FARM GRASSES %&UNITED STMES lilililiiliWiiliiliiilliilniiiiiliiiiliiiiiiilliiiiili'liiiliiiiilliiilliii^ Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924051996555 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 1924 051 996 555 FARM GRASSES of the UNITED STATES Farm Grasses Cf the UNITED STATES A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE GRASS CROP, SEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS AND PASTURES, DESCRIPTIONS OF THE BEST VARIETIES, THE SEED AND ITS IMPURITIES, GRASSES FOR SPECIAL CONDITIONS, ETC., ETC. .• .• .• .• .• By WILLIAM JASPER SPILLMAN Agristologfst, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture ; In Charge of Grass and Forage Plant In'vestigations ; Chairman of Committee in Charge of Farm Management ILLUSTRATED NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER (^ CO., Limited I916 Copyright, 1905 BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY Entered at Stationers'' Hall^ London^ England [Printed in U. S. A.] TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Preface xiii I. The Grass Crop l II. Meadows and Pastures 14 III. Meadows and Pastures {Continued) ... 26 IV. Meadows and Pastures {Concluded) ... 42 V. The Seed 56 VI. Timothy 75 VII. The Blue-grasses go VIII. The Millets 103 IX. Two Prominent Southern Grasses . . . 125 X. Redtop and Orchard-grass 146 XI. Brome-grass {Bromus inermis) .... 164 XII. Grasses of Minor Importance .... 176 XIII. Grasses for Special Conditions .... 192 XIV. Lawns and Lawn-making 200 XV. Miscellany 217 Index 243 ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE Mowing the Lawn .... Frontispiece 1. Percentage of Improved Land Devoted to Hay and Forage. (Compiled from Census of 1900) . . 3 2. Grain (Including Cow-peas) Cut Green for Hay. Each dot represents 10,000 acres. (Compiled from Census of 1900) 10 3. Wild, Salt, and Marsh Grasses Cut for Hay. Each dot represents 10,000 acres. (Compiled from Cen- sus of igoo) .,..,... 13 35 37 38 39 4. Haying Scene in Nova Scotia 5. Rake for Moving Hay-cocks to Stack . 6. Hay-stack Made too Flat 7. Hay-derrick in Common Use in Utah 8. Quack-grass {Agropyron repens). A bad weed in the Northern States 50 9. Production of Grass-seed in the United States. (Com- piled from Census of 1900.) Each dot represents 10,000 bushels. Three counties not shown on the map; each produce approximately 10,000 bushels of grass-seed; they are Linn County, Oregon; Rock Bridge County, Virginia; and Salem County, New Jersey 57 10. Seeds of Standard Grasses, u. Meadow-fescue; i, English Rye-grass; c, Italian Rye-grass; d, Tim- othy; e, Redtop in the chaff; /, Redtop, chaff re- moved; ^, Rhode Island Bent; h. Orchard-grass. (G. H. Hicks, Year-book, Department of Agricul- ture, 1898) 58 X ILI,USTRATlONS FIG. PAGE 11. Seeds of Standard Grasses. «, Rescue-grass; ^, Texas Blue-grass; c, Chess, or Cheat; d, Canada Blue- grass; e, Bromus inermis; f, Kentucky Blue-grass. (G. H. Hicks, Year-book, Department of Agricul- ture, 1898) 59 12. Gathering Kentucky Blue-grass Seed near Lexington, Kentucky. (From Bulletin 19, Bureau of Plant In- dustry, United States Department of Agriculture) 61 13. Curing Kentucky Blue-grass Seed Outdoors. 50,000 bushels in one curing-bin. (From Bulletin 19, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture) 63 14. Weed Seeds, a. Pepper-grass (Lepidium virginicum); b. Slender Rush {/uncus tenuis); c. Velvet-grass (Holcus lanatus); d. Five-finger {Potentilla mons- peliensis); e. Ox-eye Daisy {Chrysanthemum leucan- themum); f. Sorrel {Rumex acetosella); g. False Flax {Camelina sativa); h, Canada Thistle {Carduus ar- vensis) ......... 67 15. Home-made Seed-tester, a. Closed; i5, Open. (From Farmers' Bulletin 194, United States Department of Agriculture) ........ 73 16. Timothy 76 17. Distribution of "Other Tame Grasses," mostly Tim- othy. (Compiled from Census of 1900.) Each large dot represents a county producing more than 5,000 acres. The smaller dots represent 1,000 acres each 79 18. Kentucky Blue-grass 91 19. Distribution of Kentucky Blue-grass. Each dot rep- resents a correspondent reporting blue-grass im- portant in his section 94 ILLUSTRATIONS XI FIG. PAGE 20. Acreage of Millet Hay. (Compiled from Census of 1900.) Each dot represents 1,000 acres . . . 105 21. Typical Form of Foxtail Millet 112 22. Broom-corn Millet 115 23. Barn-yard Grass. A representative of the Japanese millets 117 24. Bermuda Grass 126 25. Distribution of Bermuda Grass. Each dot represents a correspondent reporting Bermuda Grass important in his locality .... .... 128 26. Plat of Bermuda Grass in Grass-garden at Wash- ington, D.C. (United States Department of Agri- culture) 129 27. Johnson Grass ........ 138 28. Distribution of Johnson Grass. Each dot represents a correspondent reporting Johnson Grass important in his locality 14S 2g. Redtop, or Herd's Grass (Agrostis alba) . . . 147 30. Distribution of Redtop. Each dot represents a corre- spondent reporting this grass important . . 149 31. Orchard-gTass (Z>aciylis fflomeraia). Cocksfoot of the English 155 32. Sod of Orchard-grass. Showing its bunchy character 158 33. Distribution of Orchard-grass. Each dot represents a correspondent reporting this grass important . 161 34. Brome-grass l^Bromus inermis) ..... 165 35. Distribution of Brome-grass. Each dot representing a correspondent reporting it important . . . 167 36. Chess, or Cheat {Bromus secalinus) .... 172 37. Rescue-grass (Bromus unioloides) .... 174 38. Crab-grass 184 xu ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGB 39. Distribution of Crab-grass. Each dot representing => correspondent reporting this grass important 40. Distribution of Carpet-grass ..... 41. Plat of Bluestem {Agrofyron occidcntale) in Grass- garden at Washington, D. C. (United States De- partment of Agriculture) .... 42. Seaside Blue-grass {Poa macrantha), near Astoria Oregon. Protecting sand-dune from erosion by the wind . ...... 43. Typical View on Ranges of the West. Showing Ely mus condensatus in low alkaline soil 44. Greensward in Public Gordens, Boston, Mass 45. Lawn-mowers, or Turf-makers, in Druid Hill Baltimore, Md. 46. Varieties of Timothy . 47. Varieties of Timothy . 48. Improved Varieties of Brome-g 49. Penicillaria, or Pearl Millet 50. A Spike .... 51. A Spikelet .... 52. A Panicle .... 53. Parts of a Single Floret 54. Showing Action of Pollen . Park 186 188 190 195 199 212 213 230 231 233 235 237 237 239 241 241 PREFACE ON preparing this volume the objedt has been , to present, in connedted form, the main fadls aP^l concerning the grasses grown on American farms — in so far, at least, as these fadls are of interest to the farmer. Adtual practice in grass grow- ing has been set forth wherever information concern- ing it has been available. The writer has attempted to view every phase of the subjedt from the farmer's standpoint — with what measure of success the reader must judge for himself. The country may be divided into four regions, each of which presents a different set of problems. In the region of timothy, clover, and blue-grass, grass problems are comparatively unimportant; they relate mainly to methods of growing and utilizing well-known grasses, and to methods of improving these grasses by separating them into their constituent varieties and seledling out the best. This region covers the North- eastern quarter of the country, and certain localities in the West and the Middle South. In the South, while excellent grasses are not wanting, it happens that most of the grasses best adapted to the region possess char- adteristics which render their management on the farm a matter of much difficulty. This subjedt is discussed at length in the chapter on Bermuda and Johnson grasses. Grasses having fewer objedtionable features xiv PEBFACB are much sought after by Southern farmers, and some suggestions are made in the text concerning hay and pasture plants worthy of trial. Methods of fitting grass crops into Southern cropping systems constitute another important problem which the farmer must M'ork out largely for himself. The best we can do for him in this line is to give him the benefit of the expe- rience of the most progressive of his fellows. This the writer has attempted to do. On the irrigated lands of the West, farmers are not particularly concerned about grass problems, except where alkali has begun to appear. But there are im- mense areas in the West at present unutilized, except in the primitive fashion of the herdsman on the open range, on which the problem is to find grasses that will produce a crop under arid or semi-arid conditions. In so far as the solution of this difficulty has been ac- complished, the results are set forth in discussing the individual grasses. Attention is called to investiga- tions now in progress with a view to finding other grasses adapted to these hard conditions. The chapter on seeds was contributed by Mr. Edgar Brown, in charge of the Seed I,aboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture. The chapter on "Lawns and Lawn-making" was prepared by Mr. C. R. Ball, of the United States De- partment of Agriculture. The following acknowledgments, in addition to those already given, are due for illustrations used: Fig. 13— Pieters & Brown, Bulletin 19, Bureau of Plant In- dustry, U. S. D. A. Fig. 14 — Pieters & Brown, Bulletin 19, Bureau of Plant In- dustry, U. S. D. A. PREFACE Fig. 15— Pieters, Farmers' Bulletin 123, U. S. D. A. Fig. 21 — Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 2i, U. S. D. A. Fig. 23 — Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 14, U. S. D. A. Fig. 24 — Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 7, U. S. D. A. Fig. 27 — Tracy, Agros. Bulletin 15, U. S. D. A. Fig. 29 — Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 17, U. S. D. A. Fig. 31 — Scribner. Agros. Bulletin 7, U. S. D. A. Fig. 32— Scribner, Year-book 1897, U. S. D. A. Fig. 34— Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 7, U. S. D. A. Fig. 36— Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 7, U. S. D. A. Fig. 37 — Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 7, U. S. D. A. Fig. 38— Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 17, U. S. D. A. W. J. Spillmaw BtTRKAtr OF Plant Industry U, S. Department of As^ricuUure, 1905. FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES THE GRASS CROP 'TT* HK word ' ' grass ' ' is used in two senses. Popii- _i« larly it is applied to those plants that furnish ^^jhI hay and pasture. In this sense it includes the clovers, alfalfa, the vetches, spurry, and