iIJI?tW??^W^^ •'!'';,■. . I- ■■ ■'i,,.^*:' o .^^^. Cornell University Library S 499.F41 1863 The complete farmer and rural economist: 3 1924 003 245 044 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003245044 COMPLETE FARMER RURAL ECONOMIST; COKTlIHIHa k COMPENDIOUS EPITOME OF THK MOST IMPORTANT BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL ECONOMY. By THOMAS G. FESSENDEN, SDITOB OF ■' THE NXW SNOLAMD FARM&B,* A|na«Ulirf » thi ait of am : without it, man muit be a laTaf t, aad tha world a wildiiB*^ TENTH EDITION. KEVTSED, IMPROVED, AND ENLARGED. 0. M. SAXTOF, AGRICTJLTUEAL BOOK PUBLISHER, 25 PARK KOW, NEW YOKK. £ntered according to Act af Congress, in the year 1837. By Thomas G. Fesseneen, IB Ifce ClMt'i office ol the District Court Tor the District af MusachuietU PREFACE. Is tile following pages, the object of the writer is to give brief, but Jt ia lioped perspicuous and practical sketches of some important intpro7e- tnents in modern husbandry. In attempting to carry tliis design Into eSect, it has been his intention to insert no matter which is merely con- jectural or speculative ; to give place to nothing not worth the attenuon ©f the person -whose livelihood depends on his pursuits as a cultivator and who has neither time nor money to devote to such books as are expen- sive, voluminous, and foreign or remotely related to available improve- tnents in husbandry. With this view, the author has collected and generally abridged, from the sources which his occupation as editor of the New England Farmer has made it his duty as well as his pleasure to explore, the materials of the little work now submitted. He does not pretend %o have taken a wide survey of the field of husbandry, much less, in fliis tract, to have- given a plan of the whole premises. But he hopes his observations, tiiough limited, may prove serviceable so far as they eiXtend. Agricul- ture is the most extensive as well as the most useful of the sciences ; and as an art may be compared to the ocean, in which every stream of im- provement in the moral and physical condition of mankind pours its oon- tribution. Still, it is not necessary to cireamnavigate the whole of this world of waters in order to make voyages of valuable discovery. We ^annot dip an oar nor launch a skiff in or upon the besora of this great deep, without finding something to reward our adventures. Agriculture, although the most ancient of the arts, not only coeval with, but in truth the sun from which emanated the dawn of civilization, 13, nevertheless, the art in which the beneficial effects of modern im- provement are most sli-ikingly exemplified. Le-t us contrast Us former with its present condition in Great Britain. According to ICnglish laws in force from the fifth to the eleventh cen- tury, " all the cattle of a village, though belonging to different owners were pastured together in one herd, under the direction of one person (■with proper assistants,) whose oath in all disputes about the cattle was decisive. Their ploughs seem to have been very slight and inartificial ; for it was enacted, that no man should undertake to gaide a plough who could not make one ; and that the driver should make the ropes with which it was drawn of twisted willows. But slight as these ploughs were, it was usual for six or eight persons to form themselves into a ■ocieiy for fitting out one of them, and providing it with oxen, and IV PREFACE. every tbiog necessary for ploughing; am} many imnnte and curiotM laws were made foj the regalatiat> or sach societies. Tliia is a sufficienl- proof both of the poverty of the husbandman and tlie impprfect slate of agriculture among tlie ancient Britdhs of this period."* " By the laws of Iiut, king of the West Saxons, who flourished in the end of the seventh and beginning of the eighth century, a farm consist- ing of ten hides or ploughlands was to pay tlie following rent, viz. : ten casks of honey, three hundred loaves of bread, twelve casks of strong ale, two oxen, ten wethers, ten geese, twenty hens, ten cheeses, one cask of butter, five salmon, twenty pounds of forage, and one hundred eels."t Such has been the skate of tillage in that country which is now eulogized as the garden of Europe f Improvements in breeds of domestic animals by judicioos crosses, and propagating from the best specimens of their species, as well as plentiful and stiitable feeding, have advanced the state of agrienlture more than the most sanguine advocate for scientific husbandry could have antici- pated. To say nothing of the wonders eSected by Bakewfll and other eminent improvers in that departnieiH of husbandry, we will glance at the comparative states of the London cattle market at a distant and a less remote period. An Englislr writer states, that " aboat the year 1700, the average vreight of oien killed for the London market ' was three hundred and seventy .pounds; of calves, fifty pounds) of slieep, twenty- eight poands; and of lambs, eighteen poands. The average weight at present (about the close 'of the century) is, of oxen, eight hundred pounds; calves, one hundred and forty pounds; sheep, eighty pounds ; and lambs, fifty pounds." It would be a curious item in our agricultural knowledge, if information, simik^r to what we have qaoteii, relative to Boston and other American markets were correctly ascertained, faitlil'ully recorded, and from time to time laid before tl»e public^ We should a.S- vance with more celerity and alacrity along the highway of improve- ment, if we had means of marking and giving comparative views of the progress which we have made and are making. Some idea of the preserrt state of agrieuTture in England may be gathered from the following extract from the Journal of a traveller- " Every spot of ground capable of being cultivated is improved. Wher- ever I have been, the fields are generally small, inclosed by hedges, and made perfectly smooth by means of cast iron rollers. Numerous trees are left to grow around the hedges, and scattered over the fields. These are so nicely trimmed as to add greatly to the beauty of the country. Not a weed is suffered to grow. The crops all look well, arid are inucb piore productive than ours. The cattle and sheep feed on grass up to their knees, and look, as we should say, fit to kill. The slight iiiclo- sures that keep them in their pastures would be but a poor protection against our lean, half-fed, unruly animals. Here the cattle have no need to break fences. They have food sufficient within their own do- mains. I came here under the impression that this country was bare of trees. On the contrary, I find it better stocked in this respect than the thick settlements of onr own country. We wantonly destroy trees as if Ihey were of no value : here they are planted and nursed with as much eare as if they bore choice fruit." Althongh we think the writer last quoted has somewhat exaggerated the defects of American husbandry, we must allow, that his strictures are not so destitute of some foundation in reality as could be wished. * TL ^ idot's Eneyc. Agr. p 3S. » Wilkin's Leges SaxoD, p. 2i We, however, have of late improved and are insproving in every bramch of culture, and bid fair soon to possess a system of apiculture as well* adapted to our climate and circut^tanoes, as Great ISrilain, or even Flanders, can boast of at present.. T>uf fields may have a less imposing aippearance, and our products may be less in proportion to the quantity of land we have under cultivation, and still out tillage be on the whole judicious. The agricultural implements and farming operations of the Vnited States are in most partaculars very similar to those of Great Britain. Circ«mstaoces and climate, however, require variations, which the sagacity of the American cultivator will lead hioi to adopt, often in contradiction to tlie opinions of those who understand the science better than the practice of husbandry. In Europe land is dear and labor clieap; but in the Uaited States the reverse is the case. The European culti- vator is led 'by a regard to his own interest to endeavour to make the most of his land; the American has tlie same inducement to make the most of his laber. Perhaps, however, this ^inciple, in this country, is generally carried to an iinproigtable extreme, and our farmers would derive more benefit from their labor, as well as their land, if they selected such parts of their jiossessions as they can afford to till thoroughly, and to manure abundantly. A man may possess a large estate in lands, without being called on by good hn^andry to hack and scratch over the whole as evi denoe ofhis title. He may cultivate well those parts which are naturally most fertile, and suffer the rest to remain wetland, or, having cleared a part, lay it down to permanent pasture ; which will yield him an annua] profit, without requiring mi>ch labor. Ti»e climate and soil of^the United States are well adjupted to tlie cul- tivation of Indian com, a -very valuable vegetable, which cannot be grown to advantage in Great Britain. This entirely a^d very advanta- geously supersedes the field culture of the horse bean (viciajaba), one of tlie most common fallow crops ia that island. Root-husbatidry, or the raising of rools for the purpose of feeding cattle, is, however, of less irn- portance in the United States than in Great Britain. The winters are so severe, that turnips can rarely be eaten by stock on the ground where tliey grow, and all sc^ts of roots are with more difficulty preserved and dealt out to stock in this country than in those which possess a more mild and equable climate. Hay is more easily made in- the United Stales than in Great Britain, owing to the season for hay-making being more dry, and the sun more powerful in the former than in the latter country. There are many oCber drcumstances which favor the American farmer, and render his sitjuation more eligible _than that of those who pursue the same occupation in most parts of Europe. He is generally the owKer, as well as the occupier, of the soil which he cultivates : is not burdened with tithes ; his taies are light ; and the product of his la- bors will comraand more of the pecessaries, comforts, and innocent luxu- ries of life, than similar efforts would procure in any other part of the globe. Not. only have the inducements to agricultural improvements in th« United States been powerful, but of late a cbrresponding effect has been the resjilt. We cannot better make this evident, than hy a quotation 6-om " Remarks cultivator every ele* mentor Substance which constitutes the globe we inhabit, — the world of matter become completely subservient to the world of mind. Then and not till then will agriculture have attained the utmott degree of pe«- fectioii of which it is capable. T. G. Feuihoes. CONTENTS rAOG AgriCDltnral ImplemeHts, .... 315 Aphis, or Plsnt Louse, .... - S09 Apple-tree Borer, ....... 312 Ashes as Manure, ....... 203 Barley, 134 harvesting of, - . . 136, 281 Bams, ■ - - - . . 44, 71 Barn-yards, . .... ,74 Beans, .-- ... -.-1S2 Beets, field cultivation and preaerva- tion nf, - ' . - - - - 243 to 2H Birds, the folly and criminality of de- stroying, - - . - 292 Bones, use of for manure, .« - . 203 Buckwheat, . ----. .141 Bushes, how to extirpate, .... 296 Butter, how made and preserved, - - 79 how made in winter, . - - 87 Calves, - - Siloei Canker-worm, ... ... 304 Caterpillar, ... . - - 307 Cattle, 36 Chair- cutting, - ......43 Chafi'- cutter, ......--316 Cheese, making,. ... . 88 to 92 cleaning of, ------ 90 Stilton, how made, - - - 90 to prevent skippers in, - - 90 to prevent having a bad flavor, 91 Cheese Presses, - .----- -322 (Dhurn, Gault's Patent, - - 323 Stone, 323 Clxver, - - - - IS on making into hsy, -27Sto279 Colts, 64, 242 Cotton, ........---263 Cooking Food for Cattle and Swine, 49 to 54 Cow-house, ....-----43 Cow 38 manner of milking, - 38 winter ftiod for, .... 41 working of. ------ 42 how treated when about to calve, ...... -42 how dried of their milk, - -, 42 Cultivators, .-- .....321 Curculio, - 308 Curd Mills, 322 Cut-worm, ...... .- 311 Dairy, 78 DS-t Scraper, Davis's Patent, -323 Drains, 282 Eggs, how to choose at market, - 291 PAOE Ewes and Lamlis, - - ■ • . 212 Fuj'mer's Calendar, ... . . 339 Fences, .......... . .204 Florin Grass, -'..... -18 Flat-stalked ' Meadow Grass, - 19 Flax, - -99 Floating Fescue Grass, . . - 19- Food fermented for Neat Cattle, - 46 Fowls and Chickens, to fattenj ^ . -291 Grain, .-..2S Grain Cradles, -...-- - - 326 Grasses, --..-..-. 13 proper time for sownig, &c., 23,23 Gypsum, - - - - - 130 Harrow, Chandler's Improved, - . 320 Harvesting, - 279 Oats, . - . . . - 281 Hay-making, -.-..-- . 275 I'ledgea, .......... 206 Hemp, -....'......92 Herd's Grass, or Timothy, - - - 18 Hops, ...--..-.-. }43 Horse, .-.-....- . 230 diseases of, - - 234 stable for, -< - . . - - 236 Horse Kake, - - - . . - .- 327 Indian Corn, ------ 25 to 36 hoeing- of, in dry weather, - 32 planting or sowing for fodder, 34 Insects, '-..-..._ .. 302 Irrigation, -..--- .. 297 Lactometers,. - - • . . 322 Lambs and Ewes, - - - 212 Lice on Apple-trees, - - . . - 311 Lime, -..-.- . . . ia2 Lucerne, - - . . . - 16,19 Mangel-Wurtzel, -...--- 243 how preserved, ... - 250 Manures, --..-.---- 160 liquid, .-.--...174 for grass ground, ... - 178 how made from swine, . . 181 bones useful for, .... - 203 articles used for, - - - 203 Marl, . . . .^. 196 Meadow Foxtail,' -...---14 Milk for Butter, &c. ...... 79 Millet, . . 137 Oats, 131 haryesting of, ... 281 J. Smith's ci*op of, - - - 134 Orchard Grass,' ...... 14 Oxen, -.-.-...- 61 Pasture, -. - - *'* VIH CONTENTS PAGE Putora Grasses, .... . . 21 Pea, 147 Insects in, and diseases (F • 15L Pickering's Tree Brualies, .... S21 Plaster of Paris, ..... . igo Ploughing, ..--..-.. 267 mode or, by E. Fhinney, Esq. 273 Ploughs, ----..-... 319 Potatoes, - - ... .258 PouUry, 289 Pruning Shears, - . - ... 324 Rice, ---.-. 142 Rough Cecil's Foot, or Orchard Grass, 14 Ruta Baga, ---.-. -.-251 Bye 124 "Rye Grass, -.... ...15 Sainfoin, --.-.--. .17 Bcythes, Scythe Rifles, Scythe Snathes, ....... 324 Seed Sowers, . . ..... 336 Sheep, ...........208 shearing of, --..-- 219 disorders of, ..... . 223 Slug-worm, ------ - 313 Smooth-stallted Meadow Grass, - . 19 Soils, ■ 9 ■owa devouring their Oflspring , ' 63 pAe> Stable for horses, ....... 236 Straw Cutters, . - - ... sie Striped Bug, 314 Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, - . . 14 Swine, -------.. 155 use of coal in fattening, * - 162 Tall Fescue Grass, ...... 15 Tall Oat Grabs, ■ - ..... 15 Threshing Machines. -.---. S16 Timothy, or Herd's Grass, - - - - 18 Tobacco, ---.--. .- 266 Tuj-uips, English, . . . - 254 Swedish, - ..... 252 Upright Bent Grass ...... 18 Wheat, -----_.--. 107 preparation of (br sowing, - 112 to prevent smut in, . - 113,114 use of lime for, . - - - . 116 how to obtain new varieties of, , lis rust or mildew in, . - . 119 the kind called Black Sea Wheat, - - - - - . 122 Willis's Seed Sower, - . . . 336 Wire-worm, .... . . 314 Woodland, . ..... gQi THE COMPLETE FARMER. SOILS. A farmer should be well informed of the natuie of soils, and of the various plants adapted to them. Some useful plants flourish best in what is called poor land ; and, if cultivators were perfectly acquainted with the art of adapting plants to soils, much manure might be saved, which is wasted by injudicious and improper application. It is supposed by geologists that the whole of this earth originally consisted of rocUs, of various sorts or combina- tions, 'rhese. rocks, by the lapse of ages and exposure to air and water, became disintegrated or worn in part or alto- gether to fine particles, which compose what are called earths or soils. These soils are ..liefly silica [sand or earth of flints], lime [or calcareous earth], alumina [clay], and mag- nesia [a mineral substance]. With these are blended anir mal and vegetable matlers in a decomposed or decomposing state, and saline, acid, or alkaline combinations. Plants are the most certain indicators of the nature of a soil ; for, while no practical cultivator would buy or under- take to till land, of which he kaew only the results of chemi- cal analysis, yet every farmer and gardener, who knew the timber and plants a soil spontaneously produced, would at once be able to decide on its value for cultivation. It was a maxim of Kliyogg, a famous philosophical farmer of Switzerland, "that every species of earth may be instru- mental to the improvement of another of opposite qualities." All sands are hot and dry, — all clays, cold and wet ; and, therefore, the manuring sandy lands with clay, or clay lands with sand, is best for grain and pulse. But it is not tho 10 THE COMPLETE FAniflER natural soil only that the farmer ought to consider, but the depth of it, and what lies immediately underneath it. For if the richest soil is only seven or eight inches deep, and lies on a cold, wet clay or stone, it will not be so fruitful as leaner soils, that lie on a better under stratum. Gravel is, perhaps, the best under stratum to make the land prolific. The best loams and natural earths are of a bright brown, or hazel color. Hence, they are called hazel loams. They cut smooth and tolerably easy, without clinging to the spade or ploughshare ; are light, friable, and fall into small clods ■without chapping or cracking in dry weather, or tjrning jito mortar when wet. Dark gray and russet moulds are accounted the next best. The worst of all, are the light and dark ash colored. The goodness of land may also be very well judged of by the smell and the touch. The best emits a fresh, pleasant scent on being dug or ploughed up, especially after rain ; and, being a just proportion of sand and clay intimately blended, will nut stick much to the fin- gers on handling. But all soils, however good, may be im- poverished, and even worn out, by successive crops without rest, especially if the ploughings are not very frequently re- peated before the seed is sown. If we examine tracts of land which have not been culti- vated, we find nature has adapted different kinds of plants to most of the distinguishable varieties of soils ; and though some belonging to one may for some cause or other be found on lands of a diflierent quality, they seldom thrive, or perfect their seeds so as to become general. The great care of the farmer ought, therefore, to be, by proper mixtures, to reduce his land to that state and temperament, in which the extremes of hot and cold, wet and dry, ar6 best corrected by each other ; to give them every possible advantage flowing from the benign influences of sun and air ; and to adopt such kinds of plants as they aflibrd in this state the greatest nour- ishment to ; and to renew'their fertility by a judicious allow- ance of the most pr.oper manures. Where these things are done, there are few spots so unfriendly to cultivation as not to repay his expenses and labor with a plentiful increase. But without these, the best tracts of land will in time be- come a barren waste, or produce little but woods. The color of soils is important. " The Farmer's Journal " observes, coal ashes were sprinkled over half the surface of beds, sown with peas, beans, &c., and on these the plants ■invariably appeared abave ground two or three days earlier, ANB KURAL ECONOMIST. 11 obviously on account of the increased warmth ; it being a well-known fact, that dark-colored bodies absorb caloric more readily, and in larger proportions than those of a lighter hue. Spils which absorb the most moisture are the most fertile Sir Humphrey Davy observed, "I- have compared the ab sorbent powers of many soils with respect to atmospheric moisture, and I have always found it greatest in the most fertile soils ; so that it affords one method of judging of the productiveness of land." The methods of improving soils are .too numerous to be here fully specified. We will, however, quote one mode of restoring worn-out fields to the fertility of new lands, or lands lately cleared from their aboriginal growth of timber, quoted from a " Dissertation on Ihe Mixture of Soils," for which the author, the Rev. Morrel Allen, of Pembrolre, Massachusetts, was awarded a premium by the Plymouth County Agricultural Society. "Particles in a soil, which had long been in contact, and, in consequence of long connexion, lost much of the energy of their action on plants, are separated in mixing soils, placed in new connexions, and act with renewed vigor. But the most permanent and best effects are always expected from the mixture of soils of different qualities. When the object is to produce^ as much, immediate influence as possible, merely to assist one short rotation of crops, to have the ap- plication we make act chiefly as manure, then we may take our materials from any situation where we know vegetable substances have fallen and decayed. * "We may go into forests, and in certain stages of the growth of the wood, without any perceptible injury, skim the surface of the whole lot. This soil of the woods, carried in sufficiently large quantities on to old fields, will restore them to original productiveness. And this will sometimes prove an inexhaustible resource for renewing old fields ; for ds often as the fields decline, the soil in the wood lot will be again renewed and fit to remove. For the same purposes the earth should be carried from the sides of vails and fen- ses, where the leaves have been lodged from the forests. It ehould also be carried from hollows and temporary pondg, which in certain seasons of the year become dry, and afford immense quantities of vegetable matter in different stages o*" decomposition, and suitable to apply to any kind of soil. " Where streams of water occasionally overflow the banks, 12 TfrE COMPLETE PARMER an abundance of vegetable and earthy matter is lodged on the meadows, which in many cases, especially where there is not much extent of meadow to receive the substancea conveyed by the stream, it is prudent to remove on to higher land. It will there act as manure, and at the same time gradually alter the texture of the s6il, rendering it mare re- tentive of dew and rain, and easily penetrated by the fibroua roots of plants. Of the value of those substances which are carried in streams of water to enrich soils, we have the most convincing proof in the unexampled productiveness of interval lands. It is not exclusively the vegetable substan- ces carried on to these lands which make them so astonish- ingly productive ; there is a portion of every kind of soil existing in the surrounding country annually carried on with the vegetable substances. Intervals are composed of every sort of earth the water can reach and remove. This cir- cumstance may properly encourage the mixtures of many kinds of earth, even when there .is no particular evidence that each kind is especially adapted to remedy any deficien- cy in the soil which we would improve. There is less haz- ard in administering medicines in great profusion to cure diseases in the soil, than in the human body. In stepping out of the beaten path of habitual practice, and calling at- tention to experiments, which to some may look very simple, and to others very absurd, we may become instrumental in the discovery of highly important truths." " It will not do, however, to spread pond mud directly on grass land or on arable ground. An experienced farmer in- forms us, that*he once injured a piece of grass land by spreading pond mud upon it without preparation. It should be mixed with lime and warmer manure, and exposed to the atmosphere, or put into the barn-yard to be trodden upon by cattle. A.rthur Young lays it down as a maxim, that a strong, liarsh, tenacious clay, though it will yield great crops of wheat, is yet managed at so heavy expense, that it is usually let for more than it is worth. Much money is not made on Buch land. The very contrary soil, a light, poor, dry sand, is very often, indeed, in the occupation of men who have made fortunes. Some permanent manure is usually below the surface, which anwsers well to carry on ; and sheep, the common stock of such soils, is the most profitable sort he • can depend on AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 15 GRASSES. The limits of our plan will oblige ns in this, ns in many other articles, to omit, or give but brief sketches of, subjects which might be profitably attended to in more minute detail. _ ' Grass is a general name for plants used in feeding cattle, in a green or dry state, for hay or for pasture. It would require a large volume to describe all the kinds of greiss which are or may be cultivated in the United States. Sir John Sinclair observed, ("Code of Agriculture,' p. 219,) that there are in all two hundred and fifteen grasses^ properly so called, which are cuhivated in Great Britain The Duke of Bedford caused a series of experiments to be instituted by George Sinclair, to try the comparative merits and value of a number of these grasses, to the amount of iiinety-seven, the result of which is annexed to Sir Humphrey Davy's "Agricultural Chemistry." According to these ex- periments, tall fescue grass {festuea elaiior) stands highest as to the quantity of nutritive matter afforded by the whole crop, when cut at the time of flowering ; and meadow cat's-tail grass, phleum, pralense, called in New England herd's grass, and timothy grass in the Southern States, affords most food when cut at the time the seed is ripe. The following- remarks are from an able and elaborate article on the grasses, written by Judge Buel, and published in " The American Farmer " : " I have found in our publications on agriculture very lit- tle information on the improvement of our meadow and pas- ture grounds. Indeed, the names of our native grasses are scarcely enumerated, much less are their habits described, or their relative merits for hay and pasture pointed out, in any American work which has fallen within my notice. A considerable portion of our lands are unsuitable for the sys- tem of convertible husbandry, that is, ati alternation of grain and grass crops. Of this description are our stiff clays, marshes, and swamps, and all those lands in which tillage is rendered difficult by reason of hard pan, stones, or wetness. These should be improved as permanent meadows and pas- tures ; and it is of the first importance to the farmer to know the grasses which will render them most conducive to profit ; for that our grass grounds are as susceptible of improvement as our tillage grounds, by a suitable selection of seeds and suitable management, must be apparent to every reflecting mind. The improvement and productiveness of our cattle and sheep husbandry, which at this time deservedly engage 14 THE COMPLETE FARMER much ot' the pjblic attention, depend materially on fhia branc i of farming." After adverting to the sources from which the writer de- rive most of his information, he proceeds : " Sweet-scented Vernal Grass. This is a grass of diminu- tive growth, and is not worth cultivating for hay. It is nevertheless considered as valuable in jjasture on account ol Its affording very early feed, and growing quick after bemg cropped. We are advised by Muhlenburg that it delights ,in moist soils; by the Bath papers, that it does well in clay- ey loams; and by Dickson, that it grows in almost any soil, including bogs and sands. G. Sinclair says, it is eaten by oxp.n, horses, and sheep, though not so freely as some other grasses are. * " Meadow Fox Tail possesses all the advantages of early growth with the preceding, and is much more abundant in product and nutriment. It generally constitutes one of five or six kinds which are sowed together by the English far- mers for pasture ; and affords withal a tolerable crop of hay. It does best in moist soils, whether loams, clays, or reclaim- ed bogs. Sheep and horses have a better relish for it, says G. Sinclair, than oxen. " Rough Cock's Fool. Dr. Muhlenburg and T. Cooper concur in opinion that this is the orchard grass of the Uni- ted States. In England, cock's foot is taking the place of rye grass with clovers. Arthur Young speaks in high com- mendation of it; though all writers concur in the opinion, that it should be frequently and closely cropped, either with the scythe or cattle, to reap the full benefit of its great mer- its. I should prefer it to almost every other grass; and cows are very fond of it. Cooper rates it above timothy, and says it is gradually taking the place of the latter among the best farmers about Philadelphia. This is probably ow- ing to the fact that it is earlier than timothy, and of course more suitable to cut with clover for hay. Its growth is early and rapid, after it has been cropped. It does well on loams and sands, and grows well in shade. " Colonel Powel, a gentleman who combines as muc/i • .Tiitlge Buel does not seem to have been ppi-sonally acquainted with tliig mvuluiihle grass. Its proper Eitualion is high, well-drained meadows. It constitutes, in such meadows, in Massacluisett.s, at \ensi one iialf of the whole crop. Its chief fault is, that it is too early for the other grasses, hut it afforug a second and even third crop if cut early. It is tlie grass which gives the fiaest flavor so grateful t? milch cows. AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 16 science with judicious practice, especially in cattle and grass husbandry, as any person in the Union, says, ' I have tried orchard grass for ten years. It produces more pastu- rage than any artificial grass I have seen in America.' Sow two bushels of seed to an acre. " Tall Oat Grass. Both Arator (Mr. Taylor) and Dr Muhlenburg have placed this at the head of their lists of grasses, which they have recommended to the attention of the American farmer. The latter says, it is of all others the earliest and best grass for green fodder and hay. Tife doc- tor was, probably, not apprized of its deficiency in nutri- tive matter, as indicated in the table. It possesses the ad- vantage of early, quick, and late growth, for which the cock's foot is esteemed, tillers well, and is admirably calcu- lated for pasture grass I measured some on the 20th of June, when in blossom, when it should be cut for hay, and found it four and a half feet long. The latter math is near- ly equal in weight, and superior in nutritious matter to the seed crop. "Tall Fescue, although a native grass, has not fallen under my personal observation. It stands highest, says Davy, according to the e.xperiments of the Duke of Bedford, of any grass, properly so called, as to the quantity of nutritive mat- ter afforded by the whole crop, when cut at the time of flowering ; and meadow cat's-tail (timothy) grass affords most food, when "cut at the time the seed is ripe. It grows naturally in wet grounds, in bog meadows, and on the sides of ditches, often to the height of four or five feet. Our ignorance of agricultural botany, and of the intrinsic value of this grass, can alone have prevented its being more gen- erally known and cultivated. It must be very valuable for wet grounds, as, from its rapid growth, it is calculated to smother or keep down the coarser kinds, which naturally abound in these situations. " Rye Grass is extensively cultivated in Scotland and the north of England, and, where cock's foot has not superseded it, is generally mi.xed with clover seeds. It is rather declin- ing in public estimation. It does well in pasture; and as it contains much nutriment, is considered valuable for cowa and sheep. Dickson says, it does best in rich, moist mea- dows. Young does not speak well of it. "Bed Clover. There are many species of the trifolium, and several varieties of the red cjover. Whether the kind we generally cultivate is the jirafense, or not, I am unable to THE COMPLETE FARMER determine. The character of red clover as an ameliorating fertilizing crop, is too generally known to require illustra- tion. It cannot be depended upon for permanent grasa lands ; though it yields to no grass for alternating with grain in convertible husbandry. It Ibrmerly was as indispensable in a course of crops in Norfolk, England, (which has been considered preeminent for good tillage,) as turnips ; and the maxim was, and still is, ' no turnips, no crops,' But it ap- pears from Young's survey of that country, that it cannot now be depended on oftener than once in from eight to twelve years. Trefoil, white clover, cock's foot, rye grass, &.C., are therefore alternated with red clover in the grass years. There is reason to believe, that neither red clover nor other grasses, will bear repeating for a course of years, upon the generality of soils. They exhaust the ground of the peculiar nourishment reqiiiret for their support. In Great Britain white clover, trefoil, rye grass or cock's, foot, are generally sown with red clover seeds. From twenty to thirty pounds of seeds are sown to the acre. In the north- ern states, timothy is generally sown with clover; though the mixture is an improper one for hay; for the clover is fit for the scythe ten or fifteen days before the timothy has arrived to maturity. If sown alone, from eight to sixteen pounds of clover seed should be put on an acre ; more on old land than on new. " White or Dutch Clover (trifolium repens), is considered in England of i.Tiportance to husbandry, if we are to judge from the great quantity of seed which is there sown annual- ly. With us, many districts produce it spontaneously ; but it is too seldom sown. It shrinks greatly in drying, and does not contain as much nutritive matter as red clover ; yet its value as a pasture grass is universally admitted. Its in- crease is very much facilitated by a top dressing of gypsum lime or ashes. "Lucerne, although affording much more green food, con- tains less nutriment in a single crop than red clover. It must, however, be borne in mind, that it grows much quicker than clover, and will bear cutting twice as often. In the soiling "system, an acre of lucerne will keep four cattle or horses from the 15th of May to the 1st of October. I cut a piece about the 15th of May, and again about the 20th of Tune, to leed green, and then ploughed the ground, and cropped it with ruta baga, which yielded sixteen tons to the acre of roots, as fine as I ever saw. Mr. Fowell (see AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 17 Young's 'Norfolk,' p. 345) derived a c.ear profit c' ihii^ teen pounds seventeen shillings and four-pence per acre from his lucerne, fed green to working horses. This is almost equal to sixty dollars the acre. An idea has prevailed, that it will not thrive in this latitude, (42-3,) but the experi- ments of the late Chancellor Livingston, and of Le Roy de Chaumont, prove otherwise. I sowed seed in 1821, at the rate of six pounds the acre, with barley. It has stood the winters well, much better than clover ; and has been in a state of progressive improvement. Drought has not affect- ed it. The plants are very tender the .first year ; and re- quire either a very clean tilth, or to be kept free from weeds and grass with a hoe the first ye^r. It should have a deep loam, as it sends down tap roots five or six feet ; and it is equally necessary that the ground should not be wet. It may be sown either in drills or broad-cast, with or without grain. Fifteen pounds of seed are required for the acre if drilled, and twenty is not too much if sown broad-cast. Tb the proprietor of a 6a,iry, an acre or two of lucerne would be valuable, to be fed to his cows in addition to ordinary pasture.* " Long-Drooled Clover is a native of Hungary, and I do not think has ever found its way across the Atlantic. The root is biennial, and if sown in the fall, lasts only during the next season. It penetrates to a great depth in the ground, and consequently is but little affected by drought. It therefore requires a deep dry soil. The product of this grass, when compared to others that are allied to it in habit and place of growth, proves greatly superior. It affords twice the weight of grass, and more than double the nutritive matter that is given by the common clover. It gives abundance of .seed • and, says G. Sinclair, if the ground be kept free of weeds, it sows itself, vegetates, and grows rapidly, without cover- ing in, or any operation whatever. Fotir years it has prop- agated itself in this manner on the space of ground which it now occupies, and from which this statement of its compar- ative value is made. This species would, no doubt, prove a valuable acquisition to our husbandry, whether we considei its value for green food, hay, or as a green ^rop to be turn- ed in preparatory to grain. '.' Sain Foin is peculiarly adapted to a calcareous or • For further remarks on the culture of lucerne, eee " The New England Farmer," Vol. IX. p. 342. 2* 18 1HE COMPLETE FABMEU \ chalky soil. It is true it is cultivated in Norfolk, England, which is a soil of sand and loam, naturally destitute of cal- careous matter. But it is (Simmon there to dress their lands with clay marl, which abounds with carbonate of lime ; without which dressing, says Young, Norfolk soils will not grow sain foin. This writer considers it ' one of the most valuable plants that were ever introduced into the agricul- ture of Great Britain.' The well-known Mr. Coke culti- vates four hundred acres of this grass, and sows it without other seeds. Several attempts have been made to cultivate sain foin in this country, but hitherto I believe without suc- cess.* " Timothij. This grass is distinguished in Great Britain ^by the name of meadow cat's-lail ; in New England by that of herd's grass. It is one of the most valuable grasses that are cultivated ; and, what is worthy the notice of every farmer, it affords more than double the nutriment when cut in the seed to what it does in the flower. In tenacious, strong, and moist soils, it is entitled to a precedence, per- haps, to any single grass for hay, yet does not seem to be suitable to mix with clover seeds when intended for meadow. Another consideration, which renders it particularly worthy of attention, is the seed which it affords, and which may be saved without materially diminishing the hay crop. From ten to thirty bushels of seed may be taken from an acre of timothy, which, at the price it now bears, is of itself a hand- some remuneration. " Fiorin has of late years been brought into notice in Great Britain, by the experiments of Dr. Richardson ; who particularly recommended it for the cold boggy soils of the mountainous districts, where ordinary grasses would not- thrive. The peculiar value of the fiorin, and of other grasses of the agrostis family, arises from their fitness for whiter pasture : as they lose very little of their bulk or nu- triment by remaining in the soil after they have ceased to grow. Its name (^creeping bent or couch grass) implies a difficulty in mowing it, except on a surface perfectly smooth. " Upright Bent Grass. Dr. Muhlenburg considers this the herd's grass of the southern, and the foul meadow of the eastern States, of which lohite top and red top are varieties. * Sain foin may be considered as out of tlie question in New England. So large a portion is winter-lsilled that it is not worth cultivation. This is af firmed on the strength of repeated trials. AND KURAL ECONOMIST. 13 This grass is more congenial to our climate than to that ol England. In any boggy soils, both varieties of this grass have come in spontaneously, as soon as the ground has been cleared and drained, have soon formed a compact sod, and afforded good hay and good pasture. " Flal-stalked Meadow Grass. This, according to Muhlen- burg, is the blue grass, 'nhich is considered as a pest in many of our tillage grounds. The small crop which it gives, and the little nutritive matter which this affords, shows the little dependence which ought to be placed on it for grazing, or for bay. " Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass is a native plant, and is well adapted for permanent pastures. It grows quick after being cropped, and does well upon dry ground. " Floating Fescue grows well in swamps and bog soils, where good kinds are most wanted. •" I would suggest, with much deference, whether grasses may not be divided, for the practical benefit of the farmer," into three kinds, to wit : 1. Cultivated Grasses. All kinds, strictly speaking, which the soil does not produce spontane- ously, are cultivated grasses. But the term as generally Hsed, and in the sense I here employ it, applies only to such as are sown to altennate leilh grain, pulse, and roots, in a systematic rotation of crops. The grasses selected for this purpose are, generally, the red clovers, lucerne, sain foin, orchard, tall oat, timothy, or rye grass. , Clover i.s the pri- mary dependence on all soils which will grow it, and espe- cially where gypsum can exercise its magic powers. As vegetables are said to exhaust the soil in proportion to the smallness of their leaves, (the larger the leaves the more nutriment they draw from the atmosphere, and the less from the soil,) clovers are entitled to the high commendation they have obtained among American farmers. But as these plants are liable to premature destruction by the frosts of winter, it is both prudent and ' wise to .intermix with their seeds those pf some other grasses more to be depended on. " For this purpose, on sands, loams, and gravels, and these constitute the soils usually employed in convertible husbandry, the orchard grass or tall meadow oat grass ap- pear to be best calculated to insure profit. They grow early, delight' in a clover sod, and are fit for the scythii when clover is in the bloom, the time it ought to be cut. The hay from this mixture may be made before harvest commen ces ; and if the soil is good, a second crop may be cut al- EO THE COMPLETE FARMER most equal to the first. If intended for pasture the second year, either of these grasses will afford more abundant fooa than timolhy. " Jn clays, the meadow fox tail, an excellent grass, might be substituted, though, according to Sinclair, the tall oat grass will do well here also. Jn wet soih, where clovers do not grow well, timothy and meadow reed grass would be a. good selection, sown either separate or together. "Lucerne and sain foin require a deep dry soil, and are generally sown without other seeds. The first does not at- tain to perfection before the third year ; and both, where successfully cultivated, are permitted to occupy the ground from six to eight years, "2. Meadow Grasses. In selecting these the object is to obtain the greatest burden of good hay, and to mix those kinds which may be profitably cut at the same time. " For clayey and moist soils, many valuable and nutritious "kinds seem to be well adapted ; that is to say, meadow fox tail, timothy, tall oat, meadow soft grass, floating fescue, rye grass, reed meadow, smooth-stalked meadow, American cock's foot, upright bent or herd's grass, and tall fescue. And the five last are peculiarly suited to swamp or bog soils- For dry hams, sands, and gravels, which never ought to be kept long in grass, the cock's foot or orchard grass, and tall oat, are probably the best ; and to these might be added red and white clover. " 'i^he great difficulty is to prevent the deterioration of meadows. This takes place from the better grasses running out, and giving place to coarser kinds, in moss, and to use- less or noxious plants, aided often by a neglect to keep them well drained. The finer and more nutritious kinds thrive best in moist, though they will not live long in wet soils. Hence it is of the first importance to keep the surface soil free from standing water, by good and sufficient ditches ; and it often becomes necessary, and it is in most cases advisable, on a flat surface, to lay the land in ridges at right angles with the drains. Another precaution to be observed is, not to feed them with stock when the soil is wet and poachy. Harrowing in the fall has been found beneficial to meadows. It destroys mosses, and covers the seeds of grasses which have fallen, or may be sown, - and thus produces a continued succession of young plants. In liurope, lime is used with good efl^ect as a top dressing to grass lands, as are also ashes. With us, the annual appli- AND RDRAL ECONOMIST. 21 eation of a bushel of gypsum to the acre is found beneficial. It not only thickens the verdure with clover, but is of ad- vantage in most other grasses. Stable manure should be used only when it can be spared from the more profitable uses of tillage. When the means above enumerated fail to insure a good crop of hay, it is time to resort to the plough, and a course of crops. "3. Pasture Crrasses. But few of the grasses most valu- ed in Great Britain in pasture are the natural growth of the United States ; but it is believed that if the seeds are once introduced upon our farms, we shall find little difficulty in naturalizing them. Neither the orchard nor vernal grass, which are said to be indigenous to our country, are recog- nised in the grass lands which have come within my ob- servation : yet they constitute, with fox tail and tail oat grass, the earliest and most valuable varieties for perennial pastures. The meadow fox tail and orchard grass, together with our white clover and green meadow grass, poa trivi- alis, (which seldom require to be sown,) I think would form the best selection for all grounds which are moderately dry. The rye and oat grasses, or meadow soft grass, might be either substituted for the two first, or combined with them. These would afford spring, summer, and fall feed, abundant in quantity and wholesome and nutritious in quality. On wet soils, (though pastures require to- be drained, as well as meadows, to insui-e a rich herbage,) the tall fescue, smooth- stalked meadow, upright bent, and herd's grass, may be in- troduced to advantage. Gypsum is applied to pastures with the same benefit that it is to meadows." Two able papers, " On Grasses," have been written by the Hon. John Welles, for " The Massachusetts Agricul tural Repository." One of these, republished in " The New England Farmer," (Vol. I. page 235,) contains the following observations on the loss of weight of certain grasses, by evaporation, " in the process of drying or making, for safe and useful preservation." It should be premised that the time of cutting the several grasses, &c., in the following statement, was the same as is usually practised by husbandmen in this State. " Of 100 lbs. of T^etables, cured in 1S23, the product was as followai liz. : 100 lbs. of green white ciDver gave of hay 17i 'bs. 100 " of red do. " ■ 27i " 100 " of herd's grass " 40 " 100 " ol fresh meadow " 38 " 1822. 1823. 17^ 27 27J 25 40 39 38 44 39 60 ISi 19 25 25 50 46 40 43 38 22 THE COMPLETE FARMER 100 lbs. fi« the result wiUi sufficient accuracy AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 23 ed; or it may be sown with winter wheat in the fall, if the land be dry and warmly exposed; or in the spring, when it should be lightly harrowed in." The "Domestic Encyclo- pedia" asserts, that " experienced farmers generally prefer sowing clover with wheat rather than with barley or oats, as in dry seasons the clover frequently overpowers the oats or barley, and if it be sown late in order to 'obviate this evil, it often fails, and the crop is lost for that season. Probably the diversity of opinion respecting the proper time of sowing clover seed may arise from the difference in the nature of the soil on which trials have been made. An experienced agriculturist, (Edward Duffield, Esq., of Philadelphia coun- ty,) assures Dr. Mease, that he repeatedly failed in obtaining a crop, when he sowed his clover in autumn or winter; and he is uniformly successful when he sows in the spring. His soil is a light loam." On the other hand, an experienced and scientific cultiva- tor, whose suggestions on this subject were published in "The New England Farmer," (Vol. VI. p. 238,) dated Wes- ton, and signed J. M. G., says; "Dear-bought experience has taught me the inefficacy of sowing grass seed in spring with grain; it was a custom imported with the ancestors of the country from Old England, where the cloudy summers and moist climate will warrant a practice which, under our clear sky and powerful sun, is altogether unsuitable. . I must add, that grass sown in the fall imperiously requires to be rolled in the spring, as soon as the ground is in fit order; otherwise the small plants, slightly rooted yet, and heaved up by the frost, will suffer much, perhaps total destruction ; and truly, among the many uses to which the roller may be applied, none, perhaps, would be more valuable than to roll all grass lands in spring. The plants suffer from the wind and from the heat, and this being the case more or less every fcpring, it must necessarily bring on a premature decay, which the yearly use of the roller at that season might prevent." We cannot reconcile these authorities; but it is probable that both in fall and spring sowing of grass seeds, there may be successful and unfavorable . results, according to circum- stances of soil, season, &c. Fall sown grass seeds are lia- ble to be winter-killed, or destroyed by frost ; spring sown grass seeds may perish by drought and heat. But, when- ever sown, there will be less danger either from frost or drought, if the seed is well covered with a harrow, and the ground pressed on it with a roller 24 THE CCMPLETE FARMER Young's "Farmer's Calendar," under the date of August, says, " This is the best season of the whole year for laying down land to grass; and no other is admissible for it on strong, wet, or heavy soils. Spring sowings with grain may succeed, and do often, but that they are hazardous I know from forty years' experience." There is likewise a great difference of opinion as respects the quantity of seed to be sown when land is laid down to grass. Sir John Sinclair says, " It is a great error, in laying land down to grass, to sow an insufficient quantity of seeds. In general, twelve or fourteen pounds o clover is the usual average allowance. But that quantity, it is contended, ought greatly to be increased, and in many cases doubled." " The Fanner's Assistant" tells us, that "the quantity of red clover seed (,o be sown on the acre is about fourteen pounds, and none but clean seed ought to be sown." The " Memoirs of the Board of Agriculture of the State of New York," (Vol. II. p. 30,) in giving an account of the methods of culture adopted by farmers in Rensselaer coun- ty, state, that " Farmers differ in opinion in regard to tho most suitable quantity of seed. S. Germond, H. Worthing- ton, C. Porter, C. R. Golden, and some others, say that eight, quarts of the mixture of clover aftd timothy seed should be sown on every acre. And colonel T. Carpenter sows sixteen quarts on an acre. He says, when the grass and clover grow very thick, it will be more tender feed, and more fine hay, and that it will not run out so soon. But J. Phillips, G. Eddy, and many others, consider four quarts as sufficient. "All agree that the proportions of the mixture of the seeds should be governed by the nature of the soil : that in a sandy soil three-fourths of the seed should be clover; in clay loam it should be equal parts ; in clay soil but one fourth clover seed. " There should be at least a bushel of plaster sown on every acre of clover and grass land of a sandy, gravelly, or loamy soil. Also on all upland natural meadows. Two bushels per acre are much better than one on sandy or gravelly soil." Payson Williams, Esq., of Fitchburg, Massachusetts, who received a premium from the Massachusetts Agricul- tural Society for the greatest quantity of spring wheat, rais- ed by him in the summer of 1822, in giving a description of the mode of culture by him adopted, says, " The quan AND RURAL ECONOMIST 35 tity of grass seed used by me is never less than twelve pounds of clover and one peck of herd's grass (timothy) to the acre. Here, permit ine to observe, that innumerable are the instances in this country where the farmer fails in his grass cr6ps by not allowing seed enough ; and, what is worse, the little he does give with a sparing hand is suffered to take its chance under that pest of agriculture called the bush harrow, which not only drags stones and other loose matters into heaps, but leaves the soil dead and heavy, and does not c^ver the seed deep enough to strive with our July drought effectually." ^ We have, however, been verbally assured, by very cor- rect and scientific agriculturists, that six or seven pounds of clover seed, whers tlie groimd is highly manured, is amply sufiicient, and that by exceeding that quantity the plants so shade and stifle each other that there is little substance in the hay made from thena. No doubt much depends on the quality and richness of the soil. The foorer the soil the greater the quantity of grass seed. Clover seed of a bright yellow, with a good quantity of the purple and brown color- ed seed among it, (which shows the maturity of the seed,) should be pr«ferred. . GRAIN. Grain, strictly speaking, signifies seeds, grow- ing in spikes or ears, and includes wheat, rye, barley, oats, &c. Of the culture 6f these we shall treat under those heads, respectively. We shall here give some directions for im- proving grain of any sort which has become musty, or sour, "The wheat [or other grain] must be put into any con- venient vessel, capable of containing at least three times the quantity, and the vessel must be subsequently filled with ' boiling water; ^he grain should then be occasionally stirred, and the hollow and deca''"3d gKains (which will float) may be removed; when the vater has become cold, or, in gener- al, when about half an liour has elapsed, it is to be drawn off. It will be proper then to rinse the corn [grain] with cold water, in order to remove any portion of the water which had taken up the must ; after which, the corn being completely drained, it is, without loss of time, to be thinly spread on the floor of a kiln, and thoroughly dried, care being taken to stir and to turn it frequently during this part of the process." — Code of Agriculture. Indian Com. Indian corn, or maize, as it is sometimes 3 26 THE COMW-ETE FARMER called, is a very important crop. The celebrated English agriculturist, Arthur Young, in speaking of the agriculture of France, observed, " The line of maize [corn] may be said to be the division between the good husbandry of the south and the bad husbandry of the north of the kingdom ; till you meet with maize, very r.ch soils are fallowed, but never after. Perhaps it is the most important plant that can be introduced into the agriculture of any country, where climate will suit it. The only good husbandry in the kmg- dom (some small rich districts excepted) arises from the possession And management of this plant. For the inhabit- ants of a country to Jive upon that plant, which is~the pre- paration for %vheat, and at the same time keep their cattle fat upon the leaves of it, is to possess a treasure for which they are indebted to their climate." The perfect tillage and plentiful manuring requisite for Indian corn make it an ex- cellent substitute for a summer fallow; it is a crop not liable to be injured by too much or too coarse manure; it not only enables, but, as it were, forces the farmer in the course of its culture to subdue his land and exterminate weeds. Soil. A light loomy soil is best for this crop, and even if sand greatly predominates- it will produce good corn with the help of manure. Corn will not flourish on bnds in which clay is the chief ingredient, and which are therefore stiff and wet. Preparation. " The best preparation for a corn crop is f clover or other grass lay, well coveredVith a long tnanure, recently spread, neatly ploughed, and harrowed lengthwise of the furrow. A roller may precede the harrow with ad- vantage. The time of performing these operations depends on the texture of the soil and the quality of the sod. If the first is inclining to clay, or the latter tough, or of long continuance, the ploughing may be performed the preceding autumn; but where sand or. gravel greatly preponderate, or the sod is light and .ender, it is best performed in the spring, and as near to planting as is convenient. The har- row^ at least, should immediately precede planting. All seeds do best when put into the fresh stirred mould. Stiff lands are ameliorated and broken down by fall ploughing ; but light lands are rather prejudiced by it. When corn is preceded by a tilled crop, the ground should be furrowed and the seed deposited in the bottom of the furrows. Where there is a sod, the rows should be superficially marked, and the seed planted on the surface. Where the field is flat or AND KURAl, ECONOMIST. 27 the sub-soil retentive of moisture, the land should be laid in ridges, that the excess of water which falls may pass off in the furrows. ' The time of planting must vary in different districts, ana in different seasons. The ground should be sufficiently warmed by vernal heat, to cause a speedy germination. Natural vegetation affords the best guide. My rule has been to plant when the apple is bursting its blossom buds, which has generally been between the 12th and 20th of May. ' Preparation of the seed. The enemies to be combatea are the wire-worm, brown grub, birds, and squirrels. Of mese, the first and two last prey upon the kernels, and against these tar offers a complete protection. I soak my seed twelve to twenty hours in hot water, in which is dis- solved a few ounces of crude saltpetre, and then add (say to eight quarts of seed) half a pint of tar, previously warmed, and diluted.with a quart of warm water. The mass is well stirred, the corn taken out, and as much plaster added as will adhere to the grain. This impregnates and partially coats the seed with tar. The experience of years will war rant me in confidently recommending this as a protection for the seed. " The manner of planting is ordinarily in hills from two and a half to six feet apart, according to the variety of corn, the strength of the soil, and the fancy of the cultivator. The usual distance in my neighbourhood is three feet. Some, however, plant in drills of one, two, or three rows, by which a greater crop is unquestionably obtained, though the expense of culture is somewhat increased. The quan- tity. of seed should be double, and may be quadruple?^ what is required to stand. It is well known that a great differ- ence is manifest in the appearance of the plants. Some appear feeble and sickly, which* the best nursing will not render productive. The expense of seed, and the labor of pulling up all but three or four of the strongest plants in a hill, it is believed will be amply remunerated by the increas- ed product. If the seed is covered as it should be with mould only, and not too deep, we may at least calculate upon every hill or drill having its requisite number of plants. ♦ Messrs. Pratts, of Madison county. New York, obtnined the prodigiouB crop of one hundred and seventy buphels per acre, and .^sed .seven bushels of «eed to tlie acre, the plants being siibsequentiy reduced to the requisite number 28 THE COMPLETE PARMER " The after culture consists in keeping the soil loose ana free from weeds, which is ordinarily accomplished by two dressings, and in thinning the plants, which latter may be done the first hoeing, or partially omitted till the last. The practice of ploughing among corn and of making large hills is JHstlj getting into disrepute ; for the plough bruises and cuts the roots of the plants, turns up the sod and manure to waste, and renders the crop more liable to suffer by drought. The first dressing should be performed as soon as the size of plants will permit, and the best implement to precede the hoe is the corn harrow, adapted to the width of the rows, which every farmer can make. This will destroy most of the weeds, and pulverize the soil. The second hoeir^ should be performed before or as soon as the tassels appear, and may be preceded by the corn harrow, a shallow furrow with the plough, or, what is better than either, by the cul- tivator. A slight earthing is beneficial, provided the earth is scraped from the surface, and the sod and manure not ex- posed. It will be found beneficial to run the harrow or cul- tivator a third, and even a fourth time between the rows, to destroy weeds and loosen the surface, particularly if the season is dry. " In harvesting the crop, one of three modes is adopted viz. : 1. The corn is cut at the surface of the ground when the grain has become glazed or hard upon the outside, put immediately in stocks, and when sufficiently dried the corn and stalks are separated, and both secured. 2. The tops are taken off when the corn has become glazed, and the grain permitted to remain till October or November upon the butts. Or, 3. Both corn and stalks are lefl standing till the grain has fully ripened and the latter become dry, when both are secured. There are other modes, such as leaving the butts or entire stalks in the field after the grain is gathered ; but these are so wasteful and slovenly as not to merit con- sideration. The stalks, blades, and tops of corn, if well secured, are an excellent fodder for neat cattle. If cut, or cut and steamed, so that they can be readily masticated, they are superior to hay. Besides, their fertihzing proper- ties as a manure are greatly augmented by being fed out in the cattle yard and imbibing the urine and liquids which al ways there abound, and which are lost to the farm in ordi- nary yards, without abundance of dry litter to take them up. By the first of these methods, the crop may be secured be- fore the autumnal rains ; the value of the fodder is increas- AND RDRAI. ECONOMIST. 29 ed, and the ground is cleared in time for a winter crop of wheat or rye. The second mode impairs the value of the forage, requires more labor, and does not increase the quan- tity or improve the quality oF the grain. The third mode requires the same labor as the first, may improve the quality of the grain, but must inevitably deteriorate the quality of the fodder. The corn cannot be husked too promptly after it is gathered from the field. If permitted to heat, the value of the grain is materially impaired." To the above directions (which are quoted from an excel- lent article written by J. Buel, Esq., of Albany, originally published in " The Genesee Farmer,") we shall add some further particulars from various sources. A writer for Goodsell's " Genesee Farmer," with the signature W. P. W., recommends wetting seed corn with soft soap, and rolling it in~ plaster, and gives the details of an experiment which tested the utility of this practice. William Clark, Jun., of Northampton, Massachusetts, published an article on the culture of corn in "The New England Farmer," (Vol. XI. p. 337,) giving in detail a num- ber of experiments, which favored the opinion that an equal distance each way is the best method of planting corn ; and that on soil "similar to what I have described, [a sandy loam somewhat exhausted by neglect and severe cropping, manured with about twenty cart loads of compost to the acre,] about nine square feet of surface is sufficient ground for one hill." That is, the hills were three feet apart each way from centre to centre ; but he does not state how many kernels were planted, nor how many plants were suffered to remain in a hill; It has often been stated that great advantage was derived from selecting seed corn from stalks which had borne two or more ears. " The Hampshire Gazette," published at North- ampton, Massachusetts, mentions a farmer who " has select- ed his seed corn in this way for three years past, and the re- sult has exceeded his expectation. He states, that it is not uncommon to find in his corn-field this season [1831], stalks with three, four, five, and sometimes six ears, and three of them fair, full grown, and fit for seed, and that too in hills containing four or five stalks." He says, " I think my crqp has been increased several bushels this year by the experi- ment. I would suggest a mode of selecting seed to thosi ■who do not cut up the corn at the roots. When they art picking corn, and find a stalk with two or more ears, let 3* so THE COMPLETE FARMER them tie tlie husks together, and the ears will be easily known at husking." A solution of copperas in water has been recommended as forming a good preparation for seed corn. Mr. J. Ells- worth, of Ketch Mills, Connecticut, in- a communication published in "The New England Farmer," (Vol.X. p. 331,) stated as follows : " Last year I soaked our seed corn in very strong copper- as water, as near as I car recollect from twenty-four to thirty-six hours ; every kernel was made as black as char- coal ; the man who planted the corn called me a fool, and said it would never vegetate. But every. hill planted came up well, and during its growth excited the remarks of all who saw it, as being the most even field of corn th'ey ever saw. Not one hill in the whole seven acres was injured by worms ; and we had often in previous years been compelled to replant several times, when it had beeq cut down by the worms. We had over sixty bushels to the acre." Copper- as water will not preserve corn against the cut-worm, which eats off the young plants at or just below the surface of the ground. It has been often asserted, (but we have not known it tested by experiment,) that the kernels of corn from the but-ends of the ears are better for seed than those from any other part of the ear. It is said that the nearer the seed is taken from the largest end, the larger the pro- duct. Others recommend to reject some part of both ends,; and plant only seeds taken from the middle. Further exper- iments are desirable to ascertain these points. "The following table," says Judge Buel, "exhibits the difference in product of various methods of planting, and serves also to explain the manner in which large crops of this grain have been obtained. I have assumed in the esti^' mate that each stock produces one ear of corn, and that the ears average one gill of shelled grain. This is estimating the product low; for, while I am penning this, (October,) I find that my largest ears give two gills, and one hundred fair ears half a bushel of shelled corn. The calculation is also predicated on the supposition that there is no deficiency in the 'number of stocks, a contingency pretty sure on my method of planting.* • Planting an exfrs njmber of pla s and thinning tliem at the first or sec end hoeing. 1. An acre in hills foui I'eet apart each way will produce 2. The same, three feet by three 3. The same, two by two and a half feet 4. The same, in drills at three feet, plants six inches apart in tlie drills 6. The same in do., two rows in a drill, fiix inches apart, and die plants nine inches, and three feet nine inches from centre of drills, thus : AND RURAL BCONOMIST. 31 hiUs. bush qts. 2722 42 16 4840 75 ^20 5308 93 •^28 Btalks. 29,040 113 l4 9. The same io do., three rows in a drill, as above, three feet from ceatres of drills, tiius : 30,970 120 81 43,560 170 " The fifth mode I have tried. The ground was highly manured, the crop twice cleaned, and the entire acre gather- ed and weighed accurately the same day. The product in ears was one hundred and three bushels, each eighty-four pounds net, and sixty-five pounds over. The last bushel was shelled and measured, which showed a product on the acre of one hundred and eighteen bushels ten quarts. I gathered at the rate of more than one hundred bushels to the acre from four rods planted in the third method, last summer, the result ascertained in the most accurate man- ner. Corn shrinks about twenty per cent, after it is crib- bed. The sixth mode is the one by which the Messrs. Pratts, of Madison County, obtained the prodigious crop of one hundred and seventy bushels per acre. These gentle- men, I am told, are of opinion, that the product of an acre may be increased to two hundred bushels." We believe that nearly all the large and premium crops which have been noted in the annals of agriculture, were procured by planting the corn in (Irills, either single, double, or treble. There has, however, been a difierence in opinion relative to planting corn in ridges or on a flat surface. This, we think, depends on the nature of fhe soil A loamy soil, or such as is proper for corn, ought, in our climate, to be cultivated in a flat way, that it may the better retain moisture. Dr. Black, of Delaware, advises to plant corn in such a manner that the rows may run directly norlk and south. General Hull, of Newton, Massachusetts, in cultivating a premium crop of corn, " drew furrows nortk 32 TUB COMPLETE FARMER and sovth three and a half feet apart. No ridges were form- ed. Hills were then made with the hoe in those furrows two feet apart, ml flat, but descending to the south, with a small bank on the north side of each hill, for the purpose of giving the young plants a fairer exposure to the sun.' When corn is planted on greensward land, the holes for the hills or drills should be made quite through the furrows, and dung put into the holes. If this caution be not observ- ed the crop will be uneven, as the roots in some places, where the furrows are thickest, will have but little benefit from the rotting of the sward. But if the holes are made through, the roots will be fed with both fixed and putrid air, supplied by the fermentation in the grass roots of the turf* Some entertain an idea, that it is injurious to stir the son when it is dry and the plants are suffering for want of rain. The error of this supposition is well exposed, in an article written by the Hon. J. Lowell, headed, " Stirring the Earth a Relief against Droug-Zif, ".published in " The Massachusetts j4gricultural Repository." The following is an extract : " In this extraordinary [very dry] season, I had a small patch of early potatoes, planted in a warm and sandy soil, purposely to procure an early crop ; the soil was, at least, three-quarters pure sand, mixed with some food for plants among the sand. The severe drought threatened a total loss of the crop. The potato stalks were feeble, drawn up, scarcely larger than goose quills, and I expected every day to see them wither; all hopes of a crop were abandoned. I thought that they were the fair subjects of a desperate expe- riment. On one of the hottest and driest days, I gave them a thorough ploughing, passing the plough four times through each row J first ploughing two furrows from the hills, as near the roots as possible without throwing out the seed po- tatoes, and then returning the loam or earth instantly back by two other furrows. No rain intervened for ten days. In three days after, the potatoes changed their color, they started afresh as if they had received the benefit of ample showers, while not a drop of rain had fallen. "The dews, which were abundant, settled upon the new turned earth, while before the ploughing no moisture had been apparent. "The last fact, though it cannot have escaped the notice of the most careless cultivator, has not been as yet explain- ed. We can easily see, that -a soil rendered porous would * Dpane's New Enslajul FarineF- AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 35 more readily and easily convey its moisture to the roots. It becomes like a sponge, and is readily permeable, or rather readily permits the moisture to pass between the particles. But it is not yet understood why it attracts the moisture. Perhaps, however, it may be owing to its presenting a much greater surface to the moist air of the night. The fact, however, which is what most concerns us, is settled. Perhaps Bome of the experiments of Our distinguished countryman Dr. Wells, a physician of London, who rendered himself distinguished by his remarks on dew, may tend to explain this fact, though it is not my purpose to examine the theory. "Every man who feels an interest in the question, can satisfy himself at, once by stirring a small piece of earth in a time of severe drought, and if he does not find it in the morning more filled with moisture than the undisturbed ground in its vicinity, let him continue an unbeliever. " But there is another mcfde, and it is one which I have never heard suggested, by which I apprehend the stirring ot the surface, and making it light and poi-ous, is beneficial in great droughts. It is this : light porous bodies are bad con- ductors of heat: perhaps because they have more air be- ween their interstices. The facts are familiar to us. Me- allic bodies acquire an intense heat under the rays of the sun; so do stones in proportion to their density. The earth, when very compact, will become exceedingly hot, but garden loam, which is very porous, remains cool at noonday two inches below the surface. I believe, therefore, that moving the surface, and keeping it in a light and porous state enables it to resist the heat of the sun's rays ; that the air between the particles of earth communicates the heat more slowly than the particles themselves do when in close contact. " Such is my theory, but I am an enemy to theories. I always distrust them; I look only to facts; and having ob- served that a slight covering of half an inch of seaweed would preserve my strawberries from drought, which can only arise from its lying so loose on the surface, J have been led to infer that the undoubted fact, that soil in a loose pul- verized state resists drought, is owing to the same cause, to wit, the slowness with which the heat of the solar rays is communicated to the roots. But, be the theory sound or unsound, I am persuaded that every farmer will find that the free use of his plough and hoe, in ♦imes of severe drought, will 34 THE COMPLETE FARMER be of more value to him than as much manure as that labor would purchase. I have always been convinced, from my experience as an horticulturist, that the great secret in culti- vation consists in making the soil porous. In raising exotic plants we know it to be true, and our flower-pots are always supplied with soil the most porous which we can obtain. The farmer may borrow light from an occupation which he looks upon with disdain, but which serves to elucidate and explain the secrets of vegetation." Corn is sometimes profitably planted or sown for fodder In an " Address to the Essex Agricultural Society," by the late Colonel Pickering, we find the following remarks : "Every farmer knows how eagerly cattle devour the en- tire plant of Indian corn in its green state ;,and land in good condition will produce heavy crops of it. Some years ago, just when the ears were in the milk, I cut close to the ground the plants growing on a measured space, equal as I judged to the average product of the whole piece; and found that, at the same rate, an acre would yield twelve tons of green fodder; probably a richer and more nourishing food than any other known to the husbandman. And this quantity was the growth of less than four months." ***** "It has appeared to me that the sort called sweet corn, yields stalks of richer juice than the common yellow corn. It is also more disposed to multiply suckers, an additional re- commendation to it, when planted tq, be cut in a green state for horses and cattle, and especially for milch cows ; and the time of planting may be so regulated as to furnish sup- plies of food just when the pastures usually fail. I am inclined to doubt whether any other green food will afford butter of equal. excellence." Colonel Pickering recommended planting northern corn m preference to southern corn, when fodder is the object He observed, that " the green stalks of our northern corn are incomparably sweeter than those of the southern States, at least when both sorts are grown in the north." Corn intended for fodder may be sowed either broad-cast or in drills. The former is the least trouble, the latter will give the greatest produce, and leave the soil in the best order. If the land on which you propose to raise your corn is mowing or pasture, fresh ploughed for the purpose, broad- cast sowing will be best, as the sod after being turned over should not be disturbed, and there will not, probably, be AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 35 much to apprehend from weeds. If you sow broaa-casi, from three to three and a half bushels to an acre are recom- mended, though some say that a larger quantity will be still better. If in drills, you will run light furrows about three feet asuoder, three or four inches deep, and drop the seed corn in the furrows^ about as thick as peas are sown for field cultivation. The seed may be covered with the plough ; and a harrow drawn lengthwise of the furrows, followed by a roller, (if you have one,) or perhaps your harrow turned bottom upwards, for want of a roller, will complete the planting. If you mean to dry it for winter use, it will be advisable to sow early in the season, for it will then be fit to cut at a time when it can be most easily cured for preserva- tion in your barn, or other receptacle for fodder. ' The following remarks on the culture of corn, are from the pen of the Rev. Mr. Colman, of Greenfield, Massachusetts, one of our best practical and scientific farmers. "In the cultivation of this crop, it is in the first place important to secure an' early kind, as the best security against backward springs and early frosts. A field of corn in Lexington, planted on the 21st of June, belonging to Mr. Daniel Chandler, yielded an ample crop, and was perfectly ripened. The seed was of the twelve rowed kind, much es- teemed there, and easily procured. The kernel is small, but it yields as much to the acre, and weighs more to the bushel, than the eight rowed kind, with . a larger kernel. Now a kind of this description, which will ripen in nine or ten weeks, in so unpropitious a season as the last, when there were few warm nights, which are generally considered most important to the forwarding of this crop, is certainly a great acquisition. It will be well to remark here, that it is not only important to procure an early kind, but it will re- quire particular attention to keep it so. Plantg, like animals, have a constant tendency to become accommodated to the place and season in which they grow. Indian corn brought from the north to the south will become later and require a onger season for its ripenmg, unless particular care is taken in the selection of -nn earliest ripe ears for planting; which is, that high manuring has a tendency, by rendering the growth of a plant more luxuriant and succulent, to retard its ripening and to lengthen its season. " We are satisfied from long observation and experiment that an early planting of corn is generally and strongly to be recommended. The last season, it is true, formed ao 36 THE COMPI.ETE FARMER exception to this rule ; but it was a rare case. Now, a kind of corn which by early planting and consequently early ripening gives an opportunity of laying down the ^arne ground seasonably with winter grain and clover ; or which, where the first plantings will afford us the prospect of ar full crop, when the vacancies are not supplied or the planting cannot take place until after the middle of June, certainly IS a great object to farmers. " The kind of land best suited to this crop, I am satisfied is greensward, completely inverted, rolled, and so culti- vated as not during the whole season to disturb or break the sod which has been turned over. This is a point of great importance ; for the decomposition of the vegetable mattor in the ground, which is effectually secured in this way, but entirely lost by the common mode of cultivation, will great- ly contribute to the nutriment and vigor of the plant, supply ing in fact an amount of manure greatly beyond what any conjectures would have made it, had not an exact experi- ment determined that in ordinary cases it naay be rated over twelve tons of vegetable matter to the acre. " In the next place we protest against the practice of very deep ploughing for this crop, and that of burying the ma- nure deeply under the sod. The depth of ploughing may be in some measure regulated by the nature of the soil ; but three or four inches in sward land may be regarded as am- ple ; and not so much as this, where this would carry you below the vegetable mould. All circumstances considered, I am satisfied that it is most eligible to spread the manure upon the surface, ploughing it in with a very light plough and harrow ; and though something may be lost in this way by evaporation, yet not so much as burying it under the sod; and the land is left in much better condition for the next crops where the manure is thus spread, than where it is placed in the hill ; nor is the corn so like to suffer from the drought, and the saving is considerable." NEAT CATTLE. Neat cattle form a very important part of every farmer's live stock. In selecting them, two things are very material : first, the health and soundness of the stock from which they are purchased ; and secondly, the quality of the soil on the produce of which it is intended t'> feed thcTn. Stock for the dairy or the butcher should be • AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 37 ■elected from a breed of which you know or can ascertain every particular relative to their general health and sound- ness, and the manner in which they have been reared, in- cluding their food, shelter, &c. " The Farmer's and Grazier's Complete Guide," by B Lawrence, an English writer, observes, "Much has been written as to what breeds are the best ; and a considerable greater stress has been laid on this part of the question than is borne out by any positive result ; there are good and bad of all kinds ; and provided you select sound and healthy animals from warranted stock, you will, if you treat them properly, have little to care for and less to fear. " Always purchase cattle that have been fed on lands of a poorer quality than your own ; but you must not too sud- denly put them to the richer food, or they. will be liable to several dangerous diseases. It rarely happens, however, thdt cattle purchased from rich lands thrive well on poor soils ; but, on the contrary, those from poorer farms do well on good land. The choice of neat cattle, therefore, for the stocking of farms, must, in a great degree, be regulated by the nature and quality of the soil intended to feed them on. "It is also essential that the cattle should be young, as well as healthy and of sound constitution ; for the younger they are, the more likely they will be to do service. Their age may easily be known by the teeth ; like sheep, they have no fore teeth in the upper jaw ; it is in the lower, therefore, by which this must be determined : the horns also afford some guide in this respect. " The eight fore teeth of the lower jaw are shed, and re- placed by others which continue through life : the two mid- dle fore teeth fall out at about two years old, and are suc- ceeded by others not so white. At three years old they have two more next to those of the previous year ; and thus by the two succeeding years all the fore teeth are renewed ; they are then termed full mouthed, and are five years old. At the sixth year the row is even, the last two being com- pletely up. Besides these they have ten grinders in each jaw. " At the age of three years the hoi-ns are smooth and even ; in the course of the fourth year, a wrinkle or circle forms round the basis of the horn near the head ; this is every year succeeded by another, which always seems to move the other forward. In looking therefore at the horns of neat cattle, if the first circle be considere i as three years, 4 38 TOE COMPLETE FARMEK it will be at easy task to tell the age of the beast at any sub- sequent period. An implicit reliance cannot, however, be placed on these marks, particulauy in purchasing of stran- gers, or cow jobbei-s, such persons having been known to file down some of the animal's teeth, and alter the appear- ance of the horns so as to give them the semblance and marks of young cattle of the most valuable breeds, and pass them off as such to strangers." . j • u Cows for the Dairy. In selecting cows for the dairy, the following indications should be attended to. Wide noms, a thin head and neck, dew-lap large, full breast, broad back^ large deep belly ; the udder capacious but not too fleshy ; the milch veins prominent, and the bag tending far behind ; teats long and large ; buttocks broad and fleshy ; tail long, ■pliable, and small in proportion to the size of the carcasSj and the joints short. The Alderney breed gives a very rich milk. The Durham short hornsj however, exceed them aa respects quantity ; and we have the testimony of the Horn; Levi Lincoln, late governor of Massachusetts, that the milk of Denton's progeny, a branch of that rpf^ is not only abundant, but of excellent quality,* ^ Cows should be milked regularly morning and evening, and as nearly as may be at the same hours. At six in the morning and six at night is a good general rule, as the timeS of milking will be equi-distant from each other. But if they are milked three times a day, as Dr. Anderson recommend- ed, the times may be five, one, and eight. He- asserted that if cows were filll fed, they will give half as much again if milked three times as if only twice. At the same time, it would prevent too great a distension of their bags, to which the best cows are liable. The cow which is desired to remain in perfection, either for milking or breeding, should not be exhausted by drawing her milk too long after sli« becomes heavy with calf. It is paying too dear for a present supply of milk. She should be suffered to go dry at least two months before calving. The e.'spense of keeping cows of a poor breed is as great and sometimes greater than that of keeping the best. If cows are poorly kept the difference of breeds will scarcely be discernible by the product of their milk. Some have therefore supposed that it is the food alone which makes the odds in the quantity and quality of the milk. This sunposi- • Seo New I'nglaflc FaFmor, Vol. IV. p. 318. AND ItUUAL ECONOMIST. 59 tion is very erroneous, as may be shown by feeding two cov«s of a similar age, srze, Stc. on the same food, the one of a good breed for milk and the other of a different kind, and observing the difference in the milk product. No farm- er, unless he is very rich, can afford to keep poor milch cows. He might almost as well keep a breed of " naked sheep," such as Swift mentions in " Gulliver's Travels." The farmer who raises a heifer calf that is from a poor milker, or of a breed of little value, is as foolish as he would be, if, in clearing land, he should burn on the ground the birch, maple, and walnut, and save white pine and hemlock for fire wood. And yet many sell the calves of the best milch cows to the butch- ers, because such calves are fattest ! Those cows which give the greatest quantity of thin milk are most profitable for suckling calves, for rich milk is said ■ not to be so proper food for calves as milk which is less val- uable for dairy purposes. Milk which contains a large pro- portion of cream is apt to clog the stomachs of calves ; obstruction puts a stop to their thriving, and sometimes proves fatal. For this reason it is best that calves should be . fed with the milk which first comes from the cow, which is not so rich as that which is last drawn. Mr. Russel Woodward, in the "Memoirs of the New York Board of Agriculture," says, " I have found that young cows, the first year that they give milk, may be made with careful milking and good keeping to give milk almost any length of time required. But if they are left to dry up early iii the fall, they will be sure to dry up of their milk each succeeding year, if they have a calf near the same season of the year ; and nothing but extraordinary keeping will prevent it, and that but for a short time. 1 have had them dried up of their milk in August, and could not by any means make them give milk much beyond that time in any succeeding years." A writer in the "Bath and West of England Society's Papers," states, that if at any time a good milch cow should go dry before her milk is gone, get a young calf and put it to her. in order to' preserve her milk against another year ; for it is well known, if a cow goes dry one year, nature wi 1 lose its power of .acting in future. Cows should be treated with great gentleness and soothed by mild usages, especially when young and ticklish, or when the paps are tender ; in which case the udder ought to be fomented with warm water before milking, and touched with 40 THE COMPLETE FARMER great gentleness, otherwise the cow will be in great dangei of contracting bad habits, becoming stubborn and unruly, and retaining her milk ever after. A cow never gives down her milk pleasantly to a person she dreads or dislikes. Ihe udder and paps should be washed with warm water before milking, and care should be taken that none of the water be admitted into the milking pail. The keeping of cows in such a manner as to make them give the greatest quantity of milk, and with the greatest clear profit, is an essential point of economy. Give a cow half a bushel of turnips, carrots, or other good roots per day, during the six winter months, besides her hay, and if her summer feed be such as it should be, she will give near- ly double the quantity of milk she would afford if only kept during the winter in the usual manner ; and the milk will be richer and of better quality. The carrots or other roots, at nineteen cents a bushel, amount to about eighteen dollars ; the addition of milk allowing it to be only three quarts a day for three hundrea days, at three cents a quart, twenty-seven dollars. It should be remembered, too, that when cows are thus fed with roots they consume less hay, and are less liable to several dis- eases, which are usually the effects of poor keepings* The keeping of cows is very profitable. Allowing one to give only six quarts a day, for forty weeks in each year, and this is not a large allowance, her milk at two cents per quart will amount to upwards of thirty-three dollars ; which is probably sufficient to purchase her and pay for a year's keeping.* " A fartaier some . years since kept eighteen cows on a common, and was often obliged to buy butter for his family The common was enclosed, and the same person supplied his family amply with milk and butter from the produce of four cows well kept. " Great milkers seldom carry much flesh on their bones, but they pay as they go and never retire in our debt. The difficulties in cow keeping are these : the. expense of their food is considerable, more especially with respect to any which must be purchased, and if the produce be inconsid- erable it may be a losing concern. You may be feeding a sparing milker into flesh, and if you stint her or allow her only ordinary food you get neither flesh nor milk."'j" * Farmer's Assistant. ■} Mowbray on Ponltry, &<•• AND RURAL EC NOMIPT 4j Amateurs in this line shculd procure the largest milkers and I had almost said give them gold, could they eat it. Ir this case it may be depended on, milk is always of more valut than the best cow-food ; and a cow, the natural tendency of which is to breed milk, will convert all nourishment, how- ever dry and substantial, into that fluid; in fact, will require such solid kind of nourishment to support her strength and induce her to take the bull.* Keep no more cows than you can keep well ; one cow welj fed will produce as much milk as two indifferently treated, and more butter; and if the cow be wintered badly, she will rarely recover, during the succeeding summer, so as to be- come profitable to the feeder. Cows should by all means be housed in extreme weather, and particularly those which give milk, or a failure in the quantity of milk will be expe- rienced. Wherefore, instead of keeping twenty cows poor- ly fed and but half of them stabled, sell ten and give the remaining ten food in amount equal to what the twenty orig- inally had ; procure constant stabling for them, and you will receive quite as much milk and butter in return as was derived from the former mode of treating twenty. Sweet potatoes, carrots, pumpkins, and ground oats, are unques- tionably among the best articles for food for milch cattle ; and they occasion the milk and butter to assume a fine flavor and color, as well as increase of quantity ."f" Winter Food for Cows. Mr. Chabert, the director of the veterinary schools of Alfort, had a number of cows which yielded very great quantities of milk. In his publications on the subject he observed, that cows fed in winter on dry substances give less milk than those which are kept on a green diet, and also that the ^ milk loses much of its quality. He published the following leceipt, by the use of which his cows afforded him an equal quantity and quality of milk during the winter as during the summer. " Take a bushel of potatoes, break them while raw, place them in a barrel standing up, putting in successively a layer of potatoes and a layer of bran, and a small quantity of yeast in the middle of the mass, which is to be left thus to ferment during a whole week, and when the vinous taste has pervaded the whole mixture, it is then given to the cows, who eat it greedily." Pure water is an essential article for cows. Dr. Anderson • Mowbra) on Poultry, &c. t Trenton Emporium. 4* 42 THE COMPLETE FARMER Bays, he knew a man who acquired great wealth by attention to things of this nature, and one of his principal discovenes was, the importance of having a continued supply of the- purest water which could be obtained for his cows ; and he would on no account permit u single animal to set his foot in it, nor allow it to be tainted even by the breath of animals; Parsnips cause cows to give milk in abundance, and that cf the best quality. Working Cows. An English cultivator, whose observa- tions are published in the appendix to Plymley's " Survey ol Shropshire," says, " Cows are fattened easier and are bet- ter laborers than oxen. The uses of cattle are to work, milk, and fatten. I have seen barren cows work as well as oxen ; they require less keep and walk faster. When first I commenced farmer, I followed the example of my prede- cessor in feeding chiefly oxen; but I soon found that cows fattened much faster, and on less meal, and for some y^rs past I have carefully avoided having any oxen in ijiy stalls." Cows which are shortly expected to calve ought to be loidged at night in some convenient place under cover for a week or two before calving, as it might be the means of saving the life of the calf, and perhaps of the dam likewise. The day and night after a cow has calved she should be kept under cover, and her drink should be lukev^arm. Let ^her not be exposed for some time to the dampness of the night. Cows which are near calving ought to be fed with better and more substantial food than usual. Grain of any kind is now useful, but it should be crushed, bruised, or coarsely ground. If the cleaning of a cow after calving be delayed, it may be promoted, according to Deane's " New England Farmer," by giving her a pail of warm water with some ashes in it; or, according to " The Grazier's Guide," the only thing to be given is toast and weak wine, or good cider or perry. If wine be preferred, mix it with an equal quantity of water,. This toast should consist of four pints of wine and watei , and about a pound and a half of bread toasted. Inflamed teats should be washed with two drachms of sugar of lead in a quart of water. Should tumors appear, apply a common warm mash of bran with a little lard. To prevent cows from sucking their own milk, it is said that rubbing the teats frequently with the most fetid cheese that can be procured is an effectual remedy. AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 43 Ib order that it may be ascertained what is the proper time for cows to go dry previous to their calving, an ac- count should be kept of the time when each cow is put to bull, so that the cow may be dried off in due season. The following prescription for drying off cows is given in Monk's " Agricultural Dictionary." " Take an ounce of powdered alum; boil it in two quarts of milk till it turns to whey; then iake a large handful of sage, and boil it in the whey till you reduce it to one quart; rub her udder with a little of it, and give her the rest by way of drink; milk her clean before you give it to her ; and as you see need repeat it.' Draw a little milk from her every second or third day, lest her udder be over- charged." Cow-house or Stable. The m'>st healthy stables are those which are open to the east, or liave an eastern aspect. It is a common practice to build them too close. The stable should never be completely closed up, however cold the weather may be, although it is desirable that strong draughts of cold or damp air should be guarded against, especially in winter. It may be held as a general rule, that stables or cow-houses are too close when on entering the breath is affected, or any smell of urine can be perceived. It is also very important to keep cow-houses or cattle stables clean and •well littered. Dung left in stables soon renders the air unwholesome, and is the cause of disorders. Cows in a stable should be allowed a square space of at least six feet each way for each cow. Two or three venti- lators near the ground on the north side afford, at a trifling expense, an excellent way of renewing or sweetening the air in stabJes in the summer time, and on the south side in winter, without occasioning draughts ; and these may be shut when necessary by means of straw, or, what is abetter, a sliding door. It is of no small imp(frtance that the floor of a cow-house be very tight, so that none of the stale be lost, which is of great value as manure, when mixed with other substances. A farmer might as well lose the dung as the urine of his beasts. "The common cattle stalls of our country are so ill con- trived, and so straitened in their dimensions, that the cattle are constrained to lie down in part in their own dung. This dries and forms a thick coat on their hind quarters, from which they are not relieved till they shed their hair in the 44 THE COMPLETE PAKMER spring. They are thus rendered uncomfortable. To be un- comfortable is to suffer some degree of pain ; and no one will suppose that animals in pain can thrive, or preserve their plight with the same food equally with others perfectly at ease. Even hogs, though prone to wallow in the mire in warm weather, are always pleased with a dry bed, and thrive best when kept clean."* The following, from the " Memoirs of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Society," is extracted from a letter from R. Smith to J. H. Powel, and will be of use in directing the most economical management of dairy cattle. " My barn is constructed according to the best Pennsyl- vania models. The yard is to the south of it. On the east and west sides are cow-stables, containing one hundred and ten well made stalls, ventilated by a sufficient number of windows and double doors. At the tails of each range of cows there is a drain made of strong planks, and so fixed as to receive all their dung and urine. These several drains have a sufficient declivity to carry all the fluid matter to their southern terminations, where they intersect similar drains, which convey all this liquid manure into a cistern, fifty feet long. This cistern is so placed and constructed as to re- ceive not only the urine of the stables, but also the liquid matter of the farm-yard. .In it there is a pump, by means of which its contents are pumped into a' large hogshead, fixed on a pair of wheels drawn by oxen. To the end of this hogshead is attached a box pierced with holes, into which this liquid manure floats through a spigot and faucet, and is then sprinkled over the ground as the oxen move for- ward." Food for fatting Cattle, keeping Stock, S^c. It has been often said, and we believe correctly, that it is not profitable, generally speaking, to fatten cattle on any kind of grain. Lawrence on Neat Cattle asserts, that "corn [by which is meant oats, b&rley, rye, peas', beans,*wheat, &c.] cannot be used in the fattening of bullocks and sheep, except in sea- sons of superabundant plenty. Even Indian corn is often too costly food to be used solely, or principally, for the prof- itable fattening of cattle ; and grass, hay, and roots are the materials which true economy requires, "f It is, however asserted, that beef fattened on oil cake, raw potatoes, tur- • Colonel Pickering. t See a communiciition for " Tiie New England Farmer," Vol. I. p. 234 AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 45 nips, &0.J will not be so firm, nor of so good a quality, oth- er things being equal, as that which is fattened on Indian corn. If that be true, it might be well to 'commence feed- ing with turnips, potatoes, &c., and give the animals richer food as they increase in fatness. An able writer says, " With respect to feeding, the first rule is, little at a time, and often ; because experience has shown that animals that eat much in a short time do not fat- ten so well as those which eat less but more frequently. I'he second rule is, to begin the course with cabbage and turnips, then to employ carrots and potatoes, ■ and lastly Indian, oat, or barley meal. These aliments ought to be varied several times a day, and oftener if convenient ; and instead of always reducing them to a meal, there is advan- tage in sometimes boiling them. A little salt given daily is very useful." It would be advantageous to the community of farmers if something like the following experiments were made, and their results published. Let a number of cattle of similar or the same breed, age, propensity to fatten, as ascertained by handling, &c., be fattened at the same time. Let one be fed entirely on potatoes raw ; a second on the same root steamed or boiled ; a third made one half or two-thirds fat on potatoes, and. his fattening completed with Indian corn ; a fourth be fattened on Indian corn, or corn meal ; a fifth be fed with a mixture of all these kinds of food, given together in the same mess, or in different messes. The first food in the morning, for the last-mentioned bullock, might be a small quantity of potatoes, pumpkins, or turnips ; the second, ruta baga or carrots, mangel-wurzel, or parsnips. Then, as the last course of the day's feast, give Indian meal, or other food the. richest you have. It would be well, like- wise, to try the virtue.^ of sweet apples. The most impor- tant object of such experiments, however, would be to as- certain whether the beef of cattle fattened on potatoes or other roots, raw or boiled or steamed, is equal in quality to that which is fattened on Indian corn. If not, whether an ox may not be made nearly fat enough for profit on roots and hay, his fatting completed on corn, and the flesh be as good as if he had been fattened wholly on corn. And if an ox partly fattened on roots, and his fattening completed on corn, gives as good beef as one wholly fed on corn, the question occurs, how long a lime will it require to give the beef it» good qualities arising from the corn ? We know, as re- 46 THE UOMFLETE FARMER spects swine, that farmers make them partly fat on any thing which they will devour, and then feed them for some time before they are killed with Indian corn or meal, to " harden the flesh," as they express it ; and perhaps the same process will answer for beef cattle. Some farmers say that the red or La Plata potato, given raw to swine, make as good pork as that which is corn fed. Others say that any kind of po- tatoes, if steamed or boiled, will make as good pork as can be made of corn. If this be true of pork, it may be so of beef. It is a truth which has been confirmed by repeated exper- iment, that food for swine fermented till it becomes a little acid wiil go farther and fatten them faster than unfermented food of the same quantity and quality. But it is not, I be- lieve, generally known in this country, that acid food is most valuable for neat cattle in certain circumstances. Mr. Bordley, (a celebrated American writer on Rural Economy,) however, asserts, that oxen made half fat, or in good plight, on grass or turnips, are then finished, in France, upon a sour food, prepared as follows : rye meal (buckwheat or In- dian meal may be tried) with water is made into paste, which in a few days ferments and becomes sour ; this is then dilu- ted with water, and thickened with hay, cut into chaff, which the oxen sometimes refuse the first day, but when dry they drink and prefer it. All the husbandmen are decidedly of opinion that they fatten much better because of the acidity. They give it thrice *a day, and a large ox eats twenty-two pounds a day. Maize [Indian] meal, or maize steeped till it is sour, should be tried. This sour mess is given during the last three weeks of their fattening, and they eat about seven and a half bushels of meal, value four dollars. Care should be taken that the process of fermentation be not carried too far. The paste should not become mouldy, nor the liquid food in the slightest degree putrid. We think, moreover, that there is good reason for waiting till animah become " half fat," or in good plight, before they are fed with acid food. Acids, like alcohol, create appetite by stimulating the stomach, but if long continued they weaken the digestive, powers, and in time entirely destroy the tone of the stomach. The animal will then be visited with what in a human subject would be called dyspepsia, or a want of the power of digestion ; fattening him will be out of the ques- tion, and he will be worth but little more than the value of bis hide. The constitution of an ox n: xy be destroyed by AND RtJKAL ECONOMIST 47 excessive eating, and it is only towards the cbse of his days, near the last stage of his preparation for the butck^r, that he should be allowed to bocome an epicurCj and in- dulged with as much as he can eat of rich and high-seasoned food. Store keep should neither be too rich nor too abundant ; and if an ox is once made fat and then loses his flesh, he is like one of Pharaoh's lean kine, the more he devours the leaner he becomes. If young cattle are kept in rich pastures in summer and poor fodder in winter, sometimes stuffed, at oth- er times starved, they lose their disposition to fatten. To such cattle Mr. Lawrence alludes, when he says,, "It is ex- tremely' imprudent indolently to continue to. keep at high food animals which do not thrive ; 3- advert chiefly to indi- viduals with which the tirst loss is always the least." '.' Stock cattle," said Mr. Bordley, " are kept, others are fattened. The feeding is different. Cattle kept need no kind of grain, nor even hay, unless to cows about calving time. S.traw, with any juicy food, such as roots or drank,* abundantly suf- fice for keeping cattle in heart through the winter, provided they are sheltered froin cold rains. Mr. Bakewell kept his fine cattle on straw and turnips through the winter. A drank for keeping cattle may be made thus : roots, chaff, or cut straw, and salt, boiled together with a good quantity of water ; the roots cut or mashed. The cattle drink the water and eat the rest Drank for fattening cattle thus : roots, meal, flax-seed, chaff, or cut straw, and salt, well boiled together in plenty of water. If given warm, not hot, the better." The same author says, "Hay, rneal, and lin- seed jelly with drank must be excellent food in stall feeding. Linseed jelly is thus made : seven quarts of water to one of flax-seed, steeped in a part of the water forty-eight hours, then add the remaining water, cold, and boil it gently two hours, stirring. constantly to prevent burning. It is cooled in tubs, and given mixed with any meal, bran, or cut chaff. Each bullock (large) has two quarts of jelly a day ; equal to a little more than one quart of seed in four days." In a tract entitled " Notices for a Young Farmer," writ- ten by the Hon. Judge Peters, formerly president of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Society, are the following direc- tions-: ' * The word drank is given u» by Couit. Rumford-ibi' dietinguiehing this coio* ooBition from water. 48 THE COMPLETE FARMEK " Cut or chaff your hay, straw, corn tops, or blades, and even your stalks, with a straw cutter, and you will save a great proportion which is otherwise wasted or passed through the animal without contributing to its nourishment. One bushel of chaffed hay at a mess, given in a trough, three times in twenty-four hours, is sufficient for a horse, ox, or cow. A bushel of chaffed hay, lightly pressed, weighs from five to five an] a half pounds. A horse or horned beast thrives more on fifteen pounds thus given than on twenty- four or twenty-five pounds as commonly expended (including waste) in the usual manner of feeding in racks; to which troughs, properly constructed, are far preferable.* Salt your clover and other succulent, as well as coarse hay. But over-salting diminishes the nutriment. More than a peck to a ton is superfluous. Half that quantity is often sufficient. Ten or fifteen pounds is usually an ample allow- ance. Feeding your stock by weight and measure of food will not only save your provender, by its orderly distribu- tion, but frequently save the lives of animals, too often starved by niggardliness or 'neglect, or gorged and destroyed by profusion. If it be true, as it is, that the master's eye makes the horse fat, it is equally so, that the master's eye prevents the horse from being pampered, wanton, pursive, Dloated, foundered, and finally wind-broken and blind." If hay is salted by using salt in substance, it should be done at the time it is deposited in the mow. It is often a good practice to sprinkle a solution of salt in water over hay or other food for cattle in the winter time, especially if the fodder be of an inferior quality. Colonel Jaques, of Ten Hills farm, Charlestown, (Mass.) has been very successful in the breeding and rearing of neat cattle, and recommends from actual experiment the following mixture : Take Ruta Baga, cut fine, 2 bushels. " Wheat bran. 1 busliel. " Powdered oil cake, , i bushel. " English hay, barley straw, and salt hay, ait, of each. 7 bushels. " Water, 10 gallons. liCt thera be perfectly mixed. Give a bushel of the mixture to a cow of the common size every night and morning, and proportionably to greater or smaller animals. • See further, Stravi Cutter, under the head Agricultural ImpUmtnu. AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 49 On soiiing laboring Oxen and Horses. By soiling do- tnestic animals, is meant keeping them in yards, 8tc., and cutting and giving them grass, with or without other greea or dry food. Instead of turning your oxen and horses, which you have occasion to use frequently, into a pasture, perhaps adorned with thickets of brushwood, in which the animals may hide ihemselves beyond the reach of a search warrant, you had better soil them, and thus have them al- ways at hand. You must be careful that they are always well supplied with water, and plenty of litter to absorb the liquid manure, unless you have reservoirs, &c. to answer the purpose of preventing its waste.. The famous cultivator Arthur Young, observed, that lucerne is the be^t plant for soiling, and an acre of it will go farther than any thing else. But clover or any other grass, green or dry, bul^s of Indian corn cut up near the roots, cabbages, Slc, &c., may often be economically disposed of in soiling cattle or -horses, whose services are requisite for the daily and hourly labors of the husbandman. But soiling on a large or general plan will not soon, if ever, be adopted in New England, where there are so many thousands of acres of pasture land which are fit for nothing but grazing. Cooking Food for Cattle. Among the most useful im provements of modern husbandry, may be numbered the practice of steaming or boiling food for domestic animals Some account of the origin of this practice in Great Britain maybe found in "The Complete Grazier," an English work of reputation, from which we have made the following extracts. " Steamed food may be given to milch cows to great ad vantage. For this important fact in rural economy, we are indebted to the ingenious and persevering experiments of J C. Curwin, Esq., M. P., whose attention to the comforts of his tenants, and judicious zeal for the improvement of agri- culture, are too well known to require any eulogy. In pros- ecution of a system which he had long practised of giving cooked food to animals, Mr. Curwin turned his attention to the cheapest mode of supplying milch cows with it ; and in a Communication to the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c., (which was honored with their less gold medal,) he stated his belief that he has at length been completely suc- cessful. He uses a steara boiler of 100 gallons' contents,* * An engraving of is given in the thirtietli volume of. tfae Society's Trana- (Ctioaa. 5 60 THE COMPLETE FAEMEE on each side of which are fixed three bsxes, containing eleven stones * each of chaif, (the husks of wheat, rye, &c.,) which ly being steamed gain more than one third of their original weight. The steam is conveyed by various cocits into tJie lower part of the boxes; and thus two or three boxes may be steamed at the same time. The quanti- ty of fuel required was aboul two pounds for each stone of chair. " In giving the steamed chaf^to the cattio, two pounds oj oil cake were mixed with one sione of chaff; and the milch cows are fed with it morning and evening, naving an allow- ance of one stone at each time.- On being taken from the steamer the food is put into wooden boxes, vchich are mount- ed on wheels, to be drawn to the place where it is intended to be used;^ and the chaff requires to stand some time before it is fit for use. " The average milk on a stock of thiriy-six milch cows was nearly thirteen wine quarts for 320 days. The cows were never suffered to be turned out; anil to prevent their being lame, their hoofs were properly pared, and they stood with their fore feet on clay. One great advantage attending this method was, that most if not all the milch cows were in such a condition, that with a few weeks' feeding, after they were dry, they became fit for the shambles, with very little loss from the first cost. As a substitute for chaff and oil cake, Mr. Curwin recommends cut hay ; which, when steamed, would make very superior food, ind he entertains no doubt would greatly augment the milk as well as the health of the animals." An apparatus for steaming food for cattle should be con- sidered a necessary appendage of every arable and dairy farm of a moderate size. The advantage of preparing dif- ferent sorts of roots, as well as even grain, chaff, and hay, by means of steaming apparatus, for the nourishment of cat- tle, begins now to be generally understood It has been long known that many sorts of roots, and particularly the potato, become much more valuable by undergoing this sort of preparation. And it is equally well known, that when thus prepared, they have been employed alone as a substitute for grain, with cut chaff for hay and grain, in the feeding of horses as well as other animals. To a farmer who keens horses or cattle, or even swine or poultry, the practice of ' Fourteen pounds a stOHv AIVD RtKAL ECONOMIST. 51 boiling their food in steam is so great a saving and ad< vantage, that it deserves the most particular attention. Though potatoes have often been given raw both to horses and cattle, they are found to be greatly preferable when cooked by steam, as they are thereby rendered much drier and more nutritive, and better than when boiled in water ; this has been long since shown by the experiments of Wake- field, of Liverpool, who, in order to ascertain it, fed some of his horses on steamed and some on raw potatoes, and soon found the horses fed on the steamed potatoes had greatly the advantage in every respect. Those, fed on steamed potatoes looked perfectly smooth and sleek, while the others were quite rough. A steaming machine on a simple and economical plan con- sists of a boiler, and a wooden chest or. box, placed over or near it. The box may be of any size, and so placed as to be supplied and emptied by wheel or hand-barrows in the easiest manner, either by the eud or top, or both, being made to open. If the box is made eight feet by "five, and three feet deep, it will hold as many potatoes as will feed fifty cows for twenty-four hours, and these may be steamed in an hour.* The practice of cooking food for cattle is by no means a novelty in New England. A simple apparatus for this pur- pose much used is as follows : A kettle, holding twelve gallons or more, is set in a fur- nace of brick or stone, and over this a hogshead with one head taken out and the other bored full of holes. This is set so close that the steam of the kettle, when boiling, can only rise through the holes, and thence ascend among the arti- cles to be boiled in the hogshead, and pass off at the top. In this way a hogshead of potatoes will be nearly as soon boil- ed as a small part of them could be if placed in the kettle underneath. As the kettle is so closed as to prevent any steam from passing off but through the bottom of the hogshead, a pipe or tube is set in such a manner that with the aid of a funnel water may be poured into the kettle as often as is necessary. After the water is poured in, the tube is stopped with a plug for that purpose. Grain of all kinds may be steam-boiled to great advantage * For a simple apparatus for steaming food for cattle and swine, see a ciif ■nder the head Agricullwal Implements. 52 THE COMPLETE FAKMER for feeding and fattening cattle; but in that case it is requis- ite to have the bottom of the hogshead covered with a cloth, to prevent the grain from running down through the holes. In the fifth volume of "The New England Farmer,", (p. 306,) are some notices of the use made of steam in prepar- ing fpod for cattle, in a letter from R. Smith, Esq., President of the Maryland Agricultural Society, on the management of dairy cattle, &c., to John Hare Powel, Esq. " For the purpose of augmenting the quantity and improv- ing the quality of the food of my stock of every kind, I have established a steaming apparatus. It consists of a boiler and two wooden boxesj in which boxes is steamed the food. These boxes^ contain each eighty bushels. By this simple apparatus, every species of coarse vegetable offal is convert- ed into nourishing food, and all the ordinary provender is • rendered more nutritious. " In the dairies near Philadelphia, it is \vell known, that sweet butter of the first quality cannot be made but from cream quickly produced from fresk milk, and that whenever^ the milk remains many days to produce its cream, such cream acquires an unpleasant taste that is imparted to the butter. " Since the month of January, 1823, my dairy people have been in the practice of always placing the pans con- taining the milk in water simmering hot. The oily parts which constitute the cream are by such heat , separated from the other ingredients, and then, from their specific lightness, they of course ascend to the top in the- form of cream. Cream is thus obtained during the coldest weather in winter in the course of about twelve hours after the milk has been taken from the cows. And the operation of churning such cream never exceeds twenty-five minutes. The milk pans remain in the hot water about thirty minutes. The butter has invariably been of a fine .lavor, and of a beautiful yel- low color; and, in the nature of things,- it never can be otherwise, unless the dairy woman should be utterly igno- rant of the art of making sweet butter. " It may not be amiss to state to you, that the skim-milk under this process is a very pleasant beverage In summer and winter it be^rs the agitation of a carriage without be- coming sour. Anc every morning through the year a per- son comes to the farm and takes from 250 to 300 quarts, for which he pays two cents per quart, cash, and on the same MiT> RrRAL ECONHMIST 53 ha/ he reti'jls the whole among the people of the town, at three cents per quart. m " The hot water in which the milk pans are placed' is con- tained in large flat wooden vessels, attached to a stove. The water is heated By means of a flat tube fastened to the side, and near to the bottom of e^ch vessel, and introduced through an aperture into the stove. • The heat of the stove affords the additional advantage of preserving in the dairy house the requisite temperature during the winter season. "The dairy house is a stone building, consisting of thtee spacious- apartments for the preservation of the milk, the cream,' and .'the butter, and for the making of the butter. Two «f these apartments are under ground and arched, and properly ventilated. To the south side is attached a con- venient shed, with the requisite shelves, and with a copper boiler for washing and keeping in good and sweet condition all the dairy utensils. In front is a pent house." Jesse Buel, Esq., recommends, using'a boi.sr instead of a wooden vessel for cooking food for swine. He observes^ " I have thrown by my steamer for hog food' and substituted' a boiler. The former consisted of a sixty gallon cask, over a potash kettle badly set. I could only work off four or five casks a day, with great labor and trouble, and the appa- ratus required to be luted with clay at every operation. With my new kettle, holding! thirty gallons, which is 'a 'thin and beautiful casting, I have cooked eight and nine- barrels in half a day; and much better than by the steam process. This food consists of small refuse potatoes, of which 'I have nearly 100 bushels, or fifteen per cent, of my whole- crop, |>umpkins, and a small quantity of Indian meal.' A half day's boiling serves my hog family for four or five days; and it;is al-waya kept prepared in advance. The actual expense of fattening hogs. thus, upon the refuseof the farm drop/ 'is fifty to seventy-ifive per cent, less ,^an feeding with dry corn. * •■ •■ "■"' " The economy of my apparatus consists much in setting the boiler so as to have all the/advantage of the fire. ■ The interior brick work is made to conform to the shape of the boiler, leaving an interval of four to six inches between ' them for the fire, round Ihe whole exterior of the kettle; with the exception of j few inches at top, where the flange or rim restsupon the projecting bricks. Thus the boiler is not only encompassed by the flame, but the heat is augment- ed hy radiation fl'ofm the brick work. The fuel is burnt on 5* 54 THE COMPLETE FARMEE a giate, which extends nearly to the kettle, four or five in- ches above the level of its bottom. My boiler being in ope- ration while I am preparing these remarks, I Have ascer- tained, that a kettle of potatoes with three pails of cold water, covered with boards, has been completely boiled in eighteen minutes from the time ^hey were put in, another boiling having been just previously taken out. My kettle was set by a son in his teens, without assistance, arid was his first effort in masonry." In cooking for cattle, however, when hay and other bulky articles of food are prepared by heat, steam will be found the best medium Care should be taken to make the vessel in which the steaming is effected so tight that the steam cannot escape till it becomes quite hot and elastic. A cover, of good weight sitting close, but capable of being raised a little by steam of high pressure, may be /"made to operate like a safety valve, and at the same time confine the steam till it exceeds ?12 degrees, the heat of boiling water. Any food is better when cooked by steam of a high temperature, than when merely soaked in an artificial fog, not much warmer than a mist which caps the hills on a summer's morning. CALVES. Calves designed for veal should be taken from the cow the next day after they are calved. They should be permitted to suck only two teats during the first week, three during the second, and should have the whole of the milk the third and fourth week, at the end of which -time they will be fit to kill. The teats not allowed to be sucked should be previously milked. When calves are to be reared, some permit them to run with the cow, and take all the milk the first season. But fine animals are raised without taking any milk from the cow after three or four days. They should have more or less milk for about twelve weeks. - They may be fed with skim- med milk or water gfuel after the first fortnight ; or hay tea may be mixed with their milk, or their milk may be mixed with meal and water. After a calf has sucked or drank milk for the space of a month, take some fresh and sweet hay, and put small locks of it into cleft sticks, in such a manner that the calf can easily have access to them and he will soon learn to eat hay. Whether calves are intended to be fattened or to be reared. AND RnRAL ECONOMIST. 55 it is best to feed them three times a day. But whether they are fed two or three times, the intervals between their meals should be regular, and as nearly as possible equi-distant. 'J'he method for rearing calves pursued by Mr. Crook, as mentioned in ' ' The Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society," is as follows : He purchased three sacks of linseed, value 2Z. 2s., (equal to about nine dollars,) which lasted him three years. One quart of seed was boiled in six quarts of water for ten minutes, to a jelly, which was given to the calves three times a day mixed with a little hay tea. And he states, that his calves throve much better than those of his neighbfiurs, which were fed with milk. Thus it seems, that less than eighteen cents' worth of flax-seed, with a trifle of hay, is sufficient for one calf. Linseed oil c'kes, when pulverized and boiled, make an equally good brovh or jelly. If skim-milk is given to calves it should be boiled, and suffered to stand till it cools to the temperature of that first given by the cow. It is better boiled than when warmed only. If the milk be given too cold it will cause the calf to purge. If this is the case, put two or three spoonfuls of runnet into the milk, and it will stop the looseness. If the calf is bound, pork broth is said to be a good and safe thing to put into the milk. Dr. Deane was of opinion, that it was better to wean calves on hay than on grass. "They are more docile when raised in the barn, and thrive better " A Mr. John Gordon says, that " calves should not be suffered to eat any grass the first year, and from experience I find it much the cheapest to keep them shut up and feed them, as the land sufficient to pasture one will produce hay enough to feed two calves through the year, and pay the expense of cultivation, and one year's growth will certainly be added to the cattle."* It is not probable, however, that many of our farmers will incur the trouble of raising calves in a barn ; therefore, " when calves are put in a pasture, it should be such as is dry and sweet. White clover is the best for them ; red clo- ver or trefoil is also good. Mr. L. Hommedieu recommends that there be no water in the pasture, but sufficient shade. The effect of this is, that the calves learn to feed at night, or when the dew is on, and lie by in the day ; and as the grass while wet with dew is believed to be most nourishing, they * Miieaicl 'iseits Aj;i icnltni'al R«porti, Vol. V. p. 7f- 6t) TIIE UOMPLGTB FARMER will in this way thrive much better than those which have free access to water ; for this, it is contended by Mr. L. Honimedieu, has a 'tendency to stunt them, and make them *pot-bellied. Probably the bettei way is, to give them a lit- tle nourishing drink at certain times, when the dews fail, or at mid-day, when the weather is very warm." * The best calves for bringing up, are those calved early in the season, or before June. "When calves are weaned, they should not be suffered to be with their dams any more till fall ; neither should they be pastured within sight or hearing of them. It will cause them to neglect their feed- ing ; and they will not forget their sucking. " At the setting in of cold nights in autumn, calves must be nightly housed ; and not be out early in the morning, nor late in the evening. And as the pinching cold of winter will be extremely detrimental to them, they should be kept very warm in their house, well supplied with water, and let out only on the warmest days. A great deal of care is necessary to bring them through the first winter, which is the most dangerous period of their lives. They will acquire so much strength during the following summer that they will have nothing to fear from the cold of a second winter." — Buffbn, Hisloire JVaturelle. " The American Farmer " gives the following method of making hai/ tea for calves. Take about a pound of red clo- ver hay, well got in, and six quarts of clear spring water j boil them together till the water is reduced to four quarts ; then take out the hay and mix a pound of barley, oat, bean, [or Indian] meal amongst a little water, put it in the pot or cauldron while boiling, and keep it constantly stirring until it is thickened. Let it cool, then give it to the calf, adding as much whey as will make a sufficient meal. To make calves lie quiet, more especially during a tempo- rary scarcity of milk, balls made of wheat flour, and a suffi- cient quantity of gin to form it into a paste, are recommend- ed by Mr. Marshall; three balls about the size of walnuts to be given about a quarter of an hour before each meal The effect is, that instead of wasting themselves by incessant "bawling," they lie quiet, sleeping a principal part of the time. Probably, Indian or rye meal, mixed up with "in, whiskey, or other cheap spirit, might answer a good purpose as an occasional expedient. We should not advise, boweve- * Farmer's As&isLaiil. AND RURAL ECONOMIST 57 to often diet calves in that manner, unless ney were .ntend- ed for the butcher; for we should be apprehensive that feedr ing them with such nice messes would render them too deli- cate and mealy mouthed to become hardy and profitable cattle^ Young advises, when calves are troubled with scouring, to give them powdered chalk and wheat meal, worked into a ball with gin. _ , The following is the mode of rearing calves adopted by the Shakers, in Canterbury, N. H., communicated in a lette. from Mr. Francis Winkley to Mr. Levi Bartlett, of Warren, New Hampshire, and published in "The New England Farmer," (Vol. II. p. 305.) "■We let I. lives that come in the fore part of March suck about a week or ten days, then take them from the cow, giv- ing them a moderate allowance of new milk to drink, till they have learned to drink it freely; then put in some skim- med milk ; and we feed them wholly with skimmed milk, taking care to give it at about the temperature of milk taken directly from the cow, by heating a part of it and miiiijg.it with the rest. Care should be taken not to scald the milk when heated; also not to give them any sour milk, for this will make them scour. The trough or vessel in which they drink their milk should likewise be k6pt clean, and not suf- fered to become sour. " We let the mill^ stand about twelve hours before it is skimmed; giving a calf at first about four' quarts night and morning; increasing the mess as need requires till he is six weeks old, from which time till ten weeks old he will re- quire, perhaps, about twelve quarts per day. " When about ten weeks old, we begin to diminish tht quantity of milk for about the space of two or three weeks at which time we wean them. During the whole proces. from two to fourteen weeks of age, calves should be wel supplied with good hay, salt, and 'provender; such as oats, wheat brin, and oil cake, ground fine. "The particular advantages to be derived from the above method of treatment are the following : "1. It is much' cheaper than to let them suck in the ordi- nary way; whereas it makes a great saving of cream for butter, and that without injuring the calves, if they are prop- erly attendedto. '' "2. It prevents calves from moaning or pining so much while weaning, an they would otherwise do, when taken froin Uie cows ' 58 THE COMPLETE FARMER "3. It not only prevents the cows being injured in conse- quence of the calves biting the teats, but also prevents thei- liolding back the milk from the milker, which often serves to diminish the quantity of milk afterwards. "The only disadvantage to be found in the above method of treatment is, that it requires some more labor to feed them, where they thrive equally well in every respect aa those do which are permitted to suck in the ordinary way." The following is from "The United States Gazette." "Among the modern improvements in farming, the dairy has of late years been very much neglected. So much of the profit of breeders depending upon the facility with which the milk of the cow may be reserved during the sucking time of the calf, the following substitute, used in Germany, for the natural food of the young progeny, may be accep- table to our country readers. " Let as much water be heated on the fire as t'ne calf will- be disposed to drink, and when it boils throw one or two handfuls of oat meal * into it, and after continuing in that state for one minute, take it oS", and let it be cooled to the temperature of new milk, when one or two pints of skimmed milk are to be added to it. With this beverage, the young animal will fatten and thrive prodigiously: the milk of the parent will be applied to the dairy, and the intelligent far- mer will immediately discover the great advantage to be derived in the produce of the dairy from such an expedi- ent." Willich's "Encyclopedia" observes, " In order to make calves fine and fat, the best and most efficacious way is, to keep them as clean as possible, by elevating their coops in such a manner that the sun may not have too great power over them, and to such a height above the level of the ground that their urine may pass off ; by giving them fresh litter every day, and suspending over the coop a large chalk- stone, so that they can easily lick it. Besides this, it is usual to bleed them when they are about a month old, and again just before they are slaughtered ; which practice tends in a considerable degree to the beauty and whiteness of the flesh, and is therefore more frequently repeated by some farmers; [in England;] but this is not altogether necessary; twice bleeding being fully sufficient for that purpose, in the opinion of the most experienced breeders. It is, however, * Indian me»I'will do as well. AND RURAL ECON.jMlST. 