence the first thing to be undertaken was to find out the methods of construction which were being -sed and the conditions of the roads which were the results of these methods. For the purpose of actually seeing the roads, a trip was made over a considerable part of the central aaid southern portions of tiie state and the roads and methods of construction inspected. As any such trip must necessarily be very limited as to the amount of territory covered, and as the knowledge desired was of a more general nature than could be obtained on such trip, letters were sent out to various persons. The first letter sent out was addressed to every town clerk in the state, and enclosed a list of eighteen questions. Keplies were received on first request from TOO of the town clerks. On the second request practically all of the remainder replied, giving reports from all but 167 of the 11^5 town el^ks. As these relies were sent in, for the most part, without even bedng furnished return postage, a strong indication is given of the interest of the town clerks in road conditions in the state and in any movement towards bettering these conditions. One of the requests sent to the town clerks was that they return names of the prominent farmers in their town who Iff RURAL HIGHWAYS OF WISCONSIN. would be able to give information as to the effect of roada upon land values, etc. Later on letters were sent out to 2000 of the persons whose names were thus turned in. On a single re- quest replies were received from about half of these. A request was sent to the Fourth Assiptant Postmaster Gen- eral, Mr. DeGraw, who very kindly furnished a list of the n&mes and addresses of all rural free delivery carriers in the state, and also sent out a circular letter to them requesting that they answer promptly the questions sent to them concerning roads. Of the 1450 carriers in the state only 316 have not re- plied. The answers to these questions sent out, aggregating in number some 3000 letters, have been carefully worked over and totals, averages, and generalizations made in so far as was possible. Where a question is omitted in the following state- ment it is due to the fact that the question is of such a nature that answers to it can not be tabulated or any average or gen- eral results taken from them, such aa questions regardina; the location of roads, materials, etc. i QtJBSTIONS ADDRESSED TO TOWN CLEBKB. 1. How many miles of public roads in your town? Of those answering, 896 replied to this question. The total mileage given was 49,061, an average of 54.7 miles per town. At this average the total road mileage of the state would be about 63,000. 2. What are the ynost heavily traveled roads? The answers to this question cannot be averaged or any gen- eral statement made from them. 3. (a) How many miles of earth roads have been graded? A total mileage of 25,895 was given by the replies to this question. (h) How many miles have been surfaced with gravel? 7,665 miles are reported to have been gravelp<^ PRESENT HIOHWAY CONDITIONS IN WISCONSIN. fg (c) How many miles have heen surfaced with crushed stone f The 94 towns reporting macadam roads give a total of 359.. miles. It will be noticed that this mileage of macadam road is less than that given later in the replies to the K. F. D. Oarriers' questions. It -8 possible that some gravel roads were returned as macadam by the carriers but the discrepancy is probably due to the few answers from town clerks, as com- pared to the number received from carriers. The following table gives the average cost per rod of s:ravel and macadam in each county reporting. i'able XVI. efounty. Average cost Gravel, per rod. Average cost Macadam, per rod. County. Average cost Gravel, per rod. Average cost Macadam, per rod. Adams Manitowoc . . Marinette . . . Marquette... Milwaukee . . Monroe Oconto Oneida Outagamie . . Pepin Pierce Polk Portage Ozaukee .... Price Eaoine Richland .... Rock Rusk Sauk Sawyer . . $1 22 2 00 9 08 63 1 06 1 35 81 1 51 16 1 39 81 1 00 69 75 1 82 91 2 07 57 3 00 $2 00 Ashland $3 62 50 '" $3 25 Barron Bayfield 2 00 Brown Buflfalo 1 42 1 29 1 66 2 66 75 1 35 1 75 3 81 8 50 6 25 Burnett. ».... Calumet Chippewa .... 7 66 6 25 1 25 Clark 2 50 Columbia .... 2 02 Crawford i 08 Dane 153 1 29 2 07 6 55 3 75 1 50 1 40 10 00 1 07 4 70 Dodge Door 18 17 Douglas 3 75 Dunn Eau Claire.. . . 94 1 08 3 93 Florence 6 06 Fond du Lac. . 175 75 7 37 2 68 Forest Shawano Sheboygan . . St. Croix .... Taylor Trempealeau. Vernon Vilas 95 2 20 1 00 2 OS 2 46 3 66 1 50 Grant, Green. 6 12 5 GO 2 50 Grreen Lake . . 1 29 Iowa 6 83 Iron 5 00 45 3 17 6 25 1 49 1 57 2 50 10 00 8S 1 25 1 21 6 75 Jackson ...... Jefferson Juneau 300 Walworth . . . 1 16 4 05 Kenosha Washington . Waukesha . . Waupaca Waushara. . . Winnebago. . 1 43 1 25 97 79 6 66 Kewaunee .... La Cross* .... Lafayette .... Langlade, .... i 60 Lincoln Wood MarathoB 1 06 80 RURAL HIGHWAYS OF WISCONSIN These averages are of course for all different styles, thick- nesses and widths of roads that are built, but they are indica- tive of the amount of money which the people of different counties put into permanait roads when they once start to build them. 4. Is the general character of the roads of your town level, rolling or hilly f No generalizations possible. 5. Is the soil upon which your roads are huilt clay, sand or loam? No generalization possible. 6. List road machinery owned hy the town. State totals are: Steam road rollers 1 Horse road rollers 16 Stone crushers 33 Boad machines 2, 154 Wheel scrapers 1, 813 Drag scrapers 10, 449 Patent dump wagons 22 1. What road rollers or stone crushers are owned by private parties, cities or villages in your boundaries? Replies to this question were too meager to be of any signifi- cance. 8. What material exists in your town suitable for surfacing roads? No generalizations were possible from the answers to this question. 9. (a) During what months of the year is most road work done? 629 towns do their road work before the end of July. 20 towns do all their road work after the end of July. 234 town= distribute their work throughout all the working months of the year. PRESENT BIOHWAT OONDITIONS IN WISCONBIN. gl $>) What are the usual methods of huilding or r^airmg di& roads? Ifo generalizations were possible from the answw i» ttiis q action. ^) Are dirt roads ever rolled ofter working? ^ the 86Y replies to this, 81 were yes and 788 no. (iS) What do you think has been the general effect of using a rffad machine? Qf the 800 answers to this question 745 reported "Good" aad 55 "Bad." ( LAWB A2fD CONDITIONS IN OTHER STATBa. 97 CHAPTER n. ROAD LAWS AND CONDITIONS IN OTHER STATES. In any county or state where there is considerable interest in. building good roads or where good roads have been built, such conditions have been brought about by control of the high- ways by some large unit of government. In Europe the roads are for the most part constructed and cared for by the national and provincial governments, only short local stretches off the main lines of travel being left to neighborhood control. In this country wherever any extensive movement for the construction of permanent highways in rural districts has developed it has been under state control. At present twenty-two states have some form of state control and state aid for road building. The movement for state control was not started until 1891 — 15 years ago — and fact that it has been in this comparatively short time adopted in nearly half the states of the Union is a strong indication of the favor with which it has been received. Wisconsin is the only state north of the Ohio river and east of the western boundary of Minnesota and Iowa which has not yet adopted such a system. In view of the lively interest which the people of Wisconsin are beginning to take in road matters, and the probability that this interest will ultimately lead to state control and state aid for building country roads, digests of the laws adopted by some of the states are given in order that their experience may 7 98 RURAL HiaHWATB IN WISCONSIN. be used as a guide. The outlines of tke plans of the different states are largely taken from Bulletin No. 4 of the Ohio High- way Commission. However copies of the laws have been di- rectly referred to, particularly in the case of New York, New Jersey, Michigan, Iowa and Minnesota. The various provisions of the laws are collected \mder the following heads in order to facilitate comparisons. 1. Date of beginning of state aid and general duties of State Highway Officer. 2. Eight of petition for state aid. 3. The officer or body petitioned. 