other plants belonging to various families. Botanic- ally the term is applied only to representatives of a single family, known to botanists as the GraminecB, or true grasses. In this volume, in order to avoid bur- densome phraseology, the word is sometimes used in the one sense and sometimes in the other, but the con- text will always indicate the meaning intended. In the present chapter the term is made to include those plants which are generally grown for hay and pasture purposes. According to the Census of 1900, about 18 per cent, of the total area of the United States is classed as im- proved land. This does not take into account Alaska or our insular possessions. This 18 per cent, amounts to 414,000,000 acres. Of this, only 289,000,000 is de- voted to harvested crops, including some 15,000,000 acres of wild grasses cut for hay. This leaves about 2 FARM GRASSES OP THE UNITED STATES 1 25,000,000 acres of improved land devoted to orchards, woodlands, and pastures. Since pradtically all the improved woodland is pastured, and since the area in orchards is relatively very small, it is safe to say that at least 120,000,000 acres of this area is grass-land used for pasture purposes. Of the harvested crops, about 59,000,000 acres is devoted to hay. It is thus seen that the hay crop occupies over 22 per cent, of all land from which crops are harvested, while hay and pasture lands together constitute about 43 per cent, of the total area of improved land. The value of the haj-^ crop for the year 1899 is estimated at $484,256,846. The only crop exceeding this was corn. It is impossible to estimate the value of the feed obtained from the 120,000,000 acres of improved pas- ture-land; but when we add the value of this and the pasture value of the remaining 82 per cent, of the total area of the country classed as unimproved land, nearly all of which is grazed, it is probable that the grass crop surpasses in value any other crop. But since hay is too bulky and usually too cheap to bear long-distance shipment, comparatively a small proportion of it finds its way to the markets. It is fortunate that at least one important crop must, from its very nature, be largely consumed on the land where it is produced. Otherwise we should long ago have reduced the fertility of pradtically all the farm lands in this country to so low a point as to have rendered farm- ing unprofitable, just as has been done in all the older parts of the country where livestock fanning has been neglected. It is a notable fadl that in those por- tions of the country which have enjoyed the most per- THB GRASS CROP 3 manent prosperity, the grasses and livestock have always occupied an important place. In the New Eng- land States, which have felt keenly the competition of the fertile lands of the Central West, agriculture has been able to maintain itself only by devoting the major portion of the improved land to grasses. Other crops may form the basis of temporary prosperity, as has ^^m ^ ^^^B fe. ^^^^m ^10.0 H 4.8 s OS S-/0 ZS+ I — PERCENTAGE OF IMPROVED LAND DEVOTED TO HAY AND FORAGE been the case with wheat on the prairies of the North- west and the Pacific Northwest, and cotton in the South; but it was a prosperity that rested on too slen- der a basis, and, in both cases, led to disaster. The distribution of the grass crop in the United States is shown in Fig. i . This shows the percentage of improved land in each State devoted to hay and forage. The States may be divided into four fairly distind: groups, based on these percentages. The first 4 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES group consists of the cotton-producing States, in which the area of grass lands is less than 5 per cent, of the whole. This group of States was so unfortunate in their early history as to find their lands and climate adapted to a crop that was highly profitable, but which returned nothing to the soil. Livestock farming and grass culture were almost wholly negledled. As the lands wore out, resort was had to commercial fertil- izers; but these did not add humus to the soil, and the mechanical condition of the soil has reached that stage where rain washes it so badly that it is necessary to terrace in order to keep the soil from washing away. The results achieved by many progressive farmers in the South show conclusively that a proper use of grasses and stable manure render terracing unneces- sary except on decidedly rolling lands, and make the soil highly productive. Diversified farming is rapidly coming into favor in the South, and the area devoted to hay and pasture crops is increasing. This undoubt- edly means a return to permanent prosperity. Hay produdtion, generally speaking, is not an im- portant industry in the South. It has become impor- tant in a few localities. In the Red River Valley in Louisiana and Arkansas a considerable area of alfalfa is grown, and the area devoted to this valuable crop is rapidly extending. On a narrow strip of prairie soil extending from northeastern Mississippi through central Alabama and terminating near Macon, Georgia, Johnson grass has long been grown in considerable areas. The same grass is grown more or less exten- sively on similar soil over much of central Texas. Alfalfa thrives abundantly on these black soils, and is THE GRASS CROP 5 coming into general use as a hay crop in recent years. In the vicinity of Augusta, Georgia, on both sides of the Savannah River, considerable hay is grown for the local markets. The same is true in restridled local- ities in northern Florida. In general, however, the prevailing system of farming consists of growing cotton and corn. This system has thoroughly worn out the soil except in the richer alluvial sedlions, so that good crops are seldom produced, even with the stimulus of commercial fertilizers, which are universally applied — at least, to cotton — in all the older settled sedlions. Regarding the profit from hay farming in the South, Mr. F. A. Quinett, who operates two large hay farms near New Orleans, says, in a letter to the Depart- ment of Agriculture: " Formerly we found it difficult to sell our hay. We now have the best patronage, and are unable to meet the demand. One hundred acres last year gave about four hundred tons of hay, which we sold at $io to $14 per ton. We consider the hay business decidedly more profitable than any other style of farming." The next group consists of the States of Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. In these, the grasses are largely confined to certain localities ; in Virginia, to the valleys between the mountain ranges in the west- ern part ; in Tennessee, to the mountain valleys of the east, and to the limestone soils of the central part of the State; in Kentucky, largely to the northern border and the north central part. In these three States the percentage of grass-lands ranges from 5 to 6.3. The third group consists of those States in which agriculture is most widely diversified, and the agricul- 6 FARM GRASSES OP THE UNITED STATES tural wealth of the country is mostly concentrated. In them, from lo to 25 per cent, of the improved land is devoted to hay and forage crops. The last group con- sists of the Rocky Mountain States and New York and New England. In these States the grass area ex- ceeds 25 per cent, of the total. The large amount of hay grown in these two groups of States is due to special conditions. In the Mountain States the chief industry is stock-raising on the ranges, and the hay is grown for winter feed. The proportion of grass to other crops is indeed larger here than is called for in properly diversified agriculture, and there is much talk of the need of grains for finishing off cattle. In New York and New England much hay is grown for market. Dairying is also an important industry. Unlike Iowa, Wisconsin, and other great dairy States in the Central West, where concentrated dairy feeds are largely pro- duced on the farm, New England finds it more advan- tageous to devote her lands to grass, and to buy grain and mill producfts for her cattle. The data concerning the hay and forage crops of the country are given in Vol. VI., Census of 1900, under the following headings : ' ' Wild, Salt, and Prai- rie Grasses," " Millet and Hungarian Grasses," "Al- falfa or lyUcern, " "Clover," " Other Tame Grasses," " Grains Cut Green for Hay," and " Forage Crops." The distribution of each of these crops will be dis- cussed later. The data for clover relate to clover sown alone, and include all the varieties. When sown with timothy or other true grasses, clover is included under " other tame grasses." Grains cut green for hay here includes peas as well, since, in the North, peas are THE GRASS CROP 7 usually sown with oats when grown for hay. It also includes the cow-peas of the South when cut for hay, though these are pra<5tically never sown with grain. Under " Forage Crops" are included sorghum, Kafir- corn, milo maize, Indian com, etc., when cut and fed in the green state, made into silage, or when grown for the fodder alone, as all of these crops except Indian corn and Kafir-corn usually are. The two latter, when grown for grain, are not included here. The crop designated "other tame grasses" is by far the most important of all. It includes timothy, timothy and clover, redtop, orchard-grass, brome-grass, meadow- fescue, tall meadow oat-grass, etc. There are no definite data to indicate in what proportion these grasses occur, but common observation and extensive correspondence with fanners indicate that the area of all others together is decidedly small when compared with the area of timothy, or a mixture of timothy and clover, and we may fairly refer to the region producing this crop as the " timothy region." Omitting for the present the wild grasses, these hay crops will be con- sidered in the order of their importance. By reference to the map (Fig. 17), it will be seen that the crop designated as " other tame grasses " oc- curs principally north of the Ohio River and east of the west line of Missouri and Iowa. The area of this crop is given as 31,302,000 acres. It therefore constitutes 74 per cent, of the total area of tame hay. The aver- age yield is i.i tons per acre, making a total of 35,- 624,000 tons of haj', consisting almost exclusively of timothy, or timothy and clover. The yield per acre of this crop is lower than that of any other tame hay 8 FARM GRASSES OF THE; UNITED STATES crop. This is largely due to the prevailing habit of leaving timothy meadows down after they have become unprodudlive. It is a