59 to be observed, that those calves which are intended for bulls or for oxen should be selected as soon as possible; as the operation necessary to make them oxen should not be deferred till the calves are more than twelity days old. A writer for "The New England Farmer," with the sig- nature S. X., ("Vol. VIII. p. 76,) observes, that "A very intelligent practical farmer states, that he considers nothing more conducive to the thriving of sucking calves than to keep in their pen an ampl< supply of dry yellow loam, of which they are at liberty to. cat freely as they choose. They will eat it eagerly, and he regards it of more value than Indian meal. There is no better evidence of its utility than the fact that no man's calves find a readier sale or bring a higher price in our market than his. The philosophy of it we do not pretend to explain." Moubray says, " The calf may be sold (or tak^ from the cow) as soon as it has drawn the biestings or first milk, un- less any coring or defect in the cow's udder or teats may render it desirable for the calf to suck a few days, in order that the action may clear off any obstructions, for which the butting of the calf's head is generally the best remedy. If intended to be fattened for the butcher, it must be kept in a pen particularly dry and clean; suckled twice a day at regu- lar hours; always have the first, which is the thinnest of the milk, and not be permitted to overcharge its stomach. Lumps of soft chalk are usually placed for the calf to lick, as an absorbent to neutralize the acidities engendered in the stomach from feeding on milk. It seldom pays to fatten a calf beyond ten or twelve weeks. " Weanifig and rearing Calves. A calf may be weaned by being gradually accustomed to suck milk in a pail through the fingers. Many are reared on very little milk mixed with hay tea, linseed, or other slops; fed on straw in the winter, and in summer on the common: such cannot be expected to turn to,much account. The best cattle are reared from the teats, well wintered in good shelter, and full fed until th6y attain their growth. Warmth and dry lodging are of the utmost consequence to the improvement- of all young ani- mals. Calves may, however, be reared to good profit, by being suffered to suck a very moderate quantity daily, the bulk of their food consisting of skimmed milk, thickened with oat or wheat meal ; their winter food being carrots or Swedish turnips s'iced, and cut straw, with a small quintitv of hay, daily " 60 THE CCjMPLETE FARMER "The Grazier's Guide" observes, " If the ca.f be in- tended for the butcher, it may be taken from the cow in about a week or ten days, and fed the remainder of the time by hand; but the time of taking the calf away must be deter- mined by the state of- the cow's udder; for unless that be free from kernels and indurations, the calf must be allowed to suck, as the jolting of its head is the means of healing or restoring the udder, and preventing the downfall or inflam- mation in this part, which might cause much trouble, and even endanger the life of the cow. "But if the calf is intended to be reared, it should not be weaned until at least six weeks or even two months old, whether male or female. For such, there is no food like the cow's milk; and if she does not yield a sufficient quantity, that of another ought to be had recourse to. It is an incon- trovertible fact, that the longer a calf sucks, not only the larger and stronger will it become, but it will also aco"-' . a much better form and more robust health." Calves which come early should be preferred for the rear- ing. Those which come late, do not acquire sufficient strength to bear the cold of winter; they languish, and are reared with difficulty. Calves should not be weaned too suddenly, but by little and little. The less they are able to eat, the more they should be allowed to suck; after a while they may be brought to take it from the pail. This is done by placing the hand in the milk, with the palm upwards, and under the milk, while the fingers are raised above the sur- face of the milk for the calf to lay hold of with its mouth, which it does very readily, and sucks up the milk with great ease. When they are completely taken away, they should be fed with a little bran, and some of the best soft and fragrant hay of the second crop ; they should be allowed plenty of the skimmed milk, and now and then a little water in which barley has been boiled and broken up, or a little buttermilk occasionally. There is at first some difficulty in bringing them to drink, but a little perseverance will accustom them to it. Moderate warmth and dry lodging are of the utmost con- Bequence to young calves ; and if we would turn them to any good account, they must not be stinted either in these or in their food. Calves which have recently been weaned and are not at pasture should be fed oflen, at least three times, and it is bette- five times a day As soon as they are A NO RURAL ECONOMIST. 61 fit to fo low the mother they should be let out, as they are greatly benefited by air and exercise. Calves sometimes ?ic- quirc a habit of sucking one another, of which trick they may be broken by separating them. Calves cannot be kept too clean, nor have fresh litter too often. If they are sufiered to lie on their own dung and urine, they will become mangy, and scarcely ever thrive. They are subject to several disorders', such as diarrhoea, ■dysentery, costiveness, &c. As a means of preventing the greater number of the diseases to which they are liable, the following rules are prescribed in "The Farmer's .and Gra- zier's Guide." " 1st. Let the young calf suck the first milk. This will cleanse its bowels, and prevent costiveness. " 2d. Let it suck from its mother at least two months, and then wean it gradually. "3d. Let its first food be such as is easy of digestion, and let it have plenty of sweet skimmed milk and good hay. "4th. Keep it very clean, well rubbing it occasionally with a wisp of hay or straw. "5th. Keep its stable clean, and perfectly free from all impurities. " 6th. Let it have gentle exercise ; the best will be fol- lowing the mother in the meadow or pasture. 7th. Do not stint it either in good food or good drink, and change its litter often enough to keep it clean, sweet, and dry." OXEN. Till oxen are four years old they are usually -called steers ; afterwards oxen. The signs of a good ox, according to Dr. Deane, are these : thick, soft, smooth, and short hair ; a short and thick head ; glossy, smooth horns ; large and shaggy ears ; wide forehead ; full, black eyes ; wide nostrils ; black lips ; a thick fleshy neck and large shoulders ; broad reins ; a large belly ; thick rump and thighs ; a straight back ; a long tail, well covered with hair; short aiid broad hoofs. The best colors are brown, dark red, and brindled. When an ox has completed his eighth year he should be fattened. If oxen are worked in the yoke in wet weather, their necks are apt to become sore. To prevent this, a little tallow should be rubbed on the parts of the yoke which lie upon heir necks, and also on the bows. ■6 62 THE COMPLETE FARMER The following remarks on the management of working oxen, are from "The New England Farmer," Vol. VJ. p. 191. " Do not retard the growth of your beasts of draught, en- danger their health, and render them insignificant in the eyes of many, by woikiug them hard while young. But the younger they are inured to light work, the more docile they will generally become ' ' An English writer recommends carding oxen, and says • ' the ox, after the sensation becomes familiar, receives pleas- ure from the operation, and will momentarily forego his meal to receive the full enjoyment. His feeder perceives this, and brushes the part which gives the most pleasure. The ox shows his gratitude by wagging his tail ; the feeder in return calls him by name, and ingratiates himself with him. Thus not only an intimacy but a mutual affection is formed, which at once gives attention to the keeper and do- cility to the ox, and renders the labors of both pleasarit,' " Their labor and their fodder ought to be proportioned, that their health and their spirits may be kept in full tone. Their coats ought to be sleek ; their hides loose and silky ; the flank should fill the hand, and the shoulder handle mel- low. If they be overworked or underfed, sluggishness and disease will inevitably follow. A working ox ought always to be beef, that in case of accident he may be fit for the table." The common mode of working oxen by a yoke, has been condemned by many agricultural writers. Sir. Cooper, an Englishman, according to Young's "Eastern Tour," used collars on oxen as on horses, except that they were buckled on with the narrow and open end downward. They draw in harness abreast; in pairs, single, or in a line, and walk as fast as horses. Mr. Bordley said, he " saw a wagon in Pennsyl- vania drawn by two bulls and two oxen, bridled and geered in harness and collars." It appears, by a work entitled "Letters from Cuba," by Dr. Abiel Abbot, that in managing the oxen of that island, the yoke is made fast to the horns, " near the root, behind, so that it does not play backward and forward, and gives to the oxen a similar but better chance of backing, (as, in teamster's phrase, it is called.) I have been astonished at the power of those oxen in holding back. There is a short hill in one of the streets of this city, at an angle nearly of , forty-five deg-ees. Star.ding at the foot of it, I saw. a cart AND RCRAL ECONOMIST. C3 and oxen approaching at the top, with thrc« hogsheads of molasses, and the driver sitting on the forward cask. The driver did not so much as leave his perch ; the oxen went straight and fearlessly over the pitch of the hill, and it seemed as if the)^ust be crushed to death. The animals squatted like a dog, and rather slid than walked to the bot- tom of the hill. Have we any animals that could have done it .'' And if they could, have we any docile enough to have done it with the drive, in the cart ? Thus superior is this mode of yoking in holding back the load in difficult places. " It gives them still more decisive advantage in drawing. A tillet of canvas is laid on the front below the horns ; and over this fillet the cords pass, and the animal presses against the most invulnerable part of his frame ; his head, his neck, his whole frame are exerted in the very manner in which he exerts his mighty strength in combat. It is the natural way, therefore, of availing yourself of this powerful and patient animal to the best advantage." A writer for " The Genesee Farmer " observes, that " the frequent abuse of our laboring animals by those who receive the benefits of their labors, and who ought in return to treat them mercifully, has often given me great pain. I have em- ployed in the course of my business a great many men and teams, both with oxen and horses, and I never yet knew a bawling, noisy, whipping teamster who did a great day's work ; nor have I scarcely known such a one who kept a fat team. The best man who ever did me any labor was a good substantial farmer ; his oxen were always fat, and spry as colts ; he would never hitch them to any thing which he knew they could not draw ; of course they were not dis- couraged ; and he hardly ever spoke to them louder than in a low tone of common conversation. He would frequently talk to them soothingly, and encourage them when he had a hard job on hand, which was often the case. 'After making a heavy pull he would sometimes pat thern on the back, but I rarely ever knew him to strike or worry his team. He carried a slender goad with a short lash to guide them with, and a mere swing of the whip was sufficient for his purposes. I have known several such persons in my life, and I do not hesitate to say, that any person who so manages his team will get more labor at less expense, and with more ease tc himself, than by the ordinary bawling, whipping method so much practised in our country. Ail the difference with these people is that tie one understands and studies the nature 64 THE COMPLETE FARMEB and disposition of his animals, and the other does not. 'An even temper and a steady hand,' ought to be the teamster's motto, the world over." The following valuable observations on the subject of Dreaking steers and colts, are extracted from a communica- tion written for "The New England Farmer," by Mr. James Walker, of Fryeburgh, Maine, and published in that paper. Volume XII. p. 1 13. "I call my young cattle calves till they are one year old. I have a little yoke made with a staple and ring in it. I tell my little boys to yoke up their calves : a small boy can do it, and it is quite a pastime to them ; they being so young, are not so strong but that he can manage them with ease ; any small stick or twig answers to drive them with, and there is no danger of the boy or steers being hurt. When he can drive them where he wishes them to go, which will soon be the case, he will hitch them to a small piece of wood, or if in winter put them to a hand sled, and drive round with that; they will soon become docile. There is no trouble with them afterward, especially if they are yoked a few times the second winter ; it makes them fond of their mates. Oxen that are trained when young are much more pUable and obe- dient, which adds much to their value : steers that run till they are three or four years old are dangerous animals to encounter with ; they are always running away with the cart or sled whenever there is a chance for them, and often serious injury is the result. I would not recommend work- ing steers hard while young, as it would prevent their growth ; there is a difference between working them and barely training them. " Colts I begin with very soon after they are foaled ; the mare should be bridled and led to the door, and given a lit- tle salt. When the colt is one or two days old, take him by the neck, handle him gently; he is then so young that he is not afraid, if his dam is near by him; continue this practice, and he will very soon become fond of his owner, and will come on purpose to be handled, after two or three weeks. It does not hurt the mare or the colt to use her moderately , If you want to go to meeting on the Sabbath, harness the mare into the chaise or wagon, and tie the colt to the arm of the carriage; he may be a little obstinate at first, but in go- ing a few rods will be peaceable and very orderly; if there are many other horses about, your colt is always with you : if you want to stop at a place any time, let your colt loose: AND RURAL ECONOMIST tS5, he can be taken again without difficulty, and before you start off tio your colt again; in this way there is no trouble of the colt following other horses away. When they become old enough for service, you do not have to run all over the pasture for the horses; they can always be taken with ease. Cults trained in this -way are completely halter broken. When you begin to harness them, they are not frightened at the noise of the carriage behind them, and are sooner made quiet in the harness. It has been a common saying, that if colts are handled when they areyo'^ng, it depresses their courage, which I am convinced is not the fact. I have raised as many horses as most farmers of my age in this vi- cinity, and some of them the most spirited I ever saw. The above rules I have practised for quite a number of years, 'and can recomm^d them to others with confidence." On >oting the person who has the chief concern in a dairy M TIIE COMPLETE FARMER which can anywhere be met with." The milk which ia first drawn, and consequently of inferior quality-, may be converted into an inferior kind of butter, sold sweet, or made into cheeses, which, by being made of sweet milk, if made with care and skill, may be of fine quality. Churning ought to be regularly continued till the buttei comes, or is formed. If the motion in summer be too quick, the butter will, in consequence, ferment, and become ill- tasted ; and, in winter, it will go back. Churning, it is said, may be made easier by putting the bottom of the pump churn about one foot deep into a vessel of cold water, and continu- ing it there till the butter is made. The addition of one or two table-spoonfuls of distilled vinegar, after churning awhile, will, it is said, produce butter much sooner, in many instances, than it can be formed without such addition. Some writers advise to wash the butter, after it is formed, thoroughly in several waters, till all the milk is removed. Dr. Anderson, however, advises to force the milk out of the cavities of the butter by means of a flat, wooden ladle, fur- nished with a short handle, at the same time agitating the butter as little as possible, lest it become tough and gluey. " The beating up of butter," he observes, " by the hand, is an indelicate practice, particularly if it be constitutionally warm; and as it is hurtful to the quality of the butter to pour cold water on it during this operation, the butter, if too soft to receive the impression of the mould, may be put into small vessels, and there be permitted to float in a trough of cold water beneath the table, without wetting the butler, which will soon become sufficiently firm. Or, when butter is first made, after as much of the milk has been got out as possi- ble, it may be thinly spread on a marble slab, and the re- maining moisture he absorbed by patting it with clean dry towels."' It is said, in Bordley's " Husbandry," that "dashing in water, and then, without pause, clearing the butter from • every particle of the water, is widely diffej-ent from washing butter by kneading and letting it remain at all in the water. Very good butter for flavor, color, and consistence, is made by one who washes it twice, but never lets it remain in the water a moment." Another butter-maker says, mix the salt in the butter in the evening, and let it rest till morning, then work out the liquor, but never let it be once touched with water. Dr. Anderson remarks, that a considerable degree of strength as well as dexterity is required in the working ot AND RURAL ECONOMIST 85 butter. The thing wanted is, to force out the milk entirely, with as little tawing [working] of the butter as possible, fof if the milk be not entirely taken away, the butter will spoil in a short time ; and if it be much worked the butter will become tough and gluey, which greatly debases its quality. Before you put butter into the vessels which are to contain it, great care must be taken that they be well seasoned by frequent washing and exposure to the air for two or three weeks. As it is difficult to season new firkins, it will always be preferable to employ those which have been used. The most speedy method of seasoning firkins is by the use of un- slacked lime, or a large quantity of salt and water, well boiled, with which they should be repeatedly scrubbed, and afterwards thrown into cold water, to remain there three or four days, till wanted. They should then be scrubbed as before, and well rinsed with cold water; and before the but- ter is put in, every part of the inside of the firkin must be well rubbed with salt. Butter may be salted by working into it one or two ounces of salt, after the buttermilk has been forced out. The salt should be thoroughly incorporated, and be of the best and purest quality. Dr. Anderson, however, recommends the following preparation, which he has experienced to be much superior, as it not only prevents the butter from becoming in any degree rancid, but also improves its appearance, and im- parts a sweeter and richer taste than could be given by com- mon salt only. For every pound of butter take half an ounce of best common salt, one quarter of an ounce of loaf sugar, and one quarter of an ounce of saltpetre ; beat and blend the whole completely together. Butter thus cured, should stand three or four weeks before it is used, that the salts may be well mixed; The best butter is made in sum- mer, but by adding a certain portion (which experience alone can determine) of the juice expressed from the pulp of carrots to the cream pCeviously to churning, winter-made butter will thus acquire the appearance and flavor of butter that has been churned during the prime part of the summer season. A writer for " The Journal of Humanity ' gives the fol- lowing rules for making good butter. "If you have four or five cows, it is best to churn every day ; and by no means less frequently than ■■very other day. If you cannot churn every day, throw int( the cream, when gathfered, a handfu of nice salt. In verj warm weather, when milk sours sooi 8 86 THE COMPLETE FARMER put two heaping table-spoonfuls of salt into every pail of milk before straining. The quantity as well as the quality of the butter is greatly improved by this method. If you have ice, put a small piece in every pan of milk, and also into the cream when you churn. If you have no ice, put the cream into a pail, and hang it in the well twelve hours before churning. In the warm season, cream should be skimmed as soon as it is in the least sour, and in the coldest weather, milk should not stand more than thirty-six or forty-eight hours. The utmost care should be taken to keep every article used in making butter perfectly sweet, by frequent and thorough scalding." A writer for " The New England Farmer," (Vol. VI. p. 370,) observed as follows : " It does not, in my opinion, improve the butter to have the milk sour before the cream is gathered; but at this sea- son of the year [June] it can hardly be prevented. It should, however, never be suffered to stand till the milk cur- dles. When the cream is gathered it should be set in an open vessel, where the air can have free access to its sur- face; and during the time that the cream is gathering for a churning of butter, it should have a stick or spoon kept in the vessel where the oream is, by which the cream should be stirred at least half a dozen times a day, enough to mix it up well, and bring a new portion of it to the air; and it should stand before the window of the milk room, or some other, the most airy position afforded by the room. When you have gathered a mess for this season of the year, fill your churn over night with cold water, and empty it in the morning. Put in your cream and churn it with a regular, steady, and not too rapid motion. It \yill generally come in from ten to twenty minutes, and when fetched it needs no coloring matter. "I know that women say flies will get into the cream if left uncovered; let them get in, and pick them out, rather than cover up the vessel containing the cream.* "The windows to milk rooms, in many houses, are not sufficiently large, with from four to eight small panes of glass. This affords too stinted a portion of air. If yout glass is small, you want a twenty-four lighted window tc * Perhaps a covering of gauze, millinet, or other light and porous substance, or a li 1 pel arated with small holeii, might admit air and exclude the flies. — Edito, AND RURAL ECONOM ST. 87 the milk room, with blinds to exclude the sun: If two such windows, so situated as to afford a draught of air, the better. But stint your milk room of air, and keep the cream- pot covered tight to exclude flies, and your butter will be white and hitler, besides being a long while coming." Making Butter in Pfin/er. A friend has furnished us with the following observations on this subject: " In February, 1825, I spent a few days with Dr. Jones,, who lives near Hyco Bridge, in Halifax County, Virginia Mrs. Jones prepares her cream for churning by heating the milk after it has stood twelve or twenty-four hours. "She places it over coals the evening before churning, until the milk as it stands with the cream on is heated ready to boiling, when she sets it by till morning. The cream is then skimmed off, and churned by stirring in an earthen vessel. The butter is delicately white and clear in its com plexion, firm, and fine flavored. "This process would, no doubt, prove more successful in any part of New England, since the climate of Virginia is generally less favorable to the' dairy than that of the eastern States." From the same pen we are favored with the following : Garlic in Butter. " When milk has the flavor of garlic, or wild onion, add a quart of boiling water to each gallon, and set it away in vessels, having the bottom covered the thickness of an inch only with milk. The cream that rises will be sweet and free from any disagreeable flavor." L. Peters, Esq. of Westborough, Massachusetts, says, relative to making winter butter, "My wife's method is, to set the vessels in which the cream is collected near the Are a while before it is put into the churn, and frequently stir it a little, and turn the vessels, that it may be warmed eqxiaAly, till it is as warm as cream in the summer, as near as she can judsre: a^d before putting it into the churn, that is scalded with scalding Water. When the churning commences, it is done moderately, and if there is any frothy appearance, then warm water ' is put in, the churn put near the fire, and occasionally turned, till the temperature is altered, and the churning is finished, which is generally in a short time. If a dash churn is used, set^t into' a tub of hot water, and fre- quently move the dash a little, to mix the warm and cold cream, till it is of a suitable warmth, which an observing person will soon ascertain by pracMce." — JVew England Farmer. Vol. VI. d. 370 B8 THE COMPLETE VAUMEK A^valuable paper on the making of butter in cold weathf by the Rev. W. Allen, states the results of several trials, 1 i which it appears that butter may be obtained in the coldest weather within from ten to twenty minutes, if the cream at the commencement of the chujrning is brought to the tem- perature of about seventy-five degrees Fahrenheit. E. H. Derby, Esq. of Salem, Massachusetts, recommend8 the making of butter by the aid of frost, as follows: " The milk when taken from the cows is immediately strained into earthen pans, and set in the coldest part of the house; as soon as tne frost begins to operate, a separation takes place, the cream rises in a thick paste to the top, and leaves the milk, without a particle of cream, frozen in the pan. The cream is not so hard but that it can be easily scraped off with a spoon, to the solid ice; it is then set aside until a sufficient quantity is collected for churning, when it is warmed just so much as to thaw the cream sufficiently to put it into the churn. I have never known it to require more than five minutes to convert such cream into butter, after the churning had commenced." , CHEESE, — Method of making. " The milk is universal- ly set for cheese as soon as it comes from the cow. "The management of the curd depends on the kind of cheese: thin cheese requires the least labor and attention. " Breaking the curd is done with the hand and dish. The finer the' curd is broken the better, particularly in thick cheeses The best color of this kind of cheese is that of bees-wax, which is produced by annotta, rubbed into the milk after it is warmed. The dairywoman is to judge of the quality by the color of the milk, as it differs much in strength. The runnet is prepared by taking some whey and salting till it will bear an egg; it is thgn suffered to stand over night, and in the morning it is skimmed and rack- ed off clear; to this is added an equal quantity of water Drine, strong as the whey, and into this mixture some sweet- briar, thyme, or some other sweet herbs; also a little black pepper and saltpetre; the herbs are kept in the brine three or foHr days, after which it is decanted clear from them Into six quarts of this liquor four large calves' bags, or, more nroperly called, calves' stomachs, are put. No part of the preparation is heated, and frequently the calves' bags aro only steeped in cold salt and water. Turning the milk di& AND RDRAL ECONOMIST. furs in different dairies, no two dairywomen conducting ex- cctly alike. ' ' Setting the milk too hot inclines the cheese to heave, and cooling it with cold water produces a similar effect. The degree of heat varies according to the weather. The curd when formed is broken with what is called a treple cheese kni&. The use of this is to k'eep the fat in the cheese. It is drawn the depth of the curd two or three times across the tub, to give the whey an opportunity of running off clear; after a few minutes the knife is more freely nsed, and the curd is cut into small pieces like checkers, and is broken fine in the whey with the hand and a wooden dish. The curd being allowed about half an hour to settle, the whey is laded off with the dish, after it is pretty well separated from the curd. "It is an almost invariable practice to scald the curd. The mass is first broken very fine, and then the scalding whey is added to it and stirred a few minutes; some make use of hot water in preference to whey, and it is in both cases heated according to the nature of the curd; if it is soft, the whey or water is used nearly boiling; but if hard, it is only used a little hotter than the hand. After the curd is thoroughly mixed with the hot stuff, it is suffered to stand a few minutes to settle, and is then separated as at the first operation. After the scalding liquor is separated, a vat, or what is often called a cheese hoop, is laid across the cheese ladder over the tub, and the curd is ".rumbled into it with the hands, and pressed into the vat, to squeeze out the whey. The vat being filled as full and as firmly as the hand alone can fill it, and rounded up in the middle, a cheese cloth is spread over it, and the curd is turned out of the hoop into the cloth; the vat is then washed, and the inverted mass of curds, ^ith the cloth under it, is returned into the vat and put into tlie press; after standing two or three hours in the press, the vat is taken out, and the cloth is taken off, 'wash- ed, and put round the cheese, and it is replaced in the vat and in the press. In about seven or eight hours it is taken out of the press and salted, the cheese is placed on a board, and a handful of salt is rubbed all over it, and the edges are pared off if necessary ; another handful of salt is strewed on the upper side, and as much left as will stick to it ; after- wards it is turned into the bare vat without a cloth, and an equal quantity of salt is added to it, and the cheese is return- ed into the press; heri it continues one night, and he next 8* 90 THE COMPIETE FARMER morning it s turned in the vat, and continues till, the sue- ceediiig morning, atid the curd is taken out and placed on the dairy shelf: here ,hey are turned every day or every other day, as the weatiier may be. If it is hot and dry, the windows and door are kept shut; but if wet or moist, the door and windows are kept open night and day." Cleaning the Cheese. "The cheeses having remained about ten days after leaving the press, are to be washed and scraped in the following manner: a large tub of cold sweet whey is placed on the floor, the cheeses are immersed in it, where they continue one hour, or longer, if necessary, to soften the rind. They are then taken out and scraped with a common case-knife, with great care, so as not to injure the tender rind, till every part of the cheese is smooth ; they are after the last operation rinsed in the whey and wiped clean with a coarse cloth, and placed in an airy situation to dry, after which they are placed in the cheese room. The floor of the cheese room is generally prepared by rub- bing it with bean or potato tops, or any succulent herb, till it appears of a black wet color. On this floor the cheeses are placed, and turned twice a week; their edges are wiped hard with a cloth once a week, and the floor is cleansed and rubbed with fresh herbs once a fortnight. They must not lie too long or they will stick to the floor. This preparation of the floor gives the cheese a blue coat, which is considered of great consequence." Stilton Cheese, how made. " The Stilton cheese, which may be called the Parmesan of England, is not confined to Stilton and its vicinity, for many farmers in Huntingdon- shire, and also in Rutland and Northamptonshire, make a similar sortj_ sell them for the same price, and give them the name of the Stilton cheeses. " Take the night's cream and put it into the morning's new niilk with the runnet ; when the curd is separated, let it not be broken, as is done with other cheese, but take it out, disturbing it as little as possible, and suffer it to dry gra'dually in a sieve ; and as the whey separates, compress it gradually till it has acquired a firm consistence ; then place it in a wooden hoop, and suffer it to dry very gradual- ly on a board, taking care at the same time to turn it daily with close binders round, and which must be tightened as the cheese acquires more solidity." Cheese, Skippers in. "Wrap the cheese in thin brown paper, so thin that moisture -nay strike through soon ; dig a AND RURAL ECONOMIST. ^l hole in good sweet earth about two ieet deep, in which the cheese must be buried about thirty-six hours, and the skip- pers will be found all on the outside of the ch^se , brush them off immediately, and you will find your cheese sound and good." To prevent Gheese having a rancid, nauseoiis flavor. " Put about one table-spoonful of salt to each gallon of milk, when taken from the cows in the evening, for the cheese to be made the next day ; put the salt at the bottom of the vessel that is to receive the milk ; it will increase the curd, and prevent the milk, from growing sour or putrid, the hottest nights in summer." — Massachusetts .Agricultural Repository, [The following is from the pen of a friend, to whom we are indebted for several valuable articles, written expressly for this work.} " To make Cheese. A person whose dairy enjoys a high reputation gives the following directions for making cheese : " ' Take a gallon and a half of water and throw into it a pint and a half of common salt. Boil and skim it, and add three or four ounces of rose leaves. After it is sufficiently steeped, let it cool, and put in one ounce of saltpetre and four runnets. A great-spoonful of this preparation is enough to turn fifteen gallons of milk. When the curd is made, dip it out carefully, and put it into a cloth that sits in a vessel with its bottom perforated withholes. Let a person on each side of the cloth take up the corners, and raise the curd carefully, and turn it from one side to the other in the cloth, in order to the better draining off the whey ; then lay it as before, in a vessel perforated with holes, and thus turn it once in fifteen or twenty minutes, and in the intervals place a follower upon it, with a stone above ; 'cutting the curd through each time. When the whey is out, season it with salt to suit your palate, while cutting it up in small pieces with a suitable knife ; then put it up for pressing. Let it stand under thirty or forty pounds' weight twenty-four hours, and then turn it, and let it stand twenty-four hours more un- der the same. A severe pressure, which is sometimes given, spoils a rich cheese entirely. " ' Set your cheese in closets made for the purpose, which flies cannot enter. ■' ' The outside may be rubbed with a mixture of butter and Spanish brown, which answers very well, but other mixtures may answer equally welL " ' A small quantity of otter, say the size of a kernel of rye, sewed up in a nloth may be put in each curd 92 THE COMPLETE FARMER " 'Never wash out your cheese cloth with soap, but boil it out in whey.' " HEMP. The following essay on the culture of Hemp, by Hon. Henry Clay, was originally published iit " The West- ern Agriculturist." It is a complete treatise on the best manner of raising and preparing an article, which always commands cash sufficient to reward liberally the cultivator who proceeds correctly in obtaining this valuable product. The author of the essay is not less favorably known as a statesman than as a practical and scientific agriculturist, and his name will give it that weight and currency with Ameri- can farmers which is due to its intrinsic excellence. ^The preparation of the ground for sowing the seed is by the plough and horses, until the clods are sufficiently pul- verized or dissolved, and the surface of the field is rendered even and smooth. It should be as carefully prepared as if it were for flax. This most important point, too often neg- lected, cannot be attended to too much. Scarcely any oth- er crop better rewards diligence and careful husbandry. Fall or winter ploughing is practised with advantage ; it is indis- pensable in old meadows, or old pasture grounds, intended for producing hemp. " Plants for seed are ordinarily reared in a place distinct from that in which they are cultivated for the lint. In this respect, the usage is different from that which is understood to prevail in Europe. The seeds which are intended to re- produce seeds for the crop of the next year, are sowed in drills about four feet apart. When they are grown suffi- ciently to distinguish between the male and female stalks, the former are pulled and thrown away, and the latter are thinned, leaving the stalks separated seven or eight inches from each other. This operation is usually performed in the blooming season, when the sexual character of the plants is easily discernible ; the male alone blossoming, and, when agitated, throwing off farina, a yellow dust or flour, which falls and colors the ground, or any object that comes in con- tact with it. A few of the male plants had better be left, scattered through the drill, until the farina is completely dis- charged, for an obvious re.ison. Between the drills a plough is run sufficiently often to keep the ground free from weeds and grass ; and between the stalks in each drill the hoe is employed for the same object The seed plants are gep AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 93 erally cut after the first smart frost, between the 25th Sep teraber and the middle of October, and carried to a barn or stack-yard, where the seeds are easily detached by the common flail. They should be gathered after a slight, but before a severe frost ; and, as they fall out very easily, it is advisable to haul the plants on a sled, and, if convenient, when they are wet. If transported on a cart or wagon, a sheet should be spread to catch the seed as they shatter out. After the seeds are separated, the stalks which bore them being too large, coarse, and harsh, to produce lint, are usu- ally thrown away ; they may be profitably employed in mak- ing charcoal for the use of powder-mills In Europe, where the male and female plants are promiscuously grown togeth- er in the same field, both for seeds and for lint, the male stalks are first gathered, and the female suffered to remain growing until the seeds are ripe, when they are also gath- ered ; the seeds secured and lint obtained, after the rotting, from both descriptions. " After the seeds are threshed out, it is advisable to spread them on a floor, to cure properly and prevent their rotting, before they are finally put away for use the next spring ■ Seeds are not generaHy used unlessthey were secured the fall previous to their being sown, as it is believed they will not vegetate if older ; but it has been ascertained that when they are properly cured and kept dry, they will come up after the first year. It is important to prevent them from heating, which destroys the vegetating property, and for that purpose they should be thinly spread on a sheltered floor. "The seeds, whether to reproduce seeds only, or the lint, are sowed about the same time. Opinions vary as to the best period. It depends a good deal upon the season. The plant is very tender when it first shoots up, and is affected by frost. Some have sowed as early as the Isi of April ; but it is generally agreed, that all the month of May, and about the 10th of it especially, is the most favorable ^me. An experienced and successful hemp grower, in the neigh- bourhood of Lexington, being asked the best time to sow hemp, answered, immediately before a rain. And undoubt- edly it is very fortunate to have a moderate rain directly after sowing. " When the object is to make a crop of hemp, the seeds are sown broad-cast. The usual quantity is a bushel and a half to the acre; but heie again the farmers differ, some 94 THE COMPLETE FARMER using two bushels r»r even two and a half. Much depeiida on the strength and fertility of the soil, and the care with which it has been prepared, as well as the season. To these causes may be ascribed the diversity of opinion and prac- tice. The ground can only sustain ^nd nourish a certain quantity of plants ; and if that limit b,i passed, the surplus will be smothered in the growth. Whei the seeds are sown, they are ploughed or harrowed in ; ploughing is best in old ground, as it avoids the injurious effect of a beating rain, and the consequent baking of the earth. It would be ?ilso beneficial subsequently to roll the ground with a heavy roller. " After the seeds are sown, the labors of the cultivator are suspended, until the plants are ripe, and in a state to be gathered ; every thing in the intermediate lime being left to the operations of nature. If the season be favorable un- til the plants are sufficiently high to shade the ground, (which they will do in a few weeks, at six or eight inches' height,) there is strong probability of a good crop. When they at- tain that height, but few articles sustain the effect of bad seasons better than hemp. " It is generally ripe and ready to be gathered about the middle of August, varying according to the time of sowing Some sow at different periods, in order that the crop may not all ripen at the same time, and that a press of labor in rearing it may be thus avoided. The maturity of the plant is determined by the evaporation of the farina, already no- ticed, and the leaves of the plant exhibiting a yellowish hue: it is then generally supposed to be ripe, but it is safest to wait a few days longer. Very little attentive observation will enable any one to judge when it is fully ripe. In that respect it is a very accommodating crop, for if gathered a little too soon, the lint is not materially injured, and it will wait the leisure of the farmer some ten days or a fortnight after it is entirely ripe. '; Two modes of gathering the placts are practised, one by puUing them up by the roots, an easy operation with an able-bodied man, and the other by cutting them about two inches (the nearer the better) above the surface of the ground. From a quarter to a third of an acre is the com- mon task of an average laborer, whether the one or the oth- er mode is practised. The objections to pulling are, that the plants with their roots remaining connected with them, are not afte. wards so easily handled in the several operations AND RURAL KCONOMIST 95 which they muat undergo ; that all parts.of the plant do not rot equally and alike, when exposed to the dew and rain and, finally, that before you put them to the brake, when the root should be separated from the stalk, the loot drags off with it some of the lint. The objection to cutting is, that you lose two or three inches of the best part of the plant nearest the root. Pulling, being the most ancient method, is most generally practised. I prefer, upon the vhole, cut- ting ; and I believe the number who prefer it is yearly in- creasing. When pulled, it is done with the hand, which is. better for the protection of an old leather glove. The la- borer catches twenty or thirty plants together, with both hands, and by a sudden jerk draws them without much diffi- culty. The operation of cutting is performed with a knife, oflen made out of an old scythe, resembling a sickle, though not so long but broader. This knife is applied much .in the same way as the sickle, except that the laborer stoops more. " Whether pulled or cut, the plants are carefully laid on the ground, the evener the better, to cure ; which they do in two or three days, in dry weather. A light rain falling on them whilst lying down is thought by some to be beneficial, inasmuch as the leaves, of which they should be deprived, may be easier shaken off or detached. When cured, the plants are set up in the field in which they were produced, in shocks of convenient size, the roots or butt ends resting on the ground, and the tops united above by a band made of the plants themselves. Previous to pntting them up in shocks, most cultivators tie the plants in small hand bundles of such a size as that each can be conveniently held in one hand. Before the shocks are formed, the leaves of the plants should be rapidly knocked off with a rough paddle or hooked stick. Some suffer the plants to remain in these shocks until the plants are spread down to be rotted. Oth- ers, again, collect the shocks together as soon as they can command leisure, (and it is clearly the best,) and form them into stacks. A few farmers permit these stacks to remain over a whole year, before the plants are exposed to be rot- ted. By remaining that period in stalks, the plants go through a sweat, or some other process, that improves very much the appearance, and, I believe, the quality of the lint, and this improvement fully compensates the loss of time in bringing it to market. The lint has a soft texture and a lively hue, resembling water-rotted hemp ; and I once sold a box of it in the Baltimore market at the price of Russia 96 'IflEl COMPLETE FARMEIt hemp. In every, other respect,, the plants are treated aa i^ they were not kept over a year. " The method of dew-rotting is that which is generally practised in Kentucky. The Ii.it so spread is not so good for many purposes, and especially for rigging and ships, as when the plants have been rotted by immersion in water, or, as it ia generally termed, water-rotted. The greater value, and consequently higher price of the article, prepared in the lat- ter way, has induced more and more of our farmers every •year to adopt it; and if that prejudice were subdued, which every American production unfortunately encounters when it is first introduced and comes in contact with a rival Euro- pean commodity, I think it probable that in a few years we should be able to dispense altogether with foreign hemp. The obstacles which prevent the general practice of water- rotting are, the want of water at the best season for the operation, which is the month of September; a repugnance to the change of an old habit; and; a persuasion, which has some foundation, that handling the plants after their submer- sion in water during that month is injurious to health. The first and last of these obstacles would be removed by water- rotting early in the winter, or in the spring. The only dif- ference in the operation, performed at those seasons and in the month of September, would be, that the plants would have to remain longer in soak before they were sufficiently rotted. " The plants are usually spread down to be dew-rotted from the middle of October to the middle of December. A farmer who has a large crop on hand puts them down at dif- ferent times for his convenience in handling and dressing them. Autumnal rotting is more apt to give the lint a dark and unsightly color than winter rotting. The best ground to expose the plants upon is meadow or grass land, but they are not unfrequently spread over the same field on which they grow. The length of time they ought to remain ex- posed depends upon the degree of moisture and the tempera- ture of the weather that prevail. In a very wet and warm spell five or six weeks may be long enough. Whether they have been sufficiently rotted or not is determined by experi- ment. A handful is taken and broken by the hand or ap- plied to the brake, when it can be easily ascertained, by the ■ facility with which the lint can be detached from the stalk, if it be properly rotted. If the plants remain on the ground too long, the fibres lose some of their strength, though a few days- longer than necessary, in cold weather, will not do any AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 97 injury. If they are taken up too soon, .that is, before the lint can be easily separated from the woody part of th« stalk, it is harsh, and the process of breaking is difficult and trou- blesome. Snow-rotting, that is, when the plants, being spread out, remain long enough to rot, (which however re- quires a greater length of time,) bleaches the lint, improves the quality, and makes it nearly as valuable as if it had been water-rotted. " After the operation of rotting is performed, the plants are again collected together, put in shocks or stacks, or, which is still better, put under a shed or some covering. When it is designed to break and dress them immediately, they are frequently set up against some neighbouring fences The best period for breaking and dressing is in the months of February and March, and the best sort of weather, frosty nights and clear thawing days. The brake cannot be used advantageously in wet or moist weather. It is almost in- variably used in this state out of doors and without any cover; and to assist its operation, the laborer often makes a large fire near it, which serves the double purpose of drying the plants and warming himself. It could not be used in damp weather in a house without a kiln or some other means of drying the stalks. "The brake in general use is the same hand brake which was originally introduced and has been always employed here, resembling, though longer than the common flax brake. It is so well known as to render a particular de- scription of it, perhaps, unnecessary. It is a rough contri- vance, set upon four legs, about two and a half feet high. The brake consists of two jaws with slits on each, the lower iaw fixed and immovable, and the upper one movable, so that it may be lifted up by means of a handle inserted into a head or block at the front jend of it. The lower jaw has three slats or teeth^ made of tough white oak, and the upper two, arranged approaching to about two inches in front, and in such manner that the slats of the upper jaw play between those of the lower. These slats are about six or seven feet in length, six inches in depth, and about two inches in thick- tiess in their lower edges; they are placed edgewise, round- ed a little on their upper edges, which are sharper than those below. The laborer takes his standby the side of the brake, and grasping in his left hand as many of the stalks as he cah conveniently hold, with his right hand he seizes the handle ih the head of the upper jaw, which he lifts, and 9 98 THE COMPLETE FARMER throwing the handful of stalks between the jaws, repeatedly strikes them by lifting and throwing down the upper jaw. These succesive strokes break the woody or reedy part of the stalks into small pieces or shoes, which fall off during the process. He assists their disengagement by striking the handful against a stake, or with a small wooden paddle, un- til the lint or bark is entirely clean, and completely separa- ted from the woody particles. "After the above operation is performed, the hemp may be scutched, to soften it, and to strengthen the threads That process, however, is not thought to be profitable, and is not therefore generally performed by the grower, but is left to the manufacturer, as well as that of beating and hack- ling it. Scutching is done by the laborer taking in his left hand a handful of the lint, and grasping it firmly, then lay- ing the middle of it upon a semicircular notch of a perpen- dicular board of the scutching-frame, and striking with the edge of the scutch that part of the lint which hangs down on the board. After giving it repeated strokes, he shakes the handful of lint, replaces it on a notch, and continues to strike and turn all parts of it, until it is sufficiently cleans- ed, and the fibres appear to be even and straight. " The usual daily task of an able-bodied hand at the brake is eighty pounds' weight ; but there is a great difference not only in the state of the weather and the condition of the stalks, produced' by the greater or less degree in which they have been rotted, but in the dexterity with which the brakp is employed. Some hands have been known to break from one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds per day. The laborer ties up in one common bundle the work of one day, and in this state it is taken to market and sold. From what has been mentioned, it may be inferred, as the fact is, that the hemp of some growers is in a much better condition than that of others. When it has been carelessly handled or not sufficiently cleansed, a deduction is made from the price by the purchaser. It is chiefly bought in our villages, and manufactured into cotton bagging, bales, and other kinds of untarred cordage. The price is not uniform. The ex- tremes have been as low as three and as high as eight dol- lars for the long hundred, the customary mode of selling it. The most general price during a term of many years has been from four to five dollars. At five dollars it compen- sates well the labor of the grower, and is considered more profitable than any thing else the farmer has cultivated." AND RUBAL ECONDUIST. 99 " The quantity of net hemp produced to the acr«! is from SIX hundred to one thousand weight, varying according to the fertUity and preparation of the. soil and the state of the season. It is said that the quantity which any field will produce may be anticipated by the average height of the plants throughout the field. Thus, if the plants will average eight feet in height, the acre will yield eight hundred weight of hemp ; each foot in height corresponding to a hundred weight of the lint. "Hemp exhausts the soil slowly, if at all. An old and successful cultivator told me that he had taken thirteen or fourteen successive crops from the same field, and that the last was the best. That was, however, probably owing to a concurrence of favorable circumstances. Nothing cleanses and prepares the earth better for other crops (especially for small grain or grasses) than hemp. It eradicates all weeds, and when it is taken off, leaves the field not only clean, but smooth and even." FLAX. The following observations on this subject, are extracted from " Essays on Flax Husbandry, by S. W. Pomeroy, Esq., First Vice President of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture." Change of Seed. Notwithstanding it is an opinion well established among experienced flax-growers in this country, that a change of seed is advantageous, it is apprehended that they are not aware of the extent of the benefit to be de- rived by selecting seed from a soil or climate essentially dif- ferent ; and it may be owing to a want of attention in this particular, that the flax crops are so uncertain, and the qual- ity inferior, however perfect in other respects the system may be conducted. Mr. Young observes, that " foreign flax- seed was universally used in Ireland, when it could be ob- tained ; otherwise they were careful to procure seed which grew upon soil of an opposite quality from that which was to be sown ; that American seed was to be preferred, and pro- duced finer flax than any other." Baltic seed produced more, but of a coarser quality. It is well known that Amer- ican seed always bears the highest price in the Irish market Mr. Pomeroy cites a number of examples to show the im portance attached to the culture.of fliutip Europe, " and to justify the conclusion, that in 'thiOaui^^^>'^Anfe completely pulverized, and never be worked when wet. " No dung should be applied to the land when the flax ia sown, but may be put on. bountifully with the previous crop. The objection is, that dung, forces the growth so rapidly, that the {Plants draw weak, have a thin harl, and are the more liable to lodge. Lime, marl, shells, leached ashes, &c. do not produce such efiects. Top-dressings, soon after the plants appear, of plaster, ashes, soot, &c., are highly bene- ficial, as they not only encourage the growth, but are a pro- tection against worms, which sometimes attack young plants, and may.be considered the only enemy! they have except weeds. " Salt has been mentioned by the late Dr. Elliot, of Con- necticut, as an excellent manure to plough in with flax, at the rate of five bushels to the acre;* probably more would be better. Plaster is now much used in Duchess coun,ty, the best cultivated district in New York, as a manure for flax, on which its good efifects are as apparent as on corn. " The late chancellor Livingston viewed a piece of flax' on the 20th of May, 1791, beiohging to a poor tenant, very injudiciously sown on a dry sandy declivity ; it looked so iex- tremely sickly that the tenant thought of ploughing it up; the chancellor gave him three bjshels of plaster, which was sown the next morning before the dew was ofl^, and had the satisfaction of seeing his tenant gather more flax from his half acre in an uncommon dry season, than was produced from any acre in the iieighbourhbod. " The best preparatory crops in this country at pri^sent appear to be potatoes, corn, and roots; they will most geuT erally repay the extra manure, arid, if well managed, check the production of weeds. "The following rotations may serve as an outline subject^ to be varied, and hemp or othei" crops introduced, as circum- stances requirCj viz. : * See EIIioCb Essays on Field Husbandry. 9* 102 THE COMPLETE FARMER " No. I. Low, cold, or reclaimed Soils, 1st year, Potatoes, 2J do. Flax, with seeds. Sd do. Herd's grass and ed top, or tall meadow oat grass, to coutinn three years or more, and the course repeated. " No. II. Strong Uplands. 1st year. Potatoes or com, 2d do. Com or roots, 8d do. Flax, with seed 4th do. Clover, 5th do. Orchard grass or herd'a^ass, to conlmoB three yeara OT mote. " No. III. Light La»ds, 1st year. Potatoes or corn, 2d* do. Com or roots. 3d do. Flax, with seed. •Jth do. Clover, to be mown once, the after growth to be turned in, and rye sown thick on the furrow, which may be soiled or fed in the spring by cheep or milch cows, and ploughed in fou 5th year. Corn. 6th do. Spring wheat or barley. 7th do. Clover; and the course to be pursued as before ; when flax will occupy the land every seventh year. In all cases, except when hemp is sub- stituted, the tillage crops should receive the dung. " If the land is ploughed into beds or convex ridges, like turnpike roads, about a rod wide, especially if low and level, the crop will be much more secure from injury by heavy rains, and the grass crops will be better if it remains in that form. On any soils, fall ploughing in narrow ridges will facilitate its early working in spring, and should not be dis-. pensedwith." Mr. Pomeroy gives the following directions relative to choice of seed. " That of the last year's growth should be obtained if pos- sible. The usual marks of good seed 'are, that it be plump, oily, and heavy, of a bright brown color, sinking readily in the water, and when thrown into the fire to crackle and. blaze quick. A very simple method of trial is, to sprinkle it thin between two pieces of wet paper, which plunge into a hot- bed or dunghill, and in less than twenty-four hours the pro- portion that will vegetate can be discerned, which should be ascertained, in order to regulate the quantity to be sown. "On this head no particular directions can be given, as it depends on the various qualities of soil, goodness of seed, &c. The rule for sowing small grains is reversed; flax re- quiring to be sown thickest on rich soil, as not more than one stalk is wanted from a plant. In England and Scotland never less than two, nor more than three bushels to the acre are sown. Two and a half is the most usual portion. In Flanders and Ireland selcnm less than three bushels are AND RURAL BCONOMISl 103 sowu, except when seed is an object. Thick sowing is to obtain fine flax. In this country it will be important at present to sow at such a rate as will insure good crops of each; and experience only can determine the exact point. It is probable that six pecks is the least, and two bushels the extent that should be sown to obtain the most profitable re- sults, till the demand for seed is con.siderably lessened." Sowir^. Mr Pomeroy recommends sowing as early as it is possible to prt>pare the grouiid ; says that it is important that the seeds should be equally distributed, and " fortunate- ly what has long been a desideratum is now attained. A machine for sowing small seeds broad-cast with perfect regu- larity has lately bC'en invented, and performs to great satis- faction." * Weeding. " vYeeding is considered in Europe, and by good husbandmen in this country, as necessary to secure a good crop of flax, which is a very tender plant when young, and more easily checked in its progress by weeds than any other. It is noi supposed to be injured by the clover and grass sown with it; on the contrary, the Flemish farmers think them beneficial, by protecting the tender roots from drought, and keeping the weeds under. It should be care- fully wed when f^e plants are three or four inches high ; they are not then injured by the laborer going barefooted over them." Pulling. " This should be performed as soon as the leaves begin tc fall and the stalks show a bright yellow color, and when the bolls are turned a little 'brown. The seed will continue to ripen afterwards. When the flax is lodged, it should be pulled immediately, in any stage of its growth, or it will be entirely lost. Great care is requisite in sorting the different lengths, and keeping them separate till afler the flax is hackled, or much waste will ensue in that process." Saving Seed. "As soon as the flax is dry enough to be put under cover, it should be rippled, as it is termed. A comb, resembling the head gf a rake, but with teeth longer and nearer together, made of hickory or oak, is fastened up * Bennett^s machine for sowing hroad-cast; a description and drawing of wliich are given in il;? " Memoirs of the Philadelphia Agricultural Society," Vol. IV, with ample testimony of its usefulness. It is pijshed forward by a man, like a wheel-barrow, and will sow more than one ao-.^3 iu an 1 our, ua 'mueded hy v/iad or ligll^ rain. 104 THE COMPLETE FARMEK on a block, and the flax, taken in parcels no longer than the hands can firmly grasp, is drawn through, and the bolls rip- pled off; attention to sorting at the same time should be con- tinued. The bolls are to be riddled and winnowed immedi- ately; spread thin on a clean floor, or on sheets, in the sun, and when sufiiciently dry, and beginning to open, threshed. By this method, the foul seeds are completely separated with little trouble, and good clean seed is ready for an early market, often the best, without the use of expensive ma- chinery to make it so. Here the operations of the farmer ought to end ; the process of preparation being foreign to and unconnected with his other pursuits; and which has been the greatest objection to extensive flax culture. Can there be a reason why the farmer is to prepare his flax more than the hides of his cattle, which he sends to the tanner? They are both chemical processes; and to dissolve the glutinous or resinous substances»by which the fibres are attached to the stem, without impairing their strength, is perhaps as critical, and requires as much care and judgment, as to ex- tract the animal juices from the hides, and fill the pores with tannin. In short, the flax grower and flax preparer and dresser should be distinct professions. They are said to be so in Flanders and Holland, and were extensively so in Scotland, where the farmer sold his flax on the ground, or in sheaves at his barn or rick. "The preparation of flax by steeping is very general in the great flax-growing countries in Europe, but it is not quite finished in the water. It remains spread some days on the grass, which is necessary to render it soft, and give that silvery appearance so desirable. The destructive process of dew-rotting is most commonly practised in this country, and when water is resorted to, it is at an improper season and the process imperfect ; which is the cause of its being so harsh and brittle. Perhaps no part of the system- requires such an allowance for difference of climate. In the humid atmosphere of Ireland, it is not very material when it is spread ; but in this clipiate, when exposed to a July or August sun, every drop after a shower becomes a burning- glass, and literally scorches the fibres ;• besides, such a highly putrid fermentation as will then take place in the water, though it separates the harl more speedily, not only injures it, but communicates a stain, that renders the process of bleaching much more tedious and expensive. "The flax should not be put into the water till about tha AND RURAL 5CON0MIST. 106 first of October, and remain from ten to fourteen days, ac- cording to the temperature af: the weather ; and should be taken out before the fibres will separate freely j, spread on the grass, when the frost wilJ very much assist the operation; and the flax exhibits a gloss and softness that it is impossible to give it otherwise. The following method of preparing hemp, will apply with great force to the point under discus- sion. During the late war, ca experienced ship-master in Connecticut, and who was also a good fariner, raised a crop of hemp. As soon as it was dry enough to be stowed away, it was put under cover, and remained till October; was then put into clear soft water, till the iibres' would' separate with some difficulty, when it was spread on the grass; the frost completed the operation, and when dry it was immediately secured; There was no putrid fermentation to deteriorate the harl, nor was it mildewed by being exposed to the wea- ther, and when dressed exhibited that fine silver-green hue by which the Russian hemp is distinguished;'*' and when worked up, was pronounced by the rope-makers to be equal to any hemp ever imported ! Hei-e is a lesson for our west- ern brethren, that is worth more to them than mines of silver. Clear, soft, stagnant water, is preferred in Europe. A canal forty feet long, six broad, and four deep, is said to be suffi- cient for the produce of an acre of flax, atone time. It should be formed on a clay or some holding soil, where the water from a spring or brook can be conducted in with qonveni- ence ; the expense would not be great, and on most farms suitable sites may be had. May not ^boiling or steaming be found the most advantageous process of > preparing flax ? The very superior sample of thread exhibited at Brighton, in 1818, for which Mrs. Crowninshield, of Danvers, received a premium, was spun from flax prepared by'boiling. • It ap- pears by the ' Transactions of the Swedish Academy, 'that a method was practised in Sweden of preparing flax to resem- ble cotton,' by boiling it ten hours in salt water, spreading on the grass, and frequently watering, by which it becomes soft and bleached. Boiling or steaming will not appear very for- midable or expensive when we examine the subject. A box twenty feet long, six feet wido, and four deep, well construct- ed of stout planks, a boiler, from which a large tube extends into and communicates with the water in the box, will boil * The ber Kiga hemp supplied for the British navy ie prepared by steeping; during vibii.. it is shifted three times. 106 THE COMPLETE FARMER the produce of a quarter of an acre in a day ; that is, if we allow double the room to boil in that is required for steeping. A steam-pipe, instead of the tube, and having the top of the box well secured, would permit the process of steaming to go on. It is probable that by either method, spreading on the grass will be necessary to obtain soft flax. The yarns of which the sail cloth is made at Paterson are all steamed. The navy board expressly forbid their being boiled in alka- line lye, as is usual in most manufactures of linen. It is from this precaution that their canvas has the pliable; oily feeling, which so much recommends it. It should not be lost sight of, that by boiling or steaming, much time and ex- pense will be saved in bleaching. " In dressing," says Mr. Pomeroy, " our climate gives a decided advantage over Ireland, Flanders, or the north of Europe, where flax is dried on hurdles, over a peat fire, in ovens, or kilns, requiring great care in regulating the heat, to prevent injury. All this trouble and hazard is obviated by our dry atmosphere and keen northwest winds. Dr. Deane estimated the expense of dressing flax by hand at one third of the product. I believe the present price does not vary much from his estimate. A respectable gentleman from Duchess county. New York, informed me that mills or ma- chines, impelled by water, have been erected there, that break and completely dress the flax for a toll of one tenth ! It is said one or more of them are in operation in the west- ern part of this State. These mills were invented in Scot- land, and are now said to be brought to great perfection. They are erected in all directions in the principal flax dis- tricts in Ireland, and notwithstanding the low price and limit- ed demand for labor, are resorted to by the poorer classes of people, the dressing by hand being mostly abandoned. There are machines in England that dress the flax immedi- ately from the field, without any preparation whatever. An account of them may be found in the fifth volume of the Massachusetts Agricultural Journal. It appears by the re- port of a committee of the House of Commons, that in 1817 they were in successful operation. A man and three chil- dren impelled the machines, and dressed sixty pounds a day. Should they be susceptible of the application of water or steam power in any degree piroportionate, the advantage may be incalculable; but in' the present inquiry, we place these machines, however desirable, entirely out of the question." Product. " It is not :ncommon in Great Britain and Ir« AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 107 land to obtain eight hundred pounds of flax from an acre ! Six hundred pounds is estimated, in some districts, as an average; but it should be observed that little, if any, seed is obtained. The average crop in New England, as far as our information extends, cannot be- estimated at more than two hundred pounds, and six or eight bushels of seed. (We do not include the rich bottoms on the Connecticut, and some other rivers.) Dr. Deane was of opinion, that four hundred-pounds might be calculated on with proper manage- ment. "We think that four hundred pounds of good clean flax, and eight or ten bushels of seed, may fairly be assumed as a medium crop on favorable soils, where the culture becomes such an object as to make other farming operations subservi- ent to it, and due attention is paid 'to change of seed. ' " Those who grow flax to any extent are of opinion, that the seed, at the price it has been for some years past, pays for all the labor bestowed on the crop to the time the flax is ready to be prepared or rotted." WHEAT. To raise good wheat is considered, both in America and Europe, as an object of prime consequence to the cultivator, and agricultural writers have of course been very voluminous on the subject. We shall select and con- dense some of their remarks, which appear to us of the greatest importance, and add what our own observation and experience has stuggested. Wheat is. thought to be the most useful of the farinaceous plants; and as the bounty of Providence has generally de- creed, that those things which are most useful shall; be most common, wheat accordingly will grow in almost any part of the globe. It thrives not only in temperate, but in very hot and in very cold regions: in Africa and Siberia, as well as in the United States and Great Britain. It requires a good loamy soil, not too light nor too heavy. The " Memoirs of the New York Board of Agriculture," (Vol. II. p. 28,) state, that " wheat grows best on land which contains just as much clay as can be combined with it without subjecting the wheat to be frozen out." And the author of that article, Mr. Amoa Eaton, observes. "Since it is the clay which absorbs and retains most of the water injurious in wheat soils, I adopted a rule for the coasideration of farmers, founded on that prin- ciple, and confirned by all the observations [ have been l08 THE COMPLETE FARMER enabled to make. Rule. — "Wash a little of the soil in a tumbler of water, and observe ;he time required for it to be- come clear. If the time required exceeds three hours, it may be considered as liable to be injured by frost.", W.Van Dusen, a farmer of Rensellaer county, New York, says " that if wheat be sowed the last week in August, on clay soil, it will generally resist the effect of frost in the winter, and of insects in the spring." " A clay soil," according to the same work, " having absorbed a large proportion of water, becomes cellular as the water freezes, or rises up in various protuberances, so that the roots of' the wheat, plant become disengaged from their hold in the soil. It is very manifest, that if wheat be sowed so early that each plant may have time to extend its roots into the soil, its chance for retaining its hold will be-better." We believe that not only clay, but lime, chalk, marl, or other calcareous substance, is necessary to bring wheat to perfection, and the grounds of our belief we shall exhibit hereafter. "The Complete Farmer" says, that " the best time for sowing wheat is about the beginning of September. But if the earth be very dry, it had better be deferred till some showers have moistened the soil." Mr. Mortimer says, he has known wheat to be so musted and spoiled by laying long in the ground before rain canie, that it never came up at all; to which he adds, " that he has seen very good' crops of wheat from seeds sown in July." We should apprehend, however, that it would be necessary to feed wheat sown so early, in 'order to prevent its going to seed the first year, or getting too far advanced in its growth to resist the frosts of the succeeding winter. Sowing in dry ground is generally recommended for seeds ; but wheat, being liable to be smut- ty, is commonly prepared by steeping in brine or lime, and in consequence of the steep vegetation commences ; and if the seed in this state is placed in earth which is and contin- ues for anjr time dry, vegetation is checked by the drought, which kills' or greatly injures the seed. Eariy sowing requires less seed than late, because the plants have more time, and are more apt to spread, and throw out a good number of stalks. More seed is required for poor thftn for rich lands, and rich land early sowed re- quires the least of any. Bordley's "Husbandry" says, " The climate and soil of America may be believed to diffei greatly from those of England, respecting the growth of some particular plants. Wheat sown there, two to three AND RURAL KCONOMIST. 109 bushels on an acre, yields great crops. Two bushels an acre sown in Maryland or Pennsylvania would yield straw without grain. In Maryland three pecks are commonly sown. I never had better crops than from half a bushel of seed wheat to an acre, in a few instances. In these instances the ground was perfectly clean and fine, after many ploughihgs or horse- hoeings of maize, [Indian corn,] on which the wheat was sown in September, whilst the maize was ripening. ' It was a clay loam, highly' pulverized. But because of the loss of plants at other times, I preferred to sow three pecks an acre." "Grain which is thin sown, says the Complete Farmer, is less apt to lodge. Every one must have observ- ed, that in places where foot-paths are made through wheat fields, by the side of the paths, where the corn is thin, and has been trodden down in winter and spring, the plants have stood erect, when most of the qorn in the same field has been laid flat on the ground ; an advantage proceeding from the circumstance of the stalks having more room." ' "The Farmer's Assistant " asserts, that "the time for sowing wheat probably depends much on previous habit. Thus if it were sown a number of successive years by the middle of August, and then the time of sowing were chang- ed at once to Octobfe', the crop would probably be much lighter on tha . accour ; yet where wheat has become ha- bituated to be sown'latt it will do tolerably well. The later it is sown, however, the lore seed is requisite. When, early sown, a bushel to the acre is believed to be sufficient ; but when sown later, a bushel and a half, or more, may be necessary." The estimate of. seed, however, should be formed, not so much from the capacity of any particular measure, as from the number of grains which that measure contains. The larger and fuller the seed is, the greater quantity by measure will be required ; the smallers the less quantity. Much, therefore, must be left to the discretion of the farmer^ who must take into consideration the time of sowing, the quality and preparation of the soil, as well as the plumpness or the shrivelled state of the seed wheat. If naked summer fallows are used at all, they may as well be made preparatory to a crop of wheat. It may some- times be expedient to suspend, for one season, the raising of crops of any sort on land which is exhausted or greatly in- fested with weeds ; and during the summer and autumn, plough and harrow it several tiines, and thus thoroughly subdue it. \^ hen such a process is adopted, wheat is gen 10 110 THE COMPLETE FARMER erally the succeeding crop. The custom of naked fallow ing, however, is not much approved of in modern husbandry, and that mode of preparing for wheat is rarely adopted by scientific cultivators. Sir John Sinclair says, "The raising clean, smothering, green crops, and feeding stock with them upon the land, is not only much more profitable, as far as relates to the value of the crop substituted in lieu of a fal- low, but is also a more efi^ectual method of procuring large crops of wheat, or any other crop, which may succeed the green crop." There is a disadvantage sometimes attending fallows, which we apprehend may be more detrimental in our climate than in that of Great Britain. Land which is kept in a light and pulverized state is liable to be washed away by violent rains, and the showers of our summer sea- son are usually more plentiful, and fall with more impetuosi- ty than those of England,^ although the mean moisture is less, and there is less rain falls in the course of the year on this than the other side of the Atlantic. In modern tillage, wheat more usually follows clover than any other crop; and Bordley's " Husbandry " says, "clo- ver is the best preparative for a crop of wheat." In such case, English farmers, and indeed ail others who loork it right, give but one ploughing, and harrow in the seed by passing the harrow twice in a place the same way with the furrows. Mr. Bordley directs, that the operations of plough- ing, harrowing, and sowing, should immediately follow each other. Mr. Macro, an eminent English. farmer, says, " From upwards of twenty years' experience I am of opinion, that the best way of sowing clover lands with wheat, is to plough the land ten or fourletn days before you sow it, that the land may have time to get dry, and after rain to make it dresa well. I am at a loss to account for the wheat thriving belter on lands which have been ploughed some time, than it does on fresh ploughed lands which dress as well or better ; but I have (ften tried both ways on the same lands, and always found the former answer best." Mr. Bordley, in attempting to account for this effect says, " I conjecture that the clover plants being buried and the wheat sown at the same time, they both ferment and run into heat in the same period ; the germ then shoots, and the root is extremely delicate and tender for some days ; during which, the buried herbage obtains its highest degree of heat ; which, added to the in- ternal heat of the germ, may, though only slightly, check and a little injure th? del 'ate shoots of the wheat. In AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 1 / Sprouting barley for making malt, a little excess -fheat in the bed checks, and a little more totally stops the sprouting or growth of the roots. Both modes give crops superior to what are produced on fallow. Farmers may well try both methods, for determining which to prefer ; that is, as well immediate sowing, on ploughing in the clover, as the method of sowing not till ten or fourteen days after having ploughed in the clover : suppose a half each way." We believe that wheat would flourish better if it were buried deeper than it generally is in broad-cast sowing. Our opinion is founded on the following facts, relating to the physiology of the wheat plant. " A grain of wheat, when put into the ground at the depth of three inches, undergoes the following transformations : as soon as the farinaceous matter which envelopes the frame of the young plant con- tained within it is softened into, a milky state, a germ is pushed out, and at the bottom of that .germ small roots soon follow. The roots are gathering strength, whilst the germ, by the aid of the milky fluid, is shooting upwards ; and when the milk is exhausted, the roots are in activity, and are col- lecting nourishment for the plant from the soil itself. This is analogous to the weaning of the young of animals, which are not abandoned by the mother till they can provide for themselves. But the care of nature does not end here ; when the germ has fairly got above the surface, and become a plant, a set of upper roots are thrown out, close to the sur- face of the ground, which search all the superficial parts of the soil with the same activity as the under roots search the lower parts ; and that part of the germ which separates the two sets of roots is now become a channel, through which the lower roots supply the plant with the nourishment they have collected. What an admirable contrivance to secure the prosperity of the plant ! Two distinct sets of roots serve, fn the first place, to fix the plant firmly in the ground, and to collect nourishment from every quarter. The upper roots are appositely situated to receive all the nourishment that comes naturally from the atmosphere, or artificieilly as manure, to the surface; and serve the further purpose of be- ing the base of new stems, which are tillered up, and so greatly increase the productiveness of the' plant. The ex- cellence of the drill system in grain may probably be per- ceived in this explanation ; for in broad-cast sowing the seeds lie very near to the surface, and in this situation it is not only more' expose." to accidents arising Vom birds, ia* 112 ■'HE COMPLETE FARMER sects and the weather, but the two sets of roots are nece»f sarily crowded together, so as almost to become indistinct ; the plant is less firm, and has fewer purveyors, collecting food for ii "* ~ Dr. Deane observed, that " wheat that is sowed in autumn, a clover ley excepted, should, instead of harrowing, be cov- ered with a shallow furrow, and the surface left rough. It will be less in danger of being killed by the frost in winter, and less injured by drying winds in the following spring. The furrows should be left without harrowing; for the more uneven the ground is, the more the made from quicklime, until every kernel received a coat of the same ; say one quart of un- slacked lime to each bushel of wheat. I prefer lime to lye made of wood ashes, [only,] on account of its whiteness, thereby rendering it easier to throw the seed (broad-cast) more evenly on the field. "The chacacter of the soil is a deep loam, intermixed with cobble stones. Its natural forest growth had been oak, (white and red,) beech, rock maple' chestnut, and hemlock. 124 THE COMPLEiFK FARMER " 1 he character of the wheat appears to differ from our usual kinds, by the straw being much taller; (some of which was five feet ten inches in height;) and although it is what we call bearded, and the heads of two varieties, similar in appearance to our red and white, yet there is a variety, (sny a sixth part perhaps,) which, notwithstanding the head is short, yet the kernels are so closely set that I have repeat- edly counted over eighty kernels from one ear or head. This variety I call the pearl, from its clear appearance. The kernel throughout the crop was very plump and large ; the straw stout as well as tall, bearing the beating of our New England storms better than any I have heretofore grown. I have not the least doubt but it will succeed well, where other varieties have prospered, and have no hesitation ia believing it will be a valuable acquisition for many years to come to the agricultural interests of our country." RYE. The farmer who has it in his power to drive his business, instead of being driven by it, will do well to sow his winter rye some time between the middle of August and the middle of September. If it be sowed so early, it will be less apt to winter-kill, will require less seed, the growth will be stouter, and the produce greater, other things being equal, than if the sowing was deferred till late in autumn. Some foreign writers on agriculture assure us, that winter rye and spring rye are of the' same species; and, " The Far- mer's Assistant," says " There is but one kind of rye ; but this may be made winter rye or spring rye, by gradually habituating it to different times of sowing. Take winter rye, for instance, and sow it later and later each fall, and it may at length be sown in the spring, and become spring rye. On the contrary, sow spring rye very late in the fall at first, and you may gradually sow it earlier each year, until it may be sown in May, and used the first season for pasture or mowing, and then grown to perfection the second year." The same opinion is likewise expressed in Deane's " New England Farmer." Rye is capable of being cultivated on most kinds of land, but the light sandy soils, where wheat will not thrive, are the sorts of soil on which it will, generally speaking, be found most profitable to raise this kind of produce. Sir John Sinclair obse'ves. that " this species of grain is not so AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 12S extensively cultivated in Scotland as it ought to be; (for weighty crops of it might be raised on soils of the most po' rous and arid nature, and upon almost pure sand along the seashore;) and the winter sort, without which the people living on the coasts of the Baltic could hardly be subsisted, is almost unknown. Thirty-five busl^ls of rye were raised upon an acre, on land that would not have produced twenty bushels 6f oats. Indeed, oats, sown along side of the rye, upon the same field, and on land as nearly as could be judg- ed of the same quality, were scarcely worth the expense of reaping. On moorish land, rye has been found a more certain crop than oats. Mr. George Ciilley remarks, that rye, like oats, will answer in crude soils without lime, or calcareous manures, which renders that crop peculiarly cal- culated for waste lands when first brought into cultiva- tion." Lands which will produce tolerable crops of wheat had better be cultivated for the purpose of raising wheat than rye. And, if we may believe what English writers tell us relative to this subject, the use of lime for manure will often so far change the nature of a poor soil, proper only for rye, that wheat may be made its substitute. Mr. Marshall, in his " Rural Economy of Yorkshire," says, "Before the use of lime was prevalent, much rye was grown on the lighter lands upon the margin of the Vale, and in the Moorlands scarcely any other crops than rye and oats were attempted. Now, rye is principally confined to the Moorland dales; and even there the alteration of soils by lime has been such that wheat has become the more prevalent crop. Nevertheless, on light, sandy soils, rye is generally more profitable thaa wheat, and the bread which is made from a mixture of the two grains is here esteemed more wholesome to people in general than that which is made from wheat alone." When rye is sown upon light land it ripens much earlier than on a cold, stiff ground, and it is said by some writers that, by contmuing to sow on such a soil for two or three years, it will be forwarded so much as to ripen a month ear- lier than that which has been raised upon strong, cold ground. For this reason, those who sow their rye late will do well to provide themselves with this early seed. Dr. Elliot informs, that if rye be sowed successively every year upon the same land, both the crop and the land will be greatly improved, insomuch that some grounds, which would yield but five bushels to the acre at first, have in time 11* 26 THE COMPLETE FARMER produced a crop of fifteen bushels, without the charge ol manure; and Dr. Deane observed, that he "had known the same spot produce twenty crops of this grain in succession, excepting that it was planted with Infliancorn once or twice, to subdue the weeds, and that the crops yearly increased in- stead of diminishing." But this, it is said, will not be the case, unless the soil ^ naturally of a good quality, and the stubbie be completely turned under, immediately aijler reap- ing. If the ground is suffered to remain after harvest with- out being ploughed till the stubble is dried and shrivelled so that it possesses but little substance, and the seeds of weeds have had time to ripen, the crops of grain in each succeed- ing year will be diminished, and the weeds will take an al- most exclusive possession of the soil. " The Farmer's Assistant " is opposed to the raising of successive crops of rye, unless as much as twenty-five bushels of this grain can be yearly had from the acre; as such an annual product would probably afford a clear profit to the acre of half that number of bushels; and such a profit, he observes, in some of the lighter and in some of the hard- er kinds of soil is not to be despised. The same writer re- commends sowing winter rye and spring rye, alternately, in order that the ground might, every other year, be enriched by the application of gypsum. "The growing crop of rye," he says, " receives no benefit from the application of this manure; but it quickly covers the ground with a fine sward of white clover; and as soon as the ground is thus swarded, it is in good condition for bearing any crop. Let the gyp- sum, therefore, be sown in the spring, on the growing crop of winter rye, and by the middle of October following the ground will be covered with white clover; turn this sward over in the latter end of the fall, and in the spring sow a crop of spring rye ; and, as soon as this is taken off, turn the ground over again for a crop of winter rye ; and in the spring repeat the process of manuring with gypsum, as be- fore, for a crop of spring rye; and thus proceed with these crops alternately." Some sow their winter rye at the last hoeing of Indian corn, and hoe it in; and this. Dr. Deane observed, was a good practice, when it is sown on flat land, or on a rich or heavy soil, where grain is apt to suffer by the frost of winter; for the plants of rye will be mostly on the corn hills, and so escape injury from frost; at least they will most com- monly escape, or so many of them as are necessary to give AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 127 a good crop. The plants that are killed will be those in the low spaces betwixt the hills. Rye is not onij a proper crop on land which is too poor to produce a good crop yf wheat, but it should be sown on a soil which is very rich, in preference, to wheat, because it is less apt to grow so rank as to lodge or blast than wheat. It is a very suitable crop for drained bogs. In the first vol- ume of "Communications to the British Board of Agricul- ture," (p. 341,) in speaking of the culture of rye in Russia, it is observed, that the produce from boggy lands drained and sowed with rye is upwards of forty bushels to one sowed; and they generally use a much smaller quantity of seed in sowing such lands. Another proof that rye.will bear very nlentiful manuring, may be adduced from a case reported by Mr. L'Hommedieu, of New York, who observed, in sub- stance, that a neighbour of his manured twenty square rods of poor, gravelly, dry soil, with four thousand Menhaden fish, and sowed it with rye, at the rate of about one bushel to the acre. In the spring it was twice successively eaten off, close to the ground, by sheep breaking in, after it had ac- quired a height of nine inches the first time, and six inches the latter. These croppings, however, only served to make it grow thicker and stronger than before; and when harvest- . ed it produced sixteen bushels, or at the rate of one hun- dred and twenty-eight bushels to the acre; giving to the owner, according to the calculation of Mr. L'Hommedieu, at the rate of eighty-five dollars to the acre of clear profit.* In the "Memoirs of the New York Board of Agricj;!- ture," (Vol. I. p. 82,) it is said, "Rye should be sowed tho last week in August, or the first week in September, at the rate of about thirty-six quarts per acre ; some say forty-eight quarts. But if it is not sowed at that time it may not come up until spring. A Worthirigton had a good crop, which he sowed in a January snow storm. Rye raised on upland makes much better flour thau that which is raised on low or damp land.'' Rye may be sown in autumn to great advantage for green fodder for cattle and sheep, particularly the -latter, in the spring. Ewes and lambs will derive much benefit from it, at a time when little or no, other green feed can be procured • Transactions of the New Yoik Agricultural Society, part 3, pp. 35, 36.— This account m ly seem incredible, but Mr. L'Hommedieu declared ttiat it waf attested to by many credible witnesses. 28 THE COMPLETE FARMER When it is meant for this purpose, it should not only be sow- ed early in autumn, but should be sowed thicker than when it is intended to stand for a crop of seed. Some say that it may well be mowed for hay two or three times in the course of the summer; and this piece of husbandry is recommend- ed for farmers whose lands are mostly dry or unsuitable for grass. The quantity of seed to be sown on. an acre should vary according to the soil, the time of sowing, and the purposes for which it is intended. If it be sowed in the latter part of August, or beginning of September, and is intended to re- main for a seed crop, the quantity should vary from thirty two to forty-eig,ht quarts, according to the goodne'ss of soil. Later sowing requires more seed, and in some cases two bushels to an acre will not be too great a quantity. Ban- nister's Husbandry says, " When this grain is sown for sheep feed, it is proper to allow three bushels to the acre, for where the blade, haulm, or stalks form the primary ob- ject, a much larger proportion of seed is requisite than when the crop is meant for harvesting." Mr. Adan>s Knight, of Newbury, Massachusetts, received a premium of twenty dollars, from the Massachusetts Agri- cultural Society, for a crop of rye, obtained as follows: " The soil is a gravelly loam, rather dry than otherwise. Tlie land was planted with com in the spring of 1831, and manured in the hills with about six cords of manure to the acre, of common quality. In the month of August follow- ing, said acre was sowed with three pecks of seed, and hoed in the usual manner. In the month of August, 1832, the rye was reaped and threshed, and found to measure forty- ,five bushels and five-eighths of a bushel. There is standing on said acre of land seventy-five appletrees, from two to six inches through at the root."* The same yearJMr. Gideon Foster, of Charlestown, Mas- sachusetts, obtained thirty-eight and one-sixteenth bushels of . rye from one acre, as follows: " The land is bordering on, and near the mouth of Mystic river. The soil is principally a black loam, with clay bot- tom. In 1831 it was planted with potatoes, with a moderate supply of manure, and yielded an ordinary crop. The pota- toes were removed the last week in September, the land well ploughed and harrowed in the usual way, with one and a * New England Farmer, Vol. XI. p. 238. AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 129 half bushels of seed to the acre. I owe my success princi- pally to the use of night manure, and to that in consequence of its being well prepared by age, and thoroughly mixed with a large proportion of earth, and frequently removed by the fork and the shovel; so that in this way, being ripened for use, it went immediately (not to burn, as when applied green or new, but) to nourish and fertilize the soil, '^here was early in the spring of the present year spread on the field about eight cords of the above described manure. The field was harvested the latter part of August, the grain threshed soon after, and measured by the purchaser, whose certificate followed, showing the product to be sixty-one and three- fourths bushels, or thirty-eight bushels and two quarts to the acre."* The following is from the ' ' Transactions of the Essex Agricultural Society." " To the Trustees of the Essex Agricultural Society, ** Gentlemen, — Having for many years past been more than commonly guccessful in raising large crops of winter rye by a process of cultivalion which^ I believe, is entirely new, I have been induced to submit a statement of the mode of culture, with the produce. And, that the success of '.he experiment this season may not appear to be altogether accidental, it v' -. perhaps, be as well to communicate the result of the process for the three or f previous years. ** The land on which the experiment has been conducted iS situated on the Merrimack, about a mile and a half east of Haverhill bridg ; and came into possession of my father in 1827. The soil is a sand, appro? ;hing to loam as it recedes from the river. Perhaps tiie teim plain larid (b. which it usually passes) will better convey an idea of the quality of the soiL It is altogether too light for grass. The crnps we find most profitable to cultivate on it, are winter rye, Indian corn, potatoes, and to some extent turnips. Oats might probably be raised to advantage, were it not that the land is completely filled with the»weed commonly called charlock, which renders it entirety unfit for any spring crop, excepting such as can be hoed. The crops of i^e on the neighbour- ing soil of the same nature vary, I believe, from seven or eight to twelve or thirteen bushels per acre, according to the cultivation, and their approximation to the river. We usunlty raise un this land from thirteen to thirty bushels of Indian corn per acre. Potatoes are very good in quality, but the quantity ia quite small ; not sufficient to be profitable, were it not that the land is very easily cultivated. " In the summer of 1827, we ^ wed three bushels of winter rye near the river, on about two acres of land, Vi' ^ert, that "March pigs, killed about Christmas, are the mosi profitable for pork." Others say, " pigs ought never to come until June; for the cost of earlier pigs exceeds the profit." And, farther, we learn that " the methods proposed for fattening hogs by the different farmers in that county an; very various. General H. Moffit, H. Piatt, Esq., Colonel Worthington, Messrs. J. Phillips, A Bush, and some others, recommend keeping hogs in pasv turesi with some slops from the dairy, &c., till near the last of August; some say a little later. All agree that near this time tlii'y nianife.st a disrelish for grass. Small patches of peas, or even of corn, will then be convenient to turn them .. into for a few weeks. About the first of September begin with boiled potatoes and pumpkins, mashed together, with a little Indian meal, ground oats and peas, or other grain, stirred into the mixture after it coolst"-From two to four weeks before killing time, the food shfiuld be dry Indian corn, and clean cold water. Mr. Yonghans fattens his hogs in a large yard or field, with a shelter in it to which they may retire to sleep. But elder Turner says, hogs should never know what liberty is, but should be kept close all their lives, and as inactive as possible ; that with this, method double the quantity of pork can be produced with the same expense of feed."! The practice in Scotland is, to rear swine chiefly on raw potatoes, and to fatten them on these roots, boiled or prepar- ed by steam, with a mixture of oats, barley, or bean and pea-meal. Their troughs should be often replenished with a small quantity of food at a time, and kept always clean, and seasoned occasionally with salt. J " The Farmer's Magazine " says, "The outside leaves of cabbages, salted and let stand a month, and then mixed with buttermilk, will fat a hog in three weeks." Mr. Marshall says, (" Midland Counties," Vol. V. p. 453,) "Young pigs require warm * Memoirs of tliB New York Board of Agrimilture, Vol. I. p. 332. t Memoire of the New York Board of Agriculture, Vol. II. pp. 39, 40 i Report of Agriculture in Scotland. 14 158 THE COMPLETE FABMEP moat to make them gtvw. Corn and cold water will make them healthy; but warm beverage is considered as requisite to a quick growth." The same writer mentions another practice, which perhaps it may be thought proper to imitate in this country, because it saves labor and care. Some English farmers, he says, "keep two or three little store pigs in the fatting sty. While the fatting hogs are taking their repast, the little ones wait behind them, and as soon as their betters are served, lick out tiie troughs. "Besides the advantage of having by this expedient no waste nor foul troughs, there is another. The large pigs rise alertly to their food, lest the small ones should forestall them; and fill themselves the fuller, knowing that they have it not again to go to. "The disadvantage of this practice is, I understand, the large ones are apt to lord it too much over the little ones; especially in a confined sty. If, however, they had a sepa- rate apartment assigned them, with an entrance too small for the fatting swine to follow them, this disadvantage would be in a great measure remedied." If one wishes to fatten hogs, and either from indolence or too much occupation does not expect to give them a con- stant and regular attention, perhaps he may adopt to advan tage the following mode, pointed out by an English writer. " Mr. John Adams, of Cherrington, near Newport, Shrop- shire, has fattened eight pigs in the following cheap and easy manner: he places two troughs in the sty, one he fills with raw potatoes, the other with peas, and gives no water; when the pigs are dry they eat the potatoes. The eight pigs were fattened so as to weigh from sixteen to twenty score each, and ate no more than thirty bushels of peas, and about two hundred bushels of .potatoes. " No doubt dry Indian corn and potatoes might be fed out in this way with as good an effect as peas and potatoes. Rubbing and currying the hides of fattening hogs is of great advantage to them. It is not only very grateful to them, but conducive to their health. It will be well, like- wise, in every sty to place a strong post for the animals to rub against. During the time of their fattening they should have plenty of litter, which will be a double advantage, pro- viding for the comfort of the animal and increasing the quantity of manure. Boiled or steamed clover hay wi.l, it is said, keep. store hogs in the winter, but the addition of boiled or sleamcd po AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 159 tatoes or carrots will much increase the value of the wash. Mr. Young directs to soil or feed swine in a yard on clover, cut up with a scythe, in preference to pasturing them in the field. But Judge Peters, of Pennsylvania, says, " In sum- mer my hogs chiefly run on clover. Swine feeding on clover in the fields will thrive wonderfully; when those (confined or not) fed on cut clover will fall away." In Indian harvest, the unripe ears of corn should be picked out and given to the hogs as fast as they can eat them. Soft corn (as it is called) will do them much more good in a green than in a dried state, and it is very difficult to dry it without its turn- ing mouldy. There is a great advantage in boiling, steaming, or baking almost all sorts of food given to swine. The last American edition of "The Domestic Encyclopedia," informs, that "Mr. Timothy Kirk, of Yorktown, Pennsylvania, fed one pig with boiled potatoes and Indian corn, and another with the same articles unboiled. The two animals were weighed every week, and the difference between them was as six to nine. The experiment was continued several weeks, and the animals alternately fed upon boiled and unboiled food, with a uniformity of result, which sufficiently showed the very great profit arising from boiled food." Steaming will answer as good a purpose as boiling, and with a proper ap- paratus may be more easily and cheaply effected.* Potatoes, meal, and a little linseed boiled together, make a rich and excellent wash. Boiled linseed, it is said, has a tendency to make pork soft and oily, and should therefore be but little if at all used towards the close of the time in which hogs are fattening. Grains of distilleries and the refuse of starch factories are excellent for fattening swine. Sweet apples are very good food for them, and a change of diet pretty often promotes their health and quickens the process of fattening Their meals should frequently be seasoned with a little salt. " The Complete Farmer," says, that " moist sed^y grounds are good for swine, the roots which grow in such soils they will eat; likewise brakes, ground-nuts, acorns, chestnuts," &c. Dr. Anderson said, that the hogs that are fed upon the acorns that they gather in the woods of Germany and Poland are reckoned to yield the finest bacon of any in Europe; and it is to this that most people ascribe the superior excellence of Westphalia hams. It might be well to try acorns, steamed • Sec New England Fanner. Vol. I. p 23. 160 HE COMPLETE FAilMEK or boiled, in oraer to correct their crudeness and bitterness; and it has been recommended to moisten them, and keep them on hand till they begin to sprout, when they will be more sweet and nutritious tnan in their original state. " The Complete Farmer" asserts, that "when hogs are fatted entire- ly on acorns, chestnuts, and other productions of the forest, the flesh will eat much better and sweeter than if fattened in a sty. Some indeed say their fat will not be so solid, nor so profitable, and therefore they commonly shut them up a week or ten days, and feed them with dry peas; but this is a mis- take, experience having shown that hogs fatted with acorns only have their fat as solid as those fatted with peas!" If this be correct, the value of acorns as food for swine is not gene- rally known in those parts of the United States with which we have been acquainted. We have seen places in the neighbourhood of farmers' dwellings where bushels might be had for stooping, but were as much neglected as if they had been pebble stones. The acorns recommended are, we be- lieve, those of the white oak; and whether the acorns of the numerous other kinds of oak are of any value as food for swine we cannot say. It might be well to try them, not only raw, but boiled or steamed, and likewise ground into meal, and given with, as well as without' other mixtures. We sus- oect that acorns alone would prove astringent, and if so, they might be qualified with a trough full of raw potatoes. Carrots, according to Mr. Young, are better than pota- toes, and some other writers assure us, that parsnips are bet- ler than either for feeding hogs. An English writer says, "They fatten all their pork in the island of Jersey with parsnips. They are much more saccharine than carrots, and it is well known that nothing fattens a hog faster or makes finer pork than the sugar-cane: " and we are told, that pars- nips, suffered to remain in the ground where they grew through the winter, and drawn in the spring, and boiled, tops and bottoms, made most excellent food for swine when other food was scarce. Acid or fermented food for swine has been highly recom- mendea. Mr. Arthur Young, whose authority amongst hus- bandmen is almost equal to that of the pope with Roman Catholics, says, " that the most profitable method of con- verting corn of any kind, into food for hogs is, to grind it into meal, and mix this with water in cisterns, in the proportion of five bushels of meal to one hundred gallons water; stir- ring it well several times a day for tb'-ee weeks in cold AND SURAL ECONOMIST. 161 weather, or a fortnight in a warmer season, by which- it will have fermented well and become acid, till which it is not ready to give. The mixture should always be stirred im- mediately before feeding, and two or three cisterns should hi kept fermenting in succession,, that no necessity may oc- cur of giving it not duly prepared." Judge Peters, of Penn- sylvania, whose authority is, in our opinion, not inferior to that of any man who ever wrote on agricultural topics, says, in substance, that "sour food is most grateful and alimenta- ry to swine. One gallon of sour wash goes farther than two of sweet." But An English work, entitled "Farmer's Calender," (autljor's name not given,) declares, that " much has been said, and little understood, about purposely souring food for hogs. It' is not that acidity can possibly tend to pinguefaction, [mak- ing fat,] but it is found the pigs will readily fatten upon acid, or rather acescent food, a sweetish taste and glutinous quality succeeding fermentation; and that they will do so still more' readily upon such as has never reached the acid state, I know and have seen in hundreds of instances. Is a proof wanted ? How much more readily do the country hogs feed ' upon sweet and unfermented food, than those of the starch-house upon the fermented and subacid wash, however rich. I say subacid, for did not starch-makers run off a great part of that which is really sour, they would kill instead of fatten their hogs." In order to reconcile these writers, it will only be necessary to advert to the different stages of ordinary fermentation, and the products of each stage. The first stage of fermen- tation produces sugar, and is called the saccharine fermenta- tion. The second stage developes alcohol, or spirit of wine^ and is called the vinous fermentation. The third stage pror duces vinegar, and is called the acid fermentation ; and the fourth and last stage converts the matter fermenting into a substance which is not only offensive, but poisonous, and is called the putrid fermentation. Thus if you sodk wheat oi other farinaceous substance in water of a proper temperature, it will first become sweet, and begin to sprout or vegetate; it will next afford spirit or alcohol ; continue the process, the wash turns sour, at first slightly, and then more strongly acid; and at last the whole becomes putrid. It probably contains most nourishment when it is sweetest, but it is valu- able till very sour, when it is worth little or nothing; and when the putrid fermentation has commenced it is worse 14* 162 THE C^^'MFLETE FARMER than nothing, as food for any animal. The farmur then should give his wash to his pigs while it is yet sweet, or but beginning to turn sour. Fattening Pigs on Coal. Cunningham, in his " Two Years in New South Wales," relates, " I had often heard it said among sailors that pigs would fatten on coals, find although I had observed them very fond of munching up the coals and cinders that came in their way, still I conceived they might relish them more as a condiment or medicine than as food, till I was assured by a worthy friend of mine, long in com- mand of a ship, that he once knew of a pig being lost for several weeks in a vessel he commanded, and it was at last found to have tumbled into the coal-hole, and there lived all that period without a single morsel of any thing to feed upon but coals : on being dragged out, it was found as plump and fat as if it had been feasting on the most nutritious food. Another friend told me of a similar case, which came under his observation; and although these may be solitary instan- ces, yet they serve at least to show the wonderful facility which the stomachs of certain animals possess of adapting their digestive powers to such an extraordinary sjiecies of food, and extracting wholesome nourishment therefrom When we consider coal, however, to be a vegetable produc- tion, containing the constituent principles of fat, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, our surprise will decrease." An Ohio farmer also, in a southern paper, recommends coals as useful in fattening hogs. After giving his hogs a small quantity daily, say two pieces to each, about the size of a hen's egg, they discontinued rooting, were more quiet, and appeared to fatten faster. He omitted the coal a few days, and they commenced rooting ; he gave it again, and they ceased to root. He supposed that the coal corrects the morbid fluid in the stomach, which incites them to root deep in search of fresh earth. The following mixture for fattening swine has been re- commended : Wash potatoes clean, boil and mash while hot, mix in at the same time oats and pea meal. Put the mixture into a large tub, which must stand till it becomes sour, but not putrid. Keep a quantity of this on hand, always fermenting and give it to your hogs as often as they will eat. Apples have been much recommended as food for swine. They are good raw, but better if boiled and mixed with bieal. A writer in a Brattleborough paper observes, ' I hova AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 163 tested by ten years' experience the value of apples as food for animals. I keep five or six hogs in my orchard, upon nothing but apples and a little svtrill ; and have uniformly found them to grow and gain flesh faster than hogs fed upon any thing else but grain. On the 1st of November, they are very decent pork ; after which I feed them about six weeks on grain before I kill them ; and I believe I have as fat hogs and as good pork as my neighbours, who give to their hogs double the quantity of grain that I do to mine." Sotos devouring their Offspring. It is not unfrequently the case that sows destroy their offspring. In "The New Eng- land Farmer," (Vol. V. p. 214,) is a communication from the Hon. O. Fiske, in which he observes, " In most cases where I, have inquired^into the fact, whether in old or young breeders, I have ascertained that they have been disturbed in some of their essential habits, either having been remov- ed from their companions, their range restricted, or from being removed from one pen to another. All these changes, however, may be effected with safety, by allowing them suf- ficient time to become accustomed to them, four or five weeks at least. I have known sows do well with a second litter after having destroyed a first under one of the above excitements. Hence, it would be unwise to condemn to death one which bid fair otherwise to be a valuable breeder, even for this most unnatural crime." Another writer directs to "separate the sow from the rest of the swine six or eight weeks before her bringing forth, so that she may become accustomed to her pen. Care .should be taken, however, to have her pen kept dry and well lit- tered ; always give them litter enough so as not to be oblig- ed to give any for six days before the time, for nothing dis- turbs a sow more than an abundance of litter, and which in my opinion has a great tendency to induce her to destroy her young. If the sow is with the other swine till within a few days of her bringing forth, and then separated, she will not get accustomed to her pen, and being disturbed, she will be pretty sure to destroy her pigs. "Raw salt pork, cut in small pieces, and given, will pre- vent them from eating their pigs. I have seen it given after they had ate two or three of their litter, with good success. But to prevent any mischief it should be kept by them at this time."* A writer for the same paper, (Vol. XI. p. 298,) • New England Farmer, Vol. XI. p. 297. 164 THE COMPLETE FARME8 observes, ' I have been careful for about a week before vay Bovi's were about to farrow, to give them some butcher's re- fuse meat, which does not cost much ; if easy to be pro cured give them a plenty, and I will venture to say that they will not eat their pigs." Another, in the same volume, p. 305, observes, " When the period of yeaning is near, I take the sow apart and give her free access to a warm bedroom of ample dimensions in my barn, with a dry plank floor, where the shingled walls prevent the entrance of cold, rain, or wind, with just enough straw to amuse her ' moments of anxiety,' but not enough to allow a single pig to cover his head and lose his road to the fountain of comfort." A writer with the signature "Berk- shire," in the same volume, p. 321, states as his opinion, that the evil is caused by confining the sow in -a light pen from the ground, and the want of a suitable supply of potatoes, turnips, ruta baga, &c., in addition to their other food. " Whaler," in the same paper, p. 338, who has raised fine pigs on board of a whale ship, at sea, without grass or rootSj believed animal food the specific remedy for the unnatural inclination of sows to devour their offspring. And "A Subscriber " "is sanguine in the opinion, that if sows are so placed as to be able to come to the ground a few days before pigging, no disappointment would ever happen in the loss of pigs. It is not convenient to let them ramble at large ; a temporary pen upon ground is equally good." Swine should not be kept in close and filthy pens. Though they vwillow in mire, their object is coolness, not nastinesa, and they thrive faster and enjoy better health when allowed clean and dry lodgings than when they are not thus accommo- dated. The late judge Peters, of Pennsylvania, in an arti- cle entitled "Notices for a Young Farmer," &c., observed,' that " there is no greater mistake than that of g-orging- swine, when first penned for fattening. They should, on the con- frary, be moderately and frequently fed, so that they be kept fiiU, but do not loathe or reject their food, and in the end contract fevers and dangerous maladies, originating in a hot and corrupted mass of blood. In airy and roomy, yet mod- erately warm pens, paved and boarded, and often cleaned, they are healthy and thriving. They show a disposition to be cleanly, however otherwise it is supposed, and always leave their excrementitious matter in a part of the pen dis- tinct from that in which they lie down No animal will thrive unless it be kept clean " AND KUUAL ECONOMIST. 165 The same writer asserted in substance, that fatting hogs should always be supphed with dry, rotten wood, which should be kept in their pens, for the animals to eat as their appetites or instincts may direct. It has been supposed, likewise, that swine thrive the better when they can obtain fresh earth, which they are often observed to swallow with greediness. It is an object of much consequence to obtain the best breed of swine, not only as regards the saving of food, but producing the best qualities of flesh. The Hon. Oliver Fiske, of Worcester, as before observed, has rendered great ser- vipe to the community, by introducing tp the notice of far- mers in this country a variety of this animal called the Bedford Breed. This breed has been highly recommend- ed by many who have ascertained their merits by trial. His excellency Levi Lincoln, late governor of Massachusetts, and president of the Worcester Agricultural Society, has given his opinion of this variety, in a letter, from which the following are extracts : " I have great pleasure in voluntarily offering myself as your compurgator in the representations with which you have recently favored the public, of the Bedford breed of swine. The care and perseverance which have marked your attention to the prospects and value of these animals, and the success which has followed your exertions to introduce them to the favor of practical farmers, require, at least, an acknowledgment of obligation from all those who have been particularly benefited by your liberality, and from no one more than from myself. This breed of swine has taken the place of a logg-legged, long-nosed, flat-sided, thriftless race, called by some the Irish breed, by others the Russian, which would barely pay by their weight for ordinary keeping, and never for one half the expense of fattening, if, indeed grain would make them fat. " I had three pigs butchered from the same litter, precise- ly seven and a half months old. Their weights, when dressed, were two hundred and thirty, two hundred and thir- ty-five, and two hundred and thirty-eight and a half pounds. One sold in Boston for six and one-fourth cents per pound ; the others were put up here for family use. The expense of keeping and fattening these pigs, I am satisfied, was less than with any other breed I ever raised, and the proportion of bone and ofl^al to the rahjable parts was surprisingly small. I have fifteen more on my farm, part designed foi 166 THE COMPLETE FARMER he market in the spring, and part to be kept c rer as store swine, and their appearance will furnish ocuia;' satisfaction of the propriety of all which has been said in favor of the breed." This breed of swine was brought to this country as a present to General Washington, from the Duke of Bedford, who committed them to the care of an English farmer by the name of Parkinson. This man took a i'arm in the neigh bourhood of Baltimore ; but instead of sending the swine to General Washington, Parkinson sold them. Captain John Mackay, of Boston, has exhibited at Brigh- ton a peculiar and excellent breed of swine, which have re- peatedly received premiums from the Massachusetts Agri- cultural Society. MANURES. No soil will always prove productive with- out manure. Though naturally fertile, if some equivalent for its produce is not returned to it ; if it is always yielding and never receiving, it must, at length, become barren. Particular spots, like Egypt, and other alluvial or interval lands, which are annually overflowed, derive manure from the bountiful hand of nature, and cannot be rendered barren by bad husbandry or continual cropping. Some soils, like- wise, are not easily exhausted, and are easily recruited, in consequence of being composed of materials which attract and retain the food of plants from air and water, as well as afford a proper medium to prepare and communicate the principle of fertility. Every species of matter capable of promoting the growth of Vegetables rnay be considered as manure. Vegetables are composed of certain substances, called by chemists oxygen [formerly called vital airl, hydrogen [inflammable air], car- bon [coaly matter], and nitrogen^ or azote, one of the con- stituent parts of the atmosphere. The substances employed as manure should be composed of all or some of these ele- ments. Vegetable and animal substances, deposited in the soil, are consumed during the process of vegetation ; being mostly absorbed by the roots of plants, combined with wa- ter. These substances compose what is called the food of plants. This food is mostly taken in by the roats, which are analogous to the mouths of animals, but some portion of the nourishment of vegetables is also derived from the atmos- AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 167 phere, imbibed by the leaves and bark. Thus the carcas- ses of lambs and other small animals are sometime^ hung on the limbs of fruit-trees to promote their growth, and cause them to bear abundantly, and thus produce some effect ; but the practice is slovenly and wasteful, as the air is contamin- ated, and the carcass buried near the roots would be much, more efficient as manure. A controveray has existed relative to the degree of fer- mentation which manure should undergo before it is applied to the soil. Some agriculturists contend that long, fresh, or unfermented manure is to be preferred. Others assert, that stable and barn-yard manure never should be spread in the field till the fibrous texture of the vegetable matter is entire- ly broken down, arid it becomes perfectly cold, and so soft as to be easily cut with a spade. Sir Humphrey Davy' observes, " If the pure dung of cat- tle is to be used as manure, there seems no reason why it should be made to ferment, except in the soil ; or if suffered to ferment it should be only in a very slight degree. The grass in the neighbourhood of recently voided dung is always coarse and dark green ; some persons have attributed this to a noxious quality in unfermented dung ; but it seems to be rather the result of an excess of food furnished to the plants. "During the violent fermentation which is necessary for reducing farm-yard manure to the state of what is called short muck, not only a large quantity of fluid, but likewise of gaseous matter, is lost ; so much so that the dung is re- duced one-half or two-thirds in weight ; and the principal elastic matter disengaged, in carbonic acid, and some am- monia ; and both of these, if retained by the moisture of the soil, are capable of becoming useful nourishment of plants, r "It is usual to carry straw that can be employed for no other purpose to the dunghill, to ferment and decompose; but it is worth an experiment, whether it may not be more economically applied when chopped small by a proper ma- chine, and kept dry till it is ploughed in for the use of the crop. In this case, though it would decompose much more slowly and produce less effect at first, yet its influence wouU be more lasting." Robert Smith, Esq., president of the Maryland Agricul- tural Society, in an address to that society observed, " With respect to stable-dung, I shall for the present content my- self by bareily suggesting, that my experience strongly ia- 168 THE COMPLETE FARMER clines me to the opinion that, however long, it ought to be ploughed into the ground without any previous stirring, and as soon as practicable after it has been taiten froni the farm- yard." We believe that the question relative to long and to short nvanure must depend on circumstances. In certain soils, and for certain crops, long manure which has undergone but a slight fermentation is to be preferred. But if used for wheat, and other kinds of grain, and in all crops which cannot con- veniently be hoed or weeded, or, probably, when applied to soils containing acids or some substances which may prevent fermentation and retard the progress of putrescence and dis- solution, it must be well rotted. Rotting manure, however, in a barn-yard, or in any situa- tion in which its volatile and liquid products escape into the atmosphere, or soak into soil not designed to support vege- tation, is very slovenly and wasteful, and always to be avoid- ed if possible. The effluvia or gas which is suffered to es- cape from fermenting manure is not only almost altogether lost to useful vegetation, but, what is still worse, fills the at- mosphere with particles injurious to health, and often de- structive to life. The evaporations from a manure yard rob the farmer of a part of his substance, starve his crops, and it is well if they do not, moreover, poison him and his family by their contaminating influence. Some farmers' bara-yards, hog-pens, and other receptacles of manure, are very offensive, and if they do not generate typhus fever, in ts worst form, which we fear is frequently the case, they at least cause a degree of languor and debility, which embit- ters existence, and in a great measure disqualifies for any useful purposes of life. It is a fact that those exhalations so injurious to animal life are the essence of vegetable life, and the volatile substances which offend our senses and injure our health, if arrested in their transit by the hand of skil- ful industry, may be so modified in the great laboratory of nature as to greet us in the fragrance of a flower, regale us in the plum or nectarine, or furnish the stamina of life in substantialviands from the field and the stall of the cul- tirvator. If we are correct in the foregoing, an important axiom may be adduced, viz.: JVb putrefactive process ought to be suffered to proceed on a farmer's premises, without his adopt- ing some mode to save, as far as possible, the gaseoxis products of such putrescence. These gaseous products constitute im- 4NU RURAL ECONOMIST. 169 portant elements of vegetable food, and a faimer may aa well sufTet his cattle to stray from his stall, or his swiaa from his sty, without a possibility of reclaiming them, aa permit the principles of fertility expelled by fermentation or putrefaction to escape into the atmosphere for the purpose of poisoning the air. instead of feeding the plants. It is very easy to arrest itiese particles. . A quantity of earth thrown over the matter in which the fermentation is going on will check its violence and arrest its gaseous products, which will be imbibed by the soil, and afterwards yielded to plants in such proportion as the wants of vegetation may require. "Fermentation, that destroyer of all organic conforma- tion, is not to be feared by the farmer, if it be conducted ?ind carried on in the presence of earth, which fixes and secures the gases as fast' as they are liberated. Even the degree, of the process is a matter of less consequence ; be- cause if the elementary principles are in keeping, and re- served for future usefulness, it is immaterial whether this has happened by a new absorption, or by still holding their original .and unchanged form. In his composite hill [com- post heap], the whole animal or vegetable structure may be dissolved, and leave behind no trace of existence, without the least waste of the principles of fertility ; because the ingredients superadded to the dung have become surcharged with tliem, or, to speak philosophically, fully saturated. W») may go farther, and state that complete decomposition is desirable in this case, which is so much to be avoided in the farm-yard ; because putrescent matter can oxAy become vegetable food . by its resolution into primary parts, and if this be effected by any preparatory step, the young crop receives the full and instantaneous benefit. The compost manure is carried to the field ready to give out its richness on thei very first call, and to supply the nascent radicle [young root] with a copious share of nourishment. "The putrefactive process may be carried on in the presr ence of pure earth only, or of earth intermingled with fibrous roots, or lastly in the presence of peat, which is an assemblage of inert vegetable matter, and compost dunghills may be formed according to this threefold method. " The simplest of all composts is a mixture of barn-yard dung and surface mould taken from a field under regular culture. The proportions between the ingredients are fixed Sy no determinate laws, and consequently grciat liberty is 15 .