' ( Prefented to 
 The Cornell University, 1869, 
 
 BY 
 
 Goldwin Smith, M. A. Oxon., 
 
 Regius Profeffor of Hiftoiy in tlie 
 Univerfity of Oxford. 
 

 Date Due 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .'2;-5s 
 
 
 
 
 JJ-yjrj™^ Cl/llUini3CU 
 
 3 1924 027 777 592 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924027777592 
 
EUSSELL'S 
 HISTORY OP MODERN EUROPE 
 
 EPITOMISED. 
 
EUSSELL'S 
 HISTOSY OF MODERN EUROPE 
 
 EPITOMISED : 
 
 POEMINQ 
 
 % Cffmjjto f 0t-§00li 0f i;0ton |ist0rg, 
 
 AS WELL AS A PEEEECT TEEASUKT OP 
 
 FACTS, DATES, IMPORTANT EVENTS, THE HISTORY OF 
 KINGDOMS AND STATES, 
 
 AND OE THE 
 
 LIVES OP CBLEBBATBD CHABACTBES. 
 
 LONDON: 
 G. EOTJTLEDGE & CO. EAREINGDON STREET; 
 
 NEW TOEK: 18, BEBKMAIT 8TEEET. 
 
 1857. 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 Within the compass of this volume the reader is 
 presented with an epitome of Russell's larger work, 
 upon the History of Modern Europe. It remains the 
 favourite guide to a knowledge of the various subjects 
 of which it treats ; and has very recently been recom- 
 mended as a text-book by the Government Civil 
 Service Commissioners and the Earl of Clarendon. No 
 modern work enjoys a similar reputation, and it is 
 in all respects a safe authority. Every fact and 
 the date of all the events recorded in these pages 
 have been verified, original matter has been introduced, 
 and the entire work submitted to the most careful 
 revision. In epitomising this valuable book of reference 
 the editor has endeavoured to give as fair a view of the 
 leading details of modern history, as was possible within 
 the limits. The more interesting portions of the sub- 
 ject, that stand out in bold and fuU relief on the map of 
 the past, have been described at greater length, while 
 less important matters have been abridged, without, 
 however, interrupting the thread of the narrative. In 
 fact the editor's aim has been to supply what has long 
 been wanting in English literature — a Handbook, in 
 which the chief events of Modern History are set forth 
 in a clear, concise, and intelligent form. Experience 
 
VI PEE FACE. 
 
 has demonstrated that such a work, properly executed, 
 must prove of immense service to the general reader, 
 the student, and the school-boy ; and the editor trusts 
 that the result of his labours will secure that approba- 
 tion and success of which he has endeavoured to render 
 them worthy. 
 
 G. H. T. 
 London, July 20th, 1857. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAET I. — Fbom the Eise op the Modern Kingdoms 
 
 TO THE Peace op Westphama .. .. Page 1 — 222 
 
 PAET II. — Fkom the Peace op Westphalia, in 1648, 
 
 TO THE Peace op Paeis, in 1763 223 — 450 
 
 PAET III. — Fbom the Peace op Paris, in 1763, to 
 
 THE Treaty op Ameens, in 1802 451 — 536 
 
 PAET IV. — ^Fhom the Treaty op Amiens, in 1802, to 
 
 THE Death op Alexander op Eussia, in 1825 .. 537 — 603 
 
 PAET v.- — ^From the Death op Alexander, the Ens- 
 siAN Emperor, in 1825, to the close op the 
 
 Edssian Wab, in 1856 604—678 
 
EUSSELL'S MODEEN ETJEOPE 
 
 EPITOMISED. 
 PABT I. 
 
 PEOM THE BISE OP THE MODEEN KINGDOMS TO THE PEACE 
 OP WESTPHALIA, IN 16i8. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Lettee 1. — Decline and Fall of the Eoman Empire, and the Settlement 
 of the Barbarians, a.d. 98 — 476. Vol. i., pagea 1 — 7.* 
 
 § 1. Ettbope is the theatre on which the human character 
 has appeared to the greatest advantage, and where society, 
 both in ancient and modern times, has attained the fairest 
 development ; consequently, its history furnishes materials 
 worthy of observation and record in the study of men and 
 of kingdoms. The inhabitants of Ancient Europe may 
 be divided into three classes; namely, Greeks, Eomans, 
 and Barbarians. The former, the most polished people of 
 antiquity, inhabited the maritime parts of the country, now 
 known by the name of European Turkey, as well as of that 
 which constitutes the present kingdom of Greece. The 
 ancient Greeks became corrupted, and were conquered by 
 the Itomans, who then turned their arms against the bar- 
 barians or northern nations, the Gauls, the Britons, and 
 the Germans, and succeeded, after several struggles, in 
 reducing them to subjection. Some, however, fled to the 
 mountains for freedom, or took refuge in the inhospitable 
 regions of the north, whence, in later years, they rushed forth 
 like an impetuous flood, overturning the vast fabric of the 
 Eoman empire, establishing upon its ruins new governments 
 
 • The references throughout this work are to the larger edition of 
 "Russell's History of Modem Europe," in four volumes, recently pub- 
 lished by Messrs. Eoutledge & Co. It contains a copious index by 
 Dr. Nnttall, and brings the history of Europe down to the conclusion of 
 the Russian war, in 1 856. 
 
 B 
 
2 ROMAN SYSTEM. 
 
 and new manners, and thus accomplishing the most signal 
 revolution recorded in the history of nations. 
 
 § 2. It had been the policy of the Eomans to transfer 
 into the conquered countries their laws, manners, arts, 
 sciences, language, and literature. Good laws are essential- 
 to good government, arts and sciences to the prosperity of 
 & nation, and learning and politeness to the perfection of 
 the human character. But these, in order to exalt a people, 
 must be the result of the natural progress of civilization, 
 not of any adventitious ferment, or of violence from without. 
 This truth was never,- perhaps, more strikingly exemplified 
 than in the history of the Eoman empire. The degrading 
 influence of its dominion hastened its final dissolution ; for 
 although the conquered nations were by that means more 
 easily kept in subjection, they became unable to resist a 
 foreign enemy, and might be considered as decayed mem- 
 bers of the body politic, which increased its size without 
 consolidating its strength. Under an appearance of pros- 
 perity, the martial and independent spirit of the people of 
 the northern provinces became totally extinct in a few 
 centuries ; and instead of preferring death to slavery, as so 
 many of their illustrious ancestors had done, they patiently 
 submitted to any contribution which a rapacious governor 
 was pleased to levy. They became incapable of either 
 thinking or acting for themselves ; hence all the countries 
 which had been subjected to the Eoman yoke, feU a prey to 
 the first invader, after the imperial forces were withdrawn. 
 
 § 3. Many other causes contributed to the dissolution 
 of the Eoman empire.* Eome owed her dominion as much 
 to the manners as to the arms of her citizens, and a relaxation 
 of the former, brought about by the pillage of Greece and the 
 conquest of Asia, rendered the ruin of the republic inevit- 
 able. The fall of Carthage and the expulsion of the Gauls 
 out of Italy, though seemingly the most fortunate events in 
 
 '> Gibbon makes the decline and fall of the Boman empire to extend 
 over thirteen centuries, which he divides into three periods : — 
 
 1. The first of these dates from the reign of Trajan to the subversion 
 of theWestem empire by the barbarians of Germany and Scythia, the rude 
 ancestors of the most polished nations of modern Europe, a.d. 98 — 476, 
 
 2. The second period commences with the reign of Justinian and ter- 
 minates with the elevation of Charlemagne, who established the second 
 or German empire of the West. A.D. 527 — 800. 
 
 3. The last and longest of these periods includes ahout six centuries 
 and a half, from the reviyal of the Western empire, to the taking of Con- 
 stantinople by the Turks, a.d. 800 — 1453. In this letter the author 
 treats more particularly of the fall and decline of the old Itoman power, 
 which are embraced in the first period, A.D. 98 — 476. 
 
CONSTANTINOPLE. S 
 
 Eoman history, also contributed to a change of mannersy 
 and to the extinction of Eoman liberty. Her citizens, 
 before united by the sense of a common danger, were split 
 into factions, and ambitious men took advantage of internal 
 divisions in order to raise themselves to power. A master 
 became necessary, to put an end to the horrors of civil war, 
 and to restore union and vigour to the state. Interest and 
 vanity made courtiers ; force or fear, slaves. A new source 
 of ruin disclosed itself. Some disputed successions having 
 made the army sensible that the sovereignty was in their 
 hands, the soldiers henceforth sold it to the highest bidder. 
 The soldiers of Home were no longer citizens armed in defence 
 of their country, but mercenaries or hired barbarians, and 
 they proved little better than licensed robbers. 
 
 § 4. In order to put a stop to the continual treasons of 
 the soldiery, more especially those of the PrsBtorian bands, 
 the emperors associated with themselves in the supreme 
 power, their sons, their brothers, or such persons as they 
 could trust ; and every emperor elected a successor. They 
 likewise subdivided the power of the Praetorian prefects, 
 appointing four instead of two. Hence arose a new species 
 of oppression, the tyranny being transferred from the soldiery 
 to the prince. The removal of the imperial court to Con- 
 stantinople, to say nothing of the subsequent division of the 
 empire into Eastern and Western, was another blow to the 
 grandeur of Eome, and likewise to its security. The dis- 
 contents occasioned by the removal of the imperial court, 
 were heightened by those of religion. Christianity had long 
 been making progress in the empire ; at length it ascended 
 the throne of the Csesars. As the Christians had formerly 
 been persecuted, they, in their turn, became persecutors. 
 The most dreadful hatreds and animosities arose. New 
 sects sprang up ; new disputes took place ; new jealousies 
 and antipathies raged ; and the same punishments were 
 denounced against heretics and pagans. A universal 
 bigotry debased the minds of men. 
 
 § 5. The character of the people with whom the Romans 
 had to contend was in all respects the reverse of their own. 
 These barbarians" breathed nothing but war. Simple and 
 
 " Barbarian was a term applied by the ancient Greeks and Romans to 
 all who were not of their own country, or under their dominion. Hence 
 with them the word simply signified " a foreigner," not, as amongst us, 
 a rude and uncivilized person. It is in its classical sense that the term 
 is applied In this portion ot the work. 
 B 2 
 
i THE BABBAEIANS. 
 
 severe in their manners, they were unacquainted with the 
 name of luxury. Hardened by exercise and toil, their bodies 
 seemed inaccessible to disease or painj war was their 
 element; they sported with danger, and met death with 
 expressions of joy. Though free and independent, they were 
 firmly attached to their leaders. Nor were these their only 
 virtues. They. were remarkable for their regard to the 
 sanctity of the jnM-riage vow, their generous hospitality, 
 their detestation of treachery and falsehood. The divided, 
 effeminate, and now dastardly Eomans, could oppose nothing 
 but fear and folly, or, what was still more ignominious, 
 treachery, to such a people. Convinced that the combat 
 was unequal, they attempted to appease their invaders by 
 money. Voluntary contributions were soon changed into 
 tribute, and tributes were multiplied till the empire was 
 drained of its treasure. Another expedient was then 
 adopted : — the Eomans took large bands of the barbarians 
 into their pay, but these eventually turned theii arms 
 against their masters, and invited their countrymen to come 
 and share with them in the spoils. A third expedient was 
 tried, — namely, assassination ; and the emperors thus got rid 
 of those leaders or princes whom they feared, often perpe- 
 trating the crime under the mask of friendship, and even at 
 the festive board. The barbarians at last proved equally 
 deaf to the offers of treaty and to the voice of supplication. 
 Italy and Eome itself were often pillaged. Eresh invaders 
 appeared, and Europe was successively laid waste, till the 
 North, by pouring forth its myriads, was drained of people, 
 and the sword of slaughter tired of destroying. 
 
 § 6. These invaders soon spread over Europe. By the 
 beginning of the sixth century, the Vjsigoths had possessed 
 themselves of Spain ; the Eranks of Gaul ; the Saxons of 
 the Eoman provinces in South Britain ; the Huns of Pan- 
 nonia ; the Ostrogoths of Italy and the adjacent provinces. 
 New governments, laws, languages ; new manners, customs, 
 dresses ; new names of men and of countries, everywhere 
 prevailed. A total change took place in the state of Europe. 
 The barbarians rejected everything that savoured of Eoman 
 civilization. Their literature, elegant arts, jurisprudence, 
 refinement, were placed under the same ban of prohibition, 
 and the influence of the ancient mistress of the world was 
 to be entirely eradicated. In what manner light arose out 
 of this darkness, order out of this confusion, and taste out 
 of this barbarism, will be shown in this history. The stu- 
 
FEUDAL SYSTEM. 5 
 
 •dent may observe how genius and magnificence displayed 
 themselves in a new mode, which prevailed for a time, and 
 then exploded ; how the sons came to idolize that literature 
 which their fathers had proscribed, and wept over the ruins 
 of those sculptures, paintings, buildings, which they could 
 not restore ; digging from dunghills, and bringing forth 
 from the dust of ages, the models for future imitation, and 
 enervating themselves with the same arts by which the 
 Boman character had been undermined. 
 
 liETTSB 2. — ^The System of Policy and Legislation established by tlie 
 Barbarians on settling in the Provinces of tbe Boman Empire. Fifth 
 and Sixth Centuries of the Christian Era. Vol. i., pages 7 — 9. 
 
 § 7. The ancient Gauls, the Britons, the G-ermans, the 
 Scandinavians, and all the nations of the north of Europe, 
 showed a certain degree of conformity iu their government, 
 manners, and opinions. The same thing might be observed 
 among their more modern descendants, who, under the 
 names of Goths and Vandals, dismembered the Eoman 
 empire. Their primitive government was a kind of military 
 democracy, under a general or chieftain, who had commonly 
 the title of king. The authority of these rulers was 
 extremely limited, and consisted rather in the privilege of 
 advising than in the power of commanding. They con- 
 sidered their conquests as common property, in which all 
 had a right to share ; and every one was the lord of his own 
 little territory. After settling in the Eoman provinces, the 
 northern conquerors saw the necessity of a closer union, 
 and of relinquishing some of their private rights for public 
 safety. The general who had led them to victory, continued 
 to be the head of the colony, and had the largest share of 
 the conquered lands, while every free man, whether citizen 
 or soldier, was bound to assist in the defence of the com- 
 munity. Hence arose the FBrBAi. System, the idea of 
 which was borrowed from that of a military establishment. 
 
 § 8. That system of policy, which prevailed for several 
 centuries in almost every kingdom of Europe, did not 
 sufficiently provide for the internal security of the state. 
 The bond of political union was feeble ; the sources of 
 dissension were numerous, and corruption was interwoven 
 with the very framework of the constitution. The king or 
 general parcelled out his lands, binding those on whom he 
 bestowed them, under the penalty of forfeiture, to attend 
 
6 JURISPETJDENCE. 
 
 him in all his military enterprises. The nobles followed his 
 example, and appeared at the head of their numerous 
 vassals, like so many independent princes, and at length 
 extorted from the crown the right of coining money, and of 
 carrying on war against their private enemies. The ties 
 which connected the principal members of the constitution 
 with its head were gradually dissolved ; almost aU ideas of 
 political subjection were lost, and little appearance of feudal 
 subordination remained. A variety of feuds and jealousies 
 raged among the nobles or barons, giving rise to many wars. 
 Hence every country in Europe, kept in continual alarm by 
 these internal hostilities, was filled with castles and for- 
 tresses, to protect the inhabitants from the attacks of their 
 fellow-sUbjects. Kingdoms so divided and torn by domestic 
 broils, were almost incapable of any foreign effort. Their 
 wars for several centuries resembled the wild and desultory 
 incursions of pirates or banditti ; and had not the state of 
 every kingdom been nearly the same, a dominant power must 
 have arisen. In that case the independent spirit of the North 
 might have been extinguished, and the present harmonious 
 system of European policy, which arose from the chaos of 
 anarchy, would not have struggled into existence. 
 
 § 9. The ideas of the barbarians, with respect to equity, 
 according to the most ancient historical records, differed 
 little from those which prevail in a state of nature, and 
 deform the first stages of society in every country. Eesent- 
 ment was almost the sole motive for prosecuting crimes; 
 the injured person became the avenger, and he might 
 demand or remit the punishment, or accept a compensation 
 for the most heinous ofifence. The prosecution of criminals 
 in the name and by the authority of the community, in 
 order to deter others from violating the laws, now justly 
 deemed the greater object of legislation, was a maxim of 
 jurisprudence then little understood in theory, and still 
 less regarded in practice. The civil and criminal judges 
 could, in most cases, do no more than appoint the lists, and 
 leave the parties to decide their cause by the sword. The 
 feudal system, however, with all its imperfections, was not 
 so debasing to humanity, as the uniform pressure of Eoman 
 despotism. If animosities were keen, friendships also were 
 warm. The commonalty were unfortunately degraded to 
 the condition of slaves, but the nobility were exalted to the 
 rank of princes. The gentry were their associates ; and 
 the king, without the form of compact, was in reality but 
 
CLOVIS. 7 
 
 chief magistrate, or head of the community, and could 
 literally do no weong, or none, at least, with impunity. 
 
 Lettee 3. — Rise of the French Monarchy, and the History of Prance, 
 nnder the Kings of the Merovingian, or the first race. A.D. 481 — 762. 
 Vol. i., pages 9 — 12. 
 
 § 10. Modern history is of little importance before the 
 time of Charlemagne, and the coronation of that prince at 
 Borne, as Emperor of the West, in 800, has been fixed upon 
 by some authorities as its proper commencement. Tet the 
 student naturally desires to become acquainted with the 
 origin of nations, and therefore a short sketch of the state 
 of modem Europe previous to that era is appended. 
 
 § 11. The Erench monarchy first claims attention, not 
 only on account of its antiquity, but also because of its early 
 and long-continued importance. Gaul was shared by the 
 Eomans, the Visigoths, and the Burgundians, when Clovis, 
 king of the Franks (son of Childeric, and grandson of Me- 
 rovius, head of the Salian tribe), defeated Syagriiis, the 
 Eoman governor, and established a new kingdom, to which 
 he gave the name of France, or the Land of J?ree Men 
 (486). Clovis was only nineteen years of age when he 
 obtained this victory, and his marriage with Clotilda, a 
 Christian princess, made the Gauls hope that he would 
 embrace the Christian faith. Having vanquished the AUe- 
 manni at Tolbiac, near Cologne, in 496, after an obstinate 
 battle, he was baptized by St. Eemigius, bishop of Kheims, 
 and almost the whole French nation followed his 
 example. Under colour of religion, he made war upon 
 Alaric, king of the Visigoths. Alaric was killed at the 
 battle of Vougle, near Poitiers (507), and the province of 
 Aquitaine added to the kingdom of France. The close of his 
 reign was disgraced by perfidies and cruelties towards the 
 princes of his house, and he died in 511, after having 
 attempted to atone for his crimes by building and endowing 
 churches and monasteries, and assembling a council at 
 Orleans for the regulation of church discipline. 
 
 § 12. At the death of Clovis, his extensive dominions were 
 divided amongst his four sons. This system was followed for 
 some time, giving rise to endless wars and numerous assassi- 
 nations. After the murder of many princes, and several years 
 of civil war, Clothaire II. became sole monarch of France in 
 613. He committed the government of the provinces of 
 Austrasia and Burgundy (the latter had been conquered 
 
8 MAYOES OF THE PALACE, 
 
 and annexed to France by the united eiforts of Childebert 
 and Clothaire I., 532) to the Mayors of the Palace, a kind 
 of viceroys, who at last made their way to the throne. A 
 succession of weak princes followed, and Pepin Heristal, 
 duke of Austrasia, governed Prance for eight-and-twenty 
 years, with equal prudence and fortitude, under the title of 
 Mayor (687—714). At his death, the authority passed into 
 the hands of his widow Plectrude, whose grandson, yet an 
 infant, was elected mayor. Charles Martel, natural son of 
 Pepin, being suspected of ambitious views by Plectrude, was 
 imprisoned. He escaped, and was received by the Austra- 
 sians as their deliverer. He saved Prance from the Saracens 
 in 732, who, after having conquered Spain, invaded his 
 dominions ; and he kept all the neighbouring nations in awe 
 by his wise and vigorous administration. He only styled 
 himself duke of Prance, but his son Pepin assumed the 
 sovereignty, excluding the descendants of Clovis, or the 
 Merovingian race, for ever from the throne of Prance (752). 
 
 Letter 4. — Spaiti under the Dominion of the Visigoths, and under 
 the Moors, till the Eeign of Abderahman. A.D. 469—737. Vol. i., 
 pages. 12—14. 
 
 § 13. The Visigoths founded their monarchy in this 
 Eoman province, already overrun by the -Vandals and the 
 Suevi, and the clergy soon after became possessed of more 
 power than the prince. Almost all cases, both civil and 
 ecclesiastical, were referred to the bishops ; they even 
 decided in their councils the most weighty aifairs of the 
 nation. With the nobles, amongst whom they held the first 
 rank, they often disposed of the crown, which was more 
 elective than hereditary. The kingdom under the rule of 
 the Visigoths became one theatre of revolutions and crimes. 
 
 § 14. The Saracens, already masters of Mauritania (now 
 Barbary), made a descent upon Spain, and by the battle of 
 Xeres, in Andalusia, put an end to the empire of the Visi- 
 goths (711). The conquerors offered the inhabitants their 
 religion and laws, many submitted at once, but a few under 
 iPelagius, a prince of the royal blood, for some time struggled 
 against the infidels, and at last retired to the mountains of 
 Asturias, where he founded a Christian kingdom. The 
 Saracens, or Moors, passed the Pyrenees, penetrated into 
 the heart of France, and were defeated by Charles Martel in 
 732. Spain was at first very miserable under the dominion 
 of the Moors. The emirs being dependent on the viceroy 
 
THE MOOES IN SPAIN. 9 
 
 of Africa, who allowed them to continue but a short time in 
 their government, were more busy in fleecing the Spanish 
 nation than in administering justice ot preserving order. 
 The caliphat, the seat of which had been removed to Damas- 
 cus, by a bloody revolution, passed from the family of the 
 Ommiades to that of the Abassides, and thereupon Abde- 
 rahman, called also Almanzor, a prince of the blood royal, who 
 escaped in the massacre of the Ommiades, founded in Spain 
 an independent kingdom, consisting of all those provinces 
 which had been subject to the caliphs (755). He fixed his 
 residence at Cordova (757), was the wisest prince in Europe; 
 and the Arabs, before enemies to the sciences, cultivated 
 them with success, and became renowned for learning and 
 politeness, while the rest of mankind were sunk in ignorance 
 and barbarism. 
 
 Lbttee 5. — Italy under the Dominion of the Ostrogoths, and under the 
 Lombards, till the Eeign of Lultprand. A.D. 476 — 728." Vol. i., 
 pages 14 — 17. 
 
 § 15. Italy experienced a variety of fortunes after losing 
 its ancient masters, and before falling into the hands of 
 Charlemagne. The Heruli, a people from the shores of the 
 Black Sea, held it a short time (476 — 493), but were ex- 
 pelled by the Ostrogoths. Theodoric, the first Gothic king 
 (493), and several of his successors, were princes of great 
 prudence and humanity. They acknowledged the emperors 
 of Constantinople their superiors in rank, but not in juris- 
 diction, and made Eavenna the seat of their court. The 
 Ostrogoths were at last subdued by Belisarius and Narses, 
 and Italy was once more united to the Eastern, or Greek 
 empire (553). Soon after the expulsion of the Ostrogoths, 
 a great part of Italy was seized by Alboin, king of the 
 Lombards, or Longobards, who made Pavia his place of 
 residence (568). Alboin established the feudal system in 
 those countries which he had conquered, settling the prin- 
 cipal ofiScers of his army, under the name of duke, in the 
 chief cities of every province. He was one of the greatest 
 princes of his time. He was slain by the treachery of his 
 wife, Eosamund (573) ; and his successor, Cleoph, perpe- 
 trated such cruelties, that the Lombards resolved, after hia 
 assassination (574), to change their form of government. 
 * Luitprand was made king of Lombardy a.d. 712, but in this letter 
 the events of the first few years of his reign, up to the capture of 
 Eavenna, and other places, in 728, are related. 
 
10 LOMBAED KINGDOM. 
 
 An interregnum of several years ensued, during which they 
 lived subject to their dukes. 
 
 § 16. Being threatened by foreign enemies, the heads of 
 the Lombards assembled, and called Autharis, the son of 
 Cleoph, to the throne (584). He was the first of the 
 Lombard kings who embraced Christianity, but, like most 
 of the northern conquerors, he was an Arian. Several 
 princes followed, until Constans, emperor of the Bast, landed 
 in Italy with a considerable army (662), determined to 
 expel the barbarians. Although he at first gained some 
 inconsiderable advantages, he was afterwards defeated and 
 assassinated (668). Grimoald, who reigned from 662—671, 
 was a prudent prince, and he renounced the tenets of Arius, 
 His successors followed his example, and the whole nation 
 of the Lombards became Catholics. Luitprand gave strong 
 proofs of his wisdom and valour from the moment he 
 ascended the throne, in 712 ; but his great qualities were in 
 some measure shaded by his boundless ambition. An oppor- 
 tunity soon offered for its display. Leo the Isaurian,'' theu 
 emperor of Constantinople, prohibited the worship of images, 
 ordered all the statues to be broken in pieces, and the 
 paintings in the churches to be pulled down and burnt (726). 
 The edict was to be put in force both in the East and "West, 
 and the attempt to execute it at Eavenna created an in- 
 surrection (728). Luitprand suddenly assembled his forces, 
 and appeared before Eavenna, not doubting that the reduc- 
 tion of that important place would be speedily followed by 
 the conquest of all the imperial dominions of Italy. Although 
 Luitprand carried the city by storm (728), and many other 
 places surrendered without resistance, that conquest neither 
 he nor any of his successors were ever able to complete ; and 
 the attempt proved fatal to the kingdom of the Lombards. 
 
 Leitbe 6. — Rise of the Pope's Temporal Power, with some aooonnt of 
 the afiairs oi Italy, the ^Empire of Constantinople, and the Kingdom 
 of France, from the time of Charles Martel to that of Charlemagne. 
 A.D. 716 — 768. Vol. 1., pages 17 — 20. 
 
 § 17. Though Eome was now governed by a duke, who 
 depended on the exarch of Eavenna, the pope, or bishop, had 
 the chief authority in that city. G-regory I., who died in 
 604, had negotiated with princes, and his successors divided 
 their attention between clerical and political objects. To 
 
 ^ Thus named from the wild province of Isauria, in which he was 
 Ijorn. 
 
THE ICONOCLASTS. 11 
 
 free themselves from the dominion of the Greek emperors, 
 without falling a prey to the kings of Italy, became the 
 great object of these ambitious prelates. In order to accom- 
 plish this, they employed both religion and intrigue, and at 
 last established a spiritual and temporal monarchy, which of 
 all human institutions, perhaps, most merits the attention 
 of man, whether we consider its nature, its progress, or its 
 prodigious consequences. Gregory II. had offended Leo, 
 by opposing his edict against the worship of images ; but 
 this prelate was more afraid of Luitprand's growing power 
 than of the emperor's threats, and by the aid of Ursus, duke 
 of Venice, he retook Eavenna before Luitprand could march 
 to its relief (728). As the recovery of Bavenna had been 
 brought about by the interposition of Gregory, that prelate 
 hoped to induce the emperor to revoke his edict agamst 
 the worship of images in the "West." Leo, however, sensible 
 that Grregory II. had acted from interested motives, resolved 
 that the edict should be enforced in Eome itself, and took 
 measures to carry out this determination. Gregory II. 
 exhorted the Italian cities to resist the Iconoclasts, or image- 
 breakers, had them anathematized at a council at Home, and 
 gained over Luitprand, who now played the part of a pious 
 son of the Church. Leo persisted that his favourite edict 
 should be enforced at Eome, whereupon the people of that 
 
 " The Iconoclasts. This religious contest originated in the eighth 
 centuty, in an attempt on the part of the eastern emperor, Leo the 
 Isaurian, to change the religion of his subjects. It was, as Milman 
 shows in his " Latin Christianity" (vol. ii. chap. vii. p. 145), "not a 
 controversy, it was a feud, — ^not a polemic strife, but actual war declared 
 by one part of Christendom against the other." The same author enu- 
 merates as its more important results, " the total disruption of the bond 
 between the East and the West — the severance of the Italian province 
 from the Byzantine empire ; the great accession of power to the papacy, 
 which, took the lead in this revolution ; the introduction of the Frankish 
 kings into the politics of Italy ; and eventually the establishment of 
 the Western empire under Charlemagne." The great Iconoclasts were 
 Leo the Isaurian, and his son Cbnstantine. The first edict was pro- 
 mulgated in 726. It prohibited the worship of all statues and pictures 
 which represented the Saviour, the Virgin, and the Saints. This was 
 followed by a second much more severe, ordering the destruction of alt 
 images and the whitewashing the walls ol the churches. A council was 
 held at Eome, in 730, at which anathemas were launched against the 
 breakers of images. A council held at Constantinople, in 754, ordained 
 that images were to be removed from the churches ; and at a council at 
 Borne, in 769, the acts of the council of Constantinople were anathema- 
 tized, and all who condemned the worship of images excommunicated. 
 Another council, held at Nice, in 787, decreed the worship ot images ; 
 but by this time the controversy had nearly died out. 
 
12 PAPAL POWER. 
 
 city, at the instigation of Gregory II., withdrew their alle- 
 giance from the Greek emperor (730). Hence the origin 
 of the pope's temporal power. 
 
 § 18. Gregory II. died in 731, and was succeeded by 
 Gregory III. Leo raised a powerful army to take ven- 
 geance ; whereupon Gregory III. sent a solemn embassy to 
 Charles Martel, a treaty was concluded, and the French 
 became protectors of the Church. Leo the Isaurian died 
 in 741, and his son, Constantino V., called Copronymus, not 
 only renewed his father's edict against the use of images, but 
 prohibited the invocation of saints. Gregory III. also died 
 in 741, and was succeeded by Zachary. After the death of 
 Charles Martel, Zachary supported the ambitious designs 
 of his son Pepin, who at that time governed France in the 
 character of Mayor, but was afterwards raised to the throne 
 and solemnly anointed king at Soissons (752). Zachary 
 died the same year, and was succeeded by Stephen II., who 
 lived only three days after his elevation, being followed by 
 Stephen III. 
 
 This^ prelate invoked the aid of Pepin against Astolph, 
 who had taken Ravenna and Pentapolis, intending to make 
 himself master of Italy, and, after some negotiations, 
 anointed Pepin anew with the holy unction, in 754, and 
 also his two sons, Charles and Carloman, naming each of 
 them Protector of the Eoman people. In return for these 
 honours, the French monarch promised to make a donation 
 of the Exarchate and Pentapolis to the Eomish church. 
 Pepin advanced to Pavia in 755, and Astolph sued for 
 peace; but having violated the conditions, taken several 
 cities, and laid siege to Eome, Pepin crossed the Alps a 
 second time, and Astolph again took refuge in Pavia (756). 
 The emperor Constantino V., or Copronymus, in vain offered 
 his mediation ; Pepin pressed the siege of Pavia, and Astolph 
 was compelled to submit. Before returning to France, 
 Pepin renewed his donation to St. Peter, yielding to Stephen 
 and his successors the Exarchate ; CEmilia, now Eomagna ; 
 and Pentapolis, now Marca d'Ancona, with all the cities 
 therein, to be held by them for ever. Thus was the sceptre 
 added to the keys, the sovereignty to the priesthood, and the 
 popes enriched with the spoils of the Lombard kings and 
 the Eoman emperors. Astolph was killed by accident in 756, 
 when preparing to recover his conquests; and Pepin died in 
 768, in the fifty-fourth year of his age, having divided his 
 kingdom between his two sons, Charles and Carloman. 
 
ANCIENT BEITAIN. 13 
 
 Letter?. — Britain from the time itwas relinquished by theEomans totlie 
 end of the Saxon Heptarchy. A.D. 409— 827. Vol. i., pages 21— 24. 
 
 § 19. The Eomans finally evacuated Britain in the fifth 
 century ; and they had no sooner departed than the Scots 
 and Picts, supposed to be two tribes of native Britons,' who 
 had sought refuge from the Eomans in the fastnesses of the 
 north, invaded the island. Previous to their final departure, 
 the Eomans had assisted the Britons in rebuilding the wall 
 of Antoninus, which extended between the friths of Forth 
 and Clyde ; but this proved no defence against their new 
 assailants. The Scots and Picts laid the island waste with 
 fire and sword ; famine followed, and the Britons applied 
 to Eome for aid. They wrote to ^tius, then consul, for 
 the third time ; and although his answer has not been 
 chronicled, it is well known that they received no assistance, 
 Eome being at that time threatened by its terrible enemy 
 Attila.* Numbers of the Britons fied over to Gaul, and 
 settled in the province of Armorica, to which they gave the 
 name of Brittany ; some submitted to the Scots and Picts ; 
 and others, taking courage from despair, sallied forth fi:om 
 their woods and caves, cut many of their oppressors to 
 pieces, and compelled the rest to retire into their own 
 country. Being threatened by a new invasion, the Britons, 
 by the advice of Yortigern, their principal authority, sum- 
 moned to their assistance the Saxons and Angles, or Anglo- 
 Saxons.* 
 
 * Sir Francis Palgrave, one of the latest authorities on this subject, 
 supposes the Scots to have been a branch of the great Celtic nation. 
 At a very early period they established themselves in Ireland, called 
 Scotia, or Insula Scotorwn, by the writers of the sixth or seventh 
 centuries, whence they invaded Britain, and joined the Picts in Scotland. 
 — See History of the Anglo-Saxons, chap. i. p. 27. 
 
 *• The learned Sharon Turner (History of the Anglo-Saxons, vol. i. 
 book ii. chap, vii.) disputes this view of the case, declares that the 
 early Britons displayed a " magnanimous character," and doubts whether 
 they applied to -Sltius at all. He says, edit. 1852, p. 156 : — " Thusthe 
 authentic history from 407 is, that the barbarians, excited by Gerontius, 
 assailed both Gaul and Britain ; that Constantiue could give no help, 
 because his troops were in Spain; that Honorins could send none, 
 because Alaric was overpowering Italy ; that the Britons, thus aban- 
 doned, armed themselves, declared their country independent, and drove 
 the barbaric invaders from their cities ; that Honorius sent letters to 
 the British states, exhorting them to protect themselves ; and that the 
 Bomans never again recovered the possession of the island." Sharon 
 Turner places but little reliance on the accounts of this period given by 
 Gildas, and repeated by Bede. 
 
 ' These Saxons were not the same people, nor had they the same 
 
14 THE SAXONS. 
 
 § 20. The Saxons, a free, brave, independent people,, 
 were, when the Britons sent to implore their assistance, 
 masters not only of the present Westphalia, Saxony, East 
 and West Friesland, but also of Holland, Belg;ium, and 
 Zealand. They readily responded to the request of Vorti- 
 gern, and to the number of fifteen hundred, under Hengist 
 and Horsa, two brother chiefs, said to be descended from 
 Woden, their tutelary god, landed in the isle of Thanet, 
 and entered into a league with the British princes (449).* 
 They marched against the Scots and Picts, who had made a 
 new irruption, and advanced as far as Stamford, and routed 
 them with great slaughter (449). The Britons did not 
 foresee that their deliverers were to be their conquerors. 
 The Saxons invited others of their countrymen to come and 
 share in the spoils of the nation, and about five thousand 
 readily accepted the invitation. They then pulled off the 
 mask of friendship, and actually formed an alliance with the 
 Scots and Picts against the people whom they had come 
 over to protect. The Britons deposed Vortigern, who had 
 rendered himself odious by his vices, and placed themselves 
 under the command of his son Vortimer. Many battles, 
 were fought, in one of which Horsa was slain ; but Hengist, 
 being continually reinforced, defeated the Britons with 
 terrible slaughter. Some of them took refuge in the rocks 
 
 origin, as the modern Germans. Sir F. Palgrave says (Hist, of the 
 Anglo-Saxons, chap. ii. p. 34) : — "It is necessary, however, to remark, 
 that the name ' Saxcm' appears rather to have been intended to denotea 
 confederacy of tribes, than to have originally belonged to any one nation. 
 Learned men have sought for the etymology of the term in the ' Seax' 
 or short sword, a weapon with which they were armed. These and 
 other suppositions, upon which I have not room to enlarge, are, how- 
 ever, after all, only ingenious sports and fancies. We possess but a 
 very small number of authentic £Lcts concerning the early history of the 
 barbarian nations of the West ; and though the general outline of their 
 position upon the ethnographical map can be understood with tolerable 
 precision, yet we must be always uncertain concerning the details." 
 This author shows that the invaders, in this instance, were Jutes, from 
 the peninsula of Jutland. 
 
 '' With reference to this event Sharon Turner remarks : — " The 
 Saxons had, for nearly two centuries, been attacking Britain, with no 
 greater successes than the half-naked Scoti from Ireland had obtained. 
 They plundered where they arrived unexpectedly. They were defeated 
 when they encountered a military or naval resistance. Hengist and 
 Ella would not have been more fortunate than their depredatory country- 
 men who had preceded them, if the events of the day had not, by then: 
 agencies, conducted them and their successors from exile and piracy, to 
 the proprietorship of the kingdoms of the English octarchy." — ^Anglo- 
 Saxons, vol. i. book iii. chap. i. p. 217. 
 
THE HEPTARCHY. 15 
 
 and mountains, and others joined their countrymen in 
 Armorica, until Arthur, prince pf the Silures, a British and 
 Christian hero, appeared, worsted the Saxons in several 
 engagements, and procured for his countrymen a long in- 
 terval of tranquillity (542). But the success of Hengist and 
 his followers induced other northern chiefs to flock to 
 the island, until the Britons ultimately found themselves 
 unequal to the contest, and retired to the mountains of 
 Cornwall and Wales, where they formed independent prin- 
 cipalities. 
 
 § 21. The Saxons and Angles, or Anglo-Saxons (for they 
 are mentioned under hoth of these denominations), thus 
 became absolute masters of South Britain, which changed 
 not only its inhabitants, but its language, customs, and 
 political institutions. In the course of the long struggle, 
 the Saxons established seven separate kingdoms, commonly 
 called the Saxon Heptarchy (560). These were, Kent, 
 Sussex, Essex, Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia, and Northum- 
 berland.' Jealousies and dissensions arose among the Saxon 
 chiefs, which led to numerous wars, and after a variety of 
 inferior revolutions, the seven kingdoms of the Saxon 
 Heptarchy were united under Egbert, king of Wessex, in 
 827. His dominions were nearly of the same extent with 
 the territory now called EnsI/AITd ; a name given to the 
 empire of the Saxons in Britain, immediately after the 
 termination of the Heptarchy. The Anglo-Saxons had 
 before this time been converted to Christianity by Augus- 
 tine, a Eoman monk. Still the grossest ignorance and 
 superstition prevailed amongst them ; reverence of saints 
 and relics seemed to have supplanted the worship of a 
 Supreme Being ; donations to the Church were said to 
 atone for every violation of the laws of society ; and monas- 
 tic observances were more esteemed than moral virtues. 
 Superstitious attachment to the see of Eome was another 
 evil. The Britons had conducted all ecclesiastical matters 
 by their own synods and councils, acknowledging no subor- 
 dination to the Eoman pontiff; but the Saxons, having 
 received their religion from Italian monks, were taught to 
 look up to Eome. Pilgrimages to that city were considered 
 the most meritorious acts of devotion, and were undertaken 
 not only by noblemen and ladies of rank, but even by kinga 
 themselves, who resigned their crowns, imploring a safe 
 
 ' What was called Northumberland, included the two kingdoms of 
 Deira and Bemicia. Hence it was more properly an octarchy. 
 
16 ANGLO-SAXON SYSTEM. 
 
 passport to Heaven at the foot of St. Peter's chair, and 
 exchanging the purple for the sackcloth. Even in these 
 dark times, England produced men equal to any of the age 
 in which they lived. Offa, king of Mercia, was deemed 
 worthy of the friendship of Charlemagne, and Alcuin, an 
 English clergyman, instructed that monarch in the sciences, 
 at the time that he was surrounded by all the literati of 
 Christendom. 
 
 Letter 8. — Government and Laws of the Anglo-SazoiiB, 
 A.D. 449—1016. Vol. i., pages 25 and 26. 
 
 § 22. The Saxons transplanted into this island the prin- 
 ciples of liberty which they had so highly cherished at 
 home. Their original constitution was a kind of military 
 democracy, in which the protection of the state was the 
 voluntary care of its members, as every free man had a share 
 in the government ; and conquest was the interest of all, aa 
 all partook in the acquisitions. The government might have 
 been somewhat different in the different kingdoms of the 
 Heptarchy, and might have also undergone several changes' 
 before the Norman Conquest; but we know, that at all times, 
 and in all the kingdoms, there was a national council, a 
 "Witenagemot, or assembly of the "Wise Men. This most 
 probably was composed of the nobility, the higher clergy, 
 and all large holders of land. The Saxons were divided into 
 three orders of men : the noble, the free, and the servile. 
 The nobles were called thanes, and were of two kinds, the 
 greater and lesser. The lower kind of freemen were deno- 
 minated ceorles, and were chiefly employed in husbandry — 
 whence a husbandman and ceorle came to be synonymous 
 terms. The slaves or villains, the most numerous class in 
 the community, were the property of their masters, and were 
 consequently incapable of holding property themselves. 
 They were of two kinds: household slaves, after the manner 
 of the ancients ; and rustic slaves, who were sold or trans- 
 ferred like cattle with the soil. Prisoners taken in battle 
 were reduced to slavery by the laws of war. 
 
 § 23. The higher nobility and clergy among the Anglo- 
 Saxons possessed a criminal jurisdiction within their own 
 territories, and could punish without appeal such as they 
 judged worthy of death. Although the Anglo-Saxon govern- 
 ment seems at last to have become in some measure aris- 
 tocratical, it still retained much of the ancient democracy. 
 All the freeholders assembled twice a year in the county 
 
THE SHIKE MOTES. 17 
 
 courts, or shire motes, to receive appeals from the inferior 
 courts. In these courts, all causes, ecclesiastical as well as 
 civil, were decided, the bishop and alderman, or earl, pre- 
 siding over them. The case was decided by a majority of 
 votes, the bishop and earl having no farther authority than 
 to keep order. Their criminal laws were not severe, a com- 
 pensation ia money being fixed for murder. The prices of 
 all kinds of wounds were also settled ; and the punishments 
 for robbery were various, but none of them capital. The 
 ordeal by red-hot iron or boiling water was resorted to as a 
 test of guilt. The same kind of proof, or others equally 
 extravagant, existed among all the nations on the continent; 
 and money, in like manner, was everywhere the atonement 
 for guUt, both in a civil and an ecclesiastical sense. 
 
18 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 Lettek 9. — The Eeign of Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, King of 
 France and Emperor of the West. A.D. 768 — 814. Vol. i., pages 
 27—35. 
 
 § 24. G-BBMANT was anciently possessed by a iiumbef of 
 free and independent nations, who bravely defended therp 
 liberties against the Eomans, and were never totally sub- 
 jected by them. This vast empire extended from Bohemia 
 to the Baltic Sea and the German Ocean, and was governed 
 by many independent princes, tributary to the French 
 monarchs. Whenever the throne of France was rendered 
 vacant by death, or the kings of France were engaged 
 either in foreign or domestic wars, the Saxon (princes threw 
 off their allegiance, and entered the French territories. 
 Charlemagne had to quell one of these revolts soon after his 
 accession. The death of his brother Carloman left him 
 sole occupant of Pepin's throne. His great and ambitious 
 genius gave birth to projects which will render his name 
 immortal. A prosperous reign of nearly half a century, 
 abounding with military enterprises, political institutions, 
 and literary foundations, offers, in the midst of barbarism, 
 a spectacle worthy of more polished ages. 
 
 § 25. Charlemagne and Carloman had married two 
 daughters of Desiderius, king of the Lombards. Carloman 
 left two sons by his wife Berta, but in 771 Charlemagne 
 divorced his consort, and married Ildegard, a Suabian 
 princess ; Carloman's widow fled to Italy, and Desiderius, 
 incensed against Charlemagne for divorcing his daughter, 
 received Berta and her children, and having vainly endear 
 voured to excite Pope Adrian I. against Charlemagne, 
 ravaged the papal territories and threatened to lay siege 
 to Eome (772). Adrian immediately invited Charlemagne 
 to the conquest of Italy, and that monarch responded to 
 the call, besieged and took Verona, when Berta and her 
 children fell into his power. Desiderius had shut himself 
 up in Pavia, which was compelled to surrender (774), and 
 
CONQUEST OF GEEMAJNT. 19 
 
 its fall terminated the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy, 
 after it had subsisted two hundred and six years. 
 
 § 26. The rule of Italy was at this time shared by the 
 Venetians, the Lombards, the popes, and the emperors of 
 the East. The Venetians, remarkable for their trade to the 
 Levant, had no town upon the continent. The pope was 
 master of the Exarchate and Pentapolis ; the dukedom of 
 Naples, and some cities in the two Calabrias, were still held 
 by the emperors of the East. All the other provinces of 
 Italy, namely, the dukedoms of Friuli, Spoleto, and Bene- 
 vento, and the provinces of Liguria, Venetia, Tuscany, and 
 the Cottian Alps, formed the kingdom of the Lombards. 
 These Charlemagne claimed by right of conquest, and caused 
 himself to be crowned king of Italy, with an iron crown, 
 which is stiU preserved in the small town of Monza. 
 Charles made little alteration in the government of Italy, 
 allowing the people to live under their former laws. He 
 contented himself with an oath of allegiance, to be taken 
 annually, from the dukes. Charlemagne committed the 
 boundaries of his new kingdom, and the territory of cities, 
 to the care of counts. These boundaries were called 
 Marcha, or Marches, and those who had charge of them 
 were styled counts of the Marches, or marquises ; whence 
 the title of marquis had its rise. He also sent commissaries, 
 who were vested with higher powers, to examine into the 
 conduct of the counts, whose province it was to administer 
 justice over all the dominions of Charlemagne. That Italy 
 might retain some shadow of liberty, he convened on each 
 of his visits, a general assembly of the bishops, abbots, 
 and barons of the kingdom, to settle affairs of national 
 importance. 
 
 § 27. On his return to France, Charlemagne marched 
 against the Saxons, and after a war of thirty years' duration, 
 in which, led by their celebrated general Witikind, they 
 struggled valiantly, they were totally subjected, and G-er- 
 many became part of the empire of Charlemagne (804). 
 Almost every year of his reign was signalized by some mili- 
 tary expedition, and in addition to the Saxons and Lombards, 
 he vanquished in several engagements the Avares, or Huns, 
 plundered their capital, and penetrated as far as Eaab, on 
 the Danube (799). He likewise made an expedition into 
 Spain, carried his arms to the banks of the Ebro, and 
 re-established the Moorish governors tinder his protection. 
 In repassing the Pyrenees, his rear-guard was defeated by 
 c 2 
 
20 EMPIEE OF THE WEST. 
 
 the duke of Gascony, at Eoncesvalles (778). Here fell the 
 famous Eoland, so celebrated in romance, and represented 
 as a nephew to Charlemagne, though history only tells us 
 that he commanded on the frontiers of Bretagne. 
 
 § 28. Though engaged in so many wars, Charlemagne did 
 not neglect the arts of peace, the happiness of his subjects, 
 nor the cultivation of his own mind. Grovernment, manners, 
 religion, and letters were his constant study. He frequently 
 convened the national assemblies for regulating the afiairs 
 both of church and state. His vigilance extended even to 
 the most distant corner of his empire, and to all ranks of 
 men. He was particularly attentive to the wants of the 
 common people, and studied their ease and advantage. He 
 repaired and formed public roads, built bridges, made rivers 
 navigable, and proiected a grand canal to open a communi- 
 cation between the German Ocean and the Black Sea, by 
 uniting the Danube and the Ehine. This great prince was 
 DO less amiable in private life than illustrious in his public 
 character. He was an affectionate father, a fond husband, 
 and a generous friend. His house was a model of economy, 
 and his person of simplicity and true grandeur. He was 
 fond of the company of learned men, and invited them from 
 all parts of Europe, forming in his palace a kind of academy. 
 Alcuin, our learned countryman, was his companion and 
 particular favourite. Charlemagne interfered injudiciously 
 in religious matters, and a superstitious attachment to the 
 see of Eome led him to engage in theological disputes and 
 quibbles unworthy of his character. He presided at the 
 council of Frankfort (794), and took a prominent part in 
 the Iconoclast controversy. 
 
 § 29. Leo III., the successor of Adrian I. in the papacy, 
 invited Charlemagne -to send some person to receive the 
 oath of fidelity from the Eomans, and in a revolt that 
 occurred some years after took refuge with that monarch. 
 Leo was speedily restored to his dignities, and on Christmas- 
 day (800) publicly crowned Charlema.gne, at Eome, emperor 
 of the West. He was no sooner proclaimed emperor, than 
 the title was universally acknowledged, and he received 
 numerous embassies. Irene, empress of the East, made him 
 a proposal of marriage, and the famous Haroun-al-Easchid 
 ceded to him the keys of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, 
 and sent him costly presents. Towards the end of his reign 
 Charlemagne was tlireatened by a new enemy, the Normans, 
 jpho made a descent in Eriesland, under Godfrey, their 
 
DIVISIONS. 21 
 
 leader (809). Charlemagne collected an army, and prepared 
 to meet the invaders, but the assassination of Godfrey by 
 one of his followers (810) prevented a battle. Having 
 associated his son Louis with him in the empire (813), he 
 died the next year, at AixJa-Chapelle, in the seventy-second 
 year of his age. The glory of the French empire seemed to 
 expire with him. He possessed aU Prance, the greater part 
 of Germany, a part of Spain, the Low Countries, and the 
 continent of Italy as far as Benevento. 
 
 Letter 10. — Empire of Charlemagne and the Church, from the Acces- 
 sion of his son Louis le D^bonnaire, to the death of Charles the Bald. 
 A.I). 814—877. Vol. i., pages 35—43. 
 
 § 30. Louis le Debonnaire, though a prince of some 
 abilities, was unable to support so great a weight of empire ; 
 and his piety and parental fondness, however amiable in 
 themselves, enfeebled a character already too weak, and an 
 authority never respected. Three years after his accession, 
 he gave each of his three sons a share of the empire ; but 
 they quarrelled; and when their father endeavoured to 
 place Charles the Bald, his son by his second wife, upon an 
 equality with them, they actually rose in open rebellion 
 against their parent (829). Louis being deserted by his 
 army, submitted, but was restored to his dignity, and recon- 
 ciled with his family. Eresh disputes arose, the sons again 
 rebelled, Pope Gregory IV. supported their cause, Louis 
 was deposed, and his son Lothaire proclaimed emperor in 
 his stead (833). The unfortunate monarch was imprisoned 
 in a monastery at Soissons, where he underwent the greatest 
 humiliations ; but his sonLothaire being iiniversaUy abhorred, 
 he was again restored to the throne (834), and he died at 
 Ingelheim, near Mentz (840). Upon his death, Lothaire 
 endeavoured to obtain possession of the whole empire, but 
 was defeated at the sanguinary battle of Pontenay (841), by 
 his brothers Louis and Charles, who were solemnly invested 
 with the supreme authority. Lothaire managed to nego- 
 tiate, the treaty of Verdun was concluded, and a new division 
 of the empire made between the three brothers, by which 
 Italy, France, and Germany became distinct states (843). 
 
 § 31. Menaced by the Eomans in one direction, and by 
 the Saracens in another, the three brothers held a con- 
 ference at Mersen, in 847, at which they settled certain 
 constitutions relative to the succession, and other public 
 matters. Lothaire took the habit of a monk, and died a 
 
22 USUKPATION OF THE CLERGY. 
 
 week afterwards, in 855, leaying his dominions to be divided 
 amongst his children. Thus was the empire of Charlemagne 
 weakened by repeated subdivisions, until it became, in the 
 language of Shakespeare, " a stage to feed contention on." 
 Foreign invaders conspired with civil despots to spread 
 terror and disorder in every quarter ; and the gradual rise 
 of the power of the Church magnified these evils. A variety 
 of circumstances show that the clergy now aspired to the 
 right of disposing of crowns, which they founded on the 
 custom of anointing kings. One usurpation led to another ; 
 abuse constituted right — a quibble appeared a divine law, 
 Nicholas I. was indeed accused by the bishops of Treves and 
 Cologne of making himself emperor of the whole world, and 
 by his interference in the matrimonial afiaira of Lothaire, 
 and his attempts to domineer over other kings, he in some 
 measure gave colour to the charge. Charles the Bald 
 obtained the whole kingdom on the death of Louis II,, in 
 875, and he crossed the Alps to receive the imperial crown, 
 Charles, at the pope's request, advanced into Italy to expel 
 the Saracens (877). A new enemy appeared in his nephew 
 Carloman, who laid claim to the imperial crown. Charles, 
 betrayed by his nobles, retired with precipitation, fell ill, 
 and died in a miserable cottage, at a village called Brios, on 
 Mont Cenis, aged fifty-four years (877). 
 
 Letter 11. — The Normans or Danes before their settlement in France 
 and England, a.d. 804 — 877. Vol. i., pages 43 and 44. 
 
 § 32. The bravest of the tribes inhabiting Grermany, on 
 the reduction of their country by Charlemagne, fled into 
 the ancient Scandinavia, now known as Sweden, Denmark, 
 and Norway ; carrying with them their violent aversion to 
 Christianity. They mingled with the inhabitants in their 
 various incursions upon the continent ; these ferocious 
 adventurers were known by the general name of Normans, 
 and in their attacks upon Britain, by the common appella- 
 tion Danes. The Normans preserved entire the religion of 
 the ancient Scandinavians. Odin, whom the Saxons called 
 Woden, was their supreme divinity. They painted him as 
 the god of terror— the author of devastation — the father of 
 carnage ! and when successful, they sacrificed to him some 
 of the captives taken in war. They believed those heroes 
 would stand highest in his favour who had killed most 
 enemies in the field ; that after death the brave would be 
 
NEW INVADERS. 23 
 
 admitted into his palace, and bave the happiness of drinking 
 mead out of the skulls of their slaughtered foes. In con- 
 sequence of this belief, fatigues, wounds, combats, and perils, 
 were the exercise of infancy and the sport of youth. 
 Education, prejudice, manners, example, habit, all contri- 
 buted to subdue in them the sensation of timidity, to make 
 them covet danger and seem greedy of death. Such were 
 the new foes which during the ninth century poured into 
 Europe. TJnder Louis le Debonnaire, in 838, they threw all 
 Prance into alarm ; and under Charles the Bald, in 841, 851, 
 853, and 856, they committed frightful devastations. They 
 pillaged Eouen twice, in 841 and 853 ; they surprised and 
 burnt Paris in 856 ; they laid waste Aquitaine and other 
 provinces, and reduced the French monarch to the greatest 
 distress. England also experienced a variety of calamities 
 from the incursions of these plunderers, until it found a 
 protector in the great Alfred. 
 
 LsTTEB 12.^— England, from the end of the Saxon Heptarchy, to the 
 death of Alfred the Great, a.d. 827--900. Vol. i., pages 44— 51. 
 
 § 33. Egbert was a prince of eminent abilities and great 
 experience. He had enjoyed a considerable command in 
 the armies of Charlemagne, by whom he was much respected, 
 and had acted successfully against the Normans and other 
 enemies of the empire. Soon after his accession, the 
 Heptarchy was strongly cemented into one monarchy. The 
 Britons were humbled, the Scots and Picts wasted" by con- 
 tinual wars with each other, and everything seemed to 
 promise internal tranquillity, when those northern adven- 
 turers, the Normans or Danes, landed in the isle of 
 Sheppey, pillaged it, and carried off their booty with impa- 
 nity (832). They returned again and again, and at last 
 entered into alliance with the Britons of Cornwall ; but 
 Egbert defeated the combined army at Hengston Hill, in 
 Cornwall (835). Egbert died in 836, leaving the kingdom 
 to his son Ethelwolf, a weak prince. 
 
 § 34. Ethelwolf began his reign by dividing his domi- 
 nions, delivering to his eldest son Athelstan the counties 
 of Essex, Kent, and Sussex. The Danes returned with 
 redoubled fury ; and though often repulsed, and sometimes 
 defeated, always succeeded in carrying off booty. Their 
 vessels being small, easily ran up the creeks and rivers ; 
 they drew them ashore, and formed an intrenchment around 
 
2i ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 them, leaving them under a guard. They scattered them- 
 selves over the face of the country in small parties, making 
 spoil of everything that came in their way— goods, cattle, 
 and women. If opposed by a superior force, they retreated 
 to their vessels, set sail, and invaded some distant quarter 
 not prepared for their reception. In 851 they ventured, 
 for the first time, to winter in England, and receiving m the 
 spring a strong reinforcement of three hundred and fifty 
 vessels, they advanced from the isle of Thanet, and burnt 
 the cities of London and Canterbury. Ethelwolf made a 
 pilgrimage to Eome in 855, taking with him his son Alfred, 
 then only six years of age, and on his homeward journey he 
 visited Charles the Bald, and married his daughter Judith 
 (856). Soon after his return he granted the clergy a tenth 
 out of all the produce of the land ; thus establishing tithes 
 in England. His son Athelstan died during his absence, 
 and Ethelbald, his second son, formed the design of ex- 
 cluding his father from the throne. The kingdom was 
 divided between father and son ; the former died in 858, 
 bequeathing the heritage between his two elder sons 
 Ethelbald and Ethelbert. Ethelbald was a profligate prince, 
 and died in 860. During his reign the Danes continued 
 their depredations: he was succeeded by Ethelbert, who 
 expired in 866, leaving the kingdom to his next brother, 
 Bthelred. This monarch defended the realm with much 
 bravery; but succumbed in the midst of the terrible 
 struggle (871). 
 
 § 35. Alfred, surnamed the Great, was just of age when 
 he mounted the throne, and had no sooner buried his 
 brother than he was compelled to take the field against the 
 Danes. He at first gained some advantages, and fought 
 several desperate battles; but was finally completely deserted 
 by his subjects. In this dilemma he laid aside the ensigns 
 of his dignity and assumed the habit of a peasant. "When 
 his enemies grew remiss, he collected his adherents, and 
 erected a fortress at a place now called Athebiey. He 
 made frequent and unexpected sallies upon the Danes, and 
 one of his generals overthrew them with great slaughter, 
 and captured the Baven, their enchanted standard, idfred, 
 under the disguise of a harper, entered the Danish camp, 
 and passed unsuspected through every quarter. Having 
 observed their contempt for the English and their neglect 
 of all military regulations, he assembled his retainers, fell 
 suddenly upon them, and routed them with great slaughter, 
 
WISE MEAStJEES. 25 
 
 at (Ethandune) Eddington (878). No less generous than 
 brave, he granted them their lives on submission, and 
 Guthrum and his followers embraced Christianity, and 
 settled in East Anglia. 
 
 § 36. This great prince established civil and military 
 institutions in England, and put the kingdom in a state of 
 defence. He took care that all his subjects should be armed 
 and registered, and assigned them a regular round of duty : 
 he distributed one part into the castles and fortresses, which 
 he erected at proper places ; he appointed others to take 
 the field on any alarm, and to assemble at stated places of 
 meeting ; and he left a sufficient number at home, to culti- 
 vate the soil. The kingdom became one large garrison ; 
 and the Danes no sooner landed in any quarter, than a 
 sufficient force was ready to oppose them. Sensible that 
 ships are the most natural bulwark of the island, Alfred 
 created the English navy, and stationed a fleet of one hun- 
 dred and twenty armed ships upon the coast. This great 
 prince was, moreover, the father of English law and of 
 English literature. In order to render the execution of 
 justice more strict and regular, and to suppress the straggling 
 bands of robbers that infested the kingdom, he divided all 
 England into counties; these counties he subdivided into 
 hundreds, and the hundreds into tithings. Every house- 
 holder was answerable for the behaviour of his family, of his 
 slaves, and even of his guests, if they resided above three 
 days in his house. Ten neighbouring householders, answer- 
 able for each other's conduct, were formed into one corpo- 
 ration, under the name of a tithing, decennary, or friburg, 
 over which a person called a tithing-man, head-borough, or 
 borsholder, presided. Nothing could be more liberal than 
 his plan for the administration of justice. Smaller matters 
 were decided by the borsholder and the decennary, while 
 those of greater moment were brought before the hundred, 
 consisting of ten decennaries, or a hundred families of free- 
 men. Their mode of decision claims attention : twelve free- 
 holders were chosen, who, having sworn with the magistrate 
 of the hundred to administer impartial justice, proceeded to 
 the examination of the cause. This is the origin of juries, 
 or judgment by equals, an institution almost peculiar to the 
 English nation. The next superior court to that of the 
 hundred was the county court, which met twice a year, and 
 consisted of all the freeholders of the county, who had an 
 equal vote in the decision of causes. To the alderman and 
 
26 DEATH OF ALFRED. 
 
 bishop Alfred added a third judge in each county, under the 
 name of sheriff, who enjoyed equal authority with the 
 former two. In default of justice from all these courts, an 
 appeal lay to the king himself in council. The better to 
 guide magistrates, Alfred framed a body of laws, which, 
 though now lost, served as the basis of English jurisprudence, 
 and is generally esteemed the origin of our CoMMOir Law. 
 § 37. Alfred appointed regular meetings of the states of 
 England twice a year in the city of London, which he 
 repaired and beautified, and made the capital of the king- 
 dom. He gave great encouragement to the pursuit of 
 learning, invited the most celebrated scholars from aU parts 
 of Europe, and established schools. Alfred also founded, or 
 at least repaired, the university of Oxford, and endowed it 
 with privileges and revenues. Although he is said to have 
 fought fifty-six battles by sea and land, he found time for 
 study, and even for the production of books. He composed 
 a variety of poems and stories, and translated the fables 
 of ^sop from the Greek. He also made Saxon translations 
 of the Histories of Orosius and Bede, and of the Consolations 
 of Philosophy, by Boetins. He introduced and encouraged 
 manufactures of all kinds, and suffered no inventor or 
 improver of any useful art to go unrewarded. He prompted 
 men of activity and industry to apply themselves to navigai 
 tion, and to push commerce into the most distant countries ; 
 and he set apart a seventh portion of his own revenue for 
 maintaining a number of workmen, whom he employed in 
 rebuilding the ruioed cities and castles. This extraordinary 
 man, one of the wisest and best princes that ever adorned 
 the annals of any nation, died October 26, 90D, or 901,'' 
 after a glorious reign of twenty-nine or thirty yeairs. 
 
 Letter 13. — Empire of Charlemagne and of the Church, from the Death 
 of Charles the Bald to that pi Louis IV., when the Imperial dignity 
 was transferred from the French to the Germans, .a.d. 877-^911, 
 Vol. i., pages 51 — 54. 
 
 § 38. The history of the continent of Europe towards the 
 close of the ninth century is nothing but a series of calami- 
 ties, disorders, and revolutions, which naturally produced 
 anarchy. Louis II., or the Stammerer, son of Charles the 
 Bald, held the crown of France under the bishops and 
 nobles (877). He died in 879, leaving his queen pregnant, 
 and was succeeded by Louis III. and Carloman II., two sons 
 
 ° The year of his death is variously given by different chroniclers. 
 
NORMANDY. 27 
 
 by a former wife, whom he had divorced. Louis III. died 
 in 882, and Carloman II. of a wound received from a wild 
 boar (884). Charlea the Simple, born after the death of bis 
 father, being then only five years of age, the nobility elected 
 Charles tbePat, son of Louis the German, thus uniting Prance, 
 Italy, and Germany, under one sceptre. The Normans 
 ravaged France and advanced upon Paris, which sustained a 
 memorable siege. Charles made an ignominious treaty with 
 his foes, and permitted them to winter in Burgundy, which so 
 excited the nobles against him, that he was deposed in a diet 
 of the empire (887), and he died soon after, neglected and 
 in indigence. Germany and Italy fell under different rulers, 
 and Count Eudes was elected to hold the crown of France, 
 in trust for Charles the Simple, still a minor. Violence, 
 treachery, and anarchy disgraced the period. Eudes died 
 in 898 without having remedied the disorders of the state. 
 
 § 39. Charles the Simple was now acknowledged king of 
 France, and the nobles aspired openly to independence. 
 A large and once well-regulated kingdom was divided into 
 a multitude of separate principalities, altogether independent 
 of the crown, or dependent only in name, whose possessors 
 were continually at war, and exercised an intolerable tyranny 
 over their vassals. The Normans took advantage of this 
 state of weakness and anarchy to establish themselves in 
 France. EoUo, one of their most illustrious leaders, and 
 truly a great captain, after having spread terror over all the 
 maritime provinces of Europe, took Eouen, fortiiied it, and 
 made it his head-quarters (905). Charles offered him his 
 daughter in marriage, with the province of Neustria as her 
 dower. Eollo, having demanded more territory, embraced 
 Christianity, assumed the name of Eobert, did homage for 
 the crown, and gave the name of Normandy to his new 
 dominion (912). He encouraged agricultural industry, was 
 rigidly exact in the administration of justice ; and thus his 
 band of pirates became good citizens, and their leader the 
 ablest prince and the wisest legislator of the age in which 
 he lived. 
 
 § 40. While these things were passing in France, great 
 alterations took place in the neighbouring states, and among 
 the princes of the blood of Charlemagne. Arnulf, emperor 
 of Germany, was succeeded, in 899, by his son Louis III. ; 
 by some caUed Louis IV. Another Louis, king of lower 
 Burgundy, or Aries, invaded Italy, hoping to obtain the 
 imperial crown (899). Louis III., the son of Arnulf, died 
 
28 GEEMAK EMPIRE. 
 
 in 911, and the empire departed from the family of 
 
 Charlemagne." 
 
 LlTTEK 14. — The German Empire, from the Election of Conrad I. to 'the 
 Death of Henry the Fowler. A.D. 911—936. Vol. i., pages 64—56. 
 
 § 41. Some historians are of opinion that the German 
 empire does not properly commence till the reign of Otho 
 the Great, under whose rule Italy was reunited to the 
 imperial dominions ; but the extinction of the race of Char- 
 lemagne in Germany, when the empire was wholly detached 
 from Trance, and the imperial dignity became electiTe, 
 seems the most natural period to fix its origin, though the 
 first two emperors never received the papal sanction. 
 Authorized by custom, the German nobles assembled at 
 "Worms on the death of Louis, and not deeming Charles 
 the Simple worthy to govern them, ofiered the imperial 
 crown to Otho, duie of Saxony. He declined it on account 
 of his age, but recommended Conrad, count of Franconia, 
 although his enemy, who was accordingly chosen by the 
 Diet. The empire of Germany then comprehended not 
 only modern Germany, but Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, 
 and portions of Prance and Italy. The reign of Conrad I. 
 was one continued series of troubles, and in addition to civil 
 strife, foreign invasions distracted the empire. The Huns 
 ravaged the country and compelled him to accept a humili- 
 ating peace. He died in 918, when Henry I., surnamed the 
 Fowler, because he took much delight in the pursuit of 
 birds, was elected as his successor. Henry secured Lorraine 
 for Germany, created marquises in imitation of Charlemagne, 
 to guard the frontiers of the empire, improved and strength- 
 ened the fortresses, and instituted certain military games, 
 
 ' The student must remember that Charlemagne ruled over Italy, 
 France, and Germany, as emperor of the West. At his death, in 814, 
 he was succeeded by his son Louis I., or le D^bonnaire, who died in 
 840, when the empire was divided between his three sons, Charles the 
 Bald taking France, Lothaire I. Italy, with the title of Emperor, and 
 Louis, Germany. Charles the Bald reunited Italy to France, on the 
 death of his brother Louis, in 875. He died suddenly, in October, 877, 
 and the connection between the two countries was again severed ; but 
 the Carlovingian race continued to reign in France until the death of 
 Louis Y., le Fainfent, in 987, when Hugh Capet was made king, and 
 became the founder of the third race. The successors of Chiirlemagne 
 in Germany became extinct much sooner, and it is to this the author 
 refers in the present chapter. Louis III. died in 911, and he was the 
 last of the German Carlovingians. It is necessary to bear these facts 
 in mind, to avoid confusion. 
 
THE CAELOVINGIANS. 29 
 
 or tournaments. He defeated the Hungariana, who had 
 rebelled (934) ; and having secured the tranquillity of his 
 subjects, both at home and abroad, he was invited by the 
 pope and citizens of Eome to the conquest of Italy. Henry 
 set out immediately, but was seized with apoplexy on his 
 march and compelled to return. He died at Mausleben, in 
 Thuringia, in 936, having first convoked the princes of the 
 empire, and settled the succession upon his son Otho. 
 
 Letter 15. — Prance, from the Settlement, of the Normans to the Ex- 
 tinction of the Carlovingian race. a.d. 91 2 — 987. Vol. i., pages 56 
 and 57. 
 
 § 42. Charles IV., or the Simple, proved utterly incapable 
 of governing France ; numerous revolts occurred during his 
 reign, and he was at last decoyed into a fortress, where he 
 died in 929. Eobert, count of Paris, had been elected king of 
 France in 922, and having been killed in battle the very next 
 year, Eudolph, duke of Burgundy, succeeded to his crown. 
 This prince died without issue, and a kind of interregnum 
 ensued, until Louis IV., or the Stranger, son of Charles the 
 Simple, was recalled from exile iu England, and placed on 
 the throne (936). Hugh the Great, or the Abbot, count of 
 Paris, about this time monopolized power, and like the 
 ancient mayors of the palace, overshadowed the sceptre. 
 On the death of Louis IV. from a fall from his horse, in 
 954, Hugh the Great was pleased to grant the deceased 
 monarch's son Lothaire the title of king. Hugh the Great 
 died in 956, but his power descended to his son Hugh 
 Capet, who soon made a way for himself to the throne, and 
 founded a new dynasty. Lothaire died in 986, and was 
 succeeded by his son Louis V., who, under the direction of 
 Hugh Capet, reigned fourteen months, and at his death in 
 987, the rule of the Carlovingians, or the descendants of 
 Charlemagne, terminated in France. 
 
 Letter 16. — The German Empire and its Dependencies, Eome and the 
 Italian States, under Otho the Great, and his successors of the House 
 of Saxony. A.D. 936— 1024. Vol. i., pages 57— 63. 
 
 § 43. Otho I., or the Great, was elected at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 A.D. 936, by the unanimous consent of the Diet, according 
 to the promise made to his father, Henry the Fowler. This 
 monarch defeated both the Hungarians and the Bohemians, 
 who had revolted against his authority, and he became 
 involved in many disputes with his own rebellious subjects. 
 
30 OTHO THE GREAT. 
 
 Everhard, duke of Bavaria, having refused to do homage, on 
 the pretence that he was not his vassal, but his ally, was 
 expelled by Otho, who bestowed the duchy upon his uncle 
 Bartoff. Otho at the same time created one of Everhard's 
 brothers count palatine of Bavaria, and the other count 
 palatine of the Ehine. This dignity was revived from the 
 counts of the palace of the Eoman and French emperors. 
 The palatines were at first supreme judges, and gave judg- 
 ment in the last appeal, in the name of the emperor. They 
 were also intrusted with the government of the imperial 
 dominions. Otho obliged the Danes to pay him tribute, 
 • and to receive baptism, as an earnest of their good behaviour. 
 
 § 44. No sooner did Otho find himself in quiet possession 
 of the North, than he directed his attention towards the 
 South. Italy was torn by factions and ruled by tyrants. 
 Eodolph II., king of the two Burgundies, had dethroned 
 Berenger in 921, and had been himself dethroned by Hugh, 
 marquis of Provence (926), whose son Lothaire was also 
 dethroned by Berenger II. in 950. This Berenger kept 
 Adelaide, the widow of Lothaire, in confinement. Otho 
 entered Italy at the head of a powerful army, delivered 
 Adelaide, married her, and obliged Berenger to take an oath 
 of fealty, generously leaving him in possession of his king- 
 dom (952). Otho's son, Ludolph, twice revolted against 
 his father, but returned to his obedience, and was restored 
 to favour. The young prince afterwards died in Italy, 
 whither he had been sent by his father to humble the 
 ungrateful Berenger, who had violated his faith (957). 
 
 § 45. Berenger profited by the troubles into which the 
 emperor was plunged, to make himself master of Lombardy. 
 John XII., elected to the papal chair at the age of eighteen, 
 being the first pope who changed his name on his accession 
 to the pontificate, although young and sunk in debauchery, 
 dreaded the tyranny of Berenger and his son Adelbert, and 
 implored the aid of Otho, offering, in return for assistance, 
 the papal sanction to the imperial crown, and the kingdom 
 of Lombardy, from the Italian states (960). Otho having 
 convoked a diet at Worms, where his son Otho was elected 
 his successor, marched with a large army into Italy. Beren- 
 ger fled. Otho entered Pavia without opposition, and was 
 crowned king of Lombardy at Milan, by the archbishop, in 
 the presence of the nobility and the clergy (961). Eome also 
 opened its gates to Otho, and the pope crowned him emperor 
 01 the West, dignified him with the title of Augustus, and 
 
RIVAL POPES. 31 
 
 swore allegiance to him on the tomb in which the body of 
 St. Peter is said to be deposited (962). The emperor then 
 marched in pursuit of Berenger, whom he seized and con- 
 demned to imprisonment for life (964). Meanwhile, the 
 pope broke his oath with the emperor, and entered into a 
 league with Adelbert. Otho suddenly returned to Eome ; 
 Adelbert fled, and a council deposed John XII., electing 
 Leo VIII., a layman, as his successor (963). During the 
 absence of Otho, a faction reinstated John XII., who was 
 soon after assassinated in the arms of one of his mistresses 
 (964). His party refused to acknowledge Leo VIII., and 
 proceeded to elect Benedict V. Otho marched back to 
 Eome, which he reduced, restored Leo VIII. and banished 
 Benedict V. Leo VIII., with the Eoman clergy and people, 
 then passed the celebrated decree: "That Otho, and his 
 successors in the kingdom of Italy, should always have the 
 power of choosing a successor, of naming the pope, and 
 of giving investiture to bishops" (964). 
 
 § 46. The rival popes both died in 965, and John XIII. 
 was elected. Otho had scarcely reached Germany when the 
 Eomans again revolted and expelled John XIII. Otho 
 once more marched to Eome, and re-established the pope, 
 treating the malecontents with great rigour (966). He 
 retired to Capua, where he received ambassadors from Nice- 
 phorus, the G-reek emperor, who wanted to renew the old 
 alliance between the eastern and western empires, and also 
 proposed a marriage between the PrincesB Theophania and 
 Otho's son (968). The Greek grew treacherous, ordered 
 the nobles who came to receive the princess to be assassi- 
 nated, whereupon Otho despatched an army into Calabria, 
 defeated the Greeks, cut off the noses of the prisoners, and 
 sent them to Constantinople. Peace was soon after restored, 
 and the marriage between Theophania and young Otho 
 solemnized in 972. The emperor returned to Germany 
 covered with glory and success. He died at Mausleben, in 
 973, after a reign of thirty-six years ; during which, by his 
 generosity and courage, he justly acquired the appellation 
 of Otho the Geeat, the conqueror of Italy, and the 
 restorer of the empire of Charlemagne. 
 
 § 47. Otho II., sumamed the Sanguinary, on account of 
 the blood spilt during his reign, succeeded his father at the 
 age of eighteen. His youth occasioned troubles which his 
 valour enabled him to suppress. Eome broke into open 
 rebellion, Benedict VI., who had succeeded John XIII. in 
 
32 OTHO II. AND OTHO III. 
 
 973, was murdered in prison, and three different.popes were 
 elected by three different factions (974). Benedict VII. 
 and the imperial party prevailed, whereupon Boniface VII. 
 went in person to Constantinople, and implored the Greek 
 emperors, Basil and Constantine, to come and restore the 
 throne of the Csesars in Italy, and deliver the Eomans from 
 the German yoke. Otho II. entered Eome without oppo- 
 sition, and severely chastised the rebels ; but in attempting 
 to wrest Calabria from the Greeks, his army was cut to 
 pieces, at the battle of Basientello, by the Saracens, whom 
 the Greeks had called to their assistance (982). Otho II. 
 died at Eome, while preparing to avenge this defeat, in 983. 
 § 48. Otho III. succeeded his father when only twelve years 
 of age. Having settled the affairs of the North, he marched 
 into Italy, to suppress a rebellion that had broken out in 
 Eome. He punished the rebels, and on the death of JohnXV. 
 in 996, placed GregoryV. in the pontificate. He was deposed, 
 and JohnXVI. made pope ; but Otho restored GregoryV., and 
 again received the allegiance of the citizens of Eiome (998). 
 Otho then returned to Germany; he was, however, soon sum- 
 moned once more into Italy, in order to repel an invasion of 
 the Saracens. While assembling his forces to crush a con- 
 spiracy, he was poisoned(1002). The empire sustained a great 
 loss in the death of this prince, who was equally brave, re- 
 solute, and just. By a glorious reign of eighteen years, he 
 caused the appellation Infant, which had been given him at 
 his accession, to be changed into that of the Wonder of the 
 World. As Otho III. left no children, several candidates 
 laid claim to the crown. It was conferred upon Henry, duke 
 of Bavaria, grandson of Otho II., who reigned under the 
 title of Henry II. Although this prince quelled several 
 revolts, he was scarcely equal to the duties of his high office, 
 and he at one time entertained the idea of retiring into a 
 monastery. He was crowned emperor of the "West, at 
 Eome, by Benedict VIII., in 1014 ; and he died in 1024. 
 
 Letter 17. — England, from the Death of Alfred to theEeign of Canute 
 the Great, a.d. 900—1016. Vol. i., pages 6i— 70. 
 § 49. Alfred the Great was succeeded by Edward the 
 Elder. The Danes supported Ethelwold, and civil war 
 ensued. The pretender fell in battle (905), and Edward 
 reigned till his death, in 924. His natural son Athelstan 
 obtained the crown, and proved one of the most active and 
 able of our ancient princes. He defeated the Scots, Welsh, 
 
ST. DUNSTAN. SJt 
 
 and the Danes, at the battle of Brunanburh (937), assisted 
 in establishing Louis IV., or the Stranger, on the throne 
 of France, and his alliance was sought by many conti- 
 nental princes. He died in 94<0, and was succeeded by his 
 brother Edmund I. This monarch conquered Cumbria 
 and bestowed it upon Malcolm, king of Scotland, on con- 
 dition that he should defend the north of the island against 
 foreign invaders (945). He was assassinated by one Leof, 
 in 946, when his brother Edred was made king. Though 
 a brave and an active prince, he submitted to the priestly 
 rule of Dunstan, abbot of Glastonbury, commonly called 
 St. Dunstan, whom he advanced to the highest offices of 
 state. Monasteries had existed in England from the first 
 introduction of Christianity among the Saxons. The monks 
 were a species of secular clergy, who were at liberty either 
 to marry or not, as they pleased. A superstitious devotion 
 produced in Italy a new kind of monks, who secluded them- 
 selves from the world, renounced all claims to liberty, and 
 made a merit of the most inviolable chastity. Dunstan 
 laid hold of this circumstance to commence a reform, and 
 celibacy was extolled as the universal duty of priests. On 
 the other hand, the rivals of the regular clergy, known as 
 the secular, who were numerous and rich, and possessed of 
 the ecclesiastical dignities, defended themselves with vigour, 
 and boldly maintained the sanctity of marriage. Thus the 
 nation was thrown into a ferment. The power of the 
 monks received a check by the death of Edred, in 955, and 
 he was succeeded by his nephew Edwy, or Edwin, then only 
 seventeen years old. 
 
 § 50. Edwin married the beautiful Elgiva, his cousin, 
 although within the degrees of affinity prohibited by the 
 Church. This step involved him in a struggle with Dun- 
 stan, who, supported by Odo, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 despised and insulted the royal authority. These church- 
 men caused Elgiva to be seized, and after her face had been 
 seared with red-hot iron, banished her to Ireland. On her 
 return she was treated with inhuman cruelty, when death 
 happily put an end to her sufferings (959). Dunstan and 
 his party obtained a complete ascendancy. Edwin died 
 during the year, and there is reason to believe, by unfair 
 means. His brother Edgar was but sixteen years old when 
 he mounted the throne, and his reign is one of the most 
 fortunate in our annals. His wise precautions for securing 
 public safety, and his vigilance and foresight, maintained 
 
34 THE DANEGELD. 
 
 peace in tis dominions. Edgar paid court to Dunstan and 
 his monks ; yet he was licentious, and in pursuit of bis 
 amours violated every law human and divine. Having 
 heard of the beauty of Elfrida, daughter of Ordgar, earl of 
 Devonshire, Edgar sent Athelwold, his favourite, to see if 
 the young lady was indeed as fair as fame reported. Athel- 
 wold no sooner beheld Elfrida than he was inflamed with 
 love. He reported her unfavourably to the king, courted 
 her himself, and married her. Edgar learned the truth, and 
 resolved to satisfy himself fully in regard to Elfrida'g 
 beauty. Dissembling his anger, he informed Athelwold of 
 his intention of paying him a visit, and of being introduced 
 to his wife. Athelwold was thunderstruck at the proposal, 
 and begged his partner to conceal, as much as possible, her 
 fatal beauty ; but Elfrida, though promising compliance, 
 decked her person with the most exquisite art. The king 
 was captivated ; he caused Athelwold to be assassinated, took 
 Elfrida to court, and made her his wife (973) . Edgar com. 
 muted the tribute of money imposed on the Welsh princes 
 by Athelstan, into an anniial tribute of three hundred 
 wolves' heads, and is said to have reformed the coinage. 
 He died in 975. 
 
 § 51. Edward II., or the Martyr, Edgar's son, succeeded. 
 Elfrida and the clergy attempted to set up Etlielred, then 
 but seven years old. Edward's short reign was remark* 
 able for a continual struggle between the monks and the 
 secular clergy. He was treacherously murdered at the 
 instigation of Elfrida, in 978. Ethelred the Unready was 
 a prince without courage or capacity. Soon after his acces- 
 sion, England was again attacked by the Danes ; Ethelred, 
 instead of rousing his people to resistance, meanly com- 
 pounded with the enemy, and bribed them to retire from his 
 kingdom, by a tribute called the Danegeld tax (991). This 
 shameful expedient invited, instead of repelling, the assail- 
 ants ; the Danes returned, and were again and again bribed 
 to depart. At length Ethelred resolved to massacre the 
 Danes who had settled in his kingdom. Secret orders 
 were given, and the Danes destroyed without mercy. Even 
 Gunilda, sister to Sweyn, their king, although she had 
 married an English earl, and embraced Christianity, was 
 barbarously butchered (1002). Sweyn, breathing vengeance 
 for the slaughter of his countrymen, speedily landed in the 
 west of England, and desolated the kingdom with fire and 
 sword (1003). Tribute was again offered, but the Danes 
 
EDMUND IRONSIDE. 35 
 
 continued their ravages, and Ethelred fled to his brother-jn- 
 law, liichard, duke of Normandy (1013). Sweyn died the 
 next year, and Ethelred was recalled ; but he was nnable to 
 resist Canute, Sweyn's son, and an army was raised, and 
 the command conferred upon Edric and Prince Edmund. 
 The former proved a traitor, and the latter retired to 
 London. At this crisis Ethelred died, and was succeeded 
 by Edmund, called Ironside, from his hardy valour (1016). 
 This monarch defended his kingdom valiantly against the 
 Danes ; but, owing to the treachery and disloyalty of many 
 of his nobles, he was at last compelled to conclude a treaty, 
 by which Canute had the northern and Edmund the 
 southern parts of the island. Edmund died soon after : he 
 is said to l\ave been murdered at Oxford ; and his death 
 made way for the accession of the Danish prince to the 
 throne of England (1016). 
 
 Lettek 18. — France, from the Accession of Hugh Capet to the Invasion 
 of England by William, Duke of Normandy. A.D. 987 — 1066. 
 Vol. i., pages 70—74. 
 
 § 52. Hugh Capet, one of the most powerful nobles of 
 France, seized the crown on the death of Louis V. (987). 
 He was acknowledged in an assembly of the nobles, and was 
 anointed at Eheims, and he associated his son Eobert in the 
 government of the kingdonj (988). He conducted affairs 
 with great moderation and prudence, and established a new 
 family, and in some measure a new government, with few 
 circumstances of violence and without shedding blood. He 
 died in the fifty-seventh year of his age and the tenth of 
 his reign, and was quietly succeeded by his son Eobert, a 
 prince of a less vigorous genius, though not of a less amiable 
 disposition (996). The most remarkable circumstance in 
 his reign, was his excommunication by the pope. He had 
 married Bertha, his cousin in the fourth degree, and the 
 Church having about this time made a sacrament of mar- 
 riage, and laid a spiritual prohibition even to the seventh 
 degree of consanguinity, Gregory V. undertook to dissolve 
 the marriage, and ordered the king and queen to be sepa- 
 rated, on peril of excommunication (997). Eobert persisted 
 in keeping his wife, and thereby incurred the sentence of 
 excommunication (998) ; but he finally submitted, repu- 
 diated Bertha, and married Constance, daughter to the 
 count of Aries. The latter years of his reign were em- 
 bittered by the intrigues of this imperious queen, who 
 D 2 
 
36 TEOUBLES IN FEANCE. 
 
 wished to place her youngest son Eobert on the throne. 
 Eobert died 1031, and was succeeded by Henry I. 
 
 § 53. Henry I. was twenty-seven years of age at his 
 accession, and he displayed great prudence and sagacity. His 
 mother Constance hated him, and raised such a formidable 
 insurrection, that Henry was constrained to seek refuge in 
 Normandy. He induced Eobert, the duke, to espouse his 
 cause, when the queen-dowager and her faction were 
 humbled, and Henry restored to the throne. The succes- 
 sion to the duchy of Normandy next engaged his attention. 
 Duke Eobert thought fit to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 
 and before his departure, assembled his nobles, and engaged 
 them to swear allegiance to his natural son William, recom- 
 mending him to the guardianship of Henry I. and Alain, 
 duke of Brittany. Eobert died on his pilgrimage (1035), 
 when his licentious nobles broke out into personal quarrels, 
 making the whole duchy a scene of war and devastation. 
 Henry I. interfered at first against the claims of William ; 
 but he finally united his forces with those of the young 
 duke, and, routing the malecontents at the battle of Val- 
 de-Dunes, established him in the quiet possession of his 
 heritage (1046). Henry I. died in 1060, and was succeeded 
 by his son Philip. This prince being only eight years of 
 age, Baldwin Y., surnamed the Pious, earl of Flanders, 
 was appointed regent. The only colour Baldwin gave for 
 censure, was in permitting William, duke of Normandy, 
 to raise forces in France and Flanders, for the invasion of 
 England. In order to balance in some measure the increase 
 of William's power, a close alliance was concluded between 
 the crowns of France and Scotland. Baldwin died soon 
 after, and left Philip in peaceable possession of his kingdom,, 
 when just fifteen years of age (1067). 
 
 Letter 19. — England, from the Danish to the Norman Conquest. 
 A.D. 1016—1066. Vol. i., pages 74—82. 
 
 § 54. Canute summoned a general assembly of the states 
 of England, in order to fix the succession, and from them 
 obtained full possession of the government. Eobert, duke 
 of Normandy, fitted out a fleet to restore the English 
 princes, the sons of Ethelred, to the throne of their 
 ancestors. Canute, to avert the storm, married Emma, 
 Ethelred's widow, the mother of the young princes (1018). 
 Having freed himself from the danger of a revolution, 
 Canute wisely determined, by the equity of his administra- 
 
THE DANISH YOKE. 37 
 
 tion, to reconcile the English to the Danish yoke. He sent 
 back to their own country as many of his own followers as 
 could safely be spared, restored the Saxon customs, and 
 made no distinction between the Danes and the English in 
 the distribution of justice. 
 
 § 55. The first use that Canute made of the settled 
 state of his kingdom was to visit Denmark (1019), where 
 he obtained a victory over the Swedes, chiefly by the valour 
 of the English under Earl Godwin. On another visit to 
 Denmark he made himself master of Norway, by expelling 
 Olaf from the kingdom (1028). In 1031 he undertook a 
 pilgrimage to Home, and it is probable that on his return 
 the incident that gives such a romantic character to his 
 history occurred. Canute was the most powerful prince ot 
 his time, being sovereign of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, 
 and as such received the adulation of many courtiers. One 
 day, as the tide was rising, he ordered his chair to be 
 brought to the shore, and having seated himself, addressed 
 the rapidly advancing waves : " Ocean ! thou art under my 
 dominion, and the land on which I sit is mine. I charge 
 thee to approach no further ! nor dare to wet thy sovereign's 
 feet ! " He sat some time, as if in expectation of submission ; 
 but as the sea advanced towards him, and the billows began 
 to wash his feet, he turned to his courtiers, observing, that 
 every creature in the universe is feeble and impotent, and 
 that power resides only with one being, in whose hands 
 are the elements, and who alone can say to the ocean, 
 " Thus far shalt thou go, and no farther." Canute made an 
 expedition into Scotland, and subdued Malcolm (1031). 
 He died in 1035, leaving England to Harold Harefoot, 
 Norway to Sweyn, and Denmark to Hardicanute. 
 
 § 56. Harold I. reigned only four years, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Hardicanute (1039), who died in 1042, when 
 the English shook off the Danish yoke, and summoned from 
 Normandy, Edward, son of Ethelred and Emma, surnamed 
 the Confessor, to the throne. England was soon filled with 
 Normans, who were distinguished by the royal favour, and 
 had great influence in the national councils ; and he is said 
 to have given his kinsman "William, duke of Normandy, 
 hopes of succeeding to the English crown. The English, 
 led by the powerful Earl Godwin, revolted, and although at 
 first defeated (1051), finally prevailed, and reduced the 
 king to accept conditions, the most important of which was 
 that all foreigners should be banished (1052). Earl God- 
 
38 THE NORMAN INVASION. 
 
 •win died in 1053, but his son Harold succeeded to Ua 
 estates and power. 
 
 Siward, earl of Northumberland, whose authority in 
 the north enabled him to be very useful in restraining 
 the ambition of Godwin, died in 1055. His eldest son, 
 Osbern, had been slain in battle, his second son, "Waltheof, 
 was too young to be intrusted with the government of 
 Northumberland, and by Harold's influence, the dukedom 
 was conferred on his own brother Tosti. He behaved so 
 tyranically in his high office that the people rose against 
 him, expelled him, and elected Morcar duke (1065). 
 Edward the Confessor was the first who touched for the 
 scrofula, hence denominated the king's evil. Posterity are 
 much indebted to this prince for the body of laws which he 
 compiled, and which, on account of their mildness, were 
 long dear to our ancestors. Edward died without appointing 
 a successor, January 5th, 1066. 
 
 § 57. Though Edward left the succession undecided, 
 Harold stepped at once into the vacant throne. Edgar 
 Atheling, Edmund Ironside's grandson, the rightful heir to 
 the crown, and William, duke of Normandy, were scarcely 
 thought of; and the nation received their new monarch with 
 joy. Tosti, who, on his expulsion from the dukedom of 
 Northumberland, had taken refuge in Elanders, entered 
 into a league with Hardrada, king of Norway, and invaded 
 England with three hundred ships. They landed at the 
 mouth of the Humber, and Harold hastened to the north 
 and defeated the invaders in a sanguinary battle, in which 
 both Tosti and Hardrada were slain. Harold had no sooner 
 overcome these rivals, than he received intelligence that the 
 duke of Normandy had landed with a formidable force in 
 the south of England. 
 
 § 58. The Norman prince founded his claim to the 
 English crown on a pretended will of Edward the Confessor 
 in his favour. This claim he fortified with an oath extorted 
 from Harold when shipwrecked on the coast of France, 
 importing that he would never aspire to the succession, and 
 binding hinaself to support the pretensions of Williani. 
 Harold replied to the Norman ambassadors who summoned 
 him to resign the kingdom, that he was determined to main- 
 tain those national liberties with which he had been in- 
 trusted, and that the same moment should put a period to 
 his life and to his sway. Tbe time was favourable for 
 "William's ambitious projects. A military spirit had spread 
 
BATTLE OF HASTINGS. 39 
 
 over Europe ; and the feudal nobles, whose minds were 
 elated by their princely situations, readily embraced the 
 most hazardous enterprises. The different continental 
 monarchs permittted their vassala to embark in the expe- 
 dition, and Pope Alexander Il.pronounced Harold a perjured 
 usurper, excommunicated him and his adherents, and sent 
 the duke a consecrated banner, and a ring containing one 
 of St. Peter's hairs. The Norman fleet, consisting of about 
 seven hundred vessels, carrying 60,000 men, arrived safely 
 at Pevensey, in Sussex, where the troops disembarked. 
 Harold was at York when he received intelligence of the 
 Norman invasion, and hastened by quick marches to Lon- 
 don, where he halted a few days, and then advanced to meet 
 the Normans, who had removed their camp to Hastings. 
 
 § 59. Both armies awaited the conflict with impatience. 
 The night previous to the battle was spent by the English 
 in feasting, and by the Normans in fasting and prayer. At 
 daybreak, William divided his army into three lines. The first 
 consisted of archers and light-armed infantry; the second was 
 composed of his bravest battalions, heavy-armed, and ranged 
 in close order. The cavalry, with William at their head, 
 formed the third line, and were so disposed that they 
 stretched beyond the infantry, flanking each wing of the 
 army. He commanded the signal to be given, and the 
 whole army moved forward, singing the celebrated song of 
 Eoland, the nephew of Charlemagne. Harold, on account 
 of his inferiority in numbers, had taken advantage of the 
 rising ground, and made some trenches to secure his flanks, 
 as if anxious to act upon the defensive. The king, dis- 
 mounting, placed himself in the centre, at the head of his 
 infantry, resolving to conquer or to die. The flrst onslaught 
 of the Norman foot was terrible, and their archers did great 
 execution on the serried ranks of the English. Harold's men 
 received the shock undismayed, and after a furious struggle, 
 the Normans began to give ground. Confusion was spread- 
 ing from rank to rank, when William hastened with a select 
 band to the relief of his broken legions. His presence 
 restored the battle. Twice did the Normans allure the 
 English from their advantageous position, by feigning a 
 retreat, and attacking them with their cavalry as they 
 descended into the plain ; thus throwing them into disorder, 
 and driving them back with loss to the hill. A large body of 
 the English stood firm around their prince, determined to 
 dispute the field to the last, when fortune decided a contest 
 
40 EESULT OF THE VICTORY. 
 
 which valour had left doubtful. Harold was pierced by an 
 arrow, while bravely defending the royal standard at the 
 head of his guards. His two gallant brothers, Grurth and 
 Leofwin, were slain, and the English, dispirited by the loss 
 of their leaders, gave way on all sides, and were pursued 
 with great slaughter by the victorious Normans. Such was 
 the famous battle of Hastings, which terminated the Anglo- 
 Saxon monarchy in England, in which fifteen thousand of 
 the Normans, and a much greater number of the English, 
 found a glorious death (1066). 
 
 § 60. Never has territory equally small in extent engaged 
 the attention of mankind for so long a series of ages as the 
 island of Britain. Prom remote antiquity it was visited by 
 the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, on account of its tin 
 and other valuable productions. The Eomans, in the height 
 of their power, made themselves masfers of the southern 
 parts of the island, and preserved their footing for three 
 hundred years. The long struggle with the Saxons, and 
 their civil wars, impeded the progress of civilization ; but no 
 sooner was something like order restored under Egbert, than 
 commerce and manufactures were cultivated, and prosperity 
 commenced. These were cruelly injured by the piracy and 
 predatory incursions of the Danes ; yet England, even in 
 those days, could boast of many large trading towns, contain- 
 ing freemen equal to the defence of the kingdom. William 
 was indebted for his good fortune less to the rashness of the 
 English monarch, his own conduct, or the valour of his 
 troops, than to the unsettled state of the succession to the 
 crown. The English nobility, on the death of Harold, 
 naturally looked up to William, the kinsman of their princes, 
 as their sovereign, their head, their centre of union. The 
 duke of Normandy had triumphed over their elected king 
 at Hastings, but not over their liberties. 
 
 Letter 20. — Spain, the Saracens, and the Empire of Constantinople, 
 during the Ninth, Tenth, and part of the Eleventh Centuries. A.D. 
 862—1068. Vol. i., pages 83—88. 
 
 § 61. After the death of Abderahman, a.d. 787, dissen- 
 sions amongst his children procured some relief for the 
 Spanish Christians. The little kingdom of the Asturias, 
 founded by Pelagius, increased under Alphonso III., surnamed 
 the Great (a.d. 862) . The kingdom of Navarre, founded some 
 years before, became one of the most considerable Christian 
 principalities in Spain. The Moors, however, still possessed 
 
THE SARACENS. 41 
 
 more than three-fourths of the country, including the most 
 fertile provinces. The Spanish Christians were not more 
 united than their enemies. In 938, Eamiro II., another 
 Spanish hero, gained the celebrated victory of Simancas ; 
 and in 995 Almansor obtained a complete triumph over the 
 Spaniards, on the banks of the river Elza. In the former 
 battle, Eamiro had promised to make large donations to the 
 church of St. James, at Compostella, in case of success, and 
 " St. James " became the war-cry of the Spaniards ; while, 
 in consequence of the latter victory, the name of Almansor 
 became terrible to the Christians. About the beginning of 
 the eleventh century, the race of Abderahman being extinct, 
 the kingdom of Cordova was dismembered, and almost all 
 the great cities had their independent sovereigns. The 
 Christian provinces were subdivided in the same manner, 
 and poisonings, treachery, and assassinations abounded. In 
 this dark and oppressive period, the people of Arragon shared 
 the government with their sovereign; the representatives 
 of cities and towns had a seat "in their Cortes, or national 
 assembly. The Arragonians also elected a grand judge, as 
 supreme interpreter of the laws : his person was sacred, his 
 jurisdiction almost unbounded, and he was answerable to 
 the Cortes alone. He had also the singular privilege of 
 administering the coronation oath, in the name of the people; 
 and it became an established maxim in the constitution of 
 Arragon, that it vFas lawful for the people to depose a king who 
 violated his engagements, and to elect another in his stead. 
 
 § 62. From the Arabs in Spain we pass naturally to those 
 of Asia, and the neighbouring continent of Africa. The 
 glory of the caliphat was obscured towards the end of the 
 ninth century. The African governors threw off their alle- 
 giance, and religious quarrels augmented those of ambition. 
 The Eatimites, a Mahomedan sect, founded an empire in 
 Egypt (908), and Cairo became the seat of a new caliphat, 
 and a flourishing city of commerce (969). Another fanatical 
 sect revolted, and seized the provinces on the coast of 
 Africa, which form the present kingdom of Morocco. The 
 caliphs of Bagdad had received into their armies a body of 
 Turks, or Turcomans, a Tartar tribe. These auxiliaries took 
 advantage of the civil wars to deprive the caliphs of sove- 
 reignty, permitting them to retain the pontificate. A 
 variety of sovereigns sprung up under the name of Sultans, 
 who, invested with their dominions by the caliphs, left them 
 very little authority. 
 
42 GBEEK EMPIRE. 
 
 § 63. The empire of Constantinople, though much cir- 
 cumscribed on the eastern frontier, still extended over all 
 Greece, Macedonia, Epirus, Thessaly, Thrace, and Illyricum. 
 Nicephorus, who had dethroned Irene in 802, was an 
 execrable tyrant. The Saracens robbed him of the isle of 
 Cyprus (805), and the Bulgarians cut his army to pieces, 
 beheaded him, and made a driuking-cup of his skull (811). 
 A succession of weak princes followed, and intrigues, per- 
 secutions, and assassinations fill up the annals of the period. 
 Oonstantine X., or Porphyrogenitus, who reigned from 911— 
 959, was a protector of the sciences, and cultivated them with 
 success. Zoe, daughter of Constantine XI., by her shame- 
 less amours and intrigues kept the empire in commotion 
 from 1028 till her death, in 1050. She made her favourites 
 emperors, removing them as soon as she grew tired of them, 
 with ruthless barbarity. The empire experienced a short 
 season of repose under Isaac Comnenus, one of the best 
 of the Greek rulers (1057—1059). Constantine XIII., or 
 Dueas, appointed his three sons emperors, leaving the 
 regency to his widow Eudocia (1067) ; but she married her 
 favourite Eoraanus, and raised him to the throne, under the 
 title of Eomanus IV., or Diogenes (1068). Tet the Grreeks 
 were stiU the most learned and polished people in Europe; 
 and Constantinople, having never experienced the destruc- 
 tive rage of the barbarians, continued to be the largest and 
 most beautiful city in Europe, and the only one in which 
 any image of ancient manners or ingenuity remained. 
 
 Letter 21 . — Progress of Society in Europe, from the Settlement of 
 the Modern Nations, to the Middle of the Eleventh Century, a.d, 
 476— lOSO. Vol. i., pages 88—94. 
 
 § 64. The invaders wanted taste to appreciate Eoman 
 arts, laws, and literature, yet they generally embraced 
 Christianity, engrafting upon it many of their own super- 
 stitions. This will account for the absurd mixture of vio- 
 lence, devotion, and folly which so long disgraced the Eomish 
 church, and formed the character of the middle ages. The 
 Druids among the Gauls and Britons, the priests among the 
 ancient Germans, and among all the nations of Scandinavia, 
 possessed absolute dominion over the minds of men ; and 
 the early Christian priesthood blindly fostered this super- 
 stitious homage. The Christian emperors of Eome and 
 Constantinople lavished on the Church privileges and immu- 
 nities, and endeavoured to conciliate the favour of God by 
 
PROGRESS OF SOCIETT. 43 
 
 the same means that were used to satisfy the justice of men, 
 or by those which were employed to appease their fabulous 
 deities. As the punishments due for civil crimes might, 
 among the barbarians, be bought off by money, they 
 attempted to bribe Heaven by benefactions to the Church. 
 Thus the clergy became powerful, were often the arbiters of 
 kingdoms, and disposed of the crown while they regulated 
 the affairs of the state. The acts of their councils were 
 considered as infallible decrees. 
 
 § 65. As the interests of the clergy clashed with those of 
 the laity, opposition and jealousy produced fresh disorders. 
 The priests breathed forth frightful anathemas, and, to the 
 thunder of the Church, joined the assistance of the sword. 
 Although many of the clergy could scarcely read, they made 
 a mystery of the most necessary sciences, and contaminated 
 history and religion with lying chronicles and fabulous 
 legends. Charlemagne and Alfred thei Great endeavoured 
 to dispel this darkness ; and light and order distinguished 
 their reigns. The ignorance of the West, especially amongst 
 the laity, was so profound during the ninth and tenth 
 centuries, that the clergy became the arbiters of almost all 
 secular affairs. Marriages, contracts, wills, fell under their 
 jurisdiction, and opened to them new sources of wealth and 
 power. Letters began to revive in the eleventh century, 
 when a scientific jargon, a false logic, employed about words, 
 without conveying any idea of things, began to prevail. 
 The disorders of government and manners kept pace with 
 those of religion; and these seem to have attained their 
 height about the middle of the tenth century. The feudal 
 policy had created in each state a number of petty tyrants ; 
 and force decided all disputes. Europe became one great 
 battle-field, in which the weak struggled for freedom, and 
 the strong for dominion. The king was without power, and 
 the nobles without principle ; they were tyrants at home 
 and robbers abroad ; and such was the insecure condition of 
 society, that many voluntarily surrendered their liberty for 
 bread and protection. 
 
 § 66. From that gloomy era, a succession of causes and 
 events may be traced, that contributed to abolish anarchy 
 and barbarism, and to introduce order and politeness. 
 Among the first of these may be ranked chivalry. General 
 insecurity prevailed, and the arm of the brave was the only 
 shield of the weak. The licentious and tyrannic nobles, 
 touched at last with a sense of natural equity, and swayed 
 
44 INSTITUTION OF CHIVALEY. 
 
 by the conviction of a common interest, formed associations 
 for the redress of private wrongs and the preservation of 
 public safety. So honourable was the origin of this insti- 
 tution! The novice served in the house of some knight, 
 first as a page, and then as an esquire ; nor was he admitted 
 to the supreme honour of knighthood until he had given 
 many striking proofs of his valour and address. The cere- 
 mony of initiation was very solemn. This being performed, 
 the candidate for knighthood took the usual oath to serve 
 his prince, defend the faith, protect the persons and reputa- 
 tions of virtuous ladies, and to rescue, at the hazard of his 
 life, widows, orphans, and all unhappy persons groaning 
 under injustice or oppression. The candidate was then 
 adorned with the armour and ensigns of chivalry; the 
 king, or nobleman, then gave him the accolade, or dubbing, 
 by three gentle strokes with the flat part of the sword, or 
 with the palm of his hand, on the neck, saying, " In the 
 name of Grod, St. Michael, and St. George, I make thee a 
 knight ! be thou loyal, brave, and hardy." 
 
 § 67. Valour, humanity, courtesy, justice, honour, were 
 the characteristics of chivalry ; and to these may be added 
 religion. War was carried on with less ferocity, more gentle 
 and polished manners were introduced, and a scrupulous 
 regard to truth prevailed. Valour, seconded by so many 
 motives of love, religion, and virtue, became almost irresist- 
 ible. Chivalry was not, however, without its weak points. 
 In Spain it gave birth to wild adventures, which have been 
 deservedly ridiculed ; in the Norman invasion it extinguished 
 the liberties of England ; it deluged Italy with blood ; and 
 at the call of superstition, and as an engine of papal power, 
 desolated Asia under the banner of the cross. Yet it must 
 never be forgotten that it taught mankind to carry the 
 civilities of peace into the operations of war, that it invigo- 
 rated, while it softened, the human character, and extended 
 the influence of woman in society. Its beneficial effects 
 were strongly counterbalanced by other institutions of a less 
 social kind. Persons of both sexes secluded themselves 
 from the world ; and the monastic life, that had its origin 
 among the Christians of Egypt, Syria, and Palestine, spread 
 rapidly over Asia, Africa, and "Europe. Many of these 
 devotees took a vow of perpetual chastity, and nothing was 
 deemed so meritorious as the building and endowing of 
 monasteries. These enthusiasts not ony suffered privations, 
 but inflicted tortures on themselves ; and not a few, under 
 
THE MONASTIC SYSTEM. iS 
 
 the name of Stylites, or Pillar-saints, ascended the top of 
 some lofty column, where they remained for years without 
 any shelter from heat or cold. In the religious houses, 
 devout persons of both sexes submitted themselves to meagre 
 fastings, bloody flagellations, and other cruel austerities of 
 discipline, too shocking to bear recital. Then monasteries 
 for both sexes were introduced, and a relaxation of manners 
 ensued. The monks, however, were still venerated, being 
 often called from the lonely cell to fill the papal chair, to 
 discharge the office of prime minister, and to regulate the 
 interests of nations. Their spiritual reputation enabled 
 them to trample upon authority. And if chivalry, by 
 awakening a spirit of enterprise, had not roused the human 
 powers to deeds of valour, and revived the passion for the 
 softer sex, by connecting it with arms, and separating it from 
 gross 'desire, Europe might have sunk under the tyranny 
 of a set of men who pretend to renounce the world and its 
 affairs, and Christendom have become but one great cloister. 
 
46 THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Letter 22. — The German Empire, and its Dependencies, under 
 Coniad II. and hia Desoendanta of the House of Franoonia. a.d. 
 1024—1125. Vol. i., pages 94—106. 
 
 § 68. Aftek mucli deliberation and many disputes, Con- 
 rad II., duke of Eranconia, surnamed the Salic, because bom 
 on the banks of the river Sala, was elected emperor (1024). 
 The Lombards revolted as usual, when Conrad marched into 
 Italy, subdued them, and was crowned by John XX. at 
 Home, in presence of Canute of England and Eodolph III. 
 of Burgundy (1027). Conrad returned to Germany, had 
 his son Henry, then twelve years old, solemnly crowned as 
 his successor at Aix-la-Chapelle (1028), and then quelled 
 some rather formidable insurrections. He afterwards de- 
 feated the Poles and the Hungarians, and on the death of 
 Eodolph of Burgundy, inherited his dominions (1032). 
 The Poles again revolted, and the bishop of Milan raised an 
 insurrection in 1037 ; but Conrad triumphed over both, and 
 returned to Germany, where he soon after died, leaving 
 behind him the reputation of a just, generous, and mag- 
 nanimous prince (1039). He was succeeded by Henry III., 
 surnamed the Black, who waged successful wars against 
 Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary. The Pandolphi and the 
 Ptolemei factions agitated Home and Italy, and the former 
 thrust Benedict IX., a boy of twelve years of age, into 
 the papacy (1033) . Three popes, elected by their several 
 partisans, reigned in Home (1044), when Henry marched 
 into Italy, deposed them, and set up the first of the German 
 pontiffs, Clement II. (1046). Henry and his empress 
 having been crowned at Home, proceeded to Capua, where 
 the former entered into a treaty with certain Norman 
 adventurers, who were fighting against the Greeks and the 
 Saracens. The emperor had scarcely reached Germany when 
 he received intelligence of the death of Clement II. (1048). 
 Damasus II. succeeded him, but died soon after his eleva- 
 tion. Henry nominated one Bruno, a relative, who took 
 
HILDEBRAND. 47 
 
 the title of Leo IX. Soon after his elevation, Leo waited 
 on the emperor at Worms to crave his assistance against 
 the Norman princes, then the terror of Italy (1052). 
 Henry furnished the pope with an army, which was defeated 
 by the Normans at the battle of CiviteUa (1053), who took 
 Leo prisoner, but afterwards released him. Leo died in 
 1054, and another German bishop was soon after elected 
 pope, under tbe name of Victor II. Henry made war upon the 
 Hungarians, and then marched into Italy against his sister, 
 by whose intrigues he was alarmed (1055). He concluded an 
 alliance with Contarini, doge of Venice, about which time 
 the Venetians and the Genoese were rivals in power and 
 commerce, and he died soon after his return to Germany 
 (1056). 
 
 § 69. Henry IV. of Germany, surnamed the Great, was 
 only five years old when he mounted the throne, and 
 his mother Agnes governed as regent ; but the dukes of 
 Saxony and Bavaria carried off their nephew by stratagem, 
 whereupon Agnes fled to Home and took the veil (1062). 
 Germany during the minority of this prince was harassed 
 by civil wars, and Italy became, as usual, a prey to internal 
 disorders. The famous Hildebrand was all-powerful at 
 Eome, and he induced his creature, Nicholas II., in the 
 second Lateran council, to pass the famous decree ordaining 
 that for the future the cardinals should elect the pope 
 (1059). On assuming the reins of government, Henry IV., 
 determined to suppress the robberies and extortions prac- 
 tised by the duke of Saxony and his subjects, made war 
 upon and conquered Saxony (1075). A fresh contest soon 
 arose in Italy. On the death of Alexander II. in 1073, 
 Hildebrand had been elected pope, under the title of 
 Gregory VII. By feigning submission, he induced Henry to 
 confirm the election, and then this haughty prelate pulled off 
 the mask. He began his pontificate by excommunicating 
 every ecclesiastic who should receive a benefice from a 
 layman, and every layman by whom such benefice should be 
 conferred. Gregory also proposed a crusade to deliver the 
 holy sepulchre from the hands of the infidels. Gregory 
 next assailed the right enjoyed by the emperor, in common 
 with other princes, of nominating bishops and abbots, and 
 giving them investiture by the ring and crosier (1075). 
 He sent legates to summon Henry to appear before him as 
 a delinquent, because he still exercised the right, in spite of 
 its abrogation by the synod at Rome. Henry convoked an 
 
48 STRUGGLES WITH THE POPES. 
 
 assembly of princes and ecclesiastics at "Worms in 1076, 
 where, after mature deliberation, G-regorj was deposed'. 
 The pope summoned the third Lateran council at Eome; 
 excommunicated the emperor, and absolved his subjects froin 
 their allegiance. Deserted by many of his nobles and 
 bishops, Henry resolved to seek absolution from the pope. 
 He accordingly went suddenly into Italy, and presented 
 himself, stripped of his robes and wrapt in sackcloth, at the 
 gates of the fortress of Canosa, in the Apennines, in which 
 Gregory VII. was spending his time in dalliance with the 
 Countess Matilda. After waiting three days, suffering many 
 indignities, Henry was at last admitted to the presence of 
 the pope. 
 
 § 70. Elated by the success of his schemes, Gregory Til. 
 carried his arrogance too far, and demanded an abject 
 submission. Henry retired to Eeggio, where he found a 
 strong party, and all Lombardy took up arms against the 
 pope, while he was raising Germany against the emperor. 
 Gregory made use of every art to get another emperor 
 elected in Germany ; and Henry left nothing undone to 
 persuade the Italians to elect another pope. The Germans 
 chose Eodolph, duke of Swabia, who was solemnly crowned 
 at Mentz (1077). Henry set out for Germany, fought several 
 battles with varied results (1080), while Gregory, seeing 
 no hopes of his submission, excommunicated him for the 
 second time, and confirmed the election of Eodolph, to 
 whom he sent a golden crown. Henry summoned a council 
 at Brixen, by which Gregory VII. was deposed, and 
 Clement III. appointed in his stead. His rival, Eodolph, 
 having been killed at the battle of Zeiz, by Godfrey of 
 Bouillon, Henry set out for Italy ; Eome was besieged for 
 nearly three years, and was taken during Henry's absence in 
 ' Germany (1084) . Gregory VII. escaped, but died soon after 
 in exile at Salerno (1085). The tranquillity of the remaining 
 years of Henry's reign was disturbed by new pretenders 
 and undutiful sons. Another pope, Pascal II., excommu- 
 nicated Henry, and even incited his son to rebel against 
 him (1102). Having by stratagem got his father into his 
 power, he imprisoned him, endeavoured to force him to 
 resign, and even denied him the common necessaries of hfe. 
 Henry managed to escape from his keepers ; but while 
 raising an army, he fell ill and died at Liege, in the forty- 
 ninth year of his reign (1106). He was a prince of great 
 courage and of excellent endowments both of body and 
 
EIGHT OF INVESTITURE. 49 
 
 mind. He possessed a natural fund of eloquence and 
 vivacity ; and was an admirable pattern of fortitude and 
 resignation. 
 
 § 71. Henry V. caused his father's body to be dug up 
 and treated with great indignity. He laid claim to the 
 right of investiture, and invited the pope to settle the 
 dispute at a conference. After carrying on war for some 
 years in Hungary and Poland, he entered Italy and sacked 
 Eome (1111) ; Pascal II. being made prisoner, he crowned 
 Henry and confirmed him in the right of investiture. On 
 the emperor's departure, a council in the Lateran can- 
 celled and declared void the privilege, while another council 
 assembled at Vienne and excommunicated Henry. The 
 countess Matilda died in 1115, and her large estates in Italy 
 were claimed both by Henry and the pope. The emperor 
 took possession of Matilda's lands (1116), and once more 
 entered' Eome in triumph, and was crowned for the second 
 time (1117). Pascal II. returned to Some on the de- 
 parture of the emperor, and died soon after, when the 
 cardinals elected Gelasius II., and the emperor the arch- 
 bishop of Braga, under the title of Gregory VIII. (1118). 
 This gave rise to the Guelf and Ghibelin factions, the former 
 supporting the papal and the latter the imperial cause. 
 Gelasius took refuge in France, where he died (1119), and 
 Calixtus II. was appointed in his place. The States of the 
 empire, weary of the long quarrel between the popes and 
 the emperors, supplicated Henry for peace. Negotiations 
 were set on foot, and the long-agitated question of the right 
 of investiture settled in these terms : " That for the future, 
 the bishops and abbots shall be chosen by the monks and 
 canons ; but that this election shall be made in presence of 
 the emperor, or of an ambassador appointed by him for that 
 purpose : that, in case of a dispute among the electors, the 
 decision shall be left to the emperor, who is to consult vrith 
 the bishops on that subject ; that the bishop or abbot elect 
 shall take an oath of allegiance to the emperor, receive from 
 his hand the regalia, and do homage for them ; that the 
 emperor shall no longer confer the regalia by the ceremony 
 of the ring and crosier, which are the ensigns of a spiritual 
 dignity ; but by that of the sceptre, as more proper to 
 invest the person elected, in the possession of rights and 
 privileges merely temporal." Thus ended one of the most 
 bloody quarrels that ever desolated Christendom. The 
 manner of the election of popes remained unsettled, and o? 
 
 E 
 
60 DEATH OF HENRY V. OF GEEMANr. 
 
 the death of Calixtus II. (1124), two were again elected,— 
 Ccelestine and Honorius II. ; but the former voluntarily 
 resigned. Henry V. died at Utrecht (1125). He was a 
 wise, politic, and resolute prince. In 1110 he had married 
 Maud, or Matilda, daughter of Henry I., king of England, 
 hj whom he had no children, so that the empire was left 
 without a head. 
 
 Letter 23. — England, from the Battle of Hastings to the Death of 
 Henry I. A.D. 1066—1135. Vol. i., pages 106—121. 
 
 § 72. Immediately after the battle of Hastings, William 
 marched towards London. A repulse, which a party of 
 Londoners received from five hundred Norman horse, the 
 easy submission of the inhabitants of Kent, and the 
 burning of Southwark, all served to increase the terror of 
 the defeat at Hastings. Stigand, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 met William at Berkhamstead, and made submission to 
 him ; and before he reached London the principal nobles, 
 with Edgar Atheling, the rightful heir to the crown, declared 
 their intention of yielding to his authority. William was 
 accordingly crowned in Westminster Abbey, in presence of 
 many of both the English and Norman nobility and gentry ; 
 and everything wore the appearance of peace and tran- 
 quillity. Although William restored to most of the Enghsh 
 nobles their lands and dignities, and confirmed the liberties 
 and immunities of London and other cities of England, yet 
 he took care to place all real power in the hands of the 
 Normans. He everywhere disarmed the iuhabitants, built 
 fortresses in the principal cities, bestowed the forfeited 
 estates upon his most powerful leaders, and established funds 
 for the payment of his troops. Having thus secured pos- 
 session of the kingdom, he ventured to visit Normandy. 
 
 § 73. During William's absence the English nobility and 
 gentry revolted, and although he pardoned those that after- 
 wards submitted to his mercy, public discontents increased. 
 Edwin and Morcar, the potent earls of Mercia and North- 
 umberland, having entered into a league with Blethin, 
 prince of North Wales ; Malcolm, king of Scotland ; and 
 Sweyn, king of Denmark ; attempted to shake off the Nor- 
 man yoke (1068). William disconcerted all the plans of 
 the hostile chieftains by marching upon York before they 
 were prepared for action, and they accordingly submitted 
 to his clemency. The chiefs were pardoned, but their ad- 
 herents were treated with great rigour, and forfeitures and 
 
WILLIAM'S POLICY. 51 
 
 confiscations ensued. Many Englishmen fled into foreign 
 countries, and Edgar Atheling himself, though caressed by 
 ■William, escaped into Scotland, carrying thither his two 
 sisters, Margaret and Christina. The sons of Harold, 
 Godwin, Edmund, and Magnus, who had taken refuge in 
 Ireland, assembled an army and landed in Devonshire, but, 
 after several encounters, were compelled to re-embark 
 (1069). In spite of the failure of this enterprise, all the 
 north of England was soon in arms. The Norman governors 
 of Tork and Durham were slain, a Danish army landed, 
 and Edgar Atheling appeared from Scotland. Tork was 
 burnt, and the Norman garrison put to the sword; but 
 William succeeded in detaching the Danes from the cause, 
 and thus quelled the insurrection. Although many of the 
 nobility were pardoned, William showed no favour towards 
 the English as a people. He ordered the fertile country 
 between the Humber and the Tees to be laid waste, and thus 
 sacrificed the lives of a hundred thousand of the inhabitants. 
 Castles, manors, and estates were confiscated and given to 
 Norman adventurers ; the English nobles were treated with 
 ignominy and contempt, and excluded from every road that 
 led to riches or preferment. 
 
 § 74. Power naturally follows property. This change 
 of landholders alone gave great security to the Norman 
 government, which WiUiam strengthened by new institu- 
 tions. He introduced the feudal polity, which he found 
 established in France and Normandy. The lands of Eng- 
 land, with but few exceptions, he divided into baronies, and 
 these he conferred upon hia followers. The barons, who 
 held immediately of the crown, assigned parts of their 
 lands to other foreigners, denominated knights or vassals, 
 and who paid their lord the same duty and submission, in 
 peace and war, which he owed to his sovereign. Not many 
 of the native English were admitted into the first rank ; 
 the few who retained any landed property were therefore 
 glad to be received into the second, and, under the protec- 
 tion of some powerful Norman, to load themselves and their 
 posterity with a grievous servitude for their estates. His 
 next regulations affected the church. He deposed Stigand 
 (1070) and several other English bishops, by the aid of 
 Ermenfroy, the pope's legate, and it became a fixed maxim 
 of this and subsequent reigns, that no native should ever 
 be advanced to any dignity — ecclesiastical, civil, or military. 
 Lanfranc, a Milanese monk, was promoted to the see of Can- 
 E 2 
 
52 DEATH OP WILLIAM I. 
 
 terbury, yet William did not permit Eome to eneroacli upon 
 the royal" prerogative. When the imperious Gregory TIL 
 required him to do homage, William bluntly refused, 
 although he promised that Peter's Pence, a charitable dona- 
 tion of the Saxon princes, should be paid to the court of Eome 
 as usual. The French tongue was at the same time intro- 
 duced into the courts of judicature, the schools, and social 
 circles of England; and to this we owe the great mixture of 
 French still to be found in our language. 
 
 § 75. William next quelled some disorders on the con- 
 tinent, and passed some time in Normandy, where his eldest 
 son, Robert, openly aspired to independence, demanding 
 immediate possession of Normandy and Maine (1076). 
 B/obert was defeated, and a reconciliation effected between 
 lather and son (1079). Peace enabled William to finish an 
 undertaking that does honour to his memory. It was a 
 general survey of all the lands of England ; their extent in 
 each district, their proprietors, tenures, value ; the quantity 
 of meadow, pasture, wood, and arable land, which they con- 
 tained; and,in some counties, the number of tenants, cottagers, 
 and slaves of all denominations (1080 — 1086). This valu- 
 able piece of antiquity, called the Domesday Book, is still 
 preserved in the Exchequer, and enables us to form an idea 
 of the ancient state of England. William was fond of 
 hunting, and caused the New Eorest in Hampshire to be laid 
 out. Hereward, the Anglo-Saxon warrior, gave William 
 great trouble, and set the king at defiance in his stronghold 
 n the island of Ely. This hero was celebrated in the 
 Anglo-Saxon, and even Norman, popular songs of the time, 
 and William at last purchased his friendship by a treaty of 
 peace. In this reign the ecclesiastical courts were first 
 raised into a separate branch of judicature, although the 
 crown still retained the superior authority. His death was 
 occasioned by a stupid quarrel. Philip I. of France, hear- 
 ing of an illness that kept William in bed for some time, 
 said, referring to his increasing corpulency, that he was 
 surprised his brother of England should take so long a time 
 to be delivered of his big belly. On his recovery, William 
 laid the kingdom waste with fire and sword. His progress 
 was arrested by an accident. As he was entering Mant«, his 
 horse plunged suddenly, and threw him against the pommel 
 of the saddle. The bruise, in consequence of his former 
 bad habit of body, brought on mortification, of which he 
 died at a monastery near Eouen, in his sixty-third year 
 
Vi^ILLIAM II. 53 
 
 (1087). The spirit of William I., says a philosophical his- 
 torian, was bold and enterprising, yet guided by prudence ; 
 and his exorbitant ambition, which lay little under the 
 restraints of justice, and still less under those of humanity, 
 ever submitted to the dictates of reason and sound policy. 
 
 § 76. WiUiam II., surnamed Eufus, or the Eed, on account 
 of the colour of his hair, succeeded to the crown of England, 
 according to the dying commands of his father, while his 
 eldest brother, Eobert, took peaceable possession of Nor- 
 mandy. A rebellion broke out in England, which "William 
 quelled by the assistance of the native English (1088). 
 William first made war upon his brother Eobert (1090), 
 and then united with Eobert against their brother Prince 
 Henry, who retired to St. Michael's Mount, but was finally 
 compelled to capitulate (1091) . Civil wars and commotions, 
 many of them stirred up by his uncle Odo, a turbulent 
 churchman, who aspired at the papacy, occupied much of 
 William the Second's attention, from which he was in 
 some measure relieved by the first crusade. His brother 
 Eobert embarked in this enterprise, having first mortgaged 
 his dominions to William for ten thousand marks. Poitiers 
 and Guienne were offered to him upon the same terras, when 
 accident deprived him of life. He prepared a fleet and an 
 army to escort the stipulated price, and to secure the 
 possession of the prize. Before setting sail, he went to 
 bunt in the New Forest, attended by Walter Tyrrell, a 
 French knight. The latter fired suddenly at a stag, when 
 the arrow, glancing against a tree, struck the king to the 
 heart (1100). Without informing any one of the accident, 
 Tyrrell put spurs to his horse, hastened to the seashore, and 
 joined the crusade. William, though possessed of sound 
 understanding, appears to have been violent and tyrannical. 
 He was a perfidious, encroaching, and dangerous neighbour, 
 and an unkind and ungenerous relation. He built the 
 Tower and Westminster Hall. In his reign the Danes 
 made their last attempt upon England, and Anselm obtained 
 the see of Canterbury, and became involved in disputes 
 with the king. 
 
 § 77. As William II. was never married, England be- 
 longed by right to his elder brother Eobert, but Prince 
 Henry seized upon the crown. To conciliate the nobles, he 
 promised to remedy many grievous oppressions, to continue 
 the laws of Edward the Confessor ; and in order to establish 
 himself more firmly upon the throne, he recalled Anselm, 
 
54 DEATH OF HENRY I. 
 
 who had been deprived of the primacy by "William II., and 
 married Matilda, niece to Edgar Atheling, and grand- 
 daughter of Edmund Ironside, the rightful heir to the 
 crown. Eobert returned suddenly from the Holy Land, 
 and invaded England ; but through the exertions of An- 
 selra a reconciliation was effected between the brothers, 
 Henry agreeing to pay an annual pension of three thousand 
 marks, while Eobert renounced his pretensions to the 
 English crown (1101). These conditions being broken, 
 Eobert ventured imprudently into England, was badly 
 received, and lost his pension (1103). He was afterwards 
 seized and brought to England (1106) ; kept a prisoner in 
 Cardiff Castle, Glamorganshire, where he died in 1134. 
 Eobert's son, William, supported by the king of France, 
 and the counts of Anjou and Elanders, contested the duchy 
 of Normandy with Henry, but was defeated (1119). The 
 death of his only son William, who perished from shipwreck, 
 on his return from Normandy, embittered the remaining 
 years of Henry's life (Nov. 26, 1120). He died in Nor- 
 mandy, where he had latterly resided, in 1135, leaving his 
 daughter Matilda, widow of the emperor Henry V., heiress 
 of all his dominions. Henry was one of the most able and 
 accomplished princes that ever filled the English throne, 
 and his learning procured him the surname of Beauelero. 
 
 § 78. Under William I. the old Anglo-Saxon form of 
 government was entirely changed. Eor this he substituted 
 a rigid feudal monarchy, or military aristocracy, in which a 
 regular chain of subordination and service was estabhshed ; 
 and which, like all feudal governments, was attended with a 
 grievous depression of the body of the people, who became 
 mere vassals of the nobles, from whose oppressive jurisdic- 
 tion it was both difficult and dangerous for them to appeal. 
 William I., by his artful and tyrannical policy, by attainders 
 and confiscations, became proprietor of nearly all the lands 
 in the kingdom, which he bestowed upon his Norman 
 followers. The defects in the title of William II. and 
 Henry I. induced them to listen to the complaints of their 
 English subjects, and to redress some of their grievances. 
 Thus restored to a share in the legislature, the English 
 commonalty felt more fully their own importance, and, by a 
 long and vigorous struggle, they finally wrested from the 
 king and the nobles, all the other rights of a free people, of 
 which their Anglo-Saxon ancestors had been robbed by the 
 violent invasion and cruel policy of William the Norman, . 
 
THE FIRST CRUSADE. 55 
 
 Letter 24.— France, under Philip I. and Louis TI., with some account 
 ot the First Crusade. A.D. 1060—1137. Vol. i., pages 121—126. 
 
 § 79. Philip I. had been perfectly well educated, was 
 not by any means deficient in capacity, but he always pre- 
 ferred his interests or his inclinations to his honour. For 
 marrying Bertrade of Montford, duchess of Anjou, while 
 her husband and his own queen were alive, he was excom- 
 municated by TJrban II. Gregory VII., among other vast 
 ideas, had formed the project of uniting the western Chris- 
 tians against the Mahometans, and of recovering Palestine 
 from the hands of the infidels ; but his quarrels with the 
 emperor Henry IV. impeded the progress of the scheme. 
 A fanatical monk, commonly known by the name of Peter 
 the Hermit, a native of Amiens, in Picardy, revived the 
 project of Gregory VII. He had made the pilgrimage to 
 Jerusalem (1094), and was so deeply affected with the 
 dangers to which the Christian pilgrims were exposed, that, 
 on his return, he hastened from province to province, with 
 a crucifix in his hand, exciting both princes and people to 
 this holy war (1095). Urban II. at first hesitated, doubt- 
 ful of the success of the project, but at last entered into 
 Peter's views, summoned a council at Placentia (1095), and 
 another the same year at Clermont. At the latter, the 
 whole assembly with one voice exclaimed, " It is the will of 
 God." A ^ed Gross was ordered to be used on the sacred 
 standard, and to be affixed to the right shoulder of the 
 combatants, whence their expedition obtained the name of a 
 crusade?' 
 
 " As much difference of opinion exists with reference to the crusades, 
 the editor, with a view to assist the student and inquirer, ha« drawn 
 up the following summary, based upon Michaud's work ; — 
 
 The first crusade was preached by Peter the Hemrit, and finally 
 determined upon at the council of Clermont, convoked by TJrban II., 
 in 1095. Four roving bands, numbering about 200,000 pilgrims, under 
 the leadership of Peter the Hermit, departed for the Holy Land in 1096, 
 passing through Bulgaria. They committed great excesses, and but few 
 of them reached their destination. Godfrey of Bouillon took the com- 
 mand of the military force, and speedily conquered Palestine. Jerusalem 
 was captured July 15, 1099, when Godfrey of Bouillon was elected king, 
 and several Christian kingdoms were founded in the Holy Land. Tasso 
 made this crusade the subject of the "Jerusalem Delivered." Godfrey 
 died in 1100, and his brother Baldwin was elected as his successor. 
 
 The second crusade was advocated by Eugenius III., preached by 
 St. Bernard, and deci<led upon at the council of Vezelay, in 1146. The 
 taking of Edessa by the Saracens, and the critical state of a&irs among 
 the Christians in Palestine, led to this enterprise. Louis VII. of 
 
56 FIRST CRUSADE. . 
 
 § 80. Persons of all ranks took up arms with alacrity, 
 and even women, eoncealiug their sex beneath the disguise 
 of armour, joined the throng. The number of adventurers 
 became so great, that the more experienced leaders grew 
 apprehensive lest the size of the armament should defeat its 
 
 Trance, and Conrad III. of Germany, embarked in this crusade (1147), 
 which was altogether unsuccessful, and these sovereigns prepared 
 to quit Palestine in 1148. Another party of crusaders joined the 
 Spaniards against the Moors, and delivered Lisbon (1147), while Hemy 
 of Saxony led another band against the Slaves. 
 
 In 1180 Alexander III. endeavoured to arouse the sovereigns of 
 Europe to undertake a third crusade. It was preached in France in 
 1185, and disastrous news from the East induced Clement III. to nrge 
 it more seriously in 1188. Frederic Barbarossa set off with his amiy 
 in 1189, obtained some success, and was drowned in the followingyear. 
 Richard I. of England, and Philip Augustus of France, departed for 
 the Holy Land in 1192. Having won several victories, Richard con- 
 cluded a treaty with Saladin in 1192, and was seized and imprisoned^ 
 in passing homewards through Germany, by the archduke of Austria. 
 Milman says, "If possible, this crusade was even more disastrous, 
 achieved less, and suffered more, than all before." 
 
 Ccelestine III. caused the fourth cmsade to be preached. The 
 emperor Henry VI. held a diet at Worms, and embarked in it (1196), 
 but attempted first the conquest of Naples and Sicily, and died at 
 Messina in 1197. After his death, divisions broke out among the 
 Christian leaders, and this crusade terminated without securing the 
 enfranchisement of Palestine. 
 
 The fifth crusade was set on foot by Innocent III., and Boniface of 
 Montferrat was chosen commander in 1202. They took Constantinople 
 (1203), made Baldwin, count of Flanders, emperor (1203), and thus 
 restored the Latin empire in the East. 
 
 Iimocent III., at his death Honorius III., and afterwards Gregory 
 IX., urged the sixth crusade ; and after many delays Frederic II. 
 of Germany embarked (1227) for Palestine, but was compelled by sick- 
 ness to return. He set sail again in 1228, and reached Palestine, but 
 divisions still prevailed among the Christians, and this crusade termi- 
 nated disastrously. 
 
 The rapid progress of the Tartars aroused Europe to the seventh 
 crusade. Innocent IV. decided upon it at the council of Lyons (1245), 
 and Louis IX. of France joined the expedition in 1248, and remained 
 in Palestine until 1254 without accomplishing any good results. 
 
 The eighth crusade was projected by Louis IX. (1267), and supported 
 by Clement IV. The Greek empire had been restored in 1261, and 
 the cause of the Christians greatly declined. In 1270 Louis landed in 
 Africa, and died there soon after. Thereupon Charles of Anjou took 
 the command. In this crusade Prince Edward, afterwards king of 
 England, greatly distinguished himself. The Turks expelled the 
 Christians from all the Christian cities along the coast of Palestine, and 
 in 1453 established themselves at Constantinople. Several attempts 
 were made in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries to organize a 
 crusade for the purpose of expelling the Turks from Constantinople, 
 but nothing of any consequence was effected. 
 
CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM:. S7 
 
 object. They therefore permitted an undisciplined multitude, 
 computed at 300,000, to go before, under the command of 
 Peter the Hermit and a knight called Walter the Money- 
 less (1096). These roving bands proceeded through Hun- 
 gary and Bulgaria, followed by Godescald, a G-erman priest, 
 with other levies. In order to supply their numerous 
 necessities, they fell first upon the Jews, and then upon, 
 the other inhabitants of the countries through which they ' 
 passed. The Hermit and the remnant of his army, con- 
 sisting of about twenty thousand starving wretches, reached 
 Constantinople, and being joined by German and Italian 
 vagabonds, committed great excesses. Having been trans- 
 ported by the aid of the Greek empero?, Alexius Comnenus, 
 into Asia, the sultan of Nice* fell upon the disorderly 
 crowd, and slaughtered immense numbers. Peter the Hermit 
 managed to get back to Constantinople, where he was re- 
 garded as a maniac (1096). 
 
 § 81. In the mean time the more disciplined armies had 
 arrived at the imperial city, and were safely transported into 
 Asia. The soldiers of the cross, said to have amounted to 
 the incredible number of 100,000 horsemen and 600,000 
 foot, were equal to the conquest of Asia, had they been 
 united under one head, or commanded by leaders that 
 observed any concert in their operations. The division of 
 their commanders impaired their strength, although their 
 zeal, their bravery, and their irresistible force still carried 
 them forward. They took Nice (1097), and made them- 
 selves masters of Antioch (1098), and entirely broke the 
 strength of the Turks, who had so long tyrannized over the 
 Arabs. The caliph of Egypt thereupon recovered the 
 authority over the caliphs of Jerusalem, and offered to treat 
 with the Christians, but they demanded the unconditional 
 surrender of the Holy City. They captured it by assault 
 five weeks after commencing the siege, when the most 
 atrocious cruelties were practised (1099). Godfrey of 
 Bouillon was chosen king of Jerusalem, and other Christian 
 princes settled in their new conquests. Urban II. and the 
 queen of France died in the same year, whereupon Philip I., 
 who had continued to live with the countess of Anjou, was 
 absolved by the new pope from the sentence of excommuni- 
 cation. In 1100 he associated his son Louis with him in 
 the government, and this young prince endeavoured to bring 
 
 ° This city, so celebrated in the middle ages, was called Niosea. It 
 was the capital of Bithynia. 
 
58 TROUBLES IN ITALY. 
 
 the unruly nobles under subjection. Philip died in the 
 habit of a Benedictine monk, in 1108. 
 
 § 82. Louis VI., called le Oros, from the great size he 
 attained in the latter part of his life, was thirty years old 
 when he succeeded to the throne of France. !Por more than 
 eleven years he waged a war with Henry I. of England, in 
 which many battles were fought with various results. On 
 the conclusion of peace in 1120, Louis devoted his attention 
 to the internal policy of his kingdom, and effected many 
 judicious reforms that tended to the restoration of tran- 
 quillity. Palling suddenly ill, he associated first his son 
 Philip, and at his death, which happened soon after, Louis, 
 with him in the government ; and although he recovered, he 
 would never after use any of the ensigns of royalty. This 
 monarch died in 1137. He was the first to make use of the 
 oriflamme as a royal standard, in his war against Henry I, of 
 England, in 1124. Historians agree that a better man never 
 graced the throne of Prance ; and with the addition of 
 certain qualities he might have made a better king. 
 
 Lbttbb 25. — The German Empire and ita Dependencies, from the Death 
 of Henry V. to the Election of Frederic I., surnamed Barbarossa. 
 A.D. 1] 25— 1152. Vol. i., pages 126—128. 
 
 § 83. As Henry Y. of Germany left no issue, the 
 German states elected Lothaire, duke of Saxony, who was 
 crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, in presence of the pope's 
 nuncio (1125). Lothaire II. compelled the Bohemians to 
 sue for peace, and do homage; and afterwards marched 
 into Italy, to re-establish Innocent II., the successor of 
 Honorius II., in the papal chair, from which he had been 
 expelled by one Cardinal Leonis, made pope under the title 
 of Anacletus II. (1130). Lothaire entered Eome at the 
 head of his army (1132), defeated the anti-pope, and was 
 solemnly crowned by the pope whom he had restored 
 (1133), and then returned into Germany, where he intro- 
 duced the code of Justinian. In the mean time, the king of 
 Sicily espoused the cause of the anti-pope, Anacletus II., 
 and Innocent II. was constrained once more to appeal to 
 Lothaire, who speedily rushed to his aid and re-established 
 his authority (1137). On his way back to Germany, 
 Lothaire was seized with a dangerous distemper, which 
 carried him off (1137). This prince was distinguished by 
 a passionate love of peace, and an exact attention to the 
 administration of public justice. 
 
GUELFS AND GHIBELINS. 59 
 
 § 84. The duke of Franconia, nephew to Henry V., was 
 elected emperor, under the title of Conrad III.; but the 
 imperial dignity was disputed by Henry the Haughty, duke 
 of Bavaria, whose family name was Guelf, an appellation 
 afterwards bestowed upon the enemies of the emperor. 
 Henry the Haughty died during the contest, which was 
 afterwards carried on by members of his family (1139). The 
 imperial army was commanded by Erederic, duke of Swabia, 
 the emperor's brother ; and as he was bom at Wibelung, in 
 Pranconia, the epithet Ghibelins was bestowed upon his 
 party .^ Guelf and his principal followers were besieged in 
 the castle of Weinsberg, and were obliged to surrender at dis- 
 cretion. The emperor granted the duke and his chief officers 
 permission to retire unmolested ; but the duchess, suspect- 
 ing Conrad, begged that she and the other women in the 
 castle might be allowed to come out with as much as each 
 of them could carry, to be conducted to a place of safety. 
 The request was granted, and, to the surprise of the emperor 
 and his army, the duchess and her fair companions staggered 
 forth each carrying her husband. Conrad was affected to 
 tears, and an accommodation with Guelf and his adherents 
 was the consequence of this act of female heroism (1140). 
 A revolt broke out at Eome in 1145, the people being 
 desirous of abolishing the temporal power of the pope. 
 Lucius II. was killed in the tumult, but it was suppressed 
 by his successor Eugenius III. (1146), who supported 
 the second crusade. Conrad died in 1152 ; his son, Prince 
 Henry, who had been named his successor, dying the year 
 before, his nephew, Frederic Barbarossa, was unanimously 
 elected at the diet of Frankfort. 
 
 Lettek 26. — France, under Louis VII., till the Divorce of Queen 
 Eleanor, with some account of the Second Crusade, a.d. 1137 — 
 1152. Vol. i., pages 128—130. 
 
 § 85. Louis VII., surnamed le Jeune, soon found him- 
 self involved in one of those civil wars which the feudal 
 government rendered unavoidable ; and having, in an expe- 
 
 * Although these names originated in Germany, as described above, 
 they were, about the beginning of the thirteenth century, transferred 
 to the factions that divided Italy. During the numerous conflicts that 
 ensued between the emperors and the popes, the adherents of the former 
 were called Ghibelins, and those of the latter, GueUs. The influence of 
 the Ghibelins declined towards the end of the thirteenth century, but it 
 afterwards revived. These names were still used as party distinctions 
 throughout the fifteenth century. 
 
60 SECOND CEUSADE. 
 
 dition into Champagne, .taken Vitri, he ordered it to be 
 set on fire (1143). Thirteen hundred persons, who sought 
 refuge in a church, perished in the flames, and this made a 
 deep impression upon the young king's mind, and prepared 
 the way for a second crusade. The power of the Christians 
 in the iEast gradually declined, the little kingdom of Edessa 
 had been taken by the Turks (1141), and Jerusalem itself 
 was threatened ; Bugenius III; sent Bernard, abbot of Clair- 
 veaux, to preach the second crusade. Although Suger, 
 abbot of St. Denis, then prime minister, endeavoured to 
 dissuade Louis VII. from embarking in the holy war, the 
 monarch determined upon going. Bernard preached the 
 crusade with equal success in Grermany, where thousands 
 flocked to the sacred standard. The emperor of Germany 
 and the king of France did not unite their forces, and the 
 army of the former was drawn among the rocks, and cut to 
 pieces ; Conrad went to Antioch, and thence to Jerusalem, 
 as a pilgrim (1148). Louis fell into a similar snare, and 
 lost his army. His wife Eleanor was suspected of an amour 
 with the prince of Antioch, at whose court her husband had 
 taken refuge. Soon after his return, Louis annulled his 
 marriage, and Eleanor espoused Henry Plantagenet, duke of 
 Normandy, count of Anjou and Maine, and heir presumptive 
 to the crown of England (1152). 
 
 Letter 27. — England, from the Death of Henry I. to the Accession 
 of Henry I [. A.D. 1135—1154. Vol. l, pages 130—132. 
 
 § 86. The feudal barons did not favour female succession, 
 so Matilda, daughter of Henry I., was set aside, and Stephen, 
 count of Boulogne, grandson of the Conqueror, called to the 
 throne. The earlier years of his reign were spent amidst 
 the struggles and confusion of civil war, and in 1141 this 
 monarch was made prisoner ; but being soon after exchanged 
 for Matilda's brother, the war burst out again with renewed 
 violence. In 1152, Matilda's son, Henry Plantagenet, 
 married Eleanor, whom Louis VII. of Trance had divorced. 
 This brought him great accession of power, and he imme- 
 diately invaded England. Stephen prepared to resist, but 
 the leaders on both sides interfered, a treaty was concluded 
 at Winchester (1153), by which it was agi-eed that at 
 Stephen's death Henry should succeed to the kingdom of 
 England, and William, Stephen's son, to Boulogne and his 
 patrimonial estate. The Scotch, under David I., having 
 invaded England, were defeated with great slaughter at the 
 
ENGLISH AFFAIRS. 61 
 
 battle of the Standard, fought near Northallerton, in York- 
 shire (1138). It was so called from a high crucifix erected 
 by the English on a waggon, and carried along with them 
 as a military ensign. During this reign the canon law was 
 introduced into England (1140) ; and on the refusal of 
 Ejng Stephen to send bishops to the council of Eheims 
 (1148), the kingdom was laid under an interdict. Stephen 
 died in 1154. This prince is generally allowed to have pos- 
 sessed industry, activity, and courage to a great degree; 
 and had he succeeded by a just title, would have been 
 well qualified to promote the happiness and the prosperity 
 of his subjects. 
 
 Lettes 28. — England during the Eeign of Henry II., with an account 
 of the affairs of France. A.D. 1154— 1189. Vol. i., pages 132— 142. 
 
 § 87. The French monarchs naturally regarded with 
 jealousy the increasing power of England on the continent, 
 and, in order to resist it, Louis VII. maintained a strict 
 union with Stephen. The sudden death of this ruler ren- 
 dered abortive all his schemes. Henry was received with 
 acclamation ; he began his reign by re-establishing justice 
 and good order, and voluntarily confirmed that charter of 
 liberties which had been granted by his grandfather Henry I. 
 The "Welsh at first gave the new monarch much trouble, and 
 when he had reduced them to obedience (1157), a quarrel 
 broke out between him and Louis VII., relative to the 
 county of Toulouse. The pope interfered, and the quarrel 
 was settled amicably (1161). In this war Henry levied 
 upon his vassals in Normandy, and other provinces remote 
 from the scene of hostilities, a sum of money, in lieu of their 
 service. This was called scutage, and each knight's fee was 
 three pounds. Henry next turned his attention to the 
 church, in which abuses of every kind prevailed. The clergy, 
 among other inventions to obtain money, had inculcated the 
 necessity of penance as an atonement for. sin ; they had also 
 introduced the practice of paying large sums of money as a 
 composition for such penances. The king computed that 
 by this invention alone the priests levied more money from 
 his subjects than flowed into the royal treasury. Henry 
 ordered that a civil officer should in future be present in all 
 ecclesiastical courts, whose consent should be necessary to 
 every composition made for spiritual offences. The eccle- 
 siastics openly claimed exemption, declaring that they were 
 above the law. Determined to carry out this reform, Henry 
 
62 STETJGGLE WITH THE CHUECH. 
 
 raised Ttomas a Becket, his chancellor, to the see of Can- 
 terbury (1162). Becket was well acquainted with the king's 
 intention of retrenching, or rather confining within ancient 
 bounds, all ecclesiastical privileges, and he was no sooner 
 installed in the see of Canterbury, than he abandoned his 
 sumptuous style of living, and became a rigid ascetic. He 
 wore sackcloth next his skin, which he changed so seldom 
 that it was filled with dirt and vermin ; he tore his back 
 with the frequent discipline which he inflicted upon it, and 
 be daily washed the feet of thirteen beggars, whom he 
 afterwards dismissed with presents. 
 
 § 88. This champion of the Church endeavoured to over- 
 awe his sovereign by the boldness and intrepidity of his 
 measures ; Henry, however, determined to effect the desired 
 reformation, and an event soon brought matters to a crisis. 
 A clergyman in "Worcestershire, having seduced a gentle- 
 man's daughter, murdered the father ; and Henry insisted 
 that the murderer should be brought before the civil magis- 
 trate, while Becket maintained that no greater punishment 
 than degradation should be inflicted (1163). Henry sum- 
 moned an assembly of all the prelates of England, put to 
 them this question, " Are you willing or not to submit to 
 the ancient laws of the kingdom?" Their answer being 
 equivocal, Henry convoked a general council of barons and 
 prelates, at Clarendon (1164). The famous Constitutions 
 of Clarendon were voted without opposition. They provided 
 that no one holding under the crown should be excommuni- 
 cated, or have his lands put under an interdict, without the 
 king's consent ; that appeals in spiritual cases should not 
 be carried to Eome ; that no clergyman should be allowed 
 to leave the kingdom without the king's consent ; that lay- 
 men should not be accused in spiritual courts, except by 
 legal and reputable promoters and witnesses ; and that eccle- 
 siastics, accused of any crime, should be tried in the civil 
 courts. The articles were reduced to writing, and accepted 
 by Becket and the prelates. He set his seal to them, pro- 
 mised legally, with good faith, and without fraud or reserve, 
 to obey them, and even took an oath to that effect. Henry 
 forwarded them to Alexander III. to be ratified. The pope, 
 perceiving that they clearly established the independence of 
 England, abrogated, annulled, and rejected them. There- 
 upon Becket sought to obtain absolution, and the king, not 
 to be defied with impunity, summoned Becket to give an 
 account of his administration while chancellor, and to pay 
 
BECKET KILLED. 63 
 
 the balance due from the revenues of all the prelacies, 
 abbeys, and baronies, which had been subject to his 
 management during that time. 
 
 § 89. Becket withdrew into France, appealed to the pope, 
 and sought the protection of the king of France. The exiled 
 primate filled Europe with his complaints. He issued a 
 censure against the king's ministers, abrogated and annulled 
 the Constitutions of Clarendon, absolving all persons from 
 the oaths which they had taken to observe them (1165). 
 Henry employed the temporal weapons • still in his power. 
 He suspended the payment of Peter's Pence, and made some 
 advances towards an alliance with the emperor, Frederic 
 Barbarossa, who was then at war with the pope. Both 
 parties grew sick of contention, and several conferences were 
 set on foot, which did not, however, lead to an accommoda- 
 tion. All difficulties were at last got over, aad Becket was 
 permitted to return on conditions both honourable and 
 advantageous (1170). Elated by the victory which he had 
 obtained over his sovereign, this insolent prelate set no 
 bounds to his arrogance. He suspended the archbishop of 
 York, and excommunicated the bishops of London and 
 Salisbury, for having assisted at the coronation of Prince 
 Henry, whom the king had associated with him in the 
 royalty. These prelates waited upon the king at Bayeux, 
 in Normandy, when some hasty words uttered by him in- 
 duced four gentlemen of his household to set out, in order 
 to revenge their sovereign's quarrel. They fell upon Becket 
 in the cathedral at Canterbury, and assassinated him durino' 
 the service, on the 29th of December, 1170. Instead of 
 acting with becoming vigour, Henry betrayed the greatest 
 consternation on hearing of this sad affair. Afraid of inter- 
 dicts and excommunications, he sent a solemn embassy to 
 Eome, maintaining his innocence, and offering to submit the 
 whole affair to the decision of the Holy See. The pope, who 
 did not sit very firmly upon the papal chair, forbore to 
 proceed to extremities against Henry. Becket suddenly 
 became a saint, numerous miracles were wrought by his 
 relics, and his shrine not only restored dead men to life, but 
 even cows, dogs, and horses. It is computed that above a 
 hundred thousand pilgrims, in one year, paid their devotions 
 at his tomb. 
 
 § 90. Henry next undertook the conquest of Ireland, for 
 whicli enterprise he had many years before obtained a bull 
 from Pope Adrian IV. This island was peopled from 
 
U CONQUEST OF IRELAND. 
 
 Britain, as Britain had been from Gaul, and the first iuha- 
 bitants were of Celtic origin. The Danes had overrun the 
 country, subverted the central power, and the island had in 
 consequence become divided into a number of small princi- 
 palities. The uncertain succession of the Irish princes waa 
 a continual source of domestic convulsion. Henry made a 
 progress through the island, received the homage of these 
 petty rulers, and annexed Ireland to the English crown 
 (1171 — 1173). The pope sent two legates, Albert and 
 Theodin, to investigate Henry's conduct in regard to the 
 death of Becket ; and the king came to an accommodation 
 with them on easier 'terms than might have been expected. 
 He promised to serve three years against the infidels, in case 
 the pope should require it ; and he agreed to permit appeals 
 to the Holy See, in ecclesiastical causes, on a pledge being 
 given that nothing should be attempted against the rights 
 of his crown (1173). Henry seemed to have reached the 
 pinnacle of human grandeur and felicity, when his children, 
 supported by the king of Prance and other continental 
 princes, rebelled against his authority. He appealed to the 
 court of Rome, and Alexander III. issued bulls against his 
 foes. The king went barefoot to Becket's tomb, remained 
 there fasting and praying, submitted to be scourged, 
 and the next day received absolution (1174). A victory 
 over the Scots was gained the same day by his generals, and 
 the rebels deemed it impious to resist any longer a prince 
 who seemed to enjoy the immediate protection of Heaven. 
 Victorious on all sides, and absolute master of his English 
 dominions, Henry hastened over to Normandy, where a 
 peace was concluded with Louis, and an accommodation 
 made with his sons. 
 
 § 91. Por some years Henry occupied himself with the 
 administration of justice,- and reforming the political insti- 
 tutions of the age. He endeavoured to maintain the Con- 
 stitutions of Clarendon, making certain necessary alterations. 
 He also passed a law that the goods of a vassal should not 
 be seized for the debt of his lord, unless the vassal had be- 
 come surety for the debt ; and that, in cases of insolvency, 
 the rents of vassals should be paid to the creditors of the 
 lord, not to the lord himself. This prince also divided Eng- 
 land into six circuits, and ordered judges, after the example 
 of the commissaries of Louis VI. and the missi of Charle- 
 magne, to go and decide causes (1177). Henry also puh- 
 lished a famous decree, called an Assize of arms, by which all 
 
DEATH OF HENRY II. 6S 
 
 his subjects were compelled to defend the realm. In 1179 
 Louis VII., king of France, made a pilgrimage to Becket's 
 shrine, and died the next year ; whereupon his son, Philip II., 
 surnamed Augustus, succeeded to the throne. Philip for 
 some time abetted Henry's sons in their unnatural rebellion, 
 but their rivalship seemed for a time to give place to the 
 general passion for the relief of the Holy Land. Both assumed 
 the cross, and imposed a tax, amounting to the tenth of all 
 movables, on such of their subjects as remained at home 
 (1188). Prince Henry, the king's eldest son, died without 
 issue, in 1183, and his third son, Geoffrey, was killed in a 
 tournament at Paris, in 1185 ; and in 1188 Philip II. of 
 France induced Prince Eichard, heir-apparent to the English 
 crown, to rebel against his father's authority. This led to a 
 war between Prance and England, in which Henry was un- 
 successful, and made a peace. Broken-hearted at the undu- 
 tiful conduct of liis children, he died soon after, in the fifty- 
 eighth year of his age, at the castle of Chinon (1189). The 
 character of Henry, both in public and private life, is almost 
 without a blemish ; and his natural endowments were equal 
 to his moral qualities. He possessed every mental and per- 
 sonal accomplishment which can make a man either esti^ 
 mable or amiable. Like most of his predecessors of the 
 Norman line, he spent more of his time on the continent than 
 in England. The English nobility went with him abroad, and 
 the French nobility visited the island in his train ; so that 
 all foreign improvements seem by this time to have been 
 transplanted into England. 
 
 Letter 29, — The German Erapire and its DependeneSes, under Fre- 
 deric I., surnamed Barbarossa, with some account of the Third 
 Crusade. A. D. 1152-1190. Vol. i., pages 143— 147. 
 
 § 92. Frederic I. had no sooner settled the affairs of 
 Germany than he marched into Italy, to quell disturb- 
 ances, and to be crowned by the pope, in imitation of his 
 predecessors (1154). In that very year Nicholas Break- 
 spear, the only Englishman that ever filled the papal chair, 
 had been elected pope, under the title of Adrian IV. The 
 emperor at first refused to submit to the Roman ceremonial, 
 which required him to prostrate himself before the pontiff, 
 kiss his feet, hold his stirrup, and lead his white palfrey by 
 the bridle the distance of nine Eoman paces ; but at length 
 went through these ceremonies, and was crowned at Eome 
 (1155). On his return to Germany a tumult broke out at 
 
 r 
 
66 WEDDING THE ADRIATIC. 
 
 Eome, because the pope had crowned him without the eon- 
 sent of the senate and people, and much blood was spilt, 
 while Adrian declared that he had conferred on Frederic the 
 fief of the Eoman empire (1157). Trederic again marched 
 into Italy, and forced Adrian to put a milder construction 
 upon his expressions. In 1156, William I., king of Sicily, 
 wrung a treaty from the pope, by which it was agreed that 
 Sicily should never have any legate, nor be subject to any 
 appeal to the see of Eome, except with the king's per- 
 mission. 
 
 § 93. Frederic having quelled some tumults in Germany, 
 hastened into Italy for the third time, where he found 
 everything in confusion. On the death of Adrian IV. 
 (1159), two opposite factions elected different popes,— 
 Victor IV. and Alexander III. The emperor declared for 
 the former, and as his rival was supported by several power- 
 ful monarchs, took up arms. Milan was razed to the 
 ground (1162), several cities were destroyed, and Alexander 
 sought refuge in France. Victor died in 1164 ; whereupon 
 Alexander returned to Eome, while the emperor caused 
 Pascal III. to be elected ; and on his death (1168), a successor 
 was found in Calixtus III. The cities of Italy formed what 
 was called the Lombard league for the defence of Italy 
 (1167), and built a new city, which they called Alexandria, 
 in honour of the pope. Several encounters took place, and 
 at last the pope, the Greek emperor, and the Lombards, 
 coalesced against Frederic (1169). The imperial army, 
 •worn out by fatigues and diseases, was defeated by the con- 
 federates, at the battle of Legnano, and Frederic himself 
 narrowly escaped being made prisoner (1176). About the 
 same time it is said that his eldest son, Henry, was defeated 
 by the Venetians, and taken prisoner. In honour of this 
 victory, Alexander sailed into the Adriatic Sea, accompanied 
 by the whole senate ; and, after having pronounced a thou- 
 sand benedictions on that element, threw into it a ring as a 
 mark of his gratitude and affection. Hence, according to 
 some authorities, originated that ceremony which was annu- 
 ally performed by the Venetians, called Wedding the Adriatic. 
 In consequence of these misfortunes, the emperor, having 
 first rallied his troops and got ready for another battle, 
 showed a willingness to treat, and repaired to Venice. 
 There he acknowledged Pope Alexander III., consented to 
 a truce for six years, kissed his feet, and held his stirrup 
 while he mounted his mule (1177). This truce was followed 
 
THIRD CRUSADE. 67 
 
 in 1183 by the treaty of Constance, by which the independ- 
 ence of the Lombard republics was secured. 
 
 § 94. Calixtus III., the anti-pope, submitted to Alexan- 
 der (1178), and the latter called the third Lateran council, 
 which decreed, among other matters, that the pope must be 
 elected by the college of cardinals, and that two-thirds 
 of the votes should be required to make a lawful election 
 (1179). On his return to Germany, Frederic became in- 
 volved in a struggle with Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, 
 whom he conquered (1180 — 1182). This powerful rebel had 
 married the daughter of Henry II. of England, to which 
 country he retired, and his wife bore him a fourth son, from 
 whom the present house of Brunswick, and the royal 
 family of England, are descended. In the mean time Saladin 
 invaded Palestine, took Damascus and Aleppo in 1183, and 
 Jerusalem in 1187 ; upon which nearly the whole of Pales- 
 tine fell into his power. Gregory VIII., then pope, who 
 only ruled two months, and his successor Clement III., 
 ordered the third crusade to be preached throughout 
 Christendom, and many princes raised the standard of the 
 cross. Frederic put himself at the head of the armies (1188), 
 and soon filled Asia with the terror of his arms (1190) . The 
 hopes of the Oriental Christians were suddenly overcast by 
 the death of their champion, who was drowned in the river 
 Calycadnus (Salef), on the 10th of June, 1190. Thus 
 perished Frederic I., in the sixty-ninth year of his age. He 
 was a prince of a firm spirit and strong talents, who had 
 the good of his country always at heart, and who sup- 
 ported the dignity of the empire with equal courage and 
 reputation. 
 
 r 2 
 
flS THE CEUSADERS. 
 
