ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges of Agriculture and Home Economics Cornell University Cornell University Library SB 371.R68 The peach varieties and methods of orcha 3 1924 003 395 t20 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003395120 THE PEACH VARIETIES AND METHODS OF ORCHARD MANAGEMENT THESIS FOR B.S.in Agr. o KENNETH D. ROOOELL 1912. THE PEACH. VARIETIES AND METHODS OE ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. In the following discussion the logical beginning would seem to lie in a brief description of the several groups under which peaches are classified and a mention of the more important varieties as they fall under these various headings. In a special report of "The American Pomological Society w for 1904-05 R.H.Price has described these five groups as follows- I."Peen-To;- Tree rather large, vigorous, branches willow- like, come out at an angle of about forty degrees;f lowers large, appear frequently in January in the states bordering on the Gulf,bloom at a low temperature and very irreg- ularly ;winter buds small, oblong, rather sharp pointed, grow c&ose to the limb; leaves narrow, long and inclined to hang on all winter ;fruit much flattened; skin white mottled with carmen; flesh white ;flesh sweet but has a peculiar almond taste jeeed nearly round, much compressed at the ends, corrugations small, somewhat round. This race takes its name from the variety Peen-To which is its ancestor-was imported from Australia by P.J.Blakaans of Georgia in 1869, but its origin has been traced to China. This variety and some seedlings from it fruit well in the northern part of the citrus belt. Seedlings of Peen-To fruit better farther north than the parent variety. Angel (3) and Waldo are seedlings of Peen-To. Z* South China;- n The parent of this raoe is the variety Honey, The tree is a medium sized grower, branches come out at an angle of about fifty degrees and curve upward, less willow-like than the Peen«*Tojwinter buds very prominent round to oval, two or three buds often occur at the same place, occasionally projected axillary buds owcurjbuds occur on the limb all aiding to the tip leaving no vacant spaces as we see in the n Persian"race.The dark red buds stand out fromtthe limb at an angle of about fifty degrees; leaves are small, slightly trough shaped, in the fall the color becomes slightly brownish red, foreshowing the color of the fruit in the young trees ;hang on late in the fall jblossoms veryblarge* and profuse, very resistant to cold. A sure bearer in the Gulf States, requires short seasons of rest. Fruit rather small, slightly oval and a little flattened; suture very deep at the base but onjy extends one third the way down, apex long and recurved, has peculiar honey sweet flavor; seed is oval with apex slightly recurved, corrugations slight, prominent flange on one side. Honey, which is the parent of the race is supposed originated in Southern China, hence the name of the race. Was imported from China by Charles Downing in 1850, and fruited for the first time in America under the care of Henry Lyon of South Carolina .Was introduced for the first time in America by P. J.Bercksmans in 1858. Valuable Americaan (3) seedlings from Honey are Pallos, Climax, Coleman and Early China? 3. Spanish; -"The parent of this race is unknown byt the type is supposed to have been brought over by the early Spanish Settlers. Tree is about the largest we have. The "Indian" type of this race has much"Persian"blood and these trees are not so largw. Limbs large, long and spreading, inclined to droop down except 9n the" Indian Type"; buds larger than those of South China and nearly always occur singly on the new wood; oval and project out from the wood at an angle of fifty degrees; short naked places occur on the bearing wood, color of the buds is dull greyish; leaves small, flat, hang on late in fall, stay green during severe drought a, turn slightly yellow in the fall, foreshadowing the color of the fruit in a young tree;blooms often large and profuse. The fruit ripens very late, nearly always downy, color tinged with mire or lSesyellow, nearly always acid and of low quality. The"Indian"type is usually streaked with re & sometimes blood red under the skin. Seed is oval, nearly flat, apex prominent, corrugations very large and wide;at the base they run more longitudinally than in any other race, flange oftenoccurs on one side. A heavy bearer and sure cropper in its proper zone. The "Persian"blood in the" Indian "type carries it well up into the Central States. The seedlings one usually sees bearing such loads of small peaches along the fence and road sides (4) most frequently belong to this race. The following are some varieties belonging to this race- Cobbler, Columbia, Druid, Galveston, Guadalupe , La Reine , Lulu , Onderdonk, Sanders , Texas and Victoria. 4, North Chinaj- tt The parent of this race is Chinese Cling which is supposed to have originated in North China. Tree is a medium sized grower, blooms nearly always, large buds, slightly larger than those of" Spanish "and more pointed, many latent buds occur near the tips of the limbs, in the Gulf States especially, stand out at an angle of about forty-five degrees; branches are short thick and stubby. Leaves are very large and flat, near fall in the southern states especially the foliage turns a peculiar pea green and by this character alone one can easily recognize Chinese Cling and its seedlings in an orchard at once. Fruit the largest, dead white with small red blush on one side, ripens first on the out sidd, sometimes the skin may be easily stripped off by hand, The seed is round and irregular somewhat more prominent on one side. It is by far the most important race known to the peach world. Such noted varieties as Elberta,Maimie Ross and Carmen belong here. These go into the great markets of the north by the solid train load. Chinese Cling was imported bly Charles Downing and Henry Lyon in 1850 was the first to fruit it. A second impor- tation was made in 1860 by Wialiam A.Spottswood of the United States Navy. From this later importation originated such varieties as Lee, Stonewall, and Spottswood.Scme (5) othere belonging to the race are Albert, Be mice, Becquett Free, Family Smock, and Thurber. 