-70 THE COMPLETE FARMER « allowable to the operator. I have known some instances where two cart-loads of dung were used for one of earth ; others, where they were blended in equal quantities; and it is not unfrequervt lo compound two of earth with one of dung. In fact, such is the uncertainty in the composition, that al- most every farmer adopts one peculiar to himself, and with equal success. No man need therefore follow implicitly the m'es which have been laid down in this department of rural economy, but may vary and multiply his experiments, ac- cording to the suggestions of fancy or the dictates of con- venience. If we slightly glance at the principle, we shall see the cause of this seemingly endless variety in the com- binations of the ingredients. The only use of intermixing the soil with the dung is to imbibe the gaseous elements of vegetable life, and hinder their dissipation. If there be much soil, these elements will be diffused through it with less den- sity and compression; if little, it will be more abundantly saturated and enriched with the nutritive vapors. The only error into which the farmer can run is, to supply such an in- considerable quantity of soil as will be incapable of im- bibing the elastic and volatile particles, and thus by his own mismanageraant occasion a waste of the vegetable aliment. One cart-load of soil to two of stable-dung is the least pro- portion which he should ever attempt to combine, and per- haps if the two were mixed equally, he would be compensa- ted for the additional labor and expense. " Simple earth, although excellent for bottoming and strewing over the pit dug near the barn, is of all materials the most unprofitable in compost dunghills. A matted sward, thickly entangled with roots, or mud dragged from the bot- tom of bogs or ditches, and replete with aquatic plants, are clearly preferable on this account, that, besides bringing earth to the composition, they supply a large proportion of vegetable matter. Whenever the soil must be carted to the heap, it is better to lay out the expense in transporting these enriching materials ; because they will not only equally ab- sorb and retain the evaporating gases, but greatly augment the quantity of manure.*"* The path proper for a farmer to pursue in order lo mslke the most of his manure, and preserve his own health and that of his family, is as plain as a turnpike. Whenever pu- trid fermentation is going on in any part of his premises, and * lietlers of Agricola, by Johr. Yonng, Em> AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 171 consuming his substance by a slow but wasteful combustion, let him apply earth, peat, or some other earthy substance in {uantities sufficient to attract, imbibe, and retain all the ■jffluvia. Health, profit, and cleanliness, equally require such a proceeding. We shall say a word or two on the lat- ter topic. If a man were to swallow daily a quantity of filthy matter, or to eat his food impregnated with vapors from a manure heap, or from some other putrefying and offensive substance, when he might by' a little exertion avoid such nauseous viands, and substitute something nourishing, palat- able, pure, and wholesome, we should esteem him no better han a Hottentot. But a man may almost as well take filth into his stomach as filthy efiluvia into his lungs; he may about as well dine with a crow or a buzzard as sup with a toad " on the vapor of a dunghill." The farmer who arrests the rank vapors which emanate fi'om decaying animal and vegetable matter, and instead of permitting them to pass into and contaminate the air he breathes, treasures up the invisible particles with which they are laden, and applies them to feed useful vegetables, causes the atmosphere to be healthy, and his plants to be thrifty by the same means. The celebrated lord Erskine, in a speech delivered at one of the annual sheep-shearings at Holkham, in England, made the following remarks on this subject : " If we consider the subject of manure, we shall perceive one of the most striking beauties and benefits of divine or- dination, and of that wisdom with which we are blessed a thousand ways without knowing it. This very substance, had it been useless, must have accumulated in heaps, intoler- ably noisome and perpetually pestilential; but by the bless- ing of Providence, it is every man's interest to remove these otherwise increasing mountains of filth, and by decomposi- tion, in various ways, in a great measure concealed from us, it gives increase to our fields, and adds to our means of industry, and the reward of the husbandman." Those who cultivate the ground do not always act the provident part supposed by lord Erskine, in the sentence above quoted. On the contrary, farmers too often sufier manure to accumulate and waste in heaps, generating effluvia " intolerably noisome and perpetually pestilential,' without fear of' fever or famine, both of which are courted by such conduct. Not only dung is too often allowed to waste its richness on the tainted ai.' but straw and other lit* 172 THE COMPLETE FARMER ter is suffered to grow mouldy and consume by what is sometimes called the dry rot, both of which might be pre- vented, or their bad effects obviated, by covering o'r mixing them with a suitable quantity of earth. Besides, dead ani- mals, contents of privies, the emptyings of sinks, spoiled provisions, the refuse of the dairy, the pantry, and the cellar, are allowed to mingle their odours in nauseating and dele- terious profusion. Sometimes the highway is rendered al- most impassable, in consequence of a dead horse, sheep, dog, or cat, undergoing the process of decomposition in a situation correctly calculated to annoy travellers.; Some farmers bang dead lambs, cats, dogs, &c., in the forks of apple-trees, or throw them on hovels or stumps, at some elevation from the ground, to give the pestilential emanations a chance to diffuse themselves, without coming in contact with the earth, which might convert them from poison to men and animals into food for plants. If, however, such animal remains are deposited in a barn-yard or manure heap, they are too often suffered to lie and rot on the surface, offending the senses, and injuring the health of a whoje vil- lage. Practices of this kind are well reproved by Sir Humphrey Davy, who says, " Horses, dogs, sheep, deer, and other quadrupeds that have died accidentally or of dis- eases, after their skins are separated, are often suffered to remain, exposed to the air, or immersed in water, till they are destroyed by birds or beasts of prey, or entirely de- composed; and in this case most of their organizable mat- ter is lost from the land on which they lie, and a consider- able portion of it employed in giving out noxious gases to the atmosphere. "By covering dead animals with five or six times their bulk of soil, mixed with one part of lime, and suffering them to remain for a few months,- their decomposition would im- pregnate the soil with soluble matters, so as to render it an excellent manure ; and by mixing a little fresh quicklime with it, at the time of its removal, the disagreeable effluvia will be in a great measure destroyed, and it might be em- ployed in the same way as any other manure to crops."* If, however, quickUme cannot readily be obtained to ac- celerate the conversion of dead animals into manure, it ia probable that covering the carcasses with a pretty thick coat ' Agricultural Chemistry. AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 173 of unleacbed ashes, and placing over all a quantity of earth, or earthy substance, would hasten decomposition, and secure the gases resulting from putrescence. ■ Earth alone will answer a valuable purpose, and, in time, the largest animal will be decomposed in nothing but common soil; Not only the carcasses of animals, but their excrements and urine are rendered of little value by long exposure to the air. Indeed, every moment of such exposure robs them of a part of 'their fertility, as well as contaminates the atmos- phere.' V He who is within -the sphere of the scent of a dunghill, (says the celebrated Arthur Young,) smells that which his crop would have eaten, if he would have permitted it. Instead of manuring the land, he manures the atmos- phere ; and before his dunghill is finished, he has manured another parish, perhaps another county." As few exhala- tions as possible ought to be suffered to rise from the excre- ments of animals. Fresh manure ought to be kept as care- fully from the sun and rain as grass which has been cut for hay. When cattle have been yarded over night, it would be well to throw their droppings into ' small heaps or beds, and cover them at least with a sufficient quantity of earth to prevent fermentation, or absorb its products. This would cost but little labor, and would much enhance the value of the manure. It has been, and we believe in some instances still is, in vogue among farmers, to turn over and mix barn-yard ma- nure several times before it is carried to the fieldi This practice, however, is exploded among the best informed cul- tivators. Mr. A. Yoifng says "no turning, but if circum- stances of the richness, quantity, or weather have occasion- ed too much fermentation, or this is suspected, scatter every now and then a quantity of the same earth over the surface, with which the yard was bedded. This may be so propor- tioned as-to keep the mass from too much fermentation." It is remarked by the author of ' ' Letters of Agricola, " that " Earth is a powerful absorber of all the gases which arise from putrefaction. The earth possesses not only the prop- erty of retaining the putrid steams which are formed from the dung of decomposing bodies within itself, but also of attracting the efHuvia when floating in the air. The salu- brity of a country depends on this latter quality ; as the practice of burying the dung in the earth is founded on the former. The stench proceeding from the dissolution of drgaoized matter never rises through the ground to assail 15* 174 TnE COMPLETE PARMER the nostrils, although it is sufficiently offensive from bc RDRAI. ECONOMIST. 8^ 6 Effects of Lime. Many farmers haie subjected them- selves to an expense at the rate of ten shillings per acre per annum for the lime they used, and have been amply remu- nerated. The beneBt derived in the cultivation of green crops is sufficient for that purpose. Such crops may be raised by large quantities of dung ; bu> where calcareous substances are applied, it is proved, by long experience, that a less quantity of animal and vegetable manure will answer th,e purpose. This is making the farm-yard dung go farther, with more powerful and more permanent effects ; and from the weightier crops thus raised, the quantity of manure on a farm will be most materially augmented. Indeed, upon land in a proper state for calcareous application, (as old ley,) lime is much superior to dung. Its effects continue for a longer ' period, while the crops produced are of a superior quality, and less susceptible of injury from the excesses of drought and moisture. The ground likewise, more especially if it be of a strong nature, is much more easily wrought; and, in some instances, the saving of labor alone would be sufficient to induce a farmer to lime his land, were no greater benefit derived from the application than the opportunity thereby gained of working it in a more perfect manner. 7. Rules for the management of Lime. 1 . It is necessary to ascertain the quality of the soil to which lime is proposed to be applied ; and whether it has formerly been limed ; and to what extent. In general, it may be observed, that strong loams and stubborn clays require a full dose to bring them into action, as such soils are capable of absorbing a great quantity of calcareous matter. Lighter soils, however, re- quire less lime to stimulate them ; and may be injured by administering a quantity of lime recently calcined, that would prove moderately beneficial to those of a heavy nature. 2. As the effects of lime greatly depend on its intimate admix- ture with the surface soils, it is expedient to have it in a powdered state before it is applied, and the drier and the. more perfectly powdered the better. 3. Lime having a ten- dency to sink in the soil, it cannot be ploughei' in with too shallow a furrow, or kept too near the surfacfe. 4. Lime ought nut to be applied a second time to weak or poor soils, unless mixed with a compost ; after which the land should be immediately laid down to grass. * The following, on the ■" Stimulation of Soils," was written * Encyclopedia of Agriculture. 16* 18€ THE COMPLETE FARMER by the Hon. John Welles, of Boston, and published in Jib New England Farmer. " From a frequent perusal of the benefits tlerived from lime in its application to soil in Europe, I have been induced for more than a score of years, successively, to make use of i. for agricultural piyposes, to the extent of more than one hundred casks annually, " Que of my first experiments arose from a desire to give a top-dressing to a piece of land, which it was otherwise in- convenient to do. The soil was a heavy black loam. Hav- ing a quantity of black earth from a trench, (or top stratum,) I procured a quantity of lime. A bottom of four or five buck loads of earth was first placed; then a couple of casks of lime were spread thereon; then earth and lime again, till my materials were used, or the quantity needed was had, at the rate of eight or ten casks to the acre ; thus a cask be- ing supposed to produce about five bushels of slacked lime, the cost of which, if the casks are swelled and the lime partly slacked, is eight to ten cents a bushel. This is the most moderate application in Europe, and the cost is about the same. "This mixture, after lying twelve or fourteen days, was shovelled over, and after some days beitig found fine 'and well mixed, was spread from the cart on the ground. To my surprise, I found the effect produced to be equal to what is usual from common compost manure ! " In England, where lime is most used for agricultural purposes, it is considered that in its crude state, or uncal- cined state, it is most beneficial, if pounded or made fine. This, where limestone abounds, it is well to know; but there is little of it in this neighbourhood. Encouraged by this experiment, I continued to purchase and apply considera- abie quantities of damaged and air-slacked lime * in my cul tivation, particularly for a low, fiat piece of land. This be- ing intersected with small ditches, furnished the earth 1 "was not able otherwise to procure to mix with the lime It is not well, however, in such cases, to lower the sur&ce by taking off more than will keep the ditches open. When the earth is tough with sward, Stc, it may be made finer by be ing carted out and put in heaps on the ground, and spread afterwards. Indeed this is done to great advantage in thb * Lime long exposed to the air, Bueh as sweepings of slorea, £cc, is of lesf value anil mope cheaply obtained. AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 187 winter; the poaching the land, or making a rough surface for the scytlie, being then well avoided. " As this land cannot advantageously be ploughed, I have, in applying every third year a top-dressing, as my custom is. alternated, giving first a dressing of earth and lime, and at the expiratiod of three years, a coat of^compost manure. " This has been done on the principle that a more judi- cious mixture wouldbe made, and a better composition of soil be had. I have been guided herein from general rea- soning, not from any proof that the lime might not be re- peated. " It seems, however, to be a prevailing opinion, where lime has been most in use, that it opens the sod and makes it more porous, giving thereby a better action tc other ma- nures, which a judicious husbandry should in succession ap- ply. In this application of lime to a grass sward, in a deep springy soil, I have been for a long time well satisfied It was several years before I undertook the same practice on a light soil, and I did it with less expectation. But I was somewhat surprised to find it equally beneficial. " So far lime has been mentioned as a component article in top-dressing for a green sward. Its effect will be shown on ploughed land, and in a grain crop. "With a view of increasing fertility, I frequently have applied on the side of the hills of Indian corn a small hand- ful of slacked. lime. I so placed it, lest the caustic quality of the lime should prove injurious to the tei^der plant when it first started from the soil. This is my opinion and prac- tice; though I have often since seen large pieces slacken and expand on the soil without injury to the grass, which in a lively green color pierced through it. This application of lime to the hill I continued for some time, and though small in quantity or effect, I still thought it of some advantage. I was led, however, to a more extensive and satisfactory exper- iment. " I had a piece of ground of about four acres, of rather ■ light soil, which gave promise of a very small crop of grass £eing without the means of obtaining manure, as I had a quantity of earth of the top stratum, taken up on building a wall, I forthwith procured a quantity of lime and mixed it in the manner before mentioned. About the middle of June I had the grass mowed and the land ploughed. The lime compost was then spread and lightly harrowed in. An eajly ■ort of yellow corn, which when ripe husked itself, was pro- 188 THE COMPLETE FARMER cured. And my neighbours, who knew the process, were, in the fall of the year, much surprised by the stout ears of golden grain thus unfolded to view ! "It has been observed, that if lime is a fertilizer of soil, why is it that where it abounds and often forms an under stratum a greater fertility does not prevail ? To this it may be answered, that lime is a constituent principle, it is believ- ed, in all soil, and may be supplied, where from experience a deficiency is found. But when it superabounds, as in most other things, excess may be injurious. In all this more ex- perience is wished for, as the only safe and profit^blo guide." V The following is extracted from a letter from Daniel Buck- ley, Esq., of Salisbury, Pennsylvania, to J. Buel, Esq. pub- lished in " Memoirs of the New York Board of Agriculture," Vol. III. p. 124. "The land which I cultivate, according to M'Clure's trea- tise, is transition, composed of White and yellow clay and limestone, much of the latter appearing on the surface, in- termixed with flint. Upon this soil I have made -a liberal use of lime, ever since the year 1790, and think I have been well rewarded for the expense and labor, by the increased value of my crops. " The method of applying the lime'which I have adopted in common with my neighbours is, in the first place, to pl6Ugh up a sod field with a strong team, in the spring or fall; har- row it the way it is ploughed, and mark the field into as many squares as you intend to put on hak--bushels,'say one hundred on the acre, which will bring the furrows about twenty feet apart each way, and require fifty bushels to ithe acre. This quantity I have found tb be most profitable. When the lime is burnt, and as soon as it is cool enough to handle, it ought to be hauled on the land already niarked, and a half bushel deposited in the centre of each square,' in as compact a heap as possible. If water is convenient, I prefer to slack the lime irtitnediatelyi rather than to wait for rain, as it becomes finer atid can be more evenly spread. As soon as it has slacked, it is immediately spread and well har- rowed. This method I prefer for Indian corn, barley, oats, rye, and potatoes. On all the above crops I have experienc- ed a great benefit from lime the first year after ts applica- tion. With potatoes I add about fifteen two-hoise loads of barn-yard manure to the acre, before planting. A second iraing is often given, and much approved of, after an interval AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 189 af three or more years. This amalgamates better, and can be more intimately mixed with the soil. " There are good farmers who differ as to the quantity of lime that is most profitably applied; some say sixty bushels an the acre, some seventy, and some more. I have applied one hundred on an acre of limestone land, at a dressing ; but aave not been able to discover any benefit from using it hus freely, nor any injury except in the loss of lime. " Wheat seldom receives any benefit from lime until the second or third year after it has been applied, except it has oeen mixed in a compost of yard manure and earth. This method is much practised in the lower counties of this State; though not by good farmers, until they have applied lime as the basis of melioration. By this management they have raised their lands from an impoverished state, produced by injudicious cropping, to such a state of fertility, as, I am in- farmed, to enable them to fatten a bullock of six hundred weight on an acre, and to cut grass from the same acre suffi- cient to winter another. " Sandy, soils are greatly improved by the. use of lime. I lately purchased some of that kind, n-hich was originally covered with chestnut timber, and was cilled mountain land. It has been cleared seventy years; but lying a distance from the farm buildings, had never received any manure but a dressing of lime. This land I have had repeatedly farmed since I owned it; and although to appearance it seemed to be almost a caput mortuum, with the aid of ten or twelve four-horse loads of the gleanings of a yard of a public house, it has produced as much, and as good wheat, rye, oats, timo- thy, and clover to the acre, as any land in the township in which it lays. I consider the liming which it had fifty years ago as the principal cause of its fertility. " It is a general opinion amongst good farmers, that liming should be repeated every ten lor fifteen years, and that the increased crops richly compensate the expense. It matters very little how it is applied, provided it is evenly spread im- mediately after it is slacked. If suffered to air-slack, .or to lie after it has been water-slacked, it re-imbibes carbonic acid, which the fire had expelled, becomes lumpy, and is more difficult to be incorporated with the soil. Some spread it upon the sod and plough it under, and think they have as much profit from it in this way as in any other. When thus applied, it powerfully contributes to decompose the tougher 190 .HE COMPLSTE FAP.VBR fibres of the sod, and to convert them into nutriment tor the crop." Gypsum, or Plaster of Paris. It is said, that the pro- perties of gypsum as a manure were first discovered in Ger- many, by a laborer, at a quarry of that substance. In passing across a meadow to shorten the distance home, he observed the luxuriance of the grass where he had walked, and sup- posing it to be caused by the dust of the gypsum from hia feet and clothes, made experiments, which verified his sup- position. ^' _ Great differences exist among agriculturists respecting the uses of gypsum and the manner of iis operation. Shrae have supposed that its efficiency as a'tnanure is altogethS* owing to its power of attracting moisture from the air. But Sir Humphrey Davy expressed an opinion, that but little effect can be produced by such attraction. " When com- bined with water," he observed, " it retains that fluid too powerfully to yield it to the roots of the plant, and its ad- hesive attraction for moisture is inconsiderable; the smalt quantity in which it is used likewise is a circumstance un- favorable to this idea." Some have supposed that gypsunr assists in the putrefaction of animal substances, and the de- composition of the manure in the soil. This philosopher however, proved by repeated experiments, that it rather re- tards than accelerates putrefaction. He likewise says, " In examining the ashes of sainfoin, clover, and rye grass, I found that they afforded considerable quantities of gypsum; and this substance probably is intimately combined as a ne- cessary part of the woody fibre. If this be allowed, it ia easy to explain why it operaltts in such small quantities; for the whole of a clover crop, or sainfoin crop, on an acre, according to my estimation, would afford by incineration only three or four bushels of gypsum. The reason why gypsum is not generally more efficacious, is probably be- cause that most cultivated soils contain it in sufficient, quantities for the use of the grasses. In the common course of cultivation gypsum is furnished in the manure ; for it is contained in stable dung, and in the dung of cattle fed on grass. Lord Dundas informs me, that having tried gypsum without any benefit on two of his estates in Yorkshire, he was induced to have the soil examined for gypsum, and this substance was found in both soils."* • Elements of Agiiciiltuial Chemistry, Lecture VII. AND RURAL ECONlJMlST. 191 It has been made a question, whether burning and calcin- ing gypsum make any difference with regard to its fertilizing properties. This is said to be the practice among French cultivators, and was likewise recommended by Dr. Deane. But an English writer on agriculture observes, that " calcin- ing is not likely to make any difference, because the sulphu- ric acid in gypsum cannot be expelled by the most violent heat of the furnace ; and an experiment of Arthur Young countenances the assertion^ that the effects of gypsum are the same, whether calcined or rough." Dr. Joseph E. Muse, of Maryland, in an essay on the sub- ject of gypsum, and its mode of operation, published in the "American Farmer," (Vol. I. p. 338,) gives it as his opinion, "that the chief, if not the only cause of the efficacy of gyp- sum in promoting vegetation, is to be found in its tendency to become phosphoric," and produced many facts and deduc- tions therefrom, to show that gypsum by exposure to the at mosphere becomes phosphoric ; and that phosphorus exists is vegetables. The late Dr. Gforham, in a paper read before a Society in Boston, observed, " When plaster of Paris is applied to, the seed it stimulates the little root, the action of the vessels is thus increeised, absorption goes on more rapidly, arjd it ac- quires more nourishment for a given time than in." ordinary circumstances; the consequences are a quick growth and enlargement of the organs. " Colonel Taylor, of Virginia, observed, in substance, that he sows of pleister from three pecks to one bushel to the acre. Sown on clover in the spring, it benefits it consider- ably. The best way of u.siiig it is in the spring upon the long manure of the preceding winter, to be ploughed in with it. He thinks it a valuable ally, but by no means a substi- tute for manure. That there should be intervals of two, three, or four years between applying it to the same land; That its effect is graduated by the quantity of vegetable matter on which it is sown. That on closely grazed land it does little good at first, and repeated would become perni- cious ; and that it must be united either with long manure of the v/inter, or the ungrazed vegetable cover produced in the sumrner. That all crops are ultimately improved by its improving the soil, even when its effects are not immediately visible; but he does not recommend it as a top-dressing, except for clover M. Canolle, a French writer, observes, that plaster, act- 192 THE COMPLETE FARMER :ng chiefly on the absorbent system of plants, its effects are lot like those of manure buried in the soil, which act prin- :ipaUy on the roots. The latter, according to their particu- lar nature, divide, soften, enrich, warm, or stiffen the sods yith which they are mixed. The quantity of piaster spread ipon the land is so trifling that it can have little effect on he soil. I speak from experience. Plaster buried in the 5arth where sainfoin has been sown, has produced little al- eration; whilst the same quantity of plaster spread over the mme surface of sainfoin has produced the most beautiful vegetation. " From this experience, so uniform in the application of ilaster, I am led to believe, that one must consult as well he nature of the soil, as the kind of plants to which we ap- )ly plaster. Thus, whatever may be the soil, on which clo- ver, lucerne, and sainfoin naturally flourish vigorously, or vith that vigor which encourages us to apply manure, there s no risk in trying plaster. " It is to be remarked, that plaster operates on plants in a lirect ratio to the size and number of their leaves. I have spread plaster on land where sainfoin was mi^^ed with the :ommon grasses which compose our meadows. The growth )f the sainfoin and wild honey-suckle has been beyond com- jarison greater than that of the common grasses. It is to his cause I attribute the failure of success on grass ground ihiefly filled with common grasses. I have a field of lucerne separated from a natural meadow only by a brook. I have rreatly increased the lucerne by the plaster, whilst the effect )f a like quantity on the adjoining grass land was scarcely, f at all perceivable. " It has been ascertained by repeated experiments, that a iberal application of plaster to clover, at the time of turning t down and preparing for a wheat crop, is by far the most idvantageous to the crop, and much preferable to turning ia he clover in the usual way, and plastering on the surface. The action of the plaster, thus excluded from atmospheric lir, upon the clover, covered over, is instantaneous, and the )utridity is so certain as to cause considerable gas, which in ts passage through the clod impregnates it with all its ma- luring qualities, and the root of the plant shoots down and Beds on a bed of manure." * A writer for "The New England Farmer," (Vol. II. p. * American 'Farmer. AND RURAL ECONOMIST 19^ 10,) states, in substance, as results of his experience, that plaster' was found by him to be useful as manure, after hav ing.bee.n kept on hand in a box seven years; that its benefi- cial effects on pasture land are very great. He sows it on the ^ame piece of ground every second year, and thinks five or six pecks to an acre are sufiicient; that his pasturing is iessentially improved by that application, producing nearly double the quantity of food which it formerly did ; that sow- ing plaster on his grazing land had a tendency to destroy }he bushes, by giving increased luxuriance to the grass; that this manure has been found very useful for flax and pota- toes, &c. "Dr. Cooper, editor of the last Philadelphia edition of " Willich's Domestic Encyclopedia," says, " Gypsum will not answer beyond two and a half bushels to the acre 4 one and a half bushel is better. It will not answer on wet or swampy, or clayey soils. It shc>uld be scattered over the groiincl' as a top-dressing. Suppose you were asked if a . stone brought you is gypsum. 1. Gypsum can be scratched by the nail, scraped by a knife, ground by the teeth. 2. It will not dissolve in spirits of salt as limestone will; nor is it half so hard as limestone. 3. Its color and crystalline appearance distinguish it from clay ; nor does it give a clayey odor when breathed upon, unless clay be mixed with it. 4. Powder it, boil it to dryness, with four times its weight of pot or pearlash. Wash out all that the hot water will dis- solve ; the remaining powder (if the stone be gypsum) is carbonate of lime." Gypsum has been highly recommended as 'a manure for potatoes. The potatoes, just before planting, should be wet And rolled in pulverized plaster; and a handful of plaster applied immediately after the first and second hoeing to the leaves,'and scattered over the hill. A writer for "The Genesee Farmer," with the signature " Onondago," observes, "Plaster is always to be sown on wheat unless the land is wanted for a spring crop the next year, after clover seed, at the rate of one, two, or even three bushels per acre, Aft^r harvest the young clover ought not to be pastured much, if any; the next year the clover is suffered to grow as large as it can be, and be well turned over, which is then done, the ground fallowed and the wheat sown; the next year sow the clover seed and plaster and so on from year to year ad infiniium, the land always getting better, as is supposed by those who practise this IT 194 THE COMPLETE FARMER method. Piaster we think should be sowr in pasture. An old farmer, and one who has proved his skill by making a fortune at the business, and who now tills nearly five hun- dred acres, told me, that a ton of plaster sown on ten acres of pasture would make it yield as much as fifteen acres un- der the like circumstances without plaster." - J. Spicer, in "Goodsell's Farmer," says, " When I apply plaster to corn, which I have done for nearly three years past, 1 mi.x it with one-half leached ashes, as theyare leached for common family use ; put it in a cart, and shovel and mix it well. I then put one gill to the hill immediately after the first hoeing, and the same thing over after the second hoe- ing. I have tried the same quantity of clear plaster, side and side, twice, and find the mixture to produce the greatest effects." The Hon. J. Lowell, in an article published in "The New England Farmer," (Vol. V. p. 1,) contradicts an idea which has been generally prevalent, that gypsum is of no use to lands near the seacoast, and observes as follows : " I shall set out with the fact, that plaster has been used with success on lands on the seacoast of France, where the southwest wind, the prevalent one in summer, in that coun- try, brings with it the ocean air : and in our country, in Massachusetts, for e.xample, the prevalent winds do not bring with them an atmosphere filled with saline particles. It can- not therefore be the vicinity to the sea which renders gypsum inert and inefficacious with us. The cause of its inefBcacy near the seacoast, must therefore be sought for in something else ; in the'nature of our soil, perhaps already sufficiently imbued with the constituent parts of gypsum, or in our more free use of stable manure, which furnishes the plants with all the food they require. " I have been in a constant and invariable course of ex- periments on plaster, and these are the results. It seems to be of no use, ever, to clover, on low meadow lands ; of no use to any plants on a good rich, well-manured soil. But I have three decisive proofs of its utility on dry, hilly, gravelly soils. " The first I shall mention, was an experiment made by the late R. S. Esq., of Roxbury, on a lofty hill of old pasture land. He applied it for several years, and his cwn convic- tion was, and it was also the full conviction of many others, that it materially improved the condition of his pasture. It was green at an earlier period, and the white clover carae AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 195 into it more generally and luxuriantly than into other lands in the same situation. " Seven years since, I applied plaster to a newly laid down field of clover, one half of which was a dry, gravelly knoll, with very little vegetable soil. When it was fit for cutting, I showed it to the trustees of the Massachusetts Agricultu- ral Society, and without pointing out to them the part to which the plaster had been applied, they at once, on sight of it, deteAed and pointed out the superiority of the crop on the part to which the gypsum had been applied ; and their designation agreed, by metes and bounds, with the stakes I had driven, indicating the part to which plaster had been applied, and which were then concealed by the grass. This superior crop was on a pure gravelly soil, far inferior ,o the rest, which was a deep rich loam. " This year I had a piece of clover in its second year of growth. It was similarly situated. Two thirds of it was a gravelly, thin soil. I cut the whole on the 10th day of June. The gravelly part, owing to the drought, did not yield more than half a ton to the acre ; the rich part an' excellent crop. As soon as the hay was in, I gave a dressing of plaster to the gravelly knoll only, at the rate of three bushels to the acre. "The efiect has been as great as has ever been represent- ed to be produced by gypsum by persons in the interior. The second crop on the gravelly land is far superior to that on a rich and deep soil in the same field. It may be discov- ered at ten rods' distance ; and you can mark by your eyes precisely the line of the ground to which the plaster was applied. "Gypsum is of no service on low lands, or on good land, nor of much use to any products except to clover and lu- cerne; but on sandy and gravelly soils, and applied to these plants, especially in dry seasons, I am convinced it will prove valuable. I paid only four dollars for ten bushels, ground; and I applied only sixty cents' worth to this land, and am convinced, that the plaster will increase the value of the second crop to five times the cost of the application." A writer for "The Genesee Farmer," with the signature "V. W. S.," recommends to sow plaster from the box of a wagon, driven slowly over the field in which it is to be dis- tributed. He sowed five and a half bushels of plaster over ibur acre» of meadow in just ^n hour, and performed his work weh, sowed the ground twice over, extending the cast 196 THE COMPLETE FARMER each time to the track the wheels last made, by which the driver guided his course across the lot. The writer recom- mends a windy day for his purpose, and believes a yoke of cattle might be preferable to a horse. He says : " It will be readily perceived, that while my mode of sow- ing plaster makes a great saving of manual strength, the great advantage derived from it is, in the expedition with which the process is performed. One man and boy, in a one-horse cart, can dress from forty to sixty acrfes per day ; th\is making a vej-y important saving of time, at a season when the farmer is obliged to husband closely. . The injury of driving a wagon over a field of grain would be but little, and could not be considered a moment, when compared with the value of the time gained. In sowing from a wagon it will be found necessary to stop occasionally, to pick up or loosen the plaster, which becomes compacted by its motion. The elevated position of the sower enables him to make a very broad cast, and if advantage is taken of the wind, he will be able to avoid the respiration of any great quantities of dust." Marl consists of calcareous matter, clay, and sand, or some two of these earths, (of which lime or chalk is always one,) in various proportions. The blue clay marl is free from sand. Clay marl is also sometimes of, a yellowish white, yellowish gray, or a brown or red cast; The shell marl seldom contains clay. In schistu.s or stone marl, some- times sand and sometimes clay preponderates, generally the former. The sand marl, whether shell or schistus, should be applied to clays; and clay marls to sands. In both cases they correct the defects of the soil, by rendering it. In the first, less adhesive ; and, in the latter, less open and porous. The earths are not the food of plants. They constitute the stomach, analogous to the stomach of animals, in which vegetable and animal matter is received, digested, and with the aid of the leaves [lungs] assimilated to vegetable chyle and blood. The best soil for this digestive process, is that in which the three above-named earths are suitably blended. A sandy or gravelly soil is called hungry, because it digests rapidly, and dissipates the food committed to its bo- som. Hence green crops, or frequent manurings, are ne- cessary to continue it healthy and productive. Such soils are defective in clay and calcareous matter. Their texture may therefore be improved, and their fertility increased, by AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 197 the application of clay marl; or, what is the same, by clay and lime separately ; though these materials are found most pure and best blended in the substance of marl. The quan-r tity should be proportioned to the natural deficiency of these materials in the soil. From eight to one hundred loads per acre have been applied in one or two dressings; and their beneficial effects have been known to continue thirty' years. All the sand soils of Norfolk,' England, have been marled [clayed], dalcareous matter, combined with sulphuric acid [oil of vitriol], is usefliUy applied to soils in the form of gyp- sum, or plaster of Paris; as is also powdered limestone and chalk, both calcareous. I am induced to believe that neither wheat nor sainfoin grass will thrive in a soil destitute- of calcareous matter, which is the condition with most of our sands. - i A stiff, moist clay, is called cold, and is unfriendly to the finer grasses as well as grains. Its texture is too oompact to permit the roots to extend freely, and. its temperature taw cold to carry on the digestive- process sufficiently rapid: for the plants which grow upon its surface. Sand and limcj or siliceous marl, loosen its texture, render it^ permeabJe ta heat, &c., and powerfully assist to concoct the food of vege^ tables. Marl may be known by the most ordinary, observer. The application of a mineral acid, and even of good vinegai, will cause an effervescence. This is the operation: of the acid upon the lime. Its siliceous and argillaceous properties may be ascertained by the sight and feeling, by the aid o£' water, or of glass. Sand subsides or settles quicker than clay in a liquid; and will scratch glass, whichclay will not. i It is a remarkable fact in the econoniy of nature, that the indigenous plants of every country are preaisely. those which are best adapted to furnish the proper sustenance to its ani- mal population, and to satisfy its medicinal wants; ■. So in regard to our soils; every district generally affords the means of producing fertility. Hence the clay marls generally un- derlay sands ; and shell and sand marls most abound in the neighbourhood of clays. . And in addition to the variety ol fossil substances which are calculated to increase fertility^ • every thing that grows upon the ejrth, every particle of ani-. mal and vegetable matter, is reduced to air and water by the chemical r operations of nature, and in these forms become the food of new plants, to nourish animals. It is a truth calculated to teach hutnility, that the animal, the vegetable, 17* 198 THE COMPLETE FARMER and the putrid mass of dung, are found on chemical analysis to be very nearly ahke, and that, in the natural order of things, they constantly nourish, feed, and produce each oth- er. " Nothing is nourishment for a vegetable but vi^hat enters into the permanent composition, of a vegetable. Nothing is nourishment for an animal but what was original- ly a vegetable." Man is enjoined to earn his bread by the sweat of his brow. He finds' the most noble incitements to duty scattered around him, and he is seldom disappointed in obtaining the rewards, competence, and health, which industry promises to her votaries. But I have another re- mark to'raake as to the food of vegetables. How scrupu- lously careful is the farmer of his grain, hay, and roots, ^ which are destined to nourish and fatten his animals ; and yet how thoughtless and inattentive as to the food of his plants ! Vegetable and animal substances are suffered to waste in his fields and yards, unmindful of the havoc which the rains, winds, and sand, are daily making upon them; while a moiety of his fertilizing materials, the urine of his stock, is altogether lost. He will not suffer the flocks of his neighbours to rob his own of their food; yet he sees, with but feeble efforts to prevent it, his plants plundered by pestiferous weeds of the food which is essential to their health and vigor. " To find the composition of a marl, pour a few ounces of diluted muriatic acid into a Florence flask; place them in a scale, and let them be balanced: then reduce a few ounces of dry marl into powder; and let this powder be carefully and gradually thrown into the flask, until, after repeated ad- ditions, no farther effervescence is perceived. Let the re- mainder of the powdered marl be weighed, by which the quantity projected will be known. Let the balance be then restored. The difference of weight between the quantity projected and that requisite to restore the balance, will show the weight of air lost during effervescence. [That air pro- ceeds from the calcareous earth alone, which contains forty- four per cent, of this carbonic acid air. Suppose five hundred grains of marl lose forty-four grains by the escape of air, then that marl contained one hundred grains, or one- fifth of its whole weight, of limestone. — T. C] If the loss amounj. to twenty or twenty-five per cent, of the quantity of marl projected, the marl assayed is calcareous marl, or marl rich in calcareous earth. Clayey marls, or those in which the argillaceous ingredient prevails, bse only eight or ten AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 19S per cent, of their weight by this treatment, and sandy marls about the same proportion. The presence of much argilla- "ceous earth may be judged by drying the marl, after being washed with spirit of salt, when it will harden and form a brick. "To determine with still greater precision the quantity of calcareous earth in marl, let the soliitioili in muriatic acid be filtered and mixed with a solution of carbonate of potash, till no farther precipitation appear. Let the sediment sub- side; wash it well with water; lay it on a filter, previously weighed, and dry it. The weight of the dry mass will show how much carbonate of lime the quantity of marl submitted to experiment contained. See Kirwan on Manures. " The quantity necessary to be used, varies according to the nature of the soil ; but the utmost caution is requisite, because if too large a portion be scattered on the land, it cannot be easily removed, and if too little be employed, the deficiency may be readily supplied. On sandy, gravelly, or light soils, it will be advisable to spread as much as will form a thick coat, in order to bind and stiffen the ground But, of whatever nature the land may be, the most judicious cultivators recommend such a portion to be laid on it, as will form a thin coat over the whole surface. " The proper season for marling is the summer; as this kind of manure is then perfectly dry, and not only lighter, but also more easily reduced to a powder. Marl, however, may be advantageously spread during the winter frosts; as in the latter season, there are few opportunities of perform- ing other labors of the field. " Previously to marling, the land ought to be diligently cleared from all weeds, and rendered level, both with the brake and the common harrow, so that the marl may be. equally spread on the surface, where it should be sufiiered to lie during the winter. In the month of February, [March,, or April,} and in dry weather, it will be proper to draw a busK^harrow, well weighted, over the land, that the marl may be uniformly distributed ; but, as this manure is very ponderous, and sinks to the bottom of the furrow, if injudi- ciously ploughed in, it has been suggested to turn it into an ebb-furrow for tlje first crop : during the growth of the latter, the marl will incorporate with and become a part of the soil, from which it does not readily separate. So permanent, indeed, are its fertilizing properties, that if land be properiy marled, it will continue arable for the space of twelve or 200 THE COMPLETE FARMER fourteen years ; and, for pasture, during a much longei period. "A good aiiificial marl may be prepared by mixing equal" quantities of pure clay and lime, in alternate layers, so as to form a heap, which should be exposed to the winter frcst : this compound is well calculated for light lands ; but if the soil be strong and heavy, it will be necessary- to suhstitate loam and sand for the clay. Such compositions may be usefully employed where marl is not easily procured ; as they will amply repay the labor bestowed on mixing them, being little inferior to the genuni , "Taketlie peat-moss to a dry spot, convenient for, con- structing a dunghill, to serve the field to be manured.: Lay the cart-loads of it in two rows, and of the dung in a row betwixt them. The dung thus lies on the area' of the com- post dunghill, and the rows of peat should be near enough each other, that workmen in making up the compost may be able to throw them together by the spade. In making up,: let the workmen begin at one end;- and at the extremity of the row of dung, (which should not extend quite so far -at that end as the rows of peat on each side of it do,) let them lay a bottom of peat, six inches deep,, and fifteen feet wide.: Then throw forward, and lay about ten inches of dung above the bottom of peat; then four or five of dung ;> and then coyer it over with peat at the end where it was begun, at the two sides, and above. The compost should not be raised above four feet and a half high, otherwise it is apt to press too heavily on the under parts, and check the fermenr tation: unless the peat, when dry, be very puffy and light j' ai^ then a much greater height ia ^desirable. Neither should it Be much lower, otherwise it will prove wanting in the compactness, and soon also, if the weather is very dry, i» the moisture required for the ingredients of which it con- sists, to act chemically on each other. When a beginning: is thus made, the workmen will proceed working backwards^; and adding to the column of compost as they are furnished with the three rows of materials directed to be laid down for them. They must take care not to. tread on the compostji or render it too compact; and of consequence, in propor- tion as the peat is wet, it should be made up in lumps, and not much mashed or broken. " In mild weather, seven cart-loads of common farm-yard dung, tolerably fresh made, is sufficient for twenty -one cart- loads of peat-moss; but in cold weather, a larger proportion of dung is desirable; at least, it is prudent' to omit putting any peat between the two upper layers of dung, and rather thicken the outer coating with peat. It is also:, proper in winter, if ground with a dry bottom can be conveniently em- ployed for the purpose, to increase greatly the breadth of the dunghill, which, in that case, may be done without any limit, by adding, all round the dunghill, circles, consisting of layers of dung and peat, of seven feet in breadth. And if the mass of the dunghill is thus enlarged, there is little occasion to 802 THE COMPLETE FAHMEK exceed the proportion of dung recommended for making up to prepare in the milder season ; especially if a covering of coarse vegetables of any sort, such as waste hay or straw, rushes, broom, or furze, or brushwood of evergreens, is thrown over the dunghill. In fact, a covering of this sort is scarce less useful in summer to prevent the escape of mois- ture, than in winter to exclude cold. "To every twenty-eight cart-loads of.the compost, when made up, it is of use to throw on above it a cart-load of ashes, either made from coal, peat, or wood; or if these can- not be had, half the quantity of slacked lime may be used, the more finely powdered the b^,ter. But these additions are in nowise essential to the general success of the com- post, provided a sufficiency of time is allowed to the prepa- ration to compensate for the want of them. " The dung to be used should either have been recently made, or kept fresh by compression; as by the treading of cattle or swine, or by carts passing over it. And if there ia little or no litter in it, a smaller quantity will serve, pro- vided any spongy vegetable matter is added at making up the compost, as fresh weeds, the rubbish ofa stack-yard, pot£|^- shaws, sawings of timljer, &c. And as some sorts of dung, even when fresh, are much more advanced in decom- position than others, it is material to attend to this; for a much less proportion of such dung, especially if abounding in animal matter, as is less advanced, will serve for the com- post, provided care is taken to keep the mass sufficiently open, either by a mixture of the above-mentioned substances, or, if these are wanting, by adding the peat piecemeal, that is, first mixing it up in the usual proportion of three to one of dung, and then, after a time, adding an equal quantity, more or less, of peat. The dung of this character of great- est quantity is shamble-dung, with which, under the above precautions, six times the quantity of peat, or more, may be prepared. The same holds as to pigeon-dung and other fowl-dung; and to a certain extent, also, as to that which ia collected from towns, and made by animals that feed on grains, refuse of distilleries, &c. " The compost, after it is made up, gets into a general heat, sooner or later, according to the weather and the con- dition of the dung; in summer, in ten days or sooner ; in winter, not perhaps for many weeks, if the cold is severe. It always, however, has been found to come on at last; and in sumner, it sometimes rises so high as to be mischievoua, AND RtJHAL ECONOMIST. 208 by consuming the materials, (fire-ianging.) In that season a stick should be kept in it in different parts, to pull out and feel now and then ; for if it approaches to blood-heat, it should either be watered or turned over ; and on such an occasion, advantage may be taken to mix with it a little fresh peat. The heat subsides, after a time, and with great variety, according to the weather, the dung, and the perfec- tion of the making up o' the compost; which then may be allowed to remain untouched, "Until within three or four weeks of using, when it should be turned over, upside down, and outside in, and all lumps broken:^ then it comes into a second heat, but soon cools, and is fit to be taken out for use. In this state the whole, except bits of the old decayed wood, appears a black free mass, and spreads like garden- mould. Use it, weight for weight, as farm-yard dung; and it will be found, in a course of cropping, fully to stand the comparison." Many other articles are useful for manure, such as blood, offals of animals, hair, . refuse feathers, woollen rags, hoofs and horns of cattle, sheep, &c. ; bones of all kinds, pound- ed, broken, or ground, at the rate of sixty bushels to the acre; raw skins; fish of all kinds; swamp myd, river mud, pond mud and sea mud, wood ashes, turfs, sea-weeds, moss mixed with dung in holes, — good for potatoes, — turf from highways, &c. ; shells of shell-fish; scrapings of streets and back yards ; rubbish of old houses, and earth which has long been under cover. Both of these collect and retain nitre. Old brine of saked meat or fish, which contains, be- sides salt, some blood, oil, &c., in composts. Sea water, which contains other substances besides water and salt, which are fit for nourishing plants. Soap-suds, replete with a prepared food for plants; excellent for watering gardens in dry weather. None of this should ever be lost. If the garden be distant or wet, it may enrich the dung heap. Water in the hollows of farm-yards. Instead of suffering this liquor to soak into the earth,' it should be taken up by straw litter, or some absorbent substance thrown into it, or carried out in a water-cart, and sprinkled over land which needs it, in the manner in which streets are watered in cities. In the " New England Farmer," (Vol. IX. p. 245,) was published an article written by Hon. John Lowell, • from whiih the following is extracted: ' A few years since, the Hon William Ellis, of Dedham, i04 THE COMPLETK FAKMEK recommended tc me the use of the head and feet bjnes of oxen, as a highly valuable manure on meadow lands. He said he had observed, in passing, that I had grounds re- markably well adapted for this manure. I, however, neglect- ed this hint, though I constantly kept it in mind, until the last year, when, seeing an immense load of the heads of oxen passing by, I inquired of the owner for what purpose he was carting these materials, and he answered me to the following facts, viz. : that he came down a distance of eight miles with an empty team, and was carrying back a load, which cost him two dollars, to put on his meadow land. I found it was no new experiment with him, and that he came often for that purpose. "I made the experiment. Its success surpassed all his descriptions. The manure brought in new grasses. It en- couraged and invigorated the old. " I am aware it is only of limited application, but it is no trifling thing to render useful an article formerly thrown away. We know so little of the philosophy of manure, that I shall not speak positively on the subject. All I shall say is, that there" is much animal matter still adhering to the bones, and animal matter has been found by experience to promote the growth of vegetables. " The mode of application is, to break them up with a sledge, or with the back of an axe, and then to press them below the surface by a rammer or beetle. The only point to which I offer my testimony is, that the effects are much, greater than an equal quantity of horse and cow dung. This may be relied on." FENCES. The kinds of fence and manner of fencing, should vary, according to the difference of soils and the kinds of materials for fencing In new lands logs are and ought to be most used. When built of white pine, they will last about twenty years. Other sorts of wood, such as pitch- pine, hemlock, ash, oak, &c., will endure for a considerable time if not placed too near the ground. If a fence be made partly of white pine and partly of other wood, the former should be laid nearest to the ground. If logs are peeled they will last the longer in fences. It has been practised by some farmers to make posts for fences very durable \ y the following simple process. They AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 205 bore a hole in that part of the post which, when set, will be just at the surface of the earth, with such a slope as will carry it downward an inch or two. They then fill the hole with salt, which will preserve the timber a long time from decay . In many parts of the country posts and rails will be found the cheapest materials for fence. In making fences of this description, it is advised by Mr. Preston, of Stockport, Penn- sylvania, to set the posts with the top parts in the ground ; and he asserts that they will, in that position, last thiee or four times as long as when they are set with the butt ends down. He advises, also, in making fences, always to place the rails with the heart side up. ^ The best timber for rails, according to Dr. Deane, is red cedar. It is easy to split, light to carry and handle, suffi- ciently strong, and the most durable of any. In the Trans- actions of the Society of Arts, in England, there is an ac- count which states, in substance, that posts of oak, and oth- ers of chestnut, were set down in Somersetshire, where they had to undergo repairs in eighteen years. The oak posts were then found to be unserviceable, and the chestnut very little worn. The oak posts were renewed, the chesnut re- mained, and in twenty-five years afterwards they were not so much rotted as the oak. If the lower ends of posts are scorclied in a hot flame be- fore they are put into the ground, they will last the longer. Some recommend soaking them in sea-water to keep them from rotting. The posts should be set at'least two feet in the ground. Some farmers cut their posts so long, and mor- tise them in such a manner, that they can turn them upside down, when the lower ends become rotten. It is said in the Barnstable Journal, that " Deacon Wins- low Martin has on his farm a kind of fence, which for dura- bility and beauty can hardly be exceeded. On each side of the road adjacent his dwelling, are rows of large button- wood trees, set ten or twelve feet asunder. Into these, when young, cedar rails were inserted, as into common posts. Aa the trees increased in size, the wood formed closely around the ends of the rails, and firmly secured them in theie places. It is certainly a durable and cheap fence, because it will require no repairs at least for one generation, and is moreover constantly increasing in value. Were our roads lined with this kind of fence, it would add not a little to the beauty of the country and the comfort of the traveller " 18 806 FUE COMPLETE PARMER The 'Farmer's Guide" observes, that "post and rail fences and board, fences are very good where the soil is dry. In a wet soil, the posts will be moved by frost. Red cedar, locust, and chestnut, are best. Butternut, black walnut, and oak, are pretty good, lasting about fifteen years. For the rails, cedar is best, lasting perhaps an age. If timber is scarce, and the ground is level and free from stones, post and rail fences, set in a bank of the earth of two small ditches, thrown up together, ought to be preferred. If the posts are too small to have holes mside through them, the rails may be flattened at the ends, and fastened to the posts with spikes, or with wooden pins well secured." When ground is wholly subdued, and the stumps of its, original trees quite rotted out, stone walls, properly made, are the best and cheapest fences. On hard, sandy, or gravel- ly soil, a wall will stand many years without repairing. On a clay or miry soil, the foundation should be laid in a trench, nearly as low as the earth freezes. But a wall of flat or square shaped stones will stand pretty well on any soil on the surface. A writer for the " Genesee Farmer " gives the following directions for " Planting Posts for Garden Fences, &c." " Instead of filling the holes up with the earth taken out in digging them, I would recommend filling in around the posts leached -ashes instead of common earth, and topping off" with five or six inches of unleached ashes above the sur- fece of the ground; for it is generally between ivind and water, as the sailors term it, that garden posts begin to de- cay. My reason for recommending ashes is, that I have fre- quently found pieces of board, hoops, and staves, buried under heaps of leached ashes, which had lain there many years, and were quite as sound as when first buried. No doubt many of your readers have noticed the same, in re- moving old ash-heaps near potash works." HEDGES. In some soils, situations, and circumstances, Aedge fences will be found most advisable and economical. The following remarks on this subject, by the Hon. John Lowell, were published in the " New England Farmer ' Vol. X. p. 339. " It is not my intention to recommend live hedo-es for this rocky part of the United States. Our own stones furnish AND RURAL ECONOMIST. WJ he best divisions we could ask for or desire; and on most farms the removal of them from the soil would be economi- cal, and the placing them as partitions for fields is the cheap- est and most natural mode of disposing of them. Still, in New England, there are extensive tracts of country of allu- vial or diluvial soil, in which no rocks are found, and in which a stone wall could not be obtained without great ex- pense. Such is the state of the greater part of the old col- ony below Plymouth, and of some parts of the county of Middlesex. But wherever wood fences are required it may be useful to substitute live hedges. " The Virginia thorn, is in most cases utterly useless as a fence. This is chiefly owing to the ravages of a worm at its root; whether it be the same which attacks the apple and the quince, is a point not settled. The same objection is applicable to the English hawthorn. And to this fatal one is superadded another, the appearance of a fungus of a yellow color on the leaves, which utterly disfigures them and strips them of their foliage in September. The gledilschia triacan- tkos is not suited for hedges with us. If left to grow they soon grow out of all reach, if checked they are winter-killed. We are indebted wholly and entirely to the experiments of Ezekiel Hersy Derby, Esq. for the possession of a plant, the buckthorn, (rhamnus ciUhar liens,) which, from ten years' trial, seems to afford every desirable quality for a healthy, beautiful, and effectual hedge. "I have tried this plant for six years. It is hardy and rapid in its growth, of impenetrable thickness, and so far as that extent of experiment enables me to judge, not subject to any disease, or the visitation of any insect whatever. As it is very provoking as well as expensive to cultivators to be led astray, and to find after five or ten years that they have been deceived, they would do well to examine growing hedges of the buckthorn." The following is extracted from a notice of Mr. Derby of the cultivation and uses of the buckthorn. The tree from which my plants were raised, formerly stood in the garden of the venerable Dr. Holyoke, who used the berries for medici- nal purposes, and was as large as any of our common apple- trees. He was. induced at last to cut it down, as it shaded so much of his garden. I was so pleased with the healthy and clean appearance of the tree, and the, next spring ob- snrving several young plants, rased from seed dropped in 208 THE COMPLETE FARMER the autumn, that I was induced to transplant them to a nu. - sery, where they- grew with great rapidity. " After trying several kinds of trees for the purpose ,of making a hedge, without much success, I was induced to try this, which has afforded a most beautiful fence, so much so as to attract the attention of every person who has seen it. It divides my garden, is about three hundred feet in length, the plants set nearly a foot apart, is five feet high, and two feet wide at top, which is cut nearly level. It shoots early in the isDring, makes a handsome appearance, and continues its verdure till very late in the fall. It has not so much spine as either the English or American hawthorn, but I think sufficient to protect it from cattle. The plant bears the knife or shears remarkably, and makes as close and tight a fence as either of the others, and is not subject to blight, as both of them have been with me. The tree furnishes a large quantity of seed, which rapidly vegetates ; and I make no doubt it can be propagated by cuttings." We are apprehensive that no species of thorn can be cul- tivated to advantage in New England for the purpose of making hedges, on account principally of the insects which in this part of the country infest that plant. Some, however, prefer the American thorn, {cratmgus cordata.) A valuable communication relative to the use of this and other plants for live fences, by B. S., M. D., may be found in the " New England Farmer," Vol. IX. p. 209. Upon consulting Mr. Lowell, as to any changes it would be proper to make on the article of hedges, he states, that he still gives the preference to the buckthorn, but that the Newcastle thorn, grown by John Prince, Esq., is more beautiful, and it bids fair to be as enduring and as free from disease. The rapidity of growth of the buckthorn is, m his judgment, a fiill equivalent for the beauty of the other. SHEEP. There are a great many varieties of sheep, with differences more or less marked. To give even an abridged account of all the kinds described in foreign publications, would require a large volume. In England, the principal division of sheep is into the long wool and the short wool kinds. Among those bearing long wool, are the Leicester, Devonshire JVots, Exmoa Heath, the Bakewell or Dishleji AND RURAL ECONOMIST 209 breeds, &c. &c. The origin of the last-mentioned breed of sheep is thus described by an £aghsh writer: " Mr. Bakewell selected from his own flock, and from the flocks of others, those sheep to breed from, which possessed in the greatest degree that perfection of form he was de- sirous to retain and perpetuate. By judiciously crossing them, and selecting the most perfect of their progeny, he at length succeeded in forming the breed, which has been dis- tinguished by the name of the New Leicester, or Dishley breed; and having attained his object, he carefully guarded against any future intermixtures with other breeds. This breed exceeds all others in its propensity to fatten ; and by crossing by rams with this breed, a considerable portion of the long-wooled sheep in England have been greatly improved in this respect. "The Dishley breed are distinguished from other long- wooled breeds by their fine lively eyes, clean heads, straight, broad, flat backs, round (bacrel-like) bodies, very fine small bones, thin pelts, and inclination to fat at an early age. The last property is probably owing to the before-specified quali- ties, which, from observation and experience, there is reason to believe extend generally through every species of domes- tic quadrupeds. The Dishley breed is not only peculiar for the mutton being fat, but also for the fineness of the grain ; the flavor is superior to the mutton of most other long-wool- ed breeds. The weight of the carcass may be stated in general : ewes three or four years old, from eighteen to twenty-six pounds per quarter; wethers two years old, from twenty to thirty pounds." Among the short-pooled sheep, the English possess, be- sides the Merino breed. South Downs, the Ryeland, the Shropshire, the Shetland, the Dorset, Wilts, 8lc. &.c. Merino sheep were first introduced into Great Britain in the year 1787; and although it was formerly a general opinion, that the excellence of their fleece depended in a great degree upon the temperature of the Spanish climate, it has been ascertained that the fineness of the Spanish wool is not im- paired by breeding the sheep in England, France, Saxoir.y, Hungary, &c. It is important in the ' management of sheep to keep the store sheep in as equal condition as possible, but not too fat, all the year round. In the grass season they should be kept in dry pastures, in which the grass is short and sweet. Dur- ing the winter they sbruld have a steady and measured al- 18* 210 THE COMPLETE PAKMER lowance of suitable food, and not sometimes be fed profuse- ly, and at other times scantily. Mortimer says, "The farmer should always buy his sheep from a worse land than his own, and they should be big boned, and have a long greasy wool. For the choice of sheep to breed, the ram must be young, and his skin of the same color with his wool; for the lambs will be of the same color with his skin. Those ewes which have no horns are found to be the best breeders." The farmers of Europe know how to distinguish the age of sheep by tiieir teeth. When a sheep is one shear, as they express it, that is, has been sheared but once, or is in its second year, it has two broad teeth befoie; when it is two shear, it will have four; when three, six; when four shear, or in its fifth year, it will have eight teeth before. After this, their mouths begin to break. " The fat pastures breed straight, tall sheep, and the bar- ren hills square and short ones.. But the best sheep of all, are those bred upon new ploughed land, the reason of which may be easily guessed, as such land is commonly the most free from bad grasses. All wet and moist lands are bad for sheep, especially such are subject to be overflowed, and to have sand and dirt left on them. The salt marshes are an exception from this general rule ; for their saltness makes amends for their moisture; any thing salt, by reason of its drying qualities, being of great advantage to sheep. The best time for sheep to yean, which go twenty weeks with Iamb, is in April, unless the owner has any forward grass, or turnips. Ewes that are big should be kept but bare ; for it is dangerous for them to be fat at the time of their bring- ing forth their young. They may be well fed, indeed, like cows, a fortnight beforehand, to put them in heart." M. BufTon says, " One ram will be sufficient for twenty- five or thirty ewes; but that he should be remarkable for strength and cotrieliness; that those which have no horns are very indifferent; that the head of a ram should be large and thick, the forehead broad, the eyes large and black, the nose short, the neck thick, the body long, the back and rump broad, the testicles large, and the tail long; that the best are white, with a large quantity of wool on the belly) tail, head and ears, down to the eyes; that the best sheep for propagation are those which have most wool, and that close, long, silky and white; especially if at the same time they have a large body, a thick neck, and are light-footed " AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 211 He says, ' ' That ewes fatten very fast during their pregnan- cy ; that as they often hurt themselves, and frequently mis- carry, so thev sometimes become barren; and that it is not very extraordinary for them to bring forth monstrous pro- ductions. But when properly tended, they are capable of yeaning during the whole of their life, or to the age of ten or twelve years. But most commoifly when they come to be seven or eight year old, they begin to break, and become sickly ; and that a ram is no longer fit for propagation after eight years, at which time he should be fattened with the old sheep." . According to the same writer, " Sheep should in the sum- mer be turned out early in the morning to feed; and in four or five hours, after watering, be brought back to the fold, or to some shady place. At four o'clock, in the afternoon, they should be turned to their pasture again, and continue there till evening; and were it not for the danger of wolves, they should pass the night in the open air, which would render them more vigorous, clean, and healthy. As the too great heat of the sun is hurtful to them, shady pastures are best for them; or else to drive them to a place with a west- ern descent in the morning, and the contrary towards even- ing." That their wool may be saved, they should not be pastured in bushy places, or where there are briars. Sheep are often -thus deprived of most of their fleeces; which, be- sides the loss of the wool, is very hurtful to the animals, when the weather is not warm. The above writer directs, " That every year a flock of sheep should be examined, in order to find out such as begin to grow old, and ought to be turned off for fattening. As they require a particular management, so they should be put in a flock by themselves. They should feed while the grass is moistened with dew in the morning. Salt should be given them to excite thirst, as the more they drink the faster they will grow fat. * But to complete their fattening, and make their flesh firm and solid, they should have some corn or grain given them." They may be fattened in the winter ; but it is commonly too expensive, as they will require a good deal of richer food than hay. When sheep are once be- come fat, they should be killed; for it is Said they cannot be made fat a second time. The teeth of ewes begin to decay * It has been found, however, that salt given in excess is injurious to ■beep 212 THE COMPLETE FAKMER at five, those of wethers at seven, and those of rams» not until eight. Eiees, Lambs, Sfc. It is recommended to give ewes with lamb a somewhat more than ordinary quantity of food foi a month or six weeks before they are expected to yean; not enough, however, to make them fat, as dangerous con- sequences might attend their being in very high condition at that period. Turnips are said to be injurious to ewes with lamb, but may be well given them after they have yeaned. If your sheep, whether store sheep or ewes with lamb, have good hay, about a quart of potatoes a day to each will, it is said, be very beneficial, and an ample allowance. But when the object is to fat them, according to a writer in Rees' Cy- clopedia, about a gallon of potatoes a day, with a little hay, will be the proper quantity; but this is dependent, in part, on the size of the animals, and in part on the quality and quantity of the hay which is allowed to them. Potatoes, besides their use as food for sheep, are said to be very ser- viceable as an article of diet, which usually supersedes the necessity of medicine. Thoy have, when given raw, an opening or purgative quality, which is thought to be of use, and answer a similar purpose with sheep which is effected with swine by brimstone and antimony. Potatoes, baked, steamed, or boiled, will furnish more nutriment than those which are raw. Care should be taken to place in the stable small tubs or troughs of water for the sheep to drink in. They will do very well in summer without water, as they feed when the dew is on, but they need water in winter, especially if fed mostly on dry food. " When sheep have tiolds, and disi charge mucus from the nose, good feeding, together with pine boughs, given occasionally, will cure them; or tar,, spread over a board, over which a little fine salt is strewed,, will induce the sheep to lick up tar, and this will cure a cold."* Half a gill of Indian corn a day, given to each sheep during winter, is recommended as keeping them ii good heart, preventing the wool from falling off, and enab- ling the ewes to rear their young better than they would if fed altogether on food of a less substantial nature. " When several kinds of food can be procured, it is rigHit to give them alternately to the sheep at different meals, in * Deani'a New England Farmer. AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 213 the course of the same day; the qualities of one kind aid oi compensate those of another. At certain hours of the day, dry fodder should be given, and, at others, roots or grain. If there be any danger that the roots may decay, the winter should be begun with them, mixing, however, some dry food with them, for alone they would not be sufficiently nutri- tious. "* Writers do not agree on the quantity of food which a given number of sheep will consume to advantage in a given time. Probably, it would be very difficult to lay down any rules on the subject which would not be subject to very nearly as many exceptions as coincidences. Some seasons would require more food than others for the same sheep ; the same number of sheep of different sizes, ages, sexes, and breeds, would also consume different quantities of food of the same quality. When we add to these causes of er- ror the consideration that food of the same kind is oflen very different in quality, — one ton of clover hay, for example, mowed at the right period of its growth, and well made and housed, may be worth two tons of the same sort of hay grown and made under different circumstances, — nothing, therefore, can be hoped for in this inquiry, except some ap- proximation to truth. We may, however, perhaps provide ourselves with materials for the exercise of those qualities for guessing, for which New England people are celebrated. When a man is laying in fodder for his sheep or neat cattle, it may be of great consequence to be able to form a con- jecture approximating the truth, relative to the quantity and quality of provisions for that purpose which it may be expedient to accumulate. Mr. Lawrence says, "Sheep will eat, on an average, twenty pounds of turnips each in twenty-four hours. An acre of good turnips in the -field, between November and March, will keep one hundred sheep six weeks. One gallon of raw potatoes will suffice a sheep twenty-four hours, but some will eat much more. Fourteen hundred sheep will eat up and spoil an acre of good turnips in a night. Of the quantities of hay and corn [grain] which a sheep wHl con- sume daily, I do not recollect any accurate experiments. To feed liberally one hundred sheep: with this precious article throughout the winter season, ten tons at least would be re- quired; although I have lately been informed by a great * Tessier's Trealise on Sheep. 814 THE COMPLETE FARMER aheep-master, that he allows but that quantity to a flock of one thousand; his turnips being excellent, with plenty of grazing ground. " As to corn [grain], a large sheep will eat several pints or pounds per day; and the comparison of quantity of food be- tween the sheep and the ox may be generally stated at one- eighth or one-ninth part for the sheep." "One thing (says M. Tessier) cannot be too much recom- nw.nded, which is, to place the hay in the racks while the sheep are out of the house; by this precaution, the dust will not fall upon the fleeces." Dr. Deane observed, that the rack in which the hay is put should be upright, so that in feeding, the seeds, chaff, &.c. should not fall into the wool about their necks. Under the rack should be a trough for catching the seeds of the hay and feeding the sheep. With regard to giving salt to sheep, writers have disa- greed. It is believed to be better not to give them any than to allow them too great a quantity. M. Tessier says, " Sheep have been known to be attacked by long and troublesome looseness, in consequence of having taken too much salt; which has induced the belief that sea-water is poisonous to them; and that his sheep have always been healthy, though he had never given them any salt. But he states that it may be indispensably necessary in wet coun- tries. And Dr. Cooper, editor of the last edition of the Domestic Encyclopedia, recommends one-fourth of an ounce a day as a proper quantity for sheep. Mr. Grove likewise says, " Salt is required by sheep at intervals during the whole year, but it is often given in too great quantity, and almost forced upon the sheep; which is .often injurious, and often injures the digestion so that the best grain will pass through them unaltered." The same writer says, "In the season for dropping lambs, the utmost care is necessary. The birth is most commonly easy, but often slow. Ignorant shepherds are vrry apt on such occasions to be aiding in the birth, which is always useless and often very injurious." "It often happens," says Mr. Grove, " that ewes will not own their lambs, particularly the first they bear; and in this case I would advise to the sprinkling a little salt on the lamb which induces the ewe to lick it, after which she will gene- rally allow it to suck. If not, the ewe with her lamb .should be placed in a separate inclosure (of which several should be previously prepared) and fed with the most nutritious fod- AtiD RITRAL ECONOMIST. 215 der, particnlarly with nourishing liquids, that the udder may be uacomfortably distended; and if this be not sufficient, she must be tied by the legs till the lamb has been once suckled; after which there will be no further difficulty." Sir John Sinclair observed, that " there is no food of which sheep are fonder than pea-straw; and where circum- stances are favorable for that crop, peas ought to be cul- tivated more for the straw, from the advantages that would thence be derived by the sheep-farmer." Mr. Young also observes, that "the straw of early white peas, applied to sheep, is the most valuable return made by straw." A writer for " The New England Farmer," (Vol. IV. p. 234,) with the signature M. R. C, gives the following judi- cious remarks on sheep. "Perhaps there is no domestic animal that requires more nice and constant attention than the sheep, and no other that will more richly pay for generous keeping. Though he may not be more. liable to disease, nor require a better quality of food than neat stock, still that management which will keep cattle in good case will not answer for sheep. His habits and mode of feeding are entirely different. For instance, in the winter season a cow may be kept tied to the stall twenty- two hours out of the twenty-four, and, if well fed three times a day, keep her flesh and get sufficient exercise for her health. Serve a sheep in the same manner and it would not probably live a month. It is natural for sheep to move about and change situation. Turn a flock of hungry sheep into a pasture, they will run to the end of it before they begin to eat; feed them in troughs, they will run over all till they come to the last, when they have it in their power. They are almost continually shifting situation from hill to .dale, from one kind of food to another ; and it is a fact that sheep will thrive better on two or three different kinds of ordinary fodder, than they will to be confined to one kind that is of a .superior, quality. " The proper time to yard sheep in the fall is while they are yet in good order from fresh feed, and before the frost takes the nourishing qualities from the grass : but a time in which many sheep are not folded, they are left to nibble over the frozen pastures till they lose the flesh of half a summer's keeping, and which takes half a winter to regain. It is a great error which is persisted in witb an idea to save odder. But setting aside the injury done pastures by close %eding at this season of the year, the sheep which, stray a516 THE COMPLETE FARMER away and are lost, and the time spent in hunting them, which are not idle considerations, the farmer would more than get repaid for his extra fodder, and a few weeks' attention in yarding his sheep sooner, by preserving their health and condition. When they are put to winter-quarters, they re- quire as much variety as possible, not that they want so much room, but they need a number of different apartments Two yards and one shed will do very well for 'one flock, or, what will answer the same purpose, if a large number of sheep are to be kept near each other, have the yards in a row, and one more yard than flocks of sheep. Then by shifting one flock to the spare yard it leaves another vacant, and so on. Thus may all be changed, which should be done at every time of feeding. As fast as the yards are empty, the food should be put in them, and never while the sheep are there. One hundred sheep are enough to be kept together. Cleanliness is of the utmost importance. Their yards should be littered with straw or something of the kind constantly, or they will be in danger of losing in a degree a relish for their food. "The next thing necessary is, to have proper places for your sheep to eat hay in, which are the common board man- gers, and may make partings to the yards. Take six joists^ say three inches square, and four feet long; have the boards of a length, then nail two of them to the joists set up per- pendicularly in such a manner that one joist will be in the middle of each board, and the other two at the ends, and that the top edge of the boards will be one foot from the ground^ then nail short boards on the ends two feet and a half long, the width of the manger, the next board on the sides to be placed eight inches from the lower boards, then board it tight to the top of the joists, and the manger is finished. A manger eighteen feet long, of this description, wHl accommodate thirty sheep. Single mangers may be made along the outside fence of the yard, which do not re- quire to be so wide. The great superiority of these man- gers over racks is, first, the facility of putting hay into them without dropping it on the ground, secondly, it obviates th6 danger of hay-seed falling on the wool of the sheep ; and thirdly, it prevents any waste of fodder. The next thing after mangers for hay, should be a place appropriated for feeding out roots, which every farmer should raise to a cer- tain extent. Although we cannot turn them to so good an account as the English feeders do, on account of the severi- AND EURAL ECONOMIST. S17 ty of our winters., still a proportion of iRem as food for our stock is of great importance. In order that the farmer may make the most of his roots, he should have a cellar fixed to receive them in the fall, without too much labor, and ac- cessible at any time in the winter, without endangering them by frost. The cellar should be placed as near the yard, as practicable, with a watering-place at hand. A good way of washing roots is, to have an oblong box that will hold two or three bushels, with the bottom perforated with auger holes, and rockers placed on the under side of the box; then by pouring in a little water and. rocking them,, the dirt will directly wash through" the bottom of the box. They should then be cut fine with a sharp shovel,, and they are fit for feeding out. Browse in the winter occasionally for sheep is very palatable^ and is of considerable use in preserving their appetite, and as a change of food, but care should he taken to select the right kind. There are many kinds of hard wood, of which the bark and buds are very injurious.* The bark of the black cherry eaten by ewes with lamb, is almost sure to produce abortion. G^erally winter green is to be preferred to any other browse. White and yellow ■. pine are best. " Regularity in feeding sheep is of prime consequence in cold dry weather. It is not necessary to feed them oftener than three times a day, if discretion is used in the quantity of fodder. In warm weather, and especially if it is muddy, they should have little at a time, and be fed four or five times a day. Daubenton and others calculate that two pounds of hay are sufficient for the support of -one sheep a day, (which, by the way, in our climate is not enough.) Calculations of this kind, if made with the utmost accuracy on one, or any number of sheep at one time, will not ap- ply to the same sheep at another; because so much depends on circumstances. A sheep that will eat three pounds of hay in a cold day will not, perhaps, eat more than two in a warm day following; and still less in a damp one. Not that they require so much more food in cold weather than in warm, but that sudden changes affect their appetites and without injuring their health. Again, a sheep of proper form and inclination to fatten, will not need so much nutri- ment to preserve its flesh as one of the same weight of a * The wood disease, so much complained of ia France, is wholly owiiig to (beep's eating fresh buds. 19 218 THE COMPLETE FARMER coarsD, rawboned, uneasy aiake. And one kind of hay may have double the substantia) qualities of another. Therefore no certain rule can be given as to the quantity necessary for their support; though experiments of this kind arc not with- out their use, for, as remarked in one of the " New England Farmers," they afford " a fine opportunity of guessing at the proper quantity necessary to keep a stock a given time." " There exists a great diversity of opinion in regard to the proper time of year for lambs to come. A New York wri- ter thinks that rams should not be taken from the ewes, at all; that lambs should come early in the winter, which is the natural time. This I think erroneous; the natural time is the most convenient time, and the proprietor should be governed wholly by his means. There are advantages in having lambs come early, and disadvantages, and vice versa i.he same in having them come late. If a man has con- veniences for guarding against cold, and plenty of succulent food for his ewes, February and March is decidedly the best time for them to come. It is true' that they require more attention at this season than in warm weather, but time is not worth so much, and the lambs learn to eat hay before they are turned to pasture, consequently they do much bet- ter the following winter. They get out of the way of foxes, and are able to take care of themselves at washing and shearing time, which is of considerable consequence. On the contrary, if the farmer is deficient in proper food and other conveniences for his sheep, and has a pasture near, that he can look to his flock, it may often be advisable to have his lambs come in April or May. "When sheep are turned to pasture in the spring, the tran- sition from dry food to grass causes a relax, which spoils, or very much injures a great part of the wool on their buttocks and thighs, and makes double the work at the time of wash- ing; therefore, before they are turned to pasture the wool in the way should be carefully shorn off, which is very little trouble, and makes a saving worth noticing. " In selecting a flock of sheep, the first care undoubtedly should be, to get those of the evenest and finest wool ; the next, those of the best form and most peaceable disposition; and the next care, which is very little thought of, to get those that are without horns. Any one who has had the manage- ment of sheep in the winter, can testify to the injury which large-horned sheep do in crowding after fodder and' running through gates, &c. Horned rams kept with pregnant cwei KD SURAL ECONOMIST. 219 do great mischief. In many parts of Spain they amputate the horns of their rams, for which there are various proces- ses: some use a large chisel; others a saw, which is the Doost expeditious way, and is preferable. There are other serious objections to the keeping of horned sheep, which I cannot better exemplify than by quoting the following words from Henry Cline, an eminent surgeon. " ' Horns are useless in domestic animals. It is not diffi- cult to breed animals without them. The breeders of horn- ed-cattle and horned sheep sustain a loss more extensive than they may conceive ; for it is not the horn alone, but also much more bone in the skulls of such animals, to support their horns; besides, there is an additional quantity of liga- ment and bone in the neck, which is of small value. The skull of a ram with its horns weighed five times more than another skull which was hornless. Both these skulls were taken from sheep of the same age, each being four years old. The great difference in weight depended chiefly on the horns, for the lower jaws were nearly equal, one weighing seven ounces and the other six ounces and three-quarters; which proves that the natural size of the head was nearly the same in both, independent of the horns and the thickness of the bone which supports them. In a horned animal the skull is extremely thick, in a hornless animal it is much thinner, especially in that part where the horns usually grow.' " To those who have not reflected on the subject, it may appear of little consequence whether sheep or cattle have borns; but, on a very moderate calculation, it will be found that the loss in farming stock, and also in the diminution of animal food, is very considerable from the production of liorns and their appendages. A mode of breeding which would prevent the production of these, would afford a con- siderable profit in an increase of meat and wool and other trainable parts." Shearing Sheep, S^c. Deane's " New England Farmer " states, that " we shear our sheep in general too early in this country. In England, where the spring is more forward than in this country, the approved time of shearing is from the middle to the latter end of June. They should be wash- ed in a warm time ; after this they should run three or four days in a clean pasture, before they are shorn. It is good for them to have time to' sweat a little in their wool, after nrashiog." Mr. Lawrence says, " June seems [in England] to be tha 220 rHE COMPLETE FARMER general shearing month, and where no extraordinary prectu-i tions are taken, the business had better be delayed till to- wards midsummer, more especially in cold, backward springs; because in such seasons we seldom until that period ihave any settled fair weather. Besides, a. more perfect fleece is obtained, and fuller of. yolk from the perspiration of the ani- mal. , , . . ..I '! Washing previous to clipping the sheep is the general eustom, with few exceptions, in , this country; indeed it is proper with-all long-wooled, sheep, but ,not so easily practi- cable with. the matted, greasy, and impenetrable fleeces of the Spanish and carding-wool breed, which in Spain they invariably shear dry, as has been, the practice in Devonshire, .with the short-wooled sheep, for centuries.,", , , , , It is observed by Loudon, that '' sheep^shearing, inRom- ney Marsh .[England], commences about midsummer and finishes about the middle of July. I'hose who shear .latest apprehend that they gain half a pound weight in every fleece, by the increased perspiration of the sheep and. consequent growth of the wool. Besides, they say, in early shearing the ,vrool has not the condition which it afterwards acquires. But then in late shearing the fleece will have the less time to grow,, so as to protect the animal against the rigors, of . the succeeding winter; and if a year's interval is, allowed be- tween each clipping time, after your routine is established the wool will have had the same period for its .growth, whether you shear early or late. Sheep with fine fieeees, which are shorn without being washed on the hack . of the animal, may be clipped earlier in the season than those which are exposed to suffer for half an hour or more in cold water." i. . , - Lemuel W. Briggs, Esq., of Bristol, Rhode Island, in articles published in the "New^ngland Farmer," (VoL III. pages 273, 287,) stated certain facts, which would seem favorable to early shearing ; and in certain circumstances, and particularly with sheep which, are not washed, there, can be no doubt but the practice is beneficial. Mr. Briggs stated, in substance, that Mr. Rouse Potter, of .Prudence island, Narragariset bay, Rhode Island, who kept nine hundred and fifty sheep, and lost but two the preceding winter, begins to shear them by the 1st of May, if the weather is favorable, and continues daily, until he completes his shearing., For the first week, he puts those sheared under cover or in close yards every night; by that time the wool will grow so as to AND rRHRAL EOONOMIBT. 221 give tli«m a sufficient covering. By this practice of learly shearing he gains much wool,' which formerly, when he put his shearing off till the middle of June, the" sheep- would shed; and ifarther, when thus early sheared, the wool begins to start and grow much quicker than when shearing isdefer- red to the usual time. He says, that formerly, being expos- ed immediately after shearing to the rays 'of the sun, their bare backs would frequently become sore andiscabbyj' when no wool will'grow till healed, and then what does grow* from these scars is thinner and coarser than' the rest, i' < "Mr: Potter states, that he has found from' actual experi- ment, that he not only gets more wool, which would other- wise be lost, but the' sacceeding" Mooi • will be from half a« inch to an inch*' longer, if sheared early, than it will be if delayed to the usual time of shearing. And ferther, there is not the Same necessity for washing the sheep', as the wool is much cleaner,! more free from sand and dirty when taken off early, than it would be if suffered to remain on their backs until a hot sun had compelled them to seek refuge' under walls and fences."' -^ . . v ,. , The foTfegoing authorities are appareiltly altogether con- tradict'ory, as respects thctiine of year in which to shear sheep. But it is to be observed, that Mr. Potter did not wash his sheep before shearing, which must make considera- ble difference with regard to the risk from cold; and' Mir.- Potter: appears to have been careful to | shelter Ws sheep after shearing, which must in a great measure ©bviat« th« disadvantages of early shearing. -''- ■'" ■■ ■■'"• Mr: Lawrence, an eminent English writer, asserts;"" it has frequently Jappeared* to me, on reflection,- that it-might be preferable to shear all kinds of sheep unwashed, and to wash them after shearing, •when- it would be muchjnofe ef- fectual- with respect to their health: Such as were affected with foulness or eriiption'of the skin might 'he washed- and scrubbed ma. lye of water and wood ashes, in a large tub which would contain three; ■ It would both condutte' ■ to the health of the sheep and promote the regular growth of the wool. Wool would probably keep best in thej'greasei and dust might be shaken from it.- Any difficulty in respect to fixing the price of wool in an unwashed state would vanish in a season or two." ' ' - Clipping off the coarse soiled wo6i about the thighs and docks," says Loudon, "some weeks before the usual time of washing and clipping the sheep, is all excellent practice, aa 19* 222 THE COMPLETE FARMER by tljis means the sheep are kept clean and cool when the season is hot; and with ewes, the udders are prevented from becoming sore." , In separating for the purpose of washing, the flock is brought to the side of the washing-pool, and those lambs and sheep of different kinds fit to be washed are put into separate inclosures; and such lambs as are too young- to be clipped are not washed, but confined in a fold or inclosure ot any kind, at such a distance from the washing-place that they may not disturb their mothers by bleating. In performing the operation of washing, it was formerly the method to have the washers standing up to their breast in the water; but from the inconvenience and danger of it,- various other modes of performing the operation have been proposed. Among others, that of sinking an empty hogsr head or other vessel of sufficient capacity for a man to stand in while washing the sheep, may be as eligible as any. A boat near a bold shore of a sheet of water, with one end aground, by which the sheep is introduced and put over- board, while the man who washes him remains in the boat, and extends his arms over the sides, and thus performs the necessary manipulations, furnishes a convenient mode of wEishing sheep. A small perpendicular waterfall, under which sheep are conducted, may likewise be used to ad- vantage for that purpose. ;. It was uniformly, the practice, immediately after shearing, to smear the bodies of sheep with some ointment, in which tar is the chief ingredient. This, however, has been con- demned, -as causing a waste of wool in carding and manu- facturing into cloth. But if the tar is mixed with a sufficient quantity of some greasy substance; the benefit may be ob- tained, (which is to preserve against ticks and the scab, as well as to increase the growth of the wool,) without any bad consequence resulting. A writer in " Rees' Cyclopedia," on wool, says much in favor of a composition greatly used in Northumberland, England, and gives the following directions for making it: -"From sixteen to twenty pounds of butter are placed over a gentle fire and melted ; a gallon of tar is then added, and the mixture is then stirred with a stick until the tar and butter are well combined, and form a soft, tenacious ointment." Some skill is required in its applica- tion. The locks should be divided, and the ointment ap- plied directly to the skin. It does no good to apply it to the . outside of the wool, but it must come in contact with the, AND tURAL ECONOMIST. 2S3 skin. This is best effected by opening the wool alons the neck and back, and applying the ointment with the ffiiger. In short, you must apply it in such a manner that it will be most likely to spread over every part of the body. The quantity laid on each animal differs in different districts. In the lighter mode of greasing, one gallon of tar and twenty pounds of butter will be sufficient for fifty sheep. In Scot- land, where greasing is applied merely to preserve the ani- mal fiom inclemency of the climate, a much larger propor- tion of tar is used. This would be very injurious to the wool were it any other but the coarsest kind. To derive the greatest advantage from the ointment, both to the wool and the sheep, it should be applied immediately after shear- ing, and again on the approach of winter. By the first greasing, the wool will be kept soft and moist during the sultry heats of July and August, and the top of the staple will not become harsh and discolored. One acknowledged advantage of greasing immediately after shearing should not be overlooked : it destroys the sheep tick, and has a tendency to prevent cutaneous distempers, and to protect the skin against the bite of the fly. Mr. J. Nelson published a recipe for the scab on sheep, similar to the above, but which we should suppose might answer a still better purpose; it is as follows: " Take three gallons of tar and three gallons of train oil, boiled together, to which add three pounds of roll brimstone, finely powdered and stirred in." This quantity is sufficient for ninety sheep. It is poured on with a pitcher or ladle from the top of the backbone to the tail. When the object is solely the destruction of ticks, a strong decoction of tobacco is probably as good an application as can be prescribed. Lambs often suffer much from ticks, after the sheep are sheared; as the ticks which are driven from the old sheep take refuge with the lambs. It will, therefore, be advisable to apply either the ointment or the tobacco decoction to the lambs as well as to their elders. And in all cases see that your application goes to and spreads over the skin as .equally as possible, instead of wet- ting or smearing the outside surface of the fleece, where it will be of more harm than benefit. On the Disorders of Sheep. The following observations are extracted from an-Esiay on Sheep, written by H. D.' G., a scientific shepherd, who has been acquainted with sheep 224 TIIE 'OMPLETJB FARMER husbaitlry, as practised by the wool-growers of Saxomfj France, and other partS' of Europe. "Almost all the disorders which attack sheep are caused by the want, and seldom or never by the excess of activity in the vital organs. The nerves are very susceptible, but sel- dom act with great force, and whenever they are powerfully excited, this excitement soon passes off and leaves the ani- mal extremely weak. It follows from this, that most of the means required for the cure of diseases among sheep should be calculated rather to excite than to allay the activity of the functions of life. A few of the most common diseases among sheep deserve to be particularly noticed. '' The Rot exhibits itself scarcely at all externally. The blood loses its high color and tendency to coagulate, and be- comes \tatery. The first perceptible symptom, therefore, is the loss of the bright red appearance about the eyes; the lips and inside of the mouth also become pale, as well as the skin generally under the wool. The animal continues to feed well and does not grow poor, although the natural ' vi- vacity is diminished and some signs of weakness occur. " The disease commonly gains strength in the winter. Watery swellings are formed, particularly under the chin, which are often absorbed and then reappear. Soon after these the animal generally dies, without showing any symp- toms of violent pain. Ewes attacked by this disease die most commonly about the time of dropping their lambs. The body on opening exhibits copious collections of water about the chest and entrails; the blood is extremely pale as well as the flesh. This disorder is unquestionably caused by feeding in swampy grounds, and a few hours are suffi- cient to fix it upon a sheep. It is increased by damp, foggy weather, while, on the other hand, dry warm weather and high pasture, especially where there are many aromatic herbs, are sometimes sufficient to counteract the first symp-* toms and efl%ct a cure. This disorder, however, when it has reached such a point that a common observer may no- tice the symptoms, is probably incurable. At a very early stage a cure is possible, if the flock is kept carefully on high land where aromatic herbs are abundant, ar d particularly, among juniper bushes, and in bad weather carefully boused and well fed. Horse-chestnuts are an excellent article for fodder in this case; also a mixture of juniper berries, worm- wood, sage, gentian, angelica roots, willow bark, and other bitter herbs, with a little sah and grain, which they Ivill eat AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 2'2o of their own accord, or if not, it should be administered in small quantities in the morning before they are driven to pasture. If the rot medies its appearance in a decided man- ner before the winter sets> in, it is useless to attempt any thing more than to fatten' the animal as soon as mayi be and srell him to the butcher. The rot certainly is not infectious, andit very ioften occurs thatonly a few sheep are attacked in large flocks; and generally, in such oases, if the shepherd is honest, the disease may be traced in every case to some swamp or other wet place, where these particular sheep may have strayed. i , . • >■ - " The Mouth and Hoof Distemper. , These complaints seem to have a mutual connexion, since the former, whichiis the mildest, very often precedes thei latter. In the mouth, the principal evil to betfeared isj that the sheep become ema- ciated from thei inability to eat. -The best remedy is to bathe the : parts . affected with' a strong decoction of sage, mixed with an equal quantity of vinegar and a little ihoneyj Ifithe blisters continue to spread,! half an ounce of blue vitriol should be added to a quarfc of this mixture. The disorder in the hoofs is soon discovered by lameness, and if this'is evj^ dently not produced by any external injury, and especially if several sheep in a fiock are attacked at the same time^ great care should be taken to obviate the effects of this disr order. The best remedy is a'poulticc;of doughjor fat loamy clay, which should be applied to the footifeyimeans of a little bag, but not tied hard to the ankle) and kept constantly wet with vinegar, till a swelling appears on thei upper side .of the foot or' in the cleft of the hoof. This should then be opened with a sharp knife and the dead hoof paredoff.' The wound must be washed with cold water and sprinkled with dry vitriol. The lame animals should remain carefully separatiid from the sound ones, and the washing and sprinkling with vitriol .re-' peated till the cure is effected^ This disease is not only contagious, but also infectious, in the highest degree, and oftentimes so violent as to produce'caries in the bone afiieir the hoof is destroyedii i _; , .< ■ ''' The Itch or. Scab. This disorder is dreadedtrnore than any other, and did, in fact, more damage in many districts than any other, until the proper mode of treatmentiwas dis- covered. The scab is certainly contagious, and may readily be propagated by merely touching theskimoCia healthy ani- mal with matter from a pustule on another sheep ; but as far as my observation has extended, the infection is not conveyed 826 THE COMPLETE FARMER through the atmosphere, though it often seems to be epi- demic, and particularly in very damp summers, which affect sheep in many other ways so unfavorably. " It is discovered by the animal's constantly rubbing or scratching itself, and making at the same time a peculiar motion with the lips ; the scabs are sometimes dry and some- times moist, and spread very rapidiy, though the animal con- tinues healthy in other respects, and generally more lively than before. Afterwards, however, the disorder becomes internal, the sheep becomes emasiated, and dies from weak- ness and pain. If the scab is ol-served at an early .period it may be easily cured, or at least prevented from spreading. One of the best remedies is a strong decoction of tobacco, to be applied to the diseased parts after scratching off" the scabs with a comb or other instrument. The decoction of tobacco mixed with lime-water and oil of vitriol, and used constantly, for some time, will generally effect a radical cure; another excellent remedy is a decoction of hellebore mixed with vinegar, sulphur, and spirits of turpentine. Internal remedies are of no use, except when the disorder has induc- ed other complaints by weakening the general health. " The Sheep-Pox. This disorder is contagious, and prop- agates itself by exhalation from4he sick to the healthy ani- mal, but it has not yet been discovered how far these exha- lations may extend. If, however, it appears in a neighbour- ing flock, care should be taken to mitigate its efl^ects by a general and careful inoculation, since it is certain that the disorder is less violent if taken by inoculation than in the natural way. The operation is perfectly simpte and easy. The animal is laid on its back and held by two or three men, while the operator introduces the matter, from a pustule five or six days old, in two or three places between the legs or on the tail. The lancet should be introduced in a slanting direction under the skin about an eighth of an inch, and when it is withdrawn, the skin should be pressed down upon it so as to wipe off" the matter and leave it in the wound. A Dustule is formed generally in four days, and reaches its greatest size on the sixth, when a few others generally ap- pear near the first. Soon after his, the usual symptoms of fever and general eruption take place, which last is, howev- er, more regular and safe, than if the animal had taken the disease without inoculation. The only care necessary dur- ing the progress of the disorder is to keep the sheep in a cool and airy situation. Internal remedies are not required. AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 22? but the sores should be oflen washed with a strong infusios of camomile flowers, in which a little blue vitriol has beea previously dissolved, and afterwards dressed with a salve made of yolks of eggs and turpentine, mixed with a, little powdered charcoal. " The Reeling Sickness is never infectious, but generally incurable. Its first symptoms are a weakness in the gait, and a disposition in the animal affected to remain separate from the flock. The head is thrown into an unnatural pos- ture, generally on one side. The animal then begins to turn round, always in one direction j stumbles and falls re- peatedly, sometimes with the head under the body, then ceases to feed, and soon dies. Lambs and yearlings only are usually liable to this disorder, and very rarely sheep over two years old. The seat of the disorder is always to be dis- covered on the brain, where one or more blisters are formed and filled with a watery secretion. The origin of this com- plaint, and of course the proper preventive treatment, re- main as yet undiscovered. A cure is sometimes effected by an operation through the skull to let off the water. The first step in this case is to examine the skull carefully in search of a soil spot in the bone, which usually indicates the spot affected. The skull is then perforated with a trocar, accom- panied by a tube through which the water may escape ; after which the tube also is withdrawn and a few drops of the essence of myrrh applied to the aperture. This operation is sometimes successful, but more often the reverse. If it succeeds, however, in only one cure out of five, it seems worth the trial, since without some relief the sheep must certainly perish. " Swelled Paunch. When sheep or other ruminating ani- mals eat more than they can digest, the food ferments in the stomach, emitting great quantities of gas, which stretch this organ so as to draw together its apertures, the paunch be- comes excessively distended, the lungs oppressed, the breath and pulse obstructed, and the death is very sudden. This ef- fect may be produced by foddei of any kind, but most readily by stich as the sheep prefer, especially if they are not accus- tomed to it. Green clover and lucerne have, therefore, often been observed to bring on this disorder ; but it is nev- ertheless certain, that neither of these substances are in themselves injurious, since I have known sheep accustomed to them eat their fill day after day . for months together, with- out suffering anj ill conseqr.Bnce Any young green feed ia 228 THE COMPLETE FAKMER more likely to be hurtful in this way than dry fodder, juI only when eaten in excess after long abstinence. If the ap- proach of the swelling is observed in season, it may be pre- vented by violent friction of the back and belly and driving the sheep rapidly. These remedies are assisted by a previ- ous dose of lime-water, which should be repeated half an hour afterwards, taking care that the lime is good and not previously air-sla«ked. If the attack is so violent as to leave no time for these remedies, an opening must be madt> in the paunch with the trocar and sheath; an operation which cannot easily be described, but may be exhibited with- out any difficulty to any person unacquainted with it." A writer in " The New York Farmer," says : ." A gen- tleman who was losing his sheep, without apparent cause, had occasion to use some clay about his house in the \vinter, and observed that his sickly flock ate it with avidity; he caused a load to be placed in their yard, much of which was devour- ed and his sheep speedily recovered." As a cure, therefore; I would recommend day to be placed in the' sheep-yard; which can, at worst, do no harm, as the animals will not eat it unless prompted by instinct; or, when it is practicable, the boughs or branches of resinous trees, as the pine and hem- lock, may be given to the flock in limited quantities. Roots of any edible kind will also be highly serviceable. As a preventive in future, I advise sheep-farmers to raise and lay in a good stock of ruta baga or other turnips, which are not only the healthiest but cheapest food for the winter consump- tion of sheep. • ■ Worms in the head of Sheep. There exists in some parts , of the country a species of fly, which naturalists call aistrus avis, of the same genus with that which deposits eggs in the hair of horses, and causes bots. This fly attacks sheep, from about the middle of August to the middle of Septem- ber, deposits its eggs in the nostrils of the animals,' and causes those worms which so frequently destroy them. The "Mechanic's Gazette" recommends, as a preventive, "cov- ering the nostrils of sheep with a list of gauzy substance, through which the animal can breathe, and keeping it in its place by some adhesive substance." We doubt, how- ever, the practicability of " keeping it in its place " by any "adhesive substance." Another preventive which sheep- owners tell us is effectual, is to keep the noses of the sheep constantly smirched with tar, from about the middle of Au- gust to the latter end af September. If the sheep swallow AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 22S some of the tar, so much the better, as it prevents or cures the rot, and confirms their health. If the fly has performed its mischievous function, and the seeds of the disorder are already sown,' you may make use of the following : "Take half a pound of gobd Scotch snuff, pour two quarts of boiling water on it, stir it and let it stand till cold ; inject about a table-spoonful of this liquid and sediment up each nostril of the sheep with a syringe. ' This must be repeated three or four times, at proper intervals, from the middle of October to the 1st of January ; the grubs are then small and are much easier destroyed than afterwards, and have not, injured the sheep, as they will if deferred until la- ter. Half an ounce of assafoetida, pounded in a little wat€r and added to the snuff, will make it more effectual. The owner of the sheep need not be alarmed, when the operation is performed, to see the sheep very drunk and apjjarently in the agonies of death, as they will in a few minutes recover. Dry snuff may be blown up the nose with a quill, and have a good effect; but it is a tedious, dirty job." Instead of " Scotch snuff," a decoction of tobacco will answer the purpose. A gentleman who owns a large flock of sheep informs us, that he had used it with perfect success. Spirits of turpentine have been injected into the nostrils of sheep, as a remedy for worms; but that substance appears to possess one material disadvantage, which should precltide its use for that purpose, viz. when thrown into the nostrils it kills the sheep as well as the worms. Mr. Alexander Reed, of Washington, Pennsylvania, in an article on the management of sheep, published in "The New England Farmer," (Vol. III. p. 60,) observes, that " daubi ing the sheep's nose with tar is considered as a protection against this enemy. What experience I have had is rather calculated to strengthen this opinion. I have always made free use of tar among my sheep, and I do' not know that I ever lost one by the worms in the head." It is said by some writers that if sheep are kept in good -ondition there is no danger of their suffering greatly from worms in the head; as they will be strong enough to e.'spel the insects by sneezing. This may be; but still, the applica- tion of tar to the noses of the animals would prove servicea- ble by preventing their being teased by the fly, which caufes great pain and distress at the time the nits are deposited, as well as eventuates in the, disease of the sheep. •2? 23() * THE COMPLETE FARMER HORSE. One of the most useful of tame quadrupeds The marks or evidences of a good one are these; a high neck, a full breast, a lively eye, a strong back, a stiff dock, full buttocks, ribs reaching near to the hips, well-made hoofs, rather large, and a good gait. The size of a horse should be in proportion to the work ifi which he is chiefly to be employed. Small sized ones often prove good in the saddle. They are apt to be hardy, and, in proportion to their size and the quantity of their eat- ing, usually are the most profitable. Plough horses, and all draught horses, should be large, as their weight is of impor- tance in drawing ; as it is often inconvenient to put two horses to one plough, especially in horse-hoeing. Large- ness is also of importance, when they are used single, in journeying, as they most usually are, in a chaise or sleigh. A horse's manner of going is a matter of no small impor- tance. The ambling gait, or what in this country is vulgar- ly called pacing, is not good, either for the horse or the rider. It is tiresome to both. It habituates a horse to carry his feet too near to the ground, so that he is the more liable to trip and stumble. The method so much practised formerly, in this country, of teaching horses to pace swiftly, and racing in that gait, is highly pernicious. It puts them to a much greater strain than running ; and numbers have been thus ruined. Some colts naturally amble, and others trot. But all may be made to trot, if due care and pains be taken with them while they are young, or as soon as they are first ridden. In a carriage an amble is tiresome to a horse, appears highly improper, and is disgusting to every one ; and I do not see why it should appear at ail mc/e tolerable in the saddle. When any change of gait is wanted for the ease of the rider, the canter is to be preferred, than which none can be more easy. The way of breaking a young horse that is mostly used in this country is highly absurd, hurtful, and dangerous. He is mounted and ridden before he has been used to the bridle or to bearing any weight on his back. If he will not go for- ward, he is most unmercifully beaten; by which his spirits are broken and his strength impaired. If he rears up, he is pulled backwards, with the risk of hurting both horse and man. If he runs and starts, as he probably will, under such management, he flings the rider, perhaps is frightened, gains his liberty, and is encouraged to do just so the next opportu- AND RURAL ECONOMIST. " 231 nity ; ind the unfortunate rider blesses himself, as he has reason to do, if he escapes without broken limbs. Or, if the horse should chance to go kindly, the rider continues the exercise till the horse is fatigued, discouraged, and in- jured. Instead of this mad management, the way practised in the older countries should be adopted. Let a horse first of all be tamed with the bridle, by leading him again and again ; in the first place, after or by the side of another horse ; and afler he walks well, bring him to trot after his leader. In the next place, put on the saddle, and lead him in that, time after time. Then lay a small weight on the saddle, and if he be apt to start, fasten it, that it may not be flung off; in- (U'easing the weight from time to time, till he learns to carry what is equal to a man's weight. Lastly, let a man gently mount him, while another holds him by the bridle, and fix himself firmly on the saddle The place of riding is recom- mended to be a ploughed fielo. Let him thus be ridden with a horse going before him, till he learn the use of the bit, and will stop or go forward at the pleasure of the rider, and without the application of much force.. Being exercised in this manner a few times, and treated with all possible gentle- ness, there will be no more occasion for leading him. He will go well of himself; and be thoroughly broken, without so much as giving him one blow, and without danger or fatigue to the horse or his rider. And, what is much to be regarded, the horse's spirits will be preserved, though he be sufficiently tamed. In teaching a horse to draw, gentleness must be used. He should be tried first in company with other horses, whether in carting or ploughing ; and the draught should not be so heavy as to fret him or put him to great exertion till he hal learned to draw steadily. After this he may be put to draw light loads by himself. Lastly, he may be put to a pleasure carriage, but'.coupled with another rather than alone, and to a sleigh rather than a chaise. It may be taken for a general rule, that the gait which is easiest to a horse will be the easiest to his rider ; for jaded horses, it has always been observed, are apt to go hard, and to tire their riders. The feeding of horses has not been sufficiently attended to in this country ; which is, doubtless, one reason why they are in general so mean and despicable. Too many keep hordes who cannot well afford to feed them. They should aSSJ THE COMPLETE FARMER neither nm upon the roads and commons, nor in pastures that are filled with wild and water grasses. They love a dry pasture, not too much shaded, and short grasses of the best kinds. Clover and white honey-suckle, both green and dry, ' are excellent food for them. It. nourishes them well, and prevents costiveness, which is very hurtful to them. The . best of clover hay will keep them as well as most other kinds of hay with oats. ' To fit a horse for a journey he should not be suffered to grow too fat and gross He should for some time be kept ia the stable rather than in the pasture, and fed mostly with hay and provender; but rather sparingly if he incline to be fat. He should have exercise daily, to harden his flesh and keep him in the habit of travelling. He should be shod some days before he begins a journey, that the shoes m^ be well settled to his feet, and the nails a little rusted at the points, that they may hold the faster. And the pads of the saddle should be well fitted to his back, so as to fill the hol- lows, and bear equally on every part. And while he is on the journey, he should be stabled every night. It is de- structive' to expose a horse to the dampness and cold of the night after severe exercise. But it would be best if neither horses nor any of our cattle were wholly confined to dry meat in winter. Horses indicate this by their eating snow vith their hay. Set a basket of snow within reach of a -lorse, when he is at his manger, and he will take a mouth- ful from each alternately. Of all juicy food for horses in winter, writers on husbandry seem to give carrots the prefer- ence. They have been found by experience to answer well mstead of oats for laboring horses; and to fatten those which are lean. ■> He that would be sure to keep his horse in good order must beware whom he suffers to ride him, and must see that he is never •abused. Profuse sweating should always be avoided. And when a horse is much warmed by exercise he should not be exposed to cold air nor night dew, and much less to rain and snow. . If he cannot be instantly rub- bed down and housed when warm, he should be covered with a blanket; and he should always have a dry stable, and be well littered. The neglect of these precautions may bring on incurable disorders. Horses should not be too much deprived of the liberty of motion, as they too often are. Close confinement aiQ:er hard labor will be apt to abate their circulations too suddenly. AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 2S3 make them chilly, and stiffen their joints. To be deprived of motion is bad for man and beast. ^ Horses therefore should not be straiteijed for room in their stables. Stables sho'ild not be so low as to prevent their tossing up their heads as high as they pleecse. Some stables have so little room overhead as to bring horses into a habit of carrying . their heads too lovr ; they become afraid to lift them up. They should also have room in their stables to turn their head^ to arty part of their bodies, that they may defend themselves from the biting of insects, allay itching, &c. And their halters should always be so long and their stables so wide, that they may lie down conveniently. Nor should horses be so placed as to be able to deprive each other of his fodder. When horses are kept in stables, as they generally are in the coldest half of the year, they should be- daily dressed^ as it is called. The curry-comb and the brush should be well used on all parts of their skin which are covered with hair. This increases perspiration throug-h the pores of the skin, which is necessary to health; and causes the blood to move faster in the veins. This treatment will not only cause them to look better, but they will have better health, and more activity and courage. They will digest their food better, and be better for service. But if rubbing and friction be wholly neglected, or slightly performed, the hair will appear dry and rough; the perspirable matter hardens in the pores of the skin, or remains lodged at the roots of the hair; and has the appearance of a dirty white dustj and sometimes like small scales, attended with itching. More especially is rubbing necessary for horses when they are growing cold after being sweated by labor.' In such cases it should never be omitted. Columella observes, "that the bodies of cattle ought to be rubbed down daily, as well as the bodies of men "; and says, " it often does them more good to have their backs well rub- bed down, than their bellies well filled with provender.". •'' But in warm weather it would be best for them, that they should not have the cbnfinement of the halter, nor even of the stable. A small spot of feeding ground, if it were only a few rods, adjoining to the stable, and the door left open, that^ horse may go in and out alternately as he pleases, would greatly conduce to the health of the animal. This degree of liberty will be most needful when the flies are troublesome, and be "letter for him than confinement to a 20* 2d4 THE :;OMFLETE FARMER Stable that is perfectly dark. In fly time, it gives a horse much ease and comfort to smear his limbs, neck, and head, with rancid fish oil, or something else that will keep the flies from attacking him. And in all seasons* when horses have been heated with exercise, they should be well rubbed or curried. When a horse runs in a pasture during the grass season, he should have some shelter; not only a shade to defend him from the intense heat of the sun, but a shed, or a clump of trees, that he may retreat from the inclemencies of the atmosphere. But horses that are daily worked in summer should be mostly kept upon green fodder in stables, rather than grazed in pastures. The tendance of them will not be so burden- some, with a spot of high and thick grass at hand, as lead- ing them to and from a pasture, at the distance of a quarter of a mile. This will prevent their being often chilled by feeding in wet nights. A large quantity of manure will thus be saved. And a very small quantity of land will answer, in comparison with what it takes for the pasturing of a horse. Keeping a scythe and a basket at hand, a horse may be foddered in this way in two or three minutes ; and by the time that the whole spot has been once mowed over, that which is first cut will be grown up again. Where a number of horses are soiled, a pair of poles, or a hand-cart, will be better than a basket to carry the hay to them. This practice, called soiling, answers well neair cities and large towns, where lands for pasturage are not plenty ; and where, by means of the plenty of manure, lands may be made to yield the greatest crops of grass. For very thick grass should not be fed ofl!" ;' because the greater part of it will be wasted by the trampling and the excrements of animals. When grain is given to horses, it is an economical practice to have it either ground or boiled. When horses are soiled, or fed in a stable on green grass, it should be cut and car- ried in during the morning while the dew is on. A disorder, called plyalism, has for some years past been gaining ground among horses in various parts of the United States, which is an excessive watering or slavering at the mouth. Various causes have been assigned for this disorder, but none of them satisfactory. Soiling them is, however, a certain remedy. *• The following remarks on the diseases of the horse were written by Dr. J. B Brown, of Boston, and were first pub VND UUBAL ECONOMIST. 235 lished in " The New England Journal of Medicine and Surgerj" :: — "The horse is not subject to fever; that is, he has no simple, idiopathic fever; no cold, hot, and sweating stage, as man has. The feverish action which the heart and arteries of the horse sometimes assume is sympathetic, and is always preceded by some local affection. It is a disease of irrita- tion. " The eyes of the horse are subject to a species of catar- act that a&cts no other animal. It arises from a constitu- tional disease, brought on by bad stabling. It is never produced by local injury. This species of cataract com- mences with an inflammation of the conjunctiva, without any apparent cause. Local applii;ations have no effect in remov- ing it. The only rational method of treating it is to remove, if possible, the constitutional disease, and improve the health and condition of the animal. " Oxen- and cows have the disease called bots in their skm, but in the horse this disease (if it may be so called) is con- fined to the stomach. "Farcy and glanders, are diseases peculiar to the horse. They are contagious diseases, but may be produced without contagion, by bad stabling. The poisonous matter of farcy will produce glanders, and vice versa. Farcy is now as- certained to be a disease of the superficial absorbents; whereas, in all the old books on the veterinary art, it is re- presented as a disease of the veins. " A horse glandered has the whole mass of blood con- taminated. This may be considered by medical gentlemen as an important fact, as it goes to prove the doctrine of humoral pathology. That the whole mass of blood is dis- eased, in a horse affected with glanders, has been proved by the following experiment, made by Mr. Colman, professor at the Veterinary Institution, England. "He took a yoiing, healthy ass, an animal, as he states, peculiarly susceptible of the disease, and introduced a pipe having a stop-cock into the jugular vein, united by means of an ureter to another pipe, which he introduced into the carotid artery of a glandered horse. He then bled the ass to dealh by opening his carotid artery, and turning the stop- cock, admitted the blood of the horse into his vessels, and resuscitated him. The result was, that the ass became violently glandered. He inoculated other asses from tfie master produced in him, and was able to carry on the same disease. 