 CHAPTEE lY. 
 
 Letteb 30. — France and England, from the Death of Henry II. to 
 the grant of the Great Charter by King John, with a further accounli 
 oi the Third Crusade. A.D. 1189—1215. Vol. i., pages 148—158. 
 
 § 95. The death of Henry II. of England was an event 
 esteemed equally fortunate by his son Eichard, and by Philip 
 Augustus, king of Prance. Philip lost a dangerous and impla^ 
 cable enemy, and Eichard got possession of the crown, which 
 he had so eagerly pursued. These princes seemed to consider 
 the recovery of the Holy Land as the sole purpose of their 
 government ; but the calamities of the former crusadea 
 taught them the necessity of trying another route to the 
 Holy Land, and they determined to conduct their armies 
 thither by sea. They met on the plains of Vezelay, at the 
 head of "100,000 men (1190). Philip took the road to 
 Genoa, and Eichard that to Marseilles. Both were driven 
 by stress of weather into Messina, and compelled to winter 
 there. Intrigues with the ting of Sicily nearly caused 
 these rival monarchs to take up arms against each other, 
 After leaving Sicily, the English fleet was assailed by a 
 furious tempest and driven on the coast of Cyprus (1191). 
 Isaac Comnenus, despot of that island, pillaged soma 
 stranded vessels, when Eichard, who arrived soon after, 
 vanquished and dethroned him, and conferred the sovereignty 
 on Guy of Lusignan. In consequence of these transactions, 
 Eichard reached Asia later than Philip, but arrived in time 
 to assist in the siege of Ptolemais, or Acre, which had 
 already been carried on for two years. The place surren- 
 dered on the 17th of July, 1191. 
 
 § 96. Philip Augustus returned to Prance after this 
 triumph, leaving ten thousand of his troops with Eichard, 
 and having renewed his oath not to wage war in Eichard's 
 territories during his absence. Unmindful of this pro- 
 mise, he seduced Prince John, King Eichard's brother, 
 from his allegiance, and did all he could to blacken Eichard's 
 character. He declared that the English king was privy to 
 
CCEUR DE LION. 69 
 
 the murder of the marquis of Montferrat, who had been taken 
 off, as was well known, by an Asiatic chief, erroneously called 
 The Old Man of the Mountain, the prince of the Ansayrii, 
 Nassairi, or the Assassins,a, word which has found its way into 
 most European languages, from the evil practices of these 
 bold and determined ruffians, against whose toils no precau- 
 tions could avail.* Eichard's heroic actions in Palestine were 
 the best apology for his conduct. At the battle of St. George's 
 day (1192), the right and left wings of the Christian army 
 were both broken, and in danger of being utterly defeated, 
 when Eichard, who commanded in the centre, restored the 
 battle, and gained a complete victory over Saladin. Ascalon 
 and other Christian cities were soon after reconquered, and 
 the crusaders advanced to Jerusalem, when all the leaders, 
 except Bichard, advocated an immediate accommodation. 
 Eichard, therefore, the same year concluded a truce with 
 Saladin for three years, three months, three weeks, three 
 days, and three hours — a magical number, suggested by a 
 superstition well suited to the object of the war. Eichard 
 was shipwrecked near Aquileia, and in attempting to pass 
 through Germany, in the disguise of a pilgrim, was arrested 
 and thrown into a dungeon, by Leopold, duke of Austria 
 (1192). Saladin died at Damascus in 1193. 
 
 § 97. Philip Augustus employed force, intrigue, and 
 negotiation against the dominions and person of his unfor- 
 tunate rival. He made the emperor Henry VI., into whose 
 power Eichard had really fallen, the largest offers for the 
 royal prisoner; he formed an alliance by marriage with 
 Denmark, desiring that the ancient Danish claim to the 
 crown of England might be transferred to him ; and he 
 invaded Normandy, while the traitor John endeavoured to 
 make himself master of England. But Eichard had zealous 
 friends. The pope threatened to excommunicate the princes 
 
 * Sharon Turner sayg of these Assassins : " In Persia and Syria a 
 strange description of people had resided for ahove a century (1170 — 
 1270), known by the name of Assassins. In Syria they lived in the 
 mountainous country above Tortosa, but subordinate to the Persian 
 chief. They are described as performing implicitly the orders of their 
 sheik ;' and, by an anomalous depravation of their moral habits, they 
 were frequently employed to murder those, whether Christians or 
 Mahometans, with whom their leaders were dissatisfied." 
 
 ' The word sheik, implying elder as well as chief, has occasioned, by 
 its inaccurate translation, the idea of " the old man of the mountains," 
 who has been said to be their sovereign. 
 
70 EEIGN OF JOHN. 
 
 •who held him in captivity (1193), and he was at laat 
 released for a ransom of one hundred and fifty thousand 
 marks of pure silver, — about three hundred thousand pounds 
 of our present money (1194). Eiehard was received in 
 England with acclamation, and immediately passed into 
 Normandy with an army to punish Philip Augustus 
 During this war Richard pardoned his brother John, and 
 concluded a treaty of peace with Philip. He was wounded 
 by an arrow while surveying the castle of Chains (1199). 
 The wound, in itself trifling, was rendered mortal by the 
 nnskUfulness of the surgeon. Eiehard I. was most 
 celebrated for his military talents. No man, even in that 
 romantic age, carried personal courage or intrepidity to a 
 greater height ; and for this he was called Cbswr de Lion, or 
 the Lion-hearted. 
 
 § 98. John seized the crown, but the succession was 
 disputed by Arthur, duke of Brittany, son of John's elder 
 brother Geoffrey ; and the barons of Anjou, Maine, and 
 Touraine, with the king of Prance, espoused the youth's 
 cause. John, however, managed to get Arthur into his 
 power, and had him inhumanly murdered (1202). John's 
 misfortunes commenced with this crime. The whole world 
 was struck with horror at his barbarity, and he was from 
 that moment universally detested. The Bretons waged 
 implacable war against him, in order to revenge the murder 
 of their duke, and Philip II. summoned John to trial before 
 him and his peers, and on his non-appearance, declared him 
 guilty of felony and parricide ; whereupon all his foreign 
 dominions were adjudged forfeited to the crown of Prance 
 (1203). Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and part of Poitou, 
 were annexed by Philip (1206). On bis arrival in England 
 in disgrace, John became involved in a quarrel with the 
 pope. Innocent III. claimed the right of nomination to 
 the see of Canterbury, and appointed Stephen Langton 
 (1207), whose appointment John refused to acknowledge, 
 and Innocent III. laid the kingdom under an interdict 
 (1208). While this was passing in England, the pope 
 published a crusade against the Albigenses, Christians in 
 the south of Prance who were uncontaminated by the 
 mummeries of Eome. Simon of Montfort attacked these 
 unhappy people, and they were pursued under circumstances 
 of great barbarity (1208— 1229) •>. Innocent excommunicated 
 
 *^ Of the modern Albigenses of France, the Rev. G. S. Faber supposes 
 (Inquiry, book ii. chap, i.) the Paulicians of Armenia to have been the 
 
EAELY CHRISTIANS. 71 
 
 John (1209), and in 1212 deposed him, giving the crown to 
 Philip Augustus. This monarch collected a large fleet in 
 order to take possession of the prize, and John prepared to 
 resist. To avert the storm, John did homage to Pandulph, 
 the pope's legate, with all the humiliating rites which the 
 feudal law required of vassals before their liege lord and 
 superior. John agreed to pay a tribute of one thousand 
 
 " theological ancestors." The latter sprang up in the seventh century, 
 and were called Paulicians, from their special admiration of the great 
 apostle of the Gentiles. Wearied by persecutions, they quitted Asia, 
 and sought refuge in Europe ; some of them finally settling in the south 
 of France. They congregated in the neighbourhood of Albi, whence 
 they were denominated Albigenses, Albisenses, or Albigeois. In the 
 beginning of the eleventh century they began to attract the notice of 
 the dominant church, and the council of Tours, in 1163, prohibited all 
 intercourse with them. Ketreat or protection was denied them ; and 
 all dealing with them forbidden. Dr. Gilly has laboured to show that 
 both the Albigenses in France, and the Waldenses in the Italian valleys, 
 were native Christians, who retained their faith unsullied amid pre- 
 vailing corruption ; and who thus form the connecting link between the 
 Primitive church of the apostolic age and the Reformed church of 
 modern times. — (WaldensianEesearohes.) He adds, " The terms Vaudoia 
 in French, Vallenses in Latin, Valdesi, or Vallesi, in Italian, and Wal- 
 denses in English ecclesiastical histoiy, signify nothing more or less 
 than ' men of the valleys ;* and as the valleys of Piedmont have had the 
 honour of producing a race of people who have remained true to the 
 faith introduced by the first missionaries who preached Christianity in 
 those regions, the synonyms Vaudois, Valdesi, and Waldenses, have 
 been adopted as the distinguishing name of a religious community, 
 faithful to the primitive creed, and free from the corruptions of the 
 church of Rome." Faber adopts the same opinion, especially with 
 regard to the Waldenses, and regards them as constituting a pure 
 visible church, by which the ancient iaith of Christianity has been pre- 
 served, through all the middle ages of innovating superstition, sotmd 
 and uncontaminated. They have both been accused of Manicheism, 
 though apparently without sufficient grounds ; and the question has 
 caused a keen controversy among learned writers. Though different 
 communities, the one inhabiting the Alps and the other the Pyrenees 
 and parts of France, they held pretty much the same tenets, bad the 
 Bible in their native tongue, and were as simple in their faith as in their 
 manners and mode of life. In times of danger and persecution, they 
 established intercourse and communication, and consequently have 
 often been taken the one for the other. Roman Cathode despots and 
 writers soon learned to apply the name Waldenses, or Albigenses, as a 
 term of reproach to all seceders form the church of Rome ; hence many 
 have borne the appellation whose lives were not the mirror of the pure 
 doctrines of Christianity. Innocent III. caused a crusade to be preached 
 against them ; thousands were ruthlessly slaughtered ; and Simon of 
 Montfort and other leaders fell in a vain endeavour to quench the light 
 of truth, which these simple Christians kept burning in a dark and 
 fanatical age. 
 
72 MAGNA CHAETA. 
 
 marks of silver a year; namely, seven hundred for England 
 and three hundred for Ireland (1213). During this shame- 
 ful negotiation, Philip waited impatiently at Boulogne for 
 the legate's return. Pandulph at length arrived, and in- 
 formed Philip that he was no longer permitted to attack 
 ;Englaijd, which had become a fief of the church of Eome, 
 and its king a vassal of the Holy See. The French fleet was 
 destroyed by that of England, aud Otho IV. entered into au 
 alliance with John against Philip. This was dissolved by 
 the battle of Bouvines (1214), at which Philip gained a 
 complete victory. 
 
 § 99. The barons, disgusted at the submission of John to 
 the pope, and the loss of their privileges, made common cause 
 with the clergy and the people. They laid waste the royal 
 domains, and reduced John to such extremities, that he was 
 constrained to consent to hold a conference at Eunnemede, 
 between Staines and Windsor, where, after a debate of some 
 days. Magna Gharta, or the Grreat Charter, which secured 
 very important privileges to every order of men in the king- 
 dom, was signed and sealed (June 19, 1215). The better 
 to secure the execution of this charter, twenty-five barons 
 were chosen as conservators of public liberty, and no bounds 
 were set to the authority of these noblemen, either in extent 
 or duration. This august body, in conjunction with the 
 great council of the nation, were empowered to compel the 
 king to observe the charter, and in case of resistance, might 
 levy war against him. All men throughout the kingdom 
 were bound, under penalty of confiscation of their property, 
 to swear obedience to the twenty-five barons, and the free- 
 holders of every county were to choose twelve knights to 
 make report of such evil customs as required redress. 
 
 Letter 31. — TJie German Empire and its Dependencies, from the 
 Accession of Henry VI. to the Election of Eodolph of Hapsbnrg, 
 founder of the House of Austria ; with a continuation of the History 
 of the Crusades, a.d. 1190— 1273. Vol. i., pages 158— 167. 
 
 § 100. Henry VI. of Germany, surnamed the Severe, 
 succeeded his father Frederic I. (1190). The death of his 
 brother-in-law, "William, king of Naples and Sicily, about 
 the same time, opened additional prospects to Henry, as he 
 inherited his dominions in right of his wife. These were 
 usurped by Tancred, her natural brother, and after having 
 been crowned emperor by Coelestine III. (1191), Henry- 
 proceeded, though in opposition to that prelate's wishes, 
 
FOURTH CEUSADE. 73 
 
 who claimed Naples and Sicily as a fief of the Holy See, to 
 the conquest of the kingdom. All the towns of Campania, 
 Apulia, and Calabria fell before him ; but he was obliged to 
 abandon the siege of Naples, on account of a dreadful mor- 
 tality that broke out among his troops ; and all attempts 
 upon Naples and Sicily, during the life of Tancred, proved 
 ineffectual. After his return to Germany, the emperor 
 incorporated the Teutonic Knights into a regular order, 
 religious and military, and built a house for them at Coblentz 
 (1191). With the money paid for Eiohard of England's 
 ransom, Henry VI. prepared to attack Sicily. Tancred died 
 about this time (1194), and with the assistance of the 
 Genoese, the emperor effected his purpose. The empress, 
 though nearly fifty, gave birth to a son, and Henry, deter- 
 mined to render the imperial crown hereditary, induced the 
 Diet to pass a decree for that purpose, and to declare Erederic, 
 while still in his cradle, king of the Eomans (1196). 
 
 § 101. Another crusade was preached soon after the 
 death of Saladin, in which Henry VI. pretended to take 
 part, although he only marched into Italy, to wreak his 
 vengeance upon those who had rebelled against his author- 
 ity, leaving to others the task of conducting the levies into 
 Palestine. The cruelties perpetrated by the emperor 
 almost surpass belief. He was taken ill of a fever, and 
 died at Messina, in 1197. His son Frederic II., a minor, 
 under the guardianship of his uncle Philip, duke of Swabia, 
 succeeded. This arrangement was supported by the Ghibe- 
 lins, but the Guelfs named Otho of Brunswick, son of Henry 
 the Lion, emperor. Innocent III., made pope on the death 
 of Coelestine III. (1198), supported Otho, and excommu- 
 nicated Philip and his adherents. Amid all these dissen- 
 sions and troubles, another crusade was planned for the 
 recovery of Palestine (1201). Baldwin, count of Flanders, 
 was made commander, and the Venetians furnished ships, 
 in return for money and territory. Under pretence of 
 expelling a usurper, the crusaders attacked and took 
 Constantinople (1203), and gave the city up to pillage. 
 Tumults occurred, and the very next year it was again 
 captured, Baldwin made emperor, the Greek empire 
 divided, and Constantinople for the second time rendered 
 subject to the pope. The Venetians obtained several 
 important maritime districts, by which their commerce was 
 greatly extended. Many princes of the imperial line of 
 Comnenus remained, who did not lose their courage with 
 
74 FIFTH CEUSADB. 
 
 the overthrow of their empire. One of them, named 
 Alexius, took refuge on the coast of Colchis, and founded 
 the empire of Trebizond. Other Greeks entered into 
 alliances with the Arabs, the Bulgarians, and even the 
 Turks. Baldwin was defeated and made prisoner by the 
 Bulgarians, who cut oif his legs and arms, leaving him a 
 prey to wild beasts (1205). His brother and successor, 
 Henry, was poisoned in 1216. In 1261, Baldwin II. was 
 driven from the imperial city, the rule of the Latins 
 overthrown, and the Greek empire re-established. 
 
 § 102. The civil war in Germany terminated in favour of 
 Philip, and Otho took refuge in England (1206). Philip 
 proposed an accommodation with the pope, but before it 
 could be carried into effect, he was assassinated at Bamberg, 
 by the count palatine of Bavaria (1208). Otho imme- 
 diately returned to Germany, married Philip's daughter 
 (1209), and was crowned at Eome by Innocent III., after 
 yielding the long-disputed inheritance of the Countess 
 Matilda, and confirming the rights and privileges of the 
 Italian cities. Otho afterwards revoked these concessions ; 
 whereupon Innocent III. excommunicated him (1210), and 
 Prederic, then only fifteen years old, was elected emperor, 
 by a diet of the German princes. Otho entered into an 
 alliance with John, king of England, against Philip Augustus, 
 which was dissolved by the defeat of their army at the battle 
 of Bouvines (1214). Otho retired into Brunswick, lived in 
 obscurity, although not actually deposed, and died in 1218. 
 Prederic II. was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle (1215), and uni- 
 versally acknowledged emperor. Innocent III. died in the 
 next year ; but just before his death extorted a promise from 
 Prederic that he would undertake a crusade to the Holy Land. 
 
 § 103. The emperor excused himself from the perform- 
 ance of his promise, until he should have regulated the 
 affairs of Italy ; but an infinite number of nobles and their 
 vassals flocked to the fifth crusade, and Andrew, king of 
 Hungary, was made generalissimo (1217). Honorius HI 
 advocated the crusade with great eagerness ; and in 1219, 
 John of Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem, captured 
 Damietta, and threatened Cairo. Cardinal Albano,' a 
 Spanish Benedictine, joined the crusaders with reinforce- 
 ments, and demanded to be made general. Appeal was 
 made to the pope, who ordered the king of Jerusalem to 
 serve under the Bene^ctine. John of Brienne immediately 
 " Named Pelagius. 
 
GUELFS AND GHIBELINS. 75 
 
 resigned, and the cardinal led the Christian army between 
 two branches of the Nile, just at the time that river was 
 beginning to overflow its banks (1221). The sultan flooded 
 their camp, by opening the sluices, and while he burned 
 their ships on one side, the Nile rose on the other, and 
 threatened to swallow up their army. In order to extricate 
 themselves from this danger, Damietta was restored ; and 
 the leaders of the crusade bound themselves not to serve 
 against the sultan of Egypt for eight years. Frederic II. 
 was now the only hope of the Christiana: he had been 
 crowned by Honorius III. at Kome in 1220; and that 
 prelate, on hearing of the disastrous treaty, threatened 
 excommunication if oe did not instantly join the crusade. 
 This Frederic refused to do, and a quarrel ensued between 
 him and the pope. Honorius III., finding he could not 
 intimidate this monarch, became submissive, and tendered 
 apologies. A reconciliation followed, and a solemn assembly 
 was held at Ferentino (1223). Frederic pledged himself to 
 join the crusade within two years, to marry Tolanthe, 
 daughter of John of Brienne, receiving the kingdom of 
 Jerusalem as her dowry : and since that time the kings of 
 Sicily have taken the title of king of Jerusalem. The 
 emperor married Tolanthe in 1225, and a secret league 
 against his authority, which had been formed in Lombardy, 
 having been dissolved, Honorius reminded him of his vow. 
 Frederic promised compliance ; but Honorius died in 1227. 
 Gregory IX., his successor, pursuing the same line of 
 policy, urged his departure, and actually excommunicated 
 him for refusing. The animosity between the Guelfs and 
 Ghibelins revived, and Italy afibrded a scene of war and 
 desolation, in which assassinations and poisonings of princes 
 became common occurrences. 
 
 § 104. Frederic resolved at last to perform his vow (1228), 
 when the pope actually prohibited his departure untU he 
 should have received absolution for his offences against • 
 the Church. Frederic paid no heed to this command, but 
 sailed, and concluded a treaty with the sultan of Egypt, by 
 which Jerusalem and many other cities in Palestine were 
 restored to the Christians, and in return, the emperor 
 granted the Saracens a truce for ten years (1229). Frederic 
 returned to Italy, and soon reduced the cities of Lombardy 
 that had revolted during his absence. He resisted the 
 papal tyranny, and the pope incited his son Henry to rebel 
 against his father (1234). The strife was waged furiously, 
 
76 EELIGIOUS ORDERS. 
 
 both with the sword and the pen, and Gregory ordered a 
 crusade to be preached against the emperor (1240), The 
 two factions of the Guelfs and Ghibelins continued to rage 
 with greater violence than ever, involving cities, districts, 
 and even private families, in troubles, divisions, and civil 
 butcheries, no quarter being given on either side. Gre- 
 gory IX. died in 1241, and was succeeded by Coelestine IV., 
 who only lived eighteen days after his election. The papal 
 ehair remained vacant twenty months, when Innocent IV. 
 was elected (1243). This prelate attempted to obtain from 
 Prederic a treaty upon his own terms, but failing, fled to 
 Lyons, excommunicated the emperor, and absolved his sub- 
 jects from their allegiance. The German bishops — for none 
 of the princes would assist — elected Henry, landgrave of 
 Thuringia, emperor (1246). He died in 1247, when William, 
 count of Holland, was appointed in his stead. In the mean 
 time the pope renewed the crusade against Frederic, which 
 was proclaimed by the Preaching Friars, since called Domi- 
 nicans, and the Minor Friars, known by the name of Corde- 
 liers or Franciscans, a new militia of the court of Eome, 
 which about this time began to be established in Europe. 
 This pontiff even engaged in conspiracies against the life of 
 the emperor, for which reasop, the latter is said to have 
 chosen the Mahometan guards. Fortune seemed to desert 
 Frederic. He was defeated before Parma (1248), and 
 retired into his kingdom of Naples, to recruit his army, 
 where he died in 1250. He was a prince of great genius, 
 erudition, and fortitude ; and notwithstanding all the troubles 
 he had to encounter, he built towns, founded universities, 
 and gave a kind of new life to learning in Italy. A long 
 interregnum followed between his death and the election 
 of Eodolph (1273), in which several competitors contended 
 for the crown. During this interval, Denmark, Hungary, 
 and Holland entirely freed themselves from the homage 
 they were wont to pay the empire ; and several German 
 cities established a municipal form of government. Lubeck, 
 Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzic united for their mutual 
 defence, and formed the Hanseatic League."" They were 
 
 ^ With reference to the HaDseatio League, Hallam remarks :— " The 
 origin of this is rather obsure, but it may certainly be nearly referred in 
 point of time to the middle of the thirteenth century, and accounted for 
 by the necessity of mutual defence, which piracy by sea and pillage by 
 land had taught the merchants of Germany. The nobles endearoured 
 to obstruct the formation of this league, which, indeed, was in great 
 
HENBY III. 77 
 
 afterwards joined by eighty others, in a kind of eoramercial 
 republic. Italy also, during this period, assumed a new 
 form of government ; and the freedom for which the cities 
 of Lombardy had so long struggled, was confirmed to them 
 for a sum of money. 
 
 Letter 32. — England, from the Grant of the Great Charter to the 
 Keign of Edward I. a.d. 1215—1272. Vol. i., pages 167—174. 
 
 § 105. John sent the Great Charter to the pope, who 
 issued a bull annulling it ; whereupon John revoked the 
 grant, hired foreign mercenaries, the rapacious and notorious 
 Braban9ons, and pulled off the mask. Langton, however, 
 refused to publish the sentence of excommunication against 
 the barons. The Braban9ons devastated the kingdom, and 
 the barons offered to acknowledge Prince Louis, eldest son 
 of the king of France, provided he would send an army to 
 assist them (1216). Philip, in spite of interdicts and ex-' 
 communications, consented and persevered, and John was 
 soon deserted by his mercenaries, mostly Prenchraen, who 
 refused to serve against the heir of their monarchy. Over- 
 whelmed with grief and vexation, this unworthy monarch 
 retired to Newark, where he died (1216). His character is 
 a compilation of vices, equally mean and odious, ruinous to 
 himself and destructive to his people. Henry III., only 
 nine years of age, succeeded his father, the earl of Pembroke 
 being chosen protector ; and power could not have been 
 placed in better hands. Having expelled the Prench (1217), 
 he made Henry renew the Great Charter (1218). Tbis 
 great and good man died in the midst of his useful labours 
 (1219) ; and Henry on coming of age proved a weak and 
 contemptible prince, whose folly again involved England in 
 civil broils. 
 
 § 106. Henry offended his subjects by his partiality for 
 
 measure designed to withstand their exactions. It powerfully main- 
 tained the influence which the free imperial cities were at this time 
 acquiring. Eighty of the most considerable places constituted the 
 Hanseatic confederacy, divided into four colleges, whereof Lubeck 
 Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzic were the leading towns. Lubeck 
 held the chief rank, and became, as it were, the patriarchal see of the 
 league ; whose province it was to preside in all general discussions for 
 mercantile, political, or military purposes, and to carry them into execu- 
 tion. Theleague had four principal factories in foreign parts, — at London 
 Bruges, Bergen, and Novogorod ; endowed by the sovereigns of those 
 cities with considerable privileges, to which every merchant belonging 
 to a Hanseatic town was entitled." — Middle Ages, chap, ix., part ii. 
 
78 FIRST ENGLISH PABLIAMENT. 
 
 foreigners, upon whom he lavished all his favours. He made 
 an unsuccessful expedition into France in 1230, and having 
 renewed the attempt in 1242, was defeated by Louis IX., 
 and lost the remainder of his territories in Poitou. This 
 unworthy monarch submitted entirely to the dictation of 
 the pope. All the chief benefices of the kingdom were 
 given to Italians, and non-residence and pluralities were 
 carried to such a height, that Mansel, the king's chaplain, is 
 said to have held, at one time, seven hundred ecclesiastical 
 livings. The pope exacted the revenues of all vacant bene- 
 fices ; the twentieth of all ecclesiastical revenues, without 
 exception ; the third of such as exceeded one hundred marks 
 a year ; and the half of those held by non-residents. He 
 also claimed the goods of all intestate clergymen, and pre- 
 tended a right to inherit all money gained by usury. Under 
 pretence of ofifering the crown of Sicily to Henry's son 
 (1253), the pope induced that monarch to contribute money 
 and treasure for its conquest. But the English at last inter- 
 fered, refusing to grant the necessary supplies (1255). In 
 1236 the Parliament had assembled at Merton and unani- 
 mously rejected the canon law ; so that even in these dark 
 times the nation would not submit to the papal yoke. 
 
 § 107. The struggle between the barons and the king 
 was waged throughout this reign. Under the direction of 
 Simon of Montfort, earl of Leicester, a man of great talents 
 and boundless ambition, a meeting, called the " Mad Parlia^ 
 ment," was summoned at Oxford (1258), when the "Pro- 
 visions of Oxford " were passed. Twelve barons were selected 
 from among the king's ministers, twelve more were chosen 
 by the Parliament, and to this council unlimited authority was 
 given to reform the state. Leicester and the new council 
 enjoyed the supreme power for three years, but they did 
 not faithfully discharge their duty, and Urban IV. absolved 
 the king and all his subjects from the oath which they had 
 taken to observe the Provisions of Oxford (1261). Civil 
 war ensued, and at the battle of Lewes (May 14, 1264), 
 Simon of Montfort defeated the king, taking him and 
 the princes prisoners. Montfort now openly aspired at 
 power, and, fearing opposition, summoned a new parliament, 
 more democratic in its character. He ordered not only two 
 knights to be returned for every shire, but also citizens and 
 burgesses from the boroughs. Thus did this ambitious man 
 introduce a second order of men into the national council, 
 and lay the foundation, of representative government in 
 
DEATH OF HENRY III. 79 
 
 England (1265). The royalists again' took up arms; 
 Moutfort was slain at the battle of Evesham (Aug. 4, 
 1265), and the rebellion of the barons crushed. The victory 
 was used with moderation, and none of the national liberties 
 were suppressed. In 1270 Prince Edward joined the cru- 
 sades, in which he greatly distinguished himself. The 
 Saracens employed an assassin to murder the young prince, 
 who wounded him in the arm, but paid for his treachery 
 with his life. Yielding to the solicitations of his father, 
 Edward quitted the Holy Land ; but Henry died before his 
 son reached England (1272). Henry III. was a weak 
 prince ; hence arose his negligence with respect to promises ; 
 and for the sake of present convenience, he was easily in- 
 duced to sacrifice the lasting advantages to be derived from 
 the trust and confidence of his people. 
 
 Letter 33. — France, from the Death of Philip Augustus to the end of 
 the Reign of Louis IX., with some account of the Last Crusade. 
 A.D. 1223—1270. Vol. i., pages 174—178. 
 
 § 108. Philip Augustus reunited many fine provinces to 
 France at the expense of England ; even attempted the con- 
 quest of our island, and at his death left his kingdom nearly 
 double its former size (1223). Louis VIII., his successor, 
 spent most of his short reign in the crusade against the 
 Albigenses,* and died in 1226, leaving the kingdom to his 
 youthful son, Louis IX., commonly called St. Louis. His 
 mother, Blanche of Castile, administered the regency with 
 prudence and firmness ; and the young king no sooner came 
 of age than he was universally acknowledged to be the 
 greatest prince in Europe. The chief defect in his character 
 was subserviency to the papal authority, and he carried this 
 so far as to favour the tribunal of the Inquisition. Being 
 seized with a dangerous illness, he made a vow to engage in 
 a new crusade (1244). He spent four years in preparations, 
 and at last set sail for Cyprus, accompanied by his queen, his 
 three brothers, and almost all the knights of France (1248). 
 The Moguls, or Western Tartars,'' under Genghis- Khan, had 
 
 " During this sanguinary crusade, the terrible tribunal of the Inquisi- 
 tion was instituted. St. Dominic, or St. Domingo, the founder of the 
 religious order of the Dominicans, in 1215 received a commission from 
 Pope Innocent III. to judge and deliver to judgment, apostate, and 
 relapsed, and obstinate heretics ; and this was the commencement of that 
 pernicious system by which so much innocent blood has been shed. The 
 council of Toulouse, in 1229, established the infamous tribunal on a 
 sure basis. *> This word is properly "Tatars." 
 
80 ATFAIKS IN THE EAST. 
 
 just before this time overrun Asia. This wonderful con- 
 queror died in 1227, when preparing to complete the con- 
 quest of China. His empire was divided among his four 
 sons; and one of his grandsons drove the Turks out of 
 Anatolia, put an end to the rule of the caliphs of Bagdad, 
 and spread terror to the very gates of Constantinople. The 
 Karismians, retreating before the Moguls, overran Syrfa'and 
 Palestine, and in 1243 captured Jerusalem, putting the 
 inhabitants to the sword. The Christians, however, still 
 possessed Tyre, Sidon, Tripoli, Ptolemais, and other cities." 
 § 109. Such was the situation of the East, and of the 
 Oriental Christians, when St. Louis set out for their relief. 
 This prince wintered at Cyprus, and then sailed for Egypt, 
 landed near the city of Damietta, which surrendered (1249). 
 The crusaders were defeated at the battle of Massoura 
 (April 5, 1250), at which Louis and many of his nobility 
 were made prisoners. A treaty was concluded, by which i 
 Damietta was restored, in consideration of the king's liberty, 
 and a thousand pieces of gold paid for the ransom of the 
 other prisoners. Louis remained four years longer in Pales- 
 tine without effecting anything of consequence. The dis- 
 tracted state of Prance, and the death of the queen-mother, 
 at last induced him to return (1254). Having repaired by 
 judicious reforms many of the evils caused by his absence, 
 he got ready for a new crusade. In 1270 he suppressed the 
 wager of battle, and provided for a regular administration 
 of justice. The same year he landed in Africa, and besieged 
 Tunis, hoping to convert the king. In this object he failed: 
 the plague broke out in his army, to which, after losing one 
 of his sons, he fell a victim. Plis son and successor saved 
 the remains of the Prench army from the Moors, for which 
 he received the surname of the Hardy. 
 
 Lettek 34. — Spain, from the middle of the Eleventh to the end of the 
 Thirteenth Century, a.d. 1035—1312. Vol. 1., pages 178—181. 
 
 _ § 110. Perdinand I., son of Sancho, surnamed the Great, 
 king of Navarre and Arragon, reunited to his dominions 
 Old Castile, together with the kingdom of Leon (1035). 
 The history of Don Eoderigo, surnamed the Cid, who 
 actually married Ximena, whose father he had murdered, is 
 
 ' The Karismians, called by Gibbon " shepherds of the Caspian," 
 had settled on the lower Oxus and Caspian Sea ; and the Mogul Tartars 
 are supposed to have issued from the farthest regions of Chinese Tar- 
 tary. About this time they established themselves in Eussia. 
 
THE CID. 81 
 
 worthy of notice. The numerous kings of Spain were at-- 
 tended by many independent lords, who came on horseback 
 completely armed, followed by several squires, to offer their 
 services to the princes and princesses engaged in war. These 
 rulers girded their lords with a belt, presented them with a 
 sword, with which they gave them a slight blow on the 
 shoulder: hence the origin of knights errant, and of the 
 number of single combats, which so long desolated Spain. 
 Of all the Spanish knights, the Cid distinguished himself 
 most eminently against the Moors. He overcame several 
 Moorish kings ; and having fortified the city of Alcazar, he 
 erected a petty sovereignty (1087). Before this he had 
 captured Toledo, when all New Castile and Madrid, then a 
 small place, had fallen into the hands of the Christiana 
 (1084). The Cid also subdued Valencia ; and, although few 
 Spanish princes were so powerful, he continued faithful to 
 his master Alphonso, while he governed Valencia with the 
 alithority of a sovereign. He died in 1099, and was buried 
 at Burgos. 
 
 § 111. Alphonso, surnamed el JBatallador, took Sara- 
 gossa from the Moors (1118) ; but being defeated by them 
 at Fraga (1134), he died of chagrin, leaving Navarre and 
 Arragon to the Knights Templars.* Alphonso VII., king of 
 Castile, rescued these states from the divisions that after- 
 wards beset .them, and assumed the title of emperor of Spain. 
 The Spanish Christians might easily have expelled the Moors ; 
 
 * Several military orders were established during the Crusades. Of 
 these the most celebrated were the Knights of the Temple, founded by 
 Sir Hugh de Fagano, in 1118 ; those of the Hospital of St. John, insti- 
 tuted in 1124 ; and the order of the Teutonic Knights, in 1191. The two 
 former devoted themselves more particularly to the deliverance of the 
 Holy Land, and became both affluent and powerful. Arms were their 
 profession ; they had no country but Jerusalem, and no family but that 
 of Jesus Christ. St. Bernard was the patron saint of the Templars, 
 and their order was favoured by several popes, and approved of by a 
 council. They at first prospered greatly, performed prodigies of valour, 
 but their discipline was relaxed, and they became corrupted. They 
 quitted the East with immense spoils ; were afterwards accused, unjustly 
 it seems, of having entered into an alliance with the infidels, of having 
 blasphemed the Christian religion, and given up the Holy Land to the 
 Saracens. Upon these charges their grand master, and aU their knights 
 in France, were seized, by order of Philip IV., in 1307. In 1310, the 
 Templars were acquitted by some councils, and by others condemned to 
 be burnt alive. At the council of Vienne (1311 and 1312) the order 
 was suppressed, and several more of the unfortunate Templars were 
 given over to the fiames ; and in 1314, Molay, their grand master, was 
 burnt alive, at Paris. 
 
 a 
 
82 STATE OF SPAIN. 
 
 and at length tiey united in the league of Mallen (1209), 
 impelled by a sense of common danger, and they also 
 implored the assistance of other Christian princes of Europe. 
 The Moors had been reinforced by an army of one hundred 
 thousand men, and a terrible conflict occurred. They were 
 entirely defeated on the plains of Tolosa (July 16, 1212) ; 
 but the Christians did not follow up their victory so vigor- 
 ously as they might have done. Another Spanish conqueror 
 appeared in Ferdinand III., called the Saint, vpho took Cor- 
 dova, and part of Andalusia (1236) ; subdued the province 
 of Murcia, and captured Seville (1247). Spain justly reve- 
 rences the name of Ferdinand III. as one of the deliverersi 
 of his country ; he died in 1252. His immediate successors 
 did not accomplish much. Ferdinand IV. took Gibraltar 
 in 1308. He is called by Spanish historians the Summoned; 
 and the reason assigned for it is rather remarkable : when 
 in a fit of anger, he had ordered two noblemen to be thrown 
 from the top of a rock, they summoned him to appear in the 
 presence of G-od within a month ; at the end of which time 
 he died (1312). 
 
 Letter 35. — Progress of Society in Europe duriDg the Twelfth aid 
 Thirteenth Centuries, a.d. 1100—1300. Vol. i., pages 181—185. 
 
 § 112^ The progress of refinement during these two 
 centuries was slow, being often altogether obstructed by 
 monastic austerities, theological disputes, ecclesiastical 
 broils, and the disorders of feudal anarchy. Society, how- 
 ever, made many beneficial advances before the close of 
 this period. The infiuence of the spirit of chivalry on 
 manners was great and singular ; it enlarged the genero- 
 sities of the human heart, and soothed its ferocity. But 
 being unhappily blended with superstition, it became the 
 means of violence ; armed one half of the species against 
 the other, and precipitated Europe upon Asia. Tet the 
 Crusades, though barbarous and destructive in themselves, 
 were followed by many important consequences, equally 
 conducive to the welfare of the community and of the indi- 
 viduaL The commercial effects of the Crusades were not 
 less considerable than their political influence. Ships were 
 required, trade was fostered, and commerce extended. The 
 Italian cities grew rich, powerful, and obtained extensive pri- 
 vileges. Some of them erected themselves into sovereignties, 
 others into corporations or independent communities ; and 
 
PROGRESSION. 83 
 
 tlieir establishment may be regarded as the first great step 
 towards civilization in modern Europe. 
 
 § 113. The efiects upon government were as great as 
 upon manners. A community of interests led to a com- 
 munity of rights. The inhabitants of cities having obtained 
 personal freedom, and municipal jurisdiction, soon aspired 
 at civil liberty and political power ; and the commons 
 obtained a place in the national assemblies. The villains or 
 slaves were enfranchised ; and the odious names of master 
 and slave abolished. New prospects opened, new incite- 
 ments were offered to ingenuity and enterprise. An. 
 approach was also made towards a more regular adminis- 
 tration of justice. Trial by ordeal and by duel were 
 abolished in most countries before the end of the thirteenth 
 century, and attempts were made to restrain the practice of 
 private war — one of the greatest abuses in the feudal policy, 
 and one which struck at the foundation of all government. 
 The accidental discovery of a copy of Justinian's Pandects 
 led to a reform of the law. The study of the Eoman law 
 had the effect of causing colleges and universities to be 
 founded ; and academical titles and honours were soon after 
 invented. A false taste unhappily infected these semina- 
 ries; but study, although at first misdirected, roused the 
 human mind. Some ages indeed elapsed before taste, order, 
 and politeness were restored to society ; but anarchy and 
 barbarism gradually disappeared with ignorance ; the evils 
 of life, with its crimes ; and public and private happiness 
 grew daily better understood ; until Europe came to enjoy 
 all those advantages, pleasures, and tender sympathies 
 which are necessary to alleviate the pains inseparable from 
 existence, and soot lie the sorrows allied to humanity. 
 
84 THE WELSH BAEDS. 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 Lettee 36. — England during the Reign Of Edward I., with an Intro- 
 duction to the Histofy of Scotland ; some Account of the Conqnest of 
 that Country by the English, and the final Beductioa of Wales. 
 A.D. 1272—1307. Vol. i., pages 185—194. 
 
 § 114. Edwaeb I. succeeded his father in 1272, observed 
 the Great Charter, and by an exact distribution of justice 
 and a rigid execution of the laws, at once gave protection 
 to the inferior orders of the state, and diminished the arbi- 
 trary power of the nobles. Thus the condition of the king- 
 dom was soon wholly changed ; order and tranquillity were 
 restored to society, and vigour to government. In 1276, 
 Edward undertook an expedition against Llewellyn, prince 
 of "Wales, who had before joined the rebeUiouB barons, 
 lilewellyn retired to the hills of Snowdon, and was at 
 length compelled to submit (1277). Eresh disputes arose, 
 Edward again attacked "Wales, when Llewellyn was de- 
 feated and slain by Eoger Mortimer, one of the English 
 king's generals (1282) ; and the next year Wales was 
 finally subdued and annexed. In this conquest Edward 
 -behaved very cruelly, and ordered all the "Welsh bards to be 
 put to death, from a belief, and no absurd one, that he 
 could more easily subdue the independent spirit of the 
 people when their minds ceased to be roused by the ideas 
 of military valour and ancient glory, preserved in the tra- 
 ditional poems of those minstrels, and recited or sung by 
 them on all public occasions and days of festivity. In 1284, 
 Queen Eleanor gave birth to a son, afterwards Edward II., 
 at Caernarvon Castle, from which circumstance the eldest son 
 of the king of England takes the title of prince of Wales. 
 
 § 115. "When "William,king of Scotland, wastaken prisoner 
 by Henry II., he agreed to do homage to the English monarch 
 for his kingdom (1174). Eichard I. renounced this claim, 
 which Edward I., taking advantage of the embarrassed state 
 of affairs in Scotland, thought fit to revive. On the death 
 of Alexander III, in 1280, without issue, his grand-daughter 
 
CONQUEST OF SCOTLAND. 85 
 
 Margaret, " the fair maid of Norway," a child, succeeded; 
 but she died on her passage from Norway, in 1290, when 
 Eobert Bruce and John Balliol disputed for the crown. 
 The parliament of Scotland chose Edward umpire, and 
 he summoned all the Scottish barons to attend him in 
 the castle of Norham (1291), when he induced them to 
 acknowledge Scotland as a fief of the English crown, and 
 swear fealty to him as their sovereign or liege lord. Having 
 obtained possession of the kingdom, Edward gave judgment 
 in favour of Balliol, who renewed the oath of fealty to Eng- 
 land and mounted the throne (1292). Balliol refused to 
 attend in Loudon at a summons from Edward (1293), and 
 seemed to aspire at independence. 
 
 § 116. Edward was at the same time at war with Eranee, 
 and in order to obtain supplies, he was induced to follow 
 the example of the earl of Leicester, and summon the lower 
 orders ot the state to the public councils. The former 
 precedent had been discontinued in all succeeding parlia- 
 ments. Writs were accordingly issued for two deputies to 
 be sent from every borough, provided with sufficient powers 
 to vote supplies (1295). Balliol having been absolved from 
 his oath of fealty by the pope, entered into a league with 
 the king of Erance, when Edward marched into Scotland 
 and reduced him to submission (1296). Edward brought 
 the Scotch crown, sceptre, and coronation-stone to London, 
 imprisoned Balliol in the Tower of London, and left 
 Scotland under the government of the earl of Warrenne. 
 Edward was not equally successful in his efforts to recover 
 Guienne, and an army sent over for that purpose, failed in 
 the attempt (1297). The king experienced great difficulty 
 in obtaining supplies, especially from the clergy. Boniface 
 Vin. by a papal bull, forbade ecclesiastics to pay taxes 
 imposed by temporal princes ; Edward retaliated, put them 
 out of the protection of the law, and so miserable did their 
 condition become, that they were compelled to submit (1296). 
 Still the supplies were not adequate to the expenses of the 
 war, and when Edward levied some arbitrary taxes, the 
 barons and the people rebelled, and obliged him to confirm 
 the Great Charter, vrith an additional clause, that no taxes 
 should be raised without the consent of parliament (1297). 
 In the next year, a truce of two years was made with 
 Erance ; the pope then mediated, and Guienne was restored 
 to England. 
 
 § 117. In the mean time Scotland had rebelled, and found 
 
86 SCOTCH DEFEATED AT FALKIRK. 
 
 a deliverer in William Wallace, who drove the EngllsV 
 out of that country. Edward II. was in Planders when 
 intelligence of this revolt reached him. He hastened home, 
 collected an army, and defeated the Scotch at the battle of 
 Falkirk (July 22, 1298), with great slaughter. The contest 
 was, however, waged furiously for some time, the Scotch 
 appealed to the pope, and in 1305 Wallace was taken 
 prisoner, and executed upon Tower Hill. Eobert Bruce, 
 son of the former competitor for the Scotch crown, of the 
 §ame name, was now made king of Scotland, and he again 
 expelled the English (1306) . As Edward was advancing with 
 a large force to avenge the defeat, he sickened and died at 
 Carlisle, enjoining, with his latest breath, his son and 
 successor to prosecute the war, and never to desist till he 
 had finally subdued the kingdom (1307). As a legislator, 
 Edward the First's merits were undoubtedly great, and 
 have justly obtained for him the honourable appellation of 
 the English Justinian. The numerous statutes passed 
 during his reign settle the chief points of jurisprudence; 
 and, as Sir Edward Coke observes, truly deserve the name 
 of establishments, because the)' have been more constant 
 and durable laws than any made since. Yet we cannot 
 ascribe these reforms to a love of equity in Edward, for in 
 all his transactions, he always desired to have his hands free. 
 
 Letter 37. — England duriog the Eeign of Edward II., with an Account 
 of the Affaiva of Scotland. A.D. 1307—1327. Vol. i., pages 194—199. 
 
 § 118. No prince ever ascended the English throne with 
 greater advantages than Edward II. In 1308 he married 
 the daughter of the king of France, and was soon after 
 crowned at Westminster. Instead of prosecuting the con- 
 quest of Scotland, he gave himself up entirely to a favourite, 
 one Piers Gaveston, who had been banished by Edward I. 
 This foolish conduct aroused the barons to revolt, and they 
 compelled him to send Graveston out of the kingdom. In 
 1309 Edward recalled his favourite, when the barons again 
 rebelled, and Gaveston was once more banished. Edward 
 recalled him in 1311, and the next year Gaveston was made 
 prisoner by the barons, and executed. Eobert Bruce, wlio 
 had liberated Scotland, frequently invaded England, and 
 Edward, at last aroused from his lethargy, marched with 
 an army into Scotland, but was defeated at the battle 
 of Bannockburn (June 25, 1314), which secured the in- 
 dependence of Scotland. Wales rebelled, an insurrection 
 
HOUSE OP HAPSBTTKG. 8f 
 
 broke out in Ireland, and the factious conduct of the 
 nobility distracted the king. Edward had adopted a new 
 favourite, Hugh le Despenser, or Spenser, which involved 
 him in fresh troubles with his turbulent barons. After 
 several conflicts, Edward and his favourites triumphed at 
 Borough-bridge (1322), and several of the most formidable 
 of the king's enemies were tried and executed. 
 
 § 119. In 1323, Edward made another unsuccessful 
 invasion of Scotland, whereupon he entered into a truce of 
 thirteen years. In the next year Queen Isabella went to 
 France, in order to settle the quarrel between Edward and 
 the king of France, respecting Guienne. In that country she 
 formed a guilty intimacy with Eoger Mortimer, a powerful 
 "Welsh noble, who had been condemned for high treason, but 
 who managed to eflfect his escape. The wicked pair plotted 
 to overthrow the Despensers (1325). On her arrival in 
 England, the king was entirely deserted and fled to Wales 
 (1326). The Despensers were seized and executed, and the 
 king was confined in Kenilworth Castle. The parliament 
 deposed Edward II., and placed his son, Edward III., then, 
 only fourteen years of age, on the throne, under the 
 regency of his mother (1327). Edward II. was removed to 
 Berkeley Castle, where he was afterwards assassinated 
 under circumstances of peculiar atrocity. Thus perished 
 Edward II., and it is difiScult to imagine a man more inno- 
 cent and inoffensive, or a prince less fitted to govern a 
 fierce and turbulent people. 
 
 IjETTEK 38. — The Gennan Empire and its Dependencies, from the 
 Election of Eodolph of Hapsburg to the Death of Henry VII. a.d. 
 1273—1313. Vol. i., pages 199—205. 
 
 § 120. Under the able government of Eodolph of Haps- 
 burg, the disorders that had prevailed during the interreg- 
 num were suppressed, and peace and security re-established 
 in Germany. He assembled a diet at Augsburg, in 1275, at 
 which Ottocar, king of Bohemia, who had seized the duchy 
 of Austria, refused to appear to do homage, and was put to 
 the ban of the empire. Although associated with several 
 German princes, he was compelled to submit, relinquish the 
 contested territories, and do homage (1276). His wife, a 
 Eussian princess, induced him to renounce the treaty, when 
 a battle ensued at Marchfeld (Aug. 26, 1278), in which 
 Ottocar was slain, and Austria annexed to the dominions of 
 the house of Hapsburg. Italy caused this ruler serious dis- 
 
88 GERMAN EMPEEOKS. 
 
 quietude. The last years of his life were spent in establish- 
 ing the grandeur of his family in Austria. He could not 
 procure the election of his son Albert, duke of Austria, to 
 be king of the Eomans, and this, together with the death 
 of his son Eodolph, broke his heart (1291). He was a 
 prince of great valour, sagacity, and probity ; and raised 
 the empire from a state of misery and confusion, to the 
 enjoyment of peace, policy, and riches. 
 
 § 121. After an interregnum of nine months, caused by 
 the dissensions of the German princes, Adolphus of Nassau 
 was raised to the imperial throne (1292). The reign of this 
 prince was one continued scene of trouble, and at last ter- 
 minated in his deposition. Albert, duke of Austria, was 
 elected by the princes of the empire, and Adolphus disput- 
 ing the legality of the proceeding, was slain, at the battle 
 of Eosenthal (July 2, 1298). During these two reigns the 
 Jews were persecuted with great cruelty, and numbers 
 killed by the Christians. Albert was solemnly crowned at 
 Aix-la-(Jhapelle. In this reign Switzerland commenced the 
 struggle for her independence. In consequeoce of the 
 tyrannical proceedings of the German governors appointed 
 by Albert, Underwald, Schwitz, and Uri formed a confede- 
 ration (1308) for their deliverance. The other cantons 
 afterwards joined in this confederacy, which gave birth to 
 the republic of Switzerland. During the contest, Albert was 
 assassinated by his nephew John (1308). The blow was 
 struck in the presence of the court and army, on the banks 
 of the river Eus, near Switzerland. No sovereign was ever 
 less regretted. The imperial throne remained vacant for 
 seven months, when the electors assembled at Frankfort, 
 and named Henry VII., count of Luxemburg (1309). 
 
 § 122. The successors of Erederic II. seem to have lost 
 sight of Italy, but Henry VII., as soon as he had settled 
 the affairs of the North, determined to re-establish the 
 imperial authority in that country. I"or this purpose a 
 diet was held at Erankfort (1810), where proper supplies 
 were granted for the Eoman expedition. Italy was still 
 divided by the factions of the Guelfs and Ghibelins, 
 but their contest was no longer the same. It was not 
 now a struggle between the empire and the priesthood, 
 but between faction and faction, inflamed by mutual 
 jealousies and animosities. Clement V. had been compelled 
 to leave Rome. The Colonna and the Ursini factions and 
 the Eoman barons divided the city ; and this division was 
 
ITALIAN FACTIONS. 89 
 
 the cause of the long abode of the popes in France. Sicily- 
 had fallen under the rule of the house of Arragon, in conse- 
 quence of the famous massacre, called the Sicilian Vespers, 
 which delivered that island from the Erench (1282). The 
 house of Este had established itself at Terrara ; and the 
 Venetians wanted to make themselves masters of that 
 country (1308). The old league of the Italian cities no 
 longer existed. The Florentines and the Genoese made 
 war upon the republic of Pisa. Every city was also divided 
 into factions : Florence between the Blacks and the Whites 
 (1300) (by the former, Dante was banished in 1301) ; and 
 Milan, between the Visconti and the Turriani. In the 
 midst of these troubles Henry VII. appeared in Italy, and 
 was crowned king of Lombardy, at Milan (1311). Having 
 subdued Italy, he died at Buonconvento, in Tuscany, of 
 poison, administered, as it is commonly supposed, by a 
 Dominican friar, in the sacramental wine (1313). 
 
 Letter 39. — France, from the Death of Louis IX. till the Accession of 
 the House of Valois. a.d. 1270— 1328. Vol. i., pages 205— 210. 
 
 § 123. Philip III., surnamed the Hardy, succeeded his 
 father, Louis IX., in 1270. The most remarkable feature in 
 his reign, is the interest which he took in the affairs of his 
 uncle, Charles of Anjou, king of Naples and Sicily.' By 
 his boundless ambition, and the severity of his government, 
 Charles rendered himself and his family odious to the 
 Sicilians. John di Procida, a proscribed adherent of the 
 deposed house of Swabia, instigated by the Greek emperor, 
 and other enemies of Charles, who viewed his rising power 
 with jealousy, secretly fanned the flames of discontent, and 
 laid the train of a general revolt. On the vigil of Easter- 
 day, a young Sicilian damsel was insulted by a French 
 soldier,"and a countryman stabbed the offender to the heart. 
 A tumult ensued, in which about two hundred Frenchmen 
 were slain on the spot; and the cry, " EiU the French," 
 
 ' Charles aspired to the crown of the Two Sicilies, and wrested the 
 prize from Manfred, at the battle of Benevento (February 26, 1266). 
 He then endeavoured to achieve conquests in Africa, Greece, and 
 Palestine. Louis IX. restrained the ardour of his more warlike brother, 
 and induced him to join that crusade in which he himself fell a victim. 
 At the death of Louis IX., Charles entered into a league against the 
 Greek empire, and assembled a fleet and an army in the Italian seaports. 
 The dreadfiil insurrection, known as the Sicilian Vespers, averted the 
 blow from the Greek empire, and precipitated Charles of Anjou from 
 his throne. 
 
90 THE SICILIAN VESPERS. 
 
 passed from moutli to mouth. The famous Sicilian Vespers 
 had commenced, which ended in the expulsion of Charles 
 of Anjou. Peter of Arragon was named king of Sicily, 
 and Philip III. made war to win back the crown for his 
 uncle Charles, and to obtain Arragon and Valencia for his 
 own son, Charles de Valois. In this attempt he was un- 
 successful, and the loss of his fleet and supplies affected 
 him so deeply, that he died at Perpignan, in 1285. Peter 
 of Arragon and Charles of Anjou both died during the 
 same year. Philip III. was the first French monarch who 
 granted letters of nobility, which he bestowed upon Ealph 
 the Groldsraith ; and in so doing he restored the ancient 
 constitution of the Franks. 
 
 § 124. The reign of Philip IV., surnamed the Fair, forms 
 an era in the history of France, by the civil and political 
 regulations to which it gave birth ; the institution of the 
 supreme tribunals, called Parliaments, and the formal 
 admission of the Commons, or third estate, into the general 
 assemblies of the nation. Although Edward I. had medi- 
 ated between this prince and his enemies, and effected 
 an accommodation, Philip commenced hostilities against 
 Edward, while the latter was engaged in a war with Scotland 
 (1293). He soon became involved in a struggle with 
 Boniface VIII., one of the most ambitious of the Eoman 
 bishops. This prelate by a papal bull prohibited the clergy 
 from granting any aids or subsidies to princes without his 
 leave (1296). Philip replied by an edict, forbidding any 
 of the French clergy to send money abroad without the royal 
 permission. Philip was excommunicated the very nest year, 
 and the French clergy ordered to repair to Eome. Philip 
 burnt the pope's bull, prohibited the clergy from leaving the 
 kingdom, and seized upon the temporalities of those who dis- 
 obeyed the order. This monarch then assembled the States- 
 General, who acknowledged his independent right to the 
 sovereignty of France, and disavowed the pope's claim 
 (1302). It was on this occasion that the representatives 
 of cities were first summoned to the national assembly in 
 France. Philip then entered into a league with some Italian 
 malcontents, who seized Boniface VIII., and treated him so 
 ill, that he died soon after (1303). 
 
 § 125. Benedict XI. was the next pope, but his mild and 
 temperate measures caused him to be assassinated (1304). 
 The cardinals kept the papal chair vacant for some months, 
 and then conferred the tiara upon Clement V. With his 
 
FATE OF THE TEMPLAES. 91 
 
 assistance Philip suppressed the Knights Templars, who had 
 grown rich and relaxed the severity of their discipline. 
 They had abandoned the rules of monastic life, and spent 
 their time in the fashionable amusements of hunting, gal- 
 lantry, and the pleasures of the table. The grand master 
 and all the knights in Prance were imprisoned, and their 
 possessions seized (1307) ; many of them were put to the 
 rack, and others were burnt alive. In 1309 the papal see 
 was removed to Avignon ; and a general council, assembled 
 at Vienne, in Dauphiny (1311 and 1312), suppressed the 
 order of the Knights Templars, and their possessions were 
 divided among several sovereigns, while the Hospitallers 
 took a large portion. Philip again attempted to unite 
 Flanders to the French crown, and failing, he fell into a 
 languishing consumption, which carried him off, in the 
 forty-seventh year of his age (1314). He was certainly a 
 prince of great talents ; and, notwithstanding his vices, 
 Prance ought to reverence his memory. By fixing the parlia- 
 ments, or supreme courts of judicature, he secured the 
 ready execution of justice to all his subjects ; and though 
 his motive might not have been the most generous for call- 
 ing the third estate into the national council, he by that 
 measure put it into the power of the French nation to 
 establish a free government. 
 
 § 126. Louis X., surnamed Hutin, or the Quarrelsome, 
 succeeded, and after various acts of injustice and cruelty, 
 the most flagrant of which was the execution of his prime 
 minister, Marigni, he attempted to annex Flanders, failed, 
 and died in 1316. A violent dispute arose with regard to 
 the succession on this monarch's death. His posthumous 
 son John, by his second wife, only lived eight days, and a 
 daughter by his first wife claimed the crown. The states of 
 the kingdom assembled, and by a solemn decree declared all 
 females for ever incapable of succeeding to the crown of 
 France. This is called the Salic law, because it is supposed 
 to form a clause in the Salic code, the body of laws of an 
 ancient tribe among the Franks. Philip V., surnamed the 
 Long, brother to Louis X., was proclaimed king ; he died 
 in 1322, and was succeeded by his brother Charles IV., 
 surnamed le Bel, or the Fair. He quarrelled with his 
 brother-in-law Edward II. of England, respecting Gruienne, 
 and died in 1328. As this monarch left no male issue, 
 Philip of Valois, the next male heir, was unanimously 
 placed on the throne. 
 
92 SCOTCH EEBELLIOIT. 
 
 Letter 40. — England, Scotland, France, and Spain, during the Eeign 
 of Edward III. A.D. 1327— 1377. Vol. i„ pages 210— 22i. 
 
 § 127. During the earlier years of Edward the Third's 
 reiga, Eoger Mortimer and the' guilty queen-mother mono- 
 polized power, put the young king's uncle, the earl of Kent, 
 to death, and imprisoned many of the prelates and the 
 nobility. Edward resolved to assume the reins himself, 
 and by the aid of some of his nobles, Mortimer was arrested 
 and executed, and the queen imprisoned (1330). She Ian* 
 guished out five-and-twenty years in sorrow rather than 
 penitence, at Castle Eising, in Norfolk. Edward imme- 
 diately redressed the grievances of the people, and provided 
 for the strict administration of justice. In 1382, Edward 
 Balliol was crowned king of Scotland at Scone ; but was 
 afterwards driven into England by Sir Archibald Douglas. 
 Edward III. rushed to the rescue, defeated the rebels at the 
 battle of Halidown Hill (July 19, 1333) ; besieged and took 
 Berwick, and annexed it to England ; while Balliol was 
 restored and did homage to Edward as his superior lord. 
 The Scotch grew dissatisfied with their king, and again 
 rebelled (1334). Edward soon reduced them to obedience, 
 and once more set Balliol upon the throne. Another revolt 
 ensued the very next year with precisely the same results. 
 
 § 128. Through his mother Isabella, sister of Charles IV. 
 or le Bel, Edward founded a claim to the crown of France. 
 It was at once disregarded, the title of Philip of Valois 
 recognized and acknowledged, and Edward did homage to 
 Philip for G-uienne. The claim would in all probability 
 never have been revived, had it not been for the intrigues of 
 Eobert of Artois, who had married Philip's sister. He had 
 fallen into disgrace at the court of France, and, taking refuge 
 in England, excited Edward against his brother-in-law, 
 Philip thought he should be wanting in the first principles 
 of policy, if he abandoned Scotland ; and Edward pretended 
 that he must renounce all claim to generosity, if he with- 
 drew his protection from Eobert of Artois. Alliances were 
 formed on both sides, and great preparations were made for 
 war. The Flemings had at that time risen to great import- 
 ance, and Edward sought their alliance. They had recently 
 revolted against their nobles, under the leadership of James 
 Van Artevelde, a brewer of Ghent (1336), who ruled that 
 province. This democratic ruler was a terrible despot. 
 Edward landed with a large army in Antwerp in 1338, and 
 
BATTLE OF CEESSY. 93 
 
 assumed the title of king of France. The first campaign 
 produced nothing but conferences and mutual defiances, 
 and Edward, distressed for want of money, was obliged to 
 disband his army and return to England. Having promised 
 to redress grievances and to grant privileges to the boroughs, 
 Edward raised supplies ; and on his return to Flanders, 
 attacked the French fleet, took two hundred and thirty 
 French ships, and killed thirty thousand men. This was 
 the only important result of the second campaign ; and as 
 Philip refused a challenge to decide the matter by single 
 combat, by an action of one hundred against one hundred, 
 or by a general engagement, Edward found it necessary to 
 conclude a truce for one year (1340). 
 
 § 129. The truce would in all likelihood have been con- 
 verted into a solid peace, had it not been for an unexpected 
 circumstance. The count of Montfort seized the duchy of 
 Brittany, in opposition to Charles of Blois, the French 
 king's nephew, vrent over to England, and offered to do 
 homage to Edward, as king of France, for the said 
 duchy. An alliance was immediately formed, and on the 
 capture of the count of Montfort soon after, his wife, 
 Jane of Flanders, the most extraordinary woman of her 
 time, retrieved the afiaira of Brittany. She defended her- 
 self valiantly in Hennebonne ; Edward sent Eobert of 
 Artois with a reinforcement, and afterwards went to her 
 assistance himself. Eobert was killed before Vannes 
 (1342) ; and Edward concluded a truce for three years, on 
 honourable terms for himself and the countess (1343). 
 This truce was soon broken, Edward ravaged Normandy, 
 and approached the gates of Paris ; but at the advance 
 of Philip retreated towards Flanders. Oa approaching 
 the river Somme, Edward found all the bridges either 
 broken down or strongly guarded. The English king 
 crossed the river in a brilliant manner, drew up his troops 
 near the village of Creasy, and awaited the attack of the 
 French. His army was divided into three lines ; the first 
 being commanded by the prince of Wales, commonly called 
 the Black Prince, from the colour of his armour. The 
 battle began about three, and continued till towards 
 evening, vs^hen the whole French army fled (Aug. 25, 1346). 
 Forty thousand of the French are said to have fallen, and 
 the victory is in a great measure attributed to some pieces 
 of artillery, which were on this occasion used by the English 
 for the first time. John, king of Bohemia, for some years 
 
U BATTLE AT NEVILLE'S CEOSS. 
 
 blind, fell in the Erench ranks ; and as a memorial of this 
 triumph, his arms and crest Ich dien, have been retained by 
 the prince of "Wales. Edward continued his march towards 
 Calais with his victorious army. 
 
 § 130. David Bruce, king of Scotland, invaded England 
 with an army of fifty thousand men, during Edward's 
 absence. Philippa advanced to meet him with twelve thou- 
 sand men. She gave the command to Lord Percy ; a fierce 
 engagement ensued at Neville's Cross, near Durham (Oct. 17, 
 1346), when the Scotch were broken and driven off the 
 field with great slaughter. Fifteen thousand of them were 
 slain, and the king himself taken prisoner. After this 
 victory, Philippa joined her husband before Calais, where 
 she was received with great enthusiasm. Calais fell, after 
 an obstinate siege of twelve months (Aug. 4, 1347). 
 The terms of the capitulation were severe. Six of the 
 principal citizens were required to carry the keys of the 
 city to the English camp, bareheaded, barefooted, and with 
 ropes about their necks, like malefactors doomed to die. 
 Eustace de St. Pierre nobly volunteered for this perilous 
 service, and the number of voluntary victims was speedily 
 completed. Edward, exasperated at the stout resistance of 
 the place, ordered these noble fellows for immediate execu- 
 tion, but Philippa threw herself upon her knees before her 
 husband, and obtained their release. The inhabitants were 
 expelled, and it was peopled anew with English subjects, 
 A truce was soon afterwards concluded with France, and 
 Edward returned in triumph to England. The order of the 
 Garter, by some said to have been instituted by Eichard I. 
 (1192), and by others, by Edward I., was at all events 
 revived in this reign (1349). 
 
 § 131. A terrible plague swept over Europe in 1348, 
 and in London alone 50,000 are said to have perished. 
 Philip of Valois died in 1350, without having re-estabHshed 
 the aifairs of France, which his unsuccessful war with 
 England had thrown into great disorder. His son, John II., 
 or the Good, succeeded. Charles, king of Navarre, surnamed 
 the Bad, a scion of the royal race, induced the king's son 
 Charles to rebel against his father. This prince was the 
 first that bore the title of Dauphin, from Dauphiny, which 
 was in 1349 ceded to Philip of Valois, on condition that 
 the heirs to the French throne should bear the arms and 
 name of that province. Charles, however, relented ; invited 
 =the king of Navarre and other noblemen of the party to a 
 
BATTLE OF POITIERS. 95 
 
 feast at Eouen, where they were betrayed into the hands of 
 John (1355). Some of the most obnoxious were imme- 
 diately led to execution, and the king of Navarre was 
 thrown into prison. But this stroke of severity in the 
 French monarch, and of treachery in the Dauphin, did not 
 restore the royal authority. Philip of Navarre, brother to 
 Charles the Bad, and G-eoffrey d'Harcourt revolted, and had 
 immediate recourse to England. The truce between the 
 two kingdoms, never very rigidly observed, had now expired, 
 and war was again renewed. Encouraged by the success 
 of the first campaign, the prince of Wales penetrated into 
 the heart of France, with an army of only twelve thousand 
 men. John, provoked at the insult, advanced to meet him 
 with sixty thousand combatants. The French king overtook 
 the English at Maupertuis, near Poitiers, when the Black 
 Prince, by his courage and prudence, defeated the French, 
 and took their king prisoner (Sept. 19, 1356). Edward 
 treated his royal captive with great humanity, serving at 
 his table, as if he had been one of his retinue. The prince 
 of Wales conducted the royal prisoner to Bordeaux, and 
 after concluding a truce for two years, brought him over to 
 England (1357). Here John met a brother in affliction, 
 David of Scotland, who had been nearly eleven years in 
 captivity. Edward consented to restore David Bruce to 
 liberty for a ransom of one hundred thousand marks 
 sterling. 
 
 § 132. France was violently distracted. In 1356 the 
 Dauphin convoked the States-General, when a struggle 
 commenced between these rival powers. Stephen Marcel, 
 provost of the merchants of Paris, headed the populace. At 
 the meeting of the States- General in 1857 he dictated terms 
 to the Dauphin, and appointed thirty-six commissaries, taken 
 from among themselves, to administer the finances, and 
 direct affairs in concert with the prince. The Dauphin 
 afterwards endeavoured to evade these terms and to get up 
 a demonstration in his favour, when Marcel became actual 
 king of Paris. He caused two marshals of France to be 
 massacred, and detained the Dauphin in captivity. The 
 latter escaped, and with the nobles, prepared to take revenge. 
 Then followed the general rising of the French peasantry, 
 known as the insurrection of La Jacquerie, so called from the 
 cant phrase Jacques bon homme, applied to men of that class 
 (1358). The gentry were hunted like wild beasts, and put 
 to the sword without mercy. Their castles were destroyed, 
 
86 LA JACQTJEEIE. 
 
 their wives and daughters insulted and then murdered. 
 The king of Navarre escaped from prison, put himself 
 at the head of the malcontents, and acted with such bar- 
 barity, that all the French who wished to restore peace to 
 their desolated country turned their eyes towards the 
 Dauphin. The turbulent Marcel was slain in attempting to 
 deliver Paris to the king of Navarre. The capital imme- 
 diately returned to its duty, the mutinous peasants were 
 dispersed or put to the sword, some of the military bands 
 experienced the same fate, and France began to reassume the 
 appearance of civil government (1360). 
 
 § 133. The truce for two years had no sooner expired, 
 than Edward invaded France anew, with all the military 
 force of England. John, tired of his long captivity, had 
 agreed to a shameful treaty, which was rejected unanimously 
 by the States- General and the Dauphin, in 1359. After 
 having pillaged many towns, and levied contributions upon 
 others, Edward concluded the treaty of Bretigni (May 8, 
 1360). It stipulated that John should pay three millions 
 of gold crowns for his ransom; that Edward should renounce 
 all pretensions to the crown of France ; and while Normandy, 
 Anjou, Maine, and Touraine, possessed by his ancestors, 
 were to be ceded by Edward, other provinces and cities 
 were given as an equivalent. John returning to England 
 in order to adjust certain matters in this treaty, sickened 
 and died, at the palace of the Savoy, in 1364. He was 
 succeeded by his sou Charles V., surnamed the Wise. This 
 prince first turned his attention to home affairs, and by the 
 valour and firmness of Bertrand du Guesclin, defeated the 
 king of Navarre, and reduced him to terms (1364). He 
 also settled the affairs of Brittany, by acknowledging the 
 title of Montfort, who did homage for his dominions. On 
 the conclusion of the peace with England, a multitude of 
 disbanded military adventurers, under the name of I^ee 
 Companies, became a terror to the inhabitants of France. 
 They refused to lay down their arms, or relinquish a course 
 of life to which they had become accustomed by the con- 
 tinual wars of the period, and maintained possession of the 
 principal strongholds of the kingdom. Some English and 
 Gascon gentlemen of character commanded these ruffians, 
 nearly forty thousand in number, and by discipline and 
 training, they bore the appearance of regular armies, rather 
 than of bands of robbers. An opportunity at last presented 
 itself for the employment of these adventurers. 
 
WAR IN FRANCE. 97 
 
 § 134. Alphonso XI., king of Castile, who, in 1343, after 
 a siege of nineteen months, had wrested Algesiras from the 
 Moors, was succeeded in 1350 by his son Peter I., surnamed 
 the Cruel. This prince caused his father's mistress, Eleonora 
 of Guzman, to be put to death (1351), murdered many of 
 his relatives and nobles, and had his queen, Blanche of 
 Bourbon, of the royal blood of France, to whom he was 
 married in 1353, first imprisoned (1354), and then poi- 
 soned (1361). Henry, count of .Trastamara, natural son 
 of Alphonso XI., by Eleanora of Guzman, and consequently 
 Peter the Cruel's brother, having failed in an attempt to 
 gain the crown, took refuge in France. The continued 
 tyranny of Peter the Cruel induced him to revive that 
 claim, and he obtained permission from Charles V. of 
 France to enlist the Free Companies in his service (1365) . 
 Led by Du Guesclin, this army prevailed over the king of 
 Castile, who took shelter in Guienne, and craved the pro- 
 tection of the Black Prince. The latter levied an expedition, 
 recalled the Free Companies from the service of Henry of 
 Trastamara, and defeated his forces at Najara (April 3, 
 1367), and restored Peter to the throne of Castile. This 
 despot had been restrained from perpetrating great cruelties 
 by the Black Prince, and he refused the stipulated pay to 
 his English deliverers, whereupon Edward abandoned him 
 to his fate. Henry of Trastamara again invaded Castile, 
 defeated Peter, near Toledo (March 14, 1369), and slew him 
 with his own hand, in resentment of his cruelties. Though 
 illegitimate, Henry was honoured with the crown of Castile, 
 which he transmitted to his posterity. 
 
 § 135. In the mean time the affairs of the Black Prince 
 fell into disorder. The Spanish expedition put him to so 
 much expense, that he imposed a new tax upon his foreign 
 principality. The nobility murmured, and carried their 
 complaints to the king of France, as lord paramount, who, 
 as the renunciations in the treaty of Bretigni had never 
 been made, seized the opportunity to renew his claim of 
 superiority over the English provinces. He summoned the 
 Black Prince to appear in his court at Paris, and the latter 
 replied, that he would attend at the head of sixty thousand 
 men. War was renewed between France and England 
 (1369), and, on account of the declining health of the prince 
 of Wales, the French were victorious in nearly every action. 
 The Black Prince was compelled to throw up the command, 
 and the English were in a few years stripped of all their 
 
 H 
 
93 CIVIL WAR IN GERMANY. 
 
 ancient possessions in France, except Bordeaux and 
 Bayonne, and of all their conquests except Calais (1369— 
 1373). Edward the Black Prince died in 1376, and his 
 father expired, in the fifty-first year of his reign, in 1377. 
 The domestic government of Edward was even more worthy 
 of admiration than his foreign victories. By the pnidenee 
 and vigour of his administration, England enjoyed a longer 
 internal repose than she had done at any former period. 
 Edward gained the affections of the great, yet curbed their 
 licentiousness. Charles V. of Erance died in 1380, when 
 Erance as well as England fell under the government of 
 a minor. 
 
 Letter 41. — The German Empire and its Dependencies, from the 
 Election of Louis of Bavaria to the Death of Charles IV. a.d. 1314 
 —1378. Vol. i., pages 224—229. 
 
 § 136. On the death of Henry VII., emperor of Grermany, 
 an interregnum of fourteen months ensued, when Louis 
 of Bavaria was elected by a majority of the princes, and 
 Erederic, duke of Austria, by a faction. A furious civiJ 
 war, which long desolated Germany and Italy, was the 
 consequence of this opposition. It was at last agreed 
 to settle the dispute by thirty champions, fifteen against 
 fifteen. They engaged in presence of both armies, and 
 contended with such fury, that in a short time not one 
 of them was left alive. A general action followed, ia 
 which the Austrians were worsted ; but the victory was not 
 decisive. Another battle was, soon after, fought at Miibl- 
 dorf, or Ampfing, in which Erederic, duke of Austria, 
 was taken prisoner, and the imperial crown fixed upon 
 the head of Louis IV. (September 28, 1322). In the 
 course of these struggles the Swiss defeated Leopold'of 
 Austria at the battle of Morgarten (November 16, 1315), 
 and secured their independence. The alliance which the 
 three cantons had entered into for ten years was converted 
 into a perpetual league, to which the other cantons acceded. 
 
 § 137. Louis IV. found a new antagonist in John XXII., 
 who, through the influence of the French king, had been 
 elected pope in 1316. This haughty prelate, the son of a 
 cobbler, declared the election of Louis void; proceeded to 
 excommunicate and then depose the new emperor, and 
 endeavoured to get Charles the Eair, of Erance, appointed 
 xu his stead. The attempt miscarried, and Louis marched 
 into Italy ; was crowned first at Milan (1327) and then at 
 
EIENZI. 99 
 
 Eome (1328), deposing John XXII., and raising Nicholas V. 
 to the papal chair. The next year Louis was recalled into 
 Germany, on account of the disturbed state of the country, 
 when John XXII. recovered his authority, and imprisoned 
 his rival. This turbulent pope, who &st invented taxes fq/c 
 dispensations and mortal sins, died immensely rich in 1334, 
 just as Louis was preparing to assemble a general council, in 
 order to depose him for the second time. He was succeeded 
 by Benedict XII., who confirmed all the bulls which had 
 been issued by John against the emperor. Louis endea- 
 voured to negotiate, but the influence of the French king 
 prevailed, and the sentence of excomtQunieation was re- 
 newed. The princes of the empire, ecclesiastical as well as 
 secular, in a diet at Frankfort, established that famous con- 
 stitution by which it was irrevocably decreed, " that the 
 plurality of the suffrages of the electoral college was sufficient, 
 without the sanction of the pope, for the settlement of the 
 imperial dignity ; that the pope had no superiority over the 
 emperor, nor any right to approve or reject his election; 
 and that to maintain the contrary was high treason." The 
 absurd claim of the popes to the government of the empire 
 during a vacancy was disallowed, and the right declared to 
 belong, by ancient custom, to the count palatine of the 
 Ehine (1338). Germany enjoyed peace for some time, 
 which was disturbed by Benedict's successor, Clement VI., 
 elected in 1342. He began his pontificate by renewing aU 
 the bulls issued against Louis, naming a vicar-general of the 
 empire in Lombardy, and inciting Italy to shake off the 
 emperor's authority. Louis tried to settle matters by nego- 
 tiation ; but the papal conditions were so unreasonable, that 
 they were rejected with disdain by a diet of the empire 
 (1343), which further incensed Clement ; and he caused 
 Charles of Luxemburg, son and heir of John, king of 
 Bohemia, to be elected by a faction (1346). Louis, how- 
 ever, retained the throne till his death (1347), when 
 Charles of Luxemburg succeeded, reigning under the title of 
 Charies IV. 
 
 § 138. A singular scene was about this time exhibited iu 
 Italy. In 1347, Nicola di Eienzi, a private citizen of Eome, 
 set himself up as the restorer of the Eoman liberty and power. 
 He was made tribune, effected many reforms, committed many 
 foUies, and was compelled to flee. After several years of exile, 
 some passed in prison, he returned to Eome ; and being ap- 
 pointed senator (1354), was afterwards assassinated by the 
 H 2 
 
100 THE GOLDEN BULL. 
 
 patrician faction. Terrible scenes occurred in Naples and 
 Sicilj, which continued to be ruled by foreigners. Eobert 
 of Anjou, though he failed in his attempt to recover Sicily, 
 made' Naples a flourishing kingdom. He died in 1343; 
 yhen his grand-daughter Joan, married to Andrew of Hun- 
 gary, was crowned without her husband. This unfortunate 
 prince was soon after strangled (1345), and his widow 
 married Louis, prince of Tarentum (1347). The king of 
 Hungary took up arms to avenge his brother, and advanced 
 upon Naples, when Joan and her husband sought refuge in 
 Provence. She visited Clement VI. at Avignon, sold the pon- 
 tiff that city and its territories, of which she was sovereign; for 
 eighty thousand florins in gold, which were never paid; and 
 -by his intervention regained the kingdom of Naples (1348), 
 Having settled the affairs of Germany, Charles IV. went to 
 Home, to receive the imperial crown from the new pope, 
 Innocent VI., to whom he made the most abject submission 
 (1355). He not only discouraged and rejected the proffers 
 of the Grhibelins, but affected to treat them as enemies to 
 religion, and actually supported the G-uelfs. On his returQj 
 Charles assembled a diet at Nuremberg, in order to settle 
 disputes with reference to the number of electors. The 
 famous constitution called the Golden Bull was promul- 
 gated as the fundamental law of the empire, in the presence, 
 and with the consent, of all the princes, bishops, abbots, 
 and the deputies of the imperial cities (1356). The seven 
 electors named were the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and 
 Treves, the king of Bohemia, the Count Palatine, the duke 
 of Saiony, and the margrave of Brandenburg." The famous 
 edict was proclaimed with imposing ceremonials. The latter 
 part of the reign of Charles IV. was distinguished by no 
 remarkable transaction, except the sale of the imperial 
 jurisdictions in Italy, which were alternately resumed and 
 sold. Charles was reputed a good prince, but a weak 
 emperor. He was an encourager of learning, and founded 
 the university of Prague. He died in 1878, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son "Wencealaus. 
 
 » The electors were declared equal to kings ; conspiracy against them 
 was to be considered high treason, and many privileges were accorded. 
 The imperial elections were fixed to take place at Frankfort, and the 
 emperor was to be crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, by the archbishop of 
 Cologne. In fact, the instrument clearly defined the prerogatives ot 
 the electoral college. 
 
THE POLL-TAX. 101 
 
 Letter 42. — England, from the Death of Edward III. to the Accession 
 of Henry Y., with some account of the afiairs of Scotland during that 
 period, a.d. 1377—1413. Vol. i., pages 229—235. 
 
 § 139. Eicliard II., son of Edward the Black Prince, 
 ■was only eleven years old at his accession ; and bis three 
 uncles, the dukes of Lancaster, Tork, and Grloucester, 
 administered the afiairs of his kingdom. In. order to remedy 
 the ruinous deficit caused by the long wars with France, the 
 English parliament found it necessary to impose a capitation, 
 or poll-tax, of three groats a bead, upon every person, male 
 or female, above fifteen years of age (1379). This did not 
 fail to excite discontent, and the insolent conduct of one of 
 the tax-gatherers led to a revolt. The offender was slain, 
 the people took up arms, and under the leadership of Wat 
 Tyler, assembled on Blackheath, and marched into the city 
 of London, committing various acts of violence (1381). 
 The young king went out to leam their desires ; they 
 required a general pardon, the abolition of slavery, freedom 
 of commerce in market-towns, without toll or impost, and a 
 fixed rent on lands instead of the services due by villenage. 
 Wat Tyler, in making these demands, brandished his sword 
 in a menacing manner, and this so incensed William Wal- 
 worth, lord mayor of London, that he levelled the rebel to 
 the earth. His associates prepared to take vengeance ; when 
 Eichard, with great presence of mind, put himself at their 
 head, and peaceably dismissed them, after granting their 
 demands. The promise, given by this vigorous act, when 
 only sixteen years of age, was not, however, fulfilled. 
 Eichard made a foolish expedition into Scotland (1385), 
 and on his return abandoned himself entirely to a favourite, 
 Eobert de Vere, earl of Oxford, whom he made marquis of 
 Dublin and duke of Ireland, with a parliamentary grant of 
 the sovereignty of that kingdom for life (1386). A civil war 
 was the consequence ; in which the royal party was defeated, 
 and Eichard obliged to resign the government into the hands 
 of a council of fourteen, appointed by the Parliament. 
 
 § 140. Eichard was soon entirely reconciled to his uncles, 
 and again exercised the regal power. Many intrigues were 
 carried on, and it is said that the duke of Gloucester aspired 
 to the crown, when he was arrested on a charge of high 
 treason, and banished (1397). He died soon after, at Calais, 
 under circumstances that justify the suspicion of foul play. 
 Some noblemen of his party were executed, and others were 
 
102 EARLY ENGLISH REFORMERS. 
 
 imprisoned, or banished. The dukes of Hereford and 
 Norfolk, having quarrelled, appeared to settle the dispute by 
 single combat, whereupon they were banished by the king, 
 the former for ten years, and the latter for life (1398). On 
 the death of the duke of Lancaster, father to the exiled Henry 
 duke of Hereford, Eichard seized the estates (1399). While 
 Eichard was absent in Ireland, quelling an insurrection, the 
 duke of Hereford landed at Eavenspur, in Yorkshire, and 
 was speedily joined by numerous adherents. Directly 
 Eichard heard of the invasion he landed at Milford Haven, 
 with twenty thousand men. Being deserted by the greater 
 portion of his troops, he surrendered, was deposed by the 
 Parliament, and sent prisoner to Pontefract Castle; while 
 the duke of Hereford ascended the throne, under the title 
 of Henry lY. 
 
 § 141. Henry was believed to have strongly imbibed the 
 principles of Wickliffe, a secular priest, educated at Oxford, 
 who, during the reigns of Edward III. and Eichard H., 
 preached the doctrine of reformation, and became the first 
 mover in the great convulsion that followed. Finding him- 
 self possessed of the throne on so precarious a title, this 
 prince abandoned his liberals views, considering superstition 
 a necessary engine of public authority. He accordingly 
 permitted a law to be enacted, that when any heretic, who 
 relapsed or refused to abjure his opinions, was delivered 
 over to the secular arm, by the bishop or his commissaries, 
 he should be committed to the flames by the civil magistrate, 
 before the whole people. Willian* Sautre, a clergyman in 
 London, was condemned by the Convocation, at Canterbury, 
 for denying transubstantiation, and burned at Smithfield 
 (1401) :» he was the first martyr in England. Owen Glen- 
 dower, a descendant of the ancient princes of Wales, raised 
 an insurrection in that country, and the Scotch invaded 
 
 ' 2 Hen. IV., c. 15. Sufficient attention haa not been p^d by his- 
 torians to the struggles of our eariy reformers, to the stand that was 
 made through the dark ages by our ancestors against the aggressions of 
 Rome, and the preservation of the true faith in our island. Had it not 
 been for the labours of Wickliffe, and other noble-minded Englishmen, 
 the reformation in Germany would not, in all probability, have been 
 accomplished. Our courageous ancestors scattered the grain which 
 produced so rich a harvest; and by enforcing the true doctrines of 
 Christianity, giving the Bible to the people in the vulgar tongue, 
 and protesting against transubstantiation and other deadly errors, 
 prepared the way for the final emancipation of the human mind. 
 Their writings spread over Europe, and aroused continental Europe to 
 action. 
 
CIVIL WAES. 103 
 
 England. The latter were repulsed by Henry, and pursued 
 by him to Edinburgh (1401). 
 
 § 142. The Northumberland Percies again routed the 
 Scotch, who had made another irruption into England, with 
 hnmense slaughter, at Homedon Hill (1402) . Henry sent the 
 earl of Northumberland orders not to ransom his prisoners, 
 and this so offended that powerful nobleman, that he entered 
 into an alliance with the Scotch malcontents, and attempted 
 to effect a junction with Owen Grlendower. Before he could 
 accomplish this, he was encountered by the king, near 
 Shrewsbury, and a terrible conflict ensued. Harry Percy, 
 called Hotspur, was slain, and this decided the day. 
 The royalists prevailed (July 21, 1403) ; Henry prince of 
 Wales distinguished himself greatly in this, his first field. 
 Northumberland was pardoned, but was afterwards con- 
 cerned in another revolt, and slain, at Bramham (1407). 
 The prince of "Wales defeated Owen Glendower, at Mon- 
 mouth, on the 11th of May, 1405, when that chieftain took 
 refuge in the mountains, where he soon after died. Henry 
 devoted the remainder of his reign to the regulation of the 
 affairs of his kingdom; which he at length brought into 
 order, by his valour, prudence, and address. He died at 
 "Westminster, in the forty-seventh year of his age, and the 
 fourteenth of his reign (1413). He left behind him the 
 reputation of a wise prince and a prudent king, but a bad 
 man ; and yet, if we consider the circumstances in which he 
 was involved, we can hardly conceive how any one could carry 
 his ambition to the same height, and transmit a throne to 
 his posterity, with less violence to humanity. 
 
 Lettek 43. — The German Empire and its Dependencies, from the 
 Accession of Wenceslaus to the Death of Sigismund. a.d. 1378 — 
 1437. Vol i., pages 235—241. 
 
 § 143. "Wenceslaus, at the age of seventeen, succeeded 
 his father, Charles IV., in the government of the empire 
 and the throne of Bohemia, when the Church experienced 
 one of those violent contests so disgraceful to Christianity 
 (1378). The cardinals, on the death of Grregory XI., raised 
 "IJrban "VI. to the papal chair ; but they afterwards annulled 
 the act, protesting that improper influences had been brought 
 to bear upon them, and appointed Clement VII. Hence 
 arose the great schism of the West. They waged a keen 
 contest, in which all Europe was deeply interested. During 
 these troubles Wenceslaus appointed the marquis of Moravia 
 
104 GBEAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. 
 
 his vicar-general in Italy ; he held a diet at Nuremberg, and 
 another at Frankfort, at which Urban VI. was acknow- 
 ledged by the German bishops and archbishops ; and "Wen- 
 ceslaus and the princes of the empire engaged to protect 
 him in the papacy. "Wenceslaus afterwards retired to Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, and neglected the a&irs of the empire to such a 
 degree, that the princes and towns of Germany were obliged 
 to enter into associations for their mutual defence (1381). 
 
 § 144. Italy was at the same time torn in pieces by the 
 schism in the Church. Clement VII., who had taken Eoine 
 from his rival, was in his turn expelled, and retired to 
 Avignon (1378) . Urban VI. used his victory like a tyrant ; 
 he first vented his rage on Joan, queen of Naples, who had 
 espoused the cause of Clement (1380) . Urban induced Charles 
 de Durazzo, the heir to the throne, and the only remaining 
 descendant of the house of Anjou in Naples, to endeavour 
 to wrest the kingdom from her. The scheme succeeded, 
 and Joan was made prisoner and cruelly smothered (1382). 
 Thus perished the famous Queen Joan, who had been cele- 
 brated by Petrarch and Boccaccio. While one gallant 
 woman thus sank beneath the arm of power, another 
 triumphed over all opposition. Margaret, called the Semi- 
 ramis of the North, ascended the throne of Denmark, on 
 the death of her son Olaf IV. (1387). The Swedes offered 
 her the crown, she accepted it, marched against Albert, 
 their king, and dethroned him (1389). Wenceslaus, by his 
 debaucheries, extortions, and barbarities, continued to 
 disgust his subjects, and the electors assembled at the 
 castle of Laenstein, on the Rhine, deposed him, and ap- 
 pointed Henry of Brunswick in his stead (1400). This 
 prince was basely murdered before his coronation by Count 
 Waldeck, and the electors chose Eupert or Eobert, Count 
 Palatine of the Ehine. Thereupon Wenceslaus retired to 
 his kingdom of Bohemia, over which, after one or two rather 
 severe lessons, he ruled with greater moderation. The new 
 emperor's first expedition was against Galeazzo Visconti, 
 who wielded great power in Italy. The enterprise mis- 
 carried, and the emperor returned to Germany, where he 
 devoted his attention to the security and aggrandizement 
 of his dominions. Galeazzo died of the plague in 1402. 
 
 § 145. Bohemia was involved in fresh disorders by the 
 preaching of John Huss, who had embraced the opinions of 
 Wickliffe, and was excommunicated by the pope. The 
 pubhcation of this sentence was followed by troubles and, 
 
GERMAN REFORMERS. 105 
 
 sedition (1411). The Eoman church not only suffered from 
 these innovations, but continued distracted by the violent 
 schism already mentioned. On the death of IJrban VI. in 
 1389, it was continued by the election of Boniface IX., and 
 again renewed when Clement VII. expired in 1394, by the 
 elevation of Benedict XIII. Boniface IX. died in 1404, 
 when the lioman cardinals named as his successor Inno- 
 cent VII. ; and as Benedict XIII. refused to resign, the 
 schism continued. Innocent VII. died in 1406, and 
 Gregory XII. received the suffrages of the cardinals. 
 Various councils were summoned by the two parties, a 
 diet was called in Frankfort, but the schism could not be 
 healed. The cardinals called a council at Pisa ; but the 
 two popes refused to appear, and were deposed. Alex- 
 ander Vi being elected by the cardinals, was received by 
 the greater part of Europe as the true pope. By this the 
 schism was increased, and three popes, instead of two, 
 contended for supremacy (1409). Alexander V. died in 
 1410 ; John XXIII. was elected in his place, and the 
 three popes launched forth denunciations at each other. 
 The emperor died the same year, when Sigismund, brother 
 of Wenceslaus and king of Hungary, received the suffrages 
 of a majority of the electors. Sigismund having visited 
 Italy, convoked a council at Constance, for the settlement 
 of the schism of the Church. This council met on the 5th 
 of November, 1414 ; John XXIII, presided, and although he 
 at first, in compliance with the request of the fathers of the 
 councU, resigned the pontificate, yet he afterwards repented 
 of this step, and made his escape in the disguise of a 
 postilion. The fathers deposed him, and decreed that a 
 council was superior to the pope. Thereupon John XXIII. 
 yielded, and Gregory XII. soon after tendered his resignation 
 (1415) ; but Benedict XIII., who was a Spaniard, obstinately 
 refused to submit to the authority of the council. 
 
 § 146. The affair of John Huss was next discussed. He 
 had made many converts, and among them Jerome of 
 Prague, a learned man, who advocated the new doctrines 
 with enthusiasm and success. The master and his distin- 
 guished convert had been summoned to appear before the 
 court of Eome (1413), which they refused to do; but 
 being furnished with a safe-conduct by Sigismund, con- 
 descended to attend the council of Constance, John Huss 
 was accused of heresy in thirty-nine articles, degraded, and 
 delivered over to the secular judge, who condemned him 
 
106 PERSECUTION. 
 
 and his writings to the flames. This noble martyr died with 
 great constancy (1415). After the execution of John Huss, 
 the council returned to consider the course to be adopted 
 with reference to Benedict XIII., who had taken refuge 
 in Spain. Sigismund volunteered to go and obtain his 
 renunciation; but Benedict's obstinacy proved invincible. 
 During Sigismund's absence in Spain, Jerome of Prague 
 was brought to trial before the council. Having endea- 
 voured to make his escape, he had been caught, and brought 
 back to Constance loaded with chains. This noble reformer 
 at first solemnly abjured the opinions of Wickliife and Huas, 
 but he afterwards revoked his recantation, and suffered 
 death at the stake with heroic constancy (1416). The 
 council proceeded against Benedict XIII. for contumacy, 
 deposed him, and elected Martin V. (1417). The new- 
 pope returned to Italy, attended by Sigismund and a nume- 
 rous train. The council of Constance broke up after its forty- 
 fifth session, having put an end to the schism in the Church 
 (April 22, 1418). The Hussites, under Ziska, revolted on 
 account of the prohibition of the cup to the laity at the 
 sacrament ; they forced the town-house and murdered the 
 magistrates. This made such an impression upon Wences- 
 laus, that he was seized with apoplexy and died in a few 
 days (1419). His brother Sigismund, emperor of Grermany 
 and king of Hungary, succeeded, and became involved in a 
 terrible contest with the Hussites, by whom he was several 
 times defeated. Ziska continued master of Bohemia till his 
 death (1424) ; he had ordered a drum to be made of his 
 skin, which was long the symbol of victory. A priest named 
 Procopius, surnamed the Shaven, succeeded hiin, and 
 valiantly defended the cause of the Hussites, both in the 
 field and in the council-chamber ; he played a bold part at 
 the council of Basle, assembled in 1431, and fell in battle 
 in 1436. By the treaty of Iglau, concluded the same year, 
 the Hussites obtained a general amnesty, the right of using 
 the cup in the communion, and a confirmation of many of 
 their privileges. Sigismund enlisted the Hussites in his 
 army, led them against the Turks, who had then entered 
 Hungary, and defeated them with great slaughter. Sigis- 
 mund died in 1437, having nominated as his successor, Albert, 
 duke of Austria, his son-in-law. The electors ratified his 
 choice, and the house of Hapsburg have ever since held the 
 imperial thrpne. Although Sigismund possessed many 
 respectable qualities, he was a narrow-minded bigot. 
 
DISTEACTED STATE OF FRANCE. 107 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Lettee 44. — France, from the Death of Charles V. to the Invasion of 
 that Kingdom by Henry V. of England, a.d. 1380—1415. Vol. i.,- 
 pages 241—244. 
 
 § 147. At this period both Prance and England were 
 under the government of minors ; and the jealousies between 
 the three uncles of Charles VI., the dukes of Anjou, Berri, 
 and Burgundy, distracted the affairs of France more than 
 the rivalry between the dukes of Lancaster, York, and 
 Gloucester, the three uncles of Eichard II., had disturbed 
 those of England. The duke of Anjou died in 1384, and, on 
 assuming the reins of government, Charles showed signs of 
 genius and spirit which revived the hopes of his countrymen. 
 This promising state of affairs was, however, of short dura- 
 tion, for, in 1392, Charles was attacked by fits of melancholy 
 madness, which rendered him incapable of exercising his 
 authority. History scarcely affords any parallel instance of 
 a court or country more <;orrupt, and more miserable, than 
 that of this unfortunate monarch and his subjects, in con- 
 sequence of his infirmity. Power fell again into the hands 
 of the dukes of Berri and Burgundy, who excluded the duke 
 of Orleans, the king's brother, from any share in the govern- 
 ment.- The duchess of Orleans, however, obtained a com- 
 plete ascendancy over Charles ; and the duchess of Burgundy 
 caused it be rumoured, that she and her husband had 
 bewitched the king. 
 
 § 148. In the midst of these disputes Philip, duke of 
 Burgundy, died (1404), when his son, John the Fearless, 
 endeavoured to monopolize power as his father had done. 
 But the duke of Orleans resisted ; and at length the dukes 
 of Orleans and Burgundy agreed to bury all past quarrels 
 in oblivion, and enter into a league of mutual amity (1407). 
 This new friendship was pledged before the altar, and con- 
 firmed by the sacrament, yet John of Burgundy made it the 
 cover of the basest treachery, and had his rival assassinated 
 in the streets of Paris. He afterwards avowed and justified 
 
108 DIFFERENT PAETIES. 
 
 the action, and was brought before the parliament of Paris, 
 where John Petit pleaded in the duke's defence,— that the 
 duke of Orleans was a tyrant, and deserved death. The 
 princes of the blood, combining with the young duke of 
 Orleans, took up arms against the duke of Burgundy, and 
 the kingdom was once more convulsed by civil war. The 
 two parties were called the Burgundians and the Armagnacs. 
 The latter name was given to the adherents of the young 
 duke of Orleans from his father-in-law, the count of 
 Armagnac, who became the life and soul of the league. 
 Terrible scenes ensued. The heads of the university of 
 Paris about this time began to rise in importance, as they 
 were frequently consulted by both parties. John, duke 
 of Burgundy, armed a chosen body of five hundred journey- 
 men butchers or skinners, who took the name of OabooMms 
 from John Oaboehe, their leader. The Armagnacs made 
 interest with the fraternity of carpenters, the people ranged 
 themselves on one side or the other, and the fate of the 
 capital depended on the prevalence of either faction. 'Wleii 
 this contention was at the height, Henry Y. of England 
 prepared to maintain his claim to the throne of Tranee by 
 force of arms (1415). 
 
 Lettek 45. — England and France, from the Invasion of the latter 
 Kingdom by Henry V. to the Death of Charles VI. A.D. 1415— 
 1422. Vol i., pages 244—248. 
 
 § 149. On succeeding to the throne of England, Henry V, 
 discarded his former lawless associates, and received, with 
 marks of favour and confidence, his father's ministers. His 
 first care was to banish, as much as possible, all party dis- 
 tinctions. The Lollards, or disciples of Wicklifie, had be- 
 come a formidable body, headed by Sir John Oldcastle, Lord 
 Cobham, a nobleman of great military talents. Arundel, 
 archbishop of Canterbury, eager to prosecute, demanded 
 permission from the young king to proceed against Lord 
 Cobham. This was at first refused ; but as Lord Cobham 
 proved obstinate, Henry at last consented, and the Lollard 
 nobleman was condemned to the flames, but managed to 
 make his escape. Provoked by persecution, Lord Cobham 
 engaged in a conspiracy, many of his followers were put to 
 death, and he himself, after a variety of distresses, was burnt 
 as a heretic (1414). 
 
 § 150. The Lollards being thus silenced, Henry pre- 
 pared to invade Prance. He accordingly set sail froDi 
 
AGINCOUKT. 109 
 
 Southampton, and landed near Harfleur, with six thousand 
 men-at-arms, and twenty-four thousand infantry, chiefly 
 archers (1415). Harfleur was immediately invested, and 
 taken by assault, after a siege of nearly six weeks, when the 
 garrison were put to the sword (September 26). The fatigue 
 of this siege, and the unusual heat of the season, had so 
 much wasted the English army, that Henry was obliged to 
 think of returning to England. Having dismissed his trans- 
 ports, he could only escape by land by way of Calais, and 
 as a French army intercepted bis line of route, he offered 
 to exchange Harfleur for a safe passage to that place. Thia 
 was refused; and when Henry set out, his troops were 
 harassed by the enemy, and his supplies of provisions cut 
 off. The whole Erench army took up a position in the 
 plains of Azincour, or Agincourt, and Henry found that 
 it was impossible for him to advance without fighting 
 a battle. The enemy were four times more numerous than 
 the English, and were commanded by the Dauphin and all 
 the princes of the blood. Henry's situation was exactly 
 similar to that of Edward III. at the battle of Cressy, and 
 of the Black Prince at Poitiers, and he followed the prudent 
 example set by those commanders. He drew up hia army 
 on a narrow piece of ground, between two woods, which 
 guarded each flank, and in that position patiently waited for 
 the attack. The French rushed impetuously to the assault, 
 fell into confusion, and were defeated. During the battle 
 some gentlemen of Picardy had seized upon the English 
 baggage, and this caused an alarm, which induced Henry to 
 give orders for the slaughter of the prisoners. As soon as he 
 found that aU was safe, counter orders were issued (Oct. 15). 
 Seven princes of the blood were slain, and five taken 
 prisoners. Foxirteen thousand Frenchmen were made cap- 
 tive, and ten thousand left upon the field of battle, while 
 Henry's loss was barely a thousand men. Henry could 
 make but little use of the victory, so he agreed to a suspen- 
 sion of hostilities, and returned to England to raise fresh 
 supplies of men and money. 
 
 § 151. In the mean time France was exposed to the furies 
 of civil war, and the Burgundian and Armagnac factions 
 deluged the country with blood. Henry V., having recruited 
 his forces and finances, landed in Normandy at the head of 
 25,000 men, and carried everything before him (1418). He 
 continued to negotiate with the rival factions : the two 
 parties treated with each other, and aU things seemed settled 
 
110 TREATY OF TKOYES. 
 
 to their satisfaction, when the duke of Burgundy was slain 
 hy the Dauphin's party, during a conference at Montereau 
 (August 18, 1419). In consequence of this, and the pro- 
 gress of Henry's arms, the queen and the new duke of 
 Burgundy concluded the famous treaty of Troyes ; the prin- 
 cipal articles of which were, that Henry should marry the, 
 princess Katherine of Valois, — that her father, Charles VI., 
 should enjoy, during his lifetime, the title and dignity of 
 king of France, — that Henry V. of England should be 
 declared and acknowledged heir of the French monarchy, 
 and be intrusted with the present administration of the 
 government, — the French princes and people were to swear 
 allegiance, and all agreed to unite their forces against 
 Charles, the pretended dauphin (May 24, 1420). The treaty 
 was solemnly ratified, Henry married Katherine, and France 
 was tranquillized. A son was born soon after, but Henry V. 
 fell ill with a fistula, and, through the want of skill of the 
 surgeons, died at Vincennes (August 31, 1422),. leaving the 
 regency of France to the duke of Bedford, that of Eng- 
 land to the duke of Grloucester, and the care of his son 
 to the earl of Warwick. Henry V. possessed many eminent 
 virtues, and his abilities were equally conspicuous in the 
 cabinet and in the field. Charles YI. of France died soon 
 after Henry (October 22), and the Dauphin was crowned 
 at Poitiers, as Charles VII., Eheims, the usual place for 
 the coronation, being in the hands of his enemies. Katherine 
 of Valois, Henry's widow, married Owen Tudor, a "Welsh 
 gentleman, said to be a descendant of the princes of that 
 country (1425) . She bore him two sons, the eldest of 
 whom was created earl of Eichmond, the second earl of 
 Pembroke. The family of Tudor, raised to distinction by 
 this alliance, afterwards ascended the throne of England. 
 
 Letter 46. — The affairs of France and England, from the Aooeasion of 
 Charles VII. to the Expulaion of the English from the Continent. 
 A.D. 1422—1453. Vol. i., pages 249—253. 
 
 § 152. Charles VII., the rightful heir to the French 
 throne, was a prince of the most friendly aad benign dis- 
 position, of easy and familiar manners, and of a just and 
 sound, though not vigorous understanding. The duke of Bed- 
 ford administered the regency for the youthful Henry VI. 
 of England, with valour, prudence, and generosity. Sensi- 
 ble of the advantages possessed by Charles VII., he took 
 care to strengthen the English interest by fresh alliances 
 
JOAN OF AEG. in 
 
 •with the dukes of Burgundy and Brittany ; and by releasing 
 James I. of Scotland from captivity, and marrying him to 
 the daughter of the earl of Somerset, hoped by these means 
 to enlist the sympathies of the Scotch on his side (1423). 
 The duke of Bedford did not, in these negotiations, neglect 
 the operations of war. Having reduced almost every fortress 
 on this side of the Loire, he defeated the combined French 
 and Scotch armies at Verneuil (Aug. 27, 1424). The city of 
 Orleans was so situate between the provinces commanded 
 by the king of England and those possessed by Charles VII., 
 that it opened an easy entrance to either, and the duke of 
 Bedford exerted himself strenuously to gain this point of 
 vantage. After the battle of Herrings (Feb. 12, 1429), 
 Charles felt inclined to abandon the place, but was pre- 
 vented by the remonstrances of his queen, Mary of Anjou, 
 and his mistress, the fair Agnes Sorel. A new deliverer, 
 also a female, now appeared. 
 
 § 153. In the village of Domremi, on the borders of 
 Lorraine, lived a country girl named Joan of Arc ; she was 
 beautiful, and united good sense and humility with religious 
 enthusiasm ; she declared that she had received a mission 
 from Heaven to re-establish the throne of France, and to 
 expel the invaders. No sooner was she brought before the 
 king at Chinon, than she offered to raise the siege of 
 Orleans, and to conduct him to Eheims, to be crowned and 
 anointed; Charles accepted her aid. She was aimed cap-a-pie, 
 placed on horseback, and shown to the people. The English 
 at first affected to speak with derision of the maid and 
 her mission, but their minds were nevertheless powerfully 
 impressed with superstitious awe. Joan entered Orleans, 
 displayed her consecrated banner, and actually obliged 
 them to raise the siege (May 8, 1429). Having defeated 
 the English in several encounters, she induced Charles to 
 set out for Eheims, and though the road was in the hands 
 of the enemy, all opposition proved fruitless ; the English 
 retired from the place, and Charles was crowned and 
 anointed as Joan had promised (July 17). The name of the 
 Maid of Orleans was now upon every tongue, for she had not 
 only promised, but had actually performed wonders. 
 
 § 154. The duke of Bedford in this crisis acted with great 
 energy. He renewed his alliance with the duke of Burgundy, 
 brought the young king of England over to Paris, and had 
 him crowned and anointed there (Dec. 17, 1429). The 
 Maid of Orleans declared, after the coronation of Charles, 
 
112 THE ENGLISH DRIVEN EEOM FEANCE. 
 
 that her mission was accomplished, and demanded permis- 
 sion to retire. This was however refused, and she threw 
 herself into Compiegne, then besieged by the duke of Bur- 
 gundy, assisted by the earls of Arundel and Suffolk. She 
 was taken prisoner in a sally (May 24, 1430), and the duke 
 of Bedford ordered her to be tried by an ecclesiastical court, 
 for sorcery, impiety, idolatry, and other evil practices. She 
 was found guilty, sentenced to 'the flames, and died hero- 
 ically at the stake in Eouen, Jan. 14, 1431. The English 
 power in Prance immediately declined. The duke of Bur- 
 gundy deserted the English interest (1482), and formed an 
 alliance with the French king (1435) ; the duke of Bedford 
 died soon after (Dec. 14), and the violent disputes which 
 prevailed in the court of England, between the duke of 
 Gloucester and Cardinal Beaufort, paralyzed the efforts of 
 the nation. The intrigues of the latter met with a tem- 
 porary success, and by his influence Henry was contracted 
 to Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Eegnier, titular king of 
 Sicily, Naples, and Jerusalem. She was the most accom- 
 plished princess of that age, and seemed to possess those 
 qualities calculated to enable her to exert a salutary ascend- 
 ency over Henry : the marriage was solemnized in 1445. 
 Cardinal Beaufort had resolved upon the ruin of his power- 
 ful rival, the duke of Gloucester; his duchess, daughter of 
 Eichard, Lord Cobham, was accused of the crime of witch- 
 craft, and it was pretended that she exercised her arts in a 
 dangerous manner upon the young king. She was con- 
 demned to do public penance, and to suffer imprisonilient 
 for life. The people sympathized with her in her misfor- 
 tunes, and her husband was then treacherously murdered 
 (1447). Charles VII. effected a great reformation in the 
 state of affairs in Prance. The English were expelled from 
 all their possessions on the continent, except Calais, and, 
 although no peace or truce was concluded between the two 
 nations, the war was in a manner at an end (1453). 
 
 Lettek 47. — The German Empire and its Dependencies, from the 
 Death of Sigiamund to the Accession of Maximilian. A.D. 1437— 
 1493. Vol. i., pages 254—257. 
 
 §155. Albert II., the successor of Sigismund, died suddenly 
 of dysentery, while engaged in an expedition against the 
 Turks, in Bulgaria (1439) ; whereupon his cousin, Frederic 
 of Austria, the third of that name, was made emperor, and 
 the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia were settled on 
 
DEATH OF FKEDERIC III. 113 
 
 Albert's infant son, Ladislaus. T'rederic endeavoured to 
 heal a fresh schism that had broken out in the Church, by 
 the election of two popes, Eugenius IV. and Pelix V. (14i0). 
 The council of Basle was then sitting,* for the reformation 
 of the Church universal, both in its head and in its mem- 
 bers ; and finding Eugenius IV. unwilling to submit to its 
 authority, deposed him and appointed Felix V. in his stead. 
 These rivals carried on the contest for some time, and on 
 the death of Eugenius IV. in 1447, the council of Basle 
 named Nicholas V. as his successor. Felix V. resigned in 
 1449, and under the pontificate of Nicholas V. peace was 
 restored to Italy. 
 
 § 156. Frederic next visited Italy, where he was crowned 
 king of Lombardy, and married to the king of Portugal's 
 sister, Eleanora. They received the imperial crown from 
 Nicholas V. (1452). The Hungarians and the Bohemians 
 revolted, and compelled Frederic to give up young Ladis- 
 laus, who was crowned at Buda and at Prague (1453). 
 The progress of the Turks, who had taken Constantinople, 
 and thus annihilated the Roman empire of the East (1453), 
 alarmed all the princes of Christendom, and several diets 
 were called for the purpose of organizing defence. John 
 Huniades, a famous Hungarian general, received a rein- 
 forcement of troops from the G-erman princes, and com- 
 pelled the Turks, under Mahomet II., to raise the siege of 
 Belgrade (1456). The death of Ladislaus in 1457 gave 
 rise to a dispute for the thrones of Bohemia and Hungary. 
 George von Podiebrad was chosen king of the former, and 
 Matthias of the latter country (1558) ; but the emperor 
 contested these nominations, and a long civil war ensued. 
 Frederic IV. died in 1493, in the seventy-ninth year of 
 his age. No emperor had reigned longer, and none less 
 gloriously. 
 
 Letter 48. — England dnring the Contest between the Houses of Tori 
 and Lancaster, until the Accession of the Tudor Line. A.D. 1450 — 
 1485. "Vol. i., pages 257—269. 
 
 § 157. Henry VI. of England traced his descent from 
 the duke of Lancaster, third son of Edward III. ; and a new 
 competitor for the crown appeared in Richard, duke of York, 
 a descendant of the duke of Clarence, second son of that 
 
 ' This celebrated council not only condemned many Boman Catholic 
 practices, but absolutely deposed the pope, and elected another in his 
 place. 
 
 I 
 
114 WARS OF THE ROSES. 
 
 monarch. Eichard had therefore the best claim, and he was 
 very popular. The queen and the earl of Suffolk monopolized 
 the government, and the murder of the duke of Gloucester, 
 in which both were known to have been concerned, rendered 
 them obnoxious to the nation. The earl of Suffolk waa 
 impeached in parliament, and the king, in order to save him, 
 banished him for five years. His enemies, fearing his recall, 
 had him seized near Dover, and his head was struck off on 
 the side of a long-boat (1450). The duke of Somerset, his 
 successor in authority, was sent to the Tower, and as the 
 king, about this time, fell into a distemper, the duke of York 
 was made lieutenant of the kingdom, and the Parliament 
 named him protector (1454). Henry soon after recovered, 
 annulled the regency of the duke of York, and released 
 Somerset from the Tower. War broke out between these 
 formidable rivals, and a battle was fought near St. Alban's 
 (May 22, 1455), in which the Lancastrians were defeated, 
 and the duke of Somerset and the earl of Northumberland 
 slain. The king was made prisoner, and the duke of York 
 again assumed the protectorship. The Yorkists took the 
 white rose as their party emblem, and the Lancastrians the 
 red ; and although these parties were apparently reconciled, 
 and went in solemn procession to St. Paul's (1458), the 
 truce was not of long duration. The Yorkists gained 
 another victory at Blore Heath (Sept. 23, 1459) ; but the 
 desertion of Sir A. Trollop from their army, near Ludlow, 
 for a time prostrated their hopes. 
 
 § 158. The duke of York fled to Ireland, whence he waa 
 summoned by the earl of Warwick, governor of Calais, who 
 had landed in Kent, and collected a large army. This was 
 the most extraordinary man of the time ; and from his 
 singular influence and importance, he obtained the appel- 
 lation of the King-maker. The Lancastrians met with a 
 sanguinary defeat at Northampton (July 10, 1460), where 
 Henry was again made prisoner and carried in triumph to 
 the capital. A parliament met forthwith at Westminster, 
 and after much deliberation between the Lords and Commons, 
 the duke of York was named heir to the throne. Henry 
 was to retain the title of king during his life, but the 
 government was to be administered by Eichard. The latter 
 did not long enjoy this settlement; for Queen Margaret, who 
 had fled to Scotland, returned with a formidable army. The 
 duke met the queen near Wakefield, was defeated and slain 
 (December 24, 1460), and several of his supporters were 
 
EDWARD PE0CLAIME1> KING. 115 
 
 taken prisoners and beheaded. Margaret advanced towards 
 London, encountered Warwick, and fought the second 
 battle of St. Alban's (Feb. 17, 14<61), in which she was 
 again victorious. Warwick fled to London, and the king 
 was released from captivity. In the mean time Edward, the 
 young duke of York, had vanquished the Lancastrians at 
 Mortimer's Cross (Feb. 2, 1461), near Ludlow; he managed 
 to effect a junction with Warwick at London, and the queen 
 fled once more to the north. Edward was received in the 
 capital with extraordinary enthusiasm, being declared king, 
 under the title of Edward IV. Margaret, who was not idle 
 in the north, had in a short time raised an army of 60,000 
 men. Warwick hastened to meet her with 40,000, and 
 gained the bloody battle of Towton (March 29, 1461), 
 whereupon the king and queen took refuge in Scotland. 
 
 § 159. Scotland was at this period in a sadly distracted 
 condition. On the murder of James I. in 1437, his son 
 James II., then a minor, succeeded to the throne. This 
 prince was killed by the bursting of a cannon, at the siege 
 of Eoxburgh Castle (Aug. 3," 1460), and his son James III. 
 being then only seven years of age, a contest ensued for the 
 regency. Margaret induced the Scottish council to assist 
 her, then went to France and obtained troops. Her motley 
 army was defeated at Hedgeley Moor (April 24, 146.3), 
 and again at Hexham (May 15). Margaret with difficulty 
 escaped with her son to Flanders, whence she retired to 
 France, while Henry, after remaining concealed some time 
 in Lancashire, was eventually taken prisoner and thrown 
 into the Tower (1464). The young king, rid of his enemies, 
 plunged freely into pleasures and amusements, which proved 
 fatal to his repose and the stability of his throne. Having 
 resolved to marry, he had cast his eyes upon Bona of Savoy, 
 sister to the queen of France, and induced the earl of War- 
 wick to go to Paris, to negotiate the match. While this 
 was in progress, Edward conceived a passion for Lady 
 Elizabeth Grey of Grroby, whose husband. Sir John G-rey 
 (Lord Ferrers), was killed at the second battle of St. Alban's; 
 and finding the charming widow impregnable to all assaults, 
 married her privately, at her father's seat in Northampton- 
 shire. Warwick, highly incensed at this treatment, intrigued 
 first with the duke of Clarence, king Edward's brother, then 
 with Margaret, the exiled queen, and taking advantage of 
 popular discontent, had Edward deposed, and Henry VI. 
 once more placed upon the throne (1470). Warwick fell 
 I 2 
 
116 EICHAED'S AMBITIOUS SCHEMES. 
 
 into disfavour. Edward, who had fled to Holland, landed 
 at Eavenspur (March 25), entered London (April 11), 
 committed Henry VI. to the Tower, and with the assistance 
 of the fickle duke of Clarence, won the hard-fought battle 
 of Barnet (April 14, 1471), in which Warwick found a 
 soldier's grave. Many of the Lancastrian leaders were 
 slain, and a great slaughter attended the pursuit. Queen 
 Margaret, and her son Prince Edward, then eighteen years 
 old, landed at Weymouth on this disastrous day ; and having 
 raised an army in the west, were totally routed by Ed- 
 ward IV. at Tewkesbury (May 4, 1471) . The queen was sent 
 to the Tower, where her husband had just been killed by 
 the duke of Gloucester, and her son Edward was inhumanly 
 murdered after the defeat at Tewkesbury. The hopes of 
 the house of Lancaster being thus extinguished, Edward IV. 
 once more gave himself up to pleasure and amusement, 
 from which he was at length aroused by the call of ambition. 
 § ICO. Edward had formed the design of endeavouring to 
 regain those provinces in Erance lost by his predecessors. 
 In 1475 he landed at Calais, and although the duke of 
 Burgundy failed to give the support which he had promised, 
 Louis XI. was so alarmed, that he entered into a treaty of 
 peace. The French king stipulated to pay Edward imme- 
 diately 75,000 crowns, and 50,000 crowns a year during 
 their joint lives. Louis XL very nobly insisted upon the 
 release of Margaret, who returned to Erance, where she died 
 in 1482. While making preparations for another French 
 war, Edward was seized with a violent distemper, which 
 carried him off (1483). Edward displayed more vigour than 
 prudence, and was consequently less fitted to prevent ills by 
 wise precautions, than to remedy them after they became 
 apparent. Edward IV. left two sons, the prince of Wales, 
 now Edward V., in his thirteenth year, and Eichard, duke 
 of York, in his ninth. Their uncle Eichard, duke of Glou- 
 cester, who in 1478 had plotted the death of his own brother, 
 the duke of Clarence, and had assisted in 'the murder of 
 Prince Edward, after the defeat at Tewkesbury, made him- 
 self protector. This wicked tyrant speedily caused all 
 persons who stood in the way of his own advancement to he 
 removed. Earl Elvers and Lord Hastings amongst the rest, 
 and committed others whom he dreaded to the Tower. 
 Even Jane Shore, a mistress of the late monarch, was con- 
 demned to walk barefoot through the city, to do penance in 
 a white sheet at St. Paul's, for adultery, and alterwards 
 
THE TtTDOR LINE. 117 
 
 perished from destitution. Eichard openly aspired to the 
 crown, declared that his two nephews, as well as Edward IV. 
 and the duke of Clarence, were illegitimate, and that he 
 alone was the true oflFspring of the duke of York. By- 
 threats and promises, he induced certain favourites and a 
 portion of the rabble to demand his elevation to the throne; 
 and he at once acted as sovereign, under the title of 
 Eichard III. 
 
 § 161. In 1473, Eichard had married Anne, daughter of 
 the earl of Warwick, and widow of Prince Edward, Henry 
 the Sixth's unfortunate son. She died, not without sus- 
 picion of foul play, in 1485, whereupon he applied to the 
 pope for a dispensation to marry his niece, Elizabeth of 
 York. But his career of guilt approached its termination. 
 The murder of the princes in the Tower by Sir Eobert 
 Brackenbury (1483) excited the indignation of certain 
 noblemen. Moreover, a new claimant for the throne 
 appeared, in Henry, earl of Eichmond, grandson of Owen 
 Tudor and Katherine of France, widow of Henry V. This 
 prince sought to strengthen his interest by a match with 
 Edward the Fourth's daughter Elizabeth, whose hand the 
 usurper Eichard also coveted. The earl of Eichmond had 
 landed in England in 1483 ; but being disconcerted by the 
 failure of the duke of Buckingham's conspiracy, and the 
 death of that nobleman, retired for awhile into Brittany. 
 Having received numerous invitations, he again landed at 
 Milford Haven, on the 7th of August, 1485, and on the 
 22nd was fought the battle of Bosworth Field, in which 
 Eichard III. was slain. Although a blood-thirsty tyrant, 
 he was brave, and he died as a brave man should do, 
 sword in hand. The battle was decisive, the king being 
 slain, and his army routed and dispersed. The victor was 
 proclaimed king, as Henry VII. ; and thus ended the race 
 of the Plantagenets, members of which had for more than 
 three centuries filled the throne of England. 
 
 Letter 49. — France, from the Expulsion of the English by Charles 
 VII. to the Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. A.D. 1453 — 1494. 
 Vol. i., pages 269—274. 
 
 § 162. Charles VII. no sooner found himself in quiet 
 possession of France, by the expulsion of the English, than 
 he devoted himself to the cares of government. He 
 endeavoured to repair the ravages of war by promoting the 
 arts of peace, and to secure the tranquillity and good 
 
118 EEIGN OF LOUIS XI. 
 
 order of his kingdom by wise regulationa. A regular army 
 :B'as established, and a tax levied for its support. By the 
 pragmatic sanction promulgated at Bocanges in 1438, the 
 liberties of the Galilean church, as defined by the council of 
 Basle, were secured, the superiority of general councils over 
 popes was recognized, and other rights were established. 
 The last days of this prince were embittered by the revolt 
 of his son, "and he is supposed to have starved himself to 
 death from apprehension of poison. He died in 1461, and 
 was succeeded by his treacherous son Louis XI. His 
 rapacity caused the nobles to rebel ; they formed the League 
 of the Public Grood, and a battle was fought at Mont- 
 Ihery (July 16, 1465). The treaty of Conflans was the 
 result, by the conditions of which Louis XI. never intended 
 to abide. Louis convoked the States- General at Tours in 
 1468, and induced them to annul the treaty; he then 
 became involved in a quarrel with Charles the Bold, of 
 Burgundy, who took the king prisoner, and placed him in 
 the castle of Peronne. Again Louis pretended to submit, 
 signed the treatyof Peronne,and thus obtained his liberation. 
 § 163. The subsequent portion of this monarch's reign 
 was one continued scene of executions, wars, and negotia- 
 tions. His brother Charles was taken oflT by poison, and 
 several other noblemen were put to death; the children 
 of the duke of Nemours, then infants, were placed 
 under the scaffold on which their father was executed, and 
 his blood allowed to fall upon their heads (1478). The 
 powerful duke of Burgundy was killed at the battle of 
 Nancy (Jan. 5, 1477), whereupon Louis seized part of his 
 dominions, hoping to obtain the whole of them by marrying 
 the dauphin, Charles, to the duke's only daughter. The 
 lady preferred Maximilian of Austria, son of the emperpr 
 Frederick III., to a child in his seventh year. Hence arose 
 new wars, and France and Austria long struggled in the 
 Low Countries for supremacy. Louis concluded a truce, but 
 he managed to retain Burgundy. Anjou, Maine, Provence, 
 and Bar, were soon after left to him by Charles, count of 
 Maine, the last prince of the house of Anjou, who died 
 without issue (1480). Louis enlarged his kingdom, and 
 expired, after suffering great torments, in 1483. His charac- 
 ter is one of the most complicated in history. He obtained 
 the end which he proposed by his policy, but at the expense 
 of his peace and reputation. His life was a jumble of 
 crimes and contradictions. He was the first monarch 
 
THE JANISAKIES. 11^ 
 
 who, in France, assumed the title of Mcyesty and Most 
 Christian. • 
 
 § 164. Charles VIII. was in his fourteenth year when 
 he succeeded, and a contest ensued for the regency. The 
 death of the duke of Brittany, soon after the defeat at St. 
 Aubin (July 28, 1488), still further complicated matters, as 
 Brittany was the only great fief which remained disunited 
 from the crown of France. Charles VIII. had been affi- 
 anced to Margaret, daughter of Maximilian. That, prince 
 lost his wife about this time, and the Bretons applied to 
 him for aid, oifering him the hand of the late duke's only 
 daughter and heiress, Anne, which was accepted and the 
 marriage was celebrated by proxy. Both marriages were, 
 however, dissolved by the French king and his ministers, 
 and Charles married the duchess himself, and thus united 
 Brittany to France (1491). Maximilian was highly in- 
 censed ; for he not only lost the woman to whom he had 
 been espoused, but had his daughter Margaret sent back 
 to him, after she had been for seven years treated as queen 
 of France. A league was formed between Maximilian, 
 Henry VII. of England, and the king of Spain (1491). 
 Henry landed with a fine army at Calais, on the 6th of 
 October, 1492, but Charles purchased peace by making 
 concessions, and the formidable alliance was dissolved. He 
 determined to vindicate his title to the kingdom of Naples, 
 and having made peace with his neighbours, set out for 
 Italy (1494). 
 
 liETTEE 50. — ^The Progress of the Turks, and the Fall of the Greek 
 Empire. A.D. 1261—1453. Vol. i., pages 274—279. 
 
 § 165. The Greeks recovered their empire from the 
 Trench in 1261, but it was in a mangled and impoverished 
 condition. In the mean time the Turks, whose force had 
 been broken by the Mogul Tartars, strengthened themselves 
 in Asia Minor, and overran Thrace. Othman, from whom 
 the present sultans are descended, and who was the founder 
 of the Ottoman empire, erected a government in Bithynia. 
 His successors continued to advance, and in 1361 Amurath 
 took Adrianople. It was this sultan who first organized the 
 Janisaries. In order to create a body of devoted troops to 
 serve as a body-guard, he ordered his officers to seize annu- 
 ally, as imperial property, the third part of the young males 
 taken in war. After being instructed in the Mahometan 
 religion, inured to obedience by severe discipline, and 
 
120 TIMOTJR THE TARTAR. 
 
 trained to warlike exercises, these youths were formed into 
 regular bands, distinguished by the names of Janisaries, or 
 new soldiers. Favoured by their sovereign, they soon became 
 the chief strength and pride of the Ottoman armies, and 
 their valour brought victory to their standards. The Greek 
 empire was almost reduced to the boundaries of Constan- 
 tinople, when the Christian princes of Europe, alarmed at the 
 progress of the Turks, came forward to the defence. They 
 besieged Nicopolis, on the Danube, where they were attacked 
 by Bajazet, and routed with great slaughter (Sept. 28, 1396). 
 Constantinople was threatened^ but the emperor, Manuel II., 
 purchased peace by paying tribute, and another storm 
 having arisen, the Turks were summoned away by a new 
 danger. 
 
 § 166. The dominions of the Mogul Tartars, under Genghis 
 Khan and his immediate successors, extended from the 
 Volga to the river Ganges, in India, and the frontier of 
 China. Timour the Tartar, commonly called Tamerlane 
 (born 1336), subdued almost as great an extent of territory 
 as his victorious predecessor, and even gave a blow to the 
 empire of the Turks. He had conquered Persia, India, and 
 Syria, when the Greek emperor and some Mahometan 
 princes invited him into Asia Minor, as the only potentate 
 able to deliver them from the tyranny of Bajazet (1402). 
 Tamerlane sent ambassadors to Bajazet, marched into Asia 
 Minor, and the terrible battle of Angora was fought near 
 Ancyra (July 28, 1402), in which the sultan was defeated 
 and made prisoner. In consequence of this victory, Tamer- 
 lane became master of Prusa, the seat of the Turkish 
 empire. Having ravaged Asia Minor, and pillaged the 
 principal cities, the Tartar conqueror retired. Delivered 
 from the Tartar foes, the Turks renewed the attack upon 
 Constantinople (1423). John VI. endeavoured to unite 
 the Greek and Eoman churches ; and though an ostensible 
 union was signed, July 6, 1439, it did not lead to a real 
 accommodation. 
 
 . § 167. The Turks were diverted from Constantinople by 
 their wars in Hungary, and having been defeated, concluded 
 a solemn truce of ten years, to which the sultan swore upon 
 the Koran, and the king of Poland and Hungary upon the 
 ■Gospels (1444). The Turks retired into Asia, and the pope's 
 legate incited Ladislaus to violate the truce. The pope 
 released him from his oath, declaring that "no faith is to be 
 tept with heretics," one of the most pernicious doctrines of 
 
CAPTUEE OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 121 
 
 the church of Eome. The Turks prepared to repel the 
 invasion, overcame the Christian army at Varna (Nov. 10, 
 1444), vfhen both the erring king and the treacherous 
 legate were slain. Amurath once more resigned the rod of 
 empire, but was compelled to resume, owing to the defection 
 of one Scanderberg, an Albanian prince. He did not com- 
 plete this conquest, but dying in 1451, was succeeded by his 
 son Mahomet II. Though only twenty-one years of age 
 when he mounted the Ottoman throne, he had conceived the 
 design of makiug Constantinople the seat of his empire, 
 and nothing could divert him from that purpose. So vigor- 
 ously did he press the siege, that, in spite of a gallant 
 resistance, the city was taken (1453). Constantine XIV., 
 the last Christian emperor, perished in the final struggle. 
 Mahomet II. afterwards made himself master of the whole 
 of Greece, and threatened Venice, and even Eome itself. 
 All Europe trembled at his motions, and well it might ; for 
 Europe, unless united, must have submitted to his sword. 
 Death surprised the conqueror in his fifty-first year (1481). 
 His descendants still possess the finest country in our 
 quarter of the globe. 
 
 Letter 51. — Spain, from the Death of Peter the Cruel to the Conquest 
 of Granada by Ferdinand and Isahella. a.d. 1369—1492. Vol. i., 
 pages 280—283. 
 
 § 168. After the death of Peter the Cruel, Spain was 
 long agitated by civil wars and dissensions, and nothing 
 worthy of notice occurred until the accession of his sister 
 Isabella, and her husband Ferdinand of Arragon, to the 
 throne of Castile, in 1474. They were persons of great 
 prudence, and, as sovereigns, highly worthy of imitation ; 
 yet they do not seem to have merited all the praise? 
 bestowed upon them by Spanish historians. They neither 
 loved nor hated each other ; were seldom seen in company 
 together ; had each a separate council, and frequently dis- 
 played jealousies in their administration. About the middle 
 of the thirteenth century, the cities of Arragon, and, after 
 their example, those of Castile, had formed themselves into 
 an association, called the Holy Brotherhood. Its objects 
 were the suppression of outrages, the punishment of 
 ofienders, and the establishment of order. This institution 
 Ferdinand and Isabella supported, as a salutary check upon 
 the nobility. But they also allowed the introduction into 
 their dominions of the terrible court of the Inquisition 
 
122 CAPTURE OF GRANADA. 
 
 (1480) ; and in a few years thousands of their subjects felt 
 its fury, 
 
 § 169. The death of Ferdinand's father, John II., in 
 1479, led to the union of Castile and Arragon. Of all 
 their possessions in Spain, the Mahometans only retained 
 Granada. Ferdinand made several efforts to subdue this 
 Moorish kingdom, and early in 1492 captured Granada, and 
 thus put an end to the empire of the Arabs in Spain, after 
 a duration of nearly eight hundred years. A persecution 
 of the Jews, who engrossed- the wealth and the commerce 
 of Spain, followed. In 1492, after vain attempts in Eng- 
 land, and seven years spent in fruitless applications at home, 
 Christopher Columbus had obtained from Ferdinand and 
 Isabella the means of going upon his first voyage of dis- 
 covery. In 1496, Joanna, second daughter of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella, was married to Philip, second son of the 
 emperor Maximilian I., archduke of Austria, and sovereign 
 of the Netherlands. This marriage paved the way for the 
 transfer of the Spanish dominion to the house of Austria. 
 
HENEY VII. or ENGLAND. 123 
 
 CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 Lettek 52. — England during the Eeign of Heniy YII. 
 A.D. 1485—1509. Vol. i., pages 283—291. 
 
 § 170. Henbt VII., the first prince of the house of 
 Tudor, having had his title confirmed hy the Parliament, 
 Tery wisely united the claims of York and Lancaster, by 
 marrying the Princess Elizabeth, eldest daughter of 
 Edward IV. (1486). Still his sympathies were with the 
 Lancastrians, and the injustice with which he treated the 
 Yorkists led to several conspiracies. The insurrection of 
 Lord Lovel and the Stafibrds was put down by the duke of 
 Bedford in 1486. One Lambert Simnel, a baker's son, 
 personated the earl of Warwick, then kept a close prisoner 
 by Henry. The attempt was made in Ireland, the inhabit- 
 ants of Dublin vidth one consent tendered their allegiance 
 to Simnel, as the true Plantagenet, and all Ireland followed 
 the example set by the capital. Henry VII. was a good deal 
 alarmed, and held frequent consultations with his ministers 
 and counsellors relative to the measures most proper for 
 the safety of his kingdom, and the means of discovering the 
 origin of the imposture. The queen-dowager had some 
 share in it, and was confined in the nunnery of Bermondsey 
 for life, while the earl of Warwick was taken from the 
 Tower, led through the streets of London, and exposed to 
 the view of the populace at St. Paul's. Several noblemen 
 joined in the conspiracy ; and Margaret, duchess of Bur- 
 gundy, despatched troops to support the cause of the pre- 
 tender. These accessions of strength induced the leaders of 
 the rebellion to invade England ; but they were defeated at 
 the battle of Stoke, near Newark (June 6, 1487), where 
 many of their chiefs fell, and Simnel was taken prisoner, and 
 afterwards employed as a turnspit in the king's kitchen. 
 
 § 171. Henry having thus restored tranquillity to his 
 kingdom and security to his government, entered into a, 
 treaty with James III. of Scotkmd, and offered to mediate 
 in the quarrel between Erance and Brittany, the last inde- 
 
124 WABBECK'S CONSPIRACY. 
 
 pendent fief of the French monarchy. The Bretons Tere com- 
 pelled to submit, and Henry then prepared to interfere. In 
 1492 he landed at Calais with a splendid army. He soon after 
 entered into the treaty of Staples, by which theFrenchmonarch 
 agreed to pay Henry seven hundred and forty-five thousand 
 crowns, and a yearly pension of twenty-five thousand crowns. 
 A new danger had in the mean time arisen. The old duchess 
 of Burgundy caused a report to be circulated, to the effect 
 that her nephew, Eichard duke of York, had escaped from 
 the Tower, when his elder brother Edward V. was murdered. 
 She fixed upon Perkin Warbeck, the son of an obscure 
 Fleming, to personate that prince, and from his resemblance 
 to Edward IV., he was well calculated to pass off as his son. 
 Perkin landed in Cork, played his part well, and was received 
 with enthusiasm. He then went to France, and thence, 
 in consequence of the treaty of Etaples, to Flanders. 
 Henry VII. combated this formidable conspiracy by all the 
 means in his power ; and having discovered some members 
 of the nobility in correspondence with the pretender, had 
 them arrested and put to death. Warbeck attempted to 
 land in Kent, but failed (1494) ; thence he proceeded to 
 Ireland, where his reception was by no means cordial, and 
 he took refuge with James IV. of Scotland. He was well 
 received, and contracted a marriag;e with Katherine Gordon, 
 daughter of the earl of Huntley (1495). James of Scotland 
 furnished him with an army, and they invaded England; 
 but were compelled to retire. Warbeck at last appeared in 
 Cornwall, where an insurrection had broken out ; and here 
 was induced to surrender on a promise of pardon (1498). 
 Having plotted with the earl of Warwick to escape from 
 the Tower, he was hanged at Tyburn, on the 16th of 
 November, and the last of the male line of the Plantagenets 
 was beheaded on the 28th of the same month (1499). 
 
 § 172. Henry, after long negotiations, concluded a 
 marriage between Arthur, prince of Wales, and Katherine, 
 fourth daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain (1501). 
 The prince died soon after, and Henry VII. compelled his 
 second son Henry to enter into a contract with the widow. 
 Another alliance was also celebrated in the same year, 
 between Margaret, Henry's eldest daughter, and James IV. 
 of Scotland. The situation of Henry's affairs both at home 
 and abroad was now in every respect fortunate. Avarice 
 was his ruling vice, and with ministers who seconded hia 
 rapacity, his sole purpose seemed to be to amass money. 
 
DEATH OF HENRY VII. 125 
 
 Philip, duke of Austria, and Joanna his wife, being cast upon 
 the English coast, on their way to assume the government of 
 Castile, were entertained by the king (1506). He concluded 
 a treaty of commerce with them highly beneficial to England, 
 and stipulated for the surrender of the earl of Suffolk, who had 
 taken refuge in Flanders. His rapacity increased with age ; 
 but overcome by the terrors of death, he ordered, in a general 
 clause in bis will, that restitution should be made to all those 
 whom he had injured. He fell a victim to consumption, and 
 died at his favourite palace of Eiohmond, in 1509. His reign 
 was on the whole fortunate for his people at home, and 
 honourable abroad. Henry was a prince of great talents, 
 both civil and military ; he put an end to the civil wars, 
 maintained order in the state, repressed the exorbitant 
 power of the barons, and indirectly increased the conse- 
 quence of the commons, by enabling the nobility to break 
 their ancient entails. 
 
 Letter 63. — A general View of the Continent of Europe, from the 
 Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. to the League of Cambiay. 
 A.D. 1494—1508. Vol. i., pages 291—297. 
 
 § 173. It will in future be often impracticable to give a 
 separate history of all the principal European states, by 
 reason of the new system of policy which was adopted 
 about the beginning of the sixteenth century ; and in con- 
 sequence of which an union of interests became necessary, 
 in order to form a balance of power. The system took its 
 rise from the political state of Europe at that time, and 
 was perfected by the Italian wars, which commenced with 
 the expedition of Charles VIII., in support of his claim to 
 the kingdom of Naples (1494). Although his army did not 
 exceed 32,000 men, he overran all Italy, entered the chief 
 cities, and surprised Pope Alexander YI. in the castle of 
 St. Angelo. This base prelate submitted, and seconded all 
 the Prench king's projects. He put to death Zizim, brother 
 to Bajazet II., who had been some time in his power, and 
 then crowned Charles VIII. emperor of the East (1495). 
 Alphonso II., king of Naples, fled at the French monarch's 
 approach, and took refuge in a cloister. Charles entered 
 Naples in triumph; but while celebrating his success, 
 several Italian princes and states, among which were the 
 pope, the Venetians, the duke of Milan, supported by the 
 emperor Maximilian and Perdinard and Isabella of Spain, 
 entered into a league against him. These confederates 
 
126 EEIGN OF LOUIS XII. 
 
 assembled an army of 30,000 men, and though Charles could 
 only muster about 10,000, he gained the battle of Tare 
 (July 6, 1495). This opened to him a safe retreat to 
 Prance, although he lost all his conquests in Italy almost as 
 rapidly as he had gained them. A Spanish army recon- 
 quered Naples, and Ferdinand II., brother to Alphonso II., 
 was placed upon the throne. Charles VIII. died soon after 
 his return to France, while planning another expedition 
 (1498), and was succeded by the duke of Orleans,' grandson 
 of Charles VI., as Louis Xfl., commonly called the Father 
 of his People. 
 
 § 174. Louis XII. was in his thirty-sixth year when he 
 ascended the throne of France, and he immediately assumed 
 the title of king of the Two Sicilies, and duke of Milan, 
 The latter he claimed in right of one of his grandmothers, 
 daughter of John Graleazzo Visconti, first duke of that 
 territory, who had stipulated, in the marriage contract of 
 his daughter Valentina, that, on the failure of male heirs in 
 the family of Visconti, the duchy should descend to the 
 posterity of Valentina and the duke of Orleans. The 
 Visconti family became extinct in 1447, but the house of 
 Orleans had been prevented from making good their claim, 
 and the descendants of Francis Sforza, a soldier of fortune, 
 filled the ducal throne. At the time of Louis the Twelfth's 
 accession to the French monarchy, Alexander VI. was 
 engaged in two great designs ; one being the recovery of 
 territories which he declared belonged to the papal see, and 
 the other the exaltation of his son Caesar Borgia. He was 
 accordingly flattered when Louis XII. applied to him for a 
 divorce from his wife, the daughter of Louis XL, immedi- 
 ately granted it, and sent his son Caesar Borgia with it into 
 France, with power to treat on the subject of the Italian 
 claims (1498). Louis XII. married Anne of Brittany, the 
 queen dowager, and prepared to vindicate his rights in Italy. 
 
 § 175. Having settled home afiFairs, Louis crossed the 
 Alps, and made himself master of the duchy of Milan, while 
 his allies, the Venetians, occupied the territory of Cremona 
 (1499). France and Spain then entered into an alliance to 
 conquer Naples, disputed about the division of the spoil, 
 the French were expelled, and Gonsalvo de Cordova, the 
 Great Captain, secured the entire possession of the kingdom 
 for Spain. Alexander VI. was still pursuing his nefarious ' 
 schemes, when suddenly overtaken by death in 1503. He 
 left behind him a more detestable memory in Europe than 
 
REPUBLIC OF VEKICE. 127 
 
 Hero or Caligula had done in the Soman empire. CsBsar 
 Borgia lost all the fruits of the crimes committed by parent 
 and son, while the Church profited by them. ' He was slain in 
 endeavouring to recover his possessions in 1504. Louis XII. 
 made another ineffectual attempt to recover the kingdom 
 of Naples, and at length engaged, by the treaty of Blois 
 (1505), to pay Maximilian a large sum for the investiture 
 of that duchy, and to give his daughter in marriage to 
 Maximilian's grandson, Charles of Austria, with Brittany, 
 Burgundy, and all his Italian dominions as her dowry, in 
 case he died without male heirs. The States-General of 
 France refused to ratify this latter article, and the Princess 
 Anne was affianced to the count of Angouleme, presump- 
 tive heir to the throne (1506). The balance of power was 
 soon after happily arranged among the principal European 
 states, when general tranquillity was disturbed by the 
 schemes of an ambitious pontiff (1508). 
 
 Letteb 54. — Europe, from the League of Cambray to the Death of 
 Louis XII. A.D. 1508—1516. "Vol. i., pages 297—303. 
 
 § 176. Julius II., who established the temporal dominion 
 of the popes, had formed the project of driving all foreigners 
 out of Italy, but wished in the first place to humble Venice. 
 This republic took its rise during the inroads of the bar- 
 barians, in the fifth century. The small islands in the 
 Adriatic Sea afforded an asylum to the neighbouring inhabi- 
 tants, who lived by fishing, and afterwards became rich and 
 powerful by commerce. The civU constitution of Venice, 
 established on a firm basis, suffered no considerable alteration 
 for several centuries, but had one striking defect ; it wanted 
 some counterpoise to the power of the nobles, and did not 
 offer proper encouragement to the common people. The 
 military force of the republic consisted wholly of mercenaries, 
 being generally commanded by a soldier of fortune. Venice 
 was entirely supported by her extensive commerce, from 
 which she derived such immense supplies, that she became 
 a terror to Italy. Julius II. formed the League of Cambray, 
 so called from the city in which it was signed, against this 
 proud republic (1508). The emperor Maximilian, Louis XII., 
 Julius II., and other rulers of less importance, joined the 
 confederacy ; but when Venice was on the point of being 
 subdued, the pope withdrew from the league, formed 
 another called the Holy League, against the French, and 
 attacked them. . Led by Gaston de Foix, the latter gained 
 
128 BATTLE OF FLODDEN FIELD. 
 
 several brilliant victories, in the last of which — the battle of 
 Eavenna (April 11, 1512) — this hero lost his life. "With this 
 sad event, the fortune of the war changed, and the French 
 were soon after expelled from Italy. 
 
 § 177. Julius II. died in 1513, and was succeeded by 
 Leo X., one of the most illustrious of the pontiffs. An 
 English expedition had been sent in 1512 against the 
 French, but it returned without having accomplished any- 
 thing worthy of record, and in 1513 Henry VIII.. was 
 induced to invade Prance at the head of a large force. The 
 battle of the Spurs, so called because the French made more 
 use of their spurs than their military weapons, was fought 
 on the 16th of August, 1513. After laying siege to Tour- 
 nay, Henry returned to England. During his absence, the 
 Scotch invaded England, under James IV., but were defeated 
 at the battle of Elodden Field (Sept. 9, 1513), with great 
 slaughter. The Scotch army amounted to 50,000 men, 
 while the earl of Surrey could muster only 26,000 to 
 oppose this force. The Scotch monarch and many of his 
 nobility were slain, and on his return, Henry generously 
 made peace. Soon after Louis XII. renounced the council of 
 Pisa or Milan, then transferred to Lyons, and was reconciled 
 to the pope (1514). In the same year Louis lost his wife, 
 made peace with England, and married Mary, Henry the 
 Eighth's sister. Tranquillity was once more restored to 
 Europe, which Louis did not long live to enjoy. He died 
 on the 1st of January, 1515, in his fifty-fourth year. Louis 
 was universally beloved by the people. He began his reign 
 by abolishing many taxes, and succeeded in diminishing the 
 public burdens above one half. 
 
 Letter 55. — General View of Europe continued, from the Accession of 
 Francis I. to the Death of the Emperor Maximilian ; including the 
 Eise of the Eeformation in Germany. A.D. 1515 — 1619. Vol. i., 
 pages 303—308. 
 
 § 178. Francis I. succeeded to the throne of his 
 father-in-law, and immediately resolved to recover Milan^ 
 Having renewed the treaty concluded by his predecessor 
 with England, he crossed the Alps, and was victorious at 
 the battle of Marignano (Sept. 13 and 14, 1515), which was 
 followed by the surrender of Milan and the submission of 
 the whole duchy. Maximilian Sforza resigned his claim for 
 a pension, and Francis, having entered into a treaty with 
 the Swiss and the pope, returned to France. Henry VIII. 
 
LUTHER AT AUGSBUEG. 129 
 
 intrigued with, the emperor, and the latter despatched an 
 army into Italy, which was defeated before MUan ; where- 
 upon Maximilian made peace with France and Venice, 
 ceding Verona to the latter for a sum of money (1516). 
 Ferdinand, king of Spain, died just before the conclusion 
 of this peace, leaving his extensive dominions to his 
 grandson Charles, who then governed the Low Countries, 
 as heir to the house of Burgundy. Cardinal Ximenes, 
 having been appointed sole regent until Charles should 
 arrive, suppressed a revolt of the nobility, but was after- 
 wards slighted and dismissed from the royal councils. He 
 died of a broken heart (1517). 
 
 § 179. In 1518 Maximilian assembled a diet at Augsburg, 
 hoping to induce the electors to choose Charles as his suc- 
 cessor. But as Maximilian had never been crowned by the 
 pope, he was only regarded as emperor elect ; and accordingly 
 the electors refused to comply with his request. Before 
 this diet Martin Luther, the great German reformer, was 
 summoned for " propagating new and dangerous opinions." 
 The abuses of the papal government had aroused a strong 
 spirit of opposition in Europe. The spiritual despotism of 
 Gregory VII., the temporal tyranny of Alexander VI., and 
 the bloody ambition of Julius II. all helped to produce a 
 wonderful impression upon the minds of men. The Soman 
 pontiffs not only assumed the power of disposing of crowns, 
 and of releasing nations from their oaths of allegiance, but 
 also of absolving individuals from the ties of moral duties. 
 The sale of indulgences was one of the worst of the new 
 practices introduced by the papal innovators. By this they 
 assumed and exercised the right of pardoning all offences, 
 which was, in other words, tolerating the commission of sins. 
 These indulgences or plenary pardons, supposed to serve 
 not only as a remission of sins to the living, but as a release 
 to the dead from the pains of purgatory, were first invented 
 by Urban II. as a recompense for those engaged in the 
 crusades. John XXII. reduced the spiritual traffic into a 
 system, and Leo X. published a general sale of indulgences. 
 
 § 180. The abuse of the sale of indulgences in Germany, 
 where they were publicly retailed in ale-houses, and regularly 
 farmed out, awakened the indignation of Martin Luther, an 
 Augustinian friar, professor of theology in the university 
 of Wittenberg. Luther wrote and preaehed against them 
 (1517), appealing to reason and Scripture, instead of to 
 
 e: 
 
ISO CHANGES IN THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 councils or popes, for the truth of his arguments. The 
 people joined in the movement, and Luther went from the 
 exposure of one error to another, and assailed the whole 
 
 . fabric of the Eomish church. Leo had summoned the 
 daring monk to Eome ; but Frederic the "Wise, elector of 
 
 . Saxony, exerted his influence, and the cause was appointed to 
 be tried in Germany, by Cardinal Cajetan. Luther having 
 obtained the emperor's safe-conduct, repaired to the Diet 
 ot Augsburg. Cajetan demanded his recantation, Ltither 
 refused to comply with this request, and after appealing to 
 a general council, retired secretly into Saxony (1S18). 
 Maximilian died on the 12th of January, 1519, and his 
 
 . death, as it left vacant the first station among Christian 
 princes, gave rise to a competition and awakened a jealousy, 
 that threw all Europe into agitation. During his reign 
 Germany was divided into circles, in each of which a pro- 
 vincial and particular jurisdiction was established, to supply 
 the place of a public and common tribunal.* The Imperial 
 Chamber was also instituted. It was cotnposed of judges 
 nominated by the emperor, with the approbation of the Diet, 
 and invested with authority for the final decision of all 
 differences among the members of the Germanic body 
 (1495). The Aulic Council too, which took cognizance of 
 all feudal cases, and such as belonged to the emperor's 
 immediate jurisdiction, received under this prince a new 
 form and development (1501). By these regulations order 
 was given to that confused government, and some degree of 
 vigour restored to the imperial authority.'' 
 
 * With reference to these circles, which were formed to enforce 
 the decisions of the Imperial Chamber, Hallam says (Middle Ages, 
 vol. ii. ch. V. p. 97), " In 1501, an institution, originally Jplanned under 
 Wenoeslaus, and attempted by Albert II., was carried into eSect. The 
 empire, with the exception of theEleotorates and the Austrian dominioM, 
 was divided into six circles ; each of which had its council of state, its 
 director, whose province it was to convoke them, and its military force 
 to compel obedience. In 1512 four more circles were added, compre- 
 hending those states which had been excluded in the first division. 
 It was the business of the police of the circles to enforce the execution 
 of sentences pronounced by the Imperial Chamber against refraotoiy 
 states of the empire." 
 
 '' Most of these changes were made at the Diet of Worms, held by 
 Iklaximilian in 1495, 
 
EEVIVAL OF LETTERS. 131 
 
 Letter 56. ^Progress of Society in Europe, from the beginning of the 
 Fourteenth to the middle of the Sixteenth Century ; with a retrospect 
 view of the revival of letters. A.D. 1300 — 1550. Vol. i., pages 308 
 —316. 
 
 § 181. Mankind are no sooner in possession of the con- 
 veniences of life, than they begin to aspire after its elegan- 
 cies. Such was the case in Europe about the beginning of 
 the fourteenth century. The Italian cities which had early- 
 acquired liberty and obtained mimicipal charters, carried on 
 a flourishing trade -v^ith India through the ports of the Eed 
 Sea. They introduced into their own country manufactures 
 of various kinds, and carried them on with great ingenuity 
 and vigour. They attempted new arts, among which may 
 be mentioned that of taking impressions from engravings 
 on plates of copper, the manufacture of crystal glass for 
 mirrors, of paper made of linen rags, and of earthenware in 
 imitation of porcelain. Flanders had long been as famous 
 for the manufacture of linen and woollen cloths as Italy 
 was for that of silk. Nearly all the wool from England was 
 carried there, and Flanders became the greatest emporium 
 in Europe. Towards the end of the thirteenth century 
 painting and architecture revived in Italy, and they con- 
 tinued to make rapid progress. Tapestry had long been 
 manufactured in the Low Countries, and the Flemings in 
 their turn became painters and architects before the rest of 
 Europe were furnished with the necessary arts. 
 
 § 182. The first permanent step towards the revival of 
 letters in Europe, was the establishment of schools under 
 lay preceptors. The monkish system was thus overthrown, 
 and the sceptre of knowledge wrested from the hand of 
 superstition. Several enlightened persons jimong the laity, 
 who had studied under the Arabs in Spain, about the begin- 
 ning of the eleventh century, undertook the education of 
 youth in the chief cities of Italy, and afterwards in those 
 of France, Germany, and England. The human soul during 
 this period seemed to have roused itself, as from a lethargy. 
 Learning continued to advance in spite of every obstruction, 
 and the invention of paper in the fourteenth century, and 
 of printing about the middle of the fifteenth, made know- 
 ledge so general, that Italy soon began to contrast the age 
 of Leo X. with that of the second Csesar. The female 
 character was raised, and the extended influence of woman 
 proved highly beneficial. It not only softened the manners 
 K 2 
 
132 EOMANTIC FICTION. 
 
 of all classes, but had a most blessed effect upon the customs 
 and usages of warfare. From these new manners arose a 
 new species of composition ; — the romance, or modern 
 heroic iable.* It took its rise in the thirteenth century, 
 among the troubadours or minstrels of Provence,'' who em- 
 ployed a modification of the Proven9al dialect. The wonders 
 of the crusades, and the pomp and luxuriance of Asiatic 
 cities, became the themes of their compositions, which 
 abounded with the exaggerations of Asiatic imagery and 
 the extravagancies of Asiatic fiction. The romance was the 
 favourite mode of composition ; and, as every kingdom had 
 its valorous knights, every kingdom soon had its romances; 
 and every romance was nearly the same. This was suc- 
 ceeded by the allegorical tale ; in which the virtues and 
 vices, appetites and passions, took the place of human 
 beings, and were made subservient to the design of the 
 poet. This shadowy production was followed by the Italian 
 epic ; the characters of which, as in the heroic poem of the 
 Greeks, consist of a medley of mortal, immortal, and alle- 
 gorical personages. Dante, Ariosto, and Tasso are supposed 
 to have carried it to perfection. Dante, the father of Italian 
 poetry, flourished in the beginning of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury. He was succeeded by Petrarch and Boccaccio, who 
 perfected the Italian language. 
 
 § 183. The English court was, in that age, the most 
 splendid in Europe, and one of the most polished, 
 Edward III. and his son, the Black Prince, were the patrons 
 and mirrors of chivalry. The stately castle of "Windsor, 
 
 » Bussell has adopted the views advocated by Warton, in his History 
 of English Poetry. That romantic fiction did not originate in the thir- 
 teenth century, and was not produced by the crusades, are matters that 
 has been clearly established by Kiohard Price in his edition of Warton's, 
 in many respects, valuable work. The following note by Wright will 
 perhaps bring the matter most vividly before the mind of the young 
 student. " There is nothing, perhaps, more ridiculous than the seek- 
 ing of the origin of romance amongst any one people, or of snpposicg 
 that any one people took its romance from another. It is obvious that 
 at a certain period amongst the literature of every people, we may find 
 romances that are taken from those of other peoples, although there are 
 few nations which do not possess a body of popular romance belonging 
 to themselves. I have very little doubt that a large mass of the stories 
 which in the thirteenth century made their appearance in Jablia/ux, had 
 existed at a much earlier period among the Teutonic tribes." — ^Warton, 
 edit. 1840, vol. i. p. 115. 
 
 '' The French language was divided into two different dialects, called 
 the Langue d'Oil and the Langue d'Oc, or the French and Provenfal. 
 ^oon after the decline of the latter the troubadours arose. 
 
ENGLISH LITERATURE. 133 
 
 built in this illustrious reign, saw the round table of King 
 Arthur, and the order of the Garter restored. Tilts, tour- 
 naments, and pageants, were constantly exhibited, and with 
 a magnificence before unknown. G-eoffrey Chaucer, the 
 father of English poetry, was the brightest ornament of 
 Edward's court. Owing to William the Conqueror's 
 attempt to extirpate the English tongue, Chaucer had to 
 create, or at least to form, a new dialect. The civil wars 
 retarded the advance of English literature and refinement, 
 and Chaucer had no worthy successor till the days of 
 Elizabeth. About the beginning of the fourteenth century, 
 Chants Royaux, Sallades, Rondeaux, and Pastorales, had 
 taken the place of the Provenfal poetry, in France ; but 
 Eroissart, who cultivated this New Poetry with success, 
 cannot be considered equal to the old troubadours. Genius, 
 in the mean time, continued to advance with rapid strides 
 in Italy. Dramatic talent began to disclose itself, and 
 theatrical representation was revived ; music also was cul- 
 tivated. Italy had at last her historians ; the names of 
 Michiavel and. G-uicciardini shed lustre on the literature of 
 the period. 
 
 Letter 57. — The Progress of Navigation, particularly among the 
 Portuguese. A short Introduction to the History of Portugal. The 
 Discoveries and ISettiements of the Portuguese on the Coast of Africa, 
 and in the East Indies, by the Cape of Good Hope. The Discovery 
 of America by the Spaniards ; the Settlement of the West Indies, and 
 the Conquest of Mexico and Peru ; together with some Reflections 
 on the Moral and Political consequences of these great events. A.D. 
 1100—1533. Vol. i., pages 317—329. 
 
 § 184. The navigation of Europe, at the beginning of 
 the fifteenth century, though much improved since the age 
 of Charlemagne, was chiefly confined to the Mediterranean 
 and Baltic seas, and was still little more than what is now 
 called coasting. Elanders was the great theatre of com- 
 merce. Thither the Italian states conveyed, from the ports 
 of Egypt, the precious commodities of the East; and 
 thither the Hanseatic merchants carried, from the shores of 
 the Baltic, the naval stores and other rude merchandise of 
 the North. To this common mart aU European nations 
 resorted. Towards the close of the eleventh century, 
 Alphonso VI., king of Castile and Leon, having wrested 
 from the Moors the northern provinces of the present 
 kingdom of Portugal, bestowed them, together with his 
 natural daughter, upon Henry of Burgundy, a noble 
 
134 SPIRIT OF ENTERPEISE. 
 
 volunteer, who had assisted him in his wars. Henry only; 
 took the title of count, but in 1139 his son Alphoaso 
 assumed *he regal dignity. The kings of Portugal were 
 iuvolved in continual wars with the Moors, and in 1383 the 
 male succession failed. After an interreguum of eighteeu 
 months, the States conferred the crown upon John, aur- 
 named the Bastard. He was the third European prince 
 ■who formed a respectable navy, which he employed with 
 equal success in annoying his enemies and in protecting his 
 subjects. His son, Henry III., devoted his attention to 
 astronomy and navigation, working out many beneficial 
 results. Under his direction, Madeira, the Azores, and the 
 Cape de Verd islands were discovered. 
 
 § 185. John II. made Lisbon a free port, afl,d the Portu- 
 guese prosecuted their discoveries with ardour and succeaa. 
 Bartholomew Diaz reached the extreme point of Africa, to 
 which he gave the name of the Stormy Capei bijt the king, 
 perceiving the importance of the discovery, changed it to 
 the Cape of Good Hope (1486). Emanuel I. pursued the 
 same objects as his predecessors, and in 1496 sent out a 
 fleet of four ships, under Vasco de Gama. That celebrated 
 navigator sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and reached 
 Calicut, 00 thu coast of Malabar. He returned to Lisbon in 
 1498 ; and such was the enthusiasm with which his dis- 
 coveries were received, that thirteen ships left the Tagus 
 for India, under the command of Alvarez Cabral (1500). 
 This navigator discovered Brazil, took possession of it, and 
 then proceeded to Calicut, where, through the intrigues of 
 the -Arabs, he became involved in hostilities with the 
 natives. The command in India was afterwards given to 
 Alphonso Albuquerque, who destroyed Calicut, seized upon 
 Goa, and made it the capital of the ^orti^guese empire in 
 India (1511). This ambitious navigator attacked Malacca, 
 pushed along the coast Cprorjiandel,, while hi? successors 
 penetrated into China «nd Japan. 
 
 § 186. The Spaniards bad in the mean time discovered it 
 new continent towards the west.* Christopher Columbus, $ 
 Genoese navigator, who resided at Lisbon, and who had de- 
 voted himself to the study of astronomy, conceived the idea 
 of the existence of this new continent. The Genoese treated 
 him as a visionary, and, in 1484, the court of Portugal refused 
 to adopt his plans. After a similar failure in England, and 
 
 • Eeoent writers have shown that the Soandinaviana in early times 
 touched at the eontinent of tlie New World. 
 