5. Persian; -"The parent of this race is unknown but itris supposed to have come from the high altitudes of Persia. Tree medium sized to large, limbs short and thick, with long naked places, wood highly colored in fall and winter foreshowing a highly colored fruit jbloom varies in size j foliage sheds early, needs long period of rest; fruit most highly colored and of best quality; stone more flattened at the base than any other, corrugations prominent at the apex but eeldomextend to the base as in the Spanish, Well known varieties belonging to this race are;- Alexander, Amsden, Amelia, Crawford, Downing, Golden Drop, Hale Early, St. John etc. The bulk of northern orchards haB come from this race. However since such dreaded diseases as yellows and rosette have destroyed large orchards of the extreme northern states the tendancy of such growers now seems to be to go farther south where North China varieties are adapted? SOIL; The peach will grow on nearly any soil but in the commercial growing of the fruit a light, warm, sandy soil is essential. While the trees will grow taller and live longer on the heavier loamB,the high color and rich flavor of the fruit will be lacking and can only be secured on the lighter soils. (6) In connection with a light soil good drainage is essential in peach culture. Drainage might be called the limiting factor for peaches will grow on the poorest lands providing they be well drained but will not grow on the best if they be wet. "Wet feet "are fatal in the growing of peaches. The ideal soil would be a light sandy loam with a clay subsoil. Care should be taken to avoid hardpan. If these conditions can be obtained better results will follow even if the land is poor in plant food than if the orchard be planted on very rich land of a heavier nature. PREPARATION OP THE SOIL; "Well dieared and well cultivated land is preferred by peach growers. Cultivate the field in some crop suitable to the locality for two or three years before planting the peaches. This takes the excessive nitrogen and general rawness out of the soil. Old worn out land should be sown to clover or cow-peas or some cover crop and plowed under before planting. If the land is eatra rich crop with an exhaustive drjpp. Generally it would be poor as land best suited for peaches is generally poor and the green manure and cover crops would be advisable. Where feasable it is better to grow potatoes or some truck crop especially if the latter requires manuring and fertilizing and thus being the land into a garden condition. Most soils require deepening in order to grow peaches and other fruits successfully. (7) Where poor land is being made fertile by plowing under covercrop8 this can be obtained by plowing an inch deeperta year for two ot three years. Subsoiling is of great benefit in preparing land for peaches. Tillage should be as deep as possible before the trees are planted for afterward there will be no opportunity for deep plowing. All wet spots should be underdrained."* Land that has never been in peaches is very much better than land where an orchard has grown and been pulled out.Thi8 is so true that many growers advise against planting on such land at all. This sentiment is due to certain parasites, such as root aphis, rot-root fungi, nematodes, etc, which, however insignificant upon the roots of the mature trees, would mean certain death to the new planting, If , however, after the land has been cleared 6f the old orcaardjcrops be grown for two or three years, these pests will die and the new trees can be planted in safety. At the same time if the land is low in fertility it can be improved and'a double result be obtained. SITE; -In connection with the soil the location must be taken into consideration. The peach blooms very early and the flowers are liable to be killed by late spring frosts. The site, therefore, should be one that is practically free from these frosts, or one where the Year Book, for 1908, by M.B.Waite. (8) blossoming would be checked. Late spring frosts are less likely to occur near large bodies of water. The water equal- izes the temperature and retards thei bloom. Inregions where these conditions are not to be obtains d>a northern slope or some other backward site should be chosen. PLANTING THE ORCHARDj-The distance apart at which peaches are planted varies with the soil, climate, and with the ideas of the individual planter. The standard distance is 20 by 20 feet. Some growers in the north advocate 18 by 18 and in the east Mr. J.H.Hale approves of planting as close as 13 by IS feet.Wheie the greatest yield per acre is desired in the first few crops, distances under are 16 feet satisfactory but after the first few yields the trees become crowded and the ultimate results are not as good as where the trees are planted 20 by 20. The shorter distances are advocated by growers who believe the life of the orchard to be ffom twelve to fifteen years and therefore plan to make it pay while young. In many cases this is true and orchards succumb to insect pests and diseases but in regions where these troubles are not predominant the larger distances are to be preferredlSome planters favor the rectangular system and this method has many advantages over the square system. The rectangular system consists in the platting of the trees at a distance of 18 by 30 or 16 by 18 or (9) according to any such system that the individual Has. By means of this system the advantages arising from both the close and standard square methods by planting the trees at say 13 by 16 and then after they begin to <£aowd by taking out the 13 foot row leaving the orchard planted 16 by 34. This is the filler system applied to peaches.The trees begin to crowd at about four or five year s, however, and ordinarily it would not pay to go to the increased trouble and expense involved in this system. The rectangular system of planting is rather convenient, however, for it gives a better opportunity for cultivating, spraying, and hauling between the rows. The square system seems to be more popular and under ordinary circumstances would probably be the more satisfactory. Having deciddd upon the system of planting and the distances at which the trees are to be planted the actual work of setting the trees follows in order. SETTING THE TREES; -In the setting out of orchards there are a great many methods in use. In fact nearly every grower has either systems of hid own or modifications of other methods which amount to the same thing. There are, however, certain methods which are