936 THE COMPLETE FARMER ■ 'S Corns in the feet of horsen are very unlike corns on the feet of the human subject. There is nothing which grows in thefeet of horses that constitutes corns. There is no in- crease of substance. Corns in the feet, of horses are mere bruises. Every body has seen or experienced the effects of bruises upon the human nail. Corns in the feet of horses are injuries of a similar nature. The red appearance which they have is caused by an extravasation of blood, which spreads itself among the fibres of the horny hoof., Corns are generally occasioned by the shoe.' They may, however, arise from other injuries. They are easily cured by suitable remedies and a proper mode of shoeing, unless the inflam- mation occasioned by the injury has been of long standing, and assumed a chronic character. In this case, the cure is more tedious. .."Horse-ail. Strictly speaking, all diseases of horses are horse-ails ; but custom has given this epithet to a species of disease very common among our horses. The disease refer- red to is called strangles, in most of the old books on far- riery. It consists in an inflammation of the membrane lining the nose and the arytaenoid cartilages. This disease is ac- companied by a cough and discharge from the nostrils. The cough is sympathetic, and is produced by the extreme sensi- bility of the membrane thus inflamed. -The lightest dust, or even a drop of water lodged upon this membrane, in this ir- ritable state, produces coughing. The inflammation some-f times extends to the lungs, and then this disease is accom- panied with a disease of the chest, and requires speedy and energetic treatment, as inflammation of the lungs in the horse is apt to terminate speedily in gangrene. Copious bleeding, from six to ten quarts at first, and smaller bleed-; ings afterwards, as the state of the case may require, and small doses of aloes, from one to two drachms, given daily; nave been found the most successful remedies in inflammatioa of the lungs. Drastic purgatives should be avoided, as they mcrease the irritation and put the life of the horse in extreme tiazard " The following judicious remarks on the management and diseases of horses, &c., are taken from an English publi- sation. : " The stable. As the preservation of health ought to be considered. as an object of equal, if not superior, importance to that of curing or alleviating disease, and as it can only be accomplished by a proper management of the korse with AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 237 respect to feeding, exercise, and the general economy of the stable, I think it proper to begin with this subject. " In the construction of a stable there is, perhaps, no cir- cumstance more deserving attention than that of ventilation, or of having contrivances for the ready admission of fresh air, and for the escape of that which has been rendered im- pure by breathing ; and it is really extraordinary that so little attention shoulc have been paid to so important a cir- cumstance. 6rooms in general make a point of closing eve- ry aperture they can find ; and if, at any time, they are pre- vailed upon to open a window, it is commonly so small, and so inconveniently situated, as to be of but little service. Let any one for a moment consider how foul an < atmosphere must be produced in a close stable, in which several horses are kept, by the constant exhalation of unwholesome vapors feom the litter, by the steams of perspiration from the skin, and by noxious airs from the lungs, and he will not be sur- prised at the long catalogue of diseases to which this im- proper treatment must subject these useful animals. ' '' If a doubt remain in the mind of any one as to the impro- priety of such close stables, let him enter one early in the morning, on its being first opened, and he will experience such a painful sensation in the eyes, and so violent a cough, as will afford him the most convincing proof of the noxious and stimulating nature of such an atmosphere'; yet such is the obstinacy and ignorance of grooms in general, that they cannot be prevailed upon to abandon this injurious practice. Even at this time stable^ are generally built too low, and unprovided with effectual means of ventilation. "A stable should be as lofty as it can be made convenient- ly, at least twelve feet ; the foul air will then circulate in the higher parts, and the animal will not be constantly breath- ing an unwholesome atmosphere, which he must do when the ceiling is scarcely higher than his head. Proper aper- tures must also be made in the ceiling, communicating with the atmosphere by square wooden tubesj so contrived as not to admit the rain into stables ; the foul air and other unwholesome vapors will then readilypass off, while a pr6per quantity of fresh air may be admitted by means of win- dows. The next circumstance to be attended to is nearly connected with, and not less important than ventilation,; namely, the so constructing a stable as to be able to regulate its temperature, or keep the air at any degree of heat that may be thought proper It is generally all »wed, that a uni- 238 THE COMPLETE FARMEB form temperature in a stable is very desirable ; and it is certain, that many of the diseases of horses are caused oy sudden changes in this respect. Even slight variations o/ temperature, if frequent, are injurious ; yet few stables are to be found where this inconvenience is effectually guarded against. To accomplish this desirable purpose, the win- dows should be in different sides, so that when a cold wind blows from any point it may be shut out, while fresh air is admitted by the opposite window. There should be several of the apertures we have described in the ceiling, that they may be occasionally shut, either wholly or partially, so that, by means of these and the windows, the temperature can at any season be easily regulated, according to the weather or state of the horse's health, more accurately if a thermometer be kept ; an instrument which appears to be a necessary appendage to a well-conducted stable. If, during the cold days of winter, the contrivance we have proposed should be found insufficient to raise the temperature of the stable to the desired point, the air may be easily warmed to any degree by means of stpves placed on the outside, with iron chimneys passing through the stable. It may be placed in the saddle- room; this, however, is scarcely necessary. " Light is also a thing of much importance in the con- struction of a stable ; and, for the purpose of admitting it feadily to every part, the windows should be large and prop- erly placed. There is no doubt that the eyes of horses are often injured by dark stables ; and when a horse is just taken from a dark situation, it is easy to perceive that light at first irritates the eye and gives pain ; and this is more remark- able when he is brought suddenly into the sunshine ; nbr is it to be wondered at, that so delicate an organ as the eye should suffer materially from the frequent repetition of this sudden change. ' "Though a light stable is desirable, the sunshine should not be allowed to fall on the eyes of a horse as he stands in his stall ; nor should the walls or ceiling be of a white color, as, under such circumstances, the eyes would be ovei stimu- lated and rendered weak. And when it is considered how lia- ble horses are to diseases of these organs, and how frequent- ly they terminate in blindness, no one will think any circum- stance tending to their preservation too (rifling to be noticed. With regard to the best color for the walls and ceiling, a stone or dove color is perhaps to be preferred, and may be made by mixing a little lampblack, ivory-black, or blue-black with the common white-wash. AND RtlBAL ECONOMIST. 239 " The door should be larger and higher than we usually see it ; for horses are very liable, in passing through a nar- row or low one, to strike their hips or heads. "The stalls should not be less than six feet wide, and the sides sufficiently high to prevent any sort of contact or com- niunication between the horses. They should also be of considerable depth, that a horse may not, by drawing back, have the power . of kicking those in the adjoining stalls. The floor of the stall should be made of hard b/ick, as a more equal surface is then formed than can be obtained by paving with pebbles. Very little declivity is necessary to drain off the urine; and as great inconvenience sometimes arises from suffering a horse to stand iu a stall where the fall is consiSerable, creating unnecessary exertion in the muscles of the hind leg, and keeping the ligaments constant- ly in a tense state, it has been recommended to make the drain in the middle of the stall, whereby the hind and fore feet of the horse might stand on a level. In whatever way, however, the stall is made, it should be carefully cleaned, twice a day, that none of that putrescent matter may accu- mulate which generates ammonia, or that pungent vapor which is so abundantly found in close, filthy stables. An iron rack is preferable to one of -wood, being more easily kept clean, and furnishing no splinters ; which, where wood- en racks are used, sometimes injure the mouth. The man- ger may be so contrived as to slide into the wall like a drawer; and then, while the groom is wisping him, he would have nothing to lay hold of with his mouth, by which prac- tice horses often become crib-biters. The height both of the rack and manger should be such as to enable the horse to feed with the greatest ease. The former is sometimes made so high that the horse is'obliged to exert the muscles of his neck considerably in order to reach it ; and this has been so placed, under an idea of its having a tendency to make hiin carry his head more gracefully; it is more probable, how- ever, that the only effect of it is to make the horse uncom- fortable while feeding. It has been recommended, as the best plan, to place the racks on a level with the manger, so that the horse msy feed as he does in a state of nature. This plan is a good one. It has been tried both for wagon and saddle horses, that is, both single and double, and found to answer extremely well. It was observed, however, that some horses would throw out part pf tb*) hay with their noses when it was of a bad quality; bat \:y placing one or more 240 THE COMPLETK FAKMEE bars across on the upper part, from the front to the back, this was effectually prevented. The manger should be rath- er wide, and not less than eighteen inches deep. When a horse is fed principally with chaff or cut hay, a deep manger is particularly necessary, as many horses, in endeavouring to pick out the oats from the chaff, will throw out a great deal of the food with their noses when the manger is shallow. In larger stables, where many horses are kept, each stall is to contain Jwo horses, which will require a space of twelve feet. A manger is placed at each end, and the hay crib in the centre. A very short halter is sufficient to allow the horses to lie down, and then there is no danger of entangling themselves with it, an accident that often occurs when, long halters are used. La Fosse, inhis Maniiel d'Hippiatrique, says, that the fall in the floor of the stallishould not be more than one inch to two yards. The gutter behind, the; stall is commonly too deep, and often so placed as to be in the way of the horses' hind feet. When a stable is pjraperly attend- ed to, scarcely any gutter is required ; and when there is orte, it should be very shallow and wide. " When a stable is ventilated by means of a tube or chim- ney, it should be placed in the centre of the ceiling, the opening in which should»be large, in proportion to the num- ber of horses kept ; it cannot well be too large, but may be contracted upwards, so as to have a conical shape, or it may be made so as to resemble a dome or cupola. It should be carried a few feet above the top of the roof, and have lateral openings^ by means of slanting boards, but closed on the to,p; by which contrivance there would be a free communication with the atmosphere, and the rain would be effectually ex- cluded. "There have been different opinions held with respect; to the removal of the litter during the day ; butiwhen we con- sider how rapidly and abundantly ammonia or the volatile alkali is generated in it, and how injurious that vapor is to the eyes and lungs, there can be no doubt of the propriety of removing it. Dr. Egan, of Dublin, has discovered, that the urine of the horse begins to generate volatile alkali very soon after it is voided ; and it is well observed by the samn author, that if this vapor be capable of painfully stimulating a sound and healthy eye, its effects upon one that is inflam- ed, and consequently extremely irritable, must be both highly painful and prejudicial to the organ. In confirmation of this opinion, the author relates the following experiment. A horse AND RURAL ECONOMIST. ^41 laboring under inflammation of the eye was removed from the stable, where he kept both eyes constantly shut, and placed in a cool, airy situation ; in the space of half an hour he began gradually to open his eyes, and in the space of two or three hours he kept them open boldly. The horse was again placed in the stable, and in a few minutes he began gradually to close the eyes, and after an hour or two kept them constantly shut. Not satisfied, however, with this ex- periment, though it seems pretty conclusive, the horse wa» again removed to the cool situation, and the same efliect fol- lowed as at first. If the vapors produced by foul litter prove so injurious to the eyes, it cannot surely be less prejudicial to the lungs ; and it is highly probable that if coughs are not produced in this way, they are often aggravated and render- ed incurable by those irritating effluvia. Another evil to be considered is the propensity observable in many horses to eat their litter. This is often the case with such as have a chronic cough, or are disposed to become brokenwinded, or have worms ; and in all these diseases there is nothing, perhaps, more likely to increase them than the animal's eat- ing foul litter. It must be obvious, that horses employed in severe labor should be allowed to lie down whenever they are inclined to do so ; but even then all the litter may be turned out early in the morning, the floor of the stall swept perfectly clean, and a bed of fresh straw put in. If the foul litter be spread abroad in the open air, and shaken up two or three times during the day, the greater part would be again fit for litter, and, with the addition of a little fresh straw, would serve to replace that upon which the horse has rested during the day. It has been said, that horses which stand constantly on litter are apt to feel the difference of the road and become tender-footed. Mr. Clark observes, that the heat arising from the litter occasions a more than ordi- nary derivation of blood to the legs and feet ; and hence arise swelling or gourdiness of those pa.rts, greasy heels, and stiffness or numbness. If the horse lies down for relief, the heat of the litter soon forces him to get up again, and after repeatedly lying down, and forced to get up immediate- ly from the above cause, he attempts it no farther; he stands upright, or perhaps a little straddling, often shifting the weight of his body from one leg to the. other. This erect position, in which he is obligedto stand, increases-the swel- ling of his legs, &c., and recourse is then had to bleeding, Durging, diuretics, &c. 2i S42 THE COMPLETE FARMER " Lord Pembroke, in his 'Military Equitation,' observes that after working, and at night of course, as also in lame- ness and sickness, it is good for horses to stand on htter ; it also produces staling, &c. At other times, it is a bad cus- tom ; the constant use of it heats and makes the feet tender, and causes swelled legs ; moreover, it renders the animal del.o...^. " Swelled legs may be often reduced to their natural size merely by taking away the litter, which, in some stables, where ignorant grooms and farriers govern, would be a great saving of physic and bleeding, besides straw. "Lord Pembroke has noticed, by repeated experiments, that legs swell or unswel', by leaving litter or taking it away, like mercury in a weather-glass. Mr. Blaine is of opinion, that the custom of standing on litter ruins more horses than all the mails or stagecoaches put together ; that it is the fruitful source of contracted feet, and brings on that ruinous aiTection with more certainty than the hardest work. In my own stables (he says) no litter is ever suffered to remain under the fore-feet during the day. The horses stand on bare bricks, which, in summer, are watered to make them more cool ; by which means I have experienced astonishing bene- fit. Behind, a little litter is strewed, because they are apt to kick and break the bricks with their hind feet ; and be- cause the litter thus placed sucks up the moisture of the urine, which would be detrimental to the hinder feet, which are more liable to thrushes than contraction." Colls. " Colts are usually foaled about the beginning of summer, and it is the custom to let them run till Michaelmas with the mare, at which time they are to be weaned. When first weaned, they must be kept in a convenient house, with a low rack and manger for hay and oats ; the hay must be very sweet and fine, especially at first, and -a little wheat bran should be mixed with their oats, in order to keep theii bodies open, and make them eat and drink freely. When the winter is spent, they should be turned into some dry ground, where the grass is sweet and short, and where there is good water, that they may drink at pleasure. The win- ier after this, they may be kept in the stable, without any farther care than that which is taken, of other horses. But after the first year, the mare foals and horse foals are nut to be kept together. There is no difHcultyHo know the shape a foal is like to be of, for the same shape he carries at n month he will carry a. six years old, if he be not abused in afler keeping." 1»D RURAL ECONOMIST. S4f» " We oflen hear it lamented, that our breea uf horses is bad. But I am convinced that, as our colts arc managed, il we had any other breed, we should soon make it appear to be as mean as our own, if not worse. The abusing of colts in the first winter is the principal cause of their proving so bad ; for our farmers seldom allow their weaned colts any food besides hay, and that is not always of the best kind. So that they seldom fail of being stinted in their growth, in the first winter, to such a degree, that they never get the better of it. A colt that is foaled hite should not be weaned till February or March, and should have oats during the whole of the winter. In some countries, they allow a young colt fifteen bushels. We need not grudge to feed them with meal, oats, and bran, besides the best of clover hay; for they will pay for it in their growth. After the first winter, they will need no extraordinary feeding till they are grown up. Were the abov3 directions observed, we should soon see an improvement of our breed of horses. They would be capa- ble of doing much greater service, and be likely to hold out to a greater age." — Deane. For farther remarks on the management of colts, and training or breaking them for service, see page 64 of this work. MANGEL-WURTZEL. Field Culture of the Mangel- vmrlzel Beet and the Sugar Beet. Soil and Preparation. The soil for these roots should be a loam, inclining to clay, in good tilth, well manured, and made fine to a good depth. John HarePowel, Esq., corresponding secretary to the Penn- faylvania Agricultural Society, in giving an account of his mode of cultivating this crop, says, ' ' My soil was not natu- rally strong; it has been gradually. so much deepened as to enable Wood's plough, No. 2, drawn by four oxen, to plough tourteen inches deep. Fresh barn-yard manure was equally spread upon the surface, and ploughed under in 'he early part of April, in quantities ijot larger than aregeneidlly used for potato crops in this country. Early in May, the land was twice stirred with Beatson's scarifier, harrowed, rolled ; ufter stirred, harrowed and rolled again in the opposite direction." The soil, on which Messrs. Tristram Little and Henry Little, of Newbury, Massachusetts, raised their premium crop, in 1824, is a clay loam. In 1823, about three- 244 rHE COMPLKTE FARMER .^urths of the same was sowed with onions^ and manured with about eight cords of compost manure to the acre. The other quarter was sowed with wheat without manure. In the .fall of 1323, there were about ten cords of compost ma nure drawn on the lot, and put in a heap. Most of the said compost was drawn from the salt marshes, when ditching the same ; the other part was from the barn-yard. In the month of April, 1824, the heap was thrown over, and well iiiixed. Planting. Colonel Powel says, " The holes for the seeds were made by a wheel, containing pegs in its circumference, which penetrated the ground about an inch, leaving intervals of four inches ; the rows were made two feet asunder ; two capsules were dropped into each hole ; the wheel of a com- mon barrow was passed over them, thus compressing the earth, and leaving a slight rut for the retention of moisture." , Messrs. Tristram and Henry Little observe, that, " Be- tween the 8th and 1 1th of May, the land was ploughed and sowed in the following manner. After one deep ploughing, the ground was furrowed two and a half feet apart, and the manure put into the furrows, and covered with a double mould-board plough ; a roller was then passed on the top of the ridge, and the seed dibbled in with the finger over the manure, about six or eight inches apart." The quantity of seed, according to English writers, is four pounds to an acre Mr. David Little, in obtaining a premium crop, sowed four pounds, but" observed, that he thought half that quantity would have been sufficient. After-culture. Colonel Powel says, "A small cultivator, which I had contrived for the purpose, was drawn between the rows soon after the weeds appeared ; a three inch trian- gular hoe removed the alternate plants, leaving the others at distances varying from eight to twelve inches asunder. The cultivator was twice used before the 20th of July. The heavy rains of August made another hoeing necessary, and surcharged the ground so much with moisture, that all roots increased much less in that month than during the same time in the two last years." The Messrs. Little, " in the course of the season, thinned their plants, and left them froiij' six to twelve inches apart in the rows. They were onoe hoed, and ploughed three times bftween the rows." Mr. Powel, in raising a previous crop, had plaoed the rows thirty inches apart, and left the plants six inches apart in the rows. He savs, " I this year desired smaller roots," which AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 245 might grow so closely as by their leaves' to protect the soil as much as possible from the rays of the sun. My cultiva- tor, by its peculiar form, enabled me to cut off the weeds when the plants were so young, that, if I had applied the plough, their crowns must have been covered in many in- stances by earth occasicnally falling from its land side. The failure, which attends the cultivation of most root ■crops in drills, proceeds from the neglect of weeds in their early sta- ges. ' Four or five days of delay frequently make the' differ- ence of fifteen days in the labor of making clean an acre ot ground. The same weeds which a boy with a sharp shinigle could remove at the commencement of one week, may, before the end of the next, require the application of an implement drawn by a horse.' I ascribe, my success, in great measure, to the use of Wood's extraordinary plough; which enters the soil more deeply, and pulverizes it more perfectly, than any other I have ever seen, with equal force, in any country ; to the use of cultivators, which complete the production of fine tilth ; to the destruction of the weeds on their first appear-* ance, — leaving the smallest space upon which a horse can walk between the rows ; and, above ail, to planting the seeds of a proper^ 'kind upon a surface which is kept perfectly flat." General Remarks. Agriculturists have not agreed, wheth- er it is most expedient to plant the seeds of this ropt on ridges or on a level. Colonel Powel condemns planting on ridges in this country, as a practice not adapted to our soil and climate, in which vegetables are very liable to suffer by drought. He says, "Among the various practices into which we have Deen seduced by the plausible theories of the advocates of European husbandry, there is none which ap- pears to me more absurd than that which has led us to drill or dibble our crops on ridges. The English farmer wisely contends with t^e evils produced by too much' rain; the American husbandman should as_ anxiously guard against his most formidable enemy, drought. I am inclined to think that there is no crop cultivated in this State (Pennsylvania) which ought not to be put on a flat surface." The climate of New England, especially its northern part, is hot so warm and ^y as that of Pennsylvania, and in that part of the United States, perhaps, the nature of the soil should decide the question ; if dry, level planting, or if moist, ridge plant- ing should be adopted. . We have heard complaints from American farmers, that the seed of this root is slow and uncertain in coming up^ 21* 246 THE i'OMPLETE FARMER Perhaps the seed, or soil, or both, may sometimes be too dry at the time of sowing. A writer in the " English Farmer's Journal," says, " I have of late years steeped my seed for at least forty-eight hours. I made an experiment with twenty sound seeds, not steeped, twenty steeped twenty-four hours, and the same number steeped forty-right hours ; every, seed of the latter produced plants, which came up two or three days sooner than either of the others, and some of those not steeped did not come up at all." Mr. Cobbett, in tj-eating of the culture of the common garden beets, (American Gar- dener, par. 198,) directs to soak the seed four days and nights in rain-water before it is sowed; and observes, that the mangel-wurtzel should be cultivated in the same manner as the other kinds of beets. American writers, so far as we have observed, give no directions for soaking the seeds of this vegetable before planting ; and it is possible, that the omission of this part of the process may cause the slowness and uncertainty of vegetation complained of. The capsule, or husk, which contains the seeds, is dry, and it requires a long time for the moisture which it may derive from the sarth to penetrate this integument, so as to cause the seed ■o sprout. But if the soil be very moist at the time of sow- mg, soaking the seed had better be omitted. Much has been written and said on the subject of strip- ping these plants of their leaves for feeding cows and other economical purposes. An English writer observes, that six or seven crops of leaves and stocks may be taken off during the growth of the root. Women and children can take off the leaves, which is done as follows ; they should place their hands on each side of the root, at the foot stalks of the leaves, leaving about six of the smallest central leaves be- tween the fore-finger and thumb of each hand ; (the small leaves are to be left on the root to grow, to make a fresh top;) then, spreading the hand flat with their face downwards, push them both at the same time towards the ground, and thus, by one motion, will the whole of the top' of each root, ex- cept the small leaves to be left to form a fresh head, be re- moved without unsettling the root or its fibres, which would check its growth. Some affirm, that stripping the plant of its leaves is no injury to the root, and others are of opinioa that the root is injured by this means. We have doubts, whether, in field cultivation, it will often be deemed expe dient to expend time and labor in this manner. The thin mngs, or superfluous plants, however, should be preserveo, as they make excellent food for milch cows or store swine. AND RURAL ECONOMIST 247 Some cultivators affirm, that it is never worth the trouble to transplant these roots to fill vacancies. " I have seen," ear- an English vvriter, " much labor and expense employed in transplanting into vacant spots, when the seed has nut been dibbled thick enough, but have never seen the transplanted roots worth half the trouble ; the tap-root being broken in the drawing, nothing but the top and useless rough roots and fangs are produced. It has been remarked by other writers, that the most common cause of failure in transplanting this root is the taking them, up when too small, before the plants have obtained strength and size sufficient to bear the opera- tion of transplanting. Use. The following remarks are from a paper communi- cated to the trustees of the "Massachusetts Agricultural So- ciety," by J. Lowell, Esq., president of said Society. They are derived, principally, from a French publication, by the Abbe Rosier. v "This root is yery little affected by changes of weather. It is attacked b'y no insect ; drought affects but little its vegetation. It {;repares the land extremely well for other crops. It may be sown and treated precisely like the com- mon beet, except that it ought to stand eighteen inches asunder. In good land, they often weigh nine or ten pounds, and are stripped °.ight or nine times. In a light, sandy, but well manured soil, they sometimes weigh fourteen and even sixteen pounds sach ! The first crop of leaves in France is taken off in the latter end of June, or the beginning of July. In this country, probably, the latter period would be preferable. The lower leaves, those which incline towards the ground, are ihose which are taken away, and care must be taken to preserve the top leaves, or the crown of the plants. The leaves may be taken off every fiftejen days after the first gathering. Oxen, cows, and sheep devour them greedily, and fatten readily upon them. All domestic poultry eat them readily, when chopped fine and mixed with grain. Horses will. feed upon them very well, mixed with chopped straw. Hogs also fatten upon them. " Cows fed UDon this root solely give a greater quantity of milk and cream, and of better quality for the first fifteen days, after wh:<-.h they grow too fat, and the milk lessens. ■ The food of cows must therefore be varied. Oxen and sheep fatten very well upon them. Cows should have grass in proportion of one-third to the best leaves, or every third day they should be turned to grass In this mode their milk 248 THE COMPLETE FARMER will be excillent. The trouble of gathering the leaves is less than that of gathering any other green fodder. It may be done by children, while men are required to cut other green food for cattle. It is the surest crop, since the plant will stand the longest droughts. The roots are gathered and treated like those of the common beet. The skin is very tender, and care should be taken to handle them so as they may not be wounded, as they will, in that case, not keep so well. In order to preserve the seed in purity, care must be taken to change the ground in which the seed beets are planted. The seed can be preserved,! after it is gathered, three or four years, without injury. In giving these roots to cattle for food, they are first washed, and then cut up into pieces about the size of a nut . It is always best to accom- pany them, when given to horned cattle, with clover, or oth- er hay or straw ; and if the hay or straw has been previously cut fine, it will be preferable. If horses are fed with this root, with a proportion of hay or cut straw, (half of each,) they will be fat, vigorous, and healthy. If they are workea severely, a little oats or corn may be added. It is thus they are treated in Germany, where this root stands in the stead, of meadows or grass lands, and whose excellent horses are well known. "Hogs fed upon them raw, after they have been cut up fine and mixed with milk or other drink, fatten as well upon them as upon boiled potatoes, by which the fuel and trouble of boiling is saved. " As to the quantity given to animals, much will depend on the proportion of other fodder which you allow them. Cows fed twice a day in winter upon eighteen pounds of these roots at each time, together with four pounds of hay or chopped straw, will give as much and as good milk as in summer, and they will be kept in the best possible state "Oxen fed with forty weight of these roots per day, with ten pounds of hay, for one month, and after that with fifty weight per day of the roots alone, will be fat enough for sale in two months more. " Man can eat this vegetable throughout the year ; it is agreeable and healthy. No insect attacks it, and it suffers •but little from the variety of the seasons. The leaves of this plant form alone an excellent food for every species of domestic quadruped, during four months in the year. Tur- nips and other vegetables are, besides, liable to be destroyed by insects, whereas this beet is not. The roots can be pre AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 249 served eight months in a sound state, while turnips aie of little value after March. In some soils turnips will not grow, particularly in those which are very stiff or strong. The root of SQarcity grows everywhere. The milk of cows fed on turnips has a bad taste ; that of those fed on this plant is excellent, as is also the butter made from it. This forage on green fodder comes also at the hot seasops, when almost all other green food is scarce, and sometimes not to be pro- cured. Cattl'i never get tired of it. In many parts of Ger- many, where u is raised with success, they prefer it to every thing else to fatten those large herds of cattle >yhich they annually export to France. In feeding cattle with- beets, the same dry food must be given which is usually given, with turnips." Colonel Powel observes, " My neat cattle prefer mangel- wurtzel to any roots which I have offered to them. I have found its effects in producing large secretions of g'oo<2 milk very great. I selected, in November, two heifers of the same breed, and very nearly of the same age, and in similar condition ; they were fed in adjoining stalls, and havd been fed regularly three times a day, by the same man. One of them has had three pecks of mangel-wurtzel and four quarts of corn-meal daily ; the other, four and a half pfecka of mangel-wurtzel. The last, which has had mangel-wurtzel alone, is in the condition of good beef; the other ia notimore than what graziers call half fat. " The application of mangel-wurtzel as food fori sheep is not the least important of its uses. Ewes yean usually at the season wjien grass cannot be supplied. The health of themselves and the thrift of their lambs essentially depend upon succulent food being had. I am inclined to think, that no small portion of the success which English breeders have met, is to be ascribed to the large stores of roots which they always have at command. It cannot be denied, that Indian meal will of itself, in most cases, produce extraordinary fat- ness, as well as great size ; but I have been led to believe, that diseases are early engendered by this species of forcing, which is always expensive, ai?.d too often eventually destroys the animal which has been thus reared." Messrs. T. and H. Little observe, as to the value of the roots for feeding stock, " There is a variety of opinions ; but, from a number of years' experience, we think them a valua- ble addition, and highly worth cultivating. Comparing them with English hay, and we know of no better standard, in 5550 THE COMPLETE FARMER our opinion, three tons of mangel-wurtzel, or potatoes, (of the two, we value the mangel-wurtzel the highest,) are equal to one ton of hay, for feeding stock generally ; but for milch cows, we think two tons of equal value. For feed- ing store swine, mangel-wurtzel is the only root that we know of which we can cultivate and feed to profit. Six bushels of raw mangel-wurtzel we think equal to one bushel of Indian corn " Quantity to an Acre. The premium crop of the Messrs. Little was thirty-three tons ten hundred weight and four- teen pounds on an acre. Colonel Powel inclosed certificates to the president of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Society, showing that sixteen hundred and thirty-four bushels of man- gel-wurtzel, weighing seventy-eight thousand four hundred and forty-eight pounds, were produced upon one acre and fourteen perches ; and a part of the same field, containing thirteen contiguous rows, produced at the rate of two thou- sand and sixty-five bushels per acre, weighing forty-four tons five hundred and twenty-seven pounds. In Great Bri- tain, it is said that upwards of sixty tons have been raised on an acre. Gathenng and Preserving. In gathering the roots, care should be taken to cut off the leaves about half an inch above the crown, as they will no* keep so well if cut more closely. Messrs. Tristram and Henry Little say, "As to the best mode of preserving them, we have tried divers ways, — by pitting them, by putting them into a barn and covering them with hay, and by putting them into the cellar ; the last mode we think the best." Golonel Powel observes," that one of his crops was " piled in a cellar, in rows, as wood, and covered with sand." A writer in the "English Fafmer's Journal " observes, that he has practis- ed, with success, the following mode of preserving this root : " I pack it in long heaps, about seven feet wide at the bot- tom. I begin by forming the outsides with the roots not stripped of their tops ; tops outwards ; the internal par'.s to be filled with roots without leaves ; continue one layer over another, until the heap is about six feet high, and about two feet broad at top, which may be covered with straw and earth ; the ends of the heap should be covered in the same way. The leaves form an efficient covering against rain and frost." Mr. M'Mahon's mode of preserving beets and other roots is as follows : "Previous to the commencement of \ND RURAL ECONOMIST. 251 severe frost, you should take up, with as little injury as pos- sible, the roots of your turnips, carrots, parsneps, beets, sal- sify, scorzcnera, Hamburg or large-rooted parsley, skirrets, Jerusalem artichokes, turnip-rooted celery, and a sufficiency of horseradish for the winter consumption ; cut off" their tops, and expose the roots for a few hours, till sufficiently dry. On the surface of a very dry spot of ground, in a well sheltered situation, lay a stratum of sand two inches thick, and on this a layer of roots, of either sort, covering them with another layer of sand, (the drier the better,) and so continue the layers of sand and roots till all are laid in, giv- ing the whole, on every side, a roof-like slope ; then cover this heap-or ridge all over with about two inches of sand, over which lay a good coat of drawn straw, up and down, as if thatching a house, in order to carry off wet and pre- vent its entering the roots ; then dig a wide trench round the heap, and cover the straw with the earth so dug up, to a depth sufficient to preserve the roots effectually from frost. An opening may be made on the south side of this heap, and completely covered with bundles of straw, so as to have access to the roots at all times, when wEtnted either for sale or use. " Some people lay straw or hay between the layers of roots, and immediately on the top of them ; this I do not approve of, as the straw or hay will become damp and mouldy, and very often occasion the roots to rot, while the sand would preserve them sweet and sound. " AH these roots may be preserved in like manner in a cellar ; but in such a place they are subject to vegetate and become stringy earlier in spring. The only advantage of this method is, that in the cellar they may be had when wanted more ct>nveniently during winter than out of the field or garden heaps. " Aoie. Al! the above roots will preserve better in sand than in common earth ; but when the former cannot be had, t>)e sandiest earth you can procure may be used." RUTA BAGA. The following is an account of the method of cultivating ruta baga, adopted by Rev. Henry Colman, in obtaining a crop for which he received a pre- mium of twenty dollars from " The Massachusetts Agricul- tural Society." in 1830 ; from " The New England Far mer " ; — 2o2 THE COMPLETE FARMER " On an acre, on one side of the field, there were galh ered seven hundred and forty-one baskets full ; and fort;^ basket 3 of the above-named weighed at the town scales two thousand seven 'hundred and fifty pounds net weight. This, allowing fifty-six pounds to a bushel, the standard weight assumed by the Society, would give a crop of nine hundred and three bushels to the acre. " The turnips were planted on the 29th of June and 2d of July ; about one pound and a half of seed was used for the acre ; and they were gathered and stored in cellars and in the barn, in the last part of November. "The ground on which they grew is a good soil, neither wet nor dry, and bore the last year an abundant crop of onions, and corn the year preceding the last. It was well manured at both times, and in fine tilth. It was manured with at least six cords to the acre of barn manure, the last spring, and sowed again to onions ; but the seed entirely failing, it was ploughed, harrowed, furrows struck out, and about eight cords of barn manure spread in the furrows ; ploughed again, so as by a back furrow to form a ridge over the manure, and the seed sown with a small drill-harrow on the ridges, making the rows about twenty inches asunder. As soon as the plants were of sufficient size, a drill-harrow, with small shares fixed to it, to cut off all the weeds, was passed through the rows ; and the plants thinned with a small weeding hoe to the distance of about eight inches apart, and the vacant places filled up by transplanting from the supernumerary plants. They were once more harrowed and cleaned, which was a very small labor ; and owing to the very unpropitious weather were not harvested until very late. Some of them were very large ; one weighed fifteen pounds, and many were nearly as large. The exact expense of cultivating the acre cannot be estimated, as it was inter- mixed- with other farm work ; but the whole, from the sow- ing to the gathering, was not two-thirds of the labor usually bestowed on planting, cultivating, and gathering an acre of potatoes. " My Swedish turnips the last year were fed off to my oxen, dry, cows, young stock, and fatting sheep. To the cattle they were of very great advantage ; and for feeding sheep, they proved worth from ten to twelve and half cents per bushel. Three years' experiment has increased their value very much for these purposes in my own estimation." AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 253 A con esponderit in *' The Now England Farmer," (Vol XI. p. 277,) says : " The soil for the culture of the ruta baga must be rich and dry; and the more it inclines to a sand loam the better. Clay is the worst, and wet soils will not answer at all. My general practice has been, to manure well a piece of pasture, or clover ley, from which the hay has first been cut, plough it handsomely over, and harrow it well. I sow in rows, at two and half or three feet, with a drill-harrow. The sooner the preceding operations succeed each other the better. I have sown broad-cast, but the expense of thinning and culture is increased. A man will drill in three or four acres a day. We allow a pound of seed to the acre, though half this, properly distributed, is enough. Sow from the 26th of June to the 10th of July. " Culture. I use a cultivator, that may be graduated to. the space between the rows, drawn by a horse, as soon as the plants can be well distinguished. This is repe,ated in a few days, back and forward, and the implement carried so close to the drills, as to leave only strips of from four to ten inches, which are then thoroughly cleaned with a skim hoe, and the plants thinned to eight and ten inches' distance. The cultivator soon follows for a third time, and if necessary the skim hoe, when the crop is generally left till harvest; The great aim is to extirpate the weeds, and to do this while they are smalL " Harvesting is postponed as long as the season will per mit. . The roots are then pulled up and laid on the ground the tops of the two rows towards each other. The puller are followed by a man or boy with a bill-hook, who with a light blow cuts the tops as fast as three or four can pull. Three men will in this way harvest, of a good crop, three hundred bushels in a day. The tops are gathered into heaps and taken to the yard in carts daily, for the stoek, until they are consumed. An acre will give from five to ten cart- loads of tops. The roots are failed in the field if dry ; the pits, two or two and a half feet broad, covered with straw and earth, and as cold weather approaches, with manure, to prevent frost. N. B. With a crow-bar make one or more holes on the crown of the pit, which must be left open, to let off the rarefied air and prevent the roots from heating. " Use. The tops serve for autumn. As soon as the mild weather of spring will justify, I break through the frost, and take the contents of a pit to ray barn, and cover the rootn 22 254 THE COMPLETE FARMER with straw or hay. From thence they are fed to my stock, being first chopped up with a snik, (Dutch meat-chopper,) or spade. They are excellent for sheep, especially for ewes that have young ; and hogs and horses eat them freely. Steamed, they are used in the nort'h of England for horses as a substitute for grain. I have fattened sheep and bul- locks upon them with profit. They constitute, particularly from February to June, an excellent culinary vegetable for the table. A bullock will thrive fast upon two bushels a day, and will consume hardly any ha,y, and requires no drink. " Product and Cost. My average crop has been six hun- dred bushels per acre, though others have raised much heavi- er products. The cost in manure and labor, when they are secured for winter, has been from two to three cents per bushel. " N. B. Cattle or sheep fattened upon this root should be kept from eating them for eight or ten days before they are slaughtered, otherwise the meat will have an unpleasant savor. J. B." ENGLISTT TURNIPS. Every farmer will find it profit- able to raise ._ quantity of these roots. The mangel-wurtzel and the ruta baga, useful as they undoubtedly are, will not completely supersede, nor altogether supply the place of the old-fashioned English turnip. In the " Memoirs of the Board of Agricuhure of the State of New York," (Vol. I. p. 26,) we find the following remarks on the best mode of cultivating this valuable root : " There is no difficulty in raising turnips on new land; but it is very desirable to know the best mode of raising (hem, at least a small patch every year, on old farms. Mr. Henry De Bois, of Rensselaer county, and Major E. Cady, of Columbia county, say, that they have succeeded in obtaining good crops several years in succession by the following pro- cess. Turn over a turf of old sward the first week in June. Yard your cattle at night on this, in the proportion of six head at least to a quarter of an acre, until the 20th of July. Then harrow lengthwise the furrows, so as not to disturb or overturn them, and sow in the proportion of about half a pound of seed per acre. " If it is not convenient to yard cattle upon it sufficiently, about two inches of well-rotted mairure, harrowed in as AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 256 above, will do as & substitute. Mr. C. R. Golden applies the manure by strewing it in shallow furrows, two feet apart ; then buries the manure by two side furrows, and harrows the ground level, lengthwise of the furrows. This method re- quires less manure, and he has the advantage of hoeing the turnips in drills." We recollect likewise, that we have read, in several of our New England newspapers, that fine turnips have been raised by ploughing up old sward ground some time in June, har- rowing well, and sowing from the 1st to the 20th of July, and this without the application of manure. But there can ' be no doubt that folding sheep or horned cattle on the land thus ploughed would very much enhance the crop. All American writers on this subject, whose works we have perused, advise to sow seed of the common English turnip as late as about the middle of July. They tell us, that late sowed turnips are much the best for the table, and that they are less liable to be injured by insects, if sown so late, than when sown much earlier in the season. Turnips are frequently, if not most generally, raised in the United States as a second crop ; and no doubt this practice is often very eligible, and may be perfectly consonant with the soundest maxims of good husbandry. But when it is intended to make the most of your crop of turnips, or to obtain as great a product as possible for the purpose of feeding cattle, we do not perceive any objection to giving turnips, a larger portion of the season to grow in than has been with us the general practice. An English writer on agriculture, whose remarks on this and other agricultural topics appear to us to be judicious, and to display a thorough knowledge of the subjects of his essays, says, "It is not pretended, that there lies any solid objection to early sowing of turnips, simply considered ; on the contrary, such seems to be the most proper means of ob- taining a full crop ; but the advantages of early sowing, whatever they be, are given up, and the season postponed from near three to five months, by way of retarding the growth of the crop, that it may last to a later period in the spring, and receive less damage from the frosts than that to which it would be liable in its eaily maturity. The disad- vantages attending this plan are a crop far inferior in weight to what might be obtained from the land, and the very common risk of destruction from drought and fly. The weight and perfection of the turnips being the objects, the land may be 266 Tins C.MPLETE FARMER got ready for them as for any other early spring crop, and the seed sown with the first warm showers. This will afford ample scope for resowing, should the first seed fail, of which, however, granting it to be good, and the land sufficiently fine, I believe there is scarcely any risk. As to any advan- tages of a crop previous to the turnips, nothing scarcely can stand in competition with the first crop of roots. " The true turnip soil is a deep sand or sandy loam. Every gardener knows the proper time U- begin hoeing turnips. In general, when the plants spread a circle of about four inches they are ready for the first hoeing. They are commonly left about a foot asunder. The second hoeing three weeks after the first." Those who desire to go extensively and successfully into the turnip culture should raise their own seed from the finest transplanted roots. An English cultivator says', " It is won- derful what a small quantity of seed suffices for an acre of ground, and indeed equally so how it can be delivered and spread over such a breadth. A pint might be more than enough, but it is usual to broad-cast a quart on an acre." Dr. Deane's " New England Farmer " asserts, thkt "the quantity of seed sown on an acre is never less than one pound, frequently a pound and a half, and by some two. According to the same work, it is very necessary for the suc- cess of the crop that a heavy roller be passed over the field immediately after harrowing in the seed, provided the ground is sufficiently dry, or as soon as it is in a fit condition. By this means the clods are broken, and much of the seed that would otherwise be exposed to birds, &c. will be covered, and the surface rendered smooth and compact thereby, and consequently more retentive of moisture, which will great- ly promote the vegetation of the seed, and growth of the plants." If a quantity of lime were sowed over the field immediate- ly after putting in the seed, it would probably preserve the crop against insects and prevent the turnips becoming spongy, as well as increase their size. Unleached ashes, soot, and plaster, have also been highly recommended as manure for turnips. Thomas Mellville, Jun Esq., of Pitts- field, Massachusetts, in raising a crop which received the premium from "'The Massachusetts Agricultural Society, in 1817, and which amounted to about seven hundred and fiifty bushels to the acre, sowed his seeds in drills of twenty- eight inches the 21st of June, on ground previously well AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 251 manured. The following day sowed on the acre thirty bushels slacked lime and fifteen bushels house ashes. What we have said about the early sowing of turnips we ■would merely suggest as a hint, or something to be thought of, and perhaps become a matter of experiment. It appears to us that our custom of sowing turnips so late in the season, as is commonly practised, is an usage borrowed from British husbandry, without duly considering the difference of our climate from that of Great Britain, and the difTerent uses to which this crop is commonly applied in the two countries. In England they usually feed turnips off the ground with sheep ; or draw them for neat cattle during the winter, as fast as they are wanted, and often let them stand in the field till spring, to supply green food for sheep at the time of their yeaning, &.c. But in the United Statesj this crop must be harvested in autumn and secured from frost ; and it would seem to be desirable that they should have had time to ob- tain their full growth before they are gathered. Ellis, an old writer on husbandry, says, "Turnips sooted about twenty-four hours after they are up will be entirely secured from the fly." Some advise, and it may be well, if not too much trouble, to leach soot and sprinkle the young . turnips with the liquor. M'Mahon, in treating of the culti-' vation of turnips, says, "the plants should be left from seven to twelve inches every way; this must be regulated accord- ing to the strength of the land, the time of sowing, and the kind of turnips cultivated ; strong ground and early sowing always producing the largest roots." / The width of the hoe should be in proportion to the me.- dium distance to be left between the plants, and this to their expected size. The critical time of the first hoeing is, when the plants, as they lie spread on the ground, are nearly the size of the' palm of the hand ; if, however, seed-weeds be numerous and luxuriant, they oVight to be checked before the turnip plants arrive at that size ; lest, being drawn lip tall and slender, they should acquire a weak and sickly habit. A second hoeing should be given when the leaves are grown to the height of eight or nine inches, in order to destroy weeds, loosen the earth, and finally to regulate the plants ; a third, if found necessary, may be given at any sub- sequent period. Here will the farmer exclaim against the expense and trouble of hoeing ; but let him try one acre in this way, and leave another of the same quality to nature,, as is too frequently done, and he will find that the extra 22* 258 THE COMPLETE rARMES produce of the haed acre will more than compensate for tha labor bestowed. Loudon says, archbishop Garrie, a Scottish gardener of merit, tried steeping the seed in sulphur, sowing soot, ashes, and sea-sand along the drills, all without effect. At last he tried dusting the rows, when the plants were in the seed-leaf, with quicklime, and found that effectual in preventing the depredations of the fly. " A bushel of quicklime," he says, " is sufficient to dust over an acre of drilled turnips, and a boy may soon be taught to lay it on almost as fast aa he could walk along the drills. If the seminal leaves are pow- dered in the slightest degree, it is sufRcient ; but should the rain wash the lirae off before the turnips are in the rough leaf, it may be necessary to repeat the operation, if the fly begins tomake its appearance," POTATOES. " Above two nundred and forty, years have elapsed since the introduction of the potato into the British isles. During that period, it has been gradually making its way in the favor of the inhabitants ; but its progress for a long time was very Limited. So slight, indeed, was the esti- mation in which it was held, even after the era of the revo- lution, that we find the celebrated Evelyn, in the year 1699, giving directions to plant potatoes in the worst grounds. ' Take them up,' he says, 'in November, for winter spend- ing ; there will enough remain for a stock, though they be ever so exactly gathered.' " The potato began however to be extensively cultivated about the mi4dle of the last century ; and now it is grown in every farm and cottage garden, almost without exception. " If experience seemed to have prov^ beyond a doubt that this root may be deemed one of the most important vege- table productions ; if, in the face of every assertion to the contrary, it be found a very valuable and, generally speak- ing, a most salubrious article * of diet, and admirably adapt- * It has been argued that the potato, at least under certain conditions, pos- sesses a slightly poisonous quality. Tile idea may have originated in the hutan- ic character of the plant ; in fact, it is one of tlie family of the nightshade, the solanurn tuberosum of Linnseus, and of the old natural order luridee, whicli included plants whose appearance was described as being ** dusky, dismal, and gloomy." The genus or family solanurn is the type of that numerous tribe or order in the natural system, solanea, many of whose members exhibit grea; heauty of appearance and possess very use^l properties. AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 259 ed to supply nutritious food for animals and poultry ; it becomes a serious interest to determine with certainty that mode of culture which shall, at all times, and in all situ- ations, tend to produce the heaviest crops, and of the finest quality. " Mr. Knight, the president of the ' English Horticultural Society," has observed, that he planted his potatoes upon a soil naturally poor and very shallow ; upon a rock full of fis- sures, giving no more manure than is usually given to a crop of turnips ; the manure was mixed up with the soil, and not thrown into the drills at the time of planting. The plants suffered from drought during a part of the year ; neverthe- less, he had very good crops from many varieties. These varieties he had himself originated from seed ; and they pos- sess the important quality of scarcely producing any blos- soms, and therefore the vital powers of the plant are en- tirely employed in the production and support of those tube- rous processes, the potatoes, which are the sole object of the cultivator. The produce of two of the sorts is stated as follows ; of the one, twenty-three tons two hundred weight seventy-six pounds ; and the other, twenty tons two hundred weight one hundred and one pounds, per acre. Of four other varieties' he observes, ' the produce exceeded twenty tons each per acre, all of good quality.' If the reader will reduce these weights to pounds, he will find them (reckoning the yield at twenty tons only per acre) to amount to five hundred and sixty bushels, each of eighty pounds' weight. " One of the chief, if not the primary, agent in effecting vegetable developement and maturity, is light. Deprive a plant of that, and you either paralyze the operation.of its vital principle, or induce imperfect and diseased action. The leaves of vegetables are the media upon which light acts ; and, therefore, it should be the object of the gardener so to arrange his crops, that the utmost breadth of their foliage may be exposed to the full influence of the solar rays. Hence, the rows of potatoes ought to point north and south ;■ for, in the first place, plants so exposed command the great- est breadth and duration of light ; and in the second, the sun, at the time of his highest meridian altitude, that is, at the hour of noon, shines directly along the extent of the rows ; his light is also most equally distributed upon the whole foHage as he approaches to and recedes from the meridian. The perpendicularity of growth, which is of considerable importance to the complete success of the crop, is less likely 260 THE COMPLETE FARMER to be disturbed by this mode of arrangement, than by any other that has heretofore been employed. It is generally the practice to plant small potatoes, or sets of large tubers, cut with one or two eyes to each. These sets are planted in rows, from sixteen to twenty inches asunder, and the sets about half that distance, or nine inches apart, without any consideration being had to the aspect or direction of the rows. As the stems advance in growth, they are very liable to fall over and become entangled one with another, thus in tercepting the solar light, which then acts unequally upon the disorderly masses of foliage. Hence the crops become very unequal in point of bulk and weight. " Mr. Knight's philosophical directions lead to a very dif- ferent result. He recommends the planting of whole potatoes, and those only which are of fine medium size, none to be of less weight than four ounces ; and he often prefers those which weigh six or eight ounces. The earlier sorts, and, indeed, all which seldom attain a greater height than two feet, are ^o be planted about four or five inches apart in the rows, centre from centre, the crown ends upward ; the rows to be from two feet six inches to three feet asunder. The late potatoes, which produce a haulm above three feet in height, are to be placed five or six inches apart, centre from centre, in rows four or five feet asunder. " When potatoes are thus planted in rows pointing north and south, the utmost energy of the light will be exerted, not only upon the foliajre. of the plant, but upon the surface of the intervening spaces of ground. If we suppose that the main crops will be planted ^^t the latter end of March and during the montfi of April the sun's meridional altitude will be advancing daily for at le-vt nine weeks ; and during that period, the developement and growth of the stem and leaves will be in a state of rapid propre=s After the turn of days, and when the plants have attained th'iir full growth, the sun will continue to exert its most pow«!rfi>l influence. Should the ground be of a proper texture anfi quality, the plants will stand erect, and the maturing nrocpss will proceed with- out interruption ; and after favorable summers, wherein there have been regular and moderate snpolies of rain, par- ticularly during May and June, with a prevalence, however, of bright sunshine, the crops of potatoes will be regular, the tubers generally of a medium size, and the quality mealy, and altogether superior. If the soil be a strong mallow loam, enriched with much manure, the haulm will, in all pr«b« AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 261 ability, grow to«- rank, and finally fall over ; nevertheless the large spaces jetween the rows will greatly remedy this evil; for the sun's beams will act upon one surface at the least, and the matting and other injurious consequences re< suiting from close drilling will be prevented or obviated. We hear everywhere of potato plants running away to haulm, and thus expending their vital energy upon useless stem and foliage, instead of employing it in the production of tuberous roots. Ncflw this remark is wholly opposed to philosophical fact, for invariably the strongest and heaviest bulk of potatoes is found attached to the most luxuriant haulm. The evil of over-luxuriance is not to be referred to the paucity of tube- rous product, for that is always great ; it is a consequence of an over-rich soil, which causes the haulm to grow so tall as to fall over, become entangled, and thus to lose the ma- turing influence of light. Hence, such haulm seldom ripens in due time ; it remains green even in December ; and the tubers, though large, numerous, and heavy, are immature, void of mealiness, and vapid in flavor. " A fact of great importance to the growers of potatoes remains to benoticed. The outside rows, and all single rows, will be found to produce far greater crops than any of the interior rows of a plot in the garden or field. This depends- upon a variety of causes, the chief of which is, the more perfect exposure of the foliage to the agency of air and light. Mr. Knight obtained from one outside row, of an early seedling variety of the preceding year, which was two feet six inches exterior of an adjoining row, ' a produce ^equivalent to more than fifly-eighi tons per acre. No con- elusions,' he says, ' can be drawn from the amount of produce of an external row. I mention it only to show the enormous influence of light.' "Experience has established the truth of this philosophical remark. Kvery cultivator, who has the opportunity of crop- ping upon long detached slips, in airy, open situations, should make the experiment of close planting in single rows, either whole potatoes or well-cut sets from very large pota- toes, each to contain two eyes at the least. These sets should be taken from the crown end, or middle of the tuber, and not from the lower or root end. Sets may be planted at still less distances in the rows than whole tubers ; and al- though the preference ought, in all cases, io be given to a southern direction, where such can be conveniently given, still, for nbsolntely single rows, it is not indispensably re- 262 TPIE GOMFLECG FARMER quireo, because air and light will act on each side of the stem and foliage, and there will be no intervening shadow. " The soil ought to be sandy and light, though moderately rich ; that is, if fine, mealy, and dry potatoes be required. It should not by any means be glutted with manure, and need not be deep, " With respect to the properties of this vegetable, and tlia purposes to which it rnay be applied, the following observa- tions of an eminent physician, Dr. Pare, may not be deemed inappropriate. " ' Potatoes are found to produce. First, Cottony flax from the stalk. Second, Sugar from the root. Third, Potass bj consumption. Fourth, Vinegar from the' apples. Fifth, Soap, or a substitute for bleaching, from the tubercles. And, finally, when cooked by steam, the most farinaceous and economical of all vegetable food.' " It is also known that much farina, or rather amylum, or starch, is yielded by grinding and washing the pulpy mass. This starch may be employed as a substitute for that made from wheat ; and as an article of diet, prepaied as Indian arrow-root. It can also be introduced in making bread, though there is some difficulty in the manipulation. As food for all cattle of the farm, — horses, cows, pigs, and likewise for poultry, potatoes are all but invaluable. Every creature appears to relish them, particularly when they are steamed or carefully boiled. It would be well worth the in- telligent farmer's while to pay great attention to the use and effects of potatoes, raw and boiled. It is asserted, thai a cow may safely eat them in a raw state to the extent of,, perhaps, fifty pounds per day, provided the eyes have broken and begun to shpot. Whenever they be given raw, how- ever, they should be chopped into pieces to prevent ac- cidents. The utility of raw potatoes is, however, doubted by many, and therefore the experiment requires close ob- servation ; perhaps straw, hay, and chaff, might be employ- ed as a very proper adjunct, with a few ounces of salt added to each feed. Whenever steaming in the large way can be profitably employed, it must be an advantage for pigs and poultry particularly ; and, in all cases, it would greatly tend to prevent the possibility of the danger of suffocation which has been known to result from the hurry and greediness with which cattle devour the raw roots." — British Farmer's Magazine. Potatoes renewed from Seed. " Take the apples m th« AND RUB.»L SCOHJMIST 263 beginning of Oc. jber [or whenever they are ripe] before the frost has hurt them ; hang them up by the foot-stalks, in a dry closet, where they will not freeze ; let them hang till March or April ; then mash the apples, wash the seeds from the pulp, and dry them in a sunny window. Sow the seeds in a bed, about the 1st of May. When the plants are four or five inches high, transplant them into ground we,11 pre- pared, one or two plants in a hill. They will produce full grown apples, and some of the roots will be as large as hen's eggs. But if the seeds were sown in autumn, some of them would come up in the following spring. Nothing is more common than their appearance in fields where potatoes have been raised the preceding year." The process stated in " Monk's Agricultural Dictionary," an !Bnglish work, is similar to that mentioned by Dr. Deane, excepting that it is recommended in that work to hang the apples of the potatoes in a warm room till Christmas. Then wash out the seeds, spread and dry them in paper, and pre- serve them from damps till spring. Potatoes thus obtained *ill produce roots of the full size the second season after sowing, when their qualities may be more fully ascertained than tbey could well be the first sea- son. They will be found to vary very much from the kinds, from which the apples were gathered. It will be expedient to plant but one potato of the regenerated sorts in a hill, that you may keep each variety separate. Then, by keep- ing the produce of each hill by itself, and boiling one or two of each, you may ascertain which is best for the table ; and by observing the quantity of produce in each hill, you may form a pretty good estimate relative to the productiveness of each sort. In that way you may introduce new varieties of potatoes, and supply yourself and neighbours, and eventually he market, with potatoes of a quality much superior to any of the worn-out and degenerate kinds. which are now to be found. The subject is of importance, and the man who will introduce new and improved sorts of potatoes, will deserve but little less of his country than he who improves our breeds of domestic animals. COTTON. (^Gossypkim.) There aie many vanetres of ihis plant, all of which are natives of warm climates, bat only four are cultivated In Georgia and South Carolina 264 THE COMPLETE FABMEB two kinds are planted. One grows on the upland, has a short staple, with green seed. Another has black seed, and is cultivated on the islands near the coast. Pierce Butler, Esq., a successful cultivator, has given the following directions for raising this article : •'If the land has been recently cleared, or has long re- mained fallow, turn it up deep in winter; and in the, first week in March bed it up in the following manner. Form twenty-five beds in one hundred and five square feet of land; (being the space alloted to each laborer for a day's work ;) this leaves about four feet two and one half inches from the centre of one bed to the centre of the next. The beds should be three feet wide, flat in the middle. About the 15th of March, in latitude from twenty-nine to thirty degrees, the cultivator should commence sowing, or, as it is general- ly termed, planting. The seed should be well scattered in open trenches, made in the centre of the beds, and covered. The proportion of seed is one bushel to one acre ; this al- lows for accidents occasioned by worms or night chills. The cotton should be well weeded by hoes once every twelve days till blown, and even longer if there is grass, observing to hoe up, that is, to the cotton, till it pods, and hoe down when tiie cotton is blown, in order to check the growth of the plant. From the proportion of seed mentioned, the cot- ton plants will come up plentifully, too much so to sufier all to remain. They should be thinned moderately at each hoe- ing. When the plants have got strength and growth, which may be about the third hoeing, to disregard worms and bear drought, they should be thinned, according to the fertility of the soil, from six inches to near two feet between the stocks or plants. In rich river grounds, the beds should be from five to six feet apart, measuring from centre to centre ; and the cotton plants, when out of the way of the worms, from two to three feet apart. It is advisable to top cotton once or twice in low grounds, and also to remove the suckers The latter end of July is generally considered a proper time for topping. Gypsum may be used with success on cotton lauds not near the sea. In river grounds draining is proper ; yet these lands should not be kept too dry. In tide lands it is beneficial to let the water flow over the land without re- taining it. In river lands a change of crops is necessary. From actual experiment it has been proved, that river tide lands, having the preceding year had rice sown on them. AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 263 yielded much more cotton the succeeding year than they would have afforded by a continuation of cotton. " The mere growing of cotton is but a part of the care of the planter ; very much depends on classing and cleansing it for market, after it has been housed. Sorting it before it goes to the jennies, moteing and removing any yellow par- ticles, are e^ential to assure a preference at a common market of competition." TOBACCO. (JVtcofa'aMffl.) This plant is named from To- bago, one of the Caribbee islands. It was first introduced ■jnto England by the famous Sir Walter Raleigh, and from thence it spread over the other parts of Europe. In order to raise the young plants, it is recommended to burn over the surface of a piece of ground early in the spring, rake it well, and sow the seeds. When the plants have acquired leaves -the size of a quarter of a dollar they are fit for transplanting. They require a dry, light, rich soil, made mellow by ploughing, and folding is also advised. Dr. Deane observes, that, the common way of raising to- bacco in cow-pens and barn-yards is detestable. The taste of such tobacco is intolerable. Transplant the young seed- lings when the ground is wet, as you would cabbage plants. Set them about three and a half ieet apart, and weed them as you would growing cabbages. Destroy the large green worms, which are apt to infest this crop. •When the plants have grown about three feet high, a little less or more, as they may he more or less thrifty, their tops should be broken or cut off, excepting those designed for seed, which should be the largest. The tops should be taken off so early in the summer as to allow time for the upper leaves to grow to the same size as the lower ones. Of this time the cultivator must judge from circumstances, previous observations, or the advice of some person accustomed to raising tobacco. All the plants should be topped at the game time, whatever may loe their height, that they may ripen together, and produce leaves nearly of the same size and thickness. The suckers which shoot out from the-foot- Btalks of the leaves should also be broken or pinched off as fast as they appear. The ripeness of tobacco is known by small dusky spots appearing on the leaves. The plants should then be cut 23 26f5 THE COMPLETE FARMER near the roots, on the morning of a day of sunshine, and should lie singly to wither. When sufficiently withered, the plants should be laid in close heaps under cover to sweat, forty-eight hours or more. After this, they should be hung up under cover to dry. This may be done, by running two stalks on the sharp ends of a stick about eight inches long, and suspending them across a pole aboift sixteen inches apart, in a pretty tight apartment. As the plants become dry they may be placed nearer to each other, to make room for- more, if necessary. When they have hung till there is no greenness in the leaves, and at a time when the air is damp, the leaves should be stripped off the stalks, tied up in hands, and packed away in chests or casks, well pressed down, and kept in a dry place, not in ■' cellar, which would soon spoil the tobacco. The use of tobacco for chewing and snuffing is uncleanly, unwholesome, and becoming unfashionable with the more respectable parts of the community. The htibit of chewing it, however, is not easily broken. A vtriter for the " Nation- al Intelligencer," with the signature "J. B.," states, in substance, that hfe was suffering under a pulmonary com- plaint, supposed to be brought on by chewing tobacco, and that by making a substitute of slippery elm bark, and swal- lowing the juice, he at once got rid of his disorder and his propensity to chew this poisonous plant. The dust or pow- der of tobacco, thrown over beds where plants are just coming up, preserves them from worms. It is said, also, that a few tobacco plants set out among cabbages and tur- nips, the tobacco plants about one rod apart, will "save the cabbages and turnips from insects. M. M'Louvin, in Loudon's Magazine, observes as fol- lows : " I procure from the tobacconists a liquor expressed from tobacco, to every gallon of which I aaJ five gallons of water ; this mixture, with Read's garden syringe, I sprinkle over the trees, putting it on the finest rose, •a.^id being careful to wet all the leaves ; this operation is performed only in the hottest sunshine, as the effect is then much greater than when the weather is dull. In this manner I have, with five gallons of liquor, reduced as above stated, cleaned seven- teen peach and nectarine trees, twelve of which average seventeen feet in length and twelve in height. The black glutinous insect, provincially called blight, so destructive to the cherry trees, is destroyed in the same way, with equal facility I have also found that the grubs which attack tba AND RLRAL ECONOMIST. 267 apricot may be destroyed almost instantly oy immersing the leaves infested in this liquor. " When trees have got so bad that their leaves are much curled, some of the flies, being protected within the curl, will escape: in this case more force must be applied to the syringe, and in a day or two the trees should be looked over again, and whatever part of the leaves has not been wetted should be washed with a painter's brush ; but a careful per- son will render this process unnecessary by taking tnem in time." Instead of liquor from the tobacconist, which may not al- ways and in all situations be easily procured, a strong de- coction of the stems or damaged leaves may be a cheap sub- stitute. The uses of tobacco in destroying lice on cattle, ticks on sheep, &c. are too well known to render it necessa- ry to make any observations on this application of a plant which seems to be abhorred by every animated being but man and the tobacco worm. But a quantity of tobacco ought to be grown by every cultivatoj:, to enable him to wage successful war with insects. PLOUGHING, is the most important of agricultural ope- rations. On the manner in which this is performed depends all the subsequent operations of tillage on the same land. A large volume might well be written on this subject, but -we shall confine ourselves to practical hints, expressed as concisely as is consistent with perspicuity. In all stiff, heavy, and adhesive soils, that are much dis- posed to moisture, it should be a common rule not to plough them while wet in any considerable degree, especially if there is much clay in their composition. When such land is ploughed wet, the particles of which it is cotnposed are apt to cake, or run together into hard lumps, which require much trouble and labor to reduce to a fine state. Besides, much injury is produced by the treading of the team, and greater power is necessary in performing the operation. But, on the otherhand, such soils are ploughed with much difficulty when very dry ; unless before the ploughing they were in a state of tillage, and not baked or bound down very hard. To break up grass ground composed of a strong loam, or a soil in'Vhich there is clay in any considerable quantity, when in a dry state, is next to impossible. You might al- 268 THE COMPLETE FARMER most as well attempt to plough up a brick pavement or slato rock. Green sward in general can hardly be ploughed too wet, if it be not miry. Marshy, moory, and peaty or mossy descriptions of soil should in general, when already reduced to a state of tillage, be ploughed when the season is dry. In dry, sandy, and perhaps in some of the more mellow kinds of loamy soils, the business of ploughing may be per- formed when the earth is in a state of considerable moisture. But very dry sandy land, whenever the weather is hot and dry, should merely be stirred in such a way as may be ne- cessary to prevent the growth of weeds ; otherwise the great exhalation of moisture in such seasons may render them too dry for the vigorous vegetation of the seeds or plants which may be sown or growing upon them. The cultivators of this kind of soil have, therefore, many ad- vantages over others who are engaged in the more stiff and heavy sorts of land, in being able to perform the various operations of arable husbandry with much less strength and expense of team, and by being much less interrupted by the wetness of the seasons. Stiff clayey soils, which: are al- ready under the plough, may be beneficially ploughed in dry weather, and it is said, that stirring such soils in a dry sea- son causes them to imbibe moisture, but in sandy soils the opposite result is produced by the same means. It is very fashionable, and, as a general rule, very correct to recommend deep ploughing. But this rule has a great many exceptions, and the cultivator who should be governed by it without regard to the nature of the soil and the pro- posed crops, would only labor hard to injure his land and reduce his products. It may not be amiss to attend to what some writers have observed, respecting the dangers and disadvantages which attend ploughing deep without regard to the nature of the soil and other circumstances. It is observed in "Dickson's Agriculture," that " though deep ploughing has been recom- mended by some modern writers, upon particular kinds ol land, where the bottom and top were of two opposite quali- ties, and neither of them perfectly good, that a mixture may sometimes be very beneficial, and the experiment of going below the common depth sometimes answer ; but that when the top and bottom for eighteen or twenty inches depth con- sists of the same soil, it is not believed it is ever worth while .0 exchange the upper part, which has been enriched for centuries back, for a part less rich, merely because it is AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 269 more fresh On retentive soils, where the practice of loosen- ing them to some depth by other implements is omitted, deep ploughing is however extremely necessary." In an " Essay on the Best Means of Converting Grass Lands into Tillage, by James Roper Head, Esq.," published in " Communications to the Board of Agriculture," it is observed, that " it seems reasonable to prefer light to heavy ploughing ; because, all things being equal, it must be, prefer- able .to have a small depth of soil to cultivate and improve ; and inasmuch as the fibres of grass in general are fed from the upper surface of the earth alone, if they find sufficient pabulum, all that lie underneath their nourishment, and has been with much labor moved by the plough, is like a stock in trade, which requires an extra capital, unproductive of interest. "I have endeavoured by all means to search into the na- ture of sainfoin, clover,, and lucerne, and the result of my opinion has been, that the long penetrating tap-roots of these grasses pierce the earth in search of moisture only ; that the tap-root is the mere syphon and duct ; that the branches of the crown of the plant are fed alone by the upper surface of the soil ; and that the luxuriancy of their produce depends, not upon the congeniality of f he bed or nidus [nest] of the tap-root itself, but on the congeniality of the soil of the up- per surface, which alone feeds and furnishes it vegetation." An article in ■■' Communications to the Board of Agricul- ture," written by John M. Mardo, Esq., contains theifoUow- ing statement : " We have witnessed instances where old pasture lands composed of a gravelly loam were broken up in the spring for barley by trench ploughing. The old sward was turned into the bottom of the furrow, and a dry subsoil brought to the surface from a considerable depth. The crops failed entirely, and there appeared two very ob- vious reasons for the failure ; first, the subsoil brought to the surface to form the seed bed had long been deprived of the ordinary influence of the atmosphere and the rains ; consequently must have 1jeen cold and infertile. Secondly, the dry tenacious sward having been placed half hrokea under the seed bed, the natural moisture of the ground, as well as that which falls in rain, was speedily and habitually evaporated. Unless in a season of uncommon moisture, a crop under such preparation could not prosper." A writer in the " General Report of Scotland," Mr. James Brownhill, says "Old leas [grass grounds], in my opinion, 23* 270 THE COMPLETE FARMER should be ploughed if posible not above four and a half inches deep by eight and a half or nine inches broad. If the old lea be a dry soil, it will plough very well with those dimensions ; if it be ploughed deeper it must also be plough- ed broader, as the furroi^s will not ply close to one another, unless you have breadth in proportion to the depth." Sir John Sinclair speaks highly of the advantages of deep ploughing, in some circumstances and for some crops, but says, " it is a general rule never to plough so deep as to pene- trate below the soil that was fo/raerly manured and cultivat- ed, excepting upon 'fallow, and then only when you have plenty of lime or dung to add to and improve the new soil." The farmers of Flanders, which is said to be the best cul- tivated part of Europe, gradually deepen their soil by ploughing or digging up fresh earth as their manure in- creases. Mr. Authur Young likewise observes, that in poor hungry soils some proportion ought to be observed between the depth of a ploughing and the quantity of manure annual- ly spread. The same writer informs us, that the depth of ploughing in various towns of England, on an average, in sandy soiis, was four inches ; in loamy soils four and three quarters, and in clayey soils three inches and a half Disputes have arisen among farmers in this country and in Europe relative to the best manner of laying the furrow slice. Some contend for turning the furrow slice completely over, and laying it quite flat ; but others allege, that it is most advantageous to place each slice in such a manner that its outer edge may extend a little over the inner edge of the furrow which was drawn next before it. " In several districts in England it is usual to lay the furrow slice quite flat, and- this is particularly the case where there are no ridges ; but in Northumberland, and in Scotland, a contrary system is adopted. It is founded on this idea, that as two of the principal objects in ploughing are, to expose as much as pos- sible to the- influence of the atmosphere, and to lay the land, so that the harrows may, in the most effectual manner, raise mould to cover the seed ; these objects are most effectually accomplished by ploughing land of every description with a furrow slice about seven inches deep, and which, if about ten inches and a half broad, raises the furrow slice, with a proper shoulder, forming the angle forty-five, the point which ought to be referred to when determining between the merits of different specimens of ploughing. For that purpose, the depth O'f the furrow should, in general, bear a due proper- AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 271 tion to the breadth, that is, about two-thirds, or as six inches deep is to nine broad. This is the general, if not the univer* sal opinion of the Scotch Farmers."* The angle forty-five is strongly recommended in " Bayley's Essay on the Con- struction of the Plough," in his "Durham Report," and in " Brown's Treatise on Rural Affairs." In the southern coun- ties of England, however, they generally prefer to turn the furrow quite flat, or horizontal ; and allege, as a reason for that practice, that the weeds, grass, &c. ploughed under, can- not well be smothered or withered unless the roots are turn- ed completely bottom upwards, and the turf covered so closely as to have no communication with the atmosphere. In Flanders, land is frequently cultivated by an implement called the binot, virhich is highly esteemed. By this instru- ment the land is not turned over, as by the plough, and the weeds buried ; but the soil is elevated and pressed into small ridges, and thus is better exposed to the beneficial influence of the 'winter frosts, and becomes much sooner dry in spring than when the land is turned over perfectly flat. When fur- row slices are set up edgewise by a plough, they become small thin ridges, are more easily pervaded by frost, and are in a situation to attract more of the fertilizing influences of the atmosphere, than when they are turned over so as to lie in a horizontal position. • Perhaps this mode of ploughing land may be advantageous in stiff, hard soils, where several ploughings are necessary to prepare for the reception of the seed. If land of this description is broken up in the fall or summer preceding the sowing or planting of the seed, and cross-ploughing in the spring is made use of, preparatory to putting in the seed, we are inclined to think that the "feather edged ploughing," as it is sometimes called, (in which the furrow slices are not laid so flat as to exclude the air from between and from the lower part of the furrow slices,) is to be preferred. " Ploughing previous to winter setting in is of great use to clays, or stiff lands, exposing the surface to the frost, which mellows and reduces it in a manner infinitely superior to what could be accomplished by all the operations of man." I If, then, exposing the surface of stiff soils to the frost is of great advantage, the more surface there is ex- posed the greater the advantage ; and if the furrow slices • Code of Agriculture. t See Husbandry of Scoi land,. Vol. I. p. 229, and Voi. XI. Appendis, p. 26. 472 THE COMPLETE FARMER are set partly or entirely on their edges there will be, as be- fore intimated, more surface exposed than there would be if they were laid perfectly flat. And if they were turned in such a manner as to form an angle of forty-five degrees, the outer edge of the furrow resting on the inner edge of that which immediately preceded it, there would be but little chance for the weeds or grass to grow up between the fur- rows, which may be the case when the slices are set per- pendicularly, or nearly so, on their edges. There will like- wise always be a cavity under the edges of the furrow slices, containing stagnant and sometimes putrescent air, which will enrich the soil. Moreover, if ridg3-ploughing is at all advantageous, we cannot see why a mode of ploughing which makes a ridge of every furrow slice; or at most a ridge by turning the edge of one furrow slice on the edge of its immediate predecessor, should not be likewise of advantage. Besides, by these modes of ploughing you form a covered or open drain or hollow place between the furrows, which, by carrying off superfluous wate'r, will render the soil fit for tillage earlier in the spring than would be possible if every furrow slice was laid flat as it was turned upside down. The harrow will also more readily take hold of a soil where the furrow slices form little ridges or protuberances, and thus a proper mould will be procured for the covering of the seeds, or earthing up plants in a growing crop. And if there is danger of the lands lying too loose and hollow, repeated harrowing, and rolling it with a heavy i-oUer after sowing, will furnish a remedy. Dry sandy soils, such as ought not to be ploughed in ridges, should be turned over completely, and be laid and kept level as possible. Such soils, if rendered loose, and laid light by cultivation, will be robbed of their fertilizing particles as well by rain as- by sunshine. In other words, they are liable to suffer by washing, by scorching, and by too much draining. They do not need to be made any light- er, by " feather-edged ploughing," or setting the furrow slices edgewise, being too light under ordinary .cultivation. It is therefore " a great advantage to such soils to fold sheep, or to consume the crops of turnips upon the ground where they are raised. These practices greatly contribute to the improvement of such soils, not only by the dung and urine thus deposited, but by the eonsolidation and Jinnness (4" <«*■ twre which the treading of sheep occasions."* * Code of Agrtcultiuc. AND KUKAL EC0^OMISr. , 273 On the whole, although it would not be possible to give general rules not liable to many exceptions, on the shape and position of the furrow slice, which should be cut and disposed of according to the views of the cultivator, the nature of the ground, the proposed crop, &.C., we are in- clined to believe that Sir John Sinclair'is maxim will apply to most of our New England uplands. That eminent agri- culturist says, that " the point which ought to be referred to, when determining between the merits of differeht speci- mens of ploughing, is the angle' of forty-five degrees." That is, other things being equal, the nearer the furrow slice comes to forming an angle of forty-five degrtes with the horizon, the more perfect the specimen of ploughing; But another maxim of the same writer is equally worthyof attention. " Dry soils being deficient in moisture ought to be tilled fiat, as any sort of drainingS' which the fur- rows might afford would be prejudicial rather than advan- tageous. Id Kent, dry land is left as level as if it were dug with a spade. The moisture is thus equally diffused, and retained under the surface of the earth." The following is extracted and abridged from an address delivered before the Middlesex Society of Husbandmen and Manufacturers ; by Elias Phinney, Esq. " In May, 1829, the field having lain three years to grass, and the crop of hay so light as to be worth not more than the expense of making, with a view of ascertaining the Quantity of vegetable matter upon the surface, I took a sin- gle foot square of green sward, and after separating the roots and tops of the grasses from the loam and vegetable mould, it was found on weighing to contain nine ounces of clear vegetable substance ; giving, at that rate, over twelve and a quarter tons to the acre. This convinced me of the importance of taking some course by Which this valuable treasure might 'be turned to good account, 'that a great part of this mass of vegetable matter is exposed to us'eless waste, by the usual mode of ploughing, cross-ploughing, &nd harrowing, must be obvious to any^ one. In order therefore to secure this, as well as the light vegetable mould at and near the surface, which is liaWe to waste from the same causes, I had two acres of the green sward of this field turned over with the plough, as smoothly as possible. After removing the outside furrow slices into the centre of the plough land, and theeby effecting the double purpose of covering the vacant space in the middle and preventmg 274 THE COMPLETE FAEMER ridges at the sides and ends, the field was rolled hard, with a loaded roller, by which the uneven parts of the iurrows were pressed down and the whole made smooth. It was then narrowed lengthwise the furrows, with a horse harrow, but so lightly as not to disturb the sod. Twenty cart-loads of compost ■ manure, made by mixing two parts of loam or peat mud with one of stable dung, were then spread upon each acre. It was then harrowed again, as before, and the poor- er part of the soil, which had been turned up, and remained upon the surface, was thereby mixed with the compost ma- nure. Corn was then planted in drills upon the furrow, the rows being at the usual distance and parallel with the fur- rows. At hoeing time, the surface was stirred by running a light plough between the rows, but not so deep at this or the subsequent hoeing' as to disturb the sod. What Mr Lorrain calls the ' savage practice ' of hilling up the corn was cautiously avoided. As the season advanced, I care- fully watched the progress of ray corn-field. In the early part of the season it did not exhibit a very promising ap- pearance ; but as soon as the roots had extended into the enriching matter beneath, and began to expand in the de- composing sward, which had now become mellow, and more minutely divided by the fermentation of the confined veg etable substances beneath than it possibly could have been by plough or hoe, the growth became vigorous, and the crop, in the opinion of those who examined the field, not less than seventy bushels of corn to the acre. As soon as the corn was harvested, the stubble was loosened up by running a light horse plough lengthwise through the rows, the sur- face then smoothed with a hush-harrow, and one bushel of rye, with a sufiicient quantity of herd's . grass and red top seed, to the acre was then sowed, the ground again harrow- ed and rolled. The crop of rye was harvested in July fol- lowing, and the two acres yielded sixty-nine and a half bushels of excellent grain, and over five tons of straw. The grass sowed with the rye took well, and the present season I mowed, what those who secured the crop judged to be, two and a half tons of the very best of hay from each acre. " Thus, with one ploughing, with the aid of twenty cart- loads of compost manure to the acre, I have obtained two crops of grain, aird sticked the land down to grass." AND RURAL ECONOM ST. 275 HAY MAKING. It is a matter of much importance to the husbandman that he should take time by the foretop during the season for making hay. He must drive his busi- aess instead of being driven by it. Indolence or improper management in hay-time will soon give a sorry complexion to a farmer's affairs. A day or two lost or misemployed while the sun shines, and your grass suffers for lack of the scythe and the rake, or your grain is going back into the ground, while the sickle is rusting on a peg behind the door, and its owner is asleep or gone a journey, may be the means of introducing Mr. Deputy Sheriff on your premises, who may do more harm than a crop of thistles or a host of Hes- sian flies. It is best, generally speaking, to cut your very heaviest grass first of all; and if it be lodged, or in danger of lodging, or the lower leaves and bottom of the stalks are beginning to turn yellow, although the grass is hardly headed, and ap- pears not to have obtained more than two-thirds of its growth, you had better begin upon it. But when you have help enough, and your grass stands up well, you will do best to wait till the blossom is fully formed, and is beginning to turn brown. Clover is the most critical grass, and requires the most attention. " In all cases," says Sir John Sinclair, " clover ought to be mown before tlie seed is formed" * that the full juice and nourishment of the plants may be retained in the hay. By the adoption of this system the hay is cut in a better season, it can be more easily secured, and is much more valuable. Nor is the strength of the plant lodged in the seed, which is often lost. " After being cut, the clover should remain in the swath till it is dried about two-thirds of its thickness. . It is then not tedded or strewed, but turned over, either by the hands, or the heads of hay rakes. If turned over in the morning of a dry day, it may be cocked in the evenihg. The hay is * It may not be amiss, however, to state, in tliis place, that agrioulturis'ta do not altogether agree on this point. In " Memoirs of the New York Board of Agriculture," (Vol. 11. p. 39,) it is asserted, that "all the grasses are more nutritious if not mowed until the seed is fully grown. It should not be entirely ripened, however." The " Fanner's ^sistant " tells us, that " the best time for cutting herd's grass [timothy], where but one crop is cut in the season, is when the seeds of the grass are fully formed, but before they have become fully T l>j; but as farmers cannot all cat their hay in a day or two, it is necessary that they should begin before this time, that they may not end too long after it. The same time is alsii proper for cutting clover; or rather when a part of the heads begin to turn brown. Foul meadow or bird grass may be cut muck later, without being hurt by long standing." 276 THE COMPLETE FARMER as little shaken or scattered about afterwards as possible j and if the weather is good, aftei remaining two or three days in the cock, it may be carted into the stack." It is asserted by the " Farmer's Guide," that " grass will not thrive well that is not mown quite close; and the loss in the crop where this is not done is very considerable, as one inch at the bottom weighs more than several at the top." The fore part of the season for making hay is, we believe, usually attended with less rain than the latter part. The days, too, are longer, and the dewa are less copious. Far- mers will, therefore, find additional motives from these cir- cumstances to industry and exertion in early hay-time. Be- sides, if haying is protracted till harvest commences, the business 6f one season presses on that of another, and some crops will be nearly or quite spoiled in consequence of not being gathered in dde time. The forehanded and indus- trious farmer thus possesses great advantages over one whom indolence or poverty induces to procrastinate the inr dispensable labors of his vocation. Great advantages would result to the farmer, particularly in haying and harvesting, if he could form an estimate of the weather so as to be able to foresee with tolerable accuracy what would be its state for a few days, or even for twenty- four hours subsequent to the period of observation. Dr. Jenner's versified statement of "Signs of Rain," (published in the New England Farmer, Vol. II. p. 288,) may prove useful for this purpose, and the rhymes may assist the mem ory. A certain French philosopher, some years since, pub- lished an article, in which he asserted, in substance, that the web of a common spider is a sure index of the state of the air for twelve or fourteen days to come. If the weather is to be fair and calm, the principal thread will be spun to a great length; if, on the contrary, the weather is to be stormy and boisterous, the thread will be short and thick ; and if the spider is seen to repair the damages its slender thread may sustain, you may anticipate pleasant weather for many days. So says the philosopher, but we cannot vouch for the accuracy of his saying. It may, however, not be amiss for the man of observation to pay some attention to this sub- ject ; for we know that the instinct of an insect is often more to be depended on than the researches of science. In this climate, a southerly wind, if it continues stedfast for forty-eight hours is generally followed by rain. If the wind, however shifts its course with the sun, or, as sailoM AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 217 phrase it, goes round with the sun, in the morning blowing* from the south, or east of south, and changing westerly as .he sun advances, it generally indicates dry weather. If the wind shifts in a course opposite to the apparent course of the sun, rain commonly succeeds. If the wind continues southerly, and blows briskly through the night, it commonly, as the phrase is, "blows up rain." This effect of a south wind in this' country may be thus accounted for. A souther ly wind is a current of air which has its origin in warmei latitudes than those in which we are situated. This current iii passing over the ocean imbibes or takes up as much water as air of its temperature can hold in solution. Passing into higher or colder latitudes the air of the current parts with a portion of its heat or caloric, and cannot retain so much water as it held in its outset. Clouds or vapors are there- fore formed, and the excess of moisture is deposited in mist, rain, hail, or snow, according to circumstances, the season, &c. On the contrary, a northerlj wind, coming from a com- paratively cold latitude, acquires caloric as it advances, and with that acquisition its capacity for holding water in solu- tion is increased. Therefore a northerly wind is a drying wind, and its predominance soon dissipates clouds and intro- duces fair weather. But to come down from the clouds to matters more within the reach of the reader. It has been often recommended by writers on agriculture to cart hay, particularly clover, befol'fe the stalks are dry ; and either to put it up with alternate layers of straw, or to salt it at the rate of from half to one bushel of salt to the ton. " Salt hay in this country has usually been hurt by lying too long in the swaths. The method in which I have treated it for several years, is, to cock it the next day after it is cut and carry it in, without delaying more than one day, and put a layer of some kind of dry straw between load and'load of it in the mow, to prevent its taking damage by over-heat- ing. The straw contracts so much of its moisture and salt- ness, that the cattle will eat it very freely ; and the hay is far better than that made in the common way."* " The making of herbage plants [such as clover, lucerne, sainfoin burnet, &c.] into hay, .is a process somevvhat dif^ ferent from that of making hay from natural grasses. As soon as the ^wath is thoroughly dry above, it is gently iur.n* • Dtam's New Knglind FariiKi- 24 278 THE COMPLETE PAKMEE • ed over (not tedded nor scattered) without breaking it Sometimes this is done by the hand, or by a small fork ; and some farmers are so anxious to prevent the swath from being broken, that they will not permit the use of the rake shaft. Another writer observes, that the practice of the best English, Flemish, and French farmers, is to expose the hay as little as possible to the sun. It is carried in dry, but pre- serves its green color ; and we see hay of one or two years old in their market, of so bright a green color that we could scarcely conceive it to be cured. Yet they are in the prac- tice of preserving it for years, and value it more for its age. If such a course be best in climates so cool and cloudy, how much more important would it be under our scorching summer suns. " But if the weather be unsettled, or if showers be fre- quent, it may be better to spread grass well as soon as it is mowed, stir it often, cock it the same day it is moved ; open it the next fair day, when the dew is off; let it sweat a little in the cock, and house it as soon as it is dry enough. It will bear to be laid greener on a scaffold than in a ground mow ; and in a narrow mow greener than in a broad one ; and that which is least of all made should be put upon the scaffold." — Deane. Sir John Sinclair is very explicit on the subject of " mak- ing clover into hay." "The process," he observes, " is quite different from the plan of making hay from natural grasses." Mr. Lorrain gives us both sides of this question. He says, " I did not like to abandon the practice of curing hay in the swath, having observed that it saved labor. The grasses are at all times very expeditiously turned in the svvafh. If con- tinued rains occur, the swaths are not only quickly turned, but if the sun shines powerfully between the showers, the inside of them is not parched by its rays. By turning the swaths throughout long-continued rain, as often as the un- der side of them was likely. to be injured by fermentation, I have saved extensive fields of hay ; while my neighbours, who gave n() attention to this interesting subject, had their crops entirely ruined. If the grasses, however, be raked up Into small winrows, they are as readily turned, and may be as effectually preserved as if they remained in swaths, but in this case the labor is greater." The same writer, however, i.i the next paragraph, takes other ground. " Curing hay,' he observes, " in swath, to save the juices, seems to be not only practically wrong, but AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 279 bIso opposed to reason. The confined heat and moisture in the interior of the swath promote fermentation, and must be more or less injurious to the nutritive matter contained in the grasses. It is exactly calculated to weaken the grasp oi the leaves, and to separate them from the stalk. It also greatly weakens their general texture, and causes them to crumble into pieces when they become dry. While this is doing, the outside surface of the swath is scorched by the rays of the sun, and becomes but little better than straw, before the inside is moderately cured. In raking, cocking, heaping, and inning, the swaths are so far separated, that many of the leaves are lost before the hay gets into the mow ; but few of them get into the rack." We have thus given both sides of the controverted ques- tion in agriculture, and our readers will take that which ap- ' pears to them most tenable. We confess ourselves rather inclined to embrace the opinions of a correspondent who says, " If it be correct to ' make hay while the sun shines," it may be well to make it as quickly as possible ; but in this, us in many other processes, circumstances alter cases." HARVESTING. It is asserted, as a general rule, that the proper time to reap wheat or rye is when the straw be- gins to shrink and become white about half an inch below the ear. This appearance is a sure indication that the grain has ceased to receive nourishment from the roots of the plant; and by cutting early, provided it is not taken to the barn or stack too green, the following advantages will be gained : 1st. The grain will make more and whiter flour. 2d. There will be less wasted by the grain's shelling. 3d. By commencing harvest early, you will have a fairer pros- pect of finishing before the last cuttings become too ripe, so that much of the grain will shell out in reaping and securing the crop. 4th. If you cut your grain as soon as it will an- swer, your straw and chaff will contain much more nourish- ment than if it were bleached and made brittle by the sun, air, dew, and rain, all of which combine to deprive it of most of its value for fodder. 5th. Should you plough in your stubble immediately after harvest, or mow it and secure it for fodder or litter, (either- of which modes of management is perfectly consonant with the rules of good husbandry,) the stubble will make much better food for your cattle or ma- 280 THE COMPLETE FARMER nure for your ground, than if it had yielded all its sweetf and much of its substance to the greedy elements above mentioned. If your wheat or rye is much affected by blight or rust, it shou d be cut even while still in the milk, and afterwards exposed to the sun and air, till the straw is sufficiently dry and the grain so much hardened that it will answer to de- posit in the barn or stack. The heads, in such cases, should be so placed by the reapers as not to touch the ground. This may be done by laying the top ends of each handful on the lower end of the preceding one. If your grain is encumbered with grass or weeds, you must cut it pretty near the top, in order to avoid as mu«h aa possible those extraneous substances. It will also be neces- sary to reap somewhat earlier than might be otherwise ex- pedient, that you may have time to dry the weeds without danger of the grain's shelling out. If your grain is very ripe when you harvest it, the bands should be made' early in the morning while the straw is moist and pliable. And Dr. Deane recommends, in such cases, to bind the sheaves when the air begins to be damp towards evening, as the least degree of moisture will toughen the straw. It has been recommended by several English writers to bind wheat as well as rye with only one length of the straw. If the straw is pretty long, and not very thoroughly dry, this may be good economy. You save the trouble of making bands ; your wheat will dry better in the sheaf ; (as the sheaves must of course be small ;) and though it may take some more time and trouble to pitch and handle it, we believe the advantages, in many cases, will turn the scale in favor of binding wheat with single lengths of straw. In stowing wheat or rye, some persons deposit the sheaves on a mow of hay ; but this is a bad plan, as the grain pres- ses the hay so that it is apt to become musty, and communi- cate a musty or mouldy taint to the superincumbent grain ; which will be harder to thresh than if it had a more dry and airy location. It may be placed on a scaffold of rails, laid on the beams, and over the floor of a barn ; though it is not BO easy to procure it for threshing as if it were laid on a scaffold of less elevation. But this disadvantage may be more than compensated by its being in a situation favorable for drying. If there is a deficiency of barn room, the sheaves may be stored in stacks. In that case, "care should be taken that the grain may not draw moisture from the AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 281 ground, by laying boards, straw, or rubbish under the stack A better way still, is to have a tight floor of boards mounted on four blocks, set in the ground, and so high from the ground as to prevent the entering of vermin. " In building a stack, care should be taken to keep the seed ends of the sheaves in the middle, and a little higher than the outer ends. No fowls can then come at the grain; and the rain that falls on the outer ends will run off, and not pass towards tHe centre. The stack should be well topped with straw, that the rain may be completely turned off." Oats. It is advised to harvest oats before the straw has wholly turned yellow. The straw will be of little value, if permitted to stand till it becomes white and destitute of sap. Though oats should be well dried on the ground, after cut- ting, they should not be raked nor handled when they are in the driest state. They should be gathered roomings 'and evenings, when the straw is made limber and pliable by the moisture of the air. If they are housed while a little damp, there will be no danger, if they have been previously tho- roughly dried. Barley. We are told by the wise men of agriculture, that some of the rules which should be observed in harvest- ing"wheat, rye, and oats, will not apply to barley. Willich's "Domestic Encyclopedia "states, that, "with respect to the time when barley is fit to be mowed, farmers frequently fall into the error of cutting it before it is perfectly ripe ; "think- ing il will attain to perfect maturity if it lie in the swath. This, however, is a very common error, as it will shrivel in the field, and afterwards make but an indifferent malt ; it also threshes with more difficulty, and is apt to be bruised under the flail. The only certain test of judging when it is fit to mow must be from the dropping and falling of the ears, so as to double against the straw. In that state, and not before, it may be cut with all expedition and carried in with- out danger to the mow. Dr; Deane's "New England Farmer" states, that " some have got an opinion that barley should be harvested before it is quite ripe. Though the flour may be a little whiter, the grain shrinks so much that the crop seems greatly di- minished and wasted by early cutting. No grain, Ithink, re- quires more ripening than this ; and it is not apt to scatter out when it is very ripe. It should be threshed soon after harvesting ; and much beating, after it is cleared from the straw, is necessary in order to get oflT the beards Let it lie 24* 382 TtlE COMPLETE FARMER a night or two in the dew, afler it is cut, and the beards will come off the more easily. DRAINS used in farming are of two kinds, open and covered. Drains should be of a size and depth proportioned to the extent of the swamp and the probable quantity of water for which they are designed to be channels. They should generally be carried through the lowest and wettest part. of the soil, although it should be nece.s.sary, in order to effect that purpose, to -deviate from straight lines Open drains sometimes answer the double purpose of conveying off superfluous water and of inclosing fields ; but they make a hazardous and inconvenient fence without the addition c^ a bank, hedge, or railing. The " Farmer's Assistant" says, " When a ditch is made for a fence, it ought to be four feet wide at the top, one or less at the bottom, and about two and a half deep ; with the earth all thrown out on one side, and banked up as high as possible." Sir John Sinclair states, that " it is a general rule regarding open drains, with a view of giving sufficient slope and stability to their sides, that the width at top should be three times as much as t-hat which is necessary at the bottom, and in the case of peat- mosses or soft soils, it should be such as to allow the water to run 'off without stagnation, but not with so rapid a motion as to injure the bottom." But before you attempt to drain a piece of land, il will be well not only to calculate the cost, but to ascertain the nature of the soil which it is proposed to render fit for cultivation. If the' subsoil or under layer be clay, the swamp may be worth draining, though there should be no more than six inches of black soil or mud over it, for the clay and the mud mixed will make a fertile soil. But if the subsoil or under stratum.be gravel Or white sand, it will not, in common cases, be best to undertake draining, unless the depth of black mud be as much as from fifteen or eighteen inches deep ; for the soil will settle afler draining, and be less deep than it was Defore. But the situation of the land to be drained maj authorize some variation from these general rules. The manner of draining a swamp is as follows. Beginning at the outlet, pass a large ditch through it, so as mostly to cut the lowest parts. Then make another ditch quite round it, near to the border, t ) cut off the springs which come fiwrn AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 283 the upland, and to receive the water that runs down from the hills upon the surface in great rains. These ditcher should be larger or smaller, in some proportion to the size of the swamp, the shape and size of the hills which surround it, and other circumstances, which might tend to greater or less quantities of water being occasionally or generally led to the ditches. If the swamp be large, it may be necessary that some smaller cross drains should be cut in several of the lowest parts. The^ bottom of the main ditches, when the soil is not of an extraordinary depth, must be lower than the bottom of the loose soil ; otherwise the soil will never be- come sufficiently dry and firm.* It is said, by Sir John Sinclair, (Code of Agriculture, p. 182,) that, " in all drains, it is a rule to begin at the lowest place and to work upwards, by which the water will always pass from the workmen and point out the level. This ena bles the laborers also to work in coarse weather, and prevents their being interrupted by wet so early in the season as otherwise might happen." The mud and other materials which are dug out of a ditch or drain should not be suffered to lie in heaps or banks by the side of the ditch, bat should be spread as equally as pos- sible over the surface of the drained land. In this way, the matter taken from the ditches will tend to level ' the surface of the swamp, will, perhaps, serve in some measure for ma- nure, and will not present any impediment to the passage of the water to the ditches. In some cases it may be advisable to transport the earth which is taken from the ditches to the farm-yard or the hogpen, to form a part of that layer which good farmers generally spread over those places, in autumn, to imbibe liquid Inanure, or make into compost with dung. In many instances, we are told, that the earth thus dug out of ditches is thought to be worth enough to' pay for the expense of digging the ditches. Mr. Henry W. Delavan, in a communication on the sub- ject of Underdraining, in "The New England Farmer." (Vol. X. p. 97,) says: — "Without this salutary and simple operation, no in- considerable proportion of many valuable districts of cur country must continue little better than waste. It is gener- ally total loss of labor to the farmer who attempts to cultivate rt^et lands in our rigorous climate, and by draining, these • See Deane'a New England Farmer, article Drains. 284 THE COMPLETE FARMEE useless inhospitable acres have been found of the kindliest and most productive character. " Having a surplus of stones on my estate beyond what fences require, I use the smaller and ill-formed for drains ; they have the advantage of brush in durability and of tiles in economy. My drains are, for the most part, three feet in depth, two feet in width at top, sloping to one at bottom. The bottom stones are largest, and are carefully placed to allow the water to flow freely beneath, while above the small stones are thrown in at random, so that when levelled they are beneath the plough. Over these swingle-tow, shavings, or straw, may be thrown, after which the earth can be re- placed by the spade or plough, so as to present a rather higher surface than the grounds adjacent, and the business is accomplished. It is very essential that the descent be easy, neither too quick nor too slow, and that all surface water be excluded, as it would speedily choke and destroy the underdraining. I estimate the average cost of such drains at sixty-two and a half cents the rod. It should be remarked, that underdraining is adapted to lands presenting sufficient declivity to carry off the springs, and it is only the under water that is meant to be drained in this manner, while open ditches are adapted to the bottom lands for the convevance of surface water. I will state what appears to me the prominent advantages that the cultivator may prom- ise himself by a thorough system of draining. " In the first place, he creates, as it were, so much addi- •^tional terra firma, and adds essentially to the health of all abound him, by correcting the ill tendencies of excessive moisture. He can cultivate reclaimed lands several weeks earlier and as much later in each y%ar than those that are un- reclaimed, and his crops are better and more sure. The labor of after tillage is much diminished. The stones that impede the plough and scythe are removed; and not the least essen- tial benefit is the constant supplies of water which may be msured in any field inclining to moisture, which, with refe- rence to animals, will, as a permanent convenience and ad- vantage, fully compensate the expense of drains." PASTURE. "To manage pasture land advantageously, it should be well fenced in small- lots, of four, eight, or twelve acres, according to the largeness of one's farm and stock . AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 285 and t.iese lots should be bordered at least with rows of trees. It is best that trees of some kind or other should be growing scattered in every point of a pasture, so that the cattle may never have to go far in a hot hour to obtain a comfortable shade. The grass will spring earlier in lots that are thus sheltered, and they will ■ bear drought the better. But t wellj - '• The food of fowls goes first into their crop, which -softens it ; aiid then passes intothe gizzard, which by constant fric- tion macerates it ; atid this is facilitated by small stones^ ■which 'are generally found there, 'and_ which help to^digest the food. , 1 ; 'i The'pip in fowls is occasioned by- drinking dirty water, or taking filthyfood. A white thin scale on the tongue is the symptom. Pull -the scale- off with your nail, and rub the tongue with some salt ; and the complaint will be removed. It answers well to-pay some boy-.employed in the farm or stable so much a hundred for the eggs he brings in. It will be his interest ,Hien to save them from being purloined^ which ■nobody but one in his situation can' prevent ; and six or eight cents a hundred will be buying eggs' cheap:- To fatten Fowls or Chickens in four or five Days.' Set ribe over the fire with skimmed milk, only as much' as will serve one day. Let it boil till the rice is quite swelled out : yxiu may add a tea-spoonful or two of sugar, buf. it will do well without. Feed them- three times a day, 'in ^ common pans, giving them only as much as will quite fill them 'at oncie. When you put fresh, let the pans be set in water, that no sourness may be conveyed to the fowls.' as that prevents them from fattening. Give them clean water, or the mUk of rice, to drink ; but the less wet thelatteris when perfectly soaked the better. By this method the flesh will have a clear whiteness which no other food gives ;' and when it is considered how far a pound of rice will go, and how much time is saved by this mode, it will be found to be cheap. The pen should be daily cleaned, and no food given for sixteen hours before poultry be killed. A proportion of animal mixed with vegetable food is said to cause poultry to thrive rapidly, but they should be confined to a vegetable 'diet for a fortnight or three weeks before they are killed for eating. A quantity of charcoal, broken in shiall pieces and placed within the reach of poultry, is said to increase their ^appetite, promote their digestion, and expedite their fat- tening. 'To choose Eggs at Market and preserve them. Put the large end of the egg to your tongue ; if it feels warm it is new. In new-laid eggs there is a small division of the skin from the shell, which is filled with air, and is perceptible to the eye at the end. On looking through them, against the 292 THE COMPLETE FARMER sun or a candle, if fresh, eggs will be pretty clear. If tbey nbake they are not fresh. Eggs may be bought cheapest when the hens first begin to lay in the spring, before they sit ; in fall and winter they become dear. They may be preserved fresh by dipping them in boiling water and instantly taking them out, or by oiling the shell ; either of which ways is to prevent the air passing through it ; or kept on shelves, with small holes to receive one in each, and be turned every other day ; or close packed in the keg, and covered with strong lime-water.* BIRDS. The following remarks on shooting birds, &c., are from a communication, published in the " New England Farmer," Vol. IX., p. 338 ; — " It is a well-known fact, that the alarming increase of worms and insects in making ravages upon our fruit-trees and fruit, not only paralyzes the efforts and disheartens the hopes of the cultivator, but threatens total destruction to many of the most delicious kinds. So extensive are their ravages that but very few of our apricots and piumg ever ripen with- out premature decay from the worm generated by the beetles which surround our trees in the twilight of the evening in great numbers when the fruit is quite young. And when the produce of our apple, pear, or peach trees is small, but few of these escape the same fate. "I attribute the rapid and alarming increase of these worms and insects wholly to the diminution of those birds which fall a prev to our sportsmen, which are known ix> feed upon them, and f:>r whose subsistence these insects were ap- parently created. " In addition to the important usefulness of these birds, their musical notes in the twilight of the morning are peculiarly delightful ; awaking the cultivator to the sublime contemplation and enjoyment of all the infinite beauties of creation. "In vain will be all our toil and labor, in rain the united efforts of horticultural societies for increasing and perfecting the cuhivation of the most delicious varieties of fruits, unless * For Treatises on Poultry iin:l flieir different varieties, see Fessenden'f Mowl)rav, puhlislipd Iiv Lillv and Wait, and New England Farmer, Vci. IX. p. 254. 27.S, 293, 31S, 341. AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 293 we can increase, or at least cease to dimmish these useful and melodious birds. "If we have a statute in this commonwealth providing for the protection of these birds, let us unite our efforts to arrest this wanton destruction of them by enforcing the penalties of the law in every instance of its violation. Our Horticultural Society can scarcely do a greater service in promoting the objects of its organization, than by making a spontaneoutf and vigorous effort to this effect. " If there be no statute for the protection of these invalua- ble creatures, I would earnestly, yet respectfully, suggest to the Horticultural Society the propriety and even necessity of their petitioning our legislature at their next session for such an act. , " It is a common practice with these sportsmen through the summer to range the groves and orchards in this vicin- ity, almolt every, pleasant day, and more numerously on holidays, and to shoot euerj bird that comes within their reach. "It is not however a small nor an easy task for one indi- vidual to get their names, residence, and the evidence neces- sary for their conviction ; but it requires the united efforts of all who are immediately interested. Already have these sportsmen commenced their wanton destruction of these useful creatures, even before thgy had time to build a nest for the rearing of their young. Birds that have survived the dreary winter in a more genial clime, having now returned to bless our efforts by their industry and to cheer our days with their melody, aire scarcely permitted to commence their vernal song, ere they must fall victims to a wanton idlE" NESS that is as destitute of moral feeling as of useful employ- ment." The following was originally published in the Bd^ton Pa- triot ; — " On Birds and their Misfortunes. We have already inti- mated our opinion, that the labors of the scientific ornithol- ogist are of far more practical utility than the casual ob- server might suppose ; and that, even in the business of legislation, a regard to his researches might prevent many errors, which may much affect public welfare. The legisla- tion on the subject of birds has been marked by some essen- tial errors, which have led to real evil. By the law of 1817, woodcocks, snipes, larks, and robbins, were protected at cer- tain seasons of the year, whilst war to the knife was de- . 23* •• 294 THE COMPLETE PARMER dared against crows, blackbirds, owls, blue-jays, and hawks; these last were treated as a sort of pirates, subject to sus- pension at the yard-arm with the least possible ceremony. It so happens, that the character of these sexy birds had been singularly mistaken ; for while the ordnance of legislation has been thus systematically levelled at' them, they, on a principle which man would do extremely well to imitate, have been returning good for evil ; they have been diligently engaged in extirpating all sorts of vermin, while never were the vilest vermin half so ill-treatpd by the human race. The crow, for example, who is generally regarded as a most sus- picious character, has had great injustice done him. In the spring, when the ground is moist, he lives in a state of the most triumphant luxury on grubs ; he eats the young corn, it is true, but it is a necessary of life to which ■ he never resorts except when his supply of animal food is shortened. After' the corn is tolerably grown, he has nothing niore to do with it ; and in any stage he de.stroys at least five hundred pernicious grubs^nd insects for every blade of corn which he pillages front man. In the southern states, he is. 