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 13» 
 
 several rejections from Ferdinand of Spain, that monarch at 
 last fitted out a fleet of three ships, and gave Columbus the 
 command. He boldly launched into the ocean ; his crew- 
 mutinied ; hut he persevered, and on the 12th of October 
 reached one of the Bahama islands, which he named St. Sal- 
 vador (1492). Having discovered several small islands, he 
 arrived at the island of Cuba, and afterwards at Hiapaniola, 
 where he built a fort, and planted a little colony. The 
 natives were an easy, harmless, indolent race, who regarded 
 the Spaniards as divinities. Columbus returned to Spain in 
 1493, and his discoveries produced such a sensation, that a 
 fleet of seventeen saU was fitted out in a few months. During 
 his absence, his small colony had behaved so iU, that the 
 natives rebelled and massacred the Spaniards. Columbus 
 established a new colony ; and on the outbreak of dissensions, 
 committed the government of the island to his brother Bar- 
 tholomew, and returned to Spain, with some samples of gold- 
 dust, ore, pearls, and other precious productions, after having 
 a second time attempted, but in vain, to discover a western 
 continent (1496). He set out on his third voyage with a 
 small fleet, and on the 1st of August, 1498, landed on the 
 continent of America, near the mouth of the river Orinoco. 
 
 § 187. In 1499, the merchants of Seville despatched a 
 fleet of four ships, under the joint command of Alonzo de 
 Ojeda and Americus Vespucius. They followed in the track 
 of Columbus, touched on the great western continent, to 
 which Americus gave his own name. In the mean time a 
 new governor had been sent out to Hispaniola, and Columbus 
 and his brother were carried home in chains. They were, 
 however, set at liberty, and Columbus sailed on his fourth 
 voyage of discovery in 1502. He was shipwrecked on the 
 island of Jamaica, his followers mutinied, and, after suffering 
 great privations, he reached Spain in 1504. Queen Isabella 
 was dead, and all his hopes of future favour vanished. He 
 retired to Valladolid, where he died neglected and in want, 
 on the 20th of May, 1506. 
 
 § 188. After the death of Columbus, the maxims of Spain, 
 like those of Portugal, became altogether barbarous. E,e- 
 ligion, avarice, and violence were united. The leader who 
 pursued these with least violence to humanity, and most ad- 
 vantage to his country, was Hernando Cortes, the conqueror 
 of Mexico. Before that empire was discovered, the Spanish 
 colonies of Hispaniola, Cuba, Jamaica, and Porto Eico, were 
 in a flourishing condition. Humours of the opulence and 
 
136 MEXICO AND PEEU. 
 
 grandeur of the emperor Montezuma and his capital, induced 
 Velasquez, governor of Cuba, to send Cortea to make the 
 conquest. "With a small force the Spanish general effected 
 this object. He landed on the coast in 1519, and managed 
 to form an alliance with some princes and states, enemies of 
 the Mexicans. Mexico was soon taken, and the emperor, 
 Montezuma, arrested. Cortes was called away to check the 
 advance of a general sent to replace him, when the Mexicans 
 revolted. Their emperor, Montezuma, was killed duringthe 
 insurrection, and Cortes was finally compelled to abandon 
 the city (1520). The Mexicans harassed his retreat, but 
 were overthrown with great slaughter ; and, having obtained 
 the assistance of the Tlascalans, Cortes once more besieged 
 Mexico. It surrendered, and the whole empire submitted 
 to the Spaniards (1521). The city of Mexico is represented 
 as one of the most striking monuments of human grandeur. 
 Its spacious squares, its sumptuous palaces, its magnificent 
 ediiices, are spoken of with enthusiasm by the Spanish 
 historians ; but their splendid descriptions are somewhat 
 overdrawn." 
 
 § 189. Peru had long been governed by a race of em- 
 perors, under the name of Incas, who were supposed to be 
 the descendants of the sun. In 1529, Francisco Pizarro, with 
 about two hundred men, invaded that empire, then famous 
 for its wealth, and succeeded, after a variety of adventures, in 
 subjecting it to his sway (1533). The conquest of Mexico 
 and Peru put the Spaniards at once in the possession of more 
 specie than all the other nations of Europe, yet Spain from 
 that era has continued to decline, in population, industry, 
 and vigour. Portugal has experienced a similar fate, and 
 neither of these states have benefited by their discoveries. 
 The advantages to Europe of these new acquisitions have 
 not been so great as many have imagined, or, at any rate, 
 they have been counterbalanced by great evils. The exten- 
 sion of commerce has increased the wants of the civilized 
 world, and whetted the avarice of man. The colonies estab- 
 lished by the different European communities are, indeed, a 
 great benefit to the human race, and open out wonderful 
 advantages to the industry of a surplus population. 
 
 " In Prescott's jvovks the student will find full particulars respectiDg 
 the early state of Mexico. 
 
CHAKLES MADE EMPEEOE. 137 
 
 CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 Letteb 58. — A General View of the ASairs of Europe, from the 
 Election of Charles V., king of Spain, and emperor of Germany, 
 to the Peace of Cambray, including the Progress of the Eeformation. 
 A.D. 1519—1529. Vol. i,, pages 330—342. 
 
 § 190. On the death of Maximilian, Francis I. of France, 
 and Charles I. of Spain, were the principal competitors for 
 the empire. The electors offered the crown to Frederic the 
 "Wise, duke of Saxony, but that prince declined the honour, 
 and recommended Charles, who was in consequence elected, 
 under the title of Charles V. (1519). Francis, incensed, made 
 advances to Henry VIII. of England, flattered Cardinal 
 Wolsey, then prime minister, and so far succeeded in his 
 designs, as to induce Henry to consent to hold an interview 
 with him near Calais. In the mean time, Charles landed 
 at Dover, on his way from Spain to the Low Countries, 
 made a favourable impression upon Henry, won Wolsey by 
 the promise of his vote, in case of a vacancy, for the papal 
 chair, and completely detached the king and his minister 
 from the interests of France (1520). The two monarchs 
 had an interview at G-uisnes, near Calais, at which such 
 magnificence and profuse expense were displayed, that it 
 was called the Meld of the Cloth of Gold. Henry wrestled 
 with Francis, and being thrown, desired to renew the strug- 
 gle, but was prevented. On leaving this scene of dissipa- 
 tion, Henry visited the emperor Charles, at Gravelines, 
 where their former favourable impressions were much 
 strengthened. Charles was solemnly invested with the 
 crown and sceptre of Charlemagne, at Aix-la-ChapeUe, on 
 the 22nd of October, and about the same time Soliman the 
 Magnificent ascended the Ottoman throne. 
 
 § 191. Charles's first act was to assemble the Diet of 
 Worms, for the purpose of concerting with the princes of 
 the empire proper measures for checking the progress of 
 those new and dangerous opinions which threatened to dis- 
 turb the peace of Germany, and to overturn the relieion of 
 
138 THE EEFOEMATION. 
 
 their ancestors. After the Diet of Augsburg, Luther Lad 
 freely propagated his opiBions, and published treatises against 
 the Komish errors. In 1520, Leo X. issued a bull of excom- 
 munication against him, which Luther burned publicly, at 
 Wittenberg, together with the canon law, on the 10th of 
 December. At Zurich, Zuinglius denounced the sale of 
 indulgences, and the corruptions of the Church, and the 
 pope's supremacy was denied in the greater part of Switzer- 
 lan (1519). Such was the state of the Eeformation when 
 Charles V. arrived in Germany ; -and although no secular 
 prince had yet embraced the new opinions, and no changes 
 had been effected, a deep impression had been made upon 
 the minds of the people, and their reverence for the existing 
 institutions and doctrines much shaken. Luther repaired 
 to Worms, where crowds assembled round him, while his 
 apartments were daily filled with princes and personages of 
 the highest rank. While expressing regret at any harsh- 
 ness into which he might have been betrayed in the heat of 
 controversy, Luther refused to retract his opinions, nor 
 would he consent to their being tried by any other standard 
 than that of Scripture (April 16, 1521). Although Luther 
 was permitted to depart, a severe edict was issu^ed in the 
 emperor's name, and by the authority of the diet, forbidding 
 any prince to harbour him . The elector of Saxony, his faithfid, 
 patron, secretly protected him, and Luther retired to Wart- 
 biarg, and commenced the German translation of the Bible. 
 § 192. Francis I. availed himself of a rebellion that had 
 broken out in Spain to endeavour to regain possession of 
 Navarre ; and although his levies were at first successful, they 
 were afterwards routed and expelled. Hostilities between 
 the rival monarchs soon spread to another quarter. The 
 duke of Bouillon invaded Luxemburg, and was repulsed by 
 Charles, who was himself afterwards repelled and worsted 
 before Mezieres, by the famous Chevalier Bayard. Thig 
 warrior, who united the talents of a consummate general ta 
 the punctilious honour and romantic gallantry of the heroes 
 of chivalry, was known as the KnigM mtliQwt fear mi 
 without reproach. Henry VHI. attempted to mediate, and 
 an unsuccessful congress was held at Caiais, followed by a 
 league p,gainst France, between Henry, Charles, and the 
 Pope. The Milanese rose agg,inst their French governor, 
 Lautrec, and drove the French out of a large part of their 
 Italian possessions. This so delighted Leo X., that exces- 
 sive joy brought on a fever, which occasioned his death. 
 
BATTLE OF PAVIA. 139 
 
 (Pecember 1, 1521), and Adrian VI. was raised to the papal 
 chair. Francis I. made another effort to regain what he had 
 lost in Italy ; but his army was defeated with great slaughter 
 at Bicocca (April 22, 1522). Genoa was captured by 
 Prospero Coloppa on the 30th of May, and the citadel of 
 Cremona was the only fortress that remained in the hands 
 of the French. Charles V. visited England, soothed Wolsey 
 for his disappointment with respect to the pontificate, and 
 induced Henry to send an army into France, under the earl 
 of Surrey, which returned after a fruitless campaign. 
 
 § 193. In 1521, Soliman the Magnificent, availing himself 
 of these divisions among the Christian princes, entered • 
 Hungary, and made himself master of Belgrade. He then 
 attacked B-hodes, which at last surrendered (December 20, 
 1522) ; whereupon the Knights of St. John took refuge .in 
 the island of Malta. Adrian VI. endeavoured to unite the 
 Christian princes against the Turks, but afterwards joined 
 the alliance formed by Charles V. against Francis I. That 
 monarch at once prepared to march into Italy, and was only 
 induced to alter his plans, on the discovery of a formidable 
 conspiracy formed against him by Charles, duke of Bourbon, 
 high constable of France. The conspirator was suffered to 
 escape, and Francis relinquished his intention of accom- 
 panying his army. A force he had sent against Milan, was 
 outmanoeuvred by the duke of Bourbon and the marquis of 
 Pescara, and when compelled to retreat, was pursued and 
 defeated at Biagrassa (1524) . In this action the Chevalier 
 Bayard was killed. The emperor and his allies were less 
 successful in their operations on the frontier of France, 
 being baffled in all directions, and Francis again resolved 
 upon leading an army into Italy. He passed Mount Cenis, 
 entered Milan, and laid siege to Pavia. Every art known to 
 the engineers of that age, and everything which could be 
 effected by the valour of his troops, was attempted in vain 
 by the French monarch against this- important place. 
 Confident of success, he had detached a considerable part 
 of his army to invade the kingdom of Naples ; and the 
 m^in body was wasted by the fatigues of the siege and the 
 rigour of the season. In this state it was attacked by the 
 imperial generals Bourbon, Lannoy, and Pescara, and after 
 a terrible conflict defeated (February 25, 1525). Francis I. 
 was taken prisoner, and in a few weeks not a Frenchman 
 was left in Italy. It was in this extremity that Francis 
 wrote to his mother Louisa, " AU is lost, save honour." 
 
140 TREATY OF MADRID. 
 
 § 194. Henry VIII., sensible of the necessity of pre- 
 serving the balance of power in Europe, determined upon 
 assisting the regent, Louisa, at this crisis ; while "Wolsey, 
 again disappointed of the papal chair (Clement VII. had 
 been elected on the death of Adrian VI. in 1523), longed 
 for an opportunity of revenging himself upon Charles V. 
 A defensive alliance was made between France and England, 
 which induced Charles, who had carried his prisoner into 
 Spain, to enter into a treaty with him at Madrid (January 
 17, 1526). Francis was released, but consented to renounce 
 all his rights in Italy, to relinquish the sovereignty of 
 Flanders and Artois, to cede Burgundy to the emperor, to 
 marry his sister, the queen-dowager of Portugal, to pardon 
 the duke of Bourbon, and to accompany the emperor in a 
 crusade against the Turks. The king's two eldest sons 
 Were given up as hostages for the performance of the stipu- 
 lated conditions. Directly Francis reached his kingdom, he 
 summoned the States of Burgundy, who protested against 
 the article relating to that province, and he refused to ratify 
 the treaty of Madrid. The pope absolved him from his 
 oath, and the kings of France and England, Clement VII., 
 the Swiss, the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Milanese, 
 entered into an alliance, which they called the Holy League, 
 in order to oblige the emperor to deliver up the French 
 king's sons, on the payment of a reasonable ransom, and to 
 re-establish Sforza in the duchy of Milan (1526). 
 
 § 195. Italy again became the battle-field, and the impe- 
 rialists, under the command of the duke of Bourbon, overran 
 the duchy of Milan, and then laid siege to Bome; their leader 
 was slain, but the city was taken and pillaged (1527). 
 Charles V. concealed his joy at this extraordinary event, 
 and pretended to sympathize with the pope. Henry VIII. 
 and Francis I. entered into a closer alliance, the one 
 furnishing men and the other supplies, for an expedition 
 into Italy, by which the pope was delivered. The revolt of 
 Andrew Doria, a Genoese admiral in the service of France, 
 led to the defeat of the French, and induced Francis to 
 treat (1528). Charles V., disturbed by the victories of 
 Soliman the Magnificent, and the progress of the Eeforma- 
 tion, was also inclined to come to terms. Two ladies were 
 permitted to restore peace to Europe. Margaret of Austria, 
 Charles's aunt,and Louisa,Francis's mother, met at Cambray 
 and settled the terms of pacification between the French 
 king and the emperor (August 5, 1529). Francis agreed to 
 
ORIGIN OF THE TERM PROTESTANT. 141 
 
 pay two millions of crowns, aa the ransom of his two sons ; 
 to resign the sovereignty of Flanders and Artois, and forego 
 all his Italian claims ; and Charles ceased to demand the 
 restitution of Burgundy. In 1530 Charles was crowned 
 king of Italy at Bologna, whereupon he prepared to revisit 
 Germany ; and his presence there was greatly needed. 
 
 Letter 59. — General View of the Al&irs of Enrope, and of the Pro- 
 gress of the RefonnatioTi on the Continent, from the Peace of 
 Cambray to that of Crespi. A.D. 1529 — 1544. Vol. i., pages 343 
 —355. 
 
 § 196. The absence of the emperor, and his wars, favoured 
 the progress of the Eeformation in Germany. Most of the 
 princes who had embraced Luther's opinions, entirely 
 suppressed the rites of the Eomish church, and many of the 
 free cities imitated their conduct. The Diet of Spires 
 resolved that all the states of Germany were free to choose 
 their own religion (1526). Luther had published his trans- 
 lation of the Bible, and in 1525 married Katherine de Bora. 
 Charles no sooner perceived some prospect of an accommo- 
 dation with Clement VII., than he summoned another diet 
 at Spires. After much dispute, a decree was issued, con- 
 firming the edict against Luther published at "Worms, and 
 prohibiting any further innovations in religion, but particu- 
 larly the aboHtion of the mass, before the meeting of a 
 general council (1529). Against this decree, the elector of 
 Saxony, the landgrave of Hesse, the duke of Lunenberg, and 
 the prince of Anhalt, together with the deputies of fourteen 
 imperial or free cities, entered a solemn protest (April 19). 
 On that account they were caUed Peotestants, a name 
 since given to all opponents of the errors of the church of 
 Eome. Such was the state of religious matters in Germany 
 on the return of Charles. He assisted at the Diet of 
 Augsburg, at which the Protestants presented their system 
 of opinions, drawn up by Melancthon, and known as the 
 Confession of Augsburg (June 25, 1530). The popish 
 divines and the reformers disputed, and a decree was 
 published condemning most of the peculiar tenets held by 
 the Protestants, and withholding toleration. The Pro- 
 testant princes then united in the league of Schmalkalden, 
 being supported by France and England (1531). Dread of 
 the Turks induced Charles to yield, and by a treaty con- 
 cluded at Nuremberg, and solemnly ratified in the Diet of 
 Eatisbon, he granted the Protestants liberty of conscience, 
 
142 THE ANABAPTISTS. 
 
 until the meeting of a general council, in return for their 
 aid against the Turks (1532). 
 
 § 197. Charles set oft' immediately with an arttiy of 
 90,000 infantry and 30,000 cavalry to meet the Turks, who 
 retired at his approach. During his absence great diSordefa 
 prevailed in Germany, occasioned by the Anabaptists, a nefr 
 sect, who opposed infant baptism. They also contended 
 that all distinctions of birth or rank ought to be abolished, 
 that a community of goods should be established, and that 
 every one might marry as many wives as he thought proper. 
 The peasants readily embraced these opinions, assembled in, 
 great numbers, devastated the country, and revived the 
 horrors of the Jacquerie. At first they were easily dispersed, 
 and Muncer, their prophet, perished on a scaffold at Mul- 
 hausen in 1525. Theit opinions were secretly propagated, 
 and John Matthias, a baker of Haerlem,,and JohnBocold, 
 a journeyman tailor of Leyden, fixed their residence 
 at Munster, and expelled the inhabitants (1534). The 
 bishop of Munster besieged the fatiatics, and Matthias 
 having been slain, John of Leyden assumed the title of 
 king. But the warlike bishop of Munster prevailed, the 
 city was taken, and John of Leyden put to death with 
 lingering tortures (1536). 
 
 § 198. In the mean time Charles undertook an expedition 
 against the piratical states of Africa, where Barbarossa, a 
 famous corsair, had established himself, committing piracies 
 and ravages, and carrying off Christians as slaves. The 
 outlaw was defeated, and his stronghold in the Bay of 
 Tunis, called G-oletta, captured, Tunis taken and sacked, 
 and twenty thousand Christian slaves freed from bondage 
 (1535). Francis took advantage of the eiiiperof's absence, 
 to revive his claims on Italy, but the death of Clement VIl. 
 put a stop to the negotiations (1534). By a cruel persecu- 
 tion of the Protestants in Paris, Francis had offended the 
 Protestant princes, so that after vainly seeking to obtain 
 allies, he advanced into Italy alone. H6 rataged Savoy, 
 «?aptured Turin, and attempted to surprise Genoa (1538). 
 Geneva suddenly threw off the yoke of Charles V., when 
 that monarch drove the French out of Piedinont and Savoy, 
 and invaded the southern provinces of France. The French 
 king ordered his generals to retire and lay waste the 
 territory, so that Charles, instead of that rich and populous 
 country which he expected to enter, beheld nothing but one 
 vast and desert solitude. Having spent two inglorious 
 
REVOLT AT GHENT. 14S 
 
 months in Provence, and lost one half of his troops by 
 famine or disease, he was under the necessity of ordering a 
 retreat, which soon became a perfect rout. Charles con- 
 ducted the remnant of his army over the frontier, and set 
 out for Spain. 
 
 § 199. Erancis, elated with his success, accused Charles of 
 having connived at the murder of the Dauphin, who had 
 died under suspicious circumstances in 1536, and of having 
 violated the treaty of Cambray. He declared further, that 
 by contumacy and rebellion the emperor had forfeited 
 Flanders and Artois, and that these fiefs were reunited to 
 the crown of France. Preparations for war were made, 
 but the new pope, Paul III., mediated, and a truce for 
 three months between Prance and Spain was agreed to at 
 Nice (Nov. 14, 1537) ; a congress was afterwards held 
 there, a truce for ten years made (June 18, 1538), and 
 the king and the emperor had an accidental but friendly 
 meeting at Aigues-mortes. Charles being in want of 
 supplies, assembled the Cortes of Castile at Toledo (1539), 
 and proposed to lay a general excise on commodities. The 
 measure was resisted, especially by the nobles, and the 
 emperor dismissed the assembly with indignation ; and from 
 that period neither the nobles nor the prelates have been 
 called to the Cortes, on the pretence that such as pay no 
 part of the public taxes should not claim a vote in disposing 
 of them. These assemblies have since consisted merely of 
 the procurators, or representatives of eighteen cities, two 
 from each, in all thirty-six members, who are absolutely 
 devoted to the crown. 
 
 § 200. The citizens of Ghent revolted on account of the 
 heavy taxation, and offered to transfer their allegiance to 
 Francis, and to assist him in recovering those provinces 
 in the Netherlands which had anciently belonged to his 
 crown. Francis was not, however, inclined to entertain the 
 proposal. He had lived in. friendship with the emperor 
 ever since their interview at Aigues-mortes, and Charles had 
 promised him the investiture of that duchy. Francis, there- 
 fore, communicated the scheme to the emperor, afterwards 
 granting him a safe passage through France, in order to 
 chastise the rebels. The king entertained his guest with 
 great magnificence at Paris (1540) ; and the citizens of 
 Ghent, alarmed at his approach, offered to throw open their 
 gates. Charles replied that he would appear among them 
 " as a sovereign and a judge, with the sceptre and the 
 
144 DIET OF RATISBON". 
 
 Bword." Twenty-six of the principal citizens were put to 
 death ; a greater number were banished ; the city was 
 declared to have, forfeited its privileges; a new system of 
 political administration was introduced ; a heavy fine was 
 imposed upon the inhabitants to defray the expense of 
 erecting a citadel, together with an annual tax for the 
 support of a garrison. Having thus re-established hsi 
 authority in the Low Countries, Charles peremptorily 
 refused to give up the duchy of Milan, and even denied 
 that he had promised so to do, which conduct so exasperated 
 Francis, that he only waited for the opportunity to take 
 revenge (1540). 
 
 § 201. The Protestants having in vain demanded s 
 general council, pressed Charles to appoint a conference 
 between a select number of divines of each party, in order 
 to examine the points in dispute. For this purpose a diet 
 was assembled at Eatisbon (1541), at which, in spite of 
 the pope's opposition, the emperor presided. Little good 
 was eifected by this assembly, the settlement of the religious 
 controversies being referred to a general council. In case 
 this should prove impracticable, the matter was to be settled 
 at a national synod ; and in the event of the failure of both of 
 these plans, a general diet of the empire was to be called 
 within eighteen months. In the interval, innovations were 
 forbidden, as well as all attempts to gain proselytes. This 
 edict, called the first " Interim," gave great offence, both 
 to the pope and the Protestants, the former regarding it as 
 an infringement of the rights of the Church, and the latter 
 as an attack upon their liberties. Charles treated privately 
 with the Protestants, confirmed them in the full possession 
 of all their privileges, and promised not to enforce the more 
 obnoxious portions of the edict. The chance of a rupture 
 with Prance, and the alarming progress of the Turks in 
 Hungary, induced the emperor to make these concessions. 
 Taking advantage of a revolution in Hungary, SoUman II. 
 had defeated the Hungarians before Buda, and annexed the 
 kingdom to his dominions. Intelligence of the revolution 
 reached Charles at the diet of Eatisbon, whereupon, by the 
 means of the above-mentioned concessions, he obtained such 
 liberal promises of support, that he felt but little anxiety 
 respecting the security of Germany. 
 
 § 202. Charles then set off on an African expedition. 
 Algiers, since the capture of Tunis, had become the common 
 resort of the Barbary corsairs, under the leadership of a 
 
TREATIES OF CRESPI AND CAMPE. 145 
 
 renegado eunuch, named Hassan. Contrary to the advice 
 of Andrew Doria, Charles persisted in attacking the pirate 
 band, and had scarcely landed in Barbary, ere a violent 
 hurricane arose, scattered his fleet, and dashed the greater 
 part of it to pieces (1541). The emperor was compelled 
 to re-embark, after having lost the flower of his army, and 
 his shattered vessels were caught in a fresh storm. He 
 bore his misfortunes with fortitude, and by sharing the 
 severest hardships with the meanest soldier, and freely 
 exposing himself to every kind of danger, won general 
 admiration. Francis resolved to avail himself of these 
 reverses, in order to renew the war, and sent ambas- 
 sadors to the Ottoman Porte and the republic of Venice. 
 They were seized and put to death by the governor of the 
 duchy of Milan.. By granting concessions to the Protest- 
 ant princes of Germany, Charles obtained their support, 
 as well as that of Henry VIII. of England, while Francis 
 allied himself with the kings of Sweden and Denmark, and 
 renewed his treaty with Soliman. "War ensued, and several 
 battles were fought, the most important of which was that 
 of Ceresuola, gained by the count of Enghien, over the 
 imperialists (April 14, 1544). Henry VIII. again invaded 
 France, but hostilities were brought to a close by the treaty 
 of Crespi (Sept. 18). This provided that all the conquests 
 made by, either party since the truce of Nice should be 
 restored ; that the emperor should give in marriage to the 
 duke of Orleans, either his own eldest daughter, with the 
 Netherlands, or his brother Ferdinand's second daughter, 
 with the investiture of the duchy of Milan ; that Francis 
 should renounce all pretensions to the kingdom of Naples, 
 as well as to the sovereignty of Flanders and Artois, and 
 that Charles should give up his claim to the duchy of 
 Burgundy ; and that both should unite their forces against 
 the Turks. The death of the duke of Orleans in the follow- 
 ing year released the emperor from one stipulation in the 
 treaty. "War was still waged between France and England, 
 and the French attempted to invade our island, but were 
 repulsed near the Isle of Wight (1545). The contending 
 parties being both tired of the struggle, concluded a treaty 
 of peace, at Campe, near Ardres (June 7, 1546), by which 
 it was stipulated that France should pay the arrears due to 
 England by former treaties, Boulogne being left in the 
 hands of Henry as a security for the debt. 
 
 1 
 
146 HENKY Till. 
 
 Letter 60. — The Domestic History of England during the Eeign of 
 Henry VIII., with some aqcount of the Affairs of Scotland, and of 
 the Kise of the Keformation in England. A.D. 1609—1547. Vol. i., 
 pages 365 — 367. 
 
 § 203. Henry VIII. began his reign by ordering the pro- 
 isecution of Empson and Dudley, the two unfeeling ministers 
 ■whom his father had employed in his extortions, and they 
 were afterwards condemned and executed (1510). Katherine 
 of Arragon, his brother's widow, to whom he had long been 
 affianced, became his bride (1509), while "Wolsey gained an 
 ascendancy over the young king's mind. The duke of Buck- 
 ingham, lord high constable of England, had displeased 
 Wolsey, and he became the first victim. The office of high 
 constable was forfeited by his attainder, and never after- 
 wards revived (1521). The next memorable event in the 
 domestic history of this reign, is the divorce of Queen 
 Katherine. AU her children excepting the Princess Mary 
 died, and Henry was desirous of male issue. The unfortu- 
 nate lady had ofiended Wolsey, and he fortified the scruples 
 which his master entertained with respect to the legality of 
 his marriage with his brother's widow. Moreover, the king 
 had cast his eyes upon Anne Boleyn, maid of honour to the 
 queen, and daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, — a lady dis- 
 tinguished no less for the graces of her mind, than the 
 beauty of her person. 
 
 § 204. Henry had many obstacles to overcome. It was 
 not only necessary to obtain a divorce from the pope, but a 
 revocation of the bull which had been granted for his 
 marriage with Katherine. True, she was aunt to the 
 emperor Charles V., but Henry was in high favour with the 
 court of Eome, and for his book against Luther, Leo X, 
 had conferred upon him the title of Defender of the Faith.' 
 Henry, therefore, did not hesitate to apply to Clement VII. 
 for permission to dissolve his marriage (1527). Afraid to 
 ofi'end Charles V., and equally unwilling to disoblige Henry, 
 
 " This could only have been a confirmation from the pope of the title, 
 as some of Henry's predecessors had borne it, and made use of the same ; 
 a fact which is proved by various public documents. In his Memoirs of 
 Lord Burghley (vol. i.' chap. ii. p. 24), Nares says :—" After all, the title 
 was no new title ; former English sovereigns had been styled Defendera 
 of the Faith, as may be seen in charters granted to the university of 
 Oxford. In 1644 this was made part of the king's title by act of par- 
 liament, and, as such, 'united and annexed for ever to the imperial 
 crown of England.'" 
 
DEATH OF WOLSET. 147 
 
 the pontiff temporized and at last commissioned his two 
 legates in England, Campeggio and "Wolsey, to open a court 
 at London to try the validity of the marriage. They com- 
 menced the investigation on the 23rd of May, 1529, and 
 after many delays, Campeggio, on the most frivolous pre- 
 tences, prorogued the court, and the pope evoked the cause 
 to Eome. Anne Boleyn imputed the miscarriage of the 
 affair to Wolsey, whereupon this amhitious churchman was 
 disgraced, and the great seal was transferred from him to 
 Sir Thomas More, a man of learning, virtue, and capacity. 
 
 § 205. The Parliament took advantage of the quarrel 
 between Henry and the pope, to pass several bills restrain- 
 ing the power of the clergy ; and Anne Boleyn endeavoured 
 to induce the king to break off all connection with the 
 church of Eome. Dr. Thomas Oranmer, fellow of Jesus 
 College, Cambridge, advised Henry to consult all the uni- 
 versities in Europe, respecting the validity of his marriage 
 (1529). This was done, and they decided as the king 
 desired (1530). On the 28th of November in this year, 
 Cardinal Wolsey breathed his last. Having retired to his 
 see of York, he lived in retirement, when the earl of 
 Northumberland received orders to arrest him for high 
 treason, and conduct him to London for trial. On his 
 journey he was seized with dysentery ; and it was with 
 much difficulty that he was able to reach Leicester Abbey, 
 where he immediately retired to his bed, from which he 
 never rose. 
 
 § 206. On Wolsey's death, Henry summoned a parliament 
 and a convocation, and by the former he was acknowledged 
 " the Protector and Supreme Head of the Church and Clergy 
 of England" (1531). Anne Boleyn was created marchioness 
 of Pembroke, and the king contracted a private marriage 
 with her (1532), which was afterwards pnblicly solemnized 
 by Cranmer (1533), who had been made archbishop of 
 Canterbury. The new queen was soon after delivered of a 
 daughter, Elizabeth (Sept. 1, 1533), the future sovereign of 
 England. Intelligence of these transactions created great 
 dismay at Eome. Cranmer's sentence was declared null, 
 and the king threatened with excommunication. Francis I. 
 mediated, but things had gone too far, and an English par- 
 liament conferred on the king the title, " The only supreme 
 Head of the Church of England upon earth." All who 
 denied the king's supremacy, the legitimacy of the Princess 
 L 2 
 
us STJPPEESSION OF THE MONASTERIES. 
 
 Elizabeth, and, by a strange inconsistency, embraced the 
 tenets of the Eeformers, provoked Henry's resentment, 
 risher, bishop of Eochester, and the learned Sir Thomas 
 More, were sent to the scaffold, for refusing to take the 
 new oaths (15.35). The pope excommunicated Henry and 
 laid the kingdom under an interdict, but could not frighten 
 this monarch, and he proceeded against the monasteries, 
 which had become the nurseries of idleness, superstition, and 
 folly. Their ample revenues tempted the king, yet the 
 abuses of these establishments forbid regret at their sup- 
 pression. Commissioners were sent round, and the lesser 
 monasteries, to the number of three hundred and seventy-six, 
 were at once suppressed hj Parliament ; and the revenues, 
 goods, chattels, and plate, granted to the king (1536). The 
 Convocation, which sat at the same time, ordered a new trans- 
 lation of the Scriptures, none having been pubhshed by 
 authority, in the English tongue. 
 
 § 207. Anne Boleyn soon experienced the effects of a 
 decline in Henry's affections. The fickle monarch had been 
 captivated by a maid of honour, Jane Seymour, a lady of 
 exquisite beauty. Anne was accused of infidelity ; im- 
 peached, condemned, and executed (1536). History affords 
 no reason to call her innocence in question ; and the king, 
 by marrying her rival the day after her execution, made the 
 motives of his conduct sufficiently evident, and left httle 
 doubt as to the iniquity of her sentence. The unfortunate 
 lady's brother and three gentlemen of the bed-chamber 
 were sacrificed to hallow his nuptials with Jane Seymour. 
 The ex-queen Katherine died early in the same year. The 
 Eoman Catholics, who had been the chief instruments of 
 these tragical events, did not reap so much advantage from 
 the fall of Anne as they expected, and the Eeformation still 
 progressed. The discontented Eoman Cathohcs got up a 
 rebellion, which was suppressed by the duke of Norfolk, and 
 the birth of a son, who was christened Edward, seemed to 
 complete the king's felicity (Oct. 12, 1537). The queen 
 died a few days after this auspicious event. 
 
 § 208. Henry next resolved upon the utter destruction 
 of the monasteries, and the better to reconcile the minds of 
 the people to this great innovation, exposed the various im- 
 postures practised by the monks (1538). In order to settle 
 religious disputes, a bill consisting of six articles, called 
 by the Protestants the Bloody Bill, was passed through 
 both houses, and received the royal assent (1539). This 
 
LAW OF THE SIX ARTICLES. 149 
 
 statute favoured the doctrine of the real presence, or tran- 
 substantiation ; the communion in one kiiid, or with bread 
 only ; the perpetual obligation of vows of chastity ; the 
 utility of private masses ; the celibacy of the clergy, and 
 the necessity of auricular confession. The violation of 
 any of these articles was to be punished by death. At the 
 same time, pensions were settled on the ejected monks, and 
 six new bishoprics were created. The king began to think 
 of a new wife, and, anxious to establish an intimate alliance 
 with the duke of Cleves, who had great interest with the 
 princes of the Schmalkaldic league, he solicited the hand of 
 his daughter Anne. The marriage took place on the 6th of 
 January, 1540 ; but Henry never Ijked the lady, and soon after 
 conceived a passion for Katherine Howard, niece to the duke 
 of Norfolk. By the influence of this new connection, his 
 minister Cromwell was accused of heresy and treason, com- 
 mitted to the Tower, condemned and executed. A divorce 
 from Anne of Cleves, was obtained, and the king married 
 to Katherine Howard. This alliance was favourable to the 
 Boman CathoUe party. The king's councils being directed 
 by the duke of Norfolk and Bishop Gardiner, a furious 
 persecution arose against the Protestants. The Law of the 
 Six Articles, which Cromwell had on all occasions taken 
 care to soften, was executed with rigour, and Dr. Barnes 
 and several other clergymen were brought to the stake. 
 The elegant person and agreeable manners of Katherine 
 entirely captivated the king ; but his happiness was of short 
 duratioiL The queen had led a dissolute life before marriage ; 
 the fact was now communicated to Henry, and although 
 overcome with grief at the discovery, he sent his fifth part- 
 ner to the scafiold (1542). 
 
 § 209. James V. of Scotland refused to throw off the 
 papal yoke, whereupon Henry declared war against him 
 (1542). James invaded England, but was defeated at 
 Solway (Nov. 24), and his army dispersed. He had mar- 
 ried a daughter of the duke of Guise, and his wife, soon 
 after this repulse, gave birth to a daughter, the unfortunate 
 Mary, queen of Scots (Dec. 8). James died in the same 
 month, and Cardinal Beaton, archbishop of St. Andrew's, 
 managed to engross the direction of the regency. By the 
 aid of the Scotch nobility, Henry obtained a treaty for the 
 union of the two crowns, on the basis of a proposed marriage 
 between Edward, prince of "Wales, and the young queen of 
 Scots (1543). Henry's next care was to find a wife, and 
 
150 DEATH OF HENRY VIII, 
 
 he eventually fixed upon Katherine Parr, widow of Lord 
 Latimer, a woman of virtue and good sense, well inclined 
 towards the Protestant cause. The marriage was celebrated 
 on the 12th of July, 1543, and by her discretion this queen 
 managed to preserve the king's affection, though he was 
 once or twice, through the machinations of Gardiner and 
 others, highly incensed against her. Katherine persuaded 
 him to restore his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to the 
 right of succession, and an act of parliament was passed for 
 that purpose (1544<). 
 
 § 210. The king continued his religious persecutions, 
 and, among other victims, Anne Ascue, a young woman of 
 singular beauty and merit, perished at the stake (1546). 
 Henry also pursued those who excited his political jealousy, 
 and the duke of Norfolk, and his son the earl of Surrey, 
 were committed to the Tower. The latter was beheaded 
 early in 1547, and the king's death, on the 28th of January, 
 saved the life of the father. Henry's- health had long been 
 declining, his approaching dissolution had been foreseen by 
 all around him for some days, and at last Sir Anthony 
 Denny ventured to make known the awful truth. The king 
 signified his resignation, and sent for Cranmer, whom he had 
 to the last protected. The primate came, though not before 
 the king was speechless. As he still seemed to retain his 
 senses, Cranmer desired him to give some sign of his dying 
 in the faith of Christ. Henry pressed the primate's hand, 
 and expired, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and the thirty- 
 eighth of his reign. 
 
 Letter 61 . — A General View of the State of Affairs on the Continent of 
 Europe, including the Progress of the Eeformation in Germany, from 
 the First Meeting of the Council of Trent to the Peace of Passau. 
 A.D. 1545—1552. Vol. i., pages 367—382. 
 
 § 211. The emperor Charles V. resolved to humble the 
 Protestant princes, and in order to effect his purpose had 
 made a disadvantageous peace with Prancis I. (1544), and 
 a dishonourable truce with Soliman II. (1546) ; about the 
 same time he entered into an alliance with Pope Paul III. 
 for the extirpation of heresy. A council had assembled at 
 Trent, on the 13th of December, 1545, by the authority of 
 the pope, for " the extii-pation of heresy, the re-estaUish- 
 ment of ecclesiastical discipline, the reformation of morals, 
 and the restoration of peace and unity." The Protestants, 
 although they had appealed to a general council, refused to 
 
TSEACHERY OF MAURICE. 151 
 
 acknowledge the legality of the Council of Trent, as they 
 were sensible that it had been convoked to condemn, and 
 not to examine, their opinions. Charles, as usual, practised 
 dissimulation; he could not, however, impose upon the 
 sounder part of the Protestant confederacy. Luther died 
 in 1546, but his opinions had taken root, and although 
 unfortunate in their negotiations with foreign powers, the 
 Protestants brought such a force into the field, that the 
 wily Charles V. was completely outwitted. They impru- 
 dently treated instead of acting, till Charles received sup- 
 plies from Italy and the Netherlands. He stiU cautiously 
 declined a battle, trusting that discord and want of money 
 would compel the confederates to disperse. 
 
 § 212. The treachery of Maurice, marquis of Misnia and 
 Thuringia, of the house of Saxony, led to a crisis. Although 
 standing aloof from the Protestant confederacy, Maurice pro- 
 fessed to be animated by friendly feelings towards its members, 
 and, confident iu his good faith, one of them, the elector of 
 Saxony, actually committed his dominions to his charge. 
 The confederates had no sooner taken the field, than he 
 joined with Ferdinand and overran the territories of the 
 elector of Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse. Maurice 
 was speedily ejected from the electorate by its rightful 
 sovereign ; his own dominions were invaded, and he himself 
 shut up in his capital. Nevertheless, Ulm and several 
 cities submitted to the emperor, and his success was so 
 decided, that Paul III. grew alarmed. Prancis I. negotiated 
 with Soliman II., the pope, the Venetians, and with England. 
 The Prench monarch also encouraged the elector of Saxony 
 and the landgrave of Hesse, by remitting considerable 
 sums; and he raised troops, and contracted for a large body 
 of Swiss mercenaries. The death of Francis (March 31, 
 1647), before he could put any of his schemes into execu- 
 tion, afibrded the emperor a short respite. 
 
 § 213. This interval of security the emperor seized to 
 take vengeance on the elector and the landgrave, and 
 marched into Saxony with his army. He defeated his 
 opponents, took the elector prisoner at Mulhausen, near 
 Miihlberg (April 24, 1547), and speedily marched towards 
 "Wittemberg, the capital of the electorate. Sibylla of Cleves, 
 the elector's wife, refused to yield up the place, and ani- 
 mated the citizens to a vigorous defence. Charles had the 
 meanness to threaten the life of her husband, whereupon 
 this gallant woman submitted, and an accommodation was 
 
152 THE AUGSBTJEG " INTERIM." 
 
 made. Frederic resigned the electoral dignity, gave up his 
 capital, and consented to remain the emperor's prisoner. 
 Charles, on his part, promised to spare the elector's life, 
 and to settle upon him and his posterity the city of 
 Grotha and its territory, with a revenue of 50,000 florins. 
 The Saxon electorate was immediately bestowed upon the 
 treacherous Maurice (1548). The landgrave of Hesse, 
 who had kept the field, was induced to surrender, on the 
 promise that his personal freedom should be respected. 
 He had no sooner submitted than he was arrested, and 
 when Maurice and the elector of Brandenburg, who had 
 become sureties for his safety, remonstrated, Charles treated 
 them with contempt. Having now the two greatest princes 
 of the empire in his power, the emperor carried them 
 about with him in triumph, and wreaked his vengeance on 
 all the members of the Schmalkaldic league. His brother 
 Ferdinand tyrannized over his Bohemian subjects, stripped 
 them of all their ancient privileges, and loaded them with 
 oppressive taxes. 
 
 § 214. Charles summoned a diet to meet at Augsburg, 
 " in order to compose finally the controversies with regard 
 to religion, which had so long disturbed the empire." He 
 attempted to control its decisions by filling the city with 
 Spanish troops. At liis desire, the Diet of Augsburg 
 petitioned the pope to allow the prelates of the council of 
 Trent to return to that city, for the pope had, in 1547, 
 caused them to remove to Bologna. Paul temporized, and 
 at last refused to comply, whereupon Charles sent two 
 Spanish lawyers to Bologna, to protest againsf'the pro- 
 ceedings of the council. A modified form of Eotnan 
 Catholicism was, by his orders, prepared and submitted to 
 the Diet. This, called an Interim, as it was only to remaiti 
 in force until a proper council could be summoned, was 
 adopted and promulgated. The Protestants thought it 
 granted too little, indulgence ; the Eoman Catholics too 
 much : both were dissatisfied. The emperor, fond of his 
 plan, adhered to his resolution of putting it into eieeution. 
 This excited discontent, and some opposition, and the elector 
 of Saxony, though a prisoner, nobly refused to lend his sanc- 
 tion to the Interim. Its contents were no sooner known at 
 Eome, than the members of the Sacred College were filled 
 with rage and indignation. Disputes respecting the investi- 
 ture of the duchy of Milan, the possession of Placentia, and 
 the assassination of Paul's son Ludovico, still further embit- 
 
PAPAL TYBANNT. 153 
 
 tered the relations between Charles and the pope, and the 
 latter, in the eightieth year of his age, died from over-excite- 
 ment, on hearing of the defection of his grandson (1549). 
 Paul III. was succeeded by Julius III., and this prelate, 
 yielding to the solicitations of the emperor and his car- 
 dinals, issued a bull for the council to re-assemble at 
 Trent (March 14, 1551). Charles held another diet in 
 order to enforce the observance of the Interim. 
 
 § 215. The landgrave of Hesse was still kept prisoner, 
 and Charles, by his arbitrary and unjust conduct in this and 
 other matters, provoked the ire of the German princes. 
 The first check with which he met in his ambitious projects 
 was in his attempt to transmit the empire, as well as the 
 kingdom of Spain and his dominions in the Low Countries, 
 to his son Philip ; but no sooner was the proposal made 
 known, than all the electors, ecclesiastical as well as secular, 
 at that time assembled at Augsburg, concurred in express- 
 ing such strong disapprobation of the measure, that Charles 
 was obliged to abandon it. A quarrel respecting Parma, in 
 which Henry II. of France was arrayed on one side against 
 the pope and the emperor on the other, led to a European 
 war (1551). Henry II. protested against the convocation 
 of the Council of Trent at such a juncture, recalled all the 
 Grallican prelates, and declared that it could not be regarded' 
 as a general council. The fathers continued their delibera- 
 tions, and settled the great points in the controversy con- 
 cerning the sacrament of the Lord's supper, penance, and 
 extreme unction. Protestants were prohibited from 
 preaching any doctrine contrary to its decrees, or to the 
 tenets of the Bomish church ; and on their refusing 
 compliance, their pastors were ejected and exiled ; such 
 magistrates as had distinguished themselves by attach- 
 ment to the purer faith were dismissed ; their offices were 
 filled by the most bigoted of their adversaries ; and the 
 people were compelled to attend the ministration of priests 
 whom they regarded as idolaters, and to submit to the 
 authority of rulers whom they detested as usurpers. 
 
 § 216. These tyrannical measures opened the eyes of 
 Maurice of Saxony, and other Lutheran princes, who had 
 assisted the emperor in the war against the confederates of 
 Schmalkalde. Maurice, in particular, saw the necessity of 
 interference, and he who had perfidiously stripped his nearest 
 relation and benefactor of his hereditary possessions, and 
 had been chiefly instrumental in imdermining the civil 
 
154 MAURICE'S PLANS. 
 
 and religious liberties of his country, became the deliverer 
 of Germany. So admirably did Maurice carry out his policy, 
 that he retained the emperor's confidence, while he recovered 
 the good opinion of the Protestants. Although he supported 
 Charles's favourite scheme the Interim, even undertook to 
 reduce to obedience the citizens of Magdeburg, who persisted 
 in rejecting it, and was chosen general of the imperial army 
 collected for that purpose by a diet assembled at Augsburg, 
 he at the same time issued a declaration, containing profes- 
 sions of his zealous attachment to the Eeformed religion, as 
 well as of his resolution to guard against all the errors and 
 encroachments of the papal see. He also entered his protest 
 against the authority of the Council of Trent, unless the 
 Protestant divines should have a full hearing granted them, 
 and be allowed a decisive voice in that assembly ; and the 
 pope, renouncing his pretensions to preside in it, should 
 engage to submit to its decrees, and to absolve the bishops 
 from their oaths of obedience, that they might deliver their 
 sentiments with greater freedom. He reduced Magdeburg 
 after a siege of twelve months, protracted by design, in 
 order that his schemes might be ripened, before he received 
 orders to disband his army. The emperor ratified the terms 
 of the surrender, little suspecting the plot that had been 
 formed to withstand his despotism (1552). 
 
 § 217. Having entered into a treaty with Henry H., of 
 Prance, Maurice proceeded with great confidence, but equal 
 caution, to execute his plan. He sent a solemn embassy, in 
 which most of the German princes joined, to the emperor at 
 Innspruck, demanding the release of the landgrave of Hesse. 
 This application was refused, and, though of no benefit to 
 the landgrave, proved of infinite service to Maurice, for it 
 seemed to justify his subsequent proceedings. The emperor 
 and his prime minister, Granville, bishop of Arras, were 
 completely deceived as to the real intentions of Maurice, 
 and remained in fancied security at Innspruck. When all 
 his preparations were complete, Maurice pretended to be 
 indisposed, and sent word that he should soon appear at 
 Innspruck and apologize for the delay. In the mean time 
 he assembled his army, which amounted to twenty thousand 
 foot and five thousand horse, and published a manifesto, in 
 which he declared that he had taken up arms to secure the 
 Protestant religion, to maintain the integrity of the German 
 constitution, and to set the landgrave of Hesse free. To 
 this, the king of France, in his own name, added a manifesto, 
 
PEACE OF PASSAU. 155 
 
 in which he assumed the extraordinary appellation of " Pro- 
 tector of the Liberties of Germany and of its Captive 
 Princes." No words can express the astonishment of the 
 emperor at events so unexpected, and he was not in a con- 
 dition to oppose such formidable enemies. The king of 
 Trance entered Lorraine, while Maurice traversed Upper 
 Germany, reinstating the magistrates whom Charles had 
 deposed, and putting the ejected Protestant ministers iu 
 possession of the churches (1552). 
 
 § 218. Charles had recourse to negotiation, and Maurice 
 agreed to an interview with the king of the Eomans, at 
 Lintz, in Austria, leaving his army to proceed on its march, 
 under the command of the duke of Mecklenburg. Nothing 
 was settled in the conference at Lintz, except that another 
 should be held at Passau. Maurice marched directly 
 towards Innspruck, when Charles fled by night over the 
 Alps in a litter, and narrowly escaped being made prisoner. 
 He reached Villach, in Carinthia, in safety, and continued 
 at this retreat until matters were finally arranged with the 
 Protestant princes. The Council of Trent broke up in 
 dismay, and the victorious Maurice repaired to Passau, on 
 the day appointed for the second conference with the king 
 of the Romans, where he limited his demand to three 
 articles set forth in his manifesto ; namely, the liberty of the 
 landgrave, free exercise of the Protestant religion, and the 
 re-establishment of the ancient constitution of Germany. 
 Charles rejected these terms with disdain, whereupon 
 Maurice rejoined his troops and laid siege to Frankfort-on- 
 the-Maine. This measure had the desired eifect; Charles 
 renewed the congress of Passau, and concluded peace on 
 the following terms : — " The confederates shall lay down 
 their arms before the 12th day of August ; the landgrave 
 shall be set at liberty on or before that day ; a diet shall be 
 held within six months, in order to deliberate concerning the 
 most effectual mode of preventing for the future all dissen- 
 sions concerning religion ; in the mean time, no injury shall 
 be offered to such as adhere to the Confession of Augsburg, 
 nor shall the Eoman Catholics be molested in the exercise 
 of their religion ; the Imperial Chamber shall administer 
 justice impartially to persons of both parties, and Pro- 
 testants be admitted with Catholics to sit as judges in that 
 court ; the encroachments said to have been made upon the 
 constitution and liberties of Germany, shall be remitted to 
 the consideration of the approaching diet of the empire ; 
 
158 EDWARD VI. 
 
 and if that diet should not be able to terminate the 
 disputes respecting religion, the stipulations in the present 
 treaty, in behalf of the Protestants, shall continue for ever 
 in force " (April 28, 1552). Such was the memorable treaty 
 of Passau, which set limits to the authority of Charles V., 
 overturned the vast fabric which he had spent so many 
 years in erecting, and established the Protestant church in 
 Germany upoa a firm and secure basis. 
 
 liETTBK 62. — England, from the Death of Henry VIII. to the Accession 
 of Elizabeth, with an account of the Affairs of Scotland, and of the 
 Progress of the Beformation in both Countries, a.d. 1547—1558. 
 Vol. i., pages 382—395. 
 
 § 219. Henry VIII., by his will, made nearly a month 
 betbre his death, left the crown first to Edward, his son by 
 Jane Seymour ; then to Mary, his daughter by Katherine of 
 Arragon ; and lastly to Elizabeth, his daughter by Anne 
 Boleyn ; and each in turn wielded the English sceptre. As 
 Edward' VI. was only nine years of age at the time of his 
 father's death, the government of the kingdom was com- 
 mitted to sixteen executors, amongst whom were Archbishop 
 Cranmer and all the great officers of state. They chose 
 the earl of Hertford, the king's maternal uncle, and created 
 him duke of Somerset, to represent the king, under the 
 title of Protector. They also procured a patent from 
 Edward, investing him with the regal power. The duke of 
 Somerset enjoyed the confidence of the Protestant party^ 
 he resolved to carry out the Eeformation, and also took 
 care that the young monarch should be educated in the 
 same principles. To these Edward soon showed a zealous 
 attachment. In his schemes for advancing the progress of 
 the Eeformation, the Protector had recourse to Cranmer, 
 ■vfhose moderation and prudence made him adverse to all 
 violent changes. To his temperate counsels we are indebted, 
 not only for the full establishment of the Protestant religion 
 in England, but also for that happy medium between super- 
 stition and enthusiasm observable in the constitution of 
 the English church." No innovation was admitted merely 
 
 " The manner in which the fair fame of this good man and earneatre- 
 former, Thomas Cranmer, has been attacked by Maoaulay and other 
 writers, is most unwarrantable. All the charges against his chai'aoter 
 are based upon the calumnies circulated by Roman Catholics, who hated 
 him, and therefore sought to give posterity a false idea of the illustrious 
 martyr. The weight of evidence is altogether in his favour, and the 
 
DEFEAT OF THE SCOTCH AT PINKEY. 167 
 
 from a spirit of opposition, or a fanatical love of novelty. 
 The establishment of the church of England was in fact a 
 work of reason. 
 
 § 220. In Scotland, Cardinal Beaton had managed to gain 
 the ascendancy. His principal objects were to crush the 
 Eeformation already commenced in that kingdom, and to 
 prevent a union of the two crowns by the marriage between 
 Edward and Mary, as determined by treaty. The Eeformers 
 were everywhere cruelly persecuted, and many were con- 
 demned to that dreadful punishment which the church of 
 Home has appointed for its enemies. Among those who 
 suffered at the stake was a popular preacher named George 
 Wishart, a man of honourable birth and primitive sanctity 
 (1546). Wishart prophesied the humiliation and fall of the 
 cardinal ; and his disciples, enraged at his cruel execution, 
 having associated with Norman Leslie, eldest son of the earl 
 of Hothes, surprised him in the castle of St. Andrew's, and 
 put him to death. The conspirators, sixteen in number, took 
 possession of the castle, and having been reinforced by their 
 friends, petitioned Henry VIII. for assistance. The death 
 of that prince blasted all their hopes, and they were at last' 
 compelled to submit to the regent, the earl of Arran, who 
 was supported by a body of French troops. Somerset, 
 resolving to defend both the Protestants and the treaty, 
 advanced into Scotland. Meeting with a force much 
 superior to his own, he offered to treat ; but the Scotch 
 regent refused, and attacked Somerset's little army near the 
 village of Pinkey (September 10, 1547). A terrible defeat 
 was the result ; ten thousand of the Scots are said to have 
 fallen, and Scotland was at the mercy of the English 
 protector. The Scotch nobles threw themselves into the 
 arms of France, and sent their young queen to be educated 
 in that kingdom. This injudicious step proved the source 
 of Mary's accomplishments as a woman, and of her mis- 
 fortunes as a queen. 
 
 § 221. Cabals in the English court obliged the duke 
 of Somerset to return before he could adopt any effec- 
 tual measures for the subjugation of Scotland, and the 
 supplies which the Scotch received from France enabled 
 them to expel their invaders, while the Protector was em- 
 ployed in re-establishing his authority, and in quelling 
 
 student is warned against many historical works of the day, which 
 ire nothing better than party treatises, containing but a small amount ot 
 truth, almost smothered beneath a mass of errors and misrepresentations. 
 
158 DEATH OF EDWAED VI. 
 
 domestic insurrections. Somerset's brother, Lord Seymour, 
 had married the queen-dowager, and openly aspired at the 
 government of England. Somerset sought both by entreaties 
 and kindness to induce his brother to desist from such 
 dangerous practices, but all proved unavailing; and Lord 
 Seymour was at last committed to the Tower (.1548), 
 attainted of high treason, condemned, and executed (1549). 
 Somerset and Cranmer continued the glorious work of the 
 Reformation. The law of the Six Articles and many of 
 the arbitrary measures of Henry's government, had been 
 repealed by the Parliament (1547), and a committee 
 of bishops and divines, appointed by the privy council, 
 drew up a liturgy nearly the same as that at present 
 authorized by law. It was established by Parliament, and 
 uniformity was ordered to be observed m all rites and 
 ceremonies. Insurrections, caused in some measure by 
 the changes consequent upon the sudden suppression of 
 the monasteries, broke out in various parts of England 
 (1549) ; and Somerset, who loved popularity, imprudently 
 encouraged them by promising redress, which it was not in 
 his power to grant. Tranquillity was restored by the vigi- 
 lance of Lord Eussell and the earl of Warwick, but the 
 Protector never recovered his authority. He was soon 
 after committed to the Tower, and a council of regency 
 was formed, in which the earl of Warwick obtained the 
 sway. 
 
 § 222. Warwick next made peace with France and Scot- 
 land (1550), and then began to think of putting into execu- 
 tion those vast projects which he had formed for his own 
 aggrandizement. He procured for himself a grant of the 
 Northumberland estates and the title of duke (1551). 
 Somerset, who had been released from the Tower, stood in 
 his way, and the new duke of Northumberland caused him 
 to be accused of high treason. The ex-protector was tried, 
 condemned, and executed on Tower-hill ; and four of his 
 friends shared the same unjust and unhappy fate (1552). 
 Edward's health began to decline, and the duke of North- 
 umberland, after much persuasion, induced the youiog king 
 to disinherit his sisters, and bequeath the succession to Lady 
 Jane Grey, whom the duke had married to his fourth son, 
 Lord Guildford Dudley. The judges, and some persons in 
 authority, opposed the scheme ; but their opposition was over- 
 come, and the great seal affixed to the deed. Edward died 
 on the Gth of July, 1553, at an early age, having given great 
 
MARY'S CRUEL MEASURES. 159 
 
 promise of making a good king. Tiie duke of Northmiiber- 
 land caused Lady Jane Grey to be proclaimed queen, and 
 she accepted the crown with great reluctance. Mary fled 
 into Suffolk, and by promising not to alter the laws of 
 Edward VI. concerning religion, obtained the support of 
 the nobility and gentry. Lady Jane Grey, after wearing the 
 crown ten days, returned without a sigh to the privacy of 
 domestic life. The council ordered Mary to be proclaimed, 
 and the duke of K'orthumberland was executed for high 
 treason. Sentence was also pronounced against Lady Jane 
 Grey and Lord Guildford Dudley ; but they were respited 
 ou account of their youth, neither of them having attained 
 the age of seventeen (1553). 
 
 § 223. No sooner was Mary seated upon the throne, 
 than a total change in men and measures occurred. Gar- 
 diner, Bonner, and other Eoman Catholic bishops were 
 restored to their sees, while the most eminent Protestant 
 prelates and zealous reformers, Eidley, Hooper, Latimer, 
 Coverdale, and Cranmer, were thrown into prison. A sub- 
 servient parliament was procured, and a bill passed, declaring 
 the queen to be legitimate, ratifying the marriage of Henry 
 VIII. with Katherine of Arragon, and annulling the divorce 
 pronounced by Cranmer. All the statutes of Edward VI. 
 respecting religion were repealed ; and the queen sent 
 assurances to the pope of her earnest desire of reconciling 
 herself and her kingdoms to Home, and requesting that 
 Cardinal Pole might be appointed legate for that purpose 
 (1553). Eeginald Pole was descended from the royal 
 family of England, being a grandson of the duke of Clarence. 
 At the Reformation he remained faithful to Eome, and both 
 the pope and the emperor protected him. He is said to 
 have aspired to the honour of an alliance with Mary, and it 
 is certain that she thought of raising him to the throne. 
 Another partner was however found for her, — Philip, son of 
 Charles V. So fearful were her advisers lest this alliance 
 should provoke the resentment of the English nation, that the 
 marriage contract was drawn up with all possible attention 
 to the interest and security, and even to the grandeur of 
 England. It was provided that Philip, during his marriage 
 with Mary, should bear the title of king, but that the 
 administration should be vested solely in the queen ; that 
 no foreigner should be capable of holding any office in the 
 kingdom ; that no innovation should be made in the English 
 laws, customs, or privileges ; that Philip should not carry 
 
160 THE EEFOEMEES. 
 
 the queen abroad without her consent, nor any of her 
 children without the consent of the nobility ; that the male 
 issue of the marriage should inherit, together with England, 
 Burgundy and the Low Countries ; that if Don Carlos, 
 Philip's son by a former marriage, should die without issue, 
 Mary's children, whether male or female, should succeed to 
 the crown of Spain, and all the emperor's hereditary do- 
 minions ; and that Philip, in case the queen died before 
 him, without issue, should leave the crown of England to 
 the lawful heirs. 
 
 § 224. The English nation disliked the Spanish alliance. 
 The character of the emperor Charles V. was fully under- 
 stood in this country, and it was said that Philip, to his 
 father's vices, fraud and ambition, united those of a sullen 
 pride and barbarity. The people were everywhere ripe for 
 rebellion, and only wanted an able leader to have subverted 
 the queen's authority. No such leader appeared. Some 
 desultory attempts miscarried, and Sir Thomas Wyatt, the 
 duke of Suifolk, and others lost their heads upon the scaffold. 
 The youthful Lady Jane Grey, and her husband, Lord Gruild- 
 ford Dudley, fell victims to the queen's desire of vengeance; 
 and the heroism with which they met their fate won the 
 sympathy and admiration of all classes (1554). Philip 
 arrived soon after, and was married to the queen on the 
 25th of July, and Cardinal Pole followed with a commission 
 to reconcile England to Eome. The legate advocated mild 
 measures, and was inclined to toleration ; but Gardiner and 
 Bonner revived persecution, and many persons, of all con- 
 ditions, ages, and sexeSj were committed to the flames. 
 B.ogers, prebendary of St. Paul's, a man distinguished, for 
 his piety and learning, was the first victim. Hooper, bishop 
 of Gloucester, and Ferrar, bishop of St. David's, suffered 
 this terrible punishment in their respective dioceses. Eid- 
 ley and Latimer, two prelates, venerable for their yeara, 
 their learning, and their piety, perished together at Oxford 
 (1555). When tied to the stake, Latimer exclaimed to his 
 companion, " Be of good cheer, my brother ! We shall this 
 day kindle such a flame in England, as, I trust in God, will 
 never be extinguished." The next year Cranmer suffered. 
 In a moment of weakness he consented to sign a Eomanist 
 declaration of faith, for which error he nobly atoned. At 
 the stake, he thrust his right hand into the fire and held it 
 there until it was entirely consumed. Three hundred persons 
 were brought to the stake in the first rage of persecution, 
 
THE FEENCH SEIZE CALAIS. 161 
 
 most of whom bore their punishment with admirable con- 
 stancy and fortitude. Bishop Bonner seemed to rejoice in 
 the torments of his victims ; he sometimes whipped the Pro- 
 testant prisoners with his own hands, till tired with the 
 violence of the exercise. He tore out the beard of a weaver 
 who refused to relinquish his religion, and in order to give 
 the obstinate man a more sensible idea of the sensation of 
 burning, held his finger to the candle, till the sinews and 
 veins shrunk and burst. Although so obsequious to the 
 queen's wiU, the Parliament refused to restore the posses- 
 sions of the Church, and thwarted all Mary's schemes for 
 the advancement of her husband. 
 
 § 225. In 1556, Charles I. resigned Spain and its depend- 
 encies to his son Philip, who speedily returned to England, 
 which he had quitted on a visit to his father, and en- 
 deavoured to enlist this country in the struggle against 
 Prance (1557). Henry II. also sought to engage Scotland 
 in a war against England ; but the attempt miscarried. 
 Calais, which had been held by the English for upwards of 
 two centuries, was recovered by the vigilance and valour of 
 the duke of Guise. Informed that the English, trusting to 
 the strength of the town, which was in that age deemed 
 impregnable, were accustomed to recall, towards the close 
 of summer, a great part of the garrison, replacing it in the 
 spring, he undertook the enterprise in the depth of winter. 
 So complete was the surprise, that the governor was com- 
 pelled to surrender on the eighth day of the siege (Jan. 7, 
 1558). The satisfaction of the Prench upon this occasion 
 was great, while the English were as much annoyed. De- 
 spised by her husband, and hated by her subjects, Mary feU 
 into a low fever, which caused her death (Nov. 17, 1558). 
 " When I am dead," she said, during her last Ulnesa, " you 
 will find the name of Calais engraven upon my heart." She 
 was bigoted, cruel, obstinate, and violent, and on account of 
 the horrors perpetrated under her sway, has obtained in 
 English history the unenviable title of Bloody Queen 
 Mary. The Princess Elizabeth, who, on account of her 
 attachment to the Reformed religion, ran great risk of her 
 life during her sister's reign, being closely watched and 
 even imprisoned, succeeded to the vacant throne. Her 
 accession was the signal for the final deliverance of England 
 from the influence of Eome ; and this enlightened princess 
 was greeted on all sides with joy and enthusiasm. 
 
 M 
 
162 WAR IN GEEMAire. 
 
 Letter 63. — State'of Affairs on the Continent of Europe, from the PeMo 
 of Passau to that of Cateau-Cambr&ia. a.d. 15S2 — ]559. Vol. i., 
 pages 395—406. 
 
 § 226. The treaty of Passau was no sooner signed, than 
 Maurice, the deliverer of Germany, marched into Hungary 
 against the Turks. In consequence, however, of the strong 
 force with which he had to contend, and the feeble support 
 which he received, but little was accomplished. In the 
 mean time, Charles V. determined to recover the three 
 bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, and put an army in 
 motion for that purpose. He endeavoured to conceal his real 
 intentions by spreading false reports. Henry II. of France 
 was not to be duped, and he committed the defence of Metz 
 to Prancis of Lorraine, duke of Guise, one of the greatest 
 military commanders of the age. The emperor besieged 
 Metz, and having bribed Albert of Brandenburg to join the 
 imperial army, flattered himself that nothing could resist him. 
 In this he was deceived, being compelled to retire after a 
 siege of nearly sixty days, during which he had lost thirty 
 thousand men by the inclemency of the weather, the ravages 
 of disease, and the sword of the enemy (1553). His in- 
 fluence declined in Italy, and many places threw off their 
 allegiance. Exasperated at these disasters, Charles retired 
 into the Low Countries. Albert of Brandenburg continued 
 by his ambition to disturb the repose of Germany, and a 
 league was formed against him by the most powerful princes 
 of the empire, of which Maurice was declared head. These 
 hostile chiefs, with armies nearly equal in number, met at 
 Siev^shausen, where Albert was defeated, although Maurice 
 received his death-wound on the field of battle (July 9, 
 1553). The consternation which this event caused among 
 the tlrooips prevented them from making a proper use of 
 their victory, so that Albert renewed his depredations. He 
 was defeated in a second battle by Henry of Brunswick, 
 subjected to the ban of the empire, and compeUed to take 
 refuge in Prance, where he died in exHe. 
 
 :§ '227. War was waged in the Low Countries with vigour, 
 Anxious to wipe out the stain of his repulse before Metz, 
 Charles besieged Terouane, and carried it by assault (1554)! 
 and Hesdin was captured in the same manner. The im» 
 perial arms were less successful in Italy. The French estab- 
 iiehed themselves in Tuscany, and conquered part of the 
 
RECESS OF AUGSBURG. 163 
 
 island of Corsica -while Isabella and the Turks drove the 
 Austrians out of Hungary. To counterbalance these and 
 other losses, the emperor, as we have seen, contracted a 
 marriage between his son Philip and Mary of England 
 (1554). The fortunes of the war changed, the French 
 were defeated at the battle of Marciano (1555) ; and Siena 
 fell after a siege of ten months. Germany enjoyed a tem- 
 porary repose, which afforded the Diet full leisure to confirm 
 and perfect the plan of religious pacification agreed upon 
 at Passau, and referred to the consideration of the next 
 meeting of the Germanic body. A diet met at Augsburg, 
 when the celebrated Eecess was adopted, which is the basis 
 of religious peace in Germany (September 25, 1555). 
 Its chief stipulations were as follows : " That such princes 
 and cities as have declared their approbation of the Con- 
 fession of Augsburg, shall be permitted to profess and 
 exercise, without molestation, the doctrine and worship 
 which it authorizes ; that the popish ecclesiastics shall claim 
 no spiritual jurisdiction in such cities or principalities, nor 
 shall the Protestants molest the princes and states that 
 adhere to the Church of Eome ; that for the future, no 
 attempt shall be made to terminate religious differences, 
 except by the gentle and pacific methods of persuasion and 
 conference ; that the supreme civil power in every state may 
 establish what form of doctrine and worship it shall deem 
 proper, but shall permit those who refuse to conform to 
 remove their effects ; that such as had seized the benefices 
 or revenues of the Church, previovts to the treaty of Passan, 
 shall retain possession of them, and be subject to no perse- 
 cution in the Imperial Chamber on that account ; but if any 
 prelate or ecclesiastic shall hereafter abandon the Eomish 
 religion, he shall instantly relinquish his diocese or benefice, 
 and it shall be lawful for those in whom the right of nomina- 
 tion is vested, to proceed immediately to an election, as if 
 the office was vacant by death or translation." Paul IV. 
 declared the Eecess of Augsburg illegal and void ; and as 
 Charles would not support him, he entered iuto an alliance 
 with the French king, with a view of ruining the imperial 
 cause in Italy (1555). 
 
 § 228. Whilst this treaty was being negotiated, an event 
 
 occurred which astonished Europe, and confounded the 
 
 reasonings of the wisest politicians. Charles V. in his 
 
 fifty-sixth year imitated the example of Diocletian, and re- 
 
 m2 , 
 
164 RESIGNATION OF CHARLES V. 
 
 signed the burden of empire. He assembled the States of 
 the Netherlands at Brussels, seated himself for the last 
 time in the chair of state, explained the reasons of hie 
 resignation, which he stated to be broken health and grow- 
 ing infirmities, and solemnly resigned his authority to his 
 son (1556). A few weeks after, the emperor also ceded to 
 Philip the Spanish crown with all its dependencies, in the 
 old world and the new, reserving nothing to himself, out 
 of all those vast possessions, but an annual pension of one 
 hundred thousand ducats. Before leaving the Netherlands 
 for the retreat which he had chosen in Spain, Charles V. 
 concluded a truce for five years with Henry II. of Prance, 
 upon the principle that each should retain what he held. 
 . Paul IV. was highly incensed at this accommodation, in 
 direct violation of the treaty signed between him and the 
 French king in 1555 ; but, concealing his anger, prevailed 
 upon Henry to renounce the truce, and renew his engage- 
 ments with Rome. All Montmorency's prudent remon- 
 strances were disregarded, Henry was absolved by the pope's 
 nuncio from the oath of truce, and he signed a new treaty 
 with Paul, which led to the renewal of the war, both in Italy 
 and the Low Countries (1556). 
 
 § 229. Philip having tried in vain to negotiate, sent an 
 army into the papal territories, under the command of the 
 duke of Alva, who compelled the duke of Guise to retire, 
 though no decisive success followed. Philip assembled his 
 forces in the Netherlands, and obtained a supply of ten 
 thousand men from England (1557) . He gave the direction 
 . of warlike operations to the duke of Savoy, who besieged 
 ■St. Quentin, and defeated the French army sent for its 
 relief (August 10, 1557), at the same time taking the 
 Prench commander, the constable Montmorency, prisoner. 
 The duke of Savoy proposed a march upon Paris, but Philip 
 desired him to continue the siege of St. Quentin. Tbe 
 town, long and gallantly defended by the admiral Coligny, 
 Montmorency's nephew, was at last taken by storm. Philip 
 vowed to build a church, a monastery, and a palace, in 
 honour of St. Lawrence, on the day sacred to whose memory 
 the battle of St. Quentin had been fought. He accordmgly 
 •laid the foundations of an edifice, in which the three were 
 combined ; and such was the origin of the famous Bscurial, 
 near Madrid, the royal residence of the kings of Spain. 
 . Henry recalled the duke of Gruise from Italy, and Paul was 
 
CLOISTER LIFE. 165 
 
 compelled to treat for peace with Spain. The pope re- 
 nounced hia league with France ; and Philip agreed that 
 the duke of Alva should repair to Eome, ask pardon, in hia 
 own name, and in that of his master, for having invaded 
 the papal territories, and receive absolution (1557). By 
 treaties made soon after, the balance of power in the Italian 
 states was poised more equally, and Italy henceforth ceased 
 to be the theatre upon which the sovereigns of Spain, 
 Trance, and Germany contended for fame and dominion. 
 
 § 230. The war still raged in other directions. The duke 
 of Guise wrested Calais from the English (January 7, 
 1558), and captured Thionville, one of the strongest towns 
 on the frontier of the Netherlands ; but to counterbalance 
 these successes, Marshal Thermes, governor of Calais, who 
 had penetrated into Flanders, and surprised Dunkirk, was 
 totally routed near Gravelines by Count Bgmont, and made 
 prisoner (July 13, 1558). The duke of Guise immediately 
 fell back to oppose the further progress of the enemy. His 
 army, like that commanded by his rival the duke of Savoy, 
 amounted to about forty thousand men, and they encamped 
 at the distance of a few leagues from each other. The French 
 and Spanish monarchs joined their respective armies, and 
 though each had it in his power to decide the strife, by a 
 single battle, they both remained inactive ; negotiations 
 were set on foot, and the abbey of Cercamp was fixed upon 
 as the place of congress. 
 
 § 231. Charles V. had selected the monastery of Tuste, 
 in Estremadura, as the place of his retreat; and he reached 
 this retired spot on the 6th of November, 1556. It was 
 seated in a valley of no great extent, watered by a small 
 brook, and surrounded by rising grounds, covered with 
 lofty trees." Although a recluse, Charles did not lead the 
 life of a hermit. He indulged freely in the pleasures of the 
 table, exerted considerable influence in the direction of 
 public affairs, and devoted much of his time to religious 
 exercises. Eecent investigations have established the fact 
 that Charles did not follow the regular and sober mode of 
 existence that his admirers have represented. Illness threw 
 
 ' The student anxious to glean further particulars respecting the 
 closing years of this ruler's life, is referred £o the works of Prescott and 
 Stirling. The laat-mentioned gentleman's book, entitled " The Cloister 
 Life of the Emperor Charles V.," is a valuable contribution to our 
 biographical literature. 
 
166 CATEAU-CAMBRESIS. 
 
 hiin into a deep melancholy ; and his superstition increased. 
 The ex-emperor is said to have torn his body ivifch a whip, 
 and he certainly went through a religious ceremony in cele- 
 bration of his own obsequies. He died on the 21st of Sep- 
 tember, 1558, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. Though 
 possessed of great abilities as a statesman and a soldier, 
 Charles was a dissembler, caring little for the sanctity of 
 truth, or by what expedients he obtained his ends. His 
 insatiable ambition plunged Europe into war, and his super- 
 stitious reverence for the errors of Eoman CathoMciam 
 impeded, though it did not crush, the Eeformation. 
 
 § 232. Before quitting the Low Countries, Charles V. had 
 made a second, but futile attempt, to induce his brother 
 Ferdinand to relinquish his right to the imperial throne, in 
 favour of Philip. Upon receiving Charles's resignation, the 
 electors had at once recognized the king of the Eomans, 
 and he succeeded under the title of Perdinand I. (1558). 
 Paul IV. refused to confirm the choice of the Diet ; but his 
 opposition proved unavailing. Both Henry and Philip made 
 advances to Elizabeth, on her accession to the throne of 
 England, the former offering great concessions for a separate 
 treaty of peace, and the latter tendering his hand (1558). 
 Elizabeth weighed the proposals of the two monarchs with 
 that prudent regard for her true interests conspicuous in 
 all her deliberations, and, while she intended to yield to the 
 solicitations of neither, continued to amuse them both. 
 In the mean time the conferences had been removed from 
 Oercamp to Cateau-Cambresis, where two treaties of peace 
 were eventually signed, the former between England and 
 Prance, and the latter between Prance and Spain. The first 
 contained no article of importance, excepting one relating 
 to Calais, which provided that Henry should retain posses- 
 sion of that town, with all its dependencies, during eight 
 years, at the expiration of which term it was to be restored 
 to England. The second, called by Prench historians the 
 Unfortunate Peace, provided, that all conquests made by 
 either party on this side of the Alps should be restored. 
 Henry II. of Prance renounced all claims to Genoa, 
 Corsica, and the kingdom of Naples, but was allowed to 
 retain Metz, Toul, and Verdun, and some unimportant 
 places (April 2, 1559). Two contracts of marriage— the 
 one between Philip II. and the eldest daughter of Henry 
 king of Prance, and the other between the duke of Savoy 
 
DEATH OF HENRY II. 167 
 
 and Henry's only sister Margaret — materially facilitated 
 the conclusion of this famous treaty, which fully restored 
 peace to Europe. Henry was mortally wounded in a tour- 
 nament by the lance of Montgomery, the captain of his 
 guard, while celebrating the marriage of his sister (July 20, 
 1559), and his son, Francis II., a weak prince, who had 
 married Mary, queen of Scots, on the 18th of April, in the 
 previous year, succeeded to the crown. Paul IV. died soon 
 after, and most of the principal characters of this age dis- 
 appeared nearly at the same time. 
 
168 THE NORTHERN KINGDOMS. 
 
 CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 Lettek 64. — Sweden, Denmark, and Noi-way, from the Union of these 
 Kingdoms under Margaret Waldemar, to the Death of GuetavTia 
 Vasa ; together with some Account of Russia and Poland in the Six- 
 teenth Century, a.d. 1397—1660. Vol. i., pages 406—410, 
 
 § 233. The kingdoms of the north of Europe, that great 
 storehouse of nations, had long been considered as de- 
 pendencies of the German empire. The union of Sweden, 
 Denmark, and Norway, the ancient Scandinavia, was eifected 
 in 1397, by Margaret, sumamed the Semiramis of the North. 
 Anxious to make the union lasting, she convoked the States 
 of all the three kingdoms to meet at Calmar, where it was 
 established as a fundamental law, that Sweden, Benmark, 
 and Norway, should thenceforth have hut one and the same 
 sovereign, to be chosen successively by each of these king- 
 doms, and then approved by the other two. Each nation 
 vpas to retain its own laws, customs, privileges, and dignities, 
 and the natives of one kingdom were not to be raised to 
 posts of honour or profit in another. Margaret survived 
 this union nearly fifteen years, and governed with ability 
 and spirit ; but under her successor Eric, the antipathies 
 between the Swedps and the Danes produced a rebellion, and 
 the Swedes elected another king. Several revolutions and 
 counter-revolutions ensued, until Christian II., the hero of 
 the North, after having sufiered one great defeat, reduced 
 the Swedes to the condition of a conquered people (1520). 
 
 § 284. The coronation of Christian II. at Stockholm 
 (November 8, 1520) was attended with a cruel massacre of 
 about one hundred of the nobility and gentry, perpetrated 
 in defiance of a promise of a general amnesty. Sweden, 
 however, soon found a deliverer and an avenger. Gustavus 
 Vasa, a member of the royal race, escaped from the hands 
 of his Danish captors, and concealed himself, in the habit of 
 a peasant, among the mountains of Dalecarlia. He worked 
 under-ground as a miner, without relinquishing the hope of 
 one day ascending the throne of Sweden. At a favourable 
 
RISE OF RUSSIA. 169 
 
 opportunity he declared himself, raised the standard of re- 
 volt, and was made, first, regent, and then king of Sweden 
 (1523). The infamous Christian II. was deposed hy his 
 Danish subjects, and Prederic I. made king of Denmark 
 and Norway. After several ineffectual attempts to recover 
 his crown, this cruel tyrant died in prison (1559) . Frederic I. 
 was succeeded by his son Christian III. (1534), one of the 
 most prudent and prosperous princes of his age. He estab- 
 lished the Protestant religion in Denmark and Norway, in 
 imitation of the example of Grustavus, who had introduced 
 it into Sweden. Christian III. died in 1559, and Gustavus 
 in 1560. They were both great men and enlightened rulers, 
 and their names are treasured by their countrymen. 
 
 § 235. While these events were passing in other parts of 
 Europe, the Russian empire was still in its infancy. It at 
 first consisted of independent states, some of them founded 
 by Scandinavian heroes, with separate rulers and capitals, 
 which all fell under the yoke of the Tartars in the thirteenth 
 century. The Eussians were completely subdued, and re- 
 mained in subjection 225 years (1237 — 1462). The recog- 
 nition of Eussia as a European power took place under the 
 reign of Ivan III., the founder of the modern sovereignty. 
 In 1472 he married Sophia, daughter of Thomas Paleologus 
 Porphyrogenitus, and niece to Constantino Paleologus, who 
 died fighting against the Turks. Ivan was the first who 
 assumed the title of Czar, a word found in the oriental 
 translation of the Scriptures, at the termination of the 
 names of the Assyrian and Babylonian kings, as Nabonassar 
 and Belshazzar. He incorporated all the states under his 
 own dominion, expelled the Tartars, and made Moscow the 
 capital of his empire (1462 — 1505). His grandson, Ivan IV., 
 sumamed the Terrible, added Astracan (1554) and Siberia 
 (1558) to his dominions, concluded a treaty with Elizabeth 
 of England, and even sought her hand in marriage. Ivan lY. 
 reigned from 1533 to 1584. He instituted the Strelitz, a 
 military body like the Janissaries of Turkey ; and during his 
 reign Eussia established communications with the rest of 
 Europe. The Poles were of Sarmatian origin, and received 
 Christianity during the tenth century. Their country was 
 long a prey to fierce contentions amongst its nobles. Sigis- 
 mund I. (1507—1548) was styled the father of his country ; 
 and under Sigismund II., sumamed Augustus (1548 — 1572), 
 the nation prospered greatly. During his reign several 
 conflicts took place with the Eussians, who were defeated. 
 
170 INTIIIGUES IN FRANCE. 
 
 and compelled to subscribe to a treaty of peace. The chief 
 subject of quarrel was the province of Lithuania, which had, 
 in 1386, been united to Poland. 
 
 Letter 65.i — England, Scotland, and France, from the Peace of Cateau- 
 Gambr^sis to the Death of Francis 11* and the Return oi Mary Queen 
 of Soots to her native land. A.D. 1559 — 1561. Vol. i., pages 410 — 
 419. 
 
 § 236. France was now under the rule of the ambitious 
 family of the G-uises, the princes of Lorraine, who moulded 
 the young and feeble Francis II. to their will. In nego- 
 tiating the alliance between their niece, Mary Stuart, and 
 the dauphin, they induced the former to sign deeds conferring 
 the kingdom of Scotland, in case of the failure of heirs of 
 her own body, upon the crown of France. In these docu- 
 ments, not only Scotland, but what inheritance or succession 
 might accrue to it, plainly meaning England, was mentioned. 
 They obtained a bull from the pope, declaring Ehzabeth's 
 birth illegitimate, and they persuaded Henry II. of France 
 to permit his son and daughter-in-law to assume the title and 
 arms of England. Elizabeth complained of this insult, but 
 could only obtain an evasive answer. No further steps were 
 taken during the reign of Henry II., but at his death the 
 princes of Lorraine boldly counselled the queen-regent of 
 Scotland to extirpate the Protestant religion in that country, 
 offering men and money for the purpose. The Eeforraation 
 had, however, made good progress in Scotland, and the 
 beads of the Protestant party, anticipating peril, entered 
 privately into a bond of association, for their protection and 
 the defence of their religious principles, which association 
 was called " The Congregation of the Lord." 
 
 § 237. The condemnation of an aged priest to the flames, 
 for having embraced Protestant opinions, aroused the con- 
 federates to action. They solicited subscriptions to their 
 league, demanded a reformation of the Church, and legal 
 protection against the exorbitant and oppressive jurisdiction 
 of the ecclesiastical courts. They even petitioned Convoca- 
 tion, and insisted upon having the performance of the 
 services in the vulgar tongue, and other important changes. 
 The Convocation rejected their demands with disdain, and 
 the queen-regent cited the most! eminent Protestant teachers 
 to appear before the council at Stirling. The members of the 
 Congregation, who had assembled in great numbers to attend 
 their pastors to the place of trial, were indiiteed to separate, 
 
JOHN KNOX. 171 
 
 by promises which were afterwards broken. Soon after the 
 murder of Beaton, John Knox took refuge in England, and 
 proceeded thence to Geneva. There he imbibed all the 
 enthusiasm, and heightened the natural ferocity of his own 
 character by the severe doctrines of Calvin, the apostle of 
 that republic. Invited home by the heads of the Protestant 
 party in Scotland, he mounted the pulpit, and declaimed 
 against the idolatry and other abuses of the Church of Eome 
 (1559). The people at Perth, excited by his oratory, 
 attacked the Catholic churches and monasteries, broke the 
 images, tore the pictures, overthrew the altars, and levelled 
 several edifices with the ground. The regent assembled an 
 army, composed chiefly of French troops, and the Congre- 
 tion mustered their forces. A treaty was concluded, but 
 the conditions were violated ; new conventions were framed, 
 but were soon infringed, and fresh ravages were committed 
 on the monuments of ecclesiastical pride and luxury. 
 
 § 238. The Congregation were joined by the presump- 
 tive heirs to the crown, and many of the principal nobility. 
 They possessed themselves of the capital, and aimed at the 
 redress of civil and religious grievances. The queen-regent 
 at first pretended to negotiate, but having received reinforce- 
 ments from France, she openly defied the popular leaders. 
 They assembled the whole body of peers, barons, and repre- 
 sentatives of boroughs, and without one dissenting voice 
 voted for depriving Mary of Guise of the office of regent. 
 The garrison of Leith made a sally, and defeated the forces 
 of the Congregation. More troops arrived from France, 
 and the Congregation leaders being severely pressed, applied 
 to England for aid. Elizabeth furnished them with an army 
 and a fleet. The queen-dowager died on the 10th of June, 
 1560, and the French troops in Leith, although they made 
 an obstinate defence, were reduced to the greatest extremity. 
 This and the threatening state of affairs at home induced 
 the Guises to think of peace. The Protestants of France, 
 called the Huguenots,* were powerful, and they managed to 
 obtain some concessions from the government. Under 
 these circumstances, plenipotentiaries were sent to Edin- 
 burgh, where a treaty was signed with the ambassadors of 
 " Various explanations of this term have been given by different 
 writers. It is, however, derived from a German noun, Mdgenossen, 
 which signifies oath colleagues, or confederates. In 1519 the Swiss 
 reformers at Geneva, being pressed by the duke of Savoy, applied to 
 Freiburg for assistance, and called their union Eidgenoasen, changed by 
 the French into Huguenots, 
 
172 OVERTHROW OF THE GUISES. 
 
 Elizabeth (July 5, 1560). It was stipulated that tlie 
 French forces should instantly evacuate Scotland, and that 
 Prancis and Mary should thenceforth abstain from assuming 
 the title of king or queen of England, or of bearing the 
 arms of that country. 
 
 § 239. The leaders of the Congregation were now absolute 
 masters of the kingdom, and they set about completing the 
 work of the Eeformation. A law was passed, abolishing the 
 papal jurisdiction in Scotland ; and the Presbyterian form 
 of worship was established, nearly as now constituted in 
 that kingdom. Erancis and Mary refused to ratify the 
 treaty of Edinburgh, but the Scotch Protestants cared 
 little for that, and relying upon Elizabeth for aid, put the 
 statutes which they had drawn up in execution. In their 
 zeal for reform, they were unhappily betrayed' into certain 
 excesses, and committed acts not calculated to reflect credit 
 upon so pure a cause. The sudden death of Prancis II. 
 destroyed the supremacy of the Gruise family (Dec. 5, 1560). 
 Katherine of Medicis, the queen-mother, was appointed 
 guardian to her son Charles IX. ; the king of Navarre was 
 named lieutenant-general of the kingdom, the prince of 
 Conde, who had been sentenced to death by the princes of 
 Lorraine, was set free, the constable Montmorency was 
 recalled to court, and the exclusive influence of the Guises 
 was destroyed. 
 
 § 240. Prancis II. left no issue, and his widow retired to 
 !Rheims to indulge her sorrow. A deputation from the 
 States of Scotland waited upon Mary in her retreat, inviting 
 her to return to her native kingdom, and to assume the reins 
 of government. Elizabeth pressed her to ratify the treaty 
 of Edinburgh, but she refused. Accustomed to the elegance, 
 gallantry, and gaiety of a splendid court, and to the conver- 
 sation of a polished people, by whom she had been loved 
 and admired, Mary felt reluctant to return to Scotland, and 
 contemplated with horror the barbarism of her own country, 
 and the turbulence of her native subjects, who had so vio- 
 lently spurned all civil and religious authority. Compelled 
 at length to depart, she kept watching the receding coast, 
 and often repeated with a sigh, " Parewell, Prance ! fare- 
 well, beloved country, which I shall never more behold" 
 (1561). 
 
SPANISH PERSECUTIOiSr. 173 
 
 Letteb 66. — France, England, and Scotland, from the Eetiim of Mary 
 Stuart to Scotland till her Imprisonment, and the Elevation of her 
 Son to the Throne ; with a Eetrospective View of the Affairs of 
 Spain. A.D. 1561—1567. Vol. i., pages 419—432. 
 
 § 241. Mary's reception in Scotland was of the roost 
 cordial description, and by bestowing her confidence upon 
 the leaders of the Protestant party, she rendered herself 
 still more popular. Tet she was a papist, and the insults 
 to which she was on that account exposed, from John Knox 
 and others, caused her to sigh for the land she had so 
 recently quitted. Mary sent to Elizabeth to signify her 
 willingness to renounce all present right to the crown of 
 England, provided she was declared, by act of parliament, 
 next heir to the succession, in case Elizabeth died without 
 issue. Elizabeth had a decided objection to name a suc- 
 cessor ; she thenceforth ceased to demand the ratification of 
 the treaty of Edinburgh ; and though no further concessions 
 were made by either princess, they seemed reconciled, and 
 willing to live on friendly terms. Elizabeth perceived that 
 Mary had quite enough to do in keeping her own rebellious 
 subjects in order, without interfering abroad, and therefore 
 ceased to trouble herself about Scotland (1561). 
 
 § 242. Animosity, first political and then personal, soon 
 appeared between the sovereigns of England and Spain. 
 Immediately after concluding the treaty of Cateau-Cam- 
 bresis, Philip II. had commenced a furious persecution 
 against the Protestants in Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands. 
 The violent spirit of bigotry and tyranny by which he was 
 actuated, increased the cruelty of priests and inquisitors. 
 Philip placed himself at the head of the Eoman Catholic 
 party, and became the champion of their cause, while Eliza- 
 beth supported the Protestant religion, and defended the 
 principles of the Eeformation. Hence the animosity between 
 the two sovereigns. Katherine of Medieis, by putting her 
 maxim in practice, of dividing in order to govern, only 
 increased the troubles of Prance. The consequence was, 
 the constable Montmorency and the king of Navarre joined 
 with the duke of Guise, while the queen-mother was com- 
 pelled to look to Conde and the Huguenots for support. 
 At the conference held at Poissy (1561), between divines 
 of the two religions, the cardinal of Lorraine appearing on 
 the part of the Catholics, and Theodore Bcza on that of the 
 Protestants, an edict had been agreed upon, granting to the 
 
174 RELIGIOUS WAES. 
 
 Huguenots the free exercise of their religion without the 
 walls of towns, provided they taught nothing contrary to 
 the council of Nice, the Apostles' Creed, or the Bible. The 
 violence of the duke of Guise disturbed this harmony. In 
 passing the little town of Vassy, on the frontiers of Cham- 
 pagne, his retinue insulted some Protestants, who had 
 assembled to worship God in a barn, under the sanction df 
 the edict, when a tumult ensued, in which about sixty of 
 the unarmed people were killed (1562) ; civil war was the 
 result. The Protestants assembled under Conde, Coligny, 
 and Andelot, while the Guises seized the young king, and 
 compelled the queen-mother to join the Catholics. Terrible 
 excesses followed ; and plunder, desolation, and bloodshed 
 prevailed throughout the kingdom. 
 
 § 243. PhilipII.,jealous of the progress of the Huguenots, 
 who had made themselves masters of Orleans, BourgeB, 
 Lyons, Poitiers, Tours, Angers, Angouleme, Rouen, Dieppe, 
 Ha vre-de- Grace, and other places, formed a secret alliance 
 with the princes of Lorraine, for the protection of the ancient 
 faith and the suppression of heresy. Reinforcements were 
 sent to the Roman Catholic party, and Conde immediately 
 craved the assistance of England, which was readily granted. 
 Rouen was, however, captured by the Roman Catholics, and 
 they gained a victory at Dreux, when the commanders of the 
 opposite armies, Conde and Montmorency, both remained 
 "prisoners in the hands of their enemies (1562). The duke of 
 Guise commenced the siege of Orleans, before which town 
 he was assassinated, by Poltrot de Mere, on the 24th of 
 February, 1563. This led to an accommodation, and the 
 convention of Amboise was signed on the 19th of March in 
 the same year. Toleration, under certain restrictions, was 
 granted to the Protestants, and a general amnesty published. 
 The treaty had been made by Conde, without the assent of the 
 Protestant leaders, and Coligny, Calvin, and others regarded 
 the compromise as a betrayal of their cause. Elizabeth con- 
 ceived that she had not been fairly dealt with for her support 
 of the Protestant cause. It was stipulated in the convention 
 of Amboise that on her relinquishing Havre, her charges and 
 •the money she had advanced should be repaid, and that Calais, 
 •at the expiration of the stipulated term, should be restored to 
 her. Disdaining to accept these conditions, she made war 
 upon Prance ; but the English garrison of Havre, reduced 
 by disease and worn out by excessive toil, were compelled 
 to capitulate, and peace was soon after concluded. 
 
MARY'S MAEKIAGE. 175 
 
 § 244. Peace still subsisted between England and 
 Scotland, and a cordial friendship seemed to have arisen 
 between Elizabeth and Mary. Several candidates appeared for 
 Mary's hand, and amongst them one whom the lady favoured, 
 Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, her cousin-german, and after 
 herself next heir to the English crown. He was in the full 
 bloom and vigour of youth, tall and well proportioned, and 
 possessed of many elegant accomplishments. Elizabeth 
 had proposed the earl of Leicester, her own handsome 
 favourite ; \\\it on hearing of this new candidate, at first 
 approved, and then seemed to object to the match. Mary 
 having obtained the consent of the Scotch nation, married 
 the captivating young nobleman (July 27, 1565). The earl 
 of Murray and other nobles, under pretence of zeal for the 
 Reformed religion, as Lord Darnley belonged to a Eoman 
 Catholic family, rebelled, and being defeated, took refuge in 
 England. Elizabeth refused to shelter them, and they threw 
 themselves upon the clemency of their own sovereign, who 
 was at first inclined to be merciful. The arrival of a French 
 ambassador led to a change in this resolution. The peace 
 granted to the Eeformers in Prance was intended only as a 
 snare. An interview took place at Bayonne, between 
 Charles IX. and his sister, the queen of Spain (1565). At 
 this conference the extermination of the Huguenots in France 
 was decided upon, as well as that of the Protestants in the 
 Netherlands, and an attempt at the extinction of the Eeformed 
 opinions throughout Europe. Of this Eoman Catholic, or 
 Holy League, as it was called, an account was sent to Mary, 
 and the cardinal of Lorraine conjured her not to favour the 
 Protestants at the very moment when the Eoman Catholic 
 princes on the continent had combined for their total extir- 
 pation. Mary instantly joined the confederacy, summoned 
 the Parliament to punish the rebels, and prepared to restore 
 the Eomish religion in Scotland, when the murder of David 
 Eizzio produced quite a revolution in the state of afiairs. 
 
 § 245. David Eizzio, the son of a teacher of music at 
 Turin, had at first been engaged in the capacity of musician 
 by Mary ; shrewd, supple, and aspiring, he quickly crept 
 into the queen's favour, and obtained the post of secretary. 
 A coolness had arisen between Mary and her husband, and 
 the latter seems to have made Eizzio the confidant of her 
 domestic sorrows. Eizzio foolishly afiected to talk often 
 and familiarly with the queen in public, and boasted of his 
 intimacy in private, and this aroused the dark and suspicious 
 
176 MUEDEE OF EIZZIO. 
 
 mind of Darnley, wlio, instead of imputing Mary's cold- 
 ness to his own misconduct, ascribed it to the influence of 
 a new passion. Eizzio had always supported the Eoman 
 Catholics, and was therefore the declared enemy of the 
 banished lords. To one of them, Lord Euthven, Darnley 
 communicated his desire of _ revenge, and besought his 
 assistance. A plot was immediately formed, and whUe some 
 of the conspirators guarded the gates of the palace, the 
 others, led by the king, entered the queen's apartment by 
 a private passage, where they found Mary, th^ countess of 
 Argyle, Kizzio, and some courtiers at supper. Mary de- 
 manded the cause ot their intrusion, when the conspirators 
 pointed to Kizzio, who ran behind Mary's chair, and seized 
 her by the waist. G-eorge Douglas, one of the conspirators, 
 stabbed the secretary, who was dragged into another room 
 and instantly despatched (March 9, 1566). From that 
 moment the desire of vengeance took possession of Mary's 
 mind. She artfully induced her husband to publish a pro- 
 clamation, denying all participation in the crime, an assertion 
 which everybody knew to be false ; and having thus made 
 him expose himself to universal contempt, she threw him 
 off with disdain and indignation. In the castle of Edin- 
 burgh, to which place she had removed, Mary gave birth to 
 a son (June 19), afterwards James I. of England. This 
 event increased the zeal of the partisans of Mary in Eng- 
 land ; and the Parliament, which had before alluded to the 
 delicate subject, urged Elizabeth either to marry or to con- 
 sent to an act establishing the order of succession to the 
 crown. Her ministers declared that it was their sovereign's 
 intention to marry, and thus evaded the question. 
 
 § 246. James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, the head of an 
 ancient family in Scotland, but a man of profligate manners, 
 soon after the murder of Eizzio, obtained a fatal ascendancy 
 over Mary, and became her favourite. Her husband. Dam- 
 ley, who had fallen ill, from the effects, according to certain 
 authorities, of poison administered by Mary's orders, was 
 induced to lodge in a solitary house, called the Kirk of Field, 
 seated upon an elevation at some distance from the palace 
 of Holyrood. There he was assiduously attended by Mary, 
 who passed several nights in the chajmber' under his apart- 
 ment. This solitary abode she left suddenly one evening, in 
 order to be present at a masque in the palace, and about 
 two the next morning the house was blown up, and Darn- 
 ley's dead body afterwards found in a neighbouring inclo- 
 
MTTEDEE OF DAENLEY. 177 
 
 sure (Feb. 10, 1567). The subsequent conduct of the 
 queen and Bothwell affords strong evidence that upon their 
 heads the guilt of this murder must rest. Mary not only 
 studiously avoided bringing Bothwell to a fair and legal 
 trial, notwithstanding the earnest entreaties of the earl of 
 Lennox, and the general voice of the nation, but allowed 
 the man who was publicly accused of the murder of her 
 husband, to enjoy all the dignity and power, as well as the 
 confidence and familiarity, of a favourite. She committed to 
 him the government of the castle of Edinburgh, which, with 
 the offices he before possessed, gave him the entire command 
 of the south of Scotland. She was carried off by him, and 
 seemingly with her own consent (April 24) ; she lived with 
 him for some time ; and as soon as he could procure a sen- 
 tence, divorcing him from a young lady of virtue and merit, 
 to whom he had been lawfully married, gave him her hand 
 (May 15, 1567). 
 
 § 247. Such a quick succession of incidents, so singular, 
 and so detestable, filled all Europe with amazement, involv- 
 ing in infamy not only the principal actors in the guilty 
 scene, but also to a certain extent the whole nation. An 
 association was formed for the defence of the young prince, 
 and for the punishment of the king's murderers. Mary and 
 Bothwell repaired to Dunbar and collected their dependants, 
 but were unable to oppose the forces brought against them, 
 and the latter fled, while the former was made prisoner at 
 Carberry HUl (June 15). Bothwell escaped to the Orkneys, 
 and subsisted some time by piracy. The greater part of his 
 fleet being captured, together with several of his servants, 
 who afterwards revealed all the particulars of Darnley's 
 murder, and suffered for their share in the crime, Bothwell 
 fled to Norway, and attempted to renew his piracies, but 
 was captured and thrown into prison. He lost his senses 
 and died miserably ten years afterwards in a dungeon, un- 
 pitied by his countrymen and neglected by strangers.^ Mary 
 was sent to the castle of Lochleven, where she signed her 
 resignation of the crown, and her son was proclaimed king, 
 under the title of James VI., the earl of Murray being 
 appointed regent (July 24, 1567). 
 
 • He was imprisoned in Seeland, in the castle of Draxholm, now 
 called Adelersborg, near the town of Holbek. He died there, and was 
 buried in the neighbouring village church of Faareveile, 
 
178 MAKY'S FLIGHT. 
 
 Letter 67. — Great Britain from the Flight of the Queen of Soota into 
 England, with an Account of the Civil Ware on the Continent, till 
 the Death of Charles IX. of France. A.D. 1568—1574. Vol. i,, 
 pages 432 — 444. 
 
 § 248. The parliament assembled by tbe earl of Murray 
 ratified all these proceedings, and Mary was kept close 
 prisoner in the castle of Lochleven. By her charms and 
 caresses she prevailed upon George Douglas, her keeper's 
 brother, to assist her in making her escape ; and having 
 effected this (May 2, 1568), she hastened to Hamilton, 
 ■where many of the nobility came forward in her defenqe. 
 An. army was soon assembled, and a battle fought at Lang- 
 side, near Glasgow, in which Murray, with forces inferior in 
 number, gained the victory (May 15). Mary fled into Eng- 
 land ; but Elizabeth refused to admit her to her presence 
 until she had relieved herself from the imputation of the 
 murder of her husband. Elizabeth evidently desired to act 
 the part of umpire. Mary was conveyed to Bolton, and 
 although still treated 'w^ith the respect due to a queen, her 
 real condition was that of a prisoner. Commissioners were 
 accordingly appointed by the English ministry for the 
 examination of this great cai^se, and conferences were held 
 between them and the Scotch commissioners, first at York, 
 and afterwards at "Westminster. Incontestable proofs of 
 Mary's guilt were produced by the earl of Murray, and 
 Mary's commissioners having no defence to ofier, endea- 
 voured to change the inquiry into a negotiation, and failing 
 in this attempt, broke up the conferences. Mary having 
 been previously removed to Hampton Court, was then con- 
 veyed to Tutbury, in Suffolk.* 
 
 § 249. Elizabeth offered to bury everything in oblivion, 
 if Mary would confirm her resignation of the crown, or 
 associate her son with her in the government ; to neither of 
 which conditions would the queen of Scots agree. Mary's 
 
 ° Attempts have been made by recent writers to relieve Mary's 
 memory from the stain of many of these graver charges. Unfortunately 
 for her fair fame, the evidence against her is conclusive. One fact will 
 illustrate this as clearly as a long a,rray of arguments. If not actually 
 privy to her husband's murder, Mary knew well enough that Bothwell 
 was his assassin ; yet in the very year that this man had perpetrated the 
 foul deed, she consented to live with him, and actually became his wife. 
 She did not leave him until torn by force from his side, and during her 
 captivity frequently bewailed their separation, and longed to he restored 
 to his arms. Such conduct was worthy neither of the queen nor of the 
 woman. 
 
ASSASSINATION OF CONDE. 179 
 
 friends next endeavoured to negotiate a marriage between 
 her and the duke of Norfolk, and the scheme was very 
 favourably entertained, but was at last discovered by Cecil, 
 Elizabeth's prime minister. Norfolk was committed to the 
 Tower, several other noblemen were taken into custody, and 
 the queen of Scots was removed to Coventry (1569). The 
 English Eoman Catholics, led by the earls of Northumberland 
 and Westmoreland, raised an insurrection in her favour, 
 their object being not only to deliver Mary, but to subvert 
 the Protestant religion in England. Although supported 
 by Philip II., the conspirators were compelled to disperse 
 without striking a blow. Elizabeth released the duke of 
 Norfolk fi:om the Tower, and offered to give up Mary into 
 the hands of the earl of Murray, but the French and 
 Spanish ambassadors remonstrated, and the death of 
 Murray prevented the revival of the project (1570). 
 Scotland relapseH into anarchy, Elizabeth intervened, the 
 earl of Lennox was appointed regent, and Mary kept in 
 stricter custody than ever. 
 
 § 250. As head of the Protestant party, Elizabeth sup- 
 ported the Eeformers both in Prance and the Low Countries. 
 Pope Pius v., failing in his endeavours to conciliate, issued 
 a bull of excommunication against her. This was affixed to 
 the gates of the bishop of London's palace, by one John 
 Felton, a papist, who was executed for his audacity. The 
 Protestant leaders in France — Conde, Coligny, and others, 
 who had obtained intelligence of the league concerted at 
 Bayonne for the extermination of the Protestants — formed a 
 design of surprising the king and queen-mother, which was, 
 however, disconcerted (1567). A battle was fought in the 
 plains of St. Denis, in which, although the Eoman Cathohe 
 leader, Montmorency, fell, the Huguenots were defeated 
 (Nov. 10, 1567). Conde received reinforcements, laid siege 
 to Chartres, and compelled the court to come to an accom- 
 modation, called the peace of Longjumeau (1568). It was, 
 not of long duration. The queen-mother treacherously en- 
 deavoured to get Conde and Coligny into her power, but they 
 fled to Eochelle, and the Huguenots flocked to their support. 
 They were defeated at the battle of Jamae (March 13, 1569), 
 at which Conde was taken prisoner, and afterwards basely 
 assassinated. Neither this defeat, nor the wanton murder bj 
 which it was attended, broke the spirit of the Huguenots ; 
 they invested Poitiers ; Coligny was, however, at last com- 
 pelled to raise the siege. Henry, the young duke of Guise, 
 N 2 
 
180 TEEATY OP ST. GEEMAIN-EN-LAYE. 
 
 first distinguislied himself on this occasion, and by his con- 
 duct raised the hopes of the Eoman Catholic party. Eliza- 
 beth aided the Huguenots with money, military stores, and 
 volunteers. Coligny was again defeated at the battle of 
 Moncontour, with the loss of ten thousand men (Oct. 3, 1569) . 
 This valiant soldier soon recovered from the effects of this 
 disaster, assembled a formidablearmy, and prepared to besiege 
 Paris. Want of funds, and civil discontents, induced the 
 king to negotiate, and the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye 
 was accordingly signed (Aug. 15, 1570). The terms 
 were, pardon of all offences, eligibility of the Huguenots to 
 offices, civil and military, the renewal of the edicts for liberty 
 of conscience, and the cession for two years, as places of 
 refuge and pledges for their security, of Eochelle, La 
 Charite, Montauban, and Cognac. The first of these kept 
 the sea open for receiving succours from England; the 
 second preserved the passage of the Loire ; the third com- 
 manded the frontiers of Languedoc and Querci ; and the 
 fourth opened a passage into Angoumois, where the Hugue- 
 nots mustered in great strength. But Charles IX. only 
 intended this accommodation as a snare, to secure the de- 
 struction of the Huguenots. During the winter he married 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Maximilian II., and pretended to 
 favour those Protestants whom he intended to destroy. 
 
 § 251. While the courts of Prance and England were 
 engaged in negotiations relative to a union between Queen 
 Elizabeth and the duke of Anjou, in which it is evident that 
 neither party acted with sincerity, Philip, by the agency of 
 the duke of Alva, endeavoured to subvert the liberties of 
 the inhabitants of the Low Countries. In 1568, a powerful 
 body of Spanish and Italian veterans had been marched into 
 the country, the counts Egmont and Horn were beheaded, 
 multitudes delivered over to the executioner, and nothing 
 was to be heard or seen but seizure, confiscation, imprison- 
 ihent, torture, or death. William of Nassau, prince of 
 Orange, surnamed the Silent, raised an army in Gerinaiiy, 
 and marched against the duke of Alva at the head of 
 twenty-eight thousand men ; but that general refused to 
 fight, retired into the strongholds, and William was com- 
 pelled to disband his levies. This temporary triumph in- 
 creased the duke of Alva's insolence and cruelty. Not 
 satisfied with insulting the Plemings in every possible 
 manner, he laid additional taxes upon them, which were 
 extorted with the greatest severity. Although engaged in 
 
POPISH PLOTS. 181 
 
 the negotiations for the French matrimonial alliance, Eliza- 
 beth observed closely the state of affairs in the Low Countries. 
 The queen of Scots intrigued with Philip, and a scheme for 
 rescuing Mary, and subverting the English government was 
 concerted by the bishop of Eoss, the Spanish ambassador, 
 and Eodolphi, an agent of the pope (1571). The plan 
 determined upon was that the duke of Alva should land 
 with ten thousand men in the neighbourhood of London ; 
 where he was to be joined by the duke of Norfolk, together 
 with the English malcontents and Eoman Catholics, who 
 were to march in a body to the capital, and impose what 
 conditions they deemed fit upon Elizabeth. The plot was 
 discovered by one of the duke of Norfolk's servants. Having 
 been intrusted with a bag of money, said to be silver, but 
 which from the weight he concluded to be gold, this man 
 carried it to Lord Burghley, who soon detected the con- 
 spiracy. The duke of Norfolk and the earl of Northum- 
 berland were executed, the bishop of Eoss was committed 
 to the Tower, the Spanish ambassador ordered to quit 
 England, while Eodolphi, the pope's agent, then on his 
 way to Brussels, was beyond the reach of punishment 
 (1572). This conspiracy led to the stricter confinement of 
 Mary, and the English parliament were so enraged against 
 her, that the Commons made a direct application for her 
 immediate trial and execution. Scotland had continued in 
 a state of anarchy. Mary's party seized Lennox, the regent, 
 and put him to death (Sept. 4, 1571) ; and the earl of Marre 
 was chosen regent in his place. He accepted the mediation 
 of the French and English ambassadors, concluded a truce 
 with the queen's party, and soon after died (Oct. 28, 1572). 
 The earl of Morton succeeded to the regency, and being 
 entirely devoted to Elizabeth, and having received assistance 
 from her, soon restored order. Edinburgh was captured, 
 and Scotland submitted entirely to his authority. 
 
 § 252. Negotiations for the marriage of Ehzabeth with 
 the duke of Anjou were finally broken off early in 1572, and 
 a defensive alliance concluded between Erance and England. 
 Charles IX. intended this treaty as a cloak to conceal his 
 treacherous designs against the Protestants. Elizabeth was 
 completely duped and regarded it as affording security 
 to her cause. Charles continued his dissimulation, and 
 offered his sister Margaret in marriage to the young king of 
 Navarre, The admiral Coligny, the prince of Conde, and 
 all the leading men of the Protestant party, were induced to 
 
182 MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. 
 
 repair to Paris for the celebration of tWs marriage ; when 
 the most atrocious massacre, unparalleled in history, was 
 determined upon. Coligny was assassinated a few days 
 after the ceremony, and on the eve of St. Bartholomew 
 (Aug. 24, 1572) a wholesale massacre of the Huguenots 
 took place. The barbarous onslaught was finally arranged at 
 a council held in the Tuileries, and at the given signal, the 
 confiding and defenceless Protestants, of both sexes and of 
 every condition, were ruthlessly murdered. The king looked 
 on with exultation, and even fifed at the wretched fugitives 
 trying to escape from their murderers. In Paris alone ten 
 thousand persons perished, and as similar atrocities were 
 committed at Eouen, Lyons, Toulouse, Orleans, and other 
 large cities, no less than sixty thousand of the Protestants 
 are supposed to have been massacred in different parts 
 of Prance. 
 
 § 253. Charles endeavoured to justify this infamous act 
 of perfidy, and inhuman butchety, by declaring that the 
 Huguenots had conspired against him ; but every one knew 
 the accusation to be a mere subterfuge ; and even had it 
 been true, it could not h&,ve afforded a palliation for the 
 murder of thousands of innocent and defenceless citizens. 
 At Eome and in Spain the barbarous slaughter was hailed 
 as a triumph for the Church Militant, and solemn thanks 
 were returned to God for its success. Such are the trophies 
 and the victories of Eome ! In England it excited general 
 horror and detestation, and when the French ambassador 
 appeared to announce and explain the sad event, he was 
 received by the court in mourning, and ushered into apart- 
 ments hung with black. Indeed the English nobility and 
 gentry offered at once to levy an army, but Elizabeth, more 
 cautious, only made preparations for approaching danger. 
 She fortified Portsmouth, put her fleet in order, exercised 
 her militia, and renewed her alliance with the German 
 princes, who had also taken the alarm a;t the sanguinary 
 policy of the Eoman Catholic party. The strife in Pr&nce 
 broke out afresh after this barbarity, the Protestants 
 fought heroically, and the fourth civil war was brought 
 to a close by a fourth treaty of peace, guaranteeing the 
 privileges accorded by former treaties (1573). Confusion 
 continued to reign in Prance, in the midst of which Charles 
 IX. died of an extraordinary distemper, in the twenty-fourtli 
 year of his age (May 30, 1574). His death was regarded 
 by the Protestants as a visible stroke of divine vengeance: 
 
CLOSE OF THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 183 
 
 The blood exuded from every pore of his body, and other 
 remarkable circumstances justified the conclusion. As he left 
 no male issue, he was succeeded by his brother, the duke 
 of Anjou, who had just before been elected king of Poland. 
 
 Lettek 68. — Germany, from the Besignation of Charles V. to the 
 Death of Maximilian II., with some Account of the Affairs of Spain, 
 Italy, and Turkey, during that period. A.D. 1566 — 1576. Vol. i., 
 pages 444 — 448. 
 
 § 254. Charles V. was succeeded in the imperial dignity 
 by Ferdinand I., by whom the peace of religion was con- 
 firmed at the diet of Eatisbon. Pius IV., raised to the 
 papacy in 1559, confirmed the imperial dignity to Ferdinand 
 (1560), and issued a bull ordering the re-assembling of the 
 famous council of Trent, the last of the general councils. 
 This measure induced the Protestant prifices to assemble at 
 Naumburg, in Saxony, and they came to the resolution of 
 adhering to the Coitfession of Augsburg. Ferdinand con- 
 voked a diet at Frankfort, and obtained the election of his 
 son Maximilian, who filled the throne of Bohemia, as king 
 of the Romans (1562). The emperor vainly endeavoured 
 to induce the Protestant princes to submit to the council of 
 Trent. He then sought to efiect a reformation of some of 
 those abuses in the Eomish church of which the Protestants 
 complained, but the pope resented the attempt at inter- 
 ferencej and declared that such reformation was his peculiar 
 province. The council of Trent was finally dissolved in 
 December, 1563. Instead of seeking to purify the Eomish 
 system, it had only aimed at obtaining an ascendancy over 
 the different sovereigns of Europe. Ferdinand died July 
 25, 1564, and was succeeded by MaximiUian II., who, having 
 established a general toleration, became involved in a war 
 with the Turks. SoUman II. projected, it is said, the con- 
 quest of Germany, and despatched his generals into Tran- 
 sylvania ; but they were defeated by Maximilian's forces, 
 and compelled to make peace (1565). SoHmaii then sent a 
 fleet and an army to reduce Malta, hoping to expel the 
 Knights of St. John, whom he had before driven from 
 Rhodes. His general, Mustapha, after a siege of four 
 months and the loss of twenty-four thousand men, was 
 compelled to abandon the enterprise. The timely arrival of 
 Don Garcia, governor of Sicily, with twelve thousand men, 
 mainly contributed to bring about this result. In revenge 
 for this disappointment and disgrace, Soliman sent a fleet to 
 
184 BATTLE OF LEPANTO. 
 
 reduce the island of Scio and ravage the coast of Italy ; and 
 having invaded Hungary with a powerful army, invested 
 Zigeth, the bulwark of Stiria against the Turks (1556). 
 Soliman died during the siege, and the place soon after 
 surrendered. Selim II. ascended the Ottoman throne, and 
 concluded a truce for twelve years with Maximilian II. 
 (1567). 
 
 § 255. In consequence of this truce, Germany enjoyed a 
 long repose. Selim, after attempting, without success, to 
 eubdue Persia, turned his arms against the island of Cyprus, 
 which at that time belonged to the republic of Venice 
 (1570). He lost one hundred thousand men in the enter- 
 prise, but captured the place, and its fate alarmed the 
 Christian powers (1571). Charles IX., on account of the 
 distracted state of his kingdom, refused to enter into the 
 league against the Turks ; the emperor pleaded his truce 
 with Selim, and the German princes were too much engaged 
 with religious dissensions. Philip II., the Venetians, and 
 Pope Pius v., who had succeeded Pius IV. in 1566, em- 
 barked in the enterprise. After the conquest of Cyprus, 
 the Turks ravaged the coasts of Italy, as well as those of 
 Dalmatia and Istria. Their fleet, consisting of two hundred 
 and thirty galleys, encountered that of the confederates in 
 the Gulf of Lepanto, near Corinth, when a terrible engage- 
 meat ensued (Oct. 7, 1571). The Turks were, after a fearful 
 struggle, defeated. They lost thirty thousand men in the 
 conflict. Ten thousand were taken prisoners, and fifteen 
 thousand Christian slaves set at liberty. Thirty Turkish 
 galleys were sunk, twenty-five burnt, one hundred and thirty 
 taken, and only a wretched remnant escaped. The con- 
 federates lost fifteen galleys and about ten thousand men. 
 The victory was not, however, well followed up, and in the 
 ensuing year the Turks reappeared with a new fleet, and 
 regained the ascendancy. The Venetians concluded peace 
 with the Sultan, ceded "to him Cyprus and other places, and 
 stipulated to pay him thirty thousand crowns in gold, towards 
 defraying the expenses of the war (1573). The new pope, 
 Gregory XIII., the eulogist of the massacre of St. Bartholo- 
 mew, who succeeded Pius V. in 1572, was greatly incensed at 
 this treaty, while PhUip II., when asked to interfere, declared 
 that the Venetians knew their own business best. Don John 
 of Austria seized Tunis, where he proposed to erect an in- 
 dependent sovereignty (1573). He was attacked by the 
 Sultan with a fleet of three hundred galleys, having forty 
 
DEATH OF MAXIMILIAN II. 185 
 
 thousand land forces on board ; his stronghold was taken 
 and the garrison put to the sword (1574). Germany con- 
 tinued to enjoy tranquillity under the mild government of 
 Maximilian II. He died while preparing to support his 
 election to the kingdom of Poland, and was succeeded by 
 his son Eodolph II., a prince who inherited his father's 
 pacific disposition (1576).* 
 
 ' Camoens, the great and only epic poet of Portugal, and Tasso, the 
 glory of Italy, flourished about this period. The former returned from 
 his long wanderings, to Lisbon, in 1569, and the latter resided at the 
 court of Ferrara in 1575. The " Lusiad" of Camoensi appeared in 1572, 
 and Tasso published his " Jerusalem Delivered" in 1575. Both were 
 unfortunate. Tasso was confined as a lunatic in 1579, and in the same 
 year, Camoens, who had done so much for his country, breathed his 
 last in abject poverty. 
 
186 TEOTJBLES IN FRANCE. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Letter 69. — A general view of the Transactions of Europe, from the 
 Death of Charles IX. to the Accession to the Throne of France of 
 Henry IV., the first French King of the Bourbon branch ; including 
 the Rise of the Republic of Holland, the Catastrophe of Sebastian, 
 King of Portugal, the Execution of Mary Queen of Soots, and the 
 Defeat of the Spanish Armada, a.d. 1574 — 1589. Vol. i., pager 
 448—465. 
 
 § 256. Henet III., on hia accession to the throne of 
 France, following the advice of the queen-mother, laid a 
 scheme for restoring the royal authority, by acting as um- 
 , pire between the Eoman Catholic and Protestant parties. 
 As he had been a principal actor in the massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholomew, his elevation alarmed the Huguenots, who had 
 since been powerfully reinforced. The duke of Alen9on and 
 many moderate Soman Catholics, called the party of the 
 Politicians, joined them. Henry made a treaty with them, 
 and granted them peace on very advantageous terms. They 
 obtained the right of the public exercise of their rehgion, 
 except within two leagues of the court ; party-chambers, 
 consisting of an equal number of Protestants and Catholics, 
 were elected in all the parliaments of the kingdom, for the 
 more equitable administration of justice ; all attainders were 
 reversed, and six cities were delivered into their hands 
 (1576). This, the fifth treaty of peace concluded with the 
 Huguenots, disgusted the Eoman Catholics, and aiforded 
 the duke of Guise the opportunity of forming that famous 
 Soman Catholic league projected by his uncle, the cardinal 
 of Lorraine, vehich was intended for the entire suppression of 
 Protestantism. Henry III. hearing of this association and 
 its objects, put himself at its head, and war broke out afresh. 
 Little was accomplished in the field, and a sixth treaty of 
 peace, signed at Bergerac, was agreed to, which, though less 
 favourable than the former ones, guaranteed the Protestants 
 in the possession of many of their chief privileges (1577). 
 Prance continued in a very unsettled state, and while Ehza- 
 
PACIFICATION OT GHENT. 187 
 
 beth abetted the cause of the Protestants, Philip II. sup- 
 ported that of the Eoman Catholics. Elizabeth protected 
 the Flemish exiles, and even permitted the Flemish priva- 
 teers, a tertor to the commercial iiavy of Spain, to enter the 
 English harbours, and there dispose of their prizes. This 
 privilege was afterwards, at the remonstrance of the Spanish 
 ambassador, withdrawn, and the Giieux, or heggars, afterwards 
 Water Geueen, as the Flemish adventurers were called, in 
 1572 attacked and took possession of the Brille, a seaport 
 in Holland. This alarmed the duke of Alva, he attempted 
 to subdue them, when Holland and Zealand threw off the 
 Spanish yoke, and put themselves under the protection of 
 William, prince of Orange. All Alva's efforts to put down 
 this formidable resistance to the rule of the Spaniards 
 proved unavailing, and in 1573 he petitioned to be recalled 
 from his government. 
 
 § 257. Alva's successor, Eequesens, was not more for- 
 tunate. The siege of Leyden was prosecuted with great 
 activity for some time (1574), but the Spaniards were at 
 last compelled to retire, and a conference was held at Breda 
 (1575). The emperor Eodolph II. endeavoured to mediate, 
 but the negotiations did not jproduCe peace, and hostilities 
 were renewed. Zealand was at last occupied by the 
 Spaniards, who were about to attempt the reduction of 
 Holland, vfhen the inhabitants offered the sovereignty of 
 Zealand and Holland to Queen Elizabeth. This magnani- 
 mous princess declined the proffered honour, but used her 
 best efforts with Philip II. in behalf of the inhabitants of 
 the revolted provinces. Eequesens died suddenly in 1576, 
 and a mutiny on account of arrears of pay broke out amongst 
 the Spanish troops at Antwerp. The city was sacked and 
 pUlaged, whereupon all the provinces, except Luxemburg, 
 formed a confederacy, commonly called the Pacification of 
 Grhent, which had for its object the expulsion of foreign 
 troops, and the restoration of the ancient liberties of the 
 States. Don John of Austria, who had succeeded Eequesens 
 as governor, seeing the impossibility of resistance, agreed 
 to everything demanded of him, promising to confirm the 
 Pacification of Ghent, and to dismiss the Spanish army. 
 
 § 258. As Don John had only accepted these terms upon 
 necessity, he prepared to reduce the revolted provinces to 
 subjection, and had even projected a marriage with Mary, 
 queen of Scots, thus hoping to obtain both Scotland and 
 England. Elizabeth, apprised of these designs, at once 
 
188 UNION OF UTEECHT. 
 
 entered into an alliance with the Netherlands, and furnished 
 them with supplies of men, warlike stores, and money. The 
 Archduke Matthias, brother to the Emperor Eodolph, was 
 appointed governor-general of the provinces, and the duke of 
 Orange became his lieutenant (1577) . Don John died in the 
 midst of the struggle, and was succeeded by the duke of 
 Parma (1578). The confederates quarrelled instead of act- 
 ing, and at last William of Orange formed the scheme of 
 uniting the seven northern provinces of Holland, Zealand, 
 Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssel, and Gruelderland, 
 in a close band of union. It was agreed that the seven 
 provinces should unite themselves in interest as one pro- 
 vince, each reserving to itself all its own privileges, rights, 
 customs, and statutes ; that in all disputes between particu- 
 lar provinces the rest should interpose only as mediators ; 
 and that they should assist each other with life and fortune 
 against every foreign attempt upon any single province. It 
 was called the Union of Ufrecht, and was signed Jan, 15, 
 1579. The United Provinces had to struggle against the 
 whole power of the Spanish monarchy, and the duke of Parma 
 made great progress against them, both by arts and arms. 
 Having concluded a treaty with the Walloons, a name usually 
 given to the inhabitants of the southern provinces of the 
 Netherlands, they again offered the sovereignty to Elizabeth, 
 and as she stiU rejected it, they conferred it on the duke of 
 Anjou, named William of Orange stadtholder, and finally 
 withdrew their allegiance from Philip II. (1581). 
 
 § 259. WhUe Philip was bsing the seven United Pro- 
 vinces, a new sovereignty fell into his power. Don Sebastian, 
 king of Portugal, had embarked for Africa in 15 78,, upon 
 an expedition against the Moors. The Christians were 
 totally routed at the terrible battle of Alcazar-quiver, in 
 which Don Sebastian was slain. He was succeeded by his 
 uncle. Cardinal Henry, who died soon after without issue, 
 when a number of competitors appeared for the vacant 
 throne, amongst whom Pope Gregory XIII., with the usual 
 papal greediness of power, put in his claim. The duke of 
 Alva, at the head of the Spanish armies, settled the dispute, 
 and Philip was crowned at Lisbon and proclaimed in India 
 (1580). As soon as it was known in Spain that the United 
 Provinces had withdrawn their allegiance from Philip, a 
 price was set upon the head of William of Orange, and an 
 attempt was soon after made upon his life (1582). The 
 duke of Anjou, who had been wasting bis time paying court 
 
FKANCIS DRAKE. 189 
 
 to Queen Elizabeth, was dismissed, and was also obliged to 
 leave the United Provinces, and retire into France, where 
 he died in 1584. The Archduke Matthias had pre- 
 viously withdrawn into G-ermany, so that the duke of 
 Parma, and the prince of Orange, the two greatest generals 
 of the day, were left to dispute the possession of the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 § 260. England during these commotions had enjoyed 
 perfect tranquillity ; but the sky began to be overcast. 
 Troubles occurred in Scotland; the earl of Morton was 
 beheaded (1581), and a formidable conspiracy organized. 
 During these transactions in Scotland, the king of Spain, 
 in the name of the pope, sent a body of seven hundred 
 Spaniards and Italians into Ireland; but they were defeated 
 and treated with great severity by Earl Grey. When the 
 English ambassador at the court of Madrid complained of 
 this invasion, he was answered by complaints of the piracies 
 of Erancis Drake, a bold navigator who had passed into the 
 South Sea by the strait of Magellan, and taken many rich 
 prizes from the Spaniards, returning home by the Cape of 
 Good Hope, in 1580. As he was the first Englishman who 
 had circumnavigated the globe, his name became celebrated; 
 the queen conferred the honour of knighthood upon him, 
 and accepted a banquet from him on board the ship in which 
 he had performed so memorable a voyage. She caused part 
 of the booty to be restored, in order to appease Philip II. 
 The Soman Catholics did all they could to render Elizabeth 
 impopular abroad. They not only misrepresented and 
 maligned her, but publicly preached against her, and 
 openly taught that it would be a meritorious action to take 
 away her life. The Jesuits,^ favoured by the pope, the 
 
 " Ignatius Loyola, at first a page in the Spanish court, and then an 
 officer in the army, being wounded at the siege of Pampeluna (1521), 
 quitted the military profession, studied theology, and became an 
 ecclesiastic. Having performed two pilgrimages to the Holy Land, 
 one in 1521 and the other in 1523, he afterwards repaired to Paris to 
 study at the university. He shared his rooms with Peter Faber and 
 Francis Xavier, and they became the founders and the first members 
 of the order of the Jesuits. Being joined by three more students, they, 
 on August 15, 1534, assembled at the church of Montmartre, and took 
 the solemn vows of chastity, absolute poverty, devotion to the care of 
 the Christians, and to the ooDversion of infidels. In 1540, Paul III. 
 sanctioned, under some limitations, the establishment of the order, and 
 in 1543 accorded to it his full favour. Loyola was chosen president, 
 and remained at Borne to organize and direct the new order, called the 
 Society of Jesus. Loyola's military career was of great service to him 
 
190 THE JESTTITS. 
 
 cardinal of Lorraine, and Philip II., endeavoured by every 
 means in their power to arrest the progress of the Eeform- 
 ation, and against Elizabeth, as the head of the Protestant 
 cause, their hatred knew no bounds. They persuaded one 
 William Parry, an English gentleman, a convert to Eoman 
 Catholicism, that he could not perform a more acceptable 
 service to heaven than to take away the life of his sovereign. 
 The pope's nuncio, Oampeggio, confirmed him in this ; and 
 he landed in England, intending to execute the barbarous 
 project. It was however discovered, and he was taken pri- 
 soner and executed (1584). Only the year before a man 
 named Somerville had sijffered for a similar crime. 
 
 § 261. Elizabeth was not the only ruler against whose life 
 the papists plotted. William prince of Orange was assassi- 
 nated at Delft, by Balthazar Gerard (1584), whereupon the 
 states of Holland and Zealand appointed his son Maurice, 
 then only eighteen years old, their stadtholder and captain- 
 general by land and sea. The duke of Parma reduced 
 Ghent and Brussels, and at last captured Antwerp (1585). 
 The confederates then tendered the sovereignty to the king 
 of Prance, but civil dissensions induced him to refuse the 
 offer. The duke of Guise, anxious to exclude the next heir, 
 the king of Navarre, a professed Protestant, from the suc- 
 cession, revived the Eoman Catholic league; and after 
 several attempts, won Henry III. over to his views; and 
 consequently any interference in favour of the distressed 
 Protestants of the Low Countries became on his part im- 
 possible. The United Provinces again had recourse to 
 Elizabeth, and although she rejected the sovereignty, she 
 gallantly espoused their cause. Caring little for the Eoman 
 Catholic powers, at the head of whom was Philip II., she not 
 only gent forces to the United Provinces, but despatched 
 Sir Prancis Drake with twenty sail and a body of land 
 forces to attack the Spaniards in the West Indies. This 
 gallant seaman captured St. Domingo, Carthagena, and 
 several other places, and returned to Eagland with such 
 riches and accounts of the weakness of the Spaniards in the 
 New World, as served to stimulate the nation to future 
 
 in framing this new institution. The Jesuits laboured zealously in the 
 service of the papacy, and soon began to play an important part in 
 public affairs. Their pernicious system was productive of the most 
 serious evils ; in many states the governments were constrained to 
 suppress them, and in 1773 Pope Clement XIV. issued a bull for the 
 suppression of the order. In 1814, Pius VII. solemnly re-established 
 the society as a religious order, under the constitutions of St. Ignatius. 
 
TRIAL AND EXECUTION OF IHAEY. 191 
 
 enterprises. Tobacco and potatoes were introduced into 
 England by this expedition (1586). In the same year the 
 victory at Zutphen was gained, at which the gallant Sir 
 Philip Sidney lost his life (Sept. 22). 
 
 § 262. Leicester was not successful in the Low Countries. 
 He was indeed totally unfitted for the command, and as 
 soon as Elizabeth perceived this, she issued orders for his 
 recall. This noble-minded sovereign was, however, environed 
 with enemies. Antony Babington, a young gentleman of 
 Derbyshire, instigated by John Ballard, a popish priest of 
 the seminary of Eheims, engaged in a conspiracy against her 
 life, with a view of delivering Mary and establishing the popish 
 system in the country. The plot was happily discovered 
 by Walsingham, and Babington and his associates were 
 executed (1586) . During their trial the fact transpired that 
 Babington had been encouraged in this treacherous enter- 
 prise by Mary queen of Scots, whereupon Elizabeth and her 
 ministers resolved to bring Mary to a public trial. Her 
 papers were accordingly seized, her principal domestics 
 arrested, and her two secretaries sent prisoners to London. 
 After the necessary information had been obtained, forty 
 commissioners, appointed under the great seal, together 
 with five of the judges, were sent to Eotheringay Castle, 
 where Mary was now confined, to hear and decide this great 
 cause. Mary refused to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the 
 commissioners, but was at last persuaded to appear and 
 make her defence. She was condemned and executed 
 (Feb. 8, 1587). Never did Mary appear so great as in the 
 last scene of her life ; she was not only tranquil, but in- 
 trepid and magnanimous. She maintained her dignity to 
 the last moment, declared that she died firm in the Eoman 
 Catholic faith, and laid her head upon the block with calm 
 but undaunted fortitude. Such was the end of Mary 
 Stuart, queen of Scotland and dowager of France, one of 
 the most beautiful and accomplished of her sex. She was 
 in the forty-fifth year of her age. Of her guilt there can be 
 now no doubt ; and neither her beauty, her elegant qualities, 
 nor the wrongs and sufferings which she endured, can 
 palliate her share in the conspiracy against the life of Eliza- 
 beth, her treacherous intrigues with foreign princes, her 
 violation of the sanctity of the marriage vow, and the guilt 
 of murder.* 
 
 • Elizabeth's conduct in this matter must be viewed in reference to 
 the events ol the period. So long as Mar; lived, her position was most 
 
192 THE SPANISH ARMADA. 
 
 § 263. Although James at first seemed inclined to resent 
 the indignity ofi'ered to him by the trial and execution of 
 his mother, and actually recalled his ambassador, he at last 
 consented to receive Elizabeth's emissaries, and gradually 
 fell into a good understanding with the court of England. 
 Philip II. was secretly preparing his prodigious armament 
 in order to secure the ascendancy of the papists. Sir 
 Erancis Drake intercepted his supplies, pillaged his coasts, 
 and destroyed his shipping, and in the harbour of Cadiz 
 alone burnt a hundred vessels laden with ammunition and 
 naval stores. Thomas Cavendish, a private adventurer, 
 sailed into the South Sea with three small ships, committed 
 great depredations, took many prizes from the Spaniards, 
 and entered the Thames in a kind of triumph (1587). The 
 sailing of the armada was delayed for twelve months ; and 
 in all the ports in Sicily, Naples, Spain, and Portugal, arti- 
 sans were employed building vessels of uncommon size and 
 force ; naval stores were brought up at a great expense, 
 provisions amassed, armies levied and quartered in the 
 maritime provinces, and plans laid for such an embarkation 
 as had never before appeared upon the ocean. Preparations 
 were also made in the Netherlands, the armada was vainly 
 denominated invincible, and Philip imagined that England 
 would fall an easy prey to his attack. 
 
 insecure. Plots for the re-establishment of popery, and conspiracies for 
 the removal of Elizabeth, were of continual occurrence ; and although 
 Mary was not a prime mover in all of these, yet her participation in 
 some of them, and more particularly in Babington's infamous scheme, 
 has been clearly established. It was a struggle for life and death be- 
 tween the two queens, — the one the representative of Popery, and the 
 other of Protestantism ; and that Elizabeth did not wish to proceed to 
 extremities against the queen of Soots is evident from the facts that 
 she had that princess in her power for more than eighteen years, during 
 which period she did not offer the slightest injury to her ; and that 
 she had repeatedly refused the demand of her parliament to bring 
 Mary to trial. The truth is, Mary had sold herself to a sanguinary and 
 pernicious system, which has deluged the world with horrors, and she at 
 last fell a victim to the snares she had laid for another. Blood will have 
 blood, they say ; and yet while the Romanists taught the doctrine that it 
 was a commendable act to put heretics and converts from the papal errors 
 to death, whilst they attempted to elevate the murderer of Henry III. 
 of France to a level with the Saviour of the world, and whilst they 
 returned thanks for and openly rejoiced at the terrible slaughter of St. 
 Bartholomew, they endeavoured to raise a fearful outcry whenever any 
 of their own agents received the just punishment of their crimes. We 
 can pity the beautiful and unfortunate woman, who, under the wither- 
 ing influence of such a system, lost all those qualities which dignify 
 human nature and command universal esteem. 
 
ELIZABETH'S FORTITUDE. 193 
 
 § 264. Elizabeth was apprized of all these preparations. 
 She had foreseen the invasion, nor was she dismayed at the 
 aspect of that power by which all Europe apprehended that 
 she must be overwhelmed. Her force was much smaller 
 than that of her opponent. All the sailors in England did 
 not exceed fifteen thousand men ; the royal navy consisted 
 only of twenty-eight sail, none of which exceeded the bulk 
 of our largest frigates. The city of London fitted out thirty 
 ships to reinforce this small navy ; the other seaport towns 
 a proportional number ; and the nobility and gentry hired, 
 armed, and manned forty-three vessels at their own charge. 
 Lord Howard of Efiingham, a man of courage and capacity, 
 was the chief commander ; Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, 
 the most renowned seamen in Europe, served under him. 
 The land forces of England were more numerous than those 
 of the enemy, but inferior in discipline and experience. 
 Though some of the chief men in the country trembled for 
 the result, the queen was undaunted. She issued all her orders 
 with tranquillify, animated her people to a steady resistance, 
 and employed every resource which either her domestic 
 situation or her foreign alliances could afibrd. She appeared 
 on horseback at the camp at Tilbury, and promised to lead: 
 her soldiers into the field of battle. " I know," she said 
 intrepidly, " I have but the weak and feeble arm of a 
 woman ; but I have the heart of a king, and of a king of 
 England too !" (1588). 
 
 § 265. The heroic spirit of Elizabeth communicated itself 
 to the army, and every man resolved to die rather than 
 desert his station. Meanwhile the Spanish Armada, after 
 various obstructions, appeared in the Channel. It con- 
 sisted of a hundred and thirty vessels, carrying about 
 twenty thousand land forces. Disposed in the form of a 
 crescent, this fleet extended a distance of seven miles, 
 from one extremity to the other. As soon as they ap- 
 proached the coast of England, they were attacked on every 
 side. Sir Francis Drake took the large galleon Andalusia, 
 and a monster ship of Biscay, which had fallen behind the 
 rest; while the nobility and gentry hastened with their 
 vessels out of every harbour, and reinforced Effingham, who 
 filled eight of his smaller ships with combustibles, and sent 
 them into the midst of the enemy. The Spaniards fled in 
 disorder and, precipitation ; the English commanders fell 
 upon them whilst in confusion ; and, besides doing con- 
 siderable damage to the fleet, took twelve ships. The duke 
 
194 DESTEUCTION OF THE AEMADA. 
 
 of Parma positively refused to leave Planders whilst the 
 English were masters of the sea. The Spanish admiral 
 sailed round the island, followed by the English fleet, which, 
 had not the ammunition fallen short, would have compelled 
 the Armada to surrender at discretion. A terrible storm 
 overtook the remnant of the expedition, as it was passing 
 the Orkneys ; many vessels were wrecked, not one half of 
 the fleet returned to Spain, and a still smaller proportion of 
 the soldiers and seamen. 
 
 § 266. While the naval power of Spain experienced such 
 disasters, great revolutions happened in Erance. The 
 Huguenots, notwithstanding the valour of the king of 
 Navarre, who gained at Coutras, in 1587, a complete victory 
 over the royal army, were reduced to the greatest extremity 
 by the League. This, the eighth civil contest, was called 
 the war of the three Henries. Quarrels amongst the 
 Eoman Catholics alone saved the Eeformers. The Guise 
 faction, at what is called the Battle of the Barricades, drove 
 Henry from his capital, and their audacity aroused him to 
 action. Dissembling his resentment, he entered into nego- 
 tiation with the duke of Gruise and the League, and seemed 
 outwardly reconciled. Henry then induced the gentlemen 
 of his guard to assassinate the duke of Guise and his 
 brother the cardinal. "I am now king, madam!" said 
 Henry to the queen-mother, "and have no competitor; the 
 duke of Guise is dead!" (1588). The partisans of the 
 League immediately took up arms ; declared that the 
 people were released from their oath of allegiance to Henry, 
 and chose the duke of Mayenne, brother to the duke of 
 Guise, lieutenant-general of the state royal and crown of 
 France. In this extremity Henry III. joined the Huguenots 
 and the king of Navarre, and at the head of forty thousand 
 men advanced to the gates of Paris, prepared to crush the 
 League and subdue all their enemies. The priests, and 
 the Jesuits in particular, advocated his assassination 
 from the pulpits of Paris ; and one Jacques Clement, a 
 Dominican friar, obtained admission to the presence of the 
 king and wounded him mortally (August 1, 1589). The 
 murderer was cut to pieces by the guards ; but he was 
 considered as a saint and a martyr ; and as a proof of the 
 general degradation of Eoman Catholicism, Pope Sistus V., 
 certainly one of the least iniquitous of the papal despots, 
 compared Clement's enterprise to the incarnation of the 
 "Word, and the resurrection of the Saviour. With his 
 
HENRY IV. OF FRANCE. 195 
 
 dying voice, Henry III. named Henry, king ol Navarre, as 
 tie successor. In the person of Henry III. the branch of 
 the Valois became extinct, after having reigned two hundred 
 and sixty-one years, and given thirteen kings to France. 
 
 Lettek 70. — The General View of Europe continued, from the Accession 
 ot Henry IV. to the Peace of Vervins. a.d. 1589—1598. Vol. i., 
 pages 465 — 472. 
 
 § 267. The reign of Henry IV., justly styled the Great, 
 forms one of the most memorable epochs in the history of 
 Prance. Deserted by his troops, he was compelled to 
 abandon the siege of Paris and retire into Normandy. 
 Thither he was followed by the duke of Mayenne, who had 
 proclaimed the cardinal of Bourbon king, under the title of 
 Charles X., though he was still a prisoner. Henry sought 
 the assistance of Elizabeth to oppose the progress of the 
 Eoman Catholic League and of the king of Spain. Elizabeth 
 furnished both men and money. Although the king's forces 
 were still inferior in numbers to those of his opponents, 
 he attacked the duke of Mayenne at Ivry (March 14, 
 1590), gained a complete victory, and afterwards invested 
 Paris. The duke of Parma advanced from the Low 
 Countries to the relief of the capital, and having accom- 
 plished this object, retired without giving Henry an oppor- 
 tunity of making an attack. After the retreat of the 
 Spaniards, Henry made several fresh attempts upon Paris ; 
 but the vigilance of the citizens, particularly of the faction 
 of the Sixteen,^ by which it was governed, defeated all 
 his designs, and new dangers threatened him from every 
 side. Gregory XIV., at the request of Philip II., declared 
 Henry a relapsed heretic, and commanded all Eoman 
 Catholics to abandon him, under pain of excommunication ; 
 he sent his nephew with money and troops to join the duke 
 of Savoy, and about the same time the young duke of 
 Guise made his escape from the castle of Tours (1590). 
 
 * The Council of the Sixteen was established about 1586, when Paris 
 was under the municipal system. The citizens guarded the walls and the 
 principal posts, and the fehevins had the keys of the gates. The city was 
 divided into sixteen sections, in each of which meetings took place, of 
 which the head of the assembly gave in a report to the general council 
 of the League. These sixteen chiefs, having the same interests to 
 sustain, became united, and thus formed the famous Council of the 
 Sixteen, at which Bussy le Clerc, an old master-at-arms, distinguished 
 himself. They got up a great many plots against Henry III., and may 
 ■be said at one time to have almost governed France. 
 o 2 
 
196 HENBT IV. ABJURES. 
 
 § 268. At this juncture, Elizabeth, who had withdrawn 
 her troops on the prosperous appearance of Henry's affairs, 
 saw the necessity of again interposing, and sent seven 
 thousand men, under the command of Sir John Norris 
 and the earl of Essex. Henry at once entered Normandy, 
 and commenced the siege of Eouen ; but the duke of Parma 
 again, advanced into Erance, and by rapid marches compelled 
 Henry to raise the siege ; refused to come to an engage- 
 ment ; and, in spite of the greatest obstacles, made good 
 his retreat to the Netherlands (1591). Discord reigned in 
 Paris, and the faction of Sixteen hanged the first president 
 of the parliament of Paris, and two of the judges, for not 
 doing their bidding. The duke of Mayenne, on the other 
 hand, put four of the faction of the Sixteen to death. The 
 States were convoked, and the duke of Parma prepared to 
 advance into Erance. He died whilst assembling his forces, 
 at Arras, and thus freed the duke of Mayenne from a dan- 
 gerous rival, Henry from a formidable enemy, and perhaps 
 Erance from becoming a province of Spain (Dec. 2, 1592). 
 The States met, and various schemes were proposed, none 
 of which gave satisfaction, and Henry, while pushing for- 
 ward his military operations, appointed conferences to be 
 held between divines of the two religions, proposed a truce, 
 at length solemnly made his abjuration at St. Denis, and 
 received absolution from the archbishop of Bourges (July 25, 
 1593). 
 
 § 269. The most zealous Eoman Catholics suspected 
 Henry's sincerity, whilst the Huguenots feared some trea- 
 chery, and Henry's Protestant allies, particularly the queeii 
 of England, expressed much indignation at this interested 
 change of his religion. Sensible, however, that the League 
 and the king of Spain were still their common enemies, 
 Elizabeth at last admitted his apologies, and continued her 
 support. In a short time a wonderful change ensued in the 
 affairs of the French monarch. The marquis of Vitri set 
 the example of submission ; cities and provinces followed, 
 even the young duke of Guise acknowledged Henry, and 
 the whole kingdom seemed bent on returning to allegiance 
 to its lawful sovereign. In the midst of these successes, 
 Jean Chatel, a pupil of the Jesuits, incited by their denun- 
 ciations, attempted to assassinate Henry (Dec. 27, 1594). 
 The king was, however, only wounded in the mouth, the 
 assassin was seized and executed, and the Jesuits were ex- 
 pelled from Erance. In the mean time war was still carried 
 
EDICT OF NANTES. 197 
 
 on with vigour in the Low Countries. The confederates rose 
 superior to the power of Spain. Prince Maurice surprised 
 Breda (1590), and with the assistance of the English took 
 Gertruydenberg and Groningen (1594) ; and none of the 
 Spanish generals ventured to attempt a diversion. 
 
 § 270. Henry IV. succeeded in ejecting the Spaniards from 
 France, and having been absolved, and proclaimed king by 
 Clement VIII., was also reconciled to the duke of Mayenne. 
 In the midst of these successes the Spaniards took Calais 
 (1596), and the next year got possession of Amiens by sur- 
 prise. 'j?he king of France was ready to sink under the weight 
 of these misfortunes, but his nobles rallied round him, Eliza- 
 beth, in consequence of a fresh treaty, assisted him, and Amiens 
 was speedily recovered. The duke of Mercoeur, the last noble 
 of any consequence that resisted his authority, submitted, 
 and Henry obtained full possession of his kingdom. The 
 League was dissolved, theEoman Catholics seemed satisfied, 
 and the Huguenots alone gave the king uneasiness. In 
 order to obtain their confidence, Henry assembled the heads 
 of their party at Nantes, and issued the celebrated edict 
 of that name (April 13, 1598). It not only secured to 
 them the free exercise of their religion, but a share in the 
 administration of justice, and the privilege of being admitted 
 to all employments of trust, profit, and honour. The con- 
 federates were not, in the mean time, idle in the Low 
 Countries. The English forces defeated the Spaniards at 
 Tournhout (1597), and in the previous year the combined 
 Dutch and English fleet dispersed an expedition that Philip 
 was fitting out for the invasion of England. Elizabeth and 
 the United Provinces refused to negotiate with Philip II., 
 hut Henry IV. of France concluded a treaty with him at 
 Vervins (May 2, 1598). Henry recovered possession of all 
 the places seized by Philip during the course of the wars, 
 and procured, what he had long ardently desired, leisure to 
 settle the domestic aifairs of his kingdom; to cultivate the arts 
 of peace, and to contribute to the happiness and prosperity 
 of his people. 
 
 Lettee 71. — Spain and the Low Countries, from the Peace of Vervins 
 to the Truce Oi 1609, when the Freedom of the United Provinces 
 was acknowledged, a.d. 1598—1609. Vol. i., pages 472—476. 
 
 § 271. Soon after the conclusion of the peace of Vervins 
 between France and Spain,' a new treaty was negotiated 
 between England and the CTnited Provinces for the more 
 
198 SIEGE OF OSTEND. 
 
 vigorous prosecution of the war against Philip II. Scarcely 
 was the negotiation terminated, ere Philip, who had resigned 
 the sovereignty of the Netherlands, died at Madrid (Sept. 13, 
 1598) ; leaving behind him the character of a gloomy, 
 jealous, haughty, vindictive, and inexorable tyrant. He 
 caused his own son, and heir of the empire, Don Carlos, to 
 be put to death, and poisoned his third wife, Isabella of 
 Prance, that he might marry his niece, Anne of Austria. 
 No European prince ever possessed such vast resources as 
 Philip II. Besides his Spanish and Italian dominions, Por- 
 tugal, and the Netherlands, he enjoyed all the commerce of the 
 East Indies, and received the rich produce of the American 
 mines. Neglecting agriculture and manufactures, he made 
 Spain, once a rich and fertile country, only the mint of 
 Europe. The condition of the United Provinces was in all 
 respects the reverse of that of Spain. Whilst the latter 
 country was enfeebled, they, owing everything to industry, 
 extended their commerce and manufactures, and became 
 rich and powerful. 
 
 § 272. Philip III., a virtuous though weak prince, suc- 
 ceeded his father. He endeavoured to induce the United 
 Provinces to acknowledge the sovereignty of the Archduke 
 Albert of Austria, who had married his sister Isabella, in 
 accordance with the contract made by Philip II. just before 
 his death. The United Provinces refused to accept this 
 arrangement, and Philip III. issued an edict precluding all 
 intercourse between these states and the kingdoms of Spain 
 and Portugal, or the Spanish Netherlands. The Dutch, 
 already strong at sea, attacked the Spanish in India, and 
 soon monopolized that lucrative commerce. Both parties 
 prepared for a renewal of the struggle, and a sanguinary 
 contest took place at Nieuport (1600) ; in which, after 
 a determined struggle, the Spaniards were defeated. The 
 victory was in a great measure owing to the valour of 
 the English auxiliaries. The archduke pressed the siege of 
 Ostend, and although the garrison were relieved, the place 
 at last surrendered, after a resistance of more than three 
 years' duration (1604). During this memorable siege, 
 Prince Maurice made himself master of Eimbach, Grave, 
 and Sluys, acquisitions that more than balanced the loss of 
 Ostend. Commerce, both foreign and domestic, flourished ; 
 Temate, one of the Moluccas, had been gained (1004) ; and 
 the East-India Company, the grand pillar of the republic, 
 ■was established (1595). 
 
REIGN OF ELIZABETH. 199 
 
 § 273. As a counterpoise to these advantages, the States 
 had lost the alliance of England, in consequence of the 
 death of Queen Elizabeth (1603) ; for her successor, 
 James I., although he seemed inclined to support them, 
 entered into a treaty with Spain. Philip III. made another 
 desperate attempt to reduce them to subjection ; but no 
 decisive success ensued, and at length his troqps mutinied 
 for want of pay (1606). A suspension of arms followed, 
 conferences were opened, and after numerous obstacles and 
 delays, a truce for twelve years was concluded at the Hague, 
 through the mediation of France and England (April 9, 
 1609). This treaty recognized the independence of the 
 "United Provinces, secured to them all their acquisitions, 
 freedom of commerce with the dominions of Philip and 
 the archduke, and the full enjoyment of those civil and 
 religious liberties for which they had so gloriously struggled. 
 Philip III., at the instigation of the Inquisition, and by the 
 advice of Ms minister, the duke of Lerma, issued an edict 
 ordering all the Morescoes, or the descendants of the Moors, 
 to leave the kingdom (1609). They chose for themselves a 
 king, and endeavoured to resist the execution of the man- 
 date ; but were overpowered and banished, and Spain thus 
 lost nearly a million of industrious inhabitants (1611). 
 
 IiETTEE 72. — The Domestic History of England, from the Defeat of the 
 Spanish Armada to the Death of Elizabeth ; with some Account of 
 Afl^irs in Scotland and Ireland. A.ii. 1588 — 1603. Vol. i., pages 
 476—483. 
 
 § 274. The execution of Mary queen of Scots, and the 
 defeat of the Spanish Armada, freed Elizabeth from aU 
 apprehensions respecting the safety of her crown. Her 
 foreign policy has been noticed in the preceding chapters, 
 and we turn at once to the domestic affairs of her domi- 
 nions. The leading characteristics of Elizabeth's adminis- 
 tration were economy and vigour. By strict attention to 
 the first, she was able to maintain a magnificent court, and 
 to support the persecuted Protestants in Erance and the 
 liow Countries, without oppressing her people, or involving 
 the crown in debt ; and by a spirited exertion of the second, 
 she humbled the pride of Spain, and gave stability to her 
 throne, in spite of all the machinations of her enemies. 
 Elizabeth was remarkably jealous of her prerogative, which 
 she exercised most royally, and was indeed inclined to 
 pe despotic. She erected the court of High Commission, 
 
200 AFFAIRS IN IRELAND, 
 
 ■which was invested with almost inquisitorial powers, and 
 she supported the decrees of the Star Chamber. She also 
 granted patents for monopolies, which fettered industry 
 and commerce. These grievances were frequently com- 
 plained of in parliament,, but more especially by, the 
 Puritans, a new religious sect.* Peter "Wentworthj one of. 
 their leaders^ endeavoured to call the attention of parliament 
 to the succession of the crown ; and as the consideration of 
 this subject had been prohibited by Elizabeth, he was sent 
 to the Tower, and all the members who supported his 
 motion to the Fleet (1-593). 
 
 § 275. The affairs of Ireland occupied a great share of 
 Elizabeth's attention. She early saw the importance of 
 that island, and took measures for reducing it to order and 
 submission. Besides furnishing her governors of Ireland 
 with a strong force, she founded the University of Duhlia 
 (1591). Discord reigned in the island, and as Sir John 
 Parrot had armed the inhabitants of TJlster (1585), and 
 others had obtained a knowledge of military affairs by 
 service on the continent, they were able to maintain a more 
 regular war. Hugh O'Neil, earl of Tyrone, at the insti- 
 gation of Philip II., raised a formidable insurrection, and 
 defeated the queen's troops on the Blackwater (1598). 
 Tyrone was styled the deliverer of his country. Elizabeth 
 made the earl of Essex lord-lieutenant, and sent him to 
 Ireland with a strong force. This favourite disappointed 
 the queen and the nation, and returned home suddenly, 
 contrary to orders, and without having effected anything 
 (1599). This rash step, together with his imprudent 
 conduct afterwards, caused his ruin. Although tried, and 
 on this occasion pardoned (1600), he plunged into a new 
 course of intrigue, and on being discovered, attempted to 
 create an insurrection. Being taken prisoner, he was tried, 
 condemned, and executed (1601). 
 
 § 276. Lord Mountjoy succeeded Essex in Ireland, and 
 speedily restored the queen's authority in that island 
 (1600). He defeated the rebels near Kinsale, though 
 supported by six thousand Spaniards, whom he expelled 
 
 • This name was first given to some persons who began to find fault 
 with, although they did not then secede from, the Church of England 
 in 1564. They objected to the ceremonies of the church and to the 
 vestments of the clergy ; and as they adopted very rigid rales of life, 
 were called Puritans. Being aftei-wards joined by many others, they 
 finally seceded from the establishment, and at one time possessed great 
 power in the state. 
 
CHAEACTEE OF ELIZABETH. 201 
 
 from the island. Even Tyrone petitioned for terms ; which 
 being denied him, he was obliged to throw himself upon 
 the queen's clemency. Elizabeth was now incapable of 
 receiving any pleasure from this fortunate conclusion of 
 the war, which had long occupied her councils, exhausted 
 her treasury, and disturbed her peace. Though in her 
 beventieth year, she had hitherto enjoyed good health ; but 
 the infirmities of age began to steal upon her, as well as a 
 deep melancholy, caused, it is supposed, by having no heir 
 to whom to transmit her sceptre. Moreover, the execution 
 of her favourite, Essex, preyed upon her mind. For ten 
 nights and days she lingered, leaning upon cushions ; and 
 having named James, king of Scotland, as her successor, 
 expired without a struggle (April 3, 1603). During this 
 monarch's reign England progressed with rapid strides. 
 Drake, Erobisher, Ealeigh, and others, the most adventurous 
 spirits of the age, navigated the distant ocean and made 
 important discoveries. On their return they introduced 
 into the country, plants, flowers, fruits, and other produc- 
 tions hitherto unknown in England. Thus the laburnum, 
 laurustinus, potato, orange, tulip, tobacco, artichoke, aspa- 
 ragus, cauliflower, &c., were all brought into our island 
 during this reign. Elizabeth was also a great encourager 
 of education ; as Harrow, "Westminster School, Eugby, and 
 other important foundations, established under her auspices, 
 fully prove. In 1590 the first paper-mill was comtaenced, 
 at Dartford, in Kent; a fact that well deserves to be 
 chronicled. 
 
 § 277. History does not afford a more striking instance 
 of the insubstantiality of human greatness than that 
 offered by the close of this celebrated reign. Eew sove- 
 reigns ever swayed a sceptre with more dignity than 
 Elizabeth; few have enjoyed more prosperity, and none 
 could be better beloved by their people ; yet this powerful 
 princess, after all her glory and popularity, fell into com- 
 parative neglect, and sank into the grave beneath the 
 pressure of a private grief. But the reign of Elizabeth 
 yields other lessons. It shows to what a degree of wealth 
 and consequence a nation may be raised in a few years, by 
 a wise and vigorous administration; and what powerful 
 efforts may be made by a brave and united people, in 
 repelling or annoying an enemy with greater resources at 
 command. The character of Elizabeth is best delineated in 
 her conduct. To all the personal jealousy, the coquetry, 
 
THE BUKE OF SULLY. 
 
 and tbe little vanities of a woman, she united the sound 
 understanding and firm spirit of a man. A greater share 
 of feminine softness might have made her more agreeable as 
 a woman, though not a better queen ; but a less insidious 
 policy would have reflected more lustre upon her adminis- 
 tration, and a less rigid frugality on some occasions would 
 have given more success to her arms. But as she was, and 
 as she acted, she must be allowed to have been one of the 
 greatest sovereigns that ever filled a throne, and may 
 perhaps be considered as the most illustrious female that 
 ever did honour to humanity. 
 
 Letter 73. — France, from the Peace of Vervins to the Death of 
 Henry IV. ; with some Account of the AflFairs of Germany under 
 Eodolph 11. A.D. 1598—1610. Vol. i., pages 483—488. 
 
 § 278. No kingdom, exempt from the horrors of war, 
 could be more wretched than France, at the peace of 
 Vervins. The crown was encumbered with debts and 
 pensions, the people were poor and miserable, and the 
 nobility, from a habit of rebellion, rapine, and disorder, 
 had lost all sense of justice, allegiance, or legal submission. 
 Happily Prance was favoured with a king equally able and 
 willing to remedy all these evils ; and he found a zealous 
 assistant in the marquis of Eosni,.whom he created duke of 
 Sully. Attached to his master's person by friendship, and 
 to his interest and the public good by principle, he em- 
 ployed himself with the most indefatigable industry in 
 restoring the dignity of the crown, without giving umbrage 
 to the nobility, or trespassing upon the rights of the people. 
 Sully's first care was the finances of the country, which he 
 completely restored ; and whUe he diminished the public 
 burthens, he increased the revenue. He also encouraged 
 agriculture, and, convinced that " good morals and good laws 
 are reciprocally formed by each other," sought to raise the 
 general character of all classes of the community. Henry 
 encouraged manufactures, which Sully was inclined to 
 despise ; introduced the culture and manufacture of silk, as 
 well as manufactures . of linen and tapestry, for which he 
 invited workmen from the United Provinces and the Spanish 
 Netherlands. In order to facilitate commerce and promote 
 the welfare 6f his subjects, he built the Pont Neuf, and cut 
 the canal of Briare, which unites the rivers Seine and Loire ; 
 and he had projected the union of the two seas, when a period 
 was put to his life. 
 
RELIGIOUS DISSENSIONS. 203 
 
 § 279. Henry's amorous disposition led him into nume- 
 rous difficulties. The licentious conduct of Queen Margaret 
 of Valois induced him to apply to the pope for a divorce ; 
 hut hefore he had obtained it, he became involved in an 
 intrigue with Gabrielle d'Estrees, whom he created duchess 
 of Beaufort, and promised to raise to the throne. This lady 
 died in 1599, and Henry then formed a new attachment with 
 Henriette d'Entragues, to whom he also made a promise of 
 marriage. He created her marchioness of Yemeuil ; but 
 soon after, receiving the divorce from Eome, married Mary 
 of Medici, daughter of the grand duke of Florence (1600). 
 The family of the Entragues demanded that the king's 
 engagement in favour of Henriette should be carried out, 
 and leagued with several powerful nobles for the purpose of 
 causing the dauphin to be declared illegitimate. Henry 
 received an intimation of the plot, speedUy frustrated it, and 
 turned his attention to another quarter. 
 