remarkable fadl that nearly all the grass lit- erature issued by the American experiment stations comes from those stations outside of the timothy re- gion. Inside this region the early introdu<5tion of timothy, red clover, and Kentucky blue-grass solved the grass problem in a manner satisf adlory to the farmer before the establishment of the experiment stations, and these institutions have, therefore, devoted their energies to more pressing problems. The most im- portant grass literature from these States is to be found in the reports from early agricultural societies. These reports indicate that grass problems were at one time as important in the region in question as they now are outside of it. Nearl5'- all the correspondence that comes to the office of Grass and Forage Plant Investi- gations of the United States Department of Agriculture originates either in the cotton-growing States, where grass culture has been negledted, or in the arid and semi-arid West, where satisfactory grasses are yet to be found. Clover ranks next to ' ' other tame grasses ' ' in the area devoted to it. The figures apply, of course, to the clovers when sown without timothy or other true grasses. The area devoted to clover is 4,104,000 acres, or 7 per cent, of the total area of tame hay. The average yield of this class of crops is given at 1.3 tons per acre. The clovers, particularly the common red clover (^Trifolium pratejise), are much more im- portant in American agriculture than these figures THS GRASS CROP 9 would indicate. In the first placCj red clover is very commonly sown with timothy, the area thus sown probably being several times as large as the area of clover sown alone. In the second place, they are nitrogen gatherers, and are thus of vast importance in furnishing nitrogenous material in feed-stuffs and as soil renovators. But a further discussion of this sub- ject would transcend the limits of this volume, which is confined, except in a most general way, to a discus- sion of the true grasses. The next most important crop in the list consists of grains cut green for hay. Its distribution is shown in Fig. 2. The area of this crop is 3,884,000 acres, and the average yield 1.3 tons. The grains are used extensively for hay only on the Pacific Coast. On non-irrigated lands in Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and California, where the rainfall is sufficient to per- mit of farming, wheat is by far the most important crop. Over much of this area wild oats are very troublesome, and the principal hay consists of patches of wild oats cut in wheat-fields. Even where wild oats are not troublesome, as where the rainfall is less than about eighteen inches annually, much wheat is cut for hay. If cut at the proper stage, wheat, and the other cereals as well, make excellent hay for all kinds of stock. ^In California beardless barley is used exten- sively for hay; this crop is also coming into use in Oregon and Washington for the same purpose. Al- falfa and brome-grass {Bromus inermis) are also rap- idly coming into favor on the wheat-lands east of the Cascade Mountains in the two States last named. Throughout the Central and Southern States the the; grass crop ii grain hay consists mostly of oats cut and fed in the sheaf, and of cow-peas. The thick patch of grain hay shown in southern Ivouisiana consists entirely of cow- peas grown on sugar plantations, both for hay and for their fertilizing efEedl on the soil. At the North, Cana- dian field peas are sometimes sown with oats for hay, but the area is quite limited. They hardly extend as far south as central Pennsylvania and central Ohio. The hay crop next in importance is alfalfa, of which 2,094,000 acres is reported in the Census of 1900. This is confined almost entirely to the West, and largely to irrigated land in that section. Alfalfa, as an important crop, stops at the western limit of "other tame grasses," as shown in Fig. 17. It is now rapidly gaining ground in the East and South. The average yield per acre is 2.5 tons — nearly double that of any of the preceding crops. I^ast in the list of tame hay crops are ' ' Millet and Hungarian grasses." Of these, 1,744,000 acres are shown in the census returns, with an average yield of 1.6 tons per acre. Their distribution is shown in Fig. 20, and the millet crop is discussed in detail in Chapter VIII. The acreage of forage crops is placed at 3,107,000. The average yield of dry forage is 2.6 tons per acre. Kansas leads in the produdlion of forage. Sorghum and Kafir-corn are eminently adapted to the western margin of the humid region ; sorghum does equally well in the whole of the cotton-producing sedtion, where it is highly important as a fodder crop. It is also much used in the South as a green feed for sum- mer and as pasture for all kinds of stock. 12 FARM GRASSES OP THE UNITED STATES The wild hay crop is much more important than is generally believed. No less than 15,417,000 acres of wild grasses were cut for hay during the census year, though the area is rapidly diminishing. The average yield is i . i tons per acre, or the same as that given for ' ' other tame grasses. ' ' The distribution of the wild hay crop is shown in Fig. 3. The chief acreage is shown to be in the States bordering the western edge of the timothy region. In Iowa, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota, wild hay is cut chiefly on wet lands ; farther west, mostly on upland prairies ; still farther west, in swales and draws in the arid region. The principal grasses constituting this wild hay, and the possibility of domesticating some of them, are men- tioned later in this volume. RECAPITULATION The following table presents the statistics for hay and forage crops in more compadt form. The figures are from the Census of 1900: ACREAGE OF HAY AND FORAGE Acres A verage yield in tons per acre Wild, salt, and prarie Millet and Hungarian Alfalfa, or lucern . grasses . grasses . 15,457,000 1,744,000 2,094,000 4,104,000 31,302,000 3,884,000 I.I 1.6 2.5 1.3 i.i 1-3 Other tame and culti Grains cut green for I'ated grasses . ha.y ... Total . ... Forage crops . . 58,585,000 3,107,000 1.2 2.6 Grand total 61,692,000 1-3 II MEADOWS AND PASTURES TT^ XCEPT in comparatively few localities, the ~^ i American farmer has never learned the art ^^1 of maintaining grass-lands in a permanently produ'?i % '-J FIG. 31 — ORCHARD-GRASS 156 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES These faults seem to be at the basis of the aversion which most farmers in the timothy region have for this grass. There is really no good reason why the seed should cost more than blue- grass seed, except that the supply of it is more limited. It produces an abundance of good seed (fifteen to eighteen bushels per acre, according to Prof. H. J. Waters, of the Missouri Experiment Station), and it is easily harvested. If this grass were grown as plentifully as timothy the seed would probably be nearly as cheap. At present orchard-grass seed is produced in quan- tity only in the highlands of western Virginia and contiguous regions, and in two counties on the Ohio River — one in Indiana, and the other opposite, in Kentucky (see Fig. 9). This latter locality produces the bulk of the orchard-grass seed grown in this coun- try. Small quantities are produced in a few other localities. Grass-seed produdtion seems to be quite generally confined to certain localities. There is some advantage in this. There is a good deal to be learned in the business of seed-growing, hence most farmers are slow to take it up. When a community gets started to growing seed, neighboring farmers learn from those who first begin, a good local market is established, cleaners are built, and the business finally becomes general. It is probable that orchard-grass seed could be produced at a profit in many localities where little or none is now grown. But since the demand for it is quite small it would not be diflBcult to overstock the market. Perhaps the most serious fault orchard-grass pos- sesses is its tendency to become woody soon after the REDTOP AND ORCHARD-GRASS 1 57 blooming period is over. When cut during or just after bloom it makes hay of superior quality, but if left a week or ten days later it makes very poor hay. This is more or less true of all our farm grasses, but it seems to be more pronounced in the case of orchard- grass than most others. The author has fed orchard- grass hay extensively to horses and cattle with excel- lent results, but it must be cut as stated above or stock do not eat it readily. It is not always possible to cut hay at the proper time ; other farm work may be pressing, or unfavorable weather may delay haying. It is therefore safer, when pradlicable, to grow a grass like timothy, which does not have to be cut so promptly, though even timothy should be cut before the seed is ripe to secure hay of the best quality. Another reason why farmers do not like to grow much orchard-grass is that timothy is the standard hay in all city markets, and even better hay than timothy will usually sell at a lower price because horsemen know what timothy hay is and are not familiar with orchard-grass hay. How the two would stand in the favor of feeders if both were equally known has never been determined. Ex- perimenters have very generally recommended orchard- grass very highly. The fadl that, in adlual farm pradlice, orchard-grass hay would be cut at all stages from blooming to maturity of the seed, would un- doubtedly make the quality of the hay very irregular, and thus render it unpopular. The uneven charadter of orchard-grass sod, as seen in Fig. 32, also tends to render it unpopular with farmers. It is no small task to ride a mower over an orchard-grass meadow. The small tussocks which 158 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES from the sod give the mower a motion similar to that of a wagon driven over a rocky road. This defeA of orchard-grass sod can be partially overcome by sowing clover and meadow-fescue with it ; but the latter grass FIG. 32 — SOD OF ORCHARD-GRASS is little grown in this country, for reasons that will be mentioned later. One of the most important advantages orchard- grass possesses is that it ripens exadtly with red clover, and is thus eminently adapted to sowing with that im- portant leguminous plant. It is a week to ten days eariier than timothy; indeed, it is one of the earliest of our grasses to furnish green feed in spring, and is therefore a valuable constituent of pasture mixtures. It REDTOP AND ORCHARD-GRASS 1 59 is somewhat amusing