4. Total state aid fund. 5. Limitations on state aid. 6. Apportionment of the cost of state aid roads. 1. Manner of doing work under state aid. 8. Securing right of way. 9. Duty of making surveys. 10. Eepairs and maintenance of state aid roads. jll. Machinery furnished by state. ' 12. Powers of state highway officer. — over road supervisors. — over distribution of state aid fund. — over maintenance of state aid roads. — over street railways on state aid roads. — over automobiles, bicycles, etc. — ^to compel town and county officers to furnish uniform detailed accounts of highway and bridge expendi- tures. 13. County Supervisor for roads. 14. Legal width of roads built by state aid. 15. Wide tire laws. 16. Public meetings of local highway officials. Where any of these heads is omitted in describing the con- ditions in any state the inference to be drawn is that there is no law in regard to this. The laws of New Jersey, Massa- chusetts, New York and Maryland are given in special fuU- ROAD LAWS AJ^D CONDITIONS IN OTHMB STATES. 99 nuss as these are the states which have had most etxperience with this plan and whose laws are the outcon3e of more ex- tended practical knowledge of the problems arising in connec- tion with state aid. NEW JEKSET. B. C. HtrrcHiNSON Gomtnissioner of Public Roads. R. A. Meekee State Engineer and Supervisor. In a list of states aiding the building of cotmtry roads ]N"ew Jersey is given the first place as it was the first state to adopt such a plan. The movement for state aid was started there shortly after 18Y2, due to the efforts of the Board of Agricult- ure. In 1891 the first state add law was passed by the legis- lature. It provided for the construction of improved roads and promised state aid for this purpose to the amount of one- third the cost of construction. This early law has been modified by almost every successive legislature and an in- creasing amount of money appropriated at each session. Date and duties. In its final form the road law of New Jersey is the product of the Legislature of 1905. The right of petition. The right of petition lies in the gov- erning body of any township, town, borough, village, or of any municipality governed by a board of commissioners. Such governing body may be petitioned by the owners of two-thirds the linear frontage on any public road asking them to request state aid for that road. The office or body petitioned. State highway commission. Total state aid fund. Since the passage of the state aid law New Jersey has built roads each year to the amount given in table below. The total cost given includes state, county and town money. 1892 10.53 miles costing 1893 27.34 miles costing 1894 32.28 miles costing 1895 46.33 miles costing $61,985.55 218,194.39 224,088.12 320,770.59 100 RURAL BIOHWATS IN WIBOONSIN. 1886 60.82 miles costing 1897 66.665 miles coating 1898 84.554 miles costing 1899 114.4b miles costing 1900 75.782 miles costing 1901 109.376 miles costing 1902 154.745 miles costing 1903 152.92 miles costing {904 107.717 miles costing Total... .. 1,043.529 miles costing 331,616.78 342,166.68 319,777.64 478,628.39 489,541.20 611,644.96 794,033.86 832,546.38 820,521.74 The cost of roads has ranged from $1,554 per mile (for a gravel road) to $25,500 per mile, averagiag $5,505 per mile. ,The cheapest macadam road cost $4,282 per mile. The ajmual state appropriation at present is $250,000.00 with $400,000 as the limit to the amount of state funds which can be appropriated in any one year. Limitations on state aid. State aid is extended on the same terms to all political units in the state excepting cities. The limitation to the amotmt of contracts which can be let in any county depends on the tax rate and is i^ of 1% of the assessed valuation for the preceding year. Apportionment of the cost of state aid roads. The state pays BSys%, the petitioning unit pays 66%% in case it is not the land owners who petition. If the land owners petition the state pays 23%%, the land owners 10% and the town or county pays 66%%. Manner of doing worh under state aid.. All work is done by contract, bids being advertised for by the board of county commissioners. All bids are subject to the approval of the state highway commission. Duty of Tnahimg surveys. All surveys ior proposed im- provements are made under the direction and at the expense of the county board of supervisors but no survey is made with- out the consent of the state highway commissioner. This is to prevent the making of useless surveys. Copies of surveys must be deposited with the state highway commission. ROAD LAWB AND CONDITIONS IN OTBER STATUS. IQl Repairs and maintenance of state aid roads. The county board is reqtiired to keep in good repair all roads improved under the act providing for state aid and can be compelled to do this by mandamus proceedings instituted by any freeholder. Powers of state highway officer — — over road supervisors. The state commissioner has full power to appoint whom he sees fit as overseers of construction for roads receiving state aid. These supervisors were origin- ally to be paid by the county but the law of 1905 requires them to be paid by the state alone. The state highway commissioner may summarily dismiss such supervisors whenever he thinks they are incompetent or inefficient. — over distribution of state aid fund. The annual state appropriation is distributed among the counties by the state highway commissioner in such a manner as to him seems fair and equitable. When petitions filed call for more aid than the annual amount of appropriation, the Governor and the com- missioner apportion the sum amongsi; the counties in propor- tion to the cost of the roads constructed therein for each year. — over maintenance of state aid roads. The local super- visors having charge of the maintenance of roads built with the aid of the state can be discharged by the state commissioner when their work is not properly done. County supervisor. After the first state aid road is built the county board of supervisors must appoint a county super- visor of roads. Wide tires. A rebate in road taxes may be given by the town for all tires over 4 inches iu width. This rebate maist not exceed $1.00 for each wheel. 102 RURAL EI0HWAY8 IN WISCONSIN. MASSACHUSETTS. W. B. McClintock, John H. Mann] Habold Paseeb. John H. Manning L Highway Commission. Date and duties. In 1892 the legislature passed a law -under which the Governor with the advice and consent of the comicil appointed three persons as a highway commission. This com- mission was to investigate matters of road construction and maintenance, find cost of the same, investigate the geology of the state in relation to road materials, and to prepare maps and plans showing routes recommended for improvement. In 1894 the scope of the commission was enlarged by requiring them to compile statistics relative to roads and to furnish engineering service and advice to towns and counties desir- ing it. Bight of petition for state aid. Any city, county, or town can petition to have a road taken in charge by the state. Whom petitioned. State highway commission. Total state aid fund. The first appropriation for the state aid fund was $4,000.00. The next year this was raised to . $300,000.00 and reached a maximum of $800,000.00 in 1897. Since then the annual appropriation has been $520,000.00 to $550,000.00. Limitations on date aid. Anj town, city, or village may receive state aid. 'No county may have state aid in any one year for the construction of over 10 miles of highway. Apportionment of the cost of state aid roads. The state pays the whole cost but the county must repay one quarter within six years of the time of construction. Manner of doing work under state aid. The work is done under contracts let by the state commissioner. The coimty or town petitioning for the road has the right to put in a non- competitive bid on the construction. This privilege was ex- tended in order that towns might by this means be influenced ROAD LAW8 AND CONDITIONS IN OTHER STATES. 