'regu- larly permitted to accompany the ploughman, and collects the grubs from the newly-opened furrow ; his life is thus secured by the safest of all tenures, that of the' interest of man in permitting him to live. . " There is scarcely a farp in England without its rookery; the humid atmosphere multiplies every species of insect, and those birds reward man for his forbearance by ridding^ hirii of legions of his foes. By a policy like that which dictated the revocation of the edict of Nantes, tHey have occasional'- ly been exposed to the mischievous propensities of unruly boys, whoj as far as utility is concerned, are not to be com- pared to crows ; but the error of this step soon became ob- vious, and they are now received with a universal welcome. The hawk enjoys a doubtful reputation in the hen-roost ; he sometimes destroys the chickensy' but with the consistency of man does not like to see his infirmities ' copied by an» other ; and by way of compensation demolishes the foxj which eats twenty chickens were he eats but one ; so that it is hardly the part of wisdom to set a price upon his head, while. the fox, a hardened knave, is not honored with a penal statute. How the owl came to be included in this 'black list, it is difiicult to conjecture ; he is a grave, reflecting bird, who has nothing to do with man, except to benefit . him by eating weasels, foxes, raccoans, rats, and mice, a sinfoi! ^nj> RURAL ECO\OMIST. 290 which most housekeepers will readily Torgive him. In some parts of Europe he is kept in families, like the cat, whom he equals in patience and surpasses in alertness. Another of these birds, the blackbird, is the avowed enemy of grubs,' like the crow ; in the middle states, the farmer knows the value of his company to pluck them from the furrow ; and while other less pains-taking birds collect the vermin from the surface, his investigations are more profound, and he digs to the depth of several inches in order to discover them. When the insects are no longer to be found, he eats the corn, as well he may, but even then asks but a moderate compen- sation for his former services. Five hundred blackbirds do less injury to the corn than a single squirrel. The last upon the catalogue of persecuted birds is the blue-jay. Whoever watches him in the garden will see him descend incessantly from the branches, pouncing every time upon the grub, his enemy and ours. "We have already seen, that the act to which we have referred protects some birds at certain sea^ns of the year ; among others, the robin, who lives on insects and worms, and has no taste for vegetable diet, and the lark, who is ex- tremely useful in his way. The only wonder is, that it should have been thought expedient to allow them to be shot in any season. The quail, another of the privileged class, has no title to be named in company with the others ; in the planting time, he makes more havoc than a regiment of crows, without atoning for his misdeeds by demolishing a single grub. Nor is the partridge a much more scrupulous respecter of the rights oF property ; though, as he lives in comparative retii^r-ment, he succeeds in preserving a better name for honesty. " There are somfe of our most familiar birds, of which a. word may here be said. Every body has seen the little goldfinch on the thistle by the way-side, and wondered, per- haps, that his taste should lead him to so thorny a luxury ; but he is all this while engaged in devouring the seeds, which but for him would overrun the grounds of every far- mer. Even the bob-o'-link, a most conceited coxcomb, who steals with all imaginable grace, destroys millions of the insects which annoy the farmer most. All the little birds, in fact, which are seen about the blossoms of the trees, are doing us the same service in their own way. ' ' Perhaps there is no bird which is considered more decid- edly wanting in principle than the woodpecker ; and, cer- 296 THE COMPLETE FARMER tainly, so far as man iS conQerned, there is none more con- scientious. So long as a dead tree can be found for his nest, he will not trouble himself to bore into a living one ; what- ever wounds he makes upon the living are considered by foreign gardeners as an advantage to the tree. The sound tree is not the object ; he is in pursuit of insects and their larvse. In South Carolina and Georgia, forests to a vast ex- tent have been destroyed by an insect, which would seem as capable of lifting a tree as of destroying it. The people were alarmed by the visitation, and sagaciously laid the mischief at the door of the woodpecker, until they found that they had confounded the bailiff with the thief. "The injury arising from the loss of a single crop is hard- ly to be estimated. The experience which is taught us by our own misfortune is very dearly bought ; and we think that if we can derive it from others, — if, for example, we can learn from the ornithologist the means of preventing such injury, as in many instances we may, — the dictates of economy combii^ with those of taste, and warn us not to neglect the result of his researches." It was remarked by Colonel Powel, that " instead of being regaled by the whistling robin and chirping bluebird, busily employed in guarding us from that which no human fore- sight or labor is enabled to avert, our ears are assailed, our persons are endangered, our fences are broken, our crops are trodden down, our cattle are lacerated, and our flocks are disturbed by the idle shooter, regardless alike of the expen- sive attempts of the experimental farmer, or of the stores of the laboring husbandman ; whilst all the energies of his frame and the aim of his skill are directed towards the mur- der of a few little birds, worthless when obtained. The in- juries which are immediately committed hy himself and his dogs are small, compared with the multiplied effects of the myriads of insects which would be destroyed by the animals whereof they are the natural prey. *' BUSHES. In many parts of our country, the pasture grounds are infested, and often overrun with noxious shrubs ; this is the most slovenly part of our husbandry, and ought to be cured. Eradicating them, says Deane, requires so much labor, that farmers are most commonly content with cutting them AND RURAL ECONOMIST. S»7 once in a few years. But the more cuttings (hey survive, the longer lived they are apt to be, and the harder to kill as the roots continually gain strength. It is undoubtedly true, that cutting bushes in the summer will do more towards destroying them than doing it in any other season, particularly in August. Other circumstances being equal, the wettest weather is best for destroying shrubs by cutting. Spreading plaster on ground where bushes have been cut may tend to check their re-sprouting, by encourag- ing the growth of grass. It is said to be a good method of destroying bushes, to cut them with hoes close to the surface", when the ground is frozen hard ; and that more may be destroyed in a day in this way than in the usual method of cutting with a bush- scythe. Bushes which grow in clusters, as alder, &c., may' be ex- peditiously pulled up by oxen ; and this is an eiTectual way to subdue tbem. Elder is considered harder to subdue^than almost any other kind of bush ; mowing them five times in a season, it is said, will not kill them. The roots of the shrub-oak will not be killed but by digging them out. To destroy bushes in swamps, flooding two or three sum- mers is the most approved method. But if this is not con- venient, draining will so alter the nature of the soil, that the shrubs which it naturally produced before will not be any longer nourished by it ; and one cutting may be sufficient. Afler all, extirpation, by digging them out, and by fire, is cheapest and most effectual. — Farmer's Guide. IRRIGATION. The following Essay, by Dr. Jeremiah Spofford, is from the "Transactions of the Essex Agricul- tural Society." " Some degree of knowledge of what constitutes the food of plants seems indispensable to any well-conducted system of producing them in the greatest perfection; and such knowledge seems most likely to be obtained by minutely ex- amining their structure, and carefully observing the manner of their growth. " Plants coiistitute one of the great divisions of organic life, and one formed or constituted by systems of fibres and vessels, and endowed with certain powers and appetences 298 THE COMPLETE FARMER which place them at a greater remove above unorganized matter than they are below animal life ; and appropriate nourishment is elaborated, and a complete circulation is car- ried on, to the minutest extremity, in a manner extremely an-, alogous to the circulation which is carried on in the arteries and veins of the most perfect animals; and the- apparent intelligence with which plants seek for nourishment, light, air, and support, appears in some instances to bear a strong resemblance to perception and knowledge ; and the circula- tion of fluids in the vessels of plants and animals appears to be carried on much on the same principles, and is perfectly involuntary in both. "The indispensable agency of wofer-, in constituting the fluids, and carrying .on the circulation in these systems of vessels, has been universally acknowledged ; and could not be overlooked by the most careless observer, while he saw innumerable instances in which plants wither and dry for want of this substance. But while this_ universal, agency has been acknowledgfd, it is believed that a very inferior office has been assigned to it from that which it really ^performs. It has been considered as the mere vehicle which carried and deposited the nutritious particles of other substances, while it in reality "was contributing much the largest portion of the actual nourishment to the plants which annually clothe our earth in living green. " If this idea is correct, then he who possesses water at his command with which to supply his plants at pleasure, or who has a soil adapted to attract and retain moisture in suitable quantities, possesses a mine of inexhaustible wealth, from which he can draw at pleasure, in proportion to his industry and his wants. "In proof of the abstract principle that water constitutes in a very large proportion the food of plants, I may be al- lowed to mention one or two accurate experiments of dis- tinguished philosophers upon the subject, which appear to me to be quite deqisive on the case. " ' Mr Boyle dried in an oven a quantity of earth proper for vegetation, and afler carefully weighing it, planted in it the seed of a gourd ; he watered it with pure rain-water, and it produced a plant which weighed fourteen pounds, though the earth producing it had suffered no sensible diminution.' " ' A willow tree was planted by Van Helmont in a pot, containing a thousand pounds of earth. This plant was watered with distilled water or pure rain-water ; and the AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 299 vessel so c. irered as to exclude all solid matter. At the end of five years, upon taking out the plant, he found it had in- creased in weight one hundred and nineteen pounds, though the earth had lost only two ounces of its original weight.' "The experiments of Mr. Cavendish arid Dr. Priestley have sufficiently proved, that vegetables have the power of decomposing water and converting it into such fluids as they need for circulation in their own vessels ; and that they elaborate from this substance such juices and fruits as they are by nature calculated to produce. "The great effect which is so frequently observed to follow the formation of ditches from the road-sides on to mowing-ground, is, no doubt, in part, to be attributed to the manure which is thereby washed on to the ground, but is also in part owing to the more copious supply of water which it thereby receives. "Thai pure water is capable of producing similar effects, I have the following expeiunents to prove : " Several years ago, when resident with my father on his farm at Rowley, I labored hard to divert a stream, which fell into a miry swamp, from its usual course across a piece of dry upland. The stream was pure spring-water, which is- sued between the hills about fifty rods above, running but just far enough to acquire the temperature of the atmos- phere, but without receiving any more fertilizing quality than was obtained in passing through a pasture in a rocky chan- nel ; the effect, however, was to double the quantity of grass. The same stream I again diverted from its course, about forty rods below, after it had filtered through a piece of swamp or meadow-ground, and with the same effect ; and again, still lower down its course, I succeeded in turning it on to a piece of high peat-meadow, whicih had usually pro- duced but very little of any thing ; and the effect was, that more than double of the quantity of grass was produced, and that of a much better quality. I was led to this latter ex- periment by observing, that a strip of meadow which natural-: ly received the water of this run, and over which it spread for several rods in width without any particular channel, was annually much more productive than any other part of the ^ meadow. " But the best experiment, and on the largest scale of any which I have known, was made by my late father-in-law, deacon Eleazer Spofford, then resident at Jaffrey, New Hampshire A letter from Rev Luke A. Spoffordj in an- 300 THE COMPLETE FARMER Bwer to my inquiry on this subject, observes : ' My fathet commenced the experiment as early as the year 1800, and continued it till 1 820, or to the time when he sold his farm. The last ten years of his time he flashed perhaps twenty acres ; and it produced, I should think, twice as much in common seasons, and three times as much in dry seasons, as it would have done without watering. This land would hold out to yield a good crop twice as long as other land of the same quality,' (that is, I presume, withou'. flowing.) ' In dry weather he watered it every night, and the produce was good, very good. ' " I am acquainted with the lot of land which was the sub- ject of this experiment. It is a northern declivity, and rather a light and sandy soil, on the eastern bank of Contoocook river ; and the water used was that of the river, about one mile below its formation by the junction of two streams, one from a large pond of several hundred acres in Riudge, and the other a mountain stream, formed bj^ innumerable springs issuing from the skirts of the Monadnock. " From the foregoing premises may we not conclude, that water performs a more important office in the growth and formation of plants than has generally been supposed ; and that it not only serves to convey nourishment, but that it is iitgelf elaborated into nourishment, and thereby constitutes the solid substance ? and we may further conclude, that eve- ry farmer should survey his premises, and turn those streams which now are often useless or hurtful on to lands where they are capable of difl^using fertility, abundance, and wealth. "It appears, further, that the immense fertility of Egypt is not so much owing to the alluvial deposit brought down by the annual inundation, as to the canals and reservoirs in which the waters are retained, to be spread over the lauds during the succeeding drought, at the will of the cul- tivator. " If, according to the experiments of Boyle and Van Hel- mont, almost the whole food of plants is derived from water, then the principal use of the various manures is to attrac* moisture and stimulate the roots of plants to absorb and elaborate it ; and we have also reason to think that lands are much more injured and impoverished by naked exposure to heat and wind, and washing by water that runs off" and is *ost, than it is by producing abundant crops. " In the present state of population, nothing more could AND utiral economist. 30i be expected or desired, than that every faimer bhould make use of such means as the small streams in his vicinity may aiTord ; but in a densely peopled country, like Egypt in former ages, or China at present, it should doubtless be one of the first enterprises of a good government to take our large rivers above their falls and turn them off into canal* for the benefit of agriculture." WOODLAND. Ground covered with wood or trees They are mostly designed for fuel and timber. In felling them, care should be taken to injure the young growth as little as possible. Firewood, as well as timber, should be felled when the sap is down ; otherwise it will hiss and fry upon the fire, and not burn freely, although it should be ever so long dried. To thicken, a" forest, or to increase the num- ber of trees in a wood-lot,, it should be well fenced, and no cattle be permitted to be in it. And something may be done, if needful, by layers and cuttings. — Deane. The practice of the populous nations of Europe, whose forests have been cut off centuries ago, and who are com- pelled to resort to measures of the strictest economy to sup- ply themselves with fuel, ought to have great weight with' us. France, in an especial manner, ought to be looked up to for wise lessons on this subject. Her vast and thickly settled population, her numerous manufactures, her poverty in mineral coal, the eminence which she has attained in all economical arts, entitle her to great respect. It is the prac- tice of the French people not to cut off their woods oftener han once in twenty or twenty-five years, and by law, when they are cut over, the owner is obliged to cut the whole smooth, with the exception of a very few trees, which the officers of the government had marked to be spared for larger growth. Without giving any opinion as to the pro- priety of the direct interference of the government on such a topic, we should say that the example proves, that in the opinion of the French scientific and practical men, it is ex- pedient when woodlands are cut that they should be cut smooth, in order that the new growth might start together, not overshaded by other trees of larger growth. We have no favorable opinion of the utility of cutting down trees in a ectittered manner, as they appear to fail, and still less of 26 302 THE COMPLETE FARMER planting acorns in thinner spots of the forest. The growth thus produced must remain for ever feeble. — Lowell. A valuable paper by the Hon. John Welles, in "The Massachusetts Agricultural Repository," recommends cut- ting hard-wood trees between forty and fifty years of age ; and the writer states, that "though trees may shoot up in height by standing longer, yet the period of the most rapid vegetation is mostly over, and by this means much of the under-growth is necessarily destroyed." Mr. Welles is of opinion, that in cutting over a wood-lot to obtain fuel, it is best to take the whole growth as you proceed. He observes, that " we have been condemned as evincing a want of taste in cutting off our forests without leaving what it would take half a century to produce, — a shade near where it is pro- posed to erect buildings. The fact is, that trees of original growth have their roots mostly in the upper stratum of earth, and near the surface. A tree acts upon its roots and is act- ed upon by the wind, sustaining in common with the whole forest the force of this element, and it becomes accommo- dated or naturalized to its pressure. But when left alone or unsustained, it is borne down by the first gale, often to the injury of property and even of life." The " Farmer's Assis- tant" likewise says, " if woods are old and decaying, the bet- ter way is to cut all off, as you want to use the wood, and let an entire new growth start up, which will grow more rapidly." INSECTS. It would far transcend our limits to give even a brief description of the varioue sorts of insects which injure gardens, cultivated fields, &c., and destroy the best productions of ouf soil. We shall, therefore, confine our- selves to stating, briefly, some of the most approved modes of counteracting the ravages and effecting the destruction of a few of those which are most injurious to the cultivator. The preventive operations are those of the best culture, in the most extensive sense of the term, including what re- lates to choice of seed or plant, soil, situation, and climate. If these are carefully attended to, it will seldom happen that any species of insect will effect serious and permanent inju- ry. Vegetables which are vigorous and thrifty are not apt to be injured by worms, flies, bug's, &c Fall ploughing, by AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 303 sxposing worms, grubs, the larvae of bugs, beetles, &c. to fee intense frosts of our winters, is very beneficial. Insects inay be annoyed, and oilentimes their complete destruction effected, by sprinkling over them, by means of a syringe, watering-pot, or garden engine, simple water, soap-suds, tobacco-water, decoctions of elder, especially of the dwarf kind, of walnut leaves, bitter and acrid herbs, pepper, lye of wood ashes, or solutions of pot and pearl-ashes, water impregnated with salt, tar, turpentine, &.c. ; or they may be dusted with sulphur, quicklime, and other acrid sub- stances. Loudon says, " Saline substances, mixed with wa- ter, are injurious to most insects with tender skins, as the worm and slug ; and hot water, where it can be applied without injuring vegetation, is equally, if not more power- fully, injurious. Water heated to one hundred and twenty or one hundred and thirty degrees will not injure plants whose leaves are expanded, and in some degree hardened ; and water at two hundred degrees or upwards may be poured over leafless plants. The effects of insects may also be palliated on one species of plant by presenting to them another which they prefer : thus wasps are snid to prefer carrots, the berries of the yew, and the honey of the hoya, to grapes ; honey, or sugared water, to ripe fruit, and so on One insect or animal may also be set to eat another ; as ducks for slugs and worms, turkeys for the same purpose, and caterpillars and ants for aphides, and so on." The Rev. Mr. Falconer, one of the correspondents oi "The Bath Agricultural Society," strongly recommetfds soap-suds, both as a manure and antidote against insects. He observes, that "this mixture of an oil and an alkali has been more generally known than adopted as a remedy against the insects which infest wall fruit-trees. It will dis- lodge and destroy the insects which have already formed their nests and bred among the leaves. When used in the early part of the year, it seems to prevent the insects from settling upon them.' He prefers soap-suds to lime-water, because lime soon " .bses its causticity, and with that its .efficacy, by exposure to air, and must, consequently, be frequently applied ; and to the dredging of the leaves with the fine dust of wood ashes and lime, because the same effect is produced by the mixture, without the same labor, and is obtained without any expense." He directs to make ■use of a common garden-pump for sprinkling trees with Map-suds, and says, if the water of a washing cannot be had, 304 THE COMPLETE FARMEK a quantity of potash dissolved in water may be substituted , and that the washing of the trees with soap-suds twice a week, for three or four weeks in the spring, will be suffi- cient to secure them from aphides, &c. Other modes of counteracting the effects of insects are pointed out, in treating of the plants which are most liable to be injured by them. We shall, however, make some re- marks on a few of those which are most common and injuri- ous to the interests of the cultivator. Canker-wm'tn. We shall not attempt to give either a de- scription, or the natural history of the canker-worm, but refer to Prof Peck's Memoir on the* subject, originally published in " The Massachusetts Agricultural Repository," and direct our attention exclusively to the remedies which have been used or suggested to preserve fruit-trees from this formidable enemy. •; The female of this insect comes out of the ground late in the fall, early in the spring, or, sometimes, during a period of mild, open weather in winter. Those which rise in autumn or in winter are less numerous than those which as- cend in spring ; but, being very prolific, they do much inju- ry. One method of preventing the ravages of the worm is, to bar the ascent of the females up the stem of the tree. This has generally been attempted by tarring, of which ^ere are several modifications : 1. A strip of linen or canvas is put round the body of' the tree, before the females begin their ascent, and well smeared with tar. The insects, in attempting to pass this b^rier, stick fast and perish. But this process, to complete the desired effect, must be commenced about the 1st of No- vember, and the tarring continued, when the weather is mild enough to permit the worms to emerge from the ground, till the latter end of May, or till the time of their ascent is past. It is necessary to fill the crevices in the bark with clay mor- tar, before the strip of linen or canvas is put on, that the insects may not pass under it. Having put on the strip, which should be at least three inches wide, draw it close, fasten the ends together strongly, then tie a thumb-rope of tow round the tree, close to the lower edge of the strip. The design of this is, to prevent the tar from running down the bark of the tree, which would injure it. It shruld be renewed in moderate weather, once a. day, without fail. The best time is soon after sunset, because the insects are wont to pass up in the evening, and the tar vkuU not harden ao much in the night as the day AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 306 2. Another mode of tarring is, to take twc pretty wide pieces of board, plane theiu, make semicirci lar notches in each, fitting them to the stem or body of the tree, and fasten them together securely at the ends, so that the most violent storms may not displace them. The c-evices betwixt the boards and the tree may be easily stopped with rags or tow ; then smear the under sides of the boards' with tar. The tar, being defended from the direct rays of the sun, will hold its tenacity the longer, and, therefore, need not be frequently renewed. The trees in this way will be less liable to be injured by the drippings of tar, by leaving a margin of two or three inches on those parts of the boards which are next to the trees, to which no tar is applied. 3. A gentleman informs us, that in Plymouth, Massachu- setts, they make use of the following mixture as a substitute for tar in preserving fruit-trees against canker-worms, viz. : White varnish, soft soap, and whale oil, one-third of each to be mixed and applied as tar is usually. This mixture is not soon hardened by the weather, and does not injure the trees. Another simple mode of preventing the ascent of the insects is, to wind a band of refiise flax or swingle-tow round the tree, and stick on the band burdock or chestnut burs, set so closely together that worms cannot pass between them. The "Massachusetts Agricultural Repository," (Vol III. No. 4,) contains some remarks on the canker-worm, by the Hon. John Lowell, president of "The Mass-achusetts Agricultural Society," from which the following is ex- tracted : " I had the turf dug in around sixty apple-trees, and the earth laid smooth. I then took three hogsheads of effete, or air-slacked lime, and strewed it an inch thick round my trees, to the extent of twi or three feet from the roots, so that the whole diameter oi the opening was from four to six feet. " I tarred these trees, as well as the others, and although I had worms or grubs on most that were not limed, I did not catch a single grub where the trees were limed. " I do not speak with confidence. I am, however, strong- ly encouraged' to believe the remedy perfect. It was as- certained by Professor Peck, that the insect seldom descend- ed ipto the ground at a greater distance than three or four feet from the trunk, and to the depth of four inches, or that the greater part come within that distance. The lime is known to be destructive of all animal substances, and I have 26* 306 THE COSIPLETB FARMER little doubt, that it actually decomposes and destroys the insect in the chrysalis state ; at least, I hope that this is the case. " There are many reasons which should encourage a repe- tition of Ihis experiment. The digging round the trees is highly useful to theoi, while tarring .is very injurious. The expense is not great. A man can dig round fifty trees in one day. The lime is a most salutary nianure to the tree. Aller the spot has been once opened and limed, the labor of keeping it open will not be great. Three hogsheads of air-slacked lime, or the sweepings of a lime-store, will suf- fice for fifty trees, and will cost three dollars. As it is done' but once a year, I think it cannot be half so expensive as tarring. " I repeat it, that I mention my experiments with great diffidence, as being the first of my own knowledge. . It may induce several persons to try it in different places, and whei?e trees are surrounded with others which are treated different- ly. All I pray is, that it may prove successful and relieve us from this dreadful scourge, which defaces our country, while it impoverishes and disappoints the farmer." The remedies proposed by Professor Peck were, 1st. Turn- ing up the ground carefully, in October, as far as the branches of a tree extend, to half a spade's depth, or five inches, so as com|. 'etely to invert the surface. A great number of chrysalids would thus be exposed to the air and sun, and of course destroyed. 2dly. Breaking the clods^ and smoothing the surface with a rake, and passing a heavy roller over it, so as to make it very hard, and without cracks. In grass grounds the sods should be turned with the grass side down, and placed side by side, so as to be rolled. The winter's frosts would heave and crack a smooth surface, but it might be smoothed and hardened by the roller, or by other means, in March, with much less trouble, time, and expense, than rolling requires. As lime, when slacked, is reduced to an impalpable powder, and is thus well adapted to close the openings in the surface, Mr. Peck is inclined to think its good effects are produced this way as well as by its caustic qualities.. — Thacher's Orchardist, p. 93. John Kenrick, Esq., of Newton, Massachusetts, propos- ed, between the time in June after the worms had disappear- ed and the 20th of October, to take the whcfle of the soil surrounding the trees, to the extent at least of four feet from the trunk, and to a suitable depth, and cart it away to a dis- AND RURAl ECONOMIST. 307 tance from any trees which the canker-worms are in the habit of feeding on ; and returning an equal quantity of com- post or rich earth intermixed with manure. A writer for "The New England Farmer," (Vol. III. p. 327,) states a case of an orchard having been preserved from canker-worms by means of a large number of locust- trees, equal to about double the number of apple-trees. Mr. Roland Howard, of Easton, Massachusetts, observes, (New England Farmer, Vol. IV. p. 391,) that " a quantity of lime was collected from the sweepings of a lime-store, and spread, on the ground around a certain apple-tree, some time in the month of November ; (the foliage of which tree had been destroyed by the canker-worm the preceding sum- mer ;) the ground being in a pulverized state, the lime was spread as far from the trunk of the tree as the drippings from the branqhcs extended : the effect was stated to be tha entire disappearance of the worm, and an increased vigor of the tree." The same writer observes, that "moving the earth with a plough or hoe, late in November, or -beginning of December, has been found very efficacious in destroying them." This last mentioned remedy, if it will always prove efficient, will probably be the cheapest and most expedient But the worm must be capable' of enduring a considerable degree of cold, or unerring instinct would not lead it from its dormitory in November (as it frequently does) to brave the rigors of winter on the stem or branches of the tree We are inclined to believe, as well as to«hope, that the ap- plication of lime, as above stated, will prove effectual ; and if so, itiwill probably be preferable to any mode of applying tar, or attacking the enemy above ground. When the insects have ascended, their numbers may be lessened by jarring or shaking the body or limbs of the tree, causing them to suspend themselves by the threads which they spin from their bodies, and striking them off with a stick. It is said, that those which thus fall to the earth do not rise again. 'Whether they would be able to resist the effects of a sprinkling with soap-suds, saline or bitter infu- sions, &c., is more than we can say ; but we wish their powers might be tested, by showering them with those mix- tures which are found to be the best antidotes against other insects. Caterpillar. "This is one of the worst enemies to an orchard when neglected ; but easily destroyed by a little at teution. -In the spring, "'hen the nests are small and the 308 THE COMl'LETE FARMER insects young and tender, they never venture abroad in the early part of the day, when the devir is on the trees, or in bad weather ; they may then be effectually destroyed by crushing them in the nest. This attention, continued a short time every spring, will destroy those in existence, and will prevent their increase in future years : if left till grown strong, they wander from their nests, and cannot be effectu- ally overcome without great trouble and expense." — Cosce, on Fruit-Trees. The Hon. Timothy Pickering, in a letter to the corre- sponding secretary of " The Massachusetts Agricultural Society," has recommended an implement for the destruc- tion of caterpillars. It is made by inserting some hog's bristles between twisted wires, in such a manner as to form a cylindrical brush, which will present bristles on every side. This is attached to a pole, of such length as the trees may require, and the caterpillars are brought down by it, and then crushed. Other methods have been proposed, such as casting over the tree a few handfuls of ashes, in the morning, before the dew is dissipated from the foliage, or after a shower of rain. A strong whitewash of fresh stone- lime, applied by the means of a mop, or sponge, fixed to the end of a pole, strong soap-suds, spirits of turpentine, a little oil of any kind, particularly blubber oil, are likewise fatal to the insects. But, perhaps, the most effectual remedy is the hand, by which the insects may easily be removed at an early stage ; but if this be neglected, it is thought that the next best remedy is the use of Colonel Pickering's brush, as above. In applying either of these remedies, care must be taken to choose that part of the day when the caterpillars are in their nests. They rarely quit them till nine o'clock, and generally return to them again about twelve. Curculio. This is a small bug, or beetle, which perfo- rates the young fruit of the pear, apple, and all stoise fruits, and deposits its eggs in them. The eggs soon hatch, and a small maggot is produced, which feeds either on the pulp of the fruit, or on the kernel of the seed ; tor the tastes and habits of the different species are not similar. In the stone fruits, this injury destroys their growth, and they fall, with the little enemy within them. The insect retreats into the earth, and passes the winter in the chrysalis state, and comes forth just as the young fruit is forming, or the petals of the flowers are falling, to renew its mischievous labors. This insect continues its depredations from the 1st of May until AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 309 autumn. Dr. James Tilton, of Wilmington, Delaware, in an article on this subject, published in the American editions of" Willich's Domestic Encyclopedia," observes, that " our fruits, collectively estimated, must thereby be depreciated more than half their value ;" and adds, in his directions for destroying the insect, " all the domestic animals, if well directed, contribute to this purpose. Hogs, in a special manner, are qualified for the work of extermination. In large orchards, care should be taken, that the stock of hogs is sufficient to eat up all the early fruit which falls from May till August. This precaution will be more especially neces- sary in large peach orchards ; for otherwise, when the hogs become cloyed with the pulp of the peach, they will let it fall out of their mouths, and content themselves with the kernel, which they like better ; and thus the curculio, escaping from their jaws, may hide under ground till next spring." " The ordinary fowls of a farm-yard are great devourers of beetles. Poultry in general are regarded as carnivorous, in the summer, and therefore cooped some time before they are eaten. Every body knows with what avidity ducks seize on the tumble-bug, [scarabcBus carnifex,) and it is prob- able, the curculio is regarded by all fowls as an equally de- licious morsel. Therefore it is, that the smooth stone fruits, particularly, succeed much better in lanes and yartls, where poultry run without restraint, than in gardens and other in- closures, where fowls are excluded." * Instead of turning swine into orchards, to pick up the fruit which falls, and thus destroy the worms which it con- tains, it will often be found most expedient to gather such fruit, and give it to swine in pens, &c., either raw, or, what would be better, boiled. If such measures were generally taken with fruit which falls spontaneously, as to prevent the insects, which generally cause it to drop prematurely, from escaping into the ground, the w«rms, which destroy one half our fruit, and very much deteriorate a considerable part of the other half, would soon be extirpated from our orchards and fruit-gardens. Aphis, Plant-louse, Puceron, or Vine-fretter. " This genus of insects comprises many species and varieties, which are so denominated from the plants they infest. The males are winged, and the females without wings ; they are viviparous, producing their young alive, in the spring ; and also ovipa- rous, laying eggs in autumn. Water, dashed with force Sid THE CCMPLBfE PARMEa from a syringe, [or garden engine,] will prove as destructive to them as any thing, vt^hen on trees ; and smaller plants may be washed with lime-water, with tobacco-water, with elder leaves, infused in water, or with common soap-suds, any of which will destroy the insects." — Loudon. "Tie up some flour of sulphur in a piece of mCislin, or fine linen, and with this the leaves of young shoots or plants should be dusted, or it may be thrown on them by means of a common swan's-down puff, or even a dredging box. Sulphur has also been found to promote the health of plants, on which it was sprinkled, and that peach trees, in particular, were remark' ably improved by it." — Domestic Encyclopedias " In green-houses, they are readily destroyed by the smoke of tobacco, or of sulphur; but in the open air, fumigation, though much in vogue many years since, is of no avail. The best remedy is the simplest^ Soap-suds, forcibly ap- plied, will, after one or two applications, effectually destroy them, without apparent injury to- the plant." — X)eane. A writer for " The New England Farmer, " (Vol. Ill: p 9,) afler stating a number of experiments with soap-suds, foi destroying aphides, which were unsuccessful, or but partial- ly succeeded, says, " I was led to conclude, that it is not sufficient to wet the upper side of the leaves, thinking to make them disagreeable or poisonous to the insect, but that they must be well drenched or immersed in the suds. I therefore applied again the same remedy ; but with this dif- ference, — instead of sprinkling the upper side of the branches,! carried a pailful of suds from tree to tree,and, bend- ing the tops of small trees, and the branches of larger onea, immersed all the parts infested with lice, holding them in the liquor for a moment, that none might escape being well wet. On examining the trees, the next day, the greater part of the lice were destroyed. It was found necessary to repeat the same process once or twice, with suds not too weak, say about two or three ounces of soap to a gallon of water." Another writer in the same paper, (p. 10,) says, "I have applied soap-suds to my apple-trees, in order to kill the lice. It will be sufficient for me to say, that just sprinkling them with suds will not kill them ; neither ' will dipping the branches which are infested with them kill them. But dipping and holding them in, as long as I can con- veniently hold my breath, will destroy every one. The suda do not appear to injure the leaves. I tried suds made on purpose, and suds which had been used for family washing AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 31 1 The latter answers the purpose much the be^v. ' It is pos- sible to make soap-suds so stroag as to kill the tender branches, as well as the insects which infest them. The proportion above mentioned, of two or three ounces of soap to a gallon of water, is probably most advisable. CiU-worm. I'his is an ash-colored worm, with a stripe al- most black on its back. When fully grown, it is about the size of a goosequill, and about an inch and a quarter in length. They are very apt to cut offyoung cabbages, cauli- flowers, beets, &c. They never voluntarily appear on the surface of the ground in the day time, but may be found about an inch below it. In the night they make their ex- cursions, cut off the stems of yoiing plants, just at the top of the ground, and again bury themselves. Dr. Deane observed, " I once prevented their depreda- tions in my garden, by manuring the soil with sea-mud, newly taken from the flats. The plants generally escaped, though every one was cut ofl* in a spot of ground that lies contiguous. From the success of this experiment, I con-r elude that salt is very oiTensive or pernicious to them. Lime and ashes, in some measure, prevent their doing mischief; but sea-water, salt, or brine, would be more efiectual anti^ dotes. The most efllsctual, and not a Jabpriops remedy, even in field-culture, is to go round every morning, and open the earth at the foot of the plant, and you will never fail to find the worm at the root within four inches. Kill him, and yon will save not only the other plants of your field, but, probably, many thousands in future years." There is some danger, in making use of salt,, brine, or sea-water, of injuring the plants in attempting to destroy insects ; and we should, therefore, generally prefer decoc- tions of elder, walnut leaves, or tobacco. Mr. Preston, of Stockport, Pennsylvania, preserved, his cabbage-plants from cut-worms by wrapping a hickory-leaf round the stem, be- tween the roots and leaves. — JVew England Farmer, Vol. III. p. 369. The Hon. Mr. Fiske, of Worcester, Massachusetts, in speaking of this insect, says, "To search out the spoiler, and kill him, is the very best course; but as his existence is not known except by his ravages,,! miake a fortress for my plants with paper, winding it epnical- ly and firmly above the Iroot, and securing it by a low em- bankment of earth." — JVew England Farmer, Vol. IV. p 362. :, lAce on apple-tree$. There is a species of insect mfesting 812 THE COMPLETE FARMER apple-trees which may be styled the bark louse, to distin guish it from the ploTit louse, or aphis. It is, in form, like half a kernel of rye, but much smaller, with the flat side sticking to the bark of the tree. Jesse Buel, Esq., of Alba- ny, gives the following statement of his mode of destroying them : "In June last, I observed directions in ' The New England Farmer,' for destroying the parasitic enemy ; and, that being the particular time to make the application, I im- mediately set about it. For this purpose, I took eight parts of water and two of soft soap, and mixed with these lime enough to make a thick whitewash. With a whitewash aad paint brush I put this upon the trunks and limbs of trees, as high as was practicable, filling the cracks in the bark, and covering the whole surface. The effect has been, not only to destroy most of the lice, but to give the trees an improved and vigorous appearance. The outer bark, which, from a stinted growth, had become rough and hard, has, in a meas- ure, fallen off in flakes, and disclosed a soft, smooth bark, the sure indication of health." •Apple-tree Borer. (^Saperda bivitata.) The scientific de- scription of this very pernicious insect is thus given by Pro- fessor Say, of Philadelphia : "Hoary; above, light-brown, with two broad white fillets. Inhabits the United States Body, white ; eyes, fuscous ; a small spot on the vertex, and another behind each eye, light-brown ; anteniue, moderate, slightly tinged with bluish ; thorax, light-brown, with two broad, white lines, approaching before ; elytra, light-brown, irregularly punctured ; a broad, white, longitudinal line on each, nearer to the suture than to the outer edge. Length, from one-half to seven-tenths of an inch. A very pretty in- sect. In the larvae state, it is very injurious to tlie apple- tree, boring into the wood." — Journal of the Academy of Sciences, Phil, Vol. III. p. 409. Professor Say, in a letter to Jesse Buel, Esq., says, " You state that it leaves the pupa, and becomes perfect, in the lat- ter part of April, and ihat the eggs are deposited beneath the surface of the soil. These two circumstances ascertain- ed, I would recommend the application, early in May, or fhe latter part ef April, of common bricklayer's mortar, around the base of the tree, so as to cover completely the part, and its immediate vicinity, where the deposit is made. This preventive was successfully employed by Mr. Shotwell against the attacks of the peach-tree insect, (see ' Ameri- »an Farmer,' Vol. VI. p. 14,) and I see no reason why it A.ND RURAL ECONOMIST. .SIS should not be equally efficacious in the preBervatio^ of tho apple-tree." — Memoirs of ihe JVeiD York Board of ^ri- cullure. Vol. III. p. 479. The " Massachusetts Agricultural Repository," (Vol. V. p. 360,) contains a paper on this insect, by John Prince, Esq., by which it appears, that worms of this kind are got rid of by "digging round the tree, and clearing away the earth to the roots, and then, with a sharp-pointed knife, a chisel, or a gouge, and a small wire to probe, if they are deep iQ the tree, they may easily be destroyed." After tak- ing out the worms, the wounds should be covered over with grafting-clay and a large proportion of dry wood ashes mixed, and the earth then returned to the tree. The process for cleansing the trees from borers should be performed in the spring, as soon as the frost is out of the ground, or at least before the month, of June, as the perfect insect escapes be- fore that time. Slwg-ioorm, or J^aked Snail. These reptiles appear on the leaves of fruit-trees in the month of July. Professor Peck has ascertained that they are the progeny of a small black fly, which deposits its eggs in the leaf in the months of May and June. They may be destroyed by means of lime, sprinkled over the leaves in the form of powder. For this purpose, a wooden box, of convenient size, having its bottom perforated with numerous small holes, is to be filled with lime. This being mounted on a pole and shaken over the tree, distributes the lirae among the leaves, and the slugs are immediately destroyed. The labor is very trivial ; a man may cover a large tree in three or four minutes ; and the desired effect is certain. Fine earth shaken through a basket or perforated box will answer as well. "Another remedy, it is said, will prove equally e^ctual. It is a strong infusion of tar, made by pouring water on tar, and suffering it to stand two or three days, when it becotnea strongly impregnated. This, if sprinkled over the leaves by means of an engine, will kill these- vermin instantaneously. A strong decoction of tobacco will probably produce the de- sired effect, and tanner's bark put round the tree, it is said, will have a salutary tendency as a preventive." — Thacher'a Orchardisl. Forsyth recommends watering the ground where these in- sects are with soap-suds and urine, mixed with tobacco- water. Ducks admitted into a garden will destroy all within their reach. S7 814 THE COMPLETE FARMER ANE RURAL ECONOMIST. Wire-ioorm, or Redrviorm. ^ This insect is slende , and usually about an inch long, with a hard coat, and a pointed head. Mr. William Moody, of Saco, (Maine,) in a commu- nication to Hon. Josiah Quincy, published in " The Massa- chusetts Agricultural Repository," (Vol. IV. p. 353,) ob- serves, " I am persuaded, from experience, that sea-sand, put under corn or potatoes' with manure, or spread on the land, will go far, if not wholly, to the total destruction of these destructive worms, on which nothing else seems to have any effect. It has a beneficial effect spread on land before ploughing, or even after land is planted with corn or potatoes, not only to destroy the wire-worm and other in- sects, but to increase the crop. With my neighbours, a load of sea-sand is considered as preferable to a load of the best manure, to nii.x in with their common barn manure, or to spread on their gardens and low flat land." Probably sea-mud or sea-water would produce good ef- fects as preservatives against this and other insects. Soaking seed corn in a solution of copperas in water, has been found effectual against this insect. See page 30 of this work. The Striped Bug, or Yellow Fly. This is a small insect of the coleoptera order, or such as have crustaceotts elytra, oi wing cases, like the beetle. The elytra of this bug are striped with yellow and black. They prey on the young plants of cucumbers, melons, squashes, and others of the cucurbitacece species. "These insects may be considerably thinned by killing them in a dewy morning, when they have not the free use of their wings, and cannot well escape. But nothing that I have tried has proved so effectual as sifting or sprinkHng powdered soot upon the plants when the morning dew remains on them. This forms a bitter covering for the plants, which the bugs cannot endure the taste of." — Deane. " We would recommend sprinkling the plants with a little sulphur or Scotch snuff." — Farmer's .Assistant. But the surest defence against these insects is, mclosing the plants with a frame, and a muslin or gauze covering. For able and scientific descriptions of most of the insects which infest our fields and gardens, we would refer to a Discourse delivered before the Massachusetts Horticul^ tural Society, by Thaddeus W. Harris," published -in " The New England Farmer," Vol. XI. p 204. and fol- lowing pages. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS It was remaTked by Sir John Sinclair, that the introdaction of new ■gricaltural implements into a district is oilen a matter of the greatest difficulty, owing to the ignorance, the prejudice, and obstinacy of farm servants and laborers. Many farmers, therefore, very absurdly retain their old implements, though convinced of their inferiority, rather than sour the tempers of their laborers by attempting to introduce new ones; in many cases however they have succeeded by attention and persever- ance, and by rewarding their laborers many new and valuable imple- ments have been brought into general use.' The farmers of New England are too enlightened, and have too much regard for their own best interest, to be. under the dominion of such prof- itless prejudices. Accordingly, we find not Only a very increasing de- mand for new and improved agricultural machines, tools, &c., but that our practical farmers see that it for their interest to procure the best. The Agricultural Warehouse and Seed Store, in Boston, 51 and 52 North Market Street, Jos. Break & Co. proprietors, has become so exten- sive and of so much importance to the community, as to induce the pro- prietors to continue and extend it in all its vai'ious branches for the ac- commodation of the practical and scientific farmer, by the introduction of new and useful implements of husbandry, and to furnish the best tools for his business. f An establishment of this kind not only answer.'! the above purpose, but serves as a depository in which the inventive artisan may place hii articles for sale. The proprietors do not hesitate to say, that among the variety of articles on hand at this establishment, many are far superior in their form and construction, and far better adapted to the purpose for which they are intended, than any others whicSi have been in use in tbif country. 316 THE COMPLETE FARMER Thrahing Machines. Pope's improved threshing machine was in- Tented by the late Joseph Pope, Esq., of Hallowell, Maine, and ".( been in successful operation in different parts of the country for many years, and^s found to be the beat operating machine for all kinds of grain that has been in use ; it is well adapted for getting out tice. Hale's Threshing Machine. Hale's newly invented rice and grain threshing machine's are found on trial to be the most thorough and effective implements we have had in operation for the purpose intended ; It is a very simple operating machine, and powerful and quick in its motion ; does the work well, separates and cleans the grain at the sime time. "This machine must be to the rice planter an indispensable irr >le- ment ; it requires but one man and a horse to work it. Straw Cutters. The straw cutter is a machine well worth the atten lion of every farmer, and should be in common use with every person feeding stock ; and from the great improvement and simplicity of the machines now in use, ihe work is done with great expedition and facility, [t is a subject of great regret »-> every friend of the agricultural interest AND RURAL ECONOMIST 311 that these machines are not in more general use. Eve-y farmer who is disposed to use fodder to the best possible advantage, and preserve his animals in the best health, in all cases cuts his fodder. For farther ex- planation of the profits and advantages arising fiom cutting fodder, the following statement is given : Mr. Benjamin Holers account vf the savings made by the use of Siravt Cutters, employed to cut Hay and Straw as Fodder for Horses, Mr Hale is proprietor of a line of stages running between Newbury- port and Boston. He says, The whole amount of hay purchased from April 1 to Oct. 1 , 1816 (six months), and Tons. cat. grs. lbs. used at the stage stable, was 33 4 10 At twenty-five dollars per ton, (the lowest price at which hay was purchased in 1816,) *800 00 From Oct. 1, 1816, to April 1, 1817, whole amount of hay and straw purchased for, and consumed by the same number of horses, viz. : T. cwt. grs. lbs. Cost. Straw 16 13 3 10 $160 33 Hay 13 14 1 00 , 350 00 $510 23 Deduct on hand April 1, 1817, by estimation, four tons more than there was Oct. 1, 1816, at twenty-fire dollars per ton, 100 $410 23 Saving by the use of the straw cutter, four months of the last six months, or the dif- ference in expense in feedine with cut fodder, and that which is uncu^ $389 77 Whole amount of hay used for the horses of the Salem stage, twenly-five in number, T. cwt. grs. lis. from April 1 to Oct. 1, 1816, viz. . 22 At thirty dollars per ton, (the lowest price in Salem,) $660 00 Whole amount consumed by the same num- ber of horses, from Oct. 1, 1816, to April 1, 1817, T. eat. grs. lbs. Cost. Straw 15 13 $187 80 Hay 3 15 8100 $368 80 Saving in using chopped fodder five months, $391 30 Total saving in using the straw cutter nine months, viz. : at Newbnryport, four months, $389 77 At Salem, five months, 391 20 Total, $780 97 The members of the board of trustees of the Massachusetts Agricul- tural Society, to whom the above account was communicated by Mr. Hale, were informed by that gentleman, that he tised no more grain 27* S18 THE- COMPLETE FARMER rrom Oct. !!16, to April 1817, than was used from April, 1816, to Oct 1816. Remarks. — There is not only much saving and gain in cutting foddei wjien hay is low, but the animal is kept in Getter health, more particu- larly old horses, and such as may have been injured in their winij. It is a fact that horses will live and continue serviceable much longer VKhen fed on out fodder. The machine invented and manufactured by Willis, known as " Willis's improved Straw and Hay Cutter," is the most durable and best operating machine that has come to our knowl- edge ; and what is worthy of notice, they require but one person to operate them, which is not the case with many other machines ; in this there is a great saying in cutting feed, and likewise the fodder may be ciit of any length required ; the knives being placed in front of the machine, can be at all times examined and. jEept in good order. The feeding rollers are so constructed, that while the machine is in the act of cutting, the rollers cease to feed, which renders the cutting operation very easy. Eastman's Straw Cutter, with improved side gearing and cylindrical knives. This machine is well calculated for large ana extensive estab- lishments. Price, fifty to sixty dollars! Willis's ferticaj. Straw and Hay Cutter. It is well constructed, made of the best materials and of the best workmanship. Fed and worked by one man ; works free and easy, and not liable to get out of order. It will cut from thirty-five to forty bushels per hour. Price thirty-five dollars. For the cost this is the best inaohine in use. This is to certify, that I have used Willis's improved straw cutter the past, season, and consider it the best machine .for the purpose now in use. NATHAN ADAMS. The Common Dutch Hand Cutting Machine, is one of those implements in common use, and known to every practical farmer ; and is considered as good a machine for a small establishment as ,any in use. Will cut from ten to twenty bushels per hour. Safford's Improved and Common Straw Cutter, with side gearing ; well approved, and is in fery general use. ' • I Green's Patent Straw Cutter. The most approved machine now in use for cutting fodder; very simple in its construction, and in no wdy Uable toiget out of order ;' does the work with great ease and despatch. Roet Steamer. Thg above cut represents a root steamer, described in the Farmer's Magazine, (a work printed in Scotland,) Vol. XVIII. page 74, and alluded to in page 51 of the present work. It consists of a boiler, and wooden cheat or box placed over it or near it. The box may be of ; wajf size, aind so placed, as to be supplied an4 emptied by wheel and handi AND HtrRA£ ECONOMIST. 319 / tanrows in the easiest manner, either by the end or top, or both, being made to open. " If the box is made eight feet by five, and three deep it will hold as muiy potatoes as will feed fifty cows for twenty-four hours and these may be steamed in an hour." Ploughs. This implement, one of the oldest and most useful employed on a farm, has undergone of late years a wonderful change in all its most essential parts, and has been greatly improved. The cast iron plough is now most generally used among the best farmers, and consid- ered decidedly the best. Among the different ploughs now made of cas: iron, Hbward's stands unrivalled. They have been used at the different cattle shows and ploughing matches, and have in all cases been approved by them. At the Brighton cattle show at the exhibition in October, 18^, they received the premium of ten dollars, awarded as being the best plough presented. [Extract from the Report of the Committee.] " The ploughs weto all of cast iron, and by six of the most approved manufacturers. The one by Mr. Charles Howard, of Hingham, was a superior implement, considerable improvements having recently been made by him, in making the mould-board longer than usual, and swel- ling the breast of the share, so as to make every part bear equally ; by which means the plo'jgh runs more true and steady, is always free from carrying forward any earth, and wears perfectly bright ; and being made ■ on mathematical principles, he informed the committee he could make the different sizes always the same." JOHN PRINCE, EBENEZER HEATH, JOHN BAKER, 3d. " The duty of awarding a premium ' to the plough which shall be adjudged best of all those used at the ploughing match,' devolved on the two emnmitteesi and they i^reed unanimously to award it to Mr. Charles Howard, of Hingham, for his new and improved plough; ten dollars." GORHAM PARSONS, Chairman of Single Teams, JOHN PRINCE, Chairman of Double Teams. There has been no plough presented since 1832 which has been con- sfdered better than the Howard plough ; therefore the committee have not awarded a premium since that year ; they still oSei the premium of ten dollars for the best plough. Hide hill Plough. This plough, for which a premium was given at Brighton, is found to be a very great improvement on the ploughs now in u.se, for working on side-hills. The mould-board is so constructed a* to shift on each side, as may be required, by turning on the under sid^ of the plough as the team tarns at each end of the furrow. 320 THE COMPLETE FARMER Howard's Improved Double Mould-Board Plough. This plough is well calculated for furrowing out land, splitting hius-, ploughing between corn, potato, and vegetable cultivation, to great advantage. A great labor-saving machine ; saves nearly all the hoeing of corn or potatoes. Bigelow's Plough. This plough is made of wrought iron, and is in general use, and very much approved, being very strong and quite light, oes the work well with little labor. Morse's Plough. Similar to Bigelow's, but a better made article. Rice's cemmon Wood Plough. Of all sizes. Shovel Plough, and Plough Scrapers Of all sizes, made to order at the shortest notice. (Quaker Hand Pbmgh. For gardens^ a very useful implement, and used to great advantage in garden cultivation. Steel pointed. Chandler's Improved Double Harrow. This harrow Is so constrocled as to be in two parts, and joined together by hinges on two straight cen- tre ping, so that one part can be raised and swung over on the other half as occasion requires. Its advantage over the common barrow is, that it is less liable to be stopped, as one side may be elevated or turned to a perpendicular position, while the other side proceeds horizontally ; it may thus be drawn nearer to rocks, trees, &c. It will likewise better adapt itself to ridges, hollows, and uneven land. Tree and Bush Pullers. The tree and bush puller is one of the most useful ar.d effective implements in use ; it is employed in clearing land of under brush, small trees, barberry and other bushes. It is of iron sf AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 32 i any size or dimensions required, sometliing in the form of a rake or claw, with the teeth much bent. The ground is loosened around the tree or bush which is to be removed. The teeth or claws are entered on one side, a horse or oxen are attached by a chain to the daw and drawn oi- the opposite side. One man and horse or one yoke of oxen will do more work with this implemrnl than five men can do without it, in digging and clearing laud. ^ CulUvatOTS. Howard and Seaver's patent fixed and expanding culti- vators, of all sizes. The cultivator is an implement that is coming into very general use in all parts of the country, and serves in a great meas- ure in lieu of hoeing. The teeth are so constructed as to raise the ground, and leaves it very light and free for cultivation, and at the same time destroys the weeds ; and is well adapted to southern and western cultivation. These cultivators are adapted to all kinds of ground, for running through rows of corn, potatoes, and vegetabltes of all kinds ; and used in the cultivation of hops, instesid of the plough and hoe, and are found far superior to either It is likewise well adapted to harrow in grain and grass seed ; and, for the many uses to which this implement may be ap- plied, it must be considered one of the most valuable tools that is used on a farm, and is coming into very general use. This eertiiies, that I have used Seaver's cultivator, and find it a much better article to work among- corn and potatoes, than any machine that I have ever tried ; it clears the weeds between the rows much more effectually than either a plough or harrow, and saves a great deal of labor. BENJ. WHEELER. Framingham, 1834. Broad-Cast Machine. Bennet's broad-cast machine. This machine, which is designed for sowing broad-cast is found, when used on smooth and even ground, to answer a good purpose, sows very regular and even, and is used with great despatch. Tree Brushes. Pickering's improved wire brushes are found to be the mosIT effective implements for the purpose of clearing trees and destroy- ing caterpillars, of any thing that has ever been used. This brush, whicK is made in a spiral or taper form, and about eight inches long, is fixeii on the end of^a pole, the small part of the brush is enterea into the webs, and a moderate twist of two or tlvee turns takes the web and all connaeted with it clear from the tree. It should be used very early in 322 THE COMPLETE FARMER the momiDg and late in the aflernoon, when the insects are in tbeu nests. Cheese Presses, duaker's improved self-governing cheese press. The press is so constructed as to govern and regulate itself, in pressing a cheese of any size, without any weights. l^avett's Improved Cheese Press; which is so constructed, that seven or fourteen pounds' weight will press any common sized cheese. Cheese Hoops, different sizes. Cheese Cloths. Curd Mills, for cutting cheese curds, which facilrtates the labor of the dairy. Lactometers. This invention is found to be of great utility and ad- rantage in testing the quality of cream given by each cow. It consists >f a small mahogany frame which contains four or six glass tubes of ten inches in length and half an inch in diameter.' These tubes are di Tided into tenths, and numbered from one to ten, which show the quan lity of craam given by each cow. This little article is found very use ftjy and is much used in large dairies. 4ND RURAL ECONOmST. Oavit's Patent Chum, which has been in use for several years, is the most approved and convenient churn now in use. The particular ad- vantage is the facility with which it can be worked. From its quick and powerful motioD it will produce the ^eatest quantity of butter from the same quantity of cream ; is easy to clean, and no way liable to get oat of order. Mb. Fessenden, Editor of the JVeio England Farmer. Sir, — In answer to the inquiry respecting the Gault's churn, which I purchased at the agricultural warehouse, I give it as my decided opin- ion, that they are the best chums I have ever seen in use. They are rery convenient to keep clean, bring the butter very easy, and require not more than fifteen or twenty minutes to do a churning. Respectfully yours, B. REYNOLDS Sharon, June 15, 1829. Stone Chum. A small article, well calculated for small families. Davis's Improve'! Patent Dirt Scraper. This roid or dirt scraper, in- rented by Shadruck Davis, is used to great advantage in removing dirt »t gravel, more particularly in stony lands, from the peculiar constroo* 324 THE COMPLETE FARMER lion of the points, which are similar to those of a plongh point. They enter the ground very free aixi easy, fill and discharge theroBelves, and are easily managed by one horse or a yoke of oxen. Ploughing is un- necessary where these shovels are used. We the undersigned hereby certify, that w§ have used Oavis'B patent plough-pointed road and dirt scraper, and we consider it a great improve- ment on the common road scraper, and can with confidence recommend it to the public, as being superior to ai>y implement of the kind we have ever used, particularly in sandy and stony land, being so constructed as to load itself without the use of ploughing, which is common in using the old-fashioned dirt scraper. We consider it one of the greatest laboi' saving implements to the road-maker that can be used, and as such we fuUv recommend it to the public. ABM. WASHBURN, Bridgewater. HENRY S. PACKARD, J^orth Dartmouth. BRADFORD HOWLAND, Smith Dartmoidh. Prurdns Shears. This article, which was formerly made by Wak» field, of Gardener, has since been very much improved, and is now con- sidered as one of the best and most approved implements in use, and has taken the place of the pruning knife ; and for grape vines and small trees is considered much the best ; as upon an easy drawing stroke it cuts very smooth and fair without injury to the bark or wood. Scythes. The agricultural concave scythes, which are found, from the peculiar form and shape in which they are made, to cut upon the principle of a drawing stroke, and are very easily ground and kept in food order, and are considered the best scythes that are manufactured, rora the peculiar construction of these scythes the edge is always left true in the middle of the scythe. Scythe Rifles. Austin's and Derby's rifles are considered the best arti- cles made for the purpose. They are about the size of the common sand riiie, are cased with fine emery, ajid give a very sharp and good edge. They are of very general use, and good substitutes for the scythe stone. Scytlie Snathe. This article, though in very common use, has been altered and improved to great advantage within a few years past. The snathes manufactured by Vickery Baker for the proprietors of the agri- cultural warehouse are found to be the most approved and best calcu- lated to work free and easy. The regular quick turn at the heel, and the strong and substantial iron rings which secure the scythe and nibs, are considered a great improvement in those snathes. Willis's Patent Brass Syringe. This syringe is intended for watering all kinds of greenhouse and out-door plants, and for preserving grape vines from mildew, and has been used with a solution prepared tor that purpose, with great success. See the following recipe : Take a pint and a half of sulphur, and a lump of the best unslacked lime ; put these in a vessel of about seven gallons' measurement ; let the sulphur be thrown in first, and the lime over it; then pour in a pail of boiling water, stir it well^ and let it stand half an hour ; then fill the vessel with cold water, and after stirring well again, allow the whole to settle ; after it has become settled dip out the clear liquid into a barrel, and fill the barrel with cold water, and it is then fit for use. You next proceed with a syringe holding about a pint and a half, and throw the liquid with it on the vines in every direction, so as to completely cover foliage, fruit, and wood ; this should be particularly done when the fruit ii just f )rming, and about one-third the size of a pea, and may be con- AND RUHaL economist. 326 tinned twice or thrice a week for two or three weeks. The whole fto- tcBB for one or two hundred grape vines need not exceed half an hour Harris's Improved Paint MUl. This mill can be used by hand, horse or any other power that it may be attached to, and works to great advan- tage. From the very plain and simple manner of its construction, it is easily taken to pieces and cleaned, and shifted from one place to another, and used with great faciUty, arid is considered one of the best and most useful mills in use. CERTIFICATES FOR HARBIS'S FAINT IHILI,. I the undersigned hereby certify, that I have used Harris's improved patent paint mill, purchased at the agricultural warehouse, Boston, and consider it the best and most convenient mill for the purpose intenosd of any 1 have ever used. It is very readily cleaned and put in order. Hlu^ham, Feb, 20, 1834. SETH B. CUSIMNG. 28 326 THE COMPLETE PARMER I the undersigned do certify, that I have used one of Harris's pain< mills for grinding a variety proved impreiiients that is employed. It was invented and used in the first instance for digging potatoes ; it was afterwards found as useful foi planting as for digging them, and likewise is used for almost every pur- pose for which a hoe has been used ; and they are employed to the great- est possible advantage in stony or rocky lands, and in planting new land; they are likewise used as a garden hoe, being one of the best im- plements a gardener can have in use, or in wori^mg between rows of vegetables, digging round young trees, loosening the ground, &c. Lord l^ernon's Mew Tillage Hoe. The utility of this garden hoe will be duly appreciated upon trial. Few gardeners or nursery men employed in gardening will be without them when once they have been used. They are employed to great advantage in deep tillage ; in many cases they are superior to digging or forking the land. Cast Steel Shovels and Spades. Jimes's improved Cast Steel back Strapped Shovels and Spades are very superior in every respect to the common iron and steel shovels. They wear much longer, continue brighter, more sharp, and are used with great ease. This article, though one of the oldest and most common implements in use, has been much improved. Also a great variety of other kinds of spades and shovels, made by different manufacturers. Irish shovels and spades with long handles. Bill-Hook. This n-ticle is much used in England in pruning and clearing brush, and is a good tool as a substitute for the pruning saw and chisel, and can be used witli more expedition. Garden and Field Rollers. E. Phinney, Esq., of Lexington, has made great and successful use of the roller for gra^s land, and bfs ^yen a de- scription and dimensions of what he considers the most convemf>vt »ad ANB nURAl, ECONOMIST. 32» nest pri. portion, viz. : Tlie rollers to be six feet in length and five feet in in diameter, placed on an iron axle of the same length by one inch and a half in diameter; the roller to be made of oak or any hard wood plank, each plank to be about four inches wide and two and a half thick ; the roller is made in two pilrts, of three feet each ; each end of the axle is Bt«ured in a frapie which is made of joist, of a suitable size to receive the end of the axle ; to this frame is attached the shafts in -v.'iich the horse is, or a tongue to which the oxen are attached, which completes the rollers. Mr, Phinney says, this sized roller presents the followmg among other advantages, viz. : If the ground is very mellow, the large sized roller presses the small stones more directly into the ground and renders the surface more regular and even ; the large rolle: also moves easier, and the weight falling more directly upon the small stones, they are, as he has before observed, better pressed into the earth, the lumps of earth more finely broken, and the surface left much smoother. For garden toilers or gravel walks the stone or iron rollers are prepared, of different licra Com Sheller. A com sheller is one of the most convenient and likOo - saving implements that the practical farmer has in use. Variou^ ic* chines for this purpose have been ir runted. The most improve(f itnd ^8* 330 THE COMPLETK FARMER best adapted for common use are those of Harrison, with the patent ver- tical wheel. It can be employed in all cases for large or small-sized ears, It is very simple in its constiuclion and durable in its operation, and no way liable to get out of order ; one man can work it 'to good advantage, though a man to turn and a boy to feed it works it much better than one ahuie. In this way it will shell ten to twelve bushels per hour. They are so light and portable as to be easily removed from place to place, and one machine will serve for several families, or even the inhabitants of a small town. Willis's and Hale's improved Portable Horse Poteer^ may be worked by one or more horses, mules, or oxen. As every farmer keeps more or less of these animals, no additional expense is required in working these powers. They are calculated to propel any kind of machinery or agri- cultural implements in common use, such as threshing machines, cider mills, oorn and cob mills, straw and hay cutters, corn shelters, grind- stones, winnowing machines, &c.; they are likewise well adapted for machine shops, in working the circular or web saw, turning lathes, or any machinery where power is requited. The alterations and improve- ments made in this power render it very simple in its construction and easy in its operation, and not liable to get out of order when properly made. They occupy but the small space of nine feet by two, and are easily removed ; they are truly labor-saving machines, and must come into general use with farmers and mechanics. They are likewise well adapted for the use of plantations, being calculated for working saw or roller gins, and other purposes to which they rnay be applied ; they are so portable as to be transported at a moderate expense, and may be put in operation by any person of common capacity. Bark or Plaster Mills. The Troy bark and plaster mills. These mills are altered and much improved from the old-fashioned mill which has been in use for many years. Family Hand Mills. Willis's improved patent family or plantation mill, calculated for grinding corn, coffee, &c., has a small balance wheel which regulates its operation and causes it to work free and easy. Glass Covers for Plants. These covers are used for covering plants, protecting them in their growth and preventing mildew. AND RURAL KGONOMIST. 331 milU's StaHmiary Horse Power, and Corn Cracker Attached. Com and Cob Cracker. This mill, which is calculated for grinding cob and corn toeether, is found to make the best provender and the most eco- nomicaf food for fattening hogs or horses. It is so constructed as to be used with a common grist mill or separate, as circumstances may require, and may be worked by a single horse or any other power. From thirty to forty bushels per hoi;ir have been ground in those mills. HI f>^ I I \ ^ Hf^^t^ Grindstones on Friction Rollers. Grindstones of different sizes hung on friction rollers and moved with a foot treader, are found to be a great improvement on the present mode of hanging grindstones. The ease 332 THE COMPLETE FARMER with which they move upon the rollers renders them very easy to turn with the foot, by which the labor of one man is saved ; and the person in tlie act of grinding can govern the stone more to his mind by having the complete control of his work. Stones hune in this manner are coming .daily more in use, and wherever used give universal satisfac- tion. The rollers can be attached to stones hung in the common way. Hay Knives. These knives are for the purpose of cutting the hay in the mow, and are a desirable article for that purpose, and almost indis- pensable where hay is stacked in the yard, and the farmer would wish to spend his hay to the best advantage. PEY CARTER. FARMER'S CALENDAR. The following calendar is intended merely as an agricultural prompter noting Aiat certain kinds of work ehould be performed about the time in the year specified at the head of each article. The figures refer to the pages in this little volume, in which further directions may be found relative to the operations which the season in general demands from the diligent, correct, and careful cultivator. " At tie beginning of every month, a good farmer, whether he has or has not a book of this sort, is obliged to reflect on the work he has to perform in that month : he ought to foresee the whole at once, or it is impossible that he should make due provisior. 'ir its performance. I leave it to any one to judge, if such an estimate of monthly business can be gained so easily without such an assistance to the memory as is afford- ed by such a calendar; aud even if such a work but once in a year gives intimation of some important work which might otherwise have been for- gotten, its worth must be acknowledged."* The directions in the following pages, are intended for the New Eng- land States, or about the latitude of forty-two degrees north, and the vicinity, or a small elevation above the sea. Allowance, however, shoul 1 be made for height above the sea, as well as for situation north or soutj of any particular latitude ; but we believe it not possible to state with any near approach to precision what such allowance should be. The nature of the soil, the aspect, the exposure, the forwardness or backwardness, or what may be styled the general character of the season, arfe all to be re- garded. We willj therefore, not claim precision, where accuracy is not attainable. " Calendars," as Loudon has well observed, " should be con- sidered as remembrancers, never as directories." JANUARY. Stodc. If cattle are fed with straw, it should be done with necessary attentions and limitations. The celebrated Arthur Young observed, that " the best farmers in Norfolk are generally agreed, that cattle should eat CO straw, unless it be cut into ehan mixed with hay ; biit, on the contrary, that they should be fed with something belter, and have the straw thrown under them to be trodden into dung :" and I am much inclined to believe, that in most, if not in all cases, this maxim will prove a just one. See that your cows are of the best breed Page '38. Give them roots as well Bs hay,.and they will give you more than an equivalent in milk for their extra keep. Page 40. Provide pure water for your milch cows :ind * Youoj 'a JJritU 1 Farmer's Cslendgr. 340 THE COMPLETE FARMER not oblige Ihetn to go a mile, more or leas, after it, manuri: g .he high- way, and running the gauntlet of dogs, teams, the horse and his rider, the sleigh and its driver, with more annoyances than Bonaparte met with in his retreat from Moscow. See also that tlie master-beasts do not tyrannize over their weaker brethren ; and if any are inclined to domineer, take them into close custody, and deprive them of the liberty of the yard, till they will give indemnity for the past, and security for the future. Cut or chaff your hay, straw, corn-tops, bottoms, &o., with one of Willis's or some other straw-fcutler, to be found at Breck & Co.'s Agricultural Warehouse, No. 52 North Market street, Boston, or some other place You may also make use of Colonel Jaques's mixture, (page 48,) without charge for the prescription. If you give your cows good hay, roots, and 'comfortable lodging, you may make as good butter in winter as in summer, and become rich by sending to marfaet the product of your dairy. Pages 54, 87, 88, &c. • FEBRUARY. Attend particularly to cows which have calved, or are about to calve, as well as to their offspring. You know, or should know, what time your cows may be expected to produce their young, by means pointed out page 42, where you may find a receipt for those cows which neiid to be doctored, that they may stop giving milk. You will find observations on rearing and fattening calves, pages 54, &o. to page 61. Your ewes and lambs will now require that care and attention which is indispensa- ble to make sheep husbandry profitable. Page 212. The way to doctor lambs to advantage, is, to give good food, and a plenty of it, to their moth- ers. Half a gill of Indian corn a day to each ewe before vean;ng, and about two quarts per day of potatoes, turnips, or other roots, when they haye lambs to nurse, will make your sheep and Jambs healthy, as well as their owner wealthy. But if you half starve your sheep, you will quite kill your lambs. You will continue to cut, split, and pile wood in your woodhoi;ise, till you have enough to last at least two years. It is very bad economy to be obliged to leave your work in haying o^ harvesting, to draw every now and then a little green wood to cook with, whioh is about as fit for that purpose as a brickbat for a pincushion, or a lump of ice for a warming-pan. * MARCH. You may sow grass seed either as soon as the snow is off the ground, 01 as some say, in August or September. You may see the question reK.tive to the time for this purpose discussed, pages 22, 24. Be sure to use seed enough, say about twelve pounds of clover and one peck of herd's grass [timothy] to the acre, rage 24. If you did not sow grass seed in autumnwith winter grain, you may now sow it, and even harrow it in. Though a few plants will be torn up, the grain will on the whole receive benefit from being harrowed in the spring., Before the spring work presses hard upon you, it will be well to employ your boys, under your superintendence, to train your steers or calves arid colts to the yoke saddle, or harness ; for which you may see some excellent directions, by Mr. James Walker, page 64. Top-dress winter grain. Top-dressings should not be used in the fall for winter grain, because they would be apt to make the young plants come forward too fast, and be the more liable to be winter-killed Page X78. Attend to fences, page 204, and . AND KCRAL ECONomST. 341 Iq druns. Page 282. By often changing the direction of your water couises, you may render your mowing even, and prevent one part from becoming too rank and lodging before the otiier part is fit to cut. ' • .' ■ ' APRIL. Ploughing. Light sandy soils had better be ploughed in the spring, and not late in autumn, lest they become too porous, and are washed away by the rains and floods of fall and winter. For general rules on this subject, see page ^67, &c. It is best to Bow spring wheat as soon as it can wellbe got into the ground. The soil and pirepafation should be, the same as for winter wheat. Page 107. Sow barley as soon as the ground is sufficiently dry. Page 134. SOw oats. Page 131. Spring rye is cultivated in the same manner as winter rye. Page 124. Field peas as well as garden peas make an excellent crop. Page 147. Beams are also highly worth the judicious cultivator's particular attention. Page 152. Plant some potatoes of an early sort on early ground, to be used in July and August, as food for your hogs, that y.ou may commence fatten- ing them early in the season. Page 258. Potatoes in small quantities at a time are good food for hotses airid' oxeni as well as most 'Other 'animals, especially in spring. They Will go further, if Steamed or boilfed, but when given raw, they are useful as well for physic as for food, being of a laxa- tive and cooling quality. It is now about thectime to sow flax, page 99, and hemp. Page 92. Every tool, utensil, &c., which will be wanted for the labors of the season, should now (if not done before) be critically in- spected, thoroughly repaired, and sUch neW ones of the best quality added as will probably be needed. We know of no place where every want of that kind can be better supplied than at Breck & Co.'s Agriculturiil Warehouse, No. 52 North Market street, Boston ; Connected wilh which is a seed store, where may be procured the best of seeds both for garden and field culture. ' MAT. Attend to your pastures. Do not turn cattle into pasture ground too early in the spring, but let the grass have a Chance to start a little before it is bitten cjbse to the soil. If your pastures are large, it will be good economy to divide them as stated page 285. Cleanse your cellars, as well as the rest of your premises, froni alt putrescent and other offensive and unwholesome substances. Plant Indian corn as soon as the leaves of the white oak are as big as the ears of a mouse. Page 25. Not only Indian corn, but peas, oats, buckwheat, and probably most other seeds, are benefited by wetting them in water just before sowing, and rolling them in plaster. Plant potatoes for your principal crop. Page 258. Sow millet. Page 137. Sow lucerne on land thoroughly prepared, and keep it free from weeds. Page 16. Declare war against insects. Page 302. The artillery for the engagement may be elder juice, or decoction ,of elder, especially of the dwarf kind, decoction of tobacco, quicklirrfe, lime-water, soot, unleached ashes, strong lye, tar or turpentine water, Boap-suds, &c. Dissolve about two poubds of potash, in Seven quarts of water, and apply the sblution to yoUr fruit trees with a painter's bruah, taking, care not to touch the leaves or buds. A lot of land well ptocked with clover is wanted by every good cultivator for pasturing 9-yr„ia Page 159. 29* 542 THE COMPLETE ARMEB JUNE. Summer-made Manure demands attention. Most farriers yard theil BOWS at night, through the summer ; their manure should be collected into a heap, in some convenient part of the barn-yard, to prevent its being wasted by the sun and rains. A few minutes' attention in the morning, when the cows are turned out to pasture, would collect a heap of several loads in a season, ready for your grass grouQds in autumn. Dress your Indian corn and potatoes, thoroughly extirpating weeds, and please to place a handful of ashes or plaster, or a mixture of both, on your hills of con and potatoes. These substances are commonly applied before the first or second hoeing. But ashes or quicklime (which is also an excellent application for corn) will have a better effect in preventing worms if laid on before the corn is up. Be careful to save all your soap- suds after each washing, as they answer an excellent purpose when ap- plied to fruit-trees, both as manure and as an antidote to insects. " Plas- ter or live ashes sown upon your pasture grounds, will not only repay a handsome profit by increasing the value of your feed, by bringing m the finer grasses, such as white clover, &c., but will greatly improve your lands for a potato fallow, and a succeeding wheat crop, whenever you may wish to take advantage of a routine oi crops." JULY. Hay-making. Page 275. Make as much of your hay as possible in the early part of the season, as there is at that time a greater probability of your being favored with fair weather. More rain falls on an average in the latter part of summer, or after the 15th of July, than before. If the weather is so unfavorable that hay cannot be thoroughly cured, the application of from four to eight quarts of, salt to the ton is recommend- ed. In this way it can be saved in a much greener state, and the benefit derived from the salt is man^ times its value. Another good methbd of saving green or wet hay, is that of mixing layers of dry straw in the mow or stack. Thus the strength of the grass is absorbed by the straw, and the cattle will eagerly devour the mixture. Harvesting. Page 279. The time in which your grain crop should be cut, is when the straw begins to shrink, and becomes white about half an Inch below the ear ; but if a blight or rust has struck wheat or rye, it is best to cut it immediately, even if the grain be in the mlky •tate. Barley, however, should stand till perfectly ripe. AUGUST. Please to attend in season to preserving your sheep from the astrut mns, or fly which causes worms in their neads. Page 228. This may oe done by keeping the noses of the animals constantly smirched with , tar from the middle of August till the latter part of. September. In order to accomplish this, it has* been recommended to mix a little fine ■alt with tar, and place it under cover, where the sheep can have access to it, and they will keep their noses sufiiciently smirched with tar to prevent the insect from attacking them. Destroy thistles, which some My may be done by letting them grow till in full bloom, and then cutting AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 343 them with a scythe about an inch above the surface of tne ground. The stem being hollow, the rains and dews descend into the heart of the plant, and it soon dies. Select the ripest and most plump seeds from such plants as are most forward and thrifty, and you will improve your breeds of vegetables by means, similar to those which have been successful in improving the breeds of neat cattle, sheep, &c. As soon as your har- vesting is finished, you will take advantage of this hot and dry weather, to search your premises for mines of manure, such as peat, page 200, marl, page 196, raud, &c., which often give unsuspected value to swamps. Now is also a good season to work at draining. Page- 282. You may drain certain marshes on your premises, which will afford you belter soil than you now cultivate, cause your land to be more healthy, and the earth taken from the ditches will make valuable deposits in your coT-yard and pig-ij!y SEPTEMBER. A correctly calcnlating cultivator will make even bis hogs labor for a livelihood. This may be done by throwing into their pens potato-topa, weeds, brakes, turf, loam, &c., which these capital workmen will man- afacture into manure of the first quality. Page 181. Vou cannot sow winter rye too early in September. If it be sowed early, its roots will obtain such hold of the soil before winter, that they will not be liable to be thrown out and killed by frost. Page 124. It may be sowed early to great advantage in order to yield green food for cattle and sheep, par- ticularly the lattei, in the spring. Winter wheat, likewise, cannot be sowed too early in September. Page 107. Attend to the barn-yard, and see that it has a proper shape for a manure manufactory, as well as other accommodations, adapted to its various uses. Page 74. You may as .VFell have a hole in your pocket, for the express purpose of losing your money, as a drain to lead away the wash of your farm-yard. True, it may spread over your grass ground, and be a source of some fertility to your premises, but the chance is that most of it will be lost in a high- way, or neighbouring stream. OCTOBER. Ploughing. Page 267. Stiff, hard, cloggy land intended to be tilled should be ploughed in autumn. Fall ploughing saves time and labor in the spring, when cattle are weak, and the hurry of the work peculiar to that season presses on the cultivator. A light sandy soil, however, should not be disturbed by fall ploughing, but lie to settle and consoli- date through the winter. Select your corn intended for planting next season from the field, culling fine, fair, sound ears from such stocks aa produce two or more ears, taking the best of the bunch. Page 29. Yon will consider well which is the best method of harvesting corn, and adopt one of the methods mentioned by Judge Buel. Page 28. If the husks and bottoms of your corn, when stowed away for wmter, are sprinkled with a strong solution of salt in water, (taking-care not to use such ii quantity of the solution as to cause mould,) and when dealt out are c it fine with a straw-cutter, they will make first-rate fodder. Do not fsed hogs with hard corn without steeping, grinding, or boiling it. The grain wil- go uuch the farther for undergoing some or all of these i144 THE COMPLETE FARMER operations ; and if a due degree of fermentation is superadded, so much the better. NOVEMBER. In many situations it win be excellent management to rake up all the leaves of trees, and the mould which has been produced by their decay, which can be procured at a reasonable expense, and cart and spread thera in the barn-yard as a layer, to absorb the liquid manure from your cattle. Likewise it would be well to place quantities of them under cover, in situations where you can easily obtain them in winter to use as litter to your stables, &c. They do not rot easily, but they serve the purppse of little sponges to imbibe and retain liquid manure, and by their use you may supply your crops with much food for plants which would otherwise be lost. Attend with diligence and punctuality to the wants of the four-footed tenants of your barn, hog-sty, &c. 0o not undertake to winter more stock than you have abundant means of pro- viding for. When young animals are'pinched for food at an early period of their growth, they never thrive so well afterwards, nor make so good stock. See that you have good stalls, stables, &c., page 236 ; cow- houses, page 43 ; a proper implement for cutting hay and straw, page 48; an apparatus for cooking food for cattle and swine, page 49. You may also carry out and spread compost, soot, ashes, &o., on such of your mowing grounds as stand in great need of manure. Though some say that the best time for top-dressing grass land is immediately after haying : any time will do when the ground is free from snow, and the grass not so high as to be injured by caittle's treading on it. DECEMBER. Woodland. We think that cultivators may derive advantage from attending to the observations by the Hon. John Welles, relative to' wood- lots, tlie manner of cutting them over, &c. Page 301. We advise every farmer, and his help, &c., so to treat domestic animals that they may be tame and familiar. It is said of Bakewell, a famous English breeder of cattle, that by proper managenient he caused his stock to be very gentle. His bulls would stand still to be handled, and were driven from field to field with a small switch. His cattle were always fat, which he said was owing to the breed as well as keep. Colts should also always be kept tame and familiar, and you may then train them to sad die or harness without danger or difficulty. Page 64. The farmer should obtain his year's slocK of fuel as early in the season as possible, and before the depth of snow in the woodlands renders it difficult to traverse them by a team. You may, when the ground is frozen, cut and draw wood from swamps, which are inaccessible for cattle in warm weather. . If you cut wood with a wish that the stumps should sprout, let it be after the fall of the leaf, and before the buds swell in the spring. [See Gen. Newhall's statement, New England Farmer, Vol. X. p. 230.1 The Rev. Mr. Elliot wisely recommended, when bushy ground, full of strong roots is to be ditched, beginning the ditch in the winter, when the ground is frozen two or three inches deep. The surface may be chopped into pieces by a broad axe, with a long helve, and the ditch lompleted in warm weather. The farmer may, probably, hit on a good AND RURAL ECONOMIST. 348 time for this work in December, when there happens to be no snow, and when it will not interfere with other farming business. When the sea- son has become so severe that little can be done abroad, much may be done relative to farming operations, and other good works, by the fire- ■ide, in contriving the proper conrse of crops for each ficJd, settling ac- counts, reading useful and entertaining books, and laying the foundatioa, by mental culture, for the usefulness and respectability of thoae wkm ninpoie the farmer't family. "** Single copies of any Book upon this List seiU by Mail free of postage to any address upon receipt of its price in Bank Bills or in Postage Stamps. O ^^ T ^^ Xj O C3- TJ EI LATE C. M. Saxton & Co.'s, Miller, Grton, Rabbit Fancier, .... 50 A Treatise on the Breeding, Rearing, Feeding and General Management of Rabbits, with Remarks upon their Diseases and Remedies, to which are added Pull Directions for the Construction of Hutches, Rabbitries, &c., together with Recipes for Cooking and Dressing for the Table. Beautifully Illustrated. Blakes' (Rev. John L.) Farmer at Home, - - 125 A Family Text Book for the Country ; being a Cyclopedia of Agricultural Implements and Productions, and of the more important topics in Domestic Economy, Science and Literature, adapted to Rural Life. By Rev. John L. Blake, D. D. Blake's ( J.S.) Every-day Book, or Life in the Country, 2 25 A Book fob rainy days and winter evenings, containing Essays relating to Morals, Religion, and General Literature; also 500 Receipts on Health, Cookery, and Domestic Economy, and 1,200 Laconics and Apothegms, with a motto around each page, and fine Illustrations. 8vo., marble edges, embossed morocco. Boussingaidt's (J. B.) Rural Economy, 1 25 Or, Chemistrt Applied to Agriculture : presenting Distinctly and in a Sim- ple Manner the Principles of Farm Management, the Preservation and Use of Manures, the Nutrition and Pood of Animals, and the General Economy of Agricultur*. Tlk. work is the fhiit of a long life of study and experiment, and THE NEW AMERICAN GARDENER, COHTAIHIHG llractttal ZItttctions ON THE OULTDHE OP FRUITS AND VEGETABLES; INOLnDISG utNDSCAPE AND ORNAMENTAL GARDENING, GRAPE- VINES, SILK, STRAWBERRIES, &c. &c. BYTHOMAS G. PESSENDEJV, EDITOR OP THE NEW ENGLAND FARMER. Goo Almiohty first planted a Garden; and indeed it ia the purest of humu pleasures: it is the greatest refrestiment to ttie spirits of man; without which Dnuamga and palates are but gross handy- wcrlut. Bacon's Essays. O- tm:. s.A.:22:TOKr, AGHCCtJLTURAL BOOK PUBLIBHES, 28 Pakk Row. 1863. UlfiTillCT OF MASSACHUE ETTS, to cie i District Clerk*8 iJfficB. Bi ir RftiivvBBHKD, That on the eighteenth day of July, A. D. 1828, in the fiftjr third year of the liulcfiumlcnce of the United Stales of Americn, J. B. Kuftsull, of tlie md district, has dopoitiied in Ihii; ofTice the title of a book; tttn right, whereof he Slaiins aa {iru|iriclor, in tlie words fulluwing, to wit : "Tlie N(jw Amoricin Gardener; containing practical Direction* on '.he i.'tlvi"') of Fruiia and Vegetal) lea ; including Landsciiiiu and Ornamental Ci^irdtn.ng, tiiajio- rinen. Silk, Strawberrtea, &c. Sec. By Thomas G. Fe«seii(ien, EMitur oi the New £inglanil Fanner. "Gitd Almighty first planted i Garden; and indeed it is the purest oi uu^cn plefisurnfi : it is the greiiteM refreshment to the spiicts nf man; without which bui.diiigfl and palacus are but gross har.dy-worke. — Bacon's Esiiays." In conformity to the act of the Congresa of the United Statea, entitled, *' An Act for the encouragement of teaming, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books *A} the authors and proprietors of audi* copiea ilunng tlie times therein mentioned ;" %nd also to an act, entitled, *^ An Act supphtmeiitary to an act, »"U"'ed, An Act for tliR enconragcinent of learn. ng, by securing the copies of miipress the earth well down about the seed ; and, is soon as tlie frost sets in, but not before, cover the ground with muck or litter, a foot deep, and lay some boards or poles to prevent its blowing off. As soon as the frost breaks up in the spring, take off the litter, and you will have the plants quickly up." Asparagus beds may be from four to four and a half feet wide, with alleys of two feet in width between them. In these beds " the soil should not be less than two feet and a half deep, and, before planting a bed, it is considered good practice to trench it over to that depth, burying plenty of dung in the bottom, as no more can be applied there for eight or ten years. It caji scarcely, therefore, be too well dunged ; be- sides, though the plant naturally grows in poor, sandy soil, it is found that the sweetness and tenderness of tlie shoots depend very much on the rapidity of the growth ; and this is promoted by the richness of the soil. Damp ground, or a wet subsoil, is not fit for asparagus. Indeed the French consider wetness as so prejudicial to this plant, that they raise their asparagus beds about a foot above the alleys, in order to throw off the rain." — Hort. Trans. Method of planting. — " Stretch a line lengthwise the bed nine inches from the edge, and with a spade cut out a small trench about six inches deep, perpendicular next to the line, turning the earth displaced along by the other side of the trench ; and, having the plants ready, set a row along the trench, nine inches apart, with the crown of the roots two inches below the surface, drawing some earth, just to fix them as placed. Having planted one row, directly cover them in fully with the earth of the trench, raking it back regularly an equal depth over the crown of the plants. Proceed then to open another trench a foot from the first : plant it as above ; and in the same manner plant four rows in each bed. Then, lightly raking the beds lengthwise, draw off any stones and hard clods, and dress the surface neat and even. Then let the edges he lined out in exact order, allowing three feet for each alley. But some- times, in planting large compartments of asparagus, a first trench having been made, and the roots placed as above, then a second trench is opened, of which the earth is turn- ed into the first over the plants. So proceed in planting the whole ; making allovrance between every four rows fof 24 ASPARAGUS. au alley of. throe feet [more or less]. In a dry spring oi summer, water the roots from time to ime, till the plaits are established." — Ahercrombie. It is of very great im- portance to take up the roots carefully, and expose them to the air as little as possible before planting. If you would raise asparagus directly from seed, without transplanting, you may sow two or three seeds in the places designated above for setting the plants, and cover them with an inch of good soil. When the plants are up, they should be thinned to one in a place. Armstrong says, " the crowns of the roots must be placed upright, and the pattes, [or fingers,] as they are sometimes called, spread and directed downwards ; for on their taking (to tlie food provided for them) the prosperity of the plantation will principally depend." The following are the directions for the culture of this root, given in the Catalogue of Seeds, &c. for sale by John B. Russell, Boston ; and, perhaps, are as much to the purpose as those which are more prolix, minute and circumstantial : " Sown in April and May, in the same manner as onions, in rows, eighteen inches apart. Let it stand one or two years — transplant into trenches four feet wide, dug, if the soil will admit, fifteen inches deep — fill up six inclies with rotten manure — place the roots fourteen inches apart." lu a Treatise on Gardening, by J. Armstrong, of Dutch- ess, published in Memoirs of the New York Board of Agriculture, vol. ii., it is said, " If we can postpone the use of the plant for a year or two, sowing is to be prefer- red, because the crop it gives, (other things being equal,) though later in coming, is more abundant, of better quality, and of longer duration ; but, if our supply must be prompt, planting is best, for, by this mode, we, no doubt, soonest obtain the fruit." The same writer directs to plant roots of three years old, instead of those of one or two years (Id, according to the usual practice ; and says, " roots of three years will not only give fruit sooner than those of one, or two years, but, their fibres being harder, and r^ts more numerous, are better able to sustain the violence inseparable from trans- plantat'cn, and th ^ other accidents, (such as heating and ASPARAGUS. 555 cbafing,) which often accompany it, particularly if the rocrts be brought from a distance." Extent of the plantation. — An asparagus compartnient sliould not contain less than a pole of ground, as it often needs this quantity to furnish a good dish at one time. For a large family, about sixteen rods are kept in a productive state, which are calculated to furnish, on an average, be- tween two hundred and three hundred shoots every day in the height of the season. — Neill, in Ed. Encyc. Progressive eidture. — In the month of March or April, (during the whole existence of the plant,) the beds must be carefully forked and dressed, and kept clear of weeds. Occasional waterings are necessary, till the third or fourth year, wnen the plants will be sufficiently established to do without them. Permit the entire crop the two first years, and the greater part of it the third yeaT, to run up to stalks. It is a common practice to sow onions, lettuce, &c. the two first years. Mr. Loudon, however, says, " the advantage of this practice is questionable ; and, at all events, it should not be continued after the plants are in full bearing." Asparagus beds should be completely loosened to a mod- erate depth, every spring, as soon as the frost is out of the ground, with a proper fork, having three short tines, six to eight or nine inches long. But care must be taken not to go too deep, so as to wound the crowns of the roots. The beds, being loosened in every part to a moderate depth, should be raked even, before the buds begin to advance In autumn, after the tops are turned white by the frost, they should be cleared off, and a layer of dung, or rich soil, an inch thick, laid over the bed. This should be done yearly, and the bed kept clear of weeds. If the bed shoulo get too high by this management, the surface may be taken off" with a spade, early in the spring, to the depth of two inches, before the young shoots are in the way. But wher this is done, a thin dressing of rotten dung or compost should be laid on. This plant, according to Deane^a N. E. Farmer, grows well in ground that is shaded. The sprouts will be very large and tender ; but they will not be so early.. It is not amiss to have one bed in a shady place, to supply the table, after the season is over for cutting the first l^me of cutting. — " If you plant roots, the shoots may bn 3 '26 ASPARAGUS cut the second year after ; if seeds, they wil not be fit jo cut till the third year. All the shoots, which come up be- fore the middle of June, may be cut off without injuring the roots ; after which time, the late shoots should be left to run up, and go to seed ; otherwise the roots will be weak- ened." — Deane Cutting and gathering. — "In new plantations, be careful not to begin cutting till the stools have become mature, or the third or fourth year. Likewise observe, both in old and new beds, to gather all the produce in a regular, successive order, within the proper limits of the season. As the rising shoots project two, three, four or five inches, at most, above the ground, while the top bud remains close and plump, they are in the best condition for gathering. Cut them off within the ground, with a narrow, sharp-pointed knife, or small saw, nine inches long; thrusting the knife or saw down straight, close to each shoot separately, cut it off slantingly, about three inches below the surface, with care not to wound the young buds advancing below. Observe in a new planta- tidii, in the first year's gathering, if the shoots come up of irregular sizes, to cut only some of the larger for a fort- night, or three or four weeks, and then permit the whole to run ; but otherwise, when in strong production, gather all as they come, two or three times a week, or as required during the season, till the 21st of June; then, at furthest, terminate the cutting, and permit the after-shoots to run up in stalk till October. If, from a particular inducement, you cut later than the 2[st of June, be careful to leave two or more shoots to each stool, in order to draw nourishment to it ; for the stools left wthout growing shoots will perish ; and, by negligence in linb icspecl, many vacuities or unpro- ductive spots are left in beds." Duration of the plantation. — Abercrombie says, "A plan- tation of asparagus, under good culture, will mostly continue for ten or twelve years eo afford good crops ; after which the stools usually decline in fertility, and the shoots in qual- ity ; so that, to provide a permanent annual supply, some fresh beds should be planted a sufficient time beforehand, allowing four years for their advancing to a productive Btate." To save asparagus seed. — " Select some of the finest and earliest heids as they make their appearance k. ihe spring ; ISPABAGUS. 27 lie them to stakes during summer, taking care not to drive the stake through the crowij of the plant. In autumn, when the berries are ripe, wash out the seeds, if for the market, or to be sent to a distance ; but for home sowing, keep them in the berry till the time of sowing, the pulp being a great nourishment to the seed, which ought to be kept in a dry place during the winter." — Hort. Trans. The following directions for cultivating asparagus are from the second volume of the Memoirs of the New York Board of Agriculture. They were furnished by Richard Treat, the oldest gardener at the Shaker village in New Lebanon, Columbia county, New York : — " Beds should be made as soon as the ground is clear from frost — the first part of April, in ordinary seasons. The ground must be well worked to the depth of a spade blade, and intimately mixed with rotted horse-manure. The seeds should then be sowed in rows or drills, twenty inches apart, and one inch deep, the rows crosswise of the beds. They should be raked in lengthwise of the rows. " Asparagus will be large enough to begin to cut ' the third spring after it is sowed. It may be cut until the 20th June every year afterwards. As soon as the cutting season is over, hoe it over lightly, so as to loosen the soil, and make the surface even. Every other year, spread on each bed an inch layer of good yard-manure before hoeing. The tops will now grow to a great size, and mostly seed well. Early in the spring, cut the dry tops close to the ground, lay them evenly on the beds, and burn them there. Then hoe the beds over, and rake them again. They are then prepared for a new growth. " Most of the English books recommend breaking up old asparagus beds once in a certain number of years. Some of the Shakers' beds have been cut twenty-five years, and, under that course of treatment, are as good as they ever were." Armstrong, in the treatise quoted above, says, " It has been lately asserted, and with sufficient confidence, that a pickle of salt and water, of the ordinary strength for preserving meat, may be very usefully applied to asparagus beds in the spring. The effects ascribed to it are, its stimulating pow- er over the crop, and its tendency to destroy the seeds of weeds, and of insects lyaig near the surface. Experiments 28 BALM. on this subject should be multiplied, and with pickles dii- fering in strength and quality." la the last edition of Deane's New England Farmer, it is observed, " that to a bed fifty feet by six, a bushel of salt may be applied, with good effect, before the plants start in the spring." Use. — " The esculent part is the early shoots or buds, when three or four inches high, and partially emerged from the ground in May or June. They are in great esteem in Britain, and on the continent ; and this plant has, in consequence, been cultivated for an unknown period. In Paris, it is much resorted to by the sedentary operative classes, when they are troubled with symptoms of gravel or stone." — Loudon. Forcing asparagus in hot beds. — The first step in this pro- cess is to procure a supply of three year old plants, for none else are fit for the purpose. Then form a hot bed, as di- rected under the article Hot-bed, in the alphabetical ar raugement of this work. In this set the plants, at the dis- tance of two mches. Armstrong observes, that the mode of taking the plants from hot beds " differs from that used for plants raised in the natural way. If you employ a knife, YOU cannot fail to destroy many young plants, (on account of the closeness with which they stand to each other,) but the mode in which you do least mischief, is, to thrust your finger down alongside of the bud, and break it off at the ;oot." BALM. — Melissa officinalis. — " The balm is a hardy pe- rennial, with square stems, which rise two feet high or more, furnished with large ovate leaves, growing by pairs at each joint. It is a native of Switzerland and the south of France, produces flowers of a purplish colour from June in October." There is a variety with hairy leaves. Propagation. — " It is readily propagated by parting the roots, preserving two or three buds to each piece, or by slips, either in autumn or spring." — Loudon. Culture. — " Plant the slips or sets in any bed of common earth, by dibble or trowel, and from eight inches to a foot ajiart, giving water, if dry weather. Those of the spring planting will soon grow freely for use the same year ; and afterwards will increase by the root into large bunches of sevc-al years' continuance, furnishing annual supplies from March to September." — Louden. Dried Balm.- -" Gather when coming into flower, and 3ARIiEr. 29 I when the leaves are ent.;ely free from dew or moisture; then dry rapidly in the shade, or hetter in an oven ; and when cool press the herbage into packages, and wrap them up in white paper till wanted for use. Keep the packages dry, and in a close drawer." — Loudmi. Use. — " Formerly the balm was held in very high esti- mation : Paracelsus supposed it to possess virtues, by which "human life could be prolonged beyond the usual period. In modern times, however, th^ properties of this agreeable plant are better understood : it yields, by distillation, si small proportion of an essential oil, of a yellowish colour, and a very grateful smell. A few drops of this oil, diluted in a glass of simple water, or strong infusions of the young shoots, drank as tea, and continued for several weeks or months, have proved of service to nervous and hypochondri- acal patients, of a lax and debilitated habit. Either of these liquid preparations, when slightly acidulated with lemon juice, acquire a fine reddish colour, and may be taken with advantage in dry, parching fevers, as well as in cases of dis- tressing flatulency, attended with eructations, where the flVst passages have previously been opened." — Dom. Ency. vol. i. p. 127. BA.RLEY. — Hordeum. — The follovsdng remarks on the cultivation of this grain are extracted from an article written by Jesse Buel, Esq., published in th ^ N. E. Farmer, vol. v. p. 290 :— " The soil for barley should be s aeh as will grow good turnips, or other green crops, including clovers, and which embrace the varieties of loams and sands that are not wet, or very dry and poor. Indeed, I have taken my crops, and they have been pretty good, from my lightest turnip soils. Barley cannot be cultivated to advantage upon stiff, heavy, and wet grounds, or on such as are of a cold and tenacious quality. This crop occupies the ground but about three months ; and it is only in a dry, light, mellow soil, thai its roots can extend with sufficient facility, and supply the food accessary to bring the grain to rapid and perfect maturity. " Premotts crop. — Crops that precede this grain should be such as leave the ground mellow, and free from weeds; and for this reason hoed crops ari. to be preferred, such as turtips, potatoes, peas, beans, &c. Small grains should not precede it : they impoverish the soil, leave it foul, anA 3* ^0 BARLEY. besides, it is contravening one of the most salutary muximi of husbandry, to grow t«'o dry crops in succession. It inaji follow clover ; but if the soil is heavy, the ley should be ploughed in autumn. Barley is successfully sown upon the fallows in England, (not summer, but autumn fallows,) and is sown sometimes after wheat ; but in the latter case tur- nips are pulled, and previously fed upon the stubble^ — a prac- tice which I think is not likely to obtain here. I have generally sown barley after ruta baga or potatoes, these crops having received a good dressing of long, yard or stable- manure. " Manure should not be applied to the barley, but to the preceding crop. The short period that this grain occupies the ground does not afford time for the manure to decom- pose, and yield its food to the plants ; and, if applied in ex- cess, it causes a too rank vegetation, and the straw lodges before the grain is matured. Where a fallow or clover ley is employed, and ploughed in autumn, dung may be pre- viously applied and ploughed under. " Preparation of the ground. — Where barley follows a root or hoed crop, one ploughing will generally sufficft : but in all cases a complete pulverization of the soil is neces- sary ; and to efl'ect this a roller is often of material benefit. If sown upon grass leys, ploughed in autumn, the spring ploughing should be shallow, so as to leave the sod re- versed. But the preferable way may be to harrow the fal- low, plough in the seed, with a light furrow, and smooth off with the harrow. " The seed, and sowing. — Loudon enumerates six species and sub-species of the barley. The kinds uniformly culti- vated here are the two, four, and six rowed spring, (horde- um vulgare, and h. distichon.) Thin-skinned, pale, plump seed should be selected. I sow as soon as the ground is sufficiently dry in spring. The young grain is not hurt by the ordinary frosts of the latter part of April and May. I sow from six to eight pecks per acre, according to the rich- ness of the soil and the forwardness of the season ; the poorest ground and the latest sowing requiring the most seed. In England the common quantity of seed is from eight to sixteen pecks. Our climate being much warmer than that of Great Britain, barley and other grains till better with us, and consequently we require less seed. We unj- SAJEtLKI. 31 forialy sow broad-cast, generally on the fresh furrow, and harrow in both ways ; and those who have a roller use it m the finishing operation It gives a smooth surface, breaks down the lumps, brings the earth in contact with the seed and if grass seeds have been sown, its use is doubly benefi- cial. I steep my seed twenty-four hours in a weak solution of nitre, the crude kind of which costs me only eight cents per pound by the quantity. From the analysis and observa- tions of Grisendiwaite, there is reason to believe that this salt is peculiarly beneficial to the barley crop, the grain yielding it on analysis. I have made no comparative ex- periments, but I think this steep serviceable. I have ap- plied to this grain, as a top dressing, with singular success, the powdered dung of pigeons and dunghill fowls, at the rate of twenty to thirty bushels the acre. "The crop admits of no after-culture when sown broad- cast. Yet the application of the roller, when the plants are two or three inches high, is no doubt salutary, especially if there has been no considerable rains. Rolling gives a salu- tary compression to the soil, which in the spring is apt to be loose and porous, and full of cracks, by the alternation of freezing and thawing, or of wet and dry weather ; it de- stroys many insects ; and, above all, it partially buries the crowns of the plants, and induces a multiplication of seed stallcs. I can recommend the practice from experience. — When grass seeds are sown with barley, the luxuriance of che young grass sometimes chokes the grain, robs it of nu- crimeut, and sensibly diminishes the product. To obviate this evil, it has been recommended to sow the grass seeds after the barley has come up, and to cover them with a light harrow and the roller ; and it is said, and I think with truth, that this operation will not materially injure the grain. Tn dry seasons, the crop is sometimes attacked by worms, while young. In this case the roller should be applied, and sufficient weight added, to require the draught of two or (hree cattle. '" Time and method of harvesting. — When the soil is rich, ).nd the season propitious, this grain is very liable to lodge. If this happens after it has blossomed, no material injury is sustained in the product. If before, the crop is greatly di- minished This shows the danger to be apprehended from making the soil too ri''"h and of applyiug fresh manure. 32 BARLEY. Barley is known to be ripe by the d,8ap,»earance of the reddish cast jn the ear, or what the English farmers term red roan; by the ears beginning to droop, and bend them- selves round against the stems ; and by the stalks becoming brittle, and of a yellowish colour. This is the particular period for cutting, as, if suffered to stand longer, the heads break off, and the grain wastes, with the slightest touch. And it may be cut with the cradle, sickle or sithe, accord- ing to circumstances. If it stands straight, and is not too heavy, the cradle is to be preferred ; if heavy, or lodged, the sickle or sithe. But, as the grain is yet soft, and the straw contains much moisture, when it ought to be cut, it should be suffered to become well dried in the swath be- fore it is bound in sheaves, or carried to the barn or stack. If cut with the cradle or sickle, it is bound in sheaves ; but the more common practice is to cut the crop with the sithe, rake the ground, and load it with the barley fork. " Barley improves for malting by lying till October before it is threshed ; though it is often threshed immediately from the field. The great difficulty in preparing it for market is to rid it of the awns. This may be done with flails, after it has passed once through the fanning mill. And, where it is in great quantities, it may be spread from four to six inches upon the barn floor, and trodden with horses. ^^ Produce and profits. — The average product in England is stated by Donaldson at thirty-two bushels per acre. The product in New York varies from fifteen to seventy bushels, according to season and soil ; and I think the average is somewhat short of that of Great Britain. Compared with wheat, its product is as two or two and a half to one ; com- pared with oats, about equal, provided the soil is adapted to this grain. It is, however, to be remembered, that neither wheat nor oats are adapted to a barley soil ; the first requir- ing a more stiff and tenateious, and the latter a more cold and moist location. The average price of barley is at least. two thirds that of wheat: supposing wheat, then, to be $ 1 12 the bushel, and the product 15 bushels per acre, and barlev to be 76 cents, and the product of an acre 30 bushels, and the expense of cultivation equal, the profits of the barley will be nearly as three to two compared to wheat. Barley, besides, is a less precarious crop, is subject to fewer dis- BEAN. 33 eases, and has fewer insect enemies to encoun.er than wheat." A correspondent of the Bath Agricultural Society writes — ' The last spring being remarkably dry, I soaked my sees barley in the black water, taken from a reseivoir, which constantly receives the draining of my dung heap and sta- bles. As the light grains floated On the top, I skimmed then" off, and let the rest stand 24 hours. On taking it from tht water, I mixed the grain with a sufficient quantity of siftec wood ashes, to make it spread regularly, and sowed thre* fields with it. The produce was sixty bushels per acre I sowed some other fields with the same seed dry ; but th» crop, like those of my neighbours, was very poor, not more than twenty bushels per acre, and much mixed with greeE corn and weeds when harvested. I also sowed some ol my seed dry on one ridge in each of my former fields, but the produce was very poor in comparison of the other parts of the field." BEAN. — Viciafaha. — There are two distinct species of the bean, which are often confounded by writers on agricul- tural subjects, to wit, viciafaha, garden bean,or horse bean, and phaseolus vulgaris, or kidney bean. The want of distin- guishing between these two different genera or sorts of plants, may lead to erroneous practices, and consequent detriment to the cultivator. The vicia faba, or garden bean, (often called English hean,) is an annual plant, rising from two to four feet high, with a thick, angular stem, the leaves divided, and without tendrils ; the flowers white, with a black spot in the middle of the wing ; seed-pods thick, long, woolly within, and en- closing the large ovate flatted seeds, for the sake of which the plant is cultivated in gardens. The following varieties are advertised for sale in Mr. Russell's Catalogue, viz. English dwarfs, | Green nonpareil, Early mazagan, I Broad Windsor. Sword long pod, | " These varieties should be planted as early as practica- ble in April." It is said that this kind of bean is propagated to the best advantage in a stiff, moist loam, with a considerable propor- tion of clay. The following are Mr. Loudon's directioni for its culture — 34 BEAN. Quantity of seeds. — For early crops, oi e pint of seed will be requisite for every eighty feet of row ; for main crops, two quarts for every 240 feet of row ; and for late croos, nearly the same as the early. Method of sowing. — " Plant all the sorts in rows, two feet and a half apart, for the smaller or very early, or very late kinds ; and three feet for the larger ; the smaller beans two inches deep, and three inches distant in the row; the larger three inches deep, and four inches distant in the row." Transplanting. — Speedily constantly transplants his early bean crops, and considers that this plant may be as easily transplanted as cabbage, or any other vegetable. It is a prac- tice with him to plant beans, alternately with potatoes, in the same row ; the rows three feet apart, and the potatoes eighteen inches apart in the row, so that the beans are nine inches from the potatoes. The beans are transplanted, by which means they have the start and advantage of the po- tatoes and weeds, and, as they come in early, may be gath- ered before they can possibly incommode or injure the potatoes. Manual process. — The work of sovring is most generally effected by a dibble, having a thick, blunt end, to make a wide aperture for each bean, to admit it clear to the bottom, without any narrow, hollow parts below : strike the earth fully and regularly into the holes over the inserted beans. Or the planting may be performed, occasionally, in drills drawn with a hoe the proper depth and distance as above ; place the beans at intervals along the bottom of each drill, and earth them over evenly ; which method, though suitable to any kinds, may be more particularly adopted in sowing the early and other small sorts. Soaking seed in summer. — In planting late crops in June or July, if the weather be dry, it is eligible to give the beans a previous soaking for several hours in soft water; or, if they are to be sown in drills, water the drills beforehand ; then directly put in the beans, and earth them in while the ground remains moist. Subsequent culture. — " As the plants come up, and ad- vance from four to six inches high, hoe up some earth to the stems on both sides of each row, cutting down all weeds. Repeat the hoeing as future weeds arise, both to keep the giound about the plants clean, and to loosen the earth to BEAN. 35 encourage their gri-wth. In earthing up, great care must be taken that the earth does not fall on the cei tre ot the plant, so as to bury it ; for this occasions it to rot or fail. After earthing up, stir between the rows with a tliree- pronged fork. As th« different crops come into full blos- som, pinch or cut off the tops, in order to promote their fruiting sooner in a more plentiful production of well-hlled pods." — Abercrombie. Nichol says, " Topping is unnecessary for any but the early crops j being practised to render them more ear- ly." Mr. Armstrong is of opinion, that " of this practice, and of the theory on which it is founded, we may be per- mitted to doubt, because it does not appear to follow tiiat, when the growth of a plant is checked or suspended in one direction, it will not exert itself in another as injuriously to the crop as any increased length of stem would have done. Every day's experience shows, that, if we pollard an apple- tree, we indeed stop its growth upward; but that, instead ol sending its surplus juices to the support and enlargement of the fruit, (as this practice supposes,) it hastens to throw out lateral stenjs or suckers, which give no fruit whatever. Our creed, therefore, is, that, in the vegetable economy, certain juices go to the production of the stem, and certain others, more elaborated, and of a different quality, to that of flowers and fruits, and that, whether desirable or not, thp art of giving to either a destination different from what na- ture intended, is yet to be discovered." Gathering. — ^For table use, gather only such as are ten- der, th^ seeds decreasing in delicacy after they obtain about half the size which they should possess at maturity. When they become black-eyed, they are tough and strong tasted, and much inferior. To save seed. — " Either plant some of the approved sorts early in the spring, wholly for that purpose, or leave rows of the different crops ungathered, in preference to the glean- ings of gathered crops. The pods will npen in August, becoming brown and dry, and the beans dry and hard : then, pulling up the stalks, place them in the sun to harden the seed thoroughly, after which thresh out each sort sepa- rately. " — Abercrombie. Use. — Mr. Cobbett says, " In England there are some sorts of this bean used for htrses and hogs ; but there are ^6 BiEAN. •everal soits used as human food. It is at best a coarse and not very ■wholesome vegetable, yet some people like it. It 18 very much eaten by the country people, in England, with their bacon, along with which it is boiled." Bean flour, as Dr. Darwin observed, is probably more nutritive than that of oats, which appears by its effect in fattening hogs ; and, from the relative prices of these articles, he was of opinion, that peas and beans, in general, supply a cheaper provender for horses and other animals. But as the flour of beans and peas is more oil)' than that of oats, it must be more difficult of digestion. Hence, when a horse has been fed with pulse, he will be less active for an hour or two after- wards, than if he had eaten oats. It will, therefore, be advisable to mix pollard or straw, finely cut, with peas and beans, before they are given to cattle. BEAN, KIDNEY.— PAcweote vulgaris.