to read the severe condemnations of orchard-grass — and timothy, too, for that matter — in Enghsh books on grasses of the early part of tbe last century, on account of its coarseness. This idea crops out, to some extent, in American literature; but there is nothing to support it. If stock relish a grass and it is nutritious, then the coarser the better — if coarseness adds to the amount of forage it yields. Corn is rather a coarse grass, yet it is the most valuable of all grasses. Sorghum is another coarse grass that makes hay, and particularly green feed, of excellent quality. Another advantage orchard-grass possesses is its greater length of life. If properly treated an orchard- grass meadow continues to make good yields for many years, but, like most other perennial grasses, it pro- duces more the first cropping season than ever after- ward, except under unusual weather conditions, and it is doubtful if a farmer would be justified in keep- ing an orchard-grass meadow down more than two or three years. It also possesses marked advantages as a pasture-grass if grazed systematically. It bears cropping and trampling better than timothy, but does not continue to improve in old pasture-lands, as blue- grass does. It is worthy of a place in grass mixtures wherever it will thrive. It is stated by many writers that sheep are especially fond of it. The author can state from experience that horses and cattle eat it readily in pastures, but if mixed with other grasses and clover, and poorly managed, orchard- grass is inclined to outgrow the other constituents of the mixture, and when clumps of it attain considerable hight, stock negledt it for more tender herbage. If 1 60 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES the pasture is allowed to rest until there is considerable growth upon it, and then sufficient stock is turned in to eat it down quickly, orchard-grass is eaten with the rest. It has already been pointed out that this is the best method of getting the most feed from pastures, though it is not always pradticable to follow it. Or- chard-grass revives quickly after being cut for hay or cropped by stock, especially if there is plenty of mois- ture in the soil. In favorable seasons it yields two cuttings of hay a year — another charadleristic which adapts it to sowing with red clover. The distribution of orchard-grass in this country is approximately shown in Fig. 33. This map was pre- pared in the same manner as that showing the distri- bution of blue-grass (Fig. 19). Each dot represents a correspondent who reported it as an important grass in his locality. An examination of the map shows that it is found most commonly around the southern border of the timothy region; in fadl, it is decidedly the best of the farm grasses in that portion of the country, and is deservedly popular there. It is most important as a hay grass in Virginia, northern and western North Carolina, northern Georgia, northern Alabama, in Ten- nessee, and in those portions of Kentucky in which tim- othy does not thrive. In the regions here outlined timothy does well only on the best alluvial soils, and is liable to be entirely killed by the summer heat. Or- chard-grass is here adapted to a large variety of soils, and yields abundant crops of hay and pasture. It is better understood here than farther north. Orchard-grass is also grown considerably in Mis- souri, Kansas, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Oregon, Wash- 1 62 FAKM GRASSES OP THE UNITED STATES ington, and northwestern California. Along the Pacific Coast west of the Cascade Mountains orchard- grass thrives remarkably well, and this is one sedlion in which it vies with timothy in a timothy region. The worst disadvantage which it possesses in this sec- tion is its earliness. In all the region west of the Rocky Mountains the rains fall mostly in winter, while the summers are dry. West of the Cascades in Oregon, and more particularly in Washington, orchard- grass is frequently ready to cut before the spring rains are over, and it is therefore not always possible to cure the hay. Timothy comes on about ten days later, and thus stands a better chance of finding favorable haying weather. This objedtion does not hold east of the Cascades and in the Rocky Mountain region. In the Mountain States orchard-grass is much prized as a companion to alfalfa. It matures with the first cut- ting of alfalfa, and improves the quality of the hay. It is also a valuable grass to mix with alfalfa for pas- tures, greatly reducing the risk from bloat, and it has no tendency to spread and choke out the alfalfa. Orchard-grass occurs sparingly throughout the timothy region, but is nowhere an important grass in that area, except in a few small sedtions previously mentioned. It is used considerably in New England and adjoining States as a constituent of meadow and pasture mixtures, and probably deserves to be much more generally used for pasture purposes all over the Northern States. Orchard-grass seed, as found on the markets, is usually of good quality. It weighs about 14 lbs. per bushel. When grown for seed, it yields ordinarily 15 REDTOP AND ORCHARD-GRASS 1 63 to 18 bushels per acre. The retail price of the seed varies from 15 to 25 cents per pound. When sown alone, 20 to 25 lbs. of good seed per acre is sufficient. In pasture mixtures, 3 to 6 lbs. are usually sown. This grass is highly prized in New Zealand, where it is known as " cocksfoot," as it is also in England. This name is derived from the fancied resemblance of the spreading seed head to a chicken's foot. XI BROME-GRASS (Bromus inermis) T» ROME-GRASS (Fig. 34) is one of the few recently ■*-* introduced grasses that have won a perma- BFM3i nent place in American agriculture. Its in- trodu<5tion is to be credited to the work of the State experiment stations and the National Depart- ment of Agriculture. It has been grown by them ex- perimentally for a good many years, but began to attradt general attention in the early nineties. It was at first heralded by enthusiastic seedsmen as a panacea for all the ills of the farmer. Without question it is the best pasture-grass yet found for the Prairie States of the Northwest and Pacific Northwest. On the great wheat-producing soils of the sedlions mentioned it is a pasture-grass unequaled in produdliveness by any other pasture-grass in the country (unless we except the Bermuda grass of the South), and surpassed only by blue-grass in the quality of its herbage. It is now firmly intrenched in the favor of farmers from Kansas to the Canadian line and west to the Cascade Moun- tains of Oregon and Washington. It is also a valuable grass for moderately dry uplands in parts of California. It is distindlly a Northern grass, having never suc- ceeded south of the latitude of St. lyouis, except at high elevations in the Mountain States. It is perfedtly hardy, even in Manitoba. In the dry summers of the Northern Pacific Coast region (east of the Cascade 164 FIG. 34^BROME-GRASS 1 66 FARM GRASSBS OF THE UNITED STATES Mountains) it furnishes more green feed than any other of the true grasses. Noted for its ability to with- stand drouth, it yet does well on good moist soils. It will not thrive, however, on soils that are distincflly wet. It is particularly at home in the Red River Val- ley of North Dakota and on the peculiar basaltic soils of eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and northern Idaho. Its distribution is shown in Fig. 35, each dot representing a locality from which correspondents re- port it important. It is generally supposed that brome- grass is not adapted to the more humid climate of the timothy region, but the fadl is it is nearly or quite as valuable over much of this region as it is farther west. In the West it had no competitors as a pasture-grass, while in the East it had to compete with several long- established and highly satisfadlory grasses, particularly timothy and blue-grass. It has already been stated that nearly all the grass literature issued by the State experiment stations comes from those stations outside of the region of timothy, blue-grass, and red clover. Having very satisfacflory meadow and pasture crops, the farmers of the timothy region have not given brome-grass a thorough trial. As an illustration of the attitude of these farmers toward new candidates for their favor, we may quote the remark of an Ohio farmer when asked, in a circular letter, what were the hay and pasture problems of his sedlion. "We have no problems of this kind," was his reply. "What we need is to know how to build barns more cheaply and how to handle our livestock better. Our meadows and pastures already produce as much feed of the best quality as land can be made to produce. ' ' This may 1 68 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES or may not be true, but it shows that grass problems are not pressing in that sedtion. Yet it is probably true that brome-grass would add much to the produc- tiveness of pastures, even in Ohio. J. E. Wing, the well-known agricultural writer and lec?turer, whose farm is in west central Ohio, says that a mixture of brome-grass and alfalfa will carry six times as much stock there as blue-grass, and do it better. Yet both of these crops are, or were until very recently, nearly unknown in that State. Alfalfa is now rapidly gain- ing favor throughout the timothy region, and it is probable that brome-grass will, in time, do the same over much of this region. It has been stated on a previous page that palata- bility is perhaps the most important single chara(5ler- istic of a grass. If stock like it suiEciently well to eat enough to fatten on, it deserves attention. It is not claimed that brome-grass is as palatable as blue-grass, but the former is eaten readily by all classes of stock, and its superior produdliveness would render it more profitable than blue-grass in all sedlions except those where blue-grass is at its best, such as the Blue- Grass Region of Kentucky, north Missouri, and south- western Iowa. Since brome-grass is more a pasture than a hay grass, and as the farmers of the eastern part of the timothy region are gradually abandoning the use of pastures in favor of more produdlive methods of raising feed, it is doubtful if brome-grass has an im- portant place to fill in that sedtion. But farther west, ■where beef produdtion renders pastures necessary, it would undoubtedly add to the profit of the farmer. Brome-grass was at first heralded as a great hay- BROME-GRASS 1 69 producing grass, but it has been a disappointment