more or less standard. Probably the most common of these is the furrow system. The Furrow System consists in the measuriing off of the land to be planted and the placing of a stake at the (10) end of each row around the orchard. Then, by lining tfntwith the stakes, the field is checked off, with a one horse plow, into squares or rectangles, according to the planting system that is used. The trees are then planted at the intersections of the furrows. With a skillful man at the plow, and provided the field is fairly level, the planting can be very accurately done. It is very evident, however, that if the land is undulating the system wilfc not work out very successfully. The other methods of locating the trees can go unmentioned, except one which is most suitable under all conditions and in all cases the most accurate, This is commonly called the stake method and has been very ably described by Mr. CD. Jarvis of the Storrs Experiment Station at Storrs Conn. The following is quoted direct. "The determination of the correct position of the teees is often one of the most difficult tasks in connection with the starting of young orchards. The problem is a moa?e serious one when large areas are considered and when tie location selected is on irregular and uneven land. For convenience in cultivation and also for the sake of appear- ance, the trees should be set in such a way that they will be in line in all directions. With this in mind it is usually advisable t6 indicate the position of each teee by a stake, and to lay out the whole field before (11) setting thB trees In square or rectangular fields the stakes for a row of trees on all sides of the orchard may be set by measuriftg^the distance into spaces of the required length; for example if the trees are to be set 20 feet apart each way on the square method, the stakes are placed every 20 feet on all sides of the field. The position of the intervening trees may be readilly determined by sighting between the stakes on the opposite sides. On small acres the land may be marked off with a line connecting the opposite stakes, in both direct ions. The point of intersection of these lines indicates the position of the trees. On larger areas the position of the trees is usually determined by sighting across the field or by the use Of a modified corn marker. Sometimes a plow is used to open up a furrow in both directions. Before attempting to lay out a field that is irregular in outline it must be squared off in such a way that the rows running across the field will be at right angles to the rows running in the other direction. A base line running along a straight side of the field is first chosen. If there is no straight side,a straight line running along the longer side of the field may be established. At right angles to this straight line and near each end may be projected two other lines. On small areas this may be done with two straight edges and a carpenter's square P?/<3orc3nn ra ShovY /??e//?oc/ o/ 3ti I rr&.q cj f? /<3 r /ve ~/c/ ^o r" t h> QfeAe. /Tlefhod c> a Planting (12) but on large areas this method is not sufficiently accurate. The best and most reliable method is that described in the accompanying diagram. At the desired point (A) on the base line a stake is set and exactly 60 feet from this on the same line another stake (B) is set. By stretching a string 80 feet long from the first stake (A) and another string 100 feet long from the second stake (B) and by bringing the two ends together at (C) the position of the third stake 4ay be determined. Then the desired line is drawn from A through C to the other side of the field. The same operation is repeated near the other end of the field. The distance between the rows, one way, may be marked off on the projected lines and the distance between the rows, the other way, may be indicated on/the base line and also on the line parallel to it on the other side of the field. The rows in both directions can be extended to the marginof the field. On hilly land it is often very difficult to get the trees lined up properly. In such caees telephone wire is sometimes employed to stretch across the field. To in- dicate the position of the trees a smaller wire may be wound around and soldered to the larger one at the required distances. The telephone wire is stretched tightly and a stake set at every point indicated by the soldered wire. In the hollow places where the wire is high above the ground, a plumb-bob may be necessary to find the exact ( 13) Position where the stake should be set. Twine, on account of its stretching character, is unsuited to this purpose. The main point in measuring off uneven land, is in keeping the measuring line level 1 *. PRUNING: -There is a reciprocal relation between the absorbing capacity of the roots and the food producing power of the leaves of a growing tree. A strongly- developed root system makes a healthy top possible but the vigorous root system could not have been attained without the food which is first prepared by healthy foliage. In taking a tree from the nursery row a large proportion of the original root system is left in the ground. In this way the balance between the top and the roots is broken and the branches must be correspondingly reduced while the new roots are developing. Both root pruning and top pruning are generally considered by growers to be helpful to young trees. The rate, however, at which the cutting back isddone is much disputed, some growers advocating extreme pruning and others very little. Experiments have shown that in different regions different methods produce the best results. Some few years ago H.M.Stringfellow of Texas devised a system of root pruning which has since become known as the Strinfellow or stub-root system. It cuts off practically all the roots, leaving only stubs an inch or two long, and it cuts back the top to a mere stump twelve to eighteen inches long. In his teock entitled "The New (14) Horticulture", says, "cut back just below the collar and just under the first good side root s n . We should, "not leave any length of the main or tap root with side roots cut back ff . Soon after Stringfellow offered this extreme method of pruning young teees the Deleware Experiment Station ran a series of tests in the endeavor to determine the relation between the rate of pruning and the general development of the young trees. At both Newark and Seaford