S 495.N7?9^o"9""^^^^-'VL^ No/an ibrary Sfitatt College of agrfculture at Cornell ®ntbet«itp 3tbats, A. 9. Ulbrarp Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003364183 THE OLD HOME IN THE COUNTRY NOLAN'S ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE A Manual and Text of Elementary AGKicrETURE I'oK Rural Schools. ARETAS W. NOLAN, A. IJ. AssisL^ml Professor of 1 lor ticuUurc, Forestry, and Hconr.niic 1-jitoniolof^y , West Virginia l.In:\ersity. Forniei'l_\' Hnperiiitendfrnt o7 l.ima, Inrliana, Consolidated Schools. NEW EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED FAITJf. Here in the conntry's heart. Where the grass is green. I,ife is the same sweet life As it e'er hath been. Trust in a (iod still lives, And the bell at morn Floats with a thought of God O'er the rising corn. (.iod conies down in the rain, Aad the crop grows tall— This is the country faith, And the best of all. *CME PUB. CO., PHINTERS, MOHi-.ANTOW Copyright, 1909, by Howard L. Swisher and Aretas W- Morgantowu, W. Va. All rights reserved TO MY FATHER AND MOTHER WHO ALL THEIR LIVES HA-^'E DWELT AMONG THE FIELDS IS THIS BOOK DEDICATED. PREFACE Tlie preparation of this bo(jk is an effort to combine in con^•enient fomi the directions for the laboratory ex- periments, field exercises, text-book studies, and note- book work, whicli the author has found most practical and helpful in teaching elementary agriculture and nature-study in rural and consolidated schools. It has been the aim of the author to simplify the subject-matter, materials and methods usually presented in text-books on agriculture, so that the teacher in the ( ne-rrj(im count\' >clioo], in llie grammar grades of a graded schofil nr in the beginning years of a high school may find the lessons easily practical, within the range of the pupils' understanding, and full rif profitable irterc:'. ; nd educalii mr- 1 value. It i^ .a texl-lmok and manual cumbined, l'(.ir the inirpose of leading awa)' from the usual text-book method of teaching, to the method of first-hand contact with the real things of .Vgricul- ture. If the wurk is not conducted bv means of real things, the-educational value is lost, and the informa- tion given not permanently retained. The lesions dr) not follow each other in very close sequence, each lesson being independent, permitting the teacher to choose as the season and occasion make the materials available. Tt is not the purpose to make "read}' made" lessons, which will discourage or take a\\-av the need of effort on the part of the teacher, but to furnish suggestive subject-matter and methods upon which he maj' build from his own initiative and resource- fulness. The lessons may seem unorganized as here PBEFACE Vll presented, for the attempt has been to organize educa- tionally, upon this principle : — ^an observational study of the common things and processes of nature, related to farm life, having a human interest value, rather than upon sequence of subject-matter. Any energcric teacher, by carefully planning the \\'ork in advance, and reading the references given, can do creditable class work in elementary agricidture, if he is willing to "do things," as lierein suggested. ]\\ the use nf simple il- lustrations, and such material and apparatus as any teacher can make or pick u]), l.)y .going often to the ripen fields, b)' requiring the jiupds to record accurately their observations, and In' teaching with real enthusiasm these lessons in agriculture nia_\- open the c_\es of teachers and children alike to the great natural forces, laws, and phenomena among whicli «-e \\\c our dail_\' lives. The author wishes to ex|iress his grateful apprecia- tion to the following jiersons, who ha^'c offered man\- helpful suggestions in the preparation of this book — Dr. T. C. Atkeson, Dean of Agricultu'^e, ?nd Sure'- intendent D. \A'. AA'orking, c;f tlic Agricultural Exten- "sion Department rf West A'irginia I'ni\cr:d;A" Dr J. I^, Sheldon. Dr. A\'. M. :\[unscn, and Prof. J). H. 11 it". ' ' AA'est A'irginia l'ni\'ersit\\ and Ih^of. .\. R. Mpnn of Cornell University. \A'e are indebted to the following persons and sta- tions for the use of illustrations and bulletins : — Dr. T^. FT. Raile}-. for the u-"c of the Cornell Rural Leaflets; Prof. B. M. Davis for the Miami Rulletins: A\'est A'irginia and Purdue Indiana Experiment Sta- tions ; B. F. Johnson and Orange Judd Pub. Go's. Morgantown, 1909. The Author. INTRODUCTION The questions naturally asked are : — "What is agriculture?" "Why should we be urged to teach it?" We who advocate the teaching of elementary agricul- ture in the public schools must try to answer these questions. Agricultuix' is the science .'ind llic art of making a li^'ing and a life liy gmwing jilants and domestic ainmals. Three important reasons why elementary agricul- ture should be taught in the public schools are as follows : — • ; First. — The materials with which agriculture deals may serve an educational purpose. Just as we use the materials of mathematics, literature, physiology and history without a thought of training directly for engineering, authorship, medicine or law, but for the educational value of their subject-matter, so we use the materials of agriculture for educational purposes, with- out directly training for a trade or business. All the materials used, from the clods of the valley to the cattle on a thousand hills, lead the student to a direct observa- tii ma! study, a first hand contact with nature, the source iif all 'mowlcdge. The most advanced students of science find the best applications of their knowledge in the fields of agriculture; it must therefore be evident that elementary agriculture offers a chance for study and lirain development, at least equal to that of any other hrancli iti the public schools. I.VrRODTJCTION Ix Second. — The study ul elementary agriculture tends to place the student in better harmony with his natural surrounding. This is especially true of ag- riculture in the rural schools. Whatever the subjects taught in rural schools may be, it will always remain true that a large proportion of the pupils will remain in rural surroundings ; and is it not wise to ask that these pupils should have an intelligent, sympathetic relation- ship with these surroundings? To live in harmony with one's natural suroundings has a moral influence upon character. The boy or girl who takes an interest in growing plants and animals cannot be so bad as the child who does not care for or love these things. There is nothing but goodness in most plants and animals, and the child who grows up in harmony with them must im- bibe some of this qualitw Third. — Elementary agriculture may give a cue to an important vocation. If the teaching of this sub- ject should turn man)' to the vocation of farming, no harm is done to anyone. It is a gainful occupation, bringing health, education and the comforts of life tn all who intelligently and industriiiusly engage in it. Is it not wisdom, then, on the part of our educators, our teachers and our parents, to give these future farmers some instruction, some training, along the line that the_\' are to follow in life? If then the teaching of agriculture in the public schools gives the student a cue to his future vocation, if the subject-matter of this fundamental occupation is educational and cultural, and if it places the student in better harmony with his environment, it has cer- X IXiRODUCTION tainlv justified its claim tn ri jilacc in the pnljlic school curriculum. To teach some agriculture does not mean that one must know all ao-riculture. Tf one simply teaches a few of the ordinar)' facts that will make life happier and sweeter and make the farm home better, that is a good beginning and one that will bear rich fruit. The average school teacher can do these things, by exercising enthus- iasm and energy, and by following a good text-book for a guide. .Vs igu rea(hngs, perform experiments, make excursions to the fields, require note-fiook records anrl have class recitations. The study of agriculture will bring new life and spirit to the school room, and will help the schools and the country people to love nature, the country, the home and the state. The Author. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 1. Read from other text-books the subject-matter treated in these lessons. 2. Collect beforehand the materials needed for experiments, and have everything ready for the recitation. 3. Ask the pupils to assist in collecting the ma- terials, and have them perform the experiments when possible. 4. Make many excursions for observations of good and bad farming methods. Bring the class to the material when the material can not be brought to them. 5. Have a school garden, if possible. 6. Write to yi)ur State Agricultural Experiment Station, the vState College of .Agriculture and to the Department tif Agriculture at Washington for informa- tion, bulletins, and seeds. 7. Each pupil should have a permanent note- liook and keep a neat pen-and-ink record of each lesson. .Vn example of how each lesson may be written up is given in the appendix. The work of writ- ing each lesson creates a better interest and gives the pupil something definite to do. 8. The lessons need not follow the order given m the text. The suggestions for the season accompany each lesson, those for the winter being so suggested, because the material used is then more available than much of that in the other lessons. 9. The writer will gladly reply to inquiries from teachers concerning any points in these lessons not clearly understood. TABLE OF CONTENTS LESSON PAGE 1 Composition of Soils 1 2. A Study of Soil 4 3 Relation of Soil to Water 6 4 Capillarity of Soil 8 5 Fertilizers and Plant Poods 10 6 Plant Foods 16 7 Slopes and Drainage 20 8 The Root System of the Plant 21 9 Root Hairs 24 10 General Study of Germination 27 11 Structure of Seeds 29 12 Selecting Seed Corn in the Field 31 13 Scoring Seed Corn 34 14 Selecting and Testing Seed Corn 41 15 Growing Muslv-melons 48 16 Garden Making 50 17 Planting the Garden 53 18 Tree Planting 57 19 Planting a Farm Wood-lot 69 20 An Excursion to the Woods 61 21 Improving the Soil ... 63 22 Rotation of Crops 65 23 Growing Alfalfa 67 24 Treating Seed Potatoes to Prevent Scab 70 25 Biological Maps of Home Farms 73 26 Spraying for Codling Moth and Fungous Diseases 75 27 Budding 78 28 Grafting 81 29 San Jose Scale and Its Treatment 84 30 Collections of Local Products 86 31 Habits of the Common Weeds 88 32 The Flower 91 XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS LESSON PiOB 33 The Wheat Crop 94 34 The Corn Crop 96 35 The Roots ot Corn and Clover 98 36 Suckers on Corn and the Stooling Habit ot Wheat. 100 37 Plant Propagation from Cuttings 102 38 Plant Stems 105 39 Leaves 107 40 A Study of Fruits 110 41 Decay in Apples 112 42 Judging Apples 113 43 Pruning 114 44 A Hotbed Garden 116 45 Field Study ot the Common Grains 118 46 The Best Corn iu the Community 119 47 Propagation of Raspberries 120 48 Raising Cucumbers in the Garden 122 49 The Pea Family 124 50 No Two Plants Alike 127 51 Transplanting 130 52 The Toad, the Farmer's Friend 132 53 The Driving Horse 135 54 The Draft Horse 139 55 The Dairy Cow 143 56 The Beef Cow 147 57 The Composition of Milk 150 58 The Souring of Milk 153 59 The Babcock Test for Butter-fat in Milk 156 60 Sheep 158 61 The Hog 163 62 Poultry 169 63 A Study of Feathers 172 64 A Study of the Egg 176 65 Pood Studies 179 66 Food Proportions and Requirements ]S2 67 Tests for Food Compounds 184 r.S DptPrmiTiiTnc; Ration^! for Farm Animals ]S6 69 Feeding Standards for Farm Animals 189 70 An Outline of the Animal Kingdom 190 TABLE OF CONTENTS XV LES90N PAGE 71 The Orders of Inserts 192 72 The Grasshopper 195 73 The Butterfly 198 74 The Fly 201 75 The Bugs 204 7G The Dragon Ply 206 77 The Bee 208 78 The Beetle 212 79 Spraying Calendar 214 80 Value of Birds to Agriculture 21C 81 A Comparison of Agricultural Products 218 82 Crop Records 220 S3 An Estimate of the Cost and Receipts of a Good Crop Rotation 222 84 Treating Grains to Prevent Smut 224 85 Treating Legumes to Get a Good Stand 22G 86 Roads and Road-making 228 S7 An Assessment of Farm Values 233 88 Farm Vi^orkshops and Laboratories 234 89 Farm Machinery 236 90 The Water-Supply 238 91 Cultural Requirements for Vegetables 241 92 Knot-tying in Ropes 243 93 Fences 245 94 Wood-working 247 95 The Outlook in Agriculture in West Virginia. . . . 251 96 The Rural Free Mail Delivery 253 97 Beautifying Home and School Grounds 256 98 The Farm Home 261 99 The Grange 2G4 100 Juvenile Agricultural Societies 268 Appendix 274 Elementary Agriculture LESSON I Title. — Composition of Soil. Season. — Any season when ground is not frozen. Object. — To study the composition of some of our farm soils. Material. — A cupful of ordinary soil, some humus, three one-quart fruit-jars and water SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Soil is composed of particles of rock and a greater or less ainoiint of liunius and animal matter, inchuling air and soil water. Ilefore soil is a good place frir grow- ing plant roots, it must contain the proper degree ol heat, and the soil water in which the plant friod i^ dis- solved. Humus is the deca_ving roots, stems, manures, leaves, etc. Leaf mould from the woods is the best example. Ask the pupils to bring some leaf-mould for this lesson. To obtain the sand, clay, and silt from the soil, proceed as follows: Place the cupful of soil in one of the jars, cover ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN with water, and let it soak for a few hours. This will separate the soil granules. Fill the jar two-thirds full of water, stir the contents thoroughly, then let the soil particles settle for one minute. Drain off the water and suspended soil into another jar, leaving sand and gravel in the first jar. Let the contents of the second jar settle for five minutes and drain ofl: as before, into the third jar. In the second jar is left silt. Let the contents of the third jar settle three aays ; then drain off the water. You have left clay. This experiment may be carried on during several days, in connection with other experiments in soil. Compare sand, silt, clay, and humus, as to color, size of particles, and stickiness. Rub the differ- ent soils between the fingers, and it will help you to compare size of particles, and characteristic qualities. Place some humus on a hot stove. Does it burn^ Does the sand or clay burn ? Which is the stickiest soil ? Which is the heaviest? Which ought not to be worked while it is wet? Why? The different combinations of these ingredients give us our farm soils. A loam is a mixture of sand, silt, clay, and humus. The ingredient predominating, distinguishes the kind of loam. Note. — Soil particle dimensions : Stones — above i millimeter (one twentv-fifth of an inch). Sand — between i millimeter and .05 millimeter. Silt — between .05 millimeter and .005 millimeter. Clay — between .005 millimeter and .0005 milli- meter. ELEMENTAKY AGBICULTUKE 3 Humus varies from woody fragments to black powdery material. Note. — Copy and learn the following table show- ing the ways by which soil is formed. The teacher should take up these topics and explain fully. By atmosphere. By water. , By plants. By animals. Burrowing. Earthworms. Animal accumulation. By man. Winds. Rivers. 1 Landslides. Oceans. Frost. "ice.^ Glaciers. , Chemical action. R-30t pressure. Tillage. Chemical action. Temperature changes Acid secretion. 1 Bacteria. Irrigation. Control of ."Streams. "Vegetable 1 deposit. Mining. Lumbering. References: — Farmers' I'.ulletin Xo. iS/ — p. 6. "Agriculture for Beginners," — Burkett et al. — Ginn & Co., pages I to 6. ( Future references to the above book will be designated b}- the abbreviation, "Id.") Goff & Mayne's -Agriculture, p. — 33-42. American Book Co. — Future references designated by "G. & M." ONE HUXDKtU LESSONS IN LESSON II Title.— A Study of Soil. Season. — Fall or Spring. Object. — To learn the nature and properties of dif- ferent kinds of soil. Material. — The different soils in the school-room in convenient vessels, or pupils in the field. SliBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Have the different t\pe? of ?oil before the pupils as fono\\"S : 1. Wet clav soil, of hea\v, stick\-. consistency. 2. Sandy soil, a large amount of sand present. 3. Sandy loan, containing more sand than clay. 4. Cla\' loam, containing more clay than sand. 5. Humus soil, containing a large amount of de- ca^■ing organic matter. Have pupils observe and feel each of these types. Which is the commonest in this locality? How was the soil formed? Xame some crops which will grow best on each kind of soil. ELEMENTAEY AGRICULTUEE The following table sh(juld be copied and filled out in the pupil's note-book: Kind of Soil Wliere found Growth on It ' Price per Acre Note. — In all these lessons the pupil should keep a note-book recoi-d, following the form given, for each lesson, and under Subject-matter and Method in his note-book he should make all tahmlations and answer all questions. To show the character of soils m drying out, fill a pan with each of the types, sand, clay and loam, and thoroughly wet the soils. Note the action of each in drying. References : — Agriculture — Burkett et al — pages i-6. Hatch Bul- letin 95. ONE HUNllEED LESSON'S IN LESSON III Title. — Relation of Soil to Water. Season. — Any season when soils are obtainable. Object. — To show percolation and capillarity of the different kinds of soil. Material. — The five different kinds of soil, or merely the sand, clay, and humus : box prepared as de- scribed below; cloth, and lamp chimneys. (Apparatvis of Fig. i ma_y be used also.) SUBJECT-MATTER AND JIETHOD Make a rack to Imld tliree lamp cliimneys, by boring holes in the side oi a bcx. Tie a cloth over one end of the chimneys, ami fill each with one of the different kinds of =oiI. Place the cloth end of each chimney do\vn\\ard through a hole in the box. Have a tumbler under each chiume\". Slriwly pour the same aniouut of water inti^i the top of the chinlne^•s. Througli which does it drip first? AAHiich absorbs most before it begins to drip? Pour the same amount of water into each chimney, and observe which soil retains the most. For a second part of this exercise, fill the same chimnevs as before ^^■ith dry soil, and set them in the rack -^ri that th.e cloth-ends reach down into the tumb- lers, filled to equal heights with ■water. In v.hich chimney does the water rise most rapidly? In which F.LEMENTARY A(IR[CULTURE (Iocs it nsc the liighcst? The leacher slmuld apply the faets tauL;iit in this exiieriinent. For a third part of this study, fill two flat pans with the same kind and amount of soil, and thoroughly Soak eaeh pan t.f -oil with water. As soon as the water has soaked in, eovcr the wet sod of one pan with a thin mulch of dust and leave the other uncovered. Weigh, set aside and notice again after 24 hours. Which has Inst the greater weight through surface evaporation? The dust nndcli prex'ents evaporation, and is thus a good covering for Miils tri hel]i them retain their moi^^ture. Fig. I. APPARATUS TO TEST THE CAPACITY OP SOILS TO TAKE IN RAINFALL References: — Farmers' Bulletin 137, G. & M. — Pages 17-20. OME HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON IV Title. — Capillarity of Soil. Season. — For any season. Object. — To determine the effect upon the germina- tion of seed, of firming the soil about them, and also the effect upon the movement of soil water. Material. — Two tin cans, pea seeds, soil, pie-tins, and water. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD (a) Numljer the tin cans i and 2. Put good soil in lioth cans. Tn No. i leave the soil as loose as possi- ble, and cover the seeds planted in it with loose soil In X'l. _' press ddwn the soil gently as you are filling it. tlieii plant the seeds at the same depth as in No. i, but liglith' firm the soil over the seeds in No. 2. Ob- ser\-e and record which seeds germinate first. (b) Make holes in the bottoms of the tin cans used in part (a). Have equal bulks of soil in both cans. Firm the soil well in No. 2, so that it is smooth and level. Leave the soil loose in No. I. Sprinkle dust over the surface of both soils. Set the cans of soil in the pie-tins, and fill the pie-tins with water. Observe and record in which can the water from be- low first dampens the dry soil on the surface. Note. — In this experiment you observe a phenom- enon called capillarity. In this case it is the passage ELEiiEiN'TAKY AGKIOULTUKIi of water through the minute spaces between the soil particles. When the particles of soil are far apart and there are many air-spaces, the water cannot pass read- ily by capillarity. Some clay soils may be so fine and closely packed, however, that capillarity acts very slowly. In sandy soil capillarity acts quickly. On the other hand, the soil particles may be so loosely connected as to prevent capillarity. This is the explanation of the value of the surface mulch. The looseness of llu' surfaci,' s(nl ]irc\i:'ii('i llie e'^capc of the soil water lielow, brought nyi b)- capillarity. Fill two equal sized can^ \\illi ^dil, nnc with sand, and the other with cla\', A\'cigli each can of soil and alln\v water to drip into each can until it begins to run out through the holes in the bollnni. N^w weigh each can and note the diiTerence in capacity for holding water. References: — Farmers' Bulletin No. 243, 257 and 218. Agriculture. — ^Burkett et al — p. 10-15. 10 ONE HVNDEED LESSONS I>' LESSON V Title. — Fertilizers and Plant Foods. Season. — Any time. Should follow Lesson VI. Object. — To understand plant foods, and how to fer- tilize the soil. Material. — Two cans or flower-pots filled with clean sand (made clean by stirring in water and pour- ing off the cloudy water), a handful of wheat, and Sach's compressed tablets'". SUBJECT-MATTER AND ilETHOD To prepare the pupils for this and the next lesson, the teacher should present the following introductorv facts in as simple a way as possible : — *Xote. — The tablets to be used in this lesson, caa be obtained from Edward F. Bige'.ow, Stamford, Conn., at loc a box. Each tablet is composed of the following ingredients : — Common salt f sodium chloride"), 2^2 grains. Plaster of Paris (calcium sulphate), 2'^ grains. Epsom salts f magnesium sulphate). 2''2 grains. Phosphate of lime 1 calcium pliosphate). 2I/2 grains. Salt-petre ipotassium nitrate V 5 grains. Compounds of iron and chlorine (ferric chloride), l-io grain. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 11 o m O o H 5-^ 12 ON't HUNUREIi LESSONS IN Chemists lirne found that all the different sub- stances of the world can be separated into about eighty different things. These are called elements. Iron, a:old, silver, tin, carbon, sulphur, etc, are ele- ments. Xo one has been able to separate them into different things. Gold cannot be separated into any- thins: but gold. For centuries men tried to make golf! out of other thinsrs. but they failed. Water is not an element; it is a compound. A chemist can separate it into two erases, hydrog'en and oxygen. All living things are made up of different com- pounds of elements. The starch of corn is a com- pound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Only a few of the eighty elements are necessary for the growth of plants and animals. The following elements are commonly found in plants, and the first ten are abso- lutely necessary for good plant growth : oxygen, h_\"drog.en, carbon, nitrogen, iron, potassium, phos- phorus, calcium, sulphur, magnesium, sodium, chlo- rine, and silicon. Oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen arc invisible gases, so we do not see them. Gold and sul- phur occur as free elements. Calcittm is not ordinarily seen, but ordinary quicklime is either calcium or mag- nesium combined with oxygen. Silicon and oxygen combined make up the large part of sand. Salt is a compound of SLiduim and chlorine. .\ green plant is mostly water. Of the other substances, carbon makes up nearh" one-half ; nitrogen comes next ; and there are smaller amounts of other elements. No plant can grow unless supplied with the first ten elements mentioned above. The soil furnishes ULEMENTARY AGRICULTUKE 13 iron, sulphur, magnesumi, sudiuin, chlorine, and silicon; a farmer does not need to give special attention to these. The carbon dioxide gas of the air filr- nishes carbon ; water furnishes hydrogen and ox)-gen ; and the remaining elements, nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, and calcium, are often insufficient in the soil, and must be supplied if a good crop is to grow. So these, particularly the first three, are the elements that the farmers buy in their fertilizers. Now these little tablets, described in the note, contain the plant food of the soil and of the coin|)Iete commercial fertilizers. To demonstrate the eiiccl of fertilizing the soil, proceed as follows: Fill two cans or flower-pots with clean sand. Plant six grains of wheat in each. Keep one moist with rain-water. Keep the other in the same condi- tion as to moisture, to which has been added plant food at the rate of two compressed tablets to each pint of water. At first there will be no diiTerence in the growth, but in two or three weeks, when the food stored up in the grain is exhausted, the plants in the first can will grow but little, while those in the second will grow vigorously. Such substances, when applied to soil, are known as fertilizers. How to know what kind of plant food the soil needs is a difficult problem. Many times certain fertil- izers are added to the soil, which produce no results. It is important to know the needs of the soil with respect to an intended crop. Tests are explained in Farmers' Bulletin No. 44. The tests in Circular No. 18 'i-i ONE HL'NDBED LESSONS IN are simple enough to be worked out by any eighth grade pupil. The following table shows the eomposition of a t_\pical Mjil, contamuig loo pounds of matter. It will be noted that all these elements and compounds enter into the plant as food: Water ) Carbon j Silica 71.55 Aluminum 0.94 Iron 0.17 Magnesium l.OS Soda 13 Sulphuric acid 01 12.07 lbs. S5.21 lbs. Xitrogen 12 Phosphoric acid 43 Potash 35 Lime 1.22 2.12 lbs. The first and second groups given above are more or less constant in the soil and in sufficient quantities that the farmer need not concern himself about supplying them. The third group, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and lime, although constituting so small a prirtion of thi; soil, must be held up to a good standard amount and prciportion or the plant cannot grow. These element-^ are often used up in the soil and must be artificially supplied by fertilizers of various kinds. KLEiUEATAUY AOIUCULTUKK 15 I he iolluwiiig table shows the cumposition of loo pounds of wheat plants ; Caibou 47. (yj Water 45. SG 93.55 lbs. Sodium 09 Magnesium 20 Sulpliuric acid 31 Iron 04 Cbloi'ine ik; Silica 2.75 3.45 lbs. Nitrogen 1.60 Phosphoric acid 45 Potash 66 Lime 29 3.00 lbs. This table is interesting' in that it shows that so small a per cent, of the composition of the plant is made up of the nitrogen, phosphorus, potash and lime — the elements that exist in so small a proportion in the soil ; vet it is this small proportion of these elements with which the farmer mtist concern himself in intelligen*^ practice. 16 0>'E HrXDKED LESSO>'S IN LESSON VI Title.— Plant Foods. Season. — Any time. May be a Winter study. Object. — To study the effects of fertilizing compounds on the growth of wheat plants. Material. — Manure, nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, and acid phosphate, ten 5-inch flower-pots or tin cans, wheat, and about one-half bushel of poor soil. Any interested boy can get this soil even in the Winter time. SLBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Have these commercial fertilizers before the class for obser^'ation. Fill each of the pots with soil, and add plant food to the different pots as follows; 1. Nothing. 2. Nitrate of soda (one-half teaspoonful), 3. Acid phosphate ("one teaspoonful). 4 Muriate of potash f one-fcnirth teaspoonful"). 5. Xitrate of soda and acid phosphate. Ci. Xitrate of soda and muriate of potash. 7. .\cid phosphate and muriate of potash, S. Xitrate of soda, acid phosphate, and muriate of potash. 0, Same as Xo. 8, l^ut doub'e the amount of each. 10 Stable manure, about six ounces Mix the fertilizers into the soil : then plant about ELEMENTAEY AGRICULTURE 17 a dozen grains of wheat in each pot. Label each pot with the names of the fertihzers used. Place the pots in a window or light place, and keep the soil moist- ened. When the wheat seedlings come up, thin out to the same number in each pot. Note the difference in the color of the leaves in each pot. Which fertil- izers give the greatest increase in growth? Make a complete record of this experiment in the note-book. Note. — Those who cannot readily secure the fer- tilizers for this lesson, may get a sufficient amount for this experiment, by writing to the author, and enclos- ing 50 cents to cover cost of the material. Practical Problems. The usual prices of the common fertilizers are as follows : Nitrate of soda, $57.00 per ton. Acid Phosphate, $12.50 per ton. Muriate of potash, $42.00 per ton. Plow much would a pound of each cost? When a farmer speaks of a fertilizer as being 2:8:10, he means that it contains 2% nitrogen, S% phosphoric acid, and 10% potash. Flow would 400 pounds of fertilizer of this type be made up? The use of dirt to fill out to a ton basis, either in purchase or application is to be condemned. 18 ONE HrXDEED LESSOR'S IX 2 At the College of Agriculture, Cornell University, t\\'o tons of manure that had been weighed and ana- lyzed were left exposed from April 2^ to September 22. with the following results : — April 25. Sept. 22 Total weight 4000 lbs. 1730 lbs. Nitrogen 19.6 lbs ~ .y2 lbs. Phosphoric acid 14. S lbs. 7-79 Ibs- Potash 36. lbs. 8. 65 lbs. AMiat was the ^'alue of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in this manure on April 2^. and on Septemhier 22': (Use the values given abo^-e). How much was lost? Was the part lost more or less valu- alile than the part not lost? \Miy ? There are two wa}'S to prevent such losses, — the manure may be liauled and spread on the land every few da}"s, or it may be kept in covered sheds. .?i. A WASTE OF MANURE (Courtesy of B. F. Johnson Pub. Co.) ELEMENTARY AGKICULTUBE 19 3 A good fertilizer for timothy hay ha-s been found to be one containing 200 pounds of nitrate of soda. 100 pounds of acid phosphate, and 50 pounds of mu- riate of potash, per acre. How much would this cost per acre? What percentage of each would this fertilizer contain? About how much hay at the price in your neigh- borhood would be worth this much? (Data for this lesson was adapted from the Cor- nell Rural School Leaflets.) 4 To see the effect of lime on clay soil, make two clay halls, one with water, and the other with lime-water, and set aside to dr)-. In a few days examine and see which is more mellow. Repeat the experiment with water and liumns- water and note the result. Is lime used on soils in your neighborhood." References :— Id.— Pages 22-26. G. & i\I.— Pages 37-4T- 20 ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN LESSON VII Title. — Slopes and Drainage. Season. — Any season. Object. — To teach slopes by means of observatio:i and to show their human interest value. Material. — A hillside in view. £L B.JECT-il.VTTEE AND JIETHOD Take the class to observe a slope, and bring out the following points : — Where ha\-e \"0u seen slopes before? \Mien are slopes a good thing, and when not a good thing? Wdiat do \"0u see on these slopes? Wdiat things are on other slopes? Would it be better to ha\e trees on this slope? \\'hy ? "Would it be ^^•ell to plow this slope? Are there any washed places?^ "Where does the slope wash most where plowed or wooded?' Explain how the forests hold the soil on the slopes. Have pupils show the slant of this slope with rulers. Ask them to find pictures of other slopes in their books. Make drawing sketches of slopes, or models in sand. EXEMENTABT AQBIOULTUBE 21 LESSON VIII Title.