to many farmers in this respedt. The disappointment was due to too great expedlations. It does produce a fine crop of hay, apparently the equal of timothy, for one or two years, but by the third year, except on very rich, moist land, it becomes so sod-bound that it sends up very few seed-stalks, though it continues indefinitely to produce an abundance of short, leafy growth, excel- lent for pasture. A few instances are reported in which farmers have plowed the sod in the fall and harrowed it down smooth, thereby renewing it to full vigor as a hay producer. Experience in this line is yet too meagre to justify the assertion that this prac- tice would be generally successful. It is certainly worth trying. Brome-grass hay is not yet sufficiently known on the markets to enable us to pass final judgment upon it. Experiments have demonstrated that it is as nu- tritious as timothy, and abundant experience shows it to be relished by stock. But the same is true of sev- ,eral other kinds of hay that have little standing on the markets. It requires long experience of many feeders to settle the status of any kind of hay. The men who feed livery horses in the cities are the jury that passes final judgment in matters of this kind, and their dic- tum furnishes the market rating of all classes of hay. When we have learned more about how to grow brome- hay, and its true value has been determined by the feeder, it may become a standard, particularly in the markets of the Northwest. Like timothy, it possesses the advantage of producing good seed in abundance. The seed is easily harvested, and may be threshed on lyo FARM GRASSES OP THE UNITED STATES an ordinary grain-thresher with proper riddles and proper control of the draft. The straw, after the seed is threshed out, is readily eaten by stock. This grass produces rather abundant aftermath, which furnishes excellent grazing. On the approach of winter it turns brown, but does not lose its palatability, and it fur- nishes good pasture, even under light snow. Brome-grass is usually sown in spring, at the rate of 20 lbs. of good, clean seed per acre. The seed does not feed well through ordinary drills, and it is best to sow it by hand. lyike most permanent grasses in the North, it makes very little growth the first year from spring sowing, though it makes good pasture from midsummer on. The next year it makes a fine crop of hay. On the best soils it makes a good crop still another season, but then begins to get sod-bound, after which its best use is for pasture, unless it is plowed up and harrowed in fall, as previously suggested. West of the Rockies it is best to plow the land for brome- grass in early spring, shortly before sowing. East of the Rockies fall plowing is advisable. In the sedlions where brome-grass is now well established it is not wise to sow it with a nurse crop. Farther east, where there is more summer rain, it could be sown advan- tageously with any kind of spring grain. East of the Dakotas it could be sown in late summer with excel- lent results. Sown thus, it ought to make a full crop the next year. Until recently most of the brome-seed sold by deal- ers was imported from Central Europe, where this grass has been a standard for more than half a century (Southern Russia and Northern Austria). On account BROME-GRASS I7I of the absence of laws in this country to protedl farmers against worthless seeds, the quality of imported brome- seed has been generally very poor. In growing this seed it is extremely important to allow it to ripen thor- oughly. This can be done, as the grass holds its seed well. It is best to let it stand till it begins to shatter a little, unless the grower is expert enough to tell by other signs when it is ready to cut. If cut too early the seed is so light that it cannot be cleaned properly and will not germinate readily. Brome-seed of the highest quality is grown in eastern Washington and northern Idaho, where this seed is a standard on the markets. Good seed is also produced in the Dakotas and neighboring States. In sod-forming charadler brome-grass is much like blue-grass, but is much coarser, and not so pleasing in color. The one charadler which first gained recogni- tion for it in this country is its ability to grow under adverse climatic conditions. It is not a desert grass by any means, but, in cold climates, it will grow on as dry land as any of the tame grasses. It has about the same ability to grow on dry land as alfalfa, but, unlike the latter, it does not thrive in warm climates. Brome-grass has had several names applied to it by seed dealers and agricultural writers, such as ' ' awn- less brome, " " Hungarian brome, " " Russian brome," "Russian forage grass," "beardless brome," etc., but the farmers who grow it use the simple name "brome-grass." It is frequently confused with the so-called broom-sedge grasses of the South and West — grasses very different from it in all essential char- adlers. FIG. 36 — CHESS, OR BROMB-GRASS 173 There are several native species of the genus Bromus which are more or less promising under culti- vation, especially on dry lands west of the Rocky Moun- tains. Two of these are worthy of attention — -namely, Bromus marginatus and Bromus carinatus. Both of these wild species are very variable, and some forms of them are undoubtedly valuable. Their possibilities are being exploited by the experiment stations in the West. As yet they have no satisfadtory common names. One farmer in a dry sedlion of southwestern Oregon grows Bromus marginatus under the name of "eight-dollar grass," having secured his start of it from the side of a mountain bearing that name. It is hoped that suitable local names for them may become well enough established to warrant their general use. Another representative of this genus is the well- known cheat or chess (^Bromus secalinus), Fig. 36, of the grain-fields. In the Willamette Valley, Oiegon, and in the Blue Mountains of the same State, cheat is grown for hay to a considerable extent. It is an annual, adapted to sowing in the fall. It yields quite well, but the hay is not of high quality. The rescue-grass (^Bromus unioloides') , Fig. 37, of the South is another representative. This is also an annual. In south central Texas this grass grows wild quite generally. It is occasionally sown for winter pastures throughout the South, for which purpose it has some value, but it possesses few, if any, advantages as a winter pasture in that sedtion over the common cereals. It would probably thrive a little farther south than the cereals. In Georgia and adjacent States rescue-grass is frequently sold under the name FIG. 37 — RESCUE-GRASS BROMB-GRASS 175 "Arctic grass." This name was given by a seedsman, with a view to inducing farmers to grow it more gener- ally. A few Southern seedsmen sell cheat-seed for rescue, some using the latter name and some the name ' ' Arctic grass. ' ' There is considerable advantage to the seedsman from this pradtice, for he can get cheat-seed very cheap at the large grain elevators of the Central West. Men who pracflice this deception console them- selves with the idea that, after all, cheat is about as good a grass as rescue. They are wrong in this. In addition to making hay inferior to rescue hay, it makes less abundant winter pasture, and in some places is a bad weed in grain-fields. XII GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE OME of the grasses discussed in this chapter are the most important grasses of Europe. It is somewhat difficult to account for the lack of appreciation they find among our farmers. MEADOW-FESCUE AND TAI^L FESCUE {Festuca pratensis and var. elatior) Meadow-fescue is frequently called ' ' English blue- grass " — an unfortunate name, since it leads to confu- sion; it is not a near relative of our blue-grass. And another very difFerent grass (^Poa compressd) is called ' ' Canadian blue-grass, ' ' and sometimes ' ' English blue- grass." Meadow-fescue is one of the most important grasses of England and the Continent of Europe, being rivaled there only by the rye-grasses. It has been re- peatedly urged upon the American farmer, but he has persistently refused to grow it. Some of the reasons for this are as follows : I:i most of the region adapted to it in this country it does not yield so well as timothy. Its seed is costly, and it requires more to seed an acre than it does of timothy. In addition to this, meadow- fescue seed is not nearly so reliable as that of timothy, and is more adulterated, for there are many other seeds 176 GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 1 77 closely resembling it. Much of the fescue-seed sold in America is imported, and in consequence of our lack of laws on the subjedl, as stated before, it is frequently the refuse of the European trade. Add to this the well-established position of timothy hay as the stand- ard on our own markets, and we have an indidlment that would convidl any grass. The difficulty of secur- ing good seed cheaply, the uncertainty of securing a stand even with good seed, and the relatively low yield as compared with timothy, probably account for the lack of recognition of meadow- fescue in this coun- try. Nevertheless, stock show a decided preference for this grass. In experiments with cattle turned into a grass-garden where several hundred grasses and legumes were growing, meadow-fescue and tall fescue were always eaten in preference to all others except the rye-grasses. Meadow-fescue is occasionally met with in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, eastern Kentucky, and very sparingly elsewhere in the timothy region. In eastern Kansas it rises to considerable importance, and a great deal of seed of it is grown there and in ad- jacent counties in Missouri. Like most all the less- known grasses, when it occurs at all in this country it is near the outer margin of the timothy region. In Oregon, Washington, and northern Idaho meadow and tall fescue are regarded with considerable favor. On the basaltic wheat-producing soils of east- ern Washington and northern Idaho tall fescue, when a good stand of it is secured, is undoubtedly one of the best grasses, both for hay and for pasture. If the difficulty in securing a good catch could be mas- 1 78 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES tered, it would probably become a standard in that secflion. Tall fescue differs very little from meadow-fescue, except in being more robust in habit. It grows four to six inches taller, and it appears to be somewhat more difficult to get started. This