three groups of Early Crawford trees were set out, eighteen in a group. The roots of one third were pruned to a length of eight tooleB inches, another third to a length of three inches, and the last third were pruned according to the ideas of Stringfellow. At Newark the soil is>a heawy well drained clay, loam with a stiff subsoil eight to ten inches below the surf ace. At Seaford the land is a warm well drained sandy loam with a stiff subsoil two feet below the surface. At Newark on the clay soil the results were as follows- Eight inch roots; Seventeen lived all being in first class condition. The new roots were diagonally downward and there were no tap roots. The roots arose largely near the ends of the old roots, a few from the body of the tsee. These came into leaf the earliest of the three groups. Three inch roots {eighteen lived, allitn first class condition They were larger than the long rooted series. The new roots were diagonally downward, no tap roots. The roots arose (15) largely from near the ends of the old roots , although more were from the body of the tree than in the first case. These trees came into leaf a few days later than the longer rooted. Stub prunedjOf the eighteen but ten lived, five were second class, one was third class and four were worthless. The new roots were not more downward than the others and there were some distinctly lateral systems. As a lot these trees were distinctly inferior. At Seaford on the sandy loam the results were slightly different. Eight inch roots jEighteen lived and all were first class. The new roots grew strongly downward, there werecno tap roots and the newcroots arose largely from near the ends of the old roots. The roots were more downward here than at Newark. Three inch roots;Eighteen lived, seventeen of which were in first class condition. There were no differences to be noticed in this group from the group with the longer roots. Stub pruned; In this case seventeen lived, only two of which were first class fifteen being worthless. The roots were smaller as were also the tops. The tops were well formed. The new roots were not more downward than the others. Except with the two the roots were fewer and smaller than where the trees were pruned differently. The roots in all three tests were more downward than at Newark. (16) In 1896 at the Cornell Station a similar experiment was carried in which five groups of twenty Horton Rivers peach trees were pauned in the following manner. A. Roots normal, six inches long. Of these sixteen! lived. All the roots had a strong downward tendanoy.The average weight of the trees in December 1897 was seventeen pounds. B. Roots cut to four and one-half inches long;0f these eighteen lived.These were the strongest and most thrifty of any of the groups. The roots all struck downward. C. Roots cutbto three inches long. Fifteen lived. Ten had downward growing roots and five had very flat or horizontal systems. D. Roots cut to two inches. Of these nine lived, five having downward growing roots and five having the horizontal. roots. E. Root s cut to one inch long. Twelve lived, six had downward roots and six had flat roots. The average weight was one pound and fourteen ounces. Prom these two series of experiments it seems to be very clear that the medium method of pruning, and not the long or the ahort systems is the one to follow. In New York we have seen that the trees whose roots were pruned to four and one-half inches gave the best results, while in Deleware the most satisfactory length was found to be three inches. There are of course exceptions to every rule and many exceptions to every rule that is laid down for the fruit grower, but it may be safely said (17) I think that the roots should be cut to a length of from three to five inches. TWhen the growing season starts suddenly as is the ease in the northern states, the root system is called upon more strongly than in the southern districts where the season is slower. It follows then that more length of root should be left in the north than in the south. "The peach usually bears on the shoots of the previous year j therefore heading in thins the fruit. Heading- in also induces a growth of new shoots, and thereby increases the fruit bearing wood.Heading-in is also advantageous in removing winter- injured twigs. Notwithstanding these advantages, heading-in of the peach is a Question of local application and of training the top to some given form. It is more generally practiced on heavy lands, on which the trees grow exuberantly, than on sandy lands. In thee commercial peach regions, trees are rarely headed-in at least not after they begin to bear. If heading-in is not practiced, the chief attention to be given to the tree after the general framework of the top is formed, is to trim out the weak and dead interior wood by means ofl hand shears. This fine wood diesoor becomes weak after bearing and should be removed!* "Young peach trees allowed to grow at will at the first season after setting should have their three or four leading branches make a growth of from two and ?a half to four feet each. Fall and winter pruning has not been satisfactdry with us, and thereflore all pruning is feailev (18) delayed untilllate winter or early spring. In the early days it was my custom, in trimming trees one year planted, to out branches back to within twelve or fifteen inches of the mainsstemjbut as this tends to form rather a toom close head for the foundation year, I now prefer to leave the first season's growth two and one-half to three feet long, and to reserve the severe shortening-in for the second third and fourth years. Besides the main branches to be cut away the first year, it will be necessary to cut off some lateral branches entirely and to shorten others some- what. With liberal culture and manuring, each of the three or four main branches will, in the second year, throw out from their tipt- two or three leaders, each of which should make a growth of three to four feet. Early in theespring following prunigg should begin, with the object of building a broad,,low,open headed tree. This is accompolished best by first thinning out all crowding inside branches and leaders, and shortening-in all otherd ffom one-half to three-fourths of the new years growth, the closest cutting being in the central top. The third years fork ^should be on the same general planjand it will often be found, unless