— The Root System of the Plant. Season. — Spring or Autumn. May be a Winter study. Object. — To learn the different kinds of plant roots. Material. — Whole plants of clover, grass, turnip, and as many others as can be secured. SXIBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD The root system of the plant consists of the entire group of roots upon the plant. There are two kinds of root systems: — (a) Tap-root, — central main root witli .smaller roots coming out from it. (b) Fibrous, — many roots of nearly the same size. Either of these two types may have either slender or fleshy modifications. Dig up a clover plant, and remove the soil from it. Observe that it has a strong central root which joins the stem. Make a drawing of this. Dig up a single grass plant, with as many of its roots as possible, and remove the soil from them. Observe the many similar roots projecting from the stem at or below the surface of the ground. Draw. Make a list of the common plants and classifjj them as to the character of the root system. The amount of food material taken in by the plant -- ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN dL-poii.lj largely upon the amount of feeding root surface there is. Select some plant, as corn, for example, carefully dig a trench around it. and remove the ball oi earth, containing most of the roots. Remove and wash as much of the soil from the roots as possible. Remove and measure each root separateh". and find the total length of the v.dtole root s^'Stem. ^lethods of culti\'ation should take into account that many roots. especiaHA- in the growing season, are near tlte surface. Deep culti\-ation will destroy all such roots, and to that extent cut off the food sup- plv of the plant. See Figure. ^lake the drawings of each of the tvpes of roots referred to abo^'c, and in addition, the drawings of a fleshy tap-root, such as the turnip or radi-^h. Fill out the follo\\'ing: table: — Slender tap-roots. Fle^iiy tap-root.s. Fibrous roots I. r. 1. References: — Farmers' Bulletin Xo. 2^3 — jip, 5-1 1. Id. — Pages .37-31. G. & ^L — Pages ^9-30. ELEMENTARY AGKICULTUKE 23 T^^ ROOT SYSTEM OF A PLANT Showing distribution of roots with reference to surface of the soil r.nd soil moisture, and also effect of deep and shallow cultivation. 24 ONE HUNDEED LESSONS I>' LESSON IX Title. — Root-Hairs. Season. — At any time. Object. — To learn the use of the root-hairs of plants. Material. — Small seeds, wheat or radish, newspaper or blotting paper, and water. SITBJECT-MATTEK AND METHOD The root-hairs are the absorbing organs of the plant. They have the power to transfer the water and the plant food from the soil to the rootlets. Put some small seeds, that have been soaked in water about twenty-four hours, between two layers of blotting paper. Keep the covering moist, and in two or three days roots will develop, covered with a thick fuzz of root-hairs. Make a drawing of these to sho\\' the zone of root hairs and length. Select a seed with a straight root, and lay it aside on a moist blotting paper, and mark with a pencil the two extreme ends of the root-hair zone. Cover with a glass tumbler and set away for a few days. Note the change of position and method of growth of the root-hair zone. Note. — The root-hair may be considered as an elongated bag filled with a liquid denser than water. When two water solutions of different concentrations are separted by a thin membrane, the less dense liquid tends to pass throusrh the membrane, more rapidly than the denser liquid. This process is called osmosis. This principle may be illustrated, if desired by the teacher, from the common demonstration of the broken egfg-shell and the glass of water. ELEMENTARY AQEICULTUKK 26 Crack the large end of an egg and remove a part of the shell, being careful not to break the shell mem- brane. Remove a small circle of the shell, about a half inch in diameter. Remove the shell in the same way from the small end, over an area equal to the diameter of a glass tube. Pierce the shell membrane at this end with a pin and glue a short glass tube exactly over the hole and broken shell of the small end. Now fill a wide mouthed bottle full of water, and place the egg on the bottle so that the exposed egg membrane of the large end remains below the surface of the water. In about an hour the contents of the egg will be TO SHOW OSMOSIS -b OXE Hl^^'UREn LESSONS TX Seen rising' in the g'-ass tube. Kxplain this action, ^iakc a lira wing" of the apparatus. Rrnit-hairs ha\'e the power of taii».T\.^<."\«' DIAGRAM OF A PLANT Showing its most imporrant relations ; sunlight, moisture, oxygen, and soil. (Courtesy of Prof. B. M. Davis.) ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 27 LESSON X Title. — General Study of Germination. Season. — At any time. Object. — To learn the conditions necessary for the germination of seeds. Material. — Pea or radish seed, four or five pint glass fruit-cans, and some cotton. &UB.JECT-MATTEK AND METHOD (a) Place some seeds on thoroug-hl_\- moistened CDtliin at tlie lidtlum nf can Xi >. t. kee]) the ^ccd^ in a warm place and water each clay. (b) Place other seeds on dr}' cotton in the 1)'>,_- toin of can No. 2, and do not water at any time. (c) Place some seeds on cotton, as before, in the can No. 3, and fill the can with water that has been boiled and cooled. Seal the can tightly, and keep in a warm place. When the seeds have germinated in (a), examine the seeds in the other cans, and compare with th'. growth of those in the first. What i-onditions for germination are necessary, as slio\vn 1)y these experiments? Ill the abii\'e experiments it is frunid that seeds will not germinate without water. IMie question arises, does water enter the seed? AVeigh two beans of nearly the same size. Put 2! ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN one in water and leave the other dr)^ After 24 hours compare each as to weight and size. Draw a conclusion. Place a lima bean in water and obsen,'e the hourlv changes in the appearance of the bean. l\Iake a series of drawings to show these changes. It may be shown that seeds exert a strong force in their absorption of water and in germination. Fill a bottle with dry pea seeds, and add as much water as the bottle will hold. Cork tightly, and secure the S'^opper by means of a wire. Set away 24 hours and note the result. To show the function of seed cotyledons, remove the two cotyledons of a germinating bean and insert the growing roots through a piece of mosquito netting tied liver a tumbler into the water with which the glass is tilled. Xote and explain the growth. References : — l(i— Pages -- to So. Farmers' Pulletiii? 260 and I2,v C. &: ^r. — Pages 62 to 70. BLEMENTABT AGEICXJLTUEE 29 LESSON XI Title. — Structure of Seeds. Season. — At any time. Object. — To study the structure of t}rpical seeds. Material. — IJma beans, pen-knife, paper and pencil. SUBJECT-MATTEE AND METHOD To facilitate the study of seeds they should be left in water over night. Observe the following points of the bean, and make a sentence note of each of the words in black type. 1. Markings on the surface: (a) Scar or hilum where the seed was attached to the pod. (b) Nei.r the hilum a small opening, the micropyle. 2, Remove the coat or testa. Near the hilum a small pointed bod}^, the caulicle, will be seen. Separate the halves or cotyledons, observe that the caulicle bears two small leaves, the plumule. The cotyledons, caulicle, and plumule constitute the embryo. Make a drawing of the whole bean showing these parts, and of the single cotyledon with the caulicle and plumule in place. 30 OXE HTJNDBED UESSONS IX Study ;he grain of corn, making notes upon the following points : — I. The general shape. The embrvo lies in the groo^■e. Cut the grain lengthwise, at right angles to the flat surface, and make out the caulicle, plumule, and cotyledon. The hard outer portion is called, the endosperm. ^lake a drawing to show these parts. Alwa}'S name every part of the drawing. Xote. — All seeds except the seeds of conifers, are of one of these two types. In the bean, there are two cotyledons, wnd the food material of the seed is stored in these cot\"ledons. In the corn there is onl}- one cotyledon, and the food material is stored iiutsidc of the embr\'o, in a part called the endosperm. References: — Farmer--' I'.ullelin Xo. 2('^). p. 3: and X... HI. (;. lV- .M.— I'ago 7()-Si. Xote — Send for "schtjeil set of economic seeds," to Edgar Brown, Seed Laboratory-, Dept. of Agriculture, AA'ashington, D. C. ELEIIENTABY AORICULTUKE 31 LESSON XII Title. — Selecting Seed Corn in the Field and Storing It for the Winter. Season. — In the Autumn. Object. — To learn how to select the seed corn in the field and how tp store it until planting time. Material. — A field of ripened corn or several stalks brought into the school room for observation. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD If possible, take the class into the field to select the corn, but if not, have an armful of stalks of corn brought into the school room. I. The first point to ODtice in selecting; an ear for seed is its position on the stalk. The ear should be set about mid-way up the stalk, not too near the bot- tom nor too near the top. Next, notice the shank that holds the ear. It should not be too long, so that it holds the ear at a considerable distance from the stalk. On the other hand it should not be so short that it causes the ear to stand upright against the stalk. The ear should come from the stalk, slightly bending downward at the tip. See the illustration given. The stalk should be of medium size, strong and tapering. II. The next point to observe, is the general shape and development of each ear selected. For 32 OXE HU>T)BED LESSONS IN hasty selection in the field, be governed by the fol- lowing points : — 1. Length of ear, between 8 and lo inches. 2. Circumference of ear, about three-fourths the length. 3. Rows of grains straight and running well out to the tip and butt of the ear. Grains well shaped and firmly set in place, deeply dented, and all of the same purity of color. ' A GOOD STALK OF CORN (Courtesy of B. F. Johnson Pub. Co.) ELEMENTARY AGBICDLTURE 33 Governed by all these points in the selection of the ear, the student or farmer may select as much as is needed for his seed, and prepare to store it for the winter. It is better tti select more than is needed, so that the best type of ears may be chosen at planting time. III. In storing the corn, it should either be hung by the husks torn back from the ear, or be placed in racks made of nairow strips with spaces between. In any case, the corn should be stored in dry, well-ventilated places, in such a way that there may be a free circula- tion of air about each ear. For a school-room method, forty or fifty ears might be hung in the attic or in the room for that matter, to be used later in corn-scoring and in the ger- minating tests. For the storing, scoring, and final selection of seed corn, the use of a special farm laboratory build- ing is strongly advised. Such a building on the farm would facilitate many important operations, and make possible many others that would benefit the farmer's business. References : — Farmers' Bulletin No. 229. Id. — pages 69 to 72. 34 oxE mxnEED lessons in* LESSON XIII Title. — Scoring Seed Corn. Season. — Winter or early Spring. Object. — To learn how to judge ears of com. Material. — An ear of corn for each member of the class, paper and pencil. &UB.JECT-M.\TTEE AND METHOD Ten ears of corn are usual! v scored for each sam- ple of corn judged, but in this case, perhaps one ear for each ]iur>il will be sufficient for a lesson. If time and material permit, it would be well for each pupil to score ten ears. The following score-card is used by the Indiana Corn Growers' Association. Let each pupil copy the score-card in the permanent note-book, and grade his ear of corn on each point. The number opposite each of the twel\"e points, represents tlie perfect grade. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 35 TYPES OF BUTTS AK No. 4 is a good tip Til'S (II'' KMiS OF I'ORN No. 11. a good blilt. (Courtesy of Purdue University.) 36 ONE HUyoKED LESSONS IN Xame of variety Table No . Name of Scorer Sample No , ; 1 I 1. Trueness to Type or Breed Characteristics 2. Shape of Ears 5 3. Color of Grain and Cob 10 4. Vitality or Seed Condition 10 5. Tips of Ears 5 6 Butts of Ears 5 ■■ Kernel Fniformity l^i 8. Kernel Shape 10 9. Length of Ears 5 10. Circumference of Ears 5 11. Space between Rows and Kernels in 12. Proportion of Corn to Cob 15 Total 5 6 10 I ELEMENTABY AGEIOULTUBE 37 Explanation of the Score-card. 1. Trueness to type or breed. Ten points perfect. The ear should be true to the breed character- istics in size, shape, color, shape of kernel, etc. 2. Shape of ear. 5 points perfect. The ear should be full and strong in the middle, and should not taper too rapidly towards the tip. Rows should be straight. 3. Color of grain and cob. 10 points perfect. The color should be true to the variety, and free from mixture. White corn should have white cobs, and yellow corn, red cobs. Cut about one point for five or six colored grains. 4. Vitality or seed condition. 10 points perfect. The ear should be well matured, firm, and sound. The germ should be large, fresh, and vigorous looking. 5. Tips of ears. 5 points perfect. The tip should be regular and not too tapering. Tip should be well covered, with straight rows of of regular kernels. Cut one-half point for tips ex- posed one inch. 6. Butts of ears. 5 points perfect. The rows of kernels should extend in regular order over the end of the cob, leaving a depression when the shank is removed. 7. Kernel uniformity. 10 points perfect. The kernels should be uniform in size, color, shape, and indentation, and true to the variety type, 8. Kernel shape. 10 points perfect. The kernels should be deep and so shaped that their edges touch from tip to crown. The tips of the kernels should be full and strong. 38 OXE HrXDEED LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY ACKIOnLTUltE 39 <)■ Ucii;:^lli 111' tMi's. 5 points perlect. The Iciii^th shniild conlVinn to the standard for the \an\'t\' used. l''roni eight to ten inclies is the u-ual standard lengtli. Cui one [loint for eaeh incli of deticiene)'. TO. Circnmference of ears. 5 points perfect. Tlie circumference sliould be in proportion to the length, that is, about three-fourths the length, meas- ured at one-third the distance from butt to tip. For each inch deficiency or excess, cut Vj point. 11. Space lictween rows and kernels. 10 points perfect. The furrows between rows should be wide enough to allow the ear to dr}' out readily, but not so wide as to lose in proportion of corn to cob. Much space between kernels is highly objectionable. There shoidd be not less than 16 rows, and 6 or 7 grains to an inch in each row. 12. Proportion of corn to cob. 15 points perfect. Tlie proportion should be determined by weight. The proportion of corn to cob should not be less than 86%. Cut iVzfo for each per cent below the standard. References; — Purdue P.ulletin, No. tto, — Purdue l^niversit\-, Lafavette, Ind. 40 ONE HrXDEED LESSONS IN o o o > a a: O 01 ELEMENTARY AGEICULTURB 41 LESSON XIV Title.— Selecting and Testing Seed Com. Season. — March, April, or May. Object. — To teach the student how to select the seed com and make the germinating test. Materials. — A germinating box as described below, ten or twelve ears of corn as true to the following standard as possible: 1. Good cylindrical shape, well rounded at the tips and butts. 2. Length, about 8 to 12 inches, and circumfer- ence 6 to 9 inches, according to the type. 3. Uniform color and size of grain, straight rows of kernels, filling up the furrows solidly. 4. Cob, not too large in proportion to the ear. I SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD The teacher should have before the class as many ears of corn as convenient for this lesson. A hun- dred ears would be the desired number. Take a shallow box and partly fill it with fine sand. Thoroughly moisten the sand. Over the sand place a cloth which has been checked into 100 two- inch squares with an indelible pencil, or better, with ink. Number the squares from i to too. ten squares in each row, and ten rows. Now take each ear separately and remove five 42 OXE HU.N'DBED LESSOXS I>' kernels, taking them from different parts of the ear. Take one from the butt, three from the middle, and one from the tip. Turn the ear each time so as not to get them from the same row. Place the kernels in the numbered square, a square for each ear, and lay the ear aside and number it to correspond with the square. Cover the kernels on the squares with a moist cloth. Qvev this place a la_\'er of moist sand. Keep tlie sand moist and swatch ilaily for the germi- nations. The ear that does not show all the five ger- minating in a few days, should not be planted in the field. This is a very important and practical lesson, and one that e^erv farmer bov should work out. Ha\'e the pupils make a drawing of the germina- ting box, and write a record of the lesson and its results. Emphasize the fact that this \\'ork cotild be done by the farmer at a time when he is not so busy with r.ther neces^ar}' work, and that thi~; is a sure test of germination. If all the farmers' seeds would germi- nate, their i-rops would be increased many fold. The practice of smoking the seed-corn before shell- ing and planting ha? proven an eitective preventative against the corn-root louse and other insect pests of the spn:>uting grain. Reference^ : — Farmers' Bulletin Xo, 2^t,. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 43 S, 3 o 44 ONE HUTfDEED LESSONS IN A GOOD EAR OF CORN" (Courtesy of B. F. Johnson Pub. Co. A POOR EAR OF CORN (Courtesy of B F. Johnson Pub. Co.l ELEMENTABY AGBIOULTUEE 45 o 13 O S o a. a c n > 3 fo 4C ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN" RACKS FOR STORING SEED CORN I, Courtesy of Purdue University.) ELEMENTAHY AGRIOULTUKE 47 4S ONE HUNDEEU LESSONS IN LESSON XV Title. — Growing Musk-melons. Season. — Spring months. Object. — To learn how to grow good musk-melons. Materials. — Good melon seeds, sod, spade, and boxes. SITBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD This lesson may be given in the school-room early in April. Have at hand melon seeds of the best qual- ity. Before time for the agriculture class, send two boys out with a spade to cut several turfs of sod, about six inches square, as many pieces as you mean to have hills of melon. If the grassy side is firmly matted, slightly loosen the fibres, but not enough to allow the turf to fall apart. Place the sod, bottom side up, in a shallow box of wood or pasteboard; if the earth is not thick enough, ad'' =i few handfuls of good mealy soil. Plant about - ^ ^r eight seeds in this soil. Place in a sunny window and keep warm and moist. This will constitute the first part of the lesson, but the germinat'-'C" ?°^ "s will keep up the interest in the experimen* 'or manv days. When the green seed-leaves have freei' 'themselves from the shell, no- tice which arc th^ thriftiest plants, and remove all but the best i'.'">. Care for these tenderly, and they will thrive well, free from frost and the striped beetle. ELEMKNTAEY AGRICULTURE 49 They may safely acquire three or four true leaves, and be five or six inches tall, before they are planted out of doors. If possible, the rest of this experiment should be done in the school garden. If there is no school garden, and school is to close before Ma_v, the children may take the boxes home, and set the melon plants in the home garden as follows: — When the warm late May-days come, dig holes about eight inches deep and six feet apart in the sun- niest part of the garden ; put in the bottom of each hole a spadeful of old well-rotted manure; cover this with two inches of sand or fine soil ; and on this place the sod with the growing melons, so gently that they will not know they have been moved. The sod should be level with the ground, and well firmed in place. See that the plants never suffer from thirst. Keep the weeds pulled, and stir the surface soil about the hill often, until the vines begin to run. When each vine has set about a half-dozen mel- ons, pinch oflf all blossoms that form, and also the tips of the branches, so that all plant food may go into the melons first chosen. Squash, cucumber, pumpkins, and water-melons, ^la^' also be o-rown in the same wav. 50 ONE HUXDKED LESSONS IN LESSON XVI Title. — Garden Making. "The garden is a 1m\ c^t'iiie tliiiii;. Gud \\"\: JvOSc ])h)l. iM-ing'cd pool, I'crned grot. The \'eriest schotjl >A ]H'ace : And yet the fool Contends that Ciod is not in gardens. Not in gardens ! A\ hen the e\'e is crio! ! Na\-. but I have a sign. 'Tis ^■er^" snre God ^\"alks in mine." Season. — April and May. Object. — To teach children how to make a school or home garden, and to form the garden habit. Material. — Spade, hoe. yard-rule, rake, and mixed fertilizer or compost. ST 'EJECT-MATTER AND JIETHOD Tf not practicab'e to have a garden witli indi- \-idual or group plots, se' ct a space on the school grounds, or near hy, on \\'"'ch to make a sample gar- den, as a demonstration If on from wliich the pnpds iua\- le.-irn how to mak'e t' - T Imnie gardr'n^. ."-eleet .in '-'a m f ncli 1 .•dmnl i tcrf \\\,]i- h\ ](', I'oet long, and I lioriTughU- clean a\\a\' .all \\eeds and trash from this plot. 52 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN Spade up the ground as deeply as possibli.-. About a pound of commercial fertilizer may now be sprinkled over the plot, or a few shovelfuls of well- rotted manure may be worked into the ground. Rake over the plot and break up all the clods. It is a good plan to go over the ground with the hands, crumbling the soil as fine as meal. Level the bed up slightly higher than the rest of the ground. Stake the four corners and mark of? a sharp, clean-cut edge for the bed, and make a neat clean path around it. The garden is now ready for planting. References: — Farmers' Bulletin Nos. 134 and 255. Id. — Pages 179-180. G. & AI. — Pages 130-133. - ., ._■. ■- El.KMENIAKY ACRmU.TUKE 53 LESSON XVII Title. — Planting the Garden. Season. — Spring. Object. — To teach the pupils how to plant the seed in the garden. Material. — Seeds, measuring-rule, and marker. SUB.IUCT-MATTKK AND METHOD In plenty of time before these lessons are to be gi\en, the teacher should take a penn)' collection from tiie pupils, and send to the Mome Gardening Associ- ation, Cleveland, Ohio, and get seed packages. Many of the seeds might easily be obtained at the homes of the children. Under the direction of the teacher, two (jr three of the i)upils should mark off the garden for planting, and assist in the planting, while all the rest of the childrc]! oliservc. They may then return to their home plots and do the ^^■ork themselves more intelligently. The accompanying diagram should he drawn on the lioard, and copied by the pupils, to a scale of )4 i x"'i ti ihe f'lrt ill their pcniiaiicnt note-linoks, before 1 ■,■;:":' li: tlic L'.'inleii for this lesson. GARDEN PLOT, cale : i")rie-fourth inch equal- one fnot. • Sweet corn, three row'^. (Three grains in each place ) Dwarf bunch beanf, iwn ro\\? Piitntn.-'?;. three hills. Cucumber.--, ihrce hill.- Optioiuil. Optioiiiil Op:ion;!l, Deets, three row-. Dwarf pea?, two row?. DaioD set?, two rows. Radishes, three rows. Lettuce, three rows. »*****:«: *»«.**«*.«*:*4:,«,«* Flower seeds. ?\l:i;i: > ft" ilie furrows about two inches deep across the l":erl as indicated b\- tlie diagram. Place the seeds in the furrow, as sliown b\' the star marks m the ihagram. C'*'\"ur with tlie soil about unc inch for smaller seeds, and press it down firmly with the hands. ELEMENTAKY AGRICULTURE 55 Now we are read}- fin- the ^ecds to grow. Manv valu- able nature-study lessons may be given in the school as the seeds begin to germinate. Try to create a spirit of appreciative interest in the growing plants and a personal jiride in the care of the child's home garden. As the garden grows, weeds must be pulled, insects watched lor, and replantiugs made if necessar^■, Upon the skillful |;rcsenlation of these lessons, the pupils should be able to make home gardens and plant and care for them successfully. There should be some instruction in the growing of plants in every school-room in the state. CTarden- ing is recognized as one of the l)est all-round helps in the education of the child and is a \'er\- excellent and healthful habit to form. Tlure -h'ul 1 be a well organ- ized schoi.ll garden in e\-ery public school m the country. It will make strcmger ,au(l l)ctter men and women. It will he a resource for them through all the coming \'ears. School gardens leach ajipreciation of nature, re- spect for the ])ropcrty of o.l.ers, self-reliance, helpfui- ness, patience, respect for laljor, and habits of indus- try. They furnish useful cmplo_\-ment as well as pleasant amusement for children \\dT0 might seek di- \'ersion in idle haunts or questionable activities. In garden work, children learn to see what they look at, and understand wdiat thev sec ; the\' learn skill with ihcir hands, s\stemalic metlnMls, business experience, and knriwledge of gardening, plants, fruit, insects, and liirds. The following table is a good de\'ice to use in con- 50 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN nection with this lesson. Have pupils record observa- tions made in their gardens under the following heads placed at the top of the page of the note-book: — Injuries Planls When ii .w ]i. 1 ]i Di^^iance When and rhit.'.-ook nf Forestry, or to Pinchot's Primer of Forestrx'. man\- \-aluablr lessons max" lie contimied in this woik. (See Appendix.) ELEMENTARY AGKICULTURE m LESSON XXI Title. — Improving the Soil. Season. — A lesson for Winter text-book study or for spring observation. Object. — To learn the different operations upon the soil, and the value of each. Material. — Note-book and pencil. Fields for obser- vation. SUBJECT-MATTEIv' AM> :\rETHrH) Copy the following talkie in the notc-l)o<^ik, ant learn to write it apprt.>ximatclv fr-.tm memory: — Soil Improvkment iMrcTHODs. Operation&. 1. Plowing. ?. Surface tilling. Implements Plows, Hoes, rakes, cultivators, harrows, and cJod-crushers, ml Improvement. fit conrlition for that plant Puts land in planting. Pulverizes soil sf food is available, Turns under manures, green crops, and trash. Deepens soil, and increases ca pacity for holding water, and for root extension. All-'ws weather to net on th' soil. Aerates the soil. Makes a hod for <=epfl?;. Covers the '-■eofl^. Pulverize' the ground. Establishes and maintains earth mulch. Destroys weeds an 64 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN Operations. Implements. 3. Rolling. Rollers, drags, 01 floats. 4. Cover-cropping. Clover, alfalfa, cnw-pea?. vetch, etc. Fertilizing. Manures, lime, ashes, Dotash. Dhosphate, nitrate, etc. ^'alue and Improvement. Crushes ^lods. Smooths the ground for seed. Hastens germination of seeds by firming the soil and bring- ing moisture to the surface through capillarity. Compacts the soil otherwise too loose and open. Puts the land i n a condition so that other t"Ols can act efficiently. Facilitates marking out the land. Ch^ecks growth of fruit plants in orchards. Prevents land from washing and puddling. Holds rain until It can soak into the soil. Causes soil to dry out early In the spring. Lessens injury from frosts. Adds available nitrates to the soil if a legume crop. Manures supply both humus and plant food. Lirae counteracts the acidity of the soil, and promotes lirainag-e. Commercial fertilizers add avail- _ able plant food where needed. Xotc. — The best tillage of the soil consists of deep plowing, thorough harrowing, and pulverizing of the clods, and shallow cultivation. This renders the plant food available, and provides a mulch to retain the soil moisture. \Mth proper tillage, the need of an artificial fertilizer is lessened. A visit to the fields to see these operations, and to an implement store for first-hand information, is ad- visable in this lesson. The teacher should discuss with the pupils all the values and improvements suggested in the table above. References : — Farmer^* Bulletin Xo. 245. Id. — Pages 18-21. G. & :\r.— Pages 42-43. ELEMENTAHY AGRICULTURE G5 LESSON XXII Title. — Rotation of Crops. Season. — Any season. May be a Winter study. Object. — To learn methods and value of crop rotation Material. — Note-book and pencil. Field for obser- vation. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD It may not be feasible for the school to work out this lesson by actual experiment, but the class should make an excursion to fields where rotation of crops is practiced, and there understand the steps in the process. If the students will memorize the two following methods of crop rotation, which have proven success- ful, they will be well repaid for the stud)- nf thi-^ lesson : — (a) I. Sow clover seed in the wheat, March or April. 2. Harvest the wheat as usual, and allow the clover to grow all Fall. It may be used for pasture to some extent. 3. Plow up the clover sod in the following April. 4. Plant to corn. 5. Sow wheat in the corn in the Autumn season. 6. Sow clover seed in the wheat again, in March or April, and thus continue the rotation as before. 66 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN (1)). If the land is much worn out, or of naturally IMior soil the rotation begins and proceeds as in (a), ex- cept that at No. 3, instead of plowing up the clover for ciirn ill the spring, allow it to stand another seasnn. A hay criip may then be harvested in July, and a seed crop again in the Fall, after which proceed as in part (a). Alake a note-book tabulation as follows : — Rotation of Crops. Series a. Series clover b. Series c. Series d. ' Values of Rotation. Preserves food supply. Clover Hay a nrt Clover Clover Increases food snnnly. Corn seed Corn Corn Eradicates w-eeds, Wheat Corn Oats Potato ;md soil diseases. Clover Wheat Wheat Wheat. Exterminates inpectP. Clover Clover Clover ■•nlarges the resources. Note, — There are two theories explaining the need of rotation of crops. One states that the plant returns a poison to the soil, rendering it unfit for the growth of that species, but that the soil is not ex- hausted of plant food. The other holds that a contin- uous growing of the same plant robs the soil of the elements necessary for the growth of that species, but not for a different species. In either case, rotation of crops pays. It not onlj makes better farms, but better men. The fertility of the soil is maintained, and a profitable yield is forth- coming at all seasons. A wise use of the soil does not rob it of its fertility. References : — ■ Id. — Pages 35 to 40. G. & M.— Pages 49-53- ELEMENTAKY AGRICULTUEE 67 LESSON XXIII Title.— Growing Alfalfa. Season. — March or April. Object. — To learn how to grow alfalfa and to observe its relation to soil fertility. Material. — Four square rods of ground, eight quarts of lime, one quart of oats or barley, and three- fourths pound of alfalfa. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD If the required amount of land cannot be obtained on the school g;rounds, a farmer living near the school will probably be glad to furnish the land. Select the site in any plowed-up ground, lay out the following plats, each one rod square : — 1. S. INOCrHTIOv I.IMH. I.TMH. -t. lN(icri.,Ari()N Drive stakes at each corner of each plat. 68 ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN Sow about eight quarts of lime on plats 2 and 4. four quarts on each plat. \- hich is equivalent to about twenty bushels on an acre. Obtain some soil from a place where alfalfa or sweet clover is growing, and scatter a few quarts of this on plats 3 and 4, being careful not to get it on the other plats. This is in- oculating the soil with the bacteria of the alfalfa. Then sow a light seeding of oats or barlev over all the plats, a little more than a quart is sufficient. Then sow af.nut ^i of a pound of alfalfa over the four plats and rake it in. Be careful not to rake any of the soil from the inoculated plats into the others. No further care need be gi\"en the plats until the barley r.r oats is headed out. when it should be mowed ofT abo\-e the tops of the alfalfa plants. The oats or barley should not be allowed to mature in the alfalfa. School ma\- be closed before this experiment is fin- ished; but the teacher should appoint a committee to stud\' and report the observations of the summer, and all living near should be encouraged to watch the ex- periment. This is getting 'essons from the real source and not from books alone. Draw the plats in the agricultural note-books, and ans^^er the following questions: hlrnx soon does the barle}' or oats come upl" The alfalfa" In six weeks observe the roots of the alfalfa in each plat. In which plats are swollen nodules found on the alfalfa roots" A\'hat is the effect of the lime and inoculation?" Observe the difference in gV'Wtli in the four plats. The surest wav to get alfalfa to srrow on a poor soil is to manure the soil, cultivate it. and sow about ELEMENTARY AGRICULTUKE 69 August the 1st, applying lime and inoculation, if nec- essary. This work may be carried on at the students' home if there arc no plats for it near the school. The home work of these lessons is to be greatly encour- aged. ALFALFA 70 ONE HUNDEED LESSONS IN LESSON XXIV Title. — Treating Seed Potatoes to Prevent Scab. Season. — April or May. Object. — To learn how to rid seed potatoes of the scab. Material — Scabby potatoes, tub or barrel, sack, and one-third pint of formalin (formaldehyde). SUBJECT-MATTEE AND METHOD This lesson given at a countr}- school, at potato- planting time, ci uld lie made \ery beneficial botli to the pupils and to the patrons who would be interested em 'Ugh to co-operate. The day before the lesson is to be given, the teacher should ask some pupils to bring about a peck of the scabbiest potatoes that can be found. The teacher should see that the other materials are pro- vided for the lesson. Place the potatoes in a Ijurlap sack. Into a tub or barrel pour five gallons of water. To this add about one-sixth of a pint of formalin. This can be purchased at anv drug store at 40 cents a pint. Place the sack of potatoes in the tub of formalin solution. Allow them to soak one and one-half hour. ("Experimental work of this lesson will ha\"c to end here. If there is a school garden, the work as t'utliued below should be continued at schiiol ; if none, ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 71 THE ROOTS AND TUBERS OP POTATO (Courtesy of B, F. Johnson Pub. Co.) A GOOD POTATO A SUABBY POTATO U OME HUXDKED LESSONS IN the teacher should fulh- explain the rest, and call for volunteer pupils to complete the experiment at home and report upon it.) Remove the potatoes from the solution, and cut into pieces for planting, about two eyes to each piec. Do not put the potatoes back into a recei)tacle that has had in it scabby potatoes. The vessel to be used should be washed with the solution in the tub. Plant the treated tubers in rows by themselves, where scabby potatoes have never grown, and mark with stakes the rows so planted. To show the com- parative results of the treatment, plant the same number of scabby potatoes, and give both equal care and cultiva- tion throughout the season. When the potatoes are ripe, dig the treated and untreated separately. Count the increase in the treat- ed potatoes. A careful record of this lesson should be kept, including the cost of treatment, the price of potatoes, and the total gain friini the treatment, based rm the increased value of the yield. It would be a good service to the district if pu- pils would bring all their scabby potatoes to the school to be treated, before planting. Any helpful co-operation between the school and the home is of incalculable value to both institutions. References : — Id. — Page 109-113. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 73 LESSON XXV Title. — Biological Maps of Home Farms. Season. — Any. Object. — To teach the pupils how to map the farm and to make a study of biological and physical conditions there. Material. — Pencil and note-book. SDBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Assig'n to groups of two or three pupils who live near each other, plots of ten or twenty acres on their home farm, and require the following outside work of each group : 1. Make measurements of the tract of land al- lotted and draw a map of tlie same to an accurate -cale. T'lace on this map the creeks, springs, buildings, etc. 2. C')llect in hottles sam])les of the dififerent kinds of Mill found on tlie tract, anrl bring to school. 3. Make a list of all the useful plants growing on the plot. 4. Mak'^ p. li-;" of all the \\-ecds or useless plants known on the plot. v Make a list of all the domestic and wild ani- mals seen. 6, Make a list oi all the birds and insects ob- served from time to time. 74 ONE HUXDBED LESSOXS IN This work mav continue through many weeks, and the pupils should keep a neat and accurate record in their permanent note-books of the obser- \-ations on their tracts of land. ELEMENl'ARY AGRICIILTIlKE 75 LESSON XXVI Title. — Spraying for Codling Moth and Fungous Dis- eases. Season. — When the apple blossoms fall, and two weeks later. Object. — To learn how to spray apple trees. Material. — Spray pump, 3 lbs. copper sulphate (blue stone), 6 lbs. of unslacked lime, ly^ lbs. lead arse- nate (disparene), and 50 gallons of water. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD This lesson ma)' seem impracticable for school work, but it is so important that the teacher shoul 1 make every effort to have a demonstration made at the school, before the class. If any farmer in the dis- trict has a spray pump, he no doubt would be willing;; to loan it for this lesson. The spray mixture can be bought for about 75 cents. If a five-gallon knapsack spray-pump can be borrowed, the proportions of the mixture given below can be reduced to one-tenth of the material. A bucket spray pump could be pur- chased at very little cost, and would be well wortli the price to the school for experimental purposes, and encourage the practice of this ver}^ important work. Two good machines of larger and more expensive make are the Pomona and the Fruit-all. Allow the "blue-stone" to dissolve over night, hanging in a c'oth ONE HUNDEED lessons IN THE CODLING MOTH (Courtesy of B, F, Jolinpon Pub. Co.l FRUIT FROM SPRAYED AND UNSPRATED BRANCHES (Courtesy of B. F. JohnsoB Pub. Co.) ELEiMENTAKV ACJBICLILTUBE 77 sack in three g-allons nf walci", cir place in boilin:;" water when it will dissolve in a few minutes. Use wooden vessels for the copper solution. Dilute to 25 gallons. Dissolve the lime in five or six gallons of water, and dilute to 25 gallons. After the two have dissohed, in their separate vessels, ponr the two solutions slowly to- gether into a barrel. Now dissolve the one-and-one- half pounds of lead arsenate, and slowdy and thor sughl)- stir the solution into the barrel with the re,-,'. The irjxture is now ready for the spray pump. (Bord;aux). Force the spray thoroughly onto every leaf, stem, and fruit of the apple tree. If this operation is repeated in about two weeks after the blossoms fall, and then in mid-summer t 1 com- bat the second brood, the trees and fruit will be saved from codling moths and fungous disease •, and the apple trees may yield a hundred-fold. This has been proven most forcibly in the orchards of I\fr. G. C. Starcher, of Berlin, Lewis, Co., West Virginia. Old and formerly barren trees, have yielded hundreds of dollars' worth of fine apples in a few years, and his fruit has taken first and second prizes at National and state exhibits. This same spray mixture can be used at any season upon any leaf-chewing insects that are defoliating the plants. Applications to the Stale Ex- periment Station should be made for the latest -pray- calendars. IT. S. Vandewort, Morgantown, A\'. Va., will furnish prepared mixtures ready for solution. References: — Farmers' Bulletin No. 243. Id. — Pages 128-130. G. •&' M.— Pages 138-140. "S ONE HUN'UREH LESSON'S IN LESSON XXVII Title. — Budding. Season. — Early Autumn or early Spring. Object. — To learn how to propagate fruit trees by budding. Material. — Lharp knife, raffia or string, and fruit trees. SUB.JECT-MATTER AND METHOD Budding is such a simple and important farm operation that e\"erv bov and girl should know how to do it. Think of changing the little apple-trees in the orchard to almost an_\- variet\- oi apples you wish I Thi> is exactly what budding is for. This change can be made ■ n 1 rri^cn^s as -mall as lead pencils, or as large as the thumb. The nurser}-man buds the little trees a few inches above the surface of the grouml. The fruit grower top buds the little trees, two o,- three feet above the ground. The class may go to a young orchard near the school for this lesson, or several branches of youu;^ trees may be brought into the school-room. I. Choose the place for the bud. ^vlake a hori- zontal cut across the stem, just through the bark. Then beginning in the middle of the horizontal cut, draw the knife straight down making a ^•ertical cut. ("See figure b). Twist the knife sidev;ise before draw- ing it out. in order to loosen the bark. The stock Is now readv for the bud. ELEMENTARY AGKICULTUEE 79 BUDDING (Courtesy ot Cornell Rural School Leaflets.) 2. Take the buds from bearing trees of tlie vari- ety you wisli. Cut twigs that have grown this year. The .leaves are still on them. At the base of each leaf, and between the leaf and the branch, you will find a little bud. This is the bud to insert into the tree which has been prepared as above described. 3. Cut the leaf off about a quarter of an inch above the bud, thus leaving the leaf stock as a handle for the bud. The end buds should not be used. Be- ginning with a sharp knife below the bud, cut up- wards just through the bark, beneath the bud and aboA'c it at)out half an inch. Re sure to cut tlirongli the bark, but not into the wood. (See figure a). 4. Push the bud dn\\'n into the cut made int-i the stock, using the leaf stalk as a handle. Be sure that the entire bud is shoved into the incision. If a so ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN piece I t Ijark should project above, cut it off. (See figure c). 5. The bud is now ready for tying. Raffia is the best material to use, but ordinary string may be used. Begin lielow the bud and wrap the wound entirely, except where the bud is. Wrap it snugly and tightly, and then tie secureh'. (See figure d) 6. In two or three weeks the bud will have "stuck", and the string may then be removed. The l.iud will remain dormant during the winter and begin to grow the next spring. References: — Farmers' Bulletin No. 137 and 218. Id.— Pages 86-88. And when, ahnve this apple-tree. The winter stars are quivering bright .\nd winds go howling through the night. Girls, whose \oung eyes o'erflow with mirth. Shall peel its fruit In- cottage-hearth. And guests in prouder homes shall see, II I. aped with the grape of Cintra's vine .\u(l g("ilden orange of the line. The fruit of the apple-tree. — Brvant. ELEMENTARY AGEICULTURE 81 LESSON XXVIII Title.— Grafting. Season. — Spring or Autumn. A good Winter lesson. Object. — To learn how to propagate fruit by grafting. Material. — Sharp knife, grafting wax, strings, and fruit trees. SUBJECT-MATTEE AND METHOD By a process known as gi'afting, one can force trees to produce different varieties of fruit. There are two common methods of grafting, — the tongue or whip graft and the cleft graft. I. The tongue graft. If the class can not plan to go to an orchard for this lesson, bring several branches of apple trees into the school room. Choose a stock upon which you in- tend to graft the desired variety.' Then select from the variety desired, a twig that is about the thickness of the young tree at the point where you wish to graft. Be careful to select the shoot or scion from a healthy part of the tree. Cut the scion and stock as you would the mouth parts of a boy's whistle then make a vertical slit across the cut surface. Join the cut end of the scion to the cut end of the stock and wrap with raffia or waxed cord. When you join them, notice that under the bark of each is a thin laj'er of soft, juicy tissue. This is called the cambium. To make a suc- cessful graft, the cambium in the scion must exactly join the cambiimi in the stock. 82 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN CLEFT GRAFTIXG A— Prepared scion; B— Scions in place; C— Graft waxed over. ELEMENTABT AQBICULTUBK 83 After fitting the parts closely together, bind them with string that has been coated with grafting wax. This wax is made of equal parts of tallow, beeswax, and linseed oil. Smear the wax over the whole joint, and make sure that it is air-tight. February or March is perhaps the best time to do this work. 2. The cleft graft. For the grafting of larger scions or for the graft- ing of scions of various kinds of apple-trees upon the branches of one stock, the cleft-graft method is used. The stock is cut squarely across, and the scions, either one or two, are cut into wedges at the end, and slipped into a cleft of the stock. The cambium of the scions must come in contact with the cambium of the stock, as in the former method. After the scions are forced into the cleft of the stock, the whole exposed surface, and the cleft left open, should be covered with the grafting wax. (See figure.) Trees may successfully be budded or grafted unlv when they are nearly related. There are some rare exceptions to this rule. Have pupils write a description of these methods and make drawings of the grafts. Each pupil in the class should make these grafts for himself, and if pos- sible, the work should be done in the orchard. References : — Id.— Pages 83-86. G. & M.— Pages 84-87. S4 ONE HUXDEED LESSORS IN' LESSON XXIX Title. — Spraying for San Jose Scale and other Suck- ing Insects. Season. — During the dormant season of plants. Object. — To learn how to spray for San Jose scale and other sucking insects. Material. — Spray pump, ^i pound of hard soap, 2 gal- lons of kerosene, water, and the fruit-tree with the scale, 15 pounds lime and 15 pounds sulphur. SrBJECT-MATTER AKD METHOD "With this lesson, as with a preceding one, it may not be possible in the rural school to demonstrate the actual work of spraying, but the teacher should make e^'cry effort to have the school officials purchase a spra}--puinp in order to demonstrate these important lessons. The San Jose scale is one of the most dreaded en- emies of the fruit-tree. It is an illegal act to sell fruit- trees infested with it. This insect is very minute, yet it spreads rapidly and soon covers the branches of the trees with a grayish scale, beneath which is the living pest, sucking the life from the tree. Probably the best tiling to do wlien one finds that the scale has found his fruit-trees, is promptly to burn the tree aff-ected. By vigorous spraying with kerosene emul- sion of 15% strength, soon after the eggs are hatched in the summer one may keep them in check. ELEMENTARY AGEICULTURE 85 If possible tlie teacher may have the class help mix up the emulsion, either on a large scale as given in the appendix, or in small quantities with the same propor- tions. The best insecticide for scale in the dormant sea- son of the plant, is the lime-sulphur wash, or a mis- cible oil. Lime-Sulphur Wash. Lime 15 pounds Sulphur 15 pounds Water 15 gallons Boil, then dilute with 50 gallons of water. For a school-room demonstration, the following proportions may be made up for kerosene emulsions Soap I oz. Water I pt. Kerosene 2 pt. This prDportion, diluted with two gallons of wa- ter, will make a spray which may be used on house or garden plants to rid them of plant lice, or other ^ucking insects. References: — Farmers' Bulletin, No. 227. Id. — Pages 127-128. SAN JOSE SCALE SC ONE HUITOBKD LESSONS IN LESSON XXX Title. — Collections of the Products of the Neighbor- hood. Season. — Autumn. Object. — To learn and to classify the products of the neighborhood. Material. — All the material collected, bottles, strings, and labels. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Try to get small bundles of each of the grains raised in the community, such as, — wheat, oats, rye, corn, cowpeas, clover, and any other crop raised for its seed. Ha"\'e each of the pupils bring a few culms of these and a collection will soon he made. Each bundle should l>e labeled as follows : Name of plant. Date of collection. Name of collector. The collection should be accompanied by samples of the mature seed, put up in bottles of uni- form size, and labeled as above. All the grasses and clovers used as hay may be collected in the same way. Arrange the exhibit on the wall or in a frame in as artistic a manner as pos- sible, A dav can be set apart when the fruits and veg- etables, as well as other farm products of the neighbor- hood, can be exhibited. Awards and prizes might be ELEMENTARY AGKICULTUBE 87 offered, thus making the school a new center of in- terest in the community. As much of the collection as can be made perma- nent, should be made so and kept at the school dur- ing the term. The collection and arrangement of this material will furnish a valuable lesson, and give opportunity to ilc\-clop skillful exhibitors. FORESTRY SCENE ss OXE HUKDBED LESSONS IN LESSON XXXI Title. — Habits of the Common Weeds. Season. — Autumn. Object. — To study the habits and methods of treating some common -weeds. Material. — A collection of weeds. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Weeds are everywhere, and their disadvantages are well known. Select some of the most troublesome weeds in your community, and make the following study, filling out the table below : Name of the Weed. Kinds of soil in which it thrives best. Calculate number of seeds. How are the seeds scattered? When ripe? At what time in the growing season do they germinate? 6. Does the young plant grow rapidK- or slowly? 7. AVhat kind of roots does the plant have? >!- When ^-r.ll cut it ''IT il( c- a nc\\' plant come from the same place i' q. Does plowing through a patch of \\-eeds in- crease their number? ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 89 90 ONE HUNDEED LESSONS IN " " ' * ~ 10. Does the weed have any natural check, such as birds, insects or live stock eating the fo- liage? I r. Weeds can be killed either by preventing the formation of seeds, or by preventing the growth of the foliage. Which of these methods is better suited to the weed in hand ? 12. What garden or field crop does this weed in- jure?' How does it injure^ Answer these points for a half-dozen different kimls of weeds, and pre-erve ^■our specimens in the school for reference. Learn the names of 12 or 15 common weeds. AA'rite to the Department of Agriculture at Wash- ington, D, C. for Farmers' Bulletin No. 28, on Weeds and How to Destroy Them, and for a reprint from the Year Book of 1898, entitled. Birds as AA'eed De- stroyers. Reference : — Id. — Pages 73-76. O. & ]\I. — Pages 109-129. Xnte. — Some weed.s arp difficult to eradicate because they havp large fle.chy roots, that send up new sprout'' as soon as the top is cut off. others are fully as trnulile^ome because they haye underground stems that run along just beneath *he surface. S1:il! other weeds per- sist because they can ripen an immense amount of seeds. The way to kill the weeds of th-^ first and second class is to cultiynte so thor- oughly as f.o kill the sprouts a" they appear. If this is done thor- oughly for about three months, all the substance in the underground storehouses will be used up and the weed must die. The way to de- stroy weeds of the third class is to preyent them from seeding. Deter- mine to which class your troublesome /""weeds belong. ELBMENTAET A.QBICULTUEB 91 LESSON XXXII Title.— The Flower. Season. — Autumn or Spring. Object. — To study the flower and its life relation. Material. — Any simple, complete flower, hand lens, note book, and pencU. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD However much the flowers serve to beautify the world and increase man's enjoyment, that is not their chief use. The fruit of the plant bears the seed, and the flower produces the fruit. That is the chief duty of the flower. Every plant that produces seed has flow- ers. Let us see what a flower is. Take for example a buttercup, cherry blossom, or the violet. You will find on the outside a row of green leaves enclosing the flower when it is still a bud. These leaves are called sepals. Next on the inside is a row of colored leaves, or petals. Arranged inside of the petals are some threadlike parts, each with a knob on the end. These aye the stamens. Examine one stamen close- ly. On the tip at its knob you should find, if the flower is fully opened, some fine grains of powder. This substance is called pollen, and the knob on the end in which the pollen is borne is called the anther. The 92 ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN ■StigmO' -Corolla. VERTICAL SECTION OF A TOMATO BLOSSOM (From Burket' et al.. Glnn & Co.) fllOTnent- Sa^ma.-- Sty/e. Ovary— L ; A STAMEN A PISTIL ELEMENTAKY A,GBICULTUEE 93 pollen is very important to the flower. Without it there could be no seed. But there is another part to each flower that is of equal value. This part you will find in the center of the flower, inside the circle of stamens. It is called the pistil. The tip of the pistil is the stigma. The base of the pistil forms the ovary. If you carefully cut open this ovary, you will find in it ^"er3- small unripe seed. in tlie corn flower and many others, the stamens and pistils are separate on the same plant. In some plants these parts occur on separate individuals. Xow no plant can bear seeds unless the pollen of the stamen falls upon the stigma. The wind and the insects help to carr}' the pollen to the stigma. T^-'ill out the following table for this lesson on flowers : Name of j No, of Flower, i Sepal,':. No, of I No, of No, of Pi,stils. Petals and ' Stamens. Seeds many or few. Color. Make a drawing of each of the parts of the flower and of the whole flower. References : — Id. — Pages 44-48. (7. &: \]. — Pages 06-104, 94 OXE HTJNDBED I^SSONS TS LESSON XXXIII Tide.— The Wheat Crop. Season. — Autumn or Spring. Object. — To learn the nature and requirements of the wheat crop. Material. — A wheat field for the class to observe some wheat cukns, grains, and growing plant in the school-room. SUBJECT-MATTEE AND METHOD Plan to take the class to a wheat field in late spring or early autumn. Let the following points be brought out by way of introduction : A\'heat has been cultivated from the earliest times. This crop ranks third in value in the United States. It grows in cool, temperate, and warm cli- mates, and in many kinds of soil. It does best in clay loam, and poorest in sandy soils. Examine the soil of the crop before the class, if you are in the field. The soil must be well drained, and in a good physical condition. — that is it must be open, crumbly, and mel- low. Hard clay soils can be made valuable for wheat by working in manure, by good tillage, and by crop rotation. Cowpea; r^r red cIn-\-er make a valuable crop ,to precede wheat: for they add nitrogen to the soil, loosen the soil and allow free circulation of air, and add humus to the soil, when plowed under or decayed. ELEMENTABY AGBICULTUBE 95 Pull up a single wheat plant and see the extent )f the root system. From one to two inches is the most satisfactory depth for planting wheat. A mel- low soil, with a compact subsoil, is the most desirable for wheat culture. There are a great many varieties of wheat; some are bearded some are smooth ; some are winter vari- eties and some are spring varieties. .\11 may be im- proved by careful seed selection. The seed drill is the best implement for planting wheat. A study of the crop will show what sort of fer- tilizer is needed. If the straw be inferior and short, the .soil is probabl}- deficient in nitrogen ; but if the straw be luxuriant and the heads small and poorly filled, the soil may contain too little phosphoric acid and potash. A few wheat kernels should be planted in pots in the school-room in time before this lesson, so that the growing plants may be observed. Make a drawing of a wheat stem and its entire 'oot system. References : — Id. — Pages 163-168. 96 ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN LESSON XXXIV Title.— The Corn Crop. Season. — Autumn or Spring. Object. — To study the nature and requirements of the corn crop. Material. — A field of corn for observation, or the glow- ing plants in the school-room. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD In former lessons the seiecting and testing of seed corn has been studied and in this lesson the cultural requirements are to be noted. Take the class to a field of corn, either in the late spring or early autumn, and there discuss with the pupils the following points : Corn is king of the cereals, and the most impor- tant crop of American agriculture. It is the backbone of farming in this country. The white man learned the value of this cereal from the Indians, and since then its culture has kept pace with the wonderful growth of our country. A rich humous soil, loose, warm, and moist, will produce a better crop of corn than any other. The proper time to begin the cultivation of corn is before it is planted. Plow deeply. Harrow the surface mel- low and fine. Plant with the horse planter, either in hills or in drilled rows. A few days after planting, the cornfield should be harrowed with a fine-toothed harrow to loosen the surface soil, and to kill the grass ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 97 and weed seeds that arc germinating. WIicii the corn plants are from a half inch to an inch high, the roller and narrow shoveled cultivator should be used. Corn is a crop that needs constant cuUivation, and during the growing season should be culti\'atecl at least four times. This cultivation is for three reasons: 1. To destroy- weeds that take plant fni d and water. 2. To provide a soil mulch to prevent evapora- tion. 3. Because tillage is a fertilizer. Constant stir- ring of the soil! allows the air to circulate, and provides available plant food. Deep culture of corn 1=; not advisable, after the roo^s begin to spread. A'Vhile in the field, have the pupils examine the soil, the depth of cultivation, the corn roots, .and the thriftiness of the crop. The stalks ought alwaA's to be saved, fur they make valuable food for horses, cattle, and sheep. Have pupils write a paragraph on corn culture after the discussion of this lesson. Ask them to con- sult the farmers for additionail points. Report as follows : AVhen plowed? How deep? How prepared for planting? How much seed used? AVhat kind of a seeder? How harvested? When? References : — Farmers' Bulletin, No. 199. Id. — Pages 168-173. 98 ONE HUNDEED LESSONS IN LESSON XXXV Title. — Ihe Roots of Corn and Clover. Season.— Whenever available. Object. — To learn the nature and habit of the roots of corn and clover. Material. — Earthen pots vi^ith the growing corn and clover plants. SUB.JECT-ilATTER AND METHOD By growing the corn and clover in pots, the early stages of the root may be studied, and by going to the field in September, the matured roots may be seen. Carefully wash the soil from the young roots, and spread them out upon a sheet of paper. Get a root from the mature plants and have it before you for comparison. Xote the following points of the corn root, and taliulate the ans«'er below : 1. Length and number of principal roots. 2. Amount of branching from any one root. 3. Direction in \\hich the roots extend from the base of the plant. 4. -Vmount of space used a? feeding ground. 5. How near the surface do the roots lie? f 6. Difference between spur roots and the others. Reasons. ELEMENTABT AGEIOULTUaE 99 7. Can you find root-cap and root-hairs? 8. Does your observation lead you to any con- clusions about the cultivation of corn? Explain. Make a similar study and tabulation for the clo- ver roots upon these points : 1. Do you find any nodules on the clover root? 2. Of what use are these nodules said to be? 3. Were there any nodules on the corn roots? 4. Which of these plants has a tap-root? 5. From this lesson can you see why crops should be grown in rotation ? Make a drawing in the note-book of the corn and clover root s\'stem. (Adapted from Fisher, Purdue University.) References : — Id.— Pages 33-35. G. & M.— Pages 45-48. ■THB OBOWTH OF COBN BOOTS. 100 ONE HTJNDBEli LESSONS IN LESSON XXXVI Title. — Suckers on Corn and the Stooling Habit oi Wheat. Season. — At any time. Object. — To study the stooling habit of wheat, and the growth of suckers on corn. Material. — Box of soil in which are growing the wheat and com plants. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD If it is not possible to make this study in the fields, the corn and wheat mav be grown in rich soil in doors. A\'ith a stiff knife or trowel, raise a wheat plant from the soil without breaking off many of the roots. Try to find the grain from which the plant started. Find the first joint above this grain. Do you find more than one plant starting from this joint ^ All but the central one of these are stools. Do the stools seem to be as strong as the central plant' Does the thickness of the stand seem to have anything to do with the amount of stooling? Is the stooling greater in rich soil or in poor soil? Is a large amount of stooling desirable? Whv? ELEMENTABY AGKICIIL,TUBE 101 What are your conclusions as to the quantity of seed to be sown? Are the suckers on the corn examples of stooling? Are the suckers beneficial or harmful to the corn plant? Why? Write answers to these questions in the perma- nent note-book. Make drawings to show the stool- ing habit. 102 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON XXXVII Title. — Plant Propagation from Cuttings. Season. — Any season when plants are available. Object. — To learn plant propagation by means of the "cutting" method. Material. — A window box of rich soil in the school- room, and cuttings from begonias, wax plants, coleuses, geraniums, verbenas, etc. SUBJECT-MATTEE AND METHOD The teacher or the pupils may bring soft cuttings from the stem or leaf of house-plants at home, if none are available at the school. The window box, which should be a permanent fixture in all the course in ele- iiientar\' agriculture, should be supplied for this les- son with moist sand, and kept in a warm place. The leaves of the Rex begonia and wax plant may Ije propagated by inserting the edge of the leaf or even a piece of the leaf in sand and supplying it with plenty of moisture and warmth. A leaf may be laid flat, right side up, on the surface of the sand and fas- leni'd down at intervals by splinters through the veins. Plants will spring up at the bottom edges of the leaf or at cut places in the veins. Stem cuttings are easily made from the coleus, geranium, verbena, tomato, and numerous other herb- aceous plants. Take thrifty shoots from any of these ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 103 STEM CUTTING. OR SLIP, OF COLBUS LEAF CUTTING.— WHOLE LEAF 104 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN plants, and divide them into cuttings having at least two nodes and several leaves. Take off about half of the leaves, insert the cutting in moist sand about half of its length, and press the sand firmly about it. Keep the sand warm and moist and watcli the cle- \-elopment from day to day. Poplar and willow trees will propagate ea 120 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON XLVII Title. — Propagation of Raspberries. Season. — Autumn. Object. — To learn the method of propagation in the black and the red raspberry. Material. — Red and black raspberry plants. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Go with the class to a garden or field where the black and the red ra-pberry gro\\\ Call attention to the fact that the black raspberry bends over and that the tip takes root in the ground and propagates in this way. If none have taken root in this way, a stalk should be bent over and covered with earth to allow the tip to take root. Notice that the red raspberry does not bend over and root at the tip as the black raspberry does, but that new stalks spring up at intervals from the root under ground. The red raspberry thus spreads rap- idlv and if left to itself will spend its energy in grow- ing canes rather than producing berries. This can be prevented bv cutting of? all the new shoots but two or three for the next year's growth. Show the pupils how to prune both varieties in the spring in order to have the canes produce the most and best berries. Cut awav the last year's canes. Cut the canes ELEMENTAKY AGEICULTURE 121 of the black raspberries that have bent over and taken root, so that there shall be two individual canes in- stead of the single one rooted at both ends. After the iield lesson, have the pupils write a comparison of the two raspberries as to habits of growth and propagation, leasing their description on the observations in the field. References : — III. — Page 58-62. G. & M.