may be due to poorer quality of the seed ordinarily secured from deal- ers. Tall fescue seed is very seldom called for, and is about three times as high-priced as meadow-fescue seed. It also weighs only about 14 lbs. per bushel, while meadow-fescue seed weighs 22 lbs. The differ- ence is due mainly to a greater amount of chaff left in tall fescue seed, thus masking, to some extent, its higher price. American farmers have not had experience enough with these two grasses to determine the proper amount of seed to sow per acre. Both grasses are perennials, and outlast timothy, both in meadows and in pas- tures. While it has not been demonstrated, it is probable that mixtures of such grasses as the fescues, rye- grasses, orchard-grass, timothy, redtop, and red, white, and alsike clovers, would make pastures far surpassing blue-grass on all soils in.the timothy region, except in a few areas already referred to as special blue-grass regions. Mixtures such as the above are generally used for pastures as well as meadows across the Atlantic, and European farmers find pastures profitable, even on high-priced land. Perhaps Amer- ican farmers would not be abandoning pastures as they are if they did not rely so entirely on blue-grass and white clover. GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCB 1 79 THE RYE-GRASSES : ENGI,ISH RYE-GRASS {Lolium perenne) ITALIAN RYE-GRASS {Lolium italicum) These grasses are even less popular in this country than the fescues; in fadt, they are pradtically un- known here, except on the Pacific Coast west of the Cascade Mountains, and in a few places in the South. Yet they are the most important grasses of Europe. It is not at all easy to account for their lack of popu- larity on this side of the Atlantic. Stock certainly prefer them to all other cultivated grasses; their seed is fairly reliable, though their scarcity in the markets renders them high-priced, and they yield well on soil suited to them. Although they do not yield so well as timothy, it would seem that the superiority of the herbage they produce ought to give them a place among American farm grasses. There is, of course, the same difficulty with their seed that is met with in the case of most imported grass-seed : we get only inferior quality, as a rule. The fa(5l that more seed per acre is necessary than is the case with timothy, and that it is more costly, added to the somewhat poor quality of seed found in our markets, probably accounts, to some extent at least, for their lack of standing. It may be, too, that they are not adapted to our climatic conditions, for it is frequently the case that crops that flourish in Western Europe are adapted only to our Pacific Coast States. Certain it is that the rye-grasses have gained no foothold to speak of in this country, except on the Pacific Coast. On irrigated plains in northern Italy, and on sandy lands in the vicinity of Edinburgh, Scotland, irrigated by sewage from the city, Italian rye-grass yields enor- l8o FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES mous quantities of forage. In the latter locality, ac- cording to Storer, it is cut four or five times in a season. Italian rye-grass is pradtically an annual, but by letting it ripen seed before cutting the hay, which it is perfedtly safe to do as far as quality of the hay is concerned, it reseeds itself, and is thus to all purposes a perennial. The old plants do not actually die at the end of the first year, but they do not amount to any- thing after the first crop year. English rye-grass is little better in this respedt, though it is called a peren- nial. The European farmer thoroughly understands these grasses, and under his care they are the best of all the tame grasses. The American farmer has never been noted for bestowing especial attention to his grass-fields. He prefers a grass like timothy, that does not need careful attention, though he loses much from the usual manner in which he handles his timothy meadows. West of the Cascade Mountains, in Oregon and Washington, and in the corresponding portion of northern California, Italian rye-grass has gained con- siderable popularity. It does particularly well on moist lands reclaimed by dyking. It is not generally met with in that sedtion, but a few farmers prize it highly. It grows well on irrigated lands in central Washington, and on the upland wheat soils of that State and northern Idaho, near the mountains where the rainfall is ample, but in the latter region it does not grow a strong straw and is liable to lodge badly in unfavorable weather. English rye-grass is interesting from a histor- ical point of view, as it was the first of the true grasses GRASSES OP MINOR IMPORTANCB l8l to be grown under domestication for hay and pasture purposes. To the early English farmer all grasses were alike. No attempt was made to separate them and secure pure seed of the various kinds. When the attempt was made, this was the first grass of which pure seed was placed on the market, and the conserva- tive English farmer has stuck to it now for nearly three centuries. It was introduced from England into Germany and France. In the language of both these countries, in order to preserve the English pronuncia- tion, the word ' ' rye ' ' was spelled r-a-i. It seems that some later English writers imported this word back into English, changing the i to y, thus producing the term ' ' ray ' ' grass, sometimes used for the rye-grasses. The name ' ' rye-grass ' ' is somewhat unfortunate, since it leads to confusion. The rye-grasses are not at all like the common cereal bearing that name. Neither are they like the so-called wild rye-grasses of our Western States. But this is not a matter of much importance, because of the small part these two grasses seem des- tined to play in American agriculture. Italian rye-grass is sometimes used to secure a quick growth on lawns where blue-grass is not easily grown. This is particularly the case around Wash- ington, D. C. It is very useful for this purpose. As stated elsewhere, it is probable that the rye-grasses would prove useful in pasture mixtures in much of the region in which blue-grass is now the standard grass. The seed of the rye-grasses weighs about 20 lbs. per bushel. Seedsmen recommend two to three bush- els of seed per acre when sown alone. In mixtures 1 82 FARM GRASSES OP THE UNITED STATES the amount of seed should be reduced approximately in proportion to the number of grasses in the mix- ture. TAI.~ V^^^^^^HK ^^ Wi ^''3 ' #1 ■ijL.?. •*^*%. V' i^ . •a'^ ■. VJ?.* y-Jl I- .. ^BflHHHfe^'^-^^al ■,,^>,^V>^._^.- • ;, , ■^^^ :■;,:. ■" '■;.'.:•; £.''.i^ a«tft#* ... FIG. 45 — LAWN-MOWERS, OR TURF-MAKERS, IN DRUID HILL PARK, BALTIMORE, MB. (Lamson-Scribner in Year-book of United States Department of Agriculture for 1897.) and the wet grass then subjected to the full heat of the summer sun, intensified by the surrounding walks and buildings. A proper sprinkling nozzle should also be used on the hose. When this is not done the turf may be greatly injured. Where the full force of the stream is allowed to strike directly against the surface of a thin sward, the soil is washed slowly from the roots of the grasses and they are thus exposed to the sun 214 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES and killed. This is especially true on terraces and banks where the earth is more easily disturbed, and ■where the sun's heat falls more vertically at times. It is better to water heavily, soaking the ground to a depth of a foot or two, than to apply water in small amounts and more frequently. On all but the smallest plats a sprinkler of the fountain or revolving type can be advantageously used. These save a great deal of time and labor in applying the water, but care must be taken that corners and other small spaces are not left without water. ROLLING Next to the mower the roller is a most important implement. It should be used in early spring to firm the sward after the heaving of the soil due to freezing and thawing in winter. After heavy rains during summer and autumn, and on young swards as soon as they can bear it, the roller should be used. Those made in two or more sections are preferred, because they turn with less injury to the soil and sward. The most good will be done by the roller weighing at least fifteen pounds to the inch of length. One is now for sale which may be increased in weight at will by fill- ing a hollow compartment with sand or water. FERTILIZING OR TOP-DRESSING No matter how thorough the preparation, the lawn will eventually demand a new supply of food. This must be given in the form of natural or artificial fer- tilizer. Well-rotted barnyard manure is unexcelled for this purpose. It may be applied in the fall and LAWNS AND LAWN-MAKING 215 allowed to remain through the winter, raking off all straw and trash remaining in the spring when growth starts. Or it may be applied very early in the spring, just in time to be dissolved and carried into the ground by the heavy spring rains. In either case nothing coarse should be left on the ground when the grass begins its growth. Commercial fertilizers, such as ground bone or bone meal, dried blood, and nitrate of soda, may also be used. From 200 to 500 lbs. may be used at a single time. It is necessary to apply them just before the beginning of a rain or to wash them into the soil with the hose when a large quantity is used, in order to prevent burning the grass. They should never be applied to the grass while wet from dew or rain, as the grass leaves may be severely burned by the chemical ingredients, unless the fer- tilizer is quickly washed in by the addition of more water. Nitrate of soda is adapted for rapid forcing of the grass, and the effect is soon spent. The others are slower and more lasting in their action. WEEDING It is not possible to do more than mention the sub- jeft of weeding here. No effort should be spared to keep the grass free from weeds. They impair the beauty and usefulness of the sward, and even threaten its very life by their rapid and vigorous growth. An- nual weeds should be kept carefully mowed ; if no seed are allowed to ripen, they will soon disappear. If they spread rapidly and smother the sward as does crab- grass, they should be uprooted if possible. Perennials, as dandelion, plantains, and similar weeds should be 2l6 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES carefully dug out and destroyed. On no account allow them to produce and scatter their seed. A few drops of some strong acid, such as sulphuric or