the second years work was exceedingly rteil done, that some of the third years work ought to have been d6ne then. The object of the first three years pruning is to establish a well-formed teee best suited to forcing the greatest amount of fruit to the highest perfection at the least (19) poesible cost5 "After the right sort of a tree has been established and trees have reached a bearing age, pruning for a year or two may be continued, partially on the line of a correct tree form, but more particularly as relating to fruit product ion. And so wight here we abandon late winter and early spring pruning, and do most of the work after the fruit-buds begin to swell, bo that we can judge on inspection which are alive and which are dead. In years when very few buds have survived the frosts of winter, pruning should be done with the object of retaining a great majority of the living buds, regardless of t»ee form, which can be somewhat righted the next year. Of course, in years when a good number of buds are found alive, pruning can be oontinued for form, but as the tree grows older, less and less pruning will be required. The methods here described have in their early years given handsome, even headed, well rounded trees which have been exceedingly prof i table, although in later years they have become less shapely. Asiit is results, fruit results and dollar results ,thart count in commercial peach culture, we judge the method to be a decided sucoess, at least for sections where winter-killing of fruit-buds is the greatest drawback to success, and we shall follow it closely till some better plan presents itself. There should be no off-year with peaches, except when fruit or blossom buds are entirely killed by frosts. Right culture (30) proper feeding and pruning should each year stimulate enough new growth to furnish far more buds than are ee- quired for abundant crops".* "The methods of pruning peach trees are the occasion of much discussion among pomologists.The differences of opinion turn chiefly about three practices, -short trunks with rapidly ascendingnbranches,high trunks with more horizontal branches, and shortening-in or heading back tha annual growth. Each of these three methods of handling or training peach trees had ardent advocates and pro- nounced opponentd.lt is probable that each system has distinct merits for particular cases. I believe that the nature and fertility of the spil are the dominating factors in these opposing" methods. A system of pruning which fits thehslow growth and hard wood of sandy soils may not be adapted to the rapid growth and heavier tops of trees on strong soils. "**Perhaps the system that wotitld be most g generally in accordance with the various methods would be somewhat as follows ;- Buy one year old trees. Plant in the spring. Trim the roots to about four inches. Start head at six inches to two feet according to conditions. Prune all of the side branches to stubs one or two inches long. Choose from the adventitious buds the four or five buds which are to form the frame work of the tree. The second spring all branches one-third to one-half of their length. The third *J. H.Hale. **L. H.Bailey (31) fourth and fifth years the head Bhould be kept .veil opened. It is very important in peach culture to keep an open head, and if the pruning is carefully icne in the first few years, tbe later pork will greatly simplified. CULTIYATION:-The only practical ir.ethod of caring for an orchard is clean cultivation. With peaches especially this is very important and the practice should be strictly followed. Some grower? advocate a hoed-crop for. the first two years, between the rows, but it id doubtful as to whether even this is advisable. After the second year however, the orchard should be kept claan.In the spring the ground should be broken with a light plow, deer plowing not beijjg necessary and after that an ordinary cultivator may be used. Several cultivations are advised during the season. In July or August a cover crop is planted. The exact time of plant img will depend on the region and general conditions prevailing. Cover crops serve three purposes in the orchard. They protect the soil. enrich it, and hasten the seasonal maturity of the tree. Many growers dc not approve of using manure in the peach orchard, but instead use commercial fertilizesr to obtain the neceseary Potassium and Phosphoric acid and secure the nitrogen thr ought the legumes j la planted as cover crops. They maintain that the nitrogen in the manure causes an excessive growth of woody tissue at the expense of the fruit. Still others doenot believe in leguminous cover crops for they state thet the roots of the cover crops bear a peculiar relation to the roots of the peaches and that (33) here also there is too much nirto^er. obtained for the best rsesults in-the yield. After interviewing several practical men who depend upon their peach crop for their daily bread however it would seem that there is little or no foundation for these beliefs. In all caees manure was used where it was possible to obtain it. Moreover it was very liberally me applied. One fruit grower near Rochester told during an interview that all there was to peach growing was "manure and hard work" .Leguminous cover crops were also strongly advocated, each, grower of course having his own particular one. By means of this begging for information a mixture was brought to my attention which seems to meet all requirements. Shis was a combination of rye and vetch. They were planted together in the late summer. The rye makes a good growth that fall providing a good mat for the orchard. The vetch will get a good start but used alone would hardly be sufficient to cover the ground. The following spring the vetch makes aggod growth and when plowed under the combination furnishes the soil with a large amount of humus and also considerable nitrogen. Red clover makes aggod cover in a young orchard where the trees are not draining the soil of its moisture as is the case in an older orchard. Of course the region, soil and climatic conditions will govern and determine the cover crops that will be used. The two mentioned above are especially adapted to the state of New York. The main thing to be considered is to secure al large amourt of humus and as much nirtogen as possibel v33) FERTILIZERS: -In the study of fertilizers for peaches, the first thing to be considered