— Page 82. RASPBERRY LAYERING 122 ONE HUNDBKD LESSONS IW LESSON XLVIII Title. — Raising Cucumbers in the Garden. Season. — Spring or Summer. Object. — To show how to prepare and plant a pro- ductive cucumber bed. Material. — A barrel, spade, manure, and cucumber seeds. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD If it is desired, this lesson mav be demonstrated upon the school-grounds, or in a garden near the school, where permission is granted. The boys of the class may do this work under the direction of the teacher and for the observation of the class. Select a fertile spot and dig a hole in the ground large enough to sink the barrel midway. Knock the bottom out of the barrel and set it in the hole in the ground. Fill the earth in about the out- side of the barrel, and mound the soil up to the rim of the barrel on the outside. Now fill the barrel with manure, packed firmly, and keep it covered to prevent the house flies from breeding in it. The bed is ready for planting. Plant five or six hills of cucumber seeds in the mound heaped up about the outside of the barrel. Put about ten seeds in a hill, and when the plants get large enough to vine, remove half of them. KLEMENTABY AGKICULTURE 123 Pour several pails of water into the barrel of ma- nure each day, and the water leaching through the manure, will furnish the best of fertilizer for the plants, and the necessary moisture for their thrifty growth. These few hills will furnish an abundance of cucumbers, and upon a very small space of ground. If this lesson cannot be demonstrated at school, it is worth the study in order that it may be worked out at home by the pupil in the home garden. 124 OXE HL'XDBED LESSONS IN LESSON XLIX Title.— The Pea Family. Season. — Spring or Autumn. Object. — To learn the leguminous plants and their value. Material. — Some hand lenses, blossoms or pods of beans, peas, and clover, and an entire clover plant showing nodules on the roots. SUB.JECT-1IATTER AND METHOD The group of plants most important to mankind is the great grass family, which inckides corn, wheat. cats, timotl^^^ and others. The second group in importance is the pea family. These ]>lants are commonly called leguminous plants. Preceding lessons ha^'e referred to the great value of the closer and the cowpea. Their great value to the soil is in furnishing a congenial home for the bacteria. I which are microscopic plants, causing the nodules on the root?). In =ome \va}' these bacteria take nitro- gen from the air. so that it becomes available food for the growth of the plant. These bacteria do not live on the roots of any common plants except the legumes. Tl^c rea^iin \\h\- thi^ is ^i ■ important, is because nitrogen i^ the nir'^t expen';i\-e thing that the farmer bins in fertilizers. ELEilENTAEY AGBIOULTUBE 125 126 ONE HL'NDBED LESSONS IN If the bacteria are not in the soil where the le- gume is to grow, the soil may be inoculated by sprink- ling ft with soil from a field where the legume has for- merly grown. Specimen roots of the clover showing the nodules should be before the class for observation. Any text in Elementary Agriculture will explain the work of bacteria on the legume roots in further detail. The important thing here is to learn to recognize the leguminous plants. If the class cannot be taken to the field for this lesson, the following plants may be brought into the school-room : clovers, alfalfa, peas, beans, vetch, black locust, and all plants available with pea-like flowers. The following outline for study is suggested : 1. How are the leaves arranged? 2. Are the leaves simple (ail in one piece), or compound (divided into several leaflets) ? 3. ^^'hat two kinds of compound leaves do you find' Draw one of each, as the pea and the clover. 4. Describe the flower, recalling the names and parts learned in a former lesson on the flower. 5. Make a drawing of the blossom. 6. Split a bean or pea pod. How does it open? 7. Make a list of the legumes of the neighborhood. Write to Department of Agriculture, Washing- ton. D. C, for -ample of inoculating bacteria. References :— Id.— Pages 33-34. I G. & M.— Pages 45-48. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 127 LESSON L Title.— No Two Plants Alike. Season. — Autumn. Object. — To show the great fact of variation, that no two plants or animals are alike. Material. — Any two or more plants of the same kind. A number of stalks of the same variety of corn, grass, wheat, or a number of trees. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD The method is to see a plant accurately and then compare it with another plant of the same kind. Let any two stalks of corn be held up before the class ; or, if the pupils are in the field, each one may select two stallks for comparison. Allow no guessing. Measure and observe accurately. Look for the following points : 1. Height of the plant. 2. Does it branch? How many secondary stems or suckers from one root? 3. Shade or color. 4. How many leaves ? 5. Arrangement of leaves on the stem. 6. Measure length and breadth of six main leaves. 7. Number and position of ears. Color of silks. ] 128 ONE HTJN'DEED LESSONS IN ELBMENTAKy AGBICULTUBE 129 8. Size of tassel, and number and size of its branches. 9. Stage of maturity or ripeness of the plant. 10. Has the plant grown symmetrically, > r has it been crowded by other plants, or been olliged to struggle for light or room? 11. Note all the unusual marks or features. 12. Note the comparative vigor. These points may be used with any t\\i' plants with slight modification. (.Adapted from Bailey in the Cornell Rural School Leaflet.) References : — Farmers' Bulletin, 229. 130 ONE HUNDEED LESSONS IK LESSON LI Title. — Transplanting. Season. — Spring. Object. — -To learn how to transplant, and what plants are usually transplanted. Material. — Some tomato-plants, cabbage-plants, pan- sies, or other plants in the school-room and a box of soil. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD This lesson should be given in connection with the school garden if possible, but if there is no schoo' garden, the transplanting mav be done as a demonstra- tion in a window garden indoors. The plants usually transplanted are the tomato, cabbage, celery, pansy, and young trees. If the hotbed has been made at the school there will lie plcnt_\- of material a^-ailable. It is an impor- tant and practical lesson to learn. The following rules will guide to successful transplanting: 1. Transplant when the weather is cool and damp, preferable in the late afternoon. 2. Transplant when the plant is young. 3. Break the roots as little as possible in taking the young plant up, and keep them moist and shaded. 4. It is well to cut off some of the top in trans- planting, in order to restore the balance between the ELBMENTABT AGBICTJLTURE 131 root and top, since some of the roots were probably lost in transplanting. 5- The plant should be dipped in water and have moist fertile soil packed firmly about the roots. If wa- ter is to be used it should be poured about the roots before all the soil is added. 6. The plant should have as large a space as that in which it originally grew. The soil should be put in first at the bottom of the hole in which the roots are to grow, and the subsoil, if any, at the surface. It is important to make the soil firm about the roots. 7. It is sometimes well to shade the young trans- plant a few days from the hot sunshine, or to protect the roots with a mulch of straw or grass. The pupils in agriculture should by all means get some actual practice in transplanting, if in no other way than by going to the school yard and getting wild plants to transplant in pots or in out-door plots. References : — G. & :\I.--Pages 88-91. 132 0>'E HUXDBED LESSONS !>' LESSON LII Title.— The Toad, the Farmer's Friend. Season. — Any time when toads may be obtained. Object. — To learn the value of the common toad. Material. — A glass tumbler, some mosquito netting, a screen cage and some insects. SUBJECT-JIATTER AND METHOD Tlu' dav before this lesson is to be ;Tiven, the teach- er, ^vith the pupils' assistance, should have a box about a cubic toot in size, screened off on two opposite sides with eonimon door-screening, and a litcle hinged door oi sonu' -ort maHc thr("iugli which the toads and insects may be put into the box. Place two toads in the box on the evening be- fore the lesson, and they will be hungry enough to "show ofif" well for the class. Announce the plan be- forehand, and ask the pupils to bring in flies, bugs, but- terflies, caterpillars, worms, beetles, etc. When the lesson is ready to begin, place the box before the class, put all the insects in with the toads, and watch them eat. Such an interesting sight the pupils seldom see. The insects disappear as if by magic, snapped in b}- the toad's long tongue with light- ning rapidity. Have some pupil count how manv in- sects the toad eats during the recitation time. ELEMENTAEY AGRIOULTTIKE 133 Place one toad in the glass tumbler, cover witli a mosquito netting and pass it around among the pu- pils, SI) that all ma)' see the Ijeautiful eyes — , "the fabled jewel" in the toad's head. While the observation is going on, the following points should be brought out : The toad does more to rid the gaiden and field of noxious insects than any one species of bird, and he has solved the problem of insecticides betier tha^T man with all his bungling sprav-machines. The toad has a "homeing instinct,'' and should be placed in _\ards, gardens and fiekK and become one of our most valued domestic animals. A little stone house, containing a shallow jar of water will furnish an attractive home for the toad in the garden, and he will go forth at night like the lubber fiend, to do our tasks while we sleep. Laws should be passed preventing the small boy from killing all the toads he cares to. The toad is absolutely harmless, and the old wart superstition is mere "bri'li," and the toads ugliness, so-called, becomes 'transformed into real beauty, when we see its great ser- vice in the economy^ of nature. The fact that the toad sometimes gets into wells reflects on the thriftless methods of the man who leaves his wells open, rather than upon the thirst of the poor toad which falls in, in its search for the water, the man should provide for it. In these days of increasing insect pests, it be- hooves us to encourage and protect all of the natural enemies of our plant destroyers, and a few toads in a 134 0::fE HUNDEED LESSONS IN garden will go far toward controlling the cut worms, caterpillars, and the leaf-eating beetles. The toad is full of vital intercut from its egg stage, through the tad-pole development, to the adult, and the horror and disgust with which this harmless beneficial friend is viewed b\ many boys and girls should be clianged t(T intelligent sympathy and active apprecia- tiim in its behalf. References : — G. & M. — Pages 146-147. ^ THE TOAD JXBMBNTABY AQBICxn,TtJBl: 135 LESSON LIII Title. — Types of Horses. The Driving Horse. Season. — May be a Winter lesson. Object. — To teach the pupil to see a horse when he looks at him, and to recognize the driving type. Material. — A driving horse before the class. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD By comparing the horses we see on the road, we observe that there are different forms or types. Some have a form that enables them to draw a heavy load at a slow pace, while others have a form adapted to drawing light loads at a rapid pace. These represent two distinct types, and are called, draft horses and driving horses. In this lesson we are to study the driving horse. You will observe that the driving horse has a long graceful neck, a narrow chest, long body and legs. In the driving horse weight is not so important as in the draft horse. Speed and endurance seem to be the principal points sought in the roadster. The driving horse varies widely in height and weight. The following points any school boy should recog- nize in a good driving horse : 1. The color is not so important in this type of horses. The dark colors, bay or sorrel are always the most esteemed. 2. Geldings are to be preferred. 136 ONE HUNDEED LESSONS IN 3. The horse should be fifteen to sixteen hands high at the withers. 4. Conformation. The horse should be harmoni- ous, unblemished, withers full muscled, and loins slight- I3' weak, but powerful croup, thighs, buttocks, legs and hocks are essential. THE DRIVING HORSE 5. The neck should be long, chest large and deep, limbs clean and long, and muscles and joints showing graceful prominence. 6. The animal should have good life and not be afraid of ordinary objects. The teacher should study the following score card for light horses, and if the proper explanations be made, pupils of the eighth grade will be able to mark the card and score the horse fairly well : ELEMBNTABY AGKICULTUEE 137 A WELL PROPORTIONED HORSE -Forehead : b — Muzzle : c — Withers ; d — Breast : e — Arm ; f — Back ; ^ — Belly; h — Hip; i — Hock; j — Croup; k — Dock; 1 — Knee; m — Cannon; n — Fetlock; o — Pastern. (Courtesy of Cornell Rural Leaflets.) 138 ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSE. Frame — Smooth, evenly proportioned 4 Quality — Bone clean and hard, tendons well defined, veins prominent, skin and hair fine 5 Temperament — Active but kind 3 Head — Lean and symetrical 1 Forehead — Full and broad 1 Byes — Large, clear, open, and bright 1 Ears — Close together, medium in size, pointed to carry well forward 1 Muzzle — Clean and fine, nostrils large, lips thin and even 1 Neck — Muscular, crest high, windpipe prominent 1 Shoulders — Long, oblique, well muscled 2 Arms — Short, thrown forward 1 Fore-arms — Long, wide 2 Knees — Wide, straight, and clean 2 Cannons — Short, wide, sinews large 2 Fetlock — Wide, straight 1 Pasterns — Strong, angle with ground 45 degrees 3 Feet — Medium and even in size, horn dense, frog large, elastic, bars strong, sole concave, heel wide 6 Legs — Viewed in front, a perpendicular from point of shoulder should cut the ceoter of knee cannon, pastern and foot viewed from side, a perpendicular from center of elbow should cut the center of knee and pastern joint and the back of hoof 4 Withers — Well finished and muscled at top. 1 Chest — Deep, low, large 2 Ribs — Long, sprung, close 2 Back — Straight, short, broad, well muscled.. 2 Loin — Wide, short and thick 2 Underline — Short, straight 1 Hips — Wide, level 2 Croup — Long, wide, mu^^cular 2 Tail — Attached high, well carried 1 Thighs — Muscular, long, and spread 2 Quarters — Deep and heavily muscled 2 Gaskin — Muscular, long and wide 2 Hock-5 — Clean, wide, straight 5 Cannons — Short, wide, and clean 2 Fetlocks — Wide, straight 1 Pastern — Strong, sloping 2 Feet^Same as fore feet 4 Legs — From behind, perpendicular from point of buttock cuts center of hock, cannon, pastern and foot : from side, perpendicular from point of hip should fall on center of foot and divide gaskin in the middle and perpendicular from buttock should be parallel with cannon 4 Action — Walk quick. elastic, trot rapid. straight, regular and high 20 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 139 LESSON LIV Title.— The Draft Horse. Season. — At any time. May be a Winter study. Object. — To learn, to recognize, and to judge the draft horse. Material. — A draft horse before the class. A yard stick or tape line. SrBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Arrange to have a draft horse in the school yard for this lesson. Call attention to the short legs, heavy body, short, thick neck, broad, deep chest and shoulders, strong hocks and rather large joints and feet. With the draft type weight is one of the most important considera- tions. A draft horse may weigh from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds. The heavy horse in harness brings greater power into the collar than does the light one. There are several different breeds of draft horses. The Perclierons, Belgians, Clydesdales, and English Shires are the common breeds. Professor Whipple of West Virginia University suggests the following points that any school boy should recognize in a good draft horse : 1. The best selling -colors are: bay, chestnut, brown, roan, black, and iron grey. 2. Body conformation, massive low-set, ample. 140 ONE HUNDKED LESSOXS IX \"ery muscular, short-flanked, cylindrical, large and broad limbs, good feet, good face, ardor and endur- ancf . 3. The horse should be at least sixteen hands high at the withers. |. The animal should be sound, and the follow- ing blemishes should always be in mind in examining a horse : Spavin, curb, thorough-pin. sidebones, splints, Sweeney, sprung knees, faulty hoofs, poor eye sight, string halt, poor wind, parrot mouth, blindness, etc. 5. The horse should have good life but be gen- tle. AMiile the horse is present for this lesson, some interesting and profitable measurements may be made, which should teach the pupils to recognize good pro- portions in the horse. Three important points for measurements are. length of the head, total length of the body, and the total height of the body. Use an ordinar}- tape measure in this part of the exercise. 1. The height of the horse, from the top of the withers to the ground. 2. The height of the horse from the hips to the ground. 3. Length of the body from the point of the el- bow to the back of the buttock. 4. The length of the head. It will be found in a horse of good proportions that the first three measurements each equal about two and one-half times the length of the head. ulement vby ageicuLtube 141 If we take the total length of the horse's head, and compare it with the body of a well formed horse, we will find that there are four other measurements al- most exactly equal to it as follows : 1. The length of the neck from the top of the withers to the poll. If there is much difference between these measurements, we say that the head is too long or the neck is too short. 2. The height of the shoulder from the top of the withers to the point of the elbow. 3. The thickness of the body from the middle of the abdomen to the middle of the back. If there is a THE DR>FT HORSB 142 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN great variation in these measurements, we say the horse has a poor form. 4. The width of the body from one side to the other. A better instrument for taking the measurements of a horse, as suggested by Mr. Harper in the Cornell Rural School Leaflets, is as follcjys. A piece of soft white pine two inches wide, one-half inch thick, and four feet long; to one end of this, and at right angles to It, tack a similar piece of pine 18 inches long; to the other end strap loosely an ordinary carpenter's square at that it may slide back and forth. Now mark off the long piece into inches, beginning at the inside of the rigltt angle. ".\\ ! gather your reins and crack your thong, Anfi bid your steed .go faster; lie does not know as he scrambles along, That he ha^ a fool for a master." Holmes. References : — Id. — Pages 183-191. Extension Ijulletin, No. 5. Ohio State University. r;. cK: M.— Pa.ges 177-182. ELBMENTABT AGBIOULTUBB 143 LESSON LV Title. — The Dairy Cow. Season. — May be a Winter s'uiy. Object. — To learn to recognize and judge the dairy cow. Material. — A dairy cow before the class. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD For this lesson have a dairy cow brought into the school yard, and as the class observes the cow the teacher should speak briefly upon the following points. Cattle are kept for two main purposes ; for the production of milk and for the production of beef. These two purposes make different demands upon the energies of the animal, and thus through many gen- erations of selection and development, there have arisen two types of cattle, the beef form or type, and the milk form or type. These two forms are not entirely dis- tinct or separate, but they tend to merge into inter- mediate forms. The chief differences that distinguish the beef and the dairy types are : 1. Outline of body. 2. Depth and smoothness of flesh. 3. Size of udders. In the dairy type the general outline of body is 144 ONE HU^"UKED LESSONS IN wedge-shaped from before backward. This is due to a large development of the hind quarters, and some- times by low thin shoulders. The height of the animal at the hip is from one-half to one inch greater than at the shoulders. The wedge-shaped appearance is increased by a large and pendulous abdomen, and bv a large and well developed udder. In the dairy type there is less muscular development and more spare angular appearance. The animal may be fat enough and still present this spare appearance. In the dairy type the udder is much larger and fuller than in the beef type, and the so-called "milk-veins'' stand out prominently. The dairy breeds are the Jersey, Guernsey, Ayr- shire, Holstein, etc. References : — Id. — Pages 192-197 — 216. G. & M. — Pages 154-156. ELBMBNTABY AGBIOULTtJRE 145 While the cow is before the class the pupils should each score the animal, using the following score-card, which explains how the points should be marked : SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY COWS. student's Name Date Breed Age Weight General — Form — Wedge shaped, viewed from front, side and top Quality — Hair and skin fine and' mellow skin loose and thin Temperament — Nervous ' ' Head and Neck — Muzzle — Large and clean, nostrils large Eyes — Large, brilliant full and mild Face — Dishing and lean Forehead — Broad [][ _ Ears — Medium in size, fine in texture, with no ( . long, coarse hair i i Horns — Waxy, small, and fine in texture [ 1 Neck — Fine, clean, with little or no dewlap... Forequarters — Withers — Short, lean and thin Shoulders — Light, lean and oblique Legs — Short, straight and fine Body — Chest — Deep, wide, girth large Bowel — Ribs arched, long, and wide apart ; stomach large and roomy Back — Straight, lean ; spines prominent and wide apart Loin — Broad Navel — Large Hindquarters — Hips — Far apart, level Rump — Long level Pinbones and Thurlls — High, wide apart, and prominent Tail — Reaching to hocks, fine Thighs — Thin. long Escutcheon — High and spreading Udder — High behind, extending well forward in front; quarters even; teats evenly placed; udder not fleshy 146 OlfE HTOTDBED LESSONS Hf OS (S o Xi o„ u c So ELEMENTARY' AGBICULTUBE 147 LESSON LVI Title.— The Beef Cow. Season. — May be a Winter study. Object. — To learn to recognize and to judge the beef type of cattle. Material. — A beef cow before the class. SL*B.JECT-MATTER AND METHOD This lesson should follow lesson 55, so that the comparison of the two types may be brought out more clearly. Present to the class the chief characteristics of the beef cow as follows: In the beef form the outline of the body approach- es the rectangular. The general contour of the top and bottom line is straight and parallel, and the general dimensions of the body approximate those of a brick. In the best beef animal the whole body is thickly and smoothly covered with flesh, so that the angles of the bones are not prominent. The neck is short, and the whole body has a rounded appearance. In the beef type, not only is the udder small, but the veins leading from it are small and more or less embedded in the surrounding muscular and fatty tissue. The principal beef breeds are: 1. Aberdeen-Angus. 2. Gallowa}^. 3. Shorthorn or Durham. 148 ONE HTJNDBED LESSONS m O o ELEMENTARY AQBICXILTURE 149 4- Hereford. 5. Sussex. Use the following score card and judge the points in the animal before the class: SCORE CARD FOR BEEP CATTLE. Student's Name Date General — " T r Weight — Score according to age | in Form — Broad, deep and massive; top line and I under line straight ; legs short Quality — Hair fine, skin pliable, evenly fleshed, deep meated, especially in the valuable cuts. Head and Neck — Forehead — Broad and lull ; Eyes — Bright, clear and large Face — Short, quiet expression Muzzle — IWouth large, jaw wide, nostril large.. Bars — Fine texture, medium in size Horns — Medium in size, fine In texture, waxy. Neck — Short and thick, with no loose skin... Forequarters — Shoulder — Well covered with compact flesh on top and bottom, and smooth : shoulder vein filled out so as to make a smooth connec'ion with the neck Brisket — Prominent, showing well forward of the legs viewed from the side Dewlap — Should not have a surplus of loose skin . Legs — Short and straight, arms full and smooth , Body — Chest — Full, wide, deep, girth large Ribs — Arched, long, and thickly fleshed Back — Straight, broad, smooth, evenly and deeply meated . Loin — Broad and thick Flank — Deep and full, making a straight underline Hindquarters — Rump — Long, wide and smooth, no bunches of flesh at tail Hips — Smooth and well covered with meat Pinbones — Far apart but not prominent Thighs — Deep, wide and full Twist — Deep and full Purse — Full, fleshy Legs — Short, straight and smooth Total 150 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IH LESSON LVII Title. — The Composition of Milk. Season. — May be a Winter study. Object. — To learn some of the contents of milk, and to realize the importance of this subject for study. Material. — A quart of fresh milk, thermometer, saucer. pan. bottle, and a few drops of vinegar. SUB,JECT-MATTER AND ilETHOD Learn the following facts about milk : ]\Iilk consists of about seven-eighths water and one-eighth substances in sohition in the water or float- ing in it in very small particles. You may be sur- prised to learn that so large a proportion of milk is water. This is true not onlv of milk but of many of oiiv most important foods. The constituents of milk are often referred to as Water and total solids; fat casein, albumen, sugar and r;--b. A chemist can separate these substances with great accuracy, but by the following methods we can make a gross analysis: 1. Leave a little milk in a saucer for a short time in a warm place. The water will evaporate and leave the solids in dry form. 2. Separation of fat. Let a quart of fresh milk quietly stand in a shallow pan, in a cool place, until a layer of cream gathers at the top. This cream BaaiMKNIAEY AGEICtlLTUBE 151 is formed by the rising of tiny globules of butter-fat, which weie distributed evenly through the fresh milk. The fat is so much lighter than the liquid in which it floats that it will rise in the cream layer in about twelve hours. This fat is a constituent of butter and of some forms of cheese. 3. Separation of Casein. Add a few drops of acid, vinegar will do, to the skimmed milk. Soon it will thicken. Gently warm it now to about one hun- dred degrees and carefully break the thickened sur- face with a knife, and the skimmed milk will be seen to separate into curd and whey. Now strain through a cloth, and the casein will remain in the cloth, while the whey passes through. This casein is one of the principal parts of cheese. 4. Separation of Albumen. Slowly heat the whey to i6o degrees F. It will become cloudy and soon a soft jelly-like substance will collect on the surface. This is the albumen. This can now be sep- arated by straining. 5. Separation of sugar. Take a small quan- tity of the whey from which the albumen has been separated, place in a saucer and warm gentlj' un- til the water has been evaporated. A dry substance remains. Tliis is about seven-eighths milk-sugar and one-eighth ash. 6. Separation of ash. It will not be possible to separate the ash and sugar in pure form. Heat llie mixture in a dish or on the stove cover, and allow to burn as long as it will. The small residue left is the milk ash. (Adapted from Cornell Rural School Leaflet.) 152 ONE HITNDEED Ij;8S0NS W « 5"c 0.,H ■^Is,?; ELEMENTABT aqbicultube 153 LESSON LVIII Title.— The Souring of Milk. Season. — May be a Winter study. Object. — To learn how milk sours and how to care for it. Material. — Text-book and note-book lesson. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Discuss with the class the following points, and for the note-book work of this lesson require the stu- dents to write a paragraph on the care of milk, and copy the drawing as shown in the figure into their note-books. In another lesson we have spoken of the little plants called bacteria, which live at the roots of the legumes and take nitrogen from the air to help make the plant food. In this lesson we are to learn of another kind of bacteria living in milk and causing it to sour. In the first place, milk sours because bac- teria from the air fall into it, begin to grow, and soon change the sugar of the milk to an acid. These bacteria are in the air, in water, in barn dust, on bits of hay and on the cow. They are most plentiful in sour milk, and if we should pour a little sour milk into the fresh milk the latter would sour more quickly. The same thing happens when people put 154 ONt HimDBED LESSONS IN fresh milk into poorly cleaned pails. It follows that all utensils used in the dairy should be thoroughly scalded so as to kill all the germs that cause the milk 10 sour quickly. Not only do these germs which cause the sour- ing of the milk get into it, but the germs of con- sumption and typhoid fever will also live in milk and thus endanger the health and li\es of all who drink it. The following precautions in the care of milk should be known by all who suppl}- U5 with this valuable food : 1. Avoid pitching hay or makmg beddings or sweeping in the barn soon before milking time, if the cows are to be milked in the barn, for more germs fall intn the milk if the air is full of dust.' 2. The milker should wear clean clothes, should have clean hands, and should never wet his hands with the milk. 3. For greater cleanliness and safety the milk- a — Pure. b — Bacteria PURE AND IMPURE MILK (Courtesy of B. F. Johnson Pub. Co.) ELEMBNTAEY AGRIOUMUEE 155 man should curry the sides of the cow, and moisten the parts nearest him to prevent dust from falling from the cow into the milk. 4. The first few streams of milk from each teat should be thrown away, because the milk at the mouth of the teat has been exposed to the air, is full of germs, and will cause the rest of the milk to sour sooner. 5. Every vessel used in the handling of the milk should be scrupulously clean. 6. The surface of the milk should not be left exposed to the air of the cellar, living rooms, or any place where dust and germs may fall into it. 7. To tt'.st for formalin in milk, aiUi a few drops of ferric chloride, Ihcn jjour sulpliuric acid into ilie milk, letting it run down the -ide of the glass. .\ puri>k- color at the junction of the milk and acid, indicates the [iresence of formalin. 8. Promptly cool and aerate the milk to prevent development of bacteria. 9. The cows should be healthy, especially as re- lated to tuberculosis. 10. The stables should be well lighted and vcn- ti'atcd. References : — Id. — Pages 220-227. G. ■& M.— Pages 160-168. 156 ONE HTINDBED LESSONS IN LESSON LIX Title.