 § 280. In order to understand this matter thoroughly, we 
 must cast a glance at the alfairs of the German empire. 
 On the death of Maximilian II., his son, Eodolph II., had 
 succeeded to the imperial dignity (1576). His brother 
 Matthias, at one time governor of the United Provinces, 
 having defeated the Turks in Hungary, and made peace with 
 them (1606), obtained the crown of Hungary; and, in 
 return, he granted the people full liberty of conscience, and 
 every privilege which they could desire (1608). Matthias 
 afterwards became master of Austria and Moravia upon the 
 same conditions ; and Eodolph, in order to avoid the horrors 
 of civil war, confirmed to him those usurpations, together 
 with the succession to the kingdom of Bohemia, where the 
 Lutheran opinions had taken deep root. As the Protestant 
 religion gained, ground in Hungary and Bohemia, the 
 Protestant princes of the empire became desirous of securing 
 and extending their privileges; and their demands being 
 refused, they entered into a new confederacy, called the 
 Evangelical Union (1608). This association was opposed 
 by another, formed to protect the Boman Catholic faith, 
 under the name of the Boman Catholic League (1609). 
 The succession to the duchies of Cleves, Juliers, and Berg, 
 caused the two parties to have recourse to arms. 
 
 § 281. On the death of John WiUiam, duke of Cleves, 
 Juliers, and Berg, without issue, several competitors for the 
 succession arose. The emperor summoned them to appear 
 before him, but two of them — John Sigismund and the duke 
 
204 DEATH OF HENRY IV. 
 
 of Neuburg — united their arms against liim, and were sup- 
 ported by the elector palatine and the other princes of the 
 Evangelical Union. The elector of Saxony, one of the 
 claimants, and the members of the Eoman Catholic League, 
 espoused the emperor's cause ; and in this new war between 
 Protestantism and Eoman Catholicism, Henry IV. of France 
 was invited to take part. This was just what Henry desired. 
 Anxious to humble the house of Austria, and circumscribe 
 tits powers in Germany and Italy, he received the Protestant 
 envoys cordially. Love for one of the family of Mont- 
 morency, married to the prince of Conde, and carried by her 
 husband in a fit of jealousy to Brussels, is also said to have 
 furnished Henry with an additional reason for embarking 
 in the cause. His preparations were vigorous, and his 
 negotiations successful. The duke of Savoy, the Italian 
 powers in general, and the Swiss and Venetians, took part 
 in the alliance. The duke of Sully, who had established the 
 financial affairs of the kingdom upon a firm basis, promised 
 abundant supplies. Before taking the command of the 
 army, he had, at the repeated request of his wife, consented 
 to her coronation, and the ceremony passed off without 
 accident ; but the day after, as Henry was passing through 
 the streets in his coach, he was stabbed to the heart by 
 Eavaillac (May 14, 1610), a bloodthirsty bigot, who had 
 long sought such, an opportunity. Thus perished Henry IV., 
 one of the ablest and best princes that ever sat upon the 
 throne of France. His gallantries, however; had a perni- 
 cious effect upon the manners of the nation, and led to the 
 most unfortunate results. 
 
 Lettbb 74. — ^A General View of the Continent of Europe, from the 
 Assassination of Henry IV. to the Treaty of Prague. A.D. 1610 — 
 1635. Vol. i., pages 488—605. 
 
 § 282. The greater part of the European continent, during 
 the period that followed the death of Henry IV., was a 
 scene of anarchy, bloodshed, and confusion. The two great 
 confederacies, distinguished by the names of the Eoman 
 Catholic League and the Evangelical Union, which had 
 threatened the empire with a furious civil war, appeared to 
 be dissolved by his sudden removal. But the elector of 
 Brandenburg and the duke of Neuburg still maintained 
 their claim to the succession of Cleves and Juliers ; and 
 being assisted by Maurice, prince of Orange, and some 
 French troops, expelled Leopold, the sequestrator, and took 
 
THE THIRTY YEAES' WAR. 205 
 
 possession by force of arms. They afterwards quarrelled ; 
 and in the midst of the dispute, Eodolph II. died, and was 
 succeeded by his brother Matthias, king of Hungary and 
 Bohemia (1612). Having entered into a treaty with the 
 Turks, and secured Agria, Pesth, Buda, and every other 
 place in Hungary held- by the Ottomans, he prepared to puU 
 oS the mask which he had so long worn in order to deceive 
 the Protestants, and thus kindled that long and sanguinary 
 contest known as the Thirty Tears' "War (1618). In order 
 to strengthen his authority, he had previously caused his 
 cousin (1617) Ferdinand of Gratz, duke of Stii-ia, whom he 
 intended as his successor in the empire, to be elected king 
 of Bohemia, and acknowledged in Hungary, neither himself 
 nor his brothers having any children ; and he engaged the 
 Spanish branch of the house of Austria to renounce all 
 pretensions to those crowns. 
 
 § 283. The bigotry of Ferdinand, and this family compact, 
 produced a revolt of the Hungarians and Bohemians. Fer- 
 dinand's ministers, Slawata and Martinitz, commenced their 
 Jesuitical rule in Bohemia, and were, with their secretary 
 Fabricius, thrown out of the window of the council-house 
 (May 23, 1618) ; and under the leadership of Count 
 Thum, the Bohemians expelled the Jesuits. From this 
 day dates the commencement of the Thirty Tears' War. 
 In the midst of these disorders, the emperor Matthias died 
 (March 20, 1619), and Ferdinand II., in spite of his ante- 
 cedents, was at once elected in his place. The Bohemians 
 formally deposed Ferdinand, and named Frederic V., elector 
 palatine, for their king, while Bethlem Gabor, voivoide of 
 Transylvania, was proclaimed king of Hungary by the 
 Protestants of that country. The Eoman Catholic princes 
 espoused the cause of Ferdinand, and the Protestants that 
 of Frederic. The confederates laid siege to Vienna, but 
 were compelled to retire ; Frederic was totally routed near 
 Prague (November 9, 1620), and put to the ban of the 
 empire, while Bethlem Gabor consented to resign the crown 
 of Hungary upon advantageous conditions. The house of 
 Austria thus extended its authority in Germany, and the 
 Spanish branch of the family about this time engaged in 
 some atrocious conspiracies in order to obtain the ascend- 
 ency in Italy. These were, however, frustrated; and in 
 the midst of them, Philip III. expired (1621), and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Philip IV., an enterprising prince. The 
 abilities of Olivares, his prime minister, conferred lustre 
 
206 THE ARMINIANS IN HOLLAND. 
 
 upon his reign. His ambition was to raise the house of 
 Austria to absolute dominion in Europe. In prosecution 
 of this bold plan, he resolved to maintain the closest alliance 
 with the emperor, — to make him despotic in Germany,— to 
 keep possession of the Valteline, — to humble the Italian 
 powers, — and to reduce the United Provinces to subjection, 
 as the truce for twelve years had now expired. Nor was 
 this project altogether chimerical. The emperor had already 
 crushed the force of the Protestant League; Prance was 
 distracted by civil wars, and England was amused by a 
 marriage treaty between the prince of "Wales and the Infanta. 
 A change, however, occurred, and an alliance was entered into 
 between France and England, in conjunction with the United 
 Provinces, for restraining the ambition of the house of 
 Austria, and recovering the Palatinate (1625). 
 
 § 284. Holland next claims attention. After the truce 
 of 1609, the United Provinces became a prey to religious 
 dissensions, caused by the differences of opinion between 
 two professors of Leyden, Gomar and Arminius ; the former 
 maintaining, in all their severity, the doctrines of Calvin in 
 regard to grace and predestination ; whilst the latter endear 
 voured to soften them. Prince Maurice heSded theGoruarists, 
 and the pensionary Barneveldt, a firm patriot, the Arminians. 
 Grotius, Vossius, and the learned in general, defended the 
 principles of the latter. But Prince Maurice and the 
 Gomarists prevailed, banished the Arminian preachers, 
 and brought Barneveldt, in his seventy-second year, to the 
 block (1619). Amid their civil and religious dissensions 
 the Dutch extended their commerce and conquests in both 
 extremities of the globe. Batavia was founded (1610), the 
 plan of an extensive empire in the East Indies laid (1618), 
 and they carried on a lucrative trade with the European 
 settlements in the West Indies. The prospect of hostilities 
 with their ancient masters had the effect of composing their 
 domestic animosities ; and Maurice compelled Spinola, the 
 Spanish general, to relinquish the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom, 
 after he had lost ten thousand of his best troops in the 
 enterprise (1622). 
 
 § 285. In Prance, during this period, both civil and reli- 
 gious disputes ran much higher than in Holland. Louis XIII. 
 being a minor when his father, Henry IV., was assassinated, 
 Mary of Medici, the queen-mother, was chosen regent 
 (1610). New counsels were immediately adopted, the sage 
 maxims of Sully were despised, and he retired from court. 
 
RISE OF RICHELIEU. 207 
 
 The attempt of the queen to oppress the Protestants, and 
 her entire submission to foreigners, caused a rebellion 
 amongst the nobles in 1613, which was suppressed, and 
 another in 1615, with the prince of Conde at its head. One 
 of the favourite schemes of her Italian ministers, Concini and 
 Galligai, negotiated in concert with the pope and the duke 
 of Plorence, in 1612, was a union between France and Spain, 
 by means of a double marriage, of Louis XIII. with Anne 
 of Austria, the eldest infanta ; and of Elizabeth, the king's 
 sister, with the prince of Asturias, afterwards Philip IV. 
 These marriages were solemnized in 1615. Albert Luynes 
 managed to' ingratiate himself with Louis XIII., obtained 
 an order for the arrest of Concini, his mother's minister, 
 who was afterwards executed, and she herself confined to 
 her apartments (1617). In 1620, Louis XIII., by a solemn 
 edict, united the principality of Beam to the crown of France, 
 and attempted to re-establish the Eoman Catholic religion 
 in that province, where there were no Eoman Cathohcs. 
 The Huguenots, alarmed at the impending danger, assem- 
 bled at Eochelie, and resolved to establish a republic, of 
 which that town was to be the capital. The royal forces in 
 1621 laid siege to Montauban, but were compelled to 
 abandon the enterprise. MontpeUier was beleaguered in 
 the ensuing year, but vrith so little success that a treaty was 
 made with the Huguenots, confirming the edict of Nantes. 
 
 § 286. The French counsels now began to assume more 
 vigour. Eichelieu, bishop of Lu^on, who, at the solicitation 
 of the queen-mother, had obtained a cardinal's hat, and 
 succeeded Luynes as prime minister, formed three important 
 projects ; to subdue the turbulent spirit of the French 
 nobility, to reduce the rebellious Huguenots, and to curb 
 the encroaching spirit of the house of Austria. In order to 
 put these great designs into execution it was necessary to 
 preserve peace with England. This Eichelieu perceived ; 
 and concluded, in spite of the courts of Eome and Madrid, 
 a treaty of marriage between Charles, prince of Wales, and 
 Henrietta of France, sister of Louis (1624). The English 
 failed in an attack upon Cadiz (1625), and Breda surrendered 
 to Spinola (1626). Cabals disturbed the peace of France, and 
 Eichelieu's attention was occupied in endeavouring to quell 
 the Huguenots. 
 
 § 287. As Louis XIII. was wholly governed by Eichelieu, 
 and Philip IV. of Spain by Olivares, so was Charles I., in 
 like manner, by the duke of Buckingham, who felt inclined 
 
208 PACIFICATION OF NISMES. 
 
 to undertake the defence of the Huguenots. He had been 
 severely censured for assisting Eichelieu against them, and 
 he suddenly resolved to become their champion. But his 
 expedition for the relief of Eochelle was ill concerted and 
 badly carried out ; and although the duke of Buckingham 
 showed great personal courage, he was compelled to re- 
 embark and return to England, having lost two-thirds of his 
 land forces (1627). Eochelle was more closely blockaded, 
 and after a valiant resistance, compelled to surrender (1628). 
 The inhabitants were deprived of their extensive privileges, 
 and their fortifications were destroyed ; but they were 
 allowed to retain possession of their goods, and to enjoy the 
 free exercise of their religion. Richelieu proceeded to crush 
 the Protestants as an independent party ; negotiations were 
 set on foot ; and the Protestants were left in possession of 
 their estates, of the free exercise of their religion, and of all 
 the privileges granted by the edic^ of Nantes ; but they 
 were deprived of their fortifications or cautionary towns, as 
 dangerous to the peace of the state. This was called the 
 pacification of Nismes (1629). From this era may be 
 dated the aggrandizement of the French monarchy in later 
 times ; and this formidable body once humbled, Prance 
 began to take the lead in the afiairs of Europe. 
 
 § 288. No sooner had Eichelieu subdued the Protestants 
 in Prance than he resolved to support them in G-ermany, 
 that he might be enabled more efiectually to set bounds to 
 the ambition of the house of Austria. Never was the power 
 of that house more formidable, or more dangerous to the 
 liberties of Europe. Christian lY., king ot Denmark, who 
 was at the head of the Protestant party, was unable to 
 withstand Tilly and "Wallenstein, and at length, after 
 repeated losses and defeats, he sued for peace, which was 
 concluded at Lubeck (1629). Not satisfied with an uncoD' 
 trolled sway over Germany, Ferdinand 11. attempted to 
 revive the imperial jurisdiction in Italy. His attempt to 
 obtain the investiture of Mantua and Montferrat failed 
 miserably (1631). Meanwhile the elector ot Saxony, and 
 other princes favourable to the Augsburg Confession, remon- 
 strated against the " Edict of Restitution " issued by tha 
 emperor in 1629, requiring the Protestants to give up many 
 church lands. A diet was convoked at Eatisbon, and the 
 emperor invited even by the Eoman Catholics to make some 
 concessions, which he resolutely refused to do, and the Pro- 
 testants formed a secret alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, 
 king of Sweden (1629). 
 
GTJSTAVUS ADOLPHtrS. 209 
 
 § 289. Eric XIV., son of Gustavus Vasa, proved a disso- 
 lute and cruel prince, and he was dethroned and imprisoned 
 by the States of Sweden (1568) ; and his brother, John III., 
 made king. He died in 1592, leaving the crown to his son 
 Sigismund, then king of Poland. This prince, like his 
 father, was a £oman Catholic, and he was deposed in 1600, 
 when his uncle Charles IX., a zealous Protestant, succeeded 
 to the throne ; in the possession of which, after a severe 
 contest, he was confirmed in 1604. He died in 1611, where- 
 upon his son, the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, received 
 the sceptre. Eussia during this period was a prey to civil 
 wars. Ivan lY. died in 1584, leaving two sons, Peodore 
 and Demetrius, the former of which mounted the throne. 
 His minister Boris induced him to murder his brother, soon 
 after which he died ; the line of Kuric became extinct, and 
 Boris obtained the sovereignty. A young man appeared in 
 Lithuania, assumed the name and character of the Prince 
 Demetrius, and, assisted by a Polish army, entered Moscow 
 and was proclaimed czar (1605), and Boris committed suicide. 
 Sendering himself obnoxious to the [Russians, he was slain 
 (1606) : several pretenders appeared ; the Poles and the 
 Swedes endeavoured to impose a yoke upon £ussia, and 
 anarchy prevailed until Michael !Bomanoff, a descendant of 
 the house of Eurie, obtained the sceptre (1613). Through 
 the mediation of James I. of England, the peace of Stolbova 
 was made between Itussia and Sweden (1617), by which 
 the latter power obtained the payment of a just debt, the 
 formal cession of Livonia, Esthonia, and the country from 
 Narva to the Ladoga ; thus including the Yeiy site on which 
 St. Petersburg has since been erected. In 1618 a truce for 
 fourteen years was concluded with Poland. Sweden was at 
 this time rising in importance. Gustavus Adolphus not 
 only extorted the aforementioned treaty of Stolbova from 
 Eussia, but, having overrun Poland, and entered into a truce 
 of six years with its rulers (1629), prepared to interfere in 
 favour of the German Protestants. 
 
 § 290. Zeal for the Protestant religion was the principal 
 motive that induced Gustavus to take up arms against 
 Ferdinand II. He laid his design before the States of 
 Sweden ; and he negotiated with France, England, and 
 Holland before he began his march. Many English and 
 Scotch adventurers flocked to his army, and Charles I. sent 
 a contingent of six thousand men. With France he also 
 made a treaty, and received subsidies from Eichelieu. 
 
 p 
 
210 DEATH 01" GUSTAVUS. 
 
 Grustavus marched into Germany, was joined by some of 
 the Protestant princes, and gained a complete victory over 
 Tilly and the imperialists, at the battle of Breitenfeld or 
 Leipsic (Sept. 7, 1631). The consequences of this victory 
 were important. The members of the Evangelical Union 
 immediately joined Gustavus, while the princes of the 
 Eoman Catholic league were utterly disconcerted ; and 
 Gustavus made himself master of all the country from the 
 Elbe to the Rhine, comprehending a space of nearly one 
 hundred leagues, full of fortified towns. TiUy was killed 
 in disputing with the Swedes the passage of the Lech, 
 and Gustavus entered Munich (May 17, 1632). He then 
 attacked "Wallenstein near Nuremberg, but was compelled 
 to withdraw after making the most strenuous efforts. 
 
 § 291. Wallenstein had removed his camp to Liitzen, 
 and here Gustavus, in opposition to the advice of the most 
 experienced of his generals, resolved to give him battle. 
 Wallenstein, apprised of this intention, fortified his camp. 
 The engagement commenced at nine in the morning. The 
 Swedes fought with their usual courage, and in this action 
 Gustavus received his death-wound. During nine hours 
 the battle raged with inexpressible fierceness. No field was 
 ever disputed with more obstinacy than that of Liitzen, where 
 the Swedish infantry not only maintained their ground 
 against a brave and greatly superior army, but broke its 
 force and almost completed its destruction (Nov. 16, 1632). 
 Pew princes, ancient or modern, seem to have possessed in 
 so eminent a degree as Gustavus Adolphus the united 
 qualities of the hero, the statesman, and the commander ; 
 that intuitive genius which conceives, that wisdom which 
 plans, and that happy combination of courage and conduct 
 which gives success to an enterprise. His greatest fault, as 
 a king and a commander, was excess of valour. He usually 
 appeared in the front of the battle, mounted on a horse of a 
 particular colour, which, with his large and majestic stature, 
 made him known both to friends and foes. He was a pious 
 Christian, a warm friend, a tender husband, a dutiful son, an 
 affectionate father; and may be described in a sentence from 
 one of his own letters to his minister Oxenstiern, as " the 
 prince who fulfilled the duties of that station which Pro- 
 vidence had assigned him in this world." 
 
 § 292. The death of Gustavus caused great alterations 
 in the state of Europe. The elector palatine, who had con- 
 ceived hopes of being restored not only to his hereditary 
 
TEEATY OF PRAGUE. 211 
 
 dominions, but to the throne of Bohemia, died soon after of 
 grief. The German Protestants were divided into factions ; 
 and the imperialists, though defeated, prepared to prosecute 
 the war with vigour, while the Swedes were overwhelmed 
 with sorrow for the loss of their heroic prince, whose 
 daughter and successor, Christina, was only six years old. 
 A council of regency was, however, appointed, and the 
 management of the war in Germany committed to the chan- 
 cellor Oxenstiern, a man of great ability, and the Protestant 
 confederacy again wore a formidable aspect. Tet the war 
 became every day more burthensome and disagreeable both 
 to the Swedes and Germans. Ferdinand II., jealous of the 
 extensive powers he had granted to "Wallenstein, resolved 
 to remove him from the command ; whereupon that general 
 revolted, and Ferdinand had him assassinated (1634). 
 
 § 293. The imperialists were reinforced by Spanish and 
 Italian troops, and the Swedish generals, Banner, Horn, 
 and the duke of Saxe-Weimar, maintained a superiority on 
 the Oder, the Ehine, and the Danube, and the elector of 
 Saxony in Bohemia and Lusatia. Horn and the duke of 
 Saxe-Weimar united their forces in order to oppose the 
 progress of the king of Hungary, and fought the obstinate 
 battle of Noerdlingen (Sept. 6, 1634), in which they were 
 utterly routed. This defeat threw the members of the 
 Evangelical Union into the utmost consternation, and the 
 German princes, with the exception of the landgrave of 
 Hesse-Cassel, signed at Prague (1635) a treaty with the 
 court of Vienna, to the following effect : — The Protestant 
 princes were to retain for ever the ecclesiastical benefices, 
 which did not depend immediately upon the emperor, seized 
 before the pacification of Passau. They were to retain, for 
 the space of forty years, the immediate benefices, though 
 seized since the treaty of Passau, if actually enjoyed before 
 the 12th day of November, 1627. The exercise of the 
 Protestant religion was to be freely permitted in all the 
 dominions of the empire, except in the kingdom of Bohemia 
 and the provinces belonging to the house of Austria. The 
 duke of Bavaria was to be maintained in possession of 
 the Palatinate, on condition of paying the jointure of 
 Frederic's widow, and granting a proper subsistence to his 
 son, when he should return to his duty ; and there was to 
 be between the emperor and the confederates of the Augs- 
 burg Confession, who should sign this treaty, a mutual 
 restitution of everything taken subsequent to the irruption 
 p 2 
 
212 RICHELIEU'S POLICY. 
 
 of Gustavus into the empire. In consequence of this paci- 
 fication, almost the whole weight of the war devolved upon 
 the Swedes and the I'rench, between whom a fresh treaty 
 had been concluded by Eiehelieu and Oxenstiern, and a 
 Prench army marched into Germany, in order to support 
 the duke of Saxe-Weimar. 
 
 Letter 75. — The General View of the European Continent continued, 
 from the Treaty of Prague to the Peace of Westphalia. A.D. 1635— 
 1648. Vol. i., pages 506—525. 
 
 § 294. WhUe Germany was a scene of war and desolation. 
 Cardinal Eichelieu ruled Trance with a rod of iron. Several 
 conspiracies were formed against him at the instigation of 
 the duke of Orleans and the queen-mother ; but they were 
 ail defeated by his vigilance and vigour, and terminated in 
 the ruitt of their contrivers. The widow of Henry IV. was 
 banished (1631) ; her son Gaston was obliged to beg his 
 life ; the marshals Marillac and Montmorency were brought 
 to the block (1632) ; and the gibbets were every day loaded 
 with inferior criminals, condemned by the most arbitrary 
 sentences, and in a court erected for the trial of the cardi- 
 nal's enemies. The defeat at Noerdlingen induced Oxenstiern 
 to offer to put Louis XIII. in immediate possession of 
 Philipsburg and Alsace, on condition that France should 
 take an active part in the war against the emperor. Eiche- 
 lieu readily embraced a proposal that corresponded so en- 
 tirely with his views. He also concluded an alliance with 
 the United Provinces, in hopes of sharing the Low Coun- 
 tries, and he sent a herald to Brussels, in the name of his 
 master, to denounce war against Spain. This is said to have 
 been the last declaration of war made by a herald-at-arms. 
 A treaty was at the same time entered into with the duke 
 of Savoy, in order to strengthen the French interest in Italy 
 (1635). 
 
 § 295. If France had not taken a decided part in the war, 
 the treaty of Prague would have completed the destruction 
 of the Swedish forces in Germany. But Louis XIII., or 
 rather Cardinal Eichelieu, now began to levy troops with 
 great diligence, and five considerable armies were soon in 
 the field. The first and largest of these was sent into the 
 Low Countries, under the marshals Chatillon and Brease ; 
 the second marched into Lorraine ; the third took the route 
 of the duchy of Milan ; the duke of Eohan led the fourth 
 into the Valteline; and the fifth acted upon the Khine, 
 
VAEIOUS OPERATIONS. 2ia 
 
 nnder Bernard, duke of Saxe-Weimar. In order to oppose 
 the operations of the French on the side of Lorraine, the 
 emperor sent thither General Gallas, at the head jf a power- 
 ful army, to join the duke of that territory, who intended to 
 besiege Colmar, but was prevented by the severity of the 
 season. Several actions ensued between the French, sup- 
 ported by the Swedes and the imperialists, in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Ehine, in which, although the former were 
 victorious, they afterwards separated and retired (1635). 
 
 § 296. The French and their allies were still less success- 
 ful in other quarters. Nothing efiectual was done in Italy, 
 where the duke of Parma had the misfortune to see himself 
 stripped of the best part of his dominions by the Spaniards, 
 notwithstanding the efforts of Crequi and the duke of Savoy, 
 who, in one battle gained a considerable advantage over the 
 enemy. In the Low Countries, where the highest hopes 
 had been formed, the disappointment of Cardinal Eichelieu 
 was still greater. He had computed on the entire conquest 
 of the Spanish Netherlands ; and a scheme of partition was 
 actually drawn up, whereby the duchy of Luxemburg, the 
 counties of Namur, Hainault, Courtray, Artois, and Flanders, 
 as far as Blackingberg, Damme, and Eupplemonde, were to 
 be assigned to France ; while Brabant, Guelderland, the ter- 
 ritory of Waes, the lordship of Mecklin, and all the rest of 
 the Spanish Netherlands, were to be annexed to the republic 
 of Holland. This scheme, however, proved as vain as it was 
 ambitious. The Dutch were jealous of the growing power 
 of France, and the prince of Orange had a personal pique 
 against Cardinal Eichelieu. After various indecisive opera- 
 tions, an army, under the celebrated generals Piccolomini and 
 John of Worth, entered France by the frontier of Picardy ; 
 took La Chapelle, Catelet, and Corbie. On perceiving the 
 enemy within three days' march of their gates, the Parisians 
 were thrown into the utmost consternation; but by the 
 vigorous measures of Eichelieu fifty thousand men were 
 suddenly assembled, and the Spaniards and Flemings com- 
 pelled to evacuate France (1636). 
 
 § 297. Eichelieu, in order to secure the success of the 
 ensuing campaign, exerted himself to recover the friendship 
 of the prince of Orange. He also concluded a treaty with 
 the prince of Saxe-Weimar, in which it was stipulated that, in 
 consideration of an annual subsidy, the duke should maintain 
 an army of eighteen thousand men, and that Louis should 
 cede in his favour all claims of France to Alsace. The duke 
 
214 BATTLE OF WITTSTOCK. 
 
 having been joined by a Trench army, laid siege to Sarerne. 
 Gallas made an irruption into Franche-Cotnte, in conjuDc- 
 tion with the duke of Lorraine. Meanwhile Weimar had 
 reduced Saverne, and he omitted nothing that could obstruct 
 or harass the imperialists in their march ; and Gallas lost 
 about seven thousand men before he entered Burgundy. 
 He continued his march, and undertook the siege of St. Jean 
 de Lanne, which he was obliged to abandon, in consequence 
 of the overflowing of the adjacent rivers ; and being closely 
 pressed by Turenne, he lost about five thousand men, and 
 the greater part of his baggage, in his retreat. During these 
 transactions in Lorraine, Alsace, and Eranche-Comte, a de- 
 cisive battle was fought in Upper Germany, between the 
 Swedes, under General Banner, and the imperialists, com- 
 manded by the elector of Saxony. After watching each 
 other for some time, they halted in the plains of Wittatock,, 
 where both armies prepared for battle. The imperial camp 
 was pitched upon an eminence and fortified with fourteen 
 redoubts, under which the troops stood ready to engage. 
 Banner drew the enemy from that advantageous position by' 
 a feint, and then attacked, while he ordered the left wing to 
 charge the imperialists in flank. These movements were 
 executed with such vigour that the Austrian and Saxon 
 infantry were utterly defeated. Kve thousand men fell on 
 the field or in the pursuit ; seven thousand were taken, 
 together with thirty pieces of cannon, one hundred and fifty 
 ensigns, and an incredible number of waggons. Such was 
 the celebrated battle of Wittstock, which restored the lustre 
 of the Swedish arms, raised the military reputation of 
 Banner, and gave a signal blow to the imperial power (Sept. 
 24, 1636). 
 
 § 298. Ferdinand II. died soon after this victory, in the 
 eighteenth year of his reign (1637), and was succeeded by 
 his son Ferdinand III. War was still prosecuted vigorously, 
 and the duke of Saie-"Weimar besieged Eheinfeldt. The 
 imperialists came to its relief, and a sanguinary battle was 
 fought, which lasted two days, and ended in the total defeat 
 of the imperialists (1638). After this victory the duke. of 
 8axe-"Weimar returned to the siege of Eheinfeldt, to which 
 he granted honourable terms of capitulation, in considera- 
 tion of its gallant defence. Neuburg, Eotehi, and Freiburg 
 were also reduced, and Breisach, in spite of the efforts of 
 the imperialists, surrendered. Louis XIII. formed the 
 scheme of annexing Breisach, but to this the duke of Saxe- 
 
DEATH OF BERNARD. 215 
 
 "Weimar ^vould not consent. Whilst this general triumphed 
 over the imperialists in the manner recounted above, the 
 Swedish general Banner pursued his career of conquest in 
 Pomerania. After the victory obtained at "Wittstock, he 
 reduced Gartz, Demmim, andWolgast ; and inilicted several 
 severe losses on the imperial forces. In Westphalia the 
 prince palatine was defeated by the imperialists (1637). 
 
 § 299. In the beginning of the next campaign, the tvro 
 victorious commanders Banner and Weimar concerted 
 measures for penetrating into the heart of the Austrian 
 dominions. Banner accordingly crossed the Elbe, and made 
 an irruption into the territories of Anhalt and Halbertstadt. 
 Leaving his infantry and cannon behind him, he pushed on 
 with his cavalry, and surprised Salis, grand-master of the 
 imperial ordnance, in the neighbourhood of Oelnitz. The 
 conflict was obstinate and bloody ; no less than seven 
 regiments of the imperialists were cut in pieces. The 
 Swedish general next entered Saxony, and advanced as far 
 as the suburbs of Dresden, where he defeated four Saxon 
 regiments, and obliged a larger body of the enemy to 
 take refuge under the camion of that city. In order to 
 prevent a junction between two armies of the imperialists. 
 Banner attacked the Saxons, and, after a severe conflict, 
 obtained a complete victory (1639). This success was 
 followed by several advantages. He made an irruption 
 into Bohemia, and laid a great part of the country under 
 contribution ; then returning, crossed the Elbe, and again 
 defeated the imperialists. Desirous of carrying the war 
 into Silesia and Moravia, the Swedish general recrossed the 
 Elbe, and marched towards those countries, without meeting 
 with the success which he had anticipated. 
 
 § 300. The death of the duke of Saxe- Weimar produced 
 quite a change in the state of affairs. Having just com- 
 menced the campaign by the siege and capture of Thann, 
 he took measures to cross the Ehine, but fell ill at Huningen, 
 whence he was conveyed by water to Neuburg, where he 
 expired (July, 1639), in the thirty-sixth year of his age. 
 This great military commander is supposed to have fallen a 
 sacrifice to the jealousy and ambition of Eichelieu ; and 
 Puffendorf positively affirms that he was carried off by 
 poison. Eichelieu obtained the direction of his army ; and 
 the consequence was, that almost all Alsace fell an easy prey 
 to Prance. There was a great want of unanimity in the 
 counsels of the confederates ; but they at last resolved to 
 
216 EATISBON THREATENED. 
 
 attack Piccolomini. He was so advantageously posted, 
 that the attempt to force his camp proved impractic- 
 able; and little was accomplished during the remainder 
 of the year. But the house of Austria was less fortunate 
 in other quarters during the year 1640. The affairs of 
 Philip IV. declined in Italy ; Catalonia revolted, and Por- 
 tugal threw off the Spanish yoke. The Catalans wished to 
 found a republic, but failed in the attempt, and were ulti- 
 mately compelled to submit. The revolution in Portugal 
 was successful, and the duke of Braganza was proclaimed 
 king, under the title of John IV. All the Spanish governors 
 in the colonies were expelled; Portugal became again an 
 independent kingdom, and by the recovery of Brazil, which 
 during the Spanish administration had been conquered by 
 the Dutch, its former lustre was in some measure restored. 
 
 § 301. Ferdinand III. convoked a diet at Eatisbon, in 
 order to concert measures for carrying on the war, though 
 he pretended to be desirous of peace. Banner formed the 
 design of dispersing this assembly and even of surprising 
 the city. Having effected a junction with the French army at 
 Erfurt, he soon arrived at Hoff, and detaching five regiments 
 of cavalry to Egra, he advanced to Auerbach. The confede- 
 rates then proceeded to Schwendorff, crossed the Danube 
 upon the ice, and captured above fifteen hundred of the 
 enemy's horse. The emperor himself, who intended to de- 
 vote that day to the chase, narrowly escaped being made 
 prisoner. His advanced guard and equipage were taken. 
 The approach of the French and Swedish armies threw 
 Eatisbon into confusion. Negotiations were in the mean 
 time carried on at Hamburg, between the plenipotentiaries 
 of the contending, powers, who agreed that a congress for a 
 general peace should be opened at Munster and another at 
 Osnaburg. It was also determined that France should treat 
 at Munster, and Sweden at Osnaburg ; and that each crown 
 should have a secretary attending upon the other's pleni- 
 potentiary, in order to communicate the resolutions at which 
 they arrived. 
 
 § 302. Ferdinand III. refused to ratify this convention, 
 and issued orders for a body of troops to be assembled with 
 all despatch. They pursued the French and Swedish 
 armies, which had separated, and completely hemmed Ban- 
 ner in : but he extricated himself from his perilous position 
 with great skill. At Zwickau he effected a junction with 
 Gruebriant, and was preparing to oppose the progress of the 
 
CONSPIEACY AGAINST EICHELIEU. 217 
 
 imperialists, when he aickened and died (May, 1641). Besides 
 his knowledge in the art of war, which he had acquired under 
 the great Gustavus, to whom he was scarcely inferior as a 
 commander, he was distinguished by his moderation and 
 humanity towards those whom he had vanquished. He 
 always avoided the effusion of blood as far as circumstances 
 would admit ; and being robust, patient, indefatigable, and 
 active, he was adored by the soldiery, whose toils and 
 dangers he cheerfully shared. Ferdinand endeavoured to 
 gain this gallant general's troops ; but they remained firm 
 In their allegiance, until Torstenson came from Sweden to 
 assume the command. Before he arrived, Piccolomini, at the 
 head of the imperialists, had sustained another humiliating 
 defeat near "Wolfenbuttle. By command of Eichelieu, the 
 French and Swedish armies separated, the former entering 
 "Westphalia, and the latter Bohemia. 
 
 § 303. A new treaty was in the mean time concluded 
 between Prance and Sweden, and the most vigorous resolu- 
 tions adopted for prosecuting the war. Guebriant crossed 
 the Ehine earlyin the 8pring,captnred Ordingen,and defeated 
 the imperialists with terrible slaughter. The victory was 
 followed by the reduction of several places, and Guebriant 
 was soon master of almost the whole electorate of Cologne. 
 In spite of treachery and intrigue, Torstenson maintained his 
 ground, defeated the imperialists in Silesia, and passed the 
 Elbe, with the intention of besieging Leipsic. The approach 
 of the imperialists obliged him to convert the siege into a 
 blockade, and make preparations for receiving the enemy. 
 He inflicted a terrible defeat upon them at Breitenfeld, near 
 Leipsic (Nov. 12, 1642) ; the same spot on which the Swedes 
 under Gustavus had achieved a brilliant victory a few years 
 before. Leipsic surrendered after a short siege ; and, having 
 failed to capture Freiburg, Torstenson retired into Moravia. 
 
 § 304. France had been equally successful on the side of 
 Spain. A French army had entered RoussUlon and reduced 
 Perpignan (1642). In the mean time the affairs of the 
 kingdom were in the greatest confusion, and Paris itself 
 was in danger. Francisco de Melo advanced with an army 
 from the Low Countries, routed the duke of Guiche, and 
 would have appeared before the capital, had he not been 
 ordered by Olivares to withdraw. The true reason for this 
 order was a secret treaty between the Spanish minister and 
 the duke of Orleans, who, with the duke of Bouillon, Cinq- 
 Mars, master of the horse, and De Thou, had conspired to 
 
218 NEGOTIATIONS FOE PEACE. 
 
 ruin Eichelieu, whom they had akeady brought into dis- 
 credit with the king (1642). Eichelieu gained intelligence 
 of this treaty nearly at the same time that Louis received 
 the news of Guiche's defeat, and was thus enabled to frus- 
 trate the plans of the conspirators. The duke of Orleans 
 was disgraced, Cinq-Mars and De Thou lost their heads, and 
 the duke of Bouillon, in order to save his life, was obliged 
 to yield up the principality of Sedan to the crown. 
 
 § 305. So many losses the confederates expected would 
 have disposed the house of Austria sincerely to listen to 
 terms of accommodation ; but as the courts of Vienna and 
 Madrid foresaw that France and Sweden, at such a juncture, 
 would necessarily be high in their demands, they seemed 
 very indifferent about renewing the negotiations. It was at 
 length agreed to open the conferences for a general peace 
 in the month of July, in the following year, and the pre- 
 liminaries having been published, all the unhappy people 
 who had been so long exposed to the calamities of war, con- 
 gratulated themselves on the pleasing prospect of tranquillity, 
 when the death of Cardinal Eichelieu (Dec. 4, 1642), and 
 that of Louis XIII. (May 14, 1643), again clouded the 
 prospect. France, however, found a worthy successor of 
 Eichelieu in Cardinal Mazarine, and a celebrated hero, the 
 duke of Enghien, afterwards honoured with the title of the 
 G-reat Cond6, to shed lustre on the minority of Louis XIV. 
 This able commander cut to pieces in the plains of Eocroi 
 (May 19, 1643), the famous Walloon and Castilian infantry, 
 with an inferior army, and took ThionvUle, into which the 
 Spanish general, Francisco de Melo, after his defeat, had 
 thrown a reinforcement of ten thousand men. Nine 
 thousand Spaniards and Walloons are said to have fallen in 
 the battle of Eocroi. The French were less fortunate in 
 Germany. The duke of Lorraine renounced his allegiance, 
 Guebriant was mortally wounded before Eotweil ; and the 
 French army was defeated at Duttlingen, in Swabia 
 (December 4, 1643). The remains of the French army 
 retreated to Alsace, where they were collected by Turenne, 
 who had been sent there for that purpose. 
 
 § 306. The attention of all Europe was now turned 
 towards the negotiations at Munster and Osnaburg. The 
 principals in the war named their plenipotentiaries, and the 
 other European powers appointed deputies to attend at the 
 conferences. The conduct of the king of Denmark had 
 annoyed the Swedish government, and, amid these advances 
 
BATTLE OF JAKOWITZ. 219 
 
 for peace, Torstenson was ordered to invade the ducby of Hol- 
 stein (1643). Oldesloe, Kiel, and other places of importance 
 were captured, and as Torstenson advanced into Jutland, 
 Christian IV. applied to the emperor for assistance. This 
 was granted ; but Trance finding the negotiations disturbed 
 by this war, interfered, and a treaty was concluded at 
 Bromsebro (1645), -by which Sweden restored to Denmark 
 all the towns Torstenson had taken in Holstein, and 
 Christian, on his part, ceded Jemptie, Halland, the isle of 
 Gothland, and its dependencies. An alliance was also 
 negotiated between France and Denmark, by which 
 Christian agreed to yield no assistance, directly or in- 
 directly, to the enemies of Trance or those of her allies. 
 The emperor was not in a condition to prevent the ratifica- 
 tion of these treaties. Turenne had retrieved the afiairs of 
 !France upon the Ehine, which he crossed at Breisach, and 
 advancing with a small army towards the source of the 
 Danube, routed the imperialists at Eotweil. He after- 
 wards attempted the relief of Ereiburg, but had the morti- 
 fication of seeing it surrender. Cardinal Mazarine ordered 
 the duke of Enghien to join Turenne ; and these generals, 
 in an action that lasted seven hours, defeated the imperial- 
 ists. They left their baggage and artiUery, with all the towns 
 situated between the Ehine and the Moselle, from Mentz 
 to Landau, to the victors (1644). 
 
 § 307. In order further to distract the attention of the 
 imperialists, the Prench and Swedish ministers entered into 
 negotiations with Eagotsky, voivode of Transylvania, who 
 entered Hungary at the head of thirty thousand men, and 
 got np a very embarrassing diversion. Torstenson pursued 
 the imperial general into Lower Saxony, and having almost 
 annihilated his opponent's army by the efiects of fatigue, 
 famine, and the sword, he entered Bohemia, and advanced 
 upon Prague. Ferdinand caused all his forces to be assem- 
 bled to avert the blow, and both armies remaioed for some 
 tinfe watching each other's movements. At last the Swedish 
 general grew impatient, attacked the imperialists, and routed 
 them with great slaughter, at Janowitz (Feb. 24, 1645). 
 The piu-suit was no less bloody than the battle. The Swedes 
 became masters of the Danube on the side of Moravia, and 
 all the towns in that province surrendered at discretion, 
 except Brunn, which Torstenson besieged. This enterprise 
 occasioned such alarm at Vienna, that the emperor retired 
 to Eatisbon, and the empress and her attendants fled for 
 
220 TBtrCE OF ULM. 
 
 refuge to Gratz, in Stiria. But Torstenson found enough 
 to occupy his attention before Brunn. 
 
 § 308. In the mean time Merci resolved to attack Tarenne, 
 who had established his head-quarters at Marienthal. The 
 French general was repulsed, with the loss of great part of 
 his infantry, twelve hundred horse, and all his baggage. 
 The duke of Enghien fortunately joined Turenne soon after, 
 with a reinforcement of eight thousand men; and these 
 distinguished generals advanced to meet the iinperiaUsts, 
 whom they defeated with terrible loss at Noerdlingen (1645). 
 Turenne, after the departure of the duke of Enghien, who 
 went to Paris to receive the applause due to his valour, had 
 the honour of closing the campaign and of re-estabhshing 
 the elector of Treves in his dominions. That prince, after 
 a captivity of ten years, had obtained his liberty, in conse- 
 quence of a second treaty with Ferdinand, by which he sub- 
 mitted to the articles of the peace of Prague, and other 
 rigorous conditions. Having signed the treaty with' no 
 other view than that of delivering himself from a tedious and 
 grievous imprisonment, he claimed the protection of France, 
 and Mazarine ordered Turenne to effect his restoration. 
 That general accordingly invested Treves ; the garrison was 
 obliged to capitulate, and the elector entered the capital 
 amid the acclamations of his subjects. The elector of Saxony, 
 unable to stop the progress of the Swedes under Konigs- 
 mark, who had reduced a number of towns inThuringia and 
 Misnia, concluded a truce with that general for six months, 
 as a prelude to a peace with Sweden. The emperor in some 
 degree counterbalanced this advantage by a peace with 
 Eagotsky. He acknowledged that prince sovereign of Tran- 
 sylvania, and restored to him certain possessions in Hun- 
 gary, which had belonged to his predecessor, Bethlem 
 Q-abor. Konigsmark, after his truce with the elector of 
 Saxony, effected a junction with Torstenson, and they laid 
 Biege to Prague. They could not effect their object, and 
 Torstenson, annoyed and afflicted with gout, retired to his 
 own covmtry. He was succeeded in the chief command by 
 "Wrangel, who supported the reputation of the Swedish arms, 
 and, in conjunction with Turenne, ravaged Franconia, Silesia, 
 and Moravia (1646) . At this juncture the elector of Bavaria 
 made a separate peace with France. The treaty was con- 
 cluded at trim (March 24, 1647). The archbishop of Cologne, 
 the elector of Mentz, and the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, 
 were compelled by Turenne to embrace the neutrality. 
 
TREATY OF WESTPHALIA. 221 
 
 § 309. The confederates were less successful in other 
 quarters. Nothing of consequence had been effected either 
 in Italy or the Low Countries during the last two cam- 
 paigns, and in Spain the reputation of two celebrated Frencb 
 generals had been tarnished. In 1646, Harcourt, viceroy 
 of Catalonia, besieged Lerida, but was compelled to retire. 
 The prince of Conde, formerly duke of Enghien, renewed 
 the attempt, but was also foiled. The conclusion of the year 
 1647 was not more fortunate for the confederates in Ger- 
 many. The elector of Bavaria was prevailed upon to re- 
 nounce the alliance he had concluded with Prance, and 
 reunite his forces with those of the emperor ; and in conse- 
 quence of this, Wrangel was obliged to abandon Eohemia. 
 Harassed on his march by the Austrian general Melander, 
 he took up his winter quarters in the duchy of Brunswick. 
 Early in tbe spring the gallant Swede led his army forth, 
 and having effected a junction with Turenne, gained the 
 battle of Sommershausen (1648), in which Melander was 
 mortally wounded. Piccolomini then assumed the command 
 of the imperialists, who had fallen back upon Augsburg, 
 while Wrangel and Turenne continued their victorious 
 career. Other triumphs were gained in different parts; 
 Prague stood in danger of being captured, and the nego- 
 tiations at Munster and Osnaburg were pushed forward 
 with earnestness and vigour. The young queen of Sweden, 
 Christina, desired peace. The United Provinces, jealous of 
 Prance, had in 1647 concluded a separate treaty with Spain, 
 by which their independenc^ was acknowledged and the 
 republic declared to be a free and sovereign state. France 
 was left alone to sustain the whole weight of the war against 
 the Spanish branch of the house of Austria, and her prime 
 minister. Mazarine, dreading intestine war, became more 
 moderate in his demands at the congress, as well as more 
 sincerely disposed to promote the tranquillity of Germany. 
 
 § 310. In consequence of these favourable occurrences 
 and corresponding views, the memorable peace of West- 
 phalia was signed at Munster, on the 24th of October, 1648. 
 In order to satisfy the different powers engaged in the 
 struggle, the following important stipulations were found 
 necessary; namely, that Prance should possess the sove- 
 reignty of the three bishoprics (Metz, Toul, and Yerdun), 
 the city of Pignerol, Breisach, and its dependencies, the 
 territory of Suntgaw, the landgraviates of Upper and Lower 
 Alsace, with the exception of Strasburg, and the right to 
 
222 END OF THE STETJGGLB. 
 
 keep a garrison in Philipsburg ; that to Sweden should be 
 granted, besides five millions of crowns, the archbishopric of 
 Bremen, and the bishopric of Verdun secularized, Upper 
 Pomerania, Stettin, the isle of Eiigen, and the city of Wis- 
 mar, in the duchy of Mecklenburg, all to be held as fiefs of 
 the empire, with three votes at the Diet ; that the elector of 
 Brandenburg should be reimbursed for the loss of Upper 
 Pomerania, by the cession of the bishopric of Magdeburg 
 secularized, and by having the bishoprics of Halberstadt, 
 Minden, and Camin, declared secular 'principalities, with four 
 votes at the Diet ; that the duke of Mecklenburg, as an 
 equivalent for Wismar, should have the bishoprics of 
 Schwerin and Eatsburg, erected, in like manner, into secu- 
 lar principalities ; that the electoral dignity, with the Upper 
 Palatinate, should remain vrith Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, 
 and his male descendants, but that the Lower Palatinate 
 should be restored to Charles Louis, son of the deposed 
 elector, in whose favour an eighth electorate was to be 
 established, to continue till the extinction of the house of 
 Bavaria. AH the other princes and states of the empire 
 were re-established in the lands, rights, and prerogatives 
 which they had enjoyed previous to the troubles of Bohemia, 
 in 1618. The republic of Switzerland was declared to be a 
 sovereign state, exempt from the jurisdiction of the empire ; 
 and the long-disputeci succession of Cleves and Juliers, with 
 the restitution of Lorraine, was referred to arbitration. 
 The stipulations in regard to religion were no less accurate 
 and comprehensive. The pacification of Passau was con- 
 firmed in its full extent ; and it was further agreed that the 
 Calvinists should enjoy the same privileges as the Lu- 
 therans ; that the Imperial Chamber should consist of 
 twenty-four Protestant members and twenty-six Eoman 
 Catholics ; that the emperor should receive six Protestants 
 into his Aulic council ; and that an equal number of Pro- 
 testant and Eoman Catholic deputies should be chosen for 
 the Diet, except when convoked for the settlement of matters 
 relating only to one or the other of the two religions ; in 
 which case, all the deputies were to be of that faith to which 
 the subject for regulation belonged.* 
 
 ' Much confusion exists in vaiious historical works, with reference 
 to the dates of many events recorded in this and the following chapter. 
 In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII. reformed the calendar, making the 5th 
 of October to count as the 15th. This is termed the new style, and 
 although not adopted in England until Sept. 14, 1762, it has been, for 
 the Bake of uniformity, followed in this work. 
 
ACCESSION OF JAMES I. 223 
 
 PART II. 
 
 FEOM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA, IN 1648, TO THE 
 PEACE OF PARIS, IN 1763. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 Letteb 1. — England and Ireland, from the Accession of James I. to 
 the Murder of Sir Thomas Overbury, and the Fall of Somerset. 
 A.B. 1603—1615. Vol. ii., pages 1—12. 
 
 § 311. An account of the affairs of England from the 
 death of Queen Ehzabeth comes naturally enough in the 
 present division of this work. The accession of the family 
 of Stuart to the English throne forms a memorable era in 
 the history of Great Britain. It gave birth to a struggle 
 between the king and the Parliament, that threw the king- 
 dom into repeated convulsions, and was only finally settled 
 by the expulsion of this royal line. James, named by Eliza- 
 beth as her successor, was great-grandson of Margaret, 
 eldest daughter of Henry YII.; so that, on the failure of 
 the male Hne of the house of Tudor, his hereditary title 
 became unquestionable. His accession was greeted both by 
 the English and the Scotch with acclamation ; and if the 
 new monarch deserves censure for having distributed 
 honours and places amongst his own countrymen rather 
 too liberally, it must not be forgotten that he left all 
 the great offices of state in the hands of Elizabeth's minis- 
 ters, and trusted the conduct of public afiairs, both foreign 
 and domestic, for a time, to his English subjects. 
 
 § 312. Ambassadors arrived from almost all the princes 
 and states in Europe, in order to congratulate James on his 
 accession to the crown of England, and to form new treaties 
 and alliances with him, as the head of the two British king- 
 
224 HAMPTON COURT CONFERENCE. 
 
 doms. The marquis of Eosni, afterwards duke of Sully, 
 came to represent Henry IV. of Prance, and proposed, in 
 liis master's name, a league -with James, in conjunction with 
 Venice, the United Provinces, and the northern powers, in 
 order to restrain the ambition of the house of Austria. 
 Private considerations induced James to decline entering 
 into such an engagement, although he secretly promised to 
 support the States-General, in conjunction with France, 
 lest their weakness and despair should bring them again 
 under the dominion of Spain. A formidable conspiracy was 
 set on foot for deposing James, and raising Arabella Stuart, 
 his cousin-german, also descended from Henry VII., to the 
 throne. It was concocted by two Eoman Catholic priests, 
 Clarke and Watson, who were in consequence executed. 
 The principal conspirators were Lord Cobham and Ms 
 brother Mr. Broke, Lord Grey, Sir Griffin Markham, Sir 
 Walter Ealeigh, and other discarded courtiers. Some of 
 these were pardoned. Broke was executed, and Sir Walter 
 Ealeigh imprisoned (1603). 
 
 § 313. Eager for an opportunity of displaying his theo- 
 logical talents, James seized upon one afforded by the pre- 
 sentation of a petition by the Puritans for reform in the 
 established church, to summon a conference at Hampton 
 Court. The Puritans, noticed in a previous section of this 
 work, remained in the church, although they objected to 
 many of its laws and ceremonies. The impurities of which 
 they chiefly complained were the episcopal vestments, and 
 certain harmless ceremonies, rendered venerable by age and 
 long usage, which the Church of England, in a spirit of 
 moderation, had retained at the Eeformation : such as the 
 use of the ring in marriage, of the cross in baptism, and the 
 reverence of bowing at the name of Jesus. If the king 
 ■would not utterly abolish these abominations, they flattered 
 themselves that he would at least abate the rigour of the 
 laws against non-conformity. Though James had in youth 
 imbibed Calvinistical doctrines, the bias of the Puritans for 
 republicanism, and their dislike of all supremacy but that of 
 their own party, were sufficient to prejudice his mind against 
 these opinions. In this conference the king, instead of being 
 arbiter, became the principal disputant, and the Puritans did 
 not gain what they desired (1604). James next assembled 
 a parliament, at which forty-four English commissioners 
 were appointed to meet the thirty-one Scotch deputies, m 
 order to deliberate upon a union between the two kingdoms. 
 
THE GUNPOWDER PLOT. 225 
 
 The Commons also asserted their right of controlling the 
 issuing of writs for new members ; many monopolies were 
 abolished, and the abuses in the systems of purveyance and 
 of wardship were vigorously assailed. Soon after the rising 
 of parliament, a treaty of peace, which had been some time 
 in contemplation, was concluded with Spain (August 18, 
 1604). 
 
 § 314. During the season of peace and tranquillity that 
 followed, one of the most diabolical plots of which there is 
 any record in the history of the human race, was fortunately 
 discovered. The Eoman Catholics in general were much 
 disappointed, and even exasperated, by the king's conduct 
 in religious matters. They had expected great favour and 
 indulgence from the son of the unfortunate Mary, whose life 
 they believed to have been sacrificed to their cause. These 
 it was soon evident that James did not intend to grant. On 
 finding that he was determined to execute the rigorous laws 
 enacted against them, they resolved upon vengeance. Some 
 of the most zealous of the Jesuits in England conspired 
 to exterminate, at one blow, their most powerful enemies, 
 and to re-establish the Eoman Catholic system. Their con- 
 spiracy had for its object the destruction of the king and 
 parliament. Eor this purpose they lodged thirty-six barrels 
 of gunpowder in a vault beneath the House of Lords, 
 usually let as a coal-cellar. The time fixed upon for the 
 execution of this plot was the 5th of November, the day 
 appointed for the meeting of parliament ; when the king, 
 queen, and prince of Wales, were expected to be in the 
 house, with the principal nobility and gentry. The rest of 
 the royal family were to be seized and despatched, with the 
 exception of the king's eldest daughter, Elizabeth, then an 
 infant, who was to be raised to the throne under the care of 
 a Eoman CathoUo protector. The secret was well preserved 
 for more than twelve months, and although at least twenty 
 persons knew it, not a whisper of the plot had been breathed 
 to any but those interested in its success. The hour for 
 striking the blow drew near, and the conspirators regarded 
 failure as almost impossible. 
 
 § 315. Government had, however, by some means or 
 other, obtained cognizance of the infamous plot. Eesolved 
 to make an example of the conspirators, they allowed matters 
 to proceed, and thus lulled them into a false security. One 
 of their number eventually made certain revelations to Cecil, 
 but these only served to confirm the intelligence which he 
 
 Q. 
 
226 THE FIFTH OF NOVEMBEK. 
 
 had before received. The constant intercourse carried on 
 between the conspirators, and their frequent meetings in a 
 lonely house near the river side, would have been sufficient 
 to awaken suspicion. The repeated prorogations of parlia- 
 ment troubled the schemers sadly, and their resources began 
 to fail. They were thus obliged to admit new members 
 into their confederacy, and every accession in numbers still 
 further imperilled their safety. Moreover, the earl of 
 Salisbury was anxious to make this plot a weapon that ha 
 might use with effect against all E,oman Catholics obnoxious 
 to him, whether implicated in the conspiracy or not." At 
 last the vaults under the two houses of parliament were 
 ordered to be searched. This was, however, purposely 
 delayed till the day before the opening, when the gunpowder 
 was discovered under large piles of wood and fagots, and 
 Guido Eawkes, an officer in the Spanish service, was taken 
 prisoner, with the matches, and everything required to set 
 fire to the train, in his pocket. Confinement and dread ol 
 the rack induced him to reveal the names of his accomplices. 
 Such of the cojispirators as were in London, on hearing that 
 Pawkes had been arrested, hurried into Warwickshire, where 
 Sir Everard Digby, one of their associates, was already in 
 arms, hoping to seize the Princess Ehzabeth, then at Lord 
 Harrington's seat. They failed in their attempt to secure 
 the princess ; the county rose against them, and they were 
 all taken and executed, except three, who fell a sacrifice to 
 their desperate valour ; namely, Wright, a daring fanatic, 
 and Catesby and Percy, two active conspirators (1605). 
 
 § 316. Although Elizabeth had subjected, she had not 
 civilized Ireland. Irish customs supplied the place of law. 
 Their chieftains, whose authority was absolute, were not 
 hereditary but elective ; or, more properly speaking, were 
 established by force and violence ; and although certain 
 lands were assigned to the office, its chief profits arose from 
 exactions, dues, and assessments, which were levied at 
 pleasure, and for which there was no fixed law. Every 
 crime was punished, not by death, but by a fine laid upon 
 the criminal. Even murder itself was atoned for in this 
 manner, and the rate was called Eric. After abolishing these 
 and other pernicious Irish customs, and substituting English 
 laws in their stead, James proceeded to govern the natives 
 by a regular administration, military as weE as civil. A 
 
 " The student will find a full account of this affair in Jardine's 
 Narrative of the Gunpowder Plot, 
 
SIE THOMAS OVERBTTEY POISONED. 227 
 
 sufficient army was maintained, its discipline inspected, and 
 its pay punctually transmitted from England. Circuits were 
 established, justice administered, oppression banished, and 
 crimes and disorders of every kind severely punished. The 
 beneficial effects of these regulations were soon visible, more 
 especially in Ulster, in which the forfeited lands were appor- 
 tioned to Protestant settlers (1608). By his love of negotia- 
 tion, and of making undue concessions, James disgusted the 
 people, who began to turn their attention to Henry, prince 
 of Wales, a youth of extraordinary merit. Neither the 
 illusions of passion nor rank ever seduced him into any 
 irregular pleasures ; business and ambition engaged his 
 heart and occupied his mind. Had he lived to come to the 
 throne, he might probably have promoted the glory, more 
 than the happiness of his people, as he had strong dis- 
 positions for war. But he died suddenly, before he had 
 attained his majority, and his untimely end caused the 
 deepest sorrow in the country (November 6, 1612). 
 
 § 317. James had one weakness which drew on him more 
 odium than either his pedantry, pusillanimity, or extravagant 
 love of amusement ; namely, an infatuated attachment to 
 young and worthless favourites. The first and most odious 
 of these was Robert Carre, a young gentleman of good 
 family in Scotland (1611). The king knighted this 
 favourite ; created him Viscount Eochester, honoxired him 
 with the Garter, brought him into the Privy Council, and 
 without assigning any particular office to him, gave him 
 the chief direction of affairs (1612). Eochester cast his 
 eyes upon Frances Howard, who at the age of thirteen had 
 been married to the earl of Essex. Immediately after the 
 ceremony, her husband, then only fourteen, set off upon his 
 travels until he should be of a proper age to come and 
 claim his bride. On his return the countess demanded a 
 divorce. This, through the influence of the king, was 
 obtained, and Eochester was created earl of Somerset, that 
 the lady might not lose rank by her new marriage (1613). 
 Eochester's friend Sir Thomas Overbury endeavoured to per- 
 suade him not to enter into this alliance, which fact having 
 been communicated by him to the ladj, aroused her resent- 
 ment. Sir Thomas Overbury's conduct was misrepresented 
 to the king, and the order issued for his committal to the 
 Tower . The governor of the Tower was dismissed and Sir 
 Grervase Elwes appointed in his stead, and he carried off 
 Sir Thomas by poison. The terrible crime was discovered 
 Q 2 
 
228 EISE OF GEORGE VILLIEES. 
 
 a few years afterwards, wlien Sir Gervase Blwes and others 
 suffered for their guilt. Although Somerset and his countess 
 were found guilty, they received a pardon (1616). 
 
 Letter 2.— England and Scotland, from the Rise of Euckinghani to the 
 Death of James I. a.d. 1615—1625. Vol. ii., pages 12—25. 
 
 § 318. The fall of Somerset, and his banishment . from 
 court, opened the way for a new favourite, who rose at once 
 to the highest honours. George Villiers, a young English 
 gentleman of an engaging figure, attracted James's attention 
 at Cambridge, and was appointed cupbearer (1G15). James 
 afterwards created his minion Viscount Villiers, earl, marquis, 
 and duke of Buckingham, Knight of the Garter, master of 
 the horse, chief justice in Eyre, warden of the Cinque Ports, 
 master of the King's Bench, steward of Westminster, con- 
 stable of Windsor, and lord high admiral (1618). A price 
 liad already been affixed to every rank of nobility, and the 
 title of baronet invented, and currently sold for one thousand 
 pounds, to supply the profusion of Somerset; and in order 
 to satisfy the extravagance of Buckingham, the cautionary 
 towns, Brille, Flushing, and Eammekins, which Elizabeth 
 had induced the United Provinces to consign into her bands, 
 on the breaking out of the war with Spain, as a security 
 for the expenses of the contest, were delivered up to the 
 Dutch in return for a sum of money (1616). 
 
 § 319. James, anxious to establish conformity of worship 
 and discipline between the two kingdoms, and having taken 
 some initiatory steps, went on a visit into Scotland. Pres- 
 byterianism was the established form of worship in that 
 country. This system, at first adopted by Zuinglius and 
 Calvin, in Switzerland, abolished all pre-eminence of rank, 
 and introduced republicanism into the government of 
 the Church. Erom Switzerland it was transferred by 
 John Knox into Scotland ; where it soon degenerated' 
 into the most gloomy fanaticism. Por this James desired 
 to substitute the more moderate and cheerful religion 
 of the Church of England. He had early experienced 
 the insolence of the Presbyterian clergy ; who, under the 
 appearance of poverty and sanctity, and a zeal for the 
 glory of God, and the safety and purity of the kirk, had 
 concealed the most dangerous censorial and inquisito- 
 rial powers, which they sometimes exercised with all the 
 arrogance of a Eoman consistory. In 1596, when James, 
 
THE PEESBYTERIAN SYSTEM. 229 
 
 by tbe advice of a convention of estates, had granted 
 permission to Huntley, Errol, and other Eoman Catholie 
 noblemen, who had been banished, to return, on giving 
 proper security for future good conduct, a committee of the 
 General Assembly ot the kirk had the audacity to write 
 circular letters to all the presbyteries in Scotland, com- 
 manding them to publish from their pulpits an act ot 
 excommunication against the popish lords, and enjoining 
 them to lay all those who were suspected of favouring 
 popery under the same censure by a summary sentence, and 
 without observing the usual formalities of trial. On this 
 occasion one of the Presbyterian ministers declared from the 
 pulpit, that the king, in permitting the popish lords to 
 return, had discovered the treachery of his own heart ; that 
 all kings were the devil's children, and that Satan had now 
 the guidance of the court ! Another aiiirmed, in the prin- 
 cipal church of the capital, that tbe king was possessed of a 
 devil, and that his subjects might lawfully rise, and take the 
 sword out of his hand ! 
 
 § 320. In consequence of these inflammatory speeches 
 and audacious proceedings, the citizens of Edinburgh rose, 
 and surrounding the house in which the Court of Session 
 was sitting, and where the king happened to be present, 
 demanded some of his counsellors, whom they named, 
 that they might tear them in pieces; and James was 
 a prisoner in the heart of his own capital. The king's 
 behaviour on that occasion, which was firm and manly, as 
 well as politic, restored him to the good opinion of his 
 subjects in general. The populace dispersed on his pro- 
 mising to receive their petitions, when presented in a regular 
 form ; and this fanatical insurrection, intead of overturning, 
 served only to establish the royal authority. A convention 
 of estates having been called in January, 1597, they pro- 
 nounced the insurrection to be high treason ; ordained every 
 clergyman to subscribe a declaration of his submission to the 
 king's jurisdiction, in all matters civil and criminal; em- 
 powered magistrates to commit instantly to prison any 
 minister who should in his sermons utter indecent reflections 
 on the king's conduct, and prohibited ecclesiastical judicature 
 from meeting without the king's license. These ordinances 
 were confirmed the same year, by the General Assembly of 
 the kirk, which also declared sentences of summary excom- 
 munication unlawful, and vested in the crown the right of 
 nominating ministers to the parishes in the principal towns. 
 
230 SIE WALTER KALEIGH. 
 
 James was not, however, satisfied with these changes ; lie 
 longed to bring it nearer the episcopal model, and at last 
 induced the Presbyterians to receive bishops as perpetual 
 presidents or moderators in their ecclesiastical synods. 
 James, anxious to establish a conformity in worship and 
 discipline between the two churches, desired to obtain 
 from the Scotch Parliament an acknowledgment of his own 
 supremacy in all ecclesiastical causes. This was the prin- 
 cipal object of his visit to his native country ; where he 
 proposed to the great council of the nation, which was then 
 assembled, that an act might be passed, declaring that 
 " whatever his majesty should determine in regard to the 
 external government of the church, with the consent of the 
 archbishops, bishops, and a competent number of the 
 ministers, should have the force of a law" (1617). This bill 
 James was, however, compelled to drop ; but he next year 
 extorted a vote from the General Assembly of the kirk, for 
 receiving certain ceremonies upon which his heart was more 
 particularly set ; namely, kneeling at the sacrament, the 
 private administration of it to sick persons, the confirmation 
 of children, and the observance of Christmas and other 
 festivals (1818). 
 
 § 321. A series of unpopular measures conspired to 
 increase that odium, into which James had now fallen in 
 both kingdoms, and which continued to the end of his 
 reign. The first of these was the execution of Sir Walter 
 Haleigh. This extraordinary man, who suggested the first 
 idea of the English colonies in North America, had also 
 made a voyage, in 1596, to Gruiana, in South America. The 
 (ixtravagant account which he published of the riches of 
 this latter country, where no mines of any value have yet 
 been discovered, has drawn much censure upon his veracity. 
 Ealeigh's motive for uttering these splendid falsities seems 
 to have been a desire of turning the avidity of his country- 
 men toward that quarter of the New World where the 
 Spaniards had found the precious metals in such abund- 
 ance. As he he was known, however, to be a man of a 
 romantic turn of mind, little regard seems to have been paid 
 to his narrative either by Elizabeth or the nation. But after 
 he had languished many years in confinement, as a punish- 
 ment for his share in a conspiracy against James, a report 
 which he propagated of a wonderfully rich gold-mine that 
 he had formerly discovered in Guiana, obtained universal 
 belief. People of all ranks were impatient to take posses- 
 
FAIL OF FREDERIC V. 231 
 
 sion of a country overflowing witli the precious metals, and 
 to which the nation was supposed to have a right by prior- 
 ity of discovery. Ealeigh was released from prison, and 
 although James refused to grant him a free pardon, he 
 gave him permission to embark in the enterprise (1617). 
 Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, remonstrated, and 
 orders were given by the court of Madrid, for fortifying all 
 its settlements on or near the coast of Guiana. Ealeigh 
 sailed up the Orinoco, took, plundered, and burnt St. Thomas. 
 Some disputes occurred, the story of the mine was regarded 
 as an invention, and the expedition returned to England 
 with Ealeigh as a prisoner (1618). Whatever may have 
 been his faults, this gallant adventurer deserved a better 
 fate. He was sacrificed to satisfy the resentment of the 
 Spanish court, with which James thought of making an 
 alliance, by marrying the prince of Wales to Philip the 
 Third's second daughter. Ealeigh went to the block un- 
 daunted (Oct. 29, 1618) ; and soon after the Spanish match 
 was broken off. 
 
 § 322. Erederic Y., elector palatine, was induced by the 
 persecuted Protestants to accept the crown of Bohemia, 
 contrary to the advice of the king of England (1619), whose 
 daughter Elizabeth Erederic had married (1613). He was 
 chased from his kingdom and stripped of all his hereditary do- 
 minions, through the influence of the emperor Eerdinand II. 
 (1620), and although the English nation were anxious to 
 espouse his cause, James decided upon remaining neutral. 
 He pretended to be shocked at the revolt of a people against 
 their prince, although the Spanish match, then iu agitation, 
 is supposed to have influenced his mind. The Commons 
 accordingly framed a remonstrance to the king, representing 
 the enormous growth of the Austrian power, and the alarm- 
 ing progress of the Eoman Catholic religion in England : and 
 they entreated his majesty instantly to take arms in defence of 
 the Palatine, to turn his sword against Spain, whose treasures 
 were the chief support of the Eoman Catholic interest over 
 Europe; and to exclude all hope of the toleration or re- 
 establishment of popery in the kingdom, by entering into 
 no negotiation for the marriage of his son Charles with any 
 but a Protestant princess. They also requested that the fines 
 and confiscations to which the Eoman Catholics were subject 
 by law, should be levied with the utmost rigour ; and that 
 the children of such as refused to conform to the established 
 worship should be taken from their parents, and committed 
 
232 JAMES AND THE COMMONS. 
 
 to the care of Protestant divines and schoolmasters. This led 
 to a controversy between the king and the Commons. The 
 former desired the latter not to interfere in matters that 
 regarded his government, or with weighty afl'airs of state ; 
 biit the Commons remonstrated, maintained that they were 
 entitled to counsel in all matters of government, and that 
 entire freedom of speech in their debates on public business 
 was the.ir ancient and undoubted right, and an inheritance 
 transmitted to them from their ancestors. The king retorted; 
 the Commons then framed a protest, and this grand dispute 
 concerning privilege and prerogative gave birth to the Court 
 and Country parties, which so long occupied the tongues, 
 the pens, and even swords, of the most able and active men 
 in the nation. The memorable protest of the Commons 
 was to this effect : — " That the liberties, franchises, privi- 
 leges, and jurisdictions of Parliament, are the ancient and 
 undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of 
 England, and that the arduous and urgent affairs concerning 
 the king, state, and defence of the realm, and of the Church 
 of England, and the maintenance and making of laws, and 
 redress of grievances which daily happen within this realm, 
 are proper subjects and matter of counsel or debate in par- 
 liament ; and that in the handling and proceeding on these 
 businesses, every member of the House of Parliament hath, 
 and of right ought to have, freedom of speech to propound, 
 treat, reason, and bring to conclusion the same." So high 
 did the quarrel run, that the Commons refused to vote sup- 
 plies, and were dismissed by the king (1621). 
 
 § 323. James continued to pursue his favourite object, 
 the Spanish match, but the duke of Buckingham contrived 
 to ruin all by an absurd adventure. He persuaded the 
 prince of Wales to visit Spain in person, and endeavour to 
 ■win the princess as au ordinary lover ; with which roman- 
 tic scheme Charles was delighted, and James at last gave 
 his consent. All went on well at first, and Philip IV. re- 
 ceived the royal lover and his friend with becoming magni- 
 ficence. Charles was introduced into the palace with the 
 same pomp and ceremony that attended the kings of Spain 
 at their coronation. All the gaols were thrown open, and 
 the prisoners received their freedom (1623). Buckingham's 
 levity and licentiousness rendered him odious to the whole 
 court ; he quarrelled with Olivares, and induced Charles to 
 quit Madrid and break off the match. The earl of Bristol, 
 who had conducted the negotiations at Madrid, returned to 
 
DEATH OF JAMES I. 283 
 
 England, and was committed to the Tower. He was after- 
 wards released, ordered to retire to his country seat, and to 
 abstain from all interference in parliament. 
 
 § 324. War speedily followed with Spain (1624) ; and 
 an alliance was entered into between France, England, and 
 the United Provinces, for restraining the ambition of the 
 house of Austria, and recovering the Palatinate. A treaty 
 of marriage was about the same time negotiated between the 
 prince of Wales and Henrietta Maria of France, sister to 
 Louis XIII. and daughter of Henry IV., an accomplished 
 princess, whom Charles had seen and admired in his way to 
 Madrid, and who retained, during his whole life, a dan- 
 gerous ascendancy over him, by means of his too tender and 
 affectionate heart. James did not live, however, to see the 
 celebration of the nuptials, but died in the fifty-ninth year 
 of his age (March 27, 1625), soon after the failure of the 
 expedition under Count Mansfeldt for the recovery of the 
 Psilatinate. That James was contemptible as a monarch, 
 must perhaps be allowed ; but that he was so as a man, can 
 by no means be admitted. It may be confidently affirmed, 
 that in no preceding period of the English monarchy was 
 there a more sensible increase of all the advantages which 
 distinguish a flourishing people than during the reign of this 
 despised prince. Of several legitimate children born to him 
 by Anne of Denmark, James left only one son, Charles I., 
 then in the twenty-fifth year of his age, and one daughter, 
 Elizabeth, married to the elector palatine. 
 
 Lettek 3. — England, fi-oro the Accession of Charles I. to the Assassin- 
 ation of the Duke of Bncldngham. a.d. 1625 — 1628. Vol. iL, 
 pages 25—36. 
 
 § 325. As Charles and Buckingham, by breaking off the 
 Spanish match and engaging the nation in a war for the 
 recovery of the Palatinate, had acquired the favour of the 
 popular party in the House of Commons, the young king 
 was eager to meet the representatives of the people, that he 
 might have an opportunity of showing himself to them in 
 his new character, and of receiving a testimony of their 
 dutiful attachment. In his speech from the "throne he 
 slightly mentioned the exigencies of the state, but would 
 not suffer the officers of the crown, who had seats in the 
 house, to name or solicit any particular sum ; he left the 
 whole to the generosity of the Commons. The Com- 
 mons had no generosity for Charles. Never was prince 
 
2Si THE COUNTRY PAETY. 
 
 more deceived by placing confidence in any body of men. 
 Though they knew that he was loaded with a large debt, 
 contracted b-y his father ; that he was engaged in a difficult 
 and expensive war with the bouse of Austria ; that this 
 war was the result of their own importunate solicitations 
 and entreaties ; and that they bad solemnly engaged to 
 yield the necessary supplies for the support of it ; they 
 granted him only two subsidies, amounting to about a hun- 
 dred and twelve thousand pounds. The causes of this ex- 
 cessive parsimony deserve to be traced. The heads of the 
 country party, Sir Edward Coke, Sir Edwin Sandys, Sir 
 Eobert Philips, Sir Erancis Seymour, Sir Dudley Digges, 
 Sir John Elliot, Sir Thomas Wentworth, Mr. Selden, and 
 Mr. Pym, animated with a warm love of liberty, saw with 
 regret a too extensive authority exercised by the crown, 
 and, regardless of former precedents, determined to seize 
 the opportunity which the present crisis might afford 
 them of restraining the royal prerogative within more 
 reasonable bounds, and of securing the privileges of the 
 people by firmer and more precise barriers than the consti- 
 tution had hitherto provided for them. They accordingly 
 resolved to grant no supplies to their necessitous prince, 
 without extorting proportional concessions in favour of civil 
 liberty ; and how ungenerous soever such conduct might 
 seem, they conceived that it was fully justified by the bene- 
 ficent end they had in view. This party also hated Buck- 
 ingham, who had deceived them, and whom they accord- 
 ingly desired to punish. His arrogant conduct helped to 
 render him unpopular, and they resolved that to him the 
 management of the war should not be intrusted. 
 
 § 326. Parliament was adjourned from London to Oxford 
 on account of the plague (Aug. 1) ; and there the king, 
 laying aside that delicacy which he had hitherto observed, 
 endeavoured to draw from the Commons a more liberal supply, 
 by making them fully acquainted with the state of his affairs, 
 with the debts of the crown, the expenses of the war, the 
 steps he had taken, and the engagements into which he had 
 entered for conducting the same. But all his .irgnments, 
 and even entreaties, were employed in vain ; the Commons 
 remained inexorable, and answered him only by vexatious 
 petitions and complaints of grievances. Enraged at such 
 obstinacy, Charles dissolved the Parliament, and attempted to 
 raise money by other means (Aug. 12). He had recourse to 
 the old expedient of forcing a loan from the subject. The fleet 
 
CLAMOURS. 235 
 
 ■was equipped, and consisted of eighty sail, including trans- 
 ports, and carried an army of ten thousand men. It sailed to 
 Cadiz, but took no prizes ; and after cruising a while off Cape 
 St. Vincent, in hopes of intercepting the Spanish Plate fleet, 
 but without success, it returned to England, to the great 
 dissatisfaction of the nation. The failure of an enterprise 
 from which he expected so much treasure obliged Charles 
 again to call a parliament, and lay his necessities before 
 the Commons (Feb. 6, 1626). They immediately voted him 
 three subsidies and three fifteenths, and afterwards added 
 one subsidy ; yet they only voted it, reserving to the end 
 of the session the power of giving that vote the sanction 
 of a law. In the mean time, under colour of redressing 
 grievances, they proceeded to regulate and control every 
 part of government. They impeached the duke of Buck- 
 ingham, and when Charles prepared to defend his minister, 
 they drew up a petition demanding his dismissal. This step 
 Charles refused to take, and he at once brought the session 
 to a close (June 11, 1626). 
 
 § 327. The people complained loudly of the benevolences 
 and loans which were extorted from them under various 
 forms ; and these complaints were increased by a commis- 
 sion, which was openly issued, for compounding with popish 
 recusants, and dispensing, for a sum of money, with the 
 penal laws enacted against them. While the nation was in 
 this dissatisfied humour, intelligence arrived of the defeat of 
 the Protestants in Germany by the imperial forces. A general 
 loan from the subject was now exacted, equal to the four 
 subsidies and three fifteenths voted by the last Parliament ; 
 and many respectable persons were thrown into prison for 
 refusing to pay their assessments. Five gentlemen, with 
 Sir Edmund Hampden at their head, had resolution enough 
 to demand their release, not as a favour from the prince, 
 but as their right by the laws of their country. On examina- 
 tion, it was found that these gentlemen had been arbitrarily 
 committed, at the special command alone of the king and 
 council, without any cause being assigned for such commit- 
 ment. The question was brought to a solemn trial before 
 the court of King's Bench ; and the judges, obsequious to 
 the court, refused to release the prisoners, or to admit them 
 to bail. The cry was now loud that the nation was reduced 
 to slavery. The liberty of the subject was violated for 
 refusing to submit to an illegal imposition ! Nor was this 
 the only arbitrary measure of which the people had reason 
 
236 -WAR WITH FRANCE. 
 
 to complain. The troops that had returned from the fruit- 
 less expedition against Cadiz were dispersed over the king- 
 dom, and billeted upon private families, contrary to estab- 
 lished custom, which required that they should be quartered 
 at inns and public-houses. In the midst of these alarming 
 dissatisfactions and increasing difficulties, when baffled in 
 every attempt against the dominions of the two branches of 
 the house of Austria, and embroiled with his own subjects, 
 Charles engaged iti a war against France ! Historians have 
 generally ascribed this conflict to an amorous quarrel 
 between Cardinal Eichelieu and the duke of Buckingham, 
 on account of a rival passion for the queen of France ; but 
 Buckingham had other reasons for involving his master in a 
 war with that country (1627). 
 
 § 328. One of the articles of impeachment against the 
 duke, and that which had excited the greatest odium, was 
 the sending of some English ships to assist the French 
 king in subduing his Protestant subjects, who were in 
 arms in defence of their religious liberties. To this impo- 
 litic, as well as inhuman measure, Buckingham had been 
 seduced by a promise, that as soon as the Huguenots were 
 reduced, Louis XIII. would take an active part in the war 
 against the house of Austria. But afterwards, finding him- 
 self deceived by Cardinal Eichelieu, who had no object in 
 view but the aggrandizement of the French monarchy, he 
 procured a peace for the Huguenots, and became security 
 to them for its performance. That peace, however, was not 
 observed ; Richelieu atill meditated the utter destruction 
 of the Protestant party in France. The subjection of the 
 Huguenots, it was readily foreseen, would render France 
 more formidable to England than the whole house of Austria. 
 A fleet of a hundred sail, with an army of seven thousand 
 men on board,< was fitted out for the assistance of the 
 Huguenots, under the command of the duke of Buckingham, 
 the most unpopular man in the kingdom, and utterly unac- 
 quainted with naval or military service. "When the fleet 
 appeared before Eochelle, the inhabitants of that city shut 
 their gates, and refused to admit allies of whose arrival they 
 were not apprized. Buckingham made a descent on the Isle 
 of Ehe ; but took his measures so unskilfully, that he was 
 unable to make any impression on the principal fort: and 
 the sea was so negligently guarded, that a French army stole 
 over in small divisions, and obliged him to re-embark, after 
 losing near two-thirds of the land forces. With the 
 
THE PETITION OK EIGHT. 237 
 
 wretclied remnant he returned to England, totally dis- 
 credited both as an admiral and general, and universally 
 despised and detested as a minister (1627).- The public 
 grievances were now so great, that an insurrection was to 
 be apprehended. The people were not only loaded with 
 illegal taxes, but their commerce, which had been hurt by 
 the Spanish, was ruined by the French war; whUe the 
 glory of the nation was tarnished by unsuccessful enter- 
 prises, and its safety threatened by the forces of two pow- 
 erful monarchies. In spite, however, of these untoward 
 events, Charles was compelled to summon a parliament. 
 
 § 329. When the Commons assembled (Mar. 17, 1628), 
 the court perceived that they were men of the same indepen- 
 dent spirit as their predecessors, and so opulent that their 
 property was computed to surpass three times that of the 
 House of Peers. But although enraged at the late violations 
 of public liberty, by personal injuries, and by the extreme folly 
 with which public measures were conducted, to the disgrace, 
 and even diiger, of the nation, they entered upon business 
 with no less temper and decorum than vigour and abihty. 
 They proceeded to complain of the grievances under which 
 the nation laboured — the billeting of soldiers, the imposing 
 of arbitrary taxes, the imprisonment of those who refused to 
 comply, and the refusal of bail on a writ of habeas corpus. 
 The Commons accordingly proceeded to frame a petition of 
 right, indicating by this name that it contained a corrobo- 
 ration or explanation of the ancient constitution, not any 
 inlringement of royal prerogative, or acquisition of new 
 liberties, and Charles, finding his threats had neither awed 
 them into submission, nor provoked them to indecent free- 
 dom of speech, thought fit to send them a conciliatory 
 message, intimating that he esteemed the grievances of the 
 house his own, and stood not on precedence in point of 
 honour. He therefore desired that the same committee 
 which was appointed for the redress of grievances, might 
 also undertake the business of supply. Pleased with this 
 concession, the Commons voted him five subsidies; with 
 which, though much inferior to his wants, he was well 
 satisfied. Charles was not at first fully acquaiuted with the 
 extent of the Petition of Eight, and therefore afterwards 
 attempted, by various means, to get it moderated, as well as 
 to evade giving his assent to it in the usual manner ; but as 
 it was intimately connected with the vote of supply, which 
 was altogether conditional, the king was at last obliged to 
 
238 ASSASSINATION OF BUCKINGHAM. 
 
 give his solemn sanction to the bill. His seeming reluctance 
 to do this raised the suspicions of the Commons, and they 
 proceeded to require the redress of a number of inferior 
 grievances not mentioned in their petition, which provided 
 only against forced loans, benevolences, taxes without con- 
 sent of Parliament, arbitrary imprisonment, billeting soldiers, 
 and martial law : and they took into consideration the duties 
 of tonnage and poundage, which had not yet been granted 
 by Parliament. To levy this duty without their consent, 
 they affirmed, was a palpable violation of the ancient liberties 
 of the people, and an open infringement of the Petition of 
 Eight, in which those liberties were so lately confirmed. 
 Alarmed at such an unexpected attack upon his prerogative, 
 Charles suddenly prorogued the Parliament (June 26,1628), 
 and in hopes of conciliating the affections of his subjects, by 
 making a popular use of the supply which they had granted 
 him, as well as recovering the reputation of his arms, turned 
 his eyes toward the distressed Protestants in France. To the 
 relief of Eochelle, the earl of Denbigh was despatched, with 
 ten ships of the line and sixty transports and victuallers ; 
 but by an unaccountable complication of cowardice and 
 incapacity, if not treachery, he returned without so much as 
 affording the besieged a supply of provisions. In order to 
 wipe off this disgrace, the duke of Buckingham repaired to 
 Portsmouth, resolved once more to display his prowess on 
 the coast of Prance, and defeat the ambitious designs of 
 E/ichelieu, his competitor in love, in politics, and even in war. 
 § 330. But this enterprise was obstructed, and the relief 
 of Eochelle prevented, by one stroke of a desperate enthu- 
 siast, named Felton, who had served as a lieutenant in Buck- 
 ingham's former expedition. Disgusted at being refused a 
 company on the death of his captain, who was killed in the 
 retreat, Felton threw up his commission and retired from 
 the army. Incensed against the duke of Buckingham, he 
 hastened to Portsmouth, and stabbed him in the breast, 
 whilst conversing with Soubise and some French gentlemen 
 (August 23, 1628). The duke expired instantly, and the 
 assassin was arrested. Charles did not appear so much 
 affected by the news of his favourite's death, as people 
 expected ; in fact, he had public cares enough to divert his 
 mind from private griefs. The projected mole being finished, 
 Eochelle was closely blockaded on all sides ; and the inhabi- 
 tants, though pressed with the utmost rigours of famine, 
 stUl refused to submit, in hopes of succour from England. 
 
TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE. 239 
 
 On the death of Buckingham, the command of the fleet and 
 array destined for their relief was given to the earl of 
 Lindsey, who, on his arrival hefore Eochelle, made some 
 attempts to break through the mole, and force his way into 
 the harbour. But that stupendous monument of Richelieu's 
 genius was now fortified in such a manner as to render the 
 design impracticable ; and the wretched inhabitants, seeing 
 all prospect of assistance cut off, were obliged to surrender, 
 in view of the English fleet (Oct. 30, 1628). 
 
 IjETTEB 4. — England and Scotland, from the Assassination of the Duke 
 of Buckingham to the Execution of the Earl of Strafford. A.D. 1628 
 —1641. Vol. ii., pages 36—55. 
 
 § 331. The failure of the expedition for the relief of 
 Eochelle, and the ruin of the Protestant cause in France, 
 contributed much to increase the discontents of the English 
 nation, and to diminish the authority of Charles I. On 
 the meeting of Parliament, the Commons complained of 
 many grievances, especially in regard to religion ; and in 
 order to obtain a redress of these, they resumed the claim 
 to the right of granting tonnage and poundage (Jan. 20, 
 1629). This duty, in more ancient times, had commonly 
 been a temporary grant of the Parliament ; but since the 
 time of Henry V. it had been conferred on every king 
 during life. Each prince had claimed it from the moment 
 of his accession, and it had been usually voted by the first 
 Parliament of each reign. Charles, during the short interval 
 which passed between his accession and his first parliament, 
 had followed the example of his predecessors, nor had any 
 fault been found with him for so doing. On assembling 
 in 1625, the Commons voted them only for one year, but 
 the Peers rejected the innovation. Charles, aware that the 
 subject would be again discussed, early informed the Par- 
 liament, " That he had not taken the duties of tonnage and 
 poundage as pertaining to his hereditary prerogative ; but 
 that it ever had been, and still was, his meaning to enjoy 
 them as a gift of his people ; that he pretended not to justify 
 himself for what he had hitherto levied, by any right 
 which he assumed, but only by the necessity of the case." 
 This concession might have satisfied the Commons, had 
 they been influenced by no other motive but that of ascer- 
 taining their own powers and privileges. They had higher 
 views, and insisted that the king should, for a time, entirely 
 desist from levying the duties in question, after which they 
 
240 THE COMMONS PASS A EEMONSTEANOE. 
 
 ■vrould take into consideration the propriety of restoring 
 such revenue to the crown. The proud spirit of Charles 
 could not submit to a rigour that had never been exercised 
 against any of his predecessors. He did not, however, im- 
 mediately break with them ; but when, instead of listening 
 to his earnest solicitations for supply, theyproceeded to carry 
 their scrutiny into his management of religion, his indigna- 
 tion was roused, and he dissolved the Parliament, with a 
 determined resolution never to call another, unless he 
 should see indications of a more compliant disposition in the 
 nation (March 10, 1629). The Commons, on this occasion, 
 behaved with great boldness. As soon as they had the first 
 intimation of the king's design from the Speaker, who 
 immediately left the chair, they pushed him back into itj 
 and two members held him there, until a short remonstrance 
 was framed, and passed by acclamation rather than by vote. 
 In that remonstrance, all vrho should seek to extend or 
 introduce popery or Arminianism, were declared enemies to 
 the commonwealth. All who should advise the levying of 
 tonnage and poundage, without consent of Parliament, were 
 brought under the same description ; and every merchant 
 who should voluntarily pay these duties, not being granted 
 by Parliament, was to be reputed a betrayer of the liberties 
 of England, and an enemy to his country. 
 
 § 332 . The discontents of the nation rose higher than ever, 
 on account of this violent breach between the king and Par- 
 liament : and Charles's subsequent proceedings were ill cal- 
 culated to appease them. He ordered those popular leaders, 
 who had been most active in the late tumult in the House 
 of Commons, to be taken into custody. Some of them were 
 fined, and condemned to find sureties for their good behaviour. 
 But these severities served only to show more conspicuously 
 the king's disregard of the privileges of Parliament, and the 
 sufferers unanimously refused to find the sureties demanded, 
 or even to express their sorrow for having offended their sove- 
 reign, so desirous were they to continue their meritorious 
 distress. Sensible that it was impossible to carry on the war, 
 Charles made peace with France (AprU. 14, 1629) and Spain 
 (Nov. 29, 1630). A cautious neutrality was henceforth 
 Charles's aim, anxious to come to some accommodation 
 with the people and the Parliament. But while the king 
 entertained high notions of his royal prerogative, the Com- 
 mons were determined upon circumscribing its limits. The 
 queen, to whom Charles was, much attached, had induced^ 
 
JOHN HAMPDEN'S RESISTANCE. 241 
 
 Him to grant certain indulgences to the Eoman Catholics, 
 which caused general dissatisfaction, and increased the 
 odium against the court. Charles managed to enlist 
 Sir Thomas Wentworth, a popular minister of great abili- 
 ties, whom he created earl of Strafford, in his cause (1630). 
 Other parliamentary leaders were also drawn over to the 
 court. Sir Dudley Digges was created master of the roUs ; 
 Mr. Noy, attorney-general ; and Mr. Littleton, solicitor- 
 general. 
 
 § 333. This manoeuvre served to widen the hreach between 
 the king and his Parliament. The seceders were regarded 
 as traitors, while the king was compelled to raise money for 
 the support of government, either by the revival of obsolete 
 laws, or by violations of the rights of the subject. Tonnage 
 and poundage continued to be levied ; new imposts were 
 even laid on several kinds of merchandise ; and the officers 
 of the customs received orders from the council to enter 
 into any house, warehouse, or cellar, to search any trunk 
 or chest, and break any bulk whatever, in default of the 
 payment of such duties. The oppressive method of raising 
 money by monopolies was revived ; the odious expedient of 
 compounding with popish recusants became a regular part 
 of the revenue ; several arbitrary taxes were imposed ; and, 
 in order to facilitate these exactions, and repress the rising 
 spirit of liberty throughout the kingdom, many severe 
 sentences were passed in the Star-chamber and High- 
 commission courts. Some persons were fined, others im- 
 prisoned ; and such as ventured to arraign the measures of 
 the court were condemned to stand in the pillory. For 
 more than seven years had Charles supported his govern- 
 ment by arbitrary impositions, levied by means no less 
 arbitrary, before he met with any vigorous opposition. At 
 length John Hampden, a private gentleman, had the courage 
 to set the crown at defiance, and make a bold stand in 
 defence of the laws and the liberties of his country. 
 Among other taxes, that of ship-money had been revived, and 
 levied on the whole kingdom. This tax, intended for the sup- 
 port of the royal navy, and in itself moderate and equitable, 
 was only exceptionable by being imposed without the consent 
 of Parliament ; and, in order to discourage all opposition on 
 that account, the king had proposed, as a question, to the 
 judges, " Whether, in cases of necessity, he might not, for the 
 defence of the kingdom, impose such a tax ; and whether 
 be was not the sole judge of that necessity ?" The compliant 
 
242 CHAELES VISITS SCOTLAND. 
 
 judges answered in the affirmative, and the tax was generally- 
 paid. But Hampden, alike regardless of the opinion of the 
 judges and the example of others, resolved to hazard the 
 issue of a suit, rather than tamely submit to the illegal 
 imposition ; and, although only rated at twenty shillings, to 
 risk the whole indignation of royalty. This important 
 cause was heard before all the twelve judges in the Exche- 
 quer chamber. The pleadings lasted twelve days ; and the 
 nation regarded with the utmost anxiety every circumstance 
 of the trial. The issue was easily to be foreseen, from the 
 former opinion of the heads of the law ; but it was not, on 
 that account, considered as less momentous, or expected 
 with less impatience. The crown lawyers could only plead 
 precedent and necessity ; but in spite of the powerful argu- 
 ments against the tax, the judges gave sentence in favour 
 of the crown (1638). 
 
 § 334. During this fermentation in England, Scotland 
 was profoundly agitated. In 1633 Charles visited Scotland, 
 and endeavoured to establish the changes in the reUgioua 
 system projected and commenced by his father. The juris- 
 dictions of presbyteries, synods, and other democratical 
 courts, were already, in a manner abolished ; and the General 
 Assembly had not been summoned for two years. The 
 Scotch prelates were raised to the highest offices in the 
 state, and everything done to secure the triumph of episco- 
 pacy. Charles and his dignified ecclesiastics employed 
 themselves zealously in framing canons and a liturgy for 
 the use of a people who held both in abhorrence. The 
 canons, which were promulgated in 1635, though received 
 by the nation without much clamour or opposition, occa- 
 sioned much inward apprehension and discontent. They 
 asserted that the king's authority was absolute and unlimited, 
 and they ordained, among many other things odious to 
 Presbyterian ears, that the clergy should not pray extempo- 
 raneously, but by the printed form prescribed in the liturgy ; 
 that no one should officiate as schoolmaster without a licence 
 from the bishop of the diocese ; nor any person be admitted 
 into holy orders, or allowed to perform any ecclesiastical 
 function, without first subscribing those canons. Even men 
 of moderate principles, who could regard these ordinances 
 with a degree of indifference, were filled with indignation at 
 seeing a body of ecclesiastical laws established without any 
 previous consent, either of church or state. They dreaded 
 a like despotism in civil government : yet a seeming sub- 
 mission was paid to the king's authority, until the reading of 
 
THE SCOTCH FORM THE COVENANT. 243 
 
 the liturgy. It was chiefly copied from that of England, and 
 consequently was little exceptionable in itself. The Scotch 
 represented the new liturgy as a species of mass, tliough 
 with less show and embroidery ; and when, in the cathedral 
 church of St. Giles, the dean of Edinburgh, arrayed in his 
 surplice, opened the book, and began the service, the meaner 
 part of the audience, especially the women, raised a dreadful 
 clamour, clapping their hands and exclaiming, " A pope ! a 
 pope! Antichrist! stone him! stone him!" And the tu- 
 mult was so great, that it was found impossible to proceed 
 with the service, until the most turbulent of the rioters had 
 been turned out of the church by the civil magistrates. The 
 bishop, who had attempted in vain to appease them, was in 
 danger of falling a sacrifice to their fury, in going home 
 from service (1637). 
 
 § 335. Men of all ranks and conditions joined in petitions 
 against the liturgy ; the pulpits resounded with vehement 
 declamations against antichrist. Fanaticism, in a word, 
 mingling vrith faction, and private interest with the spirit 
 of liberty, produced symptoms of the most dangerous insur- 
 rection ; yet Charles, as if under the influence of a blind 
 fatality, though fully informed of the disorders in Scotland, 
 obstinately refused to desist from his undertaking, notwith- 
 standing the representations of his ablest ministers and most 
 faithful servants in that kingdom. But what renders this ob- 
 stinacy strll more inexcusable, and makes the king's conduct 
 appear altogether inexplicable, is, that while he was endea- 
 vouring to recover so great a part of the property of Scotland 
 as the church lands,from powerful nobles, by no means willing 
 to relinquish them, and was attempting to change the civil 
 and ecclesiastical constitution of the kingdom, he raised no 
 forces to carry his violent designs into execution ! The 
 Scots saw the weakness of his administration, at the same 
 time that they had reason to complain of its rigour : and on 
 a proclamation being issued, containing a pardon for all 
 past offences, and exhorting them peaceably to submit to 
 the liturgy, they entered into a civil and religious conven- 
 tion, generally known by the name of the Cotenant, which 
 proved an effectual barrier against aU regal encroachments. 
 In this convention were comprehended all orders of men in 
 the state, divided into different tables or classes ; one table 
 consisting of nobility, another of gentry, a third of clergy, 
 and a fourth of burgesses (1638). In the hands of commis- 
 sioners, chosen from these four tables, the whole authority 
 E 2 
 
244 PROGRESS OF THE STRUGGLE. 
 
 of the kingdom was placed. The articles of their covenant 
 Consisted, first, of a renunciation of popery, formally signed 
 bj the late king in his youth ; then followed a bond of union, 
 by which the subscribers bound themselves to resist inno- 
 vations in religion, and to defend each other against all 
 violence and oppression. And as everything was pretended 
 to be done by the Covenanters for the glory of God, the 
 honour of the king, and the advantage of their country, 
 people of all ranks, without distinction of age or sex, crowded 
 to subscribe the Covenant. Even the king's ministers and 
 counsellors were seized with the general frenzy. 
 
 § 336. At length Charles, who began to apprehend the 
 consequences of such a powerful combination, despatched 
 the marquis of Hamilton into Scotland, with authority to 
 treat with the Covenanters. But they had grown bolder, 
 and accordingly refused the concessions ; Charles next con- 
 sented utterly to abolish the canons, the liturgy, and the 
 court of High-commission ; but he would not agree to 
 abolish episcopacy, which he thought as essential to the very 
 being of a Christian church, as his Scottish subjects deemed 
 it incompatible with that sacred institution. The king had 
 empowered Hamilton to propose the summoning of the 
 General Assembly of the church, an offer which the Cove- 
 nanters readily embraced. Their first object was the utter 
 abolition of episcopacy. The bishops sent a protest, denying 
 the authority of the Assembly ; and the commissioner dis- 
 solved it, in his majesty's name, after declaring it illegally 
 constituted. But this measure, though unforeseen, was 
 little regarded : the members continued to sit, and finished 
 their business. All the acts of Assembly, since the accession 
 of James VI. to the crown of England, were declared 
 null and void, as being procured by the arbitrary influence 
 of the sovereign ; and the acts of parliament, which afiected 
 ecclesiastical affairs, were considered, on the same account, 
 as of no authority. Thus episcopacy, the court of High- 
 cominission, the canons, and the liturgy, were abolished, 
 and declared unlawful. Everything, in a word, which, du- 
 ring along course of years, James and Charles had been 
 labouring with such care and policy to build up, was thrown 
 at once to the ground ; and the Covenant, so obnoxious to 
 the crown and hierarchy, was ordered, under pain of excom- 
 munication, to be signed by every one (1638). The whole 
 kingdom was engaged in the Covenant, and forces were 
 raised under the direction of the earl of Argyle, 
 
IMPEACHMENT OF STEAFFOED. 245 
 
 § 337. Charles prepared to resist this formidable insur- 
 rection. The moment he set his forces in motion, the Cove- 
 nanters sent submissive messages and offered to treat. The 
 consequence was, that Charles concluded a sudden truce, 
 iadled the Pacification of Dunse, in which it was stipulated, 
 that he should withdraw his fleet and array; that the Scots, 
 within eight-and-forty hours, should dismiss their forces ; 
 that the forts taken by the Covenanters should be restored, 
 the royal authority acknowledged, and the General Assembly 
 and Parliament summoned, in order to compose all differ- 
 ences (June 17, 1639). But this did not lead to a definite 
 peace. The concessions which the king was willing to make 
 did not satisfy the Scotch, and war was renewed with great 
 advantage on the side of the Covenanters. Charles had 
 disbanded his troops, and it was some time before he could 
 get an army together, while the Covenanters had made all 
 their arrangements for reopening the struggle. In this 
 emergency the king was compelled to summon a parliament, 
 although none had sat for nearly eleven years ; but they 
 refused to grant supplies before grievances had been re- 
 dressed, and were dissolved (May 5, 1640). By loans from 
 the nobility and the contributions of the clergy, Charles at 
 last raised an army. But the Scotch were much more 
 powerful, and having gained an advantage in a skirmish 
 at Newbum (August 28), advanced towards Newcastle. 
 Having neither troops nor supplies, the king agreed to a 
 treaty, and named sixteen English noblemen, who met 
 eleven Scotch commissioners at Eipon; and the result was a 
 cessation of hostilities. 
 
 § 338. Civil discontents had now arrived at an alarming 
 height. In compliance with a number of petitions, Charles 
 summoned a parliament, which was afterwards known by the 
 name of the Long Parliament (Nov. 3, 1640). Its first act 
 was to order the impeachment of the earl of Strafford, whose 
 political apostasy seems, indeed, to have been his chief crime 
 with the popular leaders, and one only to be expiated with 
 his blood. Elated with their success, the popular leaders 
 ventured also to impeach Archbishop Laud, the Lord-keeper 
 Finch, and Secretary Windebank. The last two made their 
 escape beyond sea, before they could be taken into custody : 
 the primate was committed. The Commons declared the 
 sanction of the two houses of Parliament, as well as of the 
 Idng, necessary to the confirmation of ecclesiastical canons ; 
 they expelled from their house all monopolists ; and com- 
 
246 PLOT AGAINST THE CROWIf. 
 
 mittees were appointed to inquire into all the violations of law 
 and liberty of which any complaint had been made. From 
 the reports of these committees, the house daily passed 
 votes, which mortified and astonished the court, at the same 
 time that they animated and inflamed the nation. Ship- 
 money was declared illegal and arbitrary ; the sentence 
 against Hampden was cancelled ; compositions for knight- 
 hood were stigmatized; the extension of the forest laws 
 condemned ; patents for monopolies annulled ; and every 
 recent measure of administration was treated with reproach 
 and obloquy. All moderate men perceived that a design 
 was formed to subvert the monarchy, and that the church 
 was in no less danger. While the harangues of the mem- 
 bers, now first published and dispersed, kept alive the dis- 
 contents against the king's administration, the pulpits, 
 delivered over to puritanical preachers and lecturers, whqm 
 the Commons arbitrarily settled in all the considerable 
 churches, resounded with faction and fanaticism ; and the 
 popular leaders, in order to maintain that high authority 
 which they had acquired, and inspire confidence into their 
 friends, as well as to overawe their opponents, judged it 
 requisite still to delay the departure of the Scots. Mean- 
 time the chaplains to their commissioners began openly to 
 use the Presbyterian form of worship, which had not hitherto 
 been tolerated in England. The puritanical party among 
 the Commons, emboldened by their success in civil matters, 
 began openly to profess their tenets, and to make furious 
 attacks on the established religion. Every day produced 
 some vehement harangue against the usurpations of the 
 bishops ; and so highly disgusted were all the lovers of 
 liberty at the political doctrines propagated by the clergy, 
 that no distinction, for a time, appeared between such as 
 desired only to repress the exorbitancies of the hierarchy, 
 and such as wanted totally to annihilate episcopal juris- 
 diction (1640). 
 
 § 339. A bill was brought in to prohibit all clergymen 
 from the exercise of civil power. Charles, who had re- 
 mained passive during the violent proceedings of the present 
 Parliament, was roused by the danger that threatened bis 
 favourite episcopacy. He sent for the two houses to White- 
 hall, and told them that he intended to reform all innova- 
 tions in church and state, and to reduce matters of religion 
 and government to what they were in the purest times of 
 Queen Elizabeth. "While professing himself willing to admit 
 
tJNFAIE TREATMENT OF STKAFFOED. 247 
 
 of reformation, the ting resolutely set Ms face against alter- 
 ation in the government. The measure was rejected, although 
 a bill was passed declaring it to be unlawful to levy the 
 duties of tonnage and poundage without consent of Parlia- 
 ment, and another to prevent the discontinuance of parlia- 
 ments for above three years (1641) ; both of which were 
 assented to by the king. The victory of the Commons was 
 now complete ; and had they used it with moderation, they 
 would have merited the praise of all sincere lovers of their 
 country. Nor would their subsequent abolition of the arbi- 
 trary courts of the Star-chamber and High-commission, so 
 grievous to the nation, have been imputed to them as cause 
 of blame. But their cruel persecution of Strafford, and 
 their future encroachments upon the king's authority, which 
 made resistance a virtue, and involved the three kingdoms 
 in all the horrors of civil war, must render their patriotism 
 very questionable in the opinion of every dispassionate man. 
 § 340. The impeachment of Strafford had been pushed 
 on with the utmost vigour. Immediately after he was 
 sequestered from parliament and confined in the Tower, a 
 committee of thirteen was chosen by the Commons, and 
 intrusted with the office of preparing a charge against him. 
 This committee, assisted by a few peers, was vested with 
 authority to examine all witnesses, to call for every paper, and 
 to use any means of scrutiny, in regard to any part of the 
 earl's behaviour or conduct. Nothing, however, was found 
 against Strafford that could by any means be brought under 
 ■the description of treason; a crime which the laws of 
 England had defined with the most scrupulous exactness, in 
 order to protect the subject against the violence of the king 
 and his ministers. Aware of this, the Commons attempted 
 to prove against the prisoner " an endeavour to subvert the 
 fundamental laws of the kingdom : " and as the Statute of 
 Treason makes no mention of such a species of guUt, they 
 invented a kind of accumulative, or constructive evidence, by 
 which many actions, either totally innocent in themselves, or 
 criminal in an inferior degree, should, when united, amount 
 to treason, and subject the person to the highest penalties 
 inflicted by the law; the king and Parliament, as they 
 asserted, having power to determine what is treason, and 
 what is not. They accordingly voted that the facts proved 
 against the earl of Strafford, taken collectively, were treason- 
 able. Strafford defended himself with firmness and ability. 
 "Certainly," says Whiteloeke, "no man ever acted such a 
 
24S CHAELES DESERTS STEAFFOED. 
 
 part, on such a theatre, with more wisdom, constancy, and 
 eloquence, with greater reason, judgment, and temper, and 
 with a better grace in all his words and actious, than did this 
 great and excellent person : and he moved the hearts of all 
 his auditors, some few excepted, to remorse and pity." It is 
 truly remarkable, that the historian who makes these candid 
 and liberal observations, was himself chairman of that com. 
 mittee which conducted the impeachment against this un- 
 fortunate nobleman! The accusation and defence lasted 
 eighteen days ; and Strafford behaved with so much firmness 
 and vigour, that the Commons would have found it impossi- 
 ble to obtain a sentence against him, if the Peers had not 
 been overawed by the tumultuous populace. Eeports were 
 every day spread of the most alarming plots and conspiraciesj 
 and about six thousand men, armed with swords and cudgels, 
 flocked from the city, and surrounded the two houses of 
 parliament. Intimidated by these threats, only forty-five, 
 out of about eighty peers, who had constantly attended this 
 important trial, were present when the bill of attainder was 
 brought into the house, and nineteen of that number had 
 the courage to vote against it ; a strong presumption that, 
 if no danger had been apprehended, it would have been 
 rejected by a considerable majority^ Crowds of people next 
 besieged "Whitehall, and clamoured for the blood' of this 
 brave man. His courtiers, the judges, and even the queen, 
 advised the king to ratify the sentence ; and on receipt 
 of a letter from that unfortunate nobleman, entreating him 
 to let the people have their will, Charles granted a com- 
 mission to four noblemen to give the royal assent, in his 
 name, to the bill. These commissioners were also empowered, 
 at the same time, to give assent to a bill that the Parliament 
 then sitting should not be dissolved, prorogued, or adjourned, 
 without the consent of the majority of the members. Such 
 was the origin of the Long Parliament. 
 
 § 341. Strafibrd, finding his fate inevitable, prepared to 
 meet death with the same dignity with which he had lived. 
 In those awful moments his mind found resources within 
 itself ; and, supported by the sentiment of conscious integ- 
 rity, maintained its unbroken resolution amid the terrors 
 of death and the triumphant exultations of his vindictive 
 enemies. His discourse, and also his deportment on the 
 scaffold, discovered equal composure and courage. " The 
 shedding of innocent blood," said he, " as a propitiatory 
 sacrifice, is a bad omen, I fear, of the intended reformation 
 
HIS DEATH AUD CHARACTER. 249 
 
 of the state." And on preparing himself for the block, he 
 made this memorable declaration : " I thank God I am no 
 way afraid of death, nor daunted with any terrors ; but do as 
 cheerfully lay down my head at this time, as ever I did when 
 going to repose! " He accordingly submitted to his doom, 
 and thus perished, in the forty-ninth year of his age, the last 
 great prop of royalty under the turbulent reign of Charles I. 
 (May 12, 1641). His character, as might be expected, has 
 been severely handled by our zealous republican writers. 
 His abilities as a statesman, and his unshaken attachment 
 to his master, were the chief causes of his ruin ; and in the 
 future proceedings of that Parliament to whose resentment 
 he fell a sacrifice, will be found the best apology for his ad- 
 ministration. The Commons brought in a bill, which was 
 unanimously passed by both houses, for abolishing the 
 arbitrary Star-chamber and High-commission courts. By 
 the same bill, the jurisdiction of the privy council was regu- 
 lated, and its authority abridged. Charles, after some 
 hesitation, gave his assent to this excellent statute, which 
 produced a material but salutary change in our constitution. 
 Several other arbitrary courts of an inferior nature were 
 abolished. Had the Commons proceeded no farther, they 
 would have deserved the praise of all the friends of freedom. 
 Like all political bodies which had rapidly acquired power, 
 having gone so far, they did not know where to stop ; but 
 advanced insensibly, from one gradation to another, till they 
 usurped the whole authority of the state. After sending 
 home the Scots, and dismissing the English army, the 
 Parliament put a temporary stop to its proceedings; 
 and Charles paid a visit to Scotland, in order to settle 
 the government to the satisfaction of the Covenanters 
 (Aug. 8, 1641). 
 
 Lettee 5.— Great Britain and Ireland, from tlie Execution of Strafford 
 to the Beginning of the Great Rebellion. A.D. 1641 — 1642. Vol. ii. 
 pages 56 — 69. 
 
 § 342. When Charles arrived in Scotland, he found his 
 subjects of that kingdom highly elated with the success of 
 their military expedition. Besides the large pay voted them 
 for lying in good quarters at Newcastle, as long as the 
 popular leaders had occasion for their services, the English 
 Parliament had conferred on them a present of three hun- 
 dred thousand pounds for their Irotherly assistance. The 
 Scotch Parliament began with abolishing the Lords of 
 
250 INSUKEECTION IN IRELAND. 
 
 Articles ; who, from their constitution, were supposed to be 
 entirely devoted to the court. A law for triennial parlia- 
 ments was likewise passed ; and it was ordained, that the 
 last act of every parliament should appoint the time and place 
 for holding the parliament next ensuing. They also enacted 
 that no member of the privy council, no officer of state, 
 none of the judges, should be appointed but by the advice 
 and approbation of Parliament. Charles was preparing to 
 return to England when he received intelligence that a 
 bloody rebellion had broken out in Ireland, accompanied 
 with circumstances of cruelty and devastation which fill the 
 soul with horror. The conduct of James I. in regard to 
 the affairs of Ireland was truly politic, and the same plan 
 of administration was pursued by his son Charles ; namely, 
 to reconcile the turbulent natives to the authority of law, 
 by the regular distribution of justice, and to cure them of 
 that sloth and barbarism to which they had ever been 
 addicted, by introducing arts and industry amongst them. 
 The vigorous administration of the earl of Strafibrd had se- 
 cured the tranquillity as well as the prosperity of Ireland. 
 Agriculture had made great advances, the shipping of the 
 kingdom had been doubled, the customs tripled, and manu- 
 factures introduced and promoted. After his fall, a love 
 of innovation prevailed. The court of High-commission 
 was voted to be a grievance, martial law was abolished, the 
 jurisdiction of the council annihilated, and proclamations 
 and acts of state declared of no authority. 
 
 § 343. The English settlers were the chief movers of 
 these measures, and they did not perceive, in their rage for 
 liberty, the danger of weakening the authority of govern- 
 ment, in a country where the Protestants scarcely formed the 
 sixth part of the inhabitants, and where two-thirds of the 
 natives were still in a state of wild barbarity. The oppor- 
 tunity, however, thus afforded them, did not escape the 
 discernment of the old Irish. They determined upon a 
 general revolt, in order to free their country from the 
 dominion of foreigners, and their religion from the insults 
 of profane heretics. In this resolution they were encou- 
 raged by a gentleman named Eoger More, distinguished 
 among them by his valour and abilities, and who, by going 
 from chieftain to chieftain, roused every latent principle of 
 discontent. More maintained a close correspondence with 
 Lord Maguire and Sir Phelim O'Neil, the most powerful of 
 the old Irish chieftains ; and he took every opportunity of 
 
SUFFERINGS OF THE IRISH PROTESTANTS. 251 
 
 representing to his countrymen, that the king's authority in 
 Britain was reduced to so low an ebb, that he could not pos- 
 sibly exert himself with any vigour in maintaining the English 
 dominion over Ireland. The concessions granted by the king, 
 the Scotch revolt, and other matters, were referred to, and 
 their importance exaggerated. AH the heads of the native 
 Irish engaged ia the conspiracy, and they hoped that 
 the old English planters, or the English of the Pale, as 
 they were called, being all Eoman Catholics, would join 
 them. An attempt to gain possession of the castle of Dublin 
 miscarried ; but O'Neil and his confederates took up arms 
 in Ulster, and a general massacre of the English Protestants 
 ensued (Sept. 23, 1641), under circumstances of fearful 
 barbarity. The defenceless people were marked, out by the 
 Koman Catholic priests for slaughter, as heretics abhorred 
 of God, and detestable to all holy men. Perfidy, as well as 
 cruelty, was accordingly represented as meritorious ; and if 
 anywhere a number of Englishmen assembled together, in 
 order to defend themselves to the last extremity, they were 
 induced to capitulate, by promises of safety, confirmed by 
 the most solemn oaths. But no sooner had they sur- 
 rendered, than the rebels made them share the same fate 
 with the body of their unhappy countrymen and fellow 
 Protestants. Nor was this all. While death finished the 
 sufferings of each unhappy victim, the bigoted assassins, 
 with joy and exultation, still echoed in his ears that these 
 dying agonies were but a prelude to torments infinite and 
 eternal. Such were the barbarities by which Sir Phelim 
 O'Neil and the Irish in Ulster signalized their rebellion. 
 The English colonies there were totally annihilated ; and 
 from Ulster the flames of rebellion suddenly spread over 
 the other three provinces of Ireland. In these provinces, 
 however, though death and slaughter were not uncommon, the 
 Irish pretended to act with more moderation and humanity. 
 But cruel, alas ! was their humanity, and unfeeling their 
 moderation. Not content with expelling the English 
 planters from their houses, with despoiling them of their 
 property, seizing their possessions, and wasting their culti- 
 vated fields, they stripped them of their very clothes, and 
 turned them out naked and defenceless to all the severities of 
 the season. Even the English of the Pale, who at first pre- 
 tended to blame the insurrection, and to detest the barbarity 
 with which it was accompanied, in a little time joined the 
 old Irish, and rivalled them in every act of violence and 
 
252 THE PARLIAMENT INTEEFEEES. 
 
 cruelty against the English Protestants. Numbers of 
 persons perished by these barbarities ; and the principal 
 army of the rebels, amounting to twenty thousand men, 
 thirsting for further slaughter and richer plunder, threat- 
 ened Dublin, where the miserable remnant of the English 
 planters had taken refuge (1641). 
 
 § 344. The messenger bringing the jiews of this sad 
 revolt, reached Charles as he was making preparations to 
 leave Edinburgh. He endeavoured to induce the Scotch to 
 assist him in suppressing the rebellion, and they resolved to 
 make an advantageous bargain for any succour they might 
 afford, and as the English Commons, with whom they were 
 already closely connected, could alone fulfil any article that 
 might be agreed upon, they sent commissioners to London, 
 to treat with that order in the state, to which the sovereign 
 authority was really transferred. Thus disappointed in his 
 expectation of aid from the Scotch, Charles was obhged 
 to have recourse to the English Parliament, to whose care 
 and wisdom he imprudently declared he was willing to 
 commit the conduct and prosecution of the war. The 
 Commons seemed to considep it as a peculiar happiness, 
 that the rebellion in Ireland had succeeded, at so critical a 
 period, to the pacification of Scotland. They levied money 
 under colour of the Irish expedition, but reserved it for 
 enterprises that concerned them more nearly; they took 
 arms from the king's magazines, under the same pretext, 
 but kept them with a secret intention of employing them 
 against himself. Whatever law they deemed necessary for 
 their own aggrandizement was voted, under pretence of 
 enabling them to recover Ireland ; and if Charles withheld 
 the royal assent, his refusal was imputed to those pernicious 
 counsels which had at first excited the popish conspiracy in 
 that kingdom, and which still threatened. total destruction to 
 the Protestant interest throughout all his dominions. But 
 so great was the confidence of the people in those hypo- 
 critical zealots, whose votes breathed nothing but death and 
 destruction to the rebels, that although no forces were sent 
 to Ireland, and very little money was remitted during the 
 deepest distress of the Protestants, the fault was never 
 imputed to the Parliament ! The Commons in the mean 
 time were employed in framing that famous remonstrance, 
 which was soon after followed by such extraordinary conse- 
 quences. It was not, as usual, addressed to the king, but 
 was a declared appeal to the people. Besides gross false* 
 
EEMONSTEANCE OF THE COMMONS. 253 
 
 hoods and malignant insinuations, it contained an enumera- 
 tion of every unpopular measure which Charles had em- 
 braced, from the commencement of his reign to the calling 
 of the Parliament that framed it, accompanied -with many 
 jealous prognostics of future grievances ; and the acrimony 
 of the style vpas equal to the harshness of the matter 
 (Nov. 22,1641). 
 
 § 345. The remonstrance was violently opposed; it only 
 passed the Commons by a small majority, and was not sent 
 up to the Peers. No sooner was it published, than the king 
 framed an answer to it. Sensible of the disadvantages under 
 which he laboured in this contest, Charles contented him- 
 eelf with observing, that, even daring the period so much com- 
 plained of, the people had enjoyed not only a greater share 
 of happiness and prosperity than was to be found in other 
 countries, but than England itself had experienced during 
 times esteemed the most fortunate. He mentioned the 
 great concessions made by the crown, protested his sincerity 
 in the Reformed religion, and blamed the infamous libels 
 everywhere dispersed against his person, government, and " 
 the established church. But the ears of the people were 
 too much prejudiced against the king, to listen patiently to 
 anything that he could offer in his own vindication ; so that 
 the Commons proceeded in their usurpations upon the 
 church and monarchy, and made their purpose of subvert- 
 ing both every day more evident. During the king's resi- 
 dence in Scotland, . they had accused thirteen bishops of 
 high treason, for enacting canons without consent of Parlia- 
 ment, though no other method had ever been practised 
 since the foundation of the government; and they now 
 insisted, that the Peers, upon this general accusation, should 
 sequester those bishops from their seats in parliament, and 
 commit them to prison. The Lords opposed this, for which 
 the most furious denunciations were breathed against them. 
 Unfortunately, some of the peers joined with the popular 
 party, who had recourse to intimidation, and even went 
 armed to their deliberations. The populace crowded about 
 Whitehall, and insulted and threatened the king and the royal 
 family. Such audacious behaviour roused the young gentle- 
 men of the inns of court, who, with some reduced ofiBcers, 
 Imdertook the defence of their sovereign ; and between 
 them and the populace frequent skirmishes ensued, which 
 .seldom ended without bloodshed. These gentlemen, by way 
 of reproach, gave the fanatical insulters of majesty the name 
 
254 SOUNDHEADS AND CAVALIERS. 
 
 of EoruDHEADS, on account of the short, cropped hair: 
 which they wore, while the rabble called their more polished 
 opponents, by reason of their being chiefly on horseback, 
 Cataliees ; names which became famous during the civil 
 war that followed. The Cavaliers, who aftected a liberal 
 way of thinking, as well as a gaiety and freedom of manners 
 inconsistent with puritanical ideas, were represented by the 
 Eoundheads as a set of abandoned profligates, equally desti- 
 tute of religion and morals ; the devoted tools of the court, 
 and zealous abettors of arbitrary power. The Cavaliers, on the 
 other hand, regarded the Eoundheads as a gloomy, narrow- 
 minded, fanatical herd, determined enemies to kingly power, 
 and to all distinction of ranks in society. But in these 
 characters, drawn by the passions of the two parties, we 
 must not expect impartiality ; both are certainly over- 
 charged. The Cavaliers were, in general, sincere friends to 
 liberty and the English constitution ; nor were republican 
 and levelling principles by any means general at first among 
 the Eoundheads, though they came at last to predominate. 
 It must, however, be admitted, that the Cavaliers, in order, 
 to show their contempt of puritanical austerity, often 
 carried their convivial humour to an indecent excess ; and 
 that the gloomy temper and religious extravagancies of the 
 Eoundheads afforded an ample field for the raillery of their 
 facetious adversaries. 
 
 § 346. The bishops were compelled to absent them- 
 selves from their duty in parliament, and they protested 
 against all laws, votes, and resolutions, as null and void, 
 which should be passed during their forced and invo- 
 luntary absence. Por this an impeachment of treason was 
 sent up against twelve of them ; they were immediately 
 sequestered from parliament, and committed to custody 
 (Dec. 30, 1641). The king, who had hastily approved of 
 the protest of the bishops, rather indiscreetly ordered the 
 attorney-general to enter an accusation of high treason 
 against Lord Kimbolton and five commoners ; namely, 
 Sir Arthur Haslerig, HoUis, Hampden, Pym, and Strode 
 (Jan. 4, 1642). A serjeant-at-arms was sent to the House 
 of Commons, to demand, in the king's name, the five 
 members accused. He returned without any positive 
 answer ; and messengers were employed to search for 
 them and arrest them, wherever they might be found. 
 The house voted these violent proceedings to be a breach 
 of privilege, and commanded every one to defend the liberty 
 
AEEOGANCE OF THE COMMONS. 255 
 
 of the members. Irritated by so much opposition, the 
 king went in person to the House of Commons, in hopes of 
 surprising the persons whom he had accused, and demanded 
 in vain ; but they, having private intelligence of his resolu- 
 tion, had withdrawn before he entered. Charles endea- 
 voured to excuse himself, but the Commons were in the 
 utmost disorder during his stay ; and when he was depart- 
 ing, some members cried aloud, "Privilege! privilege!" 
 The house adjourned till the following day ; and the accused 
 members, in order to show the greater apprehension of 
 personal danger, removed into the city the same evening. 
 The king went the next day into the city, and endeavoured to 
 conciliate the lord mayor and common council ; but he failed 
 in his eiforts, and on his return was greeted with treasonable 
 cries. 
 
 § 347. The Commons appointed a guard for their security, 
 and then adjourned for severaldays; and afterwards conducted 
 the accused members in great triumph to resume their seats 
 (Jan. 11). Charles, apprehensive of danger from the furious 
 multitude, retired from London. In successive messages to 
 the Commons, he told them that he would desist from his 
 prosecution of the accused members ; that he would grant 
 them a pardon ; that he would concur in any law that should 
 acquit or secure them ; that he would make reparation to 
 the house for the breach of privilege, of which he acknow- 
 ledged they had reason to complain ; and he declared that, 
 for the future, he would be as careful of the privileges of 
 parliament as of his own crown and life. The Commons 
 thought he could now deny them nothing, and therefore 
 refused to accept any concession for the breach of privilege, 
 unless he would discover his advisers in that illegal measure. 
 But Charles, whose honour as a gentleman was aacred and 
 inviolable, had stHl spirit enough left to reject with disdain 
 a condition which would have rendered him for ever despi- 
 cable, and unworthy of all friendship or confidence. In- 
 subordination reigned in the kingdom. Petitions of the 
 most inflammatory character poured in, and the Commons 
 did all they could to fan the flame. The bills sent up by 
 the Commons, and which had hitherto been rejected by the 
 Peers, were now passed, and presented for the royal assent; 
 namely, a bill vesting the Parliament with the power of 
 impressing men into the service, under pretence of sup- 
 pressing the rebellion in Ireland, and the long-contested 
 biU for depriving the bishops of the privilege of voting in 
 
256 THE LONG PARLIAMENT SUPEEME. 
 
 the House of Lords. The king's authority was reduced so 
 low, that a refusal would have been both hazardous and in- 
 effectual ; and the queen, being secretly threatened with an 
 impeachment, prevailed upon her husband speedily to pass 
 those bills, in hopes of appeasing the rage of the multitude, 
 until she could make her escape to Holland (1642). 
 
 § 348. These important concessions were of no avail, as 
 the Parliament had resolved upon wielding supremacy. 
 The governors of Hull and Portsmouth were commanded 
 to obey no orders but those sent by the Parliament, and one 
 of their own party was placed in command of the Tower. 
 They brought in a bill, by the express terms of which the 
 lord-lieutenants of counties, or principal officers of the 
 militia, who were all named in it, were to be accountable, 
 not to the king, but to the Parliament. ' Charles here 
 ventured to put a stop to his concessions, though he durst 
 not hazard a flat denial. But what was more extraordinary 
 than all this, while the Commons thus menaced the king 
 with their power, they invited him to fix his residence in 
 London, where they knew he would be entirely at their 
 mercy. To this the king refused to assent ; and the Com' 
 mons continued their usurpations, armed the people, and 
 spread rumours of intended massacres and invasions. 
 Alarmed at those threatening appearances, the king thought 
 it prudent to remove to a greater distance from London. 
 Taking with him his two sons, the prince of Wales and the 
 duke of York, he accordingly retired northward, and made 
 the city of York, for a time, the seat of his court (March 19). 
 The queen had already taken refuge in Holland. There she 
 resided with her daughter Mary, who had been given in 
 rharriage to the prince of Orange. The marks of attach- 
 ment shown the king at York exceeded his fondest expecta- 
 tions. The principal nobility and gentry, from all quarters 
 of England, either personally or by letters, expressed their 
 duty toward him, and exhorted him to save them from that 
 democratical tyranny with which they were threatened. 
 As he still persisted in refusing the militia bill, they had 
 framed an ordinance, in which, by the sole authority of the, 
 two houses of Parliament, they had nained lieutenants for 
 all the counties, and conferred on them the command of the 
 whole military force — of all the guards, garrisons, and forts 
 in the kingdom. Charles issued proclamations against this 
 usurpation ; and declared, that, as he had formed a resolu- 
 tion strictly to observe the laws himself, he was determined 
 
PEEPARATIONS POE WAR. 257" 
 
 that every one should yield a like obedience. The Commons, 
 on their part, were neither destitute of vigour nor address. 
 In order to cover their usurped authority with a kind of 
 veil, and to confound in the minds of the people the ideaa 
 of duty and allegiance, they boilnd, in all their commands, 
 the persons to whom they were directed to obey the orders 
 of his majesty signified by both Houses of Parliament. 
 Thus by a distinction, hitherto unknown, between thfe office 
 and the person of king, they employed the royal name to 
 the subversion of the royal authority ! 
 
 § 349. Although many memorials, remonstrances, and 
 addresses were issued, both sides made preparations for 
 deciding the contest by the sword. The parliamentary 
 party had long anticipated this mode of settlement, and' 
 were consequently in a much better condition to wage war' 
 than the king. But Charles, finding that the urgent neces- 
 sities of his situation would no longer admit of delay, pre- 
 pared for defence, with a spirit, activity, and stddressj^ 
 that alike surprised his friends and his enemies. The 
 resources of his genius on this, as on all other occasions, 
 seemed to increase in proportion to the obstacles to be 
 dvercome. He never appeared so great as when plunged 
 in distress or suitounded by perils. The Commons, how- 
 ever, conscious of their superiority in force, and deter- 
 mined to take advantage of it, yet desirous to preserve the' 
 appearance of a pacific disposition, sent the king conditions' 
 on which they were willing to come to an agreement, but 
 to which they knew he would not submit. Their demands, 
 contained in mneteen propositions, amounted to a total 
 abolition of monarchical government, and frould have in- 
 volved in ruin the royal party. Amongst other things they 
 demanded control of the privy cOuncO, as well as of the 
 sovereign, the nomination of all the principal officers of 
 Stafle, and of the chief judges, rigorous enforcement of the 
 laws against Eoraan Catholics, and' a reformation of the 
 liturgy and church government. To these deittands Charles 
 could by no means accede, and he accordingly resolved to 
 support his authority by arms. CoHedting, therefore, some 
 forces, and advancing sotithw^rd, he erected his royal 
 standard at Nottingham (August 22, 1642). The greater 
 part of the nobility, and the gentlemen of ancient families, 
 fearing a total confusion of ranks from the fury of the 
 populace, attached themselves to the throite, from which 
 they derived their lustre, and to which it was again commu- 
 
 s 
 
258 NEGOTIATIONS. 
 
 nicated. They zealously adhered to the case of their sove-> 
 reign ; which was also supported by most men of a liberaU 
 education, or a liberal way of thinking, and by all who 
 wished well to the church and monarchy. But, on the 
 other hand, as the veneration for the Commons was extreme 
 throughout the kingdom, and the aversion against the 
 hierarchy general, the city of London, and most of the 
 great corporations, took part with the Parliament, and 
 adopted with ardour those principles of freedom on which 
 that assembly had originally founded its pretensions, and. 
 under colour of maintaining which it had taken up arms. 
 Besides these corporations, many families that had lately 
 been enriched by commerce, seeing with envious eyes the. 
 superior homage paid to the nobility and elder gentry, 
 eagerly undertook the exaltation of a power under whose 
 dominion they hoped to acquire rank and distinction, 
 
 Letter 6. — Great Britain and Ireland, from the Commencement of 
 the Civil War to the Battle of Naseby, A.D. 1642—1645. Vol. ii., 
 pages 70—87. 
 
 § 350. No contest could seem more unequal than did that 
 between Charles I. and his Parliament when the sword was 
 first drawn. Almost every advantage lay on the side of the 
 latter. The parliamentary party were in possession of the 
 legal means of supply, and of all the seaports except New- 
 castle. The seamen naturally followed the disposition of the 
 seaports to which they belonged ; and the earl of North- 
 umberland, lord high admiral, having engaged in the cause 
 of the Commons, had named, at their desire, the earl of 
 "Warwick as his lieutenant. Warwick at once established 
 his authority in the fleet, and kept the entire dominion of 
 the sea in the hands of Lis party. They were likewise ia 
 possession of all the magazines of arms and ammunition in 
 the kingdom, and had intercepted part of the stores the 
 queen had purchased in Holland. The king's only hope of 
 counterbalancing so many advantages on the part of his 
 adversaries, arose from the supposed superiority of his ad- 
 herents in mental and personal qualities. In order to gain 
 time as well as to manifest a pacific disposition, he sent 
 ambassadors to the Parliament with offers of treaty, before 
 he began hostilities. Both houses replied, " that they could 
 riot treat with the king until he took down his standard, 
 and recalled his proclamations," in which the members sup- 
 posed themselves to be declared traitors j and when, by a 
 
THE KING'S DECLAEATION. 259 
 
 second message, he offered to recall those proclamations, 
 they desired him to dismiss his forces, to reside with his 
 parliament, and to give up delinquents to justice; or, in 
 other words, to abandon himself and his friends to the mercy 
 of his enemies. Hoping that the people were now fully 
 convinced of the insolence of the Parliament, and its aver- 
 sion to peace, the king made vigorous preparations for war. 
 Aware, however, that he was not yet able to oppose the 
 parliamentary army, which was commanded by the earl of 
 Essex, he left Nottingham, and retired, by slow marches, 
 first to Derby, and afterwards to Shrewsbury. At Welling- 
 ton, in that neighbourhood, he collected his forces, and made 
 the following declaration before the whole army : " I do 
 promise, in the presence of Almighty God, and as I hope 
 for his blessing and protection, that I will, to the utmost of 
 my power, defend and maintain the true reformed Protestant 
 rehgion established in the Church of England ; and, by the 
 grace of God, in the same will live and die. I desire that 
 the laws may ever be the measure of my government, and 
 that the liberty and property of the subject may be pre- 
 served by them with the same care as my own just right ; 
 and if it pleased God, by his blessing on this army, raised 
 for my necessary defence, to preserve me from the present 
 rebellion, I do solemnly and faithfully promise, in the sight 
 of God, to maintain the just privileges and freedom of par- 
 liament, and to govern, to the utmost of my power, by the 
 known statutes and customs of the kingdom; and, particu- 
 larly, to observe inviolably the laws to which I have given 
 my consent this parliament. Meanwhile, if this emergency, 
 and the great necessity to which I am driven, beget any vio- 
 lation of law, I hope it will be imputed, by God and man, 
 to the authors of this war ; not to me, who have so earnestly 
 laboured to preserve the peace of the kingdom." This 
 declaration was received with the warmest expressions of 
 approbation and gratitude by the generous train of nobility 
 and gentry by whom he was attended. 
 
 § 351. Charles was welcomed at Shrewsbury with marks 
 of duty and affection ; and his army increased so fast, that 
 he soon found himself at the head of ten thousand men. 
 With these he resolved to give battle to the parliamentary 
 forces, and accordingly directed his march towards the 
 capital, in order to bring on an engagement. Essex was 
 prepared to oppose him. The two armies met on Edgehill, 
 near Keinton, in Warwickshire, where a desperate battle, 
 s 2 
 
260 BATTLE OF EDGEHILL, 
 
 was fought. Essex drew up his army with judgment ; but 
 in consequence of the desertion of a troop of horse under 
 Sir Paithful Fortescue, and the furious shock made upon; 
 them by Prince Euperb, his left wing of cavalry imme- 
 diately gave way, and was pursued two miles. Nor did' 
 better fortune attend the right wing of the parliamentary 
 army, which was also brohen and put to iiglit (October 23, 
 1642). The victory must now have been decisive in favour 
 of the royalists, had not the king's body of reserve, com- 
 manded by Sir John Byron, heedlessly joined in the pursuit. 
 The advantage afforded by this imprudence being perceivedl 
 by Sir William Balfour, who commanded Essex's reserve, 
 he immediately wheeled about upon the king's infantry, 
 now quite destitute of horse, and made great havoek among 
 them. Five thousand men were found dead on the field, 
 and the loss of the two armies, from comparing opposite 
 accounts, appears to have been nearly equal. The troops of 
 both parties^ suifered: much by cold during the night after 
 the engagement. Though this first battle was so little 
 decisive, that the Parliament claimed the victory as well as 
 the king, it was of great service to the royal cause. Charlea 
 immediately made himself master of Banbury ; and, as soon 
 as his army was recruited and refreshed, he advanced to 
 Heading ; the governor and garrison of which place, on tlie 
 approach of a detachment of royalists, had fled with preci- 
 pitation to London. The capital was struck with terror, 
 and the Parliament voted an address for a treaty; but as no 
 cessation of hostilities^ had been agreed on, the ksng con- 
 tinued to advance^ and took possession of Brentford^ By 
 this time Essex had reached London, and the declining sear 
 son put a stop to further operations. 
 
 § 352. During the winter the king and the Parliament 
 were employed in real preparations for war;, although en- 
 gaged in seeming advances towards peace. Oxford, where 
 the king resided, was chosen as the place of treaty. But 
 the Parliament was still too arrogant, and insisted, amongst 
 other things, upon the abolition of episcopacy. During the 
 winter several skirmishes occurred and some sieges were 
 carried on, and in the spring Eeading was besieged and 
 taken by the parliamentary army (April 26, 1643), which 
 afterwards advanced upon Oxford; Prince Eupert fell sud- 
 denly upon them, and put them to flight, and in this action 
 John Hampden fell (June 18). The royal cause was sup- 
 ported with no less spirit in the western counties. Tlie 
 
ItOYALIST TRIUMPHS. 261 
 
 Cornish royalists defeated the parliamentary forces near 
 Stratton (May 16). Both armies were strongly reinforced, 
 and after some skirmishes, in which the royalists had the 
 advantage, they met at Landsdown Hill, which Sir William 
 Waller, the parliamentary general, had fortified. There a 
 pitched battle was fought (July 5) with great loss on 
 both sides, but without any decisive advantage ; for although 
 the royalists, after an obstinate engagement, gained the top 
 of the hill, and beat the enemy from their ground, the fugi- 
 tives took refuge behind a stone wall, where they maintained 
 their post until night, and then retired to Bath, under cover 
 of the darkness. Hertford and Maurice, disappointed of 
 the success they had promised themselves, attempted to 
 march eastward, and join the king at Oxford. But Waller 
 hung on their rear, and harassed their army until they 
 reached Devizes. There, being reinforced with a large 
 body of fresh troops, he so much surpassed the royalists in 
 number, that they durst no longer continue their march, 
 or expose themselves to the hazard of a battle. Waller 
 was now so confident of capturing the infantry left at 
 Devizes, that he wrote to the Parliament their work was 
 done. But the king had despatched a body of cavalry to 
 the relief of his army in the west, under Lord Wilmot. In 
 order to prevent the intended junction, Waller drew up his 
 army on Eoundway Down, about two miles from the town of 
 Devizes ; and Wilmot, in hopes of being supported by the 
 infantry, did not decline the combat. Waller's cavalry, after 
 a smart action, were totally routed, aad he himself fled with 
 a few horse to Bristol ; while the victorious Wilmot, being 
 joined by the Cornish infantry, attacked the enemy's foot 
 with such impetuosity that almost all of them were either 
 killed or taken prisoners (July 13, 1643). 
 
 § 353. These victories struck great dismay into the Par- 
 liament, and they were discouraged by hearing of the queen's 
 arrival at Oxford with ammunition and artillery ; and that, 
 having landed in Burlington Bay, she had brought from the 
 north a reinforcement of three thousand foot and fifteen 
 hundred horse. Essex immediately retired to the neigh- 
 bourhood of London. Freed from this principal enemy, 
 the king sent his main army westward, under Prince Eupert; 
 and by the junction of that army with the Cornish royalists, 
 under the marquis of Hertford, a force was composed, 
 respectable from numbers, but still more so from valour and 
 jeputation. Prince Eupert undertook the siege of Bristol 
 
262 CAPTURE OF BRISTOL. 
 
 the second city in the kingdom. The place was in a good 
 state of defence, and had a garrison of three thousand 
 five hundred men, well supplied with ammunition and pro- 
 visions ; but, as the fortifications were found to be not 
 perfectly regular, it was resolved, in a council of war, to 
 proceed by assault, though little provision had been made 
 for such an operation. After an obstinate struggle, a lodg- 
 ment was made within the enemy's works ; and Nathaniel 
 Piennes, the governor, son of Lord Say, a noted parlia- 
 mentary leader, surrendered the place at discretion. He 
 and his garrison were allowed to march out with their arms 
 and baggage, but without their colours (July 26, 1643). 
 The taking of Bristol was a severe blow to the power of 
 the Parliament; and if the king, who soon after joined the 
 camp, had boldly marched to London, as he was advised by 
 the more daring spirits, the war might in all probability 
 have been finished equally to his honour and advantage. 
 But this undertaking was judged too hazardous, on account 
 of the number and force of the London militia ; and Glou- 
 cester, lying within twenty miles of his late conquest, 
 seemed to present to Charles an easier, and yet an important 
 acquisition. It would put the whole course of the Severn 
 under his command, open a communication between Wales 
 and the western counties, and free one half of the kingdom 
 from the dominion of the enemy. At this juncture Charles 
 published a manifesto, in which he renewed the solemn pro- 
 testation he had formerly made, and expressed his earnest 
 desire of making peace as soon as the constitution could be 
 re-established. 
 
 § 354. About this time Edmund Waller, the celebrated 
 poet, who had always opposed the violent proceedings of the 
 Parliament, began to agitate his scheme of forming a com- 
 bination between the peers and the citizens, to refuse pay- 
 ment of the illegal and oppressive taxes imposed by the 
 Parliament without the royal assent. His brother-in-law 
 Tomkins, and an intimate friend Chaloner, embarked in the 
 plot, which was betrayed to Pym. Waller, Tomkins, and 
 Chaloner were immediately seized, and tried by a court- 
 martial. They were all three condemned, the two latter were 
 executed on gibbets erected before their own doors; but 
 Waller saved his life by counterfeiting sorrow and remorse,^ 
 by bribing the puritanical clergy, and by paying a fine ot 
 ten thousand pounds (July 5, 1643). The cry for peace 
 was renewed, and with more violence than ever. . Many of 
 
FIRST BATTLE OF NEWBUEY. 263 
 
 tbe popular noblemen had deserted the Parliament, and 
 gone to Oxford. The House of Lords sent down terms of 
 accommodation more moderate than any that had hitherto 
 been offered ; a vote was even passed, by a majority of the 
 Commons, that these proposals should be transmitted to the 
 king. But this pleasing prospect was soon darkened. The 
 zealous republicans took the alarm: a petition against peace 
 was framed in the city, and presented to the Parliament by 
 Pennington, the factious lord mayor. The pulpits thundered 
 their anathemas against maUgnants; rumours of popish con- 
 spiracies were spread ; and the majority being again turned 
 towards the violent side, all thoughts of pacification were 
 banished, and every preparation made for the relief of Glou- 
 cester. Massey, the governor, defended it valiantly ; Essex 
 advanced to its relief, obliged the king to raise the siege, 
 and threw a supply of ammunition and provisions into the 
 city (Sept. 5, 1643) . Charles determiued to intercept Essex's 
 retreat and a battle was fought near Newbury (Sept. 20), 
 to which night put an end, leaving the victory undecided. 
 Next morning Essex pursued his march ; and although his 
 rear was severely harassed by Prince Eupert, he reached 
 London without losing either cannon or baggage. The king 
 followed him ; and taking possession of Beading, established 
 a garrison, to be a kind of curb upon the capital. 
 
 § 355. Several gallant noblemen and soldiers fell in the 
 battle of Newbury. Beside the earls of Sunderland and 
 Carnarvon, who had served their royal master with courage 
 and ability in the field, Lucius Gary, Viscount Falkland, no 
 less eminent in the cabinet, the object of universal admira- 
 tion while living, and of regret when dead, was killed. 
 Devoted to the pursuits of learning, and fond of polite 
 society, he had abstracted himself from politics till the 
 assembling of the present parliament ; when, deeming it 
 criminal any longer to remain inactive, he stood foremost in 
 all attacks upon the high prerogatives of the crown, and 
 displayed, with a bold freedom, that warm love of liberty 
 and masculine eloquence which he had imbibed from the 
 sublime writers of antiquity. But no sooner did he perceive 
 the purpose of the popular leaders, than, tempering the 
 ardour of his zeal, he attached himself to his sovereign ; 
 and, convinced that regal authority was already sufficiently 
 reduced, he embraced the defence of those limited powers 
 that remained to it, and which he thought necessary to the 
 support of the English constitution. StiD, however, anxious 
 
264 DEATH OF FALKLAND. 
 
 for the liberties of his country, he seems to have dreaded 
 the decisive success even of the royal party ; and the word 
 peace was often heard to break from his lips, accompanierj 
 by a sigh. Though naturally of a gay and cheerful dis- 
 position, he became, from the commencement of the civil 
 war, silent and melancholy, neglecting even a decent atten- 
 tion to his person ; but on the morning of the battle of 
 ■ Newbury, as if he had foreseen his fate, he dressed himself 
 jyith his usual elegance ^nd neatness, giving as a reason 
 for so doing, his desire that the enemy might not find his 
 body in a slovenly condition. " I am weary of the tinieB," 
 added he, " and foresee much misery to my country ; but 
 believe I shfill be out of it before night!" He charged in the 
 front of Byron's regiment, and was shot in the belly. The 
 shock which both armies had received in the battle of New- 
 bury discouraged them from any second trial of streiigth 
 before the close of the campaign ; and the declining season 
 soon obliged them to retire into wipter quarters. 
 
 § 356. In the northern counties the marquis of 'New- 
 castle supported the royal cause. He had, however, to deal 
 with two antagonists, who about this time began to be dis- 
 tinguished for their valour and military talents ; namely, 
 Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Oromwejl ; the former, bou 
 of Lord Fairfax, put to flight a party of royalists at Wakcr 
 field, imd the latter obtained a victory over another party at 
 Gainsborough. But the total rout of Lord jFaufax, at 
 4-therton Moor (June 29, 1643), more than balanced both 
 those defeats ; and the marquis of Newcastle, with an army 
 of fifteen thousand men, sat down before Hull, into which the 
 eldpr Fairfax had thrown himself with the remnant of his 
 forces. He was compelled to rajsg the siege (Oct. 12), and 
 the parliamentary army gained a considerable advantag* 
 over the royalists at Horncastle. Alarmed at the rapid 
 progress of the king's forces in the early part of the year, 
 the Fnglish Parliament had sent commissioners to Edin? 
 burgh, with ample powers, to treat of a nearer union and codt 
 federacy with the Scottish nation. The Scots, not satisfied 
 with having accomplished the restoration of the Presbyr 
 terian religion in their own country, still indulged an ardent 
 passion for propagating that religioii in the neighbouring 
 kingdom ; they declared themselves ready to assist their 
 brethren of England, and proposed that the two nations 
 fihoulfi enter into a covenant for the extirpation of prelacy 
 fmd a, more intimate union of the English and Scotch Parr 
 
SOLEMN LEAGUE AND COVENANT. 265 
 
 .liaments. By the address of the younger Sir Harry Yane, 
 who took the lead among the English commissioners, the 
 famous Solemn Leagtie aitd Covekant was accordingly 
 framed at Edinburgh. A copy of that covenant was trans- 
 mitted to the two houses of Parliament at "Westminster, 
 where it was received without opposition; and after having 
 heen subscribed by the Lords, the Commons, and an assembly 
 of divines, it was ordered to be received by all who lived 
 nnder their authority. The subscribers, besides engaging 
 mutually to defend each other against all opponents, bound 
 themselves to strive to extirpate popery and prelacy, super- 
 stition, heresy, schism, and protianeness ; to maintain the 
 rights and privileges of Parliament, and defend his majesty's 
 person and authority ; to discover and bring to justice all 
 incendiaries and malignants; to humble themselves for their 
 sins, amend their lives, and vie with each other in the great 
 work of reformation (June 15, 1643). 
 
 § 357. Money was remitted from England, the Scotch 
 troops were recalled from Ireland, and soon, to the number 
 of twenty thousand men, entered England. The king, 
 in this extremity, turned his attention towards Ireland, 
 in which country the civil war still raged. He gave orders 
 to the marquis of Ormond, the lord-lieutenant, to con- 
 clude a truce for one year with the council of the rebels 
 at Kilkenny, and to transport part of the Protestant army 
 to England. The Parliament exclaimed loudly against this 
 truce, and the forces brought over from Ireland, though the 
 cause of so much odium, were of little service to the king. 
 They landed in North Wales, took several castles, advanced 
 into Cheshire, and commenced the siege of Ifantwich. 
 Sir Thomas Fairfax, alarmed at their progress in this 
 quarter, assembled in Torkshire an army of four thousand 
 men ; and, having joined Sir William Brereton, suddenly 
 attacked Byron's camp. The rising of the river Wever, 
 caused by a thaw, had divided one part of the royal army 
 from the other, and both portions were routed and dispersed 
 (Jan. 15, 1644). The invasion from Scotland, in favour of 
 the Parliament, was attended with more momentous conse- 
 quences. The Scottish array, under the command of the 
 earl of Leven, having summoned the town of Newcastle 
 without effect, crossed the Tyne, and advanced upon 
 Durham, which was defended by the marquis of Newcastle. 
 This general, hearing of the return of Fairfax from Cheshire, 
 threw himself into York, where he was closely besieged by 
 
266 MAESTON MODE. 
 
 the parliamentary forces. Prince Knpert colleefced a con- 
 siderable army, marched to its relief; and the rival generals 
 prepared for battle on Marston Moor. Eifty thousand 
 British troops were, on this occasion, led to mutual 
 slaughter. The numbers on each side were nearly equal, 
 and victory continued long undecided. At length Cromwell, 
 who commanded the best troops of the Parliament, having 
 broken the right wing of the royalists, led by Prince Eupert, 
 returned from the pursuit, and determined a contest which 
 before seemed doubtful. Sir Charles Lucas, who, with the 
 left wing of the royalists, had put the right wing of the 
 parliamentary army to flight, was surprised to see that he 
 must again renew the combat for victory. Cromwell was 
 also a little disappointed to find that the battle had yet to 
 be gained. The second engagement was no less furious 
 than the first, and after the utmost efforts of courage by 
 both, success turned wholly to the side of the Parliament. 
 The king's artillerf was taken, and his army pushed off the 
 field (July 3, 1644). 
 
 § 358. This victory gave the parliamentary leaders com- 
 mand of the north, and Newcastle was immediately carried 
 by assault. In the mean time the king's affairs in the south, 
 though no less dangerous or critical, were conducted with 
 more ability and success. Sir William Waller was defeated 
 near Daventry, and Essex reduced to such straits at Lost- 
 withiel, in Cornwall, that he only saved himself by flight, 
 whilst his infantry were compelled to surrender theu* arms, 
 artillery, ammunition, and baggage (Sept. 1, 1644). The 
 Commons, in order to conceal the effects of this repulse, 
 voted thanks to Essex, armed his troops afresh, and sent 
 powerful reinforcements. Charles, having thrown succours 
 into Donnington Castle, long besieged by the parliamentary 
 forces, and knighted the governor for his gallant defence, 
 had taken post at Newbury, where an obstinate battle, as 
 we have seen, was formerly fought. There the generals of 
 the Parliament attacked him with great vigour ; and the 
 royalists, though they defended themselves with their 
 wonted valour, were at last overpowered by numbers. 
 Night came seasonably to their relief, and prevented a total 
 defeat (Oct. 27, 1644). Leaving his cannon and baggage 
 at Donnington Castle, the king retreated to Wallingford, 
 and afterwards to Oxford ; where having been joined by 
 Prince Eupert with considerable bodies of cavalry, he again 
 ventured to advance towards the, enemy. They declined 
 
THE INDEPENDENTS. 267 
 
 battle, though still greatly superior in force ; and the king 
 had the satisfaction of bringing off his cannon from Don- 
 nington Castle, in the face of his adversaries, and of putting 
 his army into wintei'-quarters without molestation. 
 , § 359. At this juncture the dissensions between the 
 parliamentary generals, which had long been fomenting, 
 broke out anew. The causes of these disputes require 
 explanation. Among the Puritans, or parliamentary party, 
 a secret distinction, though it had been concealed for a time, 
 by the dread of the king's power, began to discover itself in 
 proportion as the hopes of success became more definite, 
 and at last broke forth in contest and animosity. The In- 
 DEPEiTDEifTS, who had at first sheltered themselves under 
 the wings of the Peesbttebians, now openly appeared as 
 a distinct party, actuated by different views and pretensions. 
 They rejected all ecclesiastical establishments, and would 
 admit of no spiritual courts, no government among pastors, 
 nor any interposition of the magistrate in religious concerns. 
 Each congregation, according to their principles, united 
 voluntarily, and by spiritual ties, composed within itself a 
 separate church ; and, as the election of the congregation 
 was alone sufficient to bestow the sacerdotal character and 
 office, to which no benefits were annexed, all essential 
 distinction was denied between the laity and the clergy. 
 No ceremony, no institution, no imposition of hands, was 
 thought requisite, as in every other church, to convey a. 
 right to holy orders ; but the soldier, the merchant, the 
 mechanic, indulging the fervours of zeal, and guided by 
 the spirit, resigned himself to an inward and superior 
 direction, and was consecrated by a supposed intercourse 
 and immediate communication with heaven. Nor were the 
 Independents less distinguished from the Presbyterians by 
 their political than their religious principles. The Presby- 
 terians were only desirous of restraining vrithin narrow 
 limits the prerogatives of the crown, and of reducing the 
 iing to the rank of first magistrate ; but the Independents 
 aspired at a total abolition of the monarchical and even of 
 the aristocratical branch of the English constitution. They 
 projected an entire equality of rank and order, in a republic 
 quite free and independent. Of course, they were declared 
 enemies to all proposals for peace ; rigidly adhering to the 
 maxim, that whoever draws his sword against his sovereign 
 should throw away the scabbard. Sir Harry Vane, Crom- 
 well, Fiennes, and St. John, were the leaders of this party, 
 
268 KIVAL SECTS. 
 
 whilst the earls of Northumberland, Essex, "Warwick, and 
 Denbigh, Sir Philip Stapleton, Sir "William "Waller, Hollis, 
 Massey, "Whitelocke, Maynard, Grlyn, and other eminent 
 men, and a much greater majority in the nation, were 
 attached to the Presbyterian party. But the Independents, 
 first by cunning and deceit, and afterwards by violence, 
 accomplished the ruin of their rivals, as well as of the royal 
 cause. 
 
 § 360. Cromwell's ambitious designs attracted notice, and 
 the earl of Manchester actually denounced him in parliament. 
 These violent dissensions brought matters to an extremity 
 between the two sects, and impelled the Independents to 
 the immediate execution of their designs. The command of 
 the sword was their grand object; and this they craftily 
 obtained, under pretence of remodelling the army. The 
 scheme was advocated from the pulpit, and in spite of the 
 opposition of "Whitelocke, and other Presbyterians, a com- 
 mittee was appointed to frame what was called the Self- 
 denying Ordinance; by which the members of both houses 
 were excluded from all civil and military employments — a 
 few ofEices, which were specified, excepted ; and it at last 
 received the sanction of Parliament (Dec. 9, 1644). In con- 
 fiequence of this ordinance, Essex, "Warwick, Manchester, 
 Denbigh, "Waller, and others, resigned their commands, and 
 received the thanks of both houses. Cromwell, who was a 
 member of the lower house, should also have been discarded; 
 but this impartiality would have disappointed the views of 
 those who had introduced the Self-denying Ordinance. Sir 
 Thomas Fairfax, the new general, having appointed a ren- 
 dezvous of the army, desired leave to retain Cromwell for a 
 few days, and shortly after begged, with much earnestness, 
 that Cromwell might be permitted to serve during the 
 ensuing campaign. Thus the Independents, though the 
 minority, prevailed by art and cUnning over the Presby- 
 terians, and bestowed the whole military authority, in 
 appearance, upon Fairfax, but in reality upon CromweE 
 Fairfax, who was equally eminent for courage and humanity, 
 sincere in his professions, disinterested in his views, and 
 open in his conduct, would have formed one of the most 
 shining characters of that age, had not the extreme narrow- 
 ness of his genius, in everything but war, diminished the 
 lustre of his merit, and rendered the part which he acted, 
 even when vested with the supreme command, but secondary 
 and subordinate. Cromwell, by whose sagacity and insinua- 
 
EXECUTION OF LAtTD. 269 
 
 tion the general was entirely governed, though naturally of 
 an imperious and domineering temper, knew how to employ, 
 when necessary, the most profound dissimulation, the most 
 refined artifice, and the semblance of the greatest moderation 
 and simplicity. His vigorous capacity enabled him to form 
 the deepest designs, and his enterprising spirit was not 
 dismayed at the boldest undertakings. 
 
 § 361. Whilst this competition was going on between the 
 Presbyterians and Independents, Archbishop Laud was 
 brought from prison, tried, and executed (Jan. 10, 1645). 
 After a long trial, and the examination of above a hundred 
 and fifty witnesses, the Commons found so little likelihood 
 of obtaining a judicial sentence against him, that they were 
 obliged to have recourse to their legislative authority, and to 
 pass an ordinance for taking away his life. Seven peers only 
 voted on this important question, the rest absenting them- 
 selves either from fear or sliame. This new example of the 
 vindictive spirit of the Commons promised little success to 
 the negotiations for peace, which were soon after set on foot 
 at Uxbridge (Jan. 30). It was agreed that the Scotch and 
 parliamentary commissioners should give in their demands 
 with respect to three important articles — religion, the 
 militia, and Ireland ; and that these should be successively 
 examined and discussed, in conferences with the king's com- 
 missioners. The king's partisans had always maintained, 
 that the fears and jealousies of the Parliament, after the 
 effectual measures taken in 1641 for the security of public 
 liberty, were either feigned or groundless. Charles, how- 
 ever, offered that the arms of the state should be intrusted, 
 during three years, to twenty commissioners, who should be 
 named, either by common agreement between him and the 
 Parliament, or one half by him, and the other by the Par- 
 liament. But the parliamentary commissioners positively 
 insisted on being intrusted with the absolute power of the 
 sword, for at least seven years. After the debate had been 
 carried on to no purpose for several days, the commissioners 
 separated, and returned to London and Oxford (Feb. 24). 
 
 § 362. James Graham, marquis of Montrose, raised a 
 powerful division in Scotland, and with an army of two 
 thousand men, very indifferently armed, defeated six thou- 
 sand Covenanters near Perth, and killed two thousand of 
 them. Montrose, whose daring soul delighted in perilous 
 undertakings, eluded every danger, and gained several 
 victories. But, unhappily for Charles, before Montrose 
 
270 BATTLE OF NASEBY, 
 
 could carry his success so far as to oblige the Covenanters 
 to withdraw any part of their forces, events had taken place 
 in England which rendered the royal cause almost desperate. 
 In consequence of the change in the formation of the par- 
 liamentary army, the officers, in most regiments, assumed 
 the spiritual as well as military command over their 
 men. Praying and psalm-singing took up much of their 
 time, and a religious enthusiasm pervaded all ranks. The 
 Cavaliers in derision of this religious mania ran into the 
 opposite extreme, and the depredations committed in Scot- 
 land, by the Highlanders under Montrose, made the approach 
 of the royal army the object of terror to both parties over 
 the whole island. On the opening of the campaign, Charles 
 left Oxford with fifteen thousand men, relieved Chester^ 
 and took Leicester (May 31). In his absence Fairfax had 
 besieged Oxford ; but these successes induced the parlia.- 
 mentary general to advance for the purpose of giving battle 
 to the royal army. Fairfax had a great advantage in point 
 of numbers ; but in spite of this he was attacked by the 
 royalists in his position on a rising ground near Naseby, 
 The king and Prince Eupert performed prodigies of valour, 
 but were obliged to quit the field ; and although the Par- 
 liament had a thousand, and the king only eight hundred 
 men slain, scarcely any victory could be more complete. 
 Nearly five thousand of the royalists were made prisoners, 
 among whom were five hundred officers ; and aU the king's 
 baggage, artillery, and ammunition fell into the hands of 
 the enemy (June 14, 1645). 
 
 Letter 7. — England, from the Battle of Nasety to the Execution of 
 Charles I. and the Subversion of the Monarchy, a.d. 16i5 — 1649, 
 Vol. ii., pages 87—101. 
 
 § 363. After the battle of Naseby, the king's afiairswent 
 so fast to ruin in all quarters, that he ordered the prince of 
 Wales, then fifteen years of age, to make his escape beyond 
 sea. The king himself retreated first to Hereford, then to 
 Abergavenny ; and remained some time in Wales, in hopes 
 of raising a body of infantry in that loyal but exhausted 
 country. The parliamentary generals and the Scotch made 
 themselves masters of almost every place of importance in 
 the kingdom, and even Prince Rupert surrendered Bristol, 
 in which city he had sought refuge, at the first summons 
 (Sept. 9, 1645). The king returned from Wales, and after 
 an unsuccessful attempt to raise the siege of Ciiester, took' 
 
CHAELES A PEISONEE. 271 
 
 refuge with the remains of his broken army in Oxford, 
 where he continued during the winter season. In Scotland 
 Montrose was routed and compelled to make his escape, 
 while the Covenanters used their victory with great rigour. 
 The king's condition was truly deplorable, and in vain did 
 he attempt to negotiate with the Parliament : they would 
 not listen to him, but gave him to understand that he must 
 yield at discretion. The rest of his troops, which he had 
 ordered to march towards Oxford under Lord Astley, in 
 order to reinforce the garrison of that place, were totally 
 defeated by Colonel Morgan at Stow-on-the-Wold (March 21, 
 1646). The advance of Fairfax upon Oxford caused the 
 king to flee, and he took refuge with the Scotch army at 
 Newark (May 5, 1646). They at first treated the royal 
 fugitive with respect, but afterwards delivered him up to 
 the parliamentary commissioners, and he was conducted to 
 Holmby House, in Northamptonshire (Feb. 16, 1647). 
 