is the natural fertility of the soil. In some of the northern and western states the soil ie sufficiently rich in plant foods to meet the demands ofl heavy crops of fruit. Generally, however, the soils that are best adapted to peach growing are more or lees lacking in the elements essential to fertility. "Green manures and cover crops should be utilized to their fullest possible extent in the orchard i There are some soils so weli- supplied with humus that the annual use of green manures is not necessary, or in some cases desirable, as the amount of humus and nitrogen might be unduly increased and an excessive or belated growth of twigs and buds result. However, in most pefifch orchards, especially in the sandy -nd poorer soils, this condition is not to be feared, and annual cover crops should be plowed under. Or. a ^oder-'tely rich soil perhaps all or nearly all of the nitrigen necessary can be supplies with legunincus cover crops, but even here it is not always s£afe to depend entirely on cover crops. Perhaps a dry year may come with a heavy crop of fruit, and while an unusual draft is made by the trees on the nitrogen in the soil very littleeis returned to it, therefore the faitr©gen should be replaced artificially. Indirect fertilization, therefore ffom nurse crops and cover crops combined with the natural fertility! of the soil cannot be depended on for maximun cro^s over rrost -"sections of the country. Direct fertilization may be necessary. In the young orchard where tl the soil is very fertile it may not benecessary to fertilize the young trees until they come into bearing."* (24) The elements that go to form fruit are potassium and phosphoric acid. An experiment was made at the Geneva Station, Bulletin 265, in order to determine just how much of the various plant foods were used and where they were used. It was found that 19.3 $ of all thnitrogen used went to the ftfuit while 76.7$ went to the leaves and wood. In the case of potassium 50$ waw foiSnd in the fruit and 50$ in the leavesaand wood. Of the phosphoric acid, 47$ was in the fruit and the remaining 53$ distributed throughout the tree. This shows conclusively that the fruit is largely dependant onr.the last two elements. To determine the amount ofl nitrogen, potassium, and phosphoric acid etc. that brought the best results in the orchard, the Connecticut Experiment Station began a test in 1896. Six plots were chosen, each covering one-third of an acre. On each of these plots 48 trees werecplanted. Fertilizer was applied as follows. Plot A;65 pounds of muriate of potash; 160 pounds acjd phosphate. Plot BjSameaas above with 17C pounds of cotton seed meal. Plot C;65^pounds of muriate of potash;160 pounds acid phosphate. Plot D;130 " n " « " ;160 " » « n . n lot E:360 " " w n ii : 160 " » « " . Plot F;260 pounds of high grade sulphate of potash and ICO pounds of acid phosphate. 167 Pounds of slaked oyster shell lime were annually applied to the northern half of each plot. Until 1901 crimson clover was sown each year in August on D,E,and F and plowed under im May. Plot A has an abundance of potassium and phosphoric acid but no nitrogen. Plot B has each year 500 pounds of cotton seed meal (35) per acre, which means 35 pounds of nitrogen. The other plots receivsi the nitrigen from the cover crops. Plots C,D,and E should show the effects of a heavycdreesir.g with muriate of potaeh and F shou'd show the effects of a heavy- dressing of high grade s"ilphate. Each year a certain number of trees died and were tepiaced by new ones in the spring. I'o case of yellows was found i r the orchard till 1900. The following tables show the results of the experiment ;- Number of Dead Trees Plot 1896 '97 f 98 '99 '00 '01 '02 •03 Tota A 2 13 3 1 10 4 5 6 42 B 3 6 1 1 2 3 5 21 C 3 3 1 1 7 3 3 5 25 D 1 2 C 8 3 4 2 20 E 1 5 lv, 7 F 2 3 5 Total 7 23 6 3 27 15 25 14 Plot A lost more trees than the rest, 5/6 of the trees ir. 8 years. Plots E and F lost the fewest trees. In 1898 there was a fine set of fruit buds but most of the very young ffuit fell later in consequence at and just after setting time o f cold storms The following tables show the yields from the different plots (36] I 1899 No. of baskets A 65 B 117 C 81 No. of trees in bearing except Early Rivers 20 31 Ow Average nO. baskets per bearing tree. 3.2 3,8 3 D E F 110 155.6 140.5 27 36 30 4.1 . 4.1 4.7 1900 A B f D F F No. baskets 140.25 212.5 151.5 190.75 279 243. S5 No. of trees bearing except Early Rivers 26 35 29 33 44 40 Average no. baskets per bearing tree 5.S 6.3 5.2 5.8 6.3 6.1 1901 No. baskets ABC D E F 66.5 99 73.75 113.75 168 172.5 No. trees bearing except Early Rivers 20 30 26 "1 40 37 Average no. baskets per bearing tree. 3.3 3.3 2.8 3.6 4.2 4.2 1902 A B C D E F Ho. baskets 48,5 117.5 64 69.5 1?5 80.5 No. trees bearing except Early Rivers 31 33 31 31 33 35 Average no. baskets per bearing tree. 1.6 3.6 2.1 2.2 3.8 P. 3 ^7) 1903 A " C D E F No. baskets 74 63 43 41 55 41 No. trees beraing except Early Rivers 33 32 30 30 34 36 Average no. of baskets per bearing tree 2.2 2.0 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.1 Plots F and F were each given 256 pounds of nitrate of soda in the Spring of 1903 It will be noticed that plots D,E,and F to ^hich the heavy applications of potassium and phosphoric acid were given yielded most heavily up till 1903 when the nitrogen was added. Plots D,F,^nd F lost the fewest trees. Another p peach may b~ summed up in a very few words; Be sure to use enough potassium and ph phosphoric acid and little enough nirtogen.ITc definite la?; can be laid down a-s conditions of soil etc differ greatly. As Shtown in the preceeding experiment therevis no danger of applying too much potassium or phosphoric acid for a practical man would hardly use more thar 78C pounds of muriate of potash or 46C pounds of rhosphcrica acid per acre. Study conditions from year to year and act accordingly. (28) INSECT PESTS OF THE PEACH San Jose Scale; It is believed that this scale pest came originally from China. It was first reported in this country at San Jose, California, hence its name. It was first found in the east in 1887 and has ever since been the terror of the fruit-grower. These insects pass the winter in an immature state under the scales .They mature early in the spring and the young are born in June. In the coirse of the season there are three or four generations. The young are born