— The Babcock Test for Butter-fat in Milk. Season. — May be a Winter lesson. Object. — To become familiar with the Babcock method of showing the richness of milk. Material. — A hand-power Babcock tester, at least two milk test-bottles, one pipette to measure the milk, one acid measure, about one pint of sulphuric acid, a few ounces of milk and some hot water. A good tester can be obtained from D. H. Burrell & Co., Little Falls, N. Y., at small cost. Sulphuric acid is sold at all drug stores. SUBJECT-MATTEE AND METHOD If the school can not be provided with a Babcock tester, this lesson will have to be omitted. The les- son is such an important one, and the ownership of a Babcock tester by the school would be such a valu- able thing for the whole community, that the teacher should make every effort to get the material for this lesson. Because of its simplicity, accuracy, and ease of operation, the Babcock test has become the standard test for determining the value of milk and cream as rlcli\'ei'ed to the cheese factoires, creameries, and all milk ?tations over this country. Complete directions for using come with every ELBMENTABY AQBIOULTUBE 157 machine, and it will not be necessary to give them here. Observe great care for accuracy. Have some pupil bring a sample of milk from one of the cows at home. The sample should be taken soon after the milking is done, and the milk has been poured two or three times from one vessel to another so as to be thoroughly mixed. Take about a half cupful as a sample and put it into a clean bottle. From this bottle the sample is drawn for testing, after mixing the con- tents of the bottle thoroughly. Having determined the per cent of butter-fat in the sample, an estimate can be made of the total amount of butter-fat in a gallon of milk. (A gallon weighs S% pounds.) Make many tests of the same cow's milk to deter- mine its richness. A pound of butter-fat should make, in ordinary practice, about i . i pound of butter, and the pupils can compare the price paid for butter and for the butter-fat if sold at the creameries, and determine which method of sale is better. If the school is in a dairy district, this lesson will furnish work for several weeks, and be profitable to pa- trons as well as to pupils. References : — G. & M. — Pages 163 and 217. 158 ONE HUN'DEED l^SSONS IN LESSON LX Title.— Sheep. Season. — A Winter lesson. Object. — To learn some facts about sheep, and to judge the types. Material. — A sheep before the class. SUBJECT-MATTER A^^) METHOD Sheep raising is especially profitable in West Vir- ginia, and in the schools of this State, it would be well to emphasize the study of this farm animal. Dis- cuss with the class the following points about sheep: 1. Sheep are found in almost every latitude, and they can find sustenance and thrive where other ani- mals can scarcely live. 2. Sheep provide man with meat and clothing, and are among the most profitable of animals. 3. Sheep increase rapidly, mature early, furnish wholesome food, and improve the land on which they are pastured. 4. Sheep are docile, rather easily handled, live on a great diversity of food, and require less grain than any other kind of live stock. 5. Much food is \vasted on the ordinary farm that would maintain a small flock of sheep. 6. Sheep may be divided into two classes, wool EJ>EMKNTABY AORTCULTUKE 159 B a » o O CO w a 160 ONI HtrrroBKD lessons in breeds and mutton breeds. Of the wool breeds, Amer- ican Merino, Delaine jMerino, and Rambouillet are the standard types. Of the mutton breeds, Southdown, Shropshire, Horned Dorset, and Cheviot are the standard types. Open the fleece of the sheep and observe the clean skin in which the fibres grow. These fibres are so rough that they keep the dirt to the outside. Wool is valuable in proportion to the length and evenness of the fibre and the density of the fleece. Answer the following questions taken from Bur- kett, Stevens and Hill : 1. How many pounds ought a fleece of wool of good wool breed to weigh ? 2. Explain the presence of oil in the fleece. 3. Which makes the better clothing, coarse or fine wool? 4. Why are sheep washed before shearing? 5. Does cold weather trouble sheep? Wet weather? Use the following score card from Purdue Univer- sity, Indiana, and mark the score for each sheep before the class: References : — Id. — Pages, 197-200. G. & M.— Pages, 183-188. ELEMETNTAEY AGBICXJLTUBE 161 STUDENTS' SCORE CARD — SHEEP. SCALE OF POINTS. A. Age Teeth B. General Appearance Weight — Estimated lbs. Actual lbs. according to age Form, low, compact, symmetrical . . Quality, bone and wool fine Constitution, as seen in girth, skin, and fleece C. Head and Neck. Muzzle, fine ; mouth and nostrils of good size ; lips thin Eyes, bright, full, whites clear Face, short Forehead, broad Bars, fine, erect Neck, thick, short D. Forequarters. Shoulders, smooth, well covered . . . Chest, wide, deep Brisket, thick and carried well forward Legs, straight, short, strong, well set, arm full, shank smooth E. Body. Back and Loin straight and wide... Ribs well sprung, deep Flanks low, making straight underline F. Hindquarters. Hips well apart, smooth Rump long, level, wide Thighs full Twist plump, deep Legs straight, short, strong ; shank smooth G. Wool. Quality fine, soft, clean, even Density great Length good Yolk Total 100 Mutton Sheep. i Score. ! Animal . Owner. . Date.., Fine Wool Stieep. 11 6 5 4 Breed Student , Grade of Student. 162 ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN EXEMENTAEY AGEICULTUBE 163 LESSON LXI Title.— The Hog. Season. — A Winter lesson. Object. — To study swine and learn to judge them. Material. — A hog before the class. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD For this lesson take the class to see some good breed of hogs or have a good specimen brought to the school yard. The first point to mention is the hog's structural adaptation to the life he leads. The skeleton is heavy and low, allowing great accumulation of weight in flesh and fat. The snout is strong and tough for rooting, and the eyes are set below the ears, indi- cating its ground-feeding habits. The chief value of the hog is its production of meat and lard and if properly cared for, it will bring the farmer more money than any other animal on the farm. The most desirable type of hog for lard or fat has short legs, heavy shoulders, small dished head, straight back and straight under-lines, and heavy hams. "The razor back" hogs are very unprofitable, and will not gain ?o rapidly under feeding. The following story is quoted from Burkett, Ste- vens and Hill : 164 0J«: HTJNDBED LESSONS IN "A boy whose parents were too poor to send him to college, once decided to make his own money and get an education. He bought a sow, and began to raise pigs. He earned the food for both mother and pigs. His hogs increased so fast that he had to work hard to keep them in food. By saving the money he re- ceived from the sale of the hogs, he had enough to keep him in college." The following are some standard breeds of hogs: 1. Chester AMiite 6. Duroc-Jersey 2. Yorkshire 7. Cheshire 3 Tamworth 8. Victoria. 4. Berkshire 9. Hampshire. 5. Poland-China Hogs will do better when kept as little as possible in pens. When hogs are kept in pens, cleanliness is most important to reduce the danger of disease. Ha\'e the class score the hog, using the following score-card of Purdue University, and marking the points as they judge: ELEMENTABY AGEIOTILTUBB 165 166 ONE HTJNDBED LESSONS IN LARD HOGS. MARKET. SCALE OF POINTS. Stan T3 O s GENERAL .4PPEARAXCE — 30 Points : 1. Weight, score according to age 4 S S 8 2 1 1 1 1 2 S 2 2 i 8 9 9 2 3 3 10 2 2. Form deep, broad. Iotv, long, symmetrical. 3. Qualify, hair silky ; skin fine ; bone fine : mellow covering of flesh, free from 4. Condition, deep, even covering of flesh, es- peciallv in region of valuable cuts 1 HEAD AND NECK— S Points: 7. Eves full, mild, bright 8. Face short, cheeks full 11. Neck thick, medium length, smooth to FOREQUARTERS — 12 Points: 13. Breast advanced, wide 14. Legs straight, short, strong, bones clean ; BODY — 32 Points : 15. Chest deep, broad, large girth 16. Sides deep, lengthy, full ; ribs close and 17. Back broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 1.8. Loin wide, thick, straight 19. Belly straieht, even HINDQUARTERS — 18 Points: 21. Rump long, level, wide, evenly fleshed. 23- Legs straight, short, strong ; bone clean. Total ^ 100 Date Student ELEMENTABT agbicottubk 167 ■ M COm O ■"^ n 1(8 ONE HT}NDBEI) LESSONS IK Questions: — i. At what age marketed? 2. Average weight then ? 3. Present price? 4. Symptoms of hog cholera? 5. Good preventions? 6. At the present price of com and hogs, would it pay best to feed it to hogs or sell it by the bushel^ 7. How many and what breeds in your community ? 8. Do hogs hke pasture? 9. What do hog raisers generally feed the hogs? How expensive is this feed as compared with feed for cattle or horses ? References : — Id. — Pages, 200-203. G. & M.— Pages, 189-192. BXEMENTAET AGBICTJLTUMl 169 LESSON LXII Title.— Poultry. Season. — May be a Winter study. Object. — To learn some facts about farm poultry, and to learn to judge standard types. Material. — Poultry for observation. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Arrange to have a specimen of a good breed of poul- try before the class for this lesson. It would be bet- ter to visit a poultry farm. Present the following facts about the fowls and discuss them with the class: 1. The domestic fowl is used for tgg production, meat production, feather production, pest destruction, and to satisfy fancy. 2. The last census showed that the farmers got about 150 million dollars annually from the sale of the eggs alone. 3. To increase egg production the hens should have an abundance of water, nutritious food, dry, warm, well lighted houses, and plenty of exercise. 4. Geese, ducks, and turkeys are not so generally raised as chickens, but there is an increasing demand for these fowls. 5. The use of the incubator is extending each year to supply the large demand for chickens. 6. One important fact to learn is the proper feeding for egg production. This is best secured by 170 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN feeding mixed grains, green grass, cut and steamed hay, (clover), alfalfa ha}\ roots, grit, and some kind of meat. In the winter ground bone, meat-meal, beef scraps, etc.. should be provided, since the hens can get no insects to make up the needed meat diet for egg production. It has been found that the nutritive ratio* of the food for fowls should be about i ; 4. That means that they should have a large amount of protein foods in proportion to the carbon foods, i. e., more seeds, grass, and meats than corn. 7. Sr.me .standard ^'arieties of chickens are as fol- lows : Egg-breeds — Leghorn. Minorca. I\Ieat-breeds — Urahira. Crichin. General purpose — Phiuouth Rock. A\"vandotte, Fancv breeds — Bantam. Polish. I'se the follow-ing score-card and have each pupil mark the points for the fowl before the class: STUDENTS' SCORE CARD — POULTRY. Dreed Sex WEIGHT. 1 Shape. " Color. ICondition Tvpical Carriage Weight Comb Beak .1 . Eyes Head Crept and Beard . . AViitile and Lobe Neck WiDg Back Tail Breast Body and Fluff Leg.s and Feet Hardiie^-^ of F. atT'crs Defects Score Refercnci.- : — Id. — Pages 204-207. (_'i. lK; .\1. — Pages, 193-200 (* See p. 186.) ELEMENTARY A(iBICULTUKE 171 COLONY HOUSE 172 ONE HUNDEED LESSONS IN LESSON LXIII Title. — A Study of Feathers." Season. — May be a Winter lesson. Object. — To study the use of feathers to the fowl, and to learn the different kinds of feathers on the dif- ferent parts of the body. Material. — A fowl of any kind brought to school in a coop. The same fowl used in the previous les- son could be used for this lesson. While it is kept at school it should be supplied with food and water. SUBJECT-MATTER AXD METHOD Have the fowl in fch'jol-room a few hours be- fore the lesson is given. Encourage the children to find out as many facts as they can for themselses be- fore the school opens for work. Direct the observa- tions of the pupils by a few questions, as : the kind of feathers: the location of the different kinds; any part of the body not covered with feathers. Suggest a little competition by asking which boy or girl can give the greatest number of facts from his observation of the feathers of the fowl. At class time, the teacher should remove the fowl from the coop and hold it firmly by the legs to pre- * (Adapted from The Cornell Leaflets.) BLIMENTARY AQBICULTUBK 173 vent fright and injury. Allow the children to come near. 1. Have the pupils feel the difference Ijetween the heat of the fowl's body beneath the feather.s and on the outside of the feathers. Explain. Bring out the point that the feathers are non-conducting, and ask what purpose this serves the fowl. 2. Spread the wings and tail so that the different feather sections may be seen. Note that in the wing and tail, one feather overlaps the other so that each feather braces the other in flight. 3. Observe the lighter wing feathers (the sec- ondaries) tucked under the heavier feathers (the pri- maries). What kind of feathers are in the tail? Are they different from those of the wings? What use do the tail feathers serve? BROODER HOUSE 174 ONE HUJTDEED LESSONS IN THE FEATHERS OF A CHICKEN Showing their relative size, shape and position. 1, Neck hackle ; 2. Breast ; 3, Wing shoulder covert ; 4. Wing flight covert ; 5, Wing primarv ; 6. Wing secondary ; 7. Wing covert ; 8, Back ; 9, Cush- ion : 10. Main tail ; 11, Flufl ; 12, Thigh. ELEMBNTABT AGEICU1.TUBE 175 4. Notice how the back feathers overlap each other. Why this arrangement? If the feathers shed easily without pain to the fowl, take one feather from each of the following places and fasten on a sheet of paper for comparison: I. Neck feather; 2. Breast feather: 3. Wing shoulder covert; 4. Wing fhght covert; 5. Wing primary: ('. Wing secondary; 7. Wing covert; 8. Back; 9. Cushion; 10. Main tail; II. Fluff; and 12. Thigh. See figure for corres- ponding numbers. 4. Have pupils make drawing sketches of these feathers. 5. Make a drawing of a large primary feather, and name the parts : fluff, tip, quill, barb, and web. CURTAIN FRONT LAYING HOUSE 176 ONE HTJITOBED LESSONS IS LESSON LXIV Title.— A Study of the Egg.* Season. — May be a Winter study. Object. — To observe the variations in eggs, the charac- teristic types, and to learn something of the struc- ture and composition of the egg. Material. — A collection of eggs from as many different kinds of poultry as possible, a neat box with good cover, blow pipes or straw, and a pair of balances or scales, and saucers. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Ask each pupil in the school to bring one or two hen-eggs, turkey-eggs, or an\- other fowl eggs, for this lesson. I. Tabulate in the note-book the record of the collection as follows : (Xumber each egg with ink on the shell.) •6 U) 0) H I 6 o a — 6 "Eg *6 o C3 c r- 'ji ;x^: — 1 — * (Adapted from The Cornell Leaflets.) ELEMENTARY AGRICTXLTUBB 177 2. After this data has been recorded, a small hole might be broken in each end of the egg, the blow- pipe or straw inserted, and the contents blown out, so tliat the egg shell ma)- be preserved in a neat box as part of an interesting collection. From time to time, pupils might be encouraged to get the shells from the eggs that are used at home to add to tlie collection. The contents of the eggs, blown, should be held in saucerS; one to each pupil. 3. Observe the structure of the raw eggs in the saucers. Find the "germinal disc'' which appears as a light colored spot, usually on the upper surface of the yolk. This germ spot contains the life principle of the egg. Note the whitish cords of denser albumen which serve to keep the volk properlv suspended in the white of the egg. Note the clear, watery appearance of the v.diite of the egg. This is tlie albumen, the food in liquid form upon which the young chick lives while in the shell, flf the contents do not come out whole, an- other egg must be broken for this part of the lesson.) 4. The chemical composition of the dry substance of the inside of the egg is (Snyder: Poultry Book.) : Protein. Fat. White (albumen) 8S.92 .53 Yolk 20.62 64.43 5. Make a drawing of the egg shell obtained above. 6. If it is not possible to boil the eggs at the school, ask each pupil to bring a boiled egg for this part of the study. 178 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN Carefully remove the shell piece b}' piece. Ob- serve the air space and the two membranes beneath the shell. Cut the egg lengthwise through the inici- dle and make a drawing of the section showing all the points mentioned in paragraph 3. Xote : — In connection with the lessons on poultry, it would be a good thing for the teacher and class to make some chicken coops and provide the school with a flock of fowls of good breed. Poultrv could be easily kept at the rural school, and thereby furnish practical work for the class in agriculture. ELBMENTABY AGKICnLTUBE 179 LESSON LXV Title.— Food Studies. Season. — A Winter lesson. Object. — To learn the most important food compounds and the relative food values of common foods. Material. — An egg, a potato, some nuts, fat meat, saJt, and water. Cheese and crackers, bread, butter and sugar. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD I. When one thinks of the study of foods he thinks at once of domestic science rather than of ele- mentary agriculture. But intelligent endeavor in ag- ricultural practices concerns itself with the use of food products, both for the farm animals and for the home table. It is an economic as well as a health factor that we cannot afiford to overlook. Until the recent pure food law became effective, we were at the mercy of the manufacturers and the grocers in their practice of adulterating, substituting, coloring, and preserving much of our food-stuffs. It would be an excellent part in the presentation of this lesson, for the teacher to get a few samples of properly labeled canned food-stuff, such as beans, ba- con, berries, syrups, peas, etc., and show the pupils how to recognize the inspection stamp under the pure ISO ONE HUNDKED LKSS0X6 IN food law of June 1906. Emphasize the fact that only such approved goods should be purchased. Thoroughl}" learn these facts — that food for man and the liigher \'ertebrate animals may be classified int>i proteids, carbo-hydrates, fats, mineral matter, and water. It is from these compounds that animals get life. heat, and energy,'. The examples of food given above contain all the elements of nutrition. It would be well to have these samples before the class and to explain which focid element predominates in each one. 2. Have pupils cop}' into their note-books and learn the following table: Proteid-food. Carbo-hydrate food. Fat-food, Minerals, Water. Starches. Lean meat. Sugars. Seeds, Salt. Water. White of egg. Potatoes, Xuts, Mineral inik. Curd of milk. Grains. Fish, ' water- Vegetables- Gluten of ^-heat. Vegetables. Butter. Cheese. Crackers. Fat meats- Beans. Honey, Green corn- Bread. Oils, JMan\- of the foods mentioned above contain two or more of the food compounds given at the head of the table, but they are 'classed under the compound which the}- have in greater prominence. The human bodv has these five compounds in its make up, hence the fo':>d nui-i CMiuain iheni if the body is to live and grow. 3. The following table, prepared from Bulletin 28, Office of Experiment Stations. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, shows the composition of common ELEMENTABY AGKICULTUKE 181 food materials. It should be copied into the pupils' note-books, studied and discussed by the teacher and class. This bulletin may be secured for five cents. FOODS. CL,p: 44. Sirloin steak 12 . S Beef, dried I 4.7 Toma'o soup | . . . . ^. | Maclierel Oysters Eggs Whole milk Cheese (cream) .... White bread Soda crackers Honey Beans (Lima ) Cabbage Potatoes Corn (green ) Tomatoes Goose 1.5. 20. 68. 77. 62. 94! 3S. u o 16.5 26.4 1.8 10.2 6. 13.1 3.3 25.9 9.2 9..S 16.1 6.9 1.1 4.2 1.3 9.3 4. .1 1.2 1S2 ONE HUNT1BED LESSON'S IN LESSON LXVI Title. — Food Proportions and Requirements. Season. — Winter lesson. Object. — To learn proper food proportions and some good dietaries. Material. — Some butter, bread, sugar, cheese, crackers, and dried beef. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 1. This lesson should follow immediately upon the preceding one. and before drawing any conclusion from the facts presented in the last lesson, we should Ijriug out this pciint, that crmking changes the physical ami often the chemical nature (if the foods, that it im- ])rii\-es the fla\'or and at high temperature kills germs. It ruptures the walls of the starch cells, softens the pro- tein (if the tissues, and tends tri harden the albuminoids. There are serious defects in the process of cooking ; i:(l preparing food.^. For exanijile. potatoes peeled and soaked for some time before cooking, loose 52% ( f nitrogenous matter : •« hen peeled and put into cold Avater and boiled, they loose 16% of it ; the ideal way of cooking potatoes is to boil them with the skin on. 2. Food requirements. It has been found that an adult at moderate mus- cular work, re(|nires food daily in the following pro- portions : ELEMBNTABT AGBICULTUBE 183 *Protein — one-fourth pound ; Fat — one-half pound . Carbo-hydrates — one and one-fourth pound. It would be an interesting part to this lesson to weigh out the following foods liefore the class that thf pupils may see the amount and proportion') constitut- ing good dietaries : (a) butter, 8 oz. (b) cheese, 12 oz. bread, 24 oz. crackers, 24 oz. sugar, 6 oz. These simple dietaries arc approximate estimates of a fairly balanced daily food ratio for an adult do- ing medium labor. This does not include the water which should constitute a large portion of the food of a day. The above dietaries are not perhaps so palatable as desir-ed, but they represent gnod proportions. 3. In the business of farming the same principles apply to the feeding and managing of stock. The pro- portion of available protein to the other ax-ailable nu- trients, is called the nutritive ratio. A cow should be fed a ration of i part proteins to 5.4 parts carbo-hydrates, a horse, I to 7, under average condition. Ten percent, of the food value is lost when a horse is required to stand in a cold stall or to fight flies. The science of stock feeding is a large and very ini])ortant field for study. The nutritive ratio for a growing boy or girl is T to 5.2. It would be a good practice to make up several food dietaries with the proper ration from the forego- ing tables. ♦NOTE. — Later Vale e.xperiiiieius ]iri)ve that an adult needs only -Oz. of portein daily. 184 ONE HUNDEED LESSONS IN LESSON LXVII Title. — Tests for Food Compounds. Season. — Winter lesson. Object. — To learn how to make tests for the common food compounds. Material. — Caustic potash, copper sulphate (blue stone), egg, corn or wheat, starch, iodine, potato, and nuts. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Pupils should become familiar with the terms. protein, starch, fat, etc., and they should know many facts about these nutrients. They may make tests for them in certain foods. I. To test for protein. Prepare a solution of caustic potash, 1-5 oz. to 2 oz. of water (warm). Dis- solve a piece of copper sulphate, about J4 inch in di- ameter in two ounces of warm water. Place a small quantity of white of egg on a plate and cover it with the caustic potash solution. Warm gently. Pour a small quantitv of the copper sulphate solution over ihi- and stir witli a clean stick. The color will re- main the greenish blue of the copper for ten or fif- teen minutes, when a bright violet will spread through the solution. This shows the presence of protein which was in the egg. Wheat, corn, and all the grains may ELEMJENTAJIT AGEICULTtFEI 186 be crushed and treated in the same way to show the presence of protein. 2. To test for carbo-hydrate (starch). Crush a piece of potato and partly dissolve in hot water. In- troduce a splinter into the iodine bottle, and transfer the iodine adhering to the splinter into the potato so- lution and stir. The blue color that forms is the test for starch. Seeds of various kinds may be crushed and boiled in water and the water tested for starch in the same way. 3. To test for fats. Nuts and small seeds may be crushed and heated on white paper. The grease spot that appears will indicate the presence of oils. Tabulate and learn the above facts. ISG ONE HUNDBKD LESSONS IN LESSON LXVIII Title. — Determining Rations for Farm Animals. Season. — A Winter lesson. Object. — To learn how to balance rations so as to keep the animal in good condition, and to use economy in feeding. Material. — Note-book and pencil. SUBJECT-ilATTER AND METHOD Animal food-stuffs contain the same elements used in human foods, that is, protein, carbo-hydrates, and fat. The percentages of these ingredients found in the standard animal foods are given in the table appended to this lesson. By the nutritive ratio is meant the proportion L^f protein to carbo-hydrates and fats combined. The following formula illustrates the method of finding the nutritive ratio: Carbo-hydrates-j- ( fatX2.25) =nutritive ratio. protein For example, suppose we wish to find the nu- tritive ratio of the following ration : (Horse weighing 1,000 pounds, doing medium work.) Timothy hay 15 pounds Corn 10 pounds Cotton-seed meal 3 pounds ELEMENTABY AGEICULTUEE 187 Solution : — • In 100 pounds of timothy hay there is 86.8 lbs. dry matter, 2.8 protein, 43.4 carbo-hydrates, and 1.4 fat. In 15 pounds ha}' there are: 15-100 of 86.8 dry matter, 13.02 pounds. 15-100 of 2.8 protein, .42 pounds. 15-100 of 43.4 carbo-h3fdrates, 6.51 pounds. 15-100 of 1.4 fat, .21 pounds. In 10 pounds corn there are: 10-100 of 89.1 dry matter, 8.91 pounds. 10-100 of 7.9 protein, .79 pounds. 10-100 of 66.7 carbo-h3'drate, 6.67 pounds, 10-100 4.3 fat, .43 pounds. In 3 pounds cotton-seed meal there are: 3-100 of 91.5 dry matttr, 2.74 pounds. 3-100 38.1 protein, 1.14 pounds. 3-100 of 16.0 carbo-hydrate, .48 pounds. 3-100 of 12.6 fat, .378 pounds. Dry matter Pr^tniii Timothy. 15 lbs Corn 10 lbs 13.02 S.9] 2.74 .42 1 .14 r, .'-. 1 6.fi7 .4,S . 2 1 1 ' Cotton.?eed meal. 3 lbs . 3 7 8 Total 24.67 13.C6 1 . 1 S Substituting in the formula given above, i3.(/i-4-( r.oiX-. 2.25 ) =6+. i\'utriti\x' ratio is I to 6. 2-35 This we see is a proper ratio for the horse re- 188 OXE HUNDBED LESSONS IN ferred to above. One-fourth for breakfast, one-fourth for dinner and one-half for supper would be the proper division of this ration. Problem — Find the nutritive ratio for 15 lbs. of clover hay and 5 pounds of oat straw and 10 pounds of oats. STOCK FOODS — AVERAGE OF DIGESTIBLE XUTRIEXTS. Dig-estible nutrients in 100 pounds. NAME OF FOOD. Green food and ensilage Corn fodder Rye fodder Kentucky blue gras? . Red clover Cow-pea vines Corn ensilage Hay and dry fodders — Corn stover Timothy hay Red clover Cow-pea vine hay . . Oa: straw Wheat straw Grain and other seed — Corn Oats Cow-peas Mill products — Cnrn meal Wheat bran Cottonseed meal .... 20. T 1.0 0.4 23.4 2 1 0.4 34.9 n.s 29.2 2.9 7 16.4 1.8 6.2 20.9 0.9 0.7 B9.5 1.7 0.7 S6.S 2.3 1.4 84.7 7.6 ■^ 89.3 10.8 1.1 90.8 1.2 0.8 90.4 0.4 0.4 89.1 8.0 4.6 89.0 9.2 4.2 87.8 20 .0 0.8 85.0 5..- 3.5 88.1 12.2 2 7 91.5 38.1 12.6 11.6 14.1 19. S 14.8 8.7 11.3 32.4 43.4 as. 4 39.0 38.6 36.3 65.9 47.3 53.2 63.8 39.2 16.0 References : — 11 — Pasres, 21 1-2 1 5. 1"":. il ^f. — Pac;-e~ 160-176. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 189 LESSON LXIX Title. — Feeding Standards for Farm Animals. Season. — A Winter lesson. Object. — To give data for calculating feeding rations. Material. — Paper and pencil. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD The teacher should give several problems similar to the one suggested in the last lesson, and also have the pupils make up their own problems for feeding rations of the different animals mentioned in the table below. PER DAY FOB 1,000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT. The Animal. Dry Matter. Nutritive Ratio. Lbs. Fat cattle 30 1:6.5 Milch cows 27 1:8. Horse (light work) 20 1:7. Horse (heavy work) 26 1 :6. Sheep, growing wool 23 1:8.5 PatteDlng sheep 30 1 :B . 4 Fattening swine 32 1:6. For assignment of work in this lesson each pupil should compound a maintenance ration having the amounts and nutritive ratios given above for at least three of the animals. Note — Tt should be remembered that protein builds flesh, bone, blood and internal organs, and may be used to serve as the fat. Fat furnishes heat, en- ergy and body fat, so also does the carbo-hydrates. 190 ONE HtrXDBED LESSONS IN LESSON LXX Title. — An Outline of the Animal Kingdom. Season. — At any time.. A good lesson to precede the study of insects. Object. — To learn the divisions of the animal kingdom. Material. — Note-book and pencil. etlBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD All the animal life in the world may be classed in eight groups, represented by forms familiar to almost every one. It would be worth the effort for the sake of future studies in animal life to commit to memory the following outline of the animal kingdom: 1. Protozoa. Microscopic forms in stagnant wa- ter. 2. Porifera. The sponges. 3. Coelenterata. The coral. 4. Echinodermata. The star-fish. 5. Vermes. The fish-worm. 6. Mollusca. Snails and Mussels. 7. Arthropoda. Spider^ and insect?. 8. Vertebrata. The horse. Each of these sub-kingdoms is divided into classes, orders, genera, ami specie-. Two sub-kingdnms very important II' agriculture are the Anthropoda and the Vertebrata. These are subdivided as follows: ELEMENTAKY AGBICULTUBE 191 Sub-kingdom, — Arthropoda — Class I. Crustaceans, the crayfish. Class 2. Arachnida, the spider. Class 3. Myriapoda, the centiped. Class 4. Insecta, the insect. Order i. Orthoptera, the grasshoppers. Order 2. Lepidoptera, the butterflies. Order 3. Diptera, the flies. Order 4. Hemiptera, the bugs. Order 5. Neuroptera, the dragonflies. Order 6. Hymenoptera, the bees. Order 7. Coleoptera, the beetles. Sub-kingdom, — Vertebrata — Class I. Pisces, the fish. Class 2. Aves, the birds. Class 3. Amphibians, the frogs and toads. Class 4. Reptilia, the snakes and turtles. Class 5. Mammalia, the cows, horses, etc. The mammals have nine orders represented by the sloth, sea-cow, whales, ground moles, bats, rab- bits, minks, hoofed animals, and man. It is an interesting fact that so many of these groups are represented by animals to be found in al- most every locality. Pupils should make a list of all the animals they can think of in their neighborhood. See how well the pupils can classify their lists into these large groups. Note to teachers : — The lessons which follow on insects may be too difficult for rural schools. The teacher should adapt the lessons to the pupils interest and capabilities. 192 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXI Title.— The Orders of Insects. Season. — Spring or Autumn. Object. — To learn the different orders of insects. Material. — Note-book and pencil. SIBJECT-IIATTEK AXD IIETHOD Pupils should make an outline in their note-books, from the facts presented in this introductory lesson on insects. Xote — Insects are characterized by three segments of the bod}' ; — head, thorax, and abdomen : three pairs of jointed legs and usually two pairs of wings. The differences in the wings distinguish the different or- ders of insects. A few are without wings. Insect bodies are covered with a more or less har- dened skin, their eyes are compound, and their mouths are adapted for biting or sucking. There are usually four stages in the life history of the insect; the egg, the larva, the pupa, and the adult. The length of life Tiistor}- varies from a few hours to several years. There are more than 250,000 species of insects, grouped in the following orders, as given in the pre- ceding lesson : I. Orthoptera. Four wings, front pair thickened, the hind pair thin and folded. Hind legs usually devel- tXEMENTABT AGBICUI.TUBE 193 oped for jumping. Mouths adapted for biting anS chewing. The grasshopper, locust, cricket, etc. 2. Lepidoptera. Four wings, covered with over- lapping scales; mouth parts modified into a long pro- boscis; the larva are caterpillars — butterflies and moths are examples. 3. Diptera. Two wings, thin and membraneous, rudamentary modifications in the form of balancer knobs; mouth of most species adapted for biting and piercing; the larva are footless maggots. The house- fly, mosquito and blue bottle fly are examples. 4. Hemiptera. Four wings, usually half hardened and half membraneous, sometimes the wings are ab- sent ; mouth-parts adapted for sucking; body flat, and legs slender. These are the true bugs. The scjuash bug, the bed bug, and the louse, are examples. 5. Neuroptera. Four thin, membraneous, nerve"- veined wings, large eyes; slender bodies; mouth-parts adapted for biting. The dragon fly and damsel fly are examples. 6. Hymenoptera. Four transparent wings; heavy bodies, usually provided with stings in the fe- males ; mouths adapted for biting and lopping. The bees, wasps, ants are examples. 