103 to provide themselves with proper equipment, and by building roads under the supervision of the state commission learn how to properly construct them and so be in a position to go ahead independently and build other roads beside state aid roads. Duty of making surveys. The surveys must be made by the body petitioning for state aid and copies of the surveys must be filed with the petition. Repairs and maintenance of state did roads. The mainte- nance of state aid roads is in charge of the state highway commission. The expense of maintaining state aid roads to a maximum of $50 per annum is borne by the towns. AU costs above this are paid by the state. Machinery furnished hy the state. Under certain restric- tions county commissioners wUl be furnished by the state with such steam roUers, crushers and other road machines as the commission may deem necessary. Powers of state highway officer — — over distribution of state aid fund. The apportionment of the amount of road to be constructed in the different coun- ties rests entirely upon the decision of the highway commission and is limited to ten miles in one county unices the governor and council approve. — over street railwa/ys on state aid roads. The highway commission has jurisdiction as to digging up or placing any structure upon state aid roads. — over automohiles, bicycles, etc. Authority and jurisdic- tion as to registration and other matters relative to the use of automobiles and motor cycles was given to the commission by the legislature of 1903 and amended in 1905. Annual rev- enue to the state from this law is about $50,000.00. — to compel town and county officers to furnish uniform detailed accounts of highway and bridge expenditures. Au- thority to compel the local road authorities throughout the state to furnish information regarding public roads and bridges is given to the commission.. 104 RURAL HiaEWATS IN WISCONSIN. Width of road huilp by state aid. State roads are built from 12 to 18 feet in width of hard surface. Public meetings. The commission is required to hold each year at least one public meeting in each coim^ty for the discus- sion of questions relating to public roads. VEEMONT. Chables W. Gates State Eighway Oommissioner. In 1892 the general assembly authorized the appointment of a commission to make an examination of the highway system of the state and report upon it to the next legislature. One sentence of this report is quite significant. "A large propor- tion of the highway tax of this state is expended in repairing damage done to hill roads by storm waters." Date and general duties. In 1894 the commission was made permanent and the duty laid upon them to investigate modem methods of road building. Total state aid fund. A state tax of five cents on each dol- lar of the "grand list" was levied. The "grand list" is about 1% of the assessed value of the property so that the tax amounts to about 1/20 of 1%. In 1904 this amounted to $91,795.00. Apportionment of the cost of state aid roads. Funds are distributed to the localities in proportion to their road mileage. Powers of state highway officer — — over road supervisors. The state highway commissioner has supervision — ^through the town commissioLer — of expen- ditures of all state appropriation for highway improvement. Public meetings. Meetings of local road commissioners are held throughout the state each year. ROAJJ LAWS AJfD OONDITIONB IN OTHER STATES. IQS CONNECTICUT. jAacEs H. MacDonau) State Highway Commissioner, Date and general duties. In 1895 the general assembly pro- vided for the appointmeiat of three highway commissioners. The demands by the towns for state aid have been so far in ad- vance of state appropriations that in 1905 the requests were scaled dovrai to B1% of what was asked for in order to bring them within the amount appropriated. This large amount of state aid requested is no doubt due to the fact that the state pays such a large proportion of the cost. Right of petition for state aJid. Ajoj town can petition for state aid. Whom petitioned. The highway commission.' Total state aid fund. The first annual appropriation in 1895 was $75,000.00. In 1897 it was increased to $100,000.00, in 1899 to $175,000.00. In 1901 the annual appropriation was increased to $225,000.00. Limitat"'ons on state aid. Only towns are benefited by state aid. The limit of state money to be expended in any town in one year is $4,500.00. The money is divided in proportion to the amounts requested. Apportionment of the cost of state aid roads. At first the state paid %, the county % and the town % of the cost of construction. This has been so amended that the state pays % of the cost when the assessed valuatic- of the town exceeds $1,000,000.00 and % when it is below $1,000,000.00. Manner of doing worle under state aid. Work is done by contract and the specifiations are prepared by the state high- way commissioner. The town authorities have joint power with the highway commissioner as to approval of bids and con- tracts. All work under a limit of $1,000.00 may be built by the tovra without advertising for competitive bids. Duty of making surveys. The surveys were originally to be prepared by the town board, but the legislature of 1905 gave 106 RURAL HiaEWAYS IN WISCONBUf. the authority for making surveys into the hands of the state commissioner. Repairs and maintenance of state aid roads. The mainten- ance of roads constructed by state aid is left to the towns. Machinery furnished by state. The highway commissioner is given authority, when he and the selectmen deem it wise, to purchase stone crushers for use in towns remote from rail- road facilities. Powers of state highway officers — — over road supervisors. The state highway commissioner has the povrer to appoint in- spectors of construction who are paid by the state. — over distribution of state aid fund. The commissioners are given discretion as to the granting of state aid for improvements costing less than $500.00. — over maintenance of state aid roads. In case the selectmen of the tOAvn neglect to make needed re- pairs on state aid roads after a month's notice, the highway commissioner has authority to take charge of the maintenance of the road and to make the needed repairs. NEW YOEK. Henet a. Van Alsttne State Engineer and Surveyor Ebirnm) P. Van Housen Deputy State Engineer and Bwrveyor. Date and general duties. In 1898 the New York legisla- ture passed a biU known as the Higby- Armstrong Good Eoado Law. Under this law the state engineer was instructed to investigate methods of road construction and determine the best methods for the various siections of the state. He was required to furnish advice relative to the improvement of the roads free of charge to highway ofi&cers and other interested persons. Bight of petition for state aid. The right to. petition for state aid lay originally with the board of supervisors of any county but was later extended to & majority of the owners of linear frontage on any road. ROAD LAWS AJ^D COJ^DITIONS IN OTBER STATES. IQT Whom petitioned. The state engineer. Total state aid fund. The first appropriation for state aid was $50,000.00. This appropriation rapidly grew until in 1904 $1,108,265.00 were expended by the state. The couaties met this expenditure with a total expenditure on their part of $2,032,855.00. Apportionment of the cost of state aid roads, One-haK the cost of state aid roads is paid by the state. The other half is distributed as follows : in case the movement originated with the county it is required to pay 35%, and 15% is paid by the township. In case the petition originates with the property owners the county pays 35% and 15% is assessed upon the lands benefited in proportions determined by the town assessors. The construction of the roads is carried on in the order of re- ceipt of the final resolution of approval. Manner of doing work under state aid. Work is done unde" contracts let by the state engineer. By law 10% of the monthly estimates is retained from the contractor until the work is com- pleted satisfactorily. It is also provided that after a county board has once passed a resolution appropriating money for a road such resolution can not be rescinded. Any town or county, through its supervisors, may bid on the construction of any piece of road within its territory. Securing right of way. The county board is required to se- cure the right of way for the proposed improvement. Duty of making surveys. Surveys and maps are made by the state engineer. Repairs and maintenance of state aid roads. The mainte- nance of improved highways is in charge of the supervisors of the county. Powers of state highway officer — — over distribution of state aid fund. The state engineer is empowered to withhold funds due to the coimties when they have not taken proper care of the roads already built for them with state aid. 108 RURAL EianWAYS IN WISCONSIN. — over maintenance of state aid roads. In the event of neglect by the county commissioners to keep state aid roads in proper repair, the state engineer is empow- ered to cause such repairs to be made at the expense of the county. — over