alive and the breeding goes on until late in the autumn. A single fenpale scale can produce in a single season several hundred young. Breeding continues until late fall when the sold weather tills all but the small half-formed scales which persist and thus complete the life cycle. The scale is to be found on the infested tree the year around, sometimes in great masses on the branches.lt is nearly circular and about the size of a pin-head. Sometimes it becomes so abundant that it appears on the fruit causing small red spots on the surface. The best time in which to fight this pest is when the scale is in an immature state, namely in the winter, Spraying is done while the tree is dormant either late in the fall or early in the spring. when the tree is badly infested two applications are madd,one in the fall and the other in the spring. Lime-sulphur, 1 to 8 for a 33 or33 degree concentrate is the beet remedy. This should control the scale very effectively. (39) The Peach Borer; The borer is a common anfi important enerr.y of the peach. It has been known east of the Eochies since the earliest settlements. The presence of the peach borer may be detected by the gummy matter which exudes from the drowns of trees in which they are working. The larvae feed on the sofC inner bark of the crown of the foot and the base of the trunk. So active are thee larvae that they will often completely girdle a trunk. When badly infested the foliage will turn a sickly yellow and if not treated the tree will die in a 8 hort time. With the exception of San Jose Scale probably more trees are lost through this medium than from any other cat»se,that is any insect cause. The adults of this borer are clear winged moths resembling wasps, the females being a deep steel blue with a broad orange band across the abdomen. The fore-wings are opaque, being covered with bluish scales, the hind wings transparent except for the dark margin. The males are smaller with clear rwings and three or four narrow stripes of yellow across the ^bdomen. In New York State the moths appear from the middle of July to the last of August, there being but one generation a year. The female lays her eggs usually on the base of the trunk often laying as many as 800 eggs. These reddish-brown eggs hatch in aboyt ten days, the young larvze entering the bark through 1 small cracks from whence they work into the soft under bark. Here they feed until fall and they are forced to hibernate. (30) In the spring the feeding is resumed, the larvae entering the lower layers of the bark. This causes tfee masses of gum to exude which give a clue to the pBesenne of the boresc.The full grown larva:- is about one inch in length, light yellow with a brown head and thoracic legs and four pairs of prolege on the abdomen. The body is thinly covered with small brown hairs. The full grown larvae spin cacoons at or near the surface of the ground, pupate and emerge as moths in about a week. Control; A good means of preventing injury by these borers is to mound the soil around the trunk as high as possible just before the moths appear in the spring. This forces them to lay their eggs high up on the trunk where the small borers may be easily found. This in itself seem to prevent the establishment of the pest. Early in the fall the earth should be levelled down and a search made for the larvae. Ordinary building paperif wrapped around the trunk and extending into the groung and also tied at the top just below the crotch will prevent the deposition of the eggs. These wrappers should be placed around the trunks before the moths appear and removed early in the fall. Theele two methods of control will greatly reduce the number of infested trees and the reaaining boreBB should be wormed out late in the fall and early in the dpring by means of a knife and a piece of wire. If the orchard is closely watched and the boress wormed ant as fast as they appear, little trouble need be experienced on their account. The Peach Twig BorerjThe peach twig borer is largely a pest (31) of the west. Some small damage however has been done in Delaware, Virginia, and Maryland and it will perhaps he well to mention thepest. The larvae of this borer work in the tender shoots in the early spring. Later they enter the fruit especially the later varieties. The adult moth is dark grey with fore-wings expanding about one-half inch and marked with darker spots. The full grown larvae is about one-half inch long of a dull reddish brown color. The Peach Tree Bark Beetle jThe presence of this beetle is imdicated by numerous small worm holes which give the tree the appearance of having received a charge of bird shot. More or less gum exudes from these small holes. This beetle attacks weak and deseased trees although ycung trees are often attacked and ^adlay damaged. The injury is largely due to the presence of dead or dying trees which allow the beetle* to increase and allowing their spread to the healthy trees. When the beetles are present in large numbers their injury to the trees is quickly brought to the attention of the grower by the large amount of sap exuding- from the small holes in the trunk and branches. The larvae and beetles both cause injury to the tree. The beetles in the fall fly to the trees and form their hibernation cells. These are injurious to the tree for in the following spring there will be a loss of sap from each. In the spring the beetles leave these cells and bur- row into the bark only to emerge again i- a short time in order to form egg burrows in the sickly trees. Sap flows from these burrows in large amounts forming large gummy masses. After a few (38) years the ence healthy trees become sickly due to the repeated attacks of the beetle and the latter then form their egg burrors there, the larvae soon completing the work. There are two broods a year, the summer brood appearing in the last half of August and the other hibernating over the winter. Control jDestroy all dead and deseased wood, burn all prunings and trimmings. Trees which are affected should be 1 liberally fertilized so that they may make a quick growth in the spring and better withstand the injury. If the tree is washed with a solution containing one pint of crude carbolic to ten gallons of a- thick soap the beetles will be prevented from o oviposition.HThite-washing has al^o been advised a small amount of portland cement being added to make the mixture