7. Coleoptera. Four wings, the outer pair a horny sheath for the inner membraneous pair, partly folded beneath; strong legs; mouth-parts adapted for for biting or pinching; the larva are large and worm- like. Beetles are examples. The teacher should return to this lesson after the series of lessons on insects has been completed, and 194 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN have the pupils make a list of as many insects as they can from each order. It would be a good lesson to require each pupil tri hanil in a C'lllcctKin crmsisting- oi one of each of the above orders of insects. References : — Id. — Pages 1 18-120. G. & _M. — Pages 137-146. IN'SECr NET (Courtesy of Orange Judd Co., Davis Agriculture I ELEMBNTABY AGBICULTURE 195 LESSON LXXII Title. — The Grasshopper. Season. — Autumn. Object. — To study the structure and habits of the grasshopper. Material.* — A grasshopper for each pupil, note-book and pencil. SUBJECT-MATTEK AND METHOD In making this study of the insects, the pupils should first draw a whole body view of the insect, and then make such notes and answer such questions as are asked in the lesson outlines. Determine all an- swers from observation, (i). Observe in the field: Its method of locomotion. Its protective coloration. Its enemies. Its sounds. Its haunts. 2. With the living insect, try to find the breath- ing spiracle, just above the base of the middle legs. Watch the opening and closing of the lips of this breathing pore. Put tlw grasshopper under a tumbler ami sec whether it will cat gra.ss or leaves. r'crli:i|is it lias s]iit "tiibaccM juice" i m y(-]ii. AA'Ji)' docs it do tlii^' Mow iimcli farther can lie jump than the lenf^tli of his body? 196 ONE HTJNDEED LESSONS IN 3. In what ways do the hind pair of legs differ from the others? Of what advantage are the hooks and spines on the legs? Count how many joints there are on each leg. 4. Study the wings. How does the front pair compare with the hind pair? How are the hind wings folded '' By rubbing the upper and lower wings togeth- er, the grasshopper sounds are made. Make a draw- ing of the wings. 5. Study the mouth parts. These are the most difficult of all the external parts to see. Find the fol- lowing parts: I. The upper lip, a two-lobed labrum.. 3. A pair of blackish homy mandibles, covered by the upper lip. 3. A pair of jointed maxillae below the man- dibles. 4. A two-lobed lower lip, the labium. 6 The female has at the end of the abdomen, four points called the ovipositor. These are used for mak- ing an opening into the ground to receive the eggs. Young grasshoppers are called nymphs and resemble the adults in every way except that their wings are undeveloped. 7. Count the segments of the abdomen. Observe on each side of the abdomen, a groove and just above it a row of breathing spiracles. Observe the thin mem- braneous depression on the first segment of the ab- domen. This is supposed to be the ear. ELEMENTABT AQEICULTTJBE 197 8. Observe the eye. Perhaps you can see that it is made up of many divisions. The grasshopper has two compound eyes and three simple eyes. Try to find these. 9. What other insects belong to the grasshopper famil}'? ;\re they injurious on the farm? How? *Note — For killing insects prepare a cyanide bottle as follows : Break potassium cj^anide into small pieces and put into the bottom of a wide mouthed bottle. Avoid the deadly poisonous fumes. Pour over the pieces just enough water to cover them. Add plaster of paris until the water is absorbed. Leave unstoppered until the contents are dried, then cork tightly. Insects dropped into the bottle will die, Keep the bottle from children. £POI£OW| KILLING BOTTLE. GREEN STRIPED GRASSHOPPER (Courtesy of Orange Judd Co., Davis Agriculture.) 19S OXE HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXIII Title.— The Butterfly. Season. — Spring or Autumn. Object. — To study the butterfly. Material. — A cabbage butterfly for each pupil. Note- book and pencil. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Ever}- countr}' boy or girl knows the white cab- bage butterfly and its associate the sulphur butterfly. With freshly killed specimen take up the study as fol- lows: 1. Make a drawing of the whole body, showing the characteristic markings. 2. How many segments to the body? What are the appendages from these segments? 3. How do the legs compare with those of the grasshopper? 4. Write a descriptive sentence about each of the following points of the wings : action ; shape ; over- lapping: scale-covering: and vein-structure. 5. How nianv segments to the abdomen? Are lhe\" like those of the grasshopper? 6. E.xamine the moutli of the butterfl}'. Find the coiled tube which it uses to obtain the nectar from the flower, ^^^ith a pin tmcoil it and note its length. ELEMENTABY AGBICULTUBE 199 7. Answer the following points on the observa- tion of a live butterfly: 1. Its manner of flight. 2. The Ivind of food and the manner :if feeding. 3. The natural enemies of the butterfly. 4. The position of the wings when at rest. 8. What is the damage done by the cabbage but- terfly? How can we successfully combat them? It should be remembered that the common toad is the best friend we have in the garden to rid the cab- bage of this pest. 9. What is the life-history of the butterfly? This question will be asked in connection with all the in- sects we shall study, therefore a general answer should probably be given to make this point clear. The cab- bage butterfly lays its eggs, attached singly, usually to the lower surface of cabbage leaves. They are small, and are pale-yellowish in color. These hatch into larva, the so-called cabbage worms. After these have fed upon the cabbage leaves for some time, they spin from their mouths a silken pod around them- selves ; this pod is called the pupa. The pupa is usually %t^ A^^ CABBAGE BUTTERFLY (Courtesy ol Orange Judd Co., Davis Agriculture.) 200 ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN found on old fences or posts. In a short time the pupa ruptures, and a full grown cabbage butterfly crawls out, dries its wings and flies away to begin the life history of a new generation. ID. If you can get a moth compare it with the butterfly as follows : 1. Difference in the feelers. (Antennae). 2. Manner of folding the wings when at rest. 3. Time of flying, day or night. 4. Comparative size of bodies. Note — Butterflies and moths belong to this family of insects. References : — Id. — Pages 122-125. ELEMENTABY AGEICULTUBE 201 LESSON LXXIV Title. — The House-fly. Season. — Autumn. Object. — To learn of the fly and of the dangers of the house-fly. Material. — A house-fly for each pupil of the class. STJBJECT-MATTEE AND METHOD 1. Make a drawing of the common house-fly. 2. Write a sentence on each of the following points, based upon your own observation of a live fly : 1. The rapidity of the wing motion. 2. Its manner of eating. 3. Its favorite haunts. 4. How many wings has the fly? Look under the wings and try to find the little white knobs, called the balancers. 5. Note how rough and hairy the legs and feet of the fly are. Would they hold filth and dirt so that it could be carried? 6. How does the abdomen of the fly compare with other insects we have studied? Count the seg- ments of the abdomen. 7. The life history of the fly family may br studied easily in the school-room. Expose out of doors 3 bit of lean meat, so that the eggs may be laid upon 202 OXE HUNDRED LESSONS IN it. The blue-bottle fly will lay eggs upon meat. Fill a tin-can or box with sand, and on a chip in the center oi it place the bit of meat ivith the eggs on it. Invert a glass tumbler over it. and push the rim of the tum- bler down into the sand to prevent the escape of offen- sive odors. In a few hours the eggs will hatch, and in a few davs the larva will be fully grown. They will profiablv crawl under the chip to change into pupae. Thc\' mav come out soon as adult flies, or they may re- main over winter in this stage. The house-fly lavs its eggs in manure and filth and is transformed through the same stages of life history. Rules Against Flies. 1. F.lies are very dangerous in the spread of dis- ease, therefore we should not allow any decaying or- ganic matter tL' accunmlaie in which the\' can breed. 2. If the cellar is damp, clean out the dark and damp corners and apply lime. 3. Pour kerosene into the drains and also treat with kerosene all waste materials not intended for fer- tilizers. 4. If kitchen waste is deposited in large cans, it shL>nld be remo\'ed at least once a week. 5. Kitchen ^^■aste intended as food for hogs should be removed and used daily. 6. Haul out the manure and spread it on the soil ever\- day. or put it in a screened box to be emptied over the fields or gardens at least once a week. 7. If inconvenient to haul the manure at short intervals, treat it with kerosene or gypsum. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 203 8. Keep up the work of destroying adult flies by the usual methods and judiciously screen against them. 9. Flies are born and breed in filth ; they are among the worst agencies in the spread of typhoid fe- ver, and every means possible should be used to ban- ish them from our homes. THE FLY I Courtesy of Orange Judd Co.. Davis Agriculture.) 204 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXV Title.— The Bugs. Season. — Autumn. Object. — To become familiar with the bug family. Material. — A squash bug, or "stink bug," or harvest fly for each pupil in the class. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD If it is possible to catch a two-year cicada, some- times called "dog-day harvest fly," or improperly, the locust, this will make the best specimen for the study of the true bugs. If none of these can be got, a squash bug will illustrate the characteristics of all bugs. 1. Draw the view of the whole body. 2. How many wings are there. Note in the squash bug that the front half of the wing is horny and that the back half is membraneous. 3. Note the triangular prominence of the thorax on the back. 4. Observe the mouth parts. What does the bug's mouth show as to his manner of eating? 5. For what kind of locomotion are the legs adapted? 6. Find the eyes and feelers. Write a sentence describing each. ELEMENTS BY .VGKICIILTUBE 20S 7. What is the life history of the squash hug and cicada? 8. All the bugs belong in this family, together with the plant lice, tree hoppers, scales, etc. 9. This is an injurious family of insects, and the kerosene emulsion spray is the means of combating in most cases. DOG-DAY HARVEST FLY (Courtesy of Orange Judd Co., Davis Agriculture) 20G ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXVI Title.— The Dragon Fly. Season. — Autumn. Object. — To study the form and, life of the dragon fly Material. — A dragon fly for each member of the class-. ST BJECT-MATTEE AND METHOD 1. Dragon or damsel flies will have to be caught with a net. They are usually seen flying about the ponds or streams of water. 2. Answer the following questions from the ob- servation of a living specimen : 1. What is their habit of flight^ 2. What is their food? 3. How do the dragon fl)- and damsel fly differ in habits?' 4. What is the position of the wings at rest? 3. .\fter killing the dragon fly in the cvanide bot- tle, straighten its wings and legs and draw the whole body view, 4. How do the legs compare with those of the grasshopper? 5. How many wings are there? Write a descrip- tive sentence about them, 6. Note the enormous development of the eyes What would this indicate as to their habit of life? Find ELEMENTABT AGEICTJLTTJEB 207 the three small simple eyes, and tell where they are located. 7. Write a descriptive sentence about the abdo- men. How many segments? 8. Does the dragon fly have a sting? 9. The life history : — The eggs are laid in the water. They hatch into a nAinph, a form resembling the adult without wings. In this stage they live in the water, and eat greedily upon small water insects. At this stage they are beneficial in eating mosquito larva. When the nymph is fully grown it crawls out of the water upon some convenient rock or reed, fas- tens its feet firmly, splits down the back, and the adult dragon fly crawls out, dries itself, and is soon ready to fly. 10. The dragon fl)^ is a beneficial insect l)ecause it preys upon other insects that are pests to us. A DRAGON FLY (Courte.sy of Orange Judd Co., Davis Agriculture.) 208 ONE HtTNDBED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXVII Title.— The Bee. Season. — Autumn. Object. — To study the structure and Hfe of the bum- ble bee. Material. — A bumble bee for each member of the class. St BJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 1. Answer the following questions on the bum- blebees based upon field obsen-ation. (a.) ^^^hat kind of flowers do they feed upon? (b) Are they shy while feeding? Will they sting then? ( c) Do they stay long at each flower? (d) What do they gather from the flower? (e) Explain how they help the flower. ( i) How does their manner of flight compare with that of the butterfly. 2. Kill the bee in the cyanide bottle, and make a drawing of the body. 3. Note the large body in comparison to the wings. Do you think that the wings easily wear out' How many wings are there? 4. Are the legs of the bee all alike? Explain. T, Try to find the mouth-parts and the tongue. ELEMENTAEY AGRICtnLTtmB 209 Worker. Queen. IIONBY BEE 210 ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN 6. Can you see any value in the hairy covering of the bee's body? 7. Find the sting of the bee and remove it. There is a poison gland at the root of the sting, which pours a fluid into the wound made by the sting, caus- ing the painful sensation with which every boy is fa- miliar. 8. Where does the bumble bee make its nest? What is it made of? 9. Life history : — The eggs are laid in the cells. The second stage is the wormlike creature, the larva, lying inactive in the cell. It must be fed and it is a big eater. When it is fully grown it spins a silken coccoon about itself and enters the next stage. The third stage is the pupa. Here it remains quietly con- cealed within its coccoon, over which the workers spread a thin layer of wax, making a cell of it. After a time it cuts its way through the top of the cell and comes forth a fulh^ developed bumble bee. ID. To this familv belong" the wasps, hornets, sawflies, gallflies, ants, and honey bees. Note — If it is desired to make an extended study of the honey bee as an insect for farm use, write to Mr. Frank Benton, of the Division of Entomology, Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for his Bee Book and other circulars. Reference: — G. & M. — Pages 201-208. ELEMENTARY AGBICULTURE 2:1 Queen. HONEY BEE 212 OXE IirXIIREl) LESSON'S IX LESSON LXXVIII Title.— The Beetle. Season. — Autumn. Object. — To learn something of the structure and life habits of the beetles. Material. — A beetle for each pupil in the class. Any species will answer the purpose. Blister beetles may be found on goldenrod in autumn. The black ground beetles are also common. SUBJECT-ilATTER AND ilETHOD 1. ]\Iake a drawing of the beetle. 2. How man)' wings has the beetle? With a freshly killed specimen in hand, extend the two horn_v, sheath \ving-cn\'ers which meet 1)\' -niooth edges along the middle of the back, completely covering the thin membraneous wings beneath. Spread out all four of these wings and make a drawing to show the wing arrangement. 3. Write a descriptive sentence about the mouth parts. Are they made for sucking or chewing and bit- ing? 4. W'rite a sentence telling of the size and posi- tion of the e3fes. 5. How many joints in the beetle's leg? De- scribe the claws. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTnRE 213 6. Now many segments in the abdomen? Com- pare the upper and lower surfaces. 7. Where do beetles live? Find as many differ- ent kinds as you can. 8. f^ife history : — The beetle has all the four sta- ges : egg, larva, pu])a, and adult. The eggs of the beetle hatch into grubs, wire worms, borers, etc. In this stage the}' do great damage to the crops, trees, and other vegetation. From the grub stage they pass into a pupa stage similar to all other insects. The pupas are usually in the ground from which emerge adult beetles. 9. Most of the beetles are very injurious insecrs, the tiger beetles and ladv beetles excepted, and since they are usually chewing insects the treatment is a lead arsenate or Paris green spray. References : — Id. — Pages T31- -M7- GROUND BBBTLB a, Larva; 6, Adult. (Courtesy of Oraoge Judd Co., Davis Agriculture.) 214 ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXIX Title. — Spraying Calendar. Season. — At any time. Object. — To learn how to combat insect and fungous pests. Material.— Note-book and pencil. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Copy the talilc given lieli.>\\" into }'onr note-book and study it so that you can write it from memory ■\A"hen the first column is oiven you. Insect Pest or Fungous Disease. | Wtif^n to Spray. 1 Leaf-eating insects i When inject appears. Sucking insects Scale insects 1 '-idling moth and Lungous injury Potato scab S.riped melon beetle Fruit rot, leaf curl and blight Peach yellows When appearing. Before buds open in spring. Just after apple blos- soms fall. Treat before planting, When young plant appears. Before buds open. Spraying not effective. Whenever they ap- pear. Spraying not effective. Witb What to Spray or Treat. Paris green or lead arsenate. Kerosene emulsion or miscible oils, if no foliage. Lime- sulphur wash. Bordeaux mixture and lead arsenate com- bined. Two per cent solution of formalin . Tobacco dust or lime. Bordeaux mixture. Dig out with wire and coat tree trunk with tar or lime wasb. Hellebore. Cut down all diseased trees and burn. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 215 SPRVIING iPPIR WHS 216 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXX Tiile. — Value of Birds to Agriculture. Season. — May be a Winter lesson. Object. — To learn something of the value of the birds to the farmer. Material. — Note-book and pencil. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Some Facts About Birds. The nat^^'e I>irds are one of the nation's most \'al- uahlc aShCtN. If ibe birds are destrriNcd. in a very few years the insects will have mutiplied to such an extent that our trees wdl be defoliated and our crops destro\ ed. This is not fancv but plain fact. It has been found by observation and dissection, says Chas. K. Reed, that a Cuckoo consumes daily from 50 to 400 caterpillars, and that a Chickadee will eat from 200 to 500 insects or up to 4000 insect eggs. One hundred insects a day is a small estimate of the quantity consumed by insect eating birds, and most of our birds are insect eaters. Not only do they destroy great numbers of insects but they eat great quantities of weed seeds as well. The State of Illinois loses annually about $20,000,000 bv the ravages of insects. It is the dutv, and it should be the pleasure of ELEMENTARY AGBICULTUBE 217 every citizen, to do all in his power to protect these valuable birds, and to encourage them to remain about their homes. Practical Problems. 1. Suppose that the damage from insects in your State is 25c an acre. How much would that be for the whole State ? 2. If there were three birds on every acre, how many birds would there be in this State? 3. If each bird eats 25 insects a day (a very low estimate), how many insects would be destroyed in this State during the months of June, July, and Au- gust? 4. If 120,000 insects fill a bushel basket, how many bushels of insects would the birds eat during the summer from the above estimate ? 5. Suppose that one-fourth of the birds in this State, as calculated above, would eat one-fourth of an ounce of seed daily, how many povmds of weed seeds would our birds destroy in three months? The forces that work against the increase of bird life are; man; the climatic elements; accidents; cats; other animals ; birds of prey, and snakes. How can we help the birds in their struggle against these ene- mies? Each one of us can do something, and every time we .save the life of one bird we have not only done a kindness to the creatures we should love, but we have rendered service to the cause of agriculture. References : — Id. — Pages 234-240. G. & M. — Pages 147-151. 21S ONE HUNDBKD LESSONS IN LESSON LXXXI Title. — A Comparison of the Agricultural Products of Your State with Those of Other States.''' Season. — A Winter lesson. Object. — To teach pupils how the products of their state compare with the products of other states. Material. — Note-book and pencil. PULJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Take the data from the Year-book of the Depart- ment of Agriculture for 1905, and fill out the tabulation below : STATES 1 CORN 1 WHEAT 1 OATS t 1 1 HAY 1 Ac res I 1 1 1 Value lAcrp'j 'ValMe lArrPs 1 [ i Value 1 Acres 1 Valr.e 1 1 1 ! 1 . . 1 1 1 West Virginia . . . . | 1 . ... 1 1 1 1 I Obio 1 : ! ! Illinoi,^ I Peniisvh'ania . . . . ' 1 Virginia 1 Georgia 1 1 Alabama 1 1 Kpntiirkv ... 1 Maryland | ^... ■(Adapted from Da\-is Agriculture.) ELEMENTARY AGKICULTURE 219 Construct a similar table for the data on live stock. [. Horses; nunilier anil \ahR'. 2. Mules : number and value. 3. Milch cows: number and value. 4. Sheep: number and value. s. Hogs: number and value. The Year-book may be secured free from the De- partment of Agriculture, Washington, I). C, thror.;;'i \"Our Congressman or Senator. .-VCRICIJLTURR PR(^DUCTS AND BUSINESS METPTODS The fact that hjillmns uf dnlku> wurth nf farm ]iim- ihicls arc produced each _\"car is no cletimle nidicati :ii that farn:ers ai"e al«a>-s ].'ros]icrous. Tlic farmers nir.s. organize and wrirk tiigi.tlier f(jr that condiinatn.ni if quantitA' and price nf thtir ])roducts that \\i:uld bring the greatest surplus nr pnjfit. The}- must somehow cea^c to follow market dictatiims, and l;-.'gin to cmitrol their stock nf guods b\' mieihgcnt S'irtmg, gradmg, |:'acking, :-lijring and u^arkLlmg. 220 ONE HXJIrtlEED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXXII Title. — Crop Records.* Season. — At any time. Object. — To teach pupils how to keep records of crops in a field. Material. — Note-book and pencil. tUB.JECT-MATTER ANTi METIKID It is an important business matter for tlie farnier to keep year by year a record of the production of each field. This lesson should impress upon the pupils the in-purtpnce oi keeping" sucli reciirds neatl\' and accur- ,':tcl\-. Use the form below. ni:d require eacli pupil iw 1 -ep a record of one of the fiekls at his own home. Xcat!}' hi] out the form in the agricultural note-book, ard a;ld the (kita froni time t" time a? the field is farmed. Xaiue p, Crnp Previous Crop Kind of Soil Xo. of -\cres Preparation of the Soil. Pate of plnwinq Date of Cultivation . Depth of plotting Implement used Co.-t of plowing Cost of prep, seed bed * (^Adapted from Davis Agriculture.) Date of seeding Amount of seed Cost of seed . . . Fertilizer used . ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE Seeding and Cultivation. Cost of fertilizer . . . Dates of cultivation Implements used . . Cost of cultivation . 221 Date of harvest Cost of harvest Total cost of the crop. Insect injury Fungous injury Quality of ihe harvest Yield, grain Yield, fodder Yield per acre Net profit per acre . , . Note. — In connection with this les!-x")n it would !.>e a vahiable supphnlcntar^' exercise to v'stal^lish a school bank. The pupils of the schdol .should elect a presi- dent, board of directors, cashier and clerk. The teacher should pro\'ide a suital^le recei)tacle fi">r money deposits and the proper liank-books, checks, etc. Encourage the pupils to make deposits. Iceep l)ank-b(.)nks and draw out only with properly signed checks. Our boys and girls should become familial with these simple business proceedings. 222 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXXIII Title. — An Estimate of the Cost and Receipts of a Good Crop Rotation. Season. — A Winter lesson. Object. — To calculate the net proceeds of a ten acre field in a crop rotation of two years with clover, corn and wheat. Material. — Note-book and pencil. slb.ject-jiatter and method Ha\'e pupils compare the data gi\-en in the ten acre rotation below with prices and conditions in their home vicinity. The figures below are the actual rec- ord of an Illinois field under standard cultivation con- ditions : 1. Clover pn-u-n in wheat in March — Number of bushels 1 Cost of seed $6.50 Cost of labor $1.25 2. Wheat < ut in July. Threshed and marl^eted — Yield 200 bushels Value of yield $160.00 Total cost of labor , . , $17,50 3. Pasture in clover in the l\ill — No. of head 5 No. of months 2 Income from pasture $12 . 00 4. Clover hay harve-ted next .June — No. of tons 12 Price per ton $5.00 Cost of labor $12 . 00 5 Clover seed cmp in ihe Fall Husked and niarketed — No. bushels yield 15 Value of yield $90 . 00 Cost of lab^r $20.00 ELBMKNTABY AOBIOtTLTUBE 223 6. Plow tor corn the following Spring, and plant — Cost of labor $10.00 Cost of seed (1% bushels) $1.00 Four cultivations Cost of labor for cultivation $7.50 7. Seeding wheat in the corn in September — Cost of seed, 1% bushels per acre $12.00 Cost of labor $4 . 00 8. Corn harvest in the Fall — Number of bushels 500 Value of the yield $200.50 Cost of labor $15.00 Let the students calculate the total cost and re- ceipts of this rotation and the net gain on one acre for one year. The last census shows that the average annual crop per acre in this country is valued at $ii. Hov> does this annual crop compare with the average? What does the farm upon which you live yield per acre? What crops yield the highest net returns per acre in vnur localitv? 224 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXXIV Title — Treating Grains to Prevent Smut. Season. — Previous to planting any grain. Object. — To learn how to treat grains to prevent smut. Material. — Bacteria cultures and the seed. sijbject-matter and method Smut has been quite prevalent in the grain fields tliroughout the countr)-, and there are still a number of farmers who have not learned the simple formalin meinod of preventing it. If the school will make sim- ple demonstration lessons upon grains brought in by the pupils from the farms, much good can be done, and great injury prevented among the grain fields. In time before the corn, oats or wheat is to be planted, get about a pint of formalin, and have it on band fur this lessmi. Ask a i)U|)il tu bring a bush- el of oats or wheat to the school for this demonstra- tion. Mix about one-half ounce of formalin in two gal- lons of water. Spread the seed thinly upon the floor, fif not on the school floor, a barn floor nearby might l^e used), and sprinkle the seeds with the mixture un- til they are all thoroughly moistened. Cover closely with a blanket of some kind for a few hours, and the seeds are ready for planting. Try this and the per- cent of smut at the next harvest will be materially lessened. IXEMENTABY AGRICULTUEE 225 If this work be done for all those who bring seed to the school, or if it be done at the homes of the community because of the demonstration at the school, it will be a new line of Iwlpfulness for a schdol in a community. References ; — Id. — Pages 107-108. G. & M.— Pages 59-60. 22G ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXXV Title. — Treating the Legumes for Bacteria. Season. — Previous to planting the seed. Object. — To learn how to get a "catch" of clover or cowpeas. Material. — Bacteria cultures and the seed. • SI EJECT-MATTER AND METHOD I''e\\' farmers have realized the value of treating the seeds of clijver and olher legumes before planting to insure the presence cf nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The school should treat such seeds as a demonstration for t'.ie fanrciv^ i;f tlie cjmmunux" and as a vahiable les' son for the pupils. Send to the Secretary of Agriculture, W'ashington, I). C. : .' ih.e hactLria culture- fur legunies and di- rections for using. These bacteria will come from \\'ashington in a dried condition, resembling yeast cakes. Dissolve them in water and suppl}' with nutri- ent salts. Two of the Sach's plant-food tablets to a pint of ^A■ater, referred to in a former lesson, will fur- nish the nutrition for the bacteria. After the watjr solution becomes milky with the growth of the bac- teria, pour the legume seeds into this solution and leave for a few hours. Then dry the seeds carefully and they are ready for sowing. ELEMBNTAKY AGKICOLTUEE 227 Some very marked results have been shown by the "catching" of clover on soils which would formerly not grow that crop. Note. — The cause of failure ui the clover croj") many times is due to a certain fungous disease, which turns the clover black and soon kills a whole field of it. No remedy has been discovered for this di^'ease ui clover. References: — G. & M. — Pages 231-236. 228 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXXVI Title. — Roads and Road-making. Season. — Autumn or Spring. Object. — To learn something of the value of good roads, and some of the principles of road-making. Material. — Note-book and pencil. Team of horses. wagon, plow, spades and gravel. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD In the presentation of this important lesson the teacher should attempt to do two things : First, to have a regular text-book recitation upon the values and principles of good roads ; and second, to direct th-e work of real road construction, if no other than a properly made path from the school-house door to the main road. Part I. I. Our life in the country will never be as attrac- tive as it ought to be until we have good roads. Bad winter rosds that keep the }oung people in their home'; for many months, cause them to grow to dislike the country, and to join that throng of restless humanity moving steadily toward the cities. Will not the young people who love their country homes enter into this crusade for better roads? ELEMENTAEY AGEICUI.TDEB 229 All industrial interests are affected by the nature and condition of tlw country roads over which the products of the farm are transported to market, but it is the farmer who suffers most from the inferior roads which constitute so large a percentage of the road sys- tem of the United States. Over our country roads there are annually hauled at least 250,000,000 tons. A system of better roads would reduce the cost of haul- ing this volume of freight one-half or two-thirds of what it now costs. Lead the class to sec the following \ alucs (.)f good roads : 1. The direct saving in dollars and cents. 2. A saving of time. A BAD ROAD (Courtesy of B. F. Joliusou Pub, Co. J 230 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 3. INIakes country life more desirable. 4. Makes school and church attendance more convenient. 5. l\Iore humane to horses. (1. ITelp^ every inrjujtry of tlie colmtr^■ and the city. As a part of the preparation of this lesson each pupil should write a brief essay upon one of these top- ics. 2. Points in the construction of a good road: 1. A level road or gradual grade whenever possible. 2. The road bed, highest in the middle and sloping to each side, having a fall of one inch to three or four feet. ,v T/nder drain? in wet place= and side ditches to carryr off surface water should furnish the drain- age necessary for good roads. Water, standing or running in roads is the great destroyer of good roads. 4. The surface should be hard and smooth. A good surface is made bj^ putting a layer of larger stones at the bottom, a layer of smaller stones next, and crushed stone or gravel as the top layer. 5. Ordinary earth roads can be improved by proper grading and drainage. The best time to do this is in the Spring after the ground is settled. V '>■ Drain- sJTdiilii be kept np<-n and all depres- 'sions filled. Pupils should write a paragraph on one of these tripic? in their note-books. ELEMBNTABY AQBIOTILTTJBE Part II. 231 for the second part of this lesson it might be possible at the school, to construct a path from the school house to some desired point a few rods away, according to the best principles of road-making. If some of the larger boys or some school patron would furnish a few loads of coarse stone, a few loads of gravel, a plow and a team for a few hours, an inter- A GOOD ROAD (Courtesy ot B. F. Johnson Publishing Co.) 232 OXE HUXDBED LESSONS IN esting and profitable demonstration of good road-mak- ing could be made at the school. 