 § 364. The civil war was now over. No sooner was the 
 king subdued, than the division between the Presbyterians 
 and Independents burst forth afresh ; and the Independents, 
 who, in consequence of the Self-denying Ordinance, had 
 obtained the command of the army, solaced themselves with 
 the prospect of a new revolution. Such a revolution as they 
 desired was accomplished by the assistance of the military 
 power, which tumbled the Parliament from its slippery 
 throne. The Presbyterians still retained the superiority 
 among the Commons, and all the peers, except Lord Say, 
 were esteemed of that party; but the Independents, to 
 whom the inferior sectaries adhered, predominated in the 
 army, and the troops on the new establishment were uni- 
 versally infected with that enthusiastic spirit. Aware of 
 this, as well as that their antagonists trusted to the sword, 
 in their projects for acquiring an ascendancy, the Presby- 
 terian party in Parliament, under pretence of easing the 
 public burdens, obtained a vote for disbanding one part of 
 the army, and for sending another part of it into Ireland, in 
 order to subdue the rebels in that kingdom. These orders 
 caused a meeting amongst the forces, and the two Houses of 
 Parliament, under apprehensions for their own safety, sent 
 Cromwell, Ireton, and Fleetwood, the secret authors of 
 these discontents, to negotiate. In opposition to the Par- 
 liament at Westminster, a kind of military convention was 
 formed ; consisting, first, of a council of the principal ofiScers, 
 in imitation of the House of Peers ; and next, of a more 
 
272 DISSENSIONS. 
 
 free representation of the army, by the electidn of two pri- 
 vate men or inferior officers, under the title of Agitatora, 
 from each troop or company. This terrible consistory 
 declared that they found no distempers in the army, but 
 many grievances, and immediately voted the offers of the 
 Parliament unsatisfactory. Cromvrell seized the king's 
 person, and having thus deprived the Parliament of any 
 means of accommodation with him, advanced to St. Alban's 
 in order to intimidate them. The Parliament s'oon became 
 an object of general hatred and aw^ersion. Though near 
 one-half of the lands, rents, and revenues of the kingdoin 
 had been sequestered, the taxes and impositions were much 
 higher than in any former period of the Eaglish govern- 
 ment. The excise, an odious tax, formerly unknown to the 
 nation, had been introduced ; and it was extended to pro- 
 visions and the common necessaries of life. But what' 
 excited the most universal complaint was the unliiaifcedi 
 tyranny and despotic rule of the country committees ; which 
 could sequester, fine, imprison, and corporally punish with- 
 out law or remedy. They interposed even in questions' of 
 private property ; and, under colour of malignancy, they' 
 exercised vengeance against their private enemies. Thus, 
 instead of one Star-chamber, which had been abolished, a 
 great number were erected, fortified with better pretences, 
 and armed with more unlimited authority. DisSeilsioila 
 increased ; the army was removed to Reading, still keeping 
 the king in custody, who had at length befcome of consej- 
 quence to both parties. Various offers were made to him. 
 A proposal for an alteration in the militia of the city of 
 London produced a serious disturbance, whereupon- the 
 army advanced from Beading towards the capital. They 
 were met on Hounslow Heath by the speakers of the two 
 houses, accompanied by eight peers and about sixty 
 commoners ; who complained of the violence put updn 
 them, and craved protection. The two houses immediately 
 chose new speakers, renewed their orders for enlisting 
 troops, and commanded the train-bands to man the lines. 
 The army marched in triumph through the city, but without 
 committing any outrage. They conducted to Westminster 
 the two speakers, who resumed their seats as if nothing had 
 happened ; and the eleven impeached members, being ac- 
 cused as the authors of the tumult, were expelled. Several 
 arrests took place, the Independents triumphed, and the 
 Parliament being reduced to absolute servitude, a day was- 
 
CROMWELL'S SCHEMES. 273 
 
 appointed for a solemn thanksgiving to God for the restora- 
 tion of its liberty. The Independents, who had secretly 
 concurred in all the encroachments of the military upon the 
 civil power, exulted in their victory. They had now a near 
 prospect of moulding the government into the form of that 
 imaginary republic which had long been the object of their 
 wishes ; and they vainly expected, by the terror of the 
 sword, to impose a more perfect system of liberty on the 
 nation, without perceiving that they must themselves, by 
 such conduct, become slaves to some military despot (1647). 
 
 § 365. Charles was removed to Hampton Court (Aug. 16, 
 1647), and being treated with great rigour, he made his 
 escape (Nov.ll). Indeed it is supposed,that the republicans, 
 aware of the general feeling that existed in his favour, wished 
 to get rid of him in this manner. After wandering about for 
 some time, Charles placed himself under the protection of 
 Hammond, governor of the Isle of Wight, by whom he was 
 conveyed as a prisoner to Carisbrook Castle. Cromwell 
 being now freed from all anxiety in regard to the custody 
 of the king's person, and entirely master of the army, set 
 himself about curing its disorders. The camp, in many 
 respects, had more the appearance of civil liberty than 
 of mihtary subordination. In order to mortify their spiri- 
 tual pride, Cromwell issued orders for discontinuing the 
 meetings of the Agitators. But the Levellers, as the fana^ 
 tical party in the army were called, secretly continued their 
 meetings ; and at length beg3n to affirm that the mihtary 
 establishment, as much as any part of the church or state, 
 stood in need of reformation. Several regiments joined in 
 seditious remonstrances and petitions. At a general review 
 of the forces, Cromwell ordered the ringleaders to be seized 
 in the face of their companions. He held a council of war 
 in the field; shot one mutineer, confined others, and by 
 this well-timed rigour reduced the whole army to discipline 
 and obedience. 
 
 § 366. Cromwell could not bear a rival, and his next ob- 
 ject was to get rid of Charles. To murder him privately 
 would have exposed all concerned in the foul deed to uni- 
 versal execration; In order to extricate himself from this 
 difficulty, Cromwell had recourse to the counsels of Ireton, 
 who, having grafted the soldier on the lawyer, and the 
 statesman on the saint, thought himself absolved from the 
 ordinary rules of morality in the prosecution of his holy 
 purposes. At his suggestion, Cromwell secretly called,, at 
 
 T 
 
274 THE PLOT DEVELOPED. 
 
 "Windsor, a council of the chief officers of the army, in order 
 to deliberate concerning the settlement of the nation, and 
 the future disposal of the king's person ; and in that hypo* 
 critical conference, was first opened the daring counsel of 
 subjecting the king to a judicial sentence. This resolution 
 being solemnly formed, it became necessary to concert such 
 measures as would make the Parliament adopt it ; and to 
 lead them insensibly from violence to violence, till that last 
 act ot atrocious iniquity should seem essential to their own 
 safety. The conspirators accordingly, as a first step toward 
 their bloody purpose, instigated the Independents in the 
 House of Commons to frame four propositions, by way of 
 preliminaries, which were sent to the king ; and to each of 
 which they demanded his positive assent, before they would 
 condescend to treat with him, though they knew that the 
 whole would be rejected. These propositions were altogether 
 exorbitant. Charles therefore demanded a personal treaty 
 with the Parliament ; and desired that the general terms 
 on both sides should be adjusted, before particular conces» 
 sions on either side should be insisted upon. It was voted, 
 that no more addresses be made to the king, nor any letters 
 or messages received from him ; and that it be accounted 
 treason for any one, without leave of the two Houses of 
 Parliament, to have any intercourse with him. By this vote 
 the king was in reality dethroned, and the whole constitution 
 formally overthrown. By command of the army, he waa 
 shut up in close confinement ; all his servants were removed) 
 and all correspondence with his friends was cut oS. la this 
 state of dreary solitude, while he expected every moment 
 to be poisoned or assassinated, he reposed with confidence 
 upon that Great Being who penetrates and sustains all 
 nature, and whose chastisements, if received with piety 
 and resignation, he regarded as the surest pledges of favour 
 and afi'ection. The Scotch protested against the four 
 propositions, and both in Engand and Scotland many pre- 
 pared to espouse the cause of their injured sovereign. The 
 Presbyterians again obtained the ascendancy in the Par- 
 liament, and attempted to make a treaty with the king, 
 and after a violent debate of three days, it was carried by a 
 ma.jority of forty-six against an opposition of eighty-three, 
 that the king's concessions were a foundation for the Par- 
 liament to proceed upon in the settlement of the kingdom. 
 This was the time for the generals to interpose ; and they 
 seized in the passage forty-one members of the Presbyterian 
 
TRIAL OF CHARLES. 275 
 
 party : above a hundred and fifty more commoners were 
 excluded; and none were allowed to enter but the most 
 furious and determined of the Independents, who did not 
 exceed sixty in number. This remnant, ludicrously called 
 the Bump, instantly reversed the former vote, and declared 
 the king's concessions unsatisfactory (1648). 
 
 § 367. Thus far the extreme party had triumphed, and 
 they prepared to put their designs into execution. A com- 
 mittee of the House of Commons was appointed to bring in 
 a charge against the king ; and on their report a vote 
 passed, declaring it high treason in a king to levy war against 
 his Parliament, and appointing a High Court of Justice to 
 try Charles Stuart for that crime. This vote was sent up 
 to the House of Peers, and rejected without one dissenting 
 voice, contemptible as were the few peers that now at- 
 tended! (Jan. 2, 1649). But the Commons were not to be 
 stopped by so small an obstacle ; and they declared that their 
 authority was sufficient without the consent of the king or 
 House of Peers (Jan. 4). Colonel Harrison, the son of a 
 butcher, and the most furious enthusiast in the army, was 
 sent with a strong party to conduct the king to London. 
 The form of the trial was soon regulated, and the High 
 Court of Justice, or rather of iniquity, fully constituted. 
 It sat in "Westminster Hall, and consisted of near a hundred 
 and fifty persons, named by the Commons ; though scarcely 
 seventy ever attended, and few of these were men of either 
 birth or character. Cromwell, Ireton, Harrison, and other 
 officers of the army, some members of the lower house, 
 and some citizens of London, were the judges appointed to 
 try their sovereign. Bradshaw, a lawyer, was chosen presi- 
 dent ; Coke, another lawyer, was appointed solicitor for the 
 people of England ; and Dorislaus, Steele, and Aske, were 
 named assistants. The king conducted himself with be- 
 coming dignity, denied the authority of his judges, and 
 referred to the breaches of faith of which the Parliament 
 had been guilty. Three times was Charles produced be- 
 fore the court, and as often did he refuse to acknowledge 
 its jurisdiction. At the fourth sitting sentence of death 
 was pronoimced against him. Pirm and intrepid in all his 
 appearances before his judges, the unfortunate monarch 
 never forgot himself either as a prince or as a man ; nor 
 did he discover any emotion at this extraordinary sen- 
 tence. Three days were allowed him between his sentence 
 and execution. These he passed in great tranquillity, occu- 
 T 2 
 
276 EXECUTION OF CHAELES. 
 
 pied himself chiefly in reading and devotion, and every night 
 slept as sound as usual, though the noise of workmen em- 
 ployed in framing the scaffold, and making other prepara- 
 tions for his exit, continually resounded in his ears. His 
 appearance upon the scaffold won the hearts of all. He 
 vindicated himself from the accusation of having commenced 
 vpar against his Parliament. But, although innocent toward 
 his people, he acknowledged the equity of his execution in 
 the eye of Heaven ; and observed, that an unjust sentence 
 •which he had suffered to take effect upon the earl of Straf- 
 ford was now punished by an unjust sentence upon himself. 
 He declared, that he forgave all his enemies, even the chief 
 instruments of his death ; but exhorted them and the whole 
 nation to return to the ways of peace, by paying obedience 
 to their lawful sovereign, his son and successor. It being 
 remarked that the king, the moment before he stretched out 
 his neck to the executioner, had emphatically pronounced 
 the word eemembee ! great mysteries were supposed to be 
 concealed under that expression ; and the generals insisted 
 that Juxon should inform them of its latent meaning. The 
 bishop told them, that the king, having frequently charged 
 him to inculcate on his son the forgiveness of his murderers, 
 had taken this opportunity, in the last moment of his life, 
 to reiterate that desire ; and that his mild spirit thus termi- 
 nated its present course by an act of benevolence toward 
 his greatest enemies. These exhortations being finished, 
 the king prepared himself for the block. One of the execu- 
 tioners, at a single blow, severed the king's head from his 
 body, and the other holding it up, streaming with blood, 
 cried aloud, " This is the head of a traitor ! " Grief, terror, 
 and indignation took possession of the hearts of the as- 
 tonished spectators ; each of whom seemed to accuse himself 
 either of active dialoysdty to his murdered sovereign, or with 
 too indolent a defence of his oppressed cause. The same 
 sentiments spread throughout the wholp kingdom. The 
 people were everywhere overwhelmed with sorrow and con- 
 fusion, as soon as informed of the fatal catastrophe of the 
 king, and filled with unrelenting hatred against the authors 
 of his death. His sufferings, his magnanimity, his patience, 
 his piety, and his Christian deportment, caused all his errors 
 to be forgotten ; and nothing was heard but lamentations 
 and self-reproaches (Jan. "30, 1649). Charles I. was of 
 a middling stature, strong, and well-proportioned. His 
 judgment was sound, his taste elegant, and his general tern- 
 
HIS CHAEACTEE. 277 
 
 per moderate. He was a sincere admirer of the fine arts, 
 and a liberal encourager of those who pursued them. As a 
 man, his character was unexceptionable, and even highly 
 exemplary ; in a word, we may say with Lord Clarendon, 
 that " he was the worthiest gentleman, the best master, the 
 best friend, the best husband, the best father, and the best 
 Christian in his dominions." But he had the misfortune, as 
 a king, to be educated in high notions of the royal prero- 
 gative, which he thought it his duty to support, at a time 
 when his people were little inclined to respect such rights ; 
 and to be superstitiously devoted to the religion of his 
 country, when the violence of fanaticism was ready to over- 
 turn both the church and monarchy." 
 
 ■ Amongst tbe various religious sects that rose dnriiigtiiis tnrbnlent 
 period, may be mentioned the Qaakers, not hitherto noticed in the body 
 of this work. The founder of this sect was George Fox, bom in Dray- 
 ton, Leicestershire, in 1624. He was the son of a Weaver, And bred a 
 shoemaker. At the time when every ignorant fanatic imagined that 
 be conld invent a new system of religion or government, he separated 
 himself from his family and abandoned his trade (1647). Living in 
 seclusion, he believed himself filled with inward light, and soon began 
 to make converts. They committed the greatest excesses, and one of 
 their number, John Ifaylor, assumed the character of the Messiah. 
 They were at first called Seekers, fi:om pretending to seek after the 
 truth. Various explanations are given <Jf the origin of the term Quaker. 
 By some Fox is said to have admonished a magistrate and others present 
 to tremble at the word of the Lord, and hence to have received the 
 name. Others assert they were first called Quakers because of the 
 agitation under which they laboured when prompted by the spirit to 
 discourse. 
 
278 STATE OF FEANCE. 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 Letteh 8. — A General View of the European Continent, from the 
 Peace of Westphalia to the Pyrenean Treaty, and the Peace of Oliva. 
 A.D. 1648—1660. Vol. ii., pages 101—108. 
 
 § 368. TnorGH the peace of "Westphalia restored tran- 
 quillity to Germany and the north of Europe, war contiaued 
 between Spain and France, and the latter country was also 
 distracted by civil broils. The coadjutor-archbishop of 
 Paris, afterwards the celebrated cardinal of Hetz, jealous of 
 the greatness of Mazarine, endeavoured to set princes, 
 nobility, and people against his administration. The Parlia- 
 ment of Paris adopted his views, and boldly placed itself ia 
 opposition to the court. Louis XIV. was at that time a 
 minor, under the regency of Anne of Austria. Mazarine, 
 who actually governed the kingdom, ordered the president 
 and one of the most factious counsellors to be arrested, and 
 sent to prison. The populace rose ; barricaded the streets; 
 threatened the cardinal and the queen-regent ; and continued 
 their outrages, till the prisoners were set at liberty. Thus 
 encouraged by the support of the people, the Parliament 
 and the archbishop proceeded in their cabals. The queen- 
 regent could not appear in public without being insulted, 
 and she left Paris, accompanied by her children and her 
 minister, and retired to St. Germain's. In the mean time 
 the Parliament, by a solemn decree, declared Cardinal 
 Mazarine a disturber of the public peace, and an enemy to 
 the kingdom. A separation of parties took place ; and the 
 prince of Conti, the duke of Longueville, the duke of Beau- 
 fort, the duke of Bouillon, and their adherents, came and 
 offered their services to the Parliament. Seduced by the 
 example of Paris, other cities, other parliaments, and even 
 provinces revolted : the whole kingdom became a scene of 
 anarchy and confusion. Cond6 rushed to the rescue, dispersed 
 the malcontents, and a conference was agreed to, and a 
 treaty concluded at Eouel, by which a general amnesty was 
 
MAZAHINE'S INTRIGUES. 279 
 
 granted, and a temporary quiet procured, but without any 
 extinction of hatred on either side (March 11, 1649). 
 
 § 369. While parties remained in such a temper, no solid 
 peace could be expected. The court, however, returned to 
 Paris, and the cardinal was received with expressions of joy 
 and satisfaction. The prince of Conde, presuming on his 
 great services, repeatedly insulted the queen and the cardinal. 
 He also by his haughtiness disgusted the coadjutor, and 
 entered into cabals against the court with other factious 
 leaders. By the advice of this intriguing prelate, Conde 
 was arrested at the council-table, together with the prince 
 of Conti and the duke of LongueviUe, the very heads of the 
 malcontents. But the triumph of the minister was of 
 short duration. The imprisonment of the princes roused 
 their partisans to arms in every comer of the kingdom ; 
 and the duke of Orleans headed the malcontents. Maza- 
 rine, after setting the princes at liberty, in hopes of con- 
 ciliating their favour, was obliged to flee first to Liege, and 
 then to Cologne ; where he continued to govern the queen- 
 regent, as if he had never quitted the court. By their 
 intrigues the duke of Bouillon and his brother Turenne 
 were detached from the malcontents. Mazarine re-entered 
 the kingdom, escorted by six thousand men. Conde once 
 more flew to arms ; and the Parliament declared him guilty 
 of high treason, nearly at the same time that it set a price 
 upon the head of the cardinal, against whom only he had 
 taken the field ! The battle of St. Antoiae (July 2, 1652), 
 was gained by Conde over Turennej and the duke of Orleans 
 was declared lieutenant-general of the kingdom, while Conde 
 was styled commander-in-chief of the armies of Prance. 
 These new dignities, however, were of short duration. A 
 popular tumult, in which several citizens were killed, and of 
 which the prince of Conde was supposed to be the author, 
 obliged him to quit Paris, and the king, in order to appease 
 his subjects, being now of age, dismissed Mazarine, who 
 retired to Sedan. That measure had the desired effect. 
 The people everywhere returned to their allegiance, and 
 Louis entered his capital amid the acclamations of persons of 
 all ranks. The duke of Orleans was banished the court, and 
 the cardinal of Eetz committed to prison (1652). Conde, 
 being condemned to lose his head, continued his unhappy 
 engagements with Spain. The Parliament was humbled, 
 and Mazarine recalled ; when, finding his power more firmly 
 established than ever, the subtle Itafim, in the exultation of 
 
280 TREATY OF THE PYRENEES. 
 
 his heart at the universal homage that vras paid him, looked 
 down with an eye of contempt on the levity of the French 
 nation, and determined to make them feel the pressure of 
 his administration, of which they had formerly complained 
 without reason. Thus ended what are called the civil wars 
 of the Eronde, in which an archbishop, certain magistrates, 
 and the most beautiful and accomplished women in Europe 
 took part (1653). 
 
 § 370. During this civil contention, the war with Spain 
 had still been carried on. Barcelona was recovered (Oct. 13, 
 1652) ; Gravelines reduced, and Dunkirk captured, in the 
 same year. The termination of the Fronde wars changed the 
 aspect of affairs. Turenne checked Conde's victorious career, 
 took Stenay; and the ammunition, artillery, and baggage 
 of the Spaniards were captured by another division of the 
 French army. Several skirmishes and encounters ensued, 
 and at last an alliance was entered into between France and 
 England (1657). Dunkirk was immediately attacked by 
 sea and land, and although Conde came to its relief, it 
 surrendered (1658), and was given up to the English, 
 according to the terms of the treaty. Fumes, Oudenarde, 
 Tpres, Gravelines, and other towns submitted to the arms 
 of France, and the Spanish government perceived the 
 necessity of suing for peace. Conferences were held in the 
 Isle of Pheasants, in the Pyrenees, and peace was at length 
 concluded on these terms :— ^Louis XIV. was to marry 
 Maria Theresa, the Infanta of Spain. Philip IV. agreed to 
 pardon the rebellious Catalans, and Louis to receive Conde 
 into favour. Spain renounced all pretensions to Alsace, 
 and the long-disputed succession of Juliers was granted to 
 the duke of Neuburg (Nov. 7, 1659). Such was thepeac6 
 of the Pyrenees. Cardinal Mazarine died soon after 
 (March 9, 1661). He had the singular honour of extend- 
 ing the limits of the French monarchy, while France was 
 distracted by intestine hostilities ; and of twice restoring 
 peace to the greater part of Europe, after the longest and 
 most bloody wars it had ever known. Nor must his at- 
 tention to the Spanish succession, which has since made 
 the house of Bourbon so formidable to its neighbours, and is 
 a striking proof of his political foresight, be forgotten. 
 
 § 371. The tranquillity which the peace of "Westphalia had 
 restored to Germany, continued unmolested till the death 
 of Ferdinand III. (April 2, 1657), when an interregnum of 
 five months ensued, and the Diet was violently agitated in, 
 
CHRISTINA OF SWEDEN. 281 
 
 regard to the choice of a successor. At last, however, his 
 son Leopold was raised to the imperial throne (1658)4 
 While the Turks remained masters of Buda, the French in 
 possession of Alsace, and the Swedes of Pomerania, a 
 powerful emperor seemed necessary. The first measure of 
 Leopold's reign was the finishing of an alliance, which his 
 father had begun, with Poland and Denmark, in opposition 
 to Sweden, which kingdom had been raised to the highest 
 pitch of military reputation by the victories of Gustavus 
 Adolphus, the champion of the Protestant cause. His 
 daughter Christina, no less ambitious of fame, immortalized 
 her short reign, by declaring herself the patroness of learn- 
 ing and the polite arts. She drew to her court, Grrotius, 
 Vossius, Descartes, and other eminent men, whom she 
 liberally rewarded. The Senate of Sweden proposed that 
 she should marry her cousin, Charles G-ustavus. This she re- 
 fused to do, but prevailed upon the States to declare Charles 
 Gustavus her successor (1650). An universal discontent 
 arose, and Christina was again pressed to marry. The dis- 
 gust occasioned by this importunity first suggested to her the 
 idea of quitting the throne. She accordingly signified her 
 intention of resigning, in a letter to Charles Gustavus, and of 
 surrendering her crown in full senate. But Charles refused 
 to accept the crown, and Christina, having been waited 
 upon by the Senate and the chief officers of state, consented 
 to retain the sceptre. Finding it impossible, however, to 
 reconcile her literary pursuits with the duties of her station, 
 Christina finally resigned her crown (June 16, 1654) ; and 
 Charles Gustavus ascended the throne of Sweden; under the 
 name of Charles X. After despoiling the palace of every- 
 thing curious or valuable, Christina left her kingdom. She 
 travelled through Germany in men's clothes ; and having a 
 design of fixing her residence at Eome, that she might have 
 an opportunity of contemplating the precious remains of 
 antiquity, she embraced the Eoman Catholic religion at 
 Brussels, and solemnly renounced Lutheranism at Inspruok 
 (1655). She soon grew weary in her new position at Eome, 
 and made two journeys into France ; but having ordered the 
 assassination of Monaldesehi, one of her favourites, in the 
 great gallery of Fontainebleau (1657), she was compelled to 
 leave France, and again to take refuge at Eome. 
 
 § 372. While Christina was thus rambling over Europe, 
 and amusing herself in a manner as unworthy of her former 
 character as of the daughter of the great Gustavus, her 
 
282 THE SWEDES CONQUER POLAND, 
 
 successor, Charles X., indulged the martial spirit of the 
 Swedes, by the conquest of Poland. This he accomplished, 
 after several signal victories, in which he displayed both 
 courage and conduct. "Warsaw, the capital, was obliged to 
 surrender ; and Casimir, the Polish king, took refuge in 
 Silesia (1655). But that conquest was of small advantage 
 to Sweden. The Poles revolted, iu violation of the most 
 solemn oaths and engagements ; and the Eussiaus, the 
 Danes, the elector of Brandenburg, and the emperor 
 Leopold, assisted them in expelling their invaders. But 
 the king of Sweden, though assailed by so many enemies, 
 was not discouraged. Depending on the valour of his 
 troops, he suddenly entered Denniark, then governed by 
 IFrederic III., laid siege to Copenhagen (1658), and com- 
 pelled the king of Denmark to sign the treaty of Eoskild, 
 which was afterwards broken, and the siege renewed. He 
 made a second attack on the same capital the year fol- 
 lowing, though without success ; and the ardour of his 
 spirit being still unabated, he was taking measures to push 
 the war with redoubled vigour against all his enemies, 
 when he was carried off by an epidemic fever that raged 
 in his camp (Feb. 13, 1660). As the son of this warlike 
 and ambitious monarch was yet a minor, peace now became 
 necessary to Sweden. Treaties for the general pacification of 
 the North were accordingly concluded at Oliva, May 3, and at 
 Copenhagen, June 6, 1660 ; by which Polish Prussia was 
 restored to Casimir, who ceded Esthonia and the Northern 
 Livonia to Sweden. The Danish monarch, still under the 
 terror of the Swedish arms, also made considerable sacrifices. 
 
 Letter 9. — History of the Commonwealtli of England to the Death of 
 Cromwell, with some Account of the Affairs of Scotland, Holland, 
 and Ireland, a.d. 1649—1658. Vol. ii., pages 109—130. 
 
 § 373. No sooner was the monarchy abolished, than 
 Cromwell began to aspire at absolute sovereigiity. After 
 the dissolution of the constitution, England was divided 
 into a variety of sects and factions, many of which were 
 dissatisfied with the ruling powers, and longed for the 
 •restoration of monarchy. But all these were overawed by 
 an army of fifty thousand men, by which the republican 
 and independent faction was supported, and of which 
 Cromwell was the soul. The Commonwealth Parliament, 
 as that inconsiderable part of the House of Commons that 
 remained was called, finding everything composed into 
 
IRELAND SUBDUED. 283 
 
 seemiDg tranquillity, began to assume the air of legal 
 authority, and to enlarge a little the narrow foundation on 
 which it stood, by admitting, under certain conditions, such 
 of the excluded members as were liable to least exception. 
 A council of state was also named, consisting of thirty-eight 
 persons, to whom all addresses were made ; who gave orders 
 to all generals and admirals ; who executed the laws, and 
 who digested all business before it was introduced into 
 parliament (Feb. 14, 1649). But although the force of the 
 army kept everything quiet in England, the prince of Wales, 
 who wandered about from place to place on the continent, 
 assumed the title of Charles II., and the Scotch Covenanters 
 seemed inclined to espouse his cause. 
 
 § 374. Upon the decline of the king's cause, the marquis 
 of Ormond, who commanded the royalist forces in Ireland, 
 was compelled to make terms with the English Parliament 
 (1647), and having visited his royal master in England, he 
 afterwards retired to the continent. A formidable insur- 
 rection afterwards broke out against the authority of the 
 Parliament, and Ormond returned to resume possession of 
 the government (1649). Prince Charles was invited to visit 
 this portion of his dominions ; but at this juncture Cromwell 
 assumed the command, and reduced the country to subjec- 
 tion. He carried Drogheda by assault, and put the garrison 
 to death (Sept. 11, 1649). During the winter Ormond's 
 troops deserted, and he left the island. Cromwell allowed 
 the Irish soldiers and officers to engage in foreign service, 
 and about forty thousand Eoman Catholics embraced this 
 voluntary banishment. 
 
 § 375. These unexpected events, which blasted all the 
 hopes of the young king from Ireland, induced him to 
 listen to the offers of the Scottish Covenanters, and appoint 
 a meeting with their commissioners at Breda (March 15, 
 1650). Charles was required to submit, without reserve, 
 to the most ignominious terms ever imposed by a people 
 upon their prince. They insisted, that he should issue a 
 proclamation, banishing from court all excommunicated 
 persons ; or, in other words, all who, under Hamilton and 
 Montrose, had ventured their lives for his family ; that no 
 English subject, whohad served against the Parliament, should 
 be allowed to approach him ; that he should bind himself by 
 his royal promise to take the Covenant ; that he should ratify 
 all acts of Parliament by which Presbyterian discipline and 
 worship were established ; that in civil affairs, he should con- 
 
28i PRINCE CHARLES IN SCOTLAND. 
 
 form himself entirely to the direction of the Parliaraenf, 
 and in ecclesiastical, to that of the General Assemhly of the 
 Kirk. Charles, yielding to the advice of Buckingham, 
 accepted these conditions, and set sail for Scotland, where 
 he soon after arrived (June 23). Montrose, who had in the 
 mean time raised the royal standard, was defeated, taken 
 prisoner, and hanged (May 21). Thus the very Covenanters 
 •who had become his executioners, now conducted Charles, 
 as a captive, into the kingdom. Before he was permitted to 
 land, he was obliged to sign the Covenant, and to hear many 
 sermons and lectures on the duty of persevering in that 
 holy confederacy. The duke of Hamilton, formerly earl of 
 Lanark, the earl of Lauderdale, and Other noblemen who 
 had shared his counsels abroad, and whom the Covenanters 
 called Ungagers^ were immediately separated from him, and 
 obliged to retire to their own houses. None of his English 
 courtiers, except the duke of Buckingham, w^ere allowed to 
 remain in the kingdom ; so that he found himself entirely 
 in the hands of Argyle and the more rigid Presbyterians, 
 by whom he was considered as a mere pageant of state, and 
 at whose mercy lay both his life and liberty. Not satisfied 
 with this, they compelled him to sign a declaration in whieh 
 his father's policy was condemned, and he engaged not to 
 tolerate popery, superstition, prelacy, heresy, schism, and 
 profaneness. In the mean time he found his authority 
 totally annihilated. He was not called to assist at any 
 public council, and his favour Was sufiScient to discredit any 
 candidate for office or preferment. The same jealousy 
 rendered abortive all his attempts to reconcile the opposite 
 parties. Argyle, the chief leader of the Covenanters, art- 
 fully eluded all the king's advances towards a coalition. 
 Malignants and Engayers continued to be objects of general 
 hatred and persecution ; and whoever happened to be oh" 
 noxious to the clergy was sure to be branded with one or 
 other of those epithets. 
 
 § 376. Other actors were preparing to make their ap- 
 pearance upon the scene. The English Parliament was no 
 sooner informed of the issue of the negotiations at Breda, 
 than Cromwell was recalled from Ireland ; and vigorous 
 preparations were made for hostilities, which it was foreseen 
 would prove inevitable between the two British kingdoms. 
 Fairfax refused to bear arms against the Covenanters, and 
 resigned his commission as commander-in-chief, whereupon 
 Cromwell obtained the appointment of captain-general of 
 all the forces in England. He advanced rapidly into 
 
BATTLE OF WOKCESTEE. 285 
 
 Scotland at the head of sixteen thousand men, and defeated 
 the Covenanters at Dunbar (Sept. 3, 1650). Cromwell, 
 improving his advantage, made himself master of Edinburgh 
 and Leith, while the remnant of the Scottish army fled to 
 Stirling. An ague, with which he was seized, and the 
 approach of winter, prevented him from pushing his con- 
 quests further, before the close of the campaign. This 
 defeat compelled the Covenanters to give Charles more 
 authority, but he was still in a condition ill suited to his 
 temper and disposition. Charles put himself at the head 
 of .his troops encamped in a very advantageous position 
 near Stirling, and being hard pressed by Cromwell, suddenly 
 crossed the border, and marched into England at the head 
 of fourteen thousand men (Aug. 6, 1651). But he was 
 disappointed in the reception he received. The English 
 Presbyterians, having no notice of his design, were not 
 prepared to join him; and the Cavaliers, or old royalists, to 
 whom his approach was equally unknown, were deterred 
 from such a measure, by the necessity of subscribing the 
 Covenant. Eoth parties were overawed by the militia of 
 the counties, which the Parliament had, everywhere, autho- 
 rity sufficient to raise. Having reached Worcester, he was 
 overtaken and attacked by Cromwell, with overwhelming 
 forces, and Charles, after giving many proofs of person^ 
 valour, had no resource but flight (Sept. 3, 1651). The 
 Scotch were nearly all killed or taken, and the prisoners, 
 to the number of eight thousand, were sold as slaves to the 
 American planters. 
 
 § 377. Charles encountered numerous perils after this 
 defeat. Owing to the unshaken fidelity of a few friends, 
 his life was preserved, although his pursuers were, on several 
 occasions, close upon his heels. The earl of Derby, Pende- 
 rel the honest farmer. Lord WUmot, Mr. Lane, Col. Wynd- 
 ham and his family, and many others, risked their lives in 
 behalf of their sovereign. A report of his death was circu- 
 lated, and this caused his enemies to relax their search. 
 Charles was obliged to shift his quarters, to assume new 
 disguises, and intrust himself to other friends, who all gave 
 proofs of incorruptible fidelity and attachment. At last a 
 small vessel was found at Shoreham, in Sussex, where he 
 embarked, and arrived safely at Pescamp, in Normandy, 
 after one-and-forty days' concealment, during which the 
 secret of his life had been intrusted to forty different 
 persons (Oct. 17, 1651). The battle of "Worcester, which 
 ntterly extinguished the hopes of the royalists, afforded 
 
286 BREACH WITH HOLLAND. 
 
 Cromwell what he called his crowning mercy, — an immediate 
 prospect of that sovereignty which had long been the object 
 of his ambition. Extravagantly elated with his good for- 
 tune, he would have knighted in the field of victory Lambert 
 and Fleetwood, two of his generals, had he not been dis- 
 suaded by his friends from exercising that act of regal 
 authority. Every place now submitted to the arms of the 
 Commonwealth : not only in Great Britain, Ireland, and the 
 contiguous islands, but also on the continent of America, 
 and in the East and West Indies ; so that the Parliament 
 had leisure to look abroad, and to exert its vigour against 
 foreign nations. 
 
 § 378. The independence of the United Provinces having 
 been secured by the treaty of Munster, that republic had 
 become the greatest commercial state in Europe. The 
 English had long been jealous of the prosperity of the Hol- 
 landers ; but the common interests of religion, for a time, 
 and afterwards the alliance between the house of Stuart and 
 the family of Orange, prevented any rupture between the 
 two nations. This alliance had also led the States to favour 
 the royal cause, during the civil wars in England, and to 
 overlook the murder of Dorislaus, one of the regicides, who 
 was assassinated at the Hague by the followers of Montrose. 
 But after the death of William II., prince of Orange, more 
 respect was shown to the English commonwealth by the 
 governing party in Holland, which was chiefly composed of 
 violent republicans. Through the influence of that party, a 
 perpetual edict was issued against the dignity of stadtholder. 
 Encouraged by this revolution, the English Parliament 
 thought the season favourable for cementing a close con- 
 federacy with the States ; and St. John, who was sent over 
 to the Hague, in the character of plenipotentiary, had en- 
 tertained the idea of forming such a coalition between the two 
 republics as would have rendered their interests inseparable 
 (1650). But their High Mightinesses, unwilling to enter 
 into such a solemn treaty with a government whose measures 
 were so obnoxious, and whose situation seemed precarious, 
 only offered to renew their former alliances with England ; 
 and the haughty St. John, disgusted with this disappoint- 
 ment, as well as incensed at some affronts which had been 
 put upon him by the retainers of the Palatine and Orange 
 families, returned to London with a determined resolution 
 of taking advantage of the national jealousy, in order to 
 excite a quarrel between the two commonwealths (1651). 
 
ACT OF NAVIGATION. 287 
 
 § 379. The Parliament seconded the resentment of their 
 ambassador; and the famous Act of Navigation was passed, 
 which provided, among other regulations of less importance, 
 that no goods should be imported into England, from Asia, 
 Africa, or America, but in English ships ; nor from any part 
 of Europe, except in such vessels as belong to that country 
 of which the goods are the growth or manufacture (Dec. 1, 
 1651). This act, though necessary and truly politic as a 
 domestic measure, and general in its restrictions on foreign 
 powers, more especially affected the Dutch, as was foreseen; 
 because their country produces few commodities, and they 
 subsisted, and still subsist, chiefly by being the carriers and 
 factors of other nations. A mutual jealousy, accompanied 
 with mutual injuries, accordingly took place between the 
 two republics ; and a desperate naval war, ultimately occa- 
 sioned by a dispute about the honour of the flag, was the con- 
 sequence. Some naval actions occurred, in which the Dutch, 
 owing to the great superiority of their forces, were victorious, 
 and Van Tromp sailed through the Channel with a broom 
 at his masthead (1652). A fleet of eighty sail, under the 
 command of Blake, was speedily fitted out, to avenge this 
 insult. They soon fell in with Van Tromp and De Euyter, 
 with seventy-six ships of war, and a convoy of three hundred 
 merchantmen. The battle lasted three days, and the Dutch 
 were completely defeated (Feb. 18—20, 1653). After this 
 signal overthrow, the naval power of the Dutch seemed, for 
 a time, to be utterly annihilated, and with it their trade. 
 Their commerce by the Channel was cut off; even that to 
 the Baltic was much reduced; and their fisheries were 
 totally suspended. Almost two thousand of their ships had 
 fallen into the hands of the English seamen. Convinced at 
 last of the necessity of submission, they resolved to gratify 
 the pride of the English Parliament by soliciting peace ; but 
 their advances were treated with disdain (June 20). 
 
 § 380. The Parliament grew jealous of the success of 
 Cromwell, and these rival powers in the state soon became 
 involved in a struggle. The latter called for a new repre- 
 sentative body, whilst the former refused to separate. Crom- 
 well went down to the house with three hundred soldiers, 
 forcibly expelled the members, put the key in his pocket, 
 and retired to his lodgings at Whitehall (April 20, 1653). 
 This extraordinary man was born at Huntingdon. He had 
 launched into a dissolute course of life, when sent to study 
 the law in one of the inns of court, and consumed the 
 
288 CROMWELL MADE PROTECTOR. 
 
 earlier years of his manhood in gaming, drinking, and de- 
 bauchery. But all of a sudden he was seized with a religious 
 qualm ; affected a grave and sanctified behaviour, and 
 was distinguished amongst the puritanical party, by the 
 fervour of his devotional exercises. His career in the artny 
 and his treatment of the king have been already noticed. 
 When Cromwell assumed the reins of government, he had 
 three parties in the nation against him ; the royalists, the 
 Presbyterians, and the republicans. But as each of these 
 had a violent antipathy against both the others, none of 
 them could become formidable to the army : and the repub- 
 licans, whom he had dethroned, and whose resentment he 
 had most occasion to fear, were divided amongst themselves: 
 Beside the Independents, they consisted of two- sets of men, 
 who had a mutual contempt for each other; namely, the 
 Millenarians, or Mfth-monarohy men, who expected suddenly 
 the second coming of Christ ; and the Deists, who utterly 
 denied the truth of revelation, and considered the tenets of 
 the various sects as alike founded in folly and error. Crom- 
 well courted the Fifth-monarchy men, and formed a parha- 
 ment by their aid. One of its most active members, a 
 leather-seller in London, bore the name of Praise-God Bare- 
 bone: hence this contemptible assembly was ludicrously called 
 Barebone's Parliament. This was dissolved (Dec. 12, 1653), 
 and an Instrument of Government was drawn up by the 
 army, by which Cromwell was named Protector, or chief 
 magistrate of the commonwealth (Dec. 16). The proteetor 
 was to be assisted by a council of state, of not more than 
 twenty-one, nor of less than thirteen persons ; in his name 
 all justice was to be administered, and from him all honours 
 derived; he was to have the right of peace or war; the 
 power of the sword was invested in him jointly with the 
 Parliament while sitting, and, during the intervals, jointly 
 with the council of state : Parliament was to be summoned 
 every three years, and allowed to sit fiiVe months, without 
 adjournment, prorogation, or dissolution. The council of 
 state, named in the instrument, consisted of fifteen persona, 
 strongly attached to the protector, who, in case, of a vacancy, 
 had the power of choosing one out of three presented by the 
 remaining members. 
 
 § 381. Another naval engagement took place with the 
 Dutch, which lasted two days,, and terminated in the defeat 
 of the latter (June 2, 1653). The States made one more 
 effort to retrieve the honour of their flag, and in a short 
 
CROMWELL'S USURPATIONS. 289 
 
 time maimed and sent forth a new fleet. Van Tromp as- 
 sumed the command, and met the English fleet, commanded 
 by Monk. The battle raged from morning tiU night, without 
 any sensible advantage in favour of either party. Next day 
 the action was continued, and the setting sun beheld the 
 contest undecided. The third morning the struggle was 
 renewed ; and victory seemed stiU doubtful, when Tromp, 
 while gallantly animating his men, with his sword drawn, 
 was shot through the heart with a musket-ball (July 29 — 31, 
 1653). That event at once decided the sovereignty of the 
 ocean. The Dutch lost thirty ships,^ and were glad to pur- 
 chase a peace, by yielding to the English the honour of the 
 flag, and making such other concessions as were required of 
 • them (April 5, 1654). This successful conclusion of the 
 Dutch war, which strengthened Cromwell's authority both 
 at home and abroad, encouraged him to summon a free 
 parliament, according to the stipulation in the Instrument 
 of Government. He took the precaution, however, to ex- 
 clude all the royalists who had borne arms for the king, and 
 all their sons. Thirty members were returned from Scot- 
 land, and as many from Ireland. The new Parliament began 
 its deliberations by questioning his right to that authority 
 which he had assumed over the nation. Enraged at the 
 refractory spirit of the Commons, he sent for them to the 
 Painted Chamber, and required them to sign a recognition 
 of his authority, and an engagement not to propose or con- 
 sent to any alteration in the government, as it was settled 
 in a single person and a parliament. Most of the members, 
 after some hesitation, submitted to this despotism ; but re- 
 tained, notwithstanding, the same independent spirit which 
 they had discovered at their first meeting. Cromwell there- 
 fore found it necessary to put an end to their debates. He 
 accordingly dissolved the Parliament, before it had sat five 
 months — the time prescribed by that Instrument of Govern- 
 ment which he had lately sworn to observe (Jan. 22, 1655). 
 § 382. Both the republicans and the royalists plotted 
 against this tyrannical form of government. A royalist con- 
 spiracy with most extensive ramifications had been formed, 
 and Charles II. was proclaimed at Salisbury. Cromwell, 
 however, obtained information of the scheme, which he sup- 
 pressed. The chief conspirators were executed, and the 
 lower orders were sold for slaves, and transported to Barba- 
 does (1654). Cromwell resolved no longer to keep terms 
 with the royalists. "With the consent of his council, he 
 
290 JAMAICA CAPTURED. 
 
 therefore issued an edict for exacting the tenth penny from 
 the whole party : and in order to raise that imposition, 
 which commonly passed by the name of decimation, he 
 constituted twelve major-generals, and divided the whole 
 kingdom of England into so many military jurisdictions. 
 These of&cers, assisted by commissioners, had power to 
 subject whom they pleased to decimation, to levy all the 
 taxes imposed by the protector and his council, and to im- 
 prison any person who should be exposed to their jealousy 
 or suspicion. They acted as if absolute masters of the 
 liberty and property of every English subject : and all rea- 
 sonable men were now made sensible that the nation was 
 cruelly subjected to a military and despotic government. 
 In the mean time the alliance with Erance rendered war. 
 with Spain almost inevitable, and great naval armaments 
 were fitted out. One of these fleets, consisting of thirty 
 ships of the line, was sent into the Mediterranean, under the 
 famous Admiral Blake, who, casting anchor before Leghorn, 
 demanded and obtained from the duke of Tuscany repara- 
 tion for some injuries which English commerce had formerly 
 sustained from that prince. Blake next sailed to Algiers, 
 and compelled the dey to restrain his piratical subjects from 
 depredations on the English. He presented himself also 
 before Tunis; and having made the same demand, the 
 dey of that place desired him to look to the castles of 
 Porto Farino and Goletta, and do his utmost. Blake 
 placed his ships close to the castles and tore them in pieces 
 with his artillery I, while he sent a detachment of sailors in 
 long-boats into the harbour, and burned every vessel that lay 
 there. The coasts of the Mediterranean, from one extremity 
 to the other, rung with the renown of English valour ; and 
 no power, Christian or Mahometan, dared to oppose the 
 victorious Blake (1655). The other fleet, commanded by 
 Admiral Penn, and which had four thousand troops on board, 
 sailed for the West Indies ; where it was reinforced with 
 nearly five thousand militia, from the islands of Barbadoes 
 and St. Christopher. The object of the enterprise was the 
 conquest of Hispaniola, the most valuable island in the 
 American archipelago. St. Domingo, the capital, was 
 attacked ; the Spaniards mustered courage and repelled the 
 invaders (April 13), but Jamaica was captured (May 3, 
 1655), although Cromwell sent the commanders of the 
 expedition to the Tower on their return to England. 
 § 383. The king of Spain, on being informed of these 
 
BLAKE'S VICTOEIES. 291 
 
 proceedings, declared war against England (Feb. 16, 1656), 
 and ordered all the shipB and goods belonging to the 
 English merchants to be seized throughout his dominions. 
 The Spanish commerce, so profitable to England, was cut off, 
 and an incredible number of vessels feU into the hands of 
 the enemy. Nor were the losses of the Spaniards less consi- 
 derable. An English squadron, having been sent to cruise off 
 Cadiz, took two galleons richly laden, and set fire to two 
 others, which had run on shore. This success proved an incen- 
 tive to a bolder, though a less profitable enterprise. Blake 
 having got intelligence that a Spanish fleet of sixteen sail 
 had taken shelter among the Canaries, immediately steered 
 his course thither ; and found them in the bay of Santa 
 Cruz, in a very strong posture of defence. Blake, taking 
 advantage of a favourable wind, sailed full into the bay, and 
 soon found himself in the midst of his enemies. After an 
 obstinate dispute, the Spaniards abandoned their galleons, 
 which were set on fire, and consumed with all their treasure; 
 and the wind fortunately shifting, while the English fleet 
 lay exposed to the fire of the castle and of all the other 
 forts, Blake was enabled to weather the bay, and left the 
 Spaniards in astonishment at his successful temerity (1657). 
 These vigorous exertions rendered Cromwell's authority 
 equally respected at home and abroad. He had again ventured 
 to summon the Parliament ; but not trusting, as formerly, 
 to the good-will of the people, employed all his influence to 
 fill the house with his own creatures, and even placed guards 
 at the door, who permitted none to enter but such as pro- 
 duced a warrant from his council (Sept. 17, 1656). A 
 majority in favour of the protector being procured by these 
 undue means, a motion was made for investing him with the 
 dignity of king ; and notwithstanding the opposition of the 
 republicans, a bill to this purpose was voted, and a com- 
 mittee appointed to reason with him, in order to overcome 
 his pretended scruples. The conference lasted for several 
 days; and although Cromwell's inclination, as well as his 
 judgment, was on the side of the committee, he found himself 
 obliged to refuse so tempting an offer. Not only the ambi- 
 tious Lambert, and other oflacers of the army, were prepared 
 to mutiny on such a revolution, but the protector saw himself 
 about to be abandoned even by those who were most inti- 
 mately connected with him by family interest. Fleetwood, who 
 had married his daughter,and Desborough, his brother-in-law, 
 actuated merely by principle, declared, that if he accepted 
 TJ 2 
 
292 DEATH OF CROMWELL. 
 
 the crown, they would throw up their commissions. Cromwell 
 accepted a new political system, called the JiunMe Fetition 
 and Advice, and was again inaugurated in Westminster Hall, 
 with great pomp and ceremony. Cromwell dissolved this 
 Parliament the moment that it offered to oppose his wUl. 
 
 § 384. Several plots were formed against CromweU, and 
 he was under continual apprehension of assassination. He 
 never moved a step without strong guards — he wore armour 
 under his clothes, and carried offensive weapons — he 
 returned from no place by the direct road, or by the same 
 way which he went — he performed every journey with 
 hurry and precipitation — he seldom lay above three nights 
 together in the same chamber, and he never-let it be known 
 beforehand in which he intended to pass the night; nor did 
 he trust himself in any that was not provided with a back 
 door, at which sentinels were carefully placed. Equally 
 uneasy in society and solitude, the protector's body began to 
 be affected by the perturbation of his mind, and his health 
 seemed visibly to decline. He was seized with a slow fever, 
 which changed into a tertian ague, attended with dangerous 
 symptoms. It put an end to his life on the 3rd of Septem- 
 ber, the day that had always been esteemed so fortunate to 
 him, being the anniversary of the battles of Dunbar and 
 "Worcester (1658). Oliver Cromwell was of a robust but 
 ungraceful make, and of a manly but clownish and disagree- 
 able aspect. Fortune had a considerable share in his most 
 successful violences. The Self-dem/ing Ordinance, and the 
 conscientious weakness of Fairfax, led him, by easy steps, 
 to the supreme command ; and the enthusiastic folly of the 
 Covenanters served to confirm his usurped authority. Tet 
 he was not without talents ; he possessed, in an eminent 
 degree, the power of discerning the characters of men, and 
 the rare felicity of employing their abilities to advantage ; 
 of discovering the motives of others, and of concealing his 
 own ; of blending the wildest fanaticism with the most pro- 
 found policy ; of reconciling a seeming incoherence of ideas 
 with the most prompt and decisive measures ; and of com- 
 manding the highest respect amid the coarsest familiarity. 
 
 Letter 10. — The Commonwealth of England, from the Death of Oliver 
 Cromwell to the Restoration of the Monarchy. A.D. 1668—1660, 
 Vol. ii., pages 130—136. 
 
 § 385. On the death of Cromwell, his son Eichard quietly 
 succeeded to the protectorship. Although none opposed 
 
CABALS IN LONDON. 293 
 
 Lis succession, cabals were soon after formed against him, 
 and one, the meetings of which were held at Fleetwood's 
 residence, was called the cabal of "Wallingford House. 
 Eichard did not exert himself, but actually dissolved parlia- 
 ment at the bidding of these military intriguers (April 22, 
 1659), soon after signed his resignation in form, and with- 
 drew to his private estate. He had done hurt to no man, 
 so no man ever attempted to hurt him ; a striking instance, 
 as Burnet remarks, of the instability of human greatness, 
 and of the security of innocence. The council of ofiB.cer3 
 who had induced him to retire, agreed to revive the Eump, 
 or that remnant of the Long Parliament which had been 
 expelled by Cromwell. They proved refractory, appointed 
 Fleetwood lieutenant-general, but inserted an express article 
 in his commission, that it should continue only during the 
 pleasure of the house. They chose seven persons, who were 
 to fill up such commands as became vacant ; and they voted 
 that all commissions should be received from the speaker, and 
 signed by him in the name of the house. These precau- 
 tions, the purpose of which was visible, gave great disgust 
 to the principal military officers; and their discontent would, 
 in all probability, have immediately broken out in some 
 resolution fatal to the Parliament, had it not been checked 
 by apprehensions of danger from the common enemy. The 
 bulk of the nation now consisted of royalists and Presby- 
 terians. To both these parties the dominion of the pre- 
 tended Parliament, and of the army, was become equally 
 obnoxious : a secret reconciliation, therefore, took place 
 between them ; and it was agreed, that, burying former 
 animosities in oblivion, every possible effort should be made 
 for the overthrow of the Hump, and the restoration of the 
 royal family. A resolution was accordingly taken, in many 
 counties, to rise in arms ; and the king, attended by the 
 duke of York, arrived secretly at Calais, determined to put 
 himself at the head of his loyal subjects (1659). 
 
 § 386. This confederacy was disconcerted by the 
 treachery of Sir Eichard Willis, who had been trusted by 
 Edward Hyde, the king's chief adviser. Many of the con- 
 spirators were thrown into prison, and a few armed men 
 were dispersed by a body of troops under Lambert. The 
 Parhament refused to submit to the rule of the military, 
 and Sir Arthur Haselrig even proposed the impeachment of 
 Lambert. But that artful and able general, despising such 
 impotent resolutions, advanced with his hardy veterans to 
 
294 GENERAL MONK. 
 
 London ; and taking possession early in the morning, of all 
 the streets leading to Westminster Hall, intercepted the 
 speaker ; excluded the other members from the house 
 (Oct. 13, 1659); and appointed a military committee of 
 safety (Oct. 26). In the mean time, Charles II. was wan- 
 dering on the continent a neglected fugitive. Sir Edward 
 Hyde, who had shared all his misfortunes as well as those 
 of his father, and the marquis of Ormond, were his chief 
 friends and advisers. At last> reduced to despair, by the 
 failure of their attempt for his restoration, he resolved to 
 try the weak resource of foreign aid, and went to the 
 Pyrenees, when the two prime ministers of France and 
 Spain were in the midst of their negotiations. Don Louis 
 of Haro received him with warm expressions of kindness, 
 and indicated a desire of assisting him, if it had been con- 
 sistent with the low condition of the Spanish monarchy ; but 
 the cautious Mazarine, pleading the alliance of France with 
 the Commonwealth of England, refused so much as to see 
 him. At this very time, however, when Charles seemed 
 abandoned by all the world, fortune was paving the way for 
 him, by a surprising revolution, to mount the throne of his 
 ancestors in peace and triumph. It was to General Monk, 
 commander-in-chief in Scotland, that the king was to owe 
 his restoration, and the three kingdoms the termination 
 of their bloody dissensions. 
 
 § 387. G-eorge Monk, descended from an ancient and 
 honourable family in Devonshire, somewhat fallen to decay, 
 was properly a soldier of fortune. He had acquired mili- 
 tary experience in Flanders, and had distinguished himself 
 in the royal cause, during the civil wars of England, as 
 colonel in the service of Charles I. Having been taken 
 prisoner, and committed to the Tower, he was at last 
 induced by Cromwell to enter into the service of the Par- 
 liament, and sent to act against the Irish rebels ; a command 
 which, he flattered himself, was reconcilable to the strictest 
 principles of honour. Having once, however, engaged with 
 the Parliament, he was obliged to obey orders, and found 
 himself necessitated to act both against the marquis of 
 Ormond in Ireland, and against Charles II. in Scotland. 
 On the reduction of the latter kingdom, Monk was vested 
 with the supreme command; ajid, by the equality and justice 
 of his administration, he acquired the good-vrill of the Scots, 
 at the same time that he kept their restless spirits in awe, 
 and secured the attachment of his army. Although he had 
 
A NEW PARLIAMENT. 295 
 
 remained faithful to Eichard Cromwell and acknowledged 
 the Long Parliament, he at once declared against the 
 military despotism that triumphed over both. He marched 
 into England ; whereupon the Parliament was restored, and 
 Lambert and others were sent to the Tower. Monk, how- 
 ever, continued his advance, and took up his quarters 
 in Westminster (February 4, 1660), restored the Presby- 
 terian members to their seats, and was appointed general 
 of the forces. The Parliament began by repealing the 
 ordinances by which they had been excluded: they re- 
 newed the general's commission, and enlarged his powers : 
 they established a council of state, consisting chiefly of 
 those men who, during the civil war, had made a figure 
 among the Presbyterians ; and having passed these and 
 other votes for the present composure of the kingdom, they 
 dissolved themselves, and issued writs for the immediate 
 assembling of a new parliament (March 16, 1660). 
 
 § 388. The elections for the new parliament were every- 
 where carried in favour of the friends of monarchy ; for 
 although the Parliament had voted that no one should be 
 elected who had borne arms for the late king, little regard 
 was paid to this ordinance. The passion for liberty, 
 which had been carried to such violent extremes, and 
 produced such bloody commotions, began to give place 
 to a spirit of loyalty and obedience. The republican 
 party took the alarm, and dreading vengeance for their 
 numerous excesses, endeavoured to turn the popular tide. 
 Lambert suddenly escaped from the Tower, but was 
 fortunately recaptured. When Parliament met, the pro- 
 ceedings of Cromwell were condemned, the most bitter 
 invectives against his memory expressed, and at the an- 
 nouncement that a messenger had arrived from Chares II., 
 the loudest acclamations burst forth. The declaration 
 sent by the king was well calculated to promote the satis- 
 faction inspired by the prospect of a settlement. It 
 offered a general amnesty, leaving particular exceptions 
 to be made by Parliament ; it promised liberty of con- 
 science ; it assured the soldiers of their arrears, and the 
 same pay they then enjoyed ; and it submitted to parlia- 
 mentary arbitration, an inquiry into aU grants, purchases, 
 and alienations. The Peers resumed their place in parlia- 
 ment. The two houses attended while the king was 
 proclaimed in Palace-yard, at Whitehall, and at Temple-bar; 
 and a committee of Lords and Commons were despatched 
 
296 THE EESTOKATION. 
 
 to invite his majesty to return, and take possession of the 
 kingdom. The respect of foreign powers soon followed the 
 allegiance of his own subjects ; and the formerly neglected 
 Charles was, at the same time, invited by France, Spain, 
 and the United Provinces, to embark at one of their sea- 
 ports. He chose to accept the invitation of the latter, and 
 had the satisfaction, as he passed from Breda to the 
 Hague, to be received with enthusiasm. The States- 
 G-eneral, in a body, made their compliments to him with the 
 greatest solemnity ; and all ambassadors and foreign minis- 
 ters expressed the joy of their masters at his change of 
 fortune. The English fleet came in sight of Scheveling ; 
 and Montague, who had not waited the orders of the Par- 
 liament, persuaded the officers to tender their duty to their 
 sovereign. The king went on board, and his brother the 
 duke of Tork took the command of the fleet, as high 
 admiral. When Charles disembarked at Dover, he was 
 received by General Monk, whom he cordially embraced, 
 and honoured with the appellation of father. He entered 
 London on the 29th of May, which happened to be his 
 birthday, amid the acclamations of an innumerable multi- 
 tude of people, whose fond imaginations formed the happiest 
 presages from the concurrence of two such joyful occasions; 
 and the nation in general expressed the most sincere satis- 
 faction at the restoration of their ancient constitution and 
 their native prince, without the effusion of blood (1660). 
 
 Letter 11. — ^The Progress of Navigation, Commerce, and Colonization, 
 from the Beginning of the Sixteenth to the Middle of the Seventeenth 
 Century, a.d. 1500—1650. Vol. ii., pages 136—145. 
 
 § 389. The discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese 
 in the East Indies, and of the Spaniards in America, soon 
 excited the ardour, the avarice, and the ambition of other 
 European nations. The English and Dutch exerted every 
 effort to share in the riches of the East and "West ; and the 
 Eeformation, by abolishing the papal jurisdiction, left them 
 free from religious restraints. While Cortes was endeavour- 
 ing to turn the conquest of Mexico to good account, 
 Eernando Magellan, a Portuguese gentleman, who had 
 served under the famous Albuquerque, disgusted with his 
 general, and slighted by his sovereign, fled to the court of 
 Spain, and endeavoured to recommend himself by reviving 
 Columbus's original project of discovering a passage to 
 India by a westerly course, and without encroaching on 
 
MAGELLAN'S DISCOVEEIES. 297 
 
 that portion of the globe allotted to the Portuguese by the 
 pope's line of demarcation. Cardinal Ximenes had recom- 
 mended the proposal to bis master, Charles, who honoured 
 Magellan with the habit of St. Jago and the title of captain- 
 general, and furnished him with five ships, victualled for 
 two years. With this squadron Magellan sailed from Seville 
 on the 10th of August, 1519 ; and after touching at the 
 Canaries, stood directly south, along the coast of America, 
 but did not reach the river de la Plata till the 12th of 
 January, 1520. On the 31st of March he arrived at Port 
 St. Julian, where he resolved to winter. Here he lost one 
 of his ships ; and the Spaniards suffered so much from the 
 excessive rigour of the climate, that they insisted on return- 
 ing to Europe. But Magellan, by ordering the principal 
 mutineer to be assassinated, and another to be publicly 
 executed, overawed the remainder of his followers, and con- 
 tinued his voyage towards the south. In holding this 
 course, he at length discovered, near the fifty-third degree 
 of latitude, the mouth of a strait, into which he entered, 
 and gave his name, and soon after the great Southern Ocean 
 opened to his view. Magellan, however, was still at a greater 
 distance from the object of his wishes than he imagined. 
 Three months and twenty days did he sail in one direction 
 towards the north-west, without discovering land; his 
 people suffered incredible distress from scarcity of pro- 
 visions, putrid water, and all their attendant maladies. 
 One circumstance afforded them some consolation: they 
 enjoyed an uninterrupted course of fair weather, with such 
 mild winds as induced Magellan to bestow on that ocean the 
 epithet of Pacific. At length they fell in with a cluster of 
 small islands, which afforded them refreshments in such 
 abundance that their health was soon restored. From these 
 islands, which he called the Ladrones, he continued his 
 voyage, and soon made a discovery of the Manillas. He fell 
 fighting gallantly in a conflict with the natives (April 26, 
 1520). The expedition discovered several islands in the 
 India Ocean, touched at Borneo, and at last at one of 
 the Moluccas, and the Portuguese could not conceive 
 how the Spaniards had reached this point by sailing in 
 quite an opposite direction. The vessels reached Seville 
 by the way of the Cape of Good Hope, in 1522, having 
 completed the circumnavigation of the globe in 1,154 days. 
 § 390. The Portuguese and Spaniards quarrelled about 
 these possessions, and Charles V. at last abandoned his claims 
 
298 PORTUGUESE COLONIES. 
 
 to the Moluccas, for a sum of money (1529). In conse- 
 quence of this agreement, the Portuguese continued masters 
 of the trade of India ; and the Manillas lay neglected, till 
 Philip II. succeeded to the crown of Spain. Soon after his 
 accession, Philip formed the scheme of planting a colony in 
 those islands, to which he gave the name of the Philippmes 
 (1556). This he accomplished by means of an armament fitted 
 out for New Spain. Manilla, in the island of Luconia, was 
 the station chosen for the capital of the new establishment ; 
 and, in order to induce the Spaniards to settle there, the 
 rising colony was authorized to send India goods to America, 
 in exchange for the precious metals. Prom Mamlla an 
 active commercial intercourse began with the Chinese, and 
 a considerable number of that industrious people, allured by 
 the prospect of gain, settled in the Philippines under the 
 Spanish protection. By their means the colony was so 
 amply supplied with all the valuable productions and manu- 
 factures of the East, as soon enabled it to open an advan- 
 tageous trade with America, by a course of navigation the 
 longest from land to land on our globe. This trade was 
 originally carried on with Callao, the port of Lima, and the 
 most commodious harbour on the coast of Peru ; but expe- 
 rience having discovered many difficulties in that mode of 
 communication, and the superior facility of an intercourae 
 with New Spain, the staple of the commerce between Ame- 
 rica and Asia was removed from Callao to Acapuleo. The 
 Spanish colony in the Philippines gave no uneasiness to the 
 Portuguese. They not only continued to monopolize the 
 whole commerce of the East, but were masters of the coast 
 of Guinea as well as that of Arabia, Persia, and the two 
 peninsulas of India. They possessed the Moluccas, Ceylon, 
 and the isles of Sunda, with the trade of China and Japan ; 
 and they had made their colony of Brazil one of the most 
 valuable districts in America. When Portugal fell under the 
 dominion of Spain, in consequence of the destruction of 
 Sebastian and his nobility, on the coast of Africa (1578), 
 its colonies were neglected, and soon after the breaking 
 out of the war in the Low Countries, the Dutch seized 
 several of their fairest possessions, and established the 
 East-India Company. They waged war with the Portuguese 
 for many years, and at length deprived them of Ceylon, the 
 Moluccas, and all their valuable possessions in the East, 
 except Goa, at the same time that they acquired the almost 
 exclusive trade of China and Japan. The island of Java, 
 
EAST-INDIA COMPANY. 299 
 
 however, -wliere theDutch had erected their first fortifications, 
 and early built the splendid city of Batavia, continued to 
 be, as it is at present, the seat of their principal settlement, 
 and the centre of their power in India. They turned their 
 eyes also towards the West : they established a colony, to 
 ■which they gave the name of Nova Belgia, on Hudson's 
 Eiver, in North America ; they annoyed the trade, and 
 plundered the settlements of the Spaniards, in every part of 
 the New World ; and they made themselves masters of the 
 important colony of Brazil, in South America. But this 
 was not a permanent conquest. When the Portuguese had 
 shaken off the Spanish yoke in Europe, they bore with im- 
 patience in America that of the Dutch : they rose against 
 their oppressors ; and, after a variety of struggles, obliged 
 them fmally to evacuate Brazil, in 1654. Since that era 
 the Portuguese have continued in possession of this rich 
 territory, the principal support of their declining monarchy, 
 and the most valuable European settlement in America. 
 
 § 391. The English East-India Company was established 
 as early as the year 1600, and with a fair prospect of success. 
 A fleet of five stout ships was fitted out the year following, 
 under the command of Captain James Lancaster, who was 
 favourably received by the king of Acheen, and other Indian 
 princes, with whom he formed a commercial treaty, and 
 arrived in the Downs, after a prosperous voyage of near two 
 years. Other voyages were performed with equal advantage. 
 But, notwithstanding these temporary encouragements, the 
 English East-India Company had to struggle with many 
 difficulties, and laboured under essential inconveniences. 
 Their rivajfe, the Portuguese and Dutch, had harbours of 
 which they were absolute masters ; places of strength, which 
 they had built, and secured by garrisons and regular forti- 
 fications ; whole provinces, of which they had acquired 
 possession either by force or fra4jd ; whereas the EngHsh, at 
 first, acted as mere traders. They were compelled, however, 
 to protect their commerce, and erected forts, and established 
 factories in the islands of Java, Poleron, Amboyna, and 
 Banda. The Dutch were alarmed at these establishments. 
 Having driven the Portuguese from the Spice Islands, they 
 never meant to suffer any European nation to settle there ; 
 much less a people whose maritime force, government, and 
 character, would make them dangerous rivals. They ac- 
 cordingly endeavoured to dispossess the English by every 
 possible means. The Indian Ocean became the scene of 
 
800 COLONIES IN AMERICA. 
 
 the most sanguinary conflicts, which were temporarily sus- 
 pended by a treaty that gave satisfaction to neither party 
 (1619). This treaty was first broken by the Dutch, and 
 under the feeble rule of James I., and amid the civil wars 
 in the reign of his son Charles, the English power in India 
 declined. 
 
 § 392. The English were more successful in establishing 
 themselves, during this period, in North America and the 
 "West Indies. As early as the year 1496, John Cabot, a 
 Venetian mariner, in the service of Henry VII., had dis- 
 covered the island of Newfoundland, and sailed along the 
 northern shore of the American continent, from the Gulf of 
 St. Laurence to Cape Florida. But no advantage was taken 
 of these discoveries before the middle of the reign of Eliza- 
 beth ; when the bigotry and ambition of Philip II. roused 
 the indignation of all the Protestant powers, but more 
 especially of England, and incited many bold adventurers 
 to commit hostilities against his subjects in the New World, 
 The most distinguished of those was Sir Erancis Drake, 
 who passed with four ships into the South Sea, by the 
 Straits of Magellan, took many rich prizes, and returned to 
 England by the Cape of G-ood Hope (1580). His success 
 awakened the avidity of new adventurers, and in 1584, 
 owing to the representations of Sir Walter Ealeigh, two 
 ships were sent out. They took formal possession of the 
 country now known by the name of North CaroUna, to 
 which Queen Elizabeth, in order to encourage the under- 
 taking, gave the name of Virginia. This settlement, how- 
 ever, never arrived at any degree of prosperity, and was 
 finally abandoned in 1588. In 1606 the project was revived, 
 and a new colony of Virginia founded, which ultimately 
 attained great prosperity. Numbers of the royalists took 
 refuge here ; and the neighbouring province, Maryland, was 
 soon after founded for the same purpose by the English 
 Eomam Catholics (1632). The Nonconformists, in exactly 
 the same manner, established the settlement of New Ply- 
 mouth and the colony of New England. John Hampden 
 and Oliver Cromwell are said to have repaired on board 
 ship for the purpose of going into voluntary exile, when 
 the royal proclamation (1635) compelled them to disem- 
 bark. 
 
 § 893. Besides these large colonies in North America, 
 the English had established a colony at Surinam, on the 
 coast of Guiana, in South America, and taken possession of 
 
DECLINE OF SPAIN. 301 
 
 several of the West-India islands, early in the seventeenth 
 century. Barbadoes and St. Christopher's were thriving 
 colonies before the conquest of Jamaica ; and England soon 
 obtained the command of the sugar-trade of Europe. For 
 the benefits of this, however, and of the colonial trade, 
 England is ultimately indebted to the sagacity of the heads 
 of the Commonwealth Parliament. They passed the famous 
 Navigation Act, which prohibited all foreign ships, unless 
 under particular exceptions, from entering the harbours of 
 the English colonies, and obliged their principal produce to 
 be exported directly to countries under the dominion of 
 England. The Dutch had before monopolized the trade ; 
 but this salutary regulation gave an impetus to our com- 
 merce ; and to all those settlements England thenceforth 
 exported, without a rival, her various manufactures. Nor 
 was her trade confined merely to America and the East and 
 West Indies. Early in the sixteenth centiuy she had 
 opened a beneficial trade to Eussia, by discovering a passage 
 round the North Cape ; and the ingenuity of her manufac- 
 turers, who now excelled the Flemings, to whom the greater 
 part of her wool used formerly to be sold, insured her a 
 market for her cloths in all the ports of the Mediterranean 
 and the Baltic. France was late in establishing any per- 
 manent colony. At this time Canada was only in its infancy ; 
 and the plantations in Martinico and Guadaloupe were very 
 inconsiderable. Nor had her silk manufacture yet attained 
 that high degree of perfection which afterwards rendered 
 it so great a source of wealth. Spain continued to receive 
 annually immense sums from the mines of Mexico and Peru. 
 But as the decline'of their manufactures obliged theSpaniaxds 
 to depend upon foreigners for the supply of that demand, 
 their wealth became the common property of Europe. The 
 industrious manufacturer of every country had his share ; 
 and the conquerors of the New World found themselves 
 dwindle into the factors of England and Holland. Such 
 was the commercial state of Europe when Louis XIV. 
 assumed the reins of government, and Charles II. was 
 restored to the throne of his ancestors. War continued to 
 rage between the Spaniards and Portuguese ; but, after 
 an ambitious struggle of twenty-eight years, Spain was 
 obliged to acknowledge the right of the family of Braganza 
 to the crown of Portugal (1668). The rest of Europe was 
 in peace. 
 
802 CHAELES II. 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 Letter 12. — A General View of the Affairs of Europe, with a particu- 
 lar Account of thoae of England, from the Bestoration of Charles II. 
 to the Triple Alliance, a.d. 1660—1668. Vol. ii., pages 145—161. 
 
 § 394. Chaeles was thirty years of age when he as- 
 cended the throne of his ancestors ; and might have been 
 supposed to be past the levities of youth and the intemper- 
 ance of appetite. Bat being endowed with a strong con- 
 stitution and a great flow of spirits, a manly figure and 
 an engaging manner, animal love was still his predominant 
 passion, and amusement his chief occupation. He was not, 
 however, incapable of application to business, nor unac- 
 quainted with aifairs either foreign or domestic ; but having 
 been accustomed, during his exile, to live among his courtiers 
 as a companion rather than a monarch, he loved to indulge, 
 even after his restoration, in the pleasures of society as well 
 as of unrestrained gallantry, and hated everything that 
 interfered with these favourite avocations. The king himself, 
 who appears to have been little under the influence of either 
 moral or religious principles, conscious of his own irregular- 
 ities, could easily forgive the deviations of others, and admit 
 an excuse for any system of opinions. This accommodating 
 character at first raised the highest ideaof his judgment and 
 impartiality. Without regard to former distinctions, he 
 admitted into his council the most eminent men of all 
 parties. Nor was he less impartial in the distribution of 
 honours. Admiral Montague was not only created earl of 
 Sandwich, and Monk duke of Albemarle, promotions that 
 might have been expected ; but Annesley was created earl 
 of Anglesey ; Ashley Cooper, Lord Ashley ; and Denzil 
 Holies, Lord Holies. His choice of ministers and public 
 servants was also judicious. Sir Edward Hyde, created earl 
 of Clarendon, was made lord chancellor. The marquis, 
 created duke, of Ormond, less remarkable for his talents, 
 than his courtly accomplishments, his honour, and bis 
 
NEW MEASUEES. 303 
 
 fidelity, was constituted steward of the housetold ; the earl 
 of Southampton, a man of abilities and integritj', was 
 appointed lord treasurer, and Sir Edward Nicholas and 
 Mr. Morice, secretaries of state. The secretaries were both 
 men of learning and virtue, but little acquainted with 
 foreign affairs. These ministers entered into a free and 
 open correspondence with the leading members of both 
 houses ; in consequence of which the Convention received 
 the name of a parliament. All judicial decrees passed 
 during the Commonwealth or Protectorship were affirmed; 
 and an act of indemnity was passed, conformable to the 
 king's declaration from Breda. In that declaration Charles 
 had wisely referred all exceptions to the Parliament, which 
 excluded such as had any immediate hand in the late king's 
 death. Only six of the regicides, however, with four others, 
 who had been abettors of their treason, were executed. 
 The rest made their escape, were pardoned, or confined in 
 different prisons. Lambert and Sir Harry Vane, though 
 not immediately concerned in the late king's death, were 
 also attainted. Lambert was pardoned, in consequence of 
 his submission ; but Vane, for his presumptuous behaviour 
 during his trial, was executed. The same lenity was extended 
 to Scotland ; where only the marquis of Argyle, and one 
 Gruthry, a seditious preacher, were executed. Argyle's 
 case was thought peculiarly hard ; but as Guthry had 
 personally insulted the king, as well as pursued a conduct 
 subversive of all legal authority, his fate was lamented only 
 by the wUdest fanatics. 
 
 § 395. Charles's government was at first remarkablv 
 mild and equitable, the only measure that excited any 
 alarm being the Act of Uniformity. The new parliament 
 summoned after the dissolution of the Convention, was 
 essentially royalist (May 8, 1661). An act was immediately 
 passed for the security of the king's person and government, 
 containing many_ severe clauses ; and as the bishops, though 
 restored to their spiritual authority, were still excluded 
 from parliament, in consequence of a law passed by Charles I. 
 immediately before the civil wars, that act was now repealed, 
 and they were permitted to resume their seats in the House' 
 of Lords. But what showed the zeal of the Parliament for 
 the church and monarchy, was the Act of Uniformity, and 
 the repeal of the Triennial Act (1602), Instead of the exact 
 stipulations of the latter, a general clause provided that 
 parliaments should not to be interrupted above three years 
 
304 WAR "WITH THE DUTCH. 
 
 at most. By the Act of Uniformity, it was required that 
 every clergyman, capable of holding a benefice, should 
 possess episcopal ordination ; should declare his assent to 
 everything contained in the Book of Common Prayer; 
 should take the oath of canonical obedience, abjure the 
 Solemn League and Covenant, and renounce the principle 
 of taking arms against the king, on any pretence what- 
 soever. The Presbyterian clergy refused to subscribe, and 
 in one day about two thousand of them relinquished their 
 cures (August 24, 1662). In the mean time the ejected 
 clergymen were prosecuted with unrelenting rigour ; severe 
 laws being enacted, not only against conventicles, but against 
 any non-conforming teacher coming within five miles of a 
 corporation. The Presbyterians in Scotland did not expe- 
 rience more favour than their brethren in England. As 
 Charles had made them no promises before his restoration, 
 he resolved to pursue the absurd policy of his father and 
 grandfather, of establishing episcopacy in that kingdom. 
 He therefore replied to the earl of Lauderdale, when pressed 
 to establish presbytery, that " it was not a religion for 
 a gentleman!" and he could not agree to its continuance 
 in Scotland. The consequences were such as might have 
 been foreseen. A vast majority of the Scottish nation 
 looked with horror upon the king and his ministers, and 
 exposed themselves to the most severe persecutions rather 
 than relinquish their form of worship. 
 
 § 396. Certain political measures conspired with those of 
 religion to diminish the popularity which the king had 
 enjoyed at his restoration. His marriage with Katherine 
 of Portugal, to which he was chiefly prompted by the 
 largeness of her portion (May 21, 1662), was by no means 
 agreeable to his subjects, who were desirous, above all things, 
 of his marrying a Protestant princess. The sale of Dunkirk 
 to -France, in order to supply his prodigality, occasioned 
 universal disgust (Oct. 17, 1662) ; and the Dutch war 
 (1665) increased the public dissatisfaction. Indemnity 
 was demanded of the Dutch for depredations on English 
 traders in different parts of the world. These, however, 
 had all taken place before the year 1662, when a treaty of 
 league and alliance had been renewed between England 
 and the States. Several squadrons were fitted out, and 
 the Dutch settlements attacked. John de Wit, who then 
 wielded great power in Holland, sent De Euyter with a 
 strong fleet, and this brave sailor recovered most of the 
 
NAVAIi VICTOEIES. 305 
 
 English conquests on the coast of Africa. He even dispos- 
 sessed them of some of their old settlements ; and sailing for 
 America, insulted Barbadoes, committed hostilities on Long 
 Island, and took a considerable number of ships. A declara- 
 tion of war was the consequence of these mutual hostilities, 
 and both sides prepared for the most vigorous exertions 
 of their naval strength. The duke of York, the king's 
 brother, took the command of the fleet, and immediately put 
 to sea. A terrible engagement ensued off Harwich, which 
 was continued for four hours with great obstinacy : at length 
 Opdam's ship blew up ; and the Datch, discouraged by the 
 awful fate of their admiral and his gallant crew, fled towards 
 the Texel. They lost nearly thirty ships, and tlieir whole 
 fleet might have been sunk or taken, had the English made a 
 proper use of their victory. But unfortunately about mid- 
 night, orders were given to shorten saU, so that, at morning, 
 no hopes of overtaking the enemy remained. And thus 
 was neglected an opportunity of destroying the naval force 
 of the Dutch, which never returned in this, or in any suc- 
 ceeding war. The English lost only one ship (June 3, 1665). 
 § 397. The terrible plague which had broken out in 
 St. Giles's, London, in April, and carried off nearly one 
 hundred thousand persons in the capital alone, somewhat 
 diminished the joy of the nation at this victory. France 
 and Denmark supported the cause of the Dutch, and the 
 war was renewed with great fury. An English fleet of 
 sixty sail encountered a Dutch naval force of double that 
 number, and an engagement, which extended over four days, 
 took place. Both fleets were reinforced, yet the Dutch 
 retained a manifest superiority in point of numbers, and in 
 spite of the heroic efforts of the combatants, the battle 
 remained undecided (June 1 — 4, 1666). But the English 
 admirals were men of too high valour to be satisfied with 
 less than victory. "While they sent the disabled ships to 
 different docks to be refitted, they remained on board their 
 own. The entire fleet was soon ready to put to sea, and a 
 new engagement was eagerly sought. Nor was it long 
 denied them. De Euyter and Tromp, with the Dutch fleet, 
 consisting of about eighty sail, had posted themselves at 
 the mouth of the Thames, in hopes of being joined by a 
 French squadron, and of riding triumphant in the Channel. 
 They were descried by the English fleet under Prince 
 Eupert and Albemarle. The force on both sides was nearly 
 equal. The Dutch bore towards the coast of Holland, but 
 
 X 
 
306 THE GREAT FIEE OF LONDON. 
 
 were closely pursued. Sir Thomas Allen, who commanded 
 the English white squadron, attacked the Dutch van with 
 irresistible fury, and killed the three admirals in com- 
 mand. Tromp engaged and defeated Sir Jeremy Smith, 
 admiral of the blue; but unfortunately for his country-" 
 men, by pursuing too eagerly, he was utterly separated 
 from the Dutch centre, where his assistance was much 
 wanted. Meanwhile De Euyter,who occupied that dangerous 
 station, maintained with equal conduct and courage the 
 combat against the centre of the English fleet, commanded 
 by Eupert and Albemarle. Overpowered by numbers, his 
 high spirit was at last obliged to submit to a retreat, which 
 he conducted with the greatest ability. Tromp too, after 
 all his success, was obliged to yield to the combined efforts 
 of the English red and blue squadrons (July 25 and 26). 
 Though the loss sustained by the Dutch in this engagement 
 was not very considerable, it occasioned great consternation 
 among the Provinces. The English, absolute masters of 
 the sea, rode in triumph along the coast, and insulted the 
 Hollanders in their harbours. A squadron, under Sir Eobert 
 Holmes, entered the road of Vlie, and burnt two men-of- 
 war and a hundred and forty rich merchantmen, together 
 with the large village of Brandaris ; the whole damage 
 being computed at several millions sterling (1666). 
 
 § 398. At one o'clock in the morning of Sunday, Sep- 
 tember 2, 1666, the great fire of London broke out, in a 
 baker's shop near London-bridge. It had acquired much 
 force before it was observed. The neighbouring houses 
 were composed chiefly of wood ; the weather had long been 
 remarkably dry ; the streets were narrow, and the wind 
 blew violently from the east : so that the flames spread 
 rapidly, till the whole city was in a blaze. Terror and 
 consternation seized upon the distracted inhabitants. Three 
 nights and three days did the flames rage with increasing 
 fury ; on the fourth day, the wind falling, the fire ceased in 
 a manner as wonderful as it had commenced. Of twentyp^ 
 six wards, into which the city was divided, fifteen were 
 burnt down ; four hundred streets and lanes, and thirteen 
 thousaiid houses were destroyed. But this calamity, 
 though severely felt at the time, contributed to the health, 
 safety, and future convenience of the inhabitants of London, 
 by the judicious method observed in constructing the new 
 buildings ; and, what is truly remarkable, it does not appear 
 that, during the whole couflagration, one life was lost either 
 
THE DUTCH IN THE THAMES. 307 
 
 by fire or otherwise. In Scotland, the introduction of 
 episcopacy led to a rebellion; but the insurrection was 
 suppressed by the king's forces, at Pentland Hill (Nov. 27). 
 A considerable number of prisoners were taken, and treated 
 with great severity ; ten were hanged on one gibbet at 
 Edinburgh, and thirty-five before their own doors, in 
 difierent parts of the country. Ireland was also in a very 
 deplorable condition, but by mutual concessions tranquillity 
 was in a great measure restored, when an impolitic act 
 passed by the English Parliament, prohibiting the importa- 
 tion of Irish cattle into England, threatened to revive 
 agitation. The king finding the measure unpopular, refused 
 to give his assent. He was, however, induced to alter his 
 determination ; and this severe law brought great distress 
 upon Ireland for a time ; but it has proved in the issue bene- 
 ficial to that kingdom, and hurtful to England, by obliging 
 the Irish to apply with more industry to manufactures, and 
 to cultivate a commercial correspondence with France. 
 
 § 399. These grievances and discontents in all tlie three 
 kingdoms, and the little success in a war from which the 
 greatest advantages were expected, induced the king to turn 
 his thoughts towards peace. The Dutch, whose trade had 
 sufiered extremely, were no less disposed to such a measure; 
 and after some inefiectual conferences, held in the queen- 
 mother's apartments at Paris, it was agreed to transfer the 
 negotiations to Breda. De Wit protracted the negotia- 
 tions, and hastened the naval preparations of Holland. The 
 Dutch fleet, under De Euyter, took possession of the mouth 
 of the Thames; while a squadron commanded by Van Ghent, 
 assisted by an east wind and a spring tide, after reducing 
 Sheerness, broke a chain which had been drawn across the 
 river Medway, and destroyed three ships stationed to guard 
 it ; advanced as far as Chatham, and burned the Eoyal Oak, 
 the Loyal London, and the Grreat James, all first-rates, and 
 carried ofi" the hull of the Boyal Charles (June 11, 1667). 
 The destruction of the ships at Chatham threw the city of 
 London into the utmost consternation. It was apprehended 
 the Dutch would next sail up the Thames, and that they 
 might carry their hostilities even as far as London-bridge, 
 Nine ships were sunk at Woolwich, five at Blackwall ; plat-, 
 forms were built in many places, furnished with artillery j 
 the country was armed, and the train-bands of the city 
 were called out. These precautions, and the dificult 
 navigation of the Thames, induced De Euyter to steer to the 
 X 2 
 
308 PEACE OF BKEDA. 
 
 westward. He made a fruitless attempt upon Portsmouth, 
 and also on Plymouth ; he returned to the mouth of the 
 Thames, where he was not more successful ; but he rode 
 triumphant in the Channel for several weeks, and spread 
 universal alarm along the coast. These fears, however, 
 were dispelled by the signing of the treaty at Breda. In 
 order to facilitate that measure, so necessary in his present 
 distressed situation, Charles had instructed his ambassadors 
 to recede from those demands which had hitherto obstructed 
 the negotiation. No mention was now made of the restitu- 
 tion of the island of Poleron, in the East Indies, formerly 
 insisted upon ; nor was any satisfaction required for those 
 depredations, which had been assigned as the cause of the 
 war. England, however, retained possession of New York ; 
 and the English settlement of Surinam, which had been 
 reduced by the Dutch, was ceded to the republic (July 10, 
 1667). In consequence of this peace, the improvidence of 
 the government, and his prodigality, Charles became unpo- 
 pular, and he at once resolved to sacrifice his minister, in 
 order if possible to save his own credit. The earl of 
 Clarendon was regarded as the author of every obnoxious 
 measure introduced under the reign of Charles. The king's 
 marriage, in which he had merely acquiesced ; the sale of 
 Dunkirk, to which he had only given his assent, as one of 
 the council ; the Dutch war, which he had opposed ; and aU 
 the persecuting laws against the different sectaries, were 
 universally ascribed to him. This great minister was first 
 impeached ; and as this failed, he withdrew to France 
 (Nov. 30), and was then formally banished (Dec. 19). 
 
 § 400. Louis XIV. had assumed the reins of govern- 
 ment in France nearly at the same time that Charles II. 
 was restored to the throne of his ancestors. He possessed 
 many qualities that rendered him popular, and seemed 
 resolved to raise Prance amongst European nations. Col- 
 bert, an able and active minister, had put the finances into 
 excellent order ; enormous sums were raised for the public 
 service; a navy was created, and a great standing army sup- 
 ported, without being felt by that populous and extensive 
 kingdom. Louis at once began to act in a very arrogant 
 manner ; demanded precedence for his ambassador at 
 London over the representative of Spain, and refused to 
 pay the honours of the flag. Though by the treaty of the 
 Pyrenees, he had solemnly renounced all title to the succes- 
 sion of any part of the Spanish dominions, which might occur 
 
THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE. 809 
 
 in consequence of his marriage with the infanta Maria 
 Theresa, he had still kept in view, as a favourite object, the 
 eventual succession to the whole of that monarchy ; and 
 on the death of his father-in-law, Philip IV. (1665), he 
 retracted his renunciation, and pretended that natural rights, 
 depending on blood and succession, could not be annihilated 
 by any extorted deed or contract. Philip had left a son, 
 Charles II. of Spain, a sickly infant, whose death was daily 
 expected ; but as the queen of France was the offspring of 
 a previous marriage, Louis laid claim to the Spanish Nether- 
 lands (1667), and entered Flanders at the head of forty 
 thousand men. Turenne commanded under him ; and Lou- 
 vois, his minister for military affairs, had placed large maga- 
 zines in all their frontier towns. The Spaniards, though 
 apprized of their danger, were in no condition to resist such 
 a force. Charleroy, Aeth, Tournay, Fumes, Armentieres, 
 Courtray, and Douay, immediately surrendered ; and Lisle, 
 though well fortified, and furnished with a garrison of six 
 thousand men, capitulated after a siege of nine days. Lou- 
 vois advised the king to leave garrisons in all these towns, 
 and the celebrated Vauban was employed to fortify them. 
 
 § 401. A progress so rapid filled Europe with terror 
 and consternation, and while people were debating on the 
 danger, Charles resolved to act. Sir William Temple 
 was ordered to repair to the Hague ; and by his exertions a 
 defensive alliance was concluded between Holland and Eng- 
 land (Jan. 13, 1668), to which Sweden soon after acceded. 
 This was the famous Triple alliance, which at once raised 
 Charles in general estimation. France and Spain were 
 equally displeased at the terras of this treaty. At length, 
 however, both agreed to treat, and the plenipotentiaries of 
 all the parties met at Aix-la-Chapelle, when peace was con- 
 cluded (May 2, 1668). Other circumstances seemed to 
 combine to insure the balance of Europe. After a ruinous 
 war of almost thirty years, carried on by Spain, in order to 
 recover the sovereignty of Portugal, and attended with 
 various success, an equitable treaty was at last concluded 
 between the two crowns ; in consequence of which the inde- 
 pendence of Portugal was acknowledged. This was framed 
 through the mediation of England, and was called the treaty 
 of Lisbon (Feb. 13, 1668). The bold ambition of LouisXIV., 
 aided by the pernicious policy of our faithless Charles II., 
 threatened Europe with even greater dangers than those 
 which were for a time averted by the Triple alliance. 
 
giO WARS WITH THE TURKS. 
 
 Lettek 13.— The General View of the Affairs of Europe continued, 
 from the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle to the Peace of Nimeguen. a.d. 
 1668—1678. Vol. ii., pages 161—183. 
 
 § 402. Louis XIV. was highly incensed at the repubKe 
 of Holland, but other matters for a time diverted his atten- 
 tion from that quarter. The Turks, after a long interval of 
 inaction, had again become formidable to Europe. The 
 grand vizier, Kupruli, who at once directed the counsels and 
 conducted the armies of the Porte, had entered Hungary at 
 the head of a hundred thousand men, in 1664 ; and although 
 he was defeated in a great battle, near St. Gotthard upon 
 the Eaab (August 1), by the imperial troops, under the 
 famous Montecuccoli, the Turks obtained a favourable 
 peace, called the peace of Temeswar, from Leopold, who 
 was threatened with a revolt from the Hungarians. The 
 Hungarian nobles, whose privileges had been invaded by 
 the emperor, flew to arms, and even craved the assistance 
 of the Turks, their old and irreconcilable enemies. The 
 rebels were quickly subdued by the vigour of Leopold. Li 
 the mean time Kupruli turned the arms of the Porte against 
 the Venetians ; and an army of sixty thousand Janisaries, 
 under that able and experienced general, besieged Candia 
 for upwards of two years. Though this island was reputed 
 one of the chief bulwarks of Christendom against the 
 infidels, no general confederacy had been formed for its 
 defence. The pope and the Knights of Malta were the 
 only allies of the Venetians, against the whole naval and 
 military force of the Ottoman empire. At length, however, 
 Louis XIV., whose love of glory had made him assist the 
 emperor against the Turks even in Hungary, sent a fleet 
 from Toulon to the relief of Candia, with seven thousand 
 men on board, under the duke of Beaufort. But as no other 
 Christian prince imitated his example, these succours served 
 only to retard the conquest of that important island. The 
 duke of Beaufort was slain in a sally ; and the capital being 
 reduced to a heap of ruins, surrendered to Kupruli (Sept. 6, 
 1669). These distant operations did not for a moment 
 divert the attention of Louis from his favourite project, the 
 conquest of the Low Countries, which he meant to resume, 
 ■with the invasion of Holland. But, in order to render that 
 project successful, it seemed necessary to detach England 
 Irom the Triple alliance. 
 
 § 403. George Monk, duke of Albemarle, died (Jan. 4, 
 
THE " CABAL." 311 
 
 1670), just after the exile of Clarendon, when Charles's 
 counsels were wholly directed by five persons, commonly de- 
 nominated the Cabal, in allusion to the initial letters of their 
 names : Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lau- 
 derdale : all men of ability, but destitute of either public 
 or private virtues. By the counsels of two of these men, 
 Clifford and Arlington, both secretly Eoman Catholics,in con- 
 junction with those of the duke of York, a secret treaty with 
 France was concluded at Paris ; in which it was agreed, not 
 only that Charles should co-operate in the conquest of the 
 Low Countries, and in the destruction of Holland, but that 
 he should propagate, to the utmost of his power, the Eoman 
 Catholic faith in his dominions, and publicly declare himself 
 a convert to that religion. In consideration of this last 
 article, he was to receive from Louis the sum of two 
 hundred thousand pounds, and a body of troops, in case 
 the change of his religion should occasion a rebellion iv 
 England ; and, by another article, a large annual subsidy 
 was to be paid him, in order to enable him to carry on the 
 war without the assistance of parliament. During these 
 negotiations, Charles had been visited by his sister, the 
 duchess of Orleans, who died suddenly soon after her return 
 to Paris (June 30, 1670). Amongst her attendants, she 
 brought over to England a beautiful young lady of the 
 name of Querouaille, with whom the fickle monarch was 
 enchanted, and he created her duchess of Portsmouth. 
 Satisfied with this treaty, Louis immediately gave orders 
 for the invasion of Lorraine, as the first step towards an 
 aggression upon Holland. Charles II., though under no 
 apprehensions from the ambition of the French monarch, 
 took advantage of the general terror, in order to demand a 
 large supply from his parliament. He informed the two 
 houses, by the mouth of the Lord-keeper Bridgeman, that 
 both Prance and Holland were arming by sea and land, and 
 that prudence dictated similar preparations to England. He 
 urged, besides, the necessity he was under, in consequence 
 of the engagements into which he had entered by the Triple 
 alliance, of maintaining a respectable fieet and army, in 
 order to enable him to preserve the tranquillity of Europe. 
 Deceived by these representations, the Commons voted a 
 supply of nearly three millions sterling ; the" largest that 
 had been granted to a king of England, and surely for the 
 most detestable purpose that ever an abused people volun- 
 tarily aided their prince. This money was soon spent, and- 
 
312 LEAGUE AGAINST HOLLAND, 
 
 as Charles dared not again apply to his parliament, he Lad 
 recourse to the desperate and unconstitutional expedient of 
 closing the Exchequer, and stopping the repayment of loans 
 and deposits (January 12, 1672). The shutting of the Ex- 
 chequer occasioned universal consternation, and even ruin 
 in the city : the bankers failed, the merchants could not 
 answer their bills, and a total stagnation of commerce was 
 the consequence. The king and his ministers, however, 
 seemed to enjoy the general confusion and distress. Charles 
 cared but little for this, and even before the declaration of 
 war, an insidious and unsuccessful attempt was made upon 
 the Dutch Smyrna fleet, valued at two millions sterling, 
 by an English squadron under Sir Eobert Holmes. Charles 
 Lad the infamy of violating the faith of treaties, without 
 obtaining such advantage as could justify the measure on 
 the principles of political prudence (March 14, 1672), 
 
 § 404. War was declared against Holland by both France 
 and England (March 17) : a treaty had been entered into 
 between the two last-mentioned powers (Feb. 12, 1672). 
 Europe had not beheld such a naval and military force, or 
 so extensive a confederacy, since the league of Cambray, as 
 was formed for the destruction of the republic of Holland. 
 Sweden, as well as England, was detached from the Triple 
 league, by the intrigues of Louis, in order to be a check 
 upon the emperor. The bishop of Munster, a warlike and 
 rapacious prelate, was engaged by the payment of subsidies 
 and the hopes of plunder to take part with France. The 
 elector of Cologne had also agreed to act offensively against 
 the States ; and having consigned Bonn and other towns into 
 the hands of Louis, magazines were erected there, and it was 
 proposed to invade the United Provinces from that quarter. 
 The combined fleet of France and England, amounting to 
 upwards of one hundred sail, was ready to ravage their 
 coasts ; and a French army of a hundred and twenty 
 thousand choice troops, commanded by the ablest generals 
 of the age, was preparing to enter their frontiers. The 
 Dutch were in no condition to resist such a force, especially 
 by land. The security procured by the peace of "Westphalia; 
 the general tranquillity, in consequence of that treaty ; the 
 subsequent connection of the States with France ; the 
 growing spirit of commerce ; and even their wars with 
 England, had made them neglect their military establish- 
 ments, and direct all their attention to the navy. De Wit on 
 this account lost his influence with the States, and their 
 
COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAE. 313 
 
 Toung prince, William III., now twenty-three years of age, 
 began to rise in popular esteem. His behaviour was ex- 
 tremely suitable to the genius of the Hollanders. Grave 
 and silent, even in youth ; ready to hear, and given to 
 inquire ; destitute of brilliant talents, but of a sound and 
 steady understanding; greatly intent on business, little 
 inclined to pleasure, he strongly engaged the hearts of all 
 men. William was appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 forces of the republic, and the whole military power was 
 put into his hands. New levies were made, and the army 
 was completed to the number of seventy thousand men. 
 De Euyter, his firm adherent, and the greatest naval officer 
 of his age, put to sea with ninety-one men-of-war, and 
 forty-four frigates and fire-ships, and sailed in quest of the 
 enemy. 
 
 § 405. Before war had been declared, an English squadron 
 attacked a Dutch fleet returning from Smyrna (March 14, 
 1672), and, although the attempt miscarried, the Dutch 
 longed to avenge this breach of faith. They fell in with 
 the French and English fleets in Southwold or Solebay ; a 
 furious engagement ensued, and on the second day De 
 Euyter fled, and was pursued by the duke to the coast of 
 Holland (May 28). As the English hung close on his 
 rear, fifteen of his disabled ships were only saved by a 
 sudden fog, which prevented all further consequences. The 
 French had scarcely any share in this action ; and as back- 
 wardness is not their national characteristic, it was univer- 
 sally believed that they had received orders to keep at a 
 distance, while the English and Dutch were weakening each 
 other : an opinion which was confirmed by all the subsequent 
 engagements during the war. It was certainly honourable 
 for the Dutch to have fought, with so little loss, the com- 
 bined fleet of France and England ; but nothing less than a 
 complete victory, and not perhaps even that, could have 
 preserved the credit of De Wit, or prevented the execution 
 of those schemes which were formed for the ruin of his 
 country. 
 
 § 406. The king of France having divided his army, 
 consisting of one hundred and twenty thousand men, into 
 three bodies, put them all in motion about the beginning of 
 May. The first he headed in person, assisted by the famous 
 Turenne ; the prince of Conde led the second ; and Cha- 
 milli and Luxemburg commanded the third. The armies of 
 the elector of Cologne and the bishop of Munster appeared 
 
314; THE DE "WITS KILLED. 
 
 on the other side of the Ehine, and divided the force and 
 attention of the States. Too weak to defend their extensive 
 frontier, the Dutch troops were scattered into so many- 
 towns, that no considerable body appeared in the field ; and 
 yet a strong garrison was scarcely to be found in any fortress. 
 Orsoy, Wesel, Ehinberg, and Burick, were taken almost as 
 soon as invested, by the Trench generals. Groll surren- 
 dered to the bishop of Munster ; and Louis XIV., to the 
 universal consternation of the Hollanders, advanced to the 
 banks of the Ehine. The passage was speedily eifected, and 
 Holland overrun by his formidable forces. Louis entered 
 Utrecht in triumph, surrounded by a splendid court, and 
 followed by a gallant army, and in this place he wasted in 
 vain parade the proper season for completing his conquest. 
 The inhabitants of the States attributed all their misfortunes 
 to De Wit. They sent ambassadors to Louis, but their 
 offers being rejected, William, prince of Holland, was de- 
 clared stadtholder. Still further enraged against De Wit, 
 who nobly stood by his brother Cornelius, falsely accused 
 of endeavouring to assassinate the prince of Orange, the 
 populace rose against them and tore them in pieces (1672). 
 § 407. William of Orange animated his countrymen to 
 a determined resistance. By his advice they rejected the 
 humiliating terms offered by Louis, and resolved, in case of 
 defeat, to retire to their settlements in the East Indies, to 
 erect a new empire in the south of Asia, and preserve that 
 liberty of which Europe was unworthy. They had already 
 concerted measures for executing this extraordinary reso- 
 lution, and found that the ships in their harbours adequate 
 to such a voyage, were capable of carrying fifty thousand ■ 
 families, or about two hundred thousand persons. No 
 sooner did the confederate kings perceive the new spirit 
 with which the Dutch were animated, than they bent all 
 their efforts to corrupt the prince of Orange. They offered 
 him the sovereignty of the province of Holland, to be held 
 under the protection of France and England, and secured ■ 
 against the invasion of foreign enemies, as well as the revolt 
 of his own subjects. William, from motives of prudence, 
 if not patriotism, rejected all such proposals. Charles IL, ■ 
 however, persisted in his alliance with France, but reinforce- 
 ments which had been sent to the coast of Holland, were 
 prevented from landing in so extraordinary a manner that 
 it was looked upon as an interposition of Providence in 
 favour of the Dutch, and Louis finding that his enemies, 
 
DECIiAEATION OF INDULGENCE. 315. 
 
 gained courage behind their inundations, and that no further 
 progress was likely to be made by his arms during the cam- 
 paign, retired to Versailles, in order to enjoy the glory of 
 his success, which was pompously displayed in poems, ora- 
 tions, and triumphal arches. Meanwhile the other states 
 of Europe began to discover a jealousy of the power of 
 France. The emperor, though naturally slow, had put 
 himself in motion ; the elector of Brandenburg showed a 
 disposition to support the States; the king of Spain had 
 sent some forces to their assistance ; and, by the vigorous 
 efforts of the prince of Orange, and the prospect of relief 
 from their allies, a different face of affairs began to appear 
 (1673). 
 
 § 408. The Dutch relied iirmly for relief upon the English 
 Parliament, which the king's necessities obliged him at last 
 to convene (Eeb. 5, 1673) . But that assembly was too much 
 occupied with domestic grievances, to have leisure to attend 
 to foreign politics. Charles, among his other arbitrary 
 measures, had issued a general declaration of indulgence 
 in religious matters, by which the Roman Catholics were 
 placed on the same footing with the Protestant sectaries. 
 A remonstrance was framed against such an exercise of 
 prerogative : the king defended his measure, and the hopes 
 and fears of all men were suspended in regard to the issue 
 of so extraordinary an affair. Although encouraged by his 
 ministers to proceed, Charles was startled when he ap- 
 proached the dangerous precipice ; and the same love of 
 ease which had led him to desire arbitrary power, induced 
 him to retract the declaration of indulgence, when he saw 
 how much hazard and difficulty there would be in main- 
 taining it. He accordingly called for the writing, and broke 
 the seals with his own hand (March 8, 1673). The Par-. 
 liament passed an act called the Test (March 29) ; by 
 which all persons holding any public office, besides taking 
 the oaths of supremacy and allegiance, and receiving the 
 sacrament, according to the rites of the Church of England, 
 were obliged to abjure the doctrine of transubstantiation. 
 Even to this bill the king gave his assent ; and the Parlia- 
 ment, in recompense for these concessions, granted him a 
 considerable supply for his extraordinary occasions, as they 
 expressed themselves, disdaining to mention a war which 
 they abhorred. With the money granted by Parliament, he 
 was enabled to equip a fleet, the command of which was 
 given to Prince Eupert, the duke of York being set aside 
 
316 DEFEAT OF THE FEENCH. 
 
 by the Test. A French squadron joined them, and the 
 eombined fleet sailed towards the coast of Holland, where 
 three indecisive battles were fought with the Dutch, under 
 De Euyter and Van Tromp (May 28, June 4, Aug. 11, 
 1673). The last was remarkable on account of its obstinacy. 
 The victory, as usual, was claimed by both sides. While 
 the Dutch thus continued to defend themselves with vigour 
 by sea, fortune was still more favourable to them by land. 
 Though the French monarch took Maestricht, one of their 
 strongest bulwarks, after a siege of thirteen days, no other 
 advantage was obtained during the campaign. Naerden 
 was retaken by the prince of Orange ; and the imperialists, 
 under Montecuccoli, after having in vain attempted against 
 Turenne the passage of the Ehine, eluded the vigilance of that 
 able general, and sat down suddenly before Bonn. The prince 
 of Orange, by conduct no less masterly, leaving behind him 
 the other French generals, joined his army to that of the 
 emperor. Bonn surrendered, after a short siege. The greater 
 part of the electorate of Cologne was subdued by the Dutch 
 and Germans ; and the communication between France 
 and the United Provinces being by that means cut off, 
 Louis was obliged to recall his forces, and abandon his 
 conquests with the utmost precipitation. A congress held 
 at Cologne under the mediation of Sweden, was attended 
 with no success, and after the retreat of the French its 
 members separated. The king of Spain joined the emperor 
 and the other allies of Holland, and prepared to defend the 
 Dutch against England and France (1673). 
 
 § 409. On the meeting of the English Parliament, the 
 Commons evinced such symptoms of discontent at the late 
 measures of government, that the king, perceiving he could 
 expect no supply for carrying on the war, asked their advice 
 in regard to peace. Both houses thanked him for Ms con- 
 descension, and unanimously concurred in recommending 
 a negotiation. Peace was accordingly concluded with Hol- 
 land. The conditions, though little advantageous, were by 
 no means degrading to England. The honour of the flag 
 was relinquished by the Dutch ; all possessions were mutu- 
 ally restored ; new regulations of trade were made, and the 
 republic agreed to pay the king nearly three hundred 
 thousand pounds towards reimbursing the expenses of the 
 war. Charles bound himself to the States, by a secret 
 article, not to allow the English troops in the French ser- 
 vice to be recruited, but would not agree to recall them. 
 
BATTLE OF SENEPFE. 317 
 
 They amounted to ten thousand men, and had greatly con- 
 tributed to the rapid success of Louis (Feb. 28, 1674). 
 • Charles then apologized to Louis for the step he had taken, 
 and oiFered to act the part of mediator between the bellige- 
 rents. The offer was accepted by Louis, and Sir William 
 Temple appointed ambassador to the States. This distin- 
 guished diplomatist found that he could not at once induce 
 the various powers engaged in the strife to lay aside their 
 arms. Spain had an eye to Flanders, the emperor to 
 Alsace, and the Dutch were not inclined to negotiate. 
 Under these circumstances Louis XIV. astonished all 
 Europe by the vigour of his exertions. He had three large 
 armies in the field during the summer : one on the side of 
 Germany, one in Flanders, and one on the frontiers ot 
 Eoussillon ; and he himself, at the head of a fourth, entered 
 Franche Comte, and subdued the whole province in six 
 weeks. Vauban directed the attacks at Besan^on, which 
 was reduced in nine days, and became the capital of the 
 province. Nothing of importance happened in Eoussillon ; 
 but in Flanders, the prince of Conde prevented the prince 
 of Orange from entering France by that quarter; and 
 attacked the rear of the confederates in a narrow defile near 
 Seneffe, a village between Marimont and Nivelle ; threw 
 them into confusion, and took great part of their cannon 
 and baggage. The prince of Orange, however, rallied his 
 disordered forces, and the engagement was several times 
 renewed. Darkness at last put an end to the contest, and 
 left the victory undecided (Aug. 1, 1674). Twelve thousand 
 men lay dead on the field, and the loss on both sides was 
 nearly equal. In order to give an air of superiority to the 
 allies, and to bring the French to a new engagement, the 
 prince of Orange besieged Oudenarde ; but Souches, the 
 imperial general, not being willing to hazard a battle, he was 
 obliged to relinquish his enterprise, on the approach of 
 Conde. Before the close of the campaign, however, after 
 an obstinate siege, be took Grave, the last town which the 
 French held in any of the Seven Provinces. At the same 
 time Turenue routed the imperialists on the German 
 frontier, and fully maintained his lofty reputation. 
 
 § 410. Charles was pleased at these triumphs of the 
 French, and further prorogued the Parliament till the next 
 April. Louis, notwithstanding his success, was alarmed at 
 the number of his enemies; and not content with pur- 
 chasing the neutrality of England, he endeavoured, thougU 
 
318 DEATH OF TUEENNE. 
 
 in vain, to negotiate a peace with Holland. The events of 
 the next campaign showed that his fears were well founded. 
 Though he made vast preparations, and entered Flanders* 
 with a numerous army, commanded by himself and the 
 prince of Conde, he was able to gain no advantage of any 
 consequence over the prince of Orange, who opposed him 
 in all his motions. Neither party was willing, without some 
 peculiarly favourable circumstance, to hazard a general en- 
 gagement, which might be attended with the utter loss of 
 Flanders, if victory declared for the French, and with the 
 invasion of France if the king should be defeated. Dis- 
 gusted at his want of success, Louis returned to Versailles 
 about the end of July, and nothing memorable happened 
 in the Low Countries during the campaign. Turenne was 
 killed by a cannon-ball at the siege of Salzbach (July 27, 
 1675) ; whereupon the French army was seized with a panic 
 and at once retreated. Leaving the army in Flanders, under 
 the command of Luxemburg, the prince of Conde came 
 with a reinforcement to supply the place of Turenne ; and 
 though not, perhaps, in all respects, equal to that consum- 
 mate general, he not only prevented the Germans from 
 establishing themselves in Alsace, hut obliged them to 
 repass the Rhine, and take up winter quarters in their own 
 country. Previous to his arrival, the Germans had besieged 
 and captured Treves. In this crisis Charles II. might have 
 secured peace to Europe and put an effectual restraint upon 
 the ambition of the French, but he contented himself with 
 accepting an annual pension from Louis and entering into 
 secret engagements not to oppose his designs (1676). 
 
 § 411. Thus secure of the neutrality of England, Louis 
 made vigorous preparations for carrying on the war in 
 Flanders. He laid siege to Conde in the month of April, 
 and took it by storm. Bouchain fell into his hands by the 
 middle of May ; the prince of Orange, who was ill sup- 
 ported by his allies, not daring to attempt its relief, on 
 account of the advantageous position of the French army. 
 After facing each other for some time, the two armies with- 
 drew to a greater distance, as if by mutual consent, neither 
 choosing to hazard an engagement. The king of France, 
 with his usual avidity for praise, and want of perseverance, 
 returned to Versailles, leaving the command of his army to 
 Marshal Schomberg ; and the prince of Orange, on the 
 .departure of Louis, laid siege to Maestricht. The trenches 
 were opened towards the end of July, and many desperate 
 
FRENCH NAVAL TEroMPHS. 319 
 
 assaults made, and several outworks taken ; but all without 
 effect. The place maintained a gallant defence ; sickness 
 broke out in the confederate army ; and on the approach of 
 Schomberg, who had already taken Aire, the prince of 
 Orange was obliged to abandon his enterprise. The taking 
 of Philipsburg by the imperialists was the sole success 
 that attended the arms of the allies during the campaign. 
 Nor was France less successful by sea. Messina, in Sicily, 
 had revolted from Spain ; and a French fleet, under the 
 duke of Vivonne, was sent to support the citizens in their 
 rebellion. A Dutch and Spanish squadron sailed to oppose 
 Vivonne; but, after an obstinate combat, Messina was 
 relieved by the French. Another engagement ensued near 
 Augusta, rendered famous by the death of the gallant 
 De Euyter, and in which the French had also the advantage. 
 A third battle, more decisive than any of the former, was 
 fought off Palermo. The combined fleet, to the number of 
 twenty-seven ships of the line, nineteen galleys, and four 
 fire-ships, was drawn up in a line without the mole, and 
 under cover of the fortifications. The battle was sustained 
 ■with great vigour on both sides ; until the French, taking 
 advantage of a favourable wind, sent some fire-ships in 
 among the enemy. AU was now confusion and terror. 
 Twelve capital ships were sunk, burnt, or taken; five 
 thousand men lost their lives ; and the French, riding 
 undisputed masters of the Mediterranean, endangered the 
 total revolt of Naples and Sicily (1676). 
 
 § 412. The congress opened at Nimeguen (1675) had 
 produced no definite results, and although some of the 
 belligerents were anxious for peace, others were interested 
 in the prosecution of the war. The eyes of all parties were 
 turned towards England. Charles II. was universally 
 allowed to be the arbiter of Europe ; and no terms of peace 
 prescribed by him would have been refused by any of the 
 contending powers. Parliament met (Feb. 15, 1677), and 
 the Commons contented themselves with urging Charles to 
 oppose Louis, promising their support. In the mean time, 
 Louis had once more taken the field. He besieged Valen- 
 ciennes ; and by the judicious advice of Vauban, who 
 recommended an assault to be made in the morning, when 
 it would be least expected, in preference to the night, the 
 usual time for such attempts, the place was carried by sur- 
 prise. Cambray surrendered after a short siege ; and St. 
 Omer was closely invested, when the prince of Orange, 
 
320 A MAEBIAGE SCHEME. 
 
 with an army hastily assembled, marched to its relief. The 
 siege was covered by the dukes of Orleans and Luxemburg; 
 and as the prince was determined to endeavour to raise it, 
 be the consequences what they might, an obstinate battle 
 was fought at Mont Cassel (April 11, 1677) ; where, by a 
 superior movement of Luxemburg, William was defeated, 
 in 'spite of his most vigorous efforts, and obliged to retire 
 to Tpres. His behaviour was gallant, and his retreat 
 masterly ; but St. Omer submitted to the arms of France. 
 Alarmed at this success, the English Parliament presented 
 an address to the king praying that he would interfere, and 
 offering to vote supplies in case of a war with France. 
 Pretending resentment at this address, as an encroachment 
 upon his prerogative, Charles II. of England made an angry 
 speech to the Commons, and ordered the Parliament to be 
 adjourned. 
 
 § 413. In Spain, Don John of Austria took up arms against 
 the queen-regent, and induced Charles II. of Spain to confine 
 her iu a convent. Thus domestic troubles were added to the 
 many perils with which this kingdom was threatened. Tbe 
 Erench arms were for the most part successful, and at last 
 honest negotiations were commenced between France and 
 the States-general of the United Provinces, and a treaty 
 was actually concluded, by which all differences were 
 adjusted, and nothing was wanting to the restoration of 
 peace, but the concurrence of their respective allies. The 
 misfortunes of the confederates, and the supine indifference 
 of England, seemed to render peace necessary. Bat 
 had they been sufficiently acquainted with the state of 
 France, they would have had fewer apprehensions from the 
 continuance of the war. Though victorious in the field, 
 she was exhausted at home. The successes which had ren- 
 dered her the terror of her neighbours, had already deprived 
 her, for a time, of the power of hurting them. But the igno- 
 rance of mankind continued their fears ; the apprehensions 
 of Europe remained ; and Louis XIV. derived more glory 
 from his imaginary than from his real force. Finding that 
 the Eomanist tendencies of his brother, the duke of York, 
 disgusted the nation, Charles II. of England made an effort 
 to gain confidence, by offering to secure the Protestant suc- 
 cession, by a marriage between his brother's eldest daughter 
 and the prince of Orange. WUliam came over to England at 
 the close of the campaign, and acted a part highly deserving 
 of applause, whether it be examined by the rules of prudence 
 
TREATY OF NIMEGUEN. 321 
 
 or delicacy. He would not enter upon business before he 
 had been introduced to the Lady Mary ; and, after the 
 introduction had taken place, refused to concert any mea- 
 sures for the general peace, until his marriage should be 
 concluded. Charles, who affected to smile at these punc- 
 tilios, persisted in his resolution of making the peace 
 precede the marriage ; but finding the prince inflexible, he 
 at last consented to the nuptials, which were celebrated at 
 . St. James's, to the inexpressible joy of the nation (Nov. 4, 
 1677). This matrimonial alliance gave great alarm to the 
 king of France. A junction of England with the confede- 
 rates, he concluded, would be the immediate consequence 
 of so important a step, taken not only without his consent, 
 but without his knowledge or participation. Consultations 
 were held relative to a general peace ; and the earl of 
 Eeversham was despatched to France with conditions suffi- 
 ciently favourable to the allies, and yet not dishonourable 
 to Louis. 
 
 § 414. Some delay ensued in the negotiations, and the 
 French monarch having taken the field early, made himself 
 master of Grhent and Tpres (1678). These conquests, 
 which completed the triumph of France, fiUed the Dutch 
 with terror, and the English with indignation. But Louis 
 managed matters so artfully in both nations, that neither 
 proved a bar in the way of his ambition. So great, how- 
 ever, was the ardour of the people of England for war, that 
 both the king and Parliament were obliged to give way. 
 An army of twenty thousand men was, to the astonishment 
 of Europe, raised in a few weeks ; and part of it was sent 
 over, under the duke of Monmouth, to secure Ostend. 
 Meanwhile, Charles, in consideration of the sum of three 
 hundred thousand pounds, secretly engaged to disband hia 
 army, and to permit Louis to make his own terms with the 
 confederates ; and the Commons also, swayed by French 
 influence, but ignorant of the king's engagements, and ever 
 desirous to thwart his measures, voted that the army should 
 be disbanded. Negotiations for a general peace advanced, 
 toward a conclusion at Nimeguen ; and as the emperor and" 
 Spain, though least able to continue the war, seemed re- 
 solved to stand out, Van Beveming, the Dutch ambassador, 
 more prudently than honourably signed a separate treaty 
 with France (Aug. 10, 1678). That treaty, which occa- 
 sioned much clamour among the confederates, was ratified 
 by the States ; and all the other powers were at last obliged, 
 
 T 
 
322 WILLIAM'S DUPLICITY. 
 
 to accept the terms prescribed by the Preneh monarch. 
 The principal terms were, that Louis, beside Franche 
 Comte, which he had twice conquered, should retain pos- 
 session of Cambray, Aire, St. Omer, Valenciennes, Tournay, 
 Tpres, Bouchain, Cassel, Charlemont, and other places; 
 that he should restore Maestricht to the States ; that Spain 
 should be again put in possession of Charleroy, Oudenarde, 
 Aeth, Ghent, and Limbourg ; that the emperor should give 
 up Freiburg to France, and retain Philipsburg ; that the 
 elector of Brandenburg should restore to Sweden his cod- 
 quests in Pomerania, and that the treaty of "Westphalia 
 should remain in full force over Germany and the North. 
 The prince of Orange was so much enraged at this peace, 
 that he took a very unwarrantable step to break it. He 
 attacked the quarters of the duke of Luxemburg at St. Denis, 
 near Mons, after the treaty was signed, and when the duke 
 reposed on the faith of it, in hopes of cutting off the whole 
 French army. But he gained no decided advantage ; and 
 this bold violation of the laws of humanity, if not of those 
 of nations, was attended with no other consequence than 
 the loss of many lives on both sides. The king of England 
 also, disgusted with Louis, and ashamed of having been so 
 long the tool of a monarch to whose ambition he might have 
 given law, endeavoured to persuade the States to disavow 
 their ambassador, and refuse to ratify the peace. But the 
 Dutch had made too good terms for themselves to think 
 of immediately renewing the war ; and Charles, though 
 denied the stipulated bribe for his ignominious neutrality, 
 soon returned to his former connections with France. 
 
 Letter 14. — England, from the Popish Plot of 1678 to the Death of 
 Charles II. ; with a Retrospective View of the Affairs of Scotland. 
 A.D. 1666—1685. Vol. ii., pages 183—200. 
 
 § 415. Soon after the suppression of the insurrection in 
 the west of Scotland, in 1666, and the severe punishment of 
 the fanatical insurgents, the king was advised to try milder 
 methods for bringing the people over to episcopacy. With 
 this view, he intrusted the government to the earl of 
 Tweeddale and Sir Eobert Murray, men of prudence and 
 moderation. In order to compose the religious differences, 
 which still ran high, these ministers adopted a scheme of 
 " comprehension ; " by which it was proposed to diminish 
 the authority of the bishops, to abolish their negative voice 
 in the ecclesiastical courts, and to leave them little moje 
 
SCOTCH AFFAIRS. 323 
 
 than the right of precedency among the presbyters (1668). 
 This plan of settlement was, however, rejected, and the 
 king's ministers adopted that of indulgence. In the pro- 
 secution of this new scheme, they proceeded with great 
 temper and judgment. Some of the most enlightened of 
 the Presbyterian teachers were settled in vacant churches, 
 without being obliged to conform to the established reli- 
 gion ; and salaries of twenty pounds a year were offered to 
 the rest, till they should be otherwise provided for, on 
 condition that they behaved themselves with decency and 
 moderation. This offer was universally rejected, as the 
 king's bribe for silence ; and those teachers who were 
 settled in the vacant churches soon found their popularity 
 decline, when they delivered only the simple doctrines of 
 Christianity. By ceasing to rail against the church and 
 state, called preaching to the times, they got the name of 
 dumb dogs, who were supposed to be afraid to bark. The 
 churches were again deserted, for the more vehement and 
 inflammatory discourses of the field ; preachers and con- 
 venticles multiplied daily in the west; where the people, 
 as formerly, came armed to their places of worship. Lauder- 
 dale was appointed commissioner to the Scotch Parlia- 
 ment ; and the authority of the king completely established. 
 A severe act against conventicles followed (April 11, 1670). 
 Euinous fines were imposed on the Presbyterians, who met 
 to worship in houses ; and field-preachers and their hearers 
 were to be punished with death. The people, however, 
 persevered in defiance of these enactments, and Lauder- 
 dale attempted to quarter the Highland militia on the lauds 
 of some Lowland gentlemen, who resisted his arbitrary 
 measures. The council forbade, under severe penalties, 
 all noblemen and gentlemen of landed property to leave 
 the kingdom. In spite of this, some of them laid their 
 complaints before Charles, who pretended to sympathize 
 with them, although he did not take steps to remedy their 
 grievances. Lauderdale ordered the Highlanders home, and 
 summoned a convention of estates at Edinburgh, which 
 assembly voted an address approving of his government. 
 At this juncture, the rumour of a popish plot threw the 
 nation into a panic. 
 
 § 416. The chief actor in this horrid imposture, which occa- 
 sioned the loss of much innocent blood, was a needy adven- 
 turer, named Titus Oates. Being bred to the church, he 
 obtained a small living, which he was obliged to abandon on 
 T 2 
 
324 OATES'S PLOT. 
 
 account of a prosecution for perjury. In his necessity, he 
 came to London, where he got acquainted with Dr. Tongue, a 
 city divine, who for some time fed and clothed him. By his 
 advice, Gates, whom he found to be a bold impudent fellow, 
 agreed to reconcile himself to the Romish communion, in 
 order to discover the designs of the Soman Catholics con- 
 nected with the English court ; to go beyond sea, and to 
 enter into the society of the Jesuits. All these directions 
 Gates implicitly followed. He became a Papist ; visited 
 different parts of France a,nd Spain ; resided some time 
 in a seminary of Jesuits at St. Gmers ; but was at last 
 dismissed on account of bad behaviour, by that politic body, 
 who never seem to have trusted him with any of their 
 secrets. Gates, however, setting his wicked imagination 
 to work, in order to supply the want of materials, returned 
 to England burning with resentment against the Jesuits, 
 and with a full resolution of forming the story of a popish 
 plot. This he accomplished in conjunction with his patron 
 Dr. Tongue ; and one Kirby, a chemist, and Tongue's 
 friend, was employed to communicate the intelligence to 
 the king. Charles made light of the matter, but desired 
 to see Dr. Tongue ; who delivered into his hands a nar- 
 rative, consisting of forty-three articles of a conspiracy to 
 murder his majesty, to subvert the government, and to 
 re-establish the Roman Catholic faith in England. The 
 king felt inclined to discredit the affair, biit referred the 
 matter to the lord-treasurer, Danby, who treated the in- 
 formation more seriously than it deserved, and. summoned 
 a council to investigate the supposed plot. The substance 
 of Gates's evidence was, that he had been privy, both at 
 home and abroad, to many consultations among the Jesuits 
 for the assassination of Charles II., who, they said, had 
 deceived them ; that Grove and Pickering, the one an 
 ordained Jesuit, the other a lay brother, were at first ap- 
 pointed to shoot the king, but that it had afterwards been 
 resolved to take him off by poison, by bribing Sir George 
 "Wakeman, the queen's physician, and a Papist : that many 
 Jesuits had gone into Scotland, in disguise, to distract the 
 government of that kingdom, by preaching sedition in the 
 field conventicles ; that he himself had assisted at a con- 
 Bultation of Jesuits in London, where it was resolved to 
 despatch the king by the dagger, by shooting, or by poison ; 
 and that, when he was busy in collecting evidence for a 
 full discovery, be was suspected, and obliged to separate 
 
MURDER OF SIR E. GODFREY. 325; 
 
 himself from them, in order to save his own life. Sir 
 George Wakeman and several Jesuits were arrested, and 
 the kingdom thrown into a terrible state of alarm (1678). 
 
 § 417. The ferment would probably have soon subsided, 
 had not the seizure of Coleman's papers led to some 
 strange misconceptions. This man had been secretary to 
 the duchess of York, and carried on an extensive corre- 
 spondence with Boman Catholics abroad. As Coleman was 
 a weak man, and a wild enthusiast in the Eomish faith, 
 he had insinuated many extraordinary things to his corre- 
 spondents, in a mysterious language, concerning the con- 
 version of three British kingdoms, and the total ruin of 
 the Protestant religion, which he termed pestilent heresy. 
 He founded his hopes on the zeal of the duke of York, and 
 spoke in obscure terms of aid from abroad, for the accom- 
 plishment of what he denominated a "glorious work." 
 These indefinite expressions, together with the murder of 
 Sir Edmundbury Godfrey, an active justice of the peace, 
 who had taken the deposition of Dates relative to his first 
 narrative, seemed to favour the idea of a plot. He was 
 found dead in a ditch near Primrose Hill, between London 
 and Hampstead, with his sword thrust through his body, 
 his money in his pocket, and his rings on his fingers 
 (Oct. 17, 1678). From these last circumstances it was 
 inferred that his death had not been the act of robbers : 
 it was therefore universally ascribed to the resentment of 
 the Eoman Catholics ; though it appears that he had always 
 lived on a good footing with that sect, and was even in- 
 timate with Coleman at the time that he took Oates's 
 evidence. The dead body of Godfrey was exposed to view 
 for two whole days; the people crowded around it in 
 multitudes. His funeral was celebrated with great pomp 
 and parade ; the corpse was conducted through the chief 
 streets of the city ; seventy-two clergymen walked before, 
 and above a thousand persons of distinction brought up the 
 rear of the procession. To deny the reality of the plot, was 
 now to be reputed an accomplice ; to hesitate was criminal. 
 Invasions from abroad, insurrections at home, conflagrations, 
 and even poisonings, were apprehended. Men looked vrith 
 wild anxiety at one another, as if every interview were to 
 be the last. 
 
 § 418. During this national ferment, Parliament was 
 assembled, and Danby opened the story of the plot to the 
 House of Peers. Charles was extremely displeased at this. 
 
326 IMPEACHMENTS. 
 
 and even Danby lived to repent the step. The cry of the 
 plot was immediately echoed from the upper to the lower 
 house. The authority of Parliament gave sanction to that 
 fury with which the people were already animated. The 
 Commons voted an address for a solemn fast, and a form of 
 prayer was framed for that occasion. Gates was brought 
 before them, and made a bolder publication of his narrative 
 at the bar of the house, adding many new and extraordinary 
 circumstances. The most remarkable of these were, that 
 the pope having resumed the sovereignty of England, on 
 account of the heresy of prince and people, had thought 
 proper to delegate the supreme power to the society of 
 Jesuits ; and that Oliva, general of that order, in conse- 
 quence of the papal grant, had supplied all the principal 
 ofiSces, both civU and military, with Boman Catholic noble- 
 men and gentlemen, many of whom he named. On this 
 ridiculous evidence, the earl of Powis, with the lords Staf- 
 ford, Arundel, Petre, and Bellasis, were committed to the 
 Tower, and soon after impeached for high treason; and 
 both houses voted, without one dissenting voice, "that 
 there has been, and still is, a damnable and hellish plot, 
 contrived and carried on by Papists, for murdering the 
 king, subverting the government, and destroying the Pro- 
 testant religion! " (Oct. 31, 1678). Informers sprang up 
 on all sides, and many Eoman Catholics were brought to 
 trial and executed. A new test was introduced by Parlia- 
 ment, and Oates was rewarded with a pension of twelve 
 hundred pounds a year; guards were appointed for his 
 protection ; men of the first rank courted his company ; 
 and he was called the saviour of the nation. The employ- 
 ment of an informer became honourable ; and, besides those 
 wretches who appeared in support of Oates's evidence, a 
 man high in office assumed that character. 
 
 § 419. Montague, the English ambassador at Paris, who 
 had been deeply concerned in the money negotiations 
 between Charles and Louis, was bribed by the latter to 
 disgrace the king and ruin his minister. Danby gained 
 some intimation of the intrigue, and he ordered Montague's 
 papers to be seized ; but this experienced diplomatist had 
 taken efiectual measures for their safety. Two of Danby's 
 letters were produced before the House of Commons. 
 One of these contained instructions to demand three hun- 
 dred thousand pounds a .year, for three years, from the 
 Trench monarch, provided the conditions of peace should 
 
BANISHMENT OF THE DUKE OF YOEK. 327 
 
 be accepted at Nimeguen, in consequence of Charles's good 
 offices ; and, as Danby bad foreseen the danger of this 
 negotiation, the king, in order to remove his fears, had 
 subjoined with his own. hand, that the letter was written, 
 by his express orders. An order for the impeachment of, 
 the lord-treasurer was carried by a large majority. Danby 
 defended himself, and whUe the Lords decided against, the 
 Commons were in favour of his commitment. A violent 
 contest was likely to ensue ; and the king, who thought 
 himself bound to support his minister, and saw no hopes of 
 ending the dispute by gentle means, first prorogued, and 
 afterwards dissolved the Parliament. This was a desperate 
 remedy in the critical state of the nation, and did not 
 answer the end proposed. The new Parliament consisted 
 chiefly of the most violent of the former members, re- 
 inforced by others of the same principles. The court had 
 exerted its influence in vain ; the elections were made with 
 all the prejudices of the times. The king's connections 
 with France had alienated the affections of his subjects; 
 but the avowed popery of the duke of York was a stiU 
 more dangerous subject of jealousy and discontent. Charles 
 conjured his brother to conform to the established church, 
 and even sent the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop 
 of Winchester to persuade him, if possible, to become again 
 a Protestant ; and on finding all their arguments lost on 
 his obstinacy, he desired him to withdraw beyond sea. 
 This proposal the duke also declined, as he apprehended that 
 his retiring would be construed into an acknowledgment of 
 guilt ; but when the king insisted on his departure, as a 
 step necessary for the welfare of both, he obeyed, after en- 
 gaging Charles to make a public declaration of the illegiti- 
 macy of the duke of Monmouth. He went first to Holland, 
 and then to Brussels, where he fixed his residence (Peb. 28, 
 1679). The duke of Monmouth was a natural son of 
 Charles II. by Lucy Walters. He was bom about ten 
 years before the Eestoration. Charles made a solemn 
 declaration before the council that he was never married 
 to any woman but the queen, and even renewed bis pro- 
 testation more particularly against Lucy Walters. 
 
 § 420. The new Parliament, no way mollified by the dis- 
 missal of the duke of Tork, discovered all the violence that 
 had been feared by the court. The Commons revived the 
 prosecution of the earl of Danby ; they reminded the Lords 
 of his impeachment ; and they demanded justice, in the name 
 
328 PAELIAMENTAKY SQUABBLES. 
 
 of the people of England. Charles, determined to save his 
 minister, had already had the precaution to grant him a 
 pardon. That he now avowed in the House of Peers; 
 declaring that he could not think Danby in any respect 
 criminal, as he had acted by his orders. The lower house, 
 paying no regard to this confession, immediately voted 
 that no pardon of the crown could be pleaded in bar of an 
 impeachment by the Commons of England. The Lords 
 seemed at first to adhere to the pardon, but yielded at last 
 to the violence of the Commons ; and Danby, after ab- 
 sconding for a time, surrendered to the Black Bod, and 
 was committed to the Tower. Charles, in order to soothe 
 the Commons, made a show of changing his measures. 
 Several popular leaders of both houses were admitted into 
 the privy council, particularly Sir Henry Capel, Lord 
 Eussell, the earl of Shaftesbury, and others, who had dis- 
 tinguished themselves by their opposition to the court. 
 The earl of Essex, a popular nobleman, was advanced to the 
 head of the treasury, in the room of the earl of Danby ; 
 and the earl of Sunderland, a man every way qualified for 
 such an office, was made secretary of state. The Parliament 
 was not, however, appeased ; they demanded the exclusion 
 of the duke of York from the succession, and continued 
 the prosecution against Danby. Charles had laid before 
 them very important limitations, which they refused to 
 accept ; and in the mean time a furious dispute arose 
 between the two houses, occasioned by a resolution of the 
 Commons, " That the lords spiritual ought not to have any 
 vote in any proceedings against the lords in the Tower" 
 (May 17, 1679). Though the bishops were anciently pro- 
 hibited by the canon law, and afterwards by established 
 custom, from assisting at capital trials, they generally sat 
 and voted in motions preparatory to such trials. The 
 validity of Danby's pardon was first to be debated; and, 
 although but a preliminary, was the hinge on which the 
 whole must turn. The Commons, therefore, insisted upon 
 excluding the bishops, whom they knew to be devoted to 
 the court ; the Lords were unwilling to make any alteration 
 in the forms of their judicature; both houses adhered to 
 their respective pretensions, and Charles took advantage 
 of their quarrels, first to prorogue, and then to dissolve the 
 Parliament ; setting aside, by that measure, the trial of his 
 minister, and, for a time, the Bill of Exclusion against his 
 brother. ' 
 
THE HABEAS CORPUS ACT. 329 
 
 § 421. Previous to this, that great defence of the subject, 
 the Habeas Corpus Act, had been passed. The personal 
 liberty of individuals nothing but the certainty of a crime 
 committed ought ever to abridge or restrain. The English 
 nation had, accordingly, very early and repeatedly, as we 
 have seen, secured by public acts this valuable part of their 
 rights as men ; yet something was still wanting to render 
 personal freedom complete, and prevent evasion or delay 
 from ministers and judges. The act of habeas corpus 
 answered all these purposes, and does equal honour to the 
 patriotism and the penetration of those who framed it and 
 carried it into a law. This act prohibits the sending of any 
 English subject to a prison beyond sea ; and it provides, 
 that no judge shall refuse to any prisoner a writ, by which 
 the gaoler is directed to produce in court the body of such 
 prisoner, and to certify the cause of his detainer and com- 
 mitment. The Scotch Covenanters continued to struggle 
 for their cause. Their conventicles, to which they went 
 armed, became more numerous, and they frequently repelled 
 the troops sent to disperse them. A band of desperate 
 fanatics waylaid Sharpe, archbishop of St. Andrew's, and 
 after firing into his coach, despatched him with many 
 wounds (May 1, 1679). This led to more severe measures, 
 and these produced an insurrection. The Covenanters as- 
 sembled in large bodies, took possession of Glasgow, and 
 established a kind of preaching camp in the neighbourhood, 
 whence they issued proclamations, declaring that they 
 fought against the king's supremacy in religious matters, 
 against popery, prelacy, and a popish successor. Charles, 
 alarmed at this insurrection, despatched the duke of Mon- 
 mouth, with a body of English cavalry, to join the royal 
 army in Scotland, and subdue the fanatics. Monmouth 
 came up with the Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge, between 
 Glasgow and Hamilton, where a rout rather than a battle 
 ensued, and the insurgents were totally dispersed (June 22, 
 1679). About seven hundred of these persecuted and 
 misguided men fell ■ in the pursuit, and twelve hundred 
 were made prisoners. The execution of two clei^ymen 
 excepted, no blood was shed. Monmouth used his 
 victory with great moderation. Such prisoners as would 
 promise to live peaceably in future were dismissed. That 
 lenity, however, unfortunately awakened the jealousy of 
 the court. Monmouth was recalled and disgraced, and the 
 duke of York, who had found a pretence to return to 
 
830 WHIG AND TORY. 
 
 England, was intrusted with the government of Scotland. 
 Under his administration, the Covenanters were exposed 
 to a cruel persecution. James is said to have been fre- 
 quently present at the torturing of the unhappy criminals, 
 and to have viewed their sufferings with as much unfeeling 
 attention as if he had been contemplating some curious 
 experiment. 
 
 § 422. While these things were passing in Scotland, a 
 new Parliament was assembled in England, where the 
 spirit of party still raged with unabated fury. Instead 
 of Petitioners and Abhorrers (or those who applied for 
 redress of grievances, and such as opposed their petitions), 
 into which the nation had been for some time divided, the 
 court and country parties were distinguished by the epithets 
 of Whig and Tory (1679). The court party reproached 
 their antagonists with affinity to the fanatics in Scotland, 
 who were known by the name of Whigs ; and the country 
 party pretended to find a resemblance between the courtiers 
 and the popish banditti in Ireland, to whom the appellation 
 of Tory was affixed. Such was the origin of those party 
 names, which wUl, in all probability, continue to the latest 
 posterity. The Commons proceeded in the most violent 
 manner, impeached Viscount Stafford, who was condemned 
 and executed (Dec. 29, 1680). They then brought in an 
 Exclusion Bill, debarring the duke of York from the suc- 
 cession. The measure was rejected by the Lords, and 
 Charles resolved to dissolve Parliament (Jan. 10, 1681). 
 Both parties had now carried matters so far, that a civil war 
 seemed inevitable, unless the king, contrary to his fixed 
 resolution of not interrupting the line of succession, should 
 agree to pass the Bill of Exclusion. Charles saw his danger, 
 and was prepared to meet it. A variety of circumstances, 
 however, conspired to preserve the nation from that ex- 
 tremity, and to throw the whole powers of government finally 
 into the hands of the king. Although Charles refused to 
 interfere with his brother's rights, he had offered reasonable 
 concessions, but the Whig leaders had resolved upon having 
 all their own way. The violence of the Commons increased 
 the number of the king's friends among the people. And 
 he did not fail to take advantage of such a fortunate cir- 
 cumstance, in order to strengthen his authority, and to 
 disconcert the designs of his enemies. He represented to 
 the zealous abettors of episcopacy, the multitude of Pres- 
 byterians and other sectaries who had entered into the Whig 
 
PARLIAMENT AT OXFOED. 331 
 
 party, botb in and out of parliament ; the encouragement 
 and favour they met with, and the loudness of their clamours 
 against popery and arbitrary power ; which, he insinuated, 
 were intended only to divert the attention of the more 
 moderate and intelligent part of the kingdom from their 
 republican and fanatical views. By these means, he made 
 the nobUity and clergy apprehend, that the scheme for the 
 abolition of the church and monarchy was revived ; and 
 that the same miseries and oppressions awaited them, to 
 which they had been so long exposed during the former, and 
 yet recent usurpations of the Commons. He therefore 
 ordered the new Parliament to assemble at Oxford, that the 
 Whig party might be deprived of that encouragement and 
 support which they would otherwise derive from the -vicinity 
 of the great and factious city of London. Sixteen peers, 
 all violent exclusionists, presented a petition against this 
 change. The elections went everjrwhere against the court, 
 and both parties entered Oxford with military array (1681). 
 § 423. Charles, who had hitherto addressed his parlia- 
 ments in the most soothing language, on this occasion 
 assumed a more authoritative tone. He reproached the 
 former House of Commons with obstinacy, in rejecting his 
 proffered limitations: he expressed a hope of finding a 
 better temper in the present ; and he assured both houses, 
 that, as he should use no abitrary government himself, he 
 was resolved not to suffer tyranny in others. The Commons 
 revived the impeachment of Danby, the inquiry into the 
 popish plot, and the BiU of Exclusion. The king, who was 
 offended at the absurd bigotiy of his brother, and wiUing to 
 agree to any measure that might gain the Commons with- 
 out breaking the line of succession, permitted one of his 
 ministers to propose, that the duke of York should be 
 banished, during life, five himdred miles from England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland ; and that, on the king's decease, 
 the next heir, namely the princess of Orange, should be 
 constituted regent, with regal power. The king's pro- 
 posal was rejected with disdain ; and Charles, thinking he 
 had now a sufficient apology for adopting that measure, 
 which he had foreseen would become necessary, went pri- 
 vately to the House of Peers, and dissolved the' Parliament 
 (March 28, 1681). A sudden clap of thunder could not 
 have more astonished the popular party, than did this bold 
 step. Charles, however, became more severe, concluded a 
 secret money treaty with France, in order to enable him to 
 
332 RUSSELL'S REBELLION. 
 
 govern without parliamentary support, and published s, 
 declaration in vindication of his violent acts (April 8, 1681). 
 Retaliatory measures were adopted, which had the effect of 
 embittering the contest, and a persecution of the Presby- 
 terians and other Protestant sectaries commenced. 
 
 § 424. The grand jury rejected an indictment against the 
 earl of Shaftesbury (Nov. 24, 1681) ; and this so enraged 
 the court, that a writ of quo warranto was issued against 
 the city ; that is, an inquiry into the validity of a corpora- 
 ' tion charter, which is presumed to be defective, or to have 
 been forfeited by some offence to be proved in the course of 
 the suit. Although the cause of the city was powerfully de- 
 fended, and the offences. pleaded against it were of the most 
 frivolous kind, judgment was given in favour of the crown. 
 The aldermen. and commion council, in humble supplication, 
 waited upon the king ; and Charles, who had now obtained 
 his end, agreed to restore their charter, but on such terms 
 as would put the proud capital entirely in his power. He 
 reserved to himself the approbation of the principal magis- 
 trates ; with this special proviso, that should his majesty 
 twice disapprove of the lord mayor or sheriffs elected, he 
 might, by his own commission, appoint others in their room. 
 Other corporations surrendered their charters into the hands 
 of the king ; and this produced a revolt. It was committed 
 to a council of six; the members of which were, the. duke 
 of Monmouth, the king's natural son ; Lord Russell, son of 
 the earl of Bedford ; the earl of Essex, Lord Howard, the 
 famous Algernon Sidney, and John Hampden, grandson of 
 the illustrious patriot of that name. These men had con- 
 certed an insurrection in the city of London, where their 
 influence was great ; in Scotland, by an agreement with the 
 earl of Argyle, who engaged to bring the Covenanters into 
 the field; and in the west of England, by the assistance of 
 the friends of liberty in that quarter. They had even taken 
 measures for surprising the king's guards, though without 
 any design of hurting his person ; the exclusion of the duke 
 of York, and the redress of grievances, which they had 
 found could not be obtained in a parliamentary way, being 
 all they proposed by rising in arms. The patriotic con- 
 spirators were betrayed by one of their associates, named 
 Bumsey. Lord Howard, a man of no principles, and in 
 needy circumstances, also became evidence for the crown, 
 in hopes of pardon and reward. Others of less note fol- 
 lowed the infamous example. On their combined evidence 
 
DEATH OF CHABLES n. 333 
 
 several of the conspirators were seized, condemned, and 
 executed. Among these, the most distinguished were 
 Eussell and Sidney. Both died with the intrepidity of men 
 who had resolved to hazard their lives in the field, in order 
 to break the fetters of slavery, and rescue themselves and 
 their fellow-subjects from an ignominious despotism. Mon- 
 mouth, who had absconded, surrendered on a promise of 
 pardon ; Essex put an end to his life in the Tower ; and suffi- 
 cient proof not being found against Hampden to make his 
 crime capital, he was loaded with an exorbitant fine ; which, 
 as it was beyond his ability to pay, was equivalent to the 
 sentence of perpetual imprisonment (1683). The defeat- 
 ing of this conspiracy, known by the name of the Mye-house 
 Plot, contributed still farther to strengthen the hands of 
 government, already too strong. The king was universally 
 congratulated on his escape ; new addresses were presented 
 to him ; and the doctrine of implicit submission to the civil 
 magistrate, or an unlimited passive obedience, was more 
 openly taught. The heads of the university of Oxford, 
 under pretence of condemning certain doctrines which they 
 denominated republican, went even so far as to pass a 
 solemn decree in favour of absolute monarchy. The perse- 
 cution was renewed against the Protestant sectaries, and all 
 the most zealous friends of freedom. The perversion of 
 justice was carried to a stiU greater excess by the court ; 
 and the duke of York was recalled from Scotland, and 
 restored to the office of high-admiral, without taking the 
 test. 
 
 § 425. Apprehensive, however, of new conspiracies, or 
 secretly struck with the iniquity of his administration, 
 Charles is said seriously to have projected a change of 
 measures. He was frequently overheard to remonstrate 
 warmly with his brother ; and on finding him obstinate in 
 his violent counsels, he resolved once more to banish him 
 the court, to call a parliament, and throw himself wholly 
 on the affections of his people. While revolving this idea, 
 he was seized with a fit, resembling an; apoplexy; which, 
 after an interval of reason, carried him oft' in the fifty-fifth 
 year of his age, and not without suspicions of poison 
 (Feb. 6, 1685). These suspicions fell not on the duke of 
 York, but on some of the duchess of Portsmouth's Epman 
 Catholic servants ; who are supposed . to have been worked 
 upon by her confessor, to whom she had communicated; the 
 king's intentions, or by those her confessor had trusted with 
 
334 NEW LEAGUE AGAINST LOUIS. 
 
 the secret. As a prince, Charles was void of ambition, and- 
 destitute of a proper sense of his dignity, in relation to 
 foreign politics. In regard to domestic politics, he was able 
 and artml, but mean and disingenuous. As a husband, he 
 was unfaithful, and neglectful of the queen's person, as well 
 as of the respect due to her character. As a gentleman 
 and companion, he was elegant, easy, gay, and facetious ; 
 but having little sensibility, and a very bad opinion of 
 human nature, he appears to have been incapable of friend- 
 ship or gratitude. As a lover, however, he was generous, 
 and seemingly even affectionate. Charles is said to have 
 been a Eoman Catholic at heart, and his conduct in receiv- 
 ing the sacrament on his death-bed from a Eoman Catholic 
 would almost justify the suspicion. The truth, however, 
 seems to be, that Charles, while in high health, was of no 
 particular religion ; but that, having been early initiated in 
 the Eoman Catholic faith, he always fled to the altar of 
 superstition, when his spirits were low, or when his life was 
 thought to be in danger. 
 
 Letter 15. — General "View of the Affairs on the Continent, from th« 
 Peace of Nimeguen to the League of Angsburg. a.d. 1678 — 1687. 
 Vol. ii., pages 200—205. 
 
 § 426. The peace of Nimeguen, as might have been lore- 
 seen by the allies, instead of setting bounds to the ambitioi, 
 of Louis XIV., only left him at leisure to perfect that 
 scheme of universal monarchy, or absolute sovereignty, in 
 Europe at least, into which he was flattered by his poets 
 and orators ; and which, at length, roused a new and more 
 powerful confederacy against him. While the Empire, 
 Spain, and Holland, disbanded their supernumerary troops, 
 Louis still kept up all his : in the midst of profound peace, 
 he maintained a formidable army, and acted as if he had 
 been the sole sovereign in Europe, and all other princes 
 were but his vassals. He established judicatures for re- 
 uniting such territories as had anciently depended upon the 
 three bishoprics, Metz, Toul, and Verdun ; upon Alsace, or 
 any of his late conquests. No European prince, since the 
 time of Charlemagne, had acted so much like a master and 
 a judge, as Louis XIV. The elector Palatine, and the 
 elector of Treves, were divested of the signories of Falken- 
 burg, G-ermersheim, Valdentz, and other places, by his im- 
 perious tribunals ; and he laid claim to the ancient and free 
 city of Strasburg, as the capital of Alsace. Of this he 
 
SIEGE OF VIENNA. 335 
 
 gained possession by a surpiise; and Vauban, who had forti- 
 fied so many places, here exhausted his art, and rendered 
 it the strongest barrier of France. He also encroached 
 upon the territory of Spain, and at length, alarmed by these 
 ambitious pretensions, the Empire, Spain, and Holland 
 began to take measures for restraining the encroachments 
 of France. Spain was, however, too feeble to enter upon a 
 new war, and the imperial armies were required in another 
 quarter to meet a more pressing danger. 
 
 § 427. The Hungarians, whose privileges Leopold had 
 never sufficiently respected, having again rebelled, and soli- 
 cited the aid of the Tvu-ks, Mahomet IV. readily responded 
 to the call, and Leopold, in order to resist this attack, sought 
 the assistance of the princes of the empire, and concluded 
 an offensive and defensive alliance with John Sobieski, king 
 of Poland. The Turks marched upon Vienna ; whereupon 
 the emperor retired, first to Lintz and afterward to Passau, 
 and the inhabitants fled in all directions. The garrison at 
 Vienna amounted to about fifteen thousand men ; and the 
 citizens able to bear arms, to nearly fifty thousand. The 
 Turks invested the town on the 17th of July, 16S3 ; and 
 they had not only destroyed the suburbs, but made a breach 
 in the body of the place by the 1st of September. The 
 duke of Lorraine had been so fortunate as to prevent 
 the Hungarians from joining the Turks, but was unable to 
 lend the garrison any relief; and an assault was every 
 moment expected, when a deliverer appeared. John Sobi- 
 eski, having joined his troops to those of Saxony, Bavaria, 
 and the Circles, made a signal to the besieged from the top 
 of the mountain of Scallemberg, and inspired them with 
 new hopes. Kara Mustapha, who, from a contempt of the 
 Christians, had neglected to push the assault, and who, 
 amidst the progress of ruin, had wantoned in luxury, was 
 now made sensible of his mistake, when too late to repair 
 it. The Christians, to the number of sixty-four thousand, 
 descended the mountain, under the command of the kin" of 
 Poland, the duke of Lorraine, and an incredible number of 
 German princes. The grand vizier advanced to meet them 
 at the head of the main body of the Turkish army, while 
 ie ordered an assault to be made upon the city with twenty 
 thousand men, who were left in the trenches. The assault 
 failed; and the Turks being seized with a panic, were routed 
 almost without resistance. Only five hundred of the victors 
 fell, and not above one thousand of the vanquished. And 
 
336 GRANDEUR OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 so great was the terror, and so precipitate the flight of the 
 infidels, that they abandoned not only their tents, artillery, 
 and baggage, but left behind them the famous standard 
 of Mahomet, which was sent as a present to the pope 
 (Sept. 12, 1683). The Turks received another defeat in 
 the plain of Barcan (Oct. 27, 1683) ; and all Hungary was 
 recovered by the imperial arms. 
 
 § 428. The king of France, who had supported the mal- 
 contents in Hungary, raised the blockade of Luxemburg, 
 when the Turks approached Vienna. He acted from 
 interested motives, and immediately after their departure, 
 renewed the operations, and took Luxemburg, Courtray, 
 and Dixmunde (1684). Enraged at these acts of violence, 
 the Spaniards declared war. As neither Holland nor the 
 Empire would render assistance, and Spain was too weak to 
 carry on the struggle single-handed, a truce of twenty years 
 was concluded between Spain, the Empire, and France, at 
 Eatisbon. The principal articles of this temporary treaty 
 were, that Louis should restore Courtray and Dixmmide, 
 but retain possession of Luxemburg, Strasburg, the fortress 
 of Kehl, and part of the reunions made by his arbitrary 
 courts established at Metz and Breisac. The glory and 
 greatness of the French monarch were still farther extended 
 by means of his naval power. Louis had upwards of one 
 hundred ships of the line, and sixty thousand seamen. The 
 magnificent port of Toulon, in the Mediterranean, was con- 
 structed at an immense expense ; and that of Brest, upon 
 the ocean, was formed on as extensive a plan. Dunkirk and 
 Havre-de-Grace were filled with ships ; and Eochefort was 
 converted into a convenient harbour. He sent out squadrons, 
 at different times, to clear the seas of the Barbary pirates : 
 he twice ordered Algiers to be bombarded ; and he had the 
 pleasure not only of humbling that haughty predatory city, 
 and of obliging the Algerines to release all their Christian 
 slaves, but of subjecting Tunis and Tripoli to the same con- 
 ditions. Genoa, for a slight offence, was bombarded, four 
 thousand men were landed, and the suburb of St. Peter of 
 Arena was burned (1684). The doge and four of the 
 principal senators were compelled to go to Versailles to im- 
 plore the French king's clemency (1685). 
 
 § 429. The grandeur of Louis XIV. was now at its 
 highest point of elevation. It was, in a great measure, the 
 work of his wise minister Colbert, who died Sept. 6, 1683. 
 He had favoured the Huguenots, and they devoted them- 
 
A NEW EUROPEAN LEAGUE. 837 
 
 selves chiefly to manufactures, in which they made great 
 progress. They everywhere recommended themselves by 
 their industry and ingenuity, which were often rewarded 
 with great opulence. This opulence begot envy, envy pro- 
 duced jealousy, and soon after the death of Colbert they 
 were exposed to a cruel and impolitic persecution, which 
 reduced them to the necessity of abandoning their native 
 country. This was the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 
 which had secured to them the free exercise of their rehgion 
 (Oct. 22, 1685). Numbers of them carried their industry 
 and ingenious resources into other lands, whilst those that 
 remained in France were persecuted, and many were put to 
 death. While waging this shameful war against the Trench 
 Protestants, Louis XlV. became involved in a quarrel with 
 Pope Innocent XI., and did everything in his power to 
 mortify that prelate. But his ambition was about to receive 
 a salutary chec6. The Emperor Leopold having triumphed 
 over the Turks, had more leisure to take measures iorf 
 opposing the designs of Louis. A league had been already 
 concluded by the empire at Augsburg, in order to restrain 
 the encroachments of France, and to vindicate the objects 
 of the treaties of Westphalia, the Pyrenees, and Nimeguen 
 (1686); and an ambitious attempt of Louis XIV. to get 
 the Cardinal Furstemberg, one of his own creatures, made 
 elector of Cologne in opposition to the emperor, at once 
 showed the necessity of such an association, and lighted 
 anew the flames of war in Germany and the Low Countries. 
 Spain and Holland had become principals in the league; 
 Denmark, Sweden, and Savoy were afterwards gained; so 
 that the accession of England alone seemed wanting to 
 render the confederacy complete, and that was at last 
 acquired. 
 
338 ACCESSION OF JAMES II. 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 Letter 16. — Great Britain and Ireland during the Eeiga of James II, 
 A.D. 1685—1689. Vol. ii., pages 205—225. 
 
 § 430. The new king, who was above fifty years of age 
 when he ascended the throne, began his reign with a very 
 popular act. He assembled the privy council, and declared 
 that although he had been represented as a man of arbitrary 
 principles, and though determined not to relinquish the just 
 rights and prerogatives of the crown, he was resolved to 
 maintain the established government, both in church and 
 state ; being sensible that the laws of England were sufficient 
 to make him as great a monarch as he could wish. This 
 declaration gave great satisfaction to the council, and was 
 received with the warmest applause by the nation. Addresses 
 poured in from all quarters, full not only of expressions of 
 duty, but of the most servile adulation. But this popularity 
 was of short continuance. The nation became convinced 
 that the king either was not sincere in his promise to 
 preserve the constitution inviolate, or entertained ideas of 
 that constitution very different from those of his people, 
 and such as could yield no security to their civil or 
 religious liberties. He went openly, and with all the 
 ensigns of his dignity, to mass, an illegal worship ; he was 
 even so imprudent as to urge others to follow his example ; 
 he sent an agent to E.ome, in order to make submissions to 
 the pope; and he levied taxes without the authority of 
 Parliament. James, however, soon found the necessity of 
 assembling a parliament; and, in consequence of the in- 
 fluence which the crown had acquired in the boroughs, by 
 the violation of the corporation charters, a House of Com- 
 mons was procured, as compliant as the most arbitrary prince 
 could have wished (May 19). James made a very arrogant 
 speech, demanding the same revenue as that enjoyed by his 
 brother, which the Commons at once granted, and voted 
 additional supplies. The Scotch Parliament proved even 
 
MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. 339 
 
 more subservient, and professed the most unbounded sub- 
 mission. This profuse liberality of the Parliaments of the 
 two kingdoms gave the king reason to believe that his 
 throne was as firmly established as that of any European 
 monarch. But while everything remained in tranquillity at 
 home, a storm was gathering abroad to disturb his repose, 
 and which, although dissipated without much trouble, may 
 be considered as a prelude to that great revolution whicb 
 finally deprived him of his crown, and condemned himself 
 and his posterity to a dependent and fugitive life among 
 foreigners (1685). 
 
 § 431. The prince of Orange, ever since the proposed 
 exclusion of his father-in-law, had raised his hopes to the 
 English throne. He had entered deeply into intrigues witb 
 the ministers of Charles II. ; he had encouraged the parlia- 
 mentary leaders in their violent opposition ; and, unaccount- 
 able as it may seem, it appears that he secretly abetted the 
 ambitious views of the duke of Monmouth, though they both 
 aimed at the same object. It is at least certain that he 
 received the duke with great kindness, and treated him with 
 the highest marks of respect, after he had been pardoned by 
 a fond and indulgent father for his unnatural share in the 
 Bye House Plot, but ordered to leave the kingdom on a 
 new symptom of disaffection; that on the accession of 
 James II., and when the prince of Orange was professing 
 the strongest attachment to his father-in-law, Monmouth, 
 Argyle, and other English and Scotch fugitives in Holland, 
 were suffered, under his secret protection, to provide them- 
 selves privately with necessaries, and to form the plan of an 
 invasion, in hopes of rousing to arms the dissatisfied part of 
 the two kingdoms. Argyle was the first to land in Scotland, 
 where he found himself at the head of two thousand men. 
 But he was reduced to extremities, deserted by his levies, 
 carried prisoner to Edinburgh, and executed (June 30, 
 1685). Meanwhile Monmouth had landed in the west of 
 England, and was joined by five thousand followers. At 
 Taunton he issued a declaration asserting the legitimacy of 
 his birth, and he assumed the title of king; whilst at 
 Bridgewater he was proclaimed by the magistrates. The 
 king's forces, commanded by the earl of Peversham, dis- 
 persed the rebels at Sedgemoor, near Bridgewater (July 6). 
 Monmouth fled, but was captured in the disguise of a 
 peasant, and although he made the most abject submission 
 in order to obtain pardon, was executed (July 15, 1685). 
 z 2 
 
3i0 AEBITKAKY MEASURES. 
 
 § 432. Had James used his victory with moderation, tliia 
 fortunate suppression of a rebellion, in the beginning of his 
 reign, would have tended to strengthen his authority. The 
 most shameful abuse was, however, made of this triumph. 
 Men were hanged without any form of trial or proper time 
 of preparation. One Colonel Kirte rendered himself con- 
 spicuous by the cruelty and barbarity of his military execu- 
 tions ; but even this monster was outdone by the inhuman 
 Jeffreys. A special commission being issued to this man, 
 he set out, accompanied by four other judges, with savage 
 joy, as to a full harvest of death. He opened his commissiou 
 first at "Winchester, whence he proceeded to Dorchester, 
 Exeter, Taunton, and Wells, everywhere spreading terror 
 and consternation. The juries, struck with his menaces, 
 gave their verdicts with hurry and precipitation, so that 
 many innocent persons are supposed to have suffered. 
 About five hundred prisoners were tried and condemned in 
 all : of these, two hundred and fifty were executed, the rest 
 were transported, condemned to cruel whippings, or per- 
 mitted, as is said, to purchase their pardon of the tyrannical 
 and prostituted chief justice. James rewarded Jefireys with 
 a peerage and the chancellorship. On the meeting of Par- 
 liament, the king announced that he had doubled the regular 
 forces of the kingdom, and dispensed with the Test Act in 
 favour of some Koman Catholic ofiicers. The Commons 
 voted an address to the king against the dispensing power, 
 and the latter immediately prorogued Parliament. The king 
 pursued a similar course in Scotland, but the Parliament 
 refused to repeal any of the penal laws, and was accordingly 
 dissolved (1685). 
 