carbolic, ap- plied to the cut root will help in destroying them. Places left bare by their removal should be raked over and resown in grass to prevent other weed seeds from finding lodgment there. RENOVATION Eternal vigilance is the price of a perfeA sward. Wherever a break occurs in the turf covering it should be at once repaired. An iron rake will prepare the spot for seeding, and with a little seed and a gentle watering the new growth of grass may be started. The seeding of such spots should be heavy, for the ground can rarely be more than scratched with the rake instead of thoroughly worked up, and much of the seed will never develop sturdy plants. Thin places in the turf may be treated in the same manner without danger of injury to the grass already growing ; in fact, it is often perceptibly benefited by such treatment. Its growth helps to protecft the new grass while starting. Renovated spots should be fertilized well to encourage rapid growth. Care must be taken that the same kind of seed is always used, or the result will be a ragged or patchy sward of very unpleasing appearance. XV MISCELLANY GRADES OF HAY HE grades of hay adopted by the National Hay Association in 1902 are given below. These grades have been adopted by the Boards of Trade in the following important markets: Chicago, 111. St. Louis, Mo. Kansas City, Mo. Indianapolis, Ind. Brooklyn, N. Y. St. Paul, Minn. Toledo, O. Cincinnati, O. Cleveland, O. Baltimore, Md. Columbus, O. Louisville, Ky. Philadelphia, Pa. New York, N. Y. Pittsburg, Pa. Buffalo, N. Y. Washington, D. C. Richmond, Va. New Orleans, La. Norfolk, Va. They are also adhered to in pradlically all the smaller centres tributary to these larger cities. GRADES OF HAY AND STRAW Choice Timothy Hay. — Shall be timothy not mixed with over one-twentieth other grasses, properly cured, bright, natural color, sound, and well baled. No. z, Timothy Hay. — Shall be timothy not more than one-eigth mixed with clover or other tame grasses, properly cured, good color, sound, and well baled. 217 2l8 FARM GRASSBS OF THB UNITED STATES No. 2, Timothy Hay. — Shall be timothy not good enough for No. i, not over one-fourth mixed with clover or tame grasses, fair color, sound, and well baled. No. J, Timothy Hay. — Shall include all hay not good enough for other grades, sound, and well baled. No. I, Clover-mixed Hay. — Shall be timothy and clover mixed, with at least one-half timothy, good color, sound, and well baled. No. 2, Clover-Tnixed Hay. — Shall be timothy and clover mixed, with at least one-third timothy, reason- ably sound, and well baled. No. I, Clover Hay. — Shall be medium clover, not over one-twentieth other grasses, properly cured, sound, and well baled. No. 2, Clover Hay. — Shall be clover, sound, well baled, not good enough for No. i . No Grade Hay. — Shall include all hay badly cured, threshed, badly stained, or otherwise unsound. Choice Prairie Hay. — Shall be upland hay, of bright color, well cured, sweet, sound, and reasonably free from weeds. No. z, Prairie Hay . — Shall be upland, and may con- tain one-quarter midland of good color, well cured, sweet, sound, and reasonably free from weeds. No. 2, Prairie Hay.— Shall be upland of fair color, or midland of good color, well cured, sweet, sound, and reasonably free from weeds. No. 3, Prairie Hay. — Shall be midland of fair color, or slough of fair color, well cured, sound, and reason- ably free from weeds. MISCELLANY 219 No. 4, Prairie Hay. — Shall include all hay not good enough for other grades, and not caked. No Grade Prairie Hay. —Shall include all hay not good enough for other grades. STRAW No. z, Straight Rye Straw. — Shall be in large bales, clean, bright, long rye straw, pressed in bundles, sound, and well baled. No. 2, Straight Rye Straw. — Shall be in large bales, long rye straw, pressed in bundles, sound, and well baled, not good enough for No. i. No. I, Tangled Rye Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean rye straw, good color, sound, and well baled. No. 2, Tangled Rye Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean, may be some stained, but not good enough for No. I. No. I, Wheat Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean wheat straw, sound, and well baled. No. 2, Wheat Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean, may be some stained, but not good enough for No. i. No. I, Oat Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean oat straw, sound, and well baled. No. 2, Oat Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean, may be some stained, but not good enough for No. i. In the Mountain States and on the Pacific Coast several other grades are recognized on the markets, the principal being the various grades of alfalfa and grain hay. The latter usually consists of wheat, or a mixture of wheat and wild oats. Bluestem has a sep- arate rating in a few localities. It is interesting to note 220 FARM GRASSES OP THE UNITED STATES that the hay which ranks highest on the Denver mar- kets, and known locally as South Park Hay, is neither a grass nor a legume, but a sedge (^Juncus balticus). It grows on over-irrigated meadows in South Park, Colorado, and in similar situations in other parts of that State and Wyoming. Horses prefer it to any other hay, and feeders consider it the acme of fine hay for driving-horses. It is stridtly a wild hay, cut from volunteer growth on meadows that are irrigated too heavily to permit tame grasses to grow. The amount of low-grade hay that reaches the mar- kets is surprising to those not familiar with market conditions. Leaving meadows down till they become weed-infested accounts largely for this cheap hay. The importance of renewing meadows before they be- come weedy has already been dwelt on at some length. An incident on one of the large hay markets, recently witnessed by the writer, enforces this point. A com- mission merchant had that morning received two car- loads of hay, one of first-class quality, and one badly mixed with weeds and volunteer grasses. The car of good hay sold immediately at a good price. The other car was passed by a dozen buyers, and finally sold for just two-thirds the price of the other. There were some fifty cars of low-grade hay on the same market and no one wanted them, but there was a string of buy- ers hunting for hay of good quality. MEASURING HAY IN THE STACK Lack of facilities for weighing hay on many farms renders it necessary frequently to resort to measure- ments of the stack as the only means of getting the MISCEIvIvANY 221 weight. Frequent inquiries come to the Department of Agriculture for the ' ' government rule ' ' for ascer- taining the weight of hay from measurements. There is no such rule adopted by any branch of the govern- ment service, so far as the writer has been able to learn. So far as known, only one State (New Mexico) has a law governing the case. According to this law the number of cubic feet in a rick is determined thus : Multiply the width by the over ; * divide the produdl by four, and multiply the quotient by the length. This rule is not satisfactory. It is fairly accurate for very narrow-topped ricks that are about three- quarters as high as wide ; but for tall ricks, with well- rounded tops, it gives results nearly 30 per cent, too low. Another rule, recently published in a Western farm paper, is as follows : Subtradl the width from the over ; divide by two, and multiply by the width and then by the length. This rule is fairly accurate for tall ricks (as tall as wide or taller) with narrow to very narrow tops ; but for low, rounded ricks it gives re- sults about 1 5 per cent, too low. The writer has devised the following rule, which gives very accurate results for ricks of any form. The greatest error is in the case of ricks one-quarter taller than wide, or more, and very narrow at top. Even for ricks of this shape the error is less than 5 per cent. RULE FOR MEASURING RICKS Subtradl the width from the over ; divide by the hight ; then multiply successively by the over, the width, t he length, and by .225. * The '* over " is the distance from the ground on one side over the rick to the ground on the other side. 222 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES The results obtained by applying all these rules to two ricks of different form are given below. Rick A Hight(ft.) 9.0 Width (ft.) 12 Over (ft.) 23 Volume — true (cubic ft.) 2.534 Volume — First rule (cubic ft.) . . . 2,149 Volume — Second rule (cubic ft.) . . 2,138 Volume — Third rule (cubic ft.) . . . 2,553 PER CENT. OF ERROR First rule Second rule Third rule . 14. u 15.6 ■7 Rick B 12.0 12. 1 28.2 3,084.0 2,559-1 2,922.1 3,087.0 17.0 5.^ .1 These two ricks were measured with the utmost care. It will be noticed that A is three-quarters as tall as wide ; it was also quite round. B is as tall as wide, and narrow topped — a very common form. The rule last given is seen to give very accurate results in both cases, while the other two give values much too small. In both cases the New Mexico rule gives large errors, the error being in favor of the buyer. The second rule gives a value much too small in the case of the low, round rick, but is more nearly coredl for the tall, sharp-topped one. No satisfacflory rule for finding the volume of a round stack has yet been published, and the writer has not had time to develop one in his own investigations. The volume of such a stack may be found in the fol- lowing manner, which, however, is too tedious to be pradlicable: Measure the circumference of the stack at each foot of its hight. Square each of the numbers MISCELIvANv 223 thus obtained, add the squares together, and divide by 12.5. NUMBER OP CUBIC FBBT PER TON So far as the writer is able to ascertain, the num- ber of cubic feet of hay in a ton has been investigated very little. He is now measuring the volume of a large number of ricks, stacks, and mows, the hay from which is to be baled. It is hoped that these data may furnish a basis for determining the volume of a ton of hay with some degree of accuracy. Until the weight corresponding to the volumes measured are known, no reliable figures can be given. The prob- lem is so complex that no such satisfadtory rule for estimating the number of cubic feet in a ton may be found as is given above for finding the volume of a rick of hay. The volume of a ton of hay depends on several fadlors. A stack that has stood four months is much denser than one freshly built. Hence the length of time a stack has stood determines, to some extent, the number of cubic feet in a ton of the hay. Also a