1. Select the line for the road or walk. 2. !\Ieasure off a space six feet wide, the entire length of the walk to be constructed, and mark it with stakes. 3. Plow up the whole area, turning it toward the middle. Then with spades or a scraper, if the space is large, grade it up from the sides to the center, so that the center is about one inch higher than the level of the ground where it is not plowed. 4. Place a laj^er of coarse stones over this surface next, and a layer of gravel or finer stones over the coarser stones. Smooth it all over so that the walk gradually slopes from the center to the ditch, left at the side by the plow's furrow. 5. The walk is now ready for use. The side ditch or drain should be kept open, and the road bed proper- ly graded. References: — Farmers' Piulletin, No. 136. ELEMENTARY AGKICULTURE 233 LESSON LXXXVII Title. — An Assessment of Farm Values. Season. — May be a Winter study. Object. — To learn how to assess the property for tax on the home farm. Material. — Note-book and pencil. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Have each pupil make a list of the real and per- sonal property owned by his parents, with values such as could be received from sale. Use the form given below, and make a neat record of the assessment in the note-book : Assessment Record. Name of Farm Date PROPERTT. Number Valuation 1. Acres of land 2. Buildings 3. Horses 4. Cattle 5. Sheep 6. Hogs 7. Poultry 9. Oats 10. Wheat 11. Corn 12. Household furniture 13. Hay 14. Money in bank or note.s Total Rate of taxation Total tax 234 ONE HIWDBED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXXVIII Title. — Farm Work-shops and Experimental Labora- tories. Season. — A Winter lesson. Object. — To learn something of the value of a work- shop and laboratory to the farmer. Material. — Note-book and pencil. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 1. Every farmer should have a building, or room in some building, in which he can do experimental work with plants, soils, etc., and in which he can do wood working, forging in iron, and general shop work. A sliop well equipped with carpenter's tools, a forge nnd anvil, work-bench and its equipments would save the farmer manv dollars and much time in the repair- ing of his implements and buildings. This same work- sjiop might be provided with apparatus for seed test- in^:', fruit pruning and grafting, soil testing and analyz- ing, and various other chemicals and apparatus used in experimental work with plants and animals. Tt is through intelligent experimenting and careful read- ing that the farmer of the future is to take his place successfully among the industrial peoples of the coun- try. 2. A room so equipped on every farm would fur- nish interesting and profitable work during the winter eLementaky ageicuLtuke 235 months, and the results of the experiment in these lab- oratories might be profitably applied on the farm. Idle following is a list of materials and furnish- ings that might be useful in the farm laboratory: 1. Work-bench and carpenter's tools. 2. Forge and anvil, with necessary tools accom- panying. 3. ^iledicine case with drugs for animalj ; and chemicals, such as, formalin, sulphuric acid, ammonia, copper sulphate, lime, sulphur, lead arsenate, Paris green, hellebore, phosphoric acid, potash, sodium ni- trate, etc., etc. 4. Tight case for various seeds. 5. Boxes of clay, sand and humus soils. 6. Table for general experimental work. 7. Water supply and means of heating the room. The pupils and teacher may add other materials to the above room, and as a part of the work :.f this lesson, the pupils should draw the ground-floor plan of such a room as described above, and indicate in their plan, where they would place tic different furnishings of the shop. Rel'erences: — Farmers' Bulletin, No. 270 and 347. 236 ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN LESSON LXXXIX Title. — Farm Machinery. Season. — A Winter lesson. Object. — To learn some facts regarding farm machin- ery, to encourage the use of Improved machinery, and to understand the importance of caring for and repairing farm machinery. Material. — Note-book and pencil. Various farm im- plements. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 1. The drudgery of farm life is gradually being reduced by the invention and improvement of farm tools and machines. The following comparisons show the great development in farm implements: THE OLD WAY. THE NEW WAY. The hoe. The horse-drawn cultivator. The grass cycle. The horse mower and rake. The grain cradle. The steam-drawn harvester. The single plow. The steam gang plow. The corn knife. The corn reaper and husker. The "up and down churn." The "quick coming" churn. 2. Points in the care of farm machinery: 1. The farmer must know how to manage his machine. 2. Farm machine must not be left in the field to rust and rot. 3. As soon as any tool or machine has fin- KtEMKNTABY AGRICULTUEE 237 ished its work for the season it should be carefully cleaned and housed. 4. Every machine, implement, and vehicle should be properly oiled. 5. All needed repairs should be promptly made. 6. "Such care which is neither costly nor bur- densome will add many years to the life of a machine." 3. If the school is in a town, the teacher should go with the class to an implement store and observe the different farm machines, tools, and implements. 4. Make a list of the different kinds of plows, harrows, reapers, planters, and grain separators that you know of. 5. Each pupil should make a list of the different farm implements at his home, and the make of each implement. References :• — • Id. — Pages 232-234. 238 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON XC Title.— The Water Supply. .Season. — At any convenient time. Object. — To learn some facts about water and to ap- preciate the value of pure v^ater and the dangers of impure water. Material. — Clean test-tubes or bottles, sulphuric acid, potassium permanganate, nitric acid, silver ni- trate, barium chloride, ammonium oxalate, impure water from a pond, and pure water. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 1. There is nothing of more importance to the health, comfort, and convenience of a farm and house- hold than an abundant supph' of pure water. It is not easy to find absolutely pure water. Some of the impurities in drinking water are harmless; others are \-ery injurious. The most dangerous impurities in wa- ter are the minute plant forms, called bacteria. One kind of bacteria occasionally found in drinking water, causes the typhoid fever. It is impossible to judge by the appearance or taste, whether water contains these dangerous bacteria. It may be perfectly clear and have the finest taste, and yet be unsafe to drink. 2. Sources of drinking water are : I. Springs. Spring water is almost always ELEMENTARY AGEICULTUEE 239 pure if the spring is deep and a good distance from foul places such as barnyards and open drains. 2. Lakes and reservoirs. Water supplied to cities is often taken from rivers and lakes, and puri- fied to a certain extent and stored in reservoirs. If there is any doubt about the purit^r of the city water, people are advised to boil it in order to kill all the dangerous bacteria. 3. Wells. If wells arc on a lower level than the barns or outhouses, they are likely to contain water with the dangerous bacteria in it. If any surface wa- ter can drain into the well it renders the water im- pure and unfit to drink. The land should not slope to the well from an}^ house or barn, and the well coa'- er should be perfectly tight to prevent animals from getting into it. 3. Good rules for drinking water; 1. If there is any doubt about the purity of drinking water it should be boiled. 2. Allow no standing water about the farm premises, for it may be the source of contamination for the drinking water. 3. Do not drink out of the cup at public drink- ing places, nor from the common cup or dipper often used in the school-room, for many disease germs are carried from one mouth to another, through the common drinking vessel. Pupils should have their own individual drinking cups. 4. Always have clean fresh water for the farm animals, for their health and growth depends as much on the water supply, as does our own. 240 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 4. Simple tests for mineral and organic impuri- ties in water: , If this lesson is given in a school that has the ma- terial named above, the following tests will prove in- teresting and valuable : 1. Test for animal or plant matter — Fill a clean test-tube half full of the drinking- water. Add a drop or two of concentrated sulphuric acid, and sufficient potassium permanganate solution to color the water. Heat gently to the boiling point. If the color changes to a brownish tint, it indicates the presence of organic matter. 2. Test for chlorides — To a test-tube half full of water, add a few drops of nitric acid, and then a few drops of silver nitrate so- lution. If there is any cloudiness, it shows that the water had traces of chlorides in it. 3. Test for sulphates — • To a test-tube half full of water add a few drops of barium chloride solution. If there is a whitish pre- cipitate, it indicates the presence of sulphates in the water. 4. Test for lime compounds — To a test-tube half full of water add a few drops of fresh solution of ammonium oxalate. A white pre- cipitate indicates the presence of calcium or lime com- pounds. As a note-book record of this lesson, the pupils should write an essay on the Water Supply, bringing out the facts they have learned, and showing the at- titude they have toward the subject. ELEMENTABT AGEICUIiTUEI 241 LESSON XCI Title. — Cultural Requirements for Vegetables. Season. — Spring. Object. — To learn some requirements for vegetable culture. Material. — Note-book and pencil. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD Have pupils copy the following table in their note- books and learn it so that they can fill it out from memory when the column of vegetables is given : HENDERSON'S PONDBROSA 242 0^^E HUISDBED nLESSONS IN The Vegetable. 1. Radish. 2. Beet. 3. Turnip. 4. Potato. Soil Requirement. Sandy loam soil, loose and rich. Loose, deep, cool, rich soil. Cool moist soil. Deeply pulverized, cool soil, rich in j potash. 5. Sweet potato. Loose, -warm soil, sandy loam. 6. Onion. Moist ricli soil with loose sur- face. 7. Cabbage. Cool deep soil. S. 9. 10. Spinach. Lettuce. Ceiery. Cool moist soil. Mellow, moist soil. Cool, ricli. moist soil, well pre- pared. 11. Pea. Bean. Light soil. 12. Light, sandy loam. 13. Tomato. Rich, "quick" soil. 14. Cucumbers, Melons, etc. Loose, rich, well prepared seed- bed. 15. Asparagus. Deep. rich, moist, cool soil. Fer- tilize often. Season Requirement. Short season crop. Full season. Short season. Early planting, full season. Long season. Sunny. Cool season. Early and late. Full season. Sprin.g and Fall crop. Short season. Full sea.=;on. Short season. Warm season, partial. Care Requirements Clean cultivation. Protect from maggot. Good tillage. Weeds kept down. No care after sowing. Level culture, fre- quent tillage, spray against beetles. Clean tillage, wood _ ashes fertilizer. Good surface tilth. Good seed needed. Frequent tillage. Destroy_ilie worm. Grow in drills. Good soil prepa- ration. The best surface tillage, blanch- ing. Long, warm season. Long, warm season. Full season. Perennial. Grown in drills. Easy culture. Clean tilth. Poles for tall varieties. Hill planting. Careful pruning, and frame sup- ports. Frequent tillage until vines run. Combat melon Beetles Cut in fall and top dress with manure. Cease cutting in early summer. ELEJIENTABY AGRICULTXJKE 243 LESSON XCII Title. — Knot-tying in Ropes. Season. — A Winter lesson. Object. — To learn how to tie useful knots in ropes. Material. — A few feet of rope for each pupil in the class. SUBJECT MATTER AND METHOD. I. The tying of useful knots, rope splicing, mak- ing of hitching ropes, halters and other useful things USEFUL KNOTS (Courtesy of G. A. Allen, Manual Training School, Indianapolis, Ind.) 244 ONE HUNDKED LESSONS IN of this kind, are industries that belong to the farm, and should be included in a course of agriculture for the schools. The teacher should provide a rope and make models of each of the eight knots shown in the figure, and hang them up before the class. 2. Each pupil should have a piece of rope about one yard in length, and practice making these knots until he can do it with ease. 3. Names of the useful knots: a. The single loop. b. The overhand knot. c. The overhand knot repeated. Used to keep the rope from slipping before making the square knot in tying bundles. d. The square or reef knot. A strong knot which will not untie by pulling, but which can be easily broken and untied. e. The loop knot. Used in making a halter that will not slip. f. The figure of 8 knot. g. The slip knot. Commonly used in hitching horses to racks. h. The bowline knot. Used in tying the an- chor of ships. ELEMENTARY AGKICULTURE 245 LESSON XCIII Title. — Fences. Season. — At any time. Object. — To learn something about fences, their ma- terial, construction, and care. Material. — Note-book and pencil. Fences for observa- tion, SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 1. The construction and care of the farm fences are indications of the thrift or shiftlessness of the far- mer. If the fences about the yard, gardens, and fields are neatly kept, not allowed to fall into ruin, and the weeds and bushes be cut from the rows and corners, it is a sign that the farmer takes a pride in his home and farm, and that he is successful in all the details of his business. The scarcity of timber is necessitating the use of wire, and hedging for fencing purposes. The various wire fences, supported by the locust or catalpa posts are perhaps the best fences to construct at the present time. 2. Have the pupils make a list of all the kinds of fences they have on the home farm. Explain how they are made, tell how long they have been construct- ed, and in what condition they are at present. 24G OXE HUNDRED LESSORS IN" 3. Teacher and class should go. at the conclus'^n of this lesson, to observe some fences in the neighbor- hood, and record the observations as follows : Kind of Fence. Materials Used. State of Repair. Needed Attention. 4. If there are any fences needing repair about the school j-ard or in the immediate neighborhood, it would be an excellent thing as an application of this lesson to have the pupils repair the fence and put it in as good a condition as they can. 5. Problems: 1. How man}- rods of fence will it take to fence a 160 acre farm? 2. How many locust posts would be required to fence the 160 acre farm with wire. 3. AAdiat would be the cost of woven wire fence for this farm 't 4. How long should such a fence last? Xi.ite. — Since recent fence-post and walk construc- tV.ns ha^•e made use of cement and concrete work, it wiuild be a valuable exercise to make si.nne cement Mi:cks or ])osts at tlie school. The following formula cinild be ea-ily carri-ed out at an_\' school: — Cement i part Sand 2 or 3 parts Stone, (abijut one inch diameter.) .... 5 parts ]\li"iisten until the mortar slides easily from the shovel. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTUKB 247 LESSON XCIV Title. — Wood Working. Season. — Winter. Object. — To learn how to handle tools and make some simple forms in wood. Material. — A saw, chisel, brace and bits, a plane, a square, a marking gauge, hammer, nails, etc., and some pieces of lumber, and work-bench. RUB.TECT-MATTEB AND METHOD Note — This lesson is meant more for a suggestion of what may be done in the coursq in agriculture, than to give any explicit work for an extended develop- ment of wood working. It is very important that any farm boy or girl should know how to use tools, and to be able to make the necessary repairs and simple constructions needed on the farm. If the few tools can be provided, and the class in agriculture is will- ing to remain a few minutes after the regular school hours, a good beginning can be made in this line of in- dustrial work, even in the country school. Perhaps two pupils at a time could remain to use the tools and do this work each evening until the series of articles suggested are made. I. To saw a block, exactly four inches square. Do not be satisfied until the block is exactly square, s 248 ONE HTJITOBED LESSONS IN EXEMENTAET AGSICULTUEE 249 and exactly four inches square by one inch in thick- ness. 2. To make a game board. Use the same block prepared abo\c. Use the brace and bits and bore nine holes in the block, each hole one inch from the other, three rows of holes and three in a row. Now make six pegs to fit these holes. Color three of the pegs black with ink, and leave three unstained. The game board is now ready for use. 3. Sawing to a line. Take a block, 3"x3"x6", mark lines on the six by three inch faces, parallel, one- half inch apart. Saw across the block, once to the one-half inch line, once to the inch line, and once to r K'/'- /fff ' x 3" X r ■£-r-f. Ga^ , 250 ONE Hl'XDEED LESSONS IK the one and one-half inch line. Saw exactly to the line and stop. 4. The square and T-mortise joint. Take blocks of wood about i"xi"x3" and plane them oft smooth and clean. With the chisel and saw cut out a notch in the middle of one block to allow the end of the second to tit exactly into it. ^lake the joint even and neat. This is the T-ioint. To make the square joint. bore and chisel out a hole near the end of the block, and cut a tongue in the en(i of the second block to fit exactly, and neatly into this hole. 5. To make a box. Pupils might make a pencil box. dimensions about 3"x3"xq". This would necessi- tate an accurate use of the saw. plane, square and ham- mer. 6. To make a gate. This piece of work would be a good practical application of all the pupils had learned in the more elementary practices. It would be worth while to try to have this article made at the school. Sample gates could be used as models. The crude figures accompanying mav help in some of these exercises. The teacher should pro^'ide models for all the articles to be made. All needed repairs and simple construction? or ap])aratu> needed about the school should be made b^' the pupil- umler the teacher's direction. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTDEE 251 LESSON XCV Title, — The Outlook in Agriculture in West Virginia. Season. — At any time. Object. — To learn what agricultural operations would pay best in West Virginia. Material. — Note-book and pencil. SLB.JEtT-MATTER AND METHOD Geographical and climatic conditions seem to in- dicate that there are lliree |)rincipal agricultural oper- ations which would ]ia\' the farmers of AA'cst A'irginia to dc^•elop. — ■ I. Fruit gr(jwing. Man\- hillsides, |ii)orlv adapt- ed to grain culti\-ation, «-iiuld produce protitahle or- chards of a]iple, peach, cherry, and (ither smallfr fruits. Some of the best fndt plantations of the L'nitcil States are in AA'est A'irginia, and «'hat has been clone in one place can he done in man^' other parts of the State, for the conditions of successful fruit culture are similar in many parts of the State, It would lie bet- ter for the soil of man^' farms, and for the purses of many farmers were their hillsides planted to fruit trees, rather than to grain iields with weed-filled wash- outs. 2. Dairying, grazing and stock raising. West V^irginia has ranked among the first states in the pro- duction of finc-wooled sheep, and there is no reason 252 OXE HUNDRED LESSONS IN that this rank should not be maintained. The hills will produce the finest of blue grass, timothy and clo- ver, and there are many natural advantages which may be used in the winter protection of the flock. The in- creased demand for dairy products should encourage grazing and cattle raising. AMth the improvement of country roads, and the extension of the railroads and trollies, the sale of milk, butter and live stock will be greatly facilitated, and the dair\- business become a profitable agricultural operation in the State. 3. Truck gardening. As the mines, and wells of oil and gas are developed throughout the State, more and more laborers leave the farm and become consumer? of farm products rather than producers. In the man}- mining towns which have sprung up in all parts of AA'est A'irginia are thousands of laborers who do not eT,-en have a kitchen garden. The homes of these men must be supplied with the vegetables and products of the farm. If AA^est A'irginia farms and gardens do not furnish these, those of other states will. There are manv fertile vallevs and fields near these industrial centers that could produce far more than they now do, toward supplying the demand for food products. 4. After the discussion of this lesson in class, the pupils should write an essav on one of the above mentioned industries, and copv it neatly in their note- books. ELEMENTARY AGBlOULTirKB 253 LESSON XCVI Title.— The Rural Free Mail Delivery. Season. — At any time. Should probably be given early in the year. Object. — To learn something of the great service of the rural free mail delivery to the farmer. Material. — Note-book and pencil. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD I. There is no modern convenience of greater im- portance to the country people than the rural free mail delivery. Although it is not self-sustaining, and costs the government large sums of money, it has come to stay, for the farmer sees that its service is a great necessity in the promotion of his welfare. In order to promote the greater eiificiency of the rural delivery service, and at the same time render effective aid in the improvement of roads throughout the United States, the Post Office Department, and the Office of Public Roads have entered into a plan of co-operation looking to the betterment of all roads where the rural service is extended. Through this co-operation, re- cently a county in Indiana spent $85,000 for the im- provement of the rural mail routes. Upon the advice of the Post Office Department, the Office of Public ■Roads sends its engineers to inspect and advise as to the construction of local roads. 254 OXE HTJNDEED LESSOiSTS IN 2. Let the pupils find out from the local carrier the following points of information, and write it up in the record of this lesson : I. How manv miles does the carrier travel in z day" 2. AMiat is the carrier's salary? 3. AA'hat is the condition of the roads? 4. How manv daily, and how many weekly papers are delivered on the route? 5. A\'hat is the a^■erage, daily, first-class mail on the route ? 6. Does the postage of this route pay expen- ses ? 3. As another part of this lesson the teacher should have each pupil write a letter to the Depart- ment of Agriculture, addressed to the Secretary of Ag- riculture, "Washington. D. C asking for at least twelve of the follo"\\ing Farmers' Bulletins: Have this let- ter copied neatly in the note-book record of this lesson. FARMERS' BULLETINS. (FREE.) The Feeding of Farm Animals. Weeds, and How to Kill Them. Potato Culture. Fowls : Care and Feeding. Facts About Milk. Sewage Pisposal on the Farm. Commercial Fertilizers. '■ Sheep Feeding. Standard \'arieities of Chickens. Some Common Birds. The Dairy Herd. ^ Bee-keeping. ' Marketing Farm Produce. Meadows and Pastures. The Liming of Soils. The Peach Twig Borer. Thirty Poisonous Plants. Potato Diseases and Treatn]ent. Good Roads for Farmer.s. Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. Farmers' Reading Courses No, 111. Farmers" Interest in Good Seed. Xo. 22 Xo. 28. Xo. 35. Xo. 41. No. 42. No. 43. Xo. 44. Xo. 49. Xo. 51. Xo. 54. Xo. 55. No. 59, No. 62. No. 66. No. 77. No. 80. No. 86. No. 91. No. 95. No. 99. No. 109. ELEMEl^TAKY AGRICULTURE 255 The Apple. Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. Important Insecticides. Eggs and Their Uses a?^ Food- Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat. Tree-planting in Rural School Grounds. Earth Road.^. Poultry Raising on the Farm. The Home Fruit Garden. How Insects Affect Health in Rural DiBtricts. The Home Vineyard. Practical Suggestions for Fruit Growers. Principles of Horse Feeding. Primer of Forestry. Marketing Live Stock. Beautifying the Home Grounds. Drainage of Farm Lands.. Barnyard Manure. Usefulness of the American Toad. Strawberries. Corn Growing. Canned Fruits, Preserves, awd Jellies. Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting. Raspberries. Alfalfa Growing. The School Garden. Tomatoes, Forest Planting and Farm Management. The Production of Good Seed Corn. Spraying for Cucumber and Melon Diseases. Cement, Mortar, and Concrete. Inoculation of Legumes. Butter Making on the Farm, An Example of Model Farming. Fungicides and Their Use. Renovation of Worn-out Soils. The Control of the Coddling Moth and Apple Scab. The Lawn. The Prevention of Smuts in Grain. The Home Vegetable Garden. Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. Seed of Red Clover in Its Impurities. Game Laws for 1900. Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture. Note. — The first rural route ever established was from Charles Town, West Virginia, by W. L. Wil- son, Postmaster General, under Cleveland. No. 113. No. 126. No. 127. No. 128. No, 132. No. 134. No. 136. No. 141. No. 154. No. 155. No. 156. No. 161. No. 170. No. 173. No. 184. No. 185. No. 187. No. 192. No. 196, No. 198. No. 199. No. 203. No. 208. No. 213. No. 215. No. 218. No. 220. No. 228. No. 229. No. 231. No. 235. No. 240. No. 241. No. 252. No. 243, No. 245, No. 247, No. 248, No. 250, No. 255, No. 256, No. 260, No. 265, No. 266, 256 ONE HUNDKED LESSONS IN LESSON XCVII Title. — Beautifying Home Grounds. Season. — Autumn or Spring. Object. — To learn something of the principles of land- scape art, and how to map and design the home and school grounds. Material. — Note-book and pencil. SrBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 1. Learn the following rules which should guide in everv effort to beautify the school and home grounds : (a) Keep the lawn space open and green. (b) Plant in masses at the background, against buildings or on the borders, hiding objectionable views and opening up pleasing vistas. (c) Avoid the straight line in tree planting and walk making. 2, It does not require wealth nor rare plants to beautify the home or school grounds. With little expense, good taste, a knowledge of the above princi- ples, and a willingness to work, the homes and schools of our country could be made more attractive and more natural. The woods are full of wild shrubs and flow- ers, that could be growing on our home and school grounds, if we would only transplant them there. On arbor dav everv school should revive the interest of KLEMBNTABT AQBICTOTTIBE 257 a M > a d X o o ?) o c z o 258 OXE HTJNDKED LESSONS IN the commiinit}' in tree-planting and other means of beautifying the home grounds. Back-yards with bar- ren ground covered with old tin cans and broken down chicken coops are not the surroundings in which boys and girls can grow up into beautiful and useful char- acters. Our minds are influenced b}' what we contin- ually look upon, and if we must look upon uglv land- scapes, we tend to grow sordid and ugly in spirit ; on the other hand, if we grow up in a home and school surrounded b}' beautiful natural scenes, our lives must grow more refined and appreciative. 3. Draw a map of the school grounds, locating all buildings and plants. Indicate in the drawing the planting design }-ou -would ad\"ise. 1 See opposite page). 4. Draw a map of }-our home grounds, showing the location of all buildings and plantings. Criticize the plan of the planting. 5. r\Iake a list of all the trees, shrubs, and flow- ers that are growing as ornaments on vour home ground. 6. Have a "cleaning up" week, in which the school yard is cleared of all trash and ugly objects. Carry this move to the homes, and ha\'e the pupils en- ter competitive home- ground cleanings. This could be done in preparation for arbor day. and the planting of flowers, shrubs, and trees would be a fitting climax to the whole work. 7. List of annual flowers : Seed to be sown after the danger of frost is over. The best results are ob- tained if the plants are started in the house in April and set out after the tenth of May. Aster. Cockscomb. Cosmos, 7\nhlia, IMignonette. Myosotis. and Salvia. ELEMBNTAEY AGBICl-lLTURE 259 « « 260 OJTE HTTNTIRED LESSOXS Hf 8. Annuals : Seeds to be sown early. April or early ^lay. Ageratum, Alvssum, Amaranth, Candy- tuft, Carnation, Chrj'santhemum. Dianthus, Larkspur Marigold, Nasturtium, Petunia, Phlox, Poppy, Sweet Pea, A'erbena, and Zinnia. 9. List of popular perennials : Plants to be grown the preA-ious summer. Columbine, Campanula, Canna. HoUyliock. Poppy f hardy), Rudbeckia, Sunflower, Sweet William, Delphinium, and all hardy pinks. ID. List of shrubs for borders: Flowering Al- mond, Dwarf Cornus. Elder, Forsythia, Bush Honey- suckle, Hydrangea, Japan Quince, Lilac in variety, Privet, Roses in variety. Snowball, Spirea, Sumac, Wei- gelia, Deutsia, Norway Spruce, and other evergreens. 11. List of trees for home and school grounds: Sugar ^laple, Norway ^laple. Box Elder. White Elm, Silver ^laple. White Birch, Catalpa bungei. Tulip tree, Mulberr}-, White Oak, etc, 12, In planting trees about our homes and schools, we should not forget to plant a few such as the Serviceberry, Hackberry, Wild Cherrv, etc., which furnish food for the song birds and attract them to our homes to add their life and cheer to the natural surroundings. References : — G, & ^I. — Pages 209-216, Send for catalogue of "Wagner Park Conserva- tories," Sidney, Ohio, This is a rdiable nursery, and their ^tock is of excellent srrade. SXEMKNTABT AGBICUITUBE 261 LESSON XCVIII Title.— The Farm Home. Season. — At any time. Object. — To try to picture tihe ideal farm home. Material. — Note-book and pencil. SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD I. Our lessons in agriculture would not do jus- tice to rural life if we did not refer to the country home, and its work and influence. The development of the material and industrial side of the home life has not kept pace with the proefress of men's work on the outside. Many of the industries of the early homes have been wisely taken from them and given over to the factories and shops. Two industries vet remain ; cooking and cleaning. These are not much further advanced in their development than they were a thou- sand vears ago. The time mav come, it is to he hoped that it will, when women of the home will he relieved from most of the drudgery of cleaning and conkinsr, and these industries he ttirned over to specialists who will do them better and cheaper than they are now done, and that the home mav become a place of rest and culture for the lives within. Tt will be long years before such ideals can be realized in the coimtn'. yet much can be done in the country home to lighten the 262 ONE HU>"DBED LESSONS IN labors of the mother, and enhghten the members of the household. 2. Some conditions making for the betterment of the farm home : 1. Beautiful natural surroundings, as brought out in a former l.esson. 2. Absolute cleanliness from cellar to garret. 3. The absence of all carpets, lace curtains, and bric-a-brac, and their places supplied with smooth, hard-wood finish of window and door casings: hard- wood, waxed floors: and furniture of plain, uncarved, smooth type. 4. Few pictures, well selected, in plain, modest frames, placed upon walls of restful tints. 5. Good books, daily papers, magazines, and farm journals in the library. 6. ^Musical instruments and members of the family Avho can appreciate good music. 7. Ample, shady porches, screened doors and windows, and well ventilated rooms. 8. Pure, clean food, well prepared and cooked, and cool, clean kitchen and dining rooms in which to prepare and eat the meals. 9. A bath-room, with hot and cold water sup- plied. 10. A telephone, and rural free mail service, 11. All the labor saving machines that can be af- forded. 