street railways on state aid roads. The use of state aid roads by street railways is under the regulation of the state engineer. — to compel town and county officers to furnish uniform detailed accounts of highway and bridge expenditures. The state engineer is given authority to demand information from local road authorities with which to compile the statistics which he is required to make up. County supervisor. When state aid roads have been built in any county the state engiueer may at his discretion refuse to grant petitions for any further state aid until the county board shall have appointed a county engineer. Such county engineer must forward to the state engineer reports on the con- ditions of the highways ia each town of his county. He has charge of the work of repairing roads, constructing and re- pairing bridges, and is required to make surveys and maps of the roads in his county. Width of road huilt iy state aid. State aid roads have an improved surface of not less than eight feet nor more than six- teen feet. Public meetings. The state highway engineer is required to hold at least one public meeting in each county every year for the discussion of highway questions. After the passage of this law the demand for state aid from the various counties increased very rapidly. It soon became evident that no appropriations consistent vdth the ordinary revenues of the state would be sufficient to provide the aid re- quested. As a consequence the legislature of 1903 passed a resolution to amend the constitution permitting the issuing of ROAD LAWS AlfD CONDITIONS IN OTHER STATES. 109 $50,000,000.00 in bonds for the purpose of obtaining funds for highway construction. This was concurred in by the 1905 legislature and approved by the people at the general election of 1905 by an overwhelming majority. This resolution pro- vides that the bonds shall be issued only as required and also provides for a sinking fund of at least 2% per annum aside from the interest. Such an enormous debt imposed upon the people by themselves by a great majority of the votes cast is a strong proof of the good which the people of New York con- ceive to have been done by money appropriated by the state for highway purposes. MAEYLAKD. WiiiiAM BvfixjocK CI.ABK Superintendent and State Geologist. Walter W. Cbosbt Chief Engineer. Date and general duties. In 1898 the general assembly passed a law providing for the investigation of road construc- tion in Maryland. The work was placed in charge of the state geological survey commission. They are charged with the distribution- of literature and giving of lectures upon road sub- jects and making of tests upon road materials. Right of petition for state aid. The right of petition lies in the coxmty boards of commissioners. The owners of % the linear frontage on any road of not less than a mile in length may petition the county commissioners. If these peti- tioners bind themselves to pay 10% of the cost of the road the county commissioners are required to petition for state aid. Whom petitioned. The highway commission. Total state aid fund. The sum of $200,000,000 is annually appropriated for state aid in highway construction. Limitations on state aid. The county commissioners can not be required to expend on state aid roads more than 25% of the road levy of the county. Apportiorvmeni of the cost of state aid roads. The amount of state aid in any county is proportional to the road milea^. The state pays one-half the cost of construction. If any county IIQ RURAL HIOHWAYS IN WISCONSIN. does not avail itself of its share such share is reapportioned among the counties desiring it. Manner of doing worh under state aid. The work is done under contracts let by the county commissioners, but if bids are too high they may build in some other manner. All con- tracts are subject to the approval of the state highway eng- ineer. Securing right of way. State aid appropriations are not to be used for the purpose of acquiring the right of way for any road improvement. Duty of making surveys. Surveys and specifications are prepared by the state commission. Repairs a/nd mamvberumce of stake aid roads. The counties are responsible for the repair and maintenance of state aid roads. Siach repairs must be satisfactory to the state commis- sioner and the county officers can be compelled by mandamus proceedings to keep the roads in proper condition. Powers of state highway officer — — over road supervisors. The immediate supervision of the work is in charge of the state commission and supervisors are paid out of the state appropriation. — over distribution of state aid fund. The highway commis- sion can withhold state aid funds from counties not complying with their requirements. — over maintenance of state aid roads. State aid roads must be maintained in a manner satisfactory to the highway com- mission which is empowered to withhold fimds if the work is not satisfactoory. MATKB. PAtTL D. Sabgent Oommission,er of Highways. Date and general duties. The first state aid law was passed in 1901. In 1905 a law requiring the appointment of a state highway commissioner was passed. This commissioner is required to compile statistics on roads, conduct invest! orations BOAU LAWS AND CONDITIONS IN OTHER STATUS, m relative to roads, distribute maps and publications, and by lecturing and otherwise to disseminate knowledge throughout the state on the subject of road construction and maintenance and also concerning bridges and side walks. Bight of petition for state aid. The officers of any city, town, or organized plantation may petition for state aid. Whom petitioned. Petitions are made to the board of county commissioners who petition the secretary of state. Total state aid fund. The first appropriation for state aid was $15,000,00 in 1902; in 1903 this was made $20,000.00 and in 1904 it was increased to $40,000.00. Limitations on state aid. Towns and cities may receive state aid for construction of any piece of work costing more than $100.00 and less than $300.00. Apportionment of the cost of state aid roods. The state pays y2 the cost of improvments whose cost is within the limits named in the last paragraph. Manner of doing work under state aid. The manner in which work shall be done is left to the choice of the towns and counties. Powers of state highway officer — — to compel town and county officers to furnish uniform de- tailed accounts of highway and bridge expenditures. All township and county officers are required to furnish informa^ tion upon request to the commissioner of highways. Wide tires. The town may remit not over $3.00 of road tax to users of 6 inch tires. Public Meetings. The highway commission is required each year to hold a meeting in each county of the state for the dis- cussion of questions pertaining to the highways. . 112 RURAL HIGHWAYS IN WIBOON&IN. PENNSYLVANIA. Joseph W. Hunter Highway Oommiastoner. Date and general duties. In 1903 lihe state higkway de- partmetQt was formed by the legislature of the state. The de- partment was charged with the compilation of statistics and information as to the mileage, character, and condition of the state highways. Methods of road construction were to be in- vestigated and standards established. Advice and) informa- tion was to be furnished free of charge to road officials when- ever required. Bight of petition for state aid. The township supervisors with the approval of the majority of the assessed valuation of real estate can petition county commissioners and through the courts compel the county commissioners to petition for state aid. Whom petitioned. The state highway department. Total state aid fund. The total sum of $6,500,000.00 was ap- propriated at the time of the formation of the highway depart ment. Of this sum $500,000.00 was available during each of the first two years, $1,250,000.00 the third year, the same for the fourth year, and $1,500,000.00 each in the fifth and sixth years. ^ Limitations on state aid. State aid is appropriated among the coun " s in proportion to the road mileage. If any part odE the apportionment for a county is no^ applied for within two years, it is to return to the state treasury and be reapportioned. State aid is limited to highways outside of the corporate limits of any city or borough. Apportionment of the cost of state aid roads. Of the total cost of the improvement two-third is to be paid by the state, one-sixth by the county and one-sixth by the township. This was later amended so that the state is required to pay three- fourths of the total and the town and county each one-eighth. Koads which pass through boroughs and connect state aid roads may receive aid to the extent of three-fourths of the cost. BOAD LAWS A2fD CONDITIONS IN OTHER STATUS. US Manner of doing work under state aid. The state commis- sioner is empowered to advertise for bids and let contracts without consulting the local officials. All contracts are to be signed by the state highway commissioner and approved by the attorney general. Duty of making surveys. Surveys and estimates of cost axe made by the state highway department. Repairs and maintenance of state aid roads. 