tall stack settles more than a low one. The kind of hay also has much to do with it. Clover hay is lighter than timothy, volume for volume, and hay with stiff weed stems in it does not settle down as compadtly as hay with no weeds in it. It is common to consider 512 cubic feet (an 8-foot cube) as a ton in hay stacked only a few days, while 350 to 380 cubic feet of hay that has stood two months or more will usually make a ton. In developing rules for estimating the number of cubic feet in a ton of hay, the points to be deter- wined are ( i ) the rate at which hay settles after stack- 224 FARM GRASSES OP THE UNITED STATES ing ; (2) the relation of the hight of the stack to the rate of settling; (3) the influence of the kind of hay and its condition as to dr3mess when stacked on the number of cubic feet in a ton. Whether the results will be of much value will depend on whether the influence of these various facftors can be reduced to rule. For the present the figures for the number of cubic feet in a ton given in the New Mexico law may be used pro- visionally, unless more accurate ones are known. They are: 512 cubic feet for the first twenty da3'-s, 422 from the twentieth to the sixtieth day, and 380 thereafter. SEED HABITS The amount of seed which can be harvested de- pends largely on the seed habits of the plant. Many otherwise excellent grasses are rendered useless by yielding ver3' little seed, or seed which lacks vitality, or falls out too soon when ripe to be easily harvested. No grass excels timothy in good seed habits. In the amount of seed produced and the ease with which it is saved and cleaned, timothy has no rival among the true grasses. This fa<5t probably accounts, in large measure, for the popularity of this grass with American farmers. Not that it j-ields so many more pounds of seed per acre than other grasses, but, its seed being small, an acre of timothy will produce seed enough to sow a larger area than is the case with any other grass grown in this country. An example of poor seed habits, and the resulting uselessness of a grass, is seen in reed canary-grass {Pkalaris arundinacea) . It grows wild over nearly all the northern half of this country, MISCELLANY 225 and is greedily eaten by all classes of stock. Yet reed canary-grass is pradlically unknown to American farm- ers because of its exceedingly poor seed habits. Its seed falls almost the moment it is mature, and it is very difficult to get a stand from apparently good seed. Certain strains of this grass, however, hold the seed fairly well; and there is an opportunity for the plant breeder to add a valuable grass to the limited list of good American farm grasses by producing a strain of reed canary-grass with good seed habits. Bermuda grass, the best pasture-grass in the South, and one of the best in the world, as stated elsewhere in this volume, does not produce seed in this country, ex- cept in parts of Florida, Arizona, and Southern Cali- fornia. In one respect this is an important advantage, because Bermuda, like Johnson grass, is very tenacious of life, and, when once established, is decidedly diffi- cult to eradicate, unless one thoroughly knows how to go about it. It is, perhaps, fortunate under the circum- stances that it has such poor seed habits. On the other hand, the seed is small and lacking in vitality, so that even when the seed is available, it is seldom possible to get a perfedt stand from it, and it is, there- fore, usually propagated from pieces of sod. Some grasses propagate so readily from the seed as to render them a menace to the farmer. Crab-grass and Johnson grass belong to this class. If Johnson grass had the seed habits of Bermuda grass, it would not be the great pest it is, for, although its root-stocks are very tenacious of life, it spreads mostly from the seed. Most of our otherwise valuable wild grasses are not adapted to cultivation because of poor seed habits. 226 FARM GRASSES OP THE UNITED STATES IMPROVING THE GRASSES When we consider that the present improved and highly specialized breeds of live stock have nearly all been produced within the past century and a half from stock no better than the veriest scrubs that now roam the woods in sedtions where no effort to improve them has been made, and especially when by far the larger part of the improvement of any one breed has been made by a very few men working without the knowl- edge of any laws of breeding to aid them, it is not sur- prising that similar efforts should be made to improve the charadter of farm crops. Indeed, it is rather sur- prising that the effort did not become general long ago. But there are special difficulties in the way of improving crops that do not exist in the case of live stock. Improvement of animals has been brought about by dealing with them as individuals. On ac- count of the small size of individual plants, particularly the grasses, it is a tedious task to study individuals. Most of the improvement of animals has been brought about mainly by eliminating inferior members of the breeding herd. A few stockmen of signal ability have followed another course. They have become so thor- oughly familiar with animal form and charadter that they have been able to create for themselves mental pidlures of ideally perfedt animals, and they have searched through a whole breed for individuals ap- proaching this ideal. When such an individual is found it is acquired at any cost, and herds of these nearly ideal animals have been built up. The most rapid progress in the improvement of breeds generally is traceable to these few herds. MISCBLLANY 227 It is only recently that a similar effort has been made to improve field crops. In most cases the work of breeding plants requires more technical knowledge than most men possess. It is tedious work at best, and requires much training and skill to cross-pollinate the ordinary field crops or, to select out the best plants in a field, or even in a small plat. It is natural that most progress should have been made with corn, for here the individual plants are of considerable size. As soon as farmers and plant breeders began to study the corn plant with a view to producing superior strains of the various varieties, marked improvements in seed corn began to be made. There are now many farmers who, by the aid received from careful students of the subjedl in our agricultural colleges, produce annually large quantities of pedigreed corn of a quality much superior in every way to the common corn varieties of the country. One breeder, who last year produced and sold 25,000 bushels of highly improved seed corn, estimates that those who planted this seed secured an average increase of eight to ten bushels per acre over seed of unimproved varieties. This estimate is based on reports furnished by farmers who used this seed. It should be remembered that this improve- ment has been brought about in a few years. When it has been in progress as long as has the improve- ment of live stock, we shall doubtless have breeds of corn as much superior to the common kinds as the present 2,000-pound bullock is to the 500-pound Smithfield show animal of a little more than a century ago. Wheat has received considerable attention from the 228 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES plant breeder in recent years. Breeders have pursued two distindl courses with this crop. One set of breed- ers has been producing new varieties by crossing old ones. Thus far there has not been a great deal accom- plished in this direction. It is only about three years since we first learned how to handle the apparently variable progeny of such a cross. A few varities have been produced that possess special qualities of more or less value. Now that we know how to get all the pos- sible new varieties out of a cross, and can even tell in advance what most of these varieties will be like, much more ought to be accomplished in this line of plant improvement. The other line of work with wheat has consisted in a careful study of a large number of individual plants in order to be able to save seed from the best. Prof. W. M. Hayes, of the Minnesota station, has done some excellent work of this kind, and has produced pedi- greed strains of some of the standard varieties of that sedlion that considerably outyield the original varieties. Very little work of this kind has been undertaken with the standard hay and pasture grasses, but enough has been done to show valuable results. It has been shown that, in the crops that have been carefully studied, each kind of grass, as ordinarily sown by the farmer, consists in reality of a number of more or less distincft varieties mixed together. With the usual methods of securing grass-seed there is no opportunity to separate these varieties. In order to accomplish this, a careful study of the crop must be made until the grower is able to recognize the varieties of which it consists. This has been done in a few cases. MISCELLANY 229 Dr. A. D. Hopkins, at present connected with the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agricul- ture, but formerly of the West Virginia Experiment Station, for many years grew timothy for seed. For this purpose the crop is ordinarily sown thinly, so that, during the first harvest )'ear, the plants are suflB.ciently distindl to permit of the observation of individual plants. Many years' close observation showed that the crop consists of a large number of constantly re- curring forms quite easily distinguished. A number of plants, each representing one of these forms, were taken up and separated into as many parts as the nature of the case permitted ; in this way each plant became the parent, by division, of a large number of plants, all set side by side in a plat. When seed was harvested from these plats it was found that the plants produced from these seeds reproduced faithfully the characters of the original seledlion. Each original seledlion, therefore, became the parent of a variety. Several of these varieties are now growing in the grass- garden of the Department of Agriculture, where they have been the objedt of careful observation. They differ markedly in charadler of growth, earliness, size, etc. Some of them are evidently far superior to the ordinary timothy as grown by farmers (which is a mixture of superior and inferior varieties), some for seed production, others as hay plants, and others as pasture plants. (Some of Dr. Hopkin's varieties of timothy exhibited at the Paris Exposition are shown in Figs. 46 and 47.) In a manner exadtly similar, Mr. A. B. I