 § 433. James continued this unconstitutional course, 
 removed four judges, and had a decision in favour of hia 
 power to dispense with the penal laws, delivered by eleven 
 out of the twelve judges (June 21, 1686). Eoman Catholic 
 peers were, publicly received at the council-board, and one 
 of them was soon raised to the head of the ministry. In 
 Ireland the most vigorous measures were adopted with 
 reference to the Protestants. G-reat numbers, filled with 
 apprehensions, left their habitations and came over to 
 England, where the horror against popery was already 
 roused to the highest pitch by the frightful tales of the 
 French refugees, who, in consequence of the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes, had fled from the persecutions of 
 Louis XIV. The king would not listen to the more mode- 
 
DECLABATION OF INDULGENCE. 3il 
 
 rate Eoman Catbolics, who were sensible that these extrava- 
 gant measures must ruin the cause which they were meant 
 to serve. The king was entirely governed by his queen, an 
 Italian and popish princess, and Father Petre, his confessor. 
 He re-established the court of High Commission, and issued 
 a declaration of general indulgence, or liberty of conscience, 
 "by his sovereign authority and absolute power," to his 
 subjects of all religions. The earl of Castlemaine was sent 
 as ambassador to Eome, and a nuncio received at "Windsor. 
 Pour Eoman Catholic bishops were publicly consecrated at 
 the king's chapel, and sent out, under the title of vicars- 
 apostolical, to exercise the episcopal function in their 
 respective dioceses. The Jesuits were permitted to erect a 
 chapel and form a college in the Savoy ; the Eecollects built 
 a chapel in Liucoln's-Inn Fields ; the Carmelites formed a 
 seminary in the city ; fourteen monks were even settled at 
 St. James's; in different parts of the country places of 
 public worship were erected by the papists ; and the 
 religious of the Eomish communion appeared at court in 
 the habits of their respective orders. The king next com- 
 manded the university of Cambridge to admit a Benedictine 
 monk, named Francis, to the degree of master of arts, 
 without the usual oaths. The university refused to do this, 
 and the vice-chancellor was suspended (May 27, 1687). 
 The king then endeavoured to induce Magdalen College to 
 admit as president one Farmer, a convert to popery, but the 
 fellows refused, and chose Dr. Hough. A man named 
 Parker was then appointed, and the king's commissioners 
 went with an armed force to Oxford, expelled the fellows, 
 and installed Parker in the presidentship. 
 
 § 434. James endeavoured to win over the dissenters, 
 issued anew his Declaration of Indulgence (April 27, 1688), 
 and ordered it to be read in the pulpit by all the established 
 clergy (May 4). They almost universally determined rather 
 to hazard the vengeance of the crown by disobedience, than 
 to fulfil a command they could not approve, and expose 
 themselves, at the same time, to the certain hatred and 
 contempt of the people. Conformable to this resolution, 
 and with a view to encourage every one to persevere in it, 
 six bishops, namely, Lloyd, of St. Asaph ; Ken, of Bath and 
 "Wells ; Turner, of Ely ; Lake, of Chichester ; "White, of 
 Peterborough; and Trelawney, of Bristol, met privately 
 with Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, in his palace at 
 Lambeth, and concerted the form of a petition to the king. 
 
342 TEIAL OF THE SEVEN BISHOPS. 
 
 beseeeting him not to insist upon their reading the Declara- 
 tion of Indulgence, as being founded on a prerogative 
 repeatedly declared illegal by Parliament (May 18). En- 
 raged at this unexpected opposition to his favourite measure, 
 James not only refused their request, but ordered them to 
 be committed to the Tower, on their refusing to give bail 
 for their appearance before the court of King's Bench, to 
 answer for what was denominated a high misdemeanour, and 
 afterwards prosecuted as a libel (June 8). Though they 
 were carried by water to the Tower, multitudes of anxious 
 spectators crowded the banks of the river, and at once im- 
 plored the blessing of those venerable prelates, and oifered 
 their petitions to Heaven for the safety of the persecuted 
 guardians of their religion. A like scene was exhibited 
 when the bishops were conducted to trial. Twenty-nine 
 temporal peers attended the prisoners to Westminster Hall, 
 and such crowds of gentry joined in the procession, that 
 little room was left for the populace to enter. The trial, 
 which lasted near ten hours, was managed with ability by 
 the counsel on both sides, and listened to with the most 
 eager attention. Though the judges held their seats only 
 during pleasure, two of them had the courage to declare 
 against a dispensing power in the crown, as inconsistent 
 with all law ; and if the dispensing power was not legal, it 
 followed, of course, that the bishops could not be criminal 
 in refusing obedience to an illegal command. The jury at 
 length withdrew, and when they brought in their verdict 
 "Not Gruilty," the populace, who filled Westminster-hall 
 and all Palace-yard, shouted thrice with such vehemence 
 that the sound reached the city (June 29). The loudest 
 acclamations were immediately echoed from street to street ; 
 they rapidly spread over the whole kingdom, and found their 
 way even into the camp, where the triumph of the church 
 was announced to the king by the shouts of his mercenary 
 army. 
 
 § 435. Had James made use of that naturally sound, 
 though narrow, understanding with which he was endovred, 
 he would now have perceived that the time was come for 
 him to retract, unless he meant to sacrifice his crown to his 
 religious prejudices. But so blinded was he by bigotry, and 
 so obstinate in his arbitrary measures, that he ruined his 
 own cause. He displaced the two judges who had given 
 their opinion in favour of the bishops, issued orders to the 
 ecclesiastical commissioners to prosecute all the clergy who 
 
JAMES PEECEIVE8 HIS EEEOE. 343 
 
 had not read his Declaration of Indulgence, and sent a 
 mandate to the fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford, com- 
 manding them to elect as president (Parker having died just 
 before), one Gifford, a doctor of the Sorbonne. These violent 
 infringements of the constitution alarmed all parties, and the 
 birth of the prince of Wales (June 10, 1688), afterwards 
 known as the Pretender, dispelled even the hope that the 
 system would cease with the death of the king. Under these 
 circumstances, many of the nobility and gentry, and some of 
 the principal clergy, united in a requisition to William, prince 
 of Orange. The Whigs and Tories coalesced for that purpose, 
 and thus the Eevolution, even in its beginning, was a national 
 work ; and patriotism, under the guidance of political wisdom, 
 suggested the glorious plan. Various reasons induced 
 William to accept the flattering invitation ; and at this crisis 
 he felt little hesitation in putting himself forward as the 
 champion of the Protestant cause, imperilled by the pro- 
 ceedings of Louis XIV. of France and James II. of England, 
 When the latter obtained some idea of the real nature of the 
 peril with which he was threatened, he ordered his fleet to 
 be assembled, and his army to be recruited with new levies. 
 He sent for troops from Scotland and Ireland ; and to his 
 no small satisfaction, found that his land forces amounted to 
 forty thousand men. Nor did the king hesitate to make 
 concessions. He issued writs for the speedy assembling of 
 Parliament ; published a declaration, in which he promised 
 to preserve inviolate the Church of England ; and he pro- 
 tested, that it was his intention, Eoman Catholics should 
 remain incapable of sitting in the House of Commons. He 
 gave orders for all the deputy-lieutenants and justices, who 
 had been deprived of their commissions for their adherence 
 to the Test and the penal laws against non-conformists, to 
 be replaced ; he restored the charter of London, and the 
 charters of all the corporations in the kingdom ; he annulled 
 the court of Ecclesiastical Commission; he reinstated the 
 expelled president and fellows of Magdalen College ; and he 
 invited again to his councils all the bishops whom he had so 
 lately persecuted and insulted, assuring them that he was 
 ready to do whatever they deemed necessary for the se- 
 curity of the Protestant religion and the civil rights of his 
 subjects. 
 
 § 436. These important concessions, however, came too 
 late, and many people doubted the king's sincerity. Mean- 
 while William of Orange set sail from Holland (Oct. 19) ; 
 
Sii WILLIAM'S DECLAEAriON. 
 
 but was driven back by a violent storm. Having repaired 
 damages, the fleet again put to sea (Nov. 1), and the prince 
 and his army landed in safety at Torbay (Nov. 5). Lord 
 Dartmouth, who commanded the king's fleet, was prevented 
 from attacking the armament, by a gale of wind, in which 
 many of his vessels were much damaged, and he was com- 
 pelled to take refuge at Spithead. On landing, the prince of 
 Orange distributed his printed declaration, written originally 
 in Prench by the pensionary Fagel, and translated into 
 English by Dr. Burnet. In this, the principal grievances of 
 the three British- kingdoms were enumerated ; namely, the 
 exercise of a dispensing and suspending power ; the revival of 
 the court of Ecclesiastical Commission ; the filling of all offices 
 with Eoman Catholics ; the open encouragement g'ven to 
 popery; the displacing of judges, if they gave sentence 
 contrary to the orders or the inclinations of the court ; the 
 annulling the charters of the corporations ; the treating 
 of petitions to the throne, as criminal and seditious ; the 
 committing of the whole authority in Ireland, civil and 
 military, into the hands of papists ; the assuming of an 
 absolute power over the religion and laws of Scotland, and 
 openly exacting in that kingdom an obedience without 
 reserve. He concluded by protesting, that the sole object 
 of his expedition was to procure a redress of these grievances ; 
 to get a legal and free parliament summoned, that might 
 provide for the liberty and security of the nation, and 
 examine the proofs of the legitimacy of the prince of Wales, 
 in regard to which he expressed the most violent suspicions. 
 § 437. William repaired to Exeter, where his reception 
 was not of that cordial nature which he had anticipated : it 
 is even said that he at one time entertained serious inten- 
 tions of abandoning the enterprise. Support was, however, 
 soon tendered ; the nobility and gentry flocked to him in 
 great numbers, and James, distracted by his own fears, and 
 alarmed by the real or pretended apprehensions of others, 
 sent the queen and the prince of Wales privately into 
 Erance, and embraced the extraordinary resolution of follow- 
 ing them in person. He accordingly left his palace at mid- 
 night, attended only by Sir Edward Hales, and he com- 
 manded the earl of Feversham to disband the army, recalled 
 the writs for the meeting of the Parliament, and threw the 
 great seal into the Thames (Dec. 10). A riot ensued in 
 the metropolis, and the populace destroyed not only all the 
 popish chapels, but the houses of the ambassadors of Eoman 
 
PROGRESS OF THE REVOLUTION. 345 
 
 Catholic princes, whilst even private residences were pillaged. 
 In this crisis a Supreme Council was formed, and Prince 
 "William invited to settle the afiairs of the nation. William 
 had but just arrived at Windsor (Dec. 14), when he received 
 intelligence that the king had been seized at Feversham. 
 James was brought back to London on the 16th, and a 
 transient reaction occurred in his favour. He was glad to 
 make his escape the second time, and having embarked for 
 Prance, arrived safely at Ambleteuse, in Picardy. From 
 that place he hastened to St. Germain's, where the queen 
 and the prince of Wales had taken refage. 
 
 § 438. The same day that James left Whitehall, William 
 arrived at St. James's. The only thing that now remained 
 for all parties was the settlement of the kingdom. With 
 this view the Peers met in their own house, and the prince 
 laid before them his declaration, as the foundation of their 
 deliberations. In the course of the debate it was urged 
 that the king, by withdrawing, had divested himself of his 
 authority, and that government itself had sufi'ered a demise 
 in law. A free parliament was, therefore, declared to be 
 the only means of obtaining a legal settlement; and the 
 result was, that an address was ordered to be presented to 
 the prince of Orange, desiring him to assume the adminis- 
 tration of government, and to summon a convention. The 
 oifer was too alluring to be rejected, but William judged it 
 still necessary to strengthen the resolution of the Lords 
 with the authority of the Commons. Por that purpose all 
 the members of the three last parliaments, who were in 
 London, were invited to meet, together with the lord mayor, 
 the court of aldermen, and fifty members of the common- 
 council. This mixed assembly, which was regarded as the 
 most equal representation of the people that could be ob- 
 tained in the emei'gency, unanimously voted an address, the 
 same in substance with that of the Lords ; and the prince, 
 supported by so great a part of the nation, despatched his 
 circular letters to the various boroughs, counties, and corpo- 
 rations in England, for a general election of representatives. 
 The Scotch joined very heartily in the revolution, and 
 espoused the cause of William most warmly. In the mean 
 time the English convention had met, and, after a long 
 debate, the Commons came to the following memorable 
 resolution : — " That King James II., having endeavoured to 
 subvert the constitution, by breaking the original contract 
 between king and people ; and having violated the funda- 
 
34a SETTLEMENT OF THE CEOWN". 
 
 mental laws, and withdrawn himself from the kingdom, has 
 abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby 
 become vacant" (Jan. 28, 1689). This resolution was 
 carried up to the House of Peers, where it met with much 
 opposition, and many warm debates ensued. The majority 
 of the Lords, however, declared for an original contract, 
 and the house almost instantly resolved that James had 
 broken that contract (Jan. 30). The opposition did not 
 end here. The Lords proceeded to take into con- 
 sideration the word abdicated, contained in the vote of the 
 Commons ; and, after some debate, agreed that deserted 
 was more proper. The next and concluding question was, 
 " Whether King James, having broken the original contract, 
 and deserted the government, the throne is thereby vacant ?" 
 The question was debated with more warmth than any of 
 the former, and, on a division, it was carried by eleven voices 
 against a vacancy. The vote of the Commons was sent 
 back with these amendments ; and as they continued obsti- 
 nate, a free conference was appointed between the two 
 houses, in order to settle the controversy. 
 
 § 439. William having refused to act as regent, or to 
 allow his wife to reign singly, matters were at length settled, 
 and both houses voted, " That the prince and princess of 
 Orange should be declared king and queen of England," 
 and a bill was brought in for that purpose. In this it was 
 provided that the prince and princess should enjoy the 
 crown of England during their natural lives and the life of 
 the survivor, the sole administration to be in the prince; 
 that, after the death of both, the throne should be filled by 
 the heirs of the body of the princess ; and that, in default 
 of such issue, Anne, princess of Denmark, and the heirs of her 
 body, should succeed, before those of the prince of Orange by 
 any other wife but the Princess Mary (Feb. 13, 1689). The 
 instrument of settlement, besides regulating the line of suc- 
 cession, also provided against the return of those grievances 
 which had driven the nation to the present extremity, and 
 effectually secured from the future encroachments of the 
 sovereign the most essential rights of the subject. Thus 
 was happily terminated the great struggle between privilege 
 and prerogative — between the crown and the people ; which 
 commenced with the accession of the family of Stuart to the 
 throne of England, and continued till their exclusion, almost 
 a century later. The Eevolution forms a grand era in the 
 English constitution. By bringing on the decision of many 
 
JAMES LANDS IN IRELAND 347 
 
 important questions in favour of liberty, and yet more by 
 the memorable precedent of deposing one king and estab- 
 lishing another, with a new line of succession, it gave such 
 an impetus to popular principles, as to put the nature of 
 our government beyond all controversy. 
 
 Lettee 17. — Great Britain and Ireland, from the Eevolution till the 
 Assassination Plot. A.D. 1688—1696. Vol. ii., pages 225—236. 
 
 § 440. Though the Whigs and Tories had coalesced 
 against the tyranny of James II., no sooner were the latter 
 freed from the terror of arbitrary power, than they began 
 once more to advocate their monarchical principles. Their 
 dislike to breaking the line of succession had induced them 
 to propose a regency, and a party lurked amongst them, 
 called the Jacobites, who, from their attachment to the per- 
 son or the family of the dethroned monarch, and an adherence 
 to the doctrines of passive obedience and of divine right, 
 wished to bring back the king, and invariably held, that 
 none but a Stuart could justly be invested with the regal 
 authority. Of this opinion were all the bigoted high- 
 churchmen and E/oman Catholics in the three kingdoms. 
 Among the Whigs, or moderate churchmen and dissenters, 
 in like manner, lurked many enthusiastic republicans, who 
 hoped, in the national ferment, to effect a dissolution of the 
 monarchy. The contest between these parties, fomented by 
 the ambitious views of individuals, which long distracted 
 the English government, began immediately after the Ee- 
 volution, and threatened the sudden subversion of the new 
 establishment. William was not popular with the people, 
 upon whom his silent reserved temper and solitary disposition 
 produced a disagreeable impression. Ireland was under the 
 direction of Tyrconnel, a zealous papist, and James prepared 
 to make a descent in this portion of his former kingdom. 
 Supported by Louis XIV., he embarked at Brest early in 
 the spring, and soon after landed at Kinsale, where he was 
 immediately joined by Tyrconnel (March 12, 1689). His 
 policy in Ireland was as unwise as that which he had pre- 
 viously adopted in England, and he actually began by disgust- 
 ing the Protestants, and passing an act declaring Ireland 
 to be independent of the English Parliament. 
 
 § 441. William had in the mean time recommended to 
 the English Parliament an act of general indemnitj'-, and 
 procured an address for a declaration of war against Erance. 
 Both proposals were readily embraced. The English na- 
 
ZiS JAMES EETUENS TO FRANCE. 
 
 tion had long been desirous of turning its arms against 
 Louis XIV., and the supposed attachment of James to the 
 Prench interest, his bigotry not excepted, had been the prin- 
 cipal cause of his ruin. Had he acceded to the league of 
 Augsburg, he would never have lost his crown. Threatened 
 by that league, and willing to strike the first blow, Louis 
 had sent an army into Alsace, and made himself master of 
 Philipsburg in 1688. This violence, which was immediately 
 succeeded by others, alarmed the emperor, Spain, Holland, 
 and all the confederate powers on the continent. They saw 
 the necessity of having immediate recourse to arms : and 
 the interposition of France in the afiairs of Ireland furnished 
 William with a good pretence for throwing the whole weight 
 of England into the hostile scale. The confederacy was 
 now complete. Scotland, in which country the Jacobite 
 party mustered very strong, was first reduced to obedience. 
 Lord Dundee, who had assembled a body of Highlanders, 
 defeated the king's troops at the battle of Killycrankie 
 (May 26, 1689), but was himself mortally wounded in the 
 pursuit. The Highlanders, discouraged by the loss of a 
 leader whom they loved and admired, dispersed, and returned 
 to their mountains, and thus the rebellion terminated. 
 
 § 442. James did not make any substantial progress in 
 Ireland. The city of Londonderry, which had long resisted 
 his arms, was relieved (July 30, 1689), and he was com- 
 pelled to abandon the siege. In the following year William 
 put himself at the head of his army, and defeated James 
 at the hotly-contested battle of the Boyne (July 1, 1690). 
 No sooner was James informed of the dispersion of his 
 army, than he gave up Ireland as lost; and, leaving the 
 inhabitants of Dublin to make their own conditions with 
 the victor, embarked for France. On landing at Brest, he 
 received intelligence of the defeat of the English and Dutch 
 fleet ofi' Beachy Head, by the French admiral Tourville 
 (June 30), and although the French ships were riding 
 triumphantly in the Channel, Louis XIV. refused to render 
 any further assistance to a prince who had deserted the 
 cause and so soon despaired of success. James had fled 
 from Ireland in despair, but the island was not immediately 
 subdued. AVilliam seems to have entertained very^ similar 
 apprehensions, for, after his failure at the siege of Limerick, 
 he quitted Ireland in haste, and Lord Churchill, created 
 earl of Marlborough, succeeded to the command. Having 
 reduced Cork and Kinsale, this great general closed the 
 
MASSACEE OF GLENCOE. 349 
 
 campaign gloriously, and in the following year all Ireland 
 submitted to the arms of William. 
 
 § 443. The Parliament being chiefly composed of Whigs, 
 refused to settle on William the revenue of the crown for 
 life. Notwithstanding their good opinion of his principles, 
 they were unwilling to render him independent ; they there- 
 fore granted the revenue only for one year. The Tories 
 took advantage of this to recommend themselves to the 
 king, who, influenced by their interested representations, 
 dissolved the Parliament (Feb. 6, 1890). A new one as- 
 sembled (March 20), which consisted almost wholly of 
 Tories. They not only settled the revenue of the crown on 
 William for life, but granted liberal supplies for carrying on 
 the war in Ireland, and upon the continent. In those votes 
 the Whigs concurred, that they might not seem to destroy 
 the work of their own hands. But the heads of the party 
 were highly dissatisfied, at seeing that favour, and those 
 offices, to which they thought themselves entitled by their 
 past services, bestowed chiefly upon the Tories. They en- 
 tered into cabals with the Jacobites, and even maintained a 
 secret correspondence with the dethroned monarch. In 
 Scotland the Presbyterians evinced an inclination to embark 
 in the same cause, and William, by a frightful example of 
 severity, resolved to awe them into allegiance. In conse- 
 quence of a pacification with the Highlanders, a proclamation 
 of indemnity had been issued to such insurgents as should 
 take the oaths to the king and queen before the year 1692. 
 The heads of all the clans, who had been in arms for James, 
 strictly complied with the terms of the proclamation, except 
 Macdonald of G-lencoe : — and his neglect was occasioned 
 rather by accident than design. His submission was after- 
 wards received by the sheriff, though not without scruple. 
 This difiiculty, however, being got over, he considered him- 
 self as under the protection of the laws, and lived in the 
 most perfect security. William, at the instigation of Sir 
 John Dabymple, his secretary for Scotland, signed a warrant 
 for the military execution of Macdonald and his whole clan. 
 It was put in force by his countryman Campbell, of Grienlyon, 
 with the most savage barbarity. Macdonald himself was 
 shot dead by one Lindsay, an ofiicer whom he had entertained 
 as his guest : his tenants were murdered by the soldiers, to 
 whom they had given free quarters : women were killed in 
 defending their tender oftspring; and boys in imploring 
 mercy, were butchered by the. officers to whose kneea 
 
350 DEATH OF MAEY. 
 
 they clung! (Feb. 13, 1692). Nearly forty persons were 
 massacred, and many of those who escaped to the mountains 
 perished of hunger or cold. All the houses in the valley 
 of Glencoe were reduced to ashes ; the cattle were driven 
 away, and with the other moveables divided as spoil among 
 the ofiBcers and soldiers. Never was military execution 
 more complete. 
 
 § 444. This cruel massacre rendered William still more 
 unpopular, and an insurrection in favour of James II. was 
 projected both in England and Scotland, while Louis XIV. 
 made vigorous preparations to carry on the war by land and 
 sea, and even thought of invading England. His admiral, 
 Tourville, was, however, defeated off La Hogue (May 19, 
 1692). A fog prevented the total destruction of the French 
 fleet ; yet on the following morning many of their ships were 
 burnt, and the power of the French navy almost annihilated. 
 The dissensions between the "Whigs and Tories increased, 
 and both of them grew dissatisfied with William. A bill 
 for triennial parliaments was introduced, and the king 
 found himself under the necessity of passing it, or of losing 
 the vote of supply with which it was made to go hand in 
 hand (Dec. 22, 1694). Mary died soon after (Dec. 28). 
 William appeared to be very much afflicted at the death of 
 the queen : and, however little regard he might have had for 
 her engaging person, his grief was possibly sincere. Her 
 open and agreeable deportment, and her natural alliance to 
 the throne, had chiefly contributed to reconcile the minds of 
 men to bis government. The Whigs could forgive her every 
 breach of filial duty, on account of her adherence to the 
 Protestant religion and the principles of liberty ; and even 
 the Tories were ready to ascribe her seeming want of sym- 
 pathy with her father's misfortunes to an obsequious sub- 
 mission to the will of her husband. 
 
 § 445. With her, all natural title to the English crown 
 expired on the part of William ; and although his authority, 
 supported by the Act of Settlement, was too firmly estab- 
 lished to be immediately shaken, the hopes of the Jacobites 
 began daily to rise, and conspiracies were formed against 
 his life. The most dangerous of those conspiracies, con- 
 ducted by Sir George Barclay and other violent Jacobites, 
 was intimately connected with a plan for an insurrection in 
 England, and an invasion from France. The duke of Ber- 
 wick was sent over to forward the insurrection. But the 
 English nobility and gentry in the interest of James, though 
 
JAMES II. ABANDONS THE STRUGGLE. 351 
 
 warmly disposed to serve him, very prudently refused to take 
 arms until a body of troops should be landed to support 
 them. In the mean time the forces intended for the 
 invasion were assembled at Dunkirk and Calais. James 
 proceeded to the latter place, in anxious expectation of the 
 issue of the assassination plot ; from which, though under- 
 taken without his authority, he hoped to derive advantage 
 in his present distressing circumstances. The plot was dis- 
 covered ; several of the conspirators were seized and executed, 
 and aU England was thrown into a ferment (Feb. 14, 1696). 
 The current of public opinion was suddenly changed. Even 
 many of those who hated the person, and disliked the govern- 
 ment of William, were shocked at the idea of a barbarous 
 attempt upon his life ; and his throne, which just before 
 seemed to shake to its base, was now more firmly established 
 than ever. Admiral Eussell, on the first certain intelligence 
 of the projected invasion, was ordered to repair to the 
 Downs. Having hoisted his flag on board the Victory, he 
 collected, with incredible diligence and despatch, a fleet of 
 fifty sail, with which he appeared before Calais : and although 
 he found it impracticable to destroy the Prench shipping, or 
 to injure the town greatly, he spread terror along the coast, 
 and convinced the enemy of the necessity of attending to 
 tbeir own safety, instead of ambitiously attempting to invade 
 their neighbours. Covered with shame and confusion, and 
 overwhelmed with disappointment and despair, James II. re- 
 turned to St. Germain's ; where, laying aside all thoughts of 
 an earthly crown, he turned his views solely toward heaven. 
 
 Letter 18. — Military Transactions on the Continent, from the begin- 
 ning of the War that followed the League of Augsburg, to the Peace 
 of Ryswick in 1697, and of Carlowitz in 1699. A.D. 1689—1699. 
 Vol. ii., pages 236—245. 
 
 § 446. The accession of England in 1689 to the League 
 of Augsburg, induced Louis XIV. to make the most vigorous 
 efibrts to maintain the war with advantage. He assembled 
 two armies in Flanders ; he opposed a third to the Spaniards 
 in Catalonia ; and in order to form a barrier on the side of 
 Germany, he laid waste the Palatinate with fire and sword, 
 after having made himself master of its principal towns. 
 The terrible execution began at Manheim, the seat of the 
 electors ; where not only the palaces of those princes were 
 razed to the ground, but their very tombs opened in search 
 of hidden treasures, and their venerable dust scattered ia 
 
352 CONTINENTAL CAMPAIGNS. 
 
 the air. Twice during the reign of Louis XIV. was tliia 
 fine country desolated by the arms of France; but the 
 flames lighted by Turenne, however dreadful, were only 
 like so many torches, compared with the present frightful 
 conflagration, which filled all Europe with horror. Louis 
 was everywhere defeated. Mentz and Bonn were taken 
 from the French, and their army was worsted at Walcourt. 
 They were driven from; Catalonia, and the prince of Baden de- 
 feated their allies the Turks, in three engagements, — on the 
 banks of the Morava (Aug. 30), at Nissa (Sept. 24, 1689), 
 and at Widdin. During the next campaign France had a 
 greater number of enemies, but better generals, and was 
 consequently more successful. Marshal Catinat displayed 
 extraordinary genius, and defeated the duke of Savoy, who 
 had joined the allies, in several encounters. He was worsted 
 at Staifarada (Aug. 18, 1690) ; Saluzzo, Susa, and nearly all 
 Savoy, fell into the power of the French. In Catalonia the 
 same results occurred, and the Dutch and Spaniards were 
 defeated at Fleurus, near Charleroy (July 1), by the duke of 
 Luxemburg. Their allies, the Turks, also achieved decided 
 success. Nissa, Widdin, and Belgrade were captured, and a 
 great portion of Hungary regained. In this very year the 
 allied fleets were defeated off Beachy Head, by the French 
 under Tourville, as recounted above (June 30, 1690). 
 
 § 447. In the next campaign but little was accomplished. 
 Louis took Mons (April 7, 1691) ; in Catalonia no decisive 
 victories were obtained ; Catinat was repulsed in Italy, and 
 in Hungary the Turks lost all which they had acquired in 
 the preceding campaign. The next spring William and 
 Louis set out on the same day to join their respective 
 armies, and great hopes were formed on both sides. Louis 
 besieged and captured Namur (June 5, 1692), in spite of 
 William's efforts to relieve it ; and the latter, in order to 
 retrieve his reputation, endeavoured to surprise the French 
 army under Luxemburg, at Steenkerke (July 24). The' 
 English, being totally unsupported by the Dutch, were 
 obliged to give ground. Partial as the engagement proved, 
 above ten thousand men fell on both sides, in the space of 
 two hours ; and the veteran Luxemburg declared, that he 
 was never in so hot an action. William's military character 
 suffered greatly by this battle, and the hatred of the English 
 against the Dutch became violent in the highest degree. 
 The duke of Savoy ravaged Dauphine ; and the Turks were 
 again repulsed in Hungary. 
 
DECLINE OF FEANCE. 353 
 
 § 448. Louis XIV. prepared to open the next campaign 
 with great pomp, but retired suddenly to Versailles, leaving 
 his armies under the command of his generals. The duke 
 of Luxemburg attacked the allied army under William, at 
 Landen, and after repeated attempts and several terrible 
 encounters, gained a barren victory (July 29, 1693). Eight 
 thousand of his best troops were slain in battle, and 
 his army was so much weakened by the number of the 
 wounded, that he could take no advantage of the conster- 
 nation of the enemy. During six weeks he continued 
 in a state of inaction, and Charleroy was the only con- 
 quest he made, before the close of the campaign. In 
 Germany the French stormed Heidelberg, and acted with 
 great barbarity. The war in Hungary produced no signal 
 event. In Catalonia, Marshal Noailles took Eoses in sight 
 of the Spanish army, and would have acquired more im- 
 portant conquests, had he not been obliged to send a 
 detachment into Italy. Marshal Catinat defeated the duke 
 of Savoy at Marsaglia, near Pignerol (Oct. 4, 1693). Be- 
 sides their cannon, light baggage, and a great number of 
 colours and standards, the allies lost eight thousand men in 
 the action. Among many persons of distinction who fell 
 or were taken, the young duke of Schomberg was mortally 
 wounded and made prisoner. Eecovering from the defeat 
 of the previous year off Cape la Hogue, the French navy 
 committed great ravages upon the commerce of England. 
 Admiral Eooke was defeated, and part of a convoy he was 
 guarding captured by Tourville off Cape St. Vincent (May 18, 
 1693). 
 
 § 449. In the midst of his victories Louis XIV. had the 
 misfortune to see his subjects languishing in misery and 
 want. France was afflicted with a dreadful famine, partly 
 occasioned by unfavourable seasons, partly by the war, which 
 had not left hands sufficient to cultivate the ground ; and 
 . notwithstanding the provident attention of her ministry in 
 . procuring supplies of com from abroad, in regulating the 
 price and furnishing the markets, many of the peasants 
 perished of hunger, and the whole kingdom was reduced to 
 poverty and distress. The next campaign was attended 
 with no very decisive results ; and some slight successes 
 achieved by William in Flanders, were more than counter- 
 balanced by the victories of Marshal Noailles in Catalonia 
 (1694). ihe glory and greatness of Louis XIV. were now 
 -verging towards a decline. His resources were exhausted : 
 2 a 
 
354 LOUIS XIV. DESIRES PEACE. 
 
 his minister, Louvois, was dead; and Luxemburg, the last 
 of those great generals who had made France the terror of 
 Europe, died before the opening of next campaign. Louis 
 determined, therefore, to act merely on the defensive in 
 Handers, where the allies had assembled a large force. 
 After some hesitation, he placed Marshal Villeroy at the 
 head of the principal army, and intrusted the second to 
 Boufflers. Namur on the right, and Dunkirk on the left, 
 comprehended between them the extent of country to be 
 defended by the French. Tournay on the Scheldt, and 
 Tpres, near the Lys, formed part of the line. Boufflers was 
 ordered to assemble his army near Mons, to cover Namur ; 
 and Villeroy posted himself between the Scheldt and the 
 Lys, to protect Tournay, Tpres, and Dunkirk. WiUiara 
 took the field early in May, and regained Namur (Sept. 2, 
 1695). Louis XIV., in order to wipe off this disgrace, com- 
 manded Villeroy to bombard Brussels ; and the prince of 
 Vaudemont had the mortification to see great part of that 
 city laid in ruins, without being able either to prevent or 
 avenge the wanton destruction (Aug. 13). The military 
 reputation of William, which had suffered greatly during 
 the three foregoing campaigns, was much raised by the re- 
 taking of Namur. But the allies had little success in other 
 quarters. No event of any importance happened in Italy, 
 on the Upper Ehine, or in Catalonia. In Hungary, where 
 peace had been expected by the confederates, the accession' 
 of Mustapha II. to the Ottoman throne gave a new turn to 
 affairs. Possessed of more vigour than his predecessor, 
 Achmet II., Mustapha resolved to command his troops in 
 person. He accordingly took the field ; passed the Danube; 
 stormed Lippa ; seized Itul ; and falling suddenly on a body 
 of imperialists, under Veterani, he killed .that officer, dis- 
 persed his forces, and closed with success a campaign Which 
 promised nothing but misfortune to the Turks. 
 
 § 450. The next and the last campaign of this widely- 
 extending conflict, produced no very important results. 
 Prance was exhausted by her great exertions ; and, the 
 king of Spain and the emperor excepted, all parties seemed 
 heartily tired of the war. Louis XIV., by his intrigues, had 
 detached the duke of Savoy from the confederacy ; -he tam- 
 pered with the other powers ; and a congress for a general 
 peace, under the mediation of Charles XL of Sweden, was 
 at last opened, at the castle of Eyswick, between Delft and 
 the Hague (Jan. 29, 1697). The taking of Barcelona in- 
 
PEACE OE EYSWICK. 355 
 
 duced the king of Spain to listen to the proposals of France; 
 and the emperor, after reproaching his allies with deserting 
 him, found it necessary to accede to the treaty. The con- 
 cessions made by Louis XIV. were very considerable ; but 
 the pretensions of the house of Bourbon to the Spanish 
 succession were left in full force. Though the renunciation 
 of all claim to that succession, conformably to the Pyrenean 
 treaty, had been one great object of the war, no mention was 
 made of it in the articles of peace. It was stipulated, that 
 the French monarch should acknowledge William III. to be 
 the lawful sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland, and make 
 no farther attempt to disturb him in the possession of his 
 kingdoms ; that the duchy of Luxemburg, Chiney, Char- 
 leroy, Mons, Aeth, Courtray, and aU places united to France 
 by the chambers of Metz and Breisac, as well as those 
 taken in Catalonia, during the war, should be restored to 
 Spain ; that Freiburg, Breisac, and Philipsburg should be 
 given up to the emperor ; and that the duchies of Lorraine 
 and Bar should be rendered back to their native prince. 
 The emperor had scarcely acceded to this treaty, when he 
 received intelligence of a victory gained by his forces, under 
 Prince Eugene, over the Turks, at Zenta (Sept. 11, 1697). 
 This triumph broke the spirit of the Turks ; and the haughty 
 Mustapha, after attempting in vain, during another cam- 
 paign, to recover the laurels he had lost at Zenta, agreed to 
 listen to proposals of peace. The plenipotentiaries of the 
 belligerent powers accordingly met at Carlowitz, and signed 
 a treaty (Jan. 26, 1699), in which it was stipulated, that all 
 Hungary on this side the Drave, with Transylvania and 
 Slavonia, should be ceded to the house of Austria ; that the 
 Eussians should remain in possession of Azoff, on the Palus 
 Maeotis, which had been taken by their young sovereign 
 Peter I., afterwards styled the Great ; that Podolia should 
 be restored to the Poles ; and that tlie Venetians, who had 
 distinguished themselves during the latter years of the 
 war, should have the Morea, or ancient Peloponnesus, and 
 several places in Dalmatia. 
 
 Letter 19.— The Progress of Society in Europe, from the Middle of 
 
 the Sixteenth to the End of the Seventeenth Century a d 1550 
 
 1700. Vol. ii., pages 245—262. 
 
 § 451. About the middle of the sixteenth century society 
 had attained a very high degree of perfection in Italy. 
 Soon after the Italian states began to decline, and the other 
 2 A 2 
 
:356 INFLUENCE OF WOMAN. 
 
 European nations to advance towards refinement. Among 
 these the Trench took the lead ; for although the Spanish 
 nobility during the reign of Charles V., and those of his 
 immediate successors, were perhaps the most polished and 
 enlightened set of men on this side of the Alps, the groat 
 
 i body of the nation was sunk in ignorance, superstition, and 
 
 -barbarism. And the secluded condition of the women, 
 in both Spain and Italy, was an additional barrier against 
 true politeness. That grand obstruction to elegance and 
 
 ■ pleasure was effectually removed, in the intermediate king- 
 dom, by the gallant Francis I. and Anne of Brittany, wife of 
 Charles VIII. and Louis XII., who had introduced the cus- 
 tom of ladies appearing publicly at the French court. Prands 
 encouraged it ; and by familiarizing the intercourse of the 
 sexes, threw over the manners of the nation those be- 
 witching graces that have so long attracted the admiration 
 of Europe. But this innovation, like most others in civil 
 life, was at first attended with several inconveniences. Not 
 only frequent intrigues, but a gross sensuality was the 
 consequence. Katherine of Medicis encouraged this sen- 
 suality, and employed it as the engine for perfecting her 
 system of Machiavelian policy. On the accession of 
 Henry IV. and the cessation of the religious wars, gallantry 
 began to assume a milder form. The reign of sensuality 
 continued, but it was a sensuality mingled with sentiment, 
 and connected with heroism. Gallantry was formed into 
 a system during the reign of Louis XIII., and love was 
 analyzed with all the nicety of metaphysics. 
 
 § 452. During the regency of Aiine of Austria and the 
 civil wars, in the beginning of the reign of Louis XIV., 
 
 , affairs were chiefly conducted by the ladies. They often 
 appeared openly at the head of factions, adorned with the 
 ensigns of their party ; visited the troops, and presided at 
 councils of war, while their lovers spoke as seriously of an 
 assignation as of the issue of a campaign. This, however, 
 vanished at the approach of the best days of Louis XIV., 
 when the glory of France was at its height, and the French 
 language, literature, arts, and manners, were perfected. 
 Ease was associated with elegance, 'taste with fashion, and 
 grace with freedom. The progress of arts and literature 
 ill France kept pace with the progress of manners. As 
 early as the reign of Francis I., who is deservedly styled 
 the " Father of the French Muses," .a better taste in com- 
 
 ■, position had been introduced. Babelais and Montaigne, 
 
FRENCH LITEKATUEE. 357 : 
 
 whose native humour and good sense will ever entitle thetn 
 to be ranked among the greatest writers of their nation, 
 improved the French prose; and French verse was gra- 
 dually polished by Marot, Eonsard, and Malherbe, while 
 prose received new graces from Voiture and Balzac. At 
 length CorneUle produced the " Cid," and Pascal the 
 "Provincial Letters." The former is still justly admired 
 as a great effort of poetical genius, both with regard to 
 style and matter ; and the latter is universally regarded as 
 a model of prose composition) as well as of delicate raillery 
 and sound reasoning. Corneille was immediately followed 
 by Moliere, Eacine, Quinault, Boileau, and La Fontaine. 
 The language of the tender passions, little understood even 
 by Corneille, was successfully copied by Madame De La- 
 fayette in her ingenious novels, and afterwards no less hap- 
 pily introduced on the stage by Racine, especially in his two 
 pathetic tragedies, "Phaedra " and "Andromache." Compo- • 
 sition, like manners, returned in appearance to the simplicity 
 of nature, adorned,- but not disguised by art. This elegant 
 simplicity is more particularly to be found in the tragedies 
 of Eacine, the fables of La Fontaine, and the comedies ot 
 Moliere. The same good taste extended itself to all the 
 fine arts. Several magnificent edifices were raised ; sculp- 
 ture was perfected by G-irardon, of whose skill the mauso- 
 leum of Cardinal Eichelieu is a lasting monument ; Poiissia 
 equalled Eaphael in some branches of painting, while 
 Eubens and Vandyke displayed the glories of the Flemish 
 school ; and Lulli set to excellent music the simple and 
 passionate operas of Quinault. France, and the neigh- 
 bouring provinces, toward the latter part of the seventeenth, 
 century, were what Italy had been a centiuy before, the 
 favourite abodes of classical elegance. 
 
 § 453. The progress of taste and politeness was less 
 rapid in the north of Europe during this period. Germany 
 and the adjoining countries, from the league of Schmal- 
 kalden to the peace of "Westphalia, were a perpetual scene, 
 either of religious wars or disputes. But these tended to, 
 enlighten the human mind, and those wars to invigorate 
 the human character, as well as to perfect the military 
 science ; an advantage in itself by no means contemptible,, 
 as that science is not only necessary to protect ingenuity 
 against force, but intimately connected with several others 
 conducive to the happiness of mankind. All the powers of 
 the soul were roused, and all the emotions of the heartj 
 
358 THE KEEOEMEES. 
 
 called forth. Courage ceased to be an enthusiastic energy 
 or rapacious impulse ; it became a steady effort in vindica- 
 tion of the dearest interests of society. And Germany 
 produced consummate generals, sound politicians, deep 
 divines, and even acute philosophers, before she made any 
 advances in the JSelles Lettres. The revival of learning in 
 Europe had prepared the minds of men for receiving the 
 doctrines of the Eeformation, as soon as they were pro- 
 mulgated ; and instead of being startled when the daring 
 hand of Luther drew aside, or rather rent, the veil that 
 covered established errors, the genius of the age, which had 
 encouraged the attempt, applauded its success. Luther 
 himself, though a stranger to elegance or taste in composi- 
 tion, zealously promoted the study of ancient literature, as 
 necessary to a right understanding of the Scriptures, which 
 he held up as the standard of religious truth. A knowledge 
 of the Grreek and Latin languages became common among 
 the Eeformers ; and they insensibly acquired a clearness of 
 reasoning and a freedom of thinking, which not only enabled 
 them to triumph over their antagonists, but to investigate 
 with accuracy several moral and political subjects. These, 
 instead of polite literature, employed the thoughts of those 
 who were not altogether immersed in theological contro- 
 versy ; and the names of Grotius and Puffendorff are still 
 mentioned with respect. They delineated, with no small 
 degree of exactness, the great outlines of the human cha- 
 racter, and the laws of civil society ; it was reserved for 
 latter writers, for Smith and Ferguson, Montesquieu and 
 Helvetius, to complete the picture. Their principles they 
 derived partly from general reasoning, and partly from the 
 political situation of Europe in that age. In Germany and 
 the United Provinces, Protestants and Eoman Catholics 
 were everywhere blended ; and the fatal experience of the 
 destructive effects of persecution, seems first to have sug- 
 gested the idea of toleration, the most important principle 
 established by the political and controversial writers of the 
 seventeenth century. 
 
 § d54. Copernicus discovered the true theory of the 
 heavens, which was afterwards perfected by our immortal 
 Newton ; that the sun, by far the greatest body, is the 
 centre of our planetary system, dispensing light and heat, 
 and communicating circular motion ■ to the other planets 
 which revolve around. Kepler ascertained the true figure 
 of the orbits, and the proportions of the motions of those 
 
GALILEO. 359 
 
 planets. Nor was that bold spirit of investigation, which 
 the Eeformation had roused, confined to the countries that 
 had renounced the pope's supremacy, and the slavish doc- 
 trines of the Bomish Church. It reached even Italy ; where 
 Gralileo, by the invention, or at least the improvement, of 
 the telescope, confirmed the system of Copernicus. He dis- 
 covered the mountains in the moon, a planet attendant on 
 the earth ; the satellites of Jupiter ; the phases of Venus ; 
 the spots in the sun, and its rotation, or turning on its own 
 axis, Galileo was cited before the Inquisition, committed to 
 prison, and commanded solemnly to abjure his heresies and 
 absurdities ; in regard to which, the following decree, an 
 eternal disgrace to the brightest age of literature in modern 
 Italy, was passed in 1633 : " To say that the sun is in the 
 centre, and without local motion, is a proposition absurd 
 and false in sound ' philosophy, and even heretical, being 
 expressly contrary to the Holy Scripture ; and to say that 
 the earth is not placed in the centre of the universe, nor 
 immoveable, but that it has so much as a diurnal motion, 
 is also a proposition false and absurd in sound philosophy, 
 as well as erroneous in the faith ! " The influence of the 
 Eeformation on government and manners was no less con- 
 spicuous than on philosophy. While the sovereigns of 
 France and Spain rose into absolute power at the expense 
 of their unhappy subjects, the people in every Protestant 
 state acquired new privileges. Vice was depressed by the 
 regular exertions of law, when the sanctuaries of the Church 
 were abolished, and the clergy themselves made amenable 
 to punishment. This happy influence extended itself even 
 to the Church of Eome. Nor has the influence of the 
 Eeformation been felt only by the interior members of the 
 Eomish Church : it has extended to the sovereign pontiffs 
 themselves. The popes, instead of rivalling the courts of 
 temporal princes in gaiety, or surpassing them in licentious- 
 ness, studied to assume manners more suitable to their 
 ecclesiastical character ; and by their humanity, their love 
 of literature, their moderation, and even their piety, made 
 some atonement to mankind for the crimes of their pre- 
 decessors. 
 
 § 455. The Eoman Catholics also instituted a new monastic 
 order, namely that of the Jesuits, who were required to 
 attend to the transactions of the great world, to study the 
 dispositions of persons in power, and to cultivate their 
 friendship. They considered the education of youth aa 
 
360' INFLUENCE OF THE JESUITS. 
 
 their peculiar province, and they set out as missionaries to- 
 convert unbelieving nations. The Jesuits increased vronder- 
 fully ; and before the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
 only sixty years after the institution of the order, had 
 obtained the chief direction of the education of youth in every 
 Eoman Catholic country in Europe. They had become the , 
 confessors of most of its monarchs; they were the spiritual ■ 
 guides of almost every person eminent for rank or power, and . 
 they possessed the highest degree of confidence and interest 
 ■with the papal court, as the most zealous and able assertors . 
 of its dominion. As they formed the minds of men in youth, 
 they retained an ascendancy over them in their more ad- . 
 vanced years. They possessed, at different periods, the. 
 direction of the most considerable courts in Europe ; they 
 mingled in all public affairs, and took part in every intrigue ' 
 and revolution. Together with the power, the wealth of: 
 the order increased. They acquired possession of a large' 
 and fertile province of South America, well known by the 
 name of Paraguay, and reigned as sovereigns over three or 
 four hundred thousand subjects. Unhappily for mankind, 
 the vast influence which the Jesuits acquired was often : 
 exerted for the most pernicious purposes. As the order 
 derived both reputation and authority from the zeal vrith : 
 which it stood forth in defence of "the Eomish Church 
 against the attacks of the champions of the Eefonnation,. 
 its members considered it their peculiar function to combat ; 
 the opinions and to check the progress of the Protestants. 
 They made use of every art, and employed every weapon 
 against the Eeformed religion ; they set themselves in 
 opposition to every gentle and tolerating measure in its 
 favour ; and they incessantly stirred up against its followers 
 aU the rage of ecclesiastical and civil persecution. 
 
 § 456. "While Paul III. was instituting the order of 
 Jesuits, and Italy exulting in her superiority in arts and, 
 letters, England, separated from the Holy See, and, Jike 
 Germany, agitated by theological disputes, was groaning> 
 under the civil and religious tyranny of Henry VIII. This, 
 prince was a lover of. letters, which he cultivated himself;; 
 but his controversies with the court of Eome, .and the) 
 sanguinary measures which he pursued in his domestic 
 policy, threw a cloud over the manners and the studies of the- 
 Bation, which the barbarities of his daughter Mary rendered 
 yet darker, and which was not dispelled till, the middle of 
 the reign of Elizabeth, Then the Muse ventured once morei 
 
EAELY ENGLISH WEITEPvS. 361 
 
 to expand her wings, and Chaucer found a successor worthy 
 of himself in the celebrated Spenser. The principal work 
 of this poet is the " Fairy Queen." It is of the heroic 
 kind, and was intended as a compliment to Queen Elizabeth 
 and her courtiers. Shakespeare, the other luminary of the 
 virgin-reign, and the father of our drama, was more happy 
 in his line of composition. By studying only the heart of 
 man, his tragic scenes are most effective ; and by copying 
 manners, undisguised by fashion, his comic humour is for 
 ever new. The reign of James I. was distinguished by the 
 labours of many eminent authors, both in prose and verse ; 
 but their productions show a bad taste. The pun was 
 common in the pulpit, and the quibble was propagated from 
 the throne. Hooker's "Ecclesiastical Polity," Camden's 
 " Annals of Queen Elizabeth," Ealeigh's " History of the 
 "World," and the translation of the Bible now in use, are 
 striking proofs of the improvement of our language, and of 
 the progress of English prose. Fairfax's translation of 
 Tasso, and some of the tragic scenes of Fletcher excepted, 
 the style of none of the poets of this reign can be mentioned 
 with entire approbation. Jonson, though born with a vein 
 of genuine humour, is a rude mechanical writer ; and the 
 poems of Drayton, who was endowed with a fertile genius, 
 with great facility of expression, and a happy descrip- 
 tive talent, abound in the splendid faults of composition. 
 Daniel, the poetical rival of Drayton, affects to write with 
 more purity ; yet he is by no means free from the bad taste 
 of his age. During the tranquil part of the reign of 
 Charles I. a favourable change ensued. Charles himself 
 was an excellent judge of literature, a chaste writer, and a 
 patron of the liberal arts. Vandyke was caressed at court, 
 and Inigo Jones was encouraged to plan those public 
 edifices which do so much honour to his memory; while 
 Ijawes, and othSr eminent composers, in the service of the 
 king, set to manly music some of the finest English verses. 
 § 457. Amid the troublous times of the great rebellion 
 appeared many men of noble intellect. Then the force and 
 the compass of our language were fuUy tried in the public 
 papers of the king and Parliament, and in the bold eloquence 
 of the speeches of the two parties. In political and theo- 
 logical controversy was roused the vigorous genius of John 
 Milton, which afterwards broke forth with so much lustre 
 in the poem of" Paradise Lost," unquestionably the greatest 
 effort of human imagination. No poet, ancient or modem,. 
 
362 JOHN DEYDEN. 
 
 ia so sublime in his conceptions as Milton ; and few have 
 ever equalled him in boldness of description or strength of 
 expression. Waller, whose taste had been formed under 
 the first Charles, and who wrote during the brightest days 
 of the second, is one of the chief refiners of our versification, 
 as well as language. "Waller was followed in his poetical 
 walk by Dryden, who carried English rhyme in all its 
 varieties to a very high degree of perfection ; while Lee, 
 whose dramatic talent was great, introduced into blank 
 verse that solemn pomp of sound, which was long much 
 afiected by our modern tragic poets. The pathetic Otway 
 brought tragedy down to the level of domestic life, and 
 exemplified that simplicity of versification and expression 
 which is so well suited to the language of the tender 
 passions. But Otway, in other respects, is by no means so 
 chaste a writer ; nor was the reign of Charles II. the era 
 either of good taste or elegant manners in England. A 
 better taste in literature, however, began to discover itself 
 in the latter productions of Dryden, the greater part of 
 whose Eables, " Absalom and Achitophel," " Alexander's 
 Peast," and several other pieces, written toward the close 
 of the seventeenth century, are justly considered, notwith- 
 standing some negligences, as the most masterly poetical 
 compositions in our language. The same good taste ex- 
 tended itself to a sister art. Purcell, the celebrated author 
 of the " Orpheus Britannicus," set the principal lyric, and 
 the airs in two of the dramatic pieces of Dryden, to music 
 worthy of the poetry. Dryden, during his latter years, 
 also greatly excelled in prose ; to which he gave an ease 
 and energy not to be found united in Clarendon or Temple, 
 the two most celebrated prose writers of that age. Cla- 
 rendon's words are well chosen and happily arranged; but 
 his spirit, and even his sense, is frequently lost in the 
 bewildering length of his periods. The style of Temple, 
 though easy and flowing, wants force. The sermons, or 
 Christian orations of Archbishop Tillotson, have great 
 merit, both in regard to style and matter. Dryden con- 
 sidered Tillotson as his master in prose composition. 
 
 § 458. The sciences made greater progress in England, 
 during the course of the seventeenth century, than polite 
 literature. Early in the -reign of James I. Sir Francis 
 Bacon, who is justly considered, on account of the extent 
 and variety of his talents, as one of the most extraordinary 
 men that any nation ever produced, broke through the 
 
ENGLISH PHILOSOPHEES. 363 
 
 scholastic obscurity of the age, like the sun from beneath 
 a cloud, and showed mankind the necessity of thinking for 
 themselves, in order to become truly learned. If he did 
 not greatly enlarge the bounds of any particular science, 
 he was usefully employed in breaking the fetters of false 
 philosophy, and conducting the lovers of truth to the proper 
 method of cultivating the circle of the sciences. That 
 liberal spirit of inquiry which Bacon had awakened, soon 
 communicated itself to his countrymen. Harvey, by reason- 
 ing alone, discovered the circulation of the blood. Soon 
 after the Eestoration, the Eoyal Society was founded ; and 
 its members, in a few years, made many important dis- 
 coveries in mathematics and natural philosophy, in which 
 WUkins, Wallace, and Boyle had a great share. Nor 
 were the other branches of science neglected. Hobbes 
 unfolded the principles of policy and morals with a bold but 
 impious freedom. He represented man as cruel, unsocial, 
 and unjust. Shaftesbury, naturally of a benevolent temper, 
 shocked with the debasing principles of Hobbes, and capti- 
 vated with the generous visions of Plato, brought to light 
 an enchanting system of morals, which 8very friend to 
 humanity would wish to be true. The philosophy of New- 
 ton, all founded on experiment and demonstration, can 
 never be sufficiently admired. The discovery of Locke, 
 though now familiar, that all our idpas are acquired by sen- 
 sation and reflection, and consequently, that we brought 
 none into the world with us, has had a more serious influ- 
 ence upon the opinions of mankind. It has not only ren- 
 dered our reasonings concerning the operations of the 
 human understanding more distinct ; it has also induced us 
 to reason concerning the nature of the mind itself, and its 
 various powers and properties. In a word, it has served to 
 introduce an universal system of scepticism, which has 
 shaken every principle of religion and morals. 
 
THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 Lettek 20. — General View of the Affairs of Europe, from the Peace of 
 Eyswick to the Grand Alliance, a.d. 1697 — 1701. Vol. ii., pages 
 262—272. 
 
 § 459. The first object which engaged the general atten- 
 tion of Europe, after the peace of Eyswick, was the settle- 
 ment of the Spanish succession. The declining health of 
 Charles II. of Spain gave new spirit to the intrigues of 
 the competitors for his crown. These competitors were 
 Louis XIV., the Emperor Leopold,- and the elector of 
 Bavaria. Louis and the emperor were both grandsons of 
 Philip III. The Dauphin, and the emperor's eldest son 
 Joseph, king of the Eomans, had therefore a double claim, 
 their mothers being daughters of Philip IV. The right of 
 birth was in the house of Bourbon, but the imperial family 
 asserted, in support of the claim, besides the solemn and 
 ratified renunciations of Louis XIII. and XIV. of all title 
 to the Spanish succession, the blood of Maximilian, the 
 common parent of both branches of the house of Austria — ' 
 the right of male representation. The elector of Bavaria 
 claimed, as the husband of an archduchess, the only surviv- 
 ing child of the Emperor Leopold, by the Infanta Margaret, 
 second daughter of Philip IV., who had declared her descend- 
 ants the heirs of his crown, in preference to those of his 
 eldest daughter, Maria Theresa ; so that the son of the 
 elector, in default of issue by Charles II., was entitled to 
 the whole Spanish succession, unless the testament of Philip, 
 and the renunciation of Maria Theresa, on her marriage with 
 the French monarch, were set aside. Soon after the peace 
 of Eyswick the English Parliament had reduced the army 
 to seven thousand native troops, thus requiring William to 
 dismiss his Dutch guards ; and although Louis was better 
 prepared for war, he pretended to be in favour of peace, 
 and on this occasion trusted rather to diplomacy than the 
 sword to achieve his ends. 
 
TEEATIES OF PARTITION. 355 
 
 § 460. A treaty of partition was signed, by England, 
 Holland, and France (Aug. 19, 1698). It stipulated that, 
 on the demise of the king of Spain, his dominions should 
 be divided among the competitors for his crown in the 
 following manner. Spain, her American empire, and the 
 sovereignty of the Netherlands, were assigned to the prince 
 of Bavaria ; to the Dauphin, the kingdom of Naples and 
 Sicily, the ports on the Tuscan shore, and the marquisate 
 of Final, in Italy ; and in Spain, the province of Guipuscoa, 
 ■with other territories. To the Archduke Charles, the em- 
 peror's second son, was allotted the dukedom of Milan. 
 The treaty was to be kept secret by the contracting powers, 
 but it soon became known at Madrid, where it caused a 
 great sensation. The king summoned an extraordinary 
 council, and by will appointed the prince of Bavaria his 
 sole heir. Charles II. of Spain, contrary to all expectation, 
 recovered from his illness; the prince, to whom he had 
 bequeathed his empire, died suddenly, and strong suspicions 
 were entertained of foul play (Feb. 6, 1699). Louis and 
 "William again negotiated, and a second treaty of partition 
 was privately signed, by England, Holland, and France, not- 
 withstanding the violent remonstrances of the court of Ma- 
 drid against such a measure (March 25, 1700). It differed 
 very little from the former treaty, excepting that it assigned 
 Spain and her American dominions to the Archduke Charles, 
 second son of the emperor. In order to prevent the union 
 of Spain and the imperial crown in the person of one prince, 
 provision was made, that in case of the death of the king of 
 the Eomaus, the archduke, if raised to that dignity, should 
 not succeed to the Spanish throne. In like manner, it was 
 particularly stipulated, that no dauphin or king of France 
 should ever wear the crown of Spain ; and a secret article 
 provided against the contingency of the emperor's refusing 
 to accede to the treaty. 
 
 § 461. At this period Peter the Great of Eussia began 
 to attract the attention of Europe. Having moulded the 
 disjointed empire left by his predecessors into form, and 
 defeated the Turks, he, in 1697, set out on a tour through 
 the different states of Europe, anxious to profit by their 
 advancement and civilization. He laboured in the docks at 
 Amsterdam like a common shipwright, and from Holland 
 passed over to England, where he perfected himself in the 
 art of ship-building. King "William, in order gain his favour, 
 entertained him with a naval review, ma.de him a present of 
 
368 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 an elegant yacht, and permitted him to engage in his 
 service a number of ingenious artificers. Thus instructed, 
 and attended by several men of science, Peter returned to 
 Eussia, after an absence of nearly two years. Peter wanted 
 a port in the Baltic, and was moreover anxious to obtain 
 possession of the province of Ingria ; and with this view he 
 entered into a league against Sweden. Charless XII., then 
 quite a youth, had but just before succeeded to the throne 
 (1697), and he speedily astonished the world by his great 
 talents for war, his fortitude, and perseverance. As Den- 
 mark had commenced the struggle by attacking Holstein, 
 Charles renewed the alliance of Sweden with England and 
 Holland, and sent an army into Pomerania to be ready to 
 support the duke of Holstein. An English fleet sailed to 
 assist the Swedes. Although Eussia and her allies gained 
 some early successes, Copenhagen was threatened, and 
 Denmark detached from the confederacy by the treaty of 
 Travendahl (Aug. 19, 1700). 
 
 § 462. A most violent discontent had in the mean time 
 broken out in Scotland. The Scotch, in consequence of 
 an act of Parliament, bad planted, in 1698, a colony on the 
 isthmus of Darien, and founded a settlement, to which 
 they gave the name of New Edinburgh. The nation built 
 on this project the most extravagant ideas of success ; 
 and, in order to support it, had subscribed four hundred 
 thousand pounds sterling. But the promise of the future 
 greatness of New Edinburgh, the intended capital of New 
 Caledonia, proved its ruin. Its vicinity to Porto Bello and 
 Carthagena, at that time the great marts of the Spaniards 
 in America, and other considerations, caused the court of 
 Madrid to remonstrate very forcibly against the settlement, 
 and James II. at once withdrew his protection. The conse- 
 quence was, that the Scotch settlers in Darien were com- 
 pelled to surrender to the Spaniards, and this so exaspe- 
 rated the Scotch people, that they were ready to rise in 
 open rebellion. In England the second partition treaty 
 was very unpopular, and the refusal of the emperor to 
 accede to the treaty only served to increase the general dis- 
 satisfaction. 
 
 § 463. Charles II. of Spain, perplexed by the claims of 
 different rivals, sought the advice of Innocent XII., who 
 declared that the laws of Spain, and the welfare of all 
 Christendom, required him to give the preference to the 
 family of Bourbon. In accordance with this counsel, Charles 
 
WAR OF THE SUCCESSION. 367 
 
 made a will, leaving his dominions to the duke of Anjou, 
 the dauphin's second son. Charles II. died in 1700 (Nov. ]). 
 Louis XIV., flattered by the will in favour of his grandson, 
 acknowledged its validity, and the duke of Aujou was crowned 
 at Madrid, under the title of Philip V. In justification of 
 this violation of the treaty of partition, Louis urged, amongst 
 other things, that it had not been signed by the emperor, 
 nor received with favour by the princes to whom it had been 
 communicated. After much discussion, Holland and Eng- 
 land were induced to acknowledge the new monarch, and 
 the Emperor Leopold alone, of all the great powers of 
 Europe, prepared to dispute his title. The war of the suc- 
 cession accordingly commenced in Italy, where the French 
 were defeated by Prince Eugene at Carpi (July 9, 1701), 
 and at Chiari (Sept. 1). England and Holland prepared to 
 embark in the struggle. Although Leopold was extravagant 
 in his demands, these powers would only undertake to pro- 
 cure for him the Spanish dominions in Italy, and to recover 
 Flanders, as a barrier for Holland. Matters being thus 
 adjusted, the famous treaty, generally known by the name 
 of the Grand Alliance, was signed by the plenipotenti- 
 aries of the emperor, the king of England, and the States- 
 General of the United Provinces. The avowed objects of 
 this treaty were, " to obtain satisfaction for his imperial 
 majesty in regard to the Spanish succession ; security to the 
 English and Dutch for their dominions and commerce ; to 
 prevent the union of the two great monarchies of France 
 and Spain ; and the French from possessing the Spanish 
 dominions in America." It was also stipulated, that the 
 king of England and the States-General might retain for 
 themselves whatever lands and cities they should conquer 
 in both Indies. And the contracting powers agreed to 
 employ two months in attempting to obtain, by amicable 
 means, the satisfaction and security they demanded. 
 
 § 464. The question of the succession in England had 
 also been raised, in consequence of the death of the duke of 
 Gloucester (July 29, 1700), the only surviving son of the 
 Princess Anne of Denmark, and the last male heir of the 
 Protestant line. Boman Catholics were excluded from suc- 
 ceediag to the English crovm, by the former Act of Settle- 
 ment : it therefore became necessary now to proceed to Pro- 
 testant females; and as it was not probable that "William III. 
 or the princess of Denmark would have any issue, the 
 eventual succession to the crown was settled, by act of Par- 
 
868 BATTLE OF NARVA. 
 
 liament, on the Princess Sophia, duchess dowager of Han- 
 over, and the heirs general of her body, being Protestants 
 (June 12, 1701). She was grand-daughter of James I. 
 by the Princess Elizabeth, married to the unfortunate elector 
 Palatine, who was stripped of his dominions by the Emperor 
 Frederic II. This settlement of the crown was accom- 
 panied by certain limitations, or proTisions for the security 
 of the rights and liberties of the subject, which were sup- 
 posed to have been overlooked at the Eevolution. The 
 principal of these were, that all affairs relative to govern- 
 ment, cognizable by the privy council, should be submitted 
 to it, and that all resolutions therein taken, should be 
 signed by the members who advised or consented to them ; 
 that no pardon should be pleadable to any impeachment laid 
 in parliament ; that no person, who should possess any 
 ofiSce under the king, or received a pension from the crown, 
 should be capable of sitting in the House of Commons ; 
 that the commissions of the judges should be rendered 
 permanent, and their salaries be ascertained and established; 
 that, in the event of the descent or transfer of the crown 
 to a foreigner, the English nation should not be obliged, 
 without the consent of Parliament, to enter into any war 
 for the defence of territories not depending on the king- 
 dom of England ; and that whosoever should come to tlie 
 
 ■ possession of the throne, should join in communion with 
 the Church of England. 
 
 § 465. Charles XII. of Sweden no .sooner raised the 
 siege of Copenhagen, in consequence of his treaty with the 
 king of Denmark (1700), than he turned his arms against 
 the Russians, who had undertaken the siege of Narva with 
 eighty thousand men. Charles, with about twelve thousand 
 men, advanced to the relief of the place ; and having carried, 
 without difficulty, all the outposts, he resolved to attack 
 the Russian camp. The Russians, for a time, stood the 
 shock with firmness ; but, after an engagement of three 
 hours, their intrenchments were forced on aU sides, with 
 great slaughter, and Charles entered Narva in triumph 
 (Nov. 30, 1700). Several thousand of the enemy were 
 
 ■killed in the action ; many were drowned in the Narva, 
 
 •nearly thirty thousand were made prisoners ; and all their 
 magazines, artillery, and baggage, fell into the hands of the 
 Swedes. Charles dismissed his prisoners, after disarming 
 them, except the officers, whom he treated with great gene- 
 
 •rosity. The king of Sweden passed the i winter at Narva, 
 
DEATH OF JAME^ II. 369 
 
 and took the field as soon as the season would permit. He 
 entered Livonia, and appeared in the neighbourhood of Biga, 
 which the king of Poland had in vain besieged the preced- 
 ing campaign. The Poles and Saxons were posted along 
 the Diina ; and Charles XII., who lay on the opposite side of 
 the river, was under the necessity of forcing a passage. This 
 he effected, although with much difficulty. A general 
 engagement ensued, and the Swedes gained a complete but 
 bloody victory. The enemy lost nearly three thousand men, 
 with all their artillery and baggage. Immediately after this 
 victory, Charles advanced to Mittau, the capital of Cour- 
 land. That city, and all the towns in the duchy, surren- 
 dered to him at discretion. Prom Courland he passed into 
 Lithuania, and he is said to have felt a particular satisfac- 
 tion, when he entered in triumph the town of Birzen, where 
 Frederic Augustus, king of Poland, and the Czar Peter, had 
 planned his destruction but a few months before. It was 
 here that, under the stimulating influence of resentment, he 
 formed the great project of dethroning Prederic Augustus, 
 by means of his own subjects. The Poles murmured at seeing 
 their towns enslaved by Saxon garrisons, and their frontiers 
 covered with Russian armies. More jealous of their liberty 
 than ambitious of conquest, they considered the war with 
 Sweden as an artful measure of the court, in order to furnish 
 a pretext for the introduction of foreign troops (1701). 
 
 Lettee 21. — Europe, from the Beginning of the General War of the 
 Succession to the Offers of Peace made by France in 1706, and the 
 Union of England and Scotland. A.D. ] 701 — 1707. "Vol. ii., pages 
 272—293. 
 
 § 466. Just after the signature of the Grand Alliance, 
 James II., ex-king of England, died at St. Germain's (Sept. 
 16, 1701) ; and Louis XIV., in violation of the treaty of 
 Eyswick, acknowledged the son of that unfortunate prince 
 king of Great Britain and Ireland, under the title of 
 James III. This perfidious act fully aroused the resent- 
 ment of the English nation, and induced them to embark 
 with eagerness in the war against Prance. The marquis of 
 Torcy attempted in vain to apologize to the king of England 
 for the conduct of his master ; the affront to William was 
 too flagrant to be patiently borne. He instantly recalled 
 his ambassador from the court of Prance, and ordered the 
 Prench envoy to quit his dominions. The Parliament not 
 only supported William zealously, and voted large supplies 
 2 B 
 
370 DEA1H OF WILLIAM IIL 
 
 for the war, but presented an address to the throne, request- 
 ing the king- to insert in the treaty an article, which was 
 readily assented to by the contracting powers, that no peace 
 should be concluded with ^France, until reparation was made 
 by the Preneh monarch for the indignity offered to his 
 tnajesty and the English nation, in owning and declaring 
 the pretended prince of "Wales king of England. William, 
 however, was thrown into a fever, by a fall from his horse, 
 and died whilst the preparations were going forward (March 
 8, 1702). He was a prince of great vigour of mind, firm- 
 ness of temper, and intrepidity of spirit ; but ungracefd in 
 his person and address, disgustingly cold in his manner, and 
 dry, silent, and solitary in his humour. To a happy con- 
 currence of circumstances, and a steady perseverance in his 
 plans, rather than to any extraordinary talents, either in a 
 civil or military capacity, he owed that high reputation, and 
 extensive influence, which he so long enjoyed among the 
 princes of Christendom. He was, however, an able poli- 
 tician, and a good soldier, though not a great commander. 
 England, at least, was obliged to him for abetting her cause, 
 in her grand struggle for liberty and a Protestant succes" 
 sion. But she has dearly paid for those blessings, by being 
 involved in wasting foreign wars ; by the introduction of 
 the infamous practice of corrupting parliaments, in order 
 to engage them to support those wars ; and by their un- 
 avoidable consequence, a grievous national debt, which, 
 daily accumulating, and augmenting the weight of govern- 
 ment, threatens us with the worst of evUs. 
 
 § 467. Queen Anne, the eldest surviving daughter of 
 James II., succeeded quietly to the English throne, con- 
 formably to the Act of Settlement ; and her resolution to 
 uphold the principles of the Grand Alliance frustrated the 
 hopes conceived by Louis XIV. and his allies. Lord 
 G-odolphin assumed the direction of affairs, and the duke of 
 Marlborough proceeded to Elanders, as commander-in-chief 
 of the English forces, and ambassador extraordinary to the 
 States. This great man succeeded in his negotiation ; he 
 animated them to a full exertion of their strength; and 
 gained so far on their confidence, that they raised him to the 
 chief command of their troops. All the allies engaged, with 
 alacrity, to furnish their several quotas ; and war was declared 
 against Erance, on the same day, at London, the Hague, 
 and Vienna (May 4, 1702) . The first campaign was not of a 
 decisive character. In Italy, the imperialists, being outnum- 
 
MARLBOHOUGH'S VICTORIES. 371 
 
 bered by the armies of France and Spain, gained no advan- 
 tage, and were compelled to abandon tbe siege of Mantua. 
 The allies were defeated at Friediingen, on the Upper Ehine, 
 but in Flanders Marlborough carried everything before him ; 
 andVenlo (Sep. 25), Eurenionde (Oct.6), andLiege (Oct.23), 
 fell into his hands. The allied fleet under Sir George Eooko 
 having failed in an attempt upon Cadiz (Aug. 15), sailed 
 for Yigo, and after a brisk action captured several galleons, 
 under the protection of batteries, and defended by twenty- 
 three French ships of war (Oct. 12). Six ships of war were 
 taken, seven sunk, and nine burned. Of thirteen galleons, 
 nine fell into the hands of the conquerors, and four were 
 destroyed; and although the greater part of the treasure had 
 been landed, and carried to Lagos, the booty was immense, and 
 the consternation of the house of Bourbon excessive (1702). 
 § 468. These successes induced the duke of Savoy to sepa- 
 rate himself fromFrance and Spain, while the king of Portugal 
 joined the confederates. Louis XIV., however, made great 
 preparations for opening the next campaign, and was by no 
 means wanting in success. Meantime the elector of Eav^a, 
 the firm ally of France, carried on hostilities with vigour in 
 the heart of Germany. He gained several advantages and 
 defeated the imperialists, with great loss, at Hochstadt (Sept. 
 20, 1703) . The victorious army put the elector of Bavaria in 
 possession of Augsburg; and the road to Vienna being thus 
 laid open, the emperor trembled in his capital. In Italy the 
 French were also victorious, but Marlborough continued 
 master on the side of Flanders. He took Bonn (May 14), 
 Huy(Aug. 27), and Limburg (Sept. 27). These acquisitions, 
 however, by no means counterbalanced the advantages of 
 the enemy in other quarters ; more especially as the opera^ 
 tions of the allies at sea, during the summer, had been lan- 
 guid and undecisive; and their negligence so great, that 
 the Spanish treasure from the Havannah, the joint produce 
 of the mines of Mexico and Peru, had arrived safely, under 
 convoy of a French fleet, and furnished the house of Bour- 
 bon with fresh resources for continuing the war. But the 
 confederates were not discouraged by their losses ; nor by 
 an insurrection in Hungary, which spread devastation to 
 the gates of Vienna. The English Parliament voted liberal 
 supplies, the Archduke Charles assumed the title of king 
 of Spain, and preparations were made for continuing the 
 struggle with great spirit. In the mean time the ferment 
 in Scotland, caused by the untoward termination of the 
 2b 2 
 
372 BATTLE OF BLEITHEIM. 
 
 Darien enterprise, had not subsided, and the Whiga, jealous 
 of the ascendancy of the Tories, began to trouble the 
 government. Godolphin and Marlborough induced the 
 queen to admit some "Whigs into the administration, and 
 Harley was accordingly made secretary of state, and Mr. 
 St. John, afterwards known as Lord Bolingbroke, was ad- 
 vanced to the lucrative post of secretary at war (1704). 
 
 § 469. The war reopened favourably for the allied cause. 
 By his successes in the two former campaigns, Marlborough 
 had secured the safety of the United Provinces, and he 
 resolved to march into the heart of Germany to the aid of 
 the emperor, who was sorely pressed by numerous foes. In 
 pursuance of this design, the English general crossed the 
 Ehine at Coblentz, met Prince Eugene at Mondelsheim, and 
 effected a junction with a portion of the imperial army. 
 He forced the elector of Bavaria's intrenchments near 
 Donawert (July 2, 1704), obtained possession of that town, 
 and gained a free passage over the Danube. The enemy 
 was at this juncture reinforced, and the opposing armies, 
 each amounting to about eighty thousand men, came into 
 collision at the village of Blenheim. The victory was 
 gained by Marlborough and Eugene, and the French and 
 Bavarians lost, including the killed and prisoners, nearly 
 forty thousand men (Aug. 13). Their camp-equipage, 
 baggage, and artillery, fell into the hands of the conquerors. 
 These trophies, however, were not acquired without con- 
 siderable loss. The allies had five thousand men killed, 
 and nearly eight thousand wounded. As no modern 
 victory, between disciplined armies, was ever more decisive 
 than this, none could be followed by more sudden or im- 
 portant consequences. The emperor was relieved from his 
 fears, the Hungarian malcontents were overawed, and the 
 conquests and dominions of the elector of Bavaria fell at 
 once into the hands of Leopold, who revenged severely on 
 the subjects of that prince, the excesses which had been 
 committed on his own. Broken, ruined, and dispersed, the 
 forces of Louis XIV. left a free and uninterrupted march to 
 the confederates from the Danube to the Khine; and the 
 wretched remains of that army, which, at the beginning of 
 the season, had spread terror to the gates of Vienna, was 
 obliged to take shelter within the frontiers of France. The 
 victors crossed the Ehine, entered Alsace, and the important 
 fortresses of Landau and Trierbach surrendered to them 
 before the close of the campaign. In other parts, the 
 
THE CAMISAEDS. 373 
 
 campaign proved more favourable to the cause of the house 
 of Bourbon. Sir George Eooke failed in an attempt on 
 Barcelona (May 18), but captured Gibraltar (July 22), and 
 the combined squadrons of England and Holland defeated 
 the French fleet off Malaga. 
 
 § 470. These successes rendered the war popular in 
 England, and liberal supplies were voted for its prosecution. 
 The Whigs supported the ministry, and Godolphin, either 
 Irom policy or principle, threw himself entirely into their 
 hands. Parliament was dissolved (April 5, 1705), and the 
 "Whigs attained a great accession of strength in the elections. 
 In EVance, many of the persecuted Huguenots, both before 
 and after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, had taken 
 refuge in the Cevennes, a mountainous country in the south 
 of France, where they led a savage life along with the rude 
 natives, under the name of Caraisards, and enjoyed their 
 religion in a state of barbarity. They had their prophets 
 and prophetesses, who excited them to the most atrocious 
 cruelties, both against the Roman Catholics and the refrac- 
 tory part of their own sect. At length, encouraged by these 
 visionaries, by their increasing numbers, and by the promises 
 of the confederates, the Camisards, on the commencement 
 of the war in 1701, began to mingle politics with their 
 religion. They demanded " liberty of conscience, and an 
 exemption from taxes," and took up arms to support their 
 pretensions. Several generals were sent against them, and 
 in 1704 Villars endeavoured to enter into a treaty with 
 them ; but they, suspecting the sincerity of the court, broke 
 off the negotiation when it was almost finished ; and Villars 
 being recalled, in order to enter on a more important scene 
 of action, the duke of Berwick, on his return from Spain, was 
 despatched against them. As severity was now become 
 as necessary as it was formerly impolitic, the duke exer- 
 cised it without reserve, and reduced the Camisards to 
 obedience. The emperor Leopold died in 1705 (May 5), 
 and was succeeded by his son Joseph. Though little was 
 accomplished this year in Flanders, Germany, or Italy, the 
 earl of Peterborough achieved the most brilliant successes in 
 Spain. He captured Lerida, Tortosa, and Barcelona (Oct. 4), 
 and pursued a rapid course of conquest in Catalonia and 
 Valencia. He was not only one of the most valiant men of 
 the age, but a perfect knight in every sense of the term, and 
 he inspired respect by his generosity as he did terror by the 
 boldness of his military pl^is. 
 
874 BATTLE OF UAMILLIES. 
 
 § 471. Great efforts were made on all sides during the 
 next campaign. Marlborough joined the English and Dutch 
 army on the 20th of May, and gained a complete Tictory 
 over the Prench at Eamillies (May 23, 1V06), on which 
 occasion he took one hundred pieces of cannon and a great 
 quantity of baggage. The total conquest of Brabant, and 
 almost all Spanish Elanders, was the immediate consequence 
 of this victory. Louvain, Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, 
 Oudenarde, and other places surrendered at discretion. 
 Ostend, so famous for its long siege in the last century, 
 put the first stop to the progress of the confederates. It 
 was forced, however, to capitulate, after a siege of ten 
 days. The consequences of the battle of B.amillies were not 
 confined to Planders ; they extended even to Italy, where 
 Louis XIV. hoped the taking of Turin would afford some 
 consolation for his losses in other quarters. But the French 
 besieging forces were attacked by Prince Eugene ; and after 
 an obstinate struggle of two hours, he entered their camp, 
 drove them from all their posts, and took their cannon, bag- 
 gage, ammunition, and military chest (Sept. 7). The duke 
 of Orleans was slightly wounded, and Marshal Marsin mor- 
 tally. The Erench army was routed and dispersed ; and, 
 although the number of the killed did not exceed three 
 thousand, such was the terror of the fugitives, that they 
 retreated immediately towards Pignerol, and made the best 
 of their way into Dauphine : so that the house of Bourbon 
 lost, at one blow, the duchies of Milan and Mantua, the 
 principality of Piedmont, and eventually the kingdom of 
 Naples. The confederates, notwithstanding some unfavour- 
 able circumstances, were no less successful in Spain. The 
 English and Portuguese overran the kingdom and entered 
 Madrid (June 24). The archduke was proclaimed king of 
 Spain, under the name of Charles III., and had he advanced 
 immediately to the seat of power, the Spanish crown wovdd 
 have been transferred for ever from the house of Bourbon. 
 Philip V. having collected a superior army, forced them to 
 quit that city. The duke of Berwick hung close upon their 
 rear, and gained some advantages over them; yet they, 
 having effected a junction with the earl of Peterborough and 
 the archduke, passed safely into the kingdom of Valencia, 
 and disposed their quarters in such a manner as to cover 
 the kingdoms of Arragon and Catalonia, and preserve, at 
 the same time, a free entrance into Castile. Carthagena, 
 ■which had been captured a few months before, was, however, 
 
TICTOKIOUS CAREER OF CHARLES XII. 375 
 
 retaken before the end of the campaign, and the affairs of 
 the allies in Spain fell into confusion. 
 
 § 472. Afiairs in the North and East had in the mean time 
 undergone a considerable change. In prosecution of his 
 designs against Poland, Charles XII. invaded that kingdom, 
 and gained a complete victory over the king's army at 
 CHssaw (July 20, 1702). He took possession of camp, bag- 
 gage, and cannon ; and even the military (Jhest of the 
 king of Poland fell into his hands. The king of Sweden 
 halted not a moment on the field of battle. He directed 
 his march to Cracow, which surrendered without firing 
 a gun. He was prevented by an accident from follow- 
 ing up this success so rapidly as he desired, but came up 
 with the enemy again at Pultnsk (May 1, 1703). Thora 
 fell soon after, and the Diet of Warsaw having declared the 
 throne vacant, bestowed it Upon Stanislas Leczinski. Peter 
 of Eussia, who had developed the resources of his kingdom 
 and re-modelled his army, again took the field, captured 
 Narva (Aug. 20, 1704), and obtained possession of the whole 
 of Ingria. He was, at the same time, engaged building the 
 new city of St. Petersburg, on a marshy island on the Neva. 
 
 § 473. The fugitive king of Poland took refuge with 
 Peter, and at Grodno these two monarchs entered into an 
 alliance. The Eussian levies embarked in the cause, but 
 were everywhere defeated by the Swedes ; and some of the 
 achievements performed by Charles XII. and his generals 
 were most extraordinary. At last Frederic Augustus sued for 
 peace, which he obtained on renouncing all pretensions to the 
 crown of Poland, and acknowledging Stanislas as its lawful 
 sovereign (Sept. 14, 1706). The brilliant successes achieved 
 by Charles XII. induced Louis XIV. and others to. court 
 his alliance ; but, intent upon humbling Peter of Eussia, 
 the king of Sweden rejected all su,ch offers. Disappointed 
 in his hopes of engaging the king of Sweden in his cause, 
 and broken in spirit by misfortunes, Louis XIY. sued for 
 peace. He offered all the Spanish dominions in Italy to 
 the Archduke Charles ; to the States a barrier in the 
 Netherlands ; and to the duke of Savoy a compensation for 
 the injuries done by the war. In return for such concessions, 
 he demanded that the electorate of Bavaria should be 
 restored to its native prince, and that Philip V. should be 
 allowed to possess Spain and her American dominions. 
 These offers were rejected (Oak 21, 1706), and it was 
 resolved that no peace should be made with the house of 
 
376 UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 
 
 Bourbon, while a prince of that house continued to sit upon 
 the Spanish throne. 
 
 § 474. That union of England and Scotland under one 
 legislature, which had been often attempted in vain, was at 
 last accomplished, after long and warm debates between the 
 commissioners of the two kingdoms; and, in consequence, 
 all disputes concerning the Scottish crown were fortu- 
 nately prevented (March 6,1707). The principal articles 
 in that famous treaty are the following : — " That the two 
 kingdoms of England and Scotland shall be united into one, 
 by the name of Great Britain. That the succession to the 
 TJnited Kingdom shall remain to the Princess Sophia, 
 duchess dowager of Hanover, and the heirs of her body, 
 being Protestants ; and that all papists, and persons marry- 
 ing papists, shall be excluded from, and be for ever incapable 
 of inheriting, the crown of Great Britain, or any part of the 
 dominions thereunto belonging. That the whole people of 
 Great Britain shall be represented by one Parliament, in 
 which sixteen peers and forty-five commoners, chosen for 
 Scotland, shall sit and vote. That the subjects of the 
 "United Kingdom shall enjoy an entire freedom and inter- 
 course of trade and navigation, and reciprocal communication 
 of all other rights, privileges, and advantages, belonging to 
 the subjects of either kingdom. That the laws in regard to 
 public right, policy, and civil government, shall be the same 
 throughout the TJnited Kingdom; but that no alteration 
 shall be made in the laws respecting private rights, unless 
 for the evident utility of the subjects residing iu Scotland. 
 That the rights and privileges of the royal boroughs in 
 Scotland shall not be affected by the union. That the Court 
 of Session, or College of Justice, with all the other courts of 
 judicature in Scotland, shall remain as constituted by the 
 laws of that kingdom, and with the same authority and 
 privileges as before the union ; subject, nevertheless, to such 
 Tegulations as may be made by the Parliament of Great 
 Britain." Other articles were added, providing for the 
 application of a sum of three hundred and ninety-eight 
 thousand pounds granted by the English Parliament to 
 Scotland, and various other matters. The treaty has proved 
 highly beneficial to both of the contracting parties, and they 
 have obtained a greater degree of splendour and prosperity 
 as a united kingdom than they could possibly have done as 
 separate and independent states. 
 
JACOBITE PLOTS. 377 
 
 Letteb 22. — The General View of Europe continued, from the Refusal 
 of the Offers of Peace made by France, to the Commencement of the 
 Conferences at Gertruydenberg. A.D. 1706—1710. Vol. ii., pages 
 294—305. 
 
 § 475. In Italy the allies commenced the campaign of 
 1TO7 with great success. Modena and Milan surrendered, 
 the kingdom of Naples was reduced, and the few places in 
 the dominions of the duke of Savoy occupied by French or 
 Spanish garrisons, were captured. In Spain the duke of 
 Berwick defeated the English and Dutch at Almanza 
 (April 14). No victory could be more decisive, and the 
 kingdom of Valencia was speedily recovered. In Germany 
 they also gained some successes, and the threatening atti- 
 tude assumed by Charles XII. caused the confederates 
 much uneasiness. In fact his demands upon the Emperor 
 Joseph induced the English government to send Marl- 
 borough into Saxony. This distinguished general and 
 diplomatist gained a complete ascendancy over the mind of 
 the warrior king ; he ceased to press his demands, and soon 
 after went to oppose the Eussians. Nothing memorable 
 was achieved during this campaign, either in Flanders or at 
 sea. The confederates invaded Provence, and attacked 
 Toulon, but were compelled to retire (Sept. 1, 1707). 
 
 § 476. The first imited Parliament of Great Britain 
 assembled in the autumn (Oct. 23, 1707), and the failure of 
 the attempt before Toulon, the inactive campaign in Flanders, 
 and the misfortunes in Spain, furnished the enemies of 
 Marlborough and Godolphin with grounds of complaint. 
 Mrs. Masham, a new female favourite, had partly supplanted 
 the duchess of Marlborough in the afiections of the queen. 
 Marlborough and Godolphin complained of these intrigues, 
 and threatened to retire ; whereupon Anne dismissed Har- 
 ley. St. John and some others resigned (Feb. 11, 1708). 
 The division in the cabinet, and discontent in Scotland, 
 occasioned by the union, induced Louis XIV. to make an 
 attempt in favour of James III. The Scotch Jacobites 
 ofiered to raise and equip thirty thousand men, and the 
 Pretender, under the name of the Chevalier de St. George, 
 sailed from Dunkirk on board a French fleet, carrying troops, 
 arms, and munitions (March 6). Sir George Byng had 
 occupied the Frith of Forth, and they were compelled to 
 return to Dunkirk with the loss of one ship, to the utter 
 confusion of the hopes of the Pretender and of his adherents, 
 
378 LOUIS XIV. SUES FOK PEACE. 
 
 botli in Prance and Great Britain. The moment all appre- 
 hension of danger was over, Maiplborough set out for 
 Flanders, and although the Prench, by treachery, obtained 
 possession of Ghent and Bruges (July 5), he defeated them 
 at Oudenarde (July 11), with great loss. Lisle was besieged 
 and the town captured (Oct. 23) ; the citadel also sur- 
 rendered (Dec. 9), and before the end of the campaign 
 Ghent and Bruges were recovered (Dec. 30). Little was 
 effected in Italy or Germany during this campaign ; and in 
 Spain the French and Spaniards had the advantage. Tortosa 
 was taken in July, and Denia and Alicant fell. Sardinia 
 and Minorca were captured by the fleet, and proved a great 
 acquisition (Aug. 29, 1708). 
 
 § 477. Queen Anne's husband, Prince George of Den- 
 mark, died during these transactions (Oct. 28, 1708) ; but 
 his death made no, alteration in the state of English politics. 
 The success of the campaign confirmed the ascendancy of 
 Marlborough and Godolphin, and they divided with the 
 Whigs the power and emoluments of office. Large supplies 
 were voted for the ensuing campaign, ten thousand men 
 were added to the war establishment), and the Dutch exerted 
 themselves strenuously. Louia XIV. again made offers of 
 peace (Feb. 28, 1709) ; and agreed to yield the Spanish 
 monarchy to the house of Austria, without any equivalent ; 
 to cede to the emperor his conquests on the Upper Ehine ; 
 to give Fumes, Yprea, Menin, Tournay, Lisle, Conde, and 
 Maubeuge, as a barrier to Holland ; to acknowledge the 
 elector of Brandenburg as king of Prussia ; the duke of 
 Hanover, as ninth elector of the empire ; to own the right 
 qf Queen Anne to the British throne ; to remove the 
 Pretender from the dominions of France ; to acknowledge 
 the succession to the crown of Great Britain in the Pro« 
 testant line ; to restore everything required to the duke of 
 Savoy ; and to agree to the cessions made to the king of 
 Portugal, by his treaty with the confederates. These terms 
 were rejected by Marlborough, Eugenie, and Heinsias, the 
 plenipotentiaries of the confederates, and as Louis XIV. 
 would not accept all the conditions of the ultimatum which 
 they presented, negotiations were broken off (June 9). 
 Marlborough and Eugene besieged and captured Toumay 
 (July 30) ; won the hotly-contested battle of Malplaquet 
 (Sept. 11), and occupied Mons (Oct. 21). The French 
 and Spaniards gained some slight successes in Spain ; while 
 in other quarters nothing worthy of particular notice was 
 
DEFEAT OF CHAELES XII. 379 
 
 effected ; and as Louis XIV. again sued for peace, a con- 
 fereuce was opened at Gertruydenberg (March 11, 1710). 
 
 § 478. In September, 1707, Charles XII. of Sweden 
 quitted Saxony, and marched into Poland against Peter of 
 Eussia. The latter retired and offered to treat, but Charles 
 declared that he would dictate terms at Moscow. He 
 pushed forward boldly into the enemy's country, fought 
 many battles, in which he was victorious ; but his army 
 suffered dreadfuUy from the inclemency of the weather and 
 want of supplies. In fact, Charles experienced all those 
 evUs and inconveniences which fell with such terrible effect 
 upon Napoleon's invading legions in 1812. In spite of 
 every obstacle, he pressed on, and arrived in the neighbour- 
 hood of Pultowa, a small Eussian town in the Ukraine. 
 He invested the place with his half-famished army, now 
 reduced to twenty-seven thousand men, about two-thirds of 
 which were Swedes ; and hoped not only to take the town, 
 but to defeat and even dethrone the czar. The garrison 
 bravely repelled the assault, Peter advanced to its relief, 
 and gained the battle of Pultowa (July 8, 1709). Nine 
 thousand of the vanquished were left dead on the field, and 
 about six thousand taken, together with the king's military 
 chest, containing the spoils. of Poland and Saxony. Charles, 
 accompanied by three hundred of his guards, with difSculty 
 escaped to Bender. The king of Sweden lost, in one day, 
 the fruits of nine years of successful war ; and that veteran 
 army which had spread terror over Europe, was totally 
 annihilated. The elector of Saxony, hearing of the defeat 
 of his conqueror, protested against the treaty of Alt- 
 Eanstadt, and re-entered Poland. His patron, the czar, 
 followed him. Stanislas was forced to relinquish his autho- 
 rity, and Frederic Augustus found himself once more in pos- 
 session of the Polish throne. Peter revived the ancient pre- 
 tension of the czars to Livonia, Ingria, and part of Finland ; 
 Denmark laid claim to Schonen ; the king of Prussia to 
 Pomerania; and had not the emperor and the maritime 
 powers interposed, the Swedish monarchy would have been 
 rent to pieces. 
 
 Lbttee 23.— The General View of Europe, carried forward from the 
 Opening of the Conferences at Gertruydenberg to the Treaties of 
 Utrecht and Eastadt. a.d. 1710—1714. Vol. ii., pages 306—326. 
 § 479. Louis XIV., in addition to the concessions which 
 
 he proposed the year before, offered at Gertruydenberg, not 
 
380 FALL OF GODOLPHIIf. 
 
 only to give up the Spanish monarchy without any equivar 
 lent, and to acknowledge Charles III. lawful king of Spain, 
 but to pay a subsidy of a million of livres a month, till his 
 grandson Philip V. should be expelled. He relinquished 
 even Alsace to the emperor ; and, as a security for the per- 
 formance of the articles of the treaty, he engaged to deliver 
 the fortified towns of French Flanders, yet in his possession, 
 into the hands of the allies. The plenipotentiaries, not 
 satisfied with these concessions, required him to assist in 
 expelling his grandson from the Spanish throne, and as 
 Louis refused, negotiations were once more broken off 
 (July 20, 1710). In the mean time, Douay had been taken 
 (June 26), and Bethune fell in the autumn (August 30). 
 In Spain the competitors for the crown, with their allies, 
 waged the contest vigorously. Charles III., by the aid of a 
 British force, gained the battles of Almenara (July 27), of 
 Saragossa (August 20), entered Madrid (Sept. 28) ; but 
 afterwards retired into Catalonia. Stanhope, the English 
 general, with five thousand. British troops, was cut off at 
 Brihuega (Dec. 10) ; and Stahremberg and the Austrians 
 were defeated at Villa Viciosa (Dec. 20). These successes 
 in some measure revived the drooping spirits of the ad- 
 herents of the house of Bourbon. 
 
 § 480. In the mean time a political revolution happened 
 in England. Mrs. Masham, the new favourite, exerted her 
 influence against Grodolphin and Marlborough, and even 
 Harley, who had been dismissed, had frequent interviews 
 with the queen. The numerous victories on the continent 
 did not afford a compensation to the people for the increased 
 taxation occasioned by the war ; and the Tories endeavoured 
 to turn popular discontent to their advantage. A cry was 
 raised against the dissenters, and in spite of the address 
 voted by both houses to the queen, assuring her that no 
 danger existed (Dec. 14, 1705), Dr. Henry Sacheverell, 
 anxious to fan the flame, preached a violent sermon against 
 them, before the lord mayor and court of aldermen in St. 
 Paul's Cathedral (Nov. 5, 1709). This preacher not only in- 
 veighed against the dissenters, but denounced those in autho- 
 rity, and advocated the doctrines of passive obedience and non- 
 resistance. Ministers ordered him to be impeached, where- 
 upon the people at once espoused his cause. At last Sache- 
 verell was found guilty ; but was only suspended from 
 preaching for three years (March 25, 1710), without being 
 precluded from preferment, his sermon being ordered to be 
 
MAELBOEOTTGH DISMISSED. 381 
 
 bumed by tbe hands of the common hangman (March 27). 
 The famous decree of the University of Oxford, passed in 
 in 1683, recognizing the doctrine of passive obedience and 
 non-resistance, vraa also, by a vote of the Lords, ordered to 
 be burned at the same time. The queen took advantage of 
 the sudden and extraordinary change in the sentiments of 
 the people, to remodel her administration, and the duke of 
 Shrewsbury was appointed chamberlain ; Godolphin received 
 an order to break his stafi' ; the treasury was put in com- 
 mission ; and Harley was appointed chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer; while his friend, 8t. John, succeeded Mr. Boyle 
 as secretary of state. The duke of Marlborough alone, of 
 the party to which he belonged, remained in office. 
 
 § 481. An unexpected event gave a fresh turn to the 
 politics of Europe. This was the sudden death of the Em- 
 peror Joseph, whose reign had been one continued stream of 
 success (April 17, 1711). He was succeeded by his brother 
 Charles YI. ; and as it was contrary to the spirit of the 
 Grand Alliance, that the same person should possess Spain 
 and the empire, Harley and his associates were no longer 
 afraid to avow their pacific sentiments. The fears of man- 
 kind were in a moment changed ; the liberties of Europe 
 seemed now to be in more danger from the power of the 
 house of Austria, than from that of Bourbon. Meanwhile 
 hostilities were carried on in every quarter. By skilful 
 tactics Marlborough drove the French from the lines of 
 Arleux (August 5), and closed the campaign, and his own 
 njilitary career, with the capture of Bouchain (Sept. 13). 
 Nothing of any consequence was achieved in other parts ; 
 negotiations for peace with France were carried on secretly, 
 of which the preliminaries were signed in London, on the 
 27th of September. This insidious transaction, so disgrace- 
 ful to Great Britain, being accidentally brought to light, 
 all the other allies were alarmed. They deemed themselves 
 deserted by the power which had been the chief support of 
 the war. It afterwards appeared that in these preliminaries 
 the resignation of Philip V. was no longer insisted upon ; 
 and this omission particularly offended the emperor. The 
 more moderate Tories joined the "Whigs, and the ministry 
 were threatened with a strong opposition. Marlborough 
 induced the Lords to append an obnoxious clause to the 
 address, and he was accordingly dismissed from all hia 
 offices (Dec. 30). Twelve new peers were at the same 
 time created in order to secure a majority in the upper 
 house. 
 
382 CONFERENCES AT UTRECHT. 
 
 § 482. While the Tories are supposed to Lave been 
 favourable to a restoration of the house of Stuart, and of 
 the fact that Anne herself contemplated naming the Pre- 
 tender as her successor there can be no doubt, the Whigs 
 held frequent cabals with the Dutch and imperial ambassa- 
 dors. They even affirmed that the Protestant succession 
 was in danger, and urged the necessity of sending for the 
 elector of Hanover or his son. They exerted themselves 
 in every way to prevent the conclusion of the treaty, and 
 invited Prince Eugene over to London. This great man 
 was, however, obliged to return to the continent without 
 effecting his object (March 13, 1712). Lord Townshend, 
 who had been employed in the negotiations for peace in 
 1709, had concluded a treaty with the States of the United 
 Provinces, by which Lisle, Tournay, Menin, Douay, and 
 several places on the Lys and the Scheldt, were guaranteed 
 to the Dutch as a barrier, at the end of the war. In return, 
 they undertook to uphold the Protestant succession ; to aid 
 with their fleets and armies the presumptive heirs of the 
 British crown, whenever that succession should appear to 
 be in danger. Ministers objecting to some of these engage- 
 ments, brought the Barrier Treaty before the House of 
 Commons, under pretence that Townshend bad exceeded his 
 instructions. The Commons voted that several articles of 
 the treaty were destructive to the interests of Great 
 Britain ; and therefore, that he who negotiated and signed 
 the treaty, having no authority to insert those pernicious 
 articles, was an enemy to the queen and the kingdom. 
 
 § 483. While the English ministry were smoothing at 
 home the road to peace, general conferences were opened at 
 Utrecht, for restoring tranquillity to Europe. The English 
 plenipotentiaries declared that the preliminaries were neither 
 binding on the queen nor her allies. Several deaths which 
 occurred about this time in the royal family of France, 
 complicated matters, and only the duke of Anjou, a sickly 
 infant, the sole surviving son of the duke of Burgundy, 
 stood between the king of Spain and the crown of France. 
 The confederates were, therefore, filled with reasonable ap- 
 prehensions, lest that union of the two monarchs, which it 
 had been the chief object of the war to prevent, should at 
 last be completed by the death of a puny child, and the 
 lukewarmness, if not treachery, of a principal ally ; and 
 the queen of England and her ministers were at a loss how 
 to quiet these well-grounded fears. After much discussion, 
 
TEEATT OF UTEECHT. 383 
 
 it was agreed that Philip V. of Spain should renounce for 
 himself and his descendants aU claim to the throne of 
 France ; and that the renunciation of Philip V. should be 
 registered in the books of the Parliament of Paris, and 
 solemnly received and ratified by the Cortes, or States of 
 Castile and Arragon. 
 
 § 484. In the mean time the duke of Ormond had taken 
 the command of the British forces in Flanders, and the 
 confederate army under Prince Eugene moved forward 
 (April, 1712). But the English commander had received 
 orders from home not to act on the offensive, and this led 
 to forcible remonstrances from the Dutch. During the 
 altercation and suspense occasioned by the inactivity of the 
 duke of Ormond, Prince Eugene laid siege to Quesnoy; 
 and he privately detached Major-General Grovestein, with 
 fifteen hundred choice troops, dragoons, and hussars, to 
 penetrate into the heart of France. This officer levied con- 
 tributions as far as the gates of Metz ; spread consternation 
 even to Versailles ; and after ravaging the country, and 
 carrying off a rich booty, together with a number of host- 
 ages, retired leisurely toward Traerbach. Meanwhile the 
 siege of Quesnoy was prosecuted with such vigour, that the 
 place was taken almost by assault, and the garrison sur- 
 rendered prisoners of war (July 4). The British forces 
 had distinguished themselves in a remarkable manner, 
 during the whole course of this celebrated war, and in 
 almost every battle gave the turn to victory. Their exam- 
 ple had perhaps been of yet greater service than their 
 efforts, though these were transcendantly heroic. When 
 they were withdrawn, even Prince Eugene was no longer 
 victorious. He lost several battles, while Douay (Sept. 8), 
 Quesnoy (Oct. 4), and Bouchain (Oct. 19), fell into the 
 hands of the French, who were highly elated at their suc- 
 cess. The negotiations at Utrecht, which had been for 
 some time suspended, were renewed, and the treaties 
 between the different powers were at last signed on the 
 30th of March, 1713, by the plenipotentiaries of France, 
 England, Portugal, Prussia, Savoy, and the United Pro- 
 vinces ; the emperor resolving to continue the war, and the 
 king of Spain refusing to sign the stipulations until a prin- 
 cipality should be provided, in the Low Countries, for the 
 Princess Ursini, the favourite of his queen. 
 
 § 485. This treaty provided very effectually that the 
 crowns of France and Spain should not be united under 
 
384 TREATY OF EASTADT. 
 
 one head, and after certain continental arrangements, it was 
 agreed on the part of Groat Britain, that the French mon- 
 arch should acknowledge the title of Queen Anne, and the 
 eventual succession of the family of Hanover to the British 
 throne ; that the fortifications of Dunkirk should be demo- 
 lished, and the harbour filled up ; that certain places in 
 North America and the "West Indies should be ceded or 
 restored by France to Great Britain ; namely, the island of 
 St. Christopher, Hudson's Bay and Straits, the town of 
 Placentia, in the island of Newfoundland, and the long-dis- 
 puted province of Nova Scotia ; that the island of Minorca 
 and the fortress of Gibraltar should remain in the possession 
 of Great Britain ; and that the Assiento, or contract for 
 furnishing the Spanish colonies in South America with 
 negroes, should belong to the subjects of Great Britain for 
 the term of thirty years. Conferences were opened between 
 Prince Eugene and Marshal Tillars, at Eastadt (Nov. 28, 
 1713). The terms of this treaty (March 6, 1714) were 
 less favourable to the emperor than those offered at Utrecht. 
 The king of France retained Landau, which he had for- 
 merly proposed to cede, together with several fortresses 
 beyond the Ehine, which he had agreed to demolish. He 
 had the electors of Bavaria and Cologne fully re-established 
 in their dominions and dignities ; the elector of Bavaria 
 consenting to relinquish the island of Sardinia to the em- 
 peror, in return for the Upper Palatinate, and the kiDg of 
 France to acknowledge, in form, the electoral dignity of 
 the duke of Hanover. The principal articles, in regard to 
 Italy and the Low Countries, were the same with those 
 settled at Utrecht. About the time that the treaty of 
 Eastadt was concluded, the king of Spain acceded to the 
 general pacification. The Catalans were still in arms, 
 and the inhabitants of Barcelona resolved to hold out to 
 the last extremity. Being besieged, they made the most 
 heroic defence, but were at last compelled to surrender 
 (Sept. 12, 1714). All Catalonia submitted ; and the Cata- 
 lans were disarmed, and deprived of their privileges." 
 
 (") "The administration of Godolphin and Marlborongh in the reign 
 of Queen Anne," says Earl Stanhope, "shines forth with peculiar lustre 
 in our annals. No preceding one, perhaps, had ever comprised so many 
 great men, or achieved so many great actions. Beside its two eminent 
 chiefs, it could boast of the mild yet lofty wisdom of Somers, the 
 matured intellect of Halifex, and the rising abilities of Walpole. It 
 had struck down the overgrown power of France. It had saved 
 Germany and conquered Flauders." 
 
ACCESSION OF GEOEGE I. 385 
 
 CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 Letter 24.^ — Great Britain, from the Peace of Utrecht to the Suppres 
 sion of the Eebellion ; with some account of the Affairs ot France* 
 and the Intrigues of the Court of St. Germain's. A.D. 1713—1716- 
 Vol. ii., pages 327—340. 
 
 § ^86. The Jacobite party had grown very powerful in 
 England. Queen Anne was inclined to favour the cause ; 
 but she required the Pretender to conform to the Church of 
 England, before she would agree to alter the succession. In 
 all intrigues for his restoration the court of St. Grermain'a 
 shared ; and upon the return of peace, the French king and 
 his agents redoubled their efforts. Oxford was pressed to 
 take a decided course, but he still hesitated, unwilling to do 
 anything that might peril his own influence. The peace 
 of Utrecht did not please the English people, and the treaty 
 of commerce with France, by which it was accompanied, 
 was still more unpopular. In the mean time intrigues were 
 carried on in favour of the Pretender, and motions made 
 for securing the Protestant succession. Bolingbroke and 
 Oxford quarrelled ; the latter was dismissed from all his 
 offices (July 27), and Queen Anne died soon after (Aug. 1). 
 During an interval of her iUness, she delivered the trea- 
 surer's staff to the duke of Shrewsbury. Animated with 
 the ardour of their party, and perhaps by a zeal for the 
 welfare of their country, the dukes of Somerset and Argyle 
 boldly entered the council-chamber, without being sum- 
 moned. Other Whig members joined them ; and a multi- 
 tude of the nobility and gentry being assembled, as soon as 
 the queen expired, orders were given, agreeably to the Act of 
 Settlement, to proclaim George, elector of Brunswick, king 
 of Great Britain. A regency was appointed, his title was 
 owned by foreign princes and states, and all things con- 
 tinued quiet in England until his arrival. 
 
 § 487. George I. ascended the throne of Great Britain 
 in the fifty-fifth year of his age ; and the same prudence, 
 2 c 
 
386 IMPEACHMENTS. 
 
 whicli had hitherto distinguished him, in his negotiations 
 •with the British court, was conspicuous throughout his 
 reign. He placed not only the administration, hut all the 
 principal employments of the kingdom, hoth ciyil and 
 military, in the hands of the Whigs. The Treasury and 
 Admiralty were put in commission ; and the command of the 
 army was taken from the duke of Ormond, and restored to the 
 duke of Marlborough. A new parliament was called, in which 
 the interest of the Whigs predominated (March 21, 1715) ; 
 and a secret committee, chosen by ballot, was appointed to 
 examine all the papers, and inquire into all the negotiations 
 relative to the late peace, as well as to the cessation of 
 arms, by which it was preceded. The Committee of Secrecy 
 prosecuted their inquiry with the greatest eagerness ; and 
 in consequence of their report, the Commons resolved to 
 impeach Lord Bolingbroke, the earl of Oxford, and the duke 
 of Ormond, of high treason, for their share in the clandes- 
 tine negotiations with Prance, and for Ormond's acting in 
 concert with Villars, after the fatal suspension, of arms. 
 Bolingbroke and Ormond escaped to the continent, while 
 Oxford was committed to the Tower, and after an imprison- 
 ment of two years, was dismissed for want of accusers. 
 
 § 488. The Tories were in general inclined to Jacohitism. 
 The heads of the party, both in England and Scotland, held 
 a secret correspondence with the Pretender, and although 
 no regular concert had been formed, a tendency towards an 
 insurrection appeared among them, from one end of the 
 island to the other, and the most artful means were em- 
 ployed to inflame the body of the people, as well as to secure 
 particular adherents. The disbanded officers were gained 
 by money ; scandalous libels were published against the 
 electoral family ; the Pretender's manifestoes were every- 
 where circulated ; all the Whigs were brought under the 
 description of dissenters, and the cry of tbe danger of the 
 church was revived. Louis XIV., broken by years and 
 infirmities, refused to support his cause ; and his death 
 (Sept. 1, 1715) further embarrassed the affairs of the 
 Pretender. He knew that he had numerous friends in 
 Scotland, more particularly amongst the Highlanders, and 
 he resolved to make an attempt to gain what he considered 
 to be his right. The Highlanders had indeed formed a 
 regular confederacy, and were zealous to take arms for the 
 restoration of the family of Stuart to the throne of Great 
 Britain. Strongly prepossessed in favour of the hereditary- 
 
THE PEETENDEE IN SCOTLAND. 387 
 
 descent of the crown, they could form no conception of a 
 parliamentary right to alter the order of succession. It 
 contradicted all their ideas of kingship, and even of clanship. 
 They therefore thought themselves bound, by a sacred and 
 indispensable obligation, to reinstate in his lineal inherit- 
 ance the excluded prince, or to perish in the bold attempt. 
 The Pretender's southern friends were no less liberal in 
 their professions of zeal in his cause. They pressed him to 
 land in the west of England, although they had taken no 
 decisive measures for a general insurrection. They still 
 continued to represent arms and foreign troops as necessary 
 to such a step, and were told that the Pretender was not 
 only incapable of furnishing them with either, but that he 
 could not bring with him so many men as would be able 
 to protect him against the peace-officers. 
 
 § 489. Both in the west of England and in Scotland risings 
 occurred ; and whilst the former proved a miserable failure, 
 the latter at first met with success. The earl of Mar pro- 
 claimed the Pretender, and set up his standard at Braemar. 
 He was joined by many of the Scotch nobility, and with their 
 assistance, was able in a few weeks to collect an army of nearly 
 ten thousand men, well armed and accoutred. He took pos- 
 session of the town of Perth, where he established his head- 
 quarters, and made himself master of almost all that part of 
 Scotland which lies beyond the Erith of Eorth. This was 
 great and rapid success. The duke of Argyle received orders 
 to march against the rebels, with all the forces in North 
 Britain. The Pretender's friends in the north of England 
 had also risen, and having feiled in an attempt upon New- 
 castle, effected a junction with a reinforcement of infantry 
 sent by the earl of Mar. Division prevailed in their 
 councils ; some went one way and some another, and a 
 strong force which had repaired to Preston surrendered to 
 the king's troops (Nov. 13, 1715). On the same day an 
 indecisive battle was fought between Dumblaine and Sheriff- 
 Muir, in Scotland. Several Scotch noblemen immediately 
 declared for the established government. 
 
 § 490. The Pretender took the unaccountable resolution, 
 in this desperate state of his affairs, of landing in the north 
 of Scotland. He accordingly set sail from Dunkirk in a 
 small vessel, and arrived at Peterhead, attended only by six 
 gentlemen (Dec. 25, 1715). He was met at Eetterosse by 
 the earl of Mar and other friends, and conducted to Perth. 
 There a regular coimcil was formed, and a day fixed for his 
 2 c 2 
 
38S CHARLES XII. IN TURKEY. 
 
 coronation at Scone. But he was diverted from all thoughts 
 of that vain ceremony by the approach of the duke of 
 Argyle, who, having been reinforced with six thousand 
 Dutch auxiliaries, advanced toward Perth, notwithstanding 
 the rigour of the season. As that town was utterly destitute 
 of fortifications, excepting a simple wall, and otherwise 
 unprovided for a siege, the king's troops took possession of 
 it without resistance. Mar and the Pretender had retired 
 to Montrose ; and, seeing no prospect of better fortune, 
 they embarked for Prance, accompanied by several other 
 persons of distinction (Feb. 4, 1716). General Gordon 
 proceeded northward with the main body of the rebels, by a 
 march so rapid as to elude pursuit. All who could not hope 
 lor pardon, embarked at Aberdeen for the continent. The 
 common people were conducted to the hills of Badenoch, 
 and there quietly dismissed. The whole country submitted 
 to Argyle. The earl of Derwentwater, Lord Kenmure, and 
 a few other rebel prisoners were publicly executed; but 
 blood was not wantonly spilt. 
 
 Lettee 25. — Russia, Turkey, and the Northern Kingdoms, from the 
 Defeat oi Charles XII. at Pultowa, to the Death of Peter the Great. 
 A.D. 1709—1725. Vol. ii., pages 340—357. 
 
 § 491. It is a maxim of the Turkish government, to con- 
 sider as sacred the persons of such unfortunate princes as 
 take refuge in their dominions, and to supply them liberally 
 with the conveniences of life, according to their rank, while 
 within the limits of the Ottoman empire. In accordance 
 with this generous maxim, the king of Sweden, on taking 
 refuge in Turkey, after the disastrous defeat at Pultowa, 
 was honourably conducted to Bender, and saluted on his 
 arrival with a general discharge of the artillery. Charles XII. 
 did all in his power to induce Achmet III. to join him in a 
 war against Bussia. This object he would have at onee 
 effected, had it Hot been for the crafty policy of the czar, 
 who bribed the Ottoman officials liberally. Peter, on his 
 return from Poland, made his triumphal entry into Moscow, 
 with the trophies, prisoners, and artillery captured at 
 Pultowa. This furnished Charles withi new arguments for 
 awakening the jealousy of the Porte, and the grand vizier 
 Kupruli, who was averse to the step, was dismissed, and 
 another appointed in his stead. War with Eussia was now 
 determined upon, and the Eussian ambassador was accord- 
 
KATHEEINE SAVES RUSSIA. 389 
 
 ingly seized and committed to the castle of the Seven 
 Towers. 
 
 § 492. The czar could not tamely suffer such an injury, 
 and his power seemed to render submission unnecessary. 
 As soon as he was informed of the haughty insult, he made 
 every preparation for war. Nor were the Turks negligent in 
 taking measures for opposing, and even humbling him. 
 The khan of Crira Tartary was ordered to hold himself in 
 readiness with forty thousa,nd men, and the troops of the 
 Porte were collected from all quarters. After some con- 
 tention amongst the Turkish commanders, Adrianople was 
 fixed upon as the rendezvous of the Turkish forces. Peter 
 had already taken the field, and planned his route through 
 Moldavia and "Walachia. The prince of Moldavia joined 
 Peter, who advanced to the northern bank of the Pruth, 
 near Tassi (June, 1711). The Turkish army appeared, the 
 Moldavians refused to support him, a . number of Tartars 
 continually harassed his troops, and Peter's position became 
 perilous in the extreme. Charles, who had taken offence at 
 not being allowed to command the army, quitted Bender, 
 in order to be present at the ruin of his rival. In this 
 extremity, the Empress Katherine, a Livonian captive of 
 low condition, whom Peter had just before raised to the 
 throne, counselled negotiation. Peter consented, and the 
 Turkish commander, unwilling to drive the Eussians to 
 despair, allowed them to retire, on condition that Peter 
 should restore Azoff, destroy the harbour of Tangarog, and 
 demolish the forts built on the Palus Mseotis ; withdraw his 
 troops from Poland, give no farther disturbance to the 
 Cossacks, and permit the Swedish monarch to return into 
 his own kingdom. 
 
 § 493. Charles XII. was highly incensed at this treaty, 
 by which Peter had been suffered to escape ; and the repre- 
 sentations he made to the sultan, induced the latter to 
 dismiss his grand vizier. Through the mediation of England 
 and Holland, a more lasting peace was afterwards concluded 
 between Turkey and Eussia, and Charles XII. was called 
 upon to quit the Turkish dominions. Being unwilling to 
 comply, he was seized, after a most desperate resistance, at 
 the head of his three hundred Swedes, carried to Adrianople, 
 and imprisoned in the castle of Demitrash (1713). Prom 
 this place he was removed to Demotica, where he lingered 
 for some time in captivity. During his absence his kingdom 
 was gallantly defended by General Steenboch. After several 
 
390 DEATH OF CHAELES XII. 
 
 minor actions, he defeated the Poles, Danes,, and Saxons, at 
 Gadebusch (Dec. 1712). This general afterwards burnt 
 Altona; but was compelled to surrender at Tonnigen, with 
 all his army. Peter ia the mean time was pushing his 
 conquests in Pinland, which he subdued, and he gained a 
 complete victory over the Swedes at sea (1714). These 
 successes induced the czar to celebrate another triumph, 
 and he entered St. Petersburg, as he had formerly done 
 Moscow, in procession, under a magnificent arch, decorated 
 ■with the trophies of his conquests. 
 
 § 494. Under pretence of sickness, Charles XII. kept 
 his bed at Demotica, and he is said to have done this for 
 ten months. The dangerous state of affairs in Sweden 
 announced to him by his sister, the Princess Ulrica Eleonora, 
 induced him to rouse himself from his lethargy, and to 
 signify to the sultan his desire to return to his own domi- 
 nions. No obstacles were thrown in his way, and Charles 
 once more appeared at the head of his army. He was 
 besieged at Stralsund by a formidable army of Danes, 
 Prussians, and Saxons, whilst Peter sent a fleet into the 
 Baltic, and threatened to invade Sweden. Charles made 
 the most determined resistance, and, considering the over- 
 whelming forces brought against him, achieved wonders, but 
 was at last compelled to make his escape in a small boat, 
 and Stralsund surrendered (Dec. 22, 1715). Misfortune 
 did not, however, damp his ardour, and his new minister, 
 Baron Goertz, encouraged his most extravagant projects. 
 Charles passed the winter at Carlscroon, invaded Norway 
 on the return of spring, and after having won several 
 battles, and taken towns which he could not retain, he 
 withdrew to Sweden. 
 
 § 495. Goertz had gained a comple ascendancy over 
 this monarch's mind, and he prevailed upon him to enter 
 into intrigues against England, and to treat with Eussia. 
 Goertz himself was taken prisoner in Holland, and con- 
 ferences were opened in the island of Oeland, when the 
 death of Charles XII. changed the aspect of affairs. Having 
 undertaken a second expedition into Norway, he sat down 
 before ]?redericshal, in the month of December, when the 
 ground was as hard as iron, and the cold so intense, that the 
 soldiers on duty frequently dropped down dead. One night, 
 as he was viewing them carrying on their approaches by star- 
 light, he was killpd by a small ball, from a cannon loaded with 
 grape-shot. Though he expired without a groan, the moment 
 
SWEDEN MAKES PEACE. 391 
 
 "he received the blow, he had instinctively grasped the hUt 
 of his sword, and was found with his hand in that position, 
 so truly characteristic of his mind (Dec. 11, 1718). No 
 prince perhaps possessed so many eminent, with so few 
 amiable qualities, as Charles XII. of Sweden. Eigidly just, 
 but void of lenity ; romantically brave, but blind to con- 
 sequences ; resolute even to obstinacy, inexorable in ven- 
 geance, and inaccessible to sympathy, he has little to conci- 
 liate our love or esteem. But his wonderful intrepidity and 
 perseverance in enterprise, his firmness under misfortune, 
 his contempt of danger, and his enthusiastic passion for 
 glory, will ever command our admiration. Goertz was 
 accused of having " slanderously misrepresented the nation 
 to the king ;" condemned to lose his head, and executed at 
 the foot of a common gallows. The States of the kingdom 
 then elected Ulrica Eleonora, sister of Charles XII., for 
 their queen (1719). But they obliged her, by a solemn 
 act, to renounce all hereditary right to the crown, that 
 she might hold it entirely by the suffrage of the people ; 
 while she bound herself, by the most sacred oaths, never to 
 attempt the re-establishment of arbitrary power. And sacri- 
 ficing, soon after, the love of royalty to conjugal afiection, 
 she relinquished the crown to her husband, the prince of 
 Hesse- Cassel, who was chosen by the States, and mounted 
 the throne on the same conditions with his royal consort 
 (1720). 
 
 § 496. The new government was no sooner established 
 than the Swedes turned their views toward peace. It was 
 accordingly brought about by difierent treaties. One, called 
 the Treaty of Stockholm, was signed (Nov. 20,1719) with the 
 king- of Great Britain, as elector of Hanover, to whom the 
 queen of Sweden agreed to cede the duchies of Bremen and 
 Verden, in consideration of a million of rix-doUars ; another 
 with the king of Prussia (1720), who restored Stralsund 
 and the isle of Eugen, and kept Stettin, with the isles of 
 TJsedom and WoULa; and a third with the king of Den- 
 mark, who retained part of the duchy of Sleswick, conquered 
 from the duke of Holstein, and gave up "VVismar, on con- 
 dition that the fortifications should not be rebuilt (1720). 
 The war with Russia stUl continued; but an English 
 squadron being sent to the assistance of Sweden, the czar 
 thought proper to recall his fleet. Negotiations were 
 opened at Nystadt, where a treaty of peace was at last 
 concluded, by which the czar was left in possession of the 
 
392 DEATH OF PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 provinces of Livonia, Esthonia, and Ingria, with part of 
 Finland (1721). Peter the Great henceforth took the 
 title of Emperor, which was soon formally acknowledged 
 by all the European powers. Persia being at that time 
 distracted by civil wars, he marched to the assistance of the 
 lawful prince (whose father had been murdered, and his 
 throne seized by an usurper), everywhere spreading terror 
 before him (1722). And in return for this seasonable 
 support, as well as to procure his future protection, he was 
 put in possession of three provinces bordering on the 
 Caspian Sea. He introduced arts and manufactures into 
 his dominions, and strove to consolidate his mighty empire. 
 He made canals, adopted a uniform system of weights 
 and measures, provided for the education of youth, re- 
 modelled the courts of law, and corrected abuses in religion. 
 After his return from the Persian expedition, he caused 
 Katherine to be solemnly crowned (May 18, 1724). This 
 reiiiarkable woman always wielded a wonderful influence 
 over her husband, and on his death succeeded to the throne 
 (Feb. 8, 1725). 
 
 Letter 26. — General View of the Affiiirs of Europe from the Death of 
 Louis XIV. to that of the Emperor Charles VI. a.d. 1715—1740, 
 Vol. ii., pages 358—370. 
 
 § 497. The speedy and fortunate repression of the re- 
 bellion increased the influence of the crown. The "Whig 
 ministry, no longer under any apprehension from the 
 encroachments of arbitrary power, and willing to crush 
 their political enemies, repealed the Triennial Act, and 
 extended the duration of parliaments to the term of seven 
 years (May 7, 1716). No sooner was the general peace 
 concluded, than Achmet III. commenced hostilities against 
 the Venetians, and made himself master of the Morea, or 
 ancient Peloponnesus (1715). The Emperor Charles VI., 
 as guarantee of the treaty of Garlowitz, by which this 
 territory had been assigned to the republic of Venice, was 
 bound to declare war against the Turks for infringing it ; — 
 and the pope, alarmed at the progress of the infidels, iffged 
 his imperial majesty to stand forth in defence of Christen- 
 dom. Charles accordingly assembled a powerful army, 
 under the celebrated Prince Eugene, who passed the 
 Danube, and defeated the grand vizier Ali, at Peterwaradin 
 (Aug. 5, 1716). The year following the same general 
 undertook the siege of "Belgrade, which he speedily cap. 
 
THE QTJADKUPLE ALLIANCE. 393 
 
 tared (Aug. 22, 1717). The consequence of these two 
 victories was the peace of Passarowitz, by which the Porte 
 ceded to the emperor Belgrade and Temeswar (June 24, 
 1718). But the Yenetians, on whose account the war had 
 been undertaken, did not recover their possessions in 
 Greece. Philip V. of Spain, having lost his first queen, 
 Maria Louisa of Savoy, had married, in 1714, Elizabeth 
 Farnese, presumptive heiress of the duchies of Parma, 
 Placentia, and Tuscany. This marriage, which not a little 
 alarmed the emperor, was chiefly brought about by the 
 intrigues of Alberoni, an Italian priest, and a native of 
 Placentia, who soon rose to the highest favour at the court 
 of Madrid, and was honoured by the pope with a cardinal's 
 hat. This minister formed the most extraordinary projects, 
 and intrigued in all directions in order to put them into 
 execution. "With the malcontents in Scotland, England, and 
 France, with the Swedes, and even the Turks, he endeavoured 
 to form alliances ; but his schemes were happily discovered 
 and frustrated. 
 
 § 498. The precarious state of the authority of the duke 
 of Orleans, the French regent, and the dangerous intrigues 
 of Alberoni, had induced the regent of France (1716) to 
 enter into a league with England and Holland ; and the 
 violent ambition of the court of Spain, which seemed to 
 know no bounds, now disposed those three powers, in con- 
 junction with the emperor, to form the famous Quadruple 
 Alliance (Aug. 2, 1718). After the articles which provided 
 for the maintaining of the peace of Utrecht, the principal 
 stipulations in that treaty were, that the duke of Savoy, in 
 consideration of certain places in Italy, should exchange 
 with the emperor the island of Sicily for that of Sardinia, of 
 which he should take the regal title ; and that the emperor 
 should confer on Don Carlos, eldest son of the young queen 
 of Spain, the investiture of the duchies of Parma, Placentia, 
 and Tuscany, on the death of the present possessors without 
 issue. This formidable alliance made no alteration in the 
 temper of Alberoni. The article regarding the eventual 
 succession of Don Carlos was rejected with scorn by the 
 Spanish court, which had abeady taken possession of Sardinia, 
 under pretence of assisting the Venetians against the Turks, 
 and of great part of the island of Sicily. The consequence of 
 this obstinacy, and of these unprovoked hostilities, was a 
 declaration of war against Spain, by France and England 
 (Dec. 16, 1718). Every effort had been made to settle the 
 
394 THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME. 
 
 matter by negotiation, but without success. "Whilst these 
 events were in progress, Sir G-eorge Byng engaged the 
 Spanish ileet near the coast of Sicily, and won a complete 
 Tictory (July 31, 1718). Sicily and Sardinia were recovered 
 (1719). Spain at last acceded to the terms prescribed by 
 the Quadruple Alliance (Jan. 26, 1720), and Alberoni was 
 disgraced. 
 
 § 499. About this time a Scotch adventurer, named John 
 Law, who had been compelled to leave his native country, 
 on account of having killed a man in a duel, induced the 
 duke of Orleans to adopt one of the wUdest projects 
 (1716). Law's scheme was, by speedily paying off the 
 national debt, to clear the public revenue of the enormoua 
 interest. The introduction of paper-credit could alone effect 
 this amazing revolution, and the exigencies of the state 
 seemed to require such an expedient. Law accordingly 
 established a bank, which was declared royal (1718), and 
 united with the Mississippi or West-India Company, from 
 whose commerce the greatest riches were expected, and 
 which soon swallowed up all the other trading companies 
 in the kingdom. It undertook the- management of the trade 
 to the coast of Africa ; it also obtained the privileges of the 
 old East-India Company, founded by the celebrated Colbert, 
 which had gone to decay, and given up its trade to the mer- 
 chants of St. Malo ; and it, at length, engrossed the farming 
 of the national taxes. By spreading false reports of the 
 discovery of mines of great wealth. Law caused the shares 
 to rise twenty per cent., and everybody was anxious to 
 speculate in the Mississippi scheme. A panic ensued, 
 public credit sank at once, and Law, who had been appointed 
 comptroller-general of the finances, was obliged to flee from 
 a country he had beggared, without enriching himself, in 
 order to discharge the debts of the crown (1720). The 
 distress of the kingdom was so great, that government was 
 under the necessity of affording relief. Upwards of five 
 hundred thousand sufferers, chiefly fathers of families, pre- 
 sented their whole fortunes in paper ; and government, 
 after liquidating these debts, which are said to have origi- 
 nally amounted to a sum too incredible to be named, charged 
 itself with the enormous debt of sixteen hundred and thirty- 
 one millions of livres, to be paid in specie. Thus ended in 
 Prance the famous Mississippi scheme ; so ruinous to the 
 fortune of individuals, but ultimately beneficial to the state, 
 which it relieved from an excessive load of debt. Its effects, 
 
NATIONAL FINANCES. 395 
 
 however, were not confined to that kingdom. Holland re- 
 ceived a slight shock ; but its violence vpas more peculiarly 
 reserved for England, where it appeared in a variety of forms, 
 and exhausted all its fury. 
 
 § 500. Nothing is so much talked of in this country, or 
 BO little understood, as the National Debt, the Public Funds, 
 and the Stocks. The National Debt is the residue of those 
 large sums which government has, in times of exigency, 
 been obliged to raise for the public service, and which the 
 state has not hitherto found it convenient to pay oif. The 
 Public Funds consist of certain ideal aggregations, deposited 
 in the hands of government, together vrith the general pro- 
 duce of the taxes appropriated by parliament to pay the 
 interest of that money; and the surplus of these taxes, 
 which have always been more than sufficient to answer the 
 charge upon them, composes what was called the Slaking 
 Fund, as it was originally intended to be applied towards the 
 reduction or sinking of the national debt. The Stocks are the 
 whole of this public and funded debt ; which being divided 
 into an infinity of portions or shares, bearing a known in- 
 terest, varying in the different funds, may be readily trans- 
 ferred from one person to another, and converted into cash. 
 These stocks rise or fall in value according to the plenty or 
 scarcity of money in the nation. At present the stocks are 
 subject to but slight variations, except in times of national 
 danger or calamity. The interest having been regularly 
 paid, they have reached a high rate of value, that can be 
 generally maintained. Formerly, however, the case was 
 otherwise. The loans were chiefly made by corporations, 
 or great companies of merchants ; who, beside the stipulated 
 interest, were indulged with certain commercial advantages. 
 To one of those companies was granted, in 1711, the mono- 
 poly of a projected trade to the Spanish settlements on the 
 South Sea, an entire freedom to visit which, it was supposed, 
 England would obtain, either from the house of Austria or 
 that of Bourbon, in consequence of the successes of the war. 
 
 § 501. At the peace of TJtrecht, no such freedom was 
 obtained. But the Assiento, or contract for supplying the 
 Spanish colonies with negroes, conveyed to Great Britain by 
 the commercial treaty vrith Philip V., as well as the singular 
 privilege of sending annually to the fair of Porto Bello a 
 ship of five hundred tons burden, laden with European com- 
 modities, was vested exclusively in the South-Sea Company. 
 By virtue of this contract, British fectories were established 
 
398 SOTJTH-SEA SCHEME. 
 
 at Cai'thagena, Panama, Vera Cruz, Buenos Ayres, and 
 other Spanish settlements : and the company was permitted 
 to freight in the ports of the South Sea, vessels of four 
 hundred tons burden, in order to convey its negroes to all 
 the towns on the coasts of Mexico and Peru ; to equip them 
 as it pleased ; to nominate the commanders of them, and to 
 bring back the produce of its sales in gold or silver, without 
 being subject to any duty of import or export. Even this 
 contract was exceeded, a larger vessel was sent annually to 
 Porto Bello, and means were found of supplying her with 
 fresh stores, as her cargo was sold. By these various ad- 
 vantages, the profits of the South-Sea Company were much 
 increased. Encouraged by such favourable circumstances, 
 and by the general spirit of avaricious enterprise, Sir John 
 Blount, one of the directors, who had been bred a scrivener, 
 was tempted to project, in 1719, the infamous South-Sea 
 scheme. Under pretence of enabling government to pay off 
 the national debt, by lowering the interest, and reducing all 
 the funds into one, he proposed that the South-Sea Com- 
 pany should become the sole public creditor. 
 
 § 502. A scheme so plausible was readily adopted by the 
 ministry, and received the sanction of an act of Parliament. 
 The South-Sea Company were authorized to buy up all the 
 funded debts of the crown, which then bore an interest of five 
 per cent. ; and it was provided that, after the expiration of six 
 years, the interest should be reduced to four per cent, and the 
 capital be redeemable by Parliament. The directors were em- 
 powered to raise the money by different means; and particu- 
 larly by opening books of subscription, and granting annuities 
 to such public creditors as should think proper to exchange 
 the security of the crown for that of the South-Sea Com- 
 pany, with the emoluments which might result from their 
 commerce. While this affair was in agitation, the stock of 
 the South-Sea Company rose from one hundred and thirty, 
 or thirty pounds on the hundred above its primary value, to 
 nearly four hundred pounds, or four times the price paid by 
 the first subscribers. Various reports were spread to allure 
 the public, and the subscription-books were no sooner opened 
 than persons of aU ranks and conditions crowded to the 
 South-Sea House, eager to become proprietors of the stock. 
 The first purchases were, in a few weeks, sold for double the 
 money paid for them ; and the delusion, or rather the infatu- 
 ation, was carried so far, that stock at last reached ten 
 times its original price (1720). New projectors started 
 
THE BUBBLE BXJESTS. 397 
 
 up every day to avail themselvea of the avarice and credulity 
 of the nation ; and the Welsh Copper Company, the York 
 Building Company, and many others, were formed. 
 
 § 503. No interested project was so absurd as not to meet 
 ■with encouragement during the public delirium ; but the 
 South-Sea scheme continued to be the great object of at- 
 traction. At length, however, to use the phrase of the 
 times, the bubble began to burst (Sept. 30, 1720). It was 
 discovered, that such as were thought to be in the secret 
 had disposed of all their stock while the tide was at its 
 height. A univeral alarm ensued. Every one wanted to 
 sell and nobody to buy, except at a very reduced price. 
 The South-Sea stock fell as rapidly as it had risen, and to 
 the lowest ebb ; and nothing but the timely interposition 
 and steady wisdom of Parliament could have prevented a 
 general bankruptcy. A committee of the House of Com- 
 mons was chosen by ballot to examine all the books, papers, 
 and proceedings relative to the execution of the South-Sea 
 Act ; and this committee discovered, that before any sub- 
 scription could be made, a fictitious stock of five hiuidred 
 and seventy-four thousand pounds had been disposed of by 
 the directors, in order to facilitate the passiog of the bill. 
 Mr. Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, and other 
 members implicated in the scheme, were expelled the 
 House of Commons. The first-mentioned was committed 
 to the Tower, and other delinquents were censured 
 (March 8, 1721). The estates of the directors were also 
 confiscated by act of Parliament. The Commons having 
 thus punished the chief promoters of this iniquitous scheme, 
 by stripping them of their ill-gotten wealth, proceeded to 
 repair, as far as possible, the mischief it had occasioned. 
 They accordingly prepared a bill for that purpose. It was 
 enacted, that seven millions should be paid to the public 
 sufferers; that several additions should be made to the 
 stock of the proprietors, out of that possessed by the com- 
 pany m their own right ; and that, after such distributions, 
 the remaining capital stock should be divided among the 
 proprietors. By these wise and equitable regulations, 
 public credit was restored, and the ferment of the nation 
 gradually subsided. 
 
 § 504. The discontents and disorders occasioned by the 
 South-Sea scheme encouraged the English Jacobites to 
 think of making a new attempt to change the line of suc- 
 cession ; but George I. obtained information of the plot. 
 
398 TREATIES OF VIENNA AND HANOVER. 
 
 and Christopher Layer was taken into custody and executed 
 for having enlisted men for the service of the Pretender. 
 Several members of the nobility, Dr. Atterbury, bishop of 
 Eochester, and other suspected persons, were committed to 
 the Tower (1722) ; but they were acquitted for want of 
 evidence, except the bishop of Rochester, who was degraded, 
 deprived of his benefice, and banished the kingdom for life 
 (May 27, 1723). About the same time Lord Bolingbroke 
 was recalled from exile. Philip, duke of Orleans, regent 
 of Prance, died (Dec. 2, 1723), and Louis XV., who bad 
 attained his majority, appointed the duke of Bourbon as 
 his prime minister. He was soon supplanted by Cardinal 
 Pleury, a man of a mild and pacific disposition, who had 
 been preceptor to Louis XV., and who, at the advanced age 
 of seventy-three, took upon him the cares of government. 
 Portunately for the happiness of mankind. Sir Eobert 
 "Walpole, who began about the same time to acquire an as- 
 cendancy in the councils of Great Britain, and afterwards 
 became prime minister, possessed a disposition no less 
 pacific than that of Pleury. Several treaties were nego- 
 tiated between tbe different kingdoms and states of Europe 
 for securing more effectually the objects of the Quadruple 
 Alliance, and the balance of power. One of these treaties, 
 concluded privately at Vienna, between the emperor and 
 the Spanish monarch, excited the jealousy of George I., who 
 was under apprehensions for the safety of his German 
 dominions, as well as of some secret article in favour of the 
 Pretender, many of whose adherents were then entertained 
 at the court of Madrid (July 17, 1725). It also gave 
 umbrage to the French and Dutch, as it granted to the 
 subjects of the house of Austria greater advantages in their 
 trade with Spain, than those enjoyed by any other nation ; 
 and it guaranteed a new East-India Company, lately 
 established at Ostend, which Prance, England, and Holland 
 were equally desirous of suppressing. 
 
 § 505. To counteract the treaty of Vienna, another, called 
 the Treaty of Herrnhausen or Hanover, was concluded at 
 Hanover, between England, Prance, and Prussia (Sept. 3, 
 1725). Overawed by this formidable confederacy, the 
 emperor and the king of Spain remained quiet. The king 
 of Great Britain, however, fitted out three stout squadrons, 
 one of which he sent to the West Indies, under Admiral 
 Hosier, who had orders to blockade the Spanish galleons in 
 the harbour of Porto Bello, and to seize them if they 
 
DEATH OF GEOEGE I. 399 
 
 attempted to come out. In cruising off that unhealthy 
 coast, the greater part of his officers and men were swept 
 away by the diseases of the climate ; his ships were ruined 
 by the worms, and he himself is supposed to have died of 
 a broken heart (1727). The Spaniards, in resentment of 
 this insult, laid siege to Gibraltar, but without success ; 
 and Sweden and Denmark having joined the alliance of 
 France and Great Britain (April 16, 1727), a reconcilia- 
 tion was soon after effected. It was agreed, that the 
 charter of the Ostend East-India Company should be sus- 
 pended for seven years ; that the stipulations of the 
 Quadruple Alliance, but particularly those relative to the 
 succession of Don Carlos to the duchies of Parma, Placentia, 
 and Tuscany, should be fulfilled ; and that all differences 
 should be adjusted by a congress. This congress, which was 
 held at Soissons (June 1, 1728), but thence transferred to 
 I"ontainebleau (Dec. 18), produced the treaty of Seville, by 
 which all grounds of dispute were finairfremoved (1729). 
 George I. died at Osnaburg during these negotiations 
 (June 11, 1727), and was succeeded by his son George II. 
 George I. was a prudent and virtuous prince, whose attach- 
 ment to his German dominions, which has been much mag- 
 nified, was made use of by the Tories to render him odious 
 to the English nation. His conduct to his wife, Sophia 
 Dorothea of Zell, whom he repudiated, and confined in the 
 castle of Ahlen in 1694, was a stain upon his character. 
 She was never acknowledged as queen of England, but died 
 in captivity (Nov. 13, 1726). 
 
 § 506. The administration was continued in the hands of 
 the Whigs, the true friends to the Protestant succession 
 and the principles of the Eevolution. The Tories were, 
 however, powerful in opposition ; and Sir Eobert Walpole, 
 in order to defeat them, had recourse to bribery. Possessed 
 of great abilities, and utterly destitute of principle, he made 
 no scruple of employing the money voted by Parliament, in 
 order to corrupt its members. Having discovered that 
 almost every man had his price, he bought many ; and to 
 gain more, he let loose the wealth of the treasury at elec- 
 tions. In consequence of the treaty of Seville, confirmed by 
 another at Vienna (March 16, 1731), Don Carlos took quiet 
 possession of the duchies of Parma and Placentia, on the 
 succession becoming vacant, the emperor withdrawing his 
 troops. By the treaty of Vienna, the emperor also agreed 
 that the Ostend Company, which had given bo much 
 
400 EUROPEAN WAES. 
 
 umbrage to Trance, England, and Holland, should be 
 totally dissolved, on condition that the contracting powers, 
 in the treaty of Seville, should guarantee the " Pragmatic 
 Sanction," or domestic law, by which the succession to the 
 hereditary dominions of the house of Austria was secured 
 to the heirs female of the emperor Charles VI., in case he 
 should die without male issue. The proposal was acceded 
 to, and the peace of Europe continued undisturbed, till the 
 death of Erederie Augustus, king of Poland and elector of 
 Saxony (Eeb. 1, 1733). France supported the claim of 
 Stanislas Leczinski, whom Charles XII. had before invested 
 with the sovereignty, while the emperor, assisted by the Eus- 
 sians, compelled the Poles to elect Erederic Augustus II., 
 son of the deceased monarch. Eranee took up arms, and 
 the war of the Polish succession followed, Holland and 
 England remaining neutral. 
 
 § 507. In Germany and in Italy the Erench and their allies 
 were successful. '"'Discouraged by numerous defeats, the 
 emperor Charles VI. signified his desire of peace; and as 
 this was the sincere and constant wish of Cardinal Eleury, 
 preliminaries were soon drawn up (1735) ; it was stipulated 
 that Stanislas- should renounce his pretensions to the throne 
 of Poland, in consideration of the cession of the duchy of 
 Lorraine, which, after his death, should be reunited to the 
 crown of Eranee ; that the duke of Lorraine should have 
 Tuscany, in exchange for his hereditary dominions, and that 
 Louis XV. should insure to him an anriual revenue of three 
 millions five hundred thousand livres, tiU the death of the 
 G-rand-duke John Gaston, the last prince of the house of 
 Medicis ; that the emperor should acknowledge Don Carlos 
 king of the Two Sicilies, and accept the duchies of Parma 
 and Placentia as an indemnification for these two king- 
 doms ; that he should cede to the king of Sardinia certaiu 
 parts of the duchy of Milan. And, in consideration of 
 these cessions, the king of Eranee agreed to restore all his 
 conquests in Germany, and to guarantee the Pragmatic 
 Sanction. Just as this pacification was concluded, Austria 
 and Eussia became involved in a war with the Turks and 
 the Tartars. Through the mediation of France, this eon- 
 test was brought to a close, after Charles VI. had sufifered 
 many reverses, by the treaty of Belgrade (Sept. 18j 
 1739). The emperor ceded to Turkey, Belgrade and 
 other places,, with Servia and Austrian Walachia: and- 
 the contracting powers agreed that the Danube and the; 
 
PROGRESS OF NAYIGATION. 401 
 
 Save should, in future, be the boundaries of the two 
 empires. The empress of Eussia was left in possession 
 of Azoff, but on condition that its fortifications should be 
 demolished ; and the ancient limits between the Sussian 
 and Turkish empires were re-established. The prelimi- 
 naries signed at Vienna in 1735, were confirmed by a defini- 
 tive treaty (Nov. 18, 1738) ; and the Emperor Charles VI., 
 the last male heir of the house of Hapsburg, died (Oct. 20, 
 
 Lettek 27. — The progress of KTavigatiou, Commerce, imi Colonization, 
 from the Year 1660 to the Year 1739, when Spain and Great Britain 
 engaged in a Maritime War, occasioned by certain commercial dis- 
 putes — an account of the principal events of that war — the Reduction 
 of Porto Bello, the Siege of Oarthageua, and the Expedition of Com- 
 modore Anson to the South Sea. a.d. 1660 — 1744. Vol. ii., pages 
 370—384. 
 
 § 508. Towards the middle of the seventeenth century, 
 the English and Dutch were in possession of almost the 
 whole trade of the universe. But Dutch commerce received 
 a severe wound from the English Navigation Act, passed 
 by the Commonwealth Parliament, in 1651 ; and the sub- 
 sequent wars between England and Holland reduced still 
 lower the trade of the United Provinces. Their commerce 
 with the East Indies, however, continued to flourish, while 
 that of England remained in a languishing condition until 
 after the Eevolution. But this disadvantage on the part of 
 England was amply compensated by the population, culture, 
 and extension of her colonies in North America and the 
 West Indies, which began to consume a vast quantity of 
 European goods ; and by a great and lucrative trade to 
 Spain, Portugal, and Turkey. In 1664, Colbert established 
 a Prench East-India Company at Pondicherry on the coast 
 of Coromandel, which never attained to any high degree of 
 prosperity. It was united with the "West-India Company, 
 but they were afterwards separated, and the latter abolished. 
 Prance is chiefly indebted for her wealth and commerce to 
 the genius and industry of her numerous inhabitants, and 
 to the produce of an extensive and naturally fertile terri- 
 tory. Her wines, her brandies, her raisins, her olives, have 
 been long in request, and by her ingenious manufactures, 
 established or encouraged by Colbert, her gold and silver 
 stuffs, her tapestries, her carpets, her silks, her velvets, her 
 laces, her linens, and her tovs, she laid all Europe, and 
 
 2 3) 
 
402 BUEOPEAN COLONIES. 
 
 indeed the whole world, under contribution for half a century. 
 Colbert directed his attention also to the manufacture of 
 wool ; and the French, by fabricating lighter cloths, by em- 
 ploying more taste and fancy in the colours, and by the 
 convenient situation of the ports of Toulon and Marseilles, 
 Boon acquired possession of the trade of Turkey, formerly 
 so beneficial to England. The same, and other circum- 
 stances, have procured them a great share in the trade of 
 Spain and Portugal. 
 
 § 509. TJpou the revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685) 
 the French manufactures received a check, and the perse- 
 cuted Huguenots who took refuge in Holland, England, and 
 other countries, carried with them their arts and ingenuity, 
 and even the fruits of their industry in gold and silver, to a 
 very great amount. In the mean time, the English and French 
 colonies in North America enlarged their boundaries, and 
 increased in wealth and population. The French colony of 
 Canada, or new France, was augmented by the settlement 
 of Louisiana and a line of communication was established, 
 before the middle of the present century, from the mouth 
 of the river St. Lawrence to that of the Mississipi. The 
 English colonies, more populous and cultivated, extended 
 along the sea-coast, from the bottom of the Bay of Fundy 
 to the river Alatahama, on the frontiers of Florida. New 
 England furnished masts and yards for the royal navy, as 
 well as timber for other uses ; New York and New Jersey, 
 formerly known by the name of Nova Belgia, conquered 
 from the Dutch, in 1664, and Pennsylvania, settled in 1681, 
 produced abundant crops of corn, and a variety of other 
 articles for the European markets, as well as for the supply 
 of the English islands in the "West Indies ; the tobacco of 
 Virginia and Maryland had become a staple commodity, and 
 a great source of revenue ; and the two Carolinas, by the 
 culture of rice and indigo, and the manufacture of tar, pitch, 
 and turpentine, soon became of vast importance. But the 
 most beneficial trade of both nations arose from their 
 colonies in the West-India Islands. The islands in the 
 American Archipelago are the prime marts for French and 
 English manufactures, and furnish the nations to which they 
 ■ belong with their sugars, their rums, their cotton, coffee, 
 cocoa, and other articles, with a more valuable exchange 
 than that of gold. 
 
 § 510. After the conquest of Mexico and Peru, where 
 the precious metals were found in great profusion, the 
 
THE BUCCANEEKS. 403 
 
 Spaniards neglected Hispaniola. Allured by its numerous 
 advantages, certain French and English adventurers, since 
 known by the name of Buccaneers or Freebooters, had 
 taken possession of the small island of Tortoga, as early as 
 the year 1632, and found little difficulty, under such favour- 
 able circumstances, of establishing themselves on the 
 northern coast of Hispaniola. These barbarous men, the 
 outcasts of civil society, were denominated Buccaneers, 
 because they dried with smoke, according to the custom of 
 the savages, part of the flesh of the cattle they had killed, 
 in places denominated huccans in the language of the natives. 
 Many of them were little better than pirates, and committed 
 fearful depredations. To these ravagers, however, rendered 
 famous by their courage and their crimes, France and Eng- 
 land are ■ indebted, in some measure, for the prosperity of 
 their settlements in the West Indies. Nothing could 
 appear less formidable than the first armaments of the 
 piratical Buccaneers, who took the name of Brothers of the 
 Coast. Having formed themselves, like the hunters of wild 
 cattle, into small societies, they made their excursions in an 
 open boat, which generally contained between twenty and 
 thirty men, exposed to all the intemperature of the climate. 
 Although the Buccaneers, when under the pressure of 
 necessity, attacked the ships of every nation, those belong- 
 ing to the subjects of Spain were more especially marked 
 out as the objects of their piracy. Their booty was origi- 
 nally carried to the island of Tortoga, the common rendez- 
 vous of the Buccaneers, and then their only place of safety. 
 But afterwards the French went to some of the ports of 
 Hispaniola, where they had established themselves in defi- 
 ance of the Spaniards, and the English to those of Jamaica, 
 where they could dispose of their prizes to more advantage. 
 § 511. The spoil taken by these marauders was fairly 
 divided ; provision was made for the sick, the wounded, and 
 the maimed, and they formed themselves into regular bodies. 
 Growing more insolent from success, they plundered many 
 of the richest and strongest towns in the New World. 
 Maracaybo, Campeachy, Yera Cruz, Porto Bello, and Car- 
 thagena, felt the eifects of their fury ; and Guayaquil, Pa- 
 nama, and many other places on the coasts of the South Sea, 
 were not more fortunate in their resistance, or treated with 
 greater lenity. Among the Buccaneers who first acquired 
 distinction in this new mode of plundering, was Montbars, 
 a gentleman of Languedoc. Humanity in him became the 
 2 » 2 
 
404 FAMOUS EUCCANEEES. 
 
 source of the most unfeeling barbarity. The Spaniards 
 suffered so much from his fury, that he acquired the name 
 of the Exterminator. Michael ' of Basco and Francis 
 Lolonois were also greatly renowned for their exploits,, both 
 by sea and land. Their most important, though not their 
 most fortunate enterprise, was that in the Gulf of Vene- 
 zuela, with eight vessels, and six hundred and sixty associ- 
 ates (1667). But of all the Buccaneers, French or English, 
 no member was so universally successful, or executed so many 
 great and daring enterprises, as Henry Morgan, a native of 
 "Wales. "While Basco, Lolonois, and their campanions, were 
 squandering at Tortoga the spoils they had acquired in the 
 Gulf of Venezuela, Morgan sailed from Jamaica to attack 
 Porto Bello ; and his measures were so well concerted, that 
 soon after his landing he surprised the sentinels, and made 
 himself master of the town before the Spaniards could put 
 themselves in a posture of defence (1668). Morgan and 
 his English associates carried the place by storm, in spite 
 of all opposition ; and found in it, besides a vast quantity 
 of rich merchandise, bullion and specie equivalent to one 
 hundred thousand pounds sterling. 
 
 § 512. "With this booty Morgan and his crew returned to 
 Jamaica, where he immediately planned a new enterprise 
 against Maracaybo (1669). The arrival of three Spanish 
 men-of-war somewhat interfered with his scheme, but he 
 managed to effect his escape, with a large quantity of the 
 spoils. This success, like that of all ambitious leaders, 
 served only to stimulate him to yet greater undertakings. 
 Having disposed of his booty at Port Eoyal in Jamaica, he 
 again put to sea, with a larger fleet and a more numerous 
 body of adventurers ; and after reducing the island of St. 
 Katherine, proceeded on an expedition against Panama, of 
 which he took possession, and pillaged it for several days 
 (1670). The booty was divided; and Morgan's own share 
 in the pillage of this expedition is said to have amounted to 
 one hundred thousand pounds sterling. He carried all his 
 wealth to Jamaica, and never afterwards engaged in any 
 piratical enterprise. The defection of Morgan, and several 
 other principal leaders, together with the total separation of 
 the English and French Buccaneers, in consequence of the 
 war between the two nations, which followed the Eevolution 
 in 1688, broke the force of those powerful plunderers. The 
 king of Spain being then in alliance with England, the 
 latter repressed the piracies of her subjects in the "West 
 
THE GUAEDA-COSTAS. 405 
 
 Indies. The Prench Buccaneers continued tbcir depreda- 
 tions, and with no small success, till the peace of Eyswick in 
 1697 ; when, all difference between France and Spain having 
 been adjusted, a stop was everywhere put to hostilities, and 
 not only the association, but the very name, of this extraor- 
 dinary set of men became almost extinct. They were in- 
 sensibly lost among the other European inhabitants of the 
 West Indies. 
 
 § 513. Before this period, however, the French colony in 
 Hispaniola had arrived at a considerable degree of pros- 
 perity ; and Jamaica, into which the spoils of Mexico and 
 Peru were more abundantly poured, was already in a 
 flourishing condition. The Buccaneers found at Port 
 Eoyal better reception, and greater security, than any- 
 where else. The wealth which flowed into Jamaica through 
 that channel gave great activity to every branch of culture ; 
 and after the piracies of the Buccaneers were suppressed, 
 it proved a new source of riches, by enabling the inhabitants 
 to open a clandestine trade to the Spanish settlements, 
 whence it had its origin. This illicit and lucrative com- 
 merce was rendered more facile and secure by the Assiento, 
 or contract for supplying the Spanish colonies with negroes, 
 which England obtained at the peace of Utrecht. In order 
 to put a stop to this trade, which, together with that carried 
 on by the British South-Sea Company, had almost ruined 
 the rich commerce of the galleons, formerly the pride of 
 Spain, ships of force, under the name Ouarda^Cosias, were 
 stationed upon the coasts of those provinces to which inter- 
 lopers most frequently resorted. This interference, though 
 necessary, was not properly carried out, and led to numerous 
 disputes. The preliminaries of a convention were signed 
 in the beginning of 1739. 
 
 § 514. The chief article of the convention provided, that 
 the king of Spain should pay to the subjecta of Great 
 Britain the sum of ninety-five thousand pounds sterling, by 
 way of indemnification for their losses, in consequence of 
 the seizures made by the Guarda-Costas. This seemed to 
 be an admission of the right of search, and raised such a 
 ferment in the kingdom, that Sir Eobert "Walpole was 
 reduced to the extremity of declaring war or resigning. 
 The king of Spain did not pay the stipulated sum on the 
 appointed day, and thus furnished Walpole with a pretext 
 for making war without abandoning his pacific principles. 
 A powerful fleet, under Admiral Haddock, was sent to^ 
 
406 NAVAL TEItJMPHS. 
 
 cruize off the coast of Spain ; and Admiral Yernon, an 
 oflScer who stood high in the public favour, was appointed 
 to the command of a squadron in the "West Indies. With 
 six ships, carrying two hundred and forty soldiers, Vernon 
 took Porto Bello (Nov. 20, 1739). On account of its un- 
 healthy situation, it was called the Grave of the Spaniards ; 
 but during the annual fair, which lasted forty days, it was 
 the theatre of the richest commerce that was ever transacted 
 on the face of the earth. Seated on the northern side of 
 the isthmus which divides the two seas, thither were 
 brought from Panama, on the Pacific Ocean, the gold, 
 silver, and other valuable productions of Chili and Peru, 
 to be exchanged for the manufactures of Eiirope ; and 
 there arrived the galleons from Old Spain, laden with every 
 article of necessity, accommodation, and luxury. The joy 
 of the English nation on the taking of Porto Bello was 
 excessive. The two houses of Parliament congratulated his 
 majesty on the success of his arms ; the people were con- 
 firmed in their opinion of Yernon ; and his good fortune 
 induced the minister to continue him in the command of 
 the British fleet in the West Indies. 
 
 § 515. The reduction of Porto Bello was but a prelude to 
 greater enterprises. Nothing less was resolved upon than 
 the utter destruction of the Spanish settlements in the New 
 World. With this view, an English squadron was despatched 
 to the South Sea, under Commodore Anson, in order to 
 ravage the coasts of Peru and Chili; while a fleet of twenty- 
 seven sail of the line, commanded by Sir Chaloner Ogle, 
 besides frigates, fire-ships, bomb-ketches, store-ships, vic- 
 tuallers, and transports, with upwards of ten thousand land- 
 forces on board, was sent to the West Indies, to reinforce 
 Admiral Yernon, and co-operate with Anson, by means of 
 intelligence to be conveyed across the isthmus of Darien. 
 The land-forces were commanded by Lord Cathcart, a noble- 
 man of approved honour, as well as experience in military 
 afiairs ; and the ardour of both soldiers and sailors to come 
 to action was excessive. The want of harmony proved the 
 ruin of the armament. As Lord Cathcart unfortunately 
 died soon after his arrival in the West Indies, the command 
 of the land-forces devolved upon Brigadier- General Went- 
 worth, an ofiicer without experience, resolution, or authority. 
 He had nothing in common with Yernon but Ms obstinacy, 
 and as great a contempt for the sea, as the admiral had for 
 the land service. These two ill-associated commanders, 
 
ANSON'S EXPEDITION. 407 
 
 ■whose powers were discretionary, after being reinforced 
 •with some troops from the English colonies in America, 
 determined to attack Carthagena (1741). The expedition, 
 in which Smollett served as an assistant-surgeon, failed, and 
 the fleet returned to Jamaica. Though Vernon was re- 
 inforced with several ships of the line, and Wentworth 
 ■with three thousand soldiers from England ; and although 
 they successively threatened St. Jago de Cuba and Panama, 
 they returned home without effecting anything of conse- 
 quence, notwithstanding the loss of nearly twenty thousand 
 men. 
 
 § 516. The expedition under Anson ■was attacked by a 
 furious storm in passing Cape Horn (1740) : two of his ships 
 ■were obliged to return in distress ; one was lost ; another was 
 80 damaged as to be abandoned soon after ; and the greater 
 part of his people died of the scurvy, before he reached the 
 island of Juan Fernandez, which had been appointed as the 
 place of rendezvous. In this delightful abode the remainder 
 of his crew recovered their health and spirits; and the 
 Centurion, his own ship, being still in pretty good repair, 
 he put to sea, took several prizes off the coast of ChUi, 
 and plundered the town of Paita, on the coast of Peru, 
 where he found silver to the amount of about thirty thou- 
 sand pounds sterling. From his prisoners, he learned that, 
 notwithstanding his reduced force, he had nothing to fear in 
 those latitudes ; as Don Joseph Pizarro, who commanded a 
 Spanish squadron destined to oppose him, had been obliged 
 to return to Eio de la Plata, after having lost two ships and 
 two thousand men, in attempting to double Cape Horn. 
 Anson also learned that the English expedition against 
 Carthagena had miscarried. This discouraging news made 
 him sensible of the impropriety of attempting to execute 
 that part of his instructions which regarded an attack upon 
 Panama, in consequence of a supposed co-operation ■with 
 the British troops across the isthmus of Darien. He, 
 therefore, bore away for Acapulco, in hopes of intercepting 
 the Manilla galleon, which he understood was then at sea. 
 Happily for the Spaniards, she had reached that port before 
 his arrival. He endeavoured to intercept her on her return, 
 but without effect. At last, finding himself destitute of 
 every necessary, he sailed for China, where he arrived, after 
 a long and distressing voyage. Having refitted his ship, 
 and taken in a supply of provisions, he again launched into 
 the Pacific Ocean ; and took the annual ship &om Acapulco, 
 
408 ANSON'S EETUEN. 
 
 on the coast of Mexico, to Manilla, laden with treasure to 
 the amount of about three hundred thousand pounds ster- 
 ling, beside other valuable commodities. Anson went a 
 second time to China, w^here he asserted the honour of 
 the British flag in a very spirited manner, and returned to 
 England by the Cape of Grood Hope (1740—1744), to the 
 great joy of his countrymen, who had heard of his disasters, 
 and concluded that he and all his crew were lost. The Spanish 
 treasure was carried to the Tower with much parade ; and 
 an expedition, which, all things considered, ought rather to 
 have been deemed unfortunate, was magnified beyond mea- 
 sure. Anson's perseverance, however, deserved praise, and 
 the success of a single ship seemed to point out what might 
 be performed by a stout squadron on the coasts of the South 
 Sea; but the failure of the formidable enterprise against 
 Carthagena was still so fresh in the memory of the nation, 
 that no further attempt was made during the war to distress 
 the. Spanish settlements in America.* 
 
 (') Although the " New Style'' of chronology, introduced by Gre- 
 gory XIII. in 1682, was not adopted in Great Britain until 1752, we 
 have, for the sake of uniformity, as we stated at p. 222, followed it in 
 this work. The student will bear in mind that previous to 1700, the 
 variation between the New Style and the Old, was only ten days. After 
 1700 the difference is eleven days. Thus the battle of Blenheim was 
 fought August 2, 1704, Old Style, or August 13, New Style. 
 