— This plant and its uses are too well known to require any description. The sorts mentioned in Russell's Catalogue, are Kidney dwarfs, or string : — early yellow cranberry ; early Mohawk, (which will bear a smart frost without injury;) early yel- low six weeks ; early Canadian dwarf; early dwarf cluster; early dun coloured, or Quaker ; early China dwarf; large white kidney dwarf; white cranberry dwarf; red cranberry dwarf; Warrington, or marrow ; refugee, or thousand to one ; Rob Roy ; white cutlass bean of Carolina. Pole or running beans: — large white Lima; saba or CaroHna; scarlet run- ners ; white Dutch runners ; Dutch case-knife, or princess ; red cranberry; white cranberry; (the three last mentioned string beans ;) asparagus, or yard long, dolichos sesqmpedalis. The following directions for the culture of the bean in gardens are from McMahon : " Towards the latter end of April, [or the fore part of May in New England,] you may plant a first crop of kidney-beans in the open ground. Select a warm, dry, and favourably situated spot, and, having dug and manured it properly, draw drills an inch deep, and two feet or thirty inches asunder; drop the beans therein, two inches apart, and draw the earth equally over them ; do not cover them more than an inch deep ; for at this early time they are liable to rot, if cold or wet ensue. The kinds proper to be sown now are, the early cream-coloured, speckled, yellow and white dwarfs." Loudon gives the following directions for the r.ulture of BEAN 3i runners, or pole-beans, as they are commonly called in this countr}' :— ^rhe runner kidney beans may be sown in a small pirtion towards the end of April, [about the middle ol May in New England,] if tolerably warm, dry weather ; but as these beans are rather more tender than the dwarf sorts, more liable to rot in the ground by wet and cold, especially the scarlets, the beginning or middle of May [first of June in New England] will be time enough to sow a con- siderable crop ; and you may sow a full crop about the beginning of June. Allot principally the scarlet and large white runners. Some Dutch runners are very eligible as a secondary crop. The first crops should have the assistance of a south wall. Intermediate crops may be sown in any open compartment, or against any fence not looking north. The latest sown will continue bearing longer under a good aspect and shelter. In sowing, draw drills about an inch and a half, o"r not more than two inches deep. Let paral- lel rows be at least four feet asunder, to admit in the inter- vals tall sticks or poles for the plants to climb on. Place the beans in the drills four inches apart, and earth them in evenly the depth of the drills. A row contiguous to a fence or building may ascend upon lines. Some may be sown in a single row along a border, or on each side of a walk, and have the support of a slight trellis of laths and lines ; or they might be arched over with similar materials to form a shady walk or bower. In a cold, wet season, or when requi- site to have a few plants more forward than the general crop, some scarlets may be sown in April, either in a slight hot- bed, or in pots, under frames of hand-glasses, to raise and forward the plants, till two or three inches high : then, at the end of May, transplant them into the open garden. As the plants come up, and advance from three to six inches in growth, hoe some earth to the stems, cutting down all weeds. When they begin to -send forth runners, place suitable supports to each row ; and conduct the tendrils to the sticks or lines, turning them in a contrary direction to the sun. The ascending plants will soon come into flower, podding at the joints, in long succession. They are so pro- lific, that the returns from three sowings, in May, June and July, ^vill last from July till October. Takrig the crop. — Gather the pods, both from dwarfs and runners, while they are young, fleshy, brittle and tender 4 3n HKAw. foi then they are in the highest perfection for the table ; and the plants will bear more fully, and last longer in fruit, under a course of clean gathering, not leaving any super- abundant pods to grow old. To save seed. — Either sow a portion for that object, or leave rows wholly ungathered, of the main crop, or preserve B sufficiency of good pods promiscuously. The beans saved should be the first fruits of a crop, sown at a period which throws the entire course of growth into the finest part of summer. Let them hang on the stalks till they ripen fully, -in August and September ; then let the haulm be pulled up and placed in the sun, to dry and harden the seed, which should be afterwards cleared out of the husks, bagged up, and housed. The pea, English bean, and kidney bean, are liable to the attacks of various insects, especially the aphides, [plant lice,] in dry seasons. When early crops are newly sown, or planted, mice will burrow for and eat the seed, and when it begins to penetrate the soil, it is attacked by snails, slugs, the cut worm, &c. The usual means of guarding against the ravages of insects must, therefore, be resorted to by the gardener. As regards the field culture of the bean, we would ob- serve, that the white kind, which is most generally approved of in New England, will produce pretty good crops, on poor, sandy, or gravelly soils ; but, when planted on such ground, it is good husbandry to wet and roll them in plas- ter befoj:e planting. They may be planted in hills, or drills, the rows two and a half or three feet apart, according to the strength of the soil, and cultivated like other hoed crops. They may be planted the latter end of May, or beginning of June, or about the time of planting Indian com. If planted in hills, they may be placed from fourteen to twenty-four inches apart in the rows, and the rows the distance before mentioned. Five beans are quite enough to remain in a hill. Hogs' dung, mixed with ashes, is said to be the best manure for them ; and it is said to be very injurious to beans to hoe them while the dew is on, or in ^ct weather. Judge Buel, of Albany, has given the following notices of some experiments, in the field culture of this vegetable : '— " Beans may be cultivated in drills or in hills. They ar« BEAN. 3!* a valuable crop , and, with good care, are ati profitable as a wheat crop. They leave the soil in good tilth. The China beau, with a red eye, is to be oreffirred. They ripen early, and are very productive. I cuitivaicd itfians the last year in three difiereut ways, viz. in hills, in drille. and sowed broad-cast. I need not describe the first, whicn La o well known process. I had an acre in drills, which wa» the best crop I ever saw. My management was this : — On an acre of light ground, where the clover had been frozen out the preceding winter, I spread eight loads of long ma- nure, and immediately ploughed and harrowed the ground. Drills or furrows were then made with a light plough, at the distance, of two and a half feet, and the beans thrown along the furrows about the 25th of May, by the hand, at the rate of at least a bushel on the acre. I then ganged a double mould-board plough, which was passed once be- tween the rows, and was followed by a light one horse roller, which flattened the ridges. The crop was twice cleaned of weeds, by the hoe, but not earthed. The pro- duf t was more than forty-eight bushels, by actual measure- ment. The beans brought me one dollar the bushel last fall. The third experiment was likewise upon a piece of ground where the clover had been killed. It was ploughed about the first of June, the seed sown like peas, upon the first furrow, and harrowed in. The drought kept them back ; but about 65 rods of ground, on which the experiment was made, gave a product of twelve and a half bushels. The crop was too ripe when it was harvested, and as it was cut with a sithe, I estimated that about two and a half bushels were left upon the ground. No labour was be- stowed upon the"m from the time they were sown till they Were harvested." Forwarding an early crop. — The kidney bean is often par- tially forced, in hot-houses or frames, with a view to the forwardinjr of its produce in the open garden. Mr. Arm- strong says, " In the neighbourhood of cities, the dwarf vaneties are often cultivated in hot-beds, but the product is of a very inferior kind; for, of the whole catalogue of vegf-tables, none is more apt to take a disagreeable flavour from hot and fermenting dung (which is the basis of these (»eds) Itan the bean." It is probable, however, that beans might be forced to advantage n hot-beds, composed of a«^ 40 BEET. leaves, tanner's bark, &c. withou .^eriving therefrom the disagreeable flavour complained of. BEET. — Beta. — Among the more commbn varieties of this valuable vegetable are, French sugar, or amber beet. Mangel wurlzel. Green — for stews or soups, Yellow tuniip-rooled, Early blood turnip-rooted, Early dwarf biood, Early white scarcity, Long blood red. Sown from April to June. The early turnip blood beet is the earliest, and of excellent quality for summer use ; the tops being good for boiling as greens. Mr. Loudon's direc- tions for the general culture of the beet are as follow : — " Seed and soil. — The beet is always raised from seed, and for a bed four feet and a half by twelve feet, one ounce '= requisite. The soil in which it naturally delights is a (Jeep, rich sand, dry and light, rather than moist. Sowing in seed beds, and transplanting, has been tried ; but, though it may answer for the spinage or pot-herb beets, [white, and its varieties,] it will not answer where the object is a large, clean root. " Sowing. — The beet is sown annually the last week of March, or beginning of April, [in the nortliern United States, the main crop should be delayed till the middle of May.] The ground on which it is sown should have been previ- ously enriched by mellow compost and sea sand ; but rank dung is not to be laid in, as it is apt to induce canker. For the long-rooted kind, trench to the depth of eighteen inches. Sow either broad-cast on 'he rough surface, and rake well into the earth ; or, as the seed is large, sow in drills an inch or two deep and a foot asunder; or dot.it in with a thick, blunt-ended dibble in rows that distance, making holes ten or twelve inches apart, about an inch and ihalf deep ; drop two or three seeds in each hole, but with the intention to leave only one beet plant." Mr. Mahon says, " Make choice of a piece of rich, deep ground, lay it out into four feet wide peds, push the, loose earth into the alleys, then sow the seed toleraUy thirfj and cover it with the earth out of these alleys to about three quarters of an inch deep. Or, let drills be drawn vnth a hoe, near an inch deep, an'^ a foot or a little better asunder ; drop the seeds thinly therein, and cover them over the same BEET. tl\ epth as above. Or you may sow the seed oii a. piece of ground, rough, after being dug, and rake it well in." Subsequent culture. — ^When the young plants are advanced into leaves, one, two, or three inches in growth, they must be thinned and cleared from weeds, especially those sown promiscuously, or broad-cast and in drills. If there be chasms in the rows, fill them up with the superfluous plants. The oftener the ground is stirred, during the whole course of the vegetation of the plant, the larger will be the product, and the better its quality. As soon as vegetation is over, which always occurs after the first hard frost, take up the plants, expose them a day or two to the air, to evaporate their surplus moisture, ana then house them carefully. This may be done by putting them in layers in a dry cellar, and interposing between these a slight covering of sand. In digging the roots, great care should be taken that they be not broken nor cut, as they -bleed much. For the same reason, the leaves should be cut off at least an inch above the solid part of the root. To save seed. — Either leave a few strong roots standing in the rows, or select a few, and transplant them to a spot where there will be no danger, when in flower, of being im- pregnated with any other variet)'. They will shoot up the second year, when their flower-stocks should be tied to stakes, to prevent their breaking over. Field culture of the mangel wurtzel beet, and the sugar beet. — Soil and preparation. — The soil for these roots should be a loam, inclining to clay, in good tilth, well manured, and made fine to a good depth. John Hare Powel, Esq., cor- responding secretary to the Pennsylvania Agricultural So- ciety, in giving an account of his mode of cultivating this crop, says, " My soil was not naturally strong : it has been gradually so much deepened as to enable Wood's plough, No. 2, drawn by four oxen, to plough fourteen inches deep Fresh barn-yard manure was equally spread upoi the sur- face, and ploughed under in the early part of Apni, in quan- tities not larger than are generally used for potato crops in this country. Early in May, the land was twice stirred with Beatson's scarifier, harrowed, rolled ; after stirred, harrowed and rolled again in the opposite direction." The soil on which Messrs. Tristram Little and Henry Little of New- bury, Mass. raised their premium crop in 1824, is a clay j2 beet. loam. In 1823, about three fourths of the sam was sowei with onions, and manured with about 8 cords of compost manure to the acre. The other quarter was sowed with wheat without manure. In the fall of 1823, there were about 10 cords of compost manure drawn on the lot, and put in a heap. Most of the said compost was drawn from the salt marshes, when ditching the same ; the other part was from the barn-yard. In the month of April, 1824, the heap was thrown over, and well mixed. Planting. — Col. Powel says, " The holes for the seeds were made by a wheel, containing pegs in its circumference, which penetrated the ground about an inch, leaving inter- vals of four inches ; the rows were made 2 feet asunder ; two capsules were dropped into each hole ; the wheel of a common barrow was passed over them, thus compressing the earth, and leaving a slight rut for the retention of mois- ture." Messrs. Tristram and Henry Little observe, that, " Be- tween the 8th and 11th of May, the land was ploughed and sowed in the following manner : — After one deep plough- ing, the ground was furrowed two and a ha.lf feet apart, and the manure put into the furrows, and covered with a double mould-board plough ; a roller was then passed on the top of the ridge, and the seed dibbled in with the finger over the manure, about six or eight inches apart." The quantity of seed, according to English writers, is four pounds to an acre. Mr. David Little, in obtaining a premium crop, sowed four pounds, but observed that he thought half that quantity would have been sufficient. After-culture. — In raising Col. Powel's crop, " A small cultivator, which I had contrived for the purpose, was drawn between the rows soon after the weeds appeared ; a three inch triangular hoe removed the alternate plants, leaving the others at distances varying from 8 to 12 inches asunder. The cultivator was twice used before the 20th of July. The heavy rains of August made another hoeing necessary, and surcharged the ground so much witli mois- ture, that all roots increased much less in that month than during the same time in the two last years." The Messrs. I>ittle, " in the course of the season, thinned their plants, and left them from 6 to 12 inches apart in the rows. They were once hoed, and ploughed three times between the BEET. 45 rows." Ml. Powel, iu raising a previous crop, had placed the rows 30 inches apart, and left the plants 6 inches apart in the rows. He says, " I this year desired smaller roots, which might grow so closely, as, by their leaves, to protect the soil as much as possible from the rays of the sun. My cultivator, by its peculiar form, enabled me to cut oif the weeds when the plants were so young, that, if I had applied the plough, their crowns must have been covered in many instances, by earth occasionally falling from its land side. The failure which attends the cultivation of most root crops in drills, proceeds from the neglect of weeds in their earl}' stages. Four or five days of delay frequently make the difference of fifteen days in the labour of making clean an acre of ground. The same weeds which a boy with a sharp shingle could remove at the commencement of one week, may, before the end of the next, require the application of an implement drawn by a horse. " I ascribe my success, in great measure, to the use of Wood's exlraordinary plough^ which enters the soil more deeply, and pulverizes it more perfectly, than any other I have ever seen, with equal force, in any country ; to the use of cultivators, which complete the production of fine tilth ; to the destruction of the weeds on their first appearance — leaving the smallest space upcn which a horse can walk between the rows ; and, above all, to planting the seeds of a proper kind upon a surface which is kept perfectly flat." General remarks. — Agriculturists have not agreed whether it is most expedient to plant the seeds of this root on ridges or on a level. Col. Powel condemns planting on ridges in this country, as a practice not adapted to our soil and cli- mate, in which vegetables are very liable to suffer by drought. He says, "Among the various practices, into which we have been seduced by the plausible theories of the advocates of European husbandry, there is none which appears to me more absurd than that whi'^h has led us to drill or dibble our crops on ridges. The English farmer wisely contends with the evils produced by too much rain ; the American husbandman should as anxiously guard against his most for- midable enemy, drought. I zva inclined to think that there is no crop cultivated in this state, (Pennsylvania,) which ought not to be put on a flal, surface." The climate of New England ?speciiUy its northern par. is not bo warm 44 BEET. and dry as that of Pennsylvania, and, in that part of the United States, perhaps the nature of the soil should decide the question, if dry, level planting, or if moist, ridge planting should be adopted." We have lieard_ complaints from American farmers, that the seed of this root is slow and uncertain in coming up. P<;rhaps the seed or soil, or both, may sometimes be too dry at the time of sow^ing. A writer in the English Far- mer's Journal says, " I have of late years steeped my seed for at least forty-eight hours. I made an expeiiment with tw(;nty sound seeds not steeped, twenty steeped twenty-four hours, and the same number steeped forty-eight hours; every seed of the latter produced plants, which came up two or three days sooner than either of the others, and some of those not steeped did not come up at all." Mr. Cob- bett, in treating of the culture of the common garden beets, (American Gardener, par. 198,) directs to soak the seed four days and nights in rain water before it is sowed ; and o])S('rves, that the mangel wurtzel should be cultivated in the same manner as the other kinds of beets. American writers, so far as we have observed, give no directions for soaking the seeds of this vegetable before planting; and it is possible that the omission of this part of the process may cause the slowness and uncertainty of vegetation complained of. The capsule, or husk, which contains the seeds, is dry, and it requires a long time for the moisture, which it may derive from the earth, to penetrate this integument, so as to cause the seed to sprout. But if the soil be very moist at the time of sowing, soaking the seed had better be omit- ted. Much has been written and said on the subject of strip- ping these plants of their leaves for feeding cows and other economical purposes. An English writer observes, that six or seven crops of leaves and stocks may be taken off during the growth of the root ; women and children can take oft" the leaves, which is done as follows : — They should place their hands on each side of the root, at the foot stalks of the leaves, leaving about six of the smallest central leaves between the fore-finger and thumb of each hand, (the small leaves are to be left on the root to grow, to make a fresh top ;) then, spreading the hand flat with their face down- wards, push them both at the same time towards the ground. BEET. 45 cind thus, by one motion, will the whole of the top of each root, except the small leaves to be left to form a fresh head, be removed without unsettling the root or its fibres, whicl would check its growth. Some afhrm, that stripping tht plant cf its leaves is no injury to the root, and others are ol opinion that the root is injured by this means. We have doubts, whether, in field cultivation, it will often be deemeo expedient to expend time and labour in this manner. The thinnings, or superfluous plants, however, should be pre served, as they make excellent food for milch cows or store swine. Some cultivators afSrm; that it is never worth the trouble to transplant these roots to fill vacancies. " I have seen," says an English writer, " much labour and expense em- ployed in transplanting into vacant spots, when the seed has been dibbled thick enough, but have never seen the transplanted roots worth half the trouble; the tap root being broken in the drawing, nothing but the top, and use- less rough roots s-nd fangs are produced. It has been re- marked by other writers, that the most common cause of failure in transplanting this root is the taking of them up when too small, before the plants have obtained strength and size sufficie:>t to bear the operation of transplanting. Use. — The following remarks are from a paper commu- nicated to the trustees of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, by J. Lowell, Esq. presidentof said society. They are derived, principally, from a French publication, by the Abbe Rosier: — " This root is very little affected by changes of weather. It is attacked by no insect ; drought affects but little its vegetation. It prepares the land extremely well for other crops. It may be sown and treated precisely like the com- mon beet, except that it ought to stand eighteen inches asunder. " In good land, they often weigh nine or ten pounds, and are stripped eight or nine times. In a light, sandy, but well manured soil they sometimes weigh fourteen and even six- teen pounds e 'h ! " The first c ip of leaves in France is taken off in th» latter end of June, or the beginning of July. In this coun- try, probably, the latter period would be preferable. The lower leaves, th'^se which incline tt wards the ground, ar« 46 BEET. those (vhich are taken away, and care must be taken t( pre- serve the top leaves, or the crown of the plants. The leaves may be taken off every fifteen days after the first gathering. Oxen, cows and sheep devour them greedily, and fatten readily upon them. All domestic poultry eat them readily, when chopped fine and mixed with grain. Horses will feed upon them very well, mixed with chopped straw. Hogs also fatten upon them. " Cows fed upon this root, solely, give a greater quan- tity of milk and cream, and of better quality for the first fifteen days, after which they grow too fat, and the milk lessens. The food of cows must therefore be varied. Oxen and sheep fatten very well upon them. Cows should have grass in proportion of one third to the beet leaves, or every third day they should be turned to grass. In this mode their milk will be excellent. The trouble of gathering the leaves is less than that of gathering any other green fodder. It may be done by children, while men are required to cut other green food for cattle. It is the surest crop, since the plant will stand the largest droughts. The roots are gath- ered and treated like those of the common beet. The skin is very tender, and care should be taken to handle them so as they may not be wounded, as they will, in that case, not keep so well. In order to preserve the seed in purity, car^ must be taken to change the ground in which the seed-lfeets are planted. The seed can be preserved, after it is gath- ered, three or four years, without injury. In giving these root? to cattle for food, they are first washed, and then cut ap into pieces about the size of a nut. It is always best to accompany them, when given to horned cattle, with clover, or other hay or straw, and if the hay or straw has been previously cut fine, it will be preferable. If horses are fed with this root, with a proportion of hay or cut straw, (hall of each,) they will be fat, vigorous and healthy. If they are worked severely, a little oats or com may be added. It is thus they are treated in Germany, where this root stands in the stead of meadows or grass lands, and whose excel- lent horses are well known. " Hogs, fed upon them raw, after they have been cut up fine and mixed with milk or other drink, fatten as well upon them as upon boiled potato ts, by which the fuel and trouble oi boiling is saved. BEET. 47 "As to the quantity gKijn to animals, much will depeml on the propoition of other fodder, which you allow them. Cows fed twice a day in winter upon eighteen pounds of these roots at each time, together with four pounds of hay or chopped straw, will give as much and as good milk as in summer, and they will be kept in the best possible state." " Oxen fed v/ith forty weight of these roots per day, with ten pounds of hay, for one month, and after that with fifty weight per day of the roots alone, will be fat enough for sale in two months more. " Any person disposed may, from the facts above stated, calculate how many cattle will be supported by a single acre of land on which this plant is cultivated. " Men can eat this vegetable throughout the year ; it is ag'-eeable and healthy. No insect attacks it, and it suffers bui little from the variety of the seasons. The leaves of this plant form alone an excellent food for every species of domestic quadruped, during four months in the year. Tur- nips and other vegetables are, besides, liable to be destroyed by insects, whereas this beet is not. The roots can be pre- served eight months in a sound state, while turnips are of little value after March. In some soils turnips will not grow, particularly in those which are very stiff or strong. ■The root of scarcity grows every where. The milk of cows fed on turnips has a bad taste. That of those fed on this plant is excellent, as is also the butter made from it. This forage on green fodder comes also at the hot seasons, when almost all other green food is scarce, and sometimes not to be procured. Cattle never get tired of it. In many parts ot Germany, where it is raised with success, they pre- fer it to every thing else to fatten those large herds of cattle which they annually export to France. In feeding cattle with, beets, the same dry food must be given which is usu- ally given with turnips." Col. Powel observes, " My neat cattle prefer mangel wurtzel to any roots which I have offered to them. I have^und its effects in producing large secretions of good mi^ Very great. I selected, in November, two heifers ol th^feime breed, and very nearly of the same age, and in simffiir condition ; they were fed in adjoining stalls, and "tbeen fed, regularly, throe times a day, by the same One of th->m has had three pecks of mangel wurtzel and four qu*rts of corn meal, dai y ; the other, four and a half pecks of mangel wurtzel. The last, which has had mangel wurtzel alone, is in the condition of good beef; the other is not more than what graziers call half fat. " The application of mangel wurtzel as food for sheep is not the least importa it of its uses. Ewes yean usually at the season when grass cannot be supplied. The health of themselves, and the thrift of their lambs, essentially depend upon succulent food being had. I am inclined to think, that no small portion of the success which English breeders have met, is to be ascribed to the large stores of roots, which they always have at command. It cannot be denied, that Indi-an meal will, of itself, in most cases, produce extraor- dinary fatness, as well as great size ; but I have been led to believe, that diseases are early engendered by this spe- cies of forcing, which is always expensive, and, too often, eventually destroys the animal which has been thus reared." A writer in the Farmer^s Journal says, " This root is now generally allowed to stand eminent for the excellence of its fattening qualities. Among our field productions, parsnips and carrots may justly be declared more nutritious , Swedish turnips, as holding divided empire with it ; while white turnips and cabbages sink into insignificance before it. The taste, both of the leaf and root, is most gra'efu! to every description of stock : bullocks, sheep and hogs instinctively lay hold of them, and, when once accustomed to their flavour, they reject every other sort of green food, if they have the election. " No edible root has yet been brought into use, which lias an affinity to th*; one under consideration, with respect £0 its imperishable properties. The white turnip is in March entirely divested of its fattening power ; the Swede m May becomes shrivelled, and is almost refused by cat- tle ; the potato, after this time, entirely sprouts away all its vigour, diminishes in bulk, and dries up ; but not so the mangel wurtzel. It is not only ready for use in the- au- tumn, the winter, and spring, but may, if requireij, be continued with unabated advantage, and, in the following autumn, it will be found in full possession of its most valuable qualities, undiminished in weight, and abounding m saccharine juices." It has, however, been thought by fultivators in this country, that the ruta baga is more ea.sily BEET. 49 presi^rred, and will remain useful to a later period in the spring and summer after its growth, than the mangel wurt- zel. Messrs. T. and H. Little ohserve, as to the value of the roots for feeding stock, "there is a variety of opinions; but, from a number of years' experience, we think them a valuable addition, and highly worth cultivating. Compar- ing them with English hay, — and we know of no bettei standard — in our opinion, three tons of mangel wurtzel, or potatoes, — of the two, we value the mangel wurtzel the highest, — are equal to one ton of hay, for feeding stock gen- erally ; but for milch cows, we think two tons of equal value ; for feeding store swine, mangel wurtzel is the only root, that we know of, which we can cultivate and feed to profit. Six bushels of raw mangel wurtzel we think equal to one bushel of Indian com." Quantity to an acre. — The premium crop of the Messis. Little was 33 tons 10 cwt. and 14 lbs. on an acre. Col. Powel enclosed certificates to the president of the Penn. Agr. Society, showing that sixteen hundred and thirty-four bushels of mangel wurtzel, weighing seventy- eight thousand four hundred and for-ty-eight pounds, were produced upon one acre and fourteen perches ; and a part of the same field, containing thirteen contiguous rows, pro* duced at the rate of two thousand and sixty-five bushels per acre, weighmg 44 tons, 5 cwt. and 27 lbs. In Great Britain, it is said that upwards of sixty tons have been raised on an acre. Gathering and preserving. — In gathering the roots, care should be taken to cut off the leaves about half an inch above the crown, as they will not keep so well, if cut more closely. Messrs. Tristram and Henry Little say, " As to the best mode of preserving them, we have tried divers ways, — by pitting them, by putting them into a barn, and covering them with hay, and by putting them into the cel- lar; the last mode we think the best." Col. Powel observes, that one of his crops was " piled in a cellar, in rows, as wood, and lovered with sand." A writer in the English Farmer^s Journal observes, that he has practised, with success, the following mode of preserving this root : — " I pack it in long heaps, about seven feet wide at the bottom. I begin by forming the on^sides with the r>ots, not stripped 5 bO BEET. o/ their tops; tops outwards ; the internal parts to be tilled with roots without leaves ; continue one layer over anoth- er, until the heap is about six feet high, and about two feel broad at top, which may be covered with straw and earth ; the ends of the heap should be covered in the same way ; the leaves form an efficient covering against rain and frost." Mr. M'Mahon's mode of presemng beets, and other roots, is as follows : — " Previous to the comniencemeot of severe frost, you should take up, with as little injury as possi- ble, the roots of your turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets, salsify, scorzonera, Hamburg or large-rooted parsley, skirrets, Je- rusalem artichokes, turnip-rooted celery, and a sufficiency of horse-radish, for the winter consumption ; cut off their tops, and expose the roots for a few hours, till sufficiently dry. On the surface of a very dry spot of ground, in a well sheltered situation, lay a stratum of sand two inches thick, and on this a layer of roots of either sort, covering them with another layer of sand, (the drier the better,) and so continue layer about of sand and roots till all are laid in, giving the whole, on every side, a roof-like slope ; then cover this heap or ridge all over with about two inches of sand, over which lay a good coat of drawn straw, up and down, as if thatching a house, in order to carry off wet, and prevent its entering the roots ; then dig a wide trench round the heap, and cover the straw with the earth so dug up, to a depth sufficient to preserve the roots effectually from frost. An opening may be made on the south side of this heap, and completely covered with bundles of straw, so as to have access to the roots at all times, when wanted either for sale or use. " Some people lay straw, or hay, between the layers of roots, and immediately on the top of them ; this I do not approve of, as the straw or hay will become damp and mouldy, and very often occasion the roots to rot, while the sand would preserve them sweet and sound. " All these roots may be preserved in like manner in a cellar; but in such a place they are subject to vegetate and become stringy earlier in spring. The only advantage of this method is, that in the cellar they may be had wlien wanted, more conveniently during winter, than out of the field or garden heaps. " Notn. All the above roots will preserve better in saud BENE PLANT. — BQKECOLE. 51 than in common earth ; but when the former i..annot be had, the sandiest earth you can procure must be dispensed with," BENE PLANT. — Sesamwn. — This was introduced into the Southern States by the negroes from Africa. It abounds in many parts of Africa. Sonnini and Brown, travellers in Egypt, say it is much cultivated there for the purpose of feeding horses, and for culinary purposes. The negroes in Georgia boU a handful of the seeds with their allowance of Indian com. Probably no plant yields a larger proportion of oil, which Dr. Cooper of Philadelphia has pronounced equal to the finest oils. But it is worthy of cultivation in the Northern States, principally, as a medicinal plant. A gen- tleman in Virginia has given Messrs. Thorbum & Son the following account of its virtues : — " It requires to be sown early in April, at a distance of about one foot apart. A few leaves of the plant, when green, plunged a few times in a tumbler of water, make it like a thin jelly, without taste or colour, which children afflicted with the summer complaint will drink freely, and is said to be the best rem- edy ever discovered. It has been supposed, that (undei Providence) the lives of three hundred children were saved by it last summer in Baltimore, and I know the efficacy of it by experience in my own fumily." This plant will throw out a greater profusion of leaves by breaking off the top when it is about half grown. — RmnelPs Catalogue. BORECOLE. — Brassica oleracea. — The borecole con- tains several sub-varieties, the comr on characteristic of all which is an open head, sometimes large, of curled or wnn- kled leaves, and a peculiar, hardy constitution. There are fourteen varieties enumerated by Loudon. Those which he says are the most valuable, are tlie green borecole, Scotch kale, or Siberian borecole, the purple or brown kale, the German kaie, German greens, or curlies. Propagation. — ^All the sorts are propagated by seed ; and for a seed bed four feet by ten, Abercrombie says, oi-e ounce of seed is necessary. M'Mahon directs to " sow towards the end of March [about three weeks later in New England] a first crop of borecole for autumn ser- vice," and observes— "■There are two principal sorts, the green and the brown both very hardy plants, witt tall stems, and full hend* !>2 BOREK. BROCCOLI. of tLick fimbriate, curled leaves, not cabbaging, and are desirable open greens for winter, &lc. Let this seed be sown in an open exposure, distant from trees, and from close fences, as, in such situations, they are apt to draw up too fast, with long, weak stalks ; sow it broad-cast, and rake it in." Several crops may be sown in several successive months, from the middle of April to the middle of Septem- ber. In dry weather, water the plants occasionally, both before and after they are up. " When about three inches high, it will be proper to thin the seed bed, and prick out a quantity therefrom, at four inches distance, that the whole may obtain proper strength for final transplanting. " When the plants are set in the places, where they are to complete their growth, they should be planted out like cabbages, at three feet distance every way, and afterwards be kept free from weeds, and the earth drawn to their stems as they advance in growth. Those intended for win- ter use should not be planted in a rich, fat loam, as there they would become too succulent, and consequently could not bear the frost as well as if growing on a gravelly soil. Such as are designed for autumn use, may be planted in any convenient bed that is tolerably rich. " The green and brown curled borecole, being very hardy, will require little protection f against the cold of winter]. (a November they may be taken up, and planted in a ridge »olerably close together, and, during severe frost, be covered dghtly with straw ; this will preserve them sufficiently ■ and during winter the heads may be taken off as they are wanted for use ; the stems, if taken up and planted in rows, as early in March as the weather will admit, will produce abundance of the most delicious sprouts. " In the Southern States, and even in warm soils and ex- posures in the Middle States, borecole will stand the winter in open beds, without any covering whatever." — ArMahon. Ust. — The crown or centre of the plant is cut off, so as to include the leaves which do not exceed nine inches in length. It boils well, and is most tender, sweet and deli- cate, provided it has been duly exposed to frost. — Loudon. BORER. — Saperda bivitata, — An insect that injures ap- ple-trees, &c. — Se-e Insects. BROCCOLI. — Brassica oleracea. — Tl ere are several '•arieties of brocpo i, whu-b are all nerelj late-heading va- BROCCOLI. 53 rieties of the cauliflower. Miller meni ons the white and purple broccoli, as imported into England from Italy ; and it is thoi ght that from these two sorts all the subsequent kinds have arisen, either by accidental or premeditated impregnations. The kinds introduced into this country arc, the early white, early purple, and large cape. The seeds of broccoli should be sown in New England about the latter end of May, or beginning of June ; and when the young plants have germinated eight leaves, they should be transplanted into beds. By this management, towards the latter end of July, they will be fit to be planted out in some well sheltered piece of ground, at the distance of a foot and a half in the rows, and two feet between each row. The soil proper for broccoli is rather light than heavy. M'Mahon says, the early purple broccoli, if sown early in April, and planted out as you do cabbage, in good rich ground, will produce fine heads in October or November, very little inferior to cauliflowers, and, by many, preferred to them : the white will not flower so early, and, in the Middle and Eastern States, must be taken up in November, and managed as directed in that month, [see " preserving cabbages," &c. under the article Cabbage, in the following pages,] by which a supply of this very delicious vegetable may be had, in great perfection, during all the winter and spring. "In such of the Southern States, as their winters are not more severe than in England, they will stand in the open ground, and continue to produce their fine flowers, from October to April. In the Middle, and especially the East- em States, if the seeds are sown early in March on a hot- bed, and forwarded as is done with cauliflowers and early cabbage plants, and planted out finally in April, it would be the most certain method of obtaining large and early flowers." Insects and diseases. — " In old gardens, infested, as is of- ten the case, with an insect which in summer insinuates itself into the roots of all the hrassica tribe, and causes the disease called the club, trenching the ground deep enough to bring up four or six inches of undisturbed loam or earth, will probably bury the insects too deep for mischief, and provide fresh ground foi the benefit of the plants. In gar .5* 54 BROCCOLI. dens much exhausted by reiterated croppings, if this tnodt; tannot be adopted, a good quantity of fresh loam from a common field, dug in, would materially improve the broc- coli, and be of lasting use in future crops. Broccoli, in genera', succeeds best in a fresh, loamy soil, where it comes, I think, more true in kind, and is hardier without dung ; but if this situation cannot be had, deep digging, with plen- ty of manure, is the only remaining alternative to produce good crops. I believe soap ashes, dug into the ground in considerable quantities, to be a good preservative from the club ; and if the roots of the plants, just previously to planting, are dipped and stirred well about in mud of soap ashes with water,its adherence will, in a great measure, pre- serve them from attack ; perhaps a mixture of stronger ingredients, such as soot, sulphur, tobacco, &c. would be still better." — Hort. Trans, vol. iii. — See Cabbage. Wood, a writer in the Caledonian Horticultural Memoirs, says, he has paid a considerable degree of attention to the culture of broccoli, and has made considerable progress therein. He found that manuring with a compound of sea-weed and horse-dung produced the largest and finest heads he had seen for many years. Oidtvre mthout transplanting. — " M'Leod grows cape broccoli, in a very superior manner, without transplanting. In the end of May, after having prepared the ground, he treads it firm, and, by the assistance of a line, sows his seed in rows two feet apart, dropping three or four seeds into holes two feet distant from each other in the row. When the seeds vegetate, he destroys all except the strong- est, which are protected from the fly by sprinkling a little soot over the ground ; as the plants advance, th«y are fre- quently flat hoed until they bear their flowers ; they are once earthed up, during their growth. A specimen of broccoli, thus grown, was exhibited to the Horticultural Society ; the head was compact and handsome, measuring two feet and nine inches in circumference, and weighing, when divested of its leaves and stalks, three pounds ; the largest of its leaves was upwards of two feet long. M'Le- od adopts the same mode in the cultivation of spring-sown cauliflowers, lettuces, and almost all other vegetables, avoid- ing transplanting as iiuci as possible." — Hort. Trans, voj iv p. 559. BRUSSELS SPROUTS. 5fl To save seed. — Wood, already mentioned, selects the largest, best formed, and finest heads, taking particulai care tl'at no foliage appears on the surface of the head^ these Le marks, and, in April, lays them by the heels la a compound of cleanings of old ditches, tree leaves, and dung. When the head begins to open or expand, he cuts out the centre, leaving only four or five of the outside shoots to come to seed. Lilting, [taking up,] he says, pre- vents them from producing proud seed, as it is called, or degenerating. — Coded. Hort. Mem. vol. ii. p. 267. Aber- crombie says, broccoli seeds degenerate in this country, [England,] and that the best seed is obtained from Italy. — Loudon. The common directions are, in substance, as follow : Reserve a few of the largest heads of the first crop, stripping constantly oflF all under shoots, leaving only the main stem to flower and seed, and tie them to strong stakes, to prevent their being broken by winds and heavy rain. Care should be taken, that no other sort of cabbage is suf- fered to go to seed near them. Use. — The same as the Cauliflower, which see in its alphabetical order. BRUSSELS SPROUTS.— Srojsica oferocea.— The Brussels sprouts produce an elongated stem, often four feet high, from which sprout out shoots, which form small green heads, like cabbages in miniature, each being from one to two inches in diameter, and the whole ranged spi- rally along the stem, the main leaves of which drop off early. The top of the plant resembles that of a Savoy, planted late in the season ; it is small, and with a green heart of little value. Van Mons says, {Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) " If this vegetable be compared with any other, which occupies as little space, lasts as long, and grows as well in situations generally considered unfavourable, such as between rows of potatoes, scarlet runners, or among young trees, it must be esteemed superior in utility to most others." Ni- col considered it deserving a more general culture in Scot- land. Use. — The sprouts are used as winter greens ; and at Brussels they are sometin.es served at table, with a sauce composed of vinegar, butt t and nutmeg, poured upon thenii hot, after they have beet boiled. Tl e top. Van Mons 56 BUCKTHORN. says, is very delicate when dressed, and quite different in flavour Irom the sprouts. Culture. — The plants are raised from seed, of which an ounce may be requisite for a seed bed, four feet by ten feet. Van Mons, in the papei already referred to, says, " The SLed is sown in the spring, under a frame, so as to bring the plants forward ; they are then transplanted into an open border with a good aspect." By thus beginning early and sowing successively till late in the season, he says, " we contrive to supply ourselves in Belgium with this delicious vegetable full ten months, in the year; that is, from the end of July to the end of May." The plants need not be placed at more than eighteen inches each way, as the head does not spread wide, and the side leaves drop off. In this, as in every other respect, the culture is the same as that of the borecole. Gathering the crop. — Morgan says, the sprouts must have some frost before gathered ; but this Van Mons assures us is an erroneous opinion. In Belgium, the small cabbages are not esteemed if more than half an inch in diameter. It is usual to cut off the top about ten or fifteen days before gathering from the stem. In spring, when the sprouts are disposed to run to flower, their growth is checked by taking up the plants, and setting them in the ground in any shaded epot. To save seed. — ^Van Mons says, it is usual to save seeds indiscriminately from plants which have and those which have not been topped ; but that he intends to save from the lops only, hoping thereby to improve the progeny. What- ever mode be adopted, the grand object is to place the plants where they will be in no danger of receiving the fa- rina of any other of the brassica tribes. — Loudon. BUCKTHORN. — Rhamnus. — There are many plants of this genus; but we shall take notice of but one species, principally on account of its use in forming hedges. The kind used for that purpose is the rhamnus catharticus, or purging buckthorn. It is common in a wild state in Eng- land and other parts of Europe, as well as in the United States. Gen. E. H. Derby, of Salem, Mass. has cultivated this plant, and is, we believe, the first person who applied it to the very important use of forming hedges ; for which ' purpose it is said to be much preferable either to the haw- BUCKTHOUN. 57 thorn or crab, principally on account of its being entirely free from the borer, (an insect which frequently destroys the hawthorn,) as well as all other annoyances of a similar nature. A letter from Mr. Derby to the editor of the JV. E. Farmer, published in that paper, vol. iii. p. 214, con- tains the following notices of this shrub : — " You will perceive that Miller represents it as a shrub growing about 12 or 14 feet high. The tree from which my plants were raised, formerly stood in the garden of the ven- erable Dr. Holyoke of this place, who used the berries for medicinal purposes, and was as large as any of our common apple-trees. He assures me he was iaduced at last to cut it down, as it shaded so much of his garden. I was so pleased with the healthy and clean appearance of the tree, and the next spring observing several young plants in the adjoining garden belonging to my brother, raised from seed dropped in the autumn, that I was induced to transplant them to a nursery, where they grew with great rapidity. " After trying several kinds of trees,- for the purpose of making a hedge, without much success, I was induced to try this, which has afforded a most beautiful fence, so much so as to attract the attention of every person who has seen it. It divides my garden, is about three hundred feet in length, the plants set nearly a foot apart, is five feet high, and two feet wide at top, which is cut nearly level. Il shoots early in the spring, makes a handsome appearance, and continues its verdure till very late in the fall. It has not so much spine as either the English or American haw- thorn, but I think sufficient to protect it from cattle. The plant bears the knife or shears remarkably, and makes as close and tight a fence as either of the others, and is not subject to blight, as both of them have been with me. You will observe that Miller speaks of it as not so proper for hedges as the hawthorn or crab, '•vhich may be the case in England, but I cannot agree with him as it respects Amer- ica. " The tree furnishes a large quantity of seed, which rapidly vegetates ; and I make no doubt it can be propagated by cuttings, which mode I shall adopt in the spring." Propagation and culture. — "The purging buckthorn shrub is so common in the hedges of many parts of England, that il seldom cultivated in gardens. It rises easily fn)K 53 BUCKTHORN seeds, if they are sown in autumn soon aft r the berries are ripe ; but if they be left out of the ground till spring, the plants will not come up till the year after. These will re- quire no particular treatment, but may be managed in the same way as young crabs, or any other hardy, deciduous tree or shrub. It may also be propagated by cuttings or layers. If the young shoots be layed in autumn, they will put out roots by the following autumn, when they may be taken off, and either planted in a nursery, to get strength for a year or two, or where they are desired to remain." — Mller. Uses. — There are other uses to which lh)«! shrub may be applied besides that of forming hedges. Goats, sheep, and horses eat the leaves, but cows refuse them. The wood is said to be valuable for the turner. " From the juice of the unripe berries, with alum, a yellow, and from the ripe ones a fine green is obtained ; the bark also strikes a yellow and brvown red colour. The juice of the unripe berries is of the colour of saffroa, and is used in staining maps or paper ; that of the ripe berries is the sap green of miniature paint- ers, and is much esteemed ; but if they are gathered late in autumn, the juice is puFple." — Dom. Ency. A syrup prepared from buckthorn berries has been used in medicine, but is not often prescribed, as it occasions much sickness and griping. In a Latin treatise, published by Dr. J. G. Kolb, of Erlang, in Germany, the bark of the buckthorn is much recommended as a mild, cheap, and effi- cacious remedy, in every respect preferable to the berries. Budding. — See Inoculation, in the alphabetical order. CABBAGE TRIBE. The cabbage tribe is of all the classes of cultivated culinary vegetables the most ancient, as well as the most extensive. The brassica oleracea, being extremely liable to sport or run into varieties and monstrosi- ties, has, in the course of time, become the parent of a nume- rous race of culinary productions, so \ ery various in their hab- it and appearance, that to many it may appear not a little ex- travagant to refer them to the same origin. Besides the different sorts of white and red cabbage and Savoys, which form the leaves into a head, there are various sorts of borecoles, which grow with their leaves loose in the natu- ral way, and there are several kinds of ciuliflowerand broc- coli, which form their stalks or flow ;r-buds into a head CABBAGE. 59 A.11 of tliese, with ike turuip-rooted calbage and the Bras- sels sprouts, claim a common origin from the single species of brassica above mentioned. Cabbage of some sort, White, in his History of Selborne, informs us, must have been known to the Saxons ; for they named the month of February Sprout kale. Being a favourite with the Ro- mans, it is probable that the Italian cabbage would be in- troduced at an early period into South Britain. To the inhabitants of the" north of Scotland, cabbages were first made known by the soldiers of the enterprising Cromwell, when quartered at Inverness. — Edin. Ency. art. Horticul- TunE. CABBAGE. — Brassica oleracea capitata. — ^Among the varieties of the cabbage, which have been introduced into this country, the following are enumerated in Mr. Russell's Catalogue : Early Salisbury dwarf, Early York, Early Dutch, Early sugarloail Early London Battersea, Lare'e Bergen, or great American, Ear^ emperor. Early Wellington, Russian, Large late drumhead, Late imperial. Late sugarloof. Large green glazed, Tree, or thonsand-headed, Large Scolch^or cattle, Green globe Savoy, Red Dalcb, /or pickling, Large cape Savoy, Yellow Savo}', [ground) Tumip-rooted, or Arabian, (above Turnip-rooted, (below ground) Chou de Milan. Soil and situation. — Every variety of cabbage grows best in a strong, rich, substantial soil, inclining rather to clay than sand ; but will grow in any soil, if it be well worked, and abundantly manured with well rotted dung. But, ac- cording to Loudon, " The soil for seedlings should be light, and, excepting, for early sowings, not rich. Where market gardeners raise great quantities of seedling cabbages to stand the winter, and to be sold for transplanting in the spring, they choose, in general, the poorest and stiffest land they have got, more especially in Scotland, where large autumnal sowings, of winter drumhead and round Scotch, are annually made, and where the stiffness of the soil gives a peculiar firmness of texture and hardiness of constitutior. to the plants, and prevents their being thrown out of the soil during the thaws which succeed a frosty winter. Trai\splanted cabbages require a rich mould, rather clayey than sandy ; and, as Neill and Nicol observe, it can sos^rcelj r>o ?ABBAUE. be too much manured, is they are an exhausting crop. Autumnal plantations, in'.ended to stand the winter, should have a dry soil, well dug and manured, and of a favourable aspect. The cabbage, whether in the seed-bed or final plantation, ever requires an open situation. Under the drip of trees, or in the shade, seedlings are drawn up weak, and grown crops are meager, worm-eaten and ill-favoured. Sowing cabbage seed. — M Mahon says, " The proper pe- riod for sowing cabbage in the Middle States, to produce early summer cabbages, is between the sixth and the tenth of September, if intended to be transplanted into frames in October, for winter protection, which is the preferable method ; but if they are designed for remaining in the seed- beds till spring, the period is between the fifteenth and twentieth. However, it will be very proper to make two or three sowings within that time, as it is impossible to say whether the fall may be favourable or otherwise, and, there- fore, ttie better way is to be prepared in either case by suc- cessive crops. " The consequence of having crops too early is, that they are subject to run to seed in the spring soon after beiny^ planted out; and if the seeds are sown too late, the plant* do not acquire sufficient strength before winter to withstand its rigour, without extraordinary care. But in either case there is a remedy; that is, if the plants are likely to become too luxuriant and strong, transplant them once or twice in October, and if too backward and weakly, make a slight hot-bed towards the latter end of that month, and prick them out of the seed-bed thereon ; this will forward them considerably." Mr. M'Mahon thinks that, in the Eastern States, the fore part of September will be a suitable time to sow cab- bages intended to be grown the succeeding summer. The seeds should be covered about a quarter of an inch deep, and, if the weather prove dry, should be watered occasion- ally in the evening till they come up. According to Aber- crombie's seed estimate, " for a seed-bed to raise the early York and similar varieties, four feet wide by twenty in length," two ounces will be required ; for a jeed-bed to raise the large sugarloaf, and other luxuriant growers, foui feet by thirty-six in length, two ounces. The same writei directs to " sow at three different seasons, that is, "pring^ CABBAGE. Oj summer and autumn, and cover from an eighth to a quaitei of an inch. Under a deficiency of winter standing young plants for final transplanting in spring, or in order to have some spring sown plants as forward as possible, a moderate portion of some best early sorts may be sown between the middle of February and the middle of March, in a slight hot-bed or frame, to nurture the plants till the leaves are an inch or two in length. Then prick them into intermediate beds in the open garden, there to gain strength for final transplanting." Planting in New England. — " Some drop the seeds where the cabbages are to grow. By this they escape being stint- ed by transplanting ; for winter cabbages, jhe latter part of May is early enough to put the seed into the ground, whether the plants are to be removed or not. I have tried both ways, and, on the whole, I prefer transplanting. They are otherwise apt to be too tall, and to have crooked stems. Covering plants with leaves is not a good practice. They will be much heated through some sorts of leaves, the free circulation of air about them will be prevented, and their perspiration partly obstructed. If a hot sun cause them tc droop, a shingle, stuck into the ground, will be sufficient shelter, if it be on the south side of the plants. 1 com- monly allow each plant two shingles, one on the south-east side, and one on the south-west, meeting at the south cor- ner."^ — Deane. The act of planting should be performed carefully. Holes, of sufficient depth and width, should be dibbled, fo. the smaller sorts of cabbages, at the distance of two feet and a half, and, for the larger sort, of three feet every way. In these the earth should be placed up to the lower leaves, and the earth brought closely about the roots, which is best done by pushing down the dibbler, at a small angle with the plant, and then bringing it up to it with a jerk. This leaves no chambering, (as gardeners call it,) no va- cancy between the plant and the soil. " The state of the weather, when these operations are performed, is not a matter of indifference, and has been a subject of controversy ; some recommending dry weather, others wet. As in many other cases of disputation, tne truth lies between them — ^that is, moist weather is neither dry nor wet, and is precisely that which is best for setting 6 62 CABBAGE out cabbages, ct any other vegetable. ^Ve ougl no however, to wait long for even this most favourable state of the atmosphere, since, with a little labour, we have the means of making up for its absence." — Armstrong. " Dig the plants up, that is, loosen the ground under them with a spade, to prevent their being stripped too much of their roots. The setting stick should be the upper part of a spade or shovel handle. The eye of the spade is the handle of the stick. From the bottom of the eye, to the point of the stick, should be about nine inches in length. The stick should not be tapering, but nearly of equal thick- ness all the way down to within an inch and a half of the point, where it must be tapered off to the point. If the woad be cut away, all round, to the thickness of a dollar, and iron put round in its stead, it makes a very complete tool. The iron becomes bright, and the earth does not adhere to -it as it does to wood. Having the plant in one hand, and the stick in the other, make a hole suitable to the root that it is to receive, n Put in the root in such a way, that the earth, when pressed in, will be on a level with the but-ends of the lower or outward leaves of the plant. Let the plant be rather higher than lower than this ; for care must be taken not to put the plant so low as for the earth to fall, or be washed into the heart of the plant, n«r even into the inside of the bottom leaves. The stem of a cabbage, and the stems of all the cabbage kind, send out roots from all the parts of them that are put beneath the surface of the ground. It is good, therefore, to plant as deep as you can without injury to the leaves. The next consideration is, the fastening of the plant in the ground. The hole is made deeper than the length of the root, but the root should not be benk, at the point, if it can be avoid- ed. Then, while one hann holds the plant, with its root in the hole, the other hand\applies the setting stick to the earth on one side of the hole, the stick being held in such a way as to form a sharp tnangle with the plant. Then, pushing the stick down, so (that its point go a little deeper than the point of the root, and gi^g it a \ittle twist, it presses the earth a'gainst the point, orijottoafoTtne root. And thus all is safe, and the plant is sure to grow." — Cobbett. After-culture. — Little more is necessary than to stir the ground pretty frequently, and keep it clear of weeds. If CABBAGi;. 53 is recommended to hoe the ground while the dew is on, once a week, till they begin to head. Diseases and insects. — Cabbages are liable to a disease in the roots, in which they become swelled and knobby, and the plants of weak and imperfect growth. This disorder is called stvmp foot, fumble foot, &c. It has been supposed to be caused by the attacks of grubs, below the surface of the ground; and the disorder is said to be chiefly prevalent where the same sorts of cabbages haVe been raised on the same ground several years in succession. Lovet Peters, Esq. of Westborough, Mass., says, the cause of the stump foot, is in the soil : — " Few pieces «f- land, I believe, that have been, for several successive years under the plough, will produce a good crop of cabbages, though there may be exceptions. My method of raising them, which I have practised several years with complete success, is the following : — In the spring, take a piece of green sward, of a good soil, and free from stones, and turn it over with the plough as flat as possible ; then spread on a large quan- tity of good manure : if it has been previously mixed with leaehed ashes, the better. Then harrow greatly, and early in June : if for winter cabbage, cut holes through the turf, with a hoe, as near together as the cabbages ought to grow ; fill the holes with fine earth and manure, and then set ihf ' plants, or put in a small number of seeds : I prefer the latter, however,* since it saves the labour of setting, and * Cultivators do not agree on the subject of transplanting cabbage plants^ or sowing the seeds in the spots where the plants are to grow. Dr. I^ane, as has appeared above, alter having tried both methods, gave the preference to transplanting. Mr. Peters, we have seen, prefers the other mode. Mr. Bord- ley relates an experiment, in which he " compared cabbages transplanted wiifc others not mice moved. The tmmoved gre\^ and were better than the movedJ' Mr. Cobhelt says, " to havejine cabbages of any sort, they must be iwicf Irans- plante<1. First, they should be taken from the seed-bed, (where they have been sown iii beds near to each other,) and put into fresh du^, well-broken ground, at six inches apart, ev&vy way. This is called pricking out. By standing here about fifteen or twenty day*, they get straight, and stand strong, erect, and have a straight and stout stem. Out of this plantation they come all of a size ; the roots of all are in the same slate, and they strike quicker into the ground where they stand for a crop." According to Ree^ Cyclopedia^ it was the practice of the celebrated Bakewell, and other cultivators who followed his exapiple, to drill cabbage seed where the plants were to re- main. Perhaps there would be no necessity for transplanting cabbages, in order to make the stems " straight and stout," according to Mr. Cobhelt's directions, if the plants were not originally sown too thick, or were proper- y thinjieij at an early period of their growth. An English writer says^ " Much injui^' fremiently arises to voung cabbage plants, from the seed being 64 CABBAGE. is mwih surer of success, if it happens to be a time »f drought. They will need no more hoeing than is necessa- ry to keep down the weeds. In this way, 1 have raised cabbages of the largest size, in a green sward potato field, without more hoeing than was necessary for the potatoes." Cabbage plants are liable to be attaclted, by a grub or black worm, in the night, which eats oif the stalks, just above ground, and buries itself in the ground as soon as the sun rises. Dr. Deane observed, that a little circle of lime or rock- weed round the plant, will preserve it, and recommends dig- ging for the worm near the place which shows the marks of its ravages, and destroying it. Scalding the hills with boiling water, and then enclosing them with boards, barks, or shin- gles, would be an effectual, but troublesome mode, of guarding against worms. The Economical Journal of France gives the following method, which, it states, is infallible, to guard not only against caterpillars, but all other insects which infest cabbages or other vegetables : — Sow with hemp all the borders of the ground where the cabbage is planted ; and, although the neighbourhood be infested with caterpillars, the place enclosed with hemp will be perfect- ly free, and not one of the vermin will approach it. Wa- tering the plants with water which had been poured boiling hot on elder leaves, or walnut leaves, and suffered to stand till cool, has been recommended. The following mixture is also said to be a preservative against all kinds of insects : — Take a pound and three quarters of soap, the same quanti- ty of flowers of sulphur, two pounds of puff balls, and fif- teen gallons of water. When the whole has been well mixed, by the aid of a gentle beat, sprinkle the insects with the liquor, and it will instantly kill them. To get rid of the aphides or cabbage lice, watering the plants with soap-suds, or a^olution of salt in water, (not too strong, lest it kill the plants,) is said to be efficient. Use. — The culinary uses of the cabbage are too well known to need description or recapitulation. If they grow near a yard where cattle are kept, the under leaves, when they begin to decay, may be stripped off and given them. sown too ihick ; rare should, therefore, be taken, to have them properly thinned out, whenever they come up in too thick a manner. Probably, if the plants were sown in the hills in which they are intended to grow for a crop, and thin ned out in due season, they would grow as straight and lout, as if they hhtl been several time^ transplanted." CABB iGE. 65 The plants will not be injured, and they are ai excellent food for cattle, and will much increase the milk >f cows. But the least decayed alone should be given to cows, lest they give the milk a bad taste. Much account is made of cab- bages, in England, for feeding cattle in the winter ; but the difficulty of preserving them renders them less valua- ble for that purpose with us. Cabbages are also eaten by swine and horses, and are thought to be excellent food for ewes that have newly dropped their lambs, and for calves. Preserving cabbages. — Mr. M'Mahon recommends the following method for preserving cabbages for winter and spring use : — " Immediately previous to the setting in of hard frost, take up your cabbages and Savoys, observing to do it in a dry day ; turn their tops downward, and let them remain so for a few hours, to drain off any water that may be lodged between their leaves ; then make choice of a ridge of dry earth, in a well-sheltered, warm exposure, and plant them d&wn to their heads therein, close to one anoth- er, having previously taken oflF some of their loose, hanging leaves. Immediately erect over them a low, temporary shed, of any kind that will keep them perfectly free from wet, which is to be open at both ends, to admit a current of air in mild, dry weather. These ends are to be closed with Uraw when the weather is very severe. Ii) *his situa- tion, your cabbages will keep in a high state of preservation till spring ; for, being kept perfectly free from wet, as well as from the action of the sun, the frost will have little or no effect upon them. In such a place the heads may be cut off as wanted, and if frozen, soak them in spring, well, or pump water, for a few hours previous to their being cooked, which Avill dissolve the frost, and extract any disa- greeable taste occasioned thereby." The principal gardener in the Shaker establishment, in New Lebanon, Columbia county, N. Y. directs not to pull up cabbages in autumn, " till there is danger of their freez- ing too fast in the ground to be got up. If there happens an early snow, it will not injure them. When they are removed from the garden, they should be set out again in a trench dug in the bottom of a cellar. If the cellar is pretty cool, it will be the better." The London Monthly Magazine gives the following meth- od, by which c bbages may be preserved on board ships, 6* 66 CABBAGE. &c. — " The cabbage is cut so as to leave about two inche* or m )re of the stem attached to it ; after which' the pith u scooped out to about the depth of an inch, care being taken not to wound or bruise the rind by this operation. The cabbages then are suspended by means of a cord, tied round that portion of the stem next the cabbage, and fastened at regular iuteivals to a rope across the deck. That portion of the stem from which the pith is taken, being uppermost, is regularly filled with water." To save cabbage seed. — " The raising of the seed of the different sorts of cabbage, Neill observes, affords employ- ment to many persons in various parts of England. It is well known that no plants are more liable to be spoiled by cross breeds, than the cabbage tribe, unless the plants of any particular variety, when in flower, be kept at a very considerable distance from any other ; also ° in flower, bees are extremely apt to carry the pollen of the one to the other, and produce confusion in the progeny. • Market gar- deners, and many private individuals, raise seed for their own use. Some of the handsomest cabbages of the differ- ent sorts are dug up in autumn, and sunk in the ground to the head ; early next summer a flower-stem appears, which is followed by abundance of seed. A few of the soundest and healthiest cabbage-stalks, furnished with sprouts, an- swer the same end. When the seed has been well ripened and dried, it will keep for six or eight years. It is mention- ed by Bastien, that the seed-growers of Aubervilliers have learned by experience, that seed gathered from the middle flower-stem produces plants, which will be fit for use a fortnight earlier than those from the seed of the lateral flower stem ; this may deserve the attention of the watch- ful gardener, and assist him in regulating his successive crops of the same kind of cabbage." — Loudon. Field culture. — The variety cultivated in the fields for cat- tle is almost exclusively the large Scotch, or field cabbage. The land is prepared the same way as for other hoed crops. " The preparation given to the plants," says Loudon, " con- sists in pinching off the extremity of their tap-root, and any tubercles which appear on the root or stem, and in im- mersing the root and stem in a puddle or mixture of earth sad water, to protect the fibres and pores of the roots and ■vem from drought. The p-lants may then be inserted by CANKER-WORM. CARAWAY. CARDOON. 6? the dibber, taking care not to plant too deep, and to press the earth firmly to the lower extremity of the root. If this last point is not attended to, the plants will either die, or, if kept alive by the moisture of the soil, or rain, their prog i ess will be very slow. When the distance between the ridg- lets [or rows] is twenty-seven inches, the plants are set about two feet asunder in the rows, and the quantity required foi an acre is about 6000 plants." The ajfter-culture, preser- vation, uses, &c., have been sufficiently detailed in the pr^ ceding pages, under this head. CANKER-WORM.— See Insects. CARAWAY. — Carum carui. — "The caraway is a bien- nial plant, a native of England, being occasionally found ii) meadows and pastures. It rises a foot and a half high, with spreading branches ; the leaves are decompound ; the leaf- lets in sixes ; it produces umbels of white flowers in June. " Use. — The plant is cultivated chiefly for the seed, which is used in confectionary and in medicine. In spring, the under leaves are sometimes put in soups ; and in former times the fusiform roots were eaten as parsnips, to which Parkinson gives them the preference. In Essex, large quantities of the seed are annually raised for distillation with spirituous liquors. " Cutture. — It is raised from seed, of which a quarter of an ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed four feet by five. Sow annually, in autumn, soon after the seed is ripe : the seed- lings will rise quickly, and should be thinned to a foot's dis- tance each way. In default of sowing in autumn, sow in March or April, either in drills or broad-cast ; but the plants, so raised, will not in general flower till the following year. When the seed is ripe, the plant is generally pulled up in gathering, especially in field culture." — Loudon. CARl300N. — Cynara cardunculus. — The cardoon is a hardy, perennial plant, a native of Candia, introduced into England in 1658. It is a species of artichoke, and grows wild in the south of France. Propagation. — " Though a perennial, it often dies in the winter, and therefore requires to be raised from seed almost every year ; and, for a bed four feet wide by eight feet, two ounces are sufficient. Formerly the plants were raised on hot- beds, and transplanted in May and June, but now the seed i» generally sown where the plants are to remain." — Loudon 68 OAKROT. Use. — " The parts of the cardoon that are eaten are no* those belonging immediately to the flower, as of the arti- choke, but the roots, stalks, and middle ribs of the leaves and chiefly the latter, which are thick and crisp. But as all these are naturally bitter, the plants are blanched by being tied up like lettuces, about the month of September, and having earth thrown upon their lower parts to the depth of eighteen inches or two feet. Cardoons come into season about the end of November; and arc either eaten alone, or as a sauce to animal food, particularly roast meat ; or are introduced as a dish in the second course." — Loudon. CARROT. — Daucvs. — ^This plant is said to be a native of Great Britain, where it iy still found growing wild. There are many varieties of the carrot; and the following are the finest sorts enumerated in Mr. Russell's Catalogue : AUringhamj (a superior sort,) Early liorn, Cremer, (fine for the table,) Lemon, Long orange, Blood red. Soil. — " The carrot requires a light, mellow soil, mixed with sand, and should be dug or trenched one or two spades deep, breaking well all the lumpy parts, so as to form a porous bed, and an even surfacff. The orange and red sorts, on account of their longer roots, require a soil pro- portionably deeper than the horn." Seed estimate and sowing. — The seeds have numerous forked hairs on their borders, by which they adhere together, and therefore should, previously to sov.'ing, be rubbed be- tween the hands, and mixed with dry sand, in order to sepa- rate them as much as possible. They are also very light, and therefore a calm day must be chosen for sowing ; and the seeds should be disseminated equally, and trodden in before raking. Previously to sowing, if convenient, the seed should be proven, by sowing a few in a pot, and placing it in a hot-bed or hot-house, as it is more frequently bad than most seeds. For a bed 4|- feet by 30, one ounce will be requisite, and the same for 150 feet of drill row. Dr. Deane advises to sow carrots in drills from 9 to 12 inches apart, across beds 4 feet wide. M'Mahon directs to sow thin in drills, distant from each other from 8 to 10 inches, and to thin them to 3 inches, plant from plant, in the rows. To save seed. — Plant some largest, best roots early in the spring, two feet apart ; insert them a few inches over th« CARBOT. 6J crowns. They will yield ripe seed in auttjun, of which gather only from the principal umbel, which is likely not only to afford the ripest and largest seed, but the most vigo- rous plants. Field culture. — " The only sort of carrot adapted to field culture," says Loudon, " is the long red, or field carrot. New seed is most essential, as it will not vegetate the sec ond year. The best soil for the carrot is a deep, rich, sandy loam ; such a soil ought to be at least a foot deep, and all equally good from top to bottom. On any other the field culture of the carrot will not answer. " The usual preparation of the seed for sovdng is the mixing it with earth or sand, to cause it to separate more freely ; but Burrows adds water, turns over the mixture of seeds and moist earth several times, and thus brings it to the point of vegetating before he sows it. Having weighed the quantity of seed to be sown, and collected sand or fine mould, in the proportion of about two bushels to an acre, I mix the seed with the sand or mould, eight or ten pounds to every two bushels, and this is done about a fortnight or three weeks before the time I intend sowing ; taking care to have the heaps turned over every day, sprin- kling the outside of them with water each time of turning over, that every part of the sand heaps may be equally moist, and that vegetation may take place alike throughout. I have great advantage in preparing the seed so long before hand ; it is by this means in a state of forward vegetation, therefore lies but a short time in the ground, and, by quickly appearing above ground, is more able to contend with those numerous tribes of weeds in the soil, whose seeds are of quicker vegetation." The quantity of seed, when carrots are sown in rows, is two pounds per acre; and, for broad-cast sowing, five pounds. The rows for the larger or proper field carrots, should be from 14 to 16 or 18 inches apart ; and the carrots thinned, in hoeing, to 3 or 4 inches apart in the rows. The seeds will do best when sown by hand, as their shape does not well admit of their being sown by machines. Loudpn says, " It has been advised, by an intelligent cultivator, to deposit the seed to the depth of one inch in the rows, leav- ing the spaces of fourteen inches between them as intervals ; the need, in these cases, being pi viously steeped in rain rO CARROT. water for twenty-four hours, and left to spro t, aftt r wliich it is mixed with saw-dust and dry mould, in the proportion of one peck and a half of each to a pound of seed. The land is afterwards lightly harrowed over once in a place. Two pounds of seed, in this mode, is found, as has been observed, sufficient for an acre of land." Afier-culture. — The first hoeing of carrots must be by hand — an operation which requires a great deal of attention, as it is difficult to distinguish and separate the weeds from the young carrots. Loudon says, " From eight to fifteen or eighteen inches, each way, is the common distance at which they are allowed to stand ; and it has been proved, from many years' experience in districts where they are most cultivated, that carrots which grow at such distances always prove a more abundant crop than when the plants are allowed to stand closer together." Deane observed, " It is not amiss if they grow large and rank, when they are chiefly designed as food for cattle, though small-sized ones are preferred for the table." Mr. Quincy gives the following statement of the mode of cultivating carrots, made use of by Samuel Wyllys Pome- roy, Esq., and which he prefers to all others : — " Plough as deep in the fall or spring as the state of the land will permit. Cross-plough in the spring, and harrow level. Put on fifteen, twenty, or twenty-five buck-loads of the most rotten compost to the acre, as the heart of the land may be. Spread and harrow it fine. Then, with a horse-plough, strike it into two-bout ridges, as near together as four back furrows will make them, and if the two first back furrows are narrow, the other two being deep, the ridge will be nearly to a point, and should be eighteen or twenty inches from the bottom of the furrow, if it be well cleared out. To do which, make another bout in the fur- row, if necessary. Then, with the head of a rake, strike off the crown of the ridge, till it is three or four inches wide, and with it, or a hoe, open a drill in the usual manner. Sow the seed pretty thick, cover and press down a little with a hoe or shovel. When the weeds appear, run a small plough through the furrows. Hand-weed the crop, and hoe the weeds from the sides of the ridge. The orange carrot is best." "In hai vesting, a plough with one yoke of oxen should CAAROT. 7 1 be run near the side of tLe range of carrots, md as deep a* pos ible. This loosens the dirt, and clears one side of the canots almost entire')' (Vom the earth. The labourers then, with great facility, take them by their tops out of the beds, and throw them into carts, with only an opcasional use of the hoe to plants which the plough has not loosened. " I have no question that, conducted m this mode, a car- rot crop may be made more productive, and much less ex- pensive, than the potato crop usually is. In sowing, I use a small hand-drill, which lays the seed with great regularity — a circumstance very important both to facilitate weeding and harvesting; since, if the carrots stand straggling, and not in a line, the plough, when harvesting, leaves the more to be loosened by the hoe or the fork." — MassackusettgAgricultural Repository, vol. iv. p. 24. A mode of cultivating carrots, differing slightly from the above, is described by Mr. Quincy, in the same work, vol. iv. p. 212. For other modes of cultivating this root, see Mass. Agr Rep. vol. V. pp. 20, 255, 347. Use. — " Horses are remarkably fond of carrots, and it is even said, that, when oats and carrots are given together, the horses leave the oats, and eat the carrots. The ordinary allowance is about forty or fifty pounds a day to each horse. Carrots, when mixed with chaff, that is, cut straw, and a little hay, without corn, keep horses in excellent condition for performing all kinds of ordinary labour. " In comparing the carrot with the potato, an additional circumstance greatly in favour of the former is, that it does not require to be steamed or boiled, and it is not more dif- ficult to wash than the potato. These and other circum- stances considered, it appears to be the most valuable of all roots for working horses. " The use of the carrot in domestic economy is well known. Their produce of nutritive matter, as ascertained by Sir H. Davy, is ninety-eight parts in one thousand ; of which three are starch, and ninety-five sugar. They are used in the dairy in winter and spring to give colour and flavour to butter. In the distillery, owing to the great pro- portion of sugar in their composition, they yield moie spiri* than the potato ; the usual quantity is twelve gallons pet 72 CATERPILLAR. CAULIFLOWER. ton. They are excellent in soups, stews, and haricots, and Doiled whole with salt beef. " The diseases of carrots are only such as are cominoD io most plants, such as mildew, insects, &c. The mildew snd worms at the root frequently injure crops, and are to be gudrded against, as far as practicable, by a proper choice, soil, season of sowing, and after-culture." — London. CATERPILLAR — an insLCc on fruit trees. — See In- sects. CAULIFLOWER. — Brasdca oleracea var. hotrytis. — The cauliflower is one of the most delicate and curious of the whole of the brassica tribe ; the flower buds forming a close, firm cluster or head, white and delicate, for the sake of which the plant is cultivated. Varieties. — Early, {/or tlie first, early crops.) — Later, or large, {/or principal crops.) " Propagation and soil. — The cauliflower is raised from seed, of which half an ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed four feet and a half v/ide, by ten in length. The soil for the seed- bed may be light, but, for final transplanting, it can hardly be too rich, the cauliflower, like the vine, being reputed a ' rough feeder.' Cleanings of streets, sesspools, &c., ought, therefore, to be liberally supplied during the growth of the plants, when very large heads are desired. " Times of sowing. — The early and main superior crop, brotight to fruit by the longest nursery attendance ; the late summer succession crop, raised by the shortest course ; and the Michaelmas (29th of Sept.) crop, obtained at the least expense, are sown, respectively, at three different seasons. The principal sowing is made about the end of the third week in August, or a day ortwo before or after the 21st, to raise plants to stand over winter, under frames, hand-glasses, or half-sheltered vi'arm borders, for the early and main supe- rior crops next summer. A secondary sowing in February or March, for succession, and late inferior crops the same year in summer and autumn. A final sowing, near the close of May, for ordinary crops, to yield fruit the following autumn and winter. The seedlings, protected with glass frames, generally grow too gross in the stems, which become partly blackened, and thi plants, being thus unhealthy, are not fit for planting out. Late-raised seedlings, which spend the winter in the opei oorder, unifor nly become the large and CAULIfLOWER. lii anest table cauliflowers during the summer, though they certainly do not come in quite so early. Cauliflower plants, it is probable, are often killed wilii too much attention. Seedlings, raised late in autumn, seem to be very tenacious of life." — (Med. Hort. Mem. iii. 192. " A method of pro- ducing cauliflowers, pretty early,^and with great certainty, is this : — The plants ar; set in small pots in the winter season, and kept in any convenient part of the floor of a vinery or other glazed house. In the beginning of March, they are taken out of the pots with the ball of earth attach- ed, and planted in the open ground. If they be here pro- tected against severe frosts with bell-glass covers, they come into head in the course of April, if the weather prove favourable." — Neill, in Edin. Encyc. Drummond, of the Cork botanic garden, protects cauli- flower plants during winter by planting them in exca- vations made in the common soil of the garden, and covered with frames thatched with long, straight wheat straw. He uncovers constantly, in mild weather, whether nights or days. — Hort. Trans, v. 369. For after-culture, preservation through winter, saving «eed, &c. proceed as with the common white cabbage. Use. — " Among the succulent plants produced in our climate, this doubtless is one of the most nourishing, and likewise the best adapted to tender organs of digestion, especially in valetudinarians and invalids : such persons, however, ought to eat it with the addition of some aromatic spice, such as pounded cardamoma, or caraway, or a small proportion of bread. To make the cauliflower blanc* handsomely, the gardeners tie over the heads of the plant " To prepare catdiflowers. — Let the cauliflowers first b*- parboiled ; next they must be immersed in coid, hard water, ^or some time, till they be nearly wanted for the table ; thus, 3n being boiled for a few minutes, they will become mor*" firm and crisp than if cooked in the usual manner." — Dom. Encyc. Neill (in Edinburgh Encyc. ) observes, " These heads or lowers being boiled, generally wrapped in a clean linen cloth, are served up as a most delicate vegetable dish. Cauliflower is a particular favourite in this country. ' Of all the flowers in the garden,' Dr. Johnson used to sav, ' I like the cauliflower.' For the early supply of the London market, very great quantities of cauliflower are fostered under hand-glasses during winter and the first par* 7 74 CELERT of spring ; and to behold some acres overspread w»tb such glasses, gives the stranger a forcible idea of the riches and luxury of the metropolis." CELERY. — Apium graveokns. — Celery is a hardy bien- nial plant, a native of Great Britain, and, when in its wild state, it is denominated smaMage. The root, in its wild state, is thick and fibrous. The stalk is bushy and furrow- ed, and attains the height of two or three feet. The leaves are wedge-shaped, and the flowers yellow, which arf pro- duced in August. The varieties usually tuUivated are, the White solid, I Ilalian, and Rose-coloured solid, | Celcriac, or turnip-rooted. Propagation. — All the sorts are raised from seed ; and half an ounce is reckoned sufficient for a seed-bed four feet and a half wide by ten feet in length, of the upright sorts; but for celeriac, a quarter of an ounce will be enough for a bed four feet square. Soil. — Celery delights in a soil rather moist, rich in ve- getable mould, but not rank from new, unrotted dung. Times of sowing. — " The most forward crop is slightly forced ; any of the varieties may be sown in the spring, in he open garden, at two or three different times, from the 21st of March till the first week in May ; but the principal sowing should be made in the first fortnight in April. Sov» in beds of light mellow earth, and rake in the seed lightly and regularly. In very dry weather, give moderate water- ing both before and after the plants come up. When they are two, three, or four inches high, thin the seed-bed, and prick out a quantity, at successive times, into intermediate beds, three or four inches asunder. Water those removed until they have struck*' [taken root.'} — Loudon. Transjdanting into trenches. — " When either the plants left in the seed-bed, or those removed, are from six to twelve inches high, or when the latter have acquired a stocky growth, by four or five weeks' nurture in the inter- mediate bed, transplant them into trenches for blanching. For this purpose, allot an open compartment. Mark out (he trenches a foot wide, and from three to three and a half distance ; dig out each trench lengthwise, ten or twelve inches in width, and a light spit deep, that is, six or eight inches. Lay the earth dug out equally on each side of the trench ; put about three inches of very rotten dung into the trench, then pare the sides, and dig the dung and par- ings with an inch or '.wo o' the loose mould at tlie botton*. CELERY. 76 Trim the tops ani roots of the plants, and then seithem ii single rows along the middle of each trench, allowing four or five inches distance from plant to plant. When this work is finished, give the plants water in plenty, and occa- sionally water them from time to time, if the weather be dry, and likewise let them be shaded, till they strike root, and begin to grow. When they have grown to the height of eight or ten inches, draw earth to each side of them, breaking it fine. This should be done in dry weather, be- ing careful not to bury the hearts. Repeat the earthing once in ten days, till the plants are fit for use. Be careful, however, not to draw up too much earth to the plants at first, lest they be smothered, and leave the plants in a little hollow, that they may receive the full benefit of the waterings, rain, &c." Taking the crop. — It is best to begin at one end of a row, and dig clean down to the roots, which then loosen with a spade, and they may be drawn up entire, without breaking the stalks. To preserve this plant during the winter, on the ap- proach of frost, take up a part of the crop, and lay it under sand for winter use. Those left in the beds may be cover- ed with litter, to he removed in mild weather. Cobbett directs, to preserve celery in beds, as follows : — " Two boards, a foot wide each, their edges on one side laid upon the earth of the ridge, formed into a roof over the point of the ridge, the upper edge of one board going an inch over the upper edge of the other, and the boards fastened well with pegs, will do the business completely ; for it is not the frost, but the occasional tliaws, that you have to fear, and the wet and rot that they produce." To save seed. — Either leave some established plants in the spring where growing, or in March, as soon as the frost will permit, set the plants in the ground, full two feet asun- der. Cultivatum of celeriac. — The times of sowing are the same as for the other sorts. In the beginning or middle of June, they are transplanted into a flat bed in the open air, at the distance of fifteen inches from each other, and not in trenches, like other cele y. They must be abundant- ly watered as soon as they are set out, and the watering must be repeated every other day, or, if the weather should be warm, every day. As they increase in size, they will lequire a greater quantity of water, and they must be occa- 76 CHAMOMILE. sioually hoed. The roots will be fit for use in Septembei or Oetober. Sabine states, that he has been informed that the plan of giving excess of water is peculiar to this plant;, and that its vigorous growth is more dependent on richness of soil than any other cause. Abercombie directs, to earth up the bulbs four or five inches, after they are full grown, in order to blanch them. " Use. — The blanched leafed-stalks are used raw, as a sal- ad, from August till March ; they are also stewed, and put in soups. In Italy, the unblanched leaves are used for soups, and when neither the blanched nor the green leaves can be had, the seeds bruised form a good substitute. The root only of the variety called the celeriac is used, and Sabine informs us (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) ' it is excellent in soups, in which, whether white or brown, slices of it are used as ingredients, and readily impart their, flavour. With the Ger- mans, it is also a common salad, for which the roots are prepared by boiling, until a fork will pass easily through them : after they are boiled, and become cold, they are eaten with oil and vinegar. They are also sometimes serv- ed up at table, stewed with rich sauces. In all cases, before they are boiled, the coat and the fibres of the roots, which are very strong, are cut away ; and the root is put in cold water, on the fire, not in water previously boiling.' " — Loudon. CHAMOMILE. — Anthemis nobilis. Varieties. — These are the common single and double- flowered- SoU and culture. — This herb delights in a poor, sandy soil. " Both kinds are propagated by parting the roots, or by slips of the rooted offsets or of the runners. Detach them with roots in little tufty sets in March, Aj)ril or May, and plant them from eight to twelve inches asunder, giving water. The flowers should be gathered in their prime, in June or July, just when full-blown. Let them be spread to dry in a shady place ; then put them into paper bags, and house them for use." — Abercrombie. " Use. — It is cultivated on account of the flower, which is a safe bitter and stomachic, and much used under the name of chamomile-tea. The double-flowering variety, though more beautiful than the single-flowered, is less useful ; the aromatic principle not residing in the floscules of the ray, the multiplication of which constitutes the double flower, .The double sort, however, is most cultivated by growers CHERRY-TREE. 7? for the market, on "vcouk* of its greater bulk anil weight." —Loudon. CHERRY-TREE.— Pra>," cerasus.— The cherry is a genus of plants, which comprisi. too many species to be described in this place. Loudon's catalogue contains thir- ty-six kinds, but does not include ah 'hat are cultivated in England;, and there are several varie.ies in the Uniteo States, which are natives of the country. See Thotcherh Orchardist, Coxe on Frvit-Trees, and Domestic Encyclopedia. Gen. Dearbogi's communication for JV. E. Farmer, vol. v. p. 210. " The cherry-tree is propagated by seeds and by suckers, when stems are wanted ; by seeds alone, when new varie- ties are required ;* by scions, when you have to work on old subjects ; and by buds, when your trees are young. If intended for dwarfs, bud your plants at two, and if for standards, at four years of age. The spring succeeding this operation is the time for transplanting ; which should be done carefully, and in the manner prescribed for setting out apple-trees. The fashion or form of the trees will direct the distance at which they are to stand from each other ; between standards this should not be less than thirty feet ;'f and between pyramids and espaliers, not less than twenty. > " Though in our climate all the varieties ■ of the cherry- tree do well as standards and pyramids, and are therefore generally and properly cultivated in these forms, still it may be useful to remark, that t\i o of them, the May duke and the Morello, when trained against walls, give fruit not only of increased precocity, but of much finer flavour ; a circumstance in which they differ, not only from all other varieties of their own races, but irom fruit-trees of all othei kinds. " As the cherry grows on small spurs, pushing from the sides and ends of two, three, and four years old wood, and as the procession of new buds is constant, it follows as a general rule, that ' the knife must be sparingly employed ;' and as a particular one in relation to wall-trees, that ' bear- ing branches are not to be shortened^ if room can be found for extending them.' These rules, however rigorously * The seeds employed should be taken from ripe fruit, coinmitted prompth to a bed of sand, and kept in a dry and cool place till the ppring, vhea ms] may be set out in rows two and a half feet apart t Wilier thinks the distance should be forty feet 7 * 78 CHERRY-TREE. executed, must not prevent summer pruning, (which consists in rubbing off redundant or ill-placed buds,) nor that of winter^ if confined to the renewal of fractured and unsound wood, or branches too much multiplied, or crossing each other. The nature of the Morello will, however, render it an exception to the general practice here recommended ; for, instead of bearing like the other varieties, on two, three, and even four years old wood, its fruit is generally produ- ced on shoots of the last year, and rarely, if ever, on even two years old wood. Whence it follows, that, with regard to this variety, our aim, in both summer and winter pruning, ought to be 'a removal of old, and a provision of new bearers.' " In renovating an old tree, pursue Forsyth's method- shorten it to a stump not more than eighteen inches high ; remove the old soil from the roots ; replace it with that of upland pasture, on a layer of stone or other impervious body, two feet below the surface ; and encourage a single shoot. "' — Armstrong. Use. — " It is a refreshing summer fruit, highly grateful at the dessert, and affording pies, tarts, and other useful and elegant preparations in cookery and confectionary. Steep- ing cherries in brandy qualifies and improves its strength and flavour ; a fine wine is made from the juice, and a spirit distilled from the fermented pulp. The gum which exudes from the, tree is equal to gum arable ; and Hasel- quist relates, that more than two hundred men, during a siege, were kept alive for nearly two months, without any other sustenance than a little of the gum taken sometimes into the mouth, and suffered gradually to dissolve. Cherry wood is hard and tough, and is used by the turner, flute- maker and cabinet-maker." — Loudon. " The common wild or native cherry, (Prunus cerasus Virginia,) though it bears only a small, bitter cherry, which serves as food for birds, is valuable on account of its medi- cinal bark, and also for its timber, which is of a reddish, streaked colour, resembling mahogany, and capable of receiving a fine polish ; it is used by turners and cabinet- makers for many purposes. The tree grows to a large size. " Cherry brandy is made in the following manner : — Fill the cask with an equal proportion of Morello and sweet black cherries ; pour over them as much brandy as the cask will contain. When it has been on teii days, draw it off, and ponr on hot water ; let this remain some time, sha- CHEKVaL. CHIV E. COLEWORl. CORIANDEE. , 79 king the cask frequently, then draw it off, mixing the last with the first liquor." — Domestic Encyclopedia. Dr. Cooper adds, in the last edition — " It is best made with the small wild black cherry." Cattle, it is said, have beeu killed by eating leaves of the wild cherry-tree. For a method of making cherry wine, see iV. E. Farmer, ii. 27. CHERVIL. — C/uBropkyllwn. — This is an annual plant, with leaves resembling those of double parsley. It is used for salads and in soups, and is sown occasionally in rows, like parsley, from April to September. CHIVE. — Allium schasnoprasvm. — " The chiee, or ««e, is a hardy perenoial plant, a native of Britain, and found in meadows and pastures, though but rarely. The leaves rise from many small bulbous roots connected in bunches ; are awl-shaped, thread-like, and produced in tufts. The flowers are white, tinged with reddish-purple, and appear on round stalks in June." — Loudon. It is of common and easy cul- tivation. COLEWORT. — BramcM oleracea viridis. — " The origi- nal variety of cabbage, called eolewort," says Loudon, " is, or seems to be, lost, and is now succeeded by what are called cabbage-coleworts. These, Abercrombie observes, are valuable family plants, useful in three stages 4 as young open greens, as greens with closing hearts, and as greens forming a cabbage growth." The culture and uses of the eabbage-colewort are so similar t© those of the common white cabbage, that details on the subject would seem un- necessary. It is said in Gleanings on Husbandry, &c. that cole- wort is " a name given by gardeners to a cabbage plant, to be cut for use from the time the leaves are as broad as a man's hand, till it begins to form a close head. They are generally raised from seeds of any of the best kinds of heading white cabbage ; but those of the sugar-loaf are preferable to all others for eating." CORIANDER. — Coriandrtan sativum. — Coriander is a hardy annual plant, which originated in the East. Cidture. — 'This plant delights in a sandy loam. It is raised from seeds, which may be sown ia March, or as soon as the frost will permit, when the weather is mild and dry. The quantity of seed requisite for a bed six feet long and four feet wide, sown in rows nine inches apart, is half an (lu ice. The seed should be buried half an inch. Use. — The seeds hwe a pleasant flavour, and, when en 80 crusted with sugar, are sold by the confectioners under the name of coriander comfits. They are also used in the bitter infusions and preparations of senna, the disagreeable taste of which they completely overcome, and for various other purposes, both by druggists and distillers. CRESS, WATER. — Sisymbrium nasturtium. — A genus of plants, of which the principal is the common water-cress, found in springs and brooks. It is perennial, and produces white flowers that are in bloom in June or July. Lasteyrie tells us, that, in Germany, great pains are taken to propagate the water-cress, and gives the following account of their mode of doingit : " The water," says he, " most favourable for its production, is that in which it grows naturally, and which in winter preserves heat enough to prevent it from freezing. The situation on which to form a cress plantation ought to have a little slope or inclination, because water in a state of repose, alters the flavour of the plant. Having chosen the place, it is formed into heights and hollows alternately . the latter are destined for the cresses, and the former for thr culture of other plants. The size of the hollows is made to depend on the quantity of water yon can bring into them, and the demand for the article to be raised. If the soil of the hollows is not sufiiciently rich, better earth must be brought to amend it, and if the bottom be marshy, you throw over it some inches of sand. Your next step is to cover it with water for some hours, after which you drain and sow or plant. At the end of a few days, you let in the water, and drain as before, and continue these processes un- til the cresses appear, if sown, or until they have taken root, if planted. The quantity of water let in is always to be regulated by the growth of the plant ; for, though it cannot live but in water, it will not bear to be long covered with it. Planting is always surer than sowing, and is therefore pre- ferred. The epoch for this is either March or August. The distance between the plants should not be less than ten or fifteen inches. Moving the earth about their roots with the hoe, from time to time, is useful ; but for the rest, (having once taken root,) no further care is necessary. A cress plantation is in full bearing the second year, and lasts a long time. When it begins to fail, it may be renewed by taking off" a foot of the surface soil of the old beds and replacing it with good and fresh earth. In winter, the bedfc are covered more deeply wth water, which protects thr plant "vgainist thi frost." CREiiS, GARDEN. 81 The same writer informs us how they manage their cress plantations near Paris. " Having there," he says, " no run- ning water, ihey cultivate it in the neighbourhood of wells, and water it every day. The cress vegetates promptly, but becomes acrid in its taste. They accordingly prefer sow ■ mg to planting, because, if cut when only six inches highr and treated, in all respects, as an annual, it has least of this pungency." — Armstrong's Treatise. Loudon says, " Some market gardeners, who can com- mand a small stream of water, grow the water-cress in beds sunk about a foot in a retentive soil, with a very gentle slope from one end to the other. Along the bottom of this bed, which may be of any convenient breadth and length, chalk or gravel is deposited, and the plants are inserted about six inches' distance every way. Then, according to the slope and length of the bed, dams are made six inches high across it, at intervals; so that, when these dams are full, Ae water may rise not less than three inches on all the plants included in each. The water being turned on will circulate from dam to dam ; and the plants, if not allowed to run to flower, will afford abundance of young tops in all but the winter months. A stream of water, no larger than what will fill a pipe of one inch bore, will, if not absorbed by the soil suffice to irrigate in this way an eighth of an acrt. As some of the plants are apt to rot off in winter, the plantation should be laid dry two-or three times a year, and all weeds and decayed parts removed, and vacancies filled up. Cress grown in this way,, however, is far inferior to that grown in a living stream flowing over gravel or chalk." Use. — " Water-cresses are universally used and eaten as an early and wholesome spring salad. Being an excellent antiscorbutic and stomachic, they are nearly allied to scurvy grass, but do not possess so great a degree of acrimony They are also supposed to purify the blood and humours and to open visceral obstructioiis." — Dom. Encyc. CRESS, GARDEN. — Lepidium sativum. — The garden- cress is a hardy, annual plant, cultivated, says Loudon, since 1548; but its native country is unknown. Varieties. — Curled, or peppergrass, | Broad-feaved garden cress. This plant is raised from seed, of which one ounce will suffice for a bed of four feet square. 7\mes of sowing, and site ofthe crop. — Cress should be raised three or fou- times every month, as it may be in de- 82 CUCUMBER. mand, to have young crops constantly in succession. Allol some warm situation for early spring sowing ; and, if the weather be cold, either put on a spare frame, or cover with matting between sunset and sunrise. For autumnal sow- . ngs, when cold weather is approaching, allot some warm borders, and give occasional protection. " The cress," says Loudon, " is often raised on porous earthen ware ves- sels, of a conical form, having small gutters on the sides for retaining the seeds. These are called pyramids, are some- what ornamental in winter, and afford repeated gatherings." Process in somng, and svhaequent culture. — " Having allotted a fine, mellow soil, to receive the seed, dig the sur- face, and rake it finally, preparatory to sowing, which mostly perform in small, flat, shallow drills, four, five, or six inches asunder. Sow the seed very thickly, and earth over very lightly, or but just thinly cover. Give occasional waterings in warm, dry seasons." Taking the crap. — " To gather cress in perfection, cut them while moderately young, either clean to the root, or only the tops of advanced plants. They will shoot again for future gathering, but the leaves will be hotter, and not so mild and tender as those of younger plants." To save seed. — " Either sow a portion in the spring for that purpose, or leave some rows of any overgrown old crop in April or May. The plants will yield seed in autumn." CUCUMBER. — Cucumis sativa. — Among the varieties of this species of plants, are. Early Green cluster, I Long prickly, Early frame, | White spined. Long green Turkey, I Short prickly. Long white Turkey, | Small girkin, or West India. Soil. — In our climate, cucumbers will grow in any soil, though not with the same degree of vigour, provided they be supplied with a sufiiciency of heat, light, water, and air. It is an object with many market gardeners and others, to produce cucumbers at an early period, and for this purpose artificial heat is necessary. For early forcing, Abercrombie recommends a mould or compost, of the following materials : " one third of rich top spit earth, from an upland pasture, one half of vegetable mould, and one sixth of well decom posed horse-dung, with a small quantity of sand. Time of beginning to force. — Abercrombie says, " Mana- gers, who have to provide against demands for early cucum- bersj iniist raise seedlings from twelve to ten weeks before CUCUMBEK. . 83 ifae iVuit will be required, according to the length of the days in the interval. In proportion as the entire course emDraces a greater part of mid-winter, the liability of lailure from obstacles in the weather will be greater. The lasl fortnight in January, or first week of February, is a good time for beginning to force the most early crop. In the subsequent months, both main and secondary crops may be started as required, and will come forward more freely. To have a constant succession, seedlings should be origi- nated twice a month. As the course of forcing more coin- cides with the natural growing season, the length of it wUl be reduced to eight, seven, or six weeks." Nicol recom- mends the middle of January. He says, " Some begin sooner, but it is striving hard against the stream to little purpose. If the dung be prepared, and the bed be go< ready, so as to sow about the 1st of February, the success will be often greater than by sowing a month earlier." Be- sides, cucumbers, produced altogether by the heat of dung, without the aid of the sun, are less wholesome and palatable than those which Nature affords in the due course of her operations. Sorts. — Abercrombie recommends " the short prickly for very early fruit, and the long prickly kinds for the chief early and main summer crops." M'Phail prefers " the green cucumber with black prickles, as best for forcing. When fit for table, it runs from six to nine inches long, and, when ripe, runs to about eighteen or twenty inches long." Choice of seeds. — " It is advisable," Abercrombie ob- serves, " to have seed from two, at least, to four years old, in preference to newer seed, which is apt to run luxuriantly in vine, and the plants from it do not show fruit so soon nor so abundantly as those from seed of a greater age. But when seed has been kept more than four years, it is some- times found to be too much weakened." Mr. Armstrong says, " A debate has long existed, on the preference to be given to old or new seeds, and which, like many others, appears to be interminable. The Abbe Rozier and his followers think that the most vigorous plants of all species ind kinds are the best, and, accordingly, prefer new see's, oecause more likely to produce such than old ones : while, on the other hand, their opponents maintain, that plants may have too much vigour, as well as too little ; and that, whenever an exce«s of vigour exists, according to all veges t?ble analogy, it shows itself in the production of stems an)? M- CPCUMBEH. leaves, not in that of flowers and fruits— whence they con- clude, that old cucumber seeds, (like those of all the res! of the cucurbttacem family,) are better than new, because less vij^oroits. The best practical use to be made of this controversy, is to sow old seeds in the spring, when vege- tation is most powerful, and new ones in July, when it begins to abate." Forcing cucumbers. — " Towards the latter end of January, a quantity of fresh horse-dung should be procured with the litter among it, to which a small portion of sea-coal ashes may well be added. In the course of four or five days, the dung begins to heat, when a little of it may be drawn flat on the outside, and covered two inches thick with good earth ; over which a bell-glass ought to be placed ; and two days after, when the soil is warm, the seeds should be sown, covered with fresh mould one fourth of an inch thick, and the glass again set over it. This must be screened by a mat during the night, and in four days the young plant? will germinate. As soon as they appear, the rest of the dung must be beaten close together into a bed for one or more lights, which bed should be three feet thick, and cov- ered three inches deep with fine, fresh earth ; the frame is then to be put on ; and, during the night, or in bad weather, sheltered with mats. When the soil is hot enough, the young plants must be removed into it, and set at two inches distance, the glasses being occasionally raised to admit fresh air, and also frequently turned, to prevent the wet steam of the dung from dropping down on the plants. These ought to be watered at stated times, with tepid or luke-warm water; and, as they increase in size, should be earthed up ; an operation which will considerably augment their strength. If the bed be not hot enough, fresh litter should be lai round its sides ; but if it be too warm, it should be perfo rated with a stake to give vent to the heat; and, as soon as the bed acquires a proper temperature, the holes are to be closed up with fresh earth. When the plants begin to shoot their third or rough leaf, another bed should be prepared for them, similar to the first ; and, when the soil is thorough- ly warmed, they should be transplanted into it, in holes about a foot deep, and nine inches broad, filled with light, fine, fresh mould, laid in a hollow, circular for n. In each of these holes four plants should be set, and shaded for two or three days from the heat of the sun, that they may strike root ; after which time it will be useful to expose them tc CUCUMBER. 85 the sun and air, as often as the weather will peiinit. When they have attained the height of four or five inches, the)' should be gently fastened down to the soil, in diflfcrent di- rections ; and the branches afterwards produced ought tc be treated in a similar manner, as it will much contribute to forward their maturity. In the course of a month the flowers will appear, and, shortly after, the rudiments of the fruit The glasses should now be carefully covered during the night, and the plants gently sprinkled with water in the day time. These will produce fruit till midsummer, and may be succeeded by a second crop, which is to be raised nearly in the same manner as the earlier cucumbers, with this only diflference, that the former should be sown toward the end of March, or the begiBning of April, and that it requires less care and attention." — Dom. Encyc. The smallest degree of heat for forcing cucumber plants, at the coldest time of night, is 58 degrees ; and the greatest heat necessary in the day time is 65 degrees. " Well preparing the dung is of the greatest importance in forcing the cucumber, and if not done before it is made into a bed, it cannot be done after, as it requires turning and watering to cause it to ferment freely and sweetly ; fresh dung from the stable will require at least six weeks' prepa- ration before it will be fit to receive the plants. A month before it is made mto a bed, it should be laid into a heap, turned three times, and well shaken to pieces with a fork, and the outsides of the heap turned into the middle, and the middle to the outsides, that the whole may have a regu- lar fermentation ; and if any appear dry, it should be made wet, keeping it always between the two extremes of wet and dry. A dry spot of ground should be chosen to pre- pare the dung on, that the water may drain away from the bottom of the heap. The dung having been a month in heap, I make the bed as follows : — I form a stratum one foot high, of wood of any kind, but if large the better ; (old roots of trees, or any other of little value will do;) this is to drain the water from the bottom of the bed ; for, after a month's preparation, with every care, it will frequently heat itself dry, and require water in large quantities, which, if not allowed to pass off freely, will cause an unwholesome steam to rise, in which the cucumber-plant will not grow freely : on this bottom of wood I make the bed, four feet high, with dung, gently heating it dov/n with a fork : this is done about the Isi November, and by the month of Februai y, the four feet of dung will nc-t b*- more than two feet thick, which, with the 86 CUCUMBER foot of wood at the bottom, will make the bed three feet high ; this I consider a good height, for, if lower, it caunor be so well healed by linings, which is the only method of warns- ing it in the months of February and March, as by that tiine the first heat of the bed will have quite declined. Having made the bed, I pict on the frames and lights, which I shut close till the heat rises. I then give air night and day, suffi- cient to allow the steam to pass off, and once in two days I fork the surface over, about nine inches deep, to sweeten it, and if, in the operation, I find any part dry, I carefully wet it. The bed being quite sweet, I prepare it for the mould, by i&aking the middle about eight inches lower than the sides, as the sides are liable, from the weight of the frames, to settle faster than the middle, which often causes the hills of earth to crack, by which the roots of the plants are greatly inj\ired." — Hmt. Trans, vol. iii. p. 147. Mr. Cobbett says, " If you wish to have cucumbers a month earlier than the natural ground will bring them, do this : — Make a hole, and put into it a little hot dung ; let the hole be under a warm fence. Put six inches deep of fine rich earth on the dung. Sow a parcel of seeds in this earth ; and cover at night with a bit of carpet, or sail-cloth, having first fixed some hoops over this little bed. Before the plants show the rough leaf, plant two into a little flower- pot, and fill as many pots in this way as you please. Have a larger bed ready to put the pots into, and covered with earth, so that the pots may be plunged in the earth up to their tops. Cover this bed like the last. When the plants have got two rough leaves out, they will begin to make a shoot in the middle. Pinch that short off". Let them stand in this bed, till your cucumbers sown in the natural ground come up ; then make some little holes in good, rich land, and, taking a pot at a time, turn out the ball, and fix it in the hole. These plants will bear a month sooner than those sown in the natural ground ; and a square yard will contain thirty- six pots, and will, of course, furnish plants for thirty-six hills of cucumbers, which, if well managed, will keep on bearing till September. Those who have hot-bed frames, or hand- lights, will do this matter very easily. The cucumber plant is very tender and juicy ; and, therefore, when the seed- lings are put into the pots, they should be watered and shuaed for a day or two ; when the balls are turned into the ground, they should be loatered, and shaded with a bough for one day. That will be enough. — I have one observa- tion to mak? unon the cultivation cf cucumber*, melons of CUCUMBER 81 ftll sorts, and that of all the pumpkin and squash tribe ; and that is, that it is a great error to sow them too thick. One plant in a hill is enough ; and I would put two into a pot, merely as, a bar against accidents. One will bring more weight of fruit than two, (if standing near each other,) two more than three, and so on, till you come to fifty in a square foot ; and then you will have no fruit at all ! Let any one make the experiment, and he will find this observation mathematically true. When cucumbers are left eight or ten plants in a hill, they never shoot strongly. Their vines are poor and weak. The leaves become yellow ; and, if they bear at all, it is poor, tasteless fruit that they produce. Their bearing is over in a few weeks. Whereas, a single plant, in the same space, will send its fine green vines all around it to a great distance, and, if no fruit be left to ripen, will keep bearing till the white frosts come in the fall. — The roots of a cucumber will go ten feet, in fine earth, in every direction. Judge then, how ten plants, standing close to one another, must produce mutual starvation !" Mr. Armstrong has the following observations with regard to early cucumbers : — " To obtain these, we must have re- course to artificial heat ; and with the less reluctance, as, of all plants, the cucumber is that with which it best agrees. To this end, therefore, scoop as many large turnips as you propose to have hills ; fill these with good garden mould, sow in each three or four seeds, and plunge them into a hot-bed. The advantage of the scooped turnip, as a seed- bed, over pots or vases, will now appear; for, instead of the ordinary difficulty of separating- the mass of earth and the plant from the pot which contained them, and without injury to either, we re-inter both pot and plant, and even find in the one an additional nutriment for the other. The subsequent treatment does not dift'er at all from that of plants sown and cultivated in the open air." — Mem. of N. F; Board of Agr. -vol. ii. p. 116. Traimng. — To force the cucumbers into early fruit, Aber- crombie directs to " stop the runners as soon as the plants have made two rough leaves : as the bud that produces the runner is disclosed at the base of the second rough leaf, it may be cut off or picked out ; or, if the runner has already started, it may be pinched off close. This is called stop- ping at the first joint, and is necessary to promote a stronger, stocky growth, and an emission of fruitful laterals ; and from these the prolific runners will be successively pro- duced. The vines, without the process of stopping, would OS CUCUMBER. generally be both -vreaker, and so deficient in fertile run- ners, that they would sometimes extend two or three feel without showing fruit. When plants, whinh have been once stopped, have extended the first runners to three joints without showing fruit, they are to be again stopped for the purpose of strengthening the plant, and disposing it for bearing. As fertile runners extend, train them out regular- ly along the surface, fastening them down neatly with pegs." Upright training. — Cucumber plants being climbers by means of their tendrils, some branchy sticks being placed to any advancing runners, they will ascend, and produce fruit at a distance from the ground, of a clean growth, free from spots and well flavoured. "Mr. .T. W. of Philadel- phia informed Dr. Mease, that he enriched the ground near the trunk of a peach tree, and sowed some cucumber seed, which came up very abundantly. He pulled up all the plants but one, and permitted the vine to run up the tree. It bore 150 cucumbers. The numerous creepers with whicl the cucumber abounds, and the result of this experiment would seem to point out the climbing nature of the plant and the great advantage arising from permitting it to attach itself to a frame or tree, instead of confining it to the ground." — Dom. Encyc. Setting the fruit. — " The cucumber," Abercrombie ob- serves, " bears male and female blossoms distinctly on th( same plant. The latter only produce the fruit, which ap- pears first in miniature, close under the base, even before the flower expands. There is never any in the males ; but these are placed in the vicinity of the females, and are ab- solutely necessary, by the dispersion of their farina, to im- pregnate the female blossom ; the fruit of which will not otherwise swell to its full size, and the seeds will be abor- tive. The early plants under glass, not having the full cur- rent of the natural air, nor the assistance of bees and other winged insects to convey the farina, the artificial aid of the cultivator is necessary to effect the impregnation. At the time of fructification, watch the plants daily ; and as soon as a female flower and some male blossoms are fully expanded, proceed to set the frurt the same day, or next morning at furthest. Take off" a male blossom, detaching it with part of the footstalk. Hold this between the finger and thumb ; pull avvay the flowfer-leaf close to the stamens and anthera or central part, which apply close tn the stigma or bosom of the female flower, twirling it a little about, tc discharge thtreon some particles of the fertilizing powder CUCUMBER an Proceed thus to set every fruit, as the flowers of both sorts open, while of a lively, full expansion j and generally per form it in the early part of the day ; using a fresh male, if possible, for each impregnation, as the males are usually more abundant than the female blossoms. In consequence, the young fruit will soon be observed to swell freely. Cu- cumbers attain the proper size for gathering in about fifteen, eighteen, or twenty days from the time of setting ; and often in succession, for two or three months or more, in the same bed, by good culture. The above artificial operation will be found both necessary and effectual in forcing the cucumber, between the decline of autumn and May, while the plants are mostly shut under glass. In plants more freely exposed to the free air, in the increasing warmth of spring, and in having the full open air in summer, from June or July till September, the impregnation is effected mostly or wholly by nature. The male flowers, being by . some ignorantly denominated false blossoms, are often plucked wholly off as useless, under a notion of strengthen- ing the plant : but this should not be generally done. Where crowded too thick in clusters, some may be thinned out moderately ; but their agency being absolutely neces- sary in fertilizing the females, they should only be displaced as they begin to decay, except where they are superabun- dant." Principal summer crop. — " The ground being dug and smoothed, line it into squares of six feet. In the centre of each, dig a hole about fourteen inches deep ; fill this with well rotted dung, and sow on it five or six cucumber seeds : cover" these with mould, and, when they rise and take a rough leaf, select two to each hill, and draw out the remainder. This sovfing cannot be safely made in our cli- mate till the 10th of May. For the fall and pickling crops, you must sow the first or second week in July." — Armstrong. Those cucumbers, which are sowed as late as July, will not require topping or cutting off the runners as before di- rected, for at this season vegetation will be less vigorous and there will be less danger of the plant running too much to vine. Raising plants from cuttings. — "Instead of raising cucumber plants from seed, they may be raised from cuttings, and thus kept on from year to year, in the following manner : — Take a shoot that is just ready for stopping, cut it off just below the ioint, behind the joint before which the shoot should have 90 CUCLMBER. been stopped; thtn cut smooth the lower end of the snoot cr cutting, aud stick it into fine leaf or other rich mould about an inch deep, and give it plenty of heat, and shade it from the rays of the sun till it be fairly struck. By this method, as well as by that of laying, cucumbers may be propagated. " Mearns, gardener at Shobden Court, near Leominster, propagates his cucumber-plants for a winter crop in this way, and " finds that the plants raised from cuttings art less succulent, and therefore do not so readily damp off, of suffer from the low temperature to which they are liable to be exposed in severe weather ; that they come into bearing immediately, as they have formed roots of sufficient strength to support their fruit, and do not run so much to barren vine as seedlings are apt to do." He takes the cuttings from the tops of the bearing shoots, and plants them in pots nine inches deep, half filled ^ith mould. He then waters them, covers the tops of the pots with fiat pieces of glass, and plunges them into a gentle bottom heat. " The sides of the pot act as a sufficient shade for the cuttings during the time they are striking, and the flat glass, in this and other operations, answers all the purposes of bell-glasses. The cuttings form roots, and are ready to put off in less than a fortnight." — Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p. 411. Cucumbers increased by layers. — " As soon as several flower-buds appear on a plant, bend the second or third joint of a branch below the blossom, fasten it firmly into the ground, and cut off the capillary point of the plant ; it speedily takes root, and must be separated from the parent stock ; as each root has only to supply a few fruits with nourishment, it saves room, labour and time, and afibrds a constant supply for eight, twelve and more months, which is not so liable to degenerate as if they were raised from a variety of seeds." — Gleanings in Husbandry, Culture. — In the culture of all the crops, give proper sup- plies of water in dry, warm weather, two or three times a week, or every day when very warm and dry. If the heat in the hot-beds, after three or four -^eeks or more, be much declined, and the nights or general season remain cold, let a moderate lining of hot dung be applied to both sides ; which wiH not only cause a reviving heat, but widen the bed for the roots and runners of the plants to extend. Insects. — " The fly, which is often very destructive to cucumbers, melons and pumpkins, may be killed by sprin- kling a mixture of tobacco water and red pepper over the vin »s " — Dom. Encyc. Sprinkle the plantii with a strong DirCUMBER. 91 mfusion of elder leaves that of hops and of walnut leaves s likewise recommended ; or, suspend a diamond-formed piece of white paper, shingle, or other piece of wood, by a thread, tied to the end of a stick stuck in the ground at a small distance from the hill, so that the paper shall hang directly over the hill and near the plants. The air, by constantly vibrating ine paper or shingle, will have a ten- dency to prevent insects from alighting on the plants. The surest way, however, is to enclose the hills with frames covered with gauze, or other cloth of a light texture. The following metibod of making sieves, or boxes, to protect cucumber vines, melon vines, &c. against the yellow bug, &c. was communicated to the editor of the N. E. Farmet by Mr. Levi Bartlett, of Warner, N. H. and published in that paper, vol. ii. p. 305. "Take a strip of pine board (about three fourths of an inch in thickness is most suitable) eight or ten feet in length, and four or five inches in width — ^plough one edge of it with a carpenter's plough or match plain — then mark off an equal number of side and end pieces ; before sawing the side pieces, rAin a brad-awl through where you want to drive your nails, as it is not so likely to split, as after it is sawed. The side pieces eleven inches long — ends eight mches long. They must be of this particular size, because one yard of millinet will just cover nine boxes ; or a third of a yard will make three covers.