10% of the total state appropriations for state aid is set aside for mainten- ance. Powers of state highway officer — — over automobiles^ bicycles, etc. The highway department is charged with the duty of issuing all automobile licenses in the state. — to compel town amd cownty officers to furnish uniform de- tailed accounts of highway and bridge expenditures. The highway department is authorized to demand reports upon road conditions from all local road officials. MI0HIGA2 J. James Joseph R. Pulkebson ^ state Highway Commission. LlAJ'ATETTE FXTBTK A. N. Johnson State Highway Engineer, i Date and general duties. The Illinois highway commission was formed in 1905, consisting of three persons who serve for a term of two years. They are authorized to investigate methods ■of construction, materials and other matters relative to the con- struction of highways in the state and are to furnish advice to local authorities free of charge. Total state aid fund. $25,000 was appropriated for the expenses of the office and the construction of a few object lesson roads in different parts of the state. Illinois gives aid to local road authorities by furnishing free of charge stone which is l of highways, the follovidng tabic has been prepared. The chief sources of information for this are a thesis on "Ten- dencies in Kecent American Eoad Legislation" by Prof. E. G. Young of the University of Oregon, and Bulletin 4 of the Ohio Highway commission. state. Maine New Hampshire. Vermont Massachusetts . . . Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Delaware .• Pennsylvania.... Maryland North Carolina*. Ohio Indiana Michigan . . Illinois^... . Minnesota . Iowa' Missouri' . . California . Begin- ning of state highway depart- ment. Utah' Colorado . Washington . Idado' . 1901 1903 1892 1893 1902 1895 1898 1892 1904 1905 1898 1901 1904 1904 1905 1905 1905 1904 1906 1904 1903 1905 1905 State highway ofScers. Highway Commissioner.... State Engineer Highway Commissioner.... Highway Commissioner . . . Board of Public Roads. ... Highway Commissioner.... State Engineer Com, & State Engineer Highway Commissioner Highway Commissioner,... Qeol. Survey & Engineer Com'r. of Agriculture & state Geologist Highway Commissioner Highway Commissioner.... Highway Com. & Engineer, Highway Commissioner Highway Commissioner.... Highway Com. & Engineer. State Engineer.. State Engineer.. Highway Board & Eng'r Total appro- priation in 1904 1905 1904 1905 1905 1904 1904 1905 1904 1905 1904 $40,000 125,000 91,795 549,450 125,000 225,000 1,108,265 250,000 .30,000 "6,500,000 200,000 1905 17,400 1905 1905 1905 1904 35,000 S,000 86,000 1,000 1904 25,000 1905 150,000 1905 141,000 State's share of road costs. MtoM u All V, a Builds cer- tain roads. Builds cer- tain roads. Builds cer- , tain roads and pays %. 1 After 1904 the funds are supplied as needed by a $50,000,000 bond issue, and no appro- priations are made except for support of the office of the state engineer, " This amount is to be expended in six years, * The Commission is an advisory board and is carrying on educational work, * A special commission was appointed to study situation and recommend laws to next legislature. The roads and materials have been studied by the Geological survey. ^ These commissions are carrying on educational work preparatory to state aid oper- ations later on. The Iowa appropriation is for two years. ' In the summer of 1906 a state conventiou was held at Chillicothe tinder the auspices of the state agricultural department to request the coming legislature to appropriate $1,000,000 for state aid and establish a highway department, ' The state engineer was instructed to prepare plans for state aid. ' The state builds certain roads by direct appropriation, paying part or all the cost as conditions vary. DESIRABLE CHANGES IN ROAD SYSTEM. 123 CHAPTER m. DESIRABLE CHANGES IN THE PRESENT ROAD SYSTEM. Larger road districts. The road system of the state of Wis- consin is in some particulars fmidamentally ■wrong in that it fails to promote a public spirited interest in the general good condition of the highways. At present the roads of a large ma- jority of the towns are divided into many small districts com- prising in some cases, but a mile of road. This is done with ithe idea that better work wUI be accomplished — ^the farmer having but a short distance to go to his work — and that he will take a greater interest in a road which passes his front door. The result of this minute subdivision of the towns is that those parts of the town whioh have the best soil and the most pros- perous farmers have a disproportionately large share of the road tax to work out, while the poorer parts of the town where the soil is not so rich and the roads are perhaps hilly and steep have had to maintain their roads on a considerably smaller tax. This short sighted view that the farmer is concerned only with what passes his own front door and has no interest in the road which does not, has resulted in a very strong prejudice against the payment of road taxes in money. As one man stated to me : — "If we pay our road taxes in cash the town commission- er would go into that other side of the town and use our money to fix up those fellows' roads. We have worked hard for our money here and built ourselves good roads. Let those fellows over there do the same thing." 124 RURAL HIGHWArS IN WISOONBIN. In his apparently just and fair statement of conditions this man has failed to i&ke account of the fact that his farm was in a rich level part of the town, while "those fellows over there" lived in a rocky, hilly place and naturally could not be expected to be as prosperous nor to build as good roads as could be built on the level even if they had as much tax to spend. This idea that one part of the township is not responsible for the condition of the roads in another part is not in accord with the fundamental reason for the existence of governments. Governments exist in order to protect the weaker members of society. If & man through sickness or misfortune is unable to support his family the government steps in and from the taxes it has collected from people who are better off than he keeps that family from starving. On the same principle it protects the weak against the encroachments of the strong in innumerable ways. According to the same principle still more locally applied all the labor in a road district may be used in any part of that district where the road needs repairing. The injustice of requiring each farmer to maintain the road by his own farm would be promptly appreciated, especially by the man who had a steep hill to care for or a bridge to put in. For the same reason that the town puts in bridges and that the road district maintains a steep hiU which is all upon one man's farm, should the tovni also tise its road funds as a unit which can be expended anywhere within its territory. In this way only will good roads be secured. This distribution of funds where moat needed regardless of who pays the tax is a step in the right direction which is badly needed and which will bring about a more healthy pubKc spirit with regard to roads. Permanence of road officers. The present system under which road officers are appointed by the town board and usually changed each year makes impossible the proper building said maintaining of country roads. As the road overseer has no prospect of remaining in office for more than a single year he ■can have no strong incentive to make a particular stutiy of DESIRABLE 0HA2^QES IN BOAD SYSTEM. 