MAEIA THERESA. 409 
 
 CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 Letter 28. — General View of the Affairs of Europe, from the Death of 
 the Emperor Charles VI. to the Treaty of Dresden and the Con- 
 firmation of the Treaty of Brealaw. A.D. 1740 — 1746. Vol. ii., pages 
 384—406. 
 
 § 517. The deatb of the emperor Charles VI., the last 
 prince of the house of Austria, without male issue, awakened 
 the ambition of many potentates, whose pretensions threw 
 all Europe into a ferment (1740). Ey virtue of the Prag- 
 matic Sanction, as well as the rights of blood, the succession 
 to all the Austrian dominions belonged to the Archduchess 
 Maria Theresa, the late emperor's eldest daughter, married 
 to Francis of Lorraine, grand duke of Tuscany. The king- 
 doms of Hungary and Bohemia, the provinces of Silesia, 
 Austrian Swabia, Upper and Lower Austria, Stiria, Carinthia, 
 Camiola, Burgaw, Brisgaw,the Low Countries, Eriuli, Tyrol, 
 the duchy of Milan, and the duchies of Parma and Placentia, 
 formed that inheritance. Maria Theresa took quiet posses- 
 sion, and received the homage of the states of Austria. The 
 kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia and the Italian pro- 
 vinces swore allegiance to her by their deputies ; and she 
 caused her husband, Erancis, to be proclaimed co-regent. 
 The first alarm was given by a formidable and unexpected 
 pretender. On the death of Frederic "William of Prussia 
 (May 31, 1740), his son Frederic II. had succeeded to the 
 throne. This prince claimed certain portions of Silesia, and 
 prepared to support his claims by force of arms. When in 
 the heart of that rich province, and in possession of its 
 capital (Jan. 3, 1741), he offered to supply Maria Theresa, 
 then commonly known by the name of queen of Hungary, 
 with money and troops, to protect to the utmost of his 
 power the rest of her dominions in Germany, and to use all 
 his interest to place her husband on the imperial throne, 
 provided she would cede Lower Silesia to him. Maria 
 Theresa rejected these offers, and sent an army to expel 
 
410 PEOGEESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 the invader. An obstinate battle was fought at Molwitz 
 (April 10), in ■which the Austrians were defeated, and the 
 province of Silesia soon after submitted to the Prussians. 
 Trance formed a scheme of placing Charles Albert, elector 
 of Bavaria, on the imperial throne, and armies were im- 
 mediately raised in order to carry out the project. The 
 treaty of Nymphenburg was concluded between Louis XV. 
 and Charles Albert, and another between that monarch and 
 Frederic II., in which it was stipulated that the elector of 
 Bavaria, with the imperial crown, should possess Bohemia, 
 Upper Austria, and the Tyrol; that Frederic Augustus, 
 king of Poland and elector of Saxony, should be gratified 
 with Moravia and Upper Silesia; and that his Prussian 
 ma,iesty should retain Lower Silesia, with the town of Neiss 
 and the county of Glatz. 
 
 § 518. England, alarmed at these advances, concluded a 
 treaty of neutrality for Hanover, and furnished Maria 
 Theresa with supplies. The French, with their German 
 allies, captured Passau and Lintz, and advanced upon 
 Vienna. Maria Theresa retired to Presburg, in Hungary, 
 where she assembled the states of the kingdom, appeared 
 before them with her eldest son, then an infant in arms, and 
 demanded their support. The appeal was nobly responded 
 to, and the greatest enthusiasm displayed in her cause. 
 The Hungarians flew to arms, and the elector of Bavaria, 
 abandoning the siege of Vienna, stormed and captured 
 Prague (Nov. 26, 1741). In this city he was crowned king 
 of Bohemia (Deo. 9) ; thence he proceeded to Frankfort, 
 where he was elected emperor, under the name of 
 Charles VII. (Jan. 24, 1742). At this juncture Sir Eobert 
 "Walpole's long ascendancy in the British House of Com- 
 mons was brought to a close, and a new ministry took o£See, 
 with the earl of Wilmington at its head (Feb. 17). The 
 nation warmly espoused the cause of Maria Theresa, and 
 expected great results from this change in the administration, 
 in which they were, however, disappointed. The Austrians 
 succeeded in expelling their assailants from Bohemia and 
 Bavaria, and after the sanguinary but indecisive battle of 
 Czaslau (May 7), the king of Prussia, through the mediation 
 of England, concluded a treaty of peace with Maria Theresa, 
 in which, in return for certain concessions, he engaged to 
 remain neutral (June 11, 1742) ; and another treaty was soon 
 after signed between Maria Theresa and the king of Poland 
 (June 28). The intelligence of these treaties fell upon the 
 
TREATY OF WOKMS. 411 
 
 court of rrance like a clap of thunder, and it was only by 
 the extraordinary exertions and commanding genius of the 
 l''rench generals, that her army, which on the defection of 
 Prussia had taken refuge in Prague, was extricated from its 
 perilous position, and made good its retreat into Alsace. 
 
 § 519. On the death of the emperor Charles VI., the king 
 of Spain had claimed the Austrian succession. This he 
 afterwards abandoned, but prepared to maintain his right 
 to the Austrian dominions in Italy. The king of Sardinia, 
 who had also claimed the duchy of Milan, entered into an 
 alliance with the queen of Hungary and the king of Great 
 Britain, in consideration of an annual subsidy and the 
 cession of certain places contiguous to his dominions, though 
 without absolutely renouncing his antiquated claim to the 
 duchy of MUan. Philip V. of Spain sent an army into Italy 
 towards the end of 1741, and the king of the Two Sicilies 
 was only deterred from espousing the cause of Spain by the 
 appearance of an English squadron before his capital. The 
 English fleet cut off the Spanish supplies, and affairs were 
 in such a desperate state that Erance, anxious to escape 
 from a disastrous conflict, made proposals of peace. This 
 condescension was the more remarkable, as the councils of 
 the court of Versailles were no longer influenced by the 
 mild spirit of cardinal Eleury, who died at a very advanced 
 age (Jan. 29,1743). Maria Theresa rejected these advances, 
 and the English ministry, fired with military ardour, en- 
 couraged her in this course. The imperialists and their 
 allies were defeated in Bavaria and Bohemia, whilst in 
 Elanders the English gained the battle of Dettingen (June 16, 
 1743), at which George II. commanded in person. Had 
 this victory been properly followed up, the French army 
 must have been captured or dispersed ; and Earl Stair was 
 so annoyed at the inaction, that he threw up his command. 
 The campaign in Italy was not more decisive, and this result 
 was in a great measure owing to secret negotiations then in 
 progress between Erance and Sardinia. Maria Theresa, 
 however, offered better terms, and the treaty of "Worms was 
 the result (Sept. 1743). The king of Sardinia renounced his 
 pretensions to the duchy of Milan, and guaranteed anew 
 the Pragmatic Sanction. Cessions of territory in Italy were 
 made to the king of Sardinia, and in return for an annual 
 subsidy of two hundred thousand pounds, he engaged to keep 
 up an army of forty-five thousand men. 
 
 § 520. This treaty dispelled all hopes of peace. Some of 
 
412 PRUSSIAN AND FEENCH ALLIANCE. 
 
 the G-erman powers, jealous of Austria, entered into secret 
 negotiations with the court of Versailles, and au alliance 
 between. France and Spain was signed at Fontainebleau. 
 "War was declared against France (March 31, 1744). 
 The most strenuous eiforts were made on all sides for the 
 active prosecution of the war, and discontents in England 
 caused the revival of a project for the restoration of the 
 Stuarts. Troops were collected at various portions of the 
 French coast for the invasion of England, and Charles 
 Edward joined the expedition. Seven thousand men 
 embarked in transports, and set sail, but were driven back 
 by a violent storm, and the enterprise was postponed. An 
 indecisive naval engagement in the Mediterranean (Feb. 9), 
 in which the French and Spanish fleets escaped destruc- 
 tion owing to a divided command, caused much dis- 
 satisfaction, and led to a Parliamentary inquiry. The 
 campaign in Italy commenced in Piedmont, and the French 
 and Spaniards gained some successes, which did not, how- 
 ever, lead to any important results. In the south of Italy, 
 the Austrians invaded Naples, but were eventually com- 
 pelled to retire into winter-quarters in the Bolognese terri- 
 tory. In Germany and the Low Countries, the queen of 
 Hungary was not more successful. A treaty had, through 
 the influence of France, been concluded between the 
 emperor, the kings of Prussia and Sweden, and the elector 
 Palatine, having for its object the recognition of Charles VII. 
 By a separate article, the king of Prussia engaged to put 
 the emperor in possession of Bohemia, and to guarantee to 
 him Upper Austria, as soon as conquered, on condition that 
 he should give up to his Prussian majesty the town and 
 circle of Koningsgratz, with all the country situated between 
 the frontiers of Silesia and the river Elbe, and from the 
 town and circle of Koningsgratz to the confines of Saxony. 
 The king of Prussia, however, by previous agreement, and a 
 separate treaty with the court of Versailles, was not obliged 
 to take up arms until he should see France act with vigour. 
 Louis XV. put himself at the head of his army in Flanders, 
 captured Menin, Tpres, and Furnes, and entered Dunkirk 
 in triumph ; while the allied army, seventy thousand strong, 
 unable to oppose his progress, continued posted behind the 
 Scheldt (1744). 
 
 § 521. The invasion of Alsace by Prince Charles of Lor- 
 raine compelled Louis XV. to hasten to the defence of that 
 portion of his dominions. At Metz he was seized With a 
 
PEACE OF DRESDEN. 413 
 
 fever, whicli at one time threatened his life, but he recovered ; 
 and as Alsace had been evacuated, he laid siege to and cap- 
 tured Freiburg. The king of Prussia, who had taken up 
 arms and overrun Bohemia, was speedily expelled from that 
 kingdom by Charles of Lorraine, and retired with precipita- 
 tion into Silesia. In the mean time Charles VII. had once 
 more obtained possession of his capital, but the retreat of 
 the king of Prussia filled him with apprehension, and death 
 at last came to his relief (Jan. 20, 1745). As his son 
 Maximilian Joseph was only seventeen years of age, he could 
 not become a candidate for the imperial throne. Afraid of 
 losing the electorate, this prince, through the mediation of 
 England, concluded a treaty with Maria Theresa, by which 
 the latter agreed to recognize the imperial dignity as having 
 been vested in the person of Charles VII., and to put his 
 son in possession of all his hereditary dominions. On the 
 other hand, the young elector renounced all claim to any 
 part of the Austrian succession, consented to guarantee 
 the Pragmatic Sanction, engaged to give his vote for the 
 grand duke at the ensuing election of an emperor, and to 
 dismiss the auxiliary troops in his service. 
 
 § 522. Louis XV. resolved to carry on the war. He 
 offered the imperial crown to the king of Poland, but this 
 prince very prudently refused to act without consulting the 
 courts of London and Vienna. This refusal did not pro- 
 duce any change in the Prench king's plans ; and, having 
 obtained the adhesion of the Eepublic of Genoa, his armies, 
 with their Italian and Spanish allies, overran Sardinia. 
 Marshal Saxe, who commanded in Elanders, was the greatest 
 military commander of the age. Tet he ran great risk of 
 a terrible defeat at the battle of Pontenoy (April 30, 1745) ; 
 in which the British, after having routed almost every 
 regiment in the French army, were, owing to the defection 
 of their Dutch and Austrian allies, compelled to retire. 
 The English lost seven and the French ten thousand men 
 on this occasion. The electors assembled at Frankfort, and 
 raised Maria Theresa's husband, the grand duke of Tuscany, 
 to the imperial throne, under the title of Francis I. (Sep. 13, 
 1745). The king of Prussia, having defeated the Austrians 
 at Friedberg, Sohr, and Pirna, invaded Saxony, and made 
 himself master of Dresden. Tired of the war, he in that 
 city concluded treaties with the king of Poland and Maria 
 Theresa, in which he acknowledged the new emperor ; and 
 thus tranquillity was restored to Germany (Dec. 25, 1745). 
 
414 CHARLES EDWARD'S REBELLION. 
 
 Lettbe 29. — Sketch ofthe Domestic History of Great Britain, inclucling 
 some Foreign Affairs intimately connected witli it, from tlie Resig- 
 nation of Sir Robert Walpole to the Suppression of the Rebellion in 
 Scotland, A.D. 1742—1746. Vol. ii., pages 406—423. 
 
 § 523. The anticipations that had been formed respecting 
 a change in the policy of the English Grovernment on the 
 resignation of Sir E.. "Walpole, were not fulfilled, and this 
 disappointment induced the Jacobites once more to turn 
 their eyes towards the Pretender. The failure of the 
 attempted invasion from the coast of France produced a 
 temporary reaction. Loyal addresses were presented to 
 the throne by both Houses of Parliament, and from all the 
 principal towns and corporations in the kingdom. Many 
 causes of national discontent, however, still remained ; aU of 
 which were magnified and industriously pointpd out by the 
 Jacobites, in order to embarrass the British ministry, and 
 induce the king of France to make a new efi'ort for the 
 re-establishment of the family of Stuart. The inglorious 
 sea-fight off Toulon, and the infamous trial of Matthews 
 and Lestock, excited the indignation of all sincere lovers of 
 justice and of their country. Other circumstances contri- 
 buted to revive the popular clamour against the measures of 
 the court. Several ministerial changes occurred. The 
 death of the earl of "Wilmington (July 26, 1743) led to the 
 elevation of Mr. Pelham, who soon after endeavoured to 
 form a coalition amongst different leading statesmen. This 
 cabinet was known as the Broadbottom administration, and 
 the wide basis upon which it was framed left little room for 
 Parliamentary opposition. Liberal supplies were voted 
 for the war, vigorous measures were resolved upon, and the 
 duke of Cumberland was appointed commander-in-chief. 
 The defeat at Fontenoy was a sad blow to the lofty aspira- 
 tions of the government and the people ; and it encouraged 
 the Jacobites to make another desperate attempt in favour 
 of the deposed house of Stuart. 
 
 § 524. Charles Edward embarked at Port St. Nazaire, in 
 Brittany, with a few followers, and some supplies (July 14, 
 1745). The Elizabeth, a French sixty-four gim ship, with 
 volunteers, arms, and ammunition, appointed as a convoy, 
 fell in with the Lion, an English ship of fifty-eight guns, 
 and, after an obstinate engagement, was compelled to seek 
 refuge at Brest ; but Charles Edward pursued his voyage, 
 and landed in Scotland. He was joined by some Highland 
 
THE PEETENDEK ADVANCES. 415 
 
 cTiiefs, with their hardy mountaineers, but the Presbyterian 
 party remained true to their allegiance to the reigning 
 family. The latter, most numerous in the Lowlands, being 
 unused to arras, were filled with the gravest apprehensions. 
 The news of the capture of the island of Cape Breton, at 
 the entrance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, by Warren and 
 Pepperel, in some measure removed their despondency 
 (July 17, 1745). At the head of his hardy Highlanders, 
 Charles Edward took possession of Dunkeld, Perth, and 
 Dundee, proclaiming his father, the Chevalier St. George, 
 king. Thence he advanced to Ediuburgh while Sir John 
 Cope, commander of the royal forces, retired. The head 
 of the Stuarts was proclaimed with due formality in the 
 Scottish capital (Sep. 16). In the mean time. Cope, who 
 had received reinforcements, retraced his steps towards 
 Edinburgh, and pitched his camp near Preston Pans, where 
 he was attacked by Charles Edward and his Highlanders, 
 and totally defeated (Sep. 21). The military chest, cannon, 
 colours, camp-equipage, and baggage of the royal army, fell 
 into the hands of the rebels. 
 
 § 525. Had Charles Edward followed up this triumph 
 before the English troops could have been recalled from 
 Flanders, the result of the struggle might have been differ- 
 ent. Instead of taking advantage of this victory, he 
 returned to Holyrood-house and wasted his time in idle 
 parade. At length the determination to advance into Eng- 
 land was taken, and the Pretender issued a declaration. It 
 was, however, too late : George II. had returned from his 
 Grerman dominions, loyal addresses from all quarters poured 
 in, the flower of the British army had been recalled from 
 Elanders, six thousand Dutch auxiliaries had landed, the 
 militia was embodied, and the kingdom placed in a state of 
 defence. The vigilance of Admiral Vernon, in command of 
 the channel fleet, efiectually cut off aU hope of succour from 
 Prance. The rebel army had captured Carlisle ; thence 
 they advanced through Preston and Lancaster to Man- 
 chester, where the Pretender established his head-quarters 
 (Nov. 28). His reception was not so cordial as he had an- 
 ticipated, but he continued his march, and entered Derby 
 (Dec. 4). Having liugejed here a few days, and being 
 threatened by two superior armies, Charles Edward, deter- 
 mined upon a retreat. This was efiected in good order and 
 without any serious loss ; and the rebel army repaired to 
 Glasgow (Dec. 25). 
 
416 BATTLE OF CULLODEN. 
 
 § 526. During Charles Edward's absence from Scotland, 
 the two hostile parties into which the kingdom was divided 
 made the greatest efforts to increase their strength, A 
 small reinforcement had arrived from France, several noble- 
 men joined the cause of the Stuarts, and Simon Fraser, 
 Lord Lovat, sent round the Fiery Gross, denouncing spoil, 
 sword, and fire against all vassals who refused to take arms 
 at his command. The royalists were also warmly sup- 
 ported, and General Hawley was appointed to the com- 
 mand. From Glasgow the Pretender marched upon 
 Stirling, and defeated General Hawley near that town. 
 The royalists were, however, again reinforced ; the duke of 
 Cumberland assumed the command, and entirely crushed 
 the insurrection, on Culloden Moor, near Nairn. The 
 rebel army, after an ineffectual struggle of thirty minutes, 
 was totally routed, and chased off the field with great 
 slaughter. The king's troops, but especially the dragoons, 
 irritated by their former disgraces, and the fatigues of a 
 winter campaign, gave no quarter. Nearly two thousand of 
 the rebels were killed in the battle and pursuit, and only 
 three hundred and ten of the royal army (April 16, 1746). 
 After suffering the most incredible hardships in the High- 
 lands and Western Islands of Scotland, during a period of 
 nearly five months, a reward of thirty thousand pounds 
 having been offered for his capture, Charles Edward effected 
 his escape, and landed in Brittany, in France. The rebels 
 were pursued with great cruelty by the victorious army. 
 Many of them were captured, tried, and condemned to , 
 death. The most arbitrary measures were adopted against 
 them, and everything done to crush the spirit which had 
 given rise to the formidable rebellion. 
 
 Letter 30. — A General View of the Affairs of Europe, from the Treaty 
 of Dresden to the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. A.D. 1745 — 1748. 
 Vol. ii., pages 423 — 436. 
 
 § 527. The treaty of Dresden, and the confirmation of 
 that of Breslau, by finally detaching the king of Prussia 
 from the house of Bourbon, made a great change in the 
 state of the contending powers, but did not dispose them 
 to peace. The king of France, encouraged by his past suc- 
 cesses, and by the absence of the British troops, determined 
 to push his conquests in the Low Countries ; and the king 
 of Great Britain, enraged at Louis for supporting a Pre- 
 tender to his throne, resolved upon vengeance, as soon as 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 417 
 
 the rebellion ia Scotland should be finally suppressed. 
 Elated with the exaltation of her husband to the imperial 
 throne, and having now no enemy to oppose in Germany, 
 the queen of Hungary hoped to be able to give a favour- 
 able turn to the war iu Italy. She even flattered herself, 
 that the Circles, or the Germanic body, might be induced 
 to take up arms against France ; and that, by the co- ' 
 operation of England and Holland, all Flanders might be 
 recovered, and the victorious house of Bourbon completely 
 humbled. The French army captured Brussels, Antwerp, 
 Mens, and other towns, and Louis became absolute master 
 of Flanders, Brabant, and Hainault. Charles of Lor- 
 raine, at the head of the confederate army, made several 
 attempts to change the fortunes of the war, but was at 
 last attacked and defeated by Marshal Saxe at Eoucoux 
 (Oct. 1, 1746) ; after which hotly-contested and sanguinary 
 encounter both armies retired into winter quarters. In 
 Italy various negotiations were carried on, which did not 
 make any material alteration in the condition of afiairs. 
 A misunderstanding between the French and Spaniards 
 paralyzed their efforts, and the Austrians and Sardinians 
 recovered all the Piedmontese fortresses, and entered the 
 duchy of Milan. France and Spain accommodated their 
 differences, but being unable to retrieve the fate of the cam- 
 paign, were compelled to retire, and the haughty republic of 
 Genoa was delivered up to the mercy of the Austrians and 
 Sardinians. While these events were in progress, Philip V. 
 of Spain, the first prince of the house of Bourbon who sat 
 upon the Spanish throne, expired (July 9, 1746), and was 
 succeeded by his son Ferdinand VI. 
 
 § 528. The Austrian and Piedmontese armies, having 
 driven the French and Spaniards out of Italy, invaded 
 France. They entered Provence, but were encountered 
 with great spirit, and forced to retire. In the mean time 
 the inhabitants of Genoa rose against their Austrian con- 
 querors, and drove them from their city (Dec. 10). The 
 naval transactions of this year do little honour to the 
 British flag. In consequence of the cowardice of Commo- 
 dore Peyton, who declined an engagement vrith a French 
 squadron not quite equal in force to his own, the English 
 settlement of Madras fell into their hands (Sept. 14). An. 
 expedition — at first intended for the reduction of Quebec, 
 the capital of Canada, but having been detained too late 
 for that enterprise, its destination was changed — failed, in 
 2 E 
 
418 ACTIONS AT SEA. 
 
 an attempt against Port L' Orient, the repository of stores 
 belonging to the French East-India Company. The French 
 also miscarried in an enterprise, on a larger scale, for the 
 recovery of the island of Cape Breton and the reduction 
 of the English settlement of Annapolis. The conferences 
 opened atBreda, towards the end of the campaign, were, owing 
 to the insolent demands of the French, soon broken off. 
 Both parties prepared to carry on the war with vigour. 
 The States- General entered into closer alliance with Eng- 
 land; Austria and Sardinia collected large armies; Louis XV. 
 assembled one hundred and fifty thousand men, and gave 
 Marshal Saxe unlimited powers, while the Spanish army was 
 considerably augmented. 
 
 § 529. At the commencment of the campaign of 1747, 
 the French made rapid progress in Dutch Brabant, and this 
 so alarmed the people, that they appointed "William Henry 
 Friso, " stadtholder, captain-general, and admiral-in-chief 
 of all the United Provinces" (May 2). The beneficial 
 results of this step became apparent, in the vigorous 
 measures that were adopted for the prosecution of the 
 war. During these transactions the duke of Cumberland 
 lay inactive, in presence of a large French force. The 
 arrival of Louis XV. at Brussels led to a renewal of active 
 operations, and the attempt to besiege Maestricht brought 
 on the battle of Lafieldt or Val. In this action the British 
 troops again carried everything before them ; but being 
 badly supported by their Dutch, and altogether deserted 
 by their Austrian allies, were at last obliged to retreat 
 (June 20). Bergen-op-Zoom was attacked, and, after the 
 most heroic defence, carried by assault (Sept. 16). The 
 French generals in Italy achieved certain successes early in 
 the campaign, and the Austrians failed in an attempt to 
 punish the Genoese for their late rebellion. The defeat of 
 a French army by the Austrians and Sardinians at Exilles 
 (July 8) compelled the French to abandon the country, and 
 the king of Sardinia was only prevented by the great rains 
 of the autumnal season from invading France. The French 
 fleet was captured by Admirals Anson and Warren, off Cape 
 Finisterre (May 3) ; and about six weeks after this engage- 
 ment, and nearly in the same latitude. Commodore Fox fell 
 in with a fleet of merchantmen, from St. Domingo, laden 
 with the rich productions of that fertile island, and took 
 forty-six of them (June 20). Admiral Hawke defeated 
 another French squadron off Belleisle, . and captured six 
 ships (Oct. 14). 
 
CONGRESS AT AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 419 
 
 § 530. These naval triumphs induced Louis XV. to think 
 of peace, and even to listen to moderate terms, in spite of 
 his great superiority in the Netherlands. His finances 
 were almost exhausted ; the trade of his subjects was 
 utterly ruined ; and he could no longer depend upon 
 supplies from the mines of Mexico and Peru, in the low- 
 state of the Erench and Spanish navies. The success of his 
 arms in Italy had fallen infinitely short of his expectations ; 
 and the republic of Genoa, though a necessary, had become 
 au expensive, ally. His views had been totally defeated in 
 Germany by the elevation of the grand duke to the 
 imperial throne, and the subsequent pacification between 
 the houses of Austria, Bavaria, and Brandenburg. He was 
 still victorious in the Netherlands ; but the election of a 
 stadtholder, by uniting the force of the States-General 
 against him, left little hopes of future conquests in that 
 quarter ; especially as the British Parliament, whose 
 resources were yet unimpaired, and whose liberality seemed 
 to know no bounds, had enabled their sovereign to conclude 
 a subsidiary treaty with the empress of Russia, who engaged 
 to hold in readiness an army of thirty thousand men, and 
 forty galleys, to be employed in the service of the confe- 
 derates, on the first requisition. Influenced by these con- 
 siderations, the king of France made advances toward an 
 accommodation both at London and the Hague ; and all 
 parties, the subsidiary powers excepted, being heartily tired 
 of the war, it was agreed to open a new congress at Aix-la- 
 ChapeUe, as soon as the plenipotentiaries could receive their 
 instructions. In the mean time vigorous preparations for 
 carrying on the war were made in every quarter, and 
 Marshal Saxe pressed the siege of Maestricht. On the 
 signature of the preliminaries of peace, the place was sur- 
 rendered, not as a permanent acquisition, but to satisfy a point 
 of honour, to Erance, and Marshal Saxe accordingly took pos- 
 session, while the garrison marched out with the customary 
 honours of war (April 30, 1748). Tet matters were not 
 finally settled until October, and in the mean time hostilities 
 had been carried on in the East and "West Indies. Admiral 
 Boscawen ultimately failed in an attack upon Pondicherry 
 (Oct. 6), and Admiral Knowles in another upon St. Jago de 
 Cuba, although he had previously captured and dismantled 
 Eort Louis, on the south side of Hispaniola. This admiral 
 also defeated a Spanish squadron, of equal force with his own,* 
 off the Havannah, and took one shij^: of the line (Oct. 1). 
 2 E 2 
 
420 CONDITIONS OF PEACE. 
 
 At length tlie definitive treaty of peace was signed at Aix-la- 
 Ohapelle, and hostilities ceased in all quarters (Oct. 7, 1748). 
 § 531. This treaty had for its basis a general coniirmation 
 of all preceding treaties, from that of Westphalia ; and for 
 its immediate object, a mutual restitution of all conquests 
 made since the beginning of the war, with a release of 
 prisoners without ransom. The principal stipulations 
 provided, that the duchies of Parma, Placentia, aud Gruas- 
 talla should be ceded, as a sovereignty, to the infant Don 
 Philip, and the heirs male of his body ; (but it was also 
 stipulated, that, in case that he or any of his descendants 
 should succeed to the crown of Spain, or to that of the Two 
 Sicilies, or should die without male issue, those territories 
 were to return to the empress-queen of Hungary and the 
 king of Sardinia, or their descendants :) that the subjects of 
 his Britannic majesty should enjoy the Assiento contract, 
 with the privilege of the annual ship, during the rever- 
 sionary term of four years, which had been suspended by 
 the war ; (but no mention was made of the right of Enghsh 
 ships to navigate the American seas without being subject 
 to search, though the indignation occasioned by the violation 
 of that contested right was the sole cause of the war 
 between Great Britain and Spain : ) that all the contracting 
 powers should guarantee to his Prussian majesty the duchy 
 of Silesia and the county of Glatz ; and that such of the 
 same powers as had guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction of 
 the Emperor Charles VI. for securing to his daughter, the 
 empress-queen of Hungary and Bohemia, the undivided suc- 
 cession of the house of Austria, should renew their engage- 
 ments in the most solemn manner, with the exception of the 
 cessions made by this and former treaties. Such was the 
 treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, so generally and unjustly censured 
 by English writers, who ought rather to have condemned 
 the wanton war, and the unskilful manner in which it was 
 conducted. It was, indeed, a conflict singular in the annals 
 of mankind, in which, after much bloodshed and many 
 sacriiices, all parties may be said to have been losers. 
 
 Letter 31. — France, Spain, and Great Britain, from the Peace of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle to the Renewal of Hostilities ; with an Account of the 
 Disputes in the East Indies, and of the Origin of the War in America. 
 A.D. 1748—1755. Vol, ii., pages 436—447. 
 
 , § 532. The few years of peace that followed the treaty of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle were the most prosperous and happy that 
 
FRENCH INTEIGTJES IN INDIA. 421 
 
 Europe had ever known. Arts and letters were success- 
 fully cultivated; manufactures and commerce flourished; 
 society was highly polished ; and the intercourse of mankind, 
 of nations, and of different ranks, was facilitated by means 
 of new roads, vehicles, and amusements. This was more 
 especially the case in France and England, and between the 
 people of the two rival kingdoms; who, forgetting past 
 animosities, seemed only to contend for pre-eminence in 
 gaiety, refinement, and mutual civilities. The Erench 
 government, jealous of the naval superiority of the English, 
 had long formed the plan of dispossessing them of their con- 
 quests both in America and in the East Indies, or at least, 
 of considerably extending their own. Ships were built with 
 extraordinary rapidity, and repeated efforts were made by 
 French statesmen to obtain the co-operation of Spain. 
 These intrigues were defeated by the vigilance of the 
 English minister at Madrid ; and Ferdinand resolutely 
 resisted every attempt made to induce him to peril the 
 peace of Europe by furthering the ambitious schemes of 
 the house of Bourbon. The French ministry had, however, 
 gone too far, and a rupture could not be much longer delayed. 
 § 533. In acecordance with the provisions of the treaty 
 of Aix-la^Chapelle, both France and England had mutually 
 restored their conquests in North America and the East 
 Indies. M. Dupleix, governor of Pondicherry, conceived 
 the idea of obtaining large acquisitions of Indian territory 
 for France. The extensive country between the Indus and 
 the Ganges belonged chiefly to the Great Mogul. The 
 government had, however, fallen into a sad condition of 
 weakness ; and all the great officers of the crown had 
 become, in a manner, independent princes. The sovhahdars, 
 or Mahometan viceroys of the soubalis, or provinces ; the 
 nabohs, or governors of inferior districts ; and even the 
 rajahs, or tributary Hindoo princes, began to consider 
 themselves as absolute sovereigns, paying to the Mogul 
 emperors any homage they thought proper, and frequently 
 making war upon each other. In order to ensure the 
 success of hia scheme, Dupleix formed the project of making 
 soubahdars and nabobs, and even of becoming a nabob 
 himself. Mahomet Ali, son of the nabob of Arcot, in 
 whose government a person devoted to the French had 
 been established, repaired to the English, and entered into 
 an alliance with the English East-India Company at Fort 
 St. David. 
 
422 EOBERT CLIVE. 
 
 § 534. Several actions, with great diversity of fortune, 
 tad been fought, when Eobert Olive, who had gone out as a 
 writer to the East-India Compan}', but was afterwards 
 appointed commissary to the army, obtained a command 
 (1751). He attacked and captured Arcot, where he was 
 afterwards besieged by the Prench and their native allies. 
 Olive defended the place gallantly, compelled his assailants 
 to raise the siege (Aug. 31), pursued and defeated them, 
 with great loss, on the plains of Aranie (Dec. 3, 1751). Both 
 parties having been reinforced, the war broke out again in 
 the following year. Major Lawrence commanded the English 
 company's troops, with the gallant Oaptain Olive acting 
 under him. The result of the contest was favourable to the 
 English, and the Erench lost many of their more recent 
 acquisitions. Dupleix was recalled, and a conditional treaty 
 negotiated, by which the Erench and English companies 
 agreed for ever to renounce all Oriental government and 
 dignity ; never to interfere in any disputes that might arise 
 between the princes of the country ; and that all places, 
 except such as were particularly stipulated to remain in the 
 possession of each company, should be delivered up to the 
 government of Hindostan. Before this conditional treaty 
 had been ratified in Europe, a new war between the two 
 nations broke out in another quarter of the globe, and 
 embroiled the whole world (1754). 
 
 § 535. The province of Nova Scotia had been ceded to 
 Great Britain at the peace of Utrecht. Eew Enghsh 
 families settled in this colony, and the Erench inhabitants, 
 having taken the oath of allegiance to their new sovereign, 
 and having obtained extensive privileges, assumed the name 
 of Neutrals. When the French attempted to regain the 
 country in 1746, these colonists violated their neutrahty in 
 a most shameful manner, and the English government, per- 
 ceiving the necessity of peopling the colony with British 
 subjects, after the peace of Aix-la-Ohapelle, offered great 
 advantages to settlers. About three thousand families, many 
 of them German Protestants, embarked for Nova Scotia. 
 The town of Halifax, intended as a naval and military station, 
 was built, and the harbour strongly fortified. A struggle 
 for supremacy immediately commenced ; and the Erench 
 exerted themselves to confine the English in North America 
 within narrow limits, with a view to their ultimate expul- 
 sion. Disputes arose, conflicts ensued, and the Erench, 
 being much better prepared for war, felt confident of 
 
EARTHQTTAKE AT LISBON. 423 
 
 success. A powerful armament was fitted out in France 
 for the support of the colonists, and a squadron, under the 
 command of Boscawen, was despatched from Plymouth to 
 watch the motions of the enemy (April 27, 1755). 
 
 § 536. The hostile fleets arrived at the banks of New- 
 foundland about the same time, but owing to the thick fogs 
 that prevail in that part during the spring, did not meet. 
 Two French ships, which had separated from the rest, were 
 captured off Cape Eace, by two English vessels of about 
 the same size. This action was declared by the French 
 government to have been the cause of the war that ensued. 
 They seemed to forget the oifensive measures that had been 
 adopted in America for the utter extirpation of the English 
 colonists. The struggle continued to rage in that part of 
 the world. General Braddock, who had been sent from 
 England to conduct an expedition against the French forts 
 on the Ohio, fell into an ambuscade, near Fort du Quesne 
 (July 9, 1755) ; his troops were dispersed, and he died 
 fighting gallantly against overwhelming numbers. An 
 attack upon Niagara, which had been resolved upon, was 
 given up as impracticable, and General Johnson, who com- 
 manded an expedition against Crown Point, having repulsed 
 an assault upon his camp by the French and Indians (Aug. 9), 
 deemed it inexpedient to go on with the enterprise so late 
 in the season. These events, and the capture of the two 
 French ships off Cape Eace, were but the prelude to the 
 approaching storm. The British ministry issued an order 
 that aU French ships were to be seized wherever they might 
 be found, and before the end of the year, above three 
 hundred merchant vessels, and about eight thousand 
 seamen, were brought into the ports of England. While 
 the flames of war were thus breaking out between France 
 and England, the southern parts of Europe were visited 
 by a calamity more dreadful than war itself. A violent 
 earthquake, which shook all Spain, Portugal, and the 
 neighbouring countries, threw the inhabitants into the 
 utmost consternation, and laid the city of Lisbon in ruins 
 (Nov. 1, 1755). About ten thousand persons lost their 
 lives ; and many of the survivors were obliged to take up 
 their abode in the open fields. But they were not suffered 
 to perish. The British Parliament, though pressed with 
 new demands, generously voted one hundred thousand 
 pounds sterling for the relief of the unhappy sufferers in 
 Portugal. And this noble instance of public liberality was 
 
42i THE SEVEN YEAES' WAK. 
 
 enhanced by the manner of conferring the benefit. A 
 number of ships, laden with provisions and clothing, were 
 immediately dispatched to Lisbon ; where they arrived so 
 opportunely as to preserve thousands from dying of hunger 
 or cold. 
 
 Lettek 32. — General Yiew of the State of Europe, -with an Account of 
 the War, till the Conquest of Hanover by the Prench. A.D. 1756 — 
 1767. Vol. ii., pages 447—472. 
 
 § 537. Louis XV. resolved to put his threat of invading 
 the electorate of Hanover into execution, and Great 
 Britain prepared for its defence. Spain, Portugal, and 
 the United Provinces determined to remain neutral; 
 Prussia inclined to England, whilst Austria and the 
 Korthern Powers sided with Prance. The invasion of 
 the island of Minorca by the French (April 18) was 
 immediately followed by a declaration of war, on the part 
 of Great Britain (May 18, 1756) ; and thus the struggle, 
 known as the Seven Tears' "War, commenced in earnest. 
 Eecriminations between the two countries ensued, and the 
 Prench threatened to invade England. In May the peers 
 had rejected a bill for the better regulation of the militia 
 forces of the kingdom, and accordingly Hessian and Han- 
 overian troops were brought over for its defence. Admiral 
 Byng, to whom the command of the Mediterranean fleet 
 had been entrusted, wrote home a despatch condemnatory 
 of ministers for their neglect in certain important mat- 
 ters ; and his own apparent unwillingness to engage the 
 Prench fleet led to his ruin. Minorca surrendered to the 
 Prench (July 7) : whereupon a great clamour was raised 
 in England. Byng, having been superseded by Sir E. 
 Hawke, was brought home, and tried for his life. Ministers 
 were but too glad to throw the blame of the failure upon a 
 man who had made himself odious to them, by his bold 
 criticisms of their conduct. The people were highly in- 
 censed, and petitions poured in from all quarters, demand- 
 ing an inquiry with respect to the loss of Minorca. 
 
 § 538. Great expectations were formed relative to the 
 operations in North America. The earl of Loudon 
 had been appointed commander-in-chief, with General 
 Abercombie as second in command. A very extensive 
 plan of operations was determined upon; but owing to 
 divisions among the different states, and the indecision of 
 
HOREOES OF THE BLACK HOLE. 425 
 
 the generals, the proper time for striking a blow was 
 suffered to escape. The Erench, under the marquis of 
 Montcalm, continued to advance, and Fort Oswego, with 
 its garrison, vessels of war, cannon, ammunition, and pro- 
 visions, fell into their hands (Aug. 16, 1756). Nor did 
 affairs in the East Indies wear a more favourable aspect. 
 In spite of Admiral Watson's naval success against the 
 pirates on the coast of Malabar, the English arms in 
 bengal sustained a severe reverse. Eajah al Dowlah, a 
 native prince, who possessed the chief authority in that 
 part of India, jealous of the increasing power of the 
 English, marched at the head of an army of fifty thousand 
 men upon Calcutta. At his approach, the English inhabi- 
 tants sought refuge in Eort William, which was only 
 defended by a small garrison. On the desertion of some 
 of the troops, Mr. Holwell, a member of the council, 
 assumed the command. This gentleman made a gallant 
 defence, but was unable to withstand the overwhelming 
 forces by which he was assailed (June 17). Holwell, and 
 his unfortunate companions, to the number of one hundred 
 and forty-six, were crammed into a small dungeon, called 
 the Black Hole. This happened in one of the hottest 
 climates of the world, and consequently, when the door was 
 opened the next morning, only twenty-three persons were 
 found alive. Mr. Holwell, and two of the survivors, were 
 sent prisoners to the capital of the province, Calcutta was 
 piUaged, and Fort William secured by a garrison of three 
 thousand men. In fact, the affairs of the East-India Com- 
 pany seemed finally ruined in Bengal. 
 
 § 539. War soon after commenced in Europe. The 
 king of Prussia took possession of Saxony, as a first step 
 towards the invasion of Bohemia. Thereupon, Frederic 
 Augustus, elector of Saxony, and king of Poland, aban- 
 doned his capital, and joined his small army encamped near 
 Pirna. The king of Prussia postponed his attack upon 
 Bohemia, in order to assail this camp. Having reduced the 
 Saxon army to great extremities, Frederic II. of Prussia set 
 out to engage the Austrians who were hastening to its 
 relief. The two armies met near Lowositz ; and after a 
 sanguinary engagement, each party claimed the victory 
 (Oct. 1). The Austrians, however, retired, and being 
 compelled to abandon their intention of relievin" their 
 Saxon allies, evidently sustained a serious reverse. The 
 Saxons soon after surrendered, and Frederic Augustus 
 
426 CAMPAIGN IN GERMANY. 
 
 sought refuge in Poland. Frederic II. of Prussia took up 
 his residence in Dresden, and in the archives of that city- 
 obtained possession of state papers, proving the formidable 
 conspiracy entered into between Saxony, Austria, and 
 Russia, for his humiliation. The discontent in England, 
 consequent upon the failures in the campaign, induced the 
 king to change his ministers, and on the resignation of 
 the duke of Newcastle, William Pitt and his friends 
 obtained power. The foreign troops were sent home, a 
 liew militia bill was framed, and Admiral Byng was tried 
 by court martial at Portsmouth, sentenced to death, and 
 shot (March 14, 1757). A fanatic, named Francis Damien, 
 who stabbed Louis XV. as he was stepping into his coach 
 (Jan. 5), was put to death at Paris in a most barbarous 
 manner. The wound was not mortal, and the king speedily 
 recovered. 
 
 § 540. The French prepared to invade the electorate of 
 Hanover, hoping that their success would induce George II. 
 to submit to their ascendancy in North America. They 
 also reinforced the Austrian army which had been launched 
 against the king of Prussia, by the Aulic council, and the 
 diet of the empire. No sooner had Frederic II. entered 
 Saxony, than he was put to the ban of the empire, and 
 adjudged fallen from all his dignities and possessions. The 
 levies ordered to enforce these decrees bore the title of the 
 Imperial Army of Execution. The Eussians, Swedes, 
 Austrians, and French, were gradually drawing around the 
 king of Prussia, who still persisted in his design of invad- 
 ing Bohemia. Several engagements took place between 
 portions of the Prussian and Austrian armies, but the 
 former continued to advance, and gained the famous battle 
 of Prague (May 6, 1757). Thereupon Frederic invested 
 that city, but having been defeated at the warmly-contested 
 battle of Kolin (May 18), he raised the siege, and com- 
 menced the evacuation of Bohemia. The armies of his 
 Prussian majesty, and those of his allies, were not more 
 fortunate in other quarters. The Russians had invaded 
 Prussia, and captured Memel ; and Marshal Lehwald, 
 having failed to make any impression upon them in an 
 action near Norkitten (Aug. 13), drew off his army in good 
 order, and reoccupied his former camp, 
 
 § 541. While the Russians were ravaging one portion of 
 the king of Prussia's dominions, the French were stripping 
 him of his possessions in another direction, and laying the 
 
CONVENTION OF CLOSTEE SEVEN. W 
 
 electorate of Hanover under contribution. The dnke of 
 Cumberland was defeated at Hartenbeck (July 25), and 
 instead of endeavouring to form a junction veith the Prussian 
 forces, he continued his retreat. The Trench ravaged the 
 electorate, and the duke of Cumberland signed the singular 
 convention of Closter Seven (Sept. 8), by which an army of 
 thirty-eight thousand Hanoverians, Hessians, and other 
 troops in the pay of his Britannic majesty, was dissolved 
 and distributed into different quarters of cantonment, 
 without being disarmed or considered as prisoners of war. 
 The French were thus at liberty to direct all their efforts 
 against the king of Prussia. The army of the empire was 
 on its march to the rescue of Saxony, twenty thousand 
 Swedes had entered Prussian Pomerania, and the Russians 
 still ravaged other parts of the kingdom. One Austrian 
 army had entered Silesia, while another, penetrating Lusatia, 
 eluded the Prussian forces, and suddenly appearing before 
 Berlin, laid that capital under contribution (Oct. 17, 1757). 
 The ruin of Prederic II. of Prussia seemed, under these cir- 
 cumstances, to be inevitable. 
 
 Letter 33. — State of Europe and Histoiy of the War, from the Con- 
 vention of Closter Seven to the Battle of Minden. A.D. 1757 — 1759. 
 Vol. ii., pages 472 — 497. 
 
 § 542. Pitt and Legge, who were dismissed from office 
 (April 9, 1757), in consequence of their unwillingness to 
 send British troops to Hanover, at the request of Greorge II., 
 had been restored to power before the news of the conven- 
 tion of Closter Seven reached England, in compliance 
 with the general wish of the nation, expressed in many 
 warm addresses to the throne (June 28). They had not, 
 however, had time to plan any regular system of measures, 
 when the shame and confusion was at its height, and their 
 first enterprise, an expedition under Sir Edward Hawke, 
 carrying ten regiments of land forces, intended to operate 
 upon the coasts of France, returned to port without having 
 achieved anything. Great was the indignation of the people, 
 and while a court of inquiry censured Sir John Mordaunt, 
 the commander-in-chief of the land forces, a court martial 
 acquitted him of the charge of disobeying instructions. 
 Afi'airs in America did not afford a more flattering prospect. 
 An expedition that had been intended to act against Louis- 
 burg was countermanded, on account of the arrival of the 
 Brest fleet, with supplies and reinforcements. The French 
 
428 DESPONDENCY IN ENGLAND. 
 
 cut off our communications with our Indian allies, and de- 
 stroyed all our fine settlements on the Mohawk river, and 
 the ground called the German flats. The marquis of 
 Montcalm laid siege to Fort William Henry, built on the 
 southern side of Lake George, in order to cover the frontier 
 of the British settlements, and to command the lake. 
 General "Webb, who was posted with an army in the imme- 
 diate neighbourhood, did not attempt to save it, and the 
 garrison were compelled to surrender (Aug. 9, 1757). In 
 violation of all the rules of war, the Indians in the French 
 army fell upon the defenceless soldiers, scalping them, and 
 exercising upon them every species of cruelty known among 
 the natives of North America. 
 
 § 543. When intelligence of those losses and disgraces 
 arrived in England, the people, already sufficiently mortified, 
 gave way to despondency. Certain moral and political 
 writers, who foretold the ruin of the nation, and ascribed its 
 misfortunes to a total corruption of manners and principles, 
 and the utter extinction of the martial spirit, gained universal 
 credit. But the more zealous friends of the new adminis- 
 tration, in conjunction with the younger officers of the army 
 and navy, warmly vindicated the national character, and 
 seemed to long for an opportunity to give the lie to these 
 prognostics of evil. In the mean time public opinion, ever 
 fluctuating, and wholly governed by events, took a less 
 gloomy direction. The first ray of hope came from the East. 
 After chastising the pirates. Admiral Watson returned to 
 the coast of Coromandel, where he was informed of the loss 
 of Calcutta. Eesolved upon obtaining revenge, he took 
 Clive, advanced to the rank of Colonel, with some of the 
 English East-India Company's troops, on board, and sailed 
 for Bengal. Calcutta was speedily recovered (Jan. 1, 1757), 
 Eajah al Dowlah compelled to sue for peace and to acccept 
 such terms as the English commanders chose to dictate. 
 Informed of the outbreak of war in Europe, Watson and 
 Clive attacked and captured Chandernagore, on the Ganges, 
 the principal French settlement in Bengal (March 28). 
 Eajah al Dowlah failed to execute the treaty he had entered 
 into with the English commanders, and intrigued with the 
 French. Clive, determined upon chastising his perfidy, de- 
 feated him, with much inferior forces, at the battle of Plassey 
 (June 23). Eajah al Dowlah sought safety in flight, but 
 was captured and put to death by order of Meer Jaffier, who 
 succeeded to his throne. Clive compelled him to submit to 
 
CAREEE OF VICTORY. 429 
 
 very rigorous terms, and having placed the English rule in 
 Bengal on a secure basis, he permitted this native prince to 
 hold a delegated authority. 
 
 § 544. Before intelligence of these victories reached 
 England, events in Europe had taken a favourable tiirn. 
 The army of the empire, having effected a junction with a 
 portion of the Erench forces, assumed the title of the Com- 
 bined Army, and commenced operations by besieging Leip- 
 sic. Erederic of Prussia hastened to its relief, and at the 
 head of forces inferior in number, defeated the Erench and 
 imperialists at Eosbach (jSTov. 5, 1757). He then advanced 
 against the Austrians and Hungarians, who had entered 
 Silesia in great force, besieged Schweidnitz, and defeated 
 the prince of Bevern (Nov. 22). The Prussian monarch 
 came up with the victorious enemy at the village of Leuthen, 
 near Lissa, where he gained another complete victory 
 (Dec. 5). Breslau surrendered (Dec. 21), and the Aus- 
 trians and Hungarians retired into Bohemia. The Prussians, 
 reduced to extremities from the want of supplies, were 
 obliged to return home, leaving a small garrison in Memel ; 
 and Marshal Lehwald, being thus left at liberty, entered 
 Pomerania and compelled the Swedes to withdraw. The 
 Erench, intent only upon plunder, had broken almost every 
 article of the convention of Closter Seven, and this so exas- 
 perated the Hanoverians, that they took up arms against 
 their invaders, and in a few months drove them in confusion 
 out of the country. 
 
 § 545. These successes induced the English ministers in 
 some measure to modify their views, and George II. entered 
 into a treaty with the king of Prussia, by which the con- 
 tracting powers engaged to conclude no treaty of peace, 
 truce, or neutrality, with the hostile powers, but in concert 
 and by mutual agreement and participation. Subsidies 
 were granted, and liberal supplies voted. Louis XV., who 
 during his long reign had submitted almost entirely to 
 female favourites, called experienced statesmen to his coun- 
 cils, and prepared to retrieve the reverses of the previous 
 campaign. Prince Eerdinand, at the head of the victorious 
 Hanoverians, again defeated the Erench at Creveld (June 23, 
 1758), and took Dusseldorf. The English were on their 
 march to reinforce his army, but nothing more was effected, 
 and Prince Eerdinand put his troops into winter quarters 
 towards the end of October. 
 
 I 546. The king of Prussia experienced many changes of 
 
430 FREDERIC'S VICTORIES. 
 
 fortune during the campaign. His first movement was 
 against Schweidnitz, which he captured in twelve days. 
 Frederic then divided his principal army into three parts, 
 passed into Moravia, and besieged Olmiitz. The capture 
 of a convoy by the Austrians, and the approach of the 
 Russians towards Silesia, compelled Frederic to abandon 
 this enterprise. Turning into Bohemia, he captured Konigs- 
 gratz, and, after a short repose, advanced to the relief of 
 Custrin, then closely besieged by the Eussians, who, instead 
 of invading Silesia, had entered Brandenburg. With a loss of 
 only eighteen hundred men, the king of Prussia defeated the 
 Russians at the battle of Zorndorf (Aug. 25, 1758), leaving 
 ten thousand of the enemy dead upon the field. Frederic 
 then hastened into Saxony to the relief of his brother 
 Henry, who was menaced by the Austrians and Hungarians 
 as well as by the army of the empire. When this junction 
 had been effected, Frederic took post at Hochkirchen, where 
 he was attacked by the Austrian General, Daun (Oct. 14). 
 The latter gained the day, but the victory was by no means 
 decisive, and Frederic, to the surprise of his antagonists, 
 marched into Silesia, and expelled the Austrians. His 
 absence from Saxony induced the Austrian generals in that 
 quarter to recommence operations. Leipsic, Torgau, and 
 Dresden were immediately besieged. The Prussian governor 
 destroyed a portion of the suburbs of Dresden in order to 
 render the city more secure, and a few days after Frederic II. 
 entered, returning from his victorious career in Silesia. 
 Thereupon the Austrian and imperial armies retired into 
 Bohemia. The Russians, as well as the Swedes, retreated 
 from Prussian Pomerania. The king of Prussia, triumphant 
 over all his enemies, appeared greater than ever. 
 
 § 547. While those illustrious achievements were in course 
 of accomplishment in Germany, the grand theatre of war, 
 the British arms had recovered their lustre, both by land 
 and sea. Admiral Osborne captured two French men-of- 
 war, and drove a third ashore, near Carthagena (Feb. 28, 
 1758). Sir E. Hawke dispersed and drove on shore in 
 Basque roads, a French fleet carrying reinforcements and 
 supplies to North America. Two other convoys were dis- 
 persed, and several transports taken ; and on the 29th of 
 May, a French ship of the line, having on board six hundred 
 and thirty men, and mounting sixty-four guns, was taken by 
 the Dorsetshire, an English seventy-gun ship, after a smart 
 engagement. A new expedition against the coast of France 
 
WARLIKE OPERATIONS. 431 
 
 was planned, and setting sail from the Isle of "Wight, it 
 steered directly for St. Malo (June 6, 1758), and having 
 destroyed the shipping and stores, returned to Spithead. 
 Another was sent against Cherbourg, which was taken, and 
 the works were destroyed (Aug. 8). Having re-embarked 
 his troops, General Bligh made a second landing, in the bay 
 of St. Lunar, two leagues to the westward of St. Malo ; but 
 the approach of a strong force of the enemy induced him to 
 beat a hasty retreat. The French came up with the retiring 
 army on the beach, and about a thousand of the best troops 
 perishedinthe confusion consequent uponthe re-embarkation. 
 § 548. In North America, whence so many accounts of 
 delay, disgrace, and disaster, had been received, affairs also 
 took a favourable turn. General Abercrombie had assumed 
 the command, and he divided his forces into three separate 
 bodies, under as many different commanders. About twelve 
 thousand men, under Major-general Amherst, were destined 
 for the siege of Louisburg ; nearly sixteen thousand, under 
 Abercrombie in person, were reserved for the reduction of 
 Ticonderago and Crown Point ; and eight thousand, com- 
 manded by Brigadier-general Forbes, were ordered to attack 
 Fort du Quesne. The first enterprise was entirely suc- 
 cessful, although the enemy made a gallant resistance. 
 General Wolfe distinguished himself greatly, and Louis- 
 burg, with all the island, submitted (July 27). With Cape 
 Breton fell also the island of St. John, and the stations 
 which the French had established for carrrying on the 
 cod-fishery in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Early in July, 
 General Abercrombie set off to execute his portion of the 
 plan to drive the French from Ticonderago and Crown 
 Point. In a skirmish with the French on the 5th, in which 
 the latter were defeated, Lord Howe, a nobleman of much 
 promise, fell. The English found the enemy in great force 
 at Ticonderago, failed in an attack (July 8), and retired. 
 Abercrombie, however, detached Col. Bradstreet against 
 Fort Frontenac, which surrendered (Aug. 25). The French 
 abandoned Fort du Quesne at the approach of Brigadier 
 Forbes and his force (Nov. 24), and the place received the 
 name of Fort Pitt. The French settlements in Africa 
 were also attacked. Fort Louis, on the river Senegal, was 
 captured (April 23) ; and the island of Goree was reduced 
 (Dec. 22). In India the British arms had not been so 
 successful, and in spite of two naval victories, Cadalore and 
 Fort St. David were taken by the French. 
 
432 BATTLE OF MINDEN. 
 
 § 549. Sucb. was the state of the war ia all parts of the 
 world at the close of the year 1758. The success was 
 divided. The resources of JEngland being still great, she 
 generously continued her annual subsidy to the king of 
 Prussia. Those of Austria were nearly exhausted, and 
 Prance was on the eve of a national bankruptcy ; yet the 
 efforts of both were undiminished. The empress of Russia 
 adhered to her military system, which she considered as 
 necessary to the training of her armies ; and Sweden made 
 no advances towards peace. The greatest exertions were 
 displayed in every quarter of the globe. The Prussians 
 destroyed all the Eussian magazines in Poland (Feb. 1759), 
 and recovered a great part of Pomerania. Early in January 
 the Prench had captured Prankfort-on-the-Maine, and Prince 
 Perdinand of Brunswick failed in an attempt to expel them 
 at Bergen (April 17). The Prench continued to advance, 
 and Prince Perdinand, anxious to prevent them from taking 
 up their winter quarters in the electorate of Hanover, deter- 
 mined to hazard an engagement. The main body of the 
 Prench army, after capturing Minden, had encamped in a 
 strong position in the neighbourhood of that city. Here 
 they were attacked and defeated (Aug. 1) ; and the day after, 
 the garrison of Minden surrendered. Lord George Sack- 
 ville, who had succeeded Marlborough in command of the 
 British troops, has been unjustly censured for not sup- 
 porting the commander-in-chief in this battle. The fact is, 
 that Prince Perdinand was jealous of him, and did all he 
 could to bring him into discredit. Although Lord George 
 Sackville was censured by Perdinand, and dismissed from 
 the army by a court-martial, his character has been com- 
 pletely vindicated by later investigations. 
 
 Lettek Si. — ^View of the State of Europe, and History of the War, 
 continued from the Deleat of the French at Minden to the Death of 
 George II. a.d. 1759—1760. Vol. ii., pages 497—522. 
 
 § 550. The victory of Minden threw the court of Ver- 
 sailles into the utmost confusion. Munster was recovered, 
 and the Prench compelled to evacuate a great part of 
 Germany. Perdinand, however, detached a part of his 
 army to support the king of Prussia, whose generals had 
 been worsted by the Russians at Zullichau (July 23),. 
 Thereupon, Prederic II. put himself at the head of his forces, 
 but was repulsed with great slaughter by the Eussians and 
 
CAMPAIGN IN NORTH AMERICA. 433 
 
 Austrians afc Cimersdorf (Aug. 12, 1759). So terrible was 
 the defeat, that the allies trembled for the safety of Prussia. 
 Frederic II. quickly recruited his army, and recovered all 
 Saxony, with the exception of Dresden. Having ordered 
 G-eneral Finck to attempt to cut off the Austrian retreat, 
 that general was surrounded, and reduced to the necessity 
 of surrendering with his army (Nov. 26). These reverses, 
 and another check his arms sustained in the capture and 
 destruction of a rear-guard of three thousand men, induced 
 Prederick to put his army into winter quarters at Freiburg, 
 without attempting any new enterprise. An English ex- 
 pedition against Martinique, not meeting with success, 
 proceeded to Quadaloupe, which it eventually captured 
 (April 20, 1759). 
 
 § 551. In North America it was resolved to attack the 
 French at all their strongholds at once. General "Wolfe, 
 who had so eminently distinguished himself at the siege of 
 Louisburg, was ordered to proceed up the river St. Lawrence 
 with a body of eight thousand men, and a stout fleet from 
 England, and besiege the city of Quebec ; General Amherst, 
 commander-in-chief of the British forces in North America, 
 with an army of twelve thousand men, was to reduce Ticon- 
 derago and Crown Point, cross Lake Champlain, and, pro- 
 ceeding by the way of Hichelieu Eiver to the banks of the 
 St. Lawrence, join General "Wolfe in his attempt upon the 
 capital of Canada ; and Brigadier Prideaux, with a third 
 army, reinforced by a body of provincials and friendly 
 Indians, under Sir William Johnson, was to invest the im- 
 portant fortress of Niagara, which in a manner commanded 
 the interior parts of the northern division of the New 
 World. It was also proposed, that the troops under Bri- 
 gadier Prideaux, after the reduction of Niagara, should 
 embark on Lake Ontario ; fall down the river St. Lawrence; 
 besiege and take Montreal; and then join or co-operate 
 with the combined army, under Amherst and Wolfe. The 
 army under Amherst was soon iu motion. The French 
 having abandoned Ticonderago, it was speedily occupied 
 (July 27), and the same thing happened at Crown Point 
 (Aug. 1). But Amherst was not able to effect a junction 
 with Wolfe, which was the prime abject of his enterprise. 
 Meanwhile Sir William Johnson had succeeded in his 
 attack upon Niagara (July 24), and Wolfe landed with his 
 troops a few leagues below the city of Quebec, which is 
 chiefly built upon a steep rock on the northern bank of the 
 2 I' 
 
iSi DEATH OF WOLFE. 
 
 river St. Lawrence, and is further defended by the river St, 
 Charles, which places it in a kind of peninsula. Montcalm, 
 the French general, was advantageously posted in the 
 neighbourhood, with a force superior to the English army. 
 To undertake the siege of the town, in such circumstances, 
 seemed contrary to all the established maxims of war. 
 "Wolfe determined to make the attempt, and after several 
 severe encounters, and an entire change of his plan of 
 operations, established himself upon the heights of Abra- 
 ham, which commanded the city (Sep. 13, 1759). This was 
 so perilous and difficult an operation, that the French general, 
 Montcalm, could hardly believe in its accomplishment. 
 Convinced that it had been effected, he determined to risk 
 an engagement. "Wolfe fell in the hour of victory, Mont- 
 calm was mortally wounded, the French retired, and five 
 days afterwards Quebec surrendered (Sept. 18).* 
 
 § 552. The French besieged Madras, but were obliged to 
 retire, and some of their settlements in the Oarnatic were 
 captured. Surat, in Malabar, was also taken, and the 
 Dutch chastised for their intrigues in Bengal. The English 
 were also victorious at sea. A French squadron was 
 defeated by Boscawen off Cape Lagos (Aug. 18) ; and 
 Sir Edward Hawke gained another naval triumph near 
 Belleisle (Nov. 20). Thurot, who had sailed into the North 
 Sea, with a powerful squadron, was obliged to take shelter in 
 the ports of Norway and Sweden. He afterwards ravaged 
 
 * Wolfe floating down the St. Lawrence to Quebec is thus described 
 by Lord Stanhope, in his History. — " Not a word was spoken, not a 
 sound was lieard beyond the rippling of the stream. Wolfe alone — 
 thus tradition has told us — repeated, in a low voice, to the other officers 
 in his boat those beautiful stanzas with which a country churchyard 
 inspired the muse of Gray ; one noble line, ' The paths of glory lead 
 but to the grave,' must have seemed, at such a moment, fraught with 
 mournful meaning. At the close of the recitation Wolfe added, 'Now, 
 gentlemen, I would rather be the author of that poem than take 
 Quebec.'" A fitting tribute to the memory of both of these gallant 
 men has been erected at Quebec. It is thus described by the author 
 whom we have quoted above.^ — " More recently, on the other side of 
 the Atlantic, a small column has been raised to mark the very spot 
 where Wolfe received his death-wound. But the noblest monum'ent to 
 his memory is one that blends his fame with the feme of his gallant 
 enemy : far diflerent, indeed, as to success, but alike both in courage 
 and in doom. Amidst the government gardens of Quebec there now 
 stands an obelisk, sixty feet in height : its front, looking to the land side, 
 along which the French general moved, bears inscribed the word 
 Montcalm ; its south front, towards which the English general ad- 
 vanced, bears the word Wolfe." 
 
VICTORY OF TORGAU. 435 
 
 the coast of Ireland, pillaged Carrickfergus (Feb. 21, 1760), 
 but was iatercepted and slain by Elliott, and all his ships 
 were taken (Feb. 28). During the campaign of 1760, 
 Prince Fredinand did not accomplish much. The French 
 advanced in one direction, and retired in another, and the 
 large armies in the field achieved nothing to increase their 
 reputation. The king of Prussia struggled gallantly against 
 the Eussians, the Austrians, the Swedes, and the army of 
 the empire. The Prussians were defeated at Landshut 
 (June 23), and Grlatz immediately surrendered. Frederic II. 
 failed in an attack upon Dresden (July 19), but defeated 
 the Austrians at Psaffendorf (Aug. 14), in Silesia. In the 
 mean time the Hussians and Austrians had advanced against 
 Berlin, of which they made themselves masters (Oct. 9). 
 This aroused Frederic, and with an army of fifty thousand 
 men he gained a brilliant victory over the Austrians, 
 eighty thousand strong, in their entrenched camp at Torgau 
 (Nov. 3). Of all the king of Prussia's victories, this was 
 perhaps the most glorious, as it was certainly the most impor- 
 tant. Frederic II. immediately entered Torgau; he recovered 
 all Saxony except Dresden, before the close of the campaign; 
 and he put his troops into winter quarters in that electorate, 
 instead of being obliged to canton them in his own wasted 
 dominions. The shock of victory seemed to be felt in every 
 hostile quarter. Laudolin abruptly evacuated Silesia. The 
 Eussians abandoned the siege of Colberg in Eastern Pome- 
 rania, and retired into Poland ; while the Swedes, defeated 
 by the Prussians in Western Pomerania, were forced to 
 take refuge under the the cannon of Stralsund. 
 
 § 553. In North America and the East Indies, the English 
 continued their career of victory. After the fall of Quebec 
 the French army had retired to Montreal. They were re- 
 inforced, and attempted to regain possession of Quebec. 
 After the most gallant efforts, they were obliged to give up 
 the enterprise, and being pressed by the English forces, 
 capitulated (Sept. 8). All the French fortresses in Canada 
 surrendered ; but it was stipulated that the French troops 
 should be transported to France, and the Canadians were 
 secured in their property, and in the free exercise of their 
 religion. Pondicherry, in the East Indies, surrendered 
 (Jan. 15, 1761) ; and Mahe soon after fell (Feb. 10). The 
 English people were not, however, satisfied with the wonder- 
 ful acquisitions of trade and territory consequent upon these 
 conquests. They complained of the inaction in Germany, 
 2 !■ 2 
 
436 ACCESSION OF GEOEGE III. 
 
 and desired that the Trench should have all their "West 
 Indian possessions -wrested from them. In the midst of ■ 
 these disputes, George II. died suddenly, in the seventy- 
 seventh year of his age (Oct. 25, 1760). Violent in his 
 temper, but humane and candid in his disposition, he con- 
 ciliated the afiection, ii he failed to command the respect, 
 of those who were most about his person. His attachment 
 to German politics rendered the early part of his reign 
 unpopular. 
 
 Letter 35. — State of Europe, and the Progress of the War, from the 
 Accession of George III. to the Peace of Paris. A.D. 1760— 17BS. 
 Vol. ii., pages 522—546. 
 
 § 554. George III., grandson of the former king, who suc- 
 ceeded to the crown of Great Britain in the twenty-third 
 year of his age, was universally allowed to be the arbiter of 
 peace and war, as he was beyond dispute the most powerful 
 monarch in Europe. Large supplies had abeady been granted 
 by his subjects ; yet were they still able and willing to raise 
 ,nore, in order to complete the humiliation of their enemies. 
 He declared in council, that as he ascended the throne in the 
 midst of an expensive but just and necessary war, he would 
 endeavour to prosecute that war in the manner most likely 
 to bring about an honourable and lasting peace, in concert 
 with his allies. This declaration quieted the allies; and the 
 liberal supplies granted by the British parliament, for sup- 
 porting the war during the next campaign (which amounted 
 to the immense sum of nearly twenty millions sterling), 
 astonished all Europe, and made the courts of Vienna and 
 Versailles sensible of the necessity of proposing terms of 
 peace. The dominions of the house of Austria were much 
 wasted ; the king of Prussia was in a better situation than 
 at the opening of the former campaign ; the army under 
 Prince Perdinand amounted to eighty thousand men ; the 
 Eussians and Swedes seemed tired of a contest in which they 
 had acquired neither honour nor advantage ; the elector of 
 Saxony was still in as distressed circumstances as ever, and 
 his Polish subjects obstinately refused to interpose in his 
 behalf. Prance declared her inability to discharge her 
 pecuniary engagements to her allies. Her finances were 
 low ; her navy was ruined ; her affairs in America and the 
 ■East Indies were irretrievable ; and it was evident that her 
 Vfest India islands must surrender to the first English 
 armament that should appear upon their eoastsj A con- 
 
THE FAMILY COMPACT. 437 
 
 gress was accordingly ordered to meet at Augsburg, iu 
 the beginning of April, for settling the disputes among the 
 Grerman powers ; while the ministers of France and Eng- 
 land were appointed to negotiate at London and Paris, in 
 order to adjust the differences between the two crowns. 
 The congress at Augsburg never tool£ place, bat the nego- 
 tiations between France and England were carried on for 
 some time, in spite of the hostilities, which still raged with 
 great fury. 
 
 § 555. The war on the continent in 1761 did not produce 
 any important results. At sea the English were again vic- 
 torious, and several actions between small squadrons, and 
 even single ships, added greatly to the honour of the 
 British flag. A formidable armament was fitted out 
 against Belleisle, on the coast of France, which achieved 
 the most decisive success (June 7). The negotiations with 
 France were resumed, but although that power offered to 
 make great concessions, difSculties occurred, and they were 
 finally broken off. The court of Madrid had fallen under 
 French influence, and it was foreseen that Spain would 
 become involved in the contest. On the death of Ferdi- 
 nand VI. (Aug. 10, 1759), his brother, Don Carlos, king 
 of Naples and Sicily, succeeded to the throne under the 
 title of Charles III. On this event, by an article in the 
 treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Don Philip should have ascended 
 the throne of the Two Sicilies ; and Parma, Placentia, and 
 Gruastalla, should have reverted to the house of Austria, 
 saving certain provisions made by the same treaty in favour 
 of the king of Sardinia. But as Don Carlos had never 
 acceded to that treaty, he left the crown of the Two Sicilies, 
 by will, to his third son, Don Ferdinand, the eldest being 
 judged unfit for government, and the second designed for 
 the Spanish succession. Don Philip acquiesced in this ar- 
 rangement ; and the court of Vienna, through the mediation 
 of France, permitted him to remain in possession of the 
 duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, without putting 
 in any claim to those territories. The king of Sardinia was 
 quieted with money. The French government prevailed 
 upon the new king of Spain to enter into still closer rela- 
 tions, and the celebrated family compact, between the 
 Bourbons of France, Spain, Naples, and Parma, was signed 
 (Aug. 15), pledging the kings of France and Spain in parti- 
 cular to the most intimate alliance. William Pitt, fully 
 alive to the consequences of the intimate alliance between 
 
438 WAK WITH SPAIN. 
 
 Prance and Spain, advocated decisive; measures, and being 
 outvoted in the council, resigned (Oct. 5, 1761). A pension 
 was settled upon him, and his wife was made Baroness 
 Chatham. 
 
 § 556. The ministry continued under the lead of the duke 
 of Newcastle, and did not seem in the least degree inclined to 
 make undue concessions to Prance or Spain. They demanded 
 explanations from the latter power relative to the family 
 compact, and not receiving a satisfactory reply, declared 
 war (Jan. 4, 1762). Never had Grreat Britain been in so 
 perilous a situation. She was engaged, as a principal, in a 
 war with the whole house of Bourbon ; and, as an ally, she 
 had the declining cause of the king of Prussia to support 
 against Austria, the empress of Eussia, the king of Sweden, 
 and the G-ermanic body. Nor was this all. As the strength 
 of her victorious navy gave her a manifest superiority over 
 the fleets of Prance and Spain, an expedient was fallen 
 upon to engage her in a new land war ; and, by that means, 
 finally to exhaust her resources^ and divert her attention 
 fromdistant conquests or naval enterprises. This expedient 
 was an attack upon the neutral kingdom of Portugal. 
 England having assisted in the establishment of the house of 
 Braganza on the throne of Portugal, had always maintained 
 the most , intimate relations with that country. She 
 gave a preference in her ports to her wines, and ob- 
 tained in return many exclusive commercial privileges. 
 In 1758, a Jesuit conspiracy had broken out against the 
 life of Joseph Emanuel, but it miscarried, and the Jesuits 
 were expelled. This had excited the resentment of the 
 Pope, and the little kingdom was actually environed by 
 enemies. The Spanish forces marched upon Portugal, then 
 in a defenceless state, and demanded admission into its 
 chief strongholds, on the plea of affording protection 
 against the naval force of Great Britain. The king of 
 Portugal refused to barter away his independence, the 
 ministers of Prance and Spain withdrew from Lisbon, and 
 soon after declared war (June 15, 1762). England sent 
 troops, ammunitions, and supplies to Portugal, and the 
 Spaniards were speedily driven out of the places they had 
 seized. 
 
 § 557. The war in G-ermany was in the mean time waged 
 with vigour. Prince Perdinand gained several advantages, 
 particularly in actions at Grabenstein, Homberg, and Mel- 
 sungen, in which the English troops, under the marquis 
 
ENGLISH CONQUESTS. 4S9 
 
 of Granby, acquired signal honour. The French were 
 victorious at Johannisberg (Aug. 30) ; but Prince Fer- 
 dinand took Cassel (Nov. 1), and had recovered a great 
 part of Hesse, when he received intelligence of the cessa- 
 tion of hostilities. At the death of the Empress Elizabeth, 
 second daughter of Peter the Great (Jan. 5, 1762), her 
 nephew, Peter III., ascended the throne of Eussia. This 
 prince at once ordered his generals to desist from hostilities 
 against Frederic II. of Prussia, and actually entered into 
 an alliance with that potentate. The Austrians were forced 
 to retreat; but in the height of his victorious career, a 
 revolution in Eussia threatened to deprive Frederic of all 
 the advantages of his alliance. Peter III., having been 
 deposed and put to death, was succeeded by his widow, 
 Katherine II. (July 30). This princess declared in favour 
 of neutrality. Frederic II., nothing dismayed, recovered 
 Schweidnitz, and drove the Austrians out of Silesia. A 
 truce was afterwards concluded between Prussia and 
 Austria, for Saxony and Silesia. Meanwhile the Prussian 
 troops ravaged Bohemia and Franconia. Great naval vic- 
 tories crowned the English arms. Martinique, St. Lucia, 
 St. Vincent, and other West Indian islands, were captured 
 in February. Havannah was taken from the Spaniards 
 (Aug. 14), and all Cuba fell into our power. Manilla and 
 the whole range of the Philippine Islands submitted in 
 October. In the midst of these conquests, negotiations 
 were once more set on foot, and preliminaries of peace 
 signed at Fontainebleau (Nov. 3, 1762). 
 
 § 558. The duke of Newcastle had resigned in May (29), 
 arid the earl of Bute was placed at the head of the ministry. 
 The new government, anticipating great difficulty in raising^ 
 supplies, in face of the opposition of Pitt, Newcastle, and 
 their supporters, were but too glad to listen to the pro- 
 posals of peace made by France and Spain. It was stipu- 
 lated, that France should cede to Great Britain, Canada, 
 with the islands of St. John and Cape Breton, and all that 
 part of Louisiana which lies on this side of the Mississippi, 
 except the town of New Orleans and its territory : that the 
 French should be permitted to fish on the banks of New- 
 foundland, under certain limitations ; and that the islands 
 of St. Pierre and Miquelon should be ceded to them for the 
 benefit of their fishery ; that Spain should relinquish her 
 claim to fish on the banks of Newfoundland ; permit the 
 English log-wood cutters to build houses in the bay of 
 
440 TEEATY OE PAEIS. 
 
 Honduras, for the comveniency of their trade ; evacuate 
 whatever places she had taken belonging to Portugal; 
 and cede Plorida to Great Britain, in consideration of 
 having the Havannah, and all that part of the island of Cuba 
 conquered by the British arms, restored to her : that the 
 island of Minorca should be restored to Great Britain, and 
 the islands of Martinique, Guadaloupe, Goree, and BeUeisle 
 to France : that Prance should cede to Great Britain the 
 forts and factories she had lost on the river Senegal, the 
 island of Granada and the Grenadines, and give up all 
 claim to the neutral islands of St. Vincent, Dominica, and 
 Tobago. But St. Lucia, the most valuable of the neutral 
 islands, was delivered in fuU right to France, and the French 
 East-India Company were put in the same situation as after 
 the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by the restitution of Pondi- 
 cherry and other places, with the single exception of their 
 not being allowed to erect forts in the province of Bengal. 
 In return for so many indulgences, France agreed to destroy 
 the harbour, and demolish the fortifications of Dunkirk. 
 These preliminaries were approved, contrary to all expecta- 
 tion, by a majority of the British Parliament (Nov. 1762), 
 and the definitive treaty was signed at Pa;ris early in the 
 following year (Feb. 10, 1763). At Hubertsburg, a treaty 
 of peace between the empress-queen and the king of Prussia' 
 was signed ; by which it was provided, that a mutual resti- 
 tution of conquests and an oblivion of injuries should take 
 place, and that both parties should be put in the same situa- 
 tion as at the commencement of hostilities (Nov. 15, 1763) ; 
 and this brought to a close the Seven Tears' War. 
 
 Letter 36. — ^The Progress of Society in Enrope during part of the 
 Eighteenth Century. A.D. 1700—1763. Vol. ii., pages 546—571. 
 
 § 559. Eussia, altogether rude and barbarous at the 
 commencement of the eighteenth century, made rapid 
 advances towards civilization. Of the progress of improve- 
 ment in Poland, where, in addition to other adverse 
 circumstances, the feudal aristocracy still retained their 
 ascendancy, rendering the king a shadow, the people slaves, 
 and the nobles tyrants, little could be said. Sweden and 
 Denmark declined, but the sons of the North did not seem 
 to be less happy, though they appeared to have lost, with their 
 political freedom, their ancient spirit of liberty and inde- 
 pendence. Manufactures, commerce, and agriculture made 
 considerable progress amongslr them, Sweden could boast 
 
PEOGEESS IN EUEOPE. 441 
 
 of Linnseus, the most profound naturalist of modern times. 
 Germany, during the period under review, underwent less 
 change, perhaps, than any other country of equal extent. 
 Agriculture, manufactures, and the mechanical arts, how- 
 ever, made great progress in many parts, especially in 
 Prussia. The sciences and polite arts also flourished under 
 the protection of Frederic II., and the works of Gesner, 
 Klopstock, and other men of genius, were translated into 
 most modern languages. 
 
 § 560. The Swiss, so much distinguished by their love of 
 liberty and of their country, and so long accustomed to sell 
 their blood to the different powers of Europe, as other 
 nations do the produce of their soil, endeavoured to cul- 
 tivate their barren mountains, and acquire a knowledge of 
 the necessary arts. The Dutch permitted the love of gain 
 to extinguish amongst them the spirit of patriotism. A 
 total want of principle prevailed in Holland. Avarice 
 became the only passion, and -wealth the only merit, in the 
 United Provinces. Italy acquired new lustre during the 
 eighteenth century, from the splendid courts of Turin and 
 Naples, in which arts and literature were encouraged. If 
 painting and architecture continued to decline, music and 
 poetry flourished greatly in this classical country. Metas- 
 tasio perfected her musical drama. The state of society in 
 Spain improved under the princes of the house of Bourbon. 
 The intercourse of the sexes became more general and easy. 
 A taste for agriculture, arts, manufactures, and even a 
 passion for arms and enterprise, revived among the 
 Spaniards. A similar taste extended itself to the neigh- 
 bouring kingdom of Portugal after the expulsion of the 
 Jesuits. 
 
 § 561. In France, as has been previously shown, society 
 attained its highest polish before the close of the seventeenth 
 century. But the misfortunes which clouded the latter 
 years of Louis XIV. threw a gloom over the manners of the 
 people, and a mystical religion became fashionable at court. 
 Madame de Maintenon herself was deeply penetrated with 
 this religion, as was the celebrated Fenebn, afterwards 
 archbishop of Cambray, preceptor to the duke of Burgundy, 
 and author of the " Adventures of Telemachus," one of the 
 finest works of human imagination. The fervour spread, 
 and Bacine, in compliance with the prevailing taste, wrote 
 tragedies on sacred subjects The court, however, resumed 
 its gaiety under the regency of the duke of Orleans, not« 
 
442 JANSENISTS AND JESUITS. 
 
 ■withstanding the accumulated distresses of the nation ; 
 and his libertine example, with that of his minister, the 
 Cardinal Dubois, introduced a total corruption of manners, 
 •which prevailed during the greater part of the reign of 
 Lous XV. A furious dispute between the Jansenists and 
 Jesuits, concerning grace, free-will, and other abstract 
 points in theology, had distracted Prance in the brightest 
 days of Louis XIV. Many able men employed their pens 
 on both sides. But the Jansenists, supported by the talents 
 of Nicole, Amaud, and Pascal, had evidently the advantage 
 both in raillery and reasoning. The Jesuits then had 
 recourse to persecution, and afterwards sent to Eome one 
 hundred and three propositions for condemnation, of which 
 one hundred and one were declared to be heretical (1713). 
 § 662. The bull containing the condemnation of the 
 opinions of the Jansenists, commonly known by the name 
 of Unigenittts, from the word with which it begins, instead 
 of composing the pious dispute, threw all Erance into a 
 flame. The body of the people, the parliaments, the arch- 
 bishop of Paris, fifteen other prelates, and many of the 
 most respectable among the inferior clergy, violently op- 
 posed it, as an infringement of the rights of the Galilean 
 church, and of the laws of the realm, as well as an insult on 
 their private judgment. But the king, who was whoUy 
 governed by the Jesuits, and spurred on to violent measures 
 by his confessor, enforced its reception ; and the kingdom 
 was soon divided into Acceptants and Eecusants. The 
 death of Louis XIV. put a stop to the dispute ; and the 
 duke of Orleans, while regent, ordered the persecution to 
 cease, and at the same time enjoined the recusant bishcJps 
 to accept the bull, accompanied with certain explications. 
 They found themselves under the necessity of complying. 
 Even the good Cardinal of Noailles, archbishop of Paris, 
 was induced to do violence to his sentiments, in 1720, for 
 the sake of peace. Prom that time to the year 1750, the 
 bull Unigenitus, though held in execration by the people, 
 occasioned no public disturbance. Then it was resolved by 
 the clergy to demand confessional notes of dying persons ; 
 and it was ordered that these notes should be signed by 
 priests adhering to the bull, without which no viaticum, no 
 extreme unction, could be obtained. These consolatory 
 rites were refused without pity to all Eecusants, and to aU 
 such as confessed to Eecusants. The parliaments, or supreme 
 courts of justice, espoused the cause of the people against. 
 
THE KING AND THE PARLIAMENTS. 443 
 
 the clergy, until Louis XV., by an act of his absolute 
 authority, ordered the parliaments not to take cognizance 
 of such matters. The parliaments remonstrated, the king, 
 backed by the clergy, attempted to suppress them, but failed, 
 and in 1754, the parliament returned in triumph to Paris. 
 
 § 563. The clergy, however, persisted in refusing the 
 sacraments. The king appealed to Benedict XIV., who 
 declared that the bull Unigenitus must be acknowledged 
 as a universal law. The parliament of Paris, considering 
 this brief as a direct attack upon the rights of the Grallican 
 church, suppressed it by a decree. The king, enraged 
 at their boldness, as well as at their refusal to register cer- 
 tain oppressive taxes, resolved to hold a Bed of Justice. 
 He accordingly went to the parliament on the 13th day of 
 November, in the year 1756, attended by the whole body 
 of his guards, amounting to ten thousand men, and ordered 
 an edict to be read, by which he suppressed the fourth and 
 fifth Chambers of Inquest, the members of which had been 
 most firm in opposing the brief. He then commanded that 
 the bull Unigenitus should be respected, and prohibited 
 the secular judges from ordering the administration of the 
 sacrament ; and he concluded with declaring that he would 
 be obeyed ! Fifteen counsellors of the great chamber 
 lodged their resignation at the office next day. One hun- 
 dred and twenty-four members of the different courts of 
 parliament followed their example, and discontent prevailed 
 in the city and throughout the kingdom. In the midst of 
 these, the fanatic Francis Damien stabbed the king, and the 
 parliaments soon after achieved another triumph. 
 
 § 564. The Jesuits, the chief supporters of the bull 
 Unigenitus, having rendered themselves iiniversally odious 
 by their share in the conspiracy against the life of the king 
 of Portugal, fell in France under the lash of the civil power, 
 for certain fraudulent mercantile transactions. They re- 
 fused to discharge the debts of one of their body, who 
 had become bankrupt for a large sum, and who was sup- 
 posed to act for the benefit of the whole society. The 
 parliaments eagerly seized upon an opportunity of humbling 
 their spiritual enemies. The Jesuits were everywhere 
 cited before those high tribunals, in 1761, and ordered to 
 do justice to their creditors. They seemed to acquiesce in 
 the decision, but delayed payment under various pretences. 
 New suits were commenced against them, in 1762, on 
 account of the pernicious tendency of their writings. In 
 
Hi SUPPEESSION OF THE JESUITS. 
 
 the course of these proceedings, which the king endeavoured 
 in vain to stay, they were compelled to produce their 
 "Institute," or the rules of their order, hitherto studiously 
 concealed. That mysterious volume, which was found to 
 contain maxims subversive of all civil government, and even 
 of the fundamental principles of morals, completed their 
 ruin. All their colleges were seized, their effects con- 
 fiscated ; and the king, ashamed, or afraid, to protect them, 
 not only abandoned them to their fate, but finally expelled 
 them the kingdom, by a solemn edict, and utterly abolished 
 the order of Jesus in France. 
 
 § 565. In spite of these struggles, the enlargement and 
 improvement of the human mind continued during the 
 eighteenth century. Many arts, both useful and orna- 
 mental, were either invented or improved. Du Hamel 
 philosophically invested the principles of husbandry, made 
 it a fashionable study, and introduced a taste for agri- 
 culture ; while Montesquieu and Helvetius devoted their 
 attention to the political and moral world, and the inves- 
 tigation of the powers and principles of man as a member 
 of society, with the efiect of government and laws upon the 
 human character. Bufibn was employed in surveying- the 
 natural world. Voltaire, though a dangerous writer, was a 
 man of great genius. His Age of Louis XIV., his history 
 of Bussia, and of Charles XII. of Sweden, are models of 
 elegant composition and of just thinking. Eousseau may 
 be mentioned, and D'AIembert and Diderot, to whom 
 French literature is indebted for that treasure of universal 
 science, the " Encyclopaedia." Marmontel, one of its con- 
 tributors, enriched the literature of his country by a new 
 species of fiction in his enchanting " Contes Moraux." 
 'Nor must the two Crebillons be omitted. The father gave 
 to tragedy a force of character not found in Corneille or 
 Voltaire ; and the romances of the son are captivating, but 
 dangerous productions, in a new taste. This sportive and 
 elegant mode of writing, with all its levities, digressions, 
 and libertine display of sentiment, was happily imitated in 
 England, by the celebrated author of " Tristram Shandy." 
 Even the idea of the much-admired " Adventures of a 
 Guinea " was borrowed from the " Sopha " of the younger 
 Cr^billon. 
 
 § 566. In our own country, arts, manners, and literature 
 made great progress after the glorious era of the Eevolution ; 
 when, our civil and religious rights were fully established, 
 
PEOGEESS IN ENGLAND. 445 
 
 and our constitution was more equally balanced. This fortu- 
 nate event introduced a passion for political reasoning ; and 
 the austere character of "William, with the exemplary de- 
 portment of Mary, gave a check to the licentious manners 
 of the court, which bad grievously oflFended the nation 
 during the two preceding reigns. Under the reign of 
 WUHam, Locke wrote his " Essay on Government," and 
 Swift his " Tale of a Tub." These are two of the most 
 excellent prose compositions in our language, whether we 
 consider the style or matter ; the former an example of close, 
 manly reasoning, carrying conviction to the heart; the latter, 
 of the irresistible force of ridicule, when supported by wit, 
 humour, and satire. But as William was regarded in 
 England, by one half of the nation, as only the head of a 
 faction, many of the nobiUty and gentry kept at a distance 
 from court ; so that the advance of taste and politeness was, 
 till the reign of Queen Anne, inconsiderable. Then the 
 splendour of heroic actions called off for a time the attention 
 of all parties from political disputes, to contemplate the 
 glory of their country. A crowd of great men appeared, 
 whose characters are well known, and whose names are 
 famihar to every ear. Then were displayed the strong 
 talents and elegant accomplishments of Marlborough, 
 Grodolphin, Somers, Harley, and St. John. Then subsisted 
 in full force that natural connection between the learned 
 and the great, by which the latter never fail to be gainers. 
 Swift, Addison, Congreve, Eowe, Steele, Vanbrugh, Prior, 
 Pope, and other men of genius in that age, not only enjoyed 
 the friendship and familiarity of the principal persons in 
 power, but most of them in early life obtained places in 
 some of the less onerous departments of Government, which 
 put it in their power to pass the rest of their days in ease 
 and independence. 
 
 § 567. Several of these men of genius united in furnishing 
 the public vrith a daily paper, under the name of the 
 "Spectator," which, by the elevation of its tone, had a 
 wonderful effect in improving the manners and taste of the ' 
 nation. This was followed by several kindred productions. 
 Prior's " Henrj- and Emma " is the first poem of any length 
 in our language, in which love is treated with becoming 
 delicacy, if we except those of the epic and dramatic kind, 
 by Spenser, Shakespeare, and Milton. To Prior we are 
 also indebted for the art of telling a gay story with ease, 
 grace, and levity. He is the first English poet who has 
 
446 IMPEOVEMENT IN LITERATURE. 
 
 united elegance and correctness. Our polite literature, in 
 all its branches, now tended fast towards perfection. Steele 
 freed English comedy from the licentiousness of former 
 writers. If he has not the wit of Congreve, or the 
 humour of Vanbrugh, he is more chaste and natural than 
 either. He knew life well, and has given us in his comedies, 
 as well as in his numerous papers in the " Tattler " and 
 " Spectator," many just and lively pictures of the manners 
 of that age of half-refinement. Eowe, in like manner, 
 purified our tragic poetry, by excluding from his best pieces 
 all grossly sensual descriptions, as well as impious and 
 indelicate expressions. Though intimately acquainted with 
 the best models, both ancient and modern, he may be 
 deemed an original writer. His plots and his sentiments 
 are chiefly his own. Addison's " Cato " has more vigour 
 of versification than the tragedies of Kowe, but less ease. 
 Addison has also written verses on various subjects, both 
 in English and Latin, and is always polished and correct, 
 though not enthusiastically poetical. But whatever merit 
 he may have as a poet, he is great as a prose writer. 
 Bolingbroke, in his " Dissertation on Parties ; " in his 
 " Letter to Sir "William Wyndham," and in his " Idea of a 
 Patriot King," has united strength with elegance, and 
 energy and elevation with grace. It is not possible to 
 carry farther the beauty and force of our multifarious 
 tongue, without endangering the one or the other. The 
 earl of Chesterfield is perhaps more elegantly correct, and 
 gracefully easy, but he wants the nervous power of his 
 master ; and if Johnson, on some subjects, appears to have 
 more force than Bolingbroke, he is generally destitute of 
 ease. 
 
 § 568. What Bolingbroke performed in prose, his friend 
 Pope accomplished in verse. Having early discovered the 
 bent of his genius, he diligently studied the poets who had 
 written before him in his native tongue, but more especially 
 those who had made use of rhyme. He seems to have con- 
 fined his attention chiefly to Waller, Denham, and Dryden. 
 If Pope's versification has any fault, it is that of too much 
 regularity. He generally confines the sense, and con- 
 sequently the run of metrical harmony, to the couplet. 
 Thomson has left us, in his " Seasons," a greater number 
 of just, beautiful, and sublime views of external nature, 
 than are to be found in the works of all other poets since 
 the days of Lucretius. Akenside has given, in his " Plea- 
 
ENGLISH POETS AND NOVELISTS. 417 
 
 sures of Imagination," a delightful system of the philosophy 
 of taste, unfolded in all the pomp of Miltonic verse ; and 
 Armstrong, the friend of Thomson, and, . like Akenside, a 
 physician by profession, has bequeathed to mankind a valu- 
 able legacy, in his " Art of Preserving Health." Collins 
 and Gray successfully imitated the wild enthusiasm of 
 Pindar; vyhUe Shenstone produced a refined species of 
 rural poetry. 
 
 § 569. This zealous and continued attention to the im- 
 provement of our poetry, in its various branches, did not 
 prevent imagination and sentiment from flowing in other 
 channels. A classical form was given to the comic romance 
 by Fielding and Smollett, who have painted modern manners 
 with great force of colouring, as well as truth of delineation, 
 and given to the ludicrous features of life all the heightenings 
 of wit, humour, and satire. Eichardson, no less classical, 
 created a new species of fiction, which may be called the 
 epic of civil life, as it exhibits, in an extended and artfully- 
 constructed fable, and in a variety of strongly-marked cha- 
 racters, under the influence of different passions, and engaged 
 in different pursuits, the beauty and dignity of virtue, and 
 the meanness and deformity of vice, without any ludicrous 
 circumstance, or display of warlike exploits. The principal 
 productions of these authors, under the well-known names 
 of " Tom Jones," " Koderick Eandom," " Sir Charles 
 Grandison," " Clarissa," and " Amelia," seemed for a time 
 to occupy the attention, and even to turn the heads, of the 
 younger part of the nation. But the histories of Eobertson 
 and Hume appeared, and romances were no longer read. A 
 new taste was introduced. The lovers of mere amusement 
 found that real incidents, properly selected and disposed, 
 and real characters, delineated with truth and force, can 
 more strongly engage both the mind and heart than any 
 fabulous narrative. This taste, which has since given birth 
 to many other elegant historical productions, fortunately for 
 English literature, continues to gain ground. 
 
 § 570. The theatre during this period continued to thrive, 
 and the Italian Opera was established. The comedies of 
 Steele were followed by those of Gibber, who has given us 
 in his " Careless Husband," a finished picture of polite life! 
 The formal style and sententious morality of Addison's 
 " Cato," in a certain degree, distinguish all the tragedies of 
 Thomson. Those of Southern and Toung are more im- 
 , passioned, though in other respects no less faulty. Our 
 
4^8 THE ENGLISH STAGE, 
 
 tragic actors, before the appearance of Grarrick, seemed to 
 have had but an imperfect notion of their business. Gar- 
 rick introduced a natural in the place of an artificial style 
 of acting. This new style led to a better taste in writing. 
 Instead of the rant and fustian of Dryden and Lee, which 
 the old players delighted to mouth, Grarrick and his disciples 
 displayed their bewitching power of moving the passions 
 chiefly in the pathetic and awful scenes of Shakespeare and 
 Otway, to which they drew more general admiration. And 
 Aaron Hill, a great promoter of natural playing, having 
 adapted to the English stage several of the elegant and 
 interesting tragedies of Voltaire, gave variety to theatrical 
 exhibitions. Some of the productions of Mason and of 
 G-lover are pregnant with nature and passion. Garrick 
 also excelled in comedy. We had few new comedies of any 
 merit till Hoadly produced the " Suspicious Husband," and 
 Foote those inimitable sketches of real life which were so 
 long the delight of the town, and justly gained him the name 
 of the English Aristophanes. At length Colman, in the 
 "Jealous Wife" and the "Clandestine Marriage," united 
 the humour of Plautus to the elegance of Terence, and our 
 comedy seemed to be perfected. But a new species was 
 afterwards imported from Erance, of which Kelly's " False 
 Delicacy," and Cumberland's " West Indian," may be re- 
 garded as specimens. Scenery and costume underwent 
 great improvements ; dancing was carried to perfection, and 
 theatrical music made rapid advances. Gay's " Beggar's 
 Opera" was the first successful original musical piece pro- 
 duced upon the English stage. Handel soon afterwards 
 introduced a new species of musical drama, to which he gave 
 the name of an Oratorio, and in which he exerted all his 
 powers of combining harmony, to the delight and astonish- 
 ment of the musical world. 
 
 § 571. Inigo Jones and Sir Christopher Wren were native 
 architects of great merit. The latter is rendered immortal 
 by the plan of St. Paul's and of St. Stephen's, Walbrook; 
 exclusive of his other great designs — ^that of Greenwich 
 Hospital, or the additions to the palace of Hampton 
 Court. Wren was succeeded by the classical Lord Bur- 
 lington, a liberal patron of the arts, and no contemptible 
 professor; and by the ponderous but inventive Kent, 
 whose plan of Holkham, the seat of the earl of Leicester, 
 in Norfolk, and his temple of Venus in Stowe Gardens, 
 if he had designed nothing else, would entitle him to a 
 
CELEBRATED MEN". 449- 
 
 distinguished rant among modern architects. But Kent 
 was greatly surpassed in architecture by Sir "William. 
 Chambers, "Wyat, Adams, and others, who adorned the 
 capital and every part of the kingdom with edifices in the 
 purest taste of antiquity, combining elegance with conve- 
 niency, and lightness witli solidity. Nor should Milne, the 
 architect of Blackfriars Bridge, be forgotten. Hogarth, 
 the first eminent English painter, if we except Scott, who 
 excelled in sea-pieces, may be said to have formed a new 
 school. Above the Flemish comic painters, who servOely 
 copy low life, or debase it into farce, and below .the best 
 Italian masters, who generally draw exalted characters, and 
 elevate human nature, he delineates, like Fielding and 
 Smollett, the ludicrous features of ordinary life, with as much 
 truth and force as either, and with a more direct view to a 
 moral purpose. Those who are in doubt about this matter 
 need only consult his "Harlot's Progress," his "Eake's 
 Progress," his "Marriage a la Mode," and his "Stages of 
 Cruelty." HaUey illustrated the theory of the tides, and 
 increased the catalogue of the stars ; while Maclaurin made 
 great progress in algebra, and Gregory reduced astronomy 
 to a regular system. The vegetable system of Tall led to 
 the greatest improvements in agriculture ; and the bold 
 discoveries of Franklin, in electricity, may be said to have 
 given birth to a new science. Among the successors of 
 Locke, Hume is entitled to the first place; not that his 
 metaphysical inquiries are more acute than those of Berke- 
 ley, Baxter, Hartley, or perhaps of Eeid ; but because his 
 discoveries, like those of his great master, have a more inti- 
 mate relation to human a&irs — are of universal application 
 in science, and are closely connected with the leading prin- 
 ciples of the arts. If Mr. Hume was happy in illustrating 
 his metaphysical system, he was yet more successful in 
 exemplifying it. His moral, political, and literary essays, 
 are perfect models of philosophical investigation. It is, 
 however, to be regretted that his writings are tainted vrith 
 scepticism. Amongst other celebrated men who flourished 
 in England during this period, may be mentioned Arbuthnot, 
 a miscellaneous writer, who died in 1735 ; Bentley, a classical 
 critic, who lived from 1662 to 1742 ; Isaac "Watts, a writer of 
 sacred poetry, 1674 — 1748 ; and Doddridge, the theologian, 
 who died in 1751. Edward Toung, the poet, flourished 
 1684-1765 ; David Mallet, the poet, 1700—1765. Bishop 
 2 a 
 
450 BISHOP ATTEEBXTEY. 
 
 Atterbury* died in exile in 1731, and in tlie same year 
 Daniel Defoe breathed Ms last at tbe age of seventy. The 
 term Methodists was first applied to a religious- party in 
 England in 1728. It was a designation given at Oxford to 
 Charles "Wesley and his followers. 
 
 " Of this remarkable, eooentrie, and unfortunate person, a Kving 
 historian says ; — " Few men have attained a more complete masterjr of 
 the English language ; and all his compositions are marked with 
 peculiar force, elegance, and dignity of style. A fine person and a 
 eraceful delivery added lustre to his eloquence, both in the pulpit and 
 in the House of Lords. His haughty and aspiring mind constantly 
 impelled him into violent measures, which were well supported by his 
 abilities, but which seemed in some degree alien from his sphere. It 
 is well observed by Mirabeau, in speaking of the duke of Brunswick, 
 that one great sign of a well-regulated character, is not merely to be 
 equal to its daily task, but to be satisfied with it, and not to step 
 beyond it in search of fresh employment. Atterbnry, on the contrary, 
 could never remain tranquil. He might be compared to the chivalrous 
 Peterborough exclaiming to the Minister, — ' You must find me work 
 in the Old World or the New !' His devotion to the Protestant faith 
 was warm and pure ; his labours for the Established Church no less 
 praiseworthy ; but his defence was of somewhat too fierce and turbulent 
 a character ; he thought less of personal worth than of party principles 
 in others ; and he was one of those of whom it has been wittily said, that 
 out of their zeal for religion they have never time to say their prayers ! 
 Yet in private life no trace of his vehemence and bitterness appeared ; 
 his 'softer hour' is affectionately remembered by Pope, and his own 
 devoted love to his daughter, Mrs. Morice, sheds a milder light around 
 his character. On the whole, he would have made an admirable Bishop 
 had he been a less good partisan." This is an exquisite picture of the 
 man. 
 
THE STAMP ACT. 451 
 
 PAET III. 
 
 FEOM THE PEACE OP PARIS, IN 1763, TO THE 
 TEEATY OP AMIENS, IN 1802. 
 
 CHAPTBE I. 
 
 Lettee 1. — Vies.- of the Situation of Great Britain, from the Termina- 
 tion of the War to the Dissensions with the American Colonies. A.D. 
 1763—1774. Vol. iii., pages 1 — 7. 
 
 § 572. The peace of 1763 left the nations of Europe 
 under the pressure of enormous taxation. The reduction of 
 the armies at the same time dispersed a number of men, 
 whose military habits unfitted them for peaceful industry. 
 Some of these sought a home in Russia, but the majority 
 took refuge in America. The country gentlemen and the 
 landed proprietors resided more in the capital; and this 
 alteration in their mode of life caused such a change amongst 
 the lower classes, that numbers, more particularly from 
 Ireland and the highlands of Scotland, were induced to 
 emigrate. The British people were dissatisfied with the 
 terms of peace. Though the French had been expelled 
 from the continent of America, and the disorderly court ot 
 Louis XV. could not be an object of serious apprehension, 
 the English government established a permanent military 
 force in that colony, under a commander-in-chief. The 
 introduction of the Stamp Act caused the greatest dis- 
 content (1765). The colonists refused to submit; and 
 Massachusetts took the lead in the resistance. The British 
 Parliament rescinded the obnoxious measure (March 8, 
 1766), and the Americans celebrated this as a great 
 triumph. The colonists declared that the mother country 
 had no right whatever to impose tases upon them. This 
 2 G 2 
 
452 QUARREL WITH AMERICA. 
 
 ■was, however, clearly wrong, for England had embarked in 
 an arduous contest in their defence, and was entitled to aak 
 them to share the burthens which it entailed. 
 
 § 573. The progress of the North American colonies, 
 had been most rapid. In most of the European states, 
 population doubled once in a hundred years; in JN'orth 
 America this was accomplished in twenty-five. Of course 
 this result was chiefly owing to the stream of emigration 
 that set steadily from the old world. The constitution of 
 the American colonies bore the original impress of liberty. 
 The British monarch appointed the governors, and the resi- 
 dent proprietors elected a council. Such was the general 
 plan adopted, with various modifications, in the different 
 states. Soon after the withdrawal of the Stamp Act, the 
 English government imposed a duty of twenty-five per cent, 
 upon tea (1767). The Americans again resisted; and in 
 Boston three cargoes of tea were thrown into the harbour 
 (1773). The government prepared to vindicate its autho- 
 rity, and the Americans convened a general Congress, which 
 resolved that the Parliament of Great Britain had the right 
 of enacting general laws, and the king that of refusing to 
 confirm the provincial statutes ; but that in all matters 
 relating to property, none but the owners, or their repre-r 
 sentatives, had any power to legislate (1774). The gover- 
 nors took refuge in England, and the British Parliament 
 persevered. Lord North was now at the head of aifairs. 
 The earl of Bute had resigned in 1763 (April 8), and had 
 been succeeded by George Grenville, who became in- 
 volved in a quarrel with John Wilkes. This celebrated 
 demagogue published in No. 45 of the " North Briton," an 
 attack upon the king's speech of the current year. A 
 general warrant was issued against author, printer, and 
 publisher ; and John Wilkes was sentenced to expulsion 
 from the House of Commons and outlawed (Jan. 20, 1764). 
 The ministry was in a very precarious condition, and after 
 several attempts to strengthen it, the marquis of "Rockingham 
 took office (July 10, 1765). This cabinet did not last long, 
 and Pitt, as earl of Chatham, again succeeded to power 
 (July 12, 1766). The great commoner did not long retain 
 the helm ; changes ensued, which terminated in the elevation 
 of Lord North (Jan. 28, 1770) ; and, under his administra- 
 tion, the dispute with America degenerated into open 
 warfare. > 
 
NORTHERN STATES. 453 
 
 Letter 2.— View of the Affairs of the Northern States of Europe, from 
 the Treaty ot Hubertsburg to the First Partition of Poland. A.D. 
 1763—1773. Vol. lii., pages 7—15. 
 
 § 574. On the death of the Empress Elizabeth (Jan. 6, 
 1762), Peter III. succeeded to the throne, but was soon 
 after deposed, through the intrigues of his wife, Kathe- 
 rine II., who obtained the sceptre. Frederic Augustus II., 
 king of Poland and elector of Saxony died in 1763 (Oct. 5). 
 Anarchy prevailed some time in Poland, and at last, owing 
 to the influence of Eussia and Prussia, Count Poniatowski 
 mounted the throne, with the title of Stanislas Augustus 
 (Sept. 7, 1764). The intrigues of Eussia led to civil war, 
 and parts of the country were occupied by the Muscovite 
 hordes. The contests in Poland lay chiefly between the 
 Eoman Catholics and the Dissidents, as dissenters from 
 that communion were denominated. These were principally 
 members of the Greek church, in whose behalf Katherine 
 pretended that the treaty of Oliva gave her the right of in- 
 terference. The king was inclined to be tolerant, and this 
 rendered him still more hateful to the despotic courts. 
 Some conflicts ensued, and in pursuing the Poles, the 
 Eussians violated Turkish territory, which led to war 
 between Eussia and the Porte. 
 
 § 575. The Dissidents were persecuted most furiously, 
 and a confederation was formed against them at Bar (1768). 
 The Haydamacks made incessant incursions into the country 
 from the Eussian vice-royalty of Elizabethgorod. The Jews 
 became the chief objects of their fury, and these unhappy 
 people were everywhere ruthlessly massacred. The peasants 
 joined with the Haydamacks, and threw the country into 
 terrible confusion. The Eussians directed their efibrts 
 against the confederates, and besieged them in Cracow, 
 which was at last compelled to submit (Aug. 19, 1768). 
 The war raged violently, Prussia and Austria interfered, 
 and in 1772, the first partition of Poland took place. The 
 three aggressors could not however, at this juncture agree 
 respecting the division of the spoil, and the Austrian armies 
 were actually set in motion. They managed to settle their 
 differences, Poland was compelled to submit, and from that 
 hour it ceased to be an independent state (1773). Europe 
 did not at that time seem to be aware of the true nature of 
 that aggressive policy by which Eussia hoped to raise her- 
 self at the expense of smaller states. 
 
454 CONQUEST OF THE CEIMEA. 
 
 Letter 3. — Rupture between Russia and Turkey — English Fleet under 
 Admiral Elphinstone Assists the Bussiaus and Defeats the Turks — 
 Dreadful Ravages of the Plague at Moscow and the vicinity. A.D, 
 1768—1774. Vol. iii., pages 15—20. 
 
 § 576. The proceedings of the Eussians in Poland, excited 
 tlie alarm of the Ottoman ruler; while the burning of the 
 town of Balta, and the murder of its inhabitants by the 
 Eussians, led to the outbreak of hostilities (July 21, 1768). 
 The first operations of the war were decidedly unfavourable 
 to the Muscovites, and they were compelled to retire from 
 the Danube. In the next campaign they retrieved their 
 reverses ; occupied "Wallachia and Moldavia, and captured 
 Choczim, Tassi, and Bucharest ; but failed in an attack upon 
 Bender (1769). The inhabitants of G-reece, then under 
 Turkish rule, were induced by the promises of the Eussians 
 to revolt ; but they were defeated in several encounters 
 (1770). In the mean time the Eussian fleet, reinforced by 
 Admiral Elphinstone, with an English squadron, appeared 
 in the Mediterranean, and destroyed the Turkish fleet at 
 Tchesme (July 5, 1770). In spite of this reverse, and 
 insurrections in Syria and Egypt, Turkey still maintained 
 the struggle with vigour. In 1771 the plague, which had 
 before shown itself in various parts of Europe, broke out with 
 great i'ury at Moscow. The Eussians obtained possession of 
 the Crimea in 1772 ; and in the following year they crossed 
 the Danube and advanced to Varna, but were again repulsed. 
 Negotiations were set on foot, and the treaty of Kutschouc- 
 Kainardjii was concluded (July 21, 1774). The Eussians 
 retained Kinburn, Yenikale, Kertch, all the country between 
 the Dnieper, the Bug, Azofi^, and Taganrog, together with 
 the free navigation of the Black Sea : the Crimea was 
 severed from the political power of the Turkish emperor, 
 though he retained the Oaliphat. 
 
 Letter 4. — Affairs of Sweden — Abdication of Adolphus Frederic — 
 Accession of Gustavus III. — ^Dispute for the Bavarian Succession. 
 A.D. 1761—1777. Vol. iii., pages 21—26. 
 
 § 577. Increasing discontent in his kingdom, induced 
 Adolphus Erederic, who had ascended the throne in 1751, 
 to demand that a diet should be summoned, and as the 
 council of state relused to do this, he resigned (1761). 
 Thereupon the council of state gave way, a diet was called, 
 and Adolphus Frederic withdrew his resignation. The Diet 
 
PEACE OF TESCHEN. 455 
 
 assembled at Nykoping, and speedly re-adjusted matters. 
 On the death of Adolphus Frederic, -his son, Gustavus III., 
 succeeded (1771). By the aid of his two brothers he 
 eiFected a revolution. Sweden lost the constitution which 
 had then been established a little more than half a century, 
 and Gustavus III. obtained absolute power (1772). On the 
 death of Maximilian Joseph, elector of Bavaria, and son of 
 the Emperor Charles VII. (Dec. 30, 1777), that branch of 
 the family of Wittelsbach, which had honourably governed 
 Bavaria for nearly five hundred years, became extinct, and 
 Charles Theodore Von Sulzbach, elector of the palatinate 
 of the Ehine, and head of the next branch of the family 
 of Wittelsbach, was proclaimed. Austria immediately ad- 
 vanced her ancient claims upon Lower Bavaria, and the 
 new elector, afraid of embarking in a struggle vrith that 
 formidable power, entered into a convention for giving up 
 this portion of his inheritance, and admitted other claims 
 of the ambitious house of Austria. 
 
 § 578. The duke of Deuxponts, presumptive heir, pro- 
 tested against these proceedings, and demanded the inter- 
 ference of the Diet. Frederic II. espoused the cause of 
 the German princes, and as Austria refused to agree to 
 any terms whatever, war once more broke out in the heart 
 of Europe. The armies of Austria and Prussia moved 
 towards the frontiers of Bohemia and Silesia. Frederic II. 
 passed into Bohemia, and seized Machod (July 4, 1778) ; and 
 several skirmishes ensued, in which the Prussians were 
 victorious. Though powerful armies were encamped almost 
 within sight of each other, both parties were unwilling to 
 hazard a great battle, and during the autumn the Prussians 
 withdrew. Hussia and France interfered, and a treaty was 
 concluded at Teschen, in Upper Silesia (May 13, 1779). 
 Austria renounced all claim to the dominions of the elector 
 of Bavaria, received a tract of territory between the 
 Danube, the Inn, and the Salza, and agreed to pay the 
 elector of Saxony a compensation for his claims. 
 
 Lettee 5.— Eetrospeet of the Affairs of Portugal— Administration of 
 
 the Count d'Oeyras— Attempt to Assassinate .Joseph Emanuel I. 
 
 Execution of the Conspirators— War Declared by Spain— Result of 
 the Campaign— Commerce and Internal Government of the Portu- 
 guese Government. A.D. 1750—1763. Vol. iii., pages 26—37. 
 
 § 579. On his accession (1750), Joseph Emanuel I. found 
 ms treasury empty, and his government oppressed vrith debts. 
 
456 CAEVALHO'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Carvalho, afterwards created Count d'Oeyras, obtained the 
 direction of affairs, and whilst he was endeavouring to 
 restore the prosperity of the kingdom, the terrible earth- 
 quake destroyed a great portion of Lisbon (Nov. 1, 1755). 
 The Count d'Oeyras exerted himself most strenuously in 
 order to remedy the consequences of this visitation. The 
 confidence reposed in him by his sovereign awakened the 
 jealousy of some of the nobles, . and these, incited by the 
 Jesuits, formed a conspiracy against the monarch and his 
 minister. They attacked the king, but he escaped (Sept. 3, 
 1758) ; and Carvalho, having obtained the names of the 
 chief conspirators, caused them to be arrested, and they 
 were afterwards executed. The Jesuits were expelled the 
 kingdom. On account of the attachment of the Portu- 
 guese to the English, and their close union with them, the 
 Spanish made war upon them (June 15, 1762) ; but the 
 English interfered, and the Spaniards were speedily ex- 
 pelled. 
 
 § 580. The Count d'Oeyras found Portugal in a state of 
 rapid decay, and in spite of the ravages of the earthquake 
 of 1755, and the Spanish war of 1762, succeeded in restor- 
 ing its prosperity. The navy, which consisted of five or 
 six disabled ships, and as many frigates, without sailors or 
 officers, was in seven or eight years established upon a good 
 footing ; at the same time the English, the Swedes, the 
 Dutch, the Danes, and the Erench, were invited into the 
 country to teach navigation. The commerce, which had 
 fallen principally into the hands of the English, was im- 
 proved. The old trading companies, with their exclusive 
 rights, were abolished, and the Portuguese themselves 
 invited to take the management of their trade. Manu- 
 factures for silk, woollen drapery, leather, and soap, were 
 established, and the importation of foreign stuffs was pro- 
 hibited. The Count d'Oeyras tried to attract the commerce 
 of Denmark, Sweden, and Eussia, to Lisbon, by forming 
 treaties with those states. He also encouraged agriculture^ 
 and sought to remodel the finances of the kingdom. He 
 abolished numerous sinecures, reduced the number of 
 public functionaries, and introduced a very rigid system of 
 inspection of the public accounts. By these statesmanlike 
 measures Portugal once more bade fair to attain a much 
 higher degree of prosperity than the country had for some 
 time enjoyed. 
 
STATE OF FEANCE. i57 
 
 liETTEE 6. — ^View of the Internal Afliirs of France, from the Peace of 
 Versailles to the Banishment of the Duke of Choiseul, with some 
 Account of Corsica. a.d. 1763—1770. "Vol. iii., pages 37—49. 
 
 § 581. France waa in a deplorable condition at the con- 
 clusion of the war. The parliament of Paris refused to 
 register the king's edicts for continuing some taxes, im- 
 posing new ones, and vesting in him a power to redeem 
 the public debts at twenty years' purchase. The provincial 
 parliaments followed this example. Most of the public 
 officers in the government of Canada were condemned to 
 fines and banishment, for their misappropriation of the 
 revenues entrusted to their charge. Tet the French 
 government refused to pay the just claims of the Canar 
 dians, which led to a long negotiation with the British 
 ministry. In 1764, the French king issued a declaration 
 to the East-India Company, to the effect that assistance 
 could no longer be afforded, and the association rapidly 
 declined in power and importance. Madame Pompadour 
 died (April 15) in the same year. For upwards of twenty 
 years she had governed Louis XV., and maintained, in spite 
 of all opposition, her influence and position at court. At 
 her death, people hoped that wiser counsels would prevail, 
 but the king abandoned himself entirely to the minions and 
 tools of that extraordinary woman. 
 
 § 582. The French ministry had for some time formed a 
 secret plan for getting possession of Corsica, under the plea 
 of assisting the Genoese. The moment the inhabitants 
 were made aware of the project, they called an assembly, 
 which passed a resolution that no French troops should be 
 permitted to land. They also ordered their commander-in- 
 chief, Pascal Paoli, to remonstrate against this unjustifiable 
 expedient. The French, however, persisted, and landed a 
 ■body of troops, and the Genoese, who had never conquered 
 the island, ceded Corsica to France (1768). In 1765 the 
 French government offered £670,000 to England as a com- 
 pensation for the maintenance of the French prisoners 
 during the war ; the tender was accepted, and an instalment 
 paid. The emperor of Morocco, having refused to punish 
 a Salee rover who had seized a French vessel, an expedition 
 was fitted out and despatched against him, but it returned 
 to France without having accomplished the desired results. 
 The dauphin of France, father of Louis XVI., an amiablej 
 but weak prince, died in 1765 (Dec. 20) He was too 
 
458 CHOISEUL AND AIGTJILLON. 
 
 much attached to the priesthood, and submitted entirely to 
 the sway of the Jesuits. 
 
 § 583. The struggle between the king and the parlia- 
 ments still continued. The king, anxious to obtain the 
 ascendancy, repaired suddenly to Paris (March 3, 1766) ; 
 and went to the grand chamber of the parliament, in order 
 to hold what was termed a Bed of Justice, at which he 
 annulled all their previous enactments. The duke of 
 Choiseul was at this period at the head of the French 
 government. Though anxious to secure the glory of 
 , Prance, he was a very despotic minister, and interfered 
 in an arbitary manner in the afiairs of different states. An 
 attempt on the part of the Italian princes to limit the 
 power of the pope, involved Clement XIII. in disasters 
 (1768). He issued bulls against his assailants, but these 
 had ceased to be dangerous, and all the Bourbon princes, in 
 accordance with the articles of the celebrated family com- 
 pact, coalesced against him. Louis XV. took possession of 
 Avignon. Clement XIII. died (Feb. 2, 1769) just as he 
 was on the point of making concessions, which were granted 
 by his successor, Clement XIV. France completed the 
 conquest of Corsica, and although the inhabitants of the 
 island struggled valiantly, and gained many battles, they 
 were ultimately compelled to submit (1769). 
 
 § 584. The queen of France died in 1768 (June 24), 
 regretted by all ranks of people. The quarrel between the 
 king and the parliaments was renewed. In the beginning of 
 the year, he had granted some additional privileges to the 
 grand council of state, which affected those of the parlia- 
 ment, and were indeed encroachments upon the ancient 
 constitution of the kingdom. The parliaments of France 
 resisted, and a great scarcity that prevailed, increased 
 public discontent. The bankruptcy of the French Bast- 
 India Company in 1769, and the general stagnation of 
 trade, rendered matters worse. As the influence of the 
 duke of Choiseul had declined at court, as well as amongst 
 the people, he attempted to regain that of the latter by 
 espousing the cause of the parliaments. In 1770 the re- 
 stored parliament of Brittany commenced a prosecution 
 against his rival the duke of AiguUlon, for his tyrannical 
 treatment of Chalotais, their attorney-general. During 
 the progress of the trial, and when it was evident that 
 Aiguillon would be condemned, Louis interfered to save 
 his £irourite, and put a stop to the proceedings. The par- 
 
INTERNAL STATE OF FRANCE. 459 
 
 liamenta resented tWs stretch of authority ; violent measures 
 ■vrere adopted, and the king held another Bed of Justice 
 (Sep. 3, 1770), at which he imposed silence upon them ali. 
 They protested against this arbitrary act, and Louis XV. 
 lost the title of the " Well beloved," that had been before 
 bestowed upon him. De Choiseul was also soon after dis- 
 graced and banished. 
 
 Letter 7. — View of the Internal State of Fiance, from the Decline of 
 De Ohoiseul's Influence to the Death of Louis XV. A.D. 1770 — 
 1774. Vol. iii., pages 50—56. 
 
 § 585. Louis XV. had found a new mistress in Mademoi- 
 selle I'Ange, who was, for the sake of appearances, married 
 to the Count Du Barri. She entirely governed this weak 
 monarch, and had been chiefly instrumental in procuring the 
 dismissal of De Choiseul. Just before his fall, this minister's 
 scheme for the alliance of the ancient houses of Bourbon and 
 Hapsburg by marriage was carried out in the union of 
 Louis, son of the deceased dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI. 
 to Marie Antoinette, daughter of the emperor Francis I. 
 and the illustrious Maria Theresa (May 19, 1770). At a 
 display of fireworks, given in honour of this auspicious 
 event (May 31), a terrible accident occurred. The barriers 
 not being strong enough to keep the multitude back, and 
 some fireworks having caught fire and scattered flames 
 amongst the people, a panic ensued, in which nearly two 
 hundred persons were killed, and as many more maimed or 
 severely injured. Having got rid of De Choiseul, the king 
 persevered with his measures for the suppression of some 
 of the refractory parliaments, and the effectual restraint of 
 others, which, amid a scene of confusion, he succeeded in 
 carrying out. The parliament of Paris was banished, and 
 a new one appointed by the kipg. Great was the indigna- 
 tion of the nobles and the people at this forcible invasion of 
 their privileges, but resistance was of no avail. 
 
 § 586. Adolphus Frederic, king of Sweden, died in 
 1771 (Feb. 12), and his son and heir, Gustavus III., being 
 at that time in Paris, negotiations in which he had been 
 engaged, concerning the payment of some arrears due by 
 Prance on a, subsidiary treaty, were brought to a close by 
 the liquidation of a portion of the debt. France was sus- 
 pected by Great Britain and Eussia of intrigues with the 
 Turks, and in Poland; but the king gave the strongest 
 assurances of hia pacific disposition. In fact, France was 
 
460 DEATH OF LOUIS XV. 
 
 in no condition to wage war. Tumults and insurrections, 
 on account of the dearness of bread, were almost of daily- 
 occurrence ; the ministry were universally detested ; the 
 iing was despised, on account of his arbitrary proceedings 
 against the parliaments, and his attachment to his mistress ; 
 and the finances were still in so poor a condition, that 
 the Canadian indemnity could not be discharged, though 
 the tedious negotiations for the final payment had been 
 concluded by Lord Eochford, the British ambassador at 
 Paris, in 1772. The high price of corn caused riots in 
 several parts of the kingdom. In the midst of these dis- 
 orders, Louis XV. fell ill at Trianon. The physicians, not 
 understanding the real nature of his complaint — the small- 
 pox — adopted a wrong course of treatment, which rendered 
 recovery hopeless. The king was removed to Versailles, 
 where he died (May 10, 1774). The reign of Louis XIV. 
 was the era of military glory in Prance, that of Louis XV. 
 was as remarkable for successful negotiations. The treaties 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) and of Paris (1763), the alliance 
 with the house of Austria, and the Pamily Compact, in 
 all of which, France, by sound policy, indemnified herself 
 for the ravages of unsuccessful wars, will be durable monu- 
 ments of the superior talents of her ministers, while they 
 reflect but little lustre on those of the other powers of 
 Europe. 
 
 Letter 8. — View of the Spanish Monarchy, with a Glance at Naples 
 and Switzerland, a.d. 1763—1780. Vol. iii., pages 56—61. 
 
 § 587. Spain, a fertile country, possessing great advan- 
 tages, at this period declined rapidly in wealth and impor- 
 tance, in consequence of bad government. Charles III., who 
 ascended the throne on the death of Ferdinand VI. (1759), 
 joined in the Family Compact of the Bourbons (1761); 
 and although he resisted the Jesuits, and entered into dis- 
 cussions with the pope, made no efibrt to relieve the king- 
 dom from the worst inconveniences of the Roman Catholic 
 system. Bent upon the aggrandizement of the Bourbons, he 
 assisted the revolted colonists in America against England, 
 and endeavoured to increase his influence abroad instead of 
 attempting necessary reforms at home. Its rulers had 
 permitted the establishment of the Inquisition, and the 
 kingdom was overrun with priests and nuns. The pro- 
 vinces of Castile contained upwards of ninety thousand 
 secular priests and monks, and twenty thousand nuns, and 
 
THE JESUITS. ^61 
 
 one thirtieth part of the nation belonged to the ecelesias- 
 tical body. Public opinion had no effect upon the Govern- 
 ment ; and even the convocation of the Cortes was abandoned. 
 The nobility were divided into grandees, knights, and lieges ; 
 and their most essential privileges consisted m exemption 
 from certain imposts. The revenues were raised in a 
 manner -which actually tended to foster corruption. The 
 court received a fifth of all the silver, and a twentieth of 
 the gold produced from its mines, which were at one time 
 the sources of wealth to the kingdom. Various isolated 
 attempts were made to improve the military and naval 
 organization, but little judicious reform was effected. The 
 kings of Naples and SieUy protected their subjects.from the 
 Inquisition, and they continued to enjoy many privileges. 
 Switzerland flourished under its free government. Although 
 this state took no part in the numerous wars of the period, 
 many of the Swiss people went forth to recruit the different 
 armies of Europe. 
 
 Lettek 9.— Aflaira of the Court of Rome, and the Intrigues of the 
 Jesuits, which led to their Expulsion from Europe. A.D. 1759^ 
 1773. Vol. iii., pages 61—68. 
 
 § 588. It is a matter of astonishment, when we reflect 
 upon their orP'anization, that the Jesuits should have been 
 allowed to establish themselves in any country in the 
 world. They managed, however, to make the arts, the 
 sciences, and the education of youth, the means by which 
 to obtain ascendancy. Several sovereigns at length opened 
 their eyes, and discovered their real objects. Their arbi- 
 trary proceedings in Paraguay, in South America, which 
 had been ceded to them, and the discovery of some of the 
 instructions of their order, led to their humiliation in Spain 
 and Portugal. The order was totally and permanently 
 abolished in France (1764). In Spain and Naples the 
 same course was adopted (1767), and Parma expelled them 
 in the following year ; while Venice imposed strict restraints 
 upon all ecclesiastical orders. The court of Eome struggled 
 long in defence of its emissaries, but was compelled to give 
 way ; and Clement XIV., without even consulting the 
 cardinals, issued a papal bull for the dissolution of the 
 order (July 21, 1773) . Tet this celebrated society managed 
 to survive this and all other efforts adopted for its suppres- 
 sion, and in the nineteenth century once more emerged 
 from obscurity to trouble the repose of continental states. 
 
462 THE DUTCH EEPUBLIC. 
 
 Lettbe 10. — View of the Constitution and Government of Holland, 
 with some Account of the German Circles. A.D. 1763 — 1781. Vol. 
 iii., pages 68 — 76, 
 
 § 589. Holland, situated near the mouths of the Ehine, 
 was for many years one of the great strongholds of Protest- 
 antism ; but the constitution of the greater part of its 
 cities' had been, towards the end of the eighteenth century, 
 for some time tending towards an aristocracy. All the 
 seven provinces formed the assembly of the states-general 
 and the council of state. The states-general possessed the 
 dignity of representation and the duty of superintendence ; 
 although, as it could deliberate, but could not resolve, it 
 possessed no power, properly so called ; and the supreme 
 authority resided in the magistracy of every province and 
 city. The council of state, to which the executive power 
 was confided, consisted of three deputies from Holland ; 
 the same number from Groningen, Overyssel, and Utrecht ; 
 two from Zealand, and as many from Guelders and Fries- 
 land. This assembly had the superintendence of the 
 military department, and administered the aifairs of the 
 Dutch Netherlands ; but, on the other hand, the affairs of 
 the barriers belonged to the states-general, because this was 
 not so properly a possession, as a measure of precaution for 
 the security of the commonwealth. The most important 
 affairs thus depended on the election of the magistracies of 
 the towns ; which, for this reason, was conferred in times 
 of danger on the hereditary stadtholders. The stadtholder 
 was required to be a Protestant ; if that dignity should 
 descend to a female, the choice of her husband was to be 
 made by the states-general, but could in no case fall on a 
 king or an electoral prince, or on any other than a Protest- 
 ant. A widow who should hold the office of regent daring 
 the minority of her son, was not allowed to marry a second 
 time. 
 
 § 590. The court of France was almost always opposed 
 to the stadtholder, while England supported his interests. 
 The barrier-treaty, which gave permanency and security to 
 the frontiers of Holland, seemed to promise the republic a 
 more tranquil existence. The land-forces were accordingly 
 reduced, and attention was devoted entirely to the condition 
 of the fleet. At the approach of the American war, in the 
 course of which the republic became involved in a contest 
 with England, she equipped fourteen ships of the line, and 
 
THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 463 
 
 eighteen frigates, which were manned by seven thousand 
 nine hundred and twenty seamen, and carried twelve hun- 
 dred and eighty pieces of cannon. The industry of its 
 inhabitants was the main support of the republic, and by 
 their unwearied efforts they rendered their country one of 
 the chief trading communities of Europe. Taxation was, 
 however, very heavy ; and this at length produced discon- 
 tent. The war with England was unpopular, and soon after 
 the naval action off the Doggerbank (1781) discontents 
 increased. A great ferment took place in the interior : the 
 wealthy and republican citizens saw, with indignation, that 
 the affairs of the state were conducted by the nobility, who 
 were, for the most part, involved in debt ; and discontent 
 loosened the ties of confidence which had hitherto united 
 the inhabitants of the cities and those of the country 
 in the different provinces, as well as the whole common- 
 wealth of Holland. 
 
 § 591. The ancient body of the German empire continued 
 to be held together by the formularies of the Golden Bull, 
 the regulations of the imperial elective compacts, the peace 
 of Westphalia, the decrees of the Diet, the ordinations of 
 the imperial tribunals, and the relics of the feudal system. 
 The constitution of the circles was a representation in 
 miniature of that of the empire. This constitution origi- 
 nally prevailed in every sovereignty, where the concurrence 
 of the states of the country, consisting of prelates, knights, 
 and citizens, was necessary to the authority of the prince on 
 all important occasions. But after the introduction of 
 standing armies, the place of these members of the com- 
 munity was generally filled by the more simple forms of 
 military despotism : thus by the perpetual frustrating of 
 references to the imperial tribunals and to the supreme head 
 of the empire, by the rejection of these applications, and by 
 the execution of the decrees of the imperial courts, the 
 people became more and more helpless in every succeeding 
 age ; while against such of this hapless class as were stigma- 
 tized with the appellation of rebels, every petty tyrant was 
 at fuU liberty to exercise his caprice and his power without 
 control or question. The imperial cities enjoyed a high 
 degree of prosperity, as long as the commerce between 
 Yenice and the North was carried on by way of Augsburg 
 and Nuremberg : but the alteration which took place when 
 "Venice and Egypt yielded to the maritime powers, in con- 
 sequence of the discovery of the passage by the Cape of 
 
464 DENMARK AND SWEDEN. 
 
 Good Hope — together with the oligarchal oppressions which 
 in many instances destroyed the spirit of the citizens, the 
 injurious effects of Eoman Catholic and Protestant intoler- 
 ance, and the petty policy of the numerous municipal 
 governments — destroyed their importance. Those commu- 
 nities of citizens so proud of their independence; those 
 vigilant and undaunted defenders of the municipal rights ; 
 those members of the empire who were so zealously engaged 
 in efforts to ennoble their condition and to increase their 
 opulence, were lost amid the crowd of powerful and warlike 
 princes, and were scarcely noticed in Frankfort, Hamburg, 
 and other towns of inferior importance. 
 
 § 592. Denmark, a kingdom which had formerly given 
 laws to all Scandinavia, and which, including Norway and 
 Holstein, was superior in extent to the monarchy of Austria, 
 lost a great part of its power during a long period of peace, 
 under the sway of a succession of weak though benevolent 
 princes. The preservation of the national reputation and 
 the foundation of its prosperity may be ascribed to the 
 excellent administrations of the elder and. younger Counts 
 Bernstorf. The former conferred a most essential benefit 
 on his country ; inasmuch as, after the death of the czar, 
 Peter III., who as duke of Holstein had threatened the 
 independence of Denmark, he managed, by negotiation, to 
 extirpate this root of perpetual contention and destructive 
 wars, just at the moment when the ducal family succeeded 
 to the supreme power in the greatest monarchy of the earth; 
 the whole of Holstein was transferred to the court of 
 Denmark, which, in return, gave up Oldenburg and Del- 
 menhorst. These last hereditary estates of the kings of 
 Scandinavia were inhabited by about seventy-five thousand 
 individuals, and yielded an annual produce of scarcely four 
 hundred thousand florins : the court of Petersburg bestowed 
 them on a younger branch of that family which reside at 
 Eutin, and administered the secularized bishoprick of > 
 Lubeck. Even including Holstein, the population of 
 Denmark scarcely exceeded two millions ; while Sweden 
 with three millions of inhabitants sank into a state of 
 decline, the effect of her former exertions, so disproportionate 
 to her strength. The decline of these once powerful states 
 secured the ascendancy of Eussia in the north. 
 
WAE WITH AMERICA. i65 
 
 CHAPTEE II, 
 
 Lettee 11. — History of the ATnerican War, from ita Outbreak at the 
 Skirmish at LexiDgtoo to the Deteat of Washington at Brandywine, 
 and the Capture of Philadelphia, a.d. 1776 — 1778. Vol. iil., pages 
 76—85. 
 
 § 593. At the peace of 1763, Erance paid to Great 
 Britain ninety-five thousand pounds sterling, as a compen- 
 sation for the islands in the West Indies, which had been 
 wrested from her during the war, and which were restored, 
 and a further sum of six hundred and seventy thousand 
 pounds, as a ransom for the prisoners of war. The 
 king devoted his share of the captures, amounting to six 
 hundred and ninety thousand pounds, to the public funds. 
 In a few days afterwards, the Bank of England paid for the 
 renewal of its charter, one hundred and ten thousand 
 pounds, and the East-India Company engaged to furnish an 
 annual contribution of four hundred thousand pounds from 
 the produce of its conquests. The national debt was 
 diminished about ten millions in the space of twelve years ; 
 and of the remaining one hundred and twenty-nine millions, 
 a funded stock was created to the amount of one hundred 
 and twenty-four, paying interest. The sources of public 
 prosperity were now husbanded, and incalculably increased 
 by new manufactures, the progress of the colonies, and the 
 dominion of the sea. Labour rose in value, and became a 
 premium for the increase of population, by which the 
 numbers of those who had emigrated or fallen in war were 
 soon repaired. Such is a brief sketch of the state of affairs 
 at the commencement of the American war. A skirmish 
 with the troops which General Gage had ordered to seize 
 the magazines at Lexington, was the commencement of 
 hostilities, and that officer at once proclaimed martial law 
 (April 19, 1775). 
 
 ^ § 594. The American Congress, which first met in 1774,. 
 2 H' 
 
466 VICTOEIES IN AMERICA. 
 
 resumed its sittings at Philadelphia, and adopted measures 
 for carrying on the contest (May 10, 1775). Towards the 
 end of May, three British generals, Howe, Burgoyne, and 
 Clinton, arrived at Boston with reinforcements. The 
 Congress appointed "Washington commander-in-chief of the 
 American forces. On the morning of the 17th of June, 
 the attention of the English was attracted by a cannonade, 
 and it was discovered that a redoubt and some other works 
 had been thrown up on Bunker's Hill. The English troops, 
 led by General Howe, gallantly scaled the heights, and 
 expelled the Americans at the point of the bayonet. On 
 the 7th July, Congress published a declaration of the causes 
 which had induced the colonists to take up arms. Little of 
 consequence was effected during the year; but early in 
 1776, "Washington, by a clever stratagem, obtained posses- 
 sion of Boston (March 17). In the north the campaign 
 opened very auspiciously for Great Britain, whilst an attack 
 upon Charleston, in the south, failed (June 28). On the 
 4th of July, thirteen British colonies in America declared 
 themselves free and independent states, abjuring all allegi- 
 ance to the British crown, and renouncing all political con- 
 nection with that country. This act at once annihilated 
 every hope of an accommodation. The English defeated the 
 Americans near Long Island, the former losing in killed 
 and wounded three hundred men, and the latter in killed, 
 wounded, and prisoners, about three thousand (Aug. 27), 
 and captured New York (Sept. 15). The British arms 
 •were crowned with a series of successes. General Howe, 
 having turned the works which the Americans occupied at 
 Kingsbridge, marched against "Washington, who, aware of 
 the inferiority of his troops, was too wary to be brought to 
 an engagement. The British forces stormed Fort "Washmg- 
 ton, and took two thousand six hundred men prisoners of 
 war (Nov. 16). They next seized Port Lee, and overran 
 New Jersey as far as Brunswick, while General Washing- 
 ton, who had passed the north river to protect those pro- 
 vinces, was obliged to retreat to Newark, and from thence, 
 breaking down the bridge over the Rariton, to Princetown. 
 § 595. Rhode Island surrendered to the British- forces 
 without making any resistance (Dee. 9) ; and such was the 
 wretched condition 'of the rebel army, that had Lord Com- 
 wallis been allowed to follow up the blow as he desired, 
 it must have been dispersed or captured, and Washington 
 in all probability taken prisoner. Congress, however, 
 
BATTLE OF BEANBYWINE. 407 
 
 persevered. They had signed a treaty of perpetual union 
 and confederacy between the thirteen colonies (Oct. 4) ; 
 and they continued their measures to raise fresh levies and 
 carry on the war. The ill success of the American arms 
 began, however, to produce internal effects as much to be 
 dreaded as those of external force. Timidity and discord 
 prevailed. After the taking of N«w York, a petition, signed 
 by a great number of the inhabitants, was presented to 
 General Howe, acknowledging the supremacy of Great 
 Britain, and requesting to be received into the king's peace 
 and protection ; and it was followed by another of a similar 
 tendency from the people of Long Island : several of the 
 leading men in Pennsylvania and the Jerseys also went over 
 to the commissioners at New York. These proceedings 
 induced General Washington to detach three regiments to 
 the place, a measure which gave a check to the movements 
 of the disaffected. 
 
 § 596. On the approach of winter, the British army went 
 into cantonments, forming an extensive chain from Bruns- 
 wick on the river Eariton to the Delaware. Among these 
 posts, Trenton, which was situated on the Delaware, was oc- 
 cupied by Colonel Ehalle, with three battalions of Hessians, 
 and some British light horse and chasseurs. Washington 
 formed the design of surprising them, and, with that object 
 in view, pushed a corps across the Delaware, which, making 
 a sudden attack on their piquets, brought Ehalle to their 
 assistance. The latter received a mortal wound ; and the 
 Hessians, finding themselves repulsed in their endeavours to 
 retreat, surrendered prisoners of war, to the number of nine 
 hundred and eighteen (Dec. 25, 1776). The refractory 
 colonists received every support from !France and Spain, 
 whose ports were opened both for their trade and the dis- 
 posal of their prizes. Artillery and military stores were sent 
 out, and several French officers and engineers entered their 
 service. The great number of privateers, and the arma- 
 ments of France and Spain, induced England to increase her 
 fleet. Had General Howe followed up his successes at this 
 period, he might, in all human probability, have brought the 
 contest to a speedy and successful issue' for Great Britain. 
 But his negligence gave General Washington the oppor- 
 ■ tunity he desired for strengthening his army. In spite of 
 this, Washington was defeated in New Jersey, and again at 
 Brandywine (Sept. 11, 1777). On the latter occasion, 
 although the Americans were much superior ia point of 
 
 ^ H 2 
 
/{es DEATH OF LOED CHATHAM. 
 
 numbers, they lost thirteen hundred in killed, wounded, and 
 prisoners, while the English lost only four hundred in killed 
 and wounded. Howe marched towards Philadelphia, the 
 enemy retreating as he adyanced. He entered the town on 
 the 26th of September, Congress having previously removed 
 to Lancaster. 
 
 Xetter 12. — History of the American War continued, from the Captnre 
 of Philadelphia to the Declaration of War by England against France 
 and Spain, a.d. 1777 — 1779. Vol. iii., pages 85 — 93. 
 
 § 597. Before hostilities had broken out, the Americans 
 endeavoured to enlist the Indians in their cause. Many of 
 ■these tribes, however, preferred taking part with the British, 
 and joined General Burgoyne, who commanded in Canada. 
 This officer's object at this period was to penetrate as far as 
 Albany, in order to cut off the communication between the 
 northern and southern colonies. The Americans deserted 
 Tieonderago, and were repulsed during the retreat with 
 great slaughter. They retired upon Saratoga. Here they 
 were, however, reinforced, and as the English army had 
 suffered much from desertion, their generals hoped to gain 
 an easy victory. In this they were disappointed, and after 
 several skirmishes in which the Americans were defeated, 
 and an obstinate battle in which victory remained undecided, 
 they refused on the following day to renew the combat. The 
 English, being cut off from their supplies, and hemmed in 
 by aa overwhelming force, were at last compelled to sur- 
 render (Oct. 17, 1777). The conditions upon which that 
 surrender was made were not afterwards fulfilled, and the 
 American legislators deliberately and wilfully, and with their 
 eyes open to the conseq^uences, broke the faith pledged by 
 their generals. 
 
 § 598. The English Parliament met in November (1777), 
 and strong opposition was made to the war in America. In 
 1778 Lord North introduced two conciliatory measures, the 
 one referring to the right of taxing the colonies, and the 
 other to enable his majesty to appoint commissioners to 
 re-establish peace. These, in spite of some opposition, were 
 passed. On the 7th of April, the duke of Eichmond re- 
 commended the government to recognize the independence 
 of America. This called forth an eloquent reply from Lord 
 Chatham, denouncing the concession, and in the middle of 
 his speech he fell down in a fit, and was carried out of the 
 House of Lords. Death soon followed (May 11, 1778), • 
 
WAE WITH SPAIN. 480 
 
 and he was honoured with a public funeral. The conces- 
 sions tendered by the three commissioners sent out under 
 Lord North's conciliatory bill were rejected by Congress, 
 which demanded the recognition of American independence 
 and the withdrawal of the troops (June 17, 1778). 
 
 § 599. In the mean time a treaty of alliance had beeu 
 signed between France and the United States, and a war 
 between France and England thus rendered inevitable. 
 Admiral Keppel took the command of the fleet, and captured 
 two French ships, but, finding the enemy in much superior 
 force, returned to Portsmouth. Having received reinforce- 
 ments, he again set sail, and fought an indecisive action off 
 IJshant (Jdy 27, 1778). The English, however, main- 
 tained their supremacy upon the ocean. A French fleet 
 with troops sailed from Toulon, managed to evade the 
 vigilance of our cruisers, and arrived safely in America. 
 The campaigns of 1778 and 1779, in America, were not 
 distinguished by any very remarkable occurrences. Both 
 parties were chiefly engaged in making preparations for 
 future operations. The Americans anticipated great advan- 
 tages from their European alliances, while England had 
 not put forth her strength. Spain, closely allied to the 
 court of Versailles, prepared to support France, and the 
 consequence was the outbreak of war with Great Britain. 
 England, Scotland, and even Ireland, were convulsed during 
 the year 1779, in consequence of the repeal of some of the 
 penal laws against Homan Catholics, and several no-popery 
 riots occurred. The ill-success of the war, and the alarm- 
 ing situation in which the nation was placed, increased 
 public discontent, and several petitions were presented to 
 Parliament for a redress of grievances. 
 
 Lettee 13. — History of the American War continued, from tte Inter- 
 ference of France and Spain to the Declaration of War against 
 Holland, and the Naval Action off the Doggerbank ; with an Account 
 
 of the Gordon Biots and of the siege of Gibraltar, a.d. 1779 1781. 
 
 Vol. iii., pages 93—107. 
 
 § 600. Lord George Gordon, brother of the duke of 
 Grordon, encouraged the movement against the repeal of 
 the penal laws, and he fanned the flame of resistance in the 
 metropolis. He put himself at the head of the Protestant 
 Association, and as Lord North refused to present a peti- 
 tion against the law which had been passed in fiivour of the 
 Euglish Eoman Catholics, Lord George Gordon, who was a 
 
470 THE GORDON RIOTS. 
 
 member of the House of Commons, resolved to present it 
 himself, and called upon the people to accompany him to the 
 House of Commons. Several thousands assembled in St. 
 George's Fields (June 2, 1780) ; and Lord George Gordon's 
 motion for the immediate consideration of his petition was 
 rejected by one hundred and ninety-two votes to six. A. 
 riot ensued, and the mob proceeded to destroy the Eoman 
 Catholic chapels and other buildings, and for several days 
 London was completely at their mercy. Newgate, and 
 other prisons, were burnt, and the prisoners released. 
 Thirty-six fires were seen burning at one time. Eeinforee- 
 ments of troops were at last brought to the capital, the 
 disturbances were quelled, and Lord George Gordon was 
 arrested. He was afterwards tried for high treason, and 
 acquitted. Nearly three hundred persons lost their lives 
 in these disturbances. 
 
 § 601. The junction of the French and Spanish fleets 
 gave them the command of the Channel, and by the aid of 
 privateers, fitted out by the Americans, much injury was 
 inflicted upon the commerce of England. A French 
 squadron, with reinforcements and supplies of arms and 
 ammunition, arrived in safety in Ehode Island (Jane 10, 
 1780), but, in spite of this assistance, the English remained 
 victorious. Lord Cornwallis defeated Gates at Camden 
 (Aug. 16), and while the loss of the British was little more 
 than two hundred, the enemy had eight hundred killed, and 
 one thousand prisoners. The Americans and French in 
 this action outnumbered the British troops, being in fact 
 as three to one. Dissensions prevailed amongst the 
 Americans, and General Arnold, who commanded at West 
 Point, New York, entered into negotiations to deliver up 
 the post to the British general. Sir Henry Clinton selected 
 Major Andre, adjutant-general of the British army, to con- 
 duct the negotiations. He was a young officer of great 
 promise, high spirit, and undaunted courage. Having been 
 captured in the execution of this perilous duty, he was, to 
 the eternal disgrace of the American commander, hanged 
 as a spy (Oct. 2). Arnold made good his retreat, pub- 
 lished an address to the refractory colonists, exposing the 
 arts by which a separation from the mother country had 
 been effected ; and Major Andre was honoured with a 
 monument in 'Westminster Abbey. A terrible hurricane 
 ravaged the West Indies during the month of October, 
 causing great losses: of life and property. The English 
 
NAVAL VICTOEIES. 471 
 
 government, having discovered that the States of Holland 
 were carrying on negotiations with the rebel armies in 
 America, declared war against them (Dec. 20, 1780). 
 
 § 602. The campaign of 1781 was waged on all sides 
 with vigour. The French attacked the island of Jersey, 
 and although they effected a surprise, were at last defeated 
 and expelled (Jan. 6). Tbe French and Spaniards made 
 the most strenuous exertions to wrest Gibraltar from the 
 English. The siege, which had commenced in tbe autumn 
 of 1779, was prosecuted with zeal. While the fleets assailed 
 it from tbe sea, tbe Spaniards erected formidable approaches 
 on the land side, which the garrison attacked, captured, and 
 destroyed (Nov. 27, 1781). The English commanders in 
 America continued their operations against tbe French and 
 Americans. Lord Comwallis pursued Green, and defeated 
 him at Guildford (March 15). The English general's army 
 was inferior to the enemy in point of numbers, but tbe 
 spirit of the men was excellent ; and Lord Bawdon, with a 
 few gallant veterans, gained another victory over Green, 
 at Hobkirk's Hill (April 25) ; and several desultory 
 actions occurred, in which the British, with their small 
 armies, were for tbe most part victorious. Sir Henry 
 Clinton had promised to send reinforcements to Lord 
 Comwallis, but, being imposed upon by a stratagem devised 
 by "Washington, he changed his intention. Comwallis, in 
 expectation of support, prepared to defend himself to the 
 last extremity. Being surrounded by overwhelming forces, 
 he was compelled to surrender (Oct. 19, 1781). The isola- 
 tion and ultimate capitulation of this gallant general at 
 York Town, after a aeries of brilliant successes in the field, 
 and owing entirely to mismanagement, altogether changed 
 the fortunes of the war. The naval occurrences of 1781 
 were important. Pensacola was taken bv the Spaniards 
 (May 9), and Tobago by tbe French. The Dutch island 
 of St. Eustatia, which had furnished the Americans with 
 supplies, was captured by Eodney (Feb. 3), and although 
 several of the Dutch settlements surrendered, they were 
 afterwards retaken. The Dutch were defeated in a naval 
 action off the Doggerbank (Aug. 5), and Sir S. Hood could 
 not bring the count of Grasse to a decisive action, although 
 bis fleet bore the proportion of four to three to the English 
 squadron (April 29). 
 
472 RODNEY'S VICTORIES. 
 
 Letter 14. — History of the American War continued, with an Account 
 of the Naval Exploits of Great Britain and Ministerial Changes from, 
 the Action off the Doggerbank to the Peace Signed at Versaillea. 
 A.D. 1781—1784. Vol. iii., pages 108—118. 
 
 § 603. The Preneb ministry, during the campaign of 
 1781, appear to have pursued the same plan of operation 
 that had been defeated in the preceding, namely, to attempt 
 to overpower the English force in the West Indies, and 
 afterwards compel Britain to relinquish her transatlantic 
 colonies. England maintained her superiority in spite of 
 the great exertions made by her opponents in fitting out 
 and despatching fleets to various quarters of the globe. 
 The nation, however, were getting tired of a war that did 
 not promise permanent advantages, and the repeated attacks 
 of the opposition upon the conduct of the same weakened 
 the ministry. A motion by General Conway, condemnatory 
 of the war, was only negatived by a majority of one vote 
 (Feb. 22, 1782), and an address to the king, in favour of 
 peace, was immediately passed. Lord North soon after 
 resigned (March 19), and the marquis of Eockingham 
 became prime minister, with Charles Fox as foreign 
 secretary. Several of our West Indian possessions had 
 fallen into the hands of the French and Spaniards, when 
 the news of Eodney's victory off Martinique (April 12, 
 1782) revived the drooping spirits of the nation. The 
 rival fleets were about equal in point of numbers and 
 armament, but the superiority of British ships and seamen 
 ■was strikingly exemplified on this occasion. The enemy's 
 loss in men was prodigious ; upwards of three thousand 
 were either drowned or killed, and six thousand wounded, 
 independent of about two thousand taken prisoners. On 
 the part of the British the loss was one thousand and fifty, 
 Eodney, on his return to England, was honoured with an 
 English, and Sir Samuel Hood with an Irish peerage. 
 Indeed, the fortune of Eodney was eminently glorious 
 during the war. Within little more than two years, he 
 had inflicted severe blows upon the French, the Spanish, 
 and the Dutch navies, and taken an admiral of each nation. 
 He had in that time added twelve line-of-battle ships, all 
 captured from the enemy, to the British navy ; and he had 
 destroyed five more. Some Dutch forts on the coast of 
 Africa were taken during the year, and Trincomalee, in 
 Ceylon, captured by Sir Edward Hughes (Jan. 11). 
 
BOMBARDMENT OF GIBRALTAR. 473 
 
 • § 604. The naval administration received a fresh impulse 
 from the new ministers. Several squadrons and single 
 vessels were captured, but some of the finest prizes taken 
 by Eodney foundered on their homeward passage (Aug. 29, 
 1782), and the Boyal George, while undergoing repairs at 
 Spithead, upset, carrying nearly one thousand persons, 
 men, women, and children, to a watery grave. Tiie siege of 
 Gibraltar was in the mean time prosecuted with vigour, and 
 the government fitted out an expedition for its relief The 
 besiegers had prepared new and extraordinary machines; and 
 battering ships, which, though of an astonishing bulk, could 
 go through all their evolutions with the ease and dexterity 
 of frigates. Twelve hundred pieces of heavy ordnance were 
 to play from land and sea, besides a large floating battery, 
 and five bomb-ketches. The land and sea forces by which 
 these operations were to be carried on, amounted to forty 
 thousand men, independent of the combined fleet, consisting 
 of fifty ships of the line, which was to cover and support 
 the attack. It occurred on the 13th of September; the 
 garrison fired red-hot shot, destroyed the enemy's works, 
 beat off their ships and floating batteries, and repulsed 
 them with great loss. Lord Howe arrived off the fortress, 
 sent in his convoy with ammunition and provisions (Oct. 11 
 and 18), and kept the French and Spanish fleets at bay. 
 He was too prudent to rush into a conflict, merely for the 
 Bake of fighting, and to incur certain danger without any 
 definite object. He therefore proceeded to England, where, 
 after having on his way detached part of his fleet to the 
 "West Indies, he arrived safely with the remainder. And 
 thus, in the protection of her coasts and trade, preventing 
 the Dutch fleet from forming a junction with those of the 
 house of Bourbon, and having effected the relief of Gibraltar, 
 Great Britain secured the three grand objects of the cam- 
 paign of 1782. A confederacy extending from the Baltic 
 to the Mediterranean, comprising the three greatest maritime 
 powers in the world, and almost all the naval force of con- 
 tinental Europe, found their mighty efforts against the 
 navy of England recoil upon themselves. Meanwhile the 
 death of Lord Eockingham led to a change of ministry 
 (July 1). Lord Shelburne was made first lord of the 
 treasury, whereupon Fox and his friends resigned, and 
 William Pitt, at the age of twenty-three, became chancellor 
 of the exchequer. 
 § 605. The period had now arrived when the various cpn- 
 
474 GENEEAL EFFECTS OF THE WAE. 
 
 tending parties began to have their eyes open to the nature 
 of the contest in which they were engaged. They perceived 
 that the war ultimately tended to the general injury of all 
 the belligerent powers. France had, indeed, succeeded in 
 her efforts to separate the American colonies from the 
 mother country, but had been foiled in her principal pur- 
 pose, of obtaining naval and commercial supremacy. The 
 war which caused such unprecedented expenditure, had 
 not produced any advantage likely to secure an eventual 
 equivalent. The confederacy in India was crumbling to 
 pieces, and British superiority was again manifest. All 
 the sanguine projects of France against the West Indies 
 had fallen before the victorious arms of Eodney; and 
 America, impoverished by her long and arduous struggle, 
 was more likely to drain her allies than to supply them with 
 treasure. Spain had engaged in the war as the tool of 
 French ambition, dazzled by the splendid promises of Gib- 
 raltar and Jamaica. All her mighty and costly preparations 
 against Gibraltar had fallen under General Elliott's red-hot 
 balls; her projects against Jamaica had been completely 
 defeated bj' the skill and v-alour of Eodney ; her hopes of 
 naval and commercial aggrandizement, through the depres- 
 sion of England, were blighted ; her ships had been captured, 
 and her fleets vanquished. In four years, her extraordinary 
 exertions, her waste of blood and treasure, had terminated 
 in the conquest of the defenceless province of West riorida, 
 and the barren island of Minorca, which was little better 
 than an hospital. America alone had succeeded in the con- 
 test, and attained the objects for which she fought ; but she 
 prevailed by eflbrts which drained her resources, and by 
 labours which required a respite as soon as it could be pro- 
 cured consistently with her public engagements. During 
 her short warfare, Holland, in the loss of her settlements, 
 the seizure of her treasures, and the destruction of her 
 trade, learned ho.w dangerous it is for a state deriving its 
 subsistence from commerce, to provoke a neighbour that 
 rules the ocean. England, for the last five years, had been 
 engaged in a war in defence of her maritime sovereignty ; 
 and great as had been her maritime losses, she had, upon 
 the whole, maintained that grand object. But her defence, 
 though manifesting her energy, had drained her resources. 
 Her expenditure was enormous ; her debt and taxes had far 
 surpassed the anticipations of hermostdesponding politicians. 
 § 606. Under these circumstances prdiminaries of peace 
 
EESTOEATION OF PEACE. 475 
 
 between England and France, and England and Spain, were 
 signed at Versailles (Jan. 20, 1783). By the first of these 
 treaties, France obtained an extension of her rights of 
 fishery at Newfoundland, and unrestricted possession of the 
 isles "of St. Pierre and Miquelon, on that coast. In the 
 West Indies St. Lucia was restored, and Tobago ceded to 
 her ; whilst she restored to Great Britain the islands of 
 Grenada, and the Grenadines, with those of St. Vincent, Do- 
 minica, St. Kitt's, Nevis, and Montserrat. In Africa, France 
 obtained the cession of the river of Senegal, and its depen- 
 dencies and forts, with a restoration of Goree ; and England 
 the possession of Fort James and the river Gambia. In the 
 East Indies all that France had lost was given back, with 
 considerable additions. England further consented to the 
 abrogation of all the articles relating to Dunkirk, which had 
 been inserted in the treaty of Utrecht, and in every posterior 
 treaty. By the preliminaries with Spain,England relinquished 
 to her Minorca and "West Florida, and ceded East Florida, 
 but obtained the restitution of Providence and the Bahama 
 islands. The States-General of the United Provinces having 
 consented, under the influence of France, to agree to prelimi- 
 naries of peace with Great Britain, the articles were accord- 
 ingly signed at Paris (Sept. 2, 1783). Of these the most 
 important were the cession of Negapatam to Great Britain, 
 but with a proviso of treating for its restitution in case of 
 an equivalent being offered by the States ; and the restora- 
 tion to the States, of Trincomalee, and of all the other places 
 conquered from them. The definitive treaties of peace 
 between Great Britain and the other belligerents, viz., 
 France, Spain, and America, were signed on the following 
 day. Thus terminated the most inauspicious war in which 
 Great Britain was ever engaged, and the country was now 
 restored to the blessings of tranquiUity, for which it had so 
 long ardently thirsted. 
 
 Lettek 15. — History of France, from the Aooegsion of Louis XTI. to 
 the Assembling of the States-General, a.d. 1774 — 1789. Vol. iii 
 pages 118—127. 
 
 § 607. The government of France, from the reign of 
 Louis XIV. to the revolution, was arbitrary rather than 
 despotic, for the monarchs had much greater power than 
 they exercised : their immense authority was resisted only 
 by the feeblest barriers. The crown disposed of the persons 
 of their subjects by kttres-de-eachet ; of property, by con- 
 
476. STATE OF FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XVI. 
 
 fiscatioils ; of income, by imposts. It is true, certain bodies 
 possessed a means of defence, whicli they called privileges ; 
 but these were seldom respected. The parliaments had the 
 privilege of consenting to or refusing an impost ; but the 
 king enforced registration by a bed of justice, and punished 
 their members by letters of exile. The nobility were exempted 
 from imposts : the clergy had the privilege of taxing them- 
 selves by voluntary grants. Some of the provinces had the 
 option of compounding for these imposts, and others that of 
 making the assessment themselves. Such were the small 
 guarantees of France, and even these were still turned to 
 the advantage of the favoured classes, and to the oppres- 
 sion of the people. The third estate, or common people, 
 called the Tiers Etat, groaned under the most grievous 
 burdens, increased by the wars in which their rulers em- 
 barked so rashly. This important section of the community 
 prepared at last to struggle for its rights. Called to the 
 throne at a terrible crisis, Louis XVI. wanted that firmness 
 and perseverance necessary for the emergency. His first 
 choice of a prime minister was also unfortunate. Maurepas 
 cared little for the good of France and the glory of his 
 master ; his chief object being to win favour. Tet he suc- 
 cessively introduced good men to power. These were 
 Turgot, Malesherbes, and Ifecker, who attempted judicious 
 and useful reforms ; but, encountering invincible obstacles, 
 successively quitted office. 
 
 § 608. The death of Maurepas occurred (1781) soon after 
 the retreat of Necker, and Louis XVI. gave himself up 
 entirely to the iufl.uence of the queen. Courtier ministers 
 took the place of popular men, and hastened by their mal- 
 administration the crisis which the others endeavoured to 
 avert by their reforms. Calonne ruined the finances by 
 his extravagance, and, having involved the nation still more 
 deeply in debt, was compelled to retire. The struggle 
 between the king and the parliaments was renewed, and 
 finother attempt to suppress them produced a crisis, 
 Troubles broke out in Dauphine, in Brittany, in Provence, 
 in Flanders, in Languedoc, and in Beam. The ministry, 
 instead of the regular opposition of the parliaments, en- 
 countered an opposition still more vigorous and factious,-^ 
 of the nobility, the commons, the provincial states, and even 
 the clergy. Brienne, Calonne's successor, harassed by want 
 of money, convoked an extraordinary assembly of the clergy. 
 They voted an address to the king, requiring the abolition 
 
THE STATES-GENERAL. 477 
 
 of the " Cour Pleniere," which they declared to have been 
 illegally appointed, and the prompt convocation of the 
 States-General. As the Notables and the parliaments had 
 for ten years refused their sanction to any new taxes, it 
 was evident that something must be done. Brienne had, 
 therefore, hit upon the plan of the " Cour Pleniere." It 
 was to be intrusted with the registration of edicts over the 
 whole kingdom, and to be composed of the chancellor, 
 several high functionaries, the princes of the blood, the 
 peers, ten councillors of state, a member from every pro- 
 vincial parliament, and two from the parliament of Paris. 
 Xet all this minister's eiForts were unavailing, and his fall 
 only served to precipitate matters (Aug. 25, 1788). 
 