- After having nailed your boxes, and divided your millinet, have some thin strips or tongues, as the carpenters call them. Press these with the edges of the covers into the groove, which fastens them much cheaper and more expeditiously than small nails. I made about twenty last season, and they effectually secured them from the yellow bug, and (by sinking the edges of them in the earth a little) from worms. But if they were of no use but to guard against.insects, they would be worth having, as they keep off the cold winds, and great- ly promote the growth of the vines in the early part of the season." To save seed. — " Select some best summer fruit from good, productive plants, which permit to continue in full growth till they become yellow. Then cut them from the vine, and place them upright on end, in the full sun, for two or three weeks ; when they may be cut open, and the seed washed out from the pulp ; spread it to dry and har- den ; then put it up in papers or bags for future sowing. It will remain good for many years ; and seed of three oi 92 CrRCULlO. CURRANT. four years' keeping is preferable for early frame crops." — Abercrombte. Uses. — " Cucumbers are a salubrious, cooling; fruit, and may be safely allowed to consumptive patients, as they sweet- en acrid humours, at the same time are gently laxative ; but being in a considerable degree acescent, and sometimes at- tended with flatulency and diarrhcea, such effects may be prevented by eating them with great moderation ; or with the addition of vinegar and pepper, which counteract theii natural coldness. If properly pickled, (without colouring them with that poisonous metal, copper, or rendering them too acrid with stimulant spices,) they are an excellent an- tiseptic ; yet we consider them highly improper either for children or wet nurses." — Dom. Encyc. CURCULIO — an insect found in apples and other fruits. — See Insects. CURRANT. — Ribes. — There are several species ot cur- rants, of which the principal are the common red currant, the white currant, and the black currant. Soil and site. — All the sorts are very hardy, will grow freely and bear plentifully, almost any where, alike in open and shady situations, by which the fruit may be obtained early in June and July, and prolonged for several months in succession till October. As to soil, the currant generally does well in any common garden ground, well tilled and recruited ; it bears the greater crop in a strong loam, or improved clay, somewhat moist ; the earlier in a sandy light mould, which is not poor. Previous to planting, the ground should be dug two feet deep. The following directions for the cultivation of the cur- rant are taken from the Amer. Phil. Trans, vol. i. 1st series. " Plant them round the quarters in the garden, that they may have the benefit of the manure and culture annually bestowed thereon, which will consequently make the ber- ries large and the juice -ich. The red currant is preferable to the white, as yielding richer juice, and in much greater quantity. " Take the most luxuriant slips or shoots of a year's growth, set them in the ground about eight inches deep, and not less than twenty-four inches distant from each other : these never fail of taking root, and generally begin to bear in two years. For the rest, let them, from time tc time, be treated as espaliers, (but not against a wall,) ob- serving to keep the roots from suckers and giass. " The goodness of the currant depends upon their hav CURRANT. 93 ing the full benefit of the sun and air, to maturate and give the berries a proper balsamic quality, by exhaling a due proportion of their acid watery particles." M'Mahon observes, that " The only proper method of propagating gooseberries and currants is by cuttings ; suck- ers should never be resorted to, except in cases of -necessity, for such will always produce others numerously from their roots, which carry off the nourishment, that ought to go to the support of the fruit ; and, besides, they form such thickets, as to smother, and deprive them of the benefit of a free circulating air. " The proper cuttitigs for planting are the shoots of the last summer's production, of straight, clean growth ; they should be taken from healthy trees, and such as are re- markable, according to their kinds, for bearing the finest fruit; let each be shortened from about ten to twelve or fifteen inches long, according to its strength. " Previous to planting, cut off every bud as close as pos- sible to the shoot, except three, four or five, near the top ; which are to be left to form the head of the plant. Some people imagine, that the buds of those parts inserted in the earth grow into roots, which is by no means the case, na- ture never having designed them for such ; the roots, or fibres, always strike out through the clean and smooth bark, but generally a little below a bud, and sometimes at the 'ower extremity of the cutting, from between the bark and the wood." The cuttings may be first planted in rows, eighteen inches or two feet asunder, and about eight or nine inches apart in the rows. When they have had one or two years' growth in these rows, they may be planted out either in autumn or early in spring, where they are intended to produce iVuit. Dr. Thacher directs to " let no limbs grow nearer than six inches of the ground. Prune the shrub every year, and keep it thin of wood, leaving the middle open ; the limbs extended ; and, when these get about three feet in length, cut off, every spring, all the last year's shoots. To cultivate on an extensive scale for the purpose of making wine, set the bushes in rows, six or eight feet between each bush, with intervals of proper width, and at regular distSinces for passing across the rows. It is estimated that an acre well cultivated will probably yield on an average a quantity of fruit sufficient to make one thousand gallons of wine annually. The expense of ma- king this wine is about fifty cents a gallon. " The common black currants are larger than the red or 94 rtKRANT. ivhite, but they have a peculiar flavour, which to ■jome persons is unpleasant; they are, however, wholesome, and afford a juice which, when made into syrup with su- gar, is much esteemed in sore throats and quinsies. The officinal black currant has a small berry, but is highly valu- able as a medicine when made into wine. In lung fevers, pu*rid fevers, and ulcerous sore throats, and in putrid dys- entery, the medicinal properties of this wine are not to be surpassed." — Thacher^s Orchardist, p. 225. The following receipt for the manufacture of currant wine is by Dr. Green, of Mansfield, Mass. " Let the currants be fully ripe, anfl freed from all leaves, webs of insects, and decayed or defective fruit ; break and press out the juice, and to every gallon of juice add two gallons of water, and to every gallon of this mixture three and one fourth pounds of good clean sugar, one gill of good brandy, and one fourth of an ounce of alum pulverized. Mix well together, and put the same into a clean cask. To expedite the process, ascertain the number of gallons the cask intended for the wine will contain — calculate the proportions of the ingredients — put into the cask the juice, brandy and alum — dissolve the sugar in water, and fill the rask, and with a stick mix the whole together. " In the month of March following, draw off the wine, adding one gill of brandy to a gallon, and the wine is excellent, and improves by age. After the wine is drawn off, the residue may be worked into vinegar, or be suspend- ed in a thick bag, in a cool place, that the remaining wine may filter out and be saved." A kind of wine has been manufactured from the black '•urrant, by Samuel Wyllys Pomerot, of Brighton, Mass. which has been mach celebrated for its medicinal proper- ties. Dr. John G. Coffin, editor of the Boston Medical Intelligencer, says of this wine, " It has all the good properties of the best Port, without any of its heating or constipating effects. We could name several instances, where, in great debility and exhaustion, after protracted and severe fever, and from other causes, nothing else could be thought of, or taken with pleasure or advantage, in which this wine proved grateful to the palate, and most friendly to the stomach; in which, indeed, it was the principal means of conducting the patient to health and strength." " Its exhibition has been attended with remarkable suc- cess in the early stages of cholera and dysentery, — and again also in the later stages of these diseases, after the CUTTINGS, OR SLIPS. 9a symptoms of inflammation orfebrile excitement had ceased. It has been strikingly remedial in the low states of typhoia and bilious fever. The late Capt. Gilchrist, who for several years followed the Batavia trade, and who had always suf- fered an attack of the severe cholera, which proves so destructive of human life in that climate, used to say thai after he had this wine with him, and took two glasses of it every morning, he escaped the disease. On one voyage, his mate, who had not taken the wine, was seized with this complaint, when a bottle or two stopped its progress. We have not room to enumerate many other morbid affections, in which this wine has proved useful. In sore throat it has, for many years, been considered almost a specific reme dy." CUTTINGS, or SLIPS.— The branches, twigs or slips of plants, shrubs or trees, may, sometimes successfully, be cut oflF, and set in the ground to take root and grow. The best time for this operation is from the middle of August to the middle of April ; but when it is done, the sap ought not to be too much in the top ; neither must it be very dry or scanty, for the sap in the branches assists it to take root. When you intend to propagate trees for timber, or for a tall, stately growth, he very particular never to take the cuttings from horizontal branches, for they will ever have an inclination to grow in a spreading manner ; always make choice of perpendicular shoots, and particularly those that terminate the branches ; these will produce the straightes* trees. The power of protruding buds or roots resides chiefly at the joints, or those parts where leaves or buds already ex- ist. Cuttings should, therefore, be cut smoothly across at an eye or joint. This cutting ought to be made in the wood of the growth of the preceding season, or in the point between the two growths. It is a common practice to cut off the whole or part of the leaves of cuttings, which Loudon says is attended with bad effects. " Cuttings which are difficult to strike may be rendered more tractable by previous ringing; if a ring be made on the shoot which is to furnish the cutting, a callus will be created, which, if inserted in the ground after the cutting is taken off, will freely emit roots. A ligature would, perhaps, operate in a similar manner, though not so efficiently ; it should lightly encircle the shoot destined foi a cutting, and the latter should be taken off when an accumulation of sap has apparently been produced. The amputation in the cas« 96 CUTTINGS, OR SLIPS. of the ligature, as well as in that of the ring, must be made be- low the circles, and the cutting must be so planted as to have the callus covered with earth." — Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p.558 " The insertion of the cuttings may seem an easy mat- ter, and none but a practical cultivator would imagine that there could be any difference in the growth, between cut- tings inserted in the middle of a pot, and those inserted at its sides. Yet such is actually the case, and some sorts of trees, as the orange, ceratonia, &c if inserted in a mere mass of earth, will hardly, if at all, throw out roots, while, if they are inserted in sand, or in eirth at the sides of tlie pots, so as to touch the pot in their whole length, they seldom fail of becoming rooted plants. Knight found the laulberrv strike very well by cuttings, when they were so inserted, and when their lower ends touched a stratum ol gravel, or broken pots ; and Hawkins, {Hort. Tram. vol. ii. p. 12,) who had often tried to strike orange trees with- out success, at last heard of a method, by which, at firs;, trial, eleven cuttings out of thirteen grew. The art is to place them to touch the bottom of the pot ; they are then to be plunged in a bark or hot-bed, and kept moist." " The management of cuttings, after they are planted, de- pends on the general principle, that, where life is weak, all excesses of exterior agency must have a tendency to render it extinct. No cutting requires to be planted deep, though such as are large ought to be inserted deeper than such as are small. In the case of evergreens, the leaves should be kept from touching the soil, otherwise they will damp, and rot off; and in the case of tubular-stalked plants, which are in general not very easily struck, owing to the water lodging in the tube, and rotting the cutting, both ends may, in some cases, (as in common honey-suckle,) be advanta- geously inserted in the soil, and, besides a greater certainty of success, two plants will be produced. Too much light, air, water, heat or cold, are alike injurious. To guard against these extremes in tender sorts, the means hith- erto devised is that of enclosing an atmosphere over the cuttings, by means of a hand or bell-glass, according to their delicacy. This preserves a uniform stillness and moisture of atmosphere. Immersing the pot in earth, (if the cutting^s are in pots,) has a tendency to preserve a stear dy, uniform degree of moisture at the roots ; and shading, or planting the cuttings, if in the open air, in a shady situa- tion, prevents the bad effects of excess of light. The only method of regulating the heat is by double or single cover* DANDELION. 97 ings of glass or mats, or both. A hand-glass .laced over a bell-glass will preserve, in a shady situation, a very constant degree of heat. Whatever degree of heat is natural to the mother plant, when in a growing state, will, in general, be most favourable to the growth of cuttings." — Loudon. The same writer says, " Every variety of apple may be grown from cuttings ; though some with much greater fa- cility than others. All those of the burknot and codling tribes grow as well this way as by any other, and some al- lege, that the trees so raised are not liable to canker, (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 120,) which is supposed to be owing to their ' putting out no tap-root, but spreading their nume rous fibres from the knot or bur horizontally.' Even tht; golden pippin may be continued in this way, and the trees have remained seven years in perfect healthy when grafts taken not only from the same tree, but from the very branch, part of which was divided into cuttings, cankered in two or three years. ' All apple-trees raised in this way,' Biggs observes, ' from healthy one-year-old branches, with blossom-buds upon them, will continue to go on bearing the finest fruit, in a small compass, for many years. Such trees are peculiarly proper for forcing, and not liable to canker.' — Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 65. The cuttings are to be chosen from the youBg wood of horizontal or oblique branches, rather than from upright ones ; from six to eight inches or more in length, with a small portion of old wood at the lower end. Cut off the tip of the shoot, and all the buds, excepting two or three next the tip or upper extrem- ity ; then smooth the sections at the lower end, and insert them three or four inches in sandy loam, pressing the earth firmly to them, watering, and covering with a hand-glass. The proper time for this operation is early in February, and the glass should not be touched, excepting to give water, till the shoots have sprung an inch or two. Shade luring the mid-day sun, and begin to harden by giving air in July • finally, remove the glass in August ; and in October •rausplant to nursery rows, or in pots, according to future intention. With the burknpt tribe, all that is necessary is to plant the cuttings in a shady border, and treat them like those of the gooseberry or currant." DANDELION. — Lemtodon taroaaam.—'Vihis is a hardy perennial plant, which is found growing spontaneously in Great Britain and the United States. Loudon says that this vegetable, " though regularly produced in London market, is seldom or never cultivated, being generally to be found 96 DIBBLE. DlLlu. in suiBeicDt luxuriance by the sides of hedges and dry ditches. It might easily be propagated either by seeds oi roots ; and, if introduced as a garden plant, should have a rich, deep soil, and be carefully tied up and earthed round to blanch it effectually. Cut off all the flowers as they appear, to prevent the dispersion of the seed, and the weak- ening of the plant. When salad is scarce, the dandelion might be dug up from road-sides in winter, and forced in pots like succory. " Use. — The leaves in early spring, when just unfolding, afford a very good ingredient in salads. The French some- times eat the young roots, and the etiolated, [blanched or whitened] leaves with thin slices of bread and butter. When blanched, the leaves considerably resemble those of endive in taste. The root is considered an equally good substitute for coffee as chiccory, and may, like that plant, be stored in cellars and barrels, for producing winter salad." — Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 138. In this country, the dan- delion has, we believe, been used for greens, or pot-herbs only, and we have never known it subjected to cultivation. DIBBLE — a tool used by gardeners and farmers in Eu- rope, chiefly in transplanting. It consists of a stick about a foot or eighteen inches long, slightly sharpened at the end, with which a hole is made to receive the plant or seed. It may be made of the upper part of an old spade or shovel handle, sharpened a little at the lower end. The common dibble is about eighteen inches long. The long dibble, used for potatoes, is about three arid a half feet long. The following method of making holes for beans has been recommended, viz. — Take a plank of oak, of such size as a man can easily manage, by a handle fixed upright in the middle of it, and of such thickness as not to give way in working ; in the under part of this plank let there be fixed wooden pegs of such length, and at such distance from each other, as may form proper holes in the ground for the beans : when the land has been properly prepared, the workman must thrust the pegs of this instrument into the ground, and proceed sideways, managing it so that there may be the same distance between the last row of holeg made by the first impression and the first row made by the next, as there is between the rows of any one impression. The youngest children may be taught to follow the instru- luent. and drop a bean into every hole that it makes. DILL. — 'Anethum grwoeolens. — Dill is a haidy b'nnniit] DRAINS. 99 plant, a native of Spaiu, somewhat similar to lennel, but smaller. It is raised from seed sown in any of the autumnal months, or very early in the spring. Half an ounce of seed is sufficient for a bed three feet by four feet. M'Mahon directs to sow dill broad-cast on four feet wide beds, ccivering it, if sown in autumn, half an inch, and if in spring, a quarter of an inch deep : when the plants come up, thin them to six inches distance, and the same season they will perfect their seeds ; which, if any are suflFered to shed, will not fail to come up plentifully the next year. The seeds and leaves of this plant are used for giving a flavour to pickles, and also occasionally in soups and saiTres. It is also used in medical preparations. DRAINS. — ^Drains used in agriculture may be divided into two kinds, open and covered. They should be of a size and depth proportioned to the extent of the tract which it is wished to drain, and the probable quantity of water for which they are designed to be channels* They should, generally, be carried through the lowest aad wettest part of the soil. It is a rule in making drains, to begin at the lowest place, and'work upwards, by which means the water will pass from the workmen, and point out fire level. The mud and other materials, which are dug out of a ditch or drain, should not be suffered to lie in heaps by the side of the ditch, but should be spread as equally as possible over the surface of the drained land. In some cases, it will be expedient to transport the earth taken from ditches to the farm-yard or the hog-pen, to form-a part of that layer, which good farmers generally spread over those places, to imbibe liquid manure, or make into compost. In many instances, it is asserted, that the earth dug out of ditches, is worth enough for manure, to pay for the expense of digging the ditches. Open drains often answer the purpose not only of con- veying off superfluous water, but serve for enclosing fields But they make a hazardous and inconvenient fence without the addition of a bank, hedge, or railing. The Farmer's Assistant says, " When a ditch is made for a fence, it ought to be four feet wide at the top, one or less at the bottom, and about two and a half deep ; with the earth all thrown out on one side, and banked up as high as possible." Sir John Sinclair ^ates, that " it is a general rule, regarding open drains, with a view of giving sufficient slope and sta- bility to their sides, that the width at top should be three times as much as that which is necessarv at the bottom ; and 100 DRAINS. in thu case oi' peat mosses, or soft soils, it should be such as to allow the water to run off without stagnation, but not with ?o rapid a motion as to injure the bottom." The American editor of Sir John Sinclair's Code of Ag- riculture observes, that " The most expeditious, eflfectual, and economical mode of making a drain would undoubtedly be, to use oxen, and a scraper, or ox-shovel, as it is= some- times called, — an instrument well known in this country in the making of roads. In some cases, this mode might not answer, as in very miry grounds, and lands just cleared of timber. But where lands are very miry, if the process is be- gun at the outlet of the water, — and there, indeed, it ought nlways to be begun, — the next adjoining portion will, gene- rally, be made so dry as to allow being trodden upon in a proper if there are no such hollows, or they have already been filled, the earth may be spread over the surface in such a manner as to do the most good. If the earth is not wanted for other pur- poses, it is recommended to drop and spread it, if practi- cable, in such a manner as to leave the general surface of the land sloping towards the drain, that the water may the more readily incline towards it, and pass off. At some dis- tance below the surface, in peat grounds, there is usually found a hard stratum of earth, called, in the common lan- guage of our farmers, hardpan. The hard pan, if ploughed into, scraped out, and spread on the surface, would greatly improve the texture of such soils. This furnishes another argument in favour of using a scraper in draining, for in no other way can the upper earth, taken out of the drains, be so cheaply removed, and put on the adjoining ; nor in any other way can the hard pan be so easily broken up and carried off; nor in any other way, oftentimes, can suitable earth be so well obtained, for the purpose of spre&ding it oTer the sutface with a view to improve the texture of the DRAINS. 101 soil. If the object be to pile the earth from the drains into heaps, with a view to composts, this purpose is completely accomplished by means of the scraper." To make a covered drain, dig a channel oetween thirty and thirty-six inches wide at the top, and six inches, or the breadth of a spade, at the bottom, and three feet deep, giv- ing it just descent enough to make the water run briskly. Fill it half full or more of small stones, thrown in at ran- dom, and cover them with a layer of straw, leaves, or the small branches of trees with the leases on them ; then fill it up to a level with the surface, with the earth that was thrown out. In forming small drains, chiefly for retentive soils, the common plough may be used. A mode described in Fbanjf's ATmals of Agriculture, from very ample practice, is his : he says, when he has marked the drains in a field, usually a rod asunder, he draws two furrows with a com- mon plough, leaving a balk betwixt them, about fifteen inches wide ; then, with a strong, double-breasted plough, made on purpose, he splits that balk, and leaves a clean furrow fourteen or fifteen inches below the surface ; but where the depth of soil requires it, by a second ploughing he sinks it to eighteen or twenty inches ; it is then ready for the land-ditching spade, with which he digs, fifteen inches deep, a drain as narrow as possible. But the method followed by some farmers, who do not possess ploughs made on purpose for the work, is this : with their common plough, drawn by four or five horses, and usually stirring about four or five inches deep, they turn a double fiirrow, throwing the earth on each side, and leaving a balk in the middle. This balk they raise by a second bout, in the same manner; then they go in the open furrow twice, with their common double-breast plough, getting what depth they can. After this, they shovel out all the loose mould and inequalities to the breadth of about a foot ; and thus having gained a clear, open furrow, the depth varying according to the soil and ploughs, but usually about eight or nine inches, they dig one spit with a draining spade sixteen inches deep, thus gaining in the Vhole twenty-four or twenty-six inches. But as this depth is seldom suflScient, when necessary, they throw out another, or even two other spits, which makes the whole depth from thirty to forty inches. — Loudon. Turf-covered drains may be made as follows : — ^Tum up a ivep fiirrow with a strong plough ,. clear the sod from th« 102 ;iucK. earth thus turned rp, reduce it to ahout three inches in thiclcness, and then place it in the furrow from whence it was taken. The grassy side being placed uppermost, there is a hollow beneath, sufficient to discharge a considerable quantity of surface water, which readily sinks into it. This mode of draining is used on the sheep farms of the Cheviot Hills in England, and is recommended by Sir John Sinclair. It would not answer, however, in lands exposed to the tread of heavy cattle, as they would be apt to push their feet through a covering of turf of no more than three or four inches. Perhaps, in a few years, the verdure would thicken, and the sward strengthen over drains of this kind, so that there would be nothing to apprehend from the tread of the heaviest animals. Cultivation of drained land. — It is well known that swamps, marshes, and other low lands are commonly places of deposit for the lighter and more fertile parts of the soil, washed from the neighbouring hills. Many marshes are in fact intervale land,' naturally too wet for profitable culti- vation. Wet lands, which receive the wash of higher grounds of a tolerable quality, may be expected to be worth considerable expense in draining. A bog, however, on the top of a hill, not overlooked by high ground, we should suspect of barrenness, and would not be at great expense in draining it, without examining and analyzing the soil in various parts, and becoming satisfied of its fertility. But a drained marsh, which can be flooded at the will of its owner, by means of a dam at its outlet, with water which has washed the neighbouring uplands, may be considered as inexhaustible, and, perhaps, had better be appropriated to the raising of hemp. That plant exhausts the soil very much, and it would, therefore, be good economy to raise it where the land can be recruited without manure from the farm-yard, &c. If the land is rich, not very dry, or water can be set back in the ditches, in a dry time, to within three or four feet of the surface, it will be quite an object to introduce fowl meadow, (Agrostis stricta.) It is often advisable to let drained lands lie over one sum- mer to ferment and rot, before any attempt to cultivate them. Flooding them completely in the winter, and drarr- ing the water quite off rather late in the spring, will like- wise assist in rotting the sod. DUCK. — :" Ducks are excellent vermin pickers, whethe. of caterpillars, (such as are within their reach,) slugs, snails and others ; and ought to be turned into the garden EGG-PLANT. ELDER. 103 sue or two days every week, throughout the season. Never keep them longer in than two or three days at a time, else they tire of their food, and become indolent. While here, they should be offered no food, but may have a little water set down to them, if there be no pond or stream in the garden. "They are very foad of ripe strawberries or gooseber- ries ; and, while they can get at these, will seek little after snails, or other insects ; bat Ihey are most useful before these come into season for them. There are some kinds of vegetables they have a liking to, and on which the.y will fall, if vermin be any wise scarce ; therefore, when this is perceived, they should be turned out. Never turn them into the garden in the time of heavy rains, or in eontiuued wet weather ; as, in that case, and particularly if the soil be stiff, they patter and harden the surface, to the great in- jury of small crops, and rising seeds." — Nicol. . EGG-l^LANT. — Solanum melongena. — " There are twn varieties of this plant, the white-fruited and the purple, cul- tivated for culinary purposes ; the latter kind is preferable, and, when sliced and nicely fried, approaches, both in taste and flavour, nearer to that of a very nice fried oyster, than, perhaps, any other plant. " This delicious vegetable may be propagated by sowing the seed on a slight hot-bed, the beginning of April, or in March ; and towards the latter part of May, they should be planted in a rich, warm piece of'ground, at the distance of two feet and a half asunder, every way, for the purple, or two feet for the white kind ; and if kept clean, and a little earth be drawn up to their stems, when about a foot high, they will produce plenty of fruit. Or, the seed may be sown about the end of April, on a warm border, and planted out finally the beginning of June ; but these will be rather late, and not produce fruit so abundantly, in the Middle or Eastern States, as by the former method." — WMahon. ELDER. — Sambucns nigra. — This shrub grows plentifully in most or all pa!rts of the United States, and is too well known to need description. .Something, however, may be said with regard to its uses, some of which may not be so well known. " This tree, professor Martyn observes, is a whole maga- zine of physic to rustic practitioners, nor is it quite neg- lected by more regular ones. An excellent healing oint- ment is made of the green, inner bark, which is also purga- ti"3 in moderate, and diuretic in small doses. A d.»""or.tio» 104 ELECAMPAKE. of the flowers promotes expectoration and perspiration, and they give a peculiar flavour to vinegar. The flowers are reported to be fatal to turkeys, and the berries to poultry in general. No quadruped will eat the leaves of this tree ; notwithstanding it has its own phalcma and aphis. The wood is used by the turner and mathematical instrument maker ; and is made into skewers for butchers, tops, an- gling rods, and needles for weaving nets." — Loudon. Willich says, " The leaves are eaten by sheep, to which it is of great service, when diseased with the rot ; for, if placed in a situation where they can easily reach the bark and young shoots, they will speedily cure themselves." The expressed juice of elder leaves, it is said, will kill skippers in cheese, bacon, &c. ; and strong decoctions of it, poured or sprinkled over plants, are said to be fatal to insects. In Europe, this shrub, is sometimes propagated, but in this country, to destroy it is commonly an object of more consequence to the cultivator. It was remarked by the Rev. Dr. Jared Elliot, in his Essays on Field Husbandry, that " Elder bushes are stubborn and hard to subdue, yet I know by experience that mowing them five times a year will kill them." To make elder-berry wine. — One bushel, when picked from the stalks, produces three gallons, or upwards, of berries ; put these to seven gallons of soft water ; after standing forty- eight hours, put them into the copper, let them boil one hour, then press the juice through a coarse cloth ; then put the liquor into your copper again, with twenty pounds of raw sugar, half a pound of Jamaica ginger, bruised, one ounce of cloves, and one ounce of allspice. Boil the whole together one hour, then put it into a tub, and, when cold enough, add some good yest spread on a toast, and in two days put it all into a cask, and lay the bung lightly on for two months ; then add one quart of brandy ; this wine will keep for several years. ELECAMPANE.— Jn«Z«,— This plant is found wild in moist pastures, both in Europe and America. It may be propagated either by seeds, sown in October, or offsets, which, if carefully taken from the old roots, with a bud or eye to each, will take root freely. M'Mahon directs to set such oflFsets in rows, about a foot asunder, and the same distance plant from plant in the rows. They will be fit for use after two years' growth, but will abide many years if permitted to stand. But young roots are preferable to thos* which aiHoIJ, as they become tough and stringy bv a^e. ENDIVE. 105 Use. — ^This is a plant of some repute in medicine. It is said to strengthen the stomach and promote perspiration. An infusion of the roots, sweetened with honey, is useful in hooping cough. If liberally tt-kcn, they are diuretic, and said to be of great service in removing visceral pbstruc-. tions. A decoction of this plane has been employed by farmers for the cure of scab in sheep ; and externally ap- plied for removing disorders of thrf skin. The fresh roots beaten in a mortar, with new butter, and applied externally, are said to cure the itch, scald head, &c. ENDIVE. — Cichorium endivia. — The endive is a hardy annual, a native of China and Japan, and introduced into Great Britain in 1548. The varieties are Greeu curled leaves, | White curled leaves, | Broad-leaved Batavian. Estimate of sorts. — " All the sorts are eligible for culture , but allot, principally, the green curled for the main crops of autumn and winter endive, this being of the most stocky, full growth, and hardiest to stand severe weather. As to the others, allot a smaller portion of the white curled for early summer and autumn use : of the broad-leaved kind, irovide a moderate crop for autumn, till November or De- .ember ; being by some esteemed preferable for stews and oups, though not much used in salads." Propagation. — All the varieties are raised from seed, of which, for a seed-bed four feet by ten in length, half an ounce is sufficient. Times of sowing. — " The proper seasons are. May, for a smaller early crop ; and principally June and July to the beginning of August; for full and successive crops, all autumn and winter, till the following spring. For, if sown earlier than the middle of May, or beginning of June, they will mostly run to stalk the same season, before attaining mature, useful growth. If any are required for early young summer endive, sow only a small portion of the white curled in April or May, as the plants will soon run to seed. In the middle, or towards the end of May, you may begin sowing moderately of the different sorts ; but do not sow fully til nearly the middle of June, that the plants may stand with outrunning to seed the sameyeai. About the twelfth ano twenty-fifth of that month, also at the beginning and middle of July, sow the main and successive crops, for autumn and winter ; and a finer smaller sowing about the beginning of August, for late supplies in the end of winter and following spring. Cidlurr in the seed-bed. — " Sow each sort separately is 106 ENDIVE. beds of rich, mellow earth, in an open sitnation, scattering the seeds thinly, and rake in the seed. When the plants are up an inch or two in growth, thin them moderately, where in clusters, that they may have room to grow stronger and stocky, for transplanting. But if a portion are sown in soil of sufficient depth, and tiiinned to the distances mentioned under transplanting, instead of being moved, they may be expected to produce heads of the finest kind, under the same culture as is given to the others. Transplanting. — " As the plants attain a sufficient growth, being from four to six inches high, or in a month or five weeks from the time of sowing, proceed to transplant the successive crops. . The ground should be light and rich, on a dry sub-soil. Dig it a full spit deep; set in shallow trenches or drills the depth of a hoe, endive blanches with less trouble than if inserted on a level surface. The lines may be fifteen inches asunder j the plants ten or twelve inches distant in the lines. Drawing the strongest first, plant out portions from June to October ; but the principal removals will fall in August, in which month three different plantings may be made for succession ; also for a general winter crop, at the beginning of Septeajber. While the plants are in hand, trim the extremities of the leaves, an^ shorten the tap roots a little ; water at planting, and mode- rately afterwards, once in two davs. if the weather be dry till the plants take root. At the end of September, and in October, likewise, plant some in a warm, dry border, to stand the winter more effectually. Also, in the last fort- night of October or beginning of November, it would be proper to insert some stout plants, thickly, on a bank of dry, light soil, raised a foot or two behind, s'oping to thfi south. Thus they will remain drier in winter, and will be preserved more securely from rotting in that season. The bed might also be defended, in very severe weather, with frames and glasses, or with an occasional awning of mats or sail cloth. Blanching. — " As the transplanted crops advance to full growth, stocky and full in the heart, some should have the leaves tied up every week or fortnight, to blanch or whiten, and to render them tender, crisp, and mild-tasted. Perform this in dry days, and in winter, when the weather is dry without frost. Using strings of fresh bass, or small osiei twigs, tie the leaves regularly together, a little above the middle, moderately close. If the soil be liglit and dry. earth them up half way ; but if moist, mere!" tie them ESPALIERS. 107 The two curled sorts, if neatly earthed mp, will blanch pf et- tT well without being tied. The Batavian, from its loftier, looser growth, in every case hearts and blanches better with a bandage. The blanching will be completed some- times in a week, when the weather is hot and dry ; at others, it may take a fortnight or three weeks ; after which the endive should be taken up for use, or it will soon rot, in sis days or less, especially if much rain fall. To save the trouble of tying, this esculent is also occasionally blanched by setting up flat tiles, or boards, on each side of the plants, which, resting against each other in an angular form, and confined with earth, exclude the light. Furtlier, endive may be blanched under garden-pots or blanching- pots, in the manner of sea-kale. In the heat of summer and autumn, tying up is best ; but in wet or cold weather, to cover the plants preserves while it blanches them. Occasimai shelter. — " At the approach of severe frost, cover some thickly with straw litter. Also plunge a por- tion into a raised bank of light, dry earth, under a glass ease, or covered shed, open to the south. Protect with litter in rigorous weather ; but uncover, and give plenty of air, on mild days. To save seed. — " Allot some of the strongest old plants in February or March, if any remain ; otherwise, sow seed in March or April, and transplant or thin the plants to twelve or fifteen inches distance They will shoot, and the seed ripen in autumn. Use. — " It is cultivated for the stocky head of leaves, which, after being blanched to take away the bitter taste, are used in salads and stews." — Loudon. ESPALIERS. — ^Espahers in horticulture are rows of trees, planted in gardens or hedges, and trained to rails, lattices or trellises of wood work, &c. The trees chiefly planted for espaliers are, apples, pears, and plums. Espalier rails are substitutes for walls, and which they so far resemble, that the trees are regularly spread and trained along them, are fiiUy exposed to the light, and, having their branches fixed, are less liable to be injured by high winds. They may be made of wood, cast iron, or wire and wood. " An espalier has this advantage over a wall tree, that, as being wholly detached, the branches have liberty to form fruit spurs on both sides, which, in the wall tree cannot be, effected but on one ; in fact, common fruit walh are un« necessary in the ITnited States, except in the Eastern 108 FENNEL. and some of the Middle States, where Aey are asefal i_ forwarding, to due perfection and flavour, soine late kinds of superior peaches, grapes, and other late fruits; but when walls are built for other purposes, and are conveiiiently situated, advantage ought to be taken of them for raising fruit; observing to suit the various kinds to the various aspects." — M^Mahon. FENNEL. — Anethum fmniadum. — " The fennel is a per- eenial plant, naturalized in England, and found in chnlk} soils. The plant rises with finely cut leaves, and capillary leaflets, on a smooth, dark-green, branched, tubular stalk, to the height of five or six feet. On the summit are pro- duced umbels of gold-coloured flowers, in July and August. The whole plant is aromatic, and has long been an inmate of the garden. " Use. — The tender stalks of common fennel are used in salads ; the leaves, boiled, enter into many fish sauees ; and, raw, are garnishes for several dishes. The blanched stalks of the variety called Jinochio are eaten with oil, vine- gar, and pepper, as a cold salad, and they are likewise sometimes put into soups. " The parieties are — The common, or sweet, Dark-ffreen-leaved, Dwarf, or finochio. This variety is characterized by a tendency m the sialic to swell to a consider- able thickness. This thickened part is blanched by earthing up, and is then very tender. ' Chv- ing to the peculiar nature of this va- riety,' Ncill observes, ' it is more tender than the common fennel, and often perishes in the course of the winter. Misled by this circum- stance, several horticultural writers describe it as an annual species, un- der the a|)pellation A. s^etum. " Propagation. — They are all raised from seed, of which half an ounce is suflScient for a seed-bed four feet by six feet. Sometimes, also, they are raised from offsets from the old plants, where only a few are wanted. ' Sow in the spring in light earth, either in drills from six to twelve inches apart, or broad-cast and raked in. When the plants are three or four inches high, thin or transplant a quantity fifteen inches asunder. As the roots of old plants divide into side offsets, these may be slipped oif in spring, sum- mer, or autumn, and planted a foot apart. They will pro- duce immediate leaves for present supply, and in continu- ance ; or, for an immediate larger supply of leaves, you may procure some established full roots, and plant as above : let thpm oe well watered.' " Subsequent culture. — 'The same plants remain several years by the root ; b i- as fennel sends 'ip strong stems foi FLOWERS. 109 seed in sitmmer. these, or a part of them, should be cut down, to encourage a production of young leaves below, in succession. It is apt to spread more than is desirable, iT suffered to seed. The swelling steins of the fin'ochio varie- ty, when of some tolerable substance, should be earthed up on each side five or six inches, to blanch them white and tender. This will be effected in ten days or a fortnight ; and, by successive sowings, or cutting down plants during summer, successive crops of blanched stalks may be had from June to December.' " To save seed. — 'Permit some of the best stalks to shoot; they will produce large umbels of seed in autumn.' — Aber- FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL.— Should the agricul- turist have no taste for ornamental gardening, yet such is the laudable taste of the fair daughters of America, at the present day, that there are but comparatively few, that do not take an interest in a flower garden. And this alone is a sufficient reason for the publication of these remarks. Horticulture, as it respects ornamental gardening, is one of the most innocent, the most healthy, and, to some, the most pleasing employment in life. The rural scenes which it affords are instructive lessons, tending to moral and social virtue ; teaching us to " look through nature up to nature's God." Flower gardens were ever held in high estimation by persons of taste. Emperors and kings have been delighted with the expansion of flowers. " Consider the lilies of the field," said an exalted personage, "Aoto they grow;" for Solomon, when clothed in the purple of royalty, " was not arrayed like one of these." Nature, in her gay attire, unfolds to view a vast variety, which is pleasing to the hu- man mind ; and consequently has a tendency to tranquillize the agitated passions, and exhilarate the man, nerve the imagination, and render all around him delightful. The cultivation of flowers is an employment adapted to every grade, the high and the low, the rich and the poor ; but especially to those who have retired from the busy scenes of active life. Man was never made to rust out in idleness. A degree of exercise is as necessary for the preservation of health, both of body and mind, as food. And what exercise is more fit for him, who is in the decline of life, than that of superintending a well ordered garden ? What more enlivens the sinking mind ? What more invigo- 10 llO FLOWERS rates the JeeUe frame 1 What is more conducive to a long life? Floriculture is peculiarly calculated for the amusement of youth. It may teach them many important lessons. Let a piece of ground be appropriated to their use — to im- prove in such a manner as their inclinations shall dictate — to cultivate such plants as are pleasing to their taste ; and let them receive the proceeds. Let order and neatness pervade their little plantations. Let them be instructed, that nothing valuable is to be obtained or preserved without labour, care, and attention — that as every valuable plant must be defended, and every noxious weed removed, so every moral virtue diust be protected, and every corrupt passion and propensity subdued. The cultivation of flowers is an appropriate amusement for young ladies. It teaches neatness, cultivates a correct taste, and furnishes the mind with many pleasing ideas. The delicate form and features, the mildness and sympathy of disposition, render them fit subjects to raise those tran- scendent beauties of nature, which declare the "per-, fectioKs of the Creator's power." The splendid lus- tre and variegated hues (which bid defiance to the pencil) of the rose, the lily, the tulip, and a thousand others, harmonize with the fair, fostering hand that tends them — with the heart susceptible to the noblest impres- sions — and with spotless innocence. Situation. — As to the proper situation for a garden, it is not always in our power to choose. A level plat, however, is to be preferred ; for, if there be considerable descent, the heavy rains will wash away the soil. A southern aspect, sheltered from the north and north-west winds, is a proper situation for most plants. An inclination towards the north, or west, or any point between them, should, if possible, be avoided. Soil. — The natural soil should be a deep loam, which is easily made rich by old, rotten manure. But here, again, it IS not always in our power to choose such a soil. In such cases we must endeavour to imitate — we must dig and carry off — and bring on loam, &c. and make a rich soil. The ground ought to be well pulverized with the plough or the spade. In a word, what is wanted, is a deep, rich soil, natural or artificial^ not too wet, nor too dry. The ground in a garden must be kept rich, and often stirred. It ought to be manured every year. A compost made of decayed vegetables, yard manure, rotten leaves, FLOWERS. 11 J asbes, and mould from any place, where it can be had, is proper for a garden. A garden should be well defended, by a high and tight fence, especially on the north and west. Sawing and planting. — In the first place, the ground must be made fine, as well as rich. It should be moderately moist, not too wet, nor too dry. The beds should be raised three or four inches above the level of the walks ; and the seeds ought, by all means, to be sown in rows, ten or twelve inches apart ; and the earth should be moderately pressed upon them. The time for sowing either annua!, biennial, or perennial flower-seeds, is in the months of April and May, according to the state of the season. Very small seeds may be covered with fine earth nearly half an inch ; larger ones in proportion to their size ; and those as large as a pea, to the depth of an inch, or a little more. Seeds of delicate plants should be planted in flower-pots, and the earth kept moderately moist, by watering with a watering-pot, that is finely pierced, and does not pour heavily ; or the pot may be placed in the pan, and water supplied at the bottom. The pots should be exposed to the sun, except from eleven, A. M., to two, P. M., when a pow- erful sun might scorch the vegetating seed. The mould for pots should be rich, and sifted through a coarse sieve, made for that purpose. Transplanting. — ^The best time, perhaps, for transplant- ing annual plants is in June, and for biennial and perennial plants in September or the beginning of October, remem- bering, in all cases, to take a sufficient quantity of earth, with tbe roots, where it can be done with propriety. Scoop trowels will be found useful instruments in this operation, which ought not to be done when the ground is very wet, but when it is only moderately moist, and in a cloudy day, or a little before the evening, or previous to a shower. If the ground be dry, shading the plants, and a little water, may be necessary, for a short time. In case the roots should be small, or injured, or destitute of earth, when ior ken up, they must be shaded during the day, until they have gained strength. In placing a plant where it is to stand, great care is necessary to place the roots in their natural position, to bring the earth in contact with them, and to press the earth moderately about them. If the plant is to be planted in a pot, place a piece of earthen ware over the aperture in the bottom, that the su perabundant water may drain off, which would otherwise naturale and rot the roots. The pots should b* 'early filled 1 12 FLOWERS M«th rich earth, and the plant carefully plaeed in the centre, and the mould brought into contact with the roots, and moderately pressed. Cultivation. — The plants must be properly thinned while they are small ; for, if left too near each other, they interfere, grow slender and weakly. As the plants increase in size, remove the weakest, and so continue to tlo, until they stand at a proper distance. All plants of every de- soription should stand at such distance one from the other, as that the air may circulate freely about them, and that the sun may have its proper influence in bringing them to perfection. The air and sun are absolutely necessary in perfecting the growth of plants, which never ought to stand s& near as to interfere with each other. The earth ought to be kept loose about the plants, and for this purpose a prong-hoe is a useful instrument. Mov- ing the earth should be done in dry weather ; as ploughing, digging, or hoeing in wet weather, leaves the ground in a Dad, clammy state. In a dry season, stir the earth about plants, and spread old coarse hay or straw about them. Old hay spread about the plants keeps the earth cool, and re- tains the moisture, and is very useful to vines. Weeds of every species must be removed, and the soon- er the better after their appearance. No weed should be suiFered to flower in a garden, nor in its border. The beauty of a garden depends very much on order and neatness — i- place for every thing, and every thing in its place — ^keepiig out the weeds, and removing every thing when decayed. No garden can show to advantage, where weeds are per- mitted to usurp the place of useful plants. Shrubbery in general requires some attention. Prune oux all inferior, dead, and decaying branches. Keep down the suckers, and clean out the weeds, and stir the earth about the roots occasionally. Order and neatness add a lustre to every thing. Cuttings are pieces, cut from trees, shrubs, or plants of the last growth, and should generally retain a small piece of the growth immediately preceding tht last or ripened wood. They should be taken when the sap is active, and about six joints or buds are sufficient. Cut them with a sharp knife, transversely and smoothly, near a joint or bud of the previous growth, or between the two last grovrths. Set tuem in rich, moist ground, in a shady place, leaving two or three joints or buds above the surlao?. If the weath- er be dry, water them. And place old hay about them, to FLOWEKS. (13 keep the eirih. moist. Such parts of herbaceous plants should be taken for cuttings, as do not show a tendency to flower. If the cutting be planted in a flower-pot, place the pot in the earth, in a shady place, and cover the cutting with an inverted glass, for a short time, to preserve a moist atmosphere about it. If they send out roots, they will also send out branches, otherwise they die. Layers are branches left on the parent plant or shrub, and bent down, and fastened several inches (according to the case) below the surface of the earth, leaving the ex- treme part out of the ground. A flat stone, placed on the earth immediately above the layer, is useful to keep the - earth cool, and to retain the moisture. When they have taken sufficient root, sever them from the parent stock, and at any proper time they may be transplanted. As t» the cultivation of herbaceous plants and shrubs in pots, a few directions may be necessary. — The earth should be kept moderately moist. The mould on the top should be dry before additional water be given. The pots should be frequently turned round, or the plants will gsow crooked by reason of their inclining towards the sun or light. If the plaifts are to stand in pots, year after year, the balls of earth should be taken out in October, and the sides and bottom shaved off with a sharp knife, to the depth of an inch, more or less, according to the size, and then replaced, and the pot filled with some fresh compost or very rich earth made very fine. Two thirds of good rich earth and one third of old rotten yard-manure, well incorporated, make a good compost for most plants, except the bulbous-rooted, which require some sand. Protection during the winter. — Herbaceous plants in gene- ral require some slight covering during the severity of a northern winter. Pine boughs, straw, old coarse hay, or leaves, are useful for this purpose, and may be removed about the first of April or before, if "the weather will permit. BULBOUS FLOWER ROOTS.— No class of plants is more interesting, perhaps, than this ; yet merely an outline of the mode of cultivation must suffice. Situation. — A southern exposure, not too wet nor too dry, sheltered from the north and north-west winds, is proper for most bulbous roots. Soil. — Bulbous flower roots do best in a soil composed of one third sand, one third old rotten yard-manure, and one third good rich earth, well pulverized and mixed together; •nd if a small proportion, say about one fourth, of decoraprisod 10* • 14 FLOWER? vegetable mould, from a wood or swamp, be added, it Ttil have a good effect by giving additional lightness to the soil. The beds should be raised four oj five inches above the level of the walks, that the superfluous moisture may run otF. Some additional sand, strewed in the trenches made for the roots, before and after planting them, is recommended. Transplanting. — The proper season for transplanting most bulbous rootsj is in August, September, and October. The only advantage to be gained, by taking up bulbs, after blooming, (tulips excepted,) is either to divide the roots, when too numerous, or to renew a worn out soil, neither of which can oijcur oftener than once in three or four years. Tulips and hyacinths, when taken up after blooming, and after the foliage is decayed, may be kept from the ground till the middle of October. Delicate and tender bulbs, as the Feraria tigrida^ &c. may be planted in pots in November, or they may be kept in dry sand until April, (which is best,) and then planted in pots or open ground. In either case they must be secured from the frost. As to tulips and hyacinths, in order to preserve their beauty in perfection, the nicer varieties should be taken up, air-dried, and replanted annually. * ■ Depths mid distances. — Large bulbs, as the hyacinth and the large lilies, should be planted to the depth qf four inch- es ; tulips. Narcissus, jonquils, three inches ; crocus, Fe- raria tigrida, gladiolus, &c. two inches, always measuring from the top of the bulb. The polyanthos Narcissus may be planted five or six inches deep. The rows should be ten or twelve inches asunder, and the roots placed from three to eight inches apart, according to the size of the plants. Protection during winter. — Bulbous roots should be cover- ed in November with tanners' bark, leaves, rubbish of the garden, or some light substance, to the depth of three inches, to prevent the bad effects of severe frosts. Polyan- thos Narcissus is more tender than hyacinths, and ought to be covered six or seven inches. The covering must bp removed early in the spring. Management of bulbous roots in pots. — Hyacinths, polyan- thos Narcissus, double Narcissus, and jonquils, make a beautiful appearance, during winter, in the parlour. Bulbs intended for blooming in the winter, should be potted in October or November, and left out until it begins to freeze, and then placed in a warm room. They will want, occasionally, a little water, until they begin to grow , FLOWERS 115 then they should have both air and snn, and plenty of wa ter from the saucers or pans, underneath the pots. Those bulbs, as hyacinths, &c. which are designed tr flower in glasses, should be placed in them towards the end of November, the glasses being first filled with rain- water, so that the bulbs may come in contact with it. Then place them in a dark place for a few days, to promote the shooting of the roots, after which expose- them to the light and sun, and change the water as often as it becomes impure, not suifering it to freeze. Bulbous-rooted plants, growing in pots, should be fre- quently turned round, as they will incline to the sun or light— the earth on the top should be suffered to dry, before the next watering — when the plants have done growing, give them little or no water. If the plant be so managed the present year, as not to have a flower-bud formed in miniature, there will be no flower in the next. If the leaves be well grown, and the plant properly ex- posed to the air and sun, then the sap will be duly prepared by them, and an embryo flower will be formed in the bulb. All bulbs, in a certain period of the year, are dormant ; this state commences when the foliage begins to decay, after blooming — then lessen the supplies of water, and in a little time cease to water altogether, until the season of regermi- nation returns. The bulbs, during this time, may be kept ,in the pots in a dry, shady place, and in the same tempera- ture as that in which they delight to grow. Generally, it is best to take the bulbs out of the pots, after the decay of the foliage, and repot them in a fresh soil or compost, (mentioned above for bulbs,) a week or two before the period of regerminating ; at which time water will be necessary, and may be applied at the bottom, pouring into the pan, or it maybe applied by a small water- ing-pot, that pours lightly, on the top, so as to keep the earth moderately moist. ' The earth should be kept loose on the top, and the water used for the plants ought to b» rain water, or such as has been exposed to the sun. Watei that has been filtered through a rich compost is very useful The proper time to take up bulbous roots is in about month after blooming, when the foliage has a yellowish decayed appearance. Cut off' the stem and foliage withii aa inch of the bulb, leaving the fibrous roots attached to it After they are air-dried, place them singly in paper oi drj sand, until replanted, or spread them on shelves in a drj apartment 116 FLOWERS. Flowers are divided into annuals, which flower and die the year they ire sown biennials, which flower the second year, and thjii die ; and perermials, which do not, general- ly, flower the first year, but die down to the ground annu- ally, an 1 spring up again every succeeding spring for a number of years. In the following alphabetical list, flewering trees and shrubs are included. We shall select such plants, shrubs, and trees, as are of easy cultivation, generally hardy — such as have singular foliage, fragrant odours, or beautiful flowers — such as make a handsome appearance. As to placing them in the garden, or elsewhere, to advantage, we leave it to the convenience and taste of the proprietor. Althaea prutex — Hibiscus Syriactts — is a beautiful shrub, but requires a warm, sheltered situation in the Northern States. It is easily raised from the seeds, sown in the spring. The young plants must be well protected during the winter. Almond, double-flowering — Amygdalus pwnila — ^is a shrub, which is, generally, in the spring, loaded with beau- tiful flowers, resembling small roses. When in bloom, it is not inferior to any shrub whatever, and makes a fine ap- pearance in a border. It is propagated by suckers. Amaranthus superbus — annual — superb — ^flowers late -tender — plant the seed in May, or before, if the season be mild. Amaranthus tricolor. — This plant is annual, and is admired for its beautiful foliage, red, green and yellow — ten- der. The seed is found in little tufts about the stalk, and should be sown in May, or before, if the weather be warm. Animated oats — Avena sensiliva — are annual, and re- semble the common oats, while growing. The seeds are clothed with a stiff" down, and have appendages like the legs of some insect, with apparent joints. They are af- fected by the changes of the weather, and, of course, are continually moving. If they be wet, they will turn over several times, and twist about. If wet, and held to a light- ed lamp, they exhibit such motions of apparent agony, as an insect would, placed in a like situation. Aster, China. — It is annual, and produces many flowers, beautiful to the sight There are many species, as red, white, purple, striped, quilled, &c. The seed should be sown early in the spring. It flowers late in the season, and endures some frost, but will not stand a severe one. Auricula. — This is oks of the flowers, the species of FLOWERS. in which are distinguished by having awarded to them the names of famous men, famous women, famous cities, famous battles, &c. It may be raised from seed ; but the flowers so raised do not restmble those of the parent plant, except by mere accident. However, if a flower be produced different from any which h::s appeared before, there will be a cl ance to add to the list of names. Auriculas are best propagated by dividing the r^ots, which send out several young plants annually. They are tender, and, if planted in open ground they must be wel' covered, and be kept from severe fros and rain during the winter. They are well calculated fo pots, to flower iu the parlour. Azalea nudiflora. — Several species — commonly called American honeysuckle. This shrub blows profusely — very fragrant, and makes a fine appearance in a border. Box — Bvaais ;'0 n-owERS. uial plant, producing many beautiful flowers, much admired Propagated best by dividing the roots. Euphorbia lathykis — is a biennial plant, commonly called the caper-tree. It is singular in its foliage, and bears a small fruit useful for pickling. It is rather tnuder, but will stand the winter very well in a common hot-bed. It is raised from seed. Fading bea 'tv, or morning bride — Scaldosa atropur- purea — is an an lual plant, producing beautiful flowers ; but they soon fade, continuing only an hour or two. The seed should be planted early in the spring. FiH — Pinus balsamea — is not a flowering tree, but it is a beautiful evergreen, and very ornamental. Foxglove — Digitalis — is a biennial and perennial plant, and produces very handsome flowers. There are several species, but the purple is the most beautiful. The seed is very small, and ought to be sown early in the spring, and very lightly covered with earth. The plant possesses high medicinal virtues. Fringe-tree — Chionanthea — a beautiful American shrub, covered with white flowers in its season. It is hardy, and will grow in any soil, but flourishes best in moist ground. Geranium. — Pelargonium. — This plant wants hardiness only to make it one of the finest and most valuable produc- tions in the floral kingdom. There are many varieties. Some give us flower with little or no leaf; others possess beauty of leaf, as well as of flower ; some give us no fra- grance ; but others give us the most delightful odours, and in great profusion. The geranium is a native of the south of Africa, and will not endure the frost. It is easily propa- gated by cuttings from any part of the plant, old wood or young, and placed in a pot. In a green-house, they' will bloom throughout a northern winter. They are, properly, green-house plants. There is one, however, which is as hardy as an oak tree, geranium maculatum, producing li blue flower. It is possessed of great medicinal powers. Gaeden Angelica — Angelica archangelica — has a bold appearance when in flower. It is suitable for a border, and very showy. It is propagated by seed. It is a perennial Glycine, cluster-flowering — Glycine frutescens — is a perennial vine, and will extend on the side of a house ot wall to great length. It is much admired. The flowiers art variegated. Propagated by seed and from layers. Golden COREOPSIS. — Coreopsis elegans. — This is an an- uual plant, and produces a profusion of splendid flowers of FLOWERS 121 t, brilliant fellow, with rich purple centre. If is easily raised fron^ the seeJ. Golden fiVEiiLASTiNo — Xeranlhemum lucidum — is a very singular plant, and produces bright yellow flowers, which, if plucked before the seed ripens, will hold their brightness for years. It is much admired. The seed should be planted early, as the plant will flower late in the season. Hollyhock. — Althcea. — This is a showy plant for a shrubbery. It is hardy and perennial There are various binds; single and double, white, red, yellow, black, and variegated. Honeysuckle. — This plant is very beautiful in its place, it climbs up houses, and over hedges : it forms -"^lours and bowers : it blooms in clusters. Three varieties we shall name. The Itaiian (Lonicera Italica) produces an abun- dance of flowers early in the season, diffusing a rich fragrance .■il around. The flowers are changeable. The variegated (Lonicera caprifolium) blooms monthly, and has a delightful fragrance. The scarlet trumpet (CaprifoUum semperviretis) blooms monthly, — scarlet flowers, — and makes a beautiful appearance. They may be propagated by seed or cuttings, but best by layers. Hyacinth. — Hyacinthus orientalis. — This is a bulbous- rooted plant, and, like all other plants of this class, is peren nial. It is a betatiful and fragrant flower; it blooms early. It will bloom in glasses filled with water in a room, but better in pots of earth. It is best propagated by offsets. While the parent root is blowing, it sends out several young ones. They should be planted at the depth of four inches. There are many vai.eties of this favourite flower, both sin- gle and double , the former have the most vivid colours, but the latter are generally preferred. Such was the rage in Holland for this superb flower, that, in the year 1771, four thousand dollars were refused for a single bulb. Hydrangea — Hydrangea hortensis — is a small shrub, and produces very large flowers, which are changeable. The flowers are at first green — change gradually to rose-colour-^ , then to green — occupying the space of about six months. It is a house-plant ; will bear some frost ; but must be kept during the winter in a green-house, sitting-room, or cellair,- into which some light is admitted. This ornamental shrub is j^asily propagated by cuttings. ^tiE-vi,AifiT-r-Mesembryantheum crystallinum — is an annua plant, and has an icy appearance. It is singular. Tht se.jd should be planted i j pots early in the spring. 11 122 FLOWERS. Impatibns BAI.&AMINA.. — A vcpy fiae annusil plant, wiA great abundance of showy flowers. There are several var rieties, both single and double^ rose-coloured,, red, purple, pure white, variegated and crimson. The flowers are ele- gantly formed, and the colours of many are very vivid. The plant is eonamonly called baiiomine. It will bloom in July, and continue in flower until the frost appears. The seed should be sown in May. Iris, or flsvb de luce. — This is a perennial plant, per- fectly hardy. There are many varieties,, both large and small. From its great combination of colours, and unique appearance, it has ever had admirers. It shows to advan- tage in a border. It is propagated by dividing the icets. Lagejvtrcenia Indica. — A flowering shrub, which en^- dures the winter of the Middle and Southern States. Id Massachusetts, it must be treated like the hydrangea, but its beauty will repay this attention. Laurel, broad-leaved — Kahnia latifolia — is an ever- green shrub, which produces flowers of great deUcacy and beauty, being white,, tinged with red. This ornamental shrub is occasionally found in rocky woodlands. IjAburnum — Cifthus laburnum — is a tall and handsoma shrub,, loaded, when in bloom, with yellow flowers. It is sometimes called golden chain. It is tender, and to stand a Massachusetts winter must be planted in a warm and shel- tered situation. It is raised from the seed. Larkspur — Delphinium — is an annual plant of no fra>- grance, but of great variety of colours. . It makes a good appearance, and is easily propagated from the seed. Lilac. — Syringa vulgaris. — This is a large shrub, very hardy, and much admired when in bloom. It has large bunches of floweis, which possess considerable fragrance. The white and the purple may be easily grafted, or innocui- lated into each other, and when the shrub, with a handsome head, is thus managed, some branches producing purple, and others white flowers,, it makes a beautiful appearance It is propagated from suckers,of which it sends out too many, and from which it should be kept as clear as possible. The Persian lilac {Syringi, Persifa) is a neat yhrub, loaded, when in bloom, vdth very delicate flowers* It is propa^ gated by suckers. LiLr. — Lilium. — Of this plant there is a great variety j but only a few shall be named. — The white (Lilium cavdi- dum) grows to the height of three or four feet, and produces very large, white, fragrant flowers. The Tiger iUliKm FLOWERS. ]iJ3 lii^nton) grows to the height of from bur to six feet, anc produces many spotted flowers of a bold appearance. The Martagon is much like the latter, except the plant and flowers are more delicate. All these are bulbous-rooted, and are best propagated from offsets. The asphodel (Lili- um luteum) grows to the height of two feet, and produces beautiful yellow flowers. It is propagated by seed or off"- sets. All the above-named lilies are well calculated to beautify a border. The lily of the valley {Convallaria majalis) is a small dwarf plant, that thrives best in the shade, where it produces little delicate flowers of exquisite fragrance. Propagated by offsets. Lime-plant. — This plant {Podophyllum peltatum) is a sin- gular production of nature. The stem, foliage, flower, and fruit, are formed in the earth ;' and, after the plant has come up, there is nothing more than the extension of parts. The stems, at the height of from eight to twelve inches, branch out in two arms ; at the extremity of each is a large palmat- ed leaf. In the fork proceeds the fruit stem. The first that is seen in the spring is a delicate membraneous cap, which is soon burst open by the flower-bud, which is large, white, and round. The shoulders and arms, lying close to the stem or trunk, soon appear, and, as the plant rises, the fruit stem elongates, and the arms elevate themselves. The fruit is about the size of a large lime, green while growing, and yellow when ripe ; has the flavour of a pine-apple ; and, as to eating, is but little inferioi to that fruit. The plant requires a moist soil in a shady situation — may be propagated by seed, but best by dividing the roots, which are creeping and jointed. The root is medicinal. Lychnadia — Phlox — ^is a perennial — several varieties ; as purple, white, striped, &c. The plant is hardy, and pro- duces many delicate flowers, and is long in bloom. It is best propagated by dividing the roots. Mezereon — Daphne mezereum — ^is a small, beautiful shrub, blooming in the month of March, loaded with flow- ers of delightful fragrance. It is hardy as a shrub oak, and is propagated from the seed. It produces a red fruit, which is poisonous. * Mountain ash — Sorbus aucuparia — ^is a verj' ornamental tree, admired for the beauty of its foliage, and its clusters of scanet fruH, which remain on it for months. It is prop- agated from the seed. Musk geranium — Geranium mosehatum — is an annual olant, and 'v admired only for its strong flavoui of musk 124 FLOWERS. The plant will stand the winter in a common hot-bed, and m this case may be considered biennial. The seed must be planted early. Myrtle, evergreen — Vinca minor — ^is an evergreen vine, producing blue flowers. There are several species, and all neat and pretty in their place. Narcissus — a bulbous-rooted plant, managed precisely like the hyacinth. It blooms early, is very beautiful, and is fragrant. This plant is hardy, and well calculated to bloom in a pot, in the green-house, or in a parlour. It is propagated by bulbous offsets, which increase every year. Polyanthos Narcissus and jonquils, both elegant flowering plants, are propagated and cultivated, in all respects, in the same manner. Nasturtium — an annual plant, with showy flowers. The seeds are enveloped in fleshy pods, which, before they become ripe, are excellent for pickling. The seed should be sown very early in the spring. The plants should be supported from the ground by bushy sticks. Passion-flower — Pasdflora — is a perennial vine, which produces a very beautiful flower. The name originated from the large cross in the middle of the flower, surrounded by appendages resembling a glory. The plant is also beau- tiful ; and, like the honeysuckle, has a succession of flowers for a long time. It is tender, and suitable for the green- house. It will not endure a northern winter in open ground. It is best raised from cuttings. P^oNY — Pmonia — is a perennial, that has a very grand flower, but of short duration. There are several species much admired. Propagated from offsets. Pea, sweet. — Lathyrus odoralm. — There are many spe cies as to colour and fragrance. These are annual. The everlasting pea, (Lathyrus latifolius) is perennial, and pro- duces many clusters of showy flowers, and remains in bloom a long time. The seed should be planted early in the spring. Peach, double-flowering. — This is a very showy tree ; its flowers are as double and as large as the smaller sorts of roses — hardy, and treated Jike other peach-trees. Pink — Diantkus — is a perennial plant, too well known to be described here. There are many kinds, as to size and colour, but all are fragrant. They are desirable articles for a flower-garden, and are easily propagated by seed, b) layers, and by dividing the roots. Fedennial sunflower, double — Helianthus multiflorw yr.owERS. 12S . -ris a fine plant to beautify a border — ^propagated oy seed, r by dividing the roots. PoLYANTHOs. — This perennial plant {Primula polyan- hos) is hardy, has many showy flowers, and is much es- teemed. There are many varieties. The plant blooms best in a shady situation. It is best propagated by dividing the roots. Polyanthos Narc'ssus is a very pretty perennial, well calculated to bloom in a parlour. It is bulbous-rooted, and easily propagated by offsets. Pyrethrum Parthenium, commonly called double fe- verfew, is a hardy perennial, and produces an abundance of white flowers, and continues in bloom a long time. It is easily propagated by the seed. Poppy — Papaver — is an annual plant, admired for its great variety in size and in flower. The double are very showy, but, like beauty, soon fade. It is a medicinal plant, and easily cultivated. Purple hyacinth bean — Dolichos — ^is an annual run- ner, producing large clusters of purple flowers, much ad- mired. The seed should be planted early, and the plants defended from the frost. Rose. — Rosa. — This favourite flower is worthy of all the care and attention that can be paid to it. There are many varieties, as to size, singularity, foliage, beauty, and fragrance. Some catalogues enumerate more than five hundred varieties. Messrs. G. Thorburn & Son have a splendid collection in their green-house. Liberty Street, New York. No class of plants yields more intrinsic de- lights than this. It is unrivalled. To describe the beauties and excellence of the various species would fill a volume. They may be propagated from seed, but, as the seed sel- dom comes up till the second year, the usual mode of propagation Is by suckers, which come out near the old stems, during the summer. The suckers, when planted; out, should be cut down to four- or five inches of the ground. The time for planting is either in the months of October and November, or in April. As to the management, the / ground should be kept good, and dug every autumn. They should, except when trained against a wall, be kept cut down to a certain height, according to their natural size ; for when they get long stems and limbs, they produce few- er flowers. « All the weak, dead or dying wood should be pruned out close, without leaving any ugly stubs. " The jreliow rose rjquires an airy situation and a gravelly soil 11* 126 FLOWERS. and that, every autumn, one halt of the old wood should be cut down within four inches of the ground; by this means a succession of thrifty, blooming shoots will be kept up. The Chinese monthly roses are propagated by cuttings, taken in the spring, and properly placed in moist earth. These are generally tender, and require to be taken into a green-house or parlour during the winter. There are some, however, that are very hardy, and bid defiance to the frost The writer of this article has a Chiaese pale-red, monthly rose, which has stood out for several years, being only cov- ered with a box, during the severity of the winter. It is now February 28, 1828, and the foliage is yet bright, al- though it has been frozen many times, during the j)resent winter. The thermometer, however, has not been lower, the present season, than one degree above zero." Rose acacia — Rohinia hispida — is a singular shrub, pro- aucing many clusters of flowers, much admired. Propa- gated by shoots from the roots. Rose-coloured hibiscus — Hibisciis pahistris — is a per- ennial plant, producing very showy flowers — makes a good appearance in a border. Easily propagated from the seed. RuDBECKiA — a perennial plant, producing many flowers, which are very durable and much admired. Propagated best by dividing the roots. Scarlet cacalia — Cacalia coccinea — is a small annual flant, which produces numerous scarlet flowers, very showy. Easily raised from the seed. Scarlet lychnis — Lychnis chalced^ica — -is a perennial plant. There are two varieties, the single and the double. The single is pretty, but the double is splendid. The for- mer is propagated from seed, and the latter by dividing the roots. Siberian crab. — This is a small tree, esteemed for its large, fragrant flowers, and for its small fruit. The Pyrus prum/oZia produces a beautiful longish fruit. The Pyrus toc- cata, or cherry crab, bears a beautiful round fruit. The Pyrus spectabilis, or Chinese double blossom, has the most beautiful flowers of the family. They are all delicate in form and flower. Snow-ball tree — Virhvrmim opuhs — is a beautiful shrub, especially when in bloom. It is propagated by suckers. Snowberry — Svmphoria racemosa — is t small shrub. FiOWERS. 127 wlijch produces i lusters of white fruit in autumn, and ia ornamentaL Propagated best by suckers. Spice-wood — Launts benzoin — is a very fragrant shrub, ©f medicinal virtues. It grows best in the shade, and sometimes bears a long, green, spicy fruit It is propagated fey suckers. Spiderwort — TradescanHa—is a singular perennial plant, which is in blsom for a long time. The blue is more ad- mired than the wtkite. It requires a light covering dunng the severity of winter ; and is propagated by dividing the roots. SpiRiEA. — This is a small shrub, loaded with delicate flowers ia the season of its blooming. Propa^ted by suckers. y SyriiJua, or Mock oran«e. — A shrub, which has flowers much like those of the orange. It B>akes a pretty appear- ance with other shrubbery. Propagated by suckers. Strawberry tree — -Euengma^ — is a very handsom« shrub, producing, in autumn, an abundance of fruit, some- what resembling the strawberry. The European is pre- ferred to the American, It has been called the burning hush, from its appearanee when loaded with ripe fruit. It IS propagated by seed and by sucters. Sweet bat — Launts nobUis — ^is a very pretty evergreen shrub, well calculated to ^tand -(in a larpe pot) in the par- lour during winter. Propagated by suckers. Sweet Wiw-iam, or Poetic pink — Dianthvs bftrbatus — is an imperfect perennial, producing very handsome flowers of small size. It is propagated by seed, the plants of which do net produce flowers like those of the parent plant, ex- cept by chance, it may be propagated by dividing the roots. TcLip. — Tulipa. — In no family of plants has Nature so varied her delicate tints as in this. There are more than six hundred varieties of this splendid flower cultivate^ in the Linmsean Garden on Long Island. During the tulip fever, which raged in Holland, about the middle of th-e seventeenth century, some splendid varieties were sold'ftir enormous sums of money ; one of which, called the vice- tm, brought ten thousand dollars. The tulip may he raised from seed ; but it is, as in flie case pf Ijie auricula, mere chance if one be obtained, that will produce flowers like those t)f the parent plant. They «re best propagated by the bulbs. Theie is something respecting thj« pl*nt astonishing 128 FRUITS. After flowering, the foliage and roots decay, ai d a bulb oi bulbs are formed of the juices of the old plant. A bulb contains all the parts of the future plant, and soon becomes as much di&engaged from the decayed parent plant, as the ripe acorn is disengaged from its parent tree. At this time, they may be carried (like many other bulbs) any length of distance in dry moss or dry sand. They should be plant- ed out, about three inches below the surface, in a rich soil, in August or September ; after which they throw out roots, and prepare for an early appearance in the ensuing spring. If the bulbs be kept through the winter, and planted in the spring, they do not thrive that season. The nice varieties should be taken up after the decay of the old plants, every year, air-dried, and kept until September or October, and then planted. Venitian sumach, or Fringe tree — Rhus eotirmg — ^is a very singular and beautiful tree, which is loaded " during summer with tufts of russet-coloured down, and forms the most singular ornament of the garden." It has been called the smoke tree. Propagated by layers and by suckers. Violet, blue, fragrant. — This little plant ( Viola ode- rata) is perennial ; the flowers blue, double and fragrant. It blooms early in the season, and continues in flower for some time. " It is of considerable use in chymical inqui- ries, to detect an ^id or an alkali ; the former changing the blue colour to a red, and the latter to a green." It is best propagated by dividing the roots, which spread very much. FRUITS. — The foUovnng was written for this work, at ••he request of the compiler, by a distinguished member of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society :— Under the titles of each species of fruits, we have treated of their culture, and general character ; this article will be devoted, exclusively, to the selection of the most approved sorts of each species of fruits. Nothing can be more annoying, nothing more embarrassing to those, who are desirous of making valuable collections of fruit-trees, without any previous personal experience, than the inter- minable lists, and the indiscriminate praise bestowed by nursery men. We blame them not — it is their business and their profit — the greater the variety of new names, the greater the sale. Yet it is true, that of the 150 varie- ties of apples, and the equally great number of pears — of the vast collections of peaches and cherries, thsre are but a few which " ing, practised by Knight, is thus described : ' Transplanting many years ap-o, some pear-stocks from a seed-bed, of which the soii was soft and deep, I found that the first- GRAFIING. 147 emitted roots of many of them descended a foot or more perpen Jicularly into the earthj before they divided into any lateral ramifications ; and, as I did not like to replant the young trees, with such an inconvenient length of perpen- dicular root, I cut oflf about six inches from each. The amputated parts were then accurately fitted and bound, as in splice or whip-grafting, to scions of pear-trees, which were selected as nearly as possible of the same size ; and the roots, with their attached branches, Were deposited in the ground as cuttings, so deep that the whole of the root and about an inch of the scion were covered. The soil was then drawn up with the hoe on each side of the plants, which were placed in rows, so that one bud only of each plant was above the soil, and the other just within it. These grafts succeeded perfectly well ; and I have subsequently repeated the same experiment, with equal success, upon the apple, the plum, and the peach. In the greater part of these Experiments, the roots were perfectly cleansed from mould by washing, before they were fitted to the graft, and were then placed in wet moss, till a sufiicient number were ready to be carried to the nursery ; a common dibber only was era- ployed in planting them ; but the mould was washed into the holes with water, to close it well round the roots, and to supply the place of the clay, used« in other methods of grafting.' — Hort. Tram. vol. i. p. 239. A variation of this mode consists in leaving that part of the tap-root not wanted, with the removed tree, undisturbed in the soil, and grafting on it there. Such root-grafts grow with uncommon vigour."- -Loudon. The time of the year for performing the above kinds of grafting should be, when the sap of the stock has begun to move, in the spring, and just before the buds are unfolded. 7. Summer-grafting. A letter from Abner Landrum to the editor of the American Farmer, contains the following observations on this subject : " About the 1st of July, when the growth of some trees had become stationary, I cut a twig of the pear-tree, and inserted it on a nursery stock, which readily grew off. I next tried almost every variety of orchard fruits, which succeeded perfectly well. I was induced to make this experiment from the rationality of the theory, it having occurred, upon the slightest reflection, that failures in spring-grafting might originate from the dissipa- tion of moisture by the drying winds peculiar to that season, before the sap of the stock acquires sufficient motion to furnish *he graft with due nourishment ; but from the rapid 148 GRArXINO. motion of the sap in some stocks, with Ihe general moia* hire of the air during midsummer, the operation would sel dom fail ; and the result fully proved this conclusion well founded. It next occurred to me, that the walnut, fig, and persimon, which will not succeed in the spring, except by mere chance, might now answer on the same principle of reasoning : I accordingly made the experiment, and suc- ceeded. " To make the success of summer-grafting certain, take the twigs to be inserted from a tree in which the sap is, as near as possible, stationary ; and select a stock in which the sap has the greatest possible motion. July is the proper time for summer-grafting, and indeed the most suitable month of the twelve for that operation. However, the operation may be performed, with tolerable success, during the remain- der of the summer and fall months." 8. Another mode of engrafting has been practised, and we believe invented, by Col. J. F. Wingate, of Bath, in the state of Maine. The process and its advantages are thus described in a letter from Col. Wingate to Gen. H. A. S. Dearborn : — " The instrument best adapted to the purpose, and which I have generally made use of in the operation, is a common budding-knife, the handle of which, being smooth and thin, is well designed for separating the bark from the wood of the stock ; and this is performed and the scion inserted in the following manner, namely; in the first place, make a horizontal or transverse cut upon the stock or limb to be engrafted, according to its size, from one half to one and a half inch in length. Then at the left end (this being the most convenient) make a perpendicular cut downward, (through to the wood in both cases,) about the same length ; take a small chip from the bark just above the horizontal line, or cut at tlie place where the scion is to be fixed, deep enough to allow the lower or wedge part of it to meet and lay close to the inner bark or sap-wood of the stock. Raise the bark as in budding, and separate it-sufficiently from the wood to receive the scion, which should be gently pressed into the proper position, and there secured by slips of bass mats, or some other soft material, wound around the limb or stock so as to cover the lower part of the scion, a id press upon the bark of the tree the ' the sun's rays are, at that distance from the glass, very feeble. A south front is well known to be the tnie one, bu' advantage should be 1 62 GREEN-HOUSE . taken of glazing as much of the eastern end as pussible for the benefit of the morning snn. The front should de cline northward from a perpendicular with the horizon, so as the angle made thereby with the horizon will, at noon- day in winter, bring the rays of the sun to strike the glass at right angles, and the roof should descend the opposite side without a break. By this position of the roof and glass, the rays of the sun are thrown upon every part of the inside of the house, and the whole becomes heated thereby ; more of the rays are also introduced into the building, and when the sun produces most heat during the day, there is no reflec- tion of its rays, and at other parts of the day, the reflecting angle, being obtuse, does not powerfully cast ofi" the rays. The inside of the rafters of the roof should be lined with boards, and the space between that and the roof filled with a mixture of straw, sand, and clay, made into mortar ; boards should be used in preference to shingles, as, making fewer breaks in the roof, less opportunity is given for the admission of cold air. The residue of the building may be of stone or brick work, or a frame building filled io with bricks, and no flooring of any kind upon the ground. Shutters on the outside are suflicient ; and it is preferable to have them hung on hinges, as the least troublesome, to the common practice of sliding ones : they should be made to fold into the spaces between the windows. " Before putting the plants into the house, the bottom should be covered with bark from a tan-vat, about a foot deep, according to the depth the building is sunk in the earth. " The advantages proposed by this method of constructing are, the lessening the expense of building ; that, the heat of the sun being suflicient to warm the house, the trouble and expense of warming it by a stove is avoided, which unless very carefully attended, ihe plants may be injured by too much heat, and are always by the smoke that unavoidably makes its way out of the pipes. It would be proper, nev- ertheless, to make arrangements in constructing the house for using a stove, in case a long succession of cold, cloudy days, by obscuring the sun, should reduce the heat in the house below that degree of temperature necessary for pre- serving the plants, which is a case that will seldom hap- pen, as one clear day will warm the house sufiiciently to admit its being shut up for several days. " Plants in a house of this kind require Igss water, and do not suffer for the want of atmospheric air. It is probable^ HAWTHORN. 1 53 as the earth is charged with electric fluids, as egetable substances are known conductors of it, that the bark, by its fermentation, not only generates heat, but serves as a mean to produce out of the earth an atmosphere for the plants, sufficient, with such atmospheric air as will find admission, to supply the quantity exhausted by the daily rarefaction occasioned by the sun's heat. " A green-house has been used upon this construction in this state, without having had the least occasion of being heated by fire. The plants in the spring were remarkably thrifty ; tropical fruit ripened in it during the winter, and young fruit formed on the trees. It required no other care, than now and then watering the plants, and shutting the windows as soon as the sun left them." With respect to the management of plants in green- houses, it is recommended occasionally to open the mould in which they are set, to scatter a little fresh earth on the pots, and ovei this to lay a little dung. It v^ill also be ad- visable to water them when the leaves begin to curl or wither, and to pluck off such as are decayed ; but these operations should not be too frequently repeated. " Some people," says M'Mahon, " are desirous of keep- ing out their plants as long as possible ; this is very right, but it ought not to be extended to too hazardous aperiod ; for one night's frost would cause the leaves to lose their fine green colour, which perhaps might not be restored during the whole winter ; and, if any way severe, serious injury might be sustained. " If the windows and doors are kept open day and night, as long as there is safety in so doing, the plants will be nearly as well off as in the open air, and no danger is en- countered : the mere difference of five or six days in the taking in of the plants will ensure safety ; but, on the other hand, it is not right to be too precipitate in housing them, before the common appearance of the weatlier indicates the necessity." HAWTHORN, — Q-atagus. — There are a great many species of this genus of plants, (see Hedge,) of which the oxycantha, or English hawthorn, as it is commonly named m the United States, is most generally cultivated for the purpose of forming hedges. The manner of raising the thorn quicks is as follows : — Collect your seeds in autumn, mix them with equal quantities of light, sandy earth, and lay them in that state on the surface of a dry spot of aroimd in your best enclosed 154 HAWThORN. garden, where they cannot be disturbed by hogs, &,c. ; form Qiis mixture into a narrow, sloping ridge, tapering to the top, and cover it with light, loose earth, two inches thick all over; the April following, turn this ridge, mixing the whole together, and form it again the same way, covering in like manner as before, with two inches deep of light, loose earth ; repeat this again in the months of July and August, by which the seeds in every part will be equally prepared for vegetation. A trench must be cut round this ridge, to prevent any water from lodging about the seeds ; for this would rot many and injure others especially in the second winter, when the stones would be losing their ce- menting quality, and begin to open ; for until this is effect- ed the kernels cannot vegetate. Hence the necessity and great advantage of not burying the stones in the eaiith, as is injudiciously practised by many. There is not the least danger to be apprehended from frost injuring the seeds, whilst so much expose'd to it in those ridgeo ; however, it will not be amiss to strew a light cov- ering of long litter over them on the approach of winter ; whici ' will keep them dry, and in a better state for sowing when the season arrives. " Your haws being prepared as above, make ready a piece c f good rich ground, neither upon an elevated situa- tion, lor too low ; in the former the summer drought would be unfriendly, and in the latter they would be subject to mildew : this must be done as early in the spring as you can get the ground to work freely, and pulverize w°l' , for the haws begin to throw out roots at a very ea''!y period ; and if not sown at this time, or before, a grea* number of these roots will be broken off in the act of sowing, and thereby totally lost ; the others which escape this accident, having their radicles extended on the surface, penetrate the earth at the extreme points of those roots, forming right angles with the parts already produced, by which means they can never drive up the seed leaves with as much vigour as if the radicles descended immediately in a per- pendicular direction from the stones of the fruit ; hence the necessity of early sowing. " The ground, however, must not be wrought while wet, or at least the seeds should not be covered vvith wet- or heavy earth, nor too deep, for if the surface should cake, or become stiff in consequence of dry weather ensuing, few of these young plants, having broad seed leaves, could bear up through it ; therefore, you must be very cautious HAWTHORN. 155 in that point, and if the e^-th of your bed is not light and dry enough for this purpose, you must carry as much as will cover the seeds from some dry compost heap, or some quarter of the garden, where it can be found in a suitable condition. " On examining your haws, if you find the earth i^ which they are mixed any way clogged with too much moisture, so that the parts and seeds would not separate freely in the act of sowing ; mix therewith a sufficient quantity of slaked lime, or wood-ashes, to accomplish that end. *' Having every thing in readiness, and your ground well dug, and raked effectually as you proceeded in the digging, still presuming that it is in the best possible state of prepara- tion, lay it out into four feet wide beds, leaving twelve or fourteen inches of an alley between each, and with the back of the rake push off into these alleys about three quarters of aji inch of the fine raked surface of the beds, one half of each bed to the one side, and the other to the opposite ; this done, sow your haws thereon, earth and all, as they had lain, so thick that you may expect a thousand plants at least, after every reasonable allowance for faulty or imperfect seeds, (there being many of these,) on every threg or four yards of your beds ; — I have often had that number on as many feet; — then with a spade or shovel cast the earth out of the alleys evenly over the beds, covering the seeds not more than three quarters of an inch deep, and not more than half an inch, if the earth be any way stiff; after which rake the tops of the beds very lightly, taking care not to disturb the seeds, in order to take off the lumps, and to give a neat appearance to the work." — M^Mahon. If any stiffness of the ground is perceived, the beds should have frequent and gentle waterings ; and great care will be necessary to keep the beds free from weeds from the mo- ment the plants appear above ground till they are fit to be planted in hedge-rows, and have arrived at such a size that weeds cannot materially injure them. Mr. Kirk, of Brandywine, has been successful in making the seeds of the American thorn vegetate, by washing them clean, putting them in hot water to swell them, and ex posing the water in which they were immersed to be frozen and thawed several times. Dr. Mease, of Philadel- phia, says, " The haws of the Washington thorn, Cratagia cordata, require to be buried one winter before they sprout, and they should be put into the ground the same autumi) F56 HEADING DOWN FRrtT-TREES. HEDGES. Ihey are taken off the treej the pulp which surrounds them having heen previously rubbed off and the stone washed. The usual way is to put them in a box ol" sand, and to stand it under the eaves of a house, to receive the dropping of water from it, and by the spring they will be open and ready for planting." — Mem. Phil. Agr. Soc. vol. iii. p. 439. See further, Hedges. Insects. — A great enemy to the hawthorn is the borer, (saperda bivitata,) the same which infests apple-trees, &c. j and we know of no method of guarding against its ravages. It is said, however, that this insect has never made its ap- pearance in the interior parts ol the United States, and is to be found only within the distance of a few mites from the sea shore. HEADING DOWN FRUIT-TREES.—" When any fruit-trees have begun to decline, and are thin of young wood, you may often restore them by heading down such limbs as are in the worst state to those parts vvhere young shoots appear, and close to the most vigorous ; but this should not be done, generally, the. same season, lest it give euch a sudden check to the sap as totally to destroy the tree. But if every other branch all over the tree were headed at proper lengths, each close to some young shoot, »iew, healthy wood would be produced, which would soon come into bearing. The next spring after the first branch es were headed, the remaining old branches may be cut out, as directed above ; after whicft the head of the tree will soon be filled with bearing wood, which may afterwards be pruned as directed for other trees." — WMahon. HEDGES. — A great variety of shrubs and trees have been made use of for hedges, among which are various kinds of thorns, such as the Cratcegits oxyacantha, or com- mon European hawthorn, or white thorn ; the Cratagus coccinea, or great American hawthorn ; the Craiagus crus- galli, or cockspur hawthorn ; the Cratagus cordala, or American hedge thorn ; crab and apple-trees, horn-beam, beech, honey-locust, buckthorn, holly, white mulberry, ju- niper, red cedar, &c. &c. Mr. Quincy, of Massachusetts, has given a statement of his mode of making hedges of the Cratcngus cordata, which was published in iiie third volume of the Mass. Agr, Rep. p. 27. The seedling thorns (ten thousand) were obtained from the nursery of Thomas Main, near Georgetown, D. C, and planted m a hedge-course of two hundred and fifty-five rods, so far as was npcessary to fill that extent in one line, HEDGES. 151 eseh plant being five inches apart. The residue were planted in a nursery, for the purpose of filling vacancies. The hedge-course was made in sandy land, ploughed of the width of four feet, and manured and prepared precisely as for Indian corn ; except, only, that, after ploughing, the cen- tre, for two feet wide, wis turned over with the spade, and the hedge planted without further preparation. Mr. Quin- cy advises to the following course : — " Plough the hedge- course six feet wide. Plant the whole course one year to potatoes. This pays for the labour as much as other land thus planted. Set the thorns eight inches apart. This is near enough in a country like this, where hogs are not per- mitted to run at large, and makes a considerable saving in labour as well as the cost of the plants. Keep both sides of the hedge planted with potatoes, during the whole six years that the hedge is coming to perfection. The potatoes will nearly pay the cost of the labour. The manure for the potatoes benefits the hedge; and, while hoeing the pota- toes, keeping the hedge clear of weeds is easy. " To keep the hedge clear of weeds, and to fill up the vacancies regularly in the spring of every year, with plants of the same age with those of the original hedge, are the two essential objects of attention after the hedge-course U prepared, and the plants are set. Younger plants maj answer; but whoever would make a hedge, in the most speedy and perfect inanner, ought to procure, at the time of obtaining the plants for the original hedge, a sufficient extra number to supply all deficiencies likely to occur dur- ing the whole time the hedge is forming ; to be kept at » nursery, thriving, if possible, a little better than those in the hedge-course." With respect to the age at which plants for hedges ought to be used, Loudon says, " Three years old are certainly the youngest that should be transplanted, and if they are six or seven years old, so much the better; the prevailing idea that plants of that age will not thrive, if transplanted, IS totally unfounded." He likewise rtcom.mends assorting the plants, and setting those together which are nearly of a size; because, " when no pains have been taken in assort- ing the plants, and they are planted promiscuously, great and small, strong and weak, the consequence is, that the strongest plants veiy soon outgrow such as are weaker, and not only overtop them, but also deprive them of that nourishment which they so much require. As the hedge advances in age, the evil becomes greater ; small, stunted 158 HOEING. plants and innumerable gaps appearing ihroughout the whole line of the fence, interspersed with others remarkable for their strength and luxuriance. " This assorting of hedge-plants has another advantage, namely, that of putting it in the power of the person, who plants the hedge, to put down the large, strong, healthy plants upon the poorest parts of the line of fence, and to set such as are smaller and weaker upon the richer and more fertile parts. He has it also in his power, by a more care- ful preparation of the soil, and bestowing a greater propor- tion of manure on the places where the plants are set, to give them that nourishment and assistance which they require, and which would very soon enable them to form a fence equal to that part occupied by the strongest plants." Hedges may be of various kinds, such as the single hedge and ditch ; the hedge and bank ; the level hedge, &c. ; of which, descriptions may be found in Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, and other books of husbandry. It is often found necessary to plash or interweave the branches of hedges. Some advise to cut off the tops, or head them down to about three feet, or three feet and a half from the ground, when the plants are about four years old, &c. &c. See London^ Encyc. of Agr. ; Farmer''s As^ xistant ; WUlich's Dam. Encyc. ; Mem. of N. Y. Board oj Agr. vol. ii. p. 161. A writer in the Ma^s. Agr. Rep. says, " The best plant for hedges, so far as the experience of one of our cultiva- tors, Ezekiel H. Derby, will go, and he has tried it for many years, is the buckthorn. It makes a close, beautiful hedge, and is not subject to any disease, nor the depreda- tions of any devourer, so far as we yet know." See art. Buckthorn, p. 56. HOEING. — " The ends to be answered by hoeing are chieiiy these : — 1. To destroy weeds, which are always ready to spring up in every soil, and which would rob the cultivated plants of most of their food. • Scraping the sur- face, if it be done frequently, may answer this purpose ; but to destroy the roots of weeds, deeper hoeing is necessary. — 2. To keep the soil from becoming too compact, which prevents the roots from extending themselves freely in search of their food ; at the same time keeping up a fer- mentation, by which the vegetable food is concocted, and brought into contact with the roots. For this purpose, the deeper land is hoed, the better. But hoeing should cease, or be onlv sunerficial, when the roots are so far extended HOBSE-RADISH. 159 as to be much injured by hoeing. They will bear a little cutting without injury. For where a root is cut off, several new branches will come in its place. — 3. To render the soil more open and porous, so that it shall greedily, drink in the nightly dews, and that rain may not run off, but readily soak in as it falls, and be retained. Accordingly, the more and oftener land is hoed, the more moisture it retains, the better it bears drought, and the more its plants are nour- ished.— 4. Another design of hoeing, and which has not been enough attended to, is, to nourish plants by drawing fresh soil near to them, the efSuvium of which enters their pores, and mcreases their growth. At the same time the earthing of plants makes them stand more firmly, and in- creases their pasture in the spots where the roots mosl abound ; and prevents the drying oi the earth down to the roots." — Deaiie. HORSE-RADISH.— CocMeana ^moracia.— The fol- lowing instructions for cultivating horse-radish are by Knight, a celebrated English horticulturist : — " Horse-rad- ish thrives best in, deep, soft, sandy loam, that is not very dry in summer, nor inundated in winter ; the situation must be open. During winter, [or in autumn,] trench the ground three feet deep ; and in the following February [as soon as frost will permit in this country] procure your sets, in the choice of which take the strongest crowns, or leading buds, froni old plants, cutting them about two inches long. Mark out the ground in four feet beds, and one foot alleys ; then take from the first bed nine inches of the top soil, laying it upon the adjoining bed ; after which take out an opening at one end of the bed, in the common way of trenching, fifteen inches deep from the present surface ; then level the bottom, after which plant a row of sets across the bed at nine inches apart, each way, with their crowns upright; afterwards dig the next trench the same width and depth, turning the earth into the first trench, over the row of sets ; thus proceeding, trench after trench, to the end. Where more than the produce of one bed is required for the supply of the family for twelve months, the third bed is next to be planted, which treat as directed for the first, only observing to lay the earth on the fourth, and so on to any number of beds. Upon every alternate bed, which is not planted, a dwarf annual crop may be grown. The plants must be kept clear from weeds during summer ; and as soon as the leaves decay in autumn, let them be carefully raked off »\ itli a wooden'4oothed rake ; in the following February, H-0 HORSE-RADISH [w as soon as frost will permit,] eighteen inches of the eaifth of the implanted bed must be laid, as light as possible, and equally, over the beds that are planted ; then trench and plant the vacant beds exactly in the same manner as oefore directed. The following autumn, the first^planted horse-radish may be taken up, by opening a trench at one end of the bed, to the bottom of the roots, so that the sticks or roots of horse-radish may be taken up entire and sound, which, for size and qualitj', will be such as have not gen- erally been seen. The following February, [March or April,] the one year old crop will require additional earth, as before directed, which must of course be taken from those beds, which are now vacant, which when done, if the ground appears poor, or unlikely to produce another vigorous crop, they must have a coat of manure." — Hnrt. Trans, i. 207. " Judd has also written on the culture of horse-radish, {Hort. Trans, v. 302,) and his practice, though very differ- ent from Knight's, is also excellent, and perhaps prefer- able. Knight takes strong buds from old plants, while Judd takes about three inches of the top part of each stick or root, and then cuts clean oiF about a quarter of an inch »f this piece under the crown, so as to leave no appearance of a green bud. Judd trenches only two feet deep, and, if he applies manure, puts it in the very bottom of the trench ; ' for, if not so done, the horse-radish, which always puts out some side roots, would send out such large side roots from the main root, in search of the dung lying contiguous, as materially to injure the crop. In planting, holes are made eighteen inches apart every way, and sixteen or eighteen inches deep. The root-cuttings are let down to the bottom of the holes, which are afterwards filled up with fine sifted cinder-dust, and the surface of the bed is then raked over. The season of planting is the latter part of March.' The essential difference between Knight's plan and Judd's is, that the former produces his root from the root-end of the cutting downwards, and the latter from the bud-end up- wards : hence the one plants near the surface, and the other near the bottom of the trench. Judd's mode seems more certain of producing one entire strong root than Knighth."— ^Loudon. Use. — The root, when scraped into shreds, is much used it the table as a condiment for fish, roast beef, &c. If in- tended for immediate use, it should, says Willich's Do' mestic Encyclopedia. " be dug out of the ground fresh^ onlj HOT-BED. J61 from October to Mcrch , or be gatheied in the spring; then dried, reduced to powder, and preserved in bottles closely stopped for occasional use ; when it should be previously moistened with spring water. When steeped and digested "n vinegar during a fortnight, this root is said eftectually to remove freckles in the face." It is likewise recommended in cases of dropsy, scurvy, rheumatism, palsy, &c. — Phillips' History of Vegetables.'''' — New England Farmer j vol. v. pp. 269, 270. HOT-BED. — ^A hot-bed, in gardening, is a small bed or mound of earth, composed of certain substances, which, by their fermentation, give wawnth to veget?ibles or seeds, set or sowed in them, and thus hasten their growth. The fer- menting substances used for forming hot-beds are, stable litter or dung, in a recent or fresh state, tanners' bark, leaves kins, as the %vorm and slug; and hot water, where it can be applied without injuring vegetation, is equally, if not more powerfully, injurious. Water heated to 120 or 130 degrees will not injure plants, whose leaves are expanded, and, in some degree, hardened ; and water at 200 degrees, or up- wirds, may be poured over leafless plants. The effects of 15 170 INSECTS. insects may also be palliated on cue species of plant, bj presenting to them another, which they prefer: thus wasps are said to prefer carrrts, the berries of the yew, and the honey of the hoya, to grapes ; honey, or sugared water, to ripe fruit, and so on. One insect or animal may also be sei to eat another, as ducks for slugs and worms, turkeys foi the same purpose, and caterpillars and ants for aphides, and so on." The Rev. Mr. Falconer, one of the correspondents of the Bath Agricultural Society, strongly recommends soap-suds, both as a manure and antidote against insects. He observes, that " This mixture of an oil and an alkali has been more generally known than adopted as a remedy against the in- sects which infest wall fruit-trees. It will dislodge and de- stroy the insects which have already formed their nests, and bred among the leaves. When used in the early part of the vear, it seems to prevent the insects from settling upon them. " He prefers soap-suds to lime-water, because lime soon " loses its causticity, and with that its efficacy, by exposure to air, and must, consequently, be frequently applied ; and to the dredging of the leaves with the fine dust of wood- ashes and lime, because the same effect is produced by the mixture, without the same labour, and is obtained without any expense." He directs to make use of a common garden-pump for sprinkling trees with soap-suds, and says, if the water of a washing cannot be had, a quantity of pot- ash, dissolved in water, may be substituted, and that the washing of the trees with soap-suds twice a week, for three or four weeks, in the spring, will be sufficient to secure them from aphides, &c. . Other modes of counteracting the effects of insects are pointed out in treating of the plants which are most liable to be injured by them. We shall, however, make some remarks on a few of those which are most common and injurious to the interests of the cultivator. Canker-worm. — We shall not attempt to give either a description or the natural history of the canker-worm, but refer to Professor Peck's Memoir on the subject, (which was originally published in the Mass. Agricultural Repository and republished in the N. E. Farmer^ vol. v. p. 393,) arid di- ract our attention, exclusively, to the remedies, which have been used or suggest'^d to preserve fruit-trees from this for- midable enemy. The female of this insect comes out of the ground late ir the fall, early in the spring, or, sometimes, dnring a peri- INSECTS. 171 od ol mild pen weather, in winter. Those which rise in autumn or in winter are less numerous than those which ascend in spring ; but, being very prolific, they do much injury. One method of preventing the ravages of the worm is to bar the ascent of the females up the stem of the tree. This hbs generally been attempted by tarring, of which there are several modifications : — 1. A strip of linen or canvass is put round the body of the tree, before the females begin their ascent, and well smeared with tar. The insects, in attempting to pass this barrier, stick fast, and perish. But this process, to com- plete the desired effect, must be commenced about the first of November, and the tarring continued, when the weather is mild enough to permit the worms to emerge from the ground, till the latter end of May, or till the time of their ascent is past. It is necessary to fill the crevices in the bark with clay mortar, before the strip of linen or canvass is put on, that the insects may not pass under it. Having put on the strip, which should be at least three inches wide, draw it close, fasten the ends together strongly, then tie a thumb-rope of tow round the tree, close to the lower edgp of the strip. The design of this is to prevent the tar fiom running down the bark of the tree, which would injure it. It should be renewed, in moderate weather, once a day, without fail. The best time is soon after sunset, because the insects are wont to pass up in the evening, and the tar will not harden so much in the night as the day. 2. Another mode of tarring is to take two pretty, wide pieces of board ; plane them ; make semi-circular notches in each, fitting them to the stem or body of the tree ; and fasten them together securely at the ends, so that the most violent storms may not displace them. The crevices betwixt the boards and the tree may be easily stopped with rags or tow ; then smear the under-sides of the boards with tar. The tar, being defended -from the direct rays of the sun, will hold its tenacity the longer, and, therefore, need not be freijuently renewed. The trees, in this way, will be less liable to be injured by the drippings of tar, by leaving a margin of two or three inches, on those parts of Hv: boards which are next to the trees, to which no tar is ap- plied. 3. Another mode of blockading the paths of the insects, in their ascent up the trees, is to enclose them -with collars, or circular slips of tin. Of this method we have seen some aotices, but no description. We presume, however, tha> 172 INSECTS. the pieces of tin pre shaped, and fitted to the trees, some- vi'hat like the boards above-mentioned, and perhaps, if the outer rims of the collars were curved, or bent downwards, they might present obstacles, which tiie worms could not pass, even if no tar was applied. We fear that this method would prove too expensive for general adoption, but would solicit further information on this subject from those who have a practica' knowledge of its application and results. 4. Another method, proposed by Dr. Jeremiah Spof- ford, of Bradford. Mass., is, to spread mercurial ointment ( Unguentum hydrargyri) upon strips of woollen cloth, or narrow lists, such as are cut from the edges of broadcloth, and apply them closely round the trees, having first made the bark smooth where it is not so, that none of the grubs, or females that deposit the eggs, from which the worm? are produced, may pass under the band or strip, which contains the ointment. Dr. Spofford observes that " the advantages of using the unguentum over any mode in common use are obvious. While tar requires to be renew- ed every night, that it may catch and hold the grub, merely by its tenacity, this mode requires preparing but once a year, and will be growing stronger for a long time, by an increased oxidation of the mercury, when exposed to the air." — See N. E. Farmer, vol. iv. p. 377. The Mass. Agr. Repos. vol. iii. No. 4, contains some re- marks on the ranker-worm, by the Hon. Joht i.-well, president of the Mass. Agr. Soc. from which the following is extracted : — " 1 had the turf dug in around sixty apple-trees, and the earth laid smooth. I then took three hogsheads of effete, or air-slaked lime, and strewed it an inch thick round my trees, to the extent of two or three feet from the roots, so that the whole diameter of the opening was from four to six feet. " I tarred these trees as well as the others, and, although I had worms or grubs on most that were not limed, I did not catch a single grub where the trees were limed. " I do not speak with confidence. I am, however, strongly encouraged to believe the remedy perfect. It was ascertained by Professor Peck, that the insect seldom de- scended into th*i "round at a greater distance than three or four feet from thf trunk, and to the depth of four inches, or that the greater part come within that distance. The lime is knowu to be destructive of all animal substauees, INSECTS. 173 and I have little doubt that it actually decomposes and de- stroys the insect in the chrysalis state ; at least I hope that this is the case. "There are many reasons, which should encourage a repetition of this experiment. The digging round the trees is highly usoAil to them, while tarring is very injurious. The expense is not great. A man can dig round fifty trees in one day. The lime is a most salutary manure to the tree. After the spot has been once opened and limed, the labour of keeping it open will noi be great. Three hogs- heads of air-slaked lime, or the sweepings of a lime-store, will suffice for fifty trees, and will cost three dollars. As it is done but once a year, I think it cannot be half so ex- pensive as tarring. " I repeat it, that I mention my experiments with great diffidence, as being the first of my own knowledge. It may induce several persons to try it in different places, and where trees are surrounded with others, which are treated differently. All I pray is, that it may prove successful, and relieve us from this dreadful scourge, which defaces our country, while it impoverishes and disappoints the farmer." The remedies proposed by Professor Peck were, 1st, — Turning up the ground carefully in October, as far as the branches of a tree extend, to half a spade's depth, or five inches, so as completely to invert the surface. A great Dumber of chrysalids would thus be exposed to the air and sun, and of course destroyed. 2dly, — Breaking the clods, and smoothing the surface with a rake, and passing a heavy roller over it, so as to make it ver^hard, and without cracks. In grass-grounds, the sods should be turned with the grass- side down, and placed side by side, so as to be rolled. The winter's frosts would heave and crack a smooth sur- face, but it might be smoothed and hardened by the roller, or by other means, in March, with much less trouble, time, and expense, than rolling requires. As lime, when sla- ked, is reduced to an impalpable {lowder, and is thus well adapted to close the openings in the surface, Mr. P. was inclined to think its good effects are produced this way as well ashy its caustic qualities. — Thcbcher's Orchardist, p. 93. John Kenrick, Esq., of Newton, Mass., proposed, be- tween the time in June after the worms had disappeared and the 20th of Octobe', to take the whole of the soil sur- rounding the trees, to the extent at least of four feet from Jy,) MELON. 199 Seed. — Those who wish to procure melons in»perfec- tion, must be careful, in the first place, to procure good seed ; secondly, to plant them remote from an inferior sort, as well as from cucumbers, squashes, gourds, and pump- kins ; as degeneracy will infallibly be the consequence of inattention to these directions. Abercrombie says, " Seed under the age of two years is apt to run too much to vine, and show only male flowers ; but new seed may be mellowed by being carried in the pocket a fortnight or more, till the heat of the body has dried and hardened it. Seed twenty years old has been known to grow, and make fruitful plants ; but seed which has been kept three or four years is quite old enough, and less likely to fail than older." SoU. — Abercrombie says, " The melon will succeed in any unexhausted loam, rich in vegetable rudiments, with a mixture of sand, but not too light. The following is a good compost; two thirds of top-spit earth from a sheep- common, adding sharp sand, if the earth contains little or none, till half is sand ; one sixth of vegetable mould, and one sixth of well-consumed horse-dung. Or, if the earth 4s not obtained from a sheep-pasture, rotted sheep-dung may be substituted for the last. The ingredients should have been pulverized ^nd incorporated by long previous exposure and turning over." Dr. Deane observed that " a good manure to be put under melons is an old compost of good loam, with the dung of neat cattle or swine." Sowing melons in the open ground. — Mr. Armstrong says, ""To succeed in raising them for market, the Honfleui method, as described by M. Calvel, may be employed. — Select a spot well defended against the north wind, and open to the sun throughout the day. If such is not to be found in your garden, create a temporary and artificial shel- ter, producing the same effect. At the end of March, form holes two feet in diameter, and distant from each other seven feet and a half; 'ill these with horse-dung and litter, or a mixture of mould, dung and sand. At the end of twenty days, cover the holes, which have been thus filled, with hand-glasses. When the heat rises to 36 of Reau- mu., [113 Fahr.,] sow the seeds four inches apart; and when the plants have acquired two or three leaves, pinch off the end of the branch or runner.* This will produce * " There is much controversy am"ng g-ardeners and savants on this point jor are the pira ». ■■ entirely united in opinion, how far this practice should be lirTied. Some content themselves with taking off the cotyledons, when th» 200 MEIjU^s . lateral ^ranches, wbich must again be pinched off, as soon u they respectively attain to the^ length often jnches. When the plant has outgrown the glass, the latter becomes use- less, and may hs removed ; but, should the weather be wet or chilly, substi.iite coverings of clean straw for that of the glasses, until the young plant becomes strong enough to bear the open air. Two or three melons only are left on each vine, and under each of these is placed a slate, with- out which the upper and under side will not ripen together. Two months are required to mature them. The people of Honfleur attribute their success in melon-raising to the sear- Bopoar which surrounds them, and to the saline particles contained in it, an advantage to be any where commanded, by dissolving a little salt in the water employed to moisten them." Whether a bed of slate would prove too warm for the melon in our climate, we cannot say. Perhaps shingles or boards might be preferable, as they would not be rendered so hot by the noon-day sun, nor so cold by the night air. We have never known salt, either in sub- stance or solution, used as a manure for melons, but think it would be well to try its effects. The following are M'Mahon's directions for raising mel- ons in the open ground. Some time in May, " prepare a place of rich, sandy ground, well exposed to the sun ; ma- nure it, and give it a good digging ; then mark it out into squares of six feet every way; at the angle of every square dig a hole twelve inches deep, and eighteen over, into which put seven or eight inches deep of old hot-bed dung, or very rotten manure ; throw thereon about fouY inches of earth, and mix the dung and earth well with the spade ; after which draw the remainder of the earth over the mixture, so as to form a round hill about a foot broad at top. Some people use hot stable-dung under an idea that its heat would promote the vegetation of the seed : this is a mistaken notion, as, in a few hours, it loses all it had, for want of a sufficient quantity being together to promote fei^ mentation, and becomes a dryish wisp, unfit, at least for the present, to afford either heat or nourishment to the plants. " When your hills are all prepared as above, plant in each, towards the centre, eight or nine grains of good mel- plant has acquired three or four leaves ; while ntheis lake off the principal Branches of Jne first eye above the fruit, and suppress all the secondary branch- es, male flowers and tendrils. Thes; opiTal ions, says Mr. Rose, are founded ui bad reasoning. A cutting, wliicl snjjfiresses two thirds of the plant at onfe r.'nnot fail to disorganize what remi n.*L'' MELON. 20) on-seed, distant two inches from one anbtber, and cover them about half an inch deep." Afier-adture. — " When the plants are up, and in a state of forwardness, producing their rough leaves, they must be thinned to two or three in each hill . the extra number in some may serve to fill up deficiences in others : draw earth from time to time round the hills, and as high about the plants as the seed-leaves ; when fit stop them. This oper- ation should be performed when the plants have two rough leaves, and when the second is about an inch broad, hav- ing the first runner-bud rising at its base ; the sooner this is detached, the sooner the plants acquire strength, and put out fruitful runners. ' " It is to be done in the following manner : — " You will see arising in the centre of the plant, at th« bottom of the second rough leaf, the end of the first runner, like a small bud ; which bud or runner, being the advancing top of the plant, is now to be taken off closej and may be done either with the point of a penknife or small scissors, or pinched off carefully with the finger and thumb ; but, whichever way you take itofr,be careful not to go so close as to wound the joint from whence it proceeds.'' ; ' Armstrong says, " If the branches be vigorous and long, stretch them carefully over a level' surface, and bury every fourth or fifth joint. : This' is best done by means of a wooden crotchet. The objects of pinching,. or ishortemng the stem, are thus completely fulfilled, without any of the risk which attends that operation, aiid with: advantages peculiar to this method ; as, wherever the plant is buried, new roots are form_ed for the better nutrition of the stem and the fruit." Setting. — "As the fruit-bearers come into blossom^ you may assist the setting of the fruit, by impregnating some of the female blossoms with the male flowers, as directed for the cucumber. The melon, however, will also set nat- urally, and produce fertile seeds, if the time of fructification fall at a season when the glasses can be left almost constantly open." — Aber. Nicol says he has " proved, experimentally, that melons not impregnated will not swell off so fair and handsome as impregnated ones, and there- fore considers it more necessary to attend to this operation in melons than in cucumbers." — Loudon. Care of the fruit. — As the fruit increases to the size of a walnut, place a flat tile or slate under eacli, to protect it from the damp of tho earth ; th^ slab, thus interposed, will 202 MELON. also assist the fruit to ripen, by reflecting the rays of the sun. •^Aber. Nicol advises placing the fruit on bits of slate oi glass some time before it begins to ripen ; but by no means ulate or moss the whole surface of the bed. Forcing melons. — The " Honfleur method" of forwarding the production of melons, as stated by Mr. Armstrong, has been given, pp. 199, 200. The same writer continues, " If we want melons at a period earlier than this method will give them, we must employ a higher degree and a longer continuance of artificial heat ; in a word, we must resort to hot-beds, and in these the point most important and diffi- cult of attainment at the same time is, to secure a certain degree of heat, and no more, throughout the whole process. To lessen the difficulty in this case, gardeners, who under- stand their trade, make choice of those varieties which have the thiiinest skins and the least bulk, as experience proves that, other things being equal, they require less heat than those of thicker rinds and greater size, and are of course less subject to some of the accidents to which this species of culture is exposed. In choosing the seeds, those of the last year are only to be used, because they are of quicker vegetation than old ones, and, accord- ingly, best fulfil the intention of the hot-bed, which is, to give early fruit. Another practice conducive to the safety of the plants, is, to sow the seeds in small pots, and then to plunge them into a hot-bed. If the heat be deficient, they are, in this case, made no worse than they would have been, if sown directly, in the bed ; and if it be excessive, it is only necessary to raise the pots, without in the smallest degree disturbing the plant. These things being premised, it but remains to show what ought to be the subsequent man- agement after the seed has been sown, and the pots placed under the frames. One of the most important points now to be observed, is sufficiently to ventilate the bed, as well before as after the plants show themselves. This should be done at mid-day and in sunshine, and as often as a necessity for it shall be indicated by an accumulation of steam under the glasses. At night, these (the glasses) should be carefully covered with matting. These two preliminaries (ventilation in the day, and covering at night) being care- fully observed, your plants will soon show themselves in a vigorous and healthy state, and may be kept in that condi- tion by a continuation of the same means, and by moderate- ly moistening the earth when it shall have become too dry. The watir employed skould be of the same temperatute MELON. 