more adhesive. The Elack Peach Aphis, *The black aphis attacks the roots, tender shoots and foliage of the tree. when the aphie is on the roots the presence of this pest is often not noticed until much damage has been done. Young trees are especially affected, the foliage taking on a sickly yellow tinge. However the young shoots are affected when the roots are. The aphides cluster on the tender shoots, at the crotch, and lo^ down on the limbs, forming a disagreeable black mass over the young leaves which curl up due to the injury caused. This injury is often so great as to either kill or severaljr check the growth of young stock. Th"° wingless aphides live and multiply on the rcots throughout the year, all being females ?nd giving birth to live young. In the spring there is apartial migration to the (33) young foliage. They often appear on the twigs before the buds open. Multiplication is rapid and a great (Seal of damage is done to the i*nder shoots. Certain of the aphides develop wings and migrate to other trees. In the summer most of the aphides are found on the roots where they seem to prefer the young and mora tender parts. This pest seems to be more numerous where the soil is sandy. Control j^here tho aphis believed to be present the roote of all young trees should be examined before planting and if found should be dipped in strong tobacco water. This tobacco in the form of dust may be used dm the roots of orchard trees by removing the surface soil and applying the dust which will reach the roots by the process of leaching. If noticed on the branches the control ih easy for they cluster on the trees until the latter become crowded before migrating. Small twigs may be removed and the pest controlled. A fifteen percent solution of kerosene emulsion, or a one to four solution of whale oil soap may be used as a spray. This must be forcibly applied in order to penetrate into the curled leaves and honey dew. Also the spraying should be done early before the leaves are badly curled. Green Peach A phis; The green aphis is of European origin butshas been known as a peach pest in this country for years. This aphis causes the leaves to curl up and also injures the buds very badly. The winter is passed in the egg state on the branches of the peach, although the wingless females persist on the summer food plaits where they are able to find sufficient (34) protection. The eggs are small, oval and shiny. Theseeeggs hatch early in the spring, so early in fact that the etem mothers are fully mature before the earliest blossoms open. About the time the buds open the stem mothers are a deep pink colorand at this time they begin to give birth to living young, which are a pale yellowish green. Very few of this brood have wings. The third generation is very largely winged and here migration starts. By the middle of June these lice have almost wholly left the tree and gone to the succulent vegetables etc. where they live through the summer. In the fall winged females return to the peach where wingless females are developed which produce the win- ter eggs. Trees which are affected by this pest should be sprayed about one week before the buds open with a five percent solution of kerosene emulsion. Whale oil soap or miscible oils may also be used. If the trees are sprayed with lime sulphur the aphides should be largely controlled. (35) DISEASES OF THE PEACH BROWN ROT;- Brown Rot ie the most serious fungous disease that the growers of peaches have to contend with, in this part of the country. "The soft brown rot of the peach is caused by a fungous which attacks the fruit and causes it to rot at about the time when it is beginning to ripen. The peaches rot very rapidly at this time and the disease causes them to dry up and hang on the tree during the winter."* All of these dried or mummied peaches should fte gathered during the winter and burned in order to prevent the disease from being carried over until next season. The tree should be aprayed with a solution of lime and sulphur during the winter when the disease is present. Self boiled lime sulphur may be used as a summer spray when the fungous appears. Peach Mildew;-The pwwdery mildew of the peadh, causes the 1 leaves to be curled up together and to appear to be covered with a whitish powder. The tips of the growing stems are often swollen and distorted. The disease sometimes occurs on nursery stock in which case the trees should be gathered and burned. Here also the disease can be dontrolled by means of the self boiled lime sulphur. Peach Yellows;-"This serious disease of the -peach has as yet not been studied enough to isolate any definite cause for it. Many theories have been advenced as to the cause of the trouble but none of them have borne out by investigation. The- lisease attacks the teee at various stages in its development and causes it to die rapidly. The fruit on a tree affected by Yellows ripens prematurely and ie usually (36) smaller than normal, and is characterized by red! streaks running from the outside to the center of the fruit. Very often we find that the fruit on a diseased tree will hang on the tree throughout the entire winter. It is characteristic for this disease to produce great clus- ters of slender, wiry twigs on the main trunk and on the branches. The color of the foliage is also usually quite characteristic. A similar and just as little understood disease is known as the geach Bosette.The principle difference seems to be that there is less tendancy to the production of the slender wiry twigs and the fruit lacks the characteristic sfireaks of red color. Whenever either of these two diseases occur in the orchard the trees affected should be cut down at once and burned. There is practically no other remedy eorth considering. REFERENCES Year Book,U.S.Dept.of Agr. ,1900,1901,1902 New Jersey Sta.Rpt. 1907 Penn. Dept.Agr. Bull. 153 LiOHOuri Fruit Sta. Circular 2 Arkansaa Sta, Bull. 79 N.Carolina Bull. ig4 Mississippi Sta. Bull. 93 Michigan Sta, Bull. 177 Deleware Sta. Bulletins 45,62 California Sta. Bull. 97 Maryland Sta. Bull, 72 U.P.Hedrick,Rural New Yorker 1904 no. 63 Pruning Book L.H.Bailey Fruit Growing in Arid Regions Paddock and Whipple Special Report of the American Pomological Society for 1904- 05 Conn. Bulletin 63 Report of the Indiana Entomologist for 1909 Insects of the Farm Field and Garden Sanderson Bulletin 283 Cornell University. Etc, Etc, Etc