125 tlie needs of roads under his charge or to l>ecome at aill deeply interested in their welfare. A man will do good or poor work according as he is interested in what he is doing. Consequently the roads of the state are an infallible indication of the degree of interest which the road overseers have taken in them. In the list of questions which were sent out to 2,000 farmers the question was asked as to whether it would be advisable to hold a road school for a week each year, in which the high- way officers could become acquainted vrith the best methods of road building. The replies to this question were in the ma- jority negative because, as was stated, the road overseers would not have sufficient interest or incentive to attend. Many of the replies suggested that if road overseers were to be con- tinued in office for a number of years it would be a profitable venture for the tovsm to pay their expenses in order to have them attend such a school, but that under present conditions it would be useless. Another condition which the short term of the road overseer brings about is that it is impossible for the work of the town to be adequately planned for a term of years and carried out according to this plan. Each man has before him simply the problem of fixing up the roads so that they will be passable for a year, without any reference to what will be done the next season. This is an extremely expensive method of doing work. In order to produce good results some well thought out plan must be followed the same in road building as in any other project. The present system also makes possible the sorry condition that when a road fixed up by one man according to his ideas does not agree with the ideas which his success6r holds the successor in too many cases proceeds to tear it up and rebuild it according to his own notion in order to show the other fellow how a road should be built in a 'real proper' manner. This is a condition of affairs which could not be tolerated in any other business as it entails too great a waste of money. The situation is well expressed, and in very 126 RURAL mOHWATB IN WI8V0NBIN. conservative language in the following letter from Mr. Paul C. Wilson of the Grassland Stock Farm of Menomonie: "I doubt very much if 50 per cent, of the road overseers are ap- pointed because of any special fitness for the job. I have seen right here in our own town men appointed as overseers who, if they had kept the office for a few years, might have benefited the roads, but after one year were retired and the one appointed to fill the place took the same piece of road and undid all the work of his predecessor, and he in turn let out. This does not tend to keep up a permanent improvement." Cash tax. The cash tax system is one which has been voted upon in practically every town in the state, with the result that almost all the towns are still paying their highway taxes in labor. People must be brought to see the value of the cash tax, however, before they can hope to have roads that are prop- erly built with the money which they can afford to pay. A let- ter from a road overseer states that "tax-payers never seem to want to work when the overseer wants them to, and it often takes as much money to arrange for the farmers to do the work as the work itseK amounts to when they get upon the road." It is a strong objection to the labor tax system that the road overseers have no real authority. If the overseer has an interest in the work he is glad enough to get the farmers to come with their teams and men, so that he does not want to offend them by requiring too strenuous labor. On account of the political nature of his appointment he does not desire to create enemies for the one who appointed him by requiring more work than the farmer is willing to give. Of course there are many towns in which this is not true and in which the over- seer faithfully requires a good day's work and the fuU amount of the tax to be worked out, but these towns are not so large a majority as they should be. Another objection to working out the road tax is the char- acter of the work done. Road work is too often regarded as an "annual picnic," as one man called it, and the ob- ject of getting the road fixed regarded as secondary to DESIRABLE CHAJfQES IN ROA.D BYSTEM. 127 pleasant associations with the neighbors. One toTm chair- man writes, "We are at present working on the old dis- trict plan but we intend the coming season to pay taxes in money and have one road commissioner for the town. It has been my experience as chairman of the town for the last six years that we can get more than double the work by job work for cash." Another correspondent writes, "Our town has fol- lowed the cash system for several years and I think we get from four to ten times the beneficial results from the same tax levy." Another writes, "We worked on the cash system one year in our town and accomplished more in that year than in any two years before or after." A last objection to the labor system is that the number of hours labor required are less than would be required under the cash labor system. Under the present systan only eight hours of labor make a day, and this eight hours is customarily cut short at both ends and in the middle so that it is frequently but six. One man 'has ai large number of cows to milk and his hired man has left him,' and another man 'has to go to town to get a piece of machinery for the next day's work,' and so on through the whole list of excuses that every road overseer knows. The payment of highway taxes in cash does away with the difficulties mentioned. (1) It makes possible the securing of labor just when it is needed without regard whether any par- ticular farmer is able to come or not. (2) It gives the overseer complete authority over his men, as he can discharge them if they do not render satisfactory service. (3) It improves the character of this service for the simple reason that the men know they can be discharged. (4) The lengtii of the day can be made ten hours for road work the same as any other class of farm labor. The need of trained men. Under the present system road ; overseers are almost necessarily incompetent. This is no reflec- tion upon the intelligence or purposes of these officers, but it is a strong reflection upon the system. The building of a country 128 BUBAL BIGETWAYti IN WISCOl.HIN. road in a proper manner is about as complicated a piece of en- gineering as is commonly met with and the farmer cannot ord- inarily, from the very nature of things, be a man who is speci- ally trained for this type of work. Highway building and maintenance requires as high an order of skill as railway build- ing and maintenance, and yet there are not many farmers who hold themselves capable of building and maintaining a raiboad. Under the present system it is difficult to secure men who have had any training in road building. Men who have made any special study of this matter are very rare as yet in this country and in order to make them available they must be educated. Because the enormous sums of money which the people are expending on roads are entrusted to the management of men who have no training for their work we see the present bad results every time we drive over the ordinary country road. This waste of money is estimated by replies from the 2000 let- ters sent out to farmers in the st^te at from 50% to 90% o£ the total highway tax. As seen on pa^e 87 the average esti- mate is that 58 per cent of the highway tax if paid in cash would do the same work that is being done at present. It is also evident that of this 58 per cent, which is the real value of the tax, a considerable part is wasted by poorly directed efforts. As this tax at present amounts to over $2,000,000.00 the lowest estimate of the waste, which seems to be very conservative, would make the annual loss to the farmers of the state over $1,000,000.00. The need for trained men and the present results due to not having them is stated very well in the follow- ing letter from .Mr. Schinoldt of Taylor county: — "I emi- grated from Germany, made a farm here, and have lived on this farm twenty-three years and one half. I have seen in these years hundreds of thousands of dollars of tax payers' money expended on the roads in town and county, but after all our roads are still as bad as ever. Not the scarcity of money ^ but the system is to blame for this state of affairs. We need men in charge of road building and road maintenance who are trained for this sort of work and understand what to do in a u^tiHtABLE CBA^UES IN ROAD BT8TEU. 129 proper way, and who should hold their positions for a siiccession of years. Take the road business from the tO"wn boards newly elected every spring and make a thoroughly state and county institution. Let us have a state road commissioner, county and town road engineers all well trained men and not elected but appointed from the state, and then let them work systema;t ically. Not money alone makes good roads or makes ike roads better, but sMll in plans and labor." Road