203 of the air under the frames ; and, to secure this, it is wel to keep a supply of it in a pot, placed in a corner of the hot-bed. lu about a month, the plants, thus raised, will bi? fit for transferring *.o a second and larger hot-bed, construc- ed like the preceding, with the exception, that the mass o\ dung must now be greater, and that, after earthing, the bed should not be less than three and a half or four feet in depth. The plants, with the earth in which they grow, are now to be taken from the pots — an operation in which practice only will make us expert, and which consists in placing the neck of the plant between the first and second finger of the left hand, reversing the pot, and gently striking its sides till the earth be disengaged. The discharged mass is then placed in a hole, previously prepared in the square, where it is intended the plant shall ripen and produce." Cutting the fruit. — Nicol observes, that " Melons, if al- lowed to remain on thi plant till they be of a deep yellow colour, lose much of their flavour. They should, therefore, be cut as soon as they begin to change to a greenish-yellow, )r, rather, as soon as they begin to smell ripe. They may ie in a frame for a day or two, if not immediately wanted, inhere they will acquire suflBcient colour. But if they are et remain many days in the frame, they will become as nsipid as if they had been left too long on the plant." Samng seed. — The ordinary mode is to request the seeds of particularly fine fruits of approved sorts to be re- turned from table. The best way, however, is to pick ?ome best ripe fruit, take out the seed, clean it from the pulp, and let it be well dried and hardened; and then put it up in papers. — Abercrombie. Nicol says, wash it very clean, skimming off the light seeds, as those only which sink in water will grow. Great care must be taken that Ihe sorts from which seeds are saved are genuine and dis- tinct. When different sorts are planted in the same bed, this cannot be the case. Second crop from the same plants. — " When the fruit of the first crop is off, a second crop may be oDtained from the same stools, which often proves more productive than the first. If the first crop is taken before the middle of June, the second will come at a very good time. For this purpose, as soon as the fruit is cut, prune the plant. Short- en the vigorous, healthy runners, at a promising joint, to force out new laterals, cutting about two mches above the joint, At the same time, take off all decayed or sickly vines, 204 MINT, and all dead leaves. Stir the surface of i«e mould, and reuew it partially by three inches' depth of fresh compost. Water the plants copiously, shutting down the glasses for /he night. Shade in the middle of hot days ; and give bui little air, until the plant has made new radicles and shoots. Afterwards repeat the course of culture above described, from the stage when the first runners are sent oat till fruit is cut" — Loudon. Insects and diseases. — To prevent melon-plants from be- ing infested with insects, or injured by diseases of any kind, no better method can be adopted than to keep the plants constantly in a healthy, vigorous, growing state ; for this purpose, M'Phail observes, " They must be con- stantly attended to, giving them plenty of heat and water. In warm weather, in the spring and in summer, they should be watered occasionally all over their fruit and leaves, till the earth in which they grow be thoroughly moistened." In this country, melons and cucumbers are much infested by a small yellow bug, and perhaps the best method of securing them is covering the plants with a frame, on which millinet is stretched and fastened, as directed under the article Cucumber. Use. — The use of melons, as a palatable and wholesome article of diet, is too well known to need any remarks. Dr. Mease, of Philadelphia, observes, that " The juice of the sweeter kind of water-melon yields, on inspissation, a bright light-coloured syrup, which would answer every purpose required of any syrup. Mr. Henry Drinker, of Philadelphia, procured half a pound of this syrup, from fourteen pounds of melon juice, a part of which I tast- ed, and found very pleasant." To make the most of unripe melons, Loudon's Magazine directs to "boil them, and season them with spices and salt, or bake them like a pumpkin-pie." The rind of the watef-melon is also used for pickling, &c. MINT. — Mentha. — This is a genus of plants comprising twenty-four species. Those cultivated in gardens are pep- permint, (M. piperita;) spearmint, (M. viridis;) penny- royal-mint, (M. pulegium.) Culture. — All " the species are raised by the same meth- ods, viz. by parting the roots, by offset young plants, and by cuttings of the stalks. Spearmint and peppermint like a-moist soil; penny- royal, a strong loam. The plants set in spring or summer will come into use the same year. They may be placed about eight inches apart, on beds abnul MULBERRY. MUSHROOM. 205 four feet wide, illowing a path two feet brtiad. New beds should be mad i every three years. Gathering the crop, and use. — " Mint should be cut foi drying," says Philips, "just when it is in flower, and on a fiue day ; for if cut in damp weather, the leaves will turn black. It should be tied in small bunches, and dried in a shady place, out of the wind ; but, to retain its natural virtues more effectually, it has been found better to place the mint m a screen, and to dry it quickly before a fire, so that it may be powdered and immediately put into glass bottles, and kept well stopped. Parsley, thyme, sage, and other herbs, retain their full fragrance when thus prepared, and are by this mode secured from dust, and always ready to the hand of the cook. " A conserve made of mint is grateful, and the dis- tilled waters, both simple and spirituous, are much esteem- ed. The juice of spearmint, drank in vinegar, often stops the hiccup. Lewis observes, what has before been observed by Pliny, that mint prevents the coagulation of milk, and hence it is recommended in milk diets.' MULBERRY.— Moras.— See Silk. MUSHROOM.— Agaricus. — This is a genus of plants comprising a great many species, of which, accoi'ding to some authors, three hundred are natives of Great Britain. The kind cultivated in gardens is the Agaricus campestrisj which is thus described by M'Mahon : — ■■" The gilla of this are loose, of a pinky red, changing to liver colour, in contact, but not united with the stem ; very thick set, some forked next the stem, some next the edge of the cap, some at both ends, and generally, in that case, excluj^ing the intermediate smaller gills. Cap, white, changing to brown when old, and becoming scurfy, fleshy, arid regularly convex," but with age flat, and liquefying in decay; flesh white; diameter commonly from one inch to three, or sometimes four or more. Stem solid, one to three inches high, ^ and about half an inch in diameter." Loudon says, " The mushroom is a well known native Tregetable, springing up in open pastures in August and Sep- tember. It is most readily distinguished, when of middle size, by its fine pink or flesh-coloured gills, and pleasant smell ; in a more advanced stage, the gills become of a chocolate colour, and it is then more apt to be confounded with other kinds of dubious quality ; but that species which most nearly resembles it, is slimy to the touch, and destitute of the fine odour," having rather a disagrceablf IS i06 MUSHROOM. smell: further, the noxious kind grows in woods, or on the margins of woods, while the true mushroom springs up chiefly in open pastures, and should be gathered only iu such places." Mr. Armstrong gives the following directions for culti- vating the garden mushroom : — '' Prepare a bed, early in October, either in a corner of the hot-house, if you have one, or a dry and warm cellar. The width of the bed at bottom should not be less than four feet, and its length in proportion to the spawn provided. Its sides should rise perpendicularly one foot, and should afterwards decrease to the centre, forming four sloping surfaces. We need hardly say that the material of the bed at this stage of the busi- ness must be horse-dung, well forked, and pressed together to prevent its settling unequally. It should then be cover- ed with long straw, as well to exclude frost as to keep in the volatile parts of the mass, which would otherwise escape. After ten days, the temperature of the bed will be sufficiently moderated, when the straw is to be removed, and a covering of good mould, to the depth of an inch, laid over the dung. On this the seed or spawn of the mush- room [which are threads or fibres of a white colour, found in old pasture-grounds, in masses of rotten horse-dung, sometimes under stable-floors, and frequently in the re- mains of old hot-beds] is to be placed in rows, six inches apart, occupying all the sloping parts of the bed, which is again to be covered with a second inch of fresh mould and a coat of straw. If your bed has been well constructed, your mushrooms will be fit for use at the end of five or six weeks, and will continue to be productive for several months. Should you, however, in the course of the win- ter, find its productiveness diminished, take off nearly all the original covering, and replace it with eight or ten inch- es of fresh dung 'and a coat of clean straw. This, by creating a new heat, will revive the action of the spawn, and give a long succession of mushrooms." — Mem. of N. V. Board of Agr. vol. ii. p. 125. Use. — The garden mushroom is eaten fresh, either stew- ed or boiled ; and preserved as a pickle, or in powder, or dried whole. The sauce commonly called ketchup (sup- posed, by Martyn, from the Japanese, kit-jap) is or ought to be made from its juice with salt and spices. Wild mushrooms from old pastures are generally considered as more delicate in flavour, and more tender in flesh, than those raised in artificial beds. But the young or buttei MUSTARD. 207 rausliM oms, of the cultivated sort, are firmer, Ecid better for pickling; ; and in using cultivated mushrooms, there is evi- dently much less risk of deleterious kinds being employed." — Neill and Martyn. " Antidote to poisonous sorts. — All fungi should be used with great caution, for even the champignon and edible gar- den-mushrooms possess deleterious qualities when grown in certain places. All the edible species should be thor- oughly masticated, before taken into the stomach, as this greatly lessens the effects of poisons. When accidents of this sort happen, vomiting should be immediately excited, and then the vegetable acids should be given, either vine- gar, lemon-juice, or that of apples ; after which, give ether and antispasmodic remedies, to stop the excessive bilious vomiting. Infusions of gall-nut, oak-bark, and Peruvian bark are recommended as capable of neutralizing the pois- onous principle of mushrooms. It is, however, the safest way not to eat any of the good, but less common sorts, until they have been soaked in vinegar. Spirit of wine and vinegar extract some part of their poison ; and tannin mat- ter decomposes the greatest part of it." — Botanist's Com- panion, vol. ii. p. 145. ' MUSTARD. — Sinapis. — Of this plant there are two species in cultivation, the black and the white ; annuals, and natives of Great Britain. The following are Loudon's directions for the culture of the white mustard, S. alba. For spring and summer con- sumption, sow once a week or fortnight, in dry, warm situ- ations, in February and March ; and, afterwards, in any other compartment. " In summer, sow in shady borders, if it be hot, sunny weather ; or, have the bed shaded. Gen- erally, sow in shallow, flat drills, from three to six inches apart ; scatter the seed thick and regular, and cover in thin- ly with the earth, about a quarter of an inch. To furnish gatherings in winter or early in spring, sow in frames or under hand-glasses ; and when the weather is frosty, or very cold, in hot-beds and stoves." Use. — " This species," according to Loudon, "is cultrva ted chiefly as a small salad, and is used like cresses, while in the seed : when these are newly expanded, they are mild and tender ; but when the plants have advanced into the rough leaves, they eat rank and disagreeable." " In Spain, and throughout the south of Europe, the seed of the white specifs is preferred, for the fabrication of mustard, because 208 nectarjne. nursery. giving a whiter and milder flour than the seed of he black. "— Armstrong. The seed of this plant is also celebrated ibf its medical virtues, being at once a tonic and an aperient ; cleansing the stomach and bowels, and bracing the system at the same time. — See N. E. Farmer, vol. yi. p. 188. Black mustaud — S. nigra — is a larger plant than the white, with much darker leaves, and their divisions blunter. Use. — " Black mustard is chiefly cultivated in fields for the mill, and for medicinal purposes. It is sometimes, however, sown in gardens, and the tender leaves used as greens, early in the spring. The seed leaves, in common with those of the cress, radish, rape, &c., are sometimes used as a salad ingredient ; but the grand purpose for which the plant is cultivated, is for seeds, which, ground, produce the well known condiment. If the seeds. Dr. Cullen ob- serves, be taken fresh from the plant, and ground, the pow- ier has little pungency, but is very bitter ; by steeping in Hnegar, however, the esential oil is evolved, and the pow- der becomes extremely pungent. In moistening mustard- powder for the table, it may be remarked, that it makes the best appearance when rich milk is used ; but the mixture, in this case, does not keep good for more than two days. The seeds of both the black and white mustard are often used, in an entire state, medicinally." Culture Jor the mill. — " To raise seed for flour of mus- tard, and other officinal occasions, sow, either in March or April, in any open compartment ; or make large sowings iu fields, where designed for public supply. Sow moderately thick, either in drills, from six to twelve inches asunder, ot broad-cast, and rake or harrow in the seed. When the plants are two or three inches in the growth, hoe and thin them moderately where too thick, and clear them from weeds. They will soon run up in stalks, and, iu July or August, return a crop of seed ripe for gathering." — Aher- crombie. NECTARINE. — Amygdalvi Persica. — This is, by some writers, considered as the same fruit with the peach, and its culture is the same. See art. Fruit, for its different kinds, and Peach, for ts cujture. NURSERY. — In establishing a nursery, two points should be contemplated — ^fitness as to the disposal of the produce, and fitness as to shelter, aspect, and soil, Regard NURSERY. 20fe must be had to the leading roads of the distnct, the means of carriage by land or water, the objects which will probably be most in demand, whether seedlings, fruit-trees, vines, native plants, tender exotics, or all these united. " In order to have a complete nursery, it should contain soils of various qualities, and not less than eighteen inches or two feet deep ; the generality of it should be light, friable earth ; a part of it should be of a clayey nature, and another part should be mossy. Each of these will be fousd peculiarly useful in the raising of the different kinds of young plants. The whole should be well drained and trenched, and cropped with vegetables for one, or even two years, previously to sowing tree seeds. For transplanting, it may be used the first year. A nursery may certainly be over-sheltered ; but this is likely to happen only in the case of its being very small ; for, if it extend to several acres, unless it be surrounded by very tall»tr,ees, the area will be considerably exposed. No part should be either too much exposed, or too much sheltered. Any aspect from east to west, following the course of the sun, will answer. Ground of an unequal surface is most likely to contain the various soils above-mentioned. A nursery should, therefore, in general, rise from a level to a pretty smart acclivity, yet uo part of it should be too steep, because it is, in that case, very troublesome to labour. The nursery ground may be sufficiently fenced by a stone wall, or even a hedge, six feet high ; and if it be of pmall size, an acre or thereabouts^ it Mill require no other shelter over all the space. ^ The fence, whether of thorns or stone, should be made proof against the admission of hares or rabbits. It should bp subdivided into compartments and borders, of proportionate size to the contents of the area, by walks. The compart- ments should never be encumbered with large trees, as ap- ples, pears, or the like, because, being already established in the ground, they never fail to rob the young trees of their food, and to cause them to be poor and stunted, un- worthy of being planted. It would be very convenient to have a rill of water passing through the ground, or to have a small pond, fed by a spring, or a pipe, for the purpose of watering. " In preparing the soil for the culture of trees, it will be advisable to trench it to its full depth, and necessary to give it a good dressing of lime or marl, or duUg in compost. Rank manure, such as stable-litter, should not be applied to ttursery ground, at the time of cropping with nursery arti- 18* tlO NURSERY. c'.es ; bu*. if i1 be necessary to enrich it, this shj)uld be done oy a manured crop of onions, turnips, lettuces, or the like Potatoes should never go before a crop of seediir gs, even of the coarser sorts, as ac-h, oak, or chestnut ; because pota- toes never can be taken clean out of the ground ; and, i( being indispensable to pull up those which rise among the tree seedlings, many of these unavoidably come up along with them." — McoPs Planter^s Calender. " A rotting ground will be required for the preparation of certain seeds, by mixing them with sand, ashes, or soil, and leaving them there for different periods, from six months to two years, to rot off their interior coverings. On a small scale, a portion of the compost ground of the kitchen- garden may be used for this purpose. If the scale is large, an area of a few square poles should be set apart for bed- ding in plants taken up for replanting, or what is called laying in by the heels, or sloughing : this is generally called the bedding ground^ or, in Scotland, the doughing ground." — ^Loudon. " It has been a received opinion, that the soil for a nur- sery should not be made rich, as the plants, when removed to a more fertile soil, will flourish more luxuriantly ; but later observation has decided, that the reverse of this will be found correct. There is a close analogy between vegeta- ble and animal life ; and it is a dictate of nature, that both re- quire a full supply of nutriment, from their earliest existence. It would be absurd to suppose, that the tender roots of young seedlings are capable of drawing sufficient nutriment from a rank, barren, and uncultivated soil, and those that are barely supported, or nearly starved at first, will never afterwards become vigorous, stately, and handsome, though surrounded by the richest mould. Repeated experiments have proved that a strong and vigorous plant, that has grown up quickly, and arrived at considerable magnitude in a short time, never fails to grow better, after transplant- ing, than another of the same size, that is older and stunted in its growth. Where the soil is poor and lean, trees, in every stage of their growth, are observed to be languid, weak, and stunted ; while those reared in a good, mellow soil, always assume a free growth, and advance with strength and vigour. It is evident, therefore, that the ground to be of-cupied for a fmit nursery, requires to be made rich and fv.. tile. The soil rfiou'd also be deep, well pulverized, and cleared of all roots anu weed„. The seeds may be sown either in autumn or A.prif, and, in one yeai NURSERV. 211 tfter, the young plants may be taken up, and replanted in the nursery. It is important that the situation be such as to admit of a free circulation of air, and open to the sun, that the plants may be preserved in a healthy condition. Plants, reared in a confined and shaded situation, in a large town, and removed to aa open exposure in the country, will long continue in a debilitated condition ; like a puny city invalid, their growth will be greatly impeded, and many years will elapse before they attain to a state of vig- our, health, and hardihood.- " In MarshalPs Rural Economy it is directed, that the seedling plants, when taken from the seed-bed, be sorted agreeably to the strength of their roots, that they may rise evenly together. The tap, or large bottom root, should be taken oflf, and the longer side-root-lets should be shortened. The young plants should then be set in rows, three feet apart, and from fifteen to eighteen inches asunder, in the rows ; care being taken not to cramp the roots, but to bed them evenly and horizontally among the mould. In strict- ness of management, they ought, two years previous to their being transferred to the orchard, to be traii 214 ONION. and well-consumed dung, avoiding to use stable-dung in a rank, unreduced state. Turn in the manure to a moderate depth ; and, in digging the ground, let it be broken fine. Grow pickles in poor, light ground, to keep them small. The market-gardeners at Hexham sow their onion-seed on the same ground for twenty or more years in succession, but annually manure the soil. After digging and levelling tht ground, the manure, in a very rotten state, is spread upon it, the onion-seed sown upon the manure, and covered with earth from tht alleys, and the crops are abundant, and ex- cellent in quail y." — Hort. Tram. i. 121. Deane's New England Farmer says, " A spot of ground erial, (two feet, u superior variety ;) Dwarf blue Prussian, (two and a half feet;) Dwarf Spanish, or fan, [one foot ;) Dwarf marrowial, (three and a half feet.j Dwarf sugar, {pods eaten — three Je^ Matchless, or true tail marrowfat (sixfea;) Kuig^ht's tall marrows ; Tall, crooked podded sugar, (pods e(den — six feet ;) Ladies' finger marrows, (a prodigi- cats bearer, and delicate eating pea ;) New nonpareil pea, (a neiB andpro ductive sort from Scotland;) Knight's dwarf marrows. " The Charltons are not only very early, but great beai'- "srs, and excellent peas for the table ; and are therefore equally well fitted for the early and forward succession props, and inferior to few even for the main summer crops. The frame pea may indeed be raised without the assistance of heat for a forward crop, and, if a genuine sort, will fruit a few days sooner than the Charlton ; but it grows low, and bears scantily. The Hotspur is hardy and prolific, and makes returns nearly as quick as the Charlton, and about a fortnight before the marrowfat. The sorts already spe- cified,therefore,embrace the best for sowings made from the end of October till the middle of January, and for late crops, raised between the middle of June, and the beginning of August. The Charltons and Hotspur may be sown in May for late fall crops ; in June for a smaller supply ; and in July along with the frames for the last returns." — Loudcm. TimeB of sowing. — " The dwarfs are generally employed io hot-bed culture, which, however, succeeds badly, and is neither worth preserving nor describing, and the less so, as early crops may be more certainly had by sowing in the fall, in sheltered situations, and covering during the winter with a layer of leaves, and another of long stable-litter loosely applied to keep the leaves in their places. After the earth takes a temperature favourable to vegetation, your pea sowings should be made once a fortnight, to keep up a regular and successive supply." — Armstrmg. Quantity of seed.—'^ Of the small, early kinds, one pint will sow a row of twenty yards ; for the larger sorts, for .nam crops, the same measure will sow a row of tiiirty- Shree yards." Process in sowing. — "For early sorts, ma^e the dnlls 228 FEA. one inch and a half deep; and let parallel drills be tv,e feef and a half, three or four feet asunder. Peas that are to grow without sticks require the least room. For sum- mer crops and large sorts, make the drills two inches deep, and ;bur, five or six feet asunder. As to the dis- tances along the drill, distribute the peas according to their size, and the season : the frame, three in the space of an inch; the Charltons, Hotspur, and dwarf marrowfat, two in an inch ; the Prussian blue, and middle-sized sorts, three in two inches ; the large marrowfat and Knight's a full inch apart ; the moratto, rouncivals, and most larger sorts, an inch and a half apart, and the Patagonian, two inches." Soil and situation. — " The soil should be moderatelj rich, and the deeper and stronger for the lofty growers. Peas are not assisted, but hurt, by unreduced dung recently turned in. A fresh, sandy loam, or road-stuflf, and a little decomposed vegetable matter, is the best manure. The soil for the early crops should be very dry, and rendered so, where the ground is moist, by mixing sand with the earth of the drills." — Loudon. Armstrong says, " A loose and warm soil is most fa- vourable to this vegetable, which, by the way, is neither improved in quality nor quantity by stable manure. The soil of Clichy, and of Point de Jour des Colombe, &c. in the neighbourhood of Paris, is a pure sand, principally de- voted to pea crops, and yielding these most abundantly without the application of dung new or old." Subsequent cidture. — " As the plants rise from half an inch high to two or three inches, begin to draw earth to the stems, doing this when the ground is in a dry state, and earthing gradually higher as the stems ascend. At the same time, with the hoe, loosen the ground between the young plants, and cut down rising weeds. Early crops should be protected during hard frosts by dry straw, or other light litter, laid upon sticks or brush wood ; but re- move the covering as soon as the weather turns mild, If, in April, May, and the course of the summer, dry weather occurs, watering will be necessary, especially to plants in blossom and swelling the fruit ; and this trouble will be repaid in the produce. Rows partly cut off may be made up by transplanting. In dry weather, water, and in hot weather, shade, until the plants strike. All peas fruit bet- ter for sticking, and continue longer productive, especially the larger ssrts. Stick the plants, when from six to twelve PEA. 220 inches liigh, as soon as they begin to vine. Provide branchy sticks of such a height as the sort will require for the frame and Leadman's dwsrf, three feet high ; foi the Charlton and m'ddle-sized, four or five feet ; for thf marrowfat and large', kinds, six or eight feet ; for the roun- cival, and for Knight's marrow-pea, nine or ten feet. Place a row of sticks to °ach line of peas, on the most sunny side, east or south, that the attraction of the sun may incline the plants towards the sticks. Place about half the number on the opposite side, and let both rows stand rather wider at top than at the ground. Some gardeners stop the leading shoot of the most early crop, when in blossom ; a device which accelerates the setting and maturity of the fruit. To forward an early crop. — " Sow or plant in lines from east to west, and stick a row of spruce-fir [or other ever- green] branches along the north side of every row, and sloping so as to bend over the plants, at one foot or eigh- teen inches from the ground. As the plants advance in height, vary the position of the branches, so as they may always protect them from perpendicular cold or rain, and ye', leave them open to the full influence of the spring sun . Some cover during nights, and in severe weather with two boards, nailed together lengthwise, at right angles, which forms & very secure and easily-managed covering, but excludes light. A better plan would be to glaze one of the sides, to be kept to the south, and to manage such row-glasses, as they might be called, when over peas, beans, spinage, &c., as band-glasses are managed, when over cauliflower; that is, to take them off in fine weather, or raise them constantly or occasionally by brick-bats, or other props, as the weath'ii and the state of me crop might require." — Loudon. Management of a late crop. — The best variety for this purpose is Knight's marrow-pea, which may be sown at mtervals of ten days, from the beginning to the end of June. "The ground is dug over in the usual way, and the spaces to be occupied by the future rows of peas are well soaked with water. The mould upon each side is then collected so as to form ridges seven or eight inches above the pre- vious level of the ground, and these ridges are well watered. The seeds are now sown in single rows, along the tops of the ridges. The plants grow vigorously, owing to the depth of soil and abundant moisture. If dry weather a) any time set in, water is applied profusely once a week In this way, the plants continue green and vigorous, resist- 20 230 PEA ing mildew, and yielding fruit till subdued by L jst." — Horl Trans, vol. ii. To save seed. — " Like other vegetables, the pea is sus- ceptible of considerable improvement, and by the simple means of marking the finest plants of each variety, and keeping them for seed. Wilson's frame, and the -finight pea, have been formed in this way, auJ afford sufficient proof of the wonders produced by a very small degree of observation and care." — Armstrong. Field-culture of the pea. — The most common mode o'^ sowing peas is broad-cast ; but the advantages of the row ■ culture, in a crop so early committed to the ground, must be obvious. Loudon says, " In Kent, where immense quantities of peas are raised, both for gathering gieen, and for selling ripe to the seedsmen, they are generally sown in rows from eighteen inches to three feet asunder, according to the kind, and well cultivated between. Peas, laid a foot below the surface, will vegetate ; but the most approved depth is six inckes in light soil, and four inches in clay soil, lor which reason they ought to be sown under furrow, when the ploughing is delayed till spring. Of all grain, beans excepted, they are in the least danger of being buried too deep. "-r Loudon. Deane observed, that "For field-peas, land that is newly ploughed out of sward is generally accounted best ; and land which is high and dry, and has not been much dunged. A light, loamy soil is most suitable for them ; and if it abound with slaty stones, it is the better. But they will do in any dry soil. The manures that suit peas best, are marl and lime. Our farmers do not commonly allow a sufficient quantity of seed for peas, in broad-cast sowing. When peas are sowed thin, the plants will lie on the ground, and perhaps rot : when they are thick, the plants wiH hold each other up with their tendrils, forming a con- tinued web, and will have more benefit of the air. Insects and diseases. — The Mass. Agricultural Repository, for June, 1822, contains some remarks of the Hon. T. Pick- ering, relative to a bug or fly, (bruchus pisi,) which preys on the pea, in which he observes, that an effectual remedy for this evil is late somng ; but the hot sun of June will so pinch the vines of the late sown peas, that the crop will be small, unless the land be moist as well as rich. He then details some experiments, by which he concludes that this insect is limited to a certain pe.'iod for depositing its eggs PEA. 231 and if the tender pods are not found till that period ha» passed, the peas will he free from bugs. Col. Worthing- ton, of Rensellaer county, N. Y., " sowed his peas on the 10th of June, six years in succession, and a bug has never been seen in his peas. Whereas his neighbours, who have not adopted this practice, have scarcely a pea without a bug in it. He supposes the season for depositing the egg of the pea-bug is passed before the peas are in flower." — Mem. of N. V. Board of Agricuiture, vol. ii. p. 23. " The only insect that commonly injures our peas is a small brown bug or fly, the egg [or larva] of which is deposited in them when they are young, and the pods easily perforated. The insect does not come out of its nest till he is furnished with short wings. They diminish the peas in which they lodge nearly one half, and their leavings are fit only for the food of swine. The bugs, however, will be all gone out if you keep them to the following autumn. But they who eat buggy peas the winter after they are raised, must run the ventare of eating the insects." — Deane's N. E, Farmer. The game writer recommends, when seed-peas are known or suspected to contain insects, to scald them a quarter of a minute in boiling water, spread them about, and sow them without delay. If any of the bugs should be in the peas, this scalding will destroy them ; and the peas, instead of being hurt, will come up the sooner, and grow the faster. Mildew is another evil attending peas, especially such as are sown late in the season. This disorder is supposed by Knight to be caused by " a want of a sufficient supply of moisture from the soil, with excess of humidity in the air, particularly if the plants be exposed to a temperature below that to wluch they have been accustomed." The remedy which he recommends is, to " give water rather profusely once a week, or nine days, even if the weather prove* showery."; — See N. E. Farmer^ vol. i. p. 414. Use. — ^f he use of peas for soups, and other culinary pur poses, is well known. They are likewise very serviceable in fattening hogs, for which purpose they should be har- vested dry, and ground into meal. If the straw be forward in autumn, and has been harvested without injury, it will be little inferior to ordina"y h.:y for feeding catfle. " In boiling split peas, some" saiaples, without reference to variety, fall or moulder down freely into pulp, while others continue to maintain their form. The former are called boilers. This property of boiling depends on the Boil : stiff land, or sandy land that has been limed or marled, 232 VEACIT-TREE. uniformly produces peas that will not melt in boiling, 1 1 matter what the variety may be." — Loudon. " When peas are sown before winter, or e »rly in ^spring, they are very apt to be eaten by mice. To prevent this, ^oak the peas, for a day or two, in train oil, before you sow them, which will encourage their vegetation, and render them so obnoxious to the mice that they will not eat them." — Domestic Encyclopedia. PEACH-TREE. — Amygdalvs Persica. — The peach-tree IS a native of Asia, and was first brought to Rome during the reign of the emperor Claudius. Varieties. — Linnaeus divides the A. Persica into two varieties ; that with downy fruit, or the peach, and that with smooth fruit, or the nectarine. There are various in- stances on record, {Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 103,) of both fruits growing on the same tree, even on the same branch ; and one case has occurred of a single fruit partaking of the nature of both. See further, Fuuit. All the varieties are continued by budding, and, as in all other cases, new ones are obtained by sowing the stones; in doing which, we ought not to forget, that, like oil-giving seeds in general, those of the peach require to be earthed as soon as they are separated from the pulp. In their sec- ond year, (if wall-trees are required,) such of them as are destined for stems are budded close to the earth; and if riders or standards are wanted, three, four, or six feet higher. In the spring following, the first shoots from these buds should be headed down to four, live, or six eyes, for the purpose of producing two upright and leading branches, and as many laterals, with which you begin to give to the head the form you intend it shall ultimately take. " The standard is nea.. y the natural form of the tree ; requiring no interposition of art, if we except the removal of dead, or dying, or superfluous limbs, and an occasional supply of wood, (if this be wanted.) to keep up a well-bal- anced head. It is also that form in which the tree suc- ceeds best in hot climates ; and in such it ought always to be employed. But, in northern latitudes, (where the heat is neither long continued nor great,) the fruit of the stand- ard peach-tree is rarely seen in perfection ; it may be large, and juicy, and well coloured, but it will always be deficient in that peculiar flavour, that aroma, which is its true char- acteristic, and without which 't is but ordinary fruit. To supply, thereforej as far as may be possible, without the aid fEACH-THEE. 233 of fire or glass, that high temperature in which thf peach delights, we must recur, first, to the use of walls, which, besides protecting the tree from high and cold winds, con- centrate the rays of the sun on its stem and branches, and on the earth which surrounds and nourishes its roots ; sec- ond, to the amelioration of the soil, by giving to it both warmth and dryness, should it be deficient in these quali- ties ; and, third, to lie mode of training, which exposes to the light the greatest surface of leaf in the shortest space of time, and, consequently, best promotes an equal distribu- tion of the sap. For accomplishing these three objects, the rules are, to construct your wails of stone, or brick, oi wood, and of a height from twelve to fifteen feet ; to laj out on the eastern and southern sides a border ten feet wide, worked to the depth of three feet, and manured with a mixture of ashes and peat, or bog earth ; to plant in this (two and a half feet distant from the wall) your young trees, furnished with two leading branches, and presenting a figure not unlike the letter Y ; to bring down those branches to a position nearly horizontal, and subsequently to train them upwards, parallel to each other, as high as the top of the wall, and directly against its side, to which, throughout ave of late years been subject to a n?alady, PEAR-TREE. 245 by some supposed to be fire-blight, but by others attributed to an insect called Scolytvs pyri. During the months of June and July, the extreme branches turn black, as if scorched. The disorder extends downwards to the larger limhs, and continues to increase, till, in some instances, the tree is en- tirely destroyed. • It is sometimes so rapid in its progress,- that, in a few hours from its first appearance, the whole tree will appear to be mortally diseased, and all its foliage withered or withering. A writer in the New England Fanner, vol. ii. p. 42, says, that, on the first appearance, of this disease^ " I instantly sawed oS all the limbs affected, and proceeded to examine them. I ^und at last the enemy, not at the point where death ensued, but some inches below it. The insect was very sniall, and apparently, incapable of such ex- tensive mischief, biit the effect was certain, and the manner of producing tliat effect was obvious. It had eaten a com- plete circle of the alburnum, or sap wood, not exceeding the sizf of a knitting needle, so as completely to intercept the passage of the sap." This insect the writer exhibited to Professor Peck, whence arose his account of it, first pub- lished in the Miss. Agr. Repos., and fepublished, together with a cut of the insect, in the N. E. Farmer, vol. v. p. 2. The late Professor Peck observed, that the mischievous effects of this minute insect may te observed in June and July, and that the dead part of the branches should be cut off, and hurnt without delay. The writer above referred to says, that, by steadily pursuing the system of cutting off the limbs many inches below the apparent injury, and burn- ing them, the insects have been extirpated from his estate. Some writers attribute the sudden decay of the pear- tree to the overpowering rays of the sun. Others say that a warm winter sets the sap in motion, which a cold spring arrests, and causes it to stagnate and become corrupt in the pores, of the alburnum. Others are of opinion. that manur- ing too high, and pruning too much, causes the tree to die of a plethora or surfeit. The remedy, however, is not a sthject of so much dispute. In all cases of blight, the only cure or palliation of the disorder is found in sawing off the affected branches, some inches below where the blight appears. Use. — " As a dessert fruit the pear is muel: esteemed, and generally preferred to the apple. It is also used for baking, compotes, marmalade, &c. Pared and dried in the oven, the fruit will keep several years, either with or with- out sugar. This mode of preparing the pear is ahout as 21* 246 PKPFEK, RED. PLUM-TREE. common in France, as the making of apple-pies is in Britain, and what is favourable to the practice is, that bad eating sorts answer best for drying. The wood of the pear-tree is light, 'smooth, and compact, and is used by turners, and to make joiners' tools, picture-frames to be dyed black, &c. The leaves will produce a yellow dye, and may be used to give a green to blue cloth." — Loudon. PEPPER, B.ED. ~ Capsicum.— Thia plant requires a warm, rich soil, and a favourable exposition. The seeds jnay be placed in rows,- thre6 feet apart, or in hills, at that distance from each other. In dry weather they will need watering, and should be kept clear of weeds by frequent hoeing. The seeds are best preserved by running a string through the pods, and hanging them in a dry place. Use. — " Pepper is an excellent spice, which should always be coarsely ground, and eaten only with fat, smoked, or tough animal food ; with cabbages, cucumbers, and other flatulent and cold vegetables ; and likewise with fish, ajid all substances that are diflBriult to be digested. On the continent of Europe, this spice is highly esteemed for its efficacy in relieving flatulency, weak, or impaired digestion, and the giddiness which generally accompanies the com- - plaint last mentioned. For this purpose, from six to ten grains are directed to be swallowed every morning, previ- ously to taking food ; such practice, however, ought to be adopted only in cases where the stomach is in a high de- gree vitiated,- or the patient has been habituated to the free use of spices and spirituous liquors." — Dom. Encyc. PLUM-TREE. — Prumis domestica. — This tree is found growing wild in Great Britain and other parts of Europe ; but its native country is supposed, by European writers, to be Syria, in Asia. It is also indigenous in North America, and a wild kind, found in the woods of Vermont, grows large and fair, but its fruit contains little saccharine matter. No doubt it might be improved by culture, and may fur- nish stocks for grafting. Some of the most approved varie- ties are enumerated under the head Fruit, p. 136. » SoU and cidtivation. — Plums, t tcording to Miller, should have a middling soil, neither too wet and heavy, nor over light and dryr Armstrong recommends argillaceous soils, not very wet nor very dry. " Where, from previous cul- ture, or accidental causes, the earth becomes either very rich or very poor, the tree does not succeed. In the one case, its vigour is directed only to the production of wood and foliage ; and in the ot)eed from which the worms are to be hatched; and here it will be proper to ob- serve, that one ounce of seed will produce about forty thousand worms, who will consume about one thousand pounds' weight of leaves, and produce from eighty to one hundred pounds of cocoons ; and twelve pounds of cocoons will give about one pound of silk. It is of the greatest importance to procure the best seed, because that which is inferior will produce sickly worms, who will be much more exposed to the various disorders to which these insects are subject ; a greater proportion will die, and those which sur- vive will not make good cocoons. The best seed is of a *dark grey colour, almost as dark as slate, looks bright, and if thrown into wine will sink. The seed which is light, of a white or yellow colour, and looks dull, is barren and good for nothing. The seed should be kept in a cool, dry situation, until the mulberry-trees have their leaves 31LK. -ZIC opened ; when the food is thus in readiness, then is the time to get it hatched.- In Italy and France, at that ap- pointed time, the Women put the seed in small bags of worsted stuff, and place them in their bosoms, during the day, and at night under their pillows,' for about forty-eight hours ; at the expiration of which, the seed is transferred into boxes, over which a paper cover is fastened vfith many small holes, through which the little worms will creep Some mulberry leaves should be placed on the paper, so tha/ they may feed, which they will do as soon as they come t* life. These boxes are placed on feather beds with pillows around them, in order to keep a uniform heat whilst the worms are hatching. Those which come to life in the course of the same day,, should be collected and kept to- gether; they will shed their skins, and ascend to make Bieir cocoons, at the same period. The hatching of each successive day should be kept separate ; this order will render their management and care easier, and more profita- ble. When the hatching has 'been well conducted, the heat proper and regular, most of the worms will make their appearance on the third or fourth day ; and such seed as has not come to life on the fifth or sixth day is not worth preserving ; for, if it should hatch, the worms will be weak- ly, and not likely to do well. If, on the second day, the seed that has been set to hatch should change colour, and appear red, it proves that the heat has been too great, and that the seed is spoiled. In the middle provinces of France, where fhe climate is variable, and subject to sudden returns of cold, the cultiva- tors are very cautious occasionally to exclude the outward air, by shutting the doors and wiffdows, and always in the night and early part of the morning. Sudden cold, damp- ness, and especially foggy weather, are sure to injure the worms by bringing disease upon them, which will often prove-fatal, and always reduce the quantity, and injure the quality, of the silk. A uniform temperature, not too warm, is considered as very desirable for the success of the silk crop; and about seventy-three degrees of the thermometei of Fahrenheit is the most suitable. The silk-worms shed their skins fouT times, which is foi them a period of sickness, during which they do not eat, but appear drowsy, and are more particularly affected by any sudden change of the weather to cold or damp. The first shedding takes place the sixth or seventh day after .heir birth; the head appears to increase in «ize, and the» 274 SILK. cast off their skins. This time of trial for them will lasi three or fi>ur days, if the weather is warm and genial; but if it is cold and damp, they are much longer to get through it. As soon as the skin is cast off, they a])peai active again, eat with a good appetite, and will continue so for six or eight days, when the second shedding comes on under the same circumstances, and is succeeded by a third and fourth shedding. The second shedding is the easiest for them, and fewer die under its operation than during the first, third, and fourth. Eight days after the worms have got through the fourth shedding, and at the end of about six weeks from the commencement of their exist- ence, they have arrived nearly to maturity, and are going to make their cocoons, and reward the care that has been taken of them. • They want then to go up to spin their cocoons, but it is necessary not to encourage this natural disposition, until it is evident that they are fully ripe. If they go up too soon, their cocoons vi;ill be light and flimsy. The signs of their full maturity are, some change in their colour, which until then is white ; the head appears ■wilt- ed, the tail larger, the green circles round the body become of a bright gold colour, and they keep moving about among the others, but without eating, and seem as if stretching their heads for the purpose of spinning. When the worms exhibit these indications, they should be separated from the rest, and put into a place where small, dry branches of oak, hazel, white birch, or any other wood, have been prepared for them to ascend and spin their cocoons. When they have ascended, it will be some days before they begin to spin. The first day they lay out threads for a foundation — the second, they form the shape of the cocoons — the third, the worm is entombed and out of sight, but continues to spin (inside) until he has expended the whole of his stock of liquor, which, in general, is the seventh or eighth day. The thread of a good cocoon is about nine hundred and fifty feet. It is highly important to feed the worms in that particu- lar way which experience has shown to be the most suit- able ; the leaves, at all times, should be dry when given to •:hem ; therefore, when rain is likely to fall, it is necessary ^0 gather in a stock, bSbre they get wet ; if the weaflier set in to steady rain, the leaves should be spread in a sepa- rate room, and dried before they are given to the worms ; leaves wetted by rain, or dew, will either kill them, or bring on some bad disorder ; from their birth to the second shed- siL.li. 275 ding, they should be fed twice a day, moijiing and even- ing .; afterwards three times a day, to the fourth shedding ; and then, until they ascend, four, five, or six times a day, as they may seem to require it ; from the fourth shedding until they ascend, their appetite is voracious, and it should be satisfied bv an abundance of leaves of the best quality ; those from old trees, matured by age, should be resetved for this period, and given to thera fresh gathered and dry. The worms, throughout the period of their existence, should be attended with great care and regularity ; they should be kept perfectly clean, clearing away, often, the remains of the leaves, their own ordure, &c., which other- wise would create a disagreeable effluvia, and breed disor- ders among them ; bad smells are very obnoxious to them, and no smoking of tobacco should be allowed where they are kept ; they should be fed early in the morning, and good leaves should be given them regularly at the times appointed, that no waste of food may take place ; the leaves should be fresh gathered, unless in rainy weather, and no leaves offered to them, that have been kept in the house until they have become yellow and sour, which will be the case, in general, after the third day ; it is upon these atten- tions, that a good crop depends; half-starved, neglected worms, will give light, flimsy cocoons, whilst the diligent will get them heavy and rich ; worms well attended to, and generously fed, will complete the crop within forty-five or fifty days ; those that are neglected will languish over two months, and yield a light result. The French and Italian establishments require large premises, and a great variety of utensils, such as benches, baskets, boxes of various sizes and shapes, to suit their ex- tensive concerns ; in the progress of time, it will become advisable for us to get acquainted with the minutiae of their arrangements ; but at the present day, we shall only poiiit out such preparations as may be requisite to make a beginning, and which each individual concerned may afterwards in- crease and modify, according to his own views and situation. 'Wherever silk-woims are to be raised in any number, it is evident that a room shculd be appropriated solely for that purpose ; any aspect will answer, except north ; the worms require heat, but it must be a free heat, that is, with a suf- ficient circulation of air ; a close, sultry air is very bad for them, and so is a damp air ; we would much prefer, on that account, a room up stairs to one on the ground floor ; an unfinished room would answer very well ; the doors and 276 SII.K. windows ough to oe ckwed whenever a saddeb transition to cold Of damp takes place, or a thunder-storm comes on, which, often+imes, will prove an injury to these insects ; shelvoo ^t boards, put up round the room, would be very convenient to keep the worms on, and, if requisite, a frame in the centre of the room, with shelves one over the other, sheets of large, stiff paper, or of pasteboard, with the edges turned up all round, and stitched at the corners, would an- swer very well to keep and feed the worms in, and when they are to be cleaned, new leaves might be put in a fresh paper, and laid by the side of that which wants cleaning the worms would leave it quickly to go to the fresh leaves It will be necessary to appropriate a comer for the dis- eased worms ; in the most favoured crop, there will be many, and they ought to be taken away immediately, from among the rest, and put into the hospital to recover, other- wise the contagion may extend, and a great loss ensue. After the .cocoons are made, the first care is to take them down from the brush, clearing away the loose silk by which they are fastened, and selecting the best, those that feel hard and substantial, and of the brightest colour, to keep for seed ; the most desirable are the worms, which, at the hatching time, came to life first ; they prove to be the most bardy, and will make the best stock ; it is necessary to keep an equal number of each sex ; the male cocoon's are the longest and thinnest, pointed at both ends ; the females are larger and rounder, blunt at both ends, and resembling somewhat in shape a hen's egg ; these chosen cocoons are to be threaded with a needle, in strings of fifty, more oi Jess, taking great care to run the needle slightly through the silk, without hurting the chrysalis which is inside ; these strings are to be hung against the wainscot of the room, and, in the course of from fifteen to twenty days, the millers will come out, males and females ; the males always come out first ; the females are the whitest and the largest ; the males appear most active, and shake their wings. It is necessary to procure pieces of woollen cloth, (the Italians always use scarlet,) and to place the millers on them in rows, male and female by the side of each other ; after pairing, the male dies ; the female soon lays her seed on the cloth ; it appears as if glued on ; a female yields about three hundred seeds ; they are first white or yellow, and change to various hues, and finally, if good, become and re- main of a dark grey. The Italians preserve the seed on the pieces of scarlet cloth, and at the proper time their women sii.K. 277 wear them in their bosoms, as observed before, to hatch it. The French are in the habit of scraping the seed off from the cloth, and by wetting, slightly, the back of the cloth, it will come off easy, and without injury ; they put it up, then, in small bags ; whether it is scraped from, or left on the cloth, it should be packed carefully, and preserved over the winter, in a dry place, where it does not freeze, and where it is not too hot ; if it should freeze, the principle of life would be destroyed, and if it should be too warm, the seed would start for hatching, and would be lost; one hundred pair of cocoons will weigh about one pound, and give about one ounce of seed. Persons who intend to make a business of raising silk should raise their own seed ; it is too important a part of the concern to intrust to stratigers ; they should pay the most particular attention to the choice of the cocoons, which they select for seed, and to the preservation Of that seed through the winter. The French use stoves to warm occa- sionally the rooms, where the worms are reared, and thus secure them against any unexpected return of cold weather, and perhaps it may be requisite to use that caution in such parts of New England, as are much to the north or west of Boston ; in its neighbourhood, and farther south, we be- lieve that it would not be necessary, and that the only can tiou requisite, would be the closing of .doors andwindows'j whenever a sudden change in the weather might require it. We have observed before, that hot weather is favour- able for the worms, and they can bear it to a high degree, provided it is not sultry and close ; on that account, the room where they are kept should be so situated, and the windov/s so arranged, that there may be at any time a thorough draft, when wanted, so as to prevent that dead- ness of air, and unpleasant smell, which would greatly en- danger the health and lives of the worms ; in extreme cases of sultriness, the French are in the habit of burning a small quantity of nitre, in an earthen ware dish, which greatly improves the atmosphere of the premises ; it may also an- swer a good purpose, in such cases, to beat a brick or a stone, and throw on it some vinegar. Respecting the hatching, from the information wp have obtained of individuals who have attended to that busiuess in our country, nothing is required, when the proper time comes, but to place the seed in a warmer room, but not to the sun, and it will hatch naturally in the course i,f a short timp; it will take several days, and arlonger time than w.ie« 24 278 SILK. assisted by human heat ; but which is the best, aiid prefer- able method of the two, for our climate, time and experi- ence must determine; the French and Italians think the finest crop is generally secured by hastening the worms through the various stages of their existence, from the "latching to the ascending, and that any check or delay is to be esteemed as unfavourable to the ultimate success; hence their vigilance to secure an even temperature io the apartments, an abusdance of food for the worms, adapted to their age, in its quality, a perfect and constant cleanliness, and such an arrangement of the windows, doors, and traps in the floors, as to ensure, a free circulation of air, and to prevent that suffocating and offensive atmosphere, which would undoubtedly occasion a great mortality among them. The cocoons will not be of a uniform colour, they will be of various shades of yellow, and some white, y.et they all are of one and the same species, and may all be worked to- gether ; after the cocoons are gathered, and cleared of the flos silk, which fastened them to the brush, they should be reeled vvithout delay, and before the millers come out, for if the silk is left on until then, the quality is thereby in- jured ; they should be thrown into a kettle of hot watei, a small quantity at a time, and stirred with light, clean rods; this will dissolve the tenacious gum by which the threads adhere together ; female industry will search out the end of the thread, and wind and spin the threads from, ten to fourteen coc(?ons together into one single thread, with that Rare and correctness which will make a silk perfectly even, and perfectly clean. Here we could enter into minute details, and furnish drawings of such winding and reeling machines as are used in the large Italian and French establishments, but we con- sider that, at the present early period, it would have a ten- dency to fatigue and perplex the attention of such of our readers as may wish to embark in a trial ; their first attempt will probably be upon a limited scale, and undoubtedly the simple means used for winding and reeling in this state and in Connecticut, which may be more easily learnt by actual view than by tedious descriptions, will be found amply suf- ficient, and, as we progress in the business, our own intelli- gence and experience, gradually assisted by further informa- tion respecting!; the practice of Europe, will make us fully acquainted with the best process. When it is not conveni- ent to wind and reel all the cocoons at that time, then all the millers mus; be destroyed before they come out, in order sii-i... 279 £0 save the silk from injury ; this maybe done in the follow- ing manner ; — a kettle of hot water must be prepared, and, when boiling, a sieve, filled with cocoons about three er four inches thick, may be placed over the kettle, so as to receive the hot steam without dipping in the water; a wooden cover may be placed over the sieve to confine the steam, and, after leaving it in that situation for about ten minutes, you throw the cocoons into a cloth, and wrap them up in it, that the heat may be sure to penetrate into them, and de- stroy the life of .the chrysalis ; they must, immediately af- terwards, be spread in the sun to dry thoroughly, and then be put away on shelves, oi on a floor, spread very thin, that the dead insects within may Jry up and harden, otherwise they might corrupt there, and stain the silk; when this is done, the cocoons may be kept, if convenient, for three years, without any ill effect to the quality of the silk, which will wind easily, and be as good as if it had been wound immediately, but will not appear quite so bright. At the opening of the season, the object to attend to is, as soon as convenient, to procure good seed of the white mulberry, and to sow it in rows as before directed, hoeing the young plants carefully and frequently, to keep them free from weeds, and as thrifty as possible, that they may sain strength not to suffer from the first winter: the second spring after sowing, they will be in a good condition for gathering, and feeding the worms ; nay, any person, • who should. feel desirous of driving the business, might begin to use them the first spring after sowing, and keep one sowing in reserve, not to be used until the third year, when the plants, being better rooted, and stronger, could bear, without any ill consequences, to be cut down near the ground, and would soon be up again for a second crop ; it would be desirable to transplant some of the young trees into edge rows, placing thera at the distance of two feet apart, and suffering them to grow in the manner of bushes, which would be convenient for gathering the leaves ; some also should be transplanted to grow singly with a butt; such trees (as mentioned before) will give the best and most substantial food ; thus the drills of seedlings would give the earliest and tenderest food for the little worms at their birth, the leaves of the edge-rows would afford a food next in substance, suitable after the second shedding, and the eaves. of the mature standard trees would, after the fourth shedding, offer to their voraciousness that substantial food, which is very requisite, at that time, to satisfy them, and t( 2S0 SILK. ensure a rich and heavy crop ; choosiiig for the wliole plan tation a piece of sheltered, high ground, sweet and well laid to the sun, and planting ridges, hedges, and trees, in such a manner as will give to all the uninterrupted benefit of the light and heat of the sun. Fully aware of the importance of the object we have presented to the attention of the community, we cannot leave it, without making a concluding appeal to the intelli- gence and energy of our countrymen, not to suffer any de- lay to take place in setting their, hands to a work so prom- ising of results the most favourable to our comforts, and for our welfare : the first step is within the farmer's immediate department, to sow the mulberry-seed, and rear the young trees ; and after two years of attendance, the silk raising may commence in good earnest, and will become a healthy and pleasant business for children and young women. This rich crop will require but two months' care to secure it, and, when the business shall flourish on a large scale, which we /nay anticipate as probable within a short period, the rais- ing of the cocoons will become a distinct occupation for farmers'- families ; the winding and reeling of them, most probably, will he carried on as a distinct and separate branch of industry ; this is actually the case in all the silk- growing countries, where the cocoons are carried to the public markets, and sold for ready cash to those who keep filatures, where they wind and reel them. Great advantages will accrue to the younger members of farmers' families, in cultivating so pleasant and profitable an employment at home : it will offer to many young women a choice between home and the factories, and a reso\irce in case the liberal encouragement given to manufactures should eventually prove the cause of business being over- done ; it will also offer valuable resources for the pauper establishments, where the old and infirm, under a discreet and judicious goverr ment, may be made to provide them- selves a comfortable isupport. If we take a retrospective view of the affairs of mankind, since the times of early record, we find that the riches and the prosperity resulting from commerce and navigation, or from a system of exten- sive manufactuies, however brilliant, are comparatively of short and uncertain duration ; the changes of views and systems of a government at home, the changes of policy among foreign nations, render the whole fabric subject to many sudden and unforeseen vicissitudes, and dependent upon the results of relations abroad, and of the compromise 3KIHRET. 281 of jarring interesiis at home, setting ai defiance, tx the course of time, the subtle calculations of the most accom- plished statesman ; but the prosperity which is founded upon a perfected agriculture, that combines with intelligence the abilities of the soil and climate, so as to naturalize, by in- dustry, rich crops of products, unknown to its original situ- ation, is a prosperity not liable to changes ; it becomes in- herent and lasting. Of the great results of a rich cultiva- tion upon the circumstances and ability of a people, Italy affords a convincing illustration : although groaning under bigotry and priestcratt, without foreign commerce, and with- out foreign navigation, yet, at various periods, three or four years of peace, with good crops of silkiand oil, (silk is the richest,) have filled the country again with competenre, after the dreadful devastations of war. There is a certain order in society, the members of which, although not united by the bonds of corporate privileges, although unknown to, and unacquainted with, each other, yet move on vidth a steady and harmonious step to one com- mon end, — the prosperity of their country, the welfare of all its inhabitants ; to them, the powerful Bearers of Light, re- spectfully, we would recommend the consideration of the object of these lines, and if their judgment joins in accord- ance with our own, we invite them to endeavour to accel- erate its completion, and to save it from a lingering course through one or two generations. The knowledge' of the /earing of silk was imparted, in the course of about six hundred years, by Greece to neighbouring Italy, and in about three hundred and forty yeai-s more, it was communicated across the line between Italy and France ; thus the progress was slow indeed ; but such are the miserable results of ig- norance and bad policy. We would repeat, that the first step is to prepare an abundance of food for the silk-worms by stocking our warm, light lands with white mulberry-trees ; accordingly, wherever there are now white mulberry-trees bearing fruit, the fruit should be carefully collected, when fully ripe, and the seed should be washed out, dried, and preserved ; it will be much wanted, and it is both the duty and the inter- est of the owners not to suffer even the smallest part to go to waste. SKIRRET. — Sium sisarum. — "The skinet is a perennial tap-rooted plant, a native of China. The lower leaves are pinnated, and the stem rises about a foot higl., terminated by an umbe of white flowers, in July and August. Th«r 24* 232 ?PINACH, OR SPINAOE root is composed cf fleshy tubers, about the size of the lit- tle finger, aad joined together at the crown or head : they were foruierly much esteemed in cookery. In the north of Scotland, the plant is cultivated under the name of crum- mock. " Culture.- -This plant grows freely in a lightish soil, moderately good. It is propagated both from seed, and by offsets of established roots. The better method is, to raise iieedlings, to have the root in perfection, young and tender. "By seed. — ' Sow between the 21st of March and the 15th of April ; a fortnight later, rather than any earlier, for a full crop, as plants raised forward in spring are apt to start for seed in summer. , Sow on an open compartment of light ground, in small drills eight inches apart. When the plants are one or two inches high, thin them to five or six inches asunder. They will enlarge in growth till the end of au- tumn ; but before the roots are full grown, in August, Sep- tember, or October, some may be taken up for consumption as wanted : those left to reach maturity will continue good for use throughout winter, and in spring, till the stems run.' " By slips. — ' Having some plants of last year's rais- ing, furnished with root-offsets, slip them off; taking only the young outward slips, and not leaving any of the larger old roots adhering to the de.ached offsets ; which plant by dibble, in rows from six to nine inches asunder. They will soon strike, and enlarge, and divide into offsets ; which, as well as the main roots, are eatable, and come in for use in proper season.' " To save seed.— -Leave some old plants in the spring ; they will shoot up stalks, and ripen seed in autumn." — Lou- don. " Use. — The tubers are boiled, served up with butter and are declared by Worlidge, in 1682, to be ' the sweet- est, whitest, and most pleasant of roots.' " — Loudon. The common skirret has an agreeable aromatic flavour, and abounds with saccharine particles : hence it has been con- jectured that sugar might be advantageously extracted from the root; and M. Margraff states, that he obtained one ounce and a half of pure sugar from half a pound of this vegeta- ble. In a medicinal view, it possesses diuretic properties, and is in a slight degree stimulant — Dom. Encyc. SPINACH, or SPINAGE.— Spinflscid o/cracea.— The common spinage is an annual plant, but it is not known of "~hat country it is a native. The leaves are large, the Mems hoilcu. branching, and, when allowed to produce SPINACH, OR SPINAGE. 283 flowers, nsing from two to three feet high. The male and female flowers are produced on different plants : the former come in long terminal spikes ; the latter in clusters, close to the stalk at every joint. Varieties. — Russell's Catalogue »ontains the follow- ing:— Round-leaved, or summer; Prickly, or fall j Eln^lish patieuce dock, rumex pxtien- tm, {Jor early greejts ;) Holland or lamb's quarter ; New Zealand, tetragorta expansis, (a j^bmbk new sort.) Times of sovAng. — " The round is sown in April — the others from August to September. The prickly is sowii in August and September for early spring greens." — RusseWs (Catalogue. Soil and situatimi, — As the excellence of spinaceous plants consists in the succuiency of the leaves, almost every thing depends on giving them a rich soil, stirring it frequently, and supplying water in dry seasons. The space they occu- py in the garden is not considerable, say a tliirtieth part ; more especially as some of them, the common spinage for example, often come in as a temporary crop between rows of peas or beans, or anaong cauliflowers, broccoli, &c. Seed and process in sowing. — " When raised by itself, spinage is generally sown broad-cast, and two ounces will sow a bed four feet and a half by thirty feet ; but in drills, one ounce will sow the same space. In drills it is easier to weed and gather : let the drills be from nine to twelve inches apart. Beds four feet wide, with small alleys, are convenient of access. Let the ground be thoroughly dug. Whether broad-cast or in drills, sow thinly, and rake or earth in about an inch deep. Subsequent culture.^—" When the plants are up, showing leaves about an inch broad, clear them from weeds, either by hand or small hoeing, and thin the plants, where crowd- ed, (especially the broad-cast crops,) to three inches apart; and, when advanced in growth, every other may be cut out for use, increasing the distance to about- six inches, that, the remainder may grow stocky, with large spreading leaves. The plants . of the early and succession crops at- tain proper growth for gathering in Apr^l, May and June. When the leaves are from two to five inches in breadth, rut the plants clean out to the bottom, or sometimes cut only the largest leaves. But as soon as there is any ap- pearance of their rurning to seed, they may be drawn ouf clean as wanted " 284 SQUASH. To save seed. — " To obtain seed rv' the round-lea'ved, leave a sufficient quantity of estabii ^ia\ plants in April, May, or June, to run up in stalks ; or trbitispbnt in autumn some of the spring-sown which hav(5 not run. To save seed of the triangular spinage, transplant, in Murch, some good strong plants, of the winter crop. For largi; supplies, a portion of each may be sown in February, or the first fortnight of March, to stand wholly for (ceding. Sow each sort separate. Respecting both sides, observe that they are of the class Dicecia, the male and ft male flowers grow- ing separately, on two distinct plants. When the plants are flowering for seed, the cultivator shoi Id examine wheth- er the male plants', distinguishable by th ) abundant farina upon the blossoms, stand crowded or nun\erous to excess; in which case he should pull up the superfluous plants, leaving a competency for fertilizing the lemale blossoms, which else would prove abortive. And \rhen the female blossoms are set, it is best to dispose of all the male plants, drawing them by hand ; which will give more room to the females to grow and perfect their seed. The plants re jected may be profitably given to young p>.i;8. The seed ripens in July and August." — Abercrombie. Ihe. — " The leaves are used in soups, or boiled alone, and mashed, and served up with gravies, butter, and hard-boiled eggs. The leaves may be obtained from sowings in the open ground at most seasons of the year, but chiefly m spring, when they are largest and most succulent." — Loudon. ' " According to the opinion of French physicians, this plant is not only food, but physic, and is hence emphatically called ' Le baiai de Vestomac^ — the broom of the stomach — sweeping and deterging every hole and corner of that organ, without giving pain, or in any degree interrupting the ordinary avocations of the persons employing it." — Armstrong. SQUASH. — Cucurbita melo pepo. — The squash is a species of the cucurbita, and seems to be the link which connects the melon and pumpkin. The varieties mentioned in Russell's Catalogue are — Early bush summer ; Lon^ crook-neck, or bell : Vegetable marrow j 4.com ; Commodore Valparaiso, (£T(jm)« large, ami is highly estemted ;) Canada crook-neck; (small, and of steperior quality.) " Squashes, of every kind, may be cultivated as directed for cucumbers and melons — should be sown at the same time, and at similar iistances, witli this difference, that twc stbawbsjirt;, 28d tifauts of these will be plenty for each hill, and that they ire easier pleased with soil and preparation than the oth- ers." — ArMahon. Use. — The squash is applicable to all the uses of the pumpkin, and, for many purposes, is superior to that vege- table. STRAW BERRY. —Fragaria.— The substance of the following article was written for this work, at the particular request of its compiler, -by a gentleman of Boston, whose success, as a practical, is equal to his skill as a scientif- ic horticulturist ; and whose liberality in. imparting his knowledge, as well as the results of its successful applica- tion in introducing excellent varieties of fruits, merits the thanks of the community. Vanelies. — Every year is producing new varieties of this ■as well as almost all other fruits, from the care and attention which are bestowed on them by the scientific caltivators of Europe, among whom, at the present day, Mr. Knight, the president of the London Horticultural Society, seems to take the lead. Society owes much to these gentlemen, and they are constantly receiving the reward of their labours from the many and continued testimonies of approbation, which their success calls forth. But their chief gratification is derived ■ from the pursuit itself, which, above all others, is calculat- ed to soothe and tranquillize the mind, and to lead men to " look through Nature up to Nature's God.'* The kinds most esteemed in England are the pine, im- perial, Bostock, Surinam, Bath scarlet, Downton, rose- berry, Hudson Bay, large scarlet, musk hautbois, round hautbois, and fiat hautbois. In France, the Bath scarlet is of long standing, and much esteemed. The white, the Alpine, or monthly, and the Chili, are also favourites. The ChUi is a shy bearer, but very large when it comes to maturity — is not, I believe, known here : it stands on a stiff, upright, and strong stem, in lieu of a pendulous one, like the Hudson. The Downton is, however, I believe, a larger strawberry, and is uncommonly high flavoured. There are other new varieties very large, of which I know nothing. The form of the Downton is various ; many of them are shaped like a cock's comb, which name it has obtained in some horti- cultural works. Tt was ra/ied from seed by Mr. Knight. 286 STRAWBERRY. at Downton, the name of his estate, and is a very good bearer. The roseherry is, in point of flavour, surpassed by no cultivated strawberry I have seen. It resembles, in form and flavour, the Alpine, but is a better bear-r. This last, The Alpine, is a monthlv strawberry; it continues in bearing from June unti' Ocvooer in this climate — is like the wood-strawberry in form and flavour, but is a shy bearer. The scarlets are all large and fine fruit; the largest va- riety are fine flavoured and very early. They are not very great bearers, but should be cultivated as valuable varieties, as well as for their beauty and excellent qualities. The hautbois is the favourite English strawberry. It is totally different from what is commonly called the hautbois in this country. The flat hautbois grows generally on the top of the vines — is brown, and greenish white when ripe — fine flavoured, pretty good bearer, but difficult to d^tacb from its stalk. The round hautboh is of a dark purple when ripe — is somewhat in form like the common red strawberry, out larger ; and the Musk hautbois is like the preceding-^-a shy bearer, but very delicious. The wood-strawberry is far before any other in point of fla- vour, and, if transplanted into gardens, may for two or three years answer very well ; and if not too highly manured, preserve their flavour and increase their size. But new plants must be obtained, every two or three years, from the woods, to make new plantations, or they will degenerate. Soil and manure. — The soil proper for this last mentioned variety, as well as all others, is light, warm, and gravelly-; and the manure to be applied should be exclusively vegeta- ble, and not animal manure. The usual practice is to ma- nure the ground with rotten dung, with a view to increase the size and quantity of fruit ; but, in doing this, the fla- vour of the fruit is destroyed in proportion to the richness of the soil. Besides, high manuring produces strong vines, and little fruit. Rotten leaves, decayed wood, ashes, in small quantity, mixed with other vegetable substances in a compost heap, will make better manure for strawberries than any animal substance whatever. As the ^'ines whith bear this fruit require great moisture to bring the fruit t(J ; its proper size, the soil ard (".tuation in which they arc placed must not be loo dry. STBAWBERRY. SSI J 1 opagation. — The tisual time for transplanting straw- berry-plants is August. That time is chosen because they have then done bearing, and liave made offsets, if the sea- son has been favourable, of strong plants,, set from their runners. Plantations made at this season will bear some frui* the next summer. But, if you can get good vigorous plants in May of the preceding season, I prefer to plant then, as it saves a year, nearly, the plants being ready to bear abundantly the next year. ' Gardeners have different habits and opinions as to trim- ming the plants when they are put out. Some cut off all tlie old leaves, and preserve only the naisaant leaves in the centie of the plant. Others tike off the dead or decayed leaves only, and plant with all the old healtliy leaves on the plant. This last plan is highly recommended by the Abbe Rozier, but, so far as my experience goes, I have found. the first mentioned course the best. Many people cut the roots in before they put them into the ground : all dead substances should be cut off, but not the roots. When the plants are put out, they should be kept free from weeds, and the ground should be kept loose about them. If the plants 'are strong, put but one to form the stools; if weak, put two. As regards the distance at which plants should be set, eultivators differ. The common red strawberry, which is found in all our gardens, may be put eight inches apart in rows nine inches or a foot from each other, and allowed to form a matted bed of eighteen inches or two feet wide, with a foot-path of a foot wide between them. But th larger and finer sorts should be planted in stools in beua four and a half feet wide, with a path of fifteen inches or more between the beds. In these beds the plants should be set, by a line, fifteen to eighteen inches apart, both ways, taking care to set them in quincuncial order, and to keep them from running together. The objection generally made to this mode of cultivation is, that the fruit is exposed to be injured by' lying on the ground, where it is bruised and covered with dirt every time it rains. This, however, may be prevented by a little care. In some parts of F irope, where moss is plenty, it is collected and put round .he stods, so as to prevent the fruit from-lying on the ground, and at the same time to prevent the moisture round the plant, from evaporat- ing- In some places, where moss isn )t to be got, straw w ase(? 288 SUNFLOWta. for the same purpose ; hence the English name of straw berry.* But I think that leaves of trees that have been collected in the spring, and kept under cover, are bettei than either, and particularly the oak-leaf; because, when they are no longer wanted to protect the fruit, and keep the moisture in the ground, they can be dug in round the stools, where they serve as most excellent manure for this delicious fruit. The strawberry may also be propagated by /seeds. Knight, in making experiments, with a view of ascer- taining whether most of the sorts would not breed togeth- er indiscriminately, raised above four hundred varieties, " some very bad, but the greater part, tolerably good, and a tVw very excellent." The fruit of above a dozen sorts was sent to the Horticultural Society [in London] in August, 1818, and found of various degrees of excellence. The seeds, if sown immediately after gathering, will produce plants which will come into bearing the following year. — Loudon. " Use. — The fruit is fragrant, (whence fragaria,) deli- cious, and universally esteemed. It consists almost entirely of matter soluble in the stomach, and neither th^re nor when laid in heaps, and left to rot, does it undergo the ace- tous fermentation. Hence it is veiy nourishing, ahd iriy be safely eaten by gouty and rheumatic persons. ' In ad- dition to its grateful flavour, the subacid juice has a cooling quality, particularly acceptable in summer. Eaten eithe.' alone, or with sugar and cream, there are few constitutions with which strawberries, even when taken in large quanti- ties, are found to disagree. Further, they have properties which render them, in most conditions of the animal frame positively salutary ; and physicians concur in placing then, in their small catalogue of pleasant remedies. They dis-* solve the tartareous incrustations of the teeth. They promote perspiration. Persons afflicted with the gout have found ^■elief from using them very largely ; so have patients in cases of the stone ; and Hoffmia.i states, that he has known consumptive people cured by them. The bark of the root is astringent.' — Abercrombie." — Loudon. SUNFLOWER. — Helianthus annuus. — This plant is « native of South America, but naturalized and become com * This name is common n all the northern countries, while in France, UM H>nMtries south, it is said thay take their name ' ^m their flavour, or the botaai si name_/r(^tfr?a. TANSY — TARRAGON. TEASEL. 289 oion in the United States. It is easily propagated in any commou soil, either by sowing the seeds, or by slips or off- sets from the roots. From a paper on the subject of sunflower-oil, in the first vol. of Trans. Amer. Phil. Society, it appears that one bush el of seed yields three. quarts of oil; and that this quantity of seed is produced from one hundred plants, set about three feet apart, in the same manner that Indian corn is planted. The oil is thin, clear, and of an agreeable taste. The process for expressing the oil is the same as that ol making linseed-oil. TANSY. — Tanacetvm vidgare. — Tansy is a perennial plant, which grows without cultivation in Great Britain and in some parts of the United States. C-ilture. — Tansy may be propagated in spring or autumn by rov. led slips, or by dividing the roots into several sets : plant them in any compartment of the kitchen or physic garden, from twelve to eighteen inches asunder. The plant continues for several years, producing abundant tufts of leaves annually. As they run .up in strong stalks in summer, these should be cut down to encourage a pro- duction of young leaves below on the stem. To have young tansy in winter, plant some roots either in a hot- bed, or in pots placed tlierein, or in a pinery, or forcing house, at any time from November to March. — Abercrombie. Use. — " The young leaves are shredded down, and em- ■ ployed to give colour and flavour to puddings ; they are also used in omelets and other cakes, and were formerly in much repute as a vermifuge." — Loudon. TARRAGON. — Artemisia dracunculvs. — Culture. — This is a perennial plant, which may be propagated from seed, or from slips or offsets, in the same manner that tansy, mint, &c. are cultivated. Use. — ^" Tarragon is frequently used in salads, especially by the French, to correct the coldness of other herbs. The leaves make an* excellent pickle : they have a fragrant smell and aromatic taste. The use of them in Persia hai ever been general, at meals, to create an appetite. The famous vinegar of Maille, in France, owes its suptnor fla- our to this plant, which is now common in Pennsylvania." ^Dr. Mease. TEASEL. — Dipsacus. — The teasel or ;'uller's thistle is an herbaceous biennial, grovring from four to six feet high, prickly or rough in the stem and leaves, and terminating in rough, burr-like hoads o.;' flowers. ' 25 i90 THYME. Piopagatwn and culture, — This ph.it is propagated bj sowing the seeds either in March or April, upon a soil that has been well ploughed, and it is observed that good wheat- land is well adapted for the production of teasels. The. ground being ploughed and made fine, from one peck to two of seed is generally sown upon an acre, and harrow- ed in with a light harrow. When the plants are up, hoe them in the same manner as practised for turnips, thinning out the plants from time to time, till eventually they are left about a foot apart. They should be kept clear from weeds, and the second year after sowing, the plants will shoot up stalks with heads, which are collected in August, as soon as they begin to turn brown. They are then exposed daily to the sun till they become perfectly dry, care being taken to protect them from rain. They are to be collected as they turn brown and ripen, and not all at once. Use. — This plant is cultivated in great quantities, in the west of England, for raising the nap on woollen cloths, by means of the crooked awns or chaffs upon the heads ; which in the wild sort are said to be less hooked. For this pur- pose they are fixed round the circumference of a cylinder, which is made to turn round, and the cloth is held against them. For a more detailed account of the culture of this plant, see Encyc. of Agr. p. 852, N. E. Farmer, vol. vi. pp. 307, 322. THYME. — Thymus vulgaris. — There are, according to Loudon, two species of thyme, cultivated for culinary pur- poses, the common and the lemon thyme. Common or garden thyme is a native of Spain and Italy. Of this there are two varieties, the broad and the narrow- leaved, besides the variegated, grown for ornament. Lemon thyme — T. citriodorus — ^is a very low evergreen shrub, trailing, and seldom rising above four or six inches in height. It is distinguished by its strong smell of lemons. Culture. — The plant is best raised from seed. Sow as early in the spring as the season will permit, in a bed or border of light, fi-ne earth, either broad-cast, scattered thin and raked in lightly, or in small, shallow drills, six inches asunder. The after-culture is simple, and similar to that of other sweet herbs, such as marjoram, sage, &c. " In soils which are cold, stiff, or moist, it does not thrive; its branches become ragged, its leaves few, and its flowers, and their peculiar aroma, feeble and faded." — Armstrong. Use. — " The young leaves and tops aie used in soups, ituffings, and sauces. Foi' these purposes, < he broad-leaved TJMAro. TUKNIP. 291 aimmon is generally preferred ; but the flavour of the yel- low is much liked in peculiar dishes." — Loudon. " All the parts of this plant, but particularly the calyx of its flower, yields an essential oil, yellow and odorous, and highly charged with camphor. In the kitchen, it is used as an ingredient in sauces and stuflSngs, and in what are technically called /orced meats." — Armstrong. TOMATO. — Solanum lycopersicum. — " This plant is of the same family with the potato, and, like it, is a native of Southern America. It has several species, two of which fall under our notice as garden vegetables, and are distin< guished from each other only by a difference of size. The smaller is held to be the parent plant, and has the advan- tage of ripening sooner, and better resisting cold weather. To have an early crop, sow the seeds in a dry and warm soil, and sheltered situation, in October, and cover the bed with straw, or stable-litter, during the winter. For sum- mer and fail use, sow again in May, and water freely. If the soil and situation be favourable, and the culture proper, the product will be great. The distance between the plants should not be less than two feet." — Armstrong. Use. — " When ripe, the fruit, which has an acid flavour, is put into soups and sauces, and the juice is preserved for winter use, like ketchup ; it is also used in confectionary, as a preserve, and, when green, as a pickle. Though a good deal used in TEngland, in soups, and as' a principal in- gredient in a wdl known sauce for mutton, yet our estima- tion and uses of the fruit are nothing to those of the French and Italians, and especially the latter. Near Rome and Naples, whole fields are covered with it ; and scarcely a dinner is served up, in which it does not, in some way or other, form a part." — Loudon. TURNIP. — Brassica rapa. — Russell's Catalogue con- tains the following varieties : Early white Dutch ; Early ^rden stone ; While flat, or globe ; Green round; Red round : Long yellow French ; Yellow Dutch ; Yellow Maltese; Yellow Aberdeen ; Yellow stone ; Yellow Swedish, Russia, »r baga; Dedham. Swan's e^s ; Large English Norfolk , Long tankard, or Hanover i The first three sorts are fittest for early, first succession, and main crops. The French turnip, according to Loudon, is of excellent flavour, and is in high repute in France, Ger- many, and Holland. The Swedish, for its large size and 29«{ TURNIP. hardy nature, is extensively cultivated in fields for cattle , it is also occasionallv raised in gardens for the table, to use in winter and spring, Seed estimate. — For a seed-bed four feet and a half by twenty-four, the plants to remain and be thinned to seven inches'' distance, half an ounce. Time of sowing. — Make first a small sowing of some of the early sorts, in the last fortnight of March or the first days of April, for turnips in May and June ; but, as these will run to seed the same season, make a larger sowing about the middle of April. The first considerable sowing may be about the middle or towards the end of May, for roots to draw young about the end of June, and in full growth in July and August. The principal sowmg should be about the middle of July. " Doing it on a set day is ridiculous ; for a time should be chosen when the ground has the right degree of moisture to make the seed vegetate ; and if this should happen a week earlier or a fortnight later than the usual time, it need not be regretted ; but the opportunity ought to be embraced." — Abercrombie. They may be sown to advantage in New England as late as the first week in August; and those which are put into the ground so late will be less liable to be injured by insects than when sown Earlier. Soil and sittmtion. — Sand or gravel, with a mixture of loam, produce the sweetest and best flavoured roots. It should be made fine, but not too rich, lest the turnips be rank and ill tasted. Ground which has been newly cleared from the forest yields the largest and sweetest roots ; and on such spots there is least danger from insects. " Next to new land, swarded ground is to be chosen for a crop of turnips ; and the way to prepare it is, to plough it pretty deep in the spring, and fold it by turning in the stock for a good number of nights ; for there is scarcely any of our fields sufficiently rich to produce turnips without manuring; and folding hitherto appears to be the best method of en- riching ihe ground for this purpose. It should be weF, harrowed as often as once a week, while the folding is con- tinued, to mix the excrements of the cattle with the soil." — Deane. Process in sowing, and precautions against the fty. — " Let the ground be well broken by regular digging, and neatly levelled to receive the seed. Procure bright, \ ell dried seed. At a season when the turnip-fly is not apprehended, the seed may be put into the ground without any prepara- ' TURNIP. 293 tion, either alone or mixed with a little sand ; but in the hot weather of summer, it is advisable to use some cheap and effectual preventive of the fly. It appears from a trial of Knight, at the suggestion of Sir Humphrey Davy, that lime slaked with urine, and mixed with a treble quantity of soot, if sprinkled in with the seed at the time of sowing, will protect the seeds and germs from the ravages of this pernicious insect ; but this antidote cannot be conveniently applied unless the sowing be in drills. A yet simpler emedy, found by Mean to be perfectly successful, is, to eep the seed in sulphur-water, putting an ounce of sul- hur to a pint of water, which will be sufficient for soaking about three pounds of seed." — Abercrombie. The method of sowing is either bvoad-cast or in drills. In the former mode, Abercrombie directs to allow half an ounce of seed for every one hundred square feet. Deane says, the quantity of seed for an acre is never less than one pound — more frequently a pound and a half, and sometimes two. In sowing by broad-cast, the seed may be covered by drawing a " light harrow backward, that is, wrong end foremost, to prevent the tines, which are generally set some- what pointed forward, from tearing up the sods, and bury- ing the seed too deep." If sowed in rows, the drills may be an inch deep, and twelve or fifteen inches asunder. Subsequent culture. — ^As soon as the plants have rough leaves, about an inch broad, hoe and thin them to six or eight inches' distance, cutting up all weeds. As the tur- nips increase in the root, a part may be drawn young, by progressive thinnings, so as to leave those designed to reach a full size ultimately ten or twelve inches apart. Taking and preserving the crop. — In England they' feed the turnips off the gi-ound with sheep, or draw them, up for neat cattle, through the winter, as they are wanted ; but, in this country, they must be harvested in autumn, about the end of October, or even earlier in some seasons and places, and stored and saved, as directed for preserving other roots. See page 50. To sa/oe seed. — " Some of the best roots of the middling size should be planted early in the spring, in a good spot, free from shade. They should be in rows, eighteen inches asunder, and the ground must be kept clear of weeds till the seed is ripe. Stakes and laths may be needful round the outside, to keep the branches from falling to the ground before the seed is fully ripe." — Deane. '• It is preferable, however, to procure turnip-seed, as indeed that of mos' 2.5* 294 VINE other vegetables, from t" e regular seedsmen ; as the seed farmtirs have opportunities of keeping the sorts distinct, wJiicii cannot be within the precincts of a walled garden." — itadon. Use. — The common culinary uses of the tuniip, boiled, mashed, &c., are too well known to need any notice We shall mention some uses not so common. " For feeding ho7!>^s. — These, when fed on turnips, art induced to eat the barn-chaff, and other dry food, with » good ap^iotite — are kept healthy, and will work wtthoni corn. " For fstding cows. — To make sweet and well tasted bntr ter from the milk of cows fed on turnips, let the milk ces sels be kept constantly clean and well scalded with boiling water, before uiung. When the milk is brought into the dairy, to every eight quarts mix one quart of boiling water j then put up the ii;ilk into the bowl to stand for cream. " As a substitute for bread. — When the dearness of all sorts of corn occasioned many poor people in Essex [England] to make bread of tu/nips, they took the peeled roots, and boiled them in water till they were soft ; then, strongly pressing out their juices, they mixed them with their weight of wheat-meal j and adding salt, yeast, and warm water, they kneaded it up as other paste ; which, having lain a little while to ferment, they ordered and baked as common bread." — Gleanings in Husbandry. VINE. — Vitis. — Many gentlemen in this neighbour- hood have given considerable attention to the cultivation of grapes in the open air upon open trellises, and some have succeeded remarkably well, although they have had to contend with the many difficulties which that delicate and delicious fruit is subject to in this climate. Having given some personal attention to this fruit for several years, I am satislied that it can be raised in great perfection, and with little trouble to the cultivator, if he set out right in the first instance, and follow up the system prescribed with attention and care. Although most men, who have any knowledge in horti- culture, know more or less respecting the mode of cultivat- ing this plant, yet there are many new beginners, who may collect some hints from these notes, which may aid them in the outset ; and many gentlemen, who have been long in the habit of raising grapes in their gardens, may ob- tain some information as to the means of preserving the plants from the destructive insect which has of i^ta Year* VINE 295 ittackcd the vines, and destroyed the promise of their early growth and the fair appearance of their fruit. The best treatises on the subject of raising grape-vines recommend planting the cnttings in pots ; but in this cpuntry It is entirely unnecessary, as the plants may be easily raised m the open grounds with little trouble and no expense ; and if we can add to our collection of fine fruits one, which, in sickness as well as in health, is the most refreshing and nutritive of any that we possess, with little expense, and even with profit to the cultivator, we shall do a great good. The best mode of jaising the plants is by cuttings taken from the vines at the fall pruning, and preserved in earth till spring. These may be made either of one eye or bud, or of four or five, attached to a small portion of the two years' old wood, forming a cutting in the shape of a small mallet The 1st year. — They may be raised in a small nursery- bed, prepared of a good light soil — set in the ground six inches distant from each other, with the rows wide enough apart to permit them to be weeded with a narrow hoe ; or, they may be put, in the first instance, where they are to be reared, and left to grow, at the distance of five, six, or seven feet, or more, according to the wishes of the cultivator. In this latter case there should be three cuttings put into each spot, six inches apart, to ensure the setting of one. When this is ascertained with certainty, the two weakest may be withdrawn, leaving the best of the three to grow. If the cuttings be of one eye each, they should be from the last year's growth, and a small piece of the branch, an inch long, should be left attached to the hud, and extending half an mch on each side of it. These should be planted two inches below the surface, with the bud uppermost, and a small stake placed by the side of them, that they may not be disturbed. If the cuttings are of several eyes, they should be laid in the ground sloping, leaving one eye IpvcI with, or only just above, the surface. They should be kent moist, but not w»et, as this will rot them. A spot which receives the morning sun till eleven o'clock, and not after- wards, is the best for a nursery-bed for them ; but, for per- maneucy, they should be planted where they will receive '.he sun longest ; and, in this case, they she ild be shaded at noon day until they have entirely put out. One bud onl^y should be allowed to push from the cutting the first year ; the plant should be kept free from weeds ; the ea;th kept light around it, and as soon as the shoot has attained £96 VINE strength enough to produce laterals they should le rubbed out, and the shoot tied to a small stake, by whic4 means it will gain firmness, and the admission of the sun and air to the shoot will prepare it to bear the frost of the fall, and prevent its injbibing the moisture which it would other wise be subject to, when covered with earth in the winter. By the first of November the shoots may be cut down to two eyes, and by the middle of the month, if it be dry weather, they may be covered over with earth, forming a slope to cast off the wet and prevent the rains from pene- trating — as the drier the plant is kept during the winter, in the better state it will be in the succ'eeding spring. The 2d year. — The plants should not be uncovered in this climate till the middle of April. Those from the nur- sery should now be .transplanted to the places where they are to remain ; a shoot from each eye should be permitted to push, but as soon as you have ascertained which of the two will be the strongest and the best situated, you will preserve that, and rub out the other. The ^hoot preserved you will be careful to tie up to a small stake, as soon as it has length enough for this purpose, to prevent its being broken by the wind or other casualty. During the summer, the laterals from the four or five lowest buds must be rub- bed out, and the shoot be carefully protected by being kept tied every eight or ten inches. The next fall you may cut this shoot down to two buds, (not counting the one in the crotch of the plant between the old and new wood,) and cover over as before. The 3d year. — You will allow shoots to push from both the eyes, and suffer them to grow, taking care of them as recommended above ; but the bud in the crotch must be rubbed out. This year you must rub out the laterals from the five lowest buds, and nip in the other laterals to one eye, so that, if the plant grows luxuriantly, the sap may burst from the buds of the- laterals, and not from those of the main branch, as it would do if the vine was dressed too close. Be careful to keep the branches tied up, that they may not be broken. In November, cut down the two branches as follows : the most feeble of the two, to twt" buds, to produce wood branches the succeeding season and the strongest to three buds, for fruit branches, and cover them as usual. The 4:th year, — If you keep your vines properly dressed you may have your ftrst fruits without injury to your plants. After this, the svstem ti> be p rsued must depend on the -JNE. 297 strength of your vines, and his will depend on the goodness of the soil and the care you take of your plants. But, as a general rule, the following points must be attended to : — 1. The number and length of your fruit branches must always depend on the strength of your plant ; the wood branches are always to be cut down to two eyes. 2. No more branches should be left on the vine than i1 c«ii nourish well and abundantly ; this will depend on its age, and the soil in which it grows. 3. The branches should be cut in alternately for wood and fruit branches, observing to cut for wood branches as low down on the -plant as possible, so as to renew your wood near the bottom annually. No shoots should be per- mitted to g%ow from the old wood, unless wanted for this purpose. 4. No more shoots should be permitted to grow than can be laid in clear, and handsome, and without confusion, on the trellis, and so as to admit the sun and air freely among the branches. 5. The laterals should be rubbed out of the wood branches six or ei^ t eyes high, and those that are per- mitted to remain should be pinched into one bud. The laterals on the fruit branches should be rubbed out from the insertion of the shoot to the uppermost fruit inclusive, and the others pinched in as above. If the shoots are very strong, the upper laterals may be allowed to grow, to take up a greater portion of the sap ; but this should not be done unless there is danger of the eyes bursting in the main shoots. Be careful always to keep the shoots tied up near their top. 6. Never leave more than five good eyes on a fruit-bear- ing brancbj unless your vine is confined to a narrow space, and you are obliged to preserve only two or three fruit branches ; in this case the length of the branch must cor- respond to the nourishment it will receive from the plant. Select the roundest and fairest branches for fruit, and the lowest and most feeble for wood. The closer the buds are together, or the shorter the joints of the branch, the better they are for fruit ; these may in general be cut to three, four, or five eyes, according to their strength. _ Butin vineries^ covered with glass, where two fruit-bearing branches only are left on strong vines, twenty, thirty, and forty buds are sometimes left on fruit branches. The foregomg rules will be sulficient for any one to build up a vineyard sufficiently large to supply himseK, his 298 VINE. friends, and the market, with grapes. But, to promote and forward their maturity and size, the following course may he pursued : — The first of July you will be ahle to see the state of your fruit, which will be just formed. At this time select the highest fruit branches, and those which have the finest appearance of fruit upon them, and perform the following operation on the two years' old wood, from which these branches proceed, taking care not to cut below any of the wood branches. Take a pruning knife with a smooth edge and hawk's bill, and pass it round the branch where the bark is clear from knots, cutting deep enough to reach the sap-wood of the plant ; at a quarter or three eighths of an inch below the first cut make another, running parallel with the first; then make a perpendicular cut through this section of the bark the same depth, and you may take oui the ring of bark clear from the branch. This will not prevent the sap rising into the upper part of the branch, but it will prevent Us descending below this cut, by which means it will be yetained in, and distributed throughout, vhe upper part of the branch, in a greater portion than it could otherwise be, and the branches and fruit will both increase in size much more than any of those that are not thus treated, and the matu- rity of the fruit will be advanced very much. This has been denominated girdling. If the plant is very vigorous and the season very favourable, the wound v'ill soon be closed, so that it may be necessary to open i a second time. This process does not injure the plant, as you only girdle the fruit-bearing branches, which you would in any case cut out at the fall pruning, to make room fji the branches which you have been bringing forward to give you fruit the succeeding year. This may be kept up from year to year, and give you a succession of ripe fruit from the first of September to the close of the season. The fruit on those branches which are not girdled will ripen the latest, of course, but neither these, nor those which have been girdled, should be shortened, as is customary on vines not thus treated. By this practice, which was first suggested in the Trans- actions of the Horticultural Society of London a few years since, and first brought into use in this country with success by the corresponding secretary of the Mass. Agr. Soc. I have raised grapes in the open air this year, the bunches of which •weighed from eight to twenty-eight ounces, and the her- VINE. 'i99 ries measuring from two to three inohes in circumference. On one vine which I planted a few years srace — a cutting in the spot where it now grows — I had seventy bunches of tine chasseJas, weighing from eight to eighteen ounces each. But the grape-vines have of late years been attacked by a small insect which makes its appearance first in June, but is most abundant in August. This insect, if left to in- crease, destroys the vegetating principle in the leaf, and the plant languishes, the fruit mildews, and the labour and care of the cultivator are lost. Some gentlemen have aban- doned their vines in consequence of the depredations of this iiisect, and others, with great labour and expense of time, have attempted, but in vaiu, to destroy them with al- kalies and tobacco-juice. This has, to be sure, operated to check them partially, but not eiFectually. To remedy this evil, you have only to make a small, light frame, twelve or fourteen f6et long, in the form of a soldier's tent, but with hinges of leather where the top joins, so that this tent may be shut up or opened at the bottom to any width you may require, according to the height of your trellis. Thij light frame, which should be made of slats of boards 'rom one to two inches broad, may be covered with an old sail, or some cheap glazed cotton cloth, which will stop the . smoke, leaving cloth enough loose at each end to clo** over, and prevent the smoke from escaping when the tent is spread over the trellis. A few tobacco-stalks, moistened and put on some coals m a pan, will be sufficient to smoke the vines thoroughly ; and, as the tent is easily moved along the trellis on some small wheels, one man may, in a few hours, extirpate this enemy of the vineyard. Vines that ar^ already attacked by this insect to any great degree should be smoked in June, ■ July, and twice in August, or oftener, if you find the insect is not completely destroyed. The insects are first seen on the under part of the leaf, without wings — ^ver\ active, but easily destroyed if touched. They afterwards assume the wi»ged state, when it is veiy difficult to get at them, as they fly off on the vines being touched. They are yellow, striped with brown across the back. The moment the smoke ascends, the winged in- sects quit the leaves, and fall to the ground dead or alive ; the young ones perish, but the older ones will rti-ive if not destroyed in their torpid state. To effect this, you have only to cover the ground under the tent with apiece of wet cloth before you begin to smoke, to which thev adhere un SB' vm. Cil the tent is removed, and they are reva ea by me atmo»- phencair; to prevent which you will roll, or twist, tb*" clotii (eacli time that you remove the smoke-house, or tent, »nd replace it again each time before you smoke, by which means they will be effectually destroyed, fhis simple and cheap operation will keep your vines clear of this trouble- some and destructive insect, and you may, if the season be warm, ensuse a good harvest; if otherwise, you will be «ttre, if the vines be (prdled> to ripen a portiOD of ynsa ieit, *i lewt CALENDARIAL INDEX. Thk object of this Calendar is little more tian to give Irief intimaiioiB of work to M performed in a garden, together with some approximation ic Ijie lime of vear m which' it should be accomplished. The figurE£ refer to the p£;e< in which further directions may be found relative to the operations advcited lo. These directions are intended for the New England States, or about tu« latitude 420 M. and the vicinity, or a small elevation above the sea. Allowance should be made for elevation of site, as well as for situation north or south of that degree. But it is not possible^ perhaps, to stale what that al- lowance should be with any approach to precision. Tlie nature of the soil, the aspect, the exposiu'e, the forwardness or backwardness, or what may be .styled Ihe gent^ral character of the season, are cill to be regarded ; and require tlie ex ercise of a sound discretion in the cultivator, not to be restricted by general mles, which are not liable to too many exceptions to be noted in this work. JANUARY. lliroughout New England the temperature of the climate is such* as to ex- dude the cultivator from performing most of the operations of tillage or horti- culture from about the first of December to the latter part of March, or the be- ginning of April. The seeds of knowledge may, however^ be sown in winter and the horticulturist may cultivate his mind wiien his soil is bound in frozen fetters. Provide a sufficient quantity of bean-poles, and pea-rods, which 3'ou may pre- serve in a corner of your wood-house, or other place suitable for your purpose. Many people, who neglect to procure these implements in season, are induced, by the hurry of biuiiness, to pennit their peas ana beans to trail on the ground, in which situation they will not produce, especially the tall growing sorts, one third part so many as if they were properly supported by po^s and rods. The length of your pea-rods should be in proportion to the sorts of peas for which you intend them, 229. The same kinds of rods, which the tall-growing peas re- quire, will answer for the generality of running kidney beans. The Lima beanv will need strong poles, n'om eight to nine feet high. You may now icake prep oration for forcing cucumbeis and melons, 84, 202. FEBRUARY. Manure may be cairied into those places where it is needed, left in a heap, out not spread. Wherever and whenever the snow is off the ground, rake to- f ether and bum the haulm, or whatever may remain from the last year's crop, 'eiices should be inspected and repaired, and seed rubbed rut and cleaned. Straw mats for the hot-beds, pales,rails, lattices, or trellises for espalier trees, should be got in readine.ss, 107. See that your garden tools are in good repair, and procure such new ones as may be necessary. It is now time to set about pro. curing and preparing materials for, and forming hot-beds, 161. Clean trees from moss, and pro'ect them against mice and rabbits by whitewashing witli limn, or smearing with some composition which is offensi"e to those vermin. Enter in earnest into the business of forwarding various kinds of seedling plants, by artificial means, so that they may have strong roots, and arrive at some siza 26 502 CALENDARIAL INDEX. by the time they would naturally make their first appearance above giound This may well be done by adopting Mr. Armstrong's melhod, with regard to melons, 202. Attend to your fiiiil m your fruil-room or cellar, on biielves or in boxes, and, if necessary, pick it oxer, and cull oui whalcver is delective; wi|Ki the remainder dry, ancipRck it away anew. Jiut if it is put down in some soil of gra.']ij dry j^jjc, flax-heed chafi', or, what is proljably best of fli, pulverized plaster of Pans, you will not need to meddle with It. Vou ma>' now, perhaps, vttg'm to force asparagus in hot-beds, 28. Sow under glass cases, for t''an>planling -sr otherwise, radishes, carrots, small salads, peas, buajis, &,c. Pix)tect choice plants, which may show a disposition to vej^elate; by matting; litter, cases of wickor, old bark^ and other proper means. MARCH. Lettuce may be sowed in the open ground as soon as frc st will pennll, 191, Ji ma} be sowed between vacant rows, intended for other plants, and pulled out for use befure the other plants are large enough to be encumbered by it. Karly peas cannot be planted t?o soon after the ground is thawed, 22(). Radishes may be sov/ed as soon as the seeds can be raked in. Sow cabba^os, cucum- bers, melons, cauliflowers, squashes, &.c. in hot-beds, under glasses, &,c., I'l, J49, 202. Dig up vacant gi'ound, applying manure. Dress borders, and clip edg ings of box. Clean, relay, or make new gravel walks. Attend to, and turn over compost beds. Dress asparagus beds, or make new ones the latter part of mis month or the beginning of April, 22. Select from your cellar the Lest cabbages with heads, and set" them in some proper place to stand for seed. Set the dincrent kinds remote from each other, to prevent their mixing at the time of blossoming. Likewise, set some of your best cabbage stumps for early salad and greens. If the ground is moist, set shallow ; if dry, place them about six inches deep. Small salading, such as cresses, 80, 81, mustard, 207, 208, radish. 260. &c., when a constant supply is wanted, should be sown once a week or fortnight. Celery^ frr an early crop, may be sown in this month, though the principal sowing had better be deteiTed ti^.l April, 74. Artichokes should be sowea as early as the season will permit, 18, and horse-radish, 159. APRIL. ±n the Eastern States, generally, and in those parts of the Middle States where .oe ground is naturally somewhat moist and heavy, this is the month for sowing llie principal garden crops. Sow the hardy kinds as scij, site and season wjH permit, that the plants may be firmly established belore they are overtaken by the heat and drought of summer. But a sti/T and moist soil should never, on any account, be dug, ploughed or harrowed when it is so wet as to be clammy and adhesive. On the other hand, a light, sandy soil will be meliorated by b&- ing hoed, or otherwise wrought on while moist. " Earth of a consistence that will hold water longest wilhout becoming hco'd when dry, is that of all othei-s the best adapted for raising the generality of plants in the greatest peifection. The great art of improvmg sandy and clay soils is to give to the former such dressings of clay, cow-dung, and other kinds of manure, as will have a tendency to buid and make it more compact, and, consequently, more retentive of moisture ; and, to l]ie latter, coats of sandy earth, pond m.ud, horse dung," &c. — M'Mahon. Sow artichokes, 18, asparagus, 22, horse, or garden beans, 33. kidney beans, 36, beets, 40, the last of tnis mon'h, or the first of next, borecole, 51,Erussel9 sprouts, 55 ; sow cabbage seed, Ct, set out cabbage plants, 61 , sow cardoons, 67, carrots, 68, cauliflowers, 72, celery , 74, coleworts,79, succession-crops of cresses, 80. 81, cuc-umbers in hollowed turnips placed in a hot-bed, 87, or in pots un- der hand-glasses, &c ; propagate fi-uit-lrees by cuttings, 95, You may set out a few dandelion plants in your garden, 97, and let us know how you succee^l in attempting to domesticate them. Look out for, and destroy insects, 169 : sow a little early summer endive, 105^ fennel, 108} propagnie garlic, 136, leeks, 190 CALliNSAKlAIi INDEX- 303 »lluce, 191, maijoram, 197, onions, 213, parsley, 222, parsnpp, 224, siiccessivs crops of different sorts of peas, 226, potatoes, 248, radish, 2b0, saee. 26S. sal- «fy, 266, savory. 266, sea-kale, 267, skiixet, 281. ' ' 6 MAY. You may now sow most or all the articles mentioned in the Calendar tir the last month, either as first or suceession-crops. Plant your cucumbers, 82, and melons, 198, for a general crop in the open ground about the 2lUh ; also, squash- es, pumpkins, ana gourds; likewise, Indian com for an early garden crop, 164. Plant your bush-beaas and pole-beans, for your principal crop, at any lime when most convenient during the mouth, 36. It is recommended to set the poles, and tlien plant the beans roujid the poles. Weed and thin your ad- veuicing crops of radishes, 261. Transplant radishes for seed, 2C2. Sow suc- cession-crops of spinach, 282. Carrotj maybe sown in the Eastern Stales in the forepart of the month, 68. Weed and thin beets, ceutoIs, parsncps, onions, early turnips. Sow more turnips of llic early kinds for crops in succession. Such sowuig is best performed m the first weeK of Ihe month, in order thai the roots may have time to grow to a good size before they are overtaken by sum- mer heat and drought. Early cauliflower plants, as they advance in growth, should have earth drawn up about their siems, ana be watered in dry weather. You will do well to sow peas for succession-crops, at least twice this month, 2:26. You may set out or transplant early leuuce. feow as many of the sorts of small salading as you may need for market or family consumption. Now is, per- haps, as proper a lime as any in the year for pruning Iruit trees, 267. The season for pruning is immediately before, or comineiisura' ■ with, the rising of Ihe sap. Let your ducks have constant employment as vermin pickers, 1U2, Attack insects by sprinkling over them, by means of a syrljge, watering-pot, or garden engine, simple water, soap-suds, decoctions of tobacco, of elder, fee. &c. 169. JUNE. Melons and cucumbers, which have hitherto been protected by glasses or pa- per frames, may now be exposed to the open air. If the season oe at all clry, your vegetables, particularly your cucumbers, will need water, [tjee Iniro- auction.T Keep your crops clean, by hand-weeding and hoeing, as directed page 158. About the last of the month, you may sow crops of melons and cu- cumbers for pickling. Thin forward melon plants^ leaving only two or three in a hill, 201. - Attend tx) your cabbage and cauliflower plants, as well as your beans, &.c. and see thai they are not destroyed by the cut worm. " If you perceive any plants injured, open the earth at the fool of-lhe plant, and you will never fail to find the worm at the root, within four inches. Kill him, and you will save not only the other plants of your garden, but probably many thou- sands in future years." Hoe and bush your late peas ; plant more potatoes, succession-crops of kidney beans, 36, peas, 226, small salads and lettuce every week or ten days. " Thin out and earth up all your plants ; remember Jial firequent hoeing is both rain and manure to your veTOtables in dry weather." ■Jelery plan's may now be planted out in trenches, 74. When the plants have grown to the height of eight or ten inches, draw earth about them, breaking it fine. This should be done in dry weather, being careful not Id bury the heart. Plaiit out cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli, &c. in moist or cloui'y weather, but not when the ground is wet and heavy, 61. Cut and dry such herbs as have come to maturity, for winter use. Vou may as well dry and pulverize some kinds, as directed p. 205. Look over your gra."ied trees, and vou may ascer- tain whether the scion has united with the stock. Take ofl'the ilay, and loosen the bandages of such grafts as have succeeded, and tie weak giafis and dan- gling shoots from bud(fed stocks to neat stakes. Rub oft' all superfluous, irrega- lar. or ill placed shoots or suckers. Where your fruit-trees appear lo be over- loaded wilh fruit, pick off a part, and carefully gather all that whith has fallen and ^ve to your swrine, in order to destroy the ciu-culio 176. B04 CAL£NDAREAL INDEX. Clean and prepare yimr ground wuere your early cipps of pens, spintg« caulifiowei-s, and cabbages grow, and all other vacant s[ oLs, lo ciillivate Uiere on such plants as are propei lo suppi}- your table, in aut jmn and winter, with later-grown jiroductions. You ma^ c-ontiime lo sow crops of small salading every eiglil or len days, as aiiecied in former monlhs; but they should now be sown on shady borders, or else he suaded by mats, occasionalfy, from ihe mid- day sun, and frequently watered, buh before and aiier the plants appear above ground. You may now planl oul your celery plants in trenches, 74, unless you have already performed that operation, as directed last month. About ihe mid- dle of July, and from thai time to the end of ihe first week in August, you may tow turnips, 292. Thin and transptanl sucl: 'eltuces as were sown last moDlhf and sow more letluce-seed in the beginning, middle, and last week of liiis month, in order to have a constant supply lor the table, 191. Sow likewise radishes, ^l, and in llie last week of this month a good crop of spinach may be sown for autumn use; it will not then be so liable to run to seeo as in ihe pre- ceding months. It is a good practice to sow early kinds of cabbages, GO^ about ihis lime, for a supply of young greens during autumn. Colled aU knids of seeds as ihcy come to maturity, cutting off or pulling up the stems willi the seeds attached, as they ripen. Spread ihem in some airy place under cover, turning ihem now and then, that the seeds may dry and harden gradually, and be careful not to la^ ihem so thick as to hazard their heating and fennenlixig. When Uiey are sufficiently drv, beat oul and clean the seeds, and deposit ihem in bags or boxes and other fruit against wasps. This may be done by hanging up phials of nonied or sugared water near tne fruit you wish to defend from their attacks, in which many of the tiny depre- dators will be caught and destroyed. Thoroughly clean from weet^ all the seed-beds and young plantations of trees, shrubs, &c. Gather cucumbei'S and mangoes for pickling before they spot. Sow cauliflowers about the 20th, 72. OCTOBER. The young cabbage plants, produced from seeds sown last month, and in- tonded for early smnmer cabbages, should be transplanted into the beds in which they are to remain during winter, 60. Prepare a bed for ihem, the width of your garden frame, in a warm, well- iheltcred place, where the sun has the greatest power; yet be careful never to admit the direct sunshine on the planU, when in a frozen state. When you have no glasses, the plants may be protected during winter by boards or mats, giving them air in mild weather. Cauliflowers sown in August or September eboald be raised caretiilly, and protected, during the cold season, in garden fi-ames, with boards, mats, &c., or perhaps some may survive if set in open borders, 72, or they may be set in pots, 73. Weed and thin your late crops of spinach, leaving the best plants at the distance of three, four, or five inches jsunder, 283. Early in the month, hoe and earth jp the late-planted crops of cabbages, broccoli, and borecole, cauliflowers and other plants of thebrassica genus. Towards the end of the month, if the stalks of asparagus turn yellow, cut them close to the earth ; clear the beds aid alleys from weeds, and carry them with the stalks off the ground. It will then not be amiss to cover the beds and alleys with old litter, well trodden down, to be removed in the spring Or you may apply manure now, instead of in spring, as directed page 25. Cut down all decayed flower stems, and shoots of^ the various kinds of aromatic, pot and medicinal herbs, close to the plants ; clear the beds from weeds and Oner, and carry the whole off the ground. Onions may now be planted out (o raise seed, instead of setting them in the spring, as directed p. 219. The se«uls of dill, skirret, rhubarb, sea-kale, way now be sown; for, if kept out of pnwnd till spring, many of tliem will not vegetate till a year after ; but when so»n in October or November, if the seeds are fresh and perfect, they wHI vege- tate in the April following. Begin to lake up and secure potatoes, 255, beets, 49, carrots, parsueps, turnips, Jerusalem artichoke, &c., 50. Give a general hoeing and weeding to all your crops, and can^ the weeds out of the giir- den. Such spaces of ground as are now vacant should be dunged, dug, or irenched, and thus have the advantage of a winter fallow, and that exposure to frost, which will reduce it to fine tilth, and destroy worms, the larva of msecu &c The oM beds of strawberrieii should, soma Lime in Ibis moDlfa, b* 26* 306 CALENDARIAL INDEX. cleaned from weeds, and the vines or runners taken off close to the p]Bnt& 'Xlion, if tlierc be room, loosen the earth to a moderate depth bctwecj tbt plants, taking crre not to disturb the roots. And if the plants are in Ixids with alkys between, ine out tlie alleys, and let them be (lug a moderate depth, breaking the ear h very fine, and spreading a sufBcie'icy of it over the l>eds, between and round the beds, taking care not to bury iht'ir tops. A slight top dressing of compost, such as described p. 286, may now bt; applied. It may now be lime to gather and preserve apples and pears, 13, though it is best to let them remain on the trees as long as they are safe from frost. Id. If you are not ap- prehensive of the depredations of mice^ rats, squirrels, &c. you may sow the stones of plums, peacnes, nectarines, apripots, &c.; or you may, if you tliink it more prudent, preserve them in sand till March or April. NOVEMBER. Gather from your garden, before the hard frosts commence, all those fruiU of your labours, whicn you wish to preserve through the winter, not forget- ting winter squashes. Take up and preserve cabbages, as directed p. 65. Pre- serve your celery, 75. You may gather a part in dry weather, and pack it in boxes in dry sand, and place the boxes in a warm cellar, leaving the tops and leaves open to itip air Those cabbage and cauliflower plants, wliicii you meac shall stand through the winter in frames, should, during the continuance of mild weather he allowed every advantage of free air, to inure them, by de- grees, to bear cold. Take the glasses off entirely, in the warm part of the day, but place Ihem on again at night, and in wet or cold weather. If )our beets, turnips, parsneps, &c. are not secured, take them up, and preserve them, as directed last month. You may now sow the seeds of rhubarb, sea- kale, skirrels, parsneps, and many other kinds, which are somewhat slow in vegetating, ana they will come forward early, and grow vigorously in the spring. In the beginning of this month, you may manure and trench the ground which is inlend-ed Jbr early crops, and, if it be of a stiff heavy nature, lay it up in ridges, to receive the benefit of the winter frosts. You may now sow early peas, to come up in the spring, if you can preserve them against mice, 22( This is, perhaps, as eligible a period as any for the planting of apple-trees, and other fruit-trees, 17, 220, or sowing seeds in a nursery, 208, ziO. Lay light litter of some kind a good thickness over the roots ot the more tender and choice kiuds of trees and shrubs, to protect them from frost., DECEMBER. fhe severity of the weatiier in this month generally allows but little to be done in the Middle and Northern States. Should the season permit, you may perform any of the operations directed for last month, which remain unfinishea. If the weather continues open, carry out and spread manure, and trench the ground, as directed for the last month. Provide from the woods, &c. pea- sticks and bean-poies, of suitable lengths and sizes, as directed in January. Collect all your old sticks and poles, which are still fit for use, and place them togeiher with'^your new ones under cover, to prevent their rotting. Be careful to shut the frost out of the apartments in which yon have stored your fruit for winter and spriitg use. Examine the fruit which you havfi on shelves in ccllara onoe every ten days, and take away any that you find tainted. Repair su decayed trellises^ espaliers, &c. Procure stakes and otlier maleriatj* whui) may M wanted m a more busy seaaon. '^-^\.!\f',7^f\f'XH.fil^l