12. Good roads, good schools, good churches, good markets available, and good people to li\'e in the homes. BXBMENTABY AQBICULTURE 263 3. A stronger and better country home ! That is what we want. That is what we must have. The "New Earth" that is coming, will bring its rural homes of good cheer, of culture and education. In these homes will be strong men, sensible women, and happy children. Love will be law and wisdom chief ruler, and the child that is born in them is sure of all that the highest thought can secure for him in body, soul and spirit. "This is the stronger home, and in that home must be seen all the graces and gentleness in thought and word that make the happy illumination which, on the inside of the house, correspond to morning sunlight outside, falling on quiet dew}' fields. Out of such homes neither knaves in politics, mir tyrants in busi- ness competition can ever come. With such homes, the golden age already dawning as the new century opens hastens its steps. And for the woman in that home : — "A woman, in so far as she beholdeth Her one Beloved's face ; A mother, — with a great heart that enfoldeth The children of the race ; A body free and strong, with that high beauty That comes of perfect use is built thereof; A mind where reason ruleth over duty, And justice reigns with love; A self-poised, royal soul, brave, wise, and tender. No longer blind and dumb; A human being of unknown splendor, Is she who is to come." — (Helen Campbell.} References: — Id. — Pages 240- 264 ONE HTJNDEED LESSONS IW LESSON XCIX Title.— The Grange. Season. — At any time. Object. — To learn something of the work and pur- pose of the Grange, the greatest farmers' organi- zation in the world. Material. — Note-book and pencil. SUBJECT-MATTER AND ilETHOD Some facts about the Grange, submitted to the author by Prof. T. C. Atkeson, Master of West Vir- ginia State Grange, and Overseer of the National Grange. "The idea of a farmers' fraternal organization orig- inated in the mind of Oliver H. Kelley, a Minnesota farmer, while on a trip through the southern states in 1867, soon after the close of the great Civil War, ^vhe^e he had been sent by President Johnson to see what might be done to rebuild the devastated agri- culture of that great agricultural region. Mr. Kelley was a high degree Free Mason, and naturally his idea of a farmers' organization took the form of a secret society. Soon after his return to Washington, where he reported to the Department of Agriculture, he paid a visit to his niece. Miss Carrie A. Hall, who resided in Boston, and outlined to her his proposed farmers' ELEMENTABT AGEICUMUKE 266 organization. Miss Hall suggested that farmers' wives and daughters be admitted on full equality with the men, and from the first, the organization which fol- lowed has made no distinction on account of sex. Mr. Kelley unfolded his plans to a number of gentlemen in the Department of Agriculture and elsewhere, who became interested in the matter. The first meeting was held in the office of William Saunders, the horticulturist of the Agricultural De- partment at Washington, on the evening of December the fourth, 1867, which has ever since been known as the birthday of the order. The organization was named, "Patrons of Husbandry," and the word, "Grange," which means a farm home, was substituted for "lodge" as used by other organizations. There are Subordinate, Pomona, State, and Na- tional Granges, each one of which is represented by delegates in the next highest body up to the National Grange which is the supreme authority. All Granges have the same officers as follows : Master, Overseer, Lecturer, Steward, Assistant Steward, Chaplain, Treas- urer, Secretary, Gate Keeper, Ceres, Pomona, Flora, and Lady Assistant Steward. The purpose of the organization is to promote the interest of agriculture in every legitimate way possible, educationally, legislatively, co-operatively, and social- ly, with a view to develop a better manhood and wo- manhood on American farms. In its forty-one years of history, the Grange has accomplished a vast amount of good for American farmers, and practically every advancement made by agriculture in that time origi- nated with the Grange or has been eflFectively pro- 266 ONE HXfNDBED LESSONS IN moted by it. The Grange was an important factor in the establishment of agricultural colleges, and high schools, and originated the idea of teaching elemen- tary agriculture in the public schools. E.xperiment stations are mainly the product of Grange advocacy. Rural mail delivery, the Department of Agriculture, the Interstate Commerce Commission, and hundreds of other measures of state or national legislation orig- inated with the Grange or were promoted by it. Its value to agriculture is beyond computation." The Grange is a live institution. It is satisfving a great need in rural society. It is based on correct principles: organization, co-operation, education. It is neither a political party nor a business agency. It is neither ultra-radical nor forever in the rut. Its chief work is on cultural lines. It includes the entire farri- ily. It is now grll^\'ing, and its growth is of a perma- nent character. "The Grange is ambitious to take its place beside the school and the church, as one of the trinitv of forces that shall mold the life of the farmer on the broad- est possible basis. — material, intellectual, social, and ethical. Is there any good reason whv this ambition is not worthy, or why its goal should not be won"" (President Butterfield of the Mass. Agricultural Col- lege, from his Chapters on Rural Progress.) Why Farmers Should Join the Grange. ("By the authority of the blaster of the National Grange.) 1. Because it is inexpensive. 2. Because it is the farmer's onlv orsranization, ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 267 national in character. 3. Because it has stood the test for forty-one years, and has never been found wanting in any re- spect. 4. Because it has exerted greater influence in securing state and national legislation in the interest of agriculture than any agency in the country. 5. Because it is officered by those engaged in agriculture, who know from experience the needs of farmers, and are sincere in their desire to aid them in -every possible way. 6. Because it is the duty of farmers to co-operate with one another, if they would successfully meet the influence of organization in every direction, and secure for wife and home a fair share of what the harvest yields. 7. Because it has exerted the greatest influence known in breaking up the isolation of farm life, and in making farm life attractive to the boys and girls, bringing sunshine and happiness into the farm home to such an extent as has never before existed. After the teacher has discussed this lesson with the pupils, all the text-book should be laid aside, and the pupils asked to write a brief essay in their note- books on the Grange, its history, plan of organization, purposes and work. R-;ferences : — The Xational Grange Periodical, Philadelphia, Pa. Chapters in Rural F^-ogress — riutterfield. 26S ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN LESSON C i i Title. — Juvenile Agricultural Societies. Season. — At beginning of school term. Object. — To learn how to organize and conduct an ag- ricultural club or society among boys and girls. Material. — The school house may be the meeting place of a permanent organization. Such other materials as any organized body needs. SL B JECT-ilATTEK AND METHOD This subject is here treated as a lesson in order to be in harmony with the plan of the series. In the agriculture class, on the da\- preceding the organiza- tion of the societ}', the teacher should announce the plan and try to awaken an interest in the organiza- tion, and its purposes. A Friday afternoon quarter may be devoted to this work, and the pupils above the age of eight includ- ed. All boys and girls should know how to organize themselves, for in this way is learned that great les- son of co-operation, so vital today in rural life. Let one of the older boys, at the suggestion of the teacher, call the meeting to order. Then let some boy rise and say : "Mr. Chairman, I nominate John Reihle (for ex- ample) for President." Another rises and says: KLEMKNTAKi, AGEIOULTUliiC 269 "Mr. Chairman, I second the nomination." Then let some one rise to say ; ■'Mr. Chairman, if there are no other nominations, I move that John Reihle, be declared elected Presi- dent of this Society." Some one says, "I second the motion," then the boy who is acting as chairman says : "It has been moved and seconded that John Reihle be declared President of this Society. Are there any remarks?" Hearing none, he says, "All those in favor say, 'yes' ". He estimates the vote. "All those opposed say, 'no' ". If he receives more for than against, the chairman declares that John is elected. John then takes the place of the Chairman, and conducts the meeting. A secretary is then elected as above, preferably from among the girls. The fol- lowing Constitution and By-laws should be read by one of the pupils, and adopted by the Society as a tentative working plan : Constitution and By-laws of the Pre-juvenile Grange Club. Article i. The name of this society shall be the Pre-Juvenile Grange Club. Article 2. The objects of this society shall be, as the name signifies, to grow into the Juvenile Grange with all its plans and purposes; to encourage the study of 270 O^fE HUXDEED LESSOXS IX Agriculture in the school and home; to promote con- tests in plant growing, animal raising, literary work, etc. : and to cultivate a love for the farm and home. Article 3. All the bo}"S and girls of the school over eight }-ears of age are eligible for membership. Any person over eight and under fifteen, in the district and not in school, may be elected to membership by a ma- jority vote. Article 4. The membership fee shall be ten cents, and the annual dues, five cents, payable at the beginning oi the school vear. Article 5. The officers shall consist of President, \'ice- president. Secretary, Treasurer. Speaker, and Usher. Article 6. It is the duty of the President to preside at all meetings, preserve order, and command obedience to all rules. His emblem is a red ribbon worn on the la- pel of his coat. The A'ice-president assists the President and presides in his absence. His emblem is a blue ribbon. The Speaker will assist the President and Sec- retary in arranging the literary program for the reg- ELEMENTABT AGKICULTtJEE 271 ular meetings. His emblem is a green ribbon. The Secretary will keep a record of all meetings, receive the fees and dues of the members, and pay the same to the Treasurer, take and keep his receipts therefor. His emblem is the white ribbon. The Treasurer shall take charge of and keep all the money of the society, and pa^' out the same only upon orders signed by the i'resident and Secretary. His emblem is the yellow riblion. The Usher guards the door, shows members and visitors to seats, and helps tlie President preserve order. His emblem is a blue rod. Article 7. This society shall meet every two weeks at the school house, either in the afternoon or evening as the teacher decides. Meetmgs may be held at the homes of members. Article 8 The order of business at the regular meetings shall be as follows : 1. Roll call. 2. Reading of minutes of last meeting. 3. Report of committees. 4. Proposals for membership. 5. Voting on new members. 6. Literary program. 7. Miscellaneous business. 8. Adjournment. 272 ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN By-lavrs. 1. The literary program prepared by the Speak- er, President and Secretary shall consist of music, recitations, readings, essays, orations and debates. The program shall be announced by the Speaker, two weeks in an advance. 2. An annual exhibit should be arranged, per- haps best in the Autumn, in which the bo}'S will exhibit field or garden products they ha^'e grown, and the girls flowers, vegetables or cookery. In preparing for this exhibit, the boys should each select in the spring the plat of ground, not to exceed one acre, nor less than % acre, prepare, plant or sow any crop he may desire. Send for the best seeds, either to the De- partment of Agriculture at Washington. D. C. or to the State Agricultural College. From either of these places the pupil may get bulletins on anv crop he chooses to grow for the exhibit. 3. The teacher and society shall organize com- mittees to solicit prizes to award at the exhibit for the best vegetables, grain, animals, cookery, etc.. brought by the pupils. 4. The Society shall take an annual excursion, visiting the farms and homes of the district. This may take the form of a picnic, and be the happy end- ing of the school term. 5. This constitution and b}--laws mav be amend- ed at any meeting by a two-thirds vote, provided the proposed amendment is posted in the school rooms two weeks before adoption. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 273 To the teacher : This society may be, and should be, if a Grange is in the district, developed into the Juvenile Grange, a national order, recognized by the Patrons of Husbandry. The Juvenile Grange is a most excellent organ- ization for young people of the country. It has just enough secret work about it to make it attractive to young folks,, and the ceremonies are beautiful and full of good lessons which every Ijoy and girl should heed. In changing the above society to the Juvenile Grange, write to Prof. T. C. Atkeson, Mor- gantown, W. Va., Overseer of the National Grange, or to C. M. Freeman, Tippecanoe City, Ohio, Secre- tary, for the Manual of the Juvenile Grange. Juven- ile Granges must be organized under the special charge of a Subordinate Grange. References: — Reprint 3<'i2. Year liook 1904. 274 OXE HUNDEED LESSONS IK APPENDIX SAiipii; Lesson", "Weitten up," to Show Pupils How Each Lesson Should be Recoeded in Theib Per- manent Note-Books. LESSON I Title. — Composition of Soils. Season. — (State the time when the lesson Is studied.) Objectt. — To study the composition of soils. Material. — A cupful of ordinary soil, some humus, three one-quart fruit-jars, and water. SCBJECT-ilATTEE AND METHOD. 1. A cupful of ordinary soil was placed into one of the quart jars and allowed to soak for a few hours in water that just covered it. The jar was then filled two-thirds full of water, the contents thoroughly stirred, and allowed to settle for one minute. The water and suspended soli was drained off into the second jar, leaving sand and gravel in the first. 2. The contents of the second jar settled for five min- utes, and the water was then drained off into the third jar. Silt was left in the second jar. 3. The contents of the third jar settled three days. after which the water was drained off. Clay was left in the third jar. NOTE. — A similar record of each lesson should be made in the Agricultural Note-book, at the conclusion of the experimental or ob- servational work. A few of the most important facts should always be noted under the heading, "Things Learned from This Lesson." elementary agriculture 275 Things Learned From This Lesson. 4. Sand originated from the crumbling of silicon rock, clay from feldspar rock, and humus from decayed plant or animal life. The particles of clay are the smallest and stickiest of all soil particles. Humus will burn, but sand and clay will not. Sand is the heaviest soil by weight, but clay is usually referred to as heavy soil, and sand as light soil. Clay soils ought not to be worked while wet, because they will puddle and bake into hard clods when dried out. A loam is a mixture of sand, silt, clay, and humus. 0. Make drawings of the three jars used. PRACTICAL INFORMATION. Contents* of Fields. 10 rodsXlG rods = l acre. 8 rodsX20 rods = l acre. 10 yds.X484 yds. = l acre. 40 yds. X 121 yds. = l acre. 220 feetXl9S feet=l acre 120 feetX3G3 feet = l acre. Quantities of Seed Required to the Acre. Wheat, IV2 to 2 bushels. Oats, 2 to 4 bushels. Rye, 1 to 2 bushels. Corn, Vb to Vi bushel. Potatoes, 5 to 10 bushels. Timothy, 12 to 24 quarts. Red Clover, 6 to 12 pounds. 276 oxe hu>'1>bed lessons in Weights of Grain Seed in Majority of the States. Wheat, CO pounds per bushel. Corn. .56 pounds per bushel. Oats. 32 pounds per bushel. Clover Seed. GO pounds per bushel. Timothy Seed, 45 pounds per bushel. Rye. 5G pounds per bushel. Blue Grass Seed, 14 pounds per bushel. Potatoes, 60 pounds per bushel. Fine Salt, 50 pounds per bushel. Corn Meal. 50 pounds per bushel. To Find the Xe-mbee of Bushels ix a Bix. Multiply together the length, breadth, and thickness in feet, and multiply this product by .S. (After GoS & Mayne.) To Find the Xe'mbek of Tons of Hay in a Mow oe Rick. In Mow. Multiply together the height, length and breadth in feet, and divide the product by 450 for timothy, and by 600 for clover hay. In Rick. Multiply the length by the breadth, and that product by one half the difference between the breadth and the distance over. This will give cubic feet. Divide as above to find the number of tons. (GoS & Mayne ■> SPRAY MIXTURES. For Fungous Diseases. Bordeaux Mixture. 3 lbs. copper sulphate, 4 to 6 lbs. lime. 50 gallons water. elementary agbicultuee 277 For Chewing Insects. 3 lbs. to 5 lbs. lead arsenate (disparene) . lUO gallons of water. Foe Sucking Insects. 2 gallons kerosene. 1 gallon water. % pound whale-oil soap, 15 to 20 gallons water. ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY. In connection with the lessons on trees in this text, tte following outline from Circular 130 of the Forest Service, will furnish some excellent subject-matter for the teaching of the elements of forestry: A. The forests of the locality in which you are teaching. I. Economic value. 1. As sources of useful products. 2. For conservation of water. (Irrigation, water power, town and city supplies, etc.) 3. For protection. (Floods, hot, cold, and drying winds.) 4. Influence on erosion and soil protection. II. Location, extent, and character of these forests. 1. On what kind of land (hilly, rocky, sandy, swampy, or agricultural). 2. Character and use. a. Softwoods or hardwoods. Virgin or lumbered. Dense, thin, or open. Mature or immature. b. How utilized — conservatively or destruc- tively, for saw timber, fuel, or other purposes. 27S OXE HUNDRED LESSON'S IN III. Protection of forests. 1. Forest fires. a. Season of the year they occur. What are the causes? b. State legislation concerning forest fires Methods of protection — State, National and private. c. Precautions individuals should take against fires. 2. Grazing. a. Damage to forest. B. The forest of your state. I. General. 1. Approximate proportion of State forested. 2. Principal forest products. 3. Relation lo important industries of the State. 4. Forest planting in the State — public and private. II. Forest reserves. 1. Location and size of State reserves and Na- tional forests. 2. Purposes of the reserves. C. The forests of the United States. I. General. 1. Approximate proportion of the United States forested. 3. Principal forest products. 4. Relation to important industries of the country. II. National forests. 1. General location. 2. Purposes. ELEMENTABY AGKICULTUBE 27J> CORNELL UNIVERSITY SCORE-CARD FOR FARMS. Standard Students' Score Score 12, Kind of Farming — Adaptation as affecting value , Size — As adapted to kind of farming to be used Shape — As affecting shape of fields As affecting ' nearness of farmstead Topography — As affecting production As affecting ease of cultivation As affecting loss of soil fertility Fertility — Natural Condition Physical Properties^ — • As affecting economy of cultivation As affecting number of days of labor As affecting loss of soil fertility Drainage — Natural or artificial Condition — Freedom from stumps, stooes, weeds, waste land, etc Climate — As affecting production of live stock As affecting number of days of labor Health fulness — As an economic factor Water-supply — Running water and wells Location — Local markets Neighbors Shipping facilities Roadways ImprovemeDts — Location of farmstead House as adapted to farm needs Other buildings as adapted to size of farm and kind of farming Fences, character, condition, arrangement . . Timber, orchards, vineyards, etc 15 5 Total The above score card, worked out for the pupils' home farms, would make valuable lessons in Elementa/ry Agriculture. 280 ONE HL'SDSED LESSOXS I>' "THE COUNTHY LIFE COMMISSIOX." President Roosevelt appointed recently a commission to study and report upon the conditions of American country life. This commission, of which L. H. Bailey is chairman, has submitted the following important questions to farmers, teachers, ministers, business men. and others interested in country life: 1. Are the farm homes in your neighborhood as good as they shouM be under existing conditions? 2. Are the schools of your neighborhood training boys and girls satisfactorily for life on the farm? 3. Do the farmers in your neighborhood get the returns they reasonably should from the sale of their products? 4. Do the farmers in your neighborhood receive from the ra'lroads, troley lines, etc. the service they reasonably should have? ■"i. Do the farmers in your neighborhood receive from the United States postal service, rural telephone, etc., the service they reasonably should exptct? C. Are the farmers and their wives satisfactorily organ- ized to promote their mutual interests? 7. Are the renters of farms in your neighborhood making a sa+:sfactory living? 5. Is the supply of farm labor in your neighborhood satisfactory? 9. Are the conditions surrounding hired labor on the farms in your neighborhood satisfactory to the hired men? 10. Have the farmers in your neighborhood satisfactory facilities for doinsr their business in banking, credit, insurance, etc.'? 11. Are the sanitary conditions of the farms in your ne'^ghborhood satisfactory? 12. Do the farmers and their wives and fami'ies in your neighborhood get together for mutual improvement, entertainment, and social intercourse as much as they should? Note. — Accompanying each question are the subordinate quest-'ons: "AVhy?" 'TVTiat suggestions have you to make?" ELEMENTARY AGEICULTURE 2S1 "THE WORK OP THE COUNTRY LIFE COMMISSION." In the summary of their report the President's Commis- sioners give us a clear view of the existing conditions of country- life. Here is what they say; — "The commission finds that agriculture in the United States, taken together, is prosperous commercially, when measured by the conditions that have obtained in previous years, although there are some regions in which this is only partially tnie. The country people are producing vast quan- tities of supplies for food, shelter, clothing and for use in the arts. The country homes are improving in comfort, attract- iveness and healthfulness. Not only in the material wealth that they produce, but in the supply of Independeni and strong citizenship, the agricultural people constitute the very foundation of our national efficiency. As agriculture is the immediate basis of country life, so it follows that the general affairs of the open country, speaking broadly are in a condition of improvement. "Yet it is true, notwithstanding all this progress as measured by historical standards, that agriculture is not com- mercially as profitable as it is entitled to be for the labor and energy that the farmer expends and the risks that he as- sumes, and that tlie social conditions in the open country are far short of their possibilities. We must measure our agricultural efficiency by the possibilities rather than by com- parison with previous conditions. The farmer is almost nec- essarily handicapped in the development of his business, be- cause his capital is small and the volume of his transactions limited; and he usually stands practically alone against or- ganized interest. In the general re-adjustment of modern life doomed to the great changes in manufactures and commerce, inequalitis and discriminations have arisen, and naturally the separate man suffers most. "The disadvantage or handicap of the farmer as against 2N2 0>"E IIU>"DEED LESSONS I>'' the established bussiness systems and interest, prevents him from securing adequate returns for his products, deprives him of the benefit that would result from unmonopolized rivers and the conservation of forests, and deprives the com- munity, in many cases, of the good that ^^'ould come from the use of great tracts of agriculture land that are no'.v held for speculative purposes." Referring to the work of the Commission, President Roosevelt says: — "It wishes to bring not only the farmers but the nation as a whole, to realize that the growing of crops, though an essential part, is only a part of country life. Crop growing is the essential foundation, but it is no less essential that the farmer shall get an adequate return for what he grows. "Three great general and immediate needs of country life stand out: ''First, effective co-ope; ation among farmers, to put them on a level with the organized interests with which they do business. "Second, a new kind of schools in the country, which shall teach the children as much outdoors as indoors, and perhaps more, so that they will prepare for country life, and not as at present, mainly for life in town. "Third, better means of comunication. including good roads and a parcels post, which the country people are ev- erywhere, and rightly, unanimous in demanding." In brief, taking the whole country into consideration, the chief cause of the deficiencies in rural life is poverty — poverty due to stealing. Lacking sufficient co-operation and organization to protect themselves against the trade, transpor- tation and financial interests cunningly organized and com- bined again-t them, fanners as a body fail to hold a fair share of the wealth they produce. Whenevei- and wherever farmers can get adequate returns for what they grow, and can hold what they earn, life in the open country will bound upward to a plane that will need no commission to study means for its betterment It Is estimated that out of every dollar paid for farm ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 2 83 products by consumers, farmers get only thirty-tlYe cents. Let us suppose they could get even fifty cents out of each dollar. Then country people could afford, and would have better roads, better schools, better homes, better sanitary conditions, bettre health, better social conditions, and better everything else that concerns rural life. And they are go- ing to ,get tliem. The future welfare of the whole nation demands that restraint of trade shall be immediately superseded by re- straint of the modern Robin Hood plunder-band — genteel band of outlaws "who steal the goose and give away the giblet in alms." It remains for you, t*achers and pupils, who love the country life and desire Its best interests, in the spirit and Intelligence with which you have pursued these lessons, to go forth as leadeis. where leadersliip is so mucla needed, — in the open country. Be leaders in the grange. Be leaders in boys' and girls' clubs. Be leaders in country school and church. Uphold and advance every movement that will bring larger measures of justice and education to the farmer and his family. 2S-I: 0>C HUNliKED I.ES^OXS IN CONSERVATION OF THE NATURAL RESOURCES A text-book in agriculture would fail in an essential duty if it did not call attention to the great need of the conserva- tion of our natural resources. In a recent conference. Hon. Gifford Piuchot. the U. S. Forester, advised the preparation of text-books on conservation, and strongly urged that the problem be presented to the children of the public schools. We have been concerning ourselves about every other sub- ject under the sun. while w^e ate, drank, and made merry over the abundance of our natural resources. As a nation we have wasted our substance by riotous living, and now we hear our President sounding the alarm by saying, that the ques- tion of the conservation of our natural resources is one of the most important problems now before the American people. In the building of King Solomon's temple, "he set up the pilars in the porch of the temple; and he set up the right pillar, and called the name there of jachin; and he set up the left pillar, and called the name there of, Boaz." These names signified strength and stability. "And upon the top of the pillars was lily work: so was the work of the pillars finished." In the building of the temple of our country's material greatness we have forgotten to set up the pillars of strength and stability, and have been trying to add the lily work. Our natural i'esouri.ei are the Boaz and .Jachin of the country's material stren.gth, and before the lily-work, come the pillars. Disregarding tlie ijuestion of moral purposes, the pros- perity 01' our people depends directly upon the energy ani intelligeui e with which we use the soil, the forests, the miiirx. and the iratrrs of the earth. From the sea. the mine. ELEMENTAEY AGEICULTUKE 285 the forest and the soil, must be gathered eveiything that can sustain the life of man. How stands the inventoi-y of our property at the beginning of the twentieth century? The sea furnishes 5 per cent, of our food products. The forests are fast disappearing. We are consuming wood three times faster than the forests grow, and without reforestation, the present century will see the end of our timber. The mines of coal, oil, and gas are incapable of restora- tion. The wealth of these resources can be used only once. When fuel becomes scarce, as far as we can now foresee, man will suffer as he would if the air were gradually with- drawn. One has only casually to observe to note the great 1- Bste of coal, oil, and gas that is continually going on un- checked. Our greatest source of wealth is the land, — the soil. How are we caring (or it? The last census shows that the average annual product per acre of the whole country was $11.38, a little more than a respectable rental in some places, where the land is well cared tor. We are robbing the soil in order to get the largest returns in the shortest time. We have done this in two ways, — by single cropping and by neg- lect of fertilization. We need the intelligent treatment of smaller areas, raising the productivity to three or four times the present rate. Thirty-six per cent, of our people live directly by agriculture and the rest depend upon it. We shall have 200 million people here by 19.50. How shall they he employed and wherewithal shall they be fed? Time was when the son of the farmer could go West, when his father's farm was run down, now all this is changed. The son of the farmer, if he follows his father's vocation, must make his living on his father's farm. This can be done, if the father exercises wisdom. No wise use of the soil ex- hausts its fertility. And finally the greatest waste of resources is the loss that comes to all our material development, through ignorant minds and un.^killed hands. It is the old curse of ignorance together with the primal sin of selfishness that has lead to the waste of the world's substance. It is the hope of the -ib 02iE HUNDKED LESSO'S IX New Earth that before we must eat the husks that belong to the swine, we shall turn like the prodigal to the old home, and there find the fatted calf and an abundance for all, because the fathers and sons have wisely used the inheritance of nature. T>o you want to get Better 'Results in your Writing Classes ? This is one of the easiest subjects to teach there is — the reason so few teachers can teach it is be- cause of the fact that there have been no books to tell them how. We realized this need and have made arrangements to publish a revised edition of " Hovo to Teach Writing in tl^e Public Schools. " By C. L. Michael, who for five years was Super- visor of Penmanship in the Fairmont (W. Va.) State Normal School, and who is now Principal of the Coimmercial Department of the Phoenix (Ariz.) Union High School. This work has the endorsement of scores of teachers, nearly all of whom testify to the fact that through its use they are able to get from 50% to 100% better results in their writing classes. To the Teacher wl^o Wants to oMake Good : Get better results in your writing — the parents can SEE the improvement there and it is more noticeable than in any other branch. Price 50c The copies given in the book are printed sep- arately for use by the students. Price per set 10c Book will be ready July 1, 1909. Special prices on larger quantities. THE ACME PUBLISHING CO., IVlorgantown, West Virginia.