accounts. From the replies to the letters sent out to town clerks it is evident that the accounts of the highway expenditures of the towns are kept in very poor fashion. In few instances were the books so kept that the total cost of any particular piece of macadam or gravel road could be given, to say nothing of giving any detailed account of the other ex- penditures. So long as the accounts axe kept in this way it is of course impossible to tell whether money is being expend- ed eairefuUy or thrown away with an extravagant hand. If there is a certain amount of money available and it is spent — which is about the extent of the record of expenditures which is kept at present — no comparison of costs can be made, and one roaid overseer may take ten times as much to do a piece of work as the overseer in the next district uses on a similar job. The importance of careful accounting in even a small business does not need to be emphasized, but in a large undertaking such as the highway business of the people of Wisconsin has beeome, in which over $2,000,000.00 is expended annually, the account- ing becomeB of much greater importance. If a highway depart- m^t is established in the state it should be one of its functions to see that town highway accounts are kept in some good form. Section system. In no place in the state, so far as I have been able to learn, is there any provision for continuous care for roads. The laws should be so modified as to very strongly encourage this as there is no single change which will efEect such a saving of people's money as the application of some such system as that described in the chapter on mainteaance. 1J9 RURAL HIGHWAYS IN WISUOnSIN. County road system. The advantage of having; a large unit of road control, such as the county, lies in the fact that it has a larger amount of money to expend and can therefore af- ford to have men who are trained in their work and can keeji these men continually busy and get better results cheaper than is possible in the ordinary town. It is the same principle aj< that upon which the wholesale dealer works. By securing hi^ goods in large quantities he is able to get them much cheaper than the retail dealer and can therefore sell them at a lower price. In case an engineer is hired to do a single piece of work in a town he may charge ten to twenty dollars a day, whereas a competent man could be obtained by the county for about half the smaller sum. This county system has been used in New York and Michigan for a number of years and in these states has given the very best of satisfaction. The highway commissioner of Michigan stated that much more and better work could be done under the county system than under the township system. Automobiles. There is a very strong, and one must confess, to some degree justifiable prejudice in many parts of the state against the building of good roads because of the fact that as soon as good roads are built automobiles drive the farmers off and compel them to use the back roads. The automobile is here to stay, and before many years will undoubtedly be adopt- ed by farmers themselves the same as the bicycle has been. Most drivers of automobiles are very considerate when they ' meet a frightened team, but there is unfortunately too large a proportion of "road hogs", as they are well called, who think it is a good joke to scare some staid farm horse into jumping Ae fence and smasliiiig the farmer's rig. These few thought- less automobilists have brought strong disfavor upon all owners of automobiles. Something must be done by the state to pro- tect the farmers so that the roads will be safe for them ta travel upon after they are improved before any comprehenaiye pra- gram for improvement can be successfully carried out. How- nF.fiTJlABLE CHAJJGES IN ROAD SYSTEM. 131 ■wer this is not a problem which can properly be discussed in this place. It is siifficient here to mention the fact that some- thing should be done. State aid. The working of the plan of state aid in othej parts of the country is given in Chapter II, Part II, and thi fact that without exception it has been successful and is enthu siastically supported by the people wherever adopted is tin strongest argument for its adoption in Wisconsin. The Legist lature of 1905 passed ai joint resolution to amend the constitu tion, making possible the appropriation of money for state airf in road building. This joint resolution must be considered b\ the legislature of 1907 and if passed by them must be voted upon by the people before any money can be appropriated hi Wisconsin, to aid in building roads. The effect of the adoption of such a system in Wisconsin can be judged by its effect in other states. Where the plan ha^ been adopted the public spirit of the citizens has been arouseo and their interest in the good condition of the roads excited to such an extent that large sums have been spent in improving the roads. According to most careful estimates the people hav< had more returned to them in the increased value of the land than the improving of the roads has cost. The investment oi these sums has therefore been amply justified, even though the roads had had to be built without state aid, and directly by the country districts through which they passed. Railroads in many states have been so keenly interested in the building of roads that they have sent or.% experts and trains oi machinery to build sample roads in dii jricts along their lines. As a railroad official said at the buildng of one of these objecl lesson roads, 'his railroad served the country for not over five miles on each side of its track [it was a southern railroad] and if good roads were built in the country it would serve the people witliin & distance of 25 or 30 miles. This would mean to his jailroad an increase in business of several hundred per cent." In the same way are cities interested in the building of good coimtTj roads. The merchants of the cities in several parts of 132 RURAL HiaaWAYS IN WISCONSIN. the state have given ample subscriptions for the purpose of aid- ing in building roads to attract the trade of the country dis- tricts to them. While they have done this partly from phil- anthropic motives, no doubt there has been also back of their giv- ing, the knowledge tliat they would receive this money back in the profits on increased sales of goods. It may at first sight ap- pear to the ordinary dweller in a city who is not in trade that he is in no way benefited by the expending of taxes raised upon his property for the building of country roads, but this is entirely wrong as a moment's consideration will show. During the National Good Koads Convention at the St. Louis World's Fair one speaker computed for the benefit of his audience that the city of St. Louis paid each year in excess freight upon goods delivered to them from the surrounding country in farm wag- ons &! sum of $250,000. He stated that this sum was paid by the city rather than by the farmers because of the well known fact that the consumer pays the freight. In other words, the farmer must make a living and if it costs him a dollar more to haul a load of potatoes to town over a bad road than it would over a good road the persons who buy those potatoes must pay a dollar extra in order to give the farmer that which he has a right to demand for his labor. For these reasons, therefore, the application of state money to road building is justified, even in tlie consideration of actual cash returns to the cities and rail- roads as well as to those by whose farms the roads pass The giving (Jl state aid is also justified for the reason that it educates the farmer in the value of good roads and teaches him to build them for himself. This has been the case in every state where sucii a course has been pursued. State aid has not been sufficiently extensive to pay for its share of all the roads which the farmers desired and as a consequence after once experiencing the benefits of good roads they have gone ahead and built them at their own expense without waiting for state money. Nowhere in the United States have good roads been built to any extent where the total cost has been borne by the farmers iShemselves. Some such means as state or .iJiVANTAGES OF OHANQBIS IIH HJOEWAY SYSTEM. 13?, county aid has been necessary to get up sufficient interest so that people will build good roads, but after once started they have almost always gone much farther than state aid could fol- low. The present situation in Wisconsin with regard to money for state aid is different fr®m that in any other state in the Union. For several years it has benn found to be possible to pay all the expenses of the state govea'Din«nt from the general fund and consequently no state tax has been levied. It is highly prob- able that this will be eontinued in the future and therefore, if the system of state aid is adopted, the money thus made avail- able would be in effect a gift from the state to the local com- aiunities. So far as known in no other state do such conditiong exist. From this statement of conditions it is at once evident that rhe people of Wisconsin are losing a most excellent opportonity if they do not demand of their l^slators that laws be idopting, the plan of state aid in this stata 134: RUKAL Hl&UWAYH IN WlSVOMSItf, CHAPTER IV. ADVANTAGES OF MAKING SOME OF THESE CHANGES IN THE PRESENT HIGHWAY SYS- TEM OF THE STATE. In conchision there is here given a short summary state- ment of the advantages to be gained by the adoption of some of the changes mentioned in the last chapter. Town highway commissioners. If -he plac isi adopted whereby a single highway commissioner in each town is chosen for some considerably longer term to have charge of the road work and all expenditure of road funds, the following advant ages will be gained. His term of office will be so lengthened that it will pay him to familiarize himself with the beat methods of road building. He can mate adequate plans for the improvement of all the roads in the town, and be secure enough in his position so that he can carry them out without interruption By his long term of office he will be sufficiently removed from politics so that he will be able to demand more and better labor from the farmers who may be engaged, and Id these ways he can save to the town a considerable percentage of money ^vliich they are now expending by applying it in a way which will give them the good roads which are at present being paid for but not received. Highway accounts. If the expenditures for highway pur poses are required to be kept in more detailed form compari sons between the results being obtained by the highway com- missioner in one town and those obtained by the commissione; ADVANTAGES OF CHAXOES IV HIGHWAY SYSTEM. 135 in the neigliboring to'vvii working under pirailar conditions can be readily made by any tax payer. If reports of such expendi- tures are published, as they should be every year, the tax payer will be in a position to kaow definitely whether his money is iifing wasted or expended in a careful manner. Cash tax. If road taxes are naid in cash it will permit the application of better methods of road work. Koad gangs can be kept together long enough so that they become familiar with their work and highly efficient, with no need of changing them and substituting untrained men and teams for those which have more experience. Under the cash system roads can be main- tained; men can be hired at any time needed, or continually, if desired, to look after certain stretches of road and prevent their becoming so bad as to need any extensive repairs or re- building. County system. Under the county road system, which from the experience of other states is undoubtedly the best one that can be adopted, each particular piece of road machinery can be placed in charge of a man who has had experience in using it and can therefore secure better results and do more work than the ordinary inexperienced operator such as we have under the present system. Koads running in heavily travelled lines through the county can be constructed and maintained, and uniformity of plan pursued throughout so that the road will be uniformly good instead of being, as at present, good in one over- aer's district, bad in the next and impassable in *^he third, and so on, depending on the interest of each local overseer and th« difficulties he has to meet. In the vicinity of large towns the traffic sometimes becomes so great that the taxes of a single road district are not suffici- ent to keep the roads in repair. This is beginning to be notic- ed in some parts of this state already. The road district finds it impossible to keep its roads in as good condition as it used to before the traffic became so heavy. Under the comity sys- tem the cost of constructing and maintaining these roads is placed where it belongs, upon the shoulders of the whole county, f2Q RURAL HIOHWATS IN WISCONSIN. for it is the whole county which uses the road and which there- fore should pay for its construction and maintainance. Under the county system, also, a competent highway en- gineer can be hired to devote all his time to supervision of county roads and planning and constructing bridges and other improvemeuts which the county may have in hand. State aid. The benefits of state aid are lo many and st) important that it is difficult to make a satisfactory suaunary .^tatorncnt. State aid is of incalculable benefit in creating a proper public sentiment concerning the highways. Under it the people are moved to demand that they have the good roads to travel over which they are entitled to, but which they know very little about in the conditions prevailing under our pre^ sent system. State aid will be useful to the fanners of the state in furnishing object lessons of proper road construction and maintenance, for if state aid is granted the maintenance of §uch roads should be placed in direct charge of the county and good regulations for their care rigidly enforced by the state. A final advantage of state aid in Wisconsin is that the rev- enues of the state are in such condition that the money could come from the general fund and would not necossairily call for an increased state tax levy. PUBLICA TIOUS OF THE ffisconsin Geological and Natural History Snryey. The publications of the Survey are issued as (1) bulletins, which are nun. bfared cousecutively, (2) biennial reports, and (3) hydrographic maps. These publications are independently paged and indexed, no attempt being made to group them in voliunes. 1. Bulletins. The bulletins are issued in three series: Scientific Series. — The bulletins so designated consist of original con- tributions to the geology and natural history of the state, which are of scientific interest rather than of economic importance. MJc'i'Homic Series. — This series includes those bulletins whose interest is ch lefly practical and economic. Educational Series. — The bulletins of this series are primarily de- signed for use by teachers and in the schools. The following bulletins have been issued: Bulletin No. I. Economie Series No, 1. On the Forestry Conditions of Northern Wisconsin. Filibert Both, Spetia) Agent, United States Department of Agriculture. 1898. Pp. vi, 78; 1 map. Out of print. liulletin No. II. Scientifto Series No. 1. | On the Instincts and Habits of the Solitary Wasps. George W. Peck- ham and Elizabeth G. Peckham. 1898. Pp. iv, 241; 14 plates, of which 2 are colored; 2 figures in the text. Sold at the price of $1.50 in paper and $2.00 bound. Bulletin No. III. Seientifio Series No. g. A Contribution to the Geology of the Pre-Cambrian Igneous Rocks' of the Fox River Valley, Wisconsin. Samuel Weidman, Ph, Di, Assistant Geoiogibt, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. 1898. Pp. iv, 63; 10 plates; 13 figures in the text. Out of print. Bulletin No. IV. Economic Series No. X. On the Building and Ornamental Stones of Wisconsin. Bmest Robert- son Buckley, Ph. D., Assistant Geologist Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. 1898. Pp. xxvi, 544; 69 plates, of which 7 are colored, and 1 map; 4 figures in the text. Sent on receipt of 30 cents. Bulletin No, V, Educational Series No. 1. The Geography of the Begion About Devil's Lake and the Dalles of the Wisconsin, with some notes on its surface geology. Bo'lin D. ^Salisbury, A. M., Professor of Geographic Geology, University of Chicago, and Wal- lace W. Atwood, B. S., Assistant in Geology, University of Chicago. 1900. Pp. z, 151; 38 plated; 47 figures in the text. Out of print. Bulletin No. VI. Economic Series No. S. Second EditUm. Preliminary Report on the Copper-bearing Rocks of Doiie;las eonnty, and parts of Washburn and Bayfield counties, Wisconsin. Ulysses Sher- man Grant, Ph. D., Professor of Geology, Northwestern University. 1901, Pp. vi, 83; 13 plates. Sent on receipt of 10 cents. Bulletin No. VII. Ecmnmic SfriPK Nn. 4. The Clays and Clay Industries of Wisconsin. Part 1 Ernest Robert- son Buckl(',\ . Ph. D., Gecilouiat, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History hurvey. 1901. Pp. xii, 30i; 5.") plates Sent on receipt of 20 cents. Bulletin No. VIII. Ed ii,<;