 § 609. The States-General had become the only means of 
 government, and the last resource of the throne. They 
 had been demanded with earnestness by the parliament and 
 the peers of the realm in 1787 ; by the states of Dauphine, 
 and by the clergy, in its assembly of Paris. The provincial 
 states had prepared the public mind for it ; the Notables 
 had been its harbingers. The king, after having promised 
 in 1787 the convocation within five years, in 1788 fixed the 
 opening for May, 1789. Necker was recalled, the parlia- 
 ment re-established, the " Cour Pleniere " abolished, the 
 bailiwicks destroyed, the provinces satisfied, and the 
 new minister made arrangements for the election of the 
 deputies, and for the holding of the States. Difficulties, 
 however, arose, respecting the form and composition of the 
 States-General. Some advocated adherence to the form of 
 1614, the last occasion on which they had assembled ; others 
 advocated a much wider basis. It was said that the Tiers 
 Etat, or third estate, ought to form an important element in 
 the assembly ; and while the ferment was at its height, the 
 Abbe Sieyes published his celebrated pamphlet. It was 
 entitled " Qu'est-ce que le Tiers Etat ? " and it professed 
 to answer the question by declaring that it was " the Erench 
 nation, minus the nobility and the clergy." The American 
 revolution had given an impetus to the violent party, and 
 they prepared to take advantage of the internal agitation, 
 in order to efiect a revolution. Erom this moment, con- 
 cessions were most unwisely made by the government. 
 Instead of granting wholesome reforms, they let in the in- 
 undation which was to sweep away the throne. The number 
 of deputies to be elected by the Tiers Etat was at once 
 doubled, that is, was made equal to that elected by the 
 
478 MEETING OF THE STATES-GENEEAL. 
 
 clergy and nobles together. France was greatly excited 
 by the contest, and all classes took part in the political 
 struggle. The 5fch of May, 1789, was ultimately fixed upon 
 for the opening of the States- General. 
 
 Letter 16. — History of France, from the Opening of the States- 
 General to the outbreak of the Revolution. A.D. 1789, May 5 — 
 Aug. 4. Vol. iii., pages 127—146. 
 
 § 610. On the evening before that fixed upon for the 
 opening of the States-General, a religious procession tooit 
 place. The States-General assembled at Versailles, and 
 were opened with great solemnity on the 5th of May, 1789. 
 S'o rejoiced were the people at the re-eatabHshment of this 
 popular institution that the inauguration bore the aspect 
 of a festival. The etiquette, the costume, and the modes 
 of precedence of 1614 were at first preserved. Preliminary 
 matters having been adjusted, Louis XVI. took his seat 
 upon the throne, and delivered an impressive address, 
 counselling cordial co-operation, and praying for the hap- 
 piness and prosperity of the realm. Necker spoke at some 
 length, principally upon financial afiairs. In the former 
 organization of the States, the three orders — the nobility, 
 the clergy, and the Tiers Etat, had each deliberated and 
 voted separately ; but much opposition to this system was 
 manifested in the new assembly. Necker's plan was to 
 adopt a modification of the English legislature, by uniting 
 the nobility and the clergy in one chamber, and leaving the 
 Tiers Etat in another. The verification of the powers 
 of the deputies was the first matter that disturbed the 
 harmony of their proceedings. The nobility and the clergy 
 met in their respective chambers, but the Tiers Etat 
 contended for a united verification. This produced acri- 
 monious debates. At length the verification of the powers 
 of the Tiers Etat was concluded ; and, on the motion of 
 the Abbe Sieyes, they constituted themselves the National 
 Assembly, one and indivisible ; and voted that no deputies 
 of any class had the right to act separately (June JL7). 
 Louis XVI. refused to sanction this proceeding, and 
 ordered the hall to be closed. The Tiers Etat repaired 
 to the tennis-court, and took an oath not to separate until 
 they had given a constitution to France (June 20). Ad- 
 mission to the tennis-court having been afterwards denied to 
 them, the church of St. Louis was fixed upon as their place 
 of assembly, where they were joined by the majority of the 
 
OUTBREAK OF THE KEVOLUTION. 479 
 
 clergy. The king called a royal sitting, at which he offered 
 certain concessions, hut annulled the preceding votes of the 
 Tiers Etat, and insisted upon maintaining the distinction 
 between the three orders (June 23, 1789). To this the Tiers 
 Etat erefused to consent, and Mirabeau first distinguished 
 himeslf by making an inflammatory harangue. The Tiers 
 Etat persevered in their deliberations, and decreed the 
 inviolability of the members. 
 
 § 611. The royal authority was on this memorable occasion 
 lost ; and the Tiers Etat, in their first struggle for power, 
 came off victorious. LouisXVI., impressed with the idea that 
 it would be advisable to concede this point, gave way re- 
 luctantly (June 27). Necker was dismissed (July 11), and 
 the king, alarmed at the menacing aspect of affairs, collected 
 troops round Paris and Versailles. The Tiers Etat pro- 
 tested, but Louis XVI. declared that he alone was com- 
 petent to judge of the urgency of the crisis and the 
 necessity of summoning the troops, and offered to transfer 
 the assembly to Noyon or Soissons. Exaggerated reports of 
 these events threw Paris into a state of terrible fermenta- 
 tion, and the leaders of the popular party spread false 
 accounts of impending famine and other calamities, in 
 order to excite the people. The dismissal of Necker, and 
 the formation of a new ministry, served to increase the 
 agitation. The people assembled with menacing cries ; 
 they were addressed by Camille Desmoulins and other 
 demagogues, and several conflicts ensued. The assembly 
 voted itself in permanence, and pretended to take measures 
 to put a stop to a conflict which it had provoked. The 
 agitation in the capital continued. The convent of St. La- 
 zaire was plundered and burnt; the Garde-Meuble was 
 forced, and the arms carried off; and many gun-shops were 
 pillaged. A permanent committee was formed, to take 
 measures to insure the common safety; and a kind of 
 citizen-militia, afterwards called the "National Guard," 
 organized. 
 
 § 612. The populace betrayed a dangerous anxiety to 
 obtain possession of arms, and severe collisions occurred in 
 consequence. In one of these, the cry of "To the Bastile ! " 
 was raised, whereupon the fortress was immediately besieged. 
 The governor, Delaunay, was overpowered, and the place 
 captured. The infuriated mob put him to death, and 
 several of those who had distinguished themselves in the 
 defence (July 14). M. Flesselles, the provost of the mer- 
 
480 PEOGKESS OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 chants, who had been summoned by the revolutionary 
 leaders to take part in their proceedings, being obnoxious 
 to the mob, was murdered in the streets. Alarmed at their 
 own violent acts, and afraid of the consequences, the Paris- 
 ians set about fortifying the city. They broke up the 
 pavement, formed intrenchments, and raised barricades. 
 In the mean time, the king and his ministers were pre- 
 paring measures to quell the revolt. The assembly remained 
 in permanence. When apprised of the real nature of the 
 movement, and of the defection of the troops, Louis at 
 once gave way, and ordered the soldiers to be removed from 
 Paris and Versailles. The next day (July 17, 1789), accom- 
 panied by a large number of the members of the National, 
 Assembly, the king set out for Paris. He was received by 
 Bailly, at the head of the municipality, and repaired to the 
 Hotel de Ville. After having sanctioned the new magi- 
 stracies, and approved the choice of the people, he returned 
 to Versailles. The count of Artois, the prince of Conde, 
 the prince of Conti, the family of Polignac, fled from Prance, 
 and thus commenced the emigration. Necker was recalled 
 in triumph, but his popularity soon declined. 
 
 § 613. The movement spread through the provinces, in 
 which municipal- government was organized, and national 
 guards were enrolled. The assembly, pleased at its triumph, 
 next proceeded to the abolition of privileges. Peudal rights 
 were redeemed, personal servitudes suppressed. The '.pri- 
 vileged classes made a voluntary surrender of their rights, 
 and seemed to vie one against the other in a rivalry of self- 
 denial. After the sacrifices made by private persons, came 
 those of corporate bodies, of towns, of provinces ; the war- 
 denships and freedom of companies were abolished. The 
 march of the revolution had been rapid. The three orders 
 had been annihilated, and the States- General changed into 
 a National Assembly, June 17 : the moral influence of the 
 crown had terminated on the 23rd of June, and its material 
 power on the 14th of July. The 4th of August was the 
 completion of this first revolution. The epoch just described 
 is conspicuously detached from the others ; within its short 
 period the seat of power was displaced, and all the prelimi- 
 nary changes were efiected. The epoch which follows is 
 that in which the new regime was discussed and established, 
 and in which the assembly, after having been destructive, 
 was supposed to become constituent. 
 
SAD STATE OF FRANCK 481 
 
 Lettxb 17. — ^The History of the French Eevolution continued, from 
 the Abolition of Privileges to the Insurrection of the Fifth and 
 Sixth of October and the Eemoval of the King to Paris. A.D. 1789, 
 Aug. 4— Oct. 12. Vol. lii., pages 146— 15S. 
 
 § 614. The peasants in the provinces cotamitted fearful 
 excesses. The conntry-houses of many gentlemen were 
 burnt, and persons who had rendered themselves obnoxious 
 were assassinated. The people, and even the Assembly, were 
 sadly divided. In the latter, the court still had a party, 
 though by no means formidable in point of numbers. 
 Many, however, felt a secret sympathy for the king, which, 
 ■under the circumstances, they were afraid to avow. Necker 
 and the ministry had a small following, which consisted prin- 
 cipally of men anxious to form the constitution after the 
 English model. The rest of the Assembly consisted of what 
 was called the national party; men determined upon effecting 
 a complete revolution. Some of these of course advocated 
 more extreme measures thau others, but the majority were 
 bent upon violent changes. The three leaders who had most 
 influence at this period were the Abbe Sieyes, Mirabeau^ 
 and the duke of Orleans. The latter, hoping that the royal 
 family would seek safety in flight, and that he might thus 
 obtain the lieutenant-generalcy of the kingdom, joined the 
 popular party, and from the first assisted in accelerating 
 the revolution.'' 
 
 § 615. The Assembly had acquired the whole power, the 
 municipalities supported its authority, the national guard 
 
 ' The duke of Chartres, afterwards duke of Orleans, was sumamed 
 Egdliti, or Citizen Equality, because, in fiirtherance of his ambitious 
 views, he pretended to identify himself with the revolutionaiy party. 
 Baised to the head of his family on the death of his father, in 1785, he 
 plotted to supplant the elder branch. As, during the first eleven years 
 of their marriage, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette were not blessed 
 with any family, the young duke of Chartres had at one time enter- 
 tained hopes of inheriting the throne in regular succession. These 
 were entirely dispelled by the birth of Mai-ie Thdrfese Charlotte, after- 
 wards duchess of Angoul^me (Dec. 19, 1778), and that of the dauphin 
 (Oct. 22, 1781). Hence the duke of Orlean.s became a revolutionist, 
 voted for the execution of Louis XVI., in 1793, and lost his own head 
 on a scaffold in the very same year. His son, Louis Philippe, carried 
 out his fiither's policy. His schemes against the elder branch of the 
 Bourbons were crowned with success in 1830, when he was made lieu- 
 tenant-general of the kingdom, and aftei-wards king. His ignominious 
 flight, and the overthrow of the rule of the Orleans femily, in 1848, 
 form one of those lessons which history is continually teaching, that 
 power, gained by fraud and intrigue, rests Upon saudy foundations, and 
 can be but rarely maintained. 
 
482 THE OCTOBER MOTS. 
 
 obeyed its orders. It was divided into comtnittees, to 
 facilitate its labours, and to be sufficient for them. The 
 royal power, though existing by right, was not obeyed, and 
 the Assembly attempted to supply the royal functions by 
 the exercise of its own. Thus independently of the com- 
 mittees charged with the preparation of its labours, it had 
 others also nominated to exercise a useful surveillance 
 without. A committee of subsistence was occupied on 
 the supply of provisions, an important object in a year of 
 famine ; a committee of relations corresponded with the 
 municipalities and the provinces ; a committee of investi- 
 gation received the depositions against the conspirators of 
 the 16th of July. But the special subjects of its attention 
 were the finances and the constitution. Having made some 
 provision for the former, the Assembly proceeded to frame 
 a constitution. The members decided upon having only 
 one chamber, which was to be permanent, and merely gave 
 the king the right of a suspensive veto, which could not be 
 prolonged beyond two legislatures. A declaration of rights, 
 drawn up in imitation of the manifesto of the American 
 Congress, was adopted. These changes were accepted by 
 Louis XVI. with reluctance, but he was hurried on by the 
 tide. On the 1st of October a dinner, according to old 
 custom, in the French army, was given by the king's 
 guards to the officers of the regiment of Planders, and of 
 the suburban guard of Versailles, at which the king's health 
 was drunk, and a wish expressed that he would show 
 himself to his defenders. Louis complied with the request, 
 the greatest enthusiasm prevailed, and much sympathy was 
 evinced for the royal family. This spontaneous demonstra- 
 tion of good feeling excited the jealousy of the revolutionary 
 party in the capital. The clubs, which had then only 
 recently been called into existence, became very active, and 
 the most wicked calumnies and false reports were circulated. , 
 On the 5th of October, a young girl ran through the 
 streets beating a drum, and crying "Bread, bread." A 
 mob speedily assembled, the shout " to Versailles" became 
 general, and in spite of the exertions of Lafayette, the 
 commander of the national guard, the multitude determined 
 upon repairing to the court. Finding that he could not 
 change their resolution, Lafayette resolved to go with them, 
 and the order to set out was given at seven in the evening. . 
 § 616. The unexpected appearance of the women, for 
 they headed the procession, and had arrested all the couriers 
 
6EEATEE CHANGES. 483 
 
 who could have announced their arrival, excited the greatest 
 terror at the court. The rahble poured into the palace, and 
 invaded the hall in which the National Assembly held their 
 sitting. During the confusion on the outside, a blow was 
 struck and a conflict ensued. Carriages had been prepared, 
 by the orders, it is said, of the duke of Orleans, who still 
 aimed at supplanting by the younger, the elder branch of the 
 Bourbons ; but Louis XVI. refused to abandon his throne. 
 Lafayette, with the national guard, appeared upon the scene 
 and restored order. The people, wearied by excesses, retired 
 to take repose ; but early in the morning some of them 
 penetrated into the palace, and engaged in a hostile en- 
 counter with the sentinels, whom they ruthlessly massacred. 
 Lafayette was summoned to the scene of danger, and at last 
 succeeded in restraining the fury of the rioters. They 
 demanded the departure of the king for Paris ; Louis 
 readily promised to comply with their request, and to take 
 the queen and his children with him. In spite of the 
 extreme danger of the proceeding, Marie Antoinette 
 showed herself to the clamorous crowd. Thus ended the 
 scene, and the royal family, escorted by some troops and 
 the national guard, set out for Paris (Oct. 12). 
 
 Letter 18. — ^The History of tbe Frencli EeTolution continued, from 
 the Departure of Louia XVI. from Versailles to Paris, until the 
 Death ot Mirabeau. A.D. 1789 — 1791. Vol. iii., pages 157 — 170. 
 
 § 617. As the violent nature of the alterations proposed 
 became more apparent, many persons who had at first 
 joined the popular party, separated from it in disgust. 
 Mounier and LaUy Tollendal retired from the Assembly, 
 declaring that they would not assist in the tragedies that 
 were being daily enacted. The removal of the court to 
 Paris produced several changes. The duke of Orleans, who 
 had tried all means to gain the ascendancy, having actually 
 stirred up disturbances against the royal family, was sent 
 on a mission to London. Lafayette, at the head of the 
 national guard, endeavoured to preserve order; and other 
 outbreaks having occurred, martial law was proclaimed. 
 The National Assembly followed the king to Paris, and con- 
 tinued their work. Church property was appropriated, the 
 provincial parliaments and assemblies were suppressed, 
 assignats were issued, the domains of the crown and the 
 property of emigrants were seized, and France was divided 
 into eighty-three departments, with minor districts and can- 
 2 I 2 
 
484 riRST JUDICIAL VICTIM. 
 
 tons. The most extraordinary efforts failed to avert national 
 bankruptcy. The country was in a fearful state of dis- 
 organization, and deeds of horror were perpetrated in every 
 quarter. The opposition to the revolution gained ground as 
 every fresh interest was in turn attacked, and those who 
 had at first been most anxious for a change, perceived the 
 mistake which they had committed in placing power in the 
 grasp of violent and discordant factions. 
 
 § 618. Several attempts at resistance were made in 
 various parts, but they were not carried on with sufficient 
 spirit, nor guided by experience. The marquis of Favras, 
 who was said to have formed a design for rescuing the 
 king, was seized, and condemned by the high court of 
 the Chatelet. His sentence was carried out at three in 
 the morning, on the Place de Grreve, and he became the 
 first judicially-condemned victim of the French Eevolution 
 (Jan. 18, 1790). Blood had been shed in various conflicts 
 and insurrections, the revolutionary tribunals were about 
 to inaugurate the reign of terror. The king, too weak a 
 prince to wield a sceptre at such a crisis, repaired to the 
 National Assembly, and tendered his adhesion to the new 
 order of things (Feb. 4). On the 14th of July, the first 
 anniversary of the taking of the Bastille, and of the com- 
 mencement of the Eevolution, a grand national festival, 
 called the confederation of the whole kingdom, was held in 
 the Champ de Mars. Talleyrand, bishop of Autun, cele- 
 brated mass, and Lafayette, at the head of the national 
 guard, presided on the occasion. The oath of fidelity to 
 the constitution was taken by the chief authorities, as weU, 
 as by the king, while the queen held the dauphin up in her 
 arms in token of his adhesion to the system. Illumina- 
 tions, plays, and balls, followed, and when the festival bad- 
 terminated, medals were struck in commemoration of the 
 game. 
 
 § 619. The duke of Orleans, who had returned from, 
 Jjondon, and Mirabeau, were accused before the Assembly 
 of having conspired to produce the revolt of the 5th of 
 October, but the impeachment could not be sustained. The 
 retirement of Necker soon after led to a change in the 
 ministry, which only served to precipitate matters. A 
 strong opposition had arisen against this violent course of 
 change, and insurrections occurred in the capital_and in thet 
 provinces. These were, however, suppressed. AH public 
 functionaries and the clergy were required to take an oath of. 
 
THE EEYOLtJTIONARY CLUBS. 485 
 
 fidelity to tbe nation, the law, the king, and the new constitu- 
 tion (Nov. 27, 1790). The clergy, almost to a man, refused 
 to comply, and were expelled from their preferments. At 
 this period the clubs wielded great influence. The first of 
 these comparatively modem associations was one which held 
 its meetings at Montrouge, near Paris, and had for its object 
 tbe overthrow of the elder branch of the Bourbons, and the 
 elevation of the Orleans family (1789). Mirabeau, Sieyes, 
 Laclos, and other leading characters of the period, belonged to 
 this association. Another club, which held its meetings at 
 Paris, was formed about the same time. It was called the Club 
 Breton, and took its name from a number of ardent deputies 
 from Brittany. The opinions advocated were of the most 
 democratical and violent nature, as may be learned from the 
 facts that Sieyes, once a member, quitted it in disgust, and 
 that Eobespierre belonged to it. On the removal of the 
 court to Paris, the Breton Olub followed ; and as it held its 
 sittings in the ancient convent of the Jacobins, was hence- 
 forward called the Jacobin Club. As it increased in power 
 and importance, the moderate party became alarmed, and 
 formed another, called the Club of 1789, to counteract its 
 influence. Sieyes, Lafayette, and La Eochefoucaud were 
 among its leaders. A club entitled La Monarchi^ue met with 
 some success at first ; but the Jacobins gained the ascend- 
 ancy, carried all before them, and actually suppressed those 
 of their opponents most inimical to them. People recoiled at 
 the abyss opening out before them, and even Mirabeau, who 
 had at first promoted the revolution, accepted a pension 
 from the count of Artois, and laboured energetically to sup- 
 port the throne. His strong constitution sank under the 
 terrible struggle, and he died predicting a long series of 
 misfortunes to France (April 2, 1791). He was the first 
 interred in the new church of St. Genevieve, called by the 
 Assembly their Pantheon. His death was the signal for 
 even greater calamities than those that had already happened ; 
 and when he was laid in the grave, the last restraint seemed 
 removed. 
 
 Letter 19. — The History of the French Eevolntion continued, from 
 the Death of Mirabeau to the Termination of the Constituent 
 Assembly. A.D. 1791, April 2— Sept. 29. Vol. iii., pages 170 — 177. 
 
 § 620. These extraordinary events produced a great sen- 
 sation in Europe, and the necessity that existed for being 
 prepared for whatever emergency might arise, induced the 
 
486 FLIGHT AND CAPTURE OF THE KING. 
 
 different governments to watch the progress of the revolu- 
 tion with anxious attention. The numerous emigrants from 
 France that took refuge in every direction formed them- 
 selves into associations, and appealed to the continental 
 sovereigns to interfere for the restoration of their just rights 
 and the preservation of the French throne. The emigrant 
 princes collected forces at Cohlentz and Worms, and pre- 
 pared to march' against the revolutionary Assembly. Emis- 
 saries had been despatched by Louis XVI. to various courts, 
 and an agreement was concluded at Mantua (May 20, 1791), 
 between the emperor of Germany, the king of Sardinia, and 
 the king of Spain, by which five armies were to march to 
 the French frontiers. These troops were to be put in 
 motion in July ; the princes of the house of Bourbon were 
 to issue a protest, which was to be immediately followed by 
 a manifesto from tlie allied powers. Louis XVI., unable 
 to bear the ignominious position in which he was placed, even 
 until relief might arrive, made preparations for his escape, 
 and suddenly quitted Paris with the queen (June 20). Paris 
 was profoundly agitated when their flight became known, 
 and every effort was made to capture the fugitives. This 
 was unfortunately effected at Varennes (June 22), and 
 they were bi-ought back to Paris (June 25). The king 
 was provisionally suspended, a guard was appointed over 
 him, as well as over the queen and the dauphin, and com- 
 missaries were nominated to interrogate him. 
 
 § 621. The republican party proceeded to the most 
 violent measures. They wished to dethrone the king ; and 
 being foiled in this, they attempted to create an insurrection 
 in the Champ de Mars (July 17) ; in fact, did all in their 
 power to furnish au excuse for the destruction of the mo- 
 narchy. The Assembly declared its sittings permanent, and 
 summoned the national guard. The republicans were de- 
 feated, and had the clubs been closed, might have been 
 crushed. Congratulatory addresses from all parts of the 
 kingdom poured in upon the Assembly. They then prepared 
 to submit the constitution to the king, but before doing this, 
 ordered that none of its members should be capable of 
 election into the next legislature. The failure of the king's 
 attempt at flight induced the emigrants to renew their efibrts 
 to obtain foreign intervention. In spite of all appeals, 
 the English government refused to swerve from its strict 
 neutrality. A convention was signed at Vienna between 
 Austria and Prussia (July 25), by which it was stipulated 
 
DISSOLUTION OF THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY. 487 
 
 that the two courts should endeavour to unite the European 
 powers for some common measure with regard to France. 
 A personal interview between the king of Prussia and the 
 emperor of Austria took place at Pilnitz," and a declaration 
 was issued, recommending a mutual course of action by 
 European sovereigns for the re-establishment of the monarch- 
 ical government in Prance (Aug. 27, 1791) ; and declaring 
 that Austria and Prussia were ready to take up arms in the 
 cause. The Assembly adopted measures for the defence of 
 the kingdom, and prepared to bring its labours to a close. 
 The king was restored to freedom, and accepted the new 
 constitution. The 29th of September was fixed upon for 
 the dissolution of the Assembly, and Louis XVI. presided 
 on the occasion. Illuminations and rejoicings followed, 
 the Constituent Assembly had dissolved itself, and many 
 imagined that the revolution was at an end. 
 
 * The declaration of Pilnitz was as follows : — " Their ma-jesties, the 
 emperor and the king of Prussia, having considered the representations 
 of Monsieur, brother of the king, and of his excellency the count of 
 Artois, declare conjointly, that they consider the situation of the king 
 of France as a matter of common interest to all the European sovereigns. 
 They hope that the reality of that interest will be duly appreciated by 
 the other powers, whose assistance they will invoke, and that, in con- 
 sequence, they will not decline to employ their forces, conjointly with 
 their majesties, in order to put the king of France in a situation to lay 
 the foundation of a monarchical government, conformable alike to the 
 rights of sovereigns and the well-being of the French nation. In that 
 case, the emperor and the king are resolved to act promptly with the 
 forces necessary to attain their common end. In the mean time they 
 will give the requisite orders for the troops to hold themselves in im- 
 mediate readiness for active service." 
 
483 TEUILLANXS AND GIRONDISTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 Lettbe 20. — ^The History of the French Eeyolution continued, from 
 the Opening of the National Legislative Assembly to the Declaration 
 of War against Austria, a.d. 1791 — 1792. Vol. iii., pages 178 
 —187. 
 
 § 622. On the 1st of October, 1791, the new chamber 
 commenced its session, and at once declared itself the 
 National Legislative Assembly. It had been elected en- 
 tirely by the popular party ; the court, the nobles, and the 
 clergy, having scarcely any representatives. It was divided, 
 like its predecessor, into the Cote JDroit, or friends of the 
 constitution, and the Cote Oauche, or democrats ; and a 
 party that fluctuated between the two extremes. The 
 members of the right were called the " Peuillants," from the 
 club which formed the centre of their power. Its leaders 
 were Barnave, Damas, Lameth, and Vaubanc ; and it derived 
 its chief strength from the powerful support of Madame 
 -de Stael, the daughter of Necker, a woman at whose feet 
 Edmund Gibbon had knelt enslaved. The moderate repub- 
 licans were known by the name of the " Girondists," from 
 a district near Bordeaux, called the Gironde, in which the 
 most celebrated of their party were elected. Brissot, 
 Gaudet, Gensonne, Isnard, and Vergniaud, were its leaders. 
 Madame Eoland was the great female luminary of this sec- 
 tion. The left side comprised men of the most violent 
 opinions, belonging, for the most part, to the clubs of the 
 Jacobins and the Cordeliers ; amongst whom Eobespierre ' 
 (out of doors, for he was not a member of the new As- 
 sembly), Danton, Marat, CamUle Desmoulins, St. Just, and 
 Eabre d'Eglantine, soon rendered themselves notorious. The 
 Legislative Assembly did not from the first seem inclined to 
 treat Louis XVI. with much courtesy. His brothers, the 
 prince of Gonde and the duke of Bourbon, had protested 
 against the concessions he had made, and the emigration con- 
 tinued. A revolt soon after broke out in La Vendee. Mea- 
 sures were taken against the emigrants, and those who were 
 
EISE OF THE GIEONDISTS. 489 
 
 seeking to get up a counter-revolution on the frontiers, as 
 well as the refractory clergy, to which measures the king 
 refused to give his sanction. Lafayette had resigned the 
 command of the national guard, and the Girondists, at this 
 time hecoming powerful, obtained the post for their candidate, 
 and caused Petion to be made mayor of Paris, in opposition 
 to Lafayette, who was also a candidate" (Nov. 17, 1791). 
 
 § 623. Flushed with success, the Girondists next attacked 
 the ministry, who had become sufficiently unpopular. Their 
 foreign policy, and the intrigues of the emigrants, were the 
 grounds upon which they founded their assault. It was suc- 
 cessful, and the Girondists obtained power (1792). The pre* 
 parations of foreign princes for an armed interference, which 
 had been for some time suspended, in consequence of the ad- 
 hesion of Louis XVI. to the new constitution, were, owing to 
 the influence of the emigrant nobility, resumed. Russia and 
 Sweden, with the courts of Spain and Sardinia, entered into 
 an agreement to effect a diversion in Normandy ; and Gus- 
 tavus III. was about to put himself at the head of the levies, 
 when he was assassinated (March 6, 1792). Austria had 
 signed an offensive and defensive alliance with Sweden 
 (Feb, 7, 1792), and the emperor Leopold II. died soon 
 after (March l). He was succeeded by Eraneis II., who 
 immediately gave orders for the assemblage of troops. 
 Austria demanded as an ultimatum the re-establishment of 
 the monarchy on the basis of the royal sitting of June 23, 
 the restoration of the property of the clergy, of the lands of 
 Alsace, with all the rights of the German princes, and of 
 Avignon and the Venaissin territory to the pope. The 
 Girondists were anxious for war. They hurried Louis XVI. 
 into a declaration of hostilities against Austria (April 20, 
 1792), and the revolutionists thus became the aggressors in 
 that long struggle that literally deluged Europe with blood. 
 
 Lettek 21. — History of the French Revolution, from the Deofaration 
 of War against Austria to the Retreat of the Comhined Armies. 
 A.D. 1792, April 20— Sept. 30. Vol. iii., pages 188—206. 
 
 § 624. The declaration of war was hailed with enthu- 
 siasm in every part of France. It communicated a new 
 excitement to the people, already sufficiently agitated by 
 domestic brawls. The French, determined, if possible, to 
 strike the first blow, planned an invasion of the Low 
 Countries, the inhabitants of which would, they hoped, 
 receive them with open arms. The troops committed some 
 
490 COMMENCEMENT OF WAR. 
 
 excesses, seized and massacred Dillon, one of their generals, 
 and after capturing some towns, retired. While this con- 
 test was in progress upon the frontiers, Louis XVI., 
 growing more and more disgusted with the Girondists, at 
 last dismissed them, and selected a ministry from the Feuil- 
 lants (June,l792). Thereupon the majority of the Girondists 
 joined with the Jacobins, and thus paved the way for the 
 overthrow of the throne. An insurrection occurred on the 
 20th of June, the anniversary of the oath of the tennis-court ; 
 when the populace, after invading the Legislative Assembly 
 and the palace, where they again insulted their sovereign, 
 committed numerous excesses. On hearing of these fresh 
 outrages, Lafayette quitted the army, repaired to Paris, and 
 demanded the punishment of the leaders of the insurrection 
 and the suppression of the Jacobins (June 28). This was 
 refused, and Lafayette having failed in an attempt to induce 
 the national guard to rally round the throne, returned to 
 the army. From that hour the Girondists were indefati- 
 gable in their efforts to obtain the deposition of the king. 
 
 § 625. Prussia coalesced with Austria and the German 
 princes, and having been joined by Sardinia, prepared to 
 invade Prance. The death of Gustavus III. had produced 
 a change in the policy of Sweden. Eussia and Spain stood 
 aloof from the league, and England adhered firmly to her 
 principle of non-interference. Even so late as Sept. 18, 1792, 
 M. Kersaint declared in the National Assembly at Paris, 
 " There is but one nation whose neutrality on the affairs of 
 France is decidedly pronounced, and that is England ; " but 
 the murder of the king, and the revolutionary system of 
 propagandism, ultimately compelled the English govern- 
 ment to abandon that neutrality. The duke of Brunswick 
 took the command of the army of the coalition, about one 
 hundred and forty thousand strong; and on the 25th of 
 July, broke up from Coblentz, and published a manifesto 
 in the name of the emperor of Austria and the king of 
 Prussia. The commotion in France increased, the dethrone- 
 ment of the king was openly demanded, and delegates 
 flocked in from the provinces for the purpose of hurrying 
 on the revolution. The accusation of Lafayette was de- 
 manded, but the Assembly refused to proceed against him. 
 An insurrection was caused by the march from the Faubourg 
 St. Antoine (Aug. 10) of a formidable mob to demand the 
 dethronement of the king, Louis XVI., anxious on account 
 of his wife and family, repaired to the National Assembly. 
 
CAMPAIGN OF 1792. 491 
 
 Fire of the Swiss guards having been assassinated, that 
 corps fired upon and dispersed the mob. The latter were, 
 however, reinforced ; they returned to the assault, besieged, 
 overwhelmed, and exterminated the gallant body of troops. 
 When the Assembly bad recovered from its first panic, it 
 decreed the dismissal of ministers and the suspension of the 
 royal authority. Louis XVI. was removed to the Temple, 
 and the Girondists were recalled. The revolutionary tri- 
 bunal which shed so much blood was instituted (Aug. 19) ; 
 and an extraordinary sitting was summoned to decide upon 
 the fate of the monarchy. 
 
 § 626. The army of invasion, which had quitted Coblentz 
 on the 25th of July, advanced along the banks of the 
 Moselle. On becoming acquainted with the events of the 
 10th of August, Lafayette endeavoured to rally the troops 
 under his command in favour of the throne, and failing in 
 this, fled into the Netherlands, and was taken prisoner 
 by the Germans. Several places were captured, and the 
 capital was thrown into a state of great agitation. On the 
 30th of August the allied army appeared before Verdun, 
 and commenced the bombardment. In case of its capture, 
 the road to Paris lay open. Intelligence of its fall arrived 
 in the night, between the Ist and 2nd of September, and 
 the revolutionary authorities at once resolved, with savage 
 barbarity, to massacre all the prisoners, mostly persons sup- 
 posed to be hostile to their party. Those shut up at the 
 Carmelites, at the abbey of St. Germain, at the Chatelet, 
 at the Hotel de la Force, at the Conciergerie, and at other 
 places, to the number of several thousands, including 
 women, were inhumanly murdered Preparations were 
 made for the defence of the capital ; and had the invading 
 armies marched at once upon Paris, the revolution would 
 have been crushed. They moved cautiously, Dumourier 
 seized a strong position at the forest of Argonne, and 
 effectually checked their progress. The Prussians attacked 
 Kellerman at Valmy (Sept. 20), but were compelled to 
 retire. The Prussian army was iU-provided for a cam- 
 paign, and on the evening of the 30th of September com- 
 menced its retreat. The French gained victories in other 
 quarters in which the war had broken out, and the revolution 
 triumphed, more from the timid policy of its assailants 
 than from any superior powers or abilities in its supporters. 
 In the mean time the National Legislative Assembly had 
 been dissolved, and a National Convention was summoned. 
 
492 EOTALTY ABOLISHED. 
 
 Lettee 22. — History of the !Prench Eevolution, from the Eottnation of 
 the National Convention to the Execution of Louis XVL A.D. 1792 
 —1793. Vol. iii., pages 206—219. 
 
 § 627. The National Convention met on the 22nd of 
 September, 1792, and at its first sitting abolished royalty, 
 and proclaimed the republic. The most violent republicans 
 carried the elections, and for Paris, Eobespierre and Danton, 
 the authors of the September massacres, were first elected. 
 The Convention was principally divided into two parties, 
 the Girondists and the Mountain. The Jacobins occupied 
 the seats on the summit of the left, hence the designation. 
 Both were revolutionists, both advocated extreme measures, 
 both had waded in bldbd ; but the Mountain were regarded 
 as the most violent. • It cannot be wondered, therefore, that 
 a •chamber thus composed should abolish royalty, and decree 
 that the old calendar from the year of Christ's birth should 
 be abandoned, and that all public acts should be dated from 
 the first year of the French republic. They established a new 
 constitution, and passed severe laws against the emigrants 
 and the priests. The Girondists endeavoured to impeach 
 Eobespierre and some of the most blood-thirsty tyrants of 
 the mob, but they had themselves been too much implicated 
 in the illegal events of the period, to sustain an accusation. 
 The question of putting Louis XVI. on his trial was next 
 discussed, and after a stormy debate, carried in th^ affirma- 
 tive. Louis, who had been imprisoned in the Temple for 
 four months, was ordered to be brought to the bar of the 
 Convention (Dec. 3)-. 
 
 § 628. The dethroned monarch was treated with much 
 indignity when brought before his accusers. The Mountain, 
 in spite of his noble bearing, calm attitude, and his satis- 
 factory refutation of every charge brought against him, 
 wished to have him executed that very night, but the 
 majority, composed of the Girondists and the neutrals, 
 decided that he should be formally tried and defended by 
 counsel. The king named Target and Tronchet as his 
 defenders. The former refused, but the aged Malesherbes 
 volunteered to supply his plaice ; and nobly did he perform 
 the task. A vehement debate, which extended over twenty 
 days, ensued, and at length Louis was unanimously declared 
 guilty. The appeal to the people was rejected hj four 
 hundred and twenty-three to two hundred and eighty- 
 two (Jan. 7, 1793). A majority stated to have been 
 
MUEDEE OF LOUIS XVI. 403 
 
 twenty-six, but afterwards discovered to be only five, voted 
 for his death. The Girondists, who could have saved the 
 king's life, deserted him, and assisted his enemies to con- 
 summate his ruin. His foes thirsted so much for this good 
 but weak monarch's blood, that they could hardly allow him 
 time to prepare for his execution. He mounted the scaf- 
 fold with a firm step, and at ten minutes past ten had ceased 
 to live (Jan. 21, 1793). There are few rulers who have 
 left behind them so excellent a memory ; and history will 
 say of him, that with more firmness of mind he would have 
 been a model of a king. 
 
 Letter 23. — History of the Domestic Affairs of Great Britain, from 
 the Terminalion of the American War to the earlier years of the 
 French Eevolution. A.D. 1783—1792. Vol. iiL, pages 220—238. 
 
 § 629. On the death of the marquis of Kockingham 
 (July 1, 1782), Lord Shelburne became prime minister, 
 whereupon Charles Fox and his friends resigned. The latter 
 attacked the principles upon which peace had been concluded, 
 and succeeded in placing the ministry in a minority (Feb. 17, 
 1783). The ministerial interregnum lasted till the month 
 of March, when the celebrated " Coalition Ministry," under 
 the direction of the duke of Portland, was formed, in which 
 Fox and Lord ]S'orth held office together (April 2). Fox's 
 bill for the settlement of India met with strong opposition 
 in the country, and was rejected by the Lords (Dec. 17). 
 William Pitt, then only twenty-four years of age, became 
 prime minister (Dec. 22). His plan for reform had been 
 rejected in the early part of the session, by a majority of 
 one hundred and forty-four, and his elevation to the highest 
 post in the ministry so soon after must have been parti- 
 cularly distasteful to his opponents. The new ministry 
 were out-voted in Parliament, and appealed to the country, 
 and having obtained a good majority, set boldly to work to 
 regulate the afiairs of the state. William Pitt first endea- 
 voured to restore the finances, and then brought in his plan 
 for the government of India, which was adopted in spite of 
 the opposition of Fox. But his Keform Bill, again intro- 
 duced early in the session of I785i, was negatived by a 
 majority of seventy-four. 
 
 § 680. The acts of Warren Hastings, governor-general of 
 Bengal, who was accused by Edmund Burke of high crimes 
 and misdemeanours, gave rise to various debates during the 
 session of 1786, The. house refused to impeach him for 
 
i9l WARREN HASTINGS. 
 
 his conduct in the Eohilla war, but decided that in bis 
 conduct respecting the expulsion of Cheyt-Sing from the 
 zemindary of Benares, grounds of impeachment existed. 
 The trial of Mr. Hastings having commenced, it was 
 brought forward annually during the session of Parhar 
 ment, and, strange to say, protracted to its eighth year, for 
 it was not concluded until 1794, when events of such over- 
 whelming magnitude engrossed the attention of the public, 
 that the impeachment of Mr. Hastings had ceased to 
 interest, and the governor-general of India was then ac- 
 quitted. His trial during its progress gave occasion to an 
 unprecedented display of eloquence on the part of the 
 managers ; and the speeches of Fox, Burke, and Sheridan, 
 will remain a lasting memorial of the transcendent talents 
 of these British statesmen. That they were fully satisfied 
 in their own minds of the guilt of the delinquent, there can 
 be no reasonable doubt, and that they were much disap- 
 pointed at the result of the trial, are facts now put beyond 
 all reasonable question, by a letter which Mr. Burke wrote 
 to his friend Dr. Laurence a little before his death, and 
 which was, after a lapse of thirty years, published. Li 
 1784 (Dec. 13) Dr. Samuel Johnson, one of the greatest 
 literary men that England ever produced, died, after a 
 laborious and a useful life. 
 
 § 631. Soon after the prorogation in 1788, the king and 
 queen repaired to Cheltenham, as his physicians thought it 
 advisable that his Majesty, whose health had been some time 
 declining, should try the effects of the medicinal waters. 
 The change did not produce the desired effect ; George III. 
 grew worse, his disorder assumed the aspect of mental 
 derangement, and Dr. Willis declared that the pressure 
 of business, severe exercise, over-abstemiousness, and little 
 rest, had been too much for his constitution. The king 
 having been thus, by the visitation of God, rendered incapable 
 of exercising his political functions, the consideration of a 
 regency occupied the minds of all ranks of the community. 
 Animated debates occurred in parliament on the question, 
 and Mr. Pitt, having carried the ministerial scheme, proposed 
 to invest the prince of "Wales with the royal authority,^ 
 subject to certain limitations and restrictions. The first ot 
 these was, that the regent should not have the power of 
 creating peers; the second, that he should not grant any 
 place or pension for life or in reversion, other than such 
 place as from its nature is to be held for life or during good 
 
THE KING'S ILLNESS. 495 
 
 behaviour ; the third, that he should be restrained from all 
 power over the king's personal property. Besides these 
 resolutions, he proposed one giving the queen the entire 
 care of the royal person during his illness, and placing under 
 her authority the whole of the king's household, with full 
 power to dismiss and appoint at her pleasure ; and another, 
 tor the nomination of a council to assist her Majesty with 
 their advice. These resolutions were carried, although a 
 protest, signed by no less than fifty-seven peers, was entered 
 against them (Dec. 1788). Mr. Pitt ictrbduced the Regency 
 Bill (Feb. 3, 1789), and while it was in progress the king 
 recovered. The national rejoicings on this happy event ex- 
 ceeded everything before witnessed. Illuminations were given 
 throughout the kingdom. A day of general thanksgiving 
 was appointed, and it was observed with unusual solemnity ; 
 the king in person, attended by the royal family, the great 
 officers of state, and both Houses of Parliament, went in 
 grand procession to St. Paul's cathedral to acknowledge the 
 divine clemency in his Majesty's restoration (April 23). 
 
 § 632. On the 21st of January, 1790, the British Parlia- 
 ment was opened by the king in person with a speech, in 
 which he alluded to the commotions on the continent. 
 During the session Fox spoke in warm commendation of the 
 French revolution, and was answered by Burke in a tone of 
 eloquent indignation. This led to a separation between 
 those statesmen, who had so long acted together. A dispute 
 occurred with Spain relative to the illegal seizure of two 
 English ships in Nootka Sound, on the coast of California, 
 during the summer of 1789 ; but the Spanish government, 
 alarmed at the energetic preparations of England, made the 
 required concessions. The session closed on the 11th of 
 June, and Parliament was dissolved the day after. During 
 the next session a bill to relieve the English Roman Catholics 
 from the legal penalties then existing against them obtained 
 the assent of Parliament, and Fox brought in a measure to 
 amend the law of libel. The latter passed the Commons, 
 but was postponed. The evidence on the slave trade having 
 been at length closed, Mr. Wilberforce introduced a bill for 
 its abolition. This was thrown out by a majority of seventy- 
 five. In a discussion upon Pitt's bill for the division of 
 Canada into two provinces. Upper and Lower, the breach 
 between Fox and Burke was widened, the former takin" the 
 opportunity to vindicate, and the latter to condemn" the 
 French revolution (May 6, 1791). The country ^^ was pro- 
 
496 FRANCE DECLARES WAR. 
 
 foundly agitated by the same event. The anniversary of the 
 Mth of July was celebrated in many places, and in Birming- 
 ham led to a fearful riot. The places of worship and the dwell- 
 ing-houses of the Soeinians in particular were attacked, and 
 the notorious Dr. Priestley was compelled to flee for his life. 
 In the session of 1792 the slave trade was again discussed, 
 and a measure for the abolition passed by the Commons, while 
 the Lords appointed a committee to hear evidence at the bar. 
 Fox's libel bill was carried. A society called " The Friends 
 of the People," pledged to the agitation of parliamentary 
 reform, and numbering amongst its supporters about thirty 
 members of parliament, was formed. On the 21st of May a 
 royal proclamation against seditious meetings and publi- 
 cations was issued; and prosecutions were commenced 
 against persons endeavouring to circulate publications advo- 
 cating principles subversive of law, order, and morality. 
 
 Letter 24. — History of the French Revolution, from the Execution of 
 Louis XVI. to that of Marie Antoinette. A.D. 1793—1794. Vol. iii., 
 pages 238—257. 
 
 § 633. The death of Louis XVI. secured the ascendancy 
 of the Mountain; and the nature of the principles of Liberty, 
 Equality, and Fraternity were soon fully tested. Blood con- 
 tinued to flow in torrents, and Europe stood aghast at the 
 horrors enacted by the extreme party in Paris. The war had 
 commenced in a favourable manner for Prance. Not only 
 were the G-erman forces expelled from the country, but the 
 Low Countries were conquered. Dumourier having gained 
 the battle of Jemappes (Nov. 6, 1792), entered Mons, Brus- 
 sels, and Liege in quick succession. The French prepared to 
 take permanent possession of the country, and the National 
 Convention issued a decree, declaring that the French nation 
 would grant fraternity and assistance to all people who wished 
 to recover their liberty (Nov. 19). This propagandism and 
 the murder of the king induced the English government to 
 recall their minister from Paris, and to prepare for hostilities. 
 The republican Convention declared war (Feb. 1, 1793) 
 against England, Spain, and Holland. A committee of 
 G-eneral Defence and of Public Safety was appointed 
 (March 25). It was at first composed of members of the 
 Grirondists and the Mountain, to the number of twenty-five. 
 This revolutionary tribunal daily gained more power, and 
 precipitated the state upon its career of destruction. Du^ 
 mourier fprmed a plan for delivering the Low Countries 
 
THE CONYENTION IN DANGER. 497 
 
 from the rule of the Jacobins, marching upon Paris to upset 
 the revolutionary party, proclaim the constitution of 1791, 
 and restore the monarchy. His schemes were, however, 
 defeated, and several reverses which the French armies at 
 this period experienced in the field rendered him unpopular. 
 
 § 634. The Jacobins entered into a conspiracy to create 
 an insurrection, which they hoped would afford them a 
 favourable pretext for the removal of all their opponents. 
 Ministers were, however, upon their guard, and the terrible 
 plot miscarried. The struggle in La Vendue, in which the 
 constitutional party manfully contended against the revo- 
 lutionary levies, furnished the government with an excuse 
 for adopting the most rigorous measures against the priests, 
 the emigrants, and all who in any way attempted to thwart 
 their schemes. The French armies in the Low Countries 
 had been again defeated, and Dumourier entered into negoti- 
 ations with the Austrians for the overthrow of the revolu- 
 tionary junta. The army not seeming inclined to support 
 him, he went over to the Austrians, and was declared a traitor 
 by the Convention. A fearful struggle between the various 
 factions in the National Assembly and the clubs ensued, in 
 which the Jacobins at last gained a complete ascendancy. 
 The result of this, after several conflicts, was the commence- 
 ment of the Eeign of Terror (June 2, 1793). The Grirondist 
 leaders were imprisoned, and Eobespierre and his satellites 
 continued to deluge the land with the blood of their fellow- 
 citizens. More than sixty of the departments took up arms 
 in defence of the constitution. Charlotte Corday set out 
 from Caen on her mission for the delivery of France from 
 its enemies, and stabbed the tyrant Marat to the heart 
 (July 14). Lyons became the head-quarters of the consti- 
 tutional party. 
 
 § 635. The resistance to the Convention was of a most 
 formidable character. The Vendean army, marching from 
 victory to victory, conquered Saumur and Angers, and ad- 
 vanced upon Nantes. Everything seemed to conspire to 
 overthrow the Convention. Its armies were beaten in the 
 north and at the Pyrenees : at the same moment it was 
 threatened by the Lyonese in the centre, the MarseUlois in 
 the south, the Girondists in one part of the west, and the 
 Vendeans in the other. That military reaction which, after 
 the brilliant campaign of Argonne and the Netherlands, had 
 taken place in consequence more especially of the disagree- 
 ment between Dumourier and the Jacobins, and between 
 2 s. 
 
498 CAMPAIGN OF 1793. 
 
 the army and the government, had become much more 
 decided since the defection of the general-in-chief. There 
 ■was no longer agreement in their operations, ardour in the 
 troops, or concert between the Convention, now occupied with 
 its own quarrels, and the dispirited generals. The wreck of 
 Dumouner's army had been collected together at the camp 
 of Famars, under the command of Dampierre; but they 
 were compelled, after a defeat, to retire under the walls of 
 Bouchain (May 8, 1793). Dampierre was killed. From 
 Dunkirk to Givet, the frontier was threatened by a superior 
 force. Custine was suddenly recalled from the Moselle 
 to the army of the north ; but his presence did not re- 
 establish affairs. Valenciennes, the key of France, was 
 taken (July 28) ; Conde just before met with the same 
 fate ; and the French army, driven from one position to 
 another, retired behind the Scarpe in front of Arras, the 
 last post for retreat between them and Paris. In another 
 quarter, Mayence, suffering from famine, and briskly pressed 
 by the enemy, lost all hope of being relieved by the army of 
 the Moselle, which was then reduced to a state of inaction ; 
 and despairing of being able to hold out any longer, it capi- 
 tulated (July 22). The situation of the republic could not 
 be worse. In this emergency ministers occupied themselves 
 framing a new constitution, intended to perpetuate their 
 sway. In order to deal with the crisis, which every how 
 seemed to aggravate, levies were raised, and a law was 
 passed against the suspected. 
 
 § 636. The war was waged furiously between the repub- 
 licans and their opponents ; and the former speedily 
 regained a greater part of France. The royalists had 
 delivered Toulon into the hands of the English (Aug. 28). 
 Admiral Hood took possession in the name of Louis XVII., 
 and expelled the republican armies. Lyons was, however, 
 captured by the forces of the Convention, amidst the most 
 savage butchery, and thousands of inoffensive people were 
 either beheaded, drowned, or cut to pieces with grape-shot 
 (Oct. 10). The Convention proved everywhere victorious. 
 Toulon was recovered (Dec. 19), and Napoleon Buonaparte 
 first distinguished himself in its defence. The royalists ex- 
 perienced four successive defeats ; two at Chatillon, and two 
 at ChoUet. Their leaders, Lescure, Bonchamp, and d'Blbee, 
 were mortally wounded ; and the insurgents, totally defeated 
 in Upper Vendee, fearing, if they took refuge in the Lower, 
 that they should be exterminated, decided upon quitting 
 
THE EEIGN OP TERROR. 499 
 
 their country, to the number of eighty thousand. This 
 emigration across Brittany, in which they hoped to eiFect 
 an insurrection, proved fatal to them. In spite of several 
 victories, they were repulsed before Granville, completely 
 routed at Mans, destroyed at Savenay; and the wreck 
 of this vast emigration, a few thousand men, with diffi- 
 culty re-entered La Vendee. These irreparable disasters 
 of the royalist cause, the capture of the island of Noir- 
 moutier trom Charette, the dispersion of the troops of 
 this chief, and the death of Larochejaquelein, rendered 
 the republicans masters of the country. The Committee 
 of Public Safety thinking, not without cause, that its 
 enemies, although subdued, were not disposed to sub- 
 mission, adopted a terrible system of extermination, to 
 prevent their recovering themselves. General Thurreau 
 surrounded the reduced La Vendee with sixteen intrenched 
 camps ; twelve columns, known by the name of the infernal 
 columns, scoured the neighbourhood with fire and sword, 
 explored the woods, carried off those who were collected 
 together, and spread terror throughout this unfortunate 
 country. The foreign armies had also been again driven from 
 the frontiers which they had invaded. The revolutionary tri- 
 bunal continued its sanguinary system. Marie Antoinette 
 was sent to the scaffold (Oct. 16, 1793), twenty Girondist 
 deputies followed (Oct. 31). The duke of Orleans, Egalite, 
 who had voted for the death of Louis XVI., paid the 
 penalty of his treachery (Nov. 6). Madame Boland died 
 heroically (Nov. 8). BaiUy followed (Nov. 11), whilst Con- 
 dorcet and M. Soland put an end to their own lives ; scat- 
 folds were erected all over the country, and France became 
 literally and truly one scene of bloodshed and horror. 
 
 Letter 25. — ^History of France during the Reign of Terror, from the 
 
 Fall of the GironcUsts to the Execution of Robespierre. A.D. 1793 
 
 1794. Vol. iii., pages 257—272. 
 
 § 637. On the fall of the Girondists the Committee of 
 Public Safety was formed entirely of members of the 
 Mountain, who at once adopted measures to inaugurate 
 that terrible system, known as the Eeign of Terror (June 2, 
 1793). They established an entirely new era ; changed the 
 divisions of the year, the names of the months and of the 
 days. In place of the Christian calendar, they substituted 
 that of the republican, — for the week, the decade, making 
 every tenth day, instead of Sunday, the day of rest (Nov. 24, 
 2e: 2 
 
500 THE EEVOLUTIONAEY CALENDAR. 
 
 1793). The new era was ordered to be dated from the 
 22nd of September, 1792, the epoch of the foundation 
 of the republic. They had twelve equal months, con- 
 sisting of thirty days each, which commenced on the 
 22nd of September, in the following order : — Vendemiaire, 
 Brumaire, Frimaire, for the autumn ; Nivose, Pluviose, 
 Ventose, for the winter; Germinal, Tloreal, Prairial, for 
 the spring ; Messidor, Tbermidor, Fructidor, for the sum- 
 mer. The five supernumerary days were thrown to the 
 end of the year, to complete the whole, and they were called 
 the Sans-Culotteides. The constitution of 1793 led to the 
 republican calendar, and the republican calendar to the 
 abolition of public worship. The existence of the Beity was 
 publicly denied ; and the worship of the Goddess of Eeason 
 decreed (Nov. 10, 1793). The churches were, in most 
 districts of Prance, closed against priests and worshippers, 
 the bells were broken and cast into cannon, the whole eccle- 
 siastical establishment was destroyed, and the republican 
 inscription over the cemeteries, declaring death to be a per- 
 petual sleep, announced to those who lived under that do- 
 minion, that they were to hope for no redress even in the next 
 world. Marriage was declared to be only a civil contract, and 
 aU the relations of life and of society were undermined. 
 
 § 688. Eternal jealousy reigned amongst the authors of 
 these atrocities, and, having removed those who had op- 
 posed their schemes, they turned their rage against each 
 other. The Cordeliers had excited the jealousy of Kobes- 
 pierre, and several of their leaders were consigned to the 
 executioner (March 24, 1794). Danton, Caraille Desmou- 
 lins, and others, who had helped to deluge France with 
 blood, became the next victims (April 5). The slaughter 
 of inoffensive citizens, without even the formality of a trial, 
 rose to a fearful pitch, and a quarrel between the murderers 
 put an end to the Eeign of Terror. [Robespierre perceiving 
 that his dictatorship was at an end, thought of flight, but 
 was, before he could effect it, with his principal associates, 
 denounced and arrested. In this hour of peril the baseness 
 and cowardice of his nature were fully displayed, and the 
 tyrant who had sent so many thousands to the scaffold, 
 trembled and yelled in the hands of the executioner 
 (July 28, 1794). The fall and execution of Eobespierre 
 brought the Eeign of Terror to a close. In different parts 
 of France upwards of a million of persons are supposed to 
 have perished in those fearful proscriptions. 
 
NAPOLEON BUONAPAETE. 501 
 
 Letter 26. — Early Career of Napoleon Buonaparte, and his Influence 
 upon the A&ira of Republican France. A.D. 1768—1796. Vol. ill., 
 pages 273—288. 
 
 § 639. Napoleon Buonaparte was bom at Ajaccio, in 
 Corsica, on the 5th of February, 1768." His family were 
 at the time of his birth in reduced circumstances. Napoleon 
 was the second of thirteen children, eight of whom — five sons 
 and three daughters — survived their father. At an early 
 age, he was sent to the military school, first at Angers 
 and afterwards of Brienne, an institution intended for 
 training youths in the engineer and artillery service. At 
 the age of fourteen he was removed to the Ecole Militaire 
 at Paris, for the completion of his studies. In 1785, he 
 received a commission as second lieutenant in a regiment of 
 artillery, and was soon after promoted to the rank of first 
 lieutenant in a corps quartered at Valence. In 1792, 
 Napoleon became a captain, and the same year witnessed 
 the two insurrections of the 20th of June and 10th of 
 August. His first military exploit was an expedition 
 against his native city in Corsica, and it proved unfor- 
 tunate (1793). At the siege of Toulon, at which place 
 the English and Spaniards came to the assistance of the 
 royalists, Napoleon distinguished himself. The siege had 
 been conducted in a very unsatisfactory manner, when 
 he obtained command of the artillery, changed the plan of 
 operations, and succeeded in expelling the English and 
 Spaniards (Dec. 19, 1793). 
 
 § 640. In consequence of this success, the young Napoleon 
 was confirmed in Lis provisional situation of chief of bat- 
 talion, and appointed to hold that rank in the army of Italy. 
 His influence with the republican general Dumorbion 
 mainly contributed to the capture of Saorgio, and the 
 triumphs of the campaign of 1794. In the mean time, Eobe- 
 spierre had fallen. Napoleon's intimacy with Eobespierre's 
 younger brother rendered him an object of suspicion to the 
 
 " This is one of the many historical events of which the correct date 
 is not given, even in works enjoying the highest reputation. It is 
 usually stated that Wellington and Napoleon were bom not only in 
 the same year, but on the same day of the month. Yet WelUngton 
 was born May 1, 1J69, and Napoleon Buonaparte February 5, 1768. ' 
 Napoleon's object in stating that he was born in 1769, was because,, 
 at the actual period of his birth, Corsica had not been incorporated 
 with the French monarchy, and he was not therefore a French citizen. 
 
502 THE THEEMIDOEIANS. 
 
 authorities, and he was arrested. Through the interest of 
 friends he obtained his release, but remained without em- 
 ployment or promotion, and was at one time on the point 
 of quitting the army. After the fall of Eobespierre, which 
 was called the Eevolution of the 9th Thermidor (July 27), 
 Prance was in a very distracted state. The Thermidorians, 
 thus designated from the day on which their first •triumph 
 had been achieved, determined, if possible, to put a stop to 
 the revolutionary passion for bloodshed. They liberated thou- 
 sands of suspected persons, who had been arrested during 
 the Eeign of Terror, and awaited in the prisons the order for 
 their removal to the scaffold. The advocates of the principles 
 that had led to the Eeign of Terror struggled hard to main- 
 tain the accursed system, and the Thermidorians became 
 involved in a fearful contest. They summoned to their aid 
 the youth of Paris ; and these, armed with short clubs 
 loaded with lead, formed a band known by the name of La 
 Jeunesse Doree. The Jacobin Club was suppressed, and the 
 sanguinary decrees of the Mountain one by one abrogated. 
 § 641. In the terrible conflict with the sections, Barras was 
 appointed commander, and he named Napoleon second in 
 command. The energetic measures adopted by the latter, 
 on this occasion, completely crushed the insurrection of 
 the 13th Vendemiaire (Oct. 5, 1795). The Convention 
 had been engaged in the formation of a new constitution, 
 the third attempted in Prance since 1789. They pro- 
 posed that the legislative power should be divided between 
 two councils, that of the Five Hundred and that of the 
 Ancients. The former was to have the sole right of 
 originating, and the latter of passing or rejecting, 
 the laws. The executive power was to be lodged in the 
 hands of five Directors, nominated by the Council of the 
 Five Hundred, and approved by that of the Ancients. 
 Opposition to these changes produced the revolt, which 
 was crushed, the new constitution being established, and 
 the Directory appointed. Thus terminated the rule of the 
 Convention, after it had existed for more than three years, 
 from Sept. 21, 1791, to Oct. 26, 1795. After this success, 
 Napoleon was appointed general of the army of the interior. 
 At this period he made the acquaintance of Josephine Beaa- 
 harnais, widow of Count Alexander Beauharnais, to whom 
 he was married on the 9th of March, 1796. The lady, a 
 Creole, was older than her husband. She was possessed of 
 much grace, and had an exquisite taste in dress. The 
 
SUCCESS OF THE FRENCH. 603 
 
 influence of her connections obtained for Napoleon the com- 
 mand of the army of Italy. Twelve days after the marriage, 
 be set out for the Alps, and thus bis extraordinary career 
 may be said to have commenced. 
 
 Lettee 27. — History of Affairs in Great Britain, and the War with 
 France, from its Commencement to the Failure of Lord Malmesbury's 
 Negotiations for Peace, a.d. 1793— 1796. Vol. iii., pages 289— 305. 
 
 § 642. In consequence of the threatening aspect of affairs, 
 the English ministry placed the kingdom in a state of 
 defence. The execution of Louis XVI., the system of 
 propagandism, and the attack of the French upon the 
 Netherlands, led to forcible remonstrances on the part of 
 the English government. In reply, the Convention declared 
 war against England (Feb. 1, 1793) ; and an English army 
 was sent into the Netherlands. The allies, at the opening 
 of the campaign, gained some successes, but were afterwards 
 repulsed. In fact, at one time, the combined armies were 
 penetrating into France, at different points of the frontier, 
 from Strasburg to Dunkirk, and the southern provinces of 
 the republic were in open insurrection ; but at the end of 
 the year, the allies were everywhere repulsed, and Lyons, 
 Marseilles, and Toulon, reduced under the power of the 
 Convention. In 1794, England found it necessary to sub- 
 sidize Prussia, Holland, and other states, to induce them to 
 take up arms in their own defence. The Opposition endea- 
 voured to obstruct the Crovemment in its course, but were 
 defeated by large majorities. A misunderstanding occurred 
 with the United States of America, on the question of the 
 right of search, which was amicably arranged. In conse- 
 quence of the spread of revolutionary doctrines in the 
 country, precautionary measures were adopted, and the 
 Habeas Corpus Act was suspended. Some trials against 
 the more prominent members of the revolutionary societies 
 created great excitement, and the defendants were acquitted. 
 In a naval action between French and English fleets of 
 nearly equal strength, the latter, under the command of 
 Lord Howe, gained a complete victory (June 1, 1794). 
 
 § 643. The campaign of 1794 was most disastrous to the 
 cause of the allies. Francis II., of Austria, had put himself 
 at the head of the army, but the French were victorious ; 
 and all Austrian Flanders and Brabant fell into their power. 
 They were equally successful on the frontiers of G-ermany, 
 where they captured several fortresses, with immense stores 
 
504 THE COALITION IS DISSOLVED. 
 
 of arms and ammunition. Early in 1795, the French resumed 
 their victorious career, the British army continued to retreat, 
 and at length returned to England (April 14, 1795). The 
 stadtholder sought refuge in London, and the palace of 
 Hampton Court was assigned as his residence. Although 
 defended by Austria and England, the Dutch made no efforts 
 in their self-defence, and at the dictation of France, con- 
 sented to remodel the United Provinces, under the name 
 of the Batavian Eepublic, and to form an offensive and 
 defensive alliance with that country (May 16, 1795). 
 Several of the powers subsidised by England concluded 
 peace with the French republic. The king of Prussia, 
 having secured the payment of the subsidy, signed the 
 treaty of Basle (April 5, 1795) ; and Spain, and some 
 minor states, followed the example. Great agitation pre- 
 vailed in England, and an unfortunate expedition to 
 Quiberon Bay (July 21), intended to create a diver- 
 sion in favour of the French royalists, served to increase 
 public discontent. Parliament met on the 29th of October, 
 and so great was the dissatisfaction at the failure of the 
 allies, that the king was publicly insulted, and the crowd 
 followed his carriage, clamouring for the dismissal of Pitt 
 and the restoration of peace. As the aspect of affairs 
 continued to grow worse, the government were at last 
 induced to send Lord Malmesbury to Paris (Oct. 13,1796). 
 Although Great Britain offered to make great concessions, 
 the Directory, flushed with their earlier successes, did not 
 seem inclined to abandon any of their numerous conquests, 
 and abruptly ordered Lord Malmesbury to quit the republic 
 within forty-eight hours (Dec. 19, 1796).» 
 
 ' The terms offered at this period were highly honourable to the 
 English government, and show their anxiety to obtain peace. They 
 declared themselves willing to restore all the colonies of France and 
 Holland captured during the war, and to recognize the French republic. 
 In return they required the evacuation by the French of their conquests 
 on the continent. These were the chief points of the proposal. The 
 Directory had embarked upon a career of aggression, and, flushed by 
 their successes, felt unwilling to disgorge any portion of the spoil. 
 
ITALIAN CAMPAIGN OF 1796. 505 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 Letteb 28. — ^The French Campaign in Italy, from the Arrival of 
 Napoleon at Head-quarters to his Triumphal Entry into Milan, with 
 some account of his Spoliations. A.D. 1796. March 27 — May 15. 
 Vol. iii., pages 305—321. 
 
 § 644. Napoleon reached Nice on the 27th of March, and 
 had no sooner joined the French army than he resolved upon 
 penetrating into Italy, by crossing the lowest part of the 
 mountainous range which separates that country from 
 France. He had scarcely set his troops in motion when 
 they were attacked by the Austrian general at Montenotte. 
 Colonel Eampon, with a handful of men, arrested the pro- 
 gress of the Austro-Sardinian army, which enabled Buona- 
 parte to concentrate his forces, and the enemy were forced 
 to retreat (April 9 — 11). The French followed in pursuit ; 
 and the victories of Millesimo (April 14) and of Mon- 
 dovi (April 22) induced the king of Sardinia to sue for 
 peace. Napoleon granted an armistice, on the surrender of 
 the fortresses of Tortona, Corri, and Alessandria into his 
 hands. A fortnight later a treaty of peace was signed 
 between Sardinia and the French republic. The former 
 renounced the coalition, ceded Savoy, Nice, and other terri- 
 tories in Piedmont, and gave the French troops a free pas- 
 sage through the country. Buonaparte, resolving to obtain 
 further conquests in Italy, crossed the Po, and entered 
 Parma (May 7). The grand duke was compelled to furnish 
 supplies, and a contribution upon works of art was levied. 
 This was the commencement of that system of spoliation 
 pursued by the French in conquered states, and which after- 
 wards raised the indignation of the civilized world. 
 
 § 645. The Austrians had taken up a strong position on 
 the Adda, and the advanced divisions of the two armies 
 met at a village called Fombio, not far from Casal (May 8), 
 when an encounter ensued, in which the Austrians were 
 defeated. Thereupon they crossed the Adda, and deter- 
 mined to defend the passage at Lodi. This large town con- 
 
506 THE BKIDGE OF LODI. 
 
 tained twelve thousand inhabitants. It had old Gothic 
 walls, but its chief defence consisted in the river Adda, 
 which flows through it, and was crossed by a wooden bridge 
 about five hundred feet in length. When Beaulieu, after 
 the affair of Fombio, evacuated Casal, he retreated to this 
 place with about ten thousand men : the rest of his army 
 was directed upon Milan and Cassano, a town situated, like 
 Lodi, upon the Adda, On his arrival, Napoleon found that 
 although the bridge had not been destroyed, it was swept 
 by twenty pieces of artillery. He immediately placed some 
 guns in position, the cavalry passed at a ford lower down 
 the river, and the French attacked the Austrians with 
 impetuosity (May 10). The column ordered to charge over 
 the bridge was thrown into disorder by the terrible fire of 
 the Austrian artillery, when Napoleon and some of his 
 generals rushed to the head. Their coolness decided the 
 struggle ; the Austrians gave way on every side, soon after 
 abandoned Milan, and retired to Mantua. 
 
 § 646. On the 15th of May, Buonaparte made his public 
 entry into Milan, under a triumphal arch prepared for the 
 occasion, and took up his residence in the archiepiscopal 
 palace. The same evening a splendid entertainment was 
 given, and the tree of liberty was erected with great ceremony 
 in the principal square. This afiectation of popular joy did 
 not prevent the French general from making Milan con- 
 tribute to the relief of his army. He imposed upon the 
 place a requisition of twenty millions of livres, but offered 
 to accept of goods of any sort in kind, and at a rateable 
 valuation; for it may be easily supposed that specie was scarce 
 in a city circumstanced as Milan then was. The public 
 funds of every description, even those dedicated to the sup- 
 port of hospitals, went into the French military chest ; the 
 church plate was seized as part of the requisition, and when 
 all this was done, the citizens were burthened with the 
 charge of finding rations for fifteen thousand men daily, by 
 which force the citadel, with its Austrian garrison, was 
 blockaded. The duke of Modena purchased the privilege 
 of neutrality for five millions and a half of French 
 livres, with large contributions in provisions and accoutre- 
 ments. Like the duke of Parma, he was also compelled 
 to give up his choicest pictures and other works of art. 
 The same system was followed at Milan, where several of the 
 most valuable articles were taken from the Ambrosian col- 
 lection. Thus Napoleon managed, in every way, to gratify 
 
INSUREECnON IN PAVIA. 507 
 
 the Directory and the revolutionary party; for while he 
 drained Italy to support his armies, he sent the choicest 
 productions of art, as trophies, to adorn Paris. 
 
 Leptee 29. — History of the Campaign in Italy continued, from the In- 
 surrection at Pavia to the Battle of Areola. A.D. 1796—1797. Vol. 
 iii., pages 322—345. 
 
 § 647. After these victories by the republican army, the 
 Austrian general, in order to secure his position, had occu- 
 pied the line formed by the Mincio, his left flank resting 
 upon Mantua, his right upon Peschiera, a Venetian city and 
 fortress, but of which he had taken possession, against 
 the wish of the Venetian government, who were desirous of 
 observing a neutrality between such powerful belligerents, 
 not, perhaps, altogether aware how far the victor in so dread- 
 ful a strife might be disposed to neglect the general law of 
 nations. The Austrian defence on the right was prolonged 
 by the Lago di Guarda, a large lake out of which the Mincio 
 flows, aud which, running thirty-five miles northward into 
 the mountains of the Tyrol, maintained uninterrupted 
 Beaulieu's communication with Germany. The Directory, 
 probably jealous of the rising fame of the young general, 
 resolved to divide the army of Italy between Buonaparte 
 and Kellerman, and directed the former general to pass the 
 Po, and advance southward on Borne and Naples, with 
 twenty thousand men ; while Kellerman, with the rest of 
 the Italian army, was to press the siege of Mantua, and 
 make head against the Austrians. Buonaparte positively 
 refused to accede to this arrangement, and the Directory 
 at once gave way. The fortunate general fixed his head- 
 quarters at Lodi upon the 24th of May; but he had scarcely 
 arrived there when he received the alarming intelligence that 
 the people of the city of Pavia, and of all the surrounding 
 districts, were in arms in his rear ; that the tocsin was ring- 
 ing in every village, and that news was circulated that 
 the prince of Condi's army, united with a strong Austrian 
 force, had descended from the Tyrol into Italy. Some com- 
 motions occurred in Milan, and the Austrian garrison 
 there made demonstrations towards favouring the insurrec- 
 tion in Pavia, where the insurgents were completely suc- 
 cessful, and had captured a Prench corps of three hundred 
 men. The Italians had been roused to this resistance 
 by the exactions practised by the Prench generals, and the 
 indignities offered by the soldiers to their sacred edifices. 
 
508 FURTHER AGGRESSIONS. 
 
 Buonaparte marehed upon Pavia, suppressed the revolt, 
 punished the leaders, and issued a republican proclamation. 
 § 648. Having quelled these disturbances, Napoleon de- 
 termined to drive the Austrians from their strong position. 
 By skilful manoeuvres he effected the passage of the Mincio. 
 Thereupon the Austrians retired within the frontiers of 
 Tyrol, and Mantua and the citadel of Milan were the only 
 places in Italy of any consequence that remained in their 
 hands. Buonaparte blockaded Mantua with a large force, 
 and compelled the republic ot Venice, which had remained 
 neutral during the conflict, to expel Louis XVIII., who, under 
 the title of the count de Lisle, was living in strict seclusion 
 at Verona. In spite of this concession, the Prench occupied 
 Verona (June 3, 1796). Naples renounced the coalition, and 
 Bologna and Perrara were occupied by French troops. The 
 pope purchased an armistice by the payment of twenty-one 
 millions of francs in actual specie, with large contributions 
 in forage and military stores, the cession of Ancona, Bologna, 
 and Ferrara, not forgetting one hundred of the finest pictures, 
 statues, and similar objects of art, to be selected according 
 to the choice of the committee of artists who attended the 
 French army. It was particularly stipulated, with republican 
 ostentation, that the busts of the elder and younger Brutus 
 were to be among the number of the ceded articles. The 
 archduke of Tuscany was the next victim, and in the midst 
 of his arbitrary schemes at Florence, Buonaparte received the 
 news of the fall of the citadel of Milan. Buonaparte made 
 truce with several of the old states in Italy, or rather ad- 
 journed their destruction in consideration of large contri- 
 butions ; he was far from losing sight of the main object of 
 the French Directory, which was to cause the adjacent 
 governments to be revolutionized and new modelled on a 
 republican form, corresponding to that of the great nation 
 herself. This scheme was, in many respects, an exceedingly 
 artful one. In every state which the French might overrun 
 or conquer, were to be found — for such agents abound in 
 all parts — men fitted to form the members of revolutionary 
 government, and who, from their previous situation and 
 habits, must necessarily be eager to do so. Such men are 
 sure to be supported by the rabble of large towns, who 
 are attracted by the prospect of plunder, and by the splendid 
 promises of liberty, which they always understand as pro- 
 mising the equalization of property. Thus provided with 
 materials for their edifice, the bayonets of the French army 
 
CAMPAIGN IN GERMANY. 509 
 
 ■were of strength sufficient to prevent the task from being 
 interrupted, and the French republic had soon to greet sister 
 states, under the government of men who held their offices 
 by the pleasure of France, and who were obliged, therefore, 
 to comply with all her requisitions, however unreasonable. 
 
 § 649." The Austrian government had in the mean time 
 become aware of the necessity of making vigorous exertions. 
 Beaulieu, old and unlucky, was re-called, and "Wurmser, one 
 of the best of the Austrian generals, was placed at the head 
 of thirty thousand men on the frontiers of Italy. Buonaparte 
 pressed the siege of Mantua, and made every effort to reduce 
 the city before Wurmser should open his campaign, but the 
 place held out. The plan which the Directory had adopted 
 for the campaign of 1796 was worthy of the genius of Camot, 
 by whom it was formed, and of Napoleon and Moreau, by 
 whom it had been revised and approved. It had been 
 schemed, that, to allow Austria no breathing space, Moreau, 
 with the army of the Sambre and Meuse, should press for- 
 ward on the eastei:n frontier of Germany, supported on the 
 left by Jourdan, at the head of the army of the Ehine, and 
 that both generals should continue to advance, untU Moreau 
 should be in a position to communicate with Suonaparte 
 through the Tyrol. "When this junction of the whole forces 
 of France, in the centre of the Austrian dominions, was 
 accomplished, it was Camot's ultimate plan to advance upon 
 Vienna, and dictate peace to the emperor under the walls of 
 his own capital. Of this great project, the part intrusted to 
 Buonaparte was completely executed, and for some time the 
 fortune of war seemed equally auspicious to France upon 
 the Ehine as in Italy. Moreau and Jourdan crossed that 
 great national boundary at Neuwied and Eehl, and moved 
 eastward through Germany, until Moreau had actually 
 crossed the river Lech, and was almost touching with his 
 right flank the passes of the Tyrol, through which he was, 
 according to the plan of the campaign, to have communicated 
 with Buonaparte. During this advance of two hostile 
 armies, amounting each to seventy-five thousand men, which 
 filled all Germany vrith consternation, the Austrian leader, 
 "Wartensleben, -was driven from position to position by 
 Jourdan, while the Archduke Charles was unable to maintain 
 his ground before Moreau. The imperial generals were 
 reduced to this extremity by the loss of the army, consisting 
 of from thirty to thirty-five thousand men, detached under 
 Wurmser, to su^ort the remains of Beaulieu's forces, and 
 
610 WTJRMSER'S CAMPAIGN. 
 
 retrieve the Austrian affairs in Italy. But the archduke 
 ■was an excellent and enterprising ofiBcer, and at this im. 
 portant period he saved the empire of Austria by a bold and 
 decided manoBuvre. Leaving a large part of his army to 
 make head against Moreau, he moved to the right with the 
 rest, so as to form a junction with Wartensleben, and over- 
 whelm Jourdan with a local superiority of numbers, being 
 the very principle on which the French themselves achieved 
 so many victories. Jourdan was totally defeated, and com- 
 pelled to make a hasty and disorderly retreat, which was 
 rendered disastrous by the insurrection of the German 
 peasantry around his fugitive army. Moreau, also unable to 
 maintain himself in the heart of G-ermany, when Jourdan, 
 with the army which covered his left flank, was defeated, 
 was likewise under the necessity of retiring, but conducted 
 his retrograde movement with such dexterity, that his retreat 
 through the Black Forest, where the Austrians hoped to cut 
 him oS, was compared to a great victory. 
 
 § 650. As the divisions of Wurmser's army began to 
 arrive on the frontiers of Italy, Buonaparte requested the 
 Directory to send supplies from France. Troops could not 
 however be spared, and Buonaparte, alarmed at the advance 
 of the Austrians, abandoned the siege of Mantua with pre- 
 cipitation (July 30). His object was to defeat the Austrian 
 forces in detail, and he succeeded in repelling them at Lonato 
 (July 31), and Castiglione (Aug. 5). w urmser, who had been 
 engaged revictualling Mantua, and throwing in supplies of 
 every kind, no sooner heard of these disasters of his right wing, 
 than he collected his troops together and advanced against the 
 French position between Lonato and Castiglione. He was 
 defeated and compelled to retire. In these disastrous con- 
 flicts the Austrians are supposed to have lost nearly forty 
 thousand men. Nothing is more remarkable, during these 
 campaigns, than the manner in which Austria stood on the 
 defensive at every point, and by extraordinary exertions 
 again recruited Wurmser with fresh troops, to the amount 
 of twenty thousand men ; and enabled that general to re- 
 sume the offensive, by advancing from the Tyrol. Wurmser, 
 with less confidence than before, hoped to raise the siege of 
 Mantua a second time, and at a less desperate cost, by 
 moving from Trent towards Mantua, through the defiles 
 formed by the river Brenta. This manceuvre he proposed 
 to execute with thirty thousand men, while he left twenty 
 thousand, under General Davidowich, in a.strong position at 
 
SIEGE OF MANTUA. Sll 
 
 or near Eovereda, for the purpose of covering the Tyrol, 
 Buonaparte at once perceived hia design, and having taken 
 measures to defeat it, marched upon Eovereda, and drove 
 Davidowich from that town with great loss (Sept. 4). 
 
 § 651. The French commander then endeavoured to gain 
 the Tyrolese, by issuing the usual inflated proclamations ; 
 they did not seem much inclined to barter away their inde- 
 pendence for specious promises, and he set out to attack 
 Wurmser. He defeated him at Primolano (Sept. 6) and 
 Bassaao, and Wurmser having almost succeeded in sur- 
 prising and capturing Napoleon, threw himself into Mantua 
 (Sept. 12), and -waa/^gam blockaded in that city. The woes 
 of war now appeared in a different and even more hideous 
 form than when inflicted with the sword alone. When 
 Wurmser threw himself into Mantua, the garrison amounted 
 to twenty-six thousand men ; yet ere October was far ad- 
 vanced there were little above half the number fit for service. 
 There were nearly nine thousand sick in the hospitals, — 
 infectious diseases, privations of every kind, and the un- 
 healthy air of the lakes and marshes with which they were 
 surrounded, had cut off the remainder. The French also 
 had lost great numbers ; but the conquerors could reckon 
 up their victories, and forget the price at which they had been 
 purchased. Buonaparte's situation, however brilliant, was at 
 the same time critical, and required his undivided thoughts. 
 Mantua still held out, and was likely to do so. Wurmser 
 had caused about three-fourths of the horses belonging to his 
 cavalry to be killed and salted for the use of the garrison, 
 and thus made a large addition, such as it was, to the pro- 
 visions of the place. His character for courage and deter- 
 miaation was completely established ; and being now engaged 
 in defending a fortress by ordinary rules of art, which he 
 perfectly understood, he was in no danger of being over- 
 reached and out-manoeuvred by the new system of tactics, 
 ■vvhich occasioned his misfortunes in the open field. 
 
 § 652. Austria, however, was not, even after these reverses, 
 inclined to give up her Italian provinces without another 
 struggle. By order of the Aulic council, two armies were as- 
 sembled on the Italian frontier ; one at Friuli, which was partly 
 composed of that portion of the army of Wurmser, which, cut 
 off from the main body at the battle of Bassano, had effected, 
 under Quasdonowich, a retreat in that direction ; the other 
 was to be concentrated in the Tyrol. They were to operate 
 in conjunction, and both were placed under the command of 
 
612 ALVINZrS CAMPAIGN. 
 
 Marshal Alvinzi, an officer of high reputation. Thus, for 
 the fourth time, Buonaparte had to contest the same objects 
 on the same ground, with new forces belonging to the same 
 enemy. He had, indeed, himself received from France 
 reinforcements to the number of twelve battalions, from 
 those troops which had been employed in La Vendee. 
 Davidowich commanded the body of the Austrians which 
 was in the Tyrol, and which included the fine militia of that 
 martial province. There was little difficulty in prevailing 
 upon them to advance into Italy, convinced as they were 
 that small security for their national independence existed 
 while the French remained in possession of Lombardy. 
 Buonaparte, on the other hand, had placed Vaubois in the 
 passes upon the river Lavisi, above Trent, to cover that new 
 possession of the French republic, and check the advance of 
 Davidowich. It was Alvinzi's plan to descend from Friuli 
 and approach Vicenza, to which place he expected Davido- 
 wich might penetrate by a corresponding movement down 
 the Adige. Having thus brought his united army into 
 activity, his design was to advance on Mantua, the constant 
 object of bloody contention. He commenced his march in 
 the beginning of October, 1796. Vaubois was defeated, and 
 Massena compelled to evacuate the valley of the Brenta; when 
 Buonaparte came to the rescue. In his first encounter with 
 Alvinzi, he was repulsed, and fell back upon Verona, and, 
 though worsted in several skirmishes, defeated Alvinzi in a 
 succession of combats at Areola (Nov. 15, 16, and 17); 
 whereupon the Austriaus retired. Thus ended the fourth 
 campaign, undertaken for the Austrian possessions in Italy. 
 The consequences were not so decidedly in Buonaparte's 
 favour as those of the three former. Mantua, it is true, had 
 received no relief; and so far the principal object of the 
 Austrians had miscarried. But "Wurmser was of a temper 
 to continue the defence till the last moment. The .irmies 
 of Friuli and the Tyrol had also, since the last campaign, 
 retained possession of Bassano and Trent, and removed the 
 French from the mountains through which access is gained 
 to the Austrian hereditary dominions. Neither had Alvinzi 
 suffered any such heavy defeat as his predecessors Beaulieu 
 or "Wurmser ; while Davidowich, on the contrary, was uni* 
 formly successful, had he known how to avail himself of his 
 victories. Still the Austrians were not likely, till re- 
 inforced, to interrupt Buonaparte's quiet possession of 
 Lombardy. 
 
INSUfiEECTIONS IN ITALY. £13 
 
 Lettek 30.^ — Campaign in Italy, from the Fall of Mantua to the De- 
 claration of War against Venice. A.D. 1797, Feb. 2 — May 3. Vol. 
 iii., pages 345 — 365. 
 
 § 653. Buonaparte, determined to give the enemy no 
 repose, ordered Joubert to attack the Austrians in the 
 Italian Tyrol, whilst he set out to aid the blockade of 
 Mantua. After a series of harassing attacks, Wurmser 
 surrendered Mantua (Feb. 2), and this put an end to the war 
 in Italy. Austria soon after had to wage the contest in her 
 own dominions. The eyes of Europe were now riveted upon 
 Napoleon Buonaparte, whose rise had been so sudden that he 
 had become the terror of empires and the founder of states; 
 the conqueror of the best generals and most disciplined 
 troops in Europe, within a few months after he had been a 
 mere soldier of fortune, seeking rather for a subsistence than 
 expecting honourable distinction. Such sudden elevations 
 have occasionaRy happened amid semi-barbarous nations, 
 where great popular insurrections, desolating and decisive 
 revolutions, are common occurrences, but were hitherto un- 
 heard of in civilized Europe. Napoleon had entered into a 
 treaty with the duke of Modena, guaranteeing his princi- 
 pality, on payment of immense contributions in money and 
 stores, besides the surrender of the most valuable treasures 
 of his museum. In consequence, the duke of Modena was 
 permitted to govern his states by a regency, he himself 
 fixing his residence at Venice. But his two principal towns, 
 Eeggio and Modena, especially the former, became desirous 
 of shaking off his government. Anticipating in so doing 
 the approbation of the French general and government, the 
 citizens of Heggio rose in insurrection, expelled from their 
 town a body of the ducal troops, and planted the tree of 
 liberty, resolved, as they said, to constitute themselves a 
 free state, under the protection of the French republic. 
 The ducal regency, with a view of protecting Modena from 
 a similar attempt, mounted cannon on the ramparts, and 
 adopted other defensive measures. Buonaparte immediately 
 took possession of the city, and placed it under the protec- 
 tion of France. Bologna and Ferrara, legations belonging 
 to the Papal See, had been already occupied by French 
 troops, and placed under the management of a committee 
 of their citizens. They were now encouraged to coalesce 
 with Eeggio and Modena. A congress of a hundred de- 
 legates from the four districts was summoned, to effect the 
 2 L 
 
fil4 ITALIAN EEPUBLICS. 
 
 formation of a government, ■which should extend over them 
 all. The congress met accordingly, and engaged their consti- 
 iuents in a perpetual union, under the title of the Cispadane 
 Republic, from their situation on the right of the river Po ; 
 thus assuming the character of independence, while in fact 
 they remained under the authority of Buonaparte. Milan 
 was afterwards united to this new state, and it received the 
 name of the Cisalpine Commonwealth. 
 
 § 654. Buonaparte next turned his arms against the 
 States of the Church. Ancona fell after a timid resistance 
 (Feb. 9, 1797), and the whole country having been overrun, 
 the pope made his submission. The articles which he was 
 obliged to accept at Tolentino (Feb. 19), included the cession 
 of Avignon and its territories, the appropriation of which, by 
 France, had never yet been recognized; the resigning the 
 legations of Bologna, Ferrara, and Eomagna ; the occupation 
 of Ancona, the only port excepting Venice which Italy has 
 in the Adriatic ; the payment of thirty millions of livres, in 
 specie or in valuable effects ; the complete execution of the 
 article in the armistice of Bologna respecting the delivery 
 of paintings, manuscripts, and objects of art ; and several 
 other stipulations of similar severity. The Austrians having 
 again concentrated their forces on the frontiers of Italy, 
 Buonaparte took the field in the beginning of March (1797), 
 and advanced upon Bassano. The Archduke Charles com- 
 manded the imperial army, but was defeated in his first 
 encounter with Buonaparte at Tagliamento (March 16), 
 After several conflicts, the French occupied Trieste 
 (March 24), and Klagenfurth (March 29). Joubert, who 
 was posted in the gorge of the Tyrol above Trent, was 
 forced to evacuate the country. The Austrians regained 
 part of Lombardy, and compelled Napoleon to retire from 
 Trieste and Fiume. 
 
 § 655. So terrible had the rule of the French in Italy 
 become, that a formidable insurrection was organized against 
 them. Moreover, some menaces that Buonaparte had uttered 
 against Venice, embittered the Venetians against them, and 
 they embarked eagerly in the plot. The insurrection was 
 secretly organized, and broke out suddenly. Fioravante, 
 a Venetian general, marched at the head of a body of 
 Slavonians to besiege the forts of Verona, into which the 
 remaining French had made their retreat, and where they 
 defended themselves. Laudon made his appearance with his 
 Austrians and Tyrolese, and it seemed as if the fortunes of 
 
PEELMINARIES OF LEOBEN. 515 
 
 Buonaparte had at length found a check. But the awakening 
 from this pleasing dream was equally sudden and dreadful. 
 News arrived that preliminaries of peace had been agreed 
 upon, and an armistice signed between Erance and Austria. 
 Laudon, therefore, and the auxiliaries on whom the Venetians 
 had so much reKed, retired from "Verona. The Lombards 
 sent an army to the assistance of the French. The Slavo- 
 nians, after fighting vigorously, were compelled to surrender. 
 The insurgent towns of Vicenza, Treviso, and Padua, were 
 again occupied by the Bepublicans. Bumour proclaimed 
 the terrible retura of Napoleon and his army, and the ill- 
 advised senate of Venice were lost in stupor, and scarcely 
 had sense left to decide betwixt unreserved submission and 
 hopeless defence. 
 
 § 656. Napoleon had addressed a letter to the Archduke 
 Charles, pretending that he was anxious to conclude peace 
 upon honourable terms (March 31). That such was his real 
 intention few could believe, and the war continued as before. 
 Two encounters followed, at Neumarkt (April 2) and at 
 TJnzmark — both gave rise to fresh disasters, and the con- 
 tinued retreat of the Archduke Charles and the imperial 
 army. The French general then pressed forward on the road 
 to Vienna, through mountain-passes and defiles, which could 
 not have been opened otherwise than by turning them ou the 
 flank. But these natural fastnesses were no longer defences. 
 Judenbourg, the capital of Upper Styria, was abandoned to 
 the French without a blow (April 6), and shortly after 
 Buonaparte entered Gratz, the principal town of Lower 
 Styria. The archduke now totally changed his plan of 
 warfare. He no longer disputed the ground foot by foot, 
 but began to retreat by hasty marches towards Vienna, 
 determined to fight for the existence, it might be, of his 
 brother's throne, under the walls of his capital. However 
 perilous this resolution might appear, it was worthy of the 
 high-spirited prince by whom it was adopted; and there 
 were reasons, perhaps, besides those arising from soldierly 
 pride and princely dignity, which seemed to recommend it. 
 The court of Vienna finally adopted the alternative of treaty, 
 and that of Leoben was set on foot. Generals Bellegarde 
 and Meerfeld, on the part of the emperor, presented them- 
 selves at the head-quarters of Buonaparte (April 13, 1797), 
 and announced the desire of their sovereign for peace. 
 Buonaparte granted a suspension of arms, to endure for five 
 days only ; which was afterwards extended, when the pro» 
 2 L 2 
 
516 VENICE HUMBLED. 
 
 bability of the definitive treaty of peace became evident. 
 The articles in the treaty of Leoben remained long secret ; 
 the cause of this appears to have been, that the high cou- 
 tracting parties were not willing comparisons should he made 
 between the preliminaries as they were originally settled, and 
 the strange and violent alterations which occurred in the 
 definitive treaty of Campo Pormio. These two treaties of 
 pacification dififered, the one from the other, in relation to 
 the degree and manner how a meditated partition of the 
 territory of Venice, of the Cisalpine Eepublic, and other 
 smaller powers, was to be accomplished for the mutual 
 benefit of France and Austria. 
 
 § 657. It was now time for .Venice to tremble. She had 
 declared against the French in their absence ; her vindictive 
 population had murdered many of them ; the resentment of 
 the French soldiers was excited to the utmost, and the 
 Venetians had no right to reckon upon the forbearance of 
 their general. The treaty of Leoben left the senate of that 
 ancient state absolutely without support; nay, as they 
 afterwards learned, Austria, after pleading their cause for a 
 certain time, had ended by stipulating for a share of their 
 spoils, which had been assigned to her by a secret article of 
 the treaty. In a letter to the doge, Napoleon, bitterly 
 upbraiding the senate for requiting his generosity with 
 treachery and ingratitude, demanded tliat they should 
 return by his aide-de-camp, who bore the letter, their instant 
 choice betwixt war and peace, allowing them only four- 
 and-twenty hours to disperse their insurgent peasantry, and 
 submit to his clemency. On the 3rd of May Buonaparte 
 .declared war; but the doge and senators made the most 
 abject submission, and on the payment of large subsidies, and 
 the surrender of works of art and manuscripts, the French 
 general granted conditions which he was the first to violate. 
 
 Letter 31. — ^History of the Affairs of Great Britain from the Failure of 
 Lord Malmesbury's Negotiations to the Peace of Amiens ; with some 
 Account of Buonaparte's Expedition to Egypt. A.D. 1796 — 1802. 
 Vol. iii., pages 365—391. 
 
 § 658. The return of Lord Malmesbury from his un- 
 successful negotiation threw a deep gloom over the country. 
 ,A message from his majesty was brought down to Pariiament 
 .(Dec. 26, 1796), declaring that the pretensions ot the French 
 government were inconsistent with the general security of 
 Europe. All the memorials and papers relating to the pro* 
 
MUTINY IN THE FLEETS. 517- 
 
 posals of peace were laid before both houses. Cash payments 
 at the Bank of England were restricted (Feb. 26, 1797), 
 secret committees were appointed to examine into the aft'airs 
 of the bank, and a bill was passed authorizing the issue of 
 one and two-pound notes. The secret committees brought 
 up their reports (March 2 and 3), and measures were adopted 
 by Parliament in accordance with their recommendations. 
 Sir John Jervis, with fifteen ships of the line, seven frigates, 
 and two sloops, engaged and completely defeated the Spanish 
 fleet, consisting of twenty-six sail of the line, twelve frigates,, 
 and a brig (Feb. 14). The action took place off Cape St.. 
 Vincent, and Commodore Nelson greatly distinguished him- 
 self. Four prizes were captured, Jervis was made Earl 
 St. Vincent, and Nelson received the honour of knighthood.. 
 Trinidad, one of the largest of the Caribeean cluster, was 
 taken by General Abercrombie (Feb. 18). A descent was 
 made in "Wales, by about 1,400 Frenchmen. They landed, 
 in Pembrokeshire, and surrendered, at the first summons. 
 (Feb. 22). Many of them were in rags, and had apparently 
 been taken out of prison. 
 
 § 659. In the midst of this great war discontents broke 
 out in the English navy, which threatened the most serious 
 consequences. The smallness of the pay and of the pensions 
 of the sailors, and the unequal distribution of the prize- 
 money, were the principal grievances. During the months 
 of February and March anonymous petitions had been for- 
 warded to Lord Howe, and a formidable conspiracy was 
 organized. On the signal being hoisted on board the fleet 
 at Spithead, to prepare for sea, three cheers were given from 
 the Queen Cha/rlotte, which was answered by the crews of 
 the other ships, and the mutiny was declared (April 15). 
 All the efforts of the officers to enforce subordination among 
 the men proved ineffectual. The ships' companies appointed 
 two delegates from each, who held their consultations in the 
 cabin of the Queen Cha/rlotte; and on the 17th an oath was 
 administsred to every seaman in the fleet, to stand firm in 
 the general cause. Some officers who were very obnoxious 
 to the crews were sent on shore ; but in other respects the 
 strictest discipline was observed, and the most respectful 
 attention to their officers was enjoined, under rigorous pe- 
 nalties. All their proceedings indicated a concerted plan, 
 and fixed determination to carry their point. Two petitions 
 were drawn up and signed by the delegates, — one to the 
 Admiralty, the other to the House of Commons, both couched 
 
518 COMMOTIONS IN IRELAND, 
 
 in the most decorous language, and stating their complaints, 
 the grounds of which did not appear unreasonable. The 
 matter seemed so serious to government, that the Board of 
 Admiralty was transferred to Portsmouth, and a kind of 
 negotiation was entered into with the mutineers. At length 
 Lord Bridport went on board, hoisted his flag, declared that 
 he brought with him a redress of all grievances and the king's 
 pardon, and obedience was restored. A fresh mutiny broke 
 out (May 8, 1797), but Lord Howe reduced the sailors to 
 order, and their pay was increased. In spite of this, another 
 mutiny occurred in a different quarter, namely, amongst 
 the ships lying at the Nore (May 22). Parker, a man of 
 education and good parts, put himself at the head of the 
 revolt, which was joined by four men-of-war from Admiral 
 Duncan's fleet off the coast of Holland (June 4). Force 
 was employed for its suppression. Parker and his principal 
 associates were seized, and the former, after a deliberate 
 trial, was condemned and executed (June 30). Some of 
 the ringleaders also suffered, and a general pardon was after- 
 wards issued. 
 
 § 660. The subsequent conduct of the gallant sailors 
 speedily effaced this stain from the annals of the British 
 navy. Admiral Duncan sailed to the Tex«l, and blockaded 
 the Dutch fleet. He afterwards defeated it at the battle of 
 Camperdown, capturing nine ships, and taking the admiral 
 (De Winter) prisoner (Oct. 11). Por this service Duncan 
 was raised to the peerage. During the course of the year 
 (1797), the state of Ireland was calculated to inspire the 
 rulers of Prance with a degree of confidence which they 
 otherwise might not have assumed in their negotiations with 
 the English ministry. The dissensions in that part of the 
 empire, inflamed by a variety of aggravations, had proceeded 
 so far, that the malcontents, who assumed the title of United 
 Irishmen, sent deputies to treat with the Prench for assist- 
 ance in throwing off the yoke of England. A memorial was 
 transmitted to the Prench Directory, stating that one 
 hundred and fifty thousand United Irishmen were enrolled 
 and organized in the province of Ulster. The consequence 
 was, that new arrangements were made for the invasion of 
 Ireland, and great preparations for that purpose took place 
 at Brest and in the Texel — it being intended that both the 
 Prench and Batavian republics should unite in the attempt ; 
 but the memorable victory gained by Lord Duncan over the 
 Dutch fleet, on the 11th .of October, rendered the whole 
 
NAPOLEON INVADES EGYPT. 519 
 
 plan abortive. Parliament assembled on the 2nd of No- 
 Tember, and was opened by a speech from the throne, of 
 which the principal topics were, the failure of the negotia- 
 tion for peace, the flourishing state of the revenue, and the 
 naval successes, with the necessity for continuing the most 
 vigorous exertions till a more just and pacific spirit should 
 prevail on the part of the enemy. The state of Ireland 
 attracted much attention during the year. The disclosure 
 of a plot for a general insurrection, and an attack upon the 
 castle of Dublin, caused great alarm. The malcontents rose 
 in arms, were repulsed at Naas and Carlow (May 24, 1798), 
 but captured Wexford (May 25). Several other conflicts 
 ensued with different results, and at last General Lake com- 
 pletely defeated the rebel army at Vinegar Hill (June 21). 
 Another portion of their levies had sustained a serious re- 
 verse near Ballynahinch (June 12), and the rebellion in the 
 north was completely crushed. About eight hundred French 
 troops landed at Killala (Aug. 22), marched into the country, 
 but surrendered at Ballinamuck (Sept. 8), after a short 
 action. A squadron sent by the French government, with 
 reinforcements, was captured by Warren (Oct. 12), and 
 thus the scheme to injure England by an invasion of the 
 sister kingdom terminated. 
 
 § 661. The Directory, about the end of October, 1797, 
 announced their intention of assembling on the shores of the 
 ocean, an army, to be called the Army of England ; and tho 
 Citizen-general Buonaparte, who had then just returned from 
 Italy, was named to the command. The intelligence was re- 
 ceived in every part of France with the enthusiasm which 
 attends the anticipation of certain victory. Buonaparte, how- 
 ever, advised the postponement of the invasion. Egypt was the * 
 point of attack determined upon ; and a powerful armament 
 set sail from Toulon (May 19, 1798). The line-of-battle 
 ships extended for a league, and the semicircle formed by 
 the convoy was at least sis leagues in extent. They were 
 joined, as they swept along the Mediterranean (June 8), by 
 a large fleet of transports, having on board the division of 
 General Dessaix. The 10th of June brought the armament 
 before Malta, where Buonaparte landed some of his troops, 
 and took possession of the almost impregnable fortresses 
 with scarcely any opposition. Having established a garrison 
 in Malta, which he destined to be an intermediate station 
 between France and Egypt, the general resumed his expedi- 
 tion (June 19). On the coast of Candia, while the savant f 
 
S2d NELSON PUESTJES NAPOLEON. 
 
 ■were gazing on the rock where Jupiter is fabled to haTe 
 been nuitured, Napoleon learned that a new enemy, of a 
 difl'erent description from the Knights of Malta, was in his 
 immediate vicinity. This was the English squadron, under 
 the command of Nelson. The French had been heard of at 
 Malta; but as the British admiral was about to proceed 
 thither, he received news of their departure, and concluding 
 that Egypt must unquestionably be the object of the ex- 
 pedition, he shaped his course for the mouth of the NUe, 
 It happened singularly enough, that although Nelson 
 anticipated the arrival of the French at Alexandria, yet, 
 by keeping a more direct course than the French fleet had 
 taken, when he arrived there (June 28), he heard nothing 
 of the enemy, who, in the mean time, were making for 
 the very same port. Nelson proceeded to Eho'des and 
 Syracuse ; and thus were the two large and hostile fleets 
 traversing the same narrow sea, without being able to attain 
 any certain information concerning each other's movements. 
 On the 26th, according to Denon, Nelson's fleet was 
 actually seen by the French standing to the westward, 
 although the haze prevented the English from observing 
 their enemy. The French fleet gained the coast, and the 
 troops were landed about a mile and a half from Alexandria 
 (June 30). Buonaparte speedily captured Alexandria 
 (July 2), and issued a proclamation, in which he professed 
 his respect for Grod, the Prophet, and the Koran ; his friend^ 
 ship for the Sublime Porte, of which he affirmed the French 
 to be the faithful allies ; and his determination to make war 
 upon the Mamelukes; who were routed with great slaughter 
 at the battle of the Pyramids (July 21), so called because it 
 occurred in sight of those celebrated monuments of antiquity; 
 Cairo surrendered without ofi'ering any resistance, and all 
 Lower Egypt fell into the hands of the French. 
 
 § 662. The French squadron, after having landed the 
 army in Egypt, took up a position in the Bay of Aboukir. 
 They formed a compact line of battle, of a semicircular 
 form, anchored so close to the shoal water and surf, that it 
 was thought impossible for a passage to be forced between 
 them and the land ; and their commanders consequently con- 
 cluded that they could be brought to action only on the star- 
 board side. On the 1st ofAugust, the British fleet appea.red J 
 and Nelson had no sooner reconnoitred the French position 
 than he resolved to force it at every risk. Where the French 
 ships could ride, he argued that there must be room for 
 
BATTLE OF THE NILE 521 
 
 English vessels to anchor between them and the shore. Ac- 
 cordingly he gave the signal for the attack. The squadrons 
 were nearly of the same numerical strength : the French 
 had thirteen ships of the line and four frigates ; the English, 
 thirteen ships of the line and one fifty-gun ship. But the 
 French had three eighty-gun ships, besides L' Orient, a 
 superb vessel of one hundred and twenty guns ; whereas all 
 the British were seventy-fours. The battle commenced with 
 the utmost fury, and lasted till, the sun having set and the 
 night fallen, there was no light by which the combat could 
 be continued, except the flashes which issued from the 
 continuous broadsides. Already, however, some of the 
 French ships were captured, and the British assailed 
 those which had not been engaged. In the mean 
 time, a broad and dreadful light was thrown on the 
 scene of action, by the breaking out of a conflagration on 
 board L' Orient, the French admiral's flag-ship. In the 
 morning the only two French ships which had their colours 
 flying, cut their cables, and put to sea, accompanied by two 
 frigates. They were all that remained undestroyed and un- 
 captured of the gallant navy that had escorted Buonaparte 
 and his fortunes in triumph across the Mediterranean (1798) . 
 § 663. Buonaparte, who was greatly grieved when the 
 news of this disaster reached him, invaded Syria, won 
 the battle of El Arisch (Feb. 8, 1799), and captured Graza 
 and Jaffa, at which latter town the French general 
 slaughtered a number of Turks, &c., that had surrendered 
 as prisoners of war (March 9). St. Jean d'Acre was the 
 next place attacked, at which fortress Sir Sidney Smith 
 arrived with two ships of war, two days before the French 
 made their appearance. The siege began on the 17th of 
 March, and on the 28th a breach was effiected. A mine was 
 sprung, and the French proceeded to the assault, but were 
 repulsed. Buonaparte's attention was temporarily diverted 
 from this design by a large army that had advanced to relieve 
 the fortress, and had cut off Kleber at the head of three 
 thousand men. Having defeated this force, and obtained 
 thirty pieces of cannon from Jaffa, he calculated upon the 
 speedy reduction of St. Jean d'Acre. In this expectation he 
 was doomed to disappointment. Sir Sidney Smith, at the 
 head of some British seamen, defended a tower, at which 
 danger was most imminent. The assault was renewed on 
 the morning and the evening of the 21st of May ; but on 
 each occasion the French were repulsed. 
 
522 SIEGE OF ACRE. 
 
 § 664. The siege of Acre continued sixty days from the 
 time of the opening of the trenches. The besiegers marched 
 no less than eight times to the assault, while eleven des- 
 perate sallies gave evidence of the obstinacy of the defence. 
 Several of the best French generals were killed; amongst 
 these Cafiarelli, an officer for whom Napoleon had a particu- 
 lar esteem, and the army was greatly reduced by sword and 
 pestilence. Eetreat, therefore, became inevitable; yet 
 Buonaparte endeavoured to gloss it over so as to make the 
 measure seem on his part voluntary. The Prench army 
 retired first to Jaffa, thence to Cairo, and gained a victory 
 over the Turks, who had seized upon and fortified Aboukir 
 (July 25). Napoleon returned to Cairo (Aug. 9), and soon 
 after quitted Egypt. News of the divisions in the French 
 government; and of the successes of the Russians in Italy, 
 under Suwarroff, induced him to return to Europe. Having 
 ordered two frigates to be prepared for sea, and having com- 
 mitted the command of the army to Kleber and Menou, he 
 embarked with several of his most distinguished officers 
 (Aug. 24), and after a perilous and tedious voyage, in which 
 he several times was in danger of being captured by the 
 English cruisers, landed in safety at Frejus (Oct. 8). 
 
 § 665. The English ministry,, in order to frustrate more 
 effectually the efforts of the French government to separate 
 England from Ireland, determined to bring the two islands 
 into still closer connection by uniting the two legislatures ia 
 one, under the name of " The United Kingdom of Great 
 Britain and Ireland." During the month of January (1799), 
 "William Pitt introduced the subject to the notice of Parlia- 
 ment, and the matter was speedily effected. It was provided 
 that the succession to the crown should be limited and 
 settled as heretofore ; that the United Kingdom should he 
 represented by one common parliament, in which a number 
 of lords and commons should have a seat on the part of 
 Ireland ; that the churches of England and Ireland should 
 be preserved as then by law established; that the king's 
 subjects of Ireland should be entitled to the same privileges, 
 in point of trade and navigation, with those of Great Britain; 
 that the charge for the payment of the interest of the debt 
 of each kingdom incurred previous to the union, should 
 continue to be a distinct concern, and defrayed by each 
 country separately, but that the future ordinary expenses 
 of the United Kingdom should be defra.yed by them jointly, 
 according to proportions, to be established by the Parlia. 
 
TTNION "WITH lEELAJO). 625 
 
 ment of each kingdom, as agreed upon previous to the union ; 
 that all laws in force at the time of the union, and all the 
 courts civil and ecclesiastical in each kingdom, should remain 
 as heretofore, suibject only to such alterations as might, from 
 circumstances, seem requisite to the united Parliament. 
 The union commenced Jan. 1, 1801. An English expedition 
 effected a landing at the Helder (Aug. 27, 1799), captured 
 the Dutch fleet in the Texel (Aug. 30), and repulsed an 
 attack of the French and Dutch forces (Sept. 10). The 
 duke of Tork landed with reinforcements, whereupon the 
 army, aided hy some Bussian troops, resumed the offensive ; 
 hut the Eussians received a check, and the English retired, 
 although the loss of the enemy in killed and prisonera was 
 considerahle (Sept. 19). Eeinforcements having arrived 
 from England, the army again advanced, and after a severe 
 struggle the Prench were repulsed (Oct. 2). The duke of 
 Tork took up a position at Alkmaar, from which the French, 
 strongly reinforced, in vain attempted to expel him (Oct. 6). 
 His situation being, however, insecure, a suspension of arms 
 was agreed upon, and the English and Eussians engaged to 
 evacuate Holland before the end of November. The prin- 
 cipal advantage that resulted to G-reat Britain from this 
 expedition was the capture of the Dutch fleet, an event that 
 almost annihilated the naval power of Holland. A descent 
 was made upon Ferrol (Aug. 25, 1800), which proved a 
 failure. 
 
 § 666. In the autumn of 1800 some advances were made 
 towards peace, but the English government objected to an 
 armistice by sea, and the negotiation was broken off". Peace 
 being restored upon the continent of Europe, the most im- 
 portant point that remained to be settled in its political 
 state related to the maritime confederacy of the northern 
 powers, called the armed neutrality, the direct object of 
 which was to annul the marine code maintained by England, 
 and by which she arrogated a kind of naval dominion. This 
 confederacy occupied the attention of the British ministry, 
 and on the 14th of January, 1801, an embargo was laid on 
 all the ships in British ports, belonging to any of the con- 
 federate powers, Prussia excepted, and letters of marque 
 were issued for the seizure of their vessels at sea. A note 
 was at the same time delivered to the Danish and Swedish 
 ambassadors, explaining the reason of this procedure. In 
 the answer returned to these official notes, the courts of 
 Denmark and Sweden expressed a resolution to persevere 
 
524 BATTLE OF COPENHAGEN. 
 
 in their efforts to liberate neutral commerce, and they 
 retaliated by an embargo on all English shipping in their 
 ports. At the same time the English ministry carried on a 
 negotiation with Prussia, hoping to induce that kingdom to 
 abandon the coalition ; but it proved unsuccessful. On the 
 30th of March the king of Prussia notified to the electoral 
 college of Hanover his intention not only to shut the months 
 of the Elbe, the Weser, and the Ems, but also to take pos- 
 session of the states belonging to the king of England in. 
 Germany, at the same time demanding the disarming of the 
 Hanoverian troops — a requisition with which the regency of 
 Hanover found it expedient to comply. The IPruasian 
 troops then entered the Hanoverian territory, and an em- 
 bargo was laid on the English shipping. About the same 
 time a body of Danish troops took possession of Hamburg, 
 for the alleged purpose of stopping the British trade of that 
 port. This bold measure on the part of Prussia produced a 
 crisis. An English fleet was sent to the Baltic, under the 
 command of Admiral Parker and Vice-Admiral Nelson. On 
 the 30th of March (1801) it passed the Sound without much 
 opposition, and anchored near the isle of Huen. The whole 
 fleet of Denmark was stationed in the roads of Copenhagen, 
 flanked by very powerful batteries. On this formidable 
 force the attack was committed to Lord Nelson, at his own 
 request. It took place on the 2nd of April, with twelve 
 ships of the line, and all the frigates and smaller vessels of 
 the fleet. The action, which was maintained on both sides 
 with extraordinary bravery, was very sanguinary. Nearly 
 all the Danish ships were destroyed, and the triumph of the 
 English was complete. 
 
 § 667. An armistice was agreed upon. The Eussian 
 emperor, Paul, was found dead in his bed (March 23), and 
 one of the first acts of his successor, Alexander, was to 
 liberate all the British sailors belonging to the sequestrated 
 ships. A convention was signed at St. Petersburg, by 
 which all disputes were settled (June 17) ; and Denmark 
 and Sweden acceded to the compact ; and thus the armed 
 neutrality was dissolved. While these events were in 
 progress, changes of an extraordinary nature had occurred 
 in the domestic affairs of Great Britain. The first imperial 
 parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
 Ireland was opened by commission (Jan. 22, 1801), and 
 Mr. Addington was re-elected speaker. After an adminisr 
 tration of seventeen years, William Pitt resigned, and was 
 
THE ENGLISH IN EGYTT. 525 
 
 followed by several members of tbe government (Feb. 16), 
 The objections of the king to make concessions to the Irish 
 Boman Catholics was the cause of this resignation. A long 
 interval ensued before the ministerial arrangements were 
 completed, and at last the Addington cabinet was formed, 
 of which the duke of Portland became lord president 
 (July 30, 1801). George the Third experienced another 
 attack of mental derangement during the spring. ' 
 
 § 668. A formidable armament was despatched from 
 England, under the command of Admiral Keith and Sir 
 Balph Abercrombie, in order to expel the ^French from 
 Egypt. The land forces, to the number of sixteen thousand, 
 effected a landing in Aboukir Bay, in spite of the opposition 
 of the French (March 8). They repulsed a division of the 
 French on the 13th, and defeated the whole army at the 
 battle of Alexandria (March 21), in which Sir Ealph Aber- 
 crombie was mortally wounded. He died on the 28th. 
 His death in all respects corresponded with the uniform 
 tenor of his life. He closed a military career which, in 
 America, in Belgium, and in Holland, had been distinguished 
 by consummate skill in command, and the most bridiant 
 exploits. General Hutchinson assumed the command, 
 invested Cairo, and the French garrison surrendered 
 (June 28). While these things were pending in Egypt, 
 an army under the command of General Baird set out from 
 India, by the way of the Bed Sea, and was joined by a small 
 force from the Cape of Good Hope. The convention of 
 Cairo not being acceded to by General Menou, the combined 
 British and Turkish armies (Aug. 17) commenced the siege 
 of Alexandria ; and the garrison, consisting of ten thousand 
 men, French, Syrians, and Greeks, surrendered on the con- 
 ditions of the capitulation of Cairo (Sept. 1). Alexandria 
 was defended by three hundred and twelve pieces of cannon, 
 and seventy-seven more were taken on board the ships of 
 war in the harbour. In the magaziaes were found fourteen 
 thousand one hundred and two cartridges, and one hundred 
 and ninety-five thousand two hundred and eighteen pounds 
 of powder in barrels. Thus terminated the expedition to 
 Egypt, in which the British troops acquired great glory. 
 
 § 669. The naval transactions of 1801 were in every 
 respect glorious to England. Sir James Saumarez with six 
 ships of the line attacked a French squadron, under heavy 
 batteries, in Algesiras Bay, in which the Scmnilal, a seventy- 
 four-gun ship, grounded, and was left in the hands of the 
 
S26 TREATY OF AMIENS. 
 
 enemy (July 6). The French, having been reinforced by 
 five Spanish ships, again put to sea (July 12, 1801), and Sir 
 James Saumarez immediately sailed in pursuit. He destroyed 
 three of the enemy's ships, and the others managed to make 
 their escape. Nelson attacked the French flotilla in Bou- 
 logne roads (Aug. 4, 15, and 16), but did not meet with his 
 nsual success. The invasion of England became once more 
 the favourite theme with the Trench rulers and military 
 commanders. Encampments were formed on the coasts of 
 France and Flanders ; a large fleet of French and Spanish 
 ships of war was collected in the harbour of Brest; and 
 every effort was made to restore the French navy, and equip 
 in different ports a great number of vessels fitted for the 
 purpose of landing men. These menaces were met in Eng- 
 land by suitable preparations, and a spirit fully answerable 
 to the danger. A vigorous effort was made at this time by 
 the rulers of France to detach Portugal from Great Britain j 
 and in the month of March the court of Madrid, incited by 
 the French, declared war against Portugal. Accordingly, 
 in May, a Spanish army of forty thousand men entered 
 Portugal, and in a short time reduced all the strong places 
 in the province of Alentejo. Scarcely any resistance was 
 made ; and it has therefore been supposed that there was a 
 secret understanding between the two courts. On the 6th 
 of June preliminaries of peace were signed at Badajoz, by 
 which the fortress and district of Olivenza were ceded to 
 Spain, and the ports of Portugal shut against the English. 
 The French government, not approving of the terms, sent 
 an army into Portugal, and a definitive treaty was concluded 
 at Madrid (Sept. 29). The English ministers were occupied 
 with deliberations on the subject of peace. The dissolution 
 of the northern confederacy, and the expulsion of the French 
 from Egypt, had removed the most powerful obstacles to an 
 accommodation. Preliminaries were signed by Lord Hawkes- 
 bury and M. Otto (Oct. 1) ; and this was soon followed by 
 treaties between France and the Ottoman Porte, and France 
 and E^ussia. The definitive treaty was signed at Amiens 
 March 27, 1802. 
 
 Lettbe 32. — History of the Affairs of France, from the Insurrection of 
 the Sections to the Overthrow of the Directory. A.D. 1795 — 1800. 
 Vol. iii., pages 391—407. 
 
 § 670. At the time the Directory were appointed, the 
 eituation of France was sufficiently discouraging. The pub« 
 
BABCETTFS CONSPIKACT. £27 
 
 lie treasury was exhausted, anarchy and distress everywhere 
 prevailed ; paper-money had destroyed all commerce and all 
 confidence ; famine stalked abroad, for every one refused 
 to sell his commodities, because it was only to give them 
 away ; and in addition to these distresses, the arsenals were 
 empty. Abroad, the armies were unprovided with waggons, 
 horses, or provisions ; the soldiers were destitute of clothes ; 
 and the generals frequently in want of that part of their pay 
 which was in cash, amounting to eight francs a day, — a very 
 moderate, but indispensable addition to their pay in assignats. 
 And lastly, the troops, whose wants had rendered them dis- 
 contented, and impaired their discipline, had again beea 
 defeated, and were acting on the defensive. Such was the 
 distressing situation of the country after the fall of the 
 Committee of Public Safety, which during its existence had 
 provided against scarcity, both in the army and in the in- 
 terior, by means of requisitions and the Maximum. Pichegru 
 and Jourdan, the one at the head of the army of the Ehine, 
 and the other of that of the Sambre and Meuse, were or- 
 dered to make themselves masters of Mayence ; but the 
 former general intrigued with the emigrants, suffered his 
 army to be beaten, and retired across the Ehine. For the 
 campaign of 1796 fresh arrangements were made, and 
 Pichegru was superseded by Moreau. Meanwhile the 
 Directory met with strong opposition from the royalists and 
 the democrats. The latter had re-established their club at 
 the Pantheon, at which the most violent of the Jacobins 
 assembled. The head of the party was Baboeuf, sumamed 
 Gracchus, who aspired to be a tribune of the people. A 
 formidable conspiracy was organized, a secret Directory 
 established, and every preparation made for an insurrection, 
 when the Directory interfered and suppressed the club 
 (Feb. 26, 1796). Nothing daunted, the Jacobins assembled 
 in a place called the " Temple of Eeason," and prepared to 
 establish the constitution of 1793. The day before the 
 intended outbreak, Baboeuf and the leaders were seized 
 (May 10), and they were afterwards sentenced to death. 
 The rest of the party once more plotted together, and 
 attempted to upset the government, but were seized, and 
 while the chief conspirators were sentenced to death, others 
 were transported or imprisoned (Sept. 7). 
 
 § 671. The elections of 1797 gave the royalists a large 
 majority ; and they speedily obtained great influence in the 
 government of the country. Barthelemy, a royalist, waa 
 
628 THE SEVENTEENTH OF FEUCTIDOE. 
 
 made a director, and Pichegru waa appokited president of 
 the oouncil of the Kve Hundred. The emigrants and the 
 banished priests returned in crowds. The Directory grew 
 alarmed, collected troops round Paris, and relying upon the 
 array, executed a coup A^etat, and arrested the most active and 
 influential of the royalist party. This occurred in the night 
 of the 17th Pructidor (Sept. 3, 1797). The council of the 
 Mve Hundred and that of the Ancients were immediately 
 assembled, and a commission waa appointed to prepare a 
 law of Public Safety. Many of the royalists were banished, 
 and others were transported to Cayenne. The principal 
 effect of this cowp d'etat waa the return of the revolutionary 
 government, a little modified. The two ancient privileged 
 classes were again driven into the background ; the refract 
 tory priests were a second time exiled. All who had pro- 
 tested against the abolition of the nobility and retained their 
 titles, were ordered to quit the territory of the republic. 
 The old nobles, as well as those recently created, were 
 rendered incapable, of exercising the rights of citizens until 
 the expiration of seven years, after having served, as it were, 
 an apprenticeship to the republic. The Directory at this 
 time reached the height of its power. The armies of the 
 republic had been everywhere victorious ; and, freed from 
 all iutestine opposition, it imposed peace on Austria, by 
 the treaty of Oampo Pormio, and on the empire by the 
 congress of Eastadt. The coalition was disaolved, and Eng- 
 land was the only belligerent power that remained. To 
 pacify the people of the latter country,Lord Malmesbury was 
 sent, in the character of plenipotentiary, first to Paris, and 
 then to Lisle. The negotiations were twice broken off, and 
 the contest between the two powers continued. War was 
 necessary to the existence of the republic. An immense body 
 of soldiers could not be disbanded without danger. This 
 embarrassing state of things led the Directory to undertake 
 the expedition to, Egypt, and the invasion of Switzerland. 
 
 § 672. Napoleon had returned to Paris, where he was 
 received with enthusiasm by the populace (Dec. 1797). 
 Honours were granted to him, such as no other general 
 of the republic had ever enjoyed. A patriotic altar was 
 prepared in the Luxembourg, and in his passage to the 
 triumphal ceremony, of which he was the object, he passed 
 under an arch formed of the colours taken in Italy. He 
 was addressed by Barras, president of the Directory, who, 
 after congratiUating him on his victories, invited him " to 
 
SWITZEELAKD EEVOLUTIONIZED. 529 
 
 crown so glorious a life by a conquest which the great nation 
 owed to its outraged dignity." This was nothing less than 
 the conquest of England ; and every preparation was appa- 
 rently made for a descent — whilst the real object was the 
 invasion of Egypt. The Directory, which was desirous of 
 obtaining the neutrality of the Ottoman Porte, that it might 
 attack the English, violated that of Switzerland, that it 
 might expel the emigrants from its territories. Bepublican 
 principles had penetrated into &eneva and the Pays de 
 Vaud; but the policy of the Swiss confederation was 
 avowedly of a counter-revolutionary cast. They had driven 
 from the cantons all tBe Swiss who had shown themselves 
 partisans of the French republic. Berne was the head- 
 quarters of the emigrants, and there most of the plots 
 against the revolution were hatched. The Directory com- 
 plained, but received no satisfaction. The Vaudois, placed 
 by ancient treaties under the direction of France, invoked 
 its support against the tyranny ot Berne. After some nego- 
 tiations, which led to nothing, the war commenced. The 
 Swiss defended themselves with great courage and obstinacy, 
 but they were' at length compelled to yield (April 12, 
 1798). Geneva was re-united to France, and Switzerland 
 exchanged its ancient constitution for that of the year three. 
 From that moment two parties existed in the confederation, 
 one of which advocated the cause of France and the revolu- 
 tion, and the other that of Austria and a counter-revolution. 
 Switzerland, from this period, ceased to be a common barrier, 
 and became the high-road of Europe. The revolution of 
 Switzerland was speedily followed by that of Eome, and that 
 state was changed into ai republic. All these events tended 
 to complete the system of the Directory, and to give it a 
 preponderance in Europe ; it was now at the head of the 
 Helvetian, Batavian, Ligurian, Cisalpine, and Eoman re- 
 publics, all of which were constructed after the same model. 
 § 673. A strong majority was soon formed in France, 
 hostile to the Directory. Their arbitrary measures had 
 disgusted the people, and a reaction was the result. In the 
 midst of the discussions, the new coalition, which, owing to 
 the influence of England, had been remodelled, commenced 
 the campaign. Their armies attacked the republic by the 
 three great openings of Italy, Switzerland, and Holland. A 
 strong Austrian force debouched in the duchy of Mantua, 
 defeated Scherer twice upon the Adige, and was soon after- 
 wards joined by the victorious Suwarroff (April, 1799). 
 2 M 
 
530 CAMPAIGN OF 1799. 
 
 Moreau succeeded Scherer, and was, like him, defeated : he 
 retreated on the side of Genoa, in order to protect the 
 barrier of the Apennines, and to join the army of Naples 
 commanded by Macdonald, who was also routed at the 
 Trebbia (June 17, 1799). The confederates next directed 
 their principal force against Switzerland. Some Prussian 
 corps joined the archduke Charles, who had defeated Jourdau 
 on the Tipper E.hine, and was makingi preparations for 
 crossing the Helvetian frontier. The duke of York at the 
 same time took the command in Holland of forty thousand 
 English and Eussian troops. The small republics which pro- 
 tected France were invaded, and, after some new victories, 
 the confederates were enabled to penetrate into the very 
 seat of the revolution. In the itiidst of these military 
 disasters, to which was. added the discontent of all parties, 
 the elections of May, 1799, took place : they were, hke 
 those of the preceding year, republican. The Directory 
 was no longer . possessed of sufficient strength to contend 
 against public misfortunes and the animosity of parties. 
 The retirement of Eewbell, who was succeeded by Sieyes, 
 deprived it of the only man who could make head against 
 the storm, and introduced in his stead the most decided 
 ■ opponent of this obnoxious and worn-out government. The 
 moderate party and the ultra-republicans concurred in 
 demanding of the directors an account of the internal and 
 external state of the republic. 
 
 § 674. Suddenly the war changed its aspect upon the two 
 principal frontiers of the higher and lower Ehine. The 
 allies, after having regained Italy, attempted to penetrate 
 into France through Switzerland and Holland ; but their 
 progress was arrested by Generals Massena and Brune. 
 Massena advanced against Korsakoflf and Suwarroff, and ia 
 a series of grand combinations and consecutive victories, 
 during twelve days, the Eussians were repulsed and forced 
 to retreat, and the coalition was thus disorganized (Sept. 
 1799). The duke of York, in spite of some victories in 
 Holland, was compelled to re-embark, and to renounce his 
 attempt at invasion (Sept. 19 — Oct. 6). The army of Italy 
 alone was less successful : Joubert, its general, was killed at 
 the battle of Novi, whilst charging the Austro-Eussian 
 army (Aug. 15). But notwithstanding the defeat of Novi, 
 this frontier, which was at a great distance from the centre 
 of events, was not passed, but was skilfully defended by 
 Championnet. The contest amongst the factions was still 
 
BUOSTAPARTE RETURNS TO PARIS. 531 
 
 waged in Paris. Lucien Buonaparte, who had obtained 
 great influence in the council of the Five Hundred, drew a 
 gloomy picture of the state of aifaird. The intelligence 
 which he forwarded to his brother, induced him to quit the 
 army of Egypt. Buonaparte landed suddenly at Pr6jus 
 (Oct. 8, 1799), and made a rapid and triumphant progress 
 from the coast of the Mediterranean to Paris. His expe- 
 dition, which had the appearance of a fabulous story, 
 astonished all France. A victorious general, an acknow- 
 ledged diplomatist, the founder of republics, he had treated 
 all interests with address, all creeds with moderation. 
 Ever since his victories in Italy, he had entertained thoughts 
 of usurpation. If the Directory had been vanquished by 
 the council (Sept. 4, 1798), he had intended to march against 
 the latter with his army, and seize the protectorate of the 
 republic. Finding, after the 4th of September, that the 
 Directory was too powerful, and the inactive state of the 
 continent too dangerous for him, he accepted the expedition 
 to Egypt, that he might not fall into obscurity and be 
 forgotten. On the news of the disorganization of the 
 Directory on the 18 th of June, he repaired with all possible 
 expedition to the seat of action. 
 
 § 675. The generals, the directors, the deputies, and 
 even the most violent republicans, waited upon him, and 
 Buonaparte, after weighing their different offers, closed 
 with that of Sieves. On the 5th of November they arranged 
 their plan of attack against the constitution of the year 
 three. Sieyes undertook to prepare the councils by the 
 commissions of inspectors, who had an unlimited confi- 
 dence in him. Buonaparte was to gain over the generals 
 and the troops stationed at Paris, who displayed much 
 enthusiasm and devotion for his person. They agreed to 
 convoke an extraordinary meeting of the most moderate 
 members of the councils ; to lay before them a description 
 of the public dangers; and, after exhibiting to them the 
 menacing position of the Jacobins, to demand the removal 
 of the legislative body to St. Cloud, and the appointment 
 of General Buonaparte to the command of the armed force 
 as the only man who could save the country. They then 
 proposed, by means of the new military power, to effect 
 the disorganization of the Directory, and the momentary 
 dissolution of the legislative body. The morning of the 
 9th of November was appointed for carrying this enterprise 
 into effect. During the intervening days the secret was 
 2ii2 
 
532 OVEETHKOW OF THE DIEECTORY. 
 
 faithfully kept. On the morning of the 9th of November, 
 the members of the Ancients were convoked in an unusual 
 manner by the inspectors ; they repaired to the Tuileries, 
 and entered on their session about seven o'clock, under the 
 presidency of Lemercier. Comudet, Lebrun, and Farguea, 
 three of the conspirators in the council, presented a most 
 alarming picture of the public situation: they assured 
 it that the Jacobins were coming in crowds from all the 
 departments, that they wished to re-establish the revolu- 
 tionary government, and that terror would again desolate 
 the republic, if the council had not the courage and the 
 wisdom to prevent its return. Another conspirator, Eegnier 
 (de la .Meurthe), proposed that the Ancients, who were 
 already giving way, should, by virtue of the power vested in 
 them by the constitution, transfer the seat of the legislative 
 body to St. Cloud, appoint Buonaparte to the command of 
 the 17th military division, and instruct him to superintend 
 the removal. The council granted everything that the 
 conspirators required. On receiving intelligence of this 
 success, Buonaparte marched to the Tuileries, repaired to the 
 bar of the council of the Ancients, took the oath of fidelity, 
 and named Lefebvre, the commander of the Directorial 
 guard, for his lieutenant. 
 
 § 676. This was only the beginning of success. The 
 Directory, however, took the alarm, and dissolved itself. 
 The decree of the council of the Ancients, and the proclama- 
 tions of Buonaparte, were posted upon the walls of Paris ; and 
 great excitement prevailed. On the 10th of November, the 
 members of the council repaired to St. Cloud. The gallery 
 of Mars was prepared for the council of the Ancients ; the 
 Orangery for that of the Five Hundred. A considerable 
 armed force surrounded the seat of the legislature, as the 
 mob on the 2nd of June surrounded the Convention. As 
 soon as the session opened, Emile Gaudin, one of the con- 
 spirators, ascended the tribune of the Five Hundred, and 
 proposed a vote of thanks to the council of the Ancients for 
 the measures which it had adopted, and that its opinions 
 should be requested as to the means of saving the republic. 
 This motion became the signal of the most violent tumult. 
 The republican deputies besieged the tribune and the chair 
 in which Lucien Buonaparte presided. The conspirators 
 grew pale. After a protracted commotion, order was for a 
 moment restored, and Delbrel proposed that they should 
 renew the oath to the constitution of the year three : no 
 
THE CONSULAR GOVERNMENT. 503 
 
 voice being raised against this motion, which at such a junc- 
 ture was vital, the oath was taken with a burst of enthusiasm, 
 and a unanimity which endangered the conspiracy. Buona- 
 parte being informed of what was passing in the council of 
 the Five Hundred, and seeing himself in great peril of deser- 
 tion and defeat, presented himself before the council of the 
 Ancients. Having gained them over, he proceeded to the 
 council of the Five Hundred ; but the sight of the troops 
 exasperated the members, and in the confusion Napoleon 
 retired. The council prepared to vindicate its authority, 
 when Lucien concerted measures with his brother for" 
 clearing the hall. This was at last effected, and at half-past-, 
 five o'clock (Nov. 10, 1799) there was no longer a national . 
 representation. 
 
 Lettee 33. — History of France, from the Overthrow of the Directory 
 to the Peace of Amieus. A.D. 1799 — 1802. Vol. iii., pages 408 
 —421. 
 
 § 677. During the three months that followed the singular 
 proceedings of the commencement of November, 1799, the 
 French public were in a state of strange suspense. A pro- 
 visional government was nominated, consisting of three 
 consuls, Buonaparte, Sieyes, and Hoger Ducos, with two 
 legislative commissions, who were charged with preparing 
 the constitution, and an order of things which should be 
 definitive. On the 24th of December, the constitution 
 of the year eight was published. The government was 
 placed in the hands of a first consul, supported by two 
 consuls, with a voice in council. The senate, primarily 
 chosen by the consuls, itself now chose from the list of 
 national candidates the members of the tribunate and the 
 legislative body. The government alone had the initiation 
 of laws, and it was soon regularly installed. Napoleon was 
 appointed first consul, with Cambaceres and Le Brun as 
 second and third consuls. The ex-archbishop Talleyrand 
 and Fouche were appointed ministers of foreign affairs 
 and of police. One of the first and most popular measures 
 of Buonaparte, on his elevation to the consular dignity, was 
 a proposal of peace to England, which he made early in 1800 
 by a letter addressed to George III. He did not, however, 
 offer to abandon any of the conquests of the revolutionary 
 armies, and the offer led to no satisfactory results. 
 
 § 678. Committing the charge of the campaign upon the 
 Ehine to Moreau, the first consul reserved for himself the 
 
S34 PASSAGE OF THE ALPS. 
 
 task of bringing back victory to the French standards, on 
 the fields in which he won his earliest laurels. His plan of 
 victory again included a passage of the Alps, as boldly and 
 unexpectedly executed as that in 1795 had been, but in 
 a different direction. Switzerland, formerly neutral, and 
 allowing no passage for armies, was now as open to the 
 march of French troops as any of their own provinces, and 
 of this Buonaparte determined to avail himself. He was 
 aware of the Austrian plan of taking Genoa and entering 
 Provence ; and he formed the daring resolution of putting 
 himself at the head of the army of reserve, surmounting the 
 line of the Alps, even where they are most difficult of access, 
 and descending into Italy, and thus placing himself in. the 
 rear of the Austrian army, interrupting their communica- 
 tions, carrying off their magazines, parks, and hospitals, 
 cooping them up betwixt his own army and that of Massena, 
 which was in their front, and compelling them to battle, in 
 a situation where defeat must be destruction. The strictest 
 secrecy was necessary to insure the success of the plan ; and 
 in order to mislead foreign governments, Buonaparte ordered 
 aa army of reserve to be assembled at Dijon. On the 6th of 
 May, 1800, the first consul left Paris, and, having reviewed 
 the pretended army of reserve at Dijon on the 7th, arrived 
 on the 8th at Geneva. Here he had an interview with the 
 celebrated financier Necker ; but a more interesting con- 
 versation with General Marescot, who had been despatched 
 to survey Mont Bernard, and who had, with great difficulty, 
 ascended as far as the convent of the Chartreux. Carnot, 
 the minister at war, visited the first consul at Lausanne, to 
 report to him that about twenty thousand men, detached, 
 from Moreau's army, were in the act of descending into Italy 
 by St. Gothard, in order to form the left wing of his army. 
 The whole army, in its various divisions, was now united 
 under the command of Berthier, nominally as general-in- 
 chief, though in reality under the first consul himself. This 
 was in compliance with a regulation of the constitution, 
 which rendered it inconsistent for the first consul to com- 
 mand in person. 
 
 § 679. During the interval between the 15th and 18th of 
 May, all the columns of the Prench army were put into 
 motion across the Alps. Tureau, at the head of five thou- 
 sand men, directed his march, by Mount Qenis, on Exilles 
 and Susa. A similar division, commanded by Chabran, took 
 the route of the Little St. Bernard. Buonaparte himself, oa 
 
BATTLE OF MAEENGO. 535 
 
 the 15th, at the head of the main body of his army, consist- 
 ing of thirty thousand men and upwards, marched from 
 Lausanne to the little village called St. Pierre, at which 
 point everything resembling a practicable road ceased. The 
 passage was effected in spite of every obstacle, the artillery 
 being dragged over in the trunks of hollow trees. On the 
 16th of May the vanguard of the French army took posses- 
 sion of Aosta, a village of Piedmont. Massena, who was 
 closely blockaded in Genoa, surrendered that city (June 5, 
 1800), but Buonaparte entered Milan (June 2), restored the 
 Cisalpine republic (June 4), and gained possession of several 
 fortresses. The Austrians, though surprised, struggled 
 obstinately for victory, and after several minor actions took 
 their stand before Alessandria. The armies were nearly 
 equal in point of numbers, both in high spirits, eager for 
 the conflict, and confident of victory. Early in the morn- 
 ing (June 14), the Austrian army under Melas crossed 
 the Bormida, and attacked the French. The conflict 
 was sustained with the utmost fury on both sides, and 
 at length the French gave way. The arrival of Dessais 
 with the reserve somewhat changed the fortune of the 
 day ; but that general fell at the head of his troops, and 
 the Austrians continued to advance. A sudden charge by 
 Kellerman, at the head of his cavalry, altered the aspect 
 of aft'airs. The Austrians, before victorious, were seized 
 with a panic and fled. Kellerman, the real victor on 
 that memorable occasion, never received the just reward 
 of his services, wbUe Xapoleon, who had actually been 
 defeated, and was in full retreat, reaped all the glory as 
 well as the benefits of this brilliant victory. 
 
 § 680. In consequence of this defeat, Melas resolved to 
 save the remains of his army, by entering into a convention, 
 or rather capitulation, by which he agreed, on receiving per- 
 mission to retire behind Mantua, to yield up Genoa, and all 
 the fortified places which the Austrians possessed in Pied- 
 mont, Lombardy, and the Legations. The armistice of 
 Alessandria (June 16) would, it was supposed, afibrd time 
 for the conclusion of a victorious peace with Austria ; and 
 Buonaparte extended this truce to the armies on the Ehine, 
 as well as to those in Italy. Two days having been spent in 
 the arrangements which the convention with Melas rendered 
 necessary, Buonaparte returned to Milan, where he again 
 renewed the republican constilTition, which had been his 
 original gift to the Cisalpine state (June 17). He executed 
 
fi36 GENERAL PACIFICATION. 
 
 several other acts of authority. His presence was eagerly 
 desired at Paris, and he set out from Milan (June 24, 1800), 
 and in his passage through Lyons paused to lay the founda- 
 tion-stone for rebuilding the Place Bellecour; a splendid 
 square, which had been destroyed by the frantic vengeance of 
 the Jacobins when Lyons was retaken by them from the in- 
 surgent party of Girondists and Eoyalists. The first consul 
 reached Paris on the 2nd of July, and was received by all 
 classes with enthusiasm. The Austrians, vanquished at 
 Marengo, and then defeated in Germany by Moreau, deter- 
 mined to sue for peace. On the 9th of February, 1801, the 
 Prench republic, the cabinet of Vienna, and the empire con- 
 cluded the treaty of Luneville. Austria ratified all the con- 
 ditions of the treaty of Campo Eormio, and ceded, in addition, 
 Tuscany to the young duke of Parma. The empire recog- 
 nized the independence of the Batavian, Helvetian, Ligurian, 
 and Cisalpine republics. The pacification now became 
 general by the treaty of Florence, with the king of Naples, 
 on the 28th of March, who ceded the isle of Elba and the 
 principality of Piombino ; with Portugal, by the treaty of 
 Madrid, on the 29th of September, 1801 ; with the emperor of 
 Eussia, by the treaty of Paris, signed on the 8th of October ; 
 and finally with the Ottoman Porte, by the preliminaries 
 signed with that power on the following day. This pacifi- 
 cation upon the continent induced the English government 
 to make peace, which was done by the treaty of Amiena 
 (March 27, 1802). 
 
TEEATY OF AMIENS. 537 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 FEOM THE TEEATY OF AMIENS IN 1802, TO THE DEATH 
 OF ALEXANDER, EMPEEOR OF EUSSIA, IN 1825. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 Iettek 1. — ^European Affairs, from the General Pacification to the 
 Eenewal of the War between FraDce and England ; with an Account 
 of the Insurrection in St. Domingo. a.d. 1789 — 1803. Vol. iv., 
 pages 1 — 16. 
 
 § 681. The definitive treaty of peace ■was signed at 
 Amiens on the 27th of March, 1802, and thus the war 
 that had desolated Europe for' nearly ten years was tem- 
 porarily suspended. The terms of this treaty were certainly 
 not such as England, everywhere victorious, had a right to 
 expect. But a few months before, Nelson had dissolved the 
 Northern Confederation, which the intrigues of Napoleon 
 had called into existence, with the view of putting an end 
 to our maritime supremacy. The French flag had been 
 almost swept from the ocean, and many of the most valuable 
 colonial possessions of France had been captured by English 
 squadrons. A temporary check in Algesiras Bay had been 
 redeemed by a most glorious naval victory, in which five 
 English ships of the line attacked and defeated a French 
 and Spanish squadron, consisting of nine line-of-battle ships. 
 Nor were naval triumphs the only ones of which England 
 had reason to be proud. Our troops had encountered the 
 victorious soldiers of the Eevolution, and had defeated them 
 under the most unfavourable circumstances. An expedition, 
 commanded at first by Sir Ealph Abercrombie, and, after 
 his glorious death at the battle of Aleiandria, by General 
 
638 ST. DOMINGO. 
 
 Hutchinson, vclio •vras eventually joined by Sir David Baird, 
 with reinforcements from our Indian empire, had defeated 
 the French in several actions, and compelled them to aban- 
 don their conquests in that part of the world — conquests 
 which had been gained with great difficulty, and the relin- 
 quishment of which involved the most bitter sacrifices. 
 With the mighty exertions necessary for such great achieve- 
 ments, the energies and the resources of the nation increased. 
 "We commenced the war with one hundred and fifty-three 
 sail of the line, and one hundred and thirty -three frigates ; 
 at its close our fleet consisted of two hundred and two sail 
 of the line, and two hundred and seventy-seven frigates, 
 manned by one hundred and twenty thousand men. Our 
 army, including the militia, the volunteers, and the troops 
 in our colonies, amounted, at the signature of the treaty of 
 Amiens, to nearly five hundred thousand men, whilst, nine 
 years before, we could scarcely muster one-fourth of that 
 number. Tet with these advantages, both of victory and 
 position, at the peace of Amiens we restored to France all 
 her conquered colonies expecting Ceylon and Trinidad, and 
 allowed her to retain the greater portion of the territories 
 she had seized upon in Europe. The chief objection that 
 may be urged against this celebrated treaty is, that it left 
 Napoleon virtual master of the continent. Spain, Holland, 
 Portugal, Italy, and some parts of Grermany, were in fact little 
 better than distant provinces of France. In accepting these 
 very lenient conditions, England at least proved to the world 
 that she was anxious for a general pacification, and willing 
 to make great concessions in order to bring about so desir- 
 able a result. Her moderation in 1802 retarded her final 
 triumph, and entailed upon her many sacrifices; yet it 
 served to unmask JSTapoleon. 
 
 § 682. The island of St. Domingo, one of the largest 
 and richest of the West-India group, had profited by the 
 anarchy prevailing in France to throw off its allegiance. 
 A short summary of events here becomes necessary. At 
 the outbreak of the revolution of 1789, the island of St. 
 Domingo was held by the French and Spaniards ; the 
 former possessing the most valuable, and the latter by far 
 the larger portion of the country. In the first days of _the 
 revolution the propagandists fiocked in great numbers into 
 the island. A society had been formed in Paris called the 
 Amis des Noirs, the principal object of which was the 
 emancipation of the slaves. Invited by the National 
 
TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE. 539 
 
 Assembly to appoint deliberative assemblies, the colonists 
 elected deputies, and the mulattoes and blacks determined 
 to strike a blow for freedom. The National Assembly, by 
 decree, conferred freedom upon all persons of colour born of 
 free parents (May 15, 1791) ; and in the very same year 
 the black population rose in arms (September). Three 
 delegates were sent out by the Convention (Xov. 1791), 
 but they only made matters worse ; and the slaves, under 
 the command of Toussaint L'Ouverture, were eventually 
 successful. A constitution was framed (1801), and Tous- 
 saint appointed governor, with the right of naming his 
 successor. The news of the elevation of Toussaint to the 
 supreme authority reached Napoleon whilst the negotiations 
 for peace were in progress. The first consul determined 
 upon striking a blow as quickly as possible, and the prepara- 
 tions for a naval expedition to recover St. Domingo were 
 pushed forward with great haste. The armament was so 
 extensive in its character that it excited considerable appre- 
 hension in England, and became the subject of discussion 
 in the legislature. Some idea of the scale on .which the 
 expedition was framed, may be judged from the fact, that 
 21,000 soldiers, under the command of General Le Clerc, 
 were assembled on board the ships, and that considerable 
 reinforcements were afterwards despatched. These levies 
 reached their destination in the spring of 1802. 
 
 § 683. As Toussaint was not inclined to submit to the 
 authority of the first consul, a sanguinary war ensued, in 
 which the French troops suffered terribly. Toussaint was, 
 however, owing to the defection of his officers, and the solemn 
 promises of friendship and good-will of the Trench general, 
 induced to submit. His adhesion was joyfully received, and 
 he was permitted to retire to an estate of his own in the 
 interior of the island. It was not long before a pretext waa 
 found for the arrest of the indefatigable hero, who had so 
 valiantly maintained the independence of his country. He 
 was speedily transported to Europe, and died in the dungeons 
 of the prison of Besan9on, to which place he had been con- 
 veyed soon after his arrival in Prance. In his exile at St. 
 Helena, Napoleon indignantly denied the charge brought 
 against him, of having caused the unfortunate hero of the 
 slaves to be privately assassinated. Tet the circumstances 
 of the case are most suspicious. Several eminent men about 
 this period disappeared in a very extraordinary manner; 
 most of them were the opponents of Napoleon, and at the 
 
540 BUONAPARTE CONSUL TOR LIFE. 
 
 time of their sudden disappearance were incarcerated in fte 
 state prisons of Prance. The French no sooner obtained 
 possession of St. Domingo than they violated the solemn 
 promises by which they had induced the negro chiefs to 
 submit to their authority. The re-establishment of slavery 
 in a neighbouring colony showed the inhabitants of St. 
 Domingo what they had to expect from their conquerors. 
 The consequence was, that in the autumn of 1802 another 
 insurrection broke out, which ended in the triumph of the 
 negroes. The ravages of yellow fever were added to the 
 horrors of war, and Le Clerc and some of his ablest officers 
 fell victims to the fatal malady. When war was renewed 
 between France and England, the latter supplied the negro 
 forces with arms and ammunition, and thus secured the 
 ejection of the French. 
 
 § 684. Buonaparte's great aim was to render himself sole 
 master of France, and his intrigues were crowned with suc- 
 cess. In 1799 he had been appointed first consul for ten 
 years ; and on the 6th of May, 1802, a senatus-consultuin 
 appeared, conferring the honour for an additional ten years. 
 This was not, however, suflScient, and by the aid of hia 
 creatures a senatus-consultum was obtained, decreeing: 
 " I. The French people do appoint, and the Senate do pro- 
 claim. Napoleon Buonaparte first consul for life. II. A 
 statue of Peace, holding in one hand the laurel of victory, 
 and in the other the decree of the Senate, shall attest to 
 posterity the gratitude of the nation. III. The Senate 
 shall convey to the first consul the expression of the con- 
 fidence, the love, and the admiration of the French people." 
 In compliment to Napoleon, the senatus-consultum was 
 ordered to be proclaimed throughout France on the 15th of 
 August, the first consul's birthday. A new constitution 
 was proclaimed on the 5th of August. "Whilst the privi- 
 leges of the tribunate and of the legislative body were 
 restrained, the powers of the first consul were extended. 
 The right of naming the second and third consuls, as well 
 as that of appointing a successor to his own office, and the 
 prerogative of pardon, were conferred upon him. 
 
 § 685. Foremost among the measures adopted by Buona- 
 parte, in order to consolidate his power, was the concordat 
 with the Pope, by which the Catholic religion was re-estab- 
 lished in France. The negotiations by which this satisfactory 
 change was effected, extended over a considerable period. 
 The documents treating upon this subject show that Napo- 
 
CONCOEDAT AND LEGION OP HONOUR. 5^1 
 
 leon did not intend to barter away the advantages of power 
 for the mere favour or friendship of the successor of St. 
 Peter. He retained the right of nominating the archbishops 
 and bishops, and required from those prelates an oath of 
 fidelity to the Trench republic. The independence of the 
 Gallican church was fully secured. About the same time a 
 law, consisting of forty-four articles, provided for the or- 
 ganization of the Protestant churches. These measures 
 encountered some opposition in the legislature, but were at 
 length adopted by large majorities. The concordat, which 
 was the most important, was publicly proclaimed in April, 
 1802, and was celebrated by a grand religious ceremony on 
 the 18th of the same month. On this occasion, Napoleon 
 sat upon the throne formerly used by the kings of France. 
 An illumination followed in the evening, and the return of 
 the French people to the fold of the Church caused general 
 satisfaction both at home and abroad. Another measure 
 by which Napoleon paved the way for the re-establishment 
 of the throne and the restoration of titles, was the institu- 
 tion of the Legion of Honour. The proposal met with 
 considerable opposition in the legislature, especially from 
 those who held republican principles. But the first consul 
 triumphed over every obstacle, and in spite of opposition 
 carried his scheme. A senatus-consultum was published 
 on the 29th of April, 1802, proclaiming a general amnesty 
 to the emigrants. Nearly a hundred thousand of these un- 
 fortunate people returned to France, and as many of them 
 had lost everything in the revolution, they were in a most 
 lamentable condition. They eagerly availed themselves of 
 the permission to return to the land of their birth, and some 
 were fortunate enough to recover certain portions of their 
 property. It was at this period that Napoleon undertook 
 the formation of the code that bears his name. This, the 
 most celebrated of his various undertakings, was the work 
 of several distinguished men. 
 
 § 686. In accordance with the fifth article of the treaty 
 of Luneville, and a secret stipulation with the count of 
 Spain, the prince of Parma received the territories of 
 the grand duchy of Tuscany, under the title of king of 
 Etruria. The eleventh article of the treaty of Luneville 
 guaranteed the independence of the Batavian, Helvetian, 
 Cisalpine, and Ligurian republics, maintaining the right of 
 the people to adopt what form of government they pleased. 
 Buonaparte put a construction upon this article, little anti- 
 
542 NEW CONSTITUTIONS. 
 
 cipated by the other parties to the treaty. Holland had 
 gradually forfeited its independence, and become nofchino' 
 more than a province of France. The first consul presented 
 this country with a constitution so little suited to the wishes 
 and requirements of its inhabitants, that the Dutch legisla- 
 ture rejected it (1801) ; whereupon Napoleon dissolved the 
 Dutch chambers, and pretended to appeal from the legisla- 
 ture to the people. A large majority refused to vote ; but 
 their silence was construed into consent, and the new con- 
 stitution was said to be established. The next republic 
 operated upon was the Cisalpine. Through the influence of 
 the French authorities, a decree was passed (November, 
 1801), directing that an extraordinary Consulta should be 
 formed, the members of which were ordered to assemble at 
 Lyons. To this city M. Talleyrand and others repaired, in 
 order to make preparations for the reception of the first 
 consul. On the 11th of January, 1802, Napoleon, accom- 
 panied by Josephine, and attended by a brilliant train, made 
 his entry into the city. The committee of thirty, to which 
 the formation of a constitution for the Cisalpine republic 
 had been intrusted, presented their report on the 25th of 
 January. It was to the efiect that the French troops should 
 remain in Italy, and Napoleon still wield the supremacy. 
 The report having been unanimously adopted by the Con- 
 fiulta, was presented to the first consul on the 26th of 
 January. To all the proposals he yielded a ready assent; 
 By general acclamation the title of the Italian republic was 
 substituted for that of the Cisalpine. A constitution was 
 immediately drawn up, which destroyed the last vestige of 
 Italian liberty ; and having thus sealed the humiliation of 
 these states. Napoleon set out for Paris, and on his arrival 
 (Jan. 30, 1802), a medal was struck in commemoration of 
 these events. 
 
 § 687. The first consul's unjustifiable attack upon the 
 Helvetian republic next claims notice. The French revo- 
 lution' had profoundly agitated Switzerland, and on attaining 
 the supreme authority in France, Buonaparte sent agents 
 into that country to fan the flames of discontent. In 1802 
 he found a pretext for a more direct interference than any 
 before attempted. The country was overrun with French 
 troops, and the Swiss were treated with one of those mock- 
 eries called constitutions. The Swiss addressed an energetic 
 remonstrance to the English ambassador at Paris, and the 
 English ministers immediately protested against the in- 
 
CAREER OF AGGRESSION. 643 
 
 fraction of the treaty of Luneville, which guaranteed the 
 independence of the Helvetian republic. Napoleon, how- 
 ever, persevered ; a constitution was drawn up (1803), and 
 Switzerland reduced to bondage to France. The extensive 
 changes made by the treaty of Luneville rendered the 
 settlement of the indemnities for the dispossessed princes a 
 matter of some difficulty. A congress was held at Eatisbon, 
 at which the contracting parties were several times on the 
 eve of commencing hostilities. The conferences opened on 
 the 18th of August (1802), and were brought to a termi- 
 nation in the spring of 1803. Although the powers chiefly 
 interested managed to arrange their differences, the seeds of 
 future dissensions and wars were sown at these memorable 
 conferences. A new constitution was prepared for the' 
 Ligurian republic ; a formal decree was issued annexing 
 Piedmont to France (Sept. 11, 1802), and by a similar in- 
 strument issued at Parma (Oct. 23), the states of Parma, 
 Placentia, and Gruastella were declared to belong and remain 
 to the French republic. 
 
 § 688. These aggressions, in direct violation of the terms 
 of the treaties of Luneville and Amiens, created a profound 
 sensation in England, which some demands addressed by 
 Napoleon to the British government tended to increase. 
 Amongst other things the iirst consul requested that the 
 press, which freely criticised his actions, should be restrained, 
 that certain emigrants should be expelled from England, 
 and the princes of the house of Bourbon required to repair 
 to "Warsaw (Aug. 17, 1802). Lord Hawkesbury showed at 
 some length that it was impossible for the English govern- 
 ment to interfere in these matters (Aug. 28). A prosecution 
 was soon after instituted by the attorney-general against 
 Peltier, one of the individuals most obnoxious to Napoleon, 
 and a conviction was obtained. Although little more was 
 said upon the subject, Napoleon continued to regard the 
 freedom of the English press with aversion, as the admissions 
 contained in many of the private memoirs of his most de- 
 voted followers fully show. Other points of contention soon 
 arose. By the lOfch article of the treaty of Amiens, England 
 engaged to evacuateMalta. But as Napoleon was increasing 
 his power in every direction, the English ministers could not 
 be expected to fulfil their part of the conditions of the 
 treaty ; and although they had actually commenced the 
 evacuation of Malta, as well as of Alexandria and the 
 Cape of Good Hope, they suddenly issued counter-orders. 
 
644 HANOVER INVADED. 
 
 On the 30th of January, 1803, a report had been published 
 by Colonel Sebastiani, under the authority of the French 
 government, which contained many allusions calculated 
 to increase the ill-feeling between the two countries ; and 
 amongst others the following: — "Six thousand French 
 would at present be enough to conquer Egypt." The 
 English government naturally enough remonstrated forcibly 
 upon this subject. In an interview with Lord Whitworth, 
 Napoleon conducted himself in a most violent manner 
 (Feb. 20) ; and matters rapidly came to a crisis. The pre- 
 parations in the ports of Holland and France induced 
 England to arm. The militia was called out (March 10), 
 and Napoleon insulted our ambassador, Lord Whitworth, at 
 a public court held in the TuUeries (March 13). Negoti- 
 ations were carried on for some time, and several proposals 
 for a settlement of the dispute made by England. The first 
 consul would not abandon his aggressive policy. Lord 
 "Whitworth left Paris (May 6), and after a false and insecure 
 truce of little more than twelve months' duration, war broke 
 out afresh. 
 
 Lettbb 2. — History of Europe continued, from the Eecommencement 
 of Hostilities to the Attack upon the Boulogne Flotilla. A.D. 1803 
 —1804. Vol. iv., pages 16—26. 
 
 § 689. The English ministry received every support at 
 this critical juncture, and as Napoleon's real objects were 
 better understood, the opposition to the war declined. 
 France continued her armaments and preparations. Admiral 
 Linois was despatched from the port of Brest for the East 
 Indies, with a strong squadron, having on board six thou- 
 sand troops, destined to strengthen the French colonies in 
 the East, and also to reinforce the Dutch garrison at the 
 Cape of Good Hope. Orders were issued by the French 
 government to increase the armies of the republic to four 
 hundred and eighty thousand men. The army of Italy was 
 greatly augmented ; reinforcements had also been ordered 
 into Holland, and a powerful army was collected on the 
 frontiers of Ilanover. The French general Mortier, from 
 his head-quarters, summoned the electorate to surrender 
 (May 25) ; the Hanoverian army made dispositions for a 
 brave resistance, though it proved inefiectual against so over- 
 whelming a force, and the French troops took possession of 
 the whole of the electorate. By this manoeuvre they were 
 enabled to control the navigation of the Elbe and Weser, 
 
PITT AGAIN MUIISTEE. 545 
 
 and to levy contributions, under the shape of loans, on the 
 rich Hanae towns of Hamburg and Bremen. Buonaparte 
 ordered the arrest of aU the English between the ages of 
 eighteen and sixty, in Prance, detaining them as hostages for 
 those French citizens who might have been made prisoners 
 by British ships before the declaration of war was issued. 
 They had previously received an assurance that they should 
 enjoy the protection of the French government as com- 
 pletely after as before the departure of the British ambassa- 
 dor, and were relying implicitly on the credit of those assur- 
 ances, when they found themselves doomed to an indefinite 
 captivity, because the British government refused to include 
 them in any exchanges that were made between the two 
 countries of prisoners of war. 
 
 § 690. In the summer of 1803 a formidable insurrection 
 broke out in Ireland. Bmmett was one of the principal 
 conspirators. His plan was to establish a republic. An 
 armed mob endeavoured to obtaLa possession of the castle 
 of Dablin (July 23), and after having murdered Lord Kil- 
 warden, and committed other excesses, were dispersed by 
 the troops, and the insurrection was completely extinguished. 
 Several of the ringleaders were tried for high treason by a 
 special commission and sentenced to death. The Addington 
 government was dissolved in 1804. Pitt was once more 
 invited to form an administration (May 7), and on the 
 resignation of Mr. Addington (May 12), was named as his 
 successor. Many of the former ministers retained office ; 
 and George Canning became treasurer of the Navy. In 
 consequence of the seizure of Hanover by the French 
 armies, and the interruption of the British commerce on the 
 Elbe and Weser, a squadron of British ships was appointed 
 to blockade the mouths of those rivers. The French 
 government having compelled the Batavian and Italian 
 republics to become parties in the war, imposed on them 
 the fuU share of its burdens. The French drew pecuniary 
 assistance from Spain and Portugal in so open and exten- 
 sive a manner, that it rested entirely with England whether 
 they should not be considered as involved in acts of direct 
 hostility. The supplies of the French treasury also had 
 been augmented by the sale of Louisiana to the United 
 States for three millions of dollars. 
 
 § 691. In the month of February, 1804., a plot was 
 detected at Paris, the object of which was the subversion of 
 the consular government. The principal persons accused 
 2 N 
 
546 BUONAPARTE MADE EMPEROR. 
 
 ■were General Pichegru, Georges, a Chouan leader, and 
 Lajolais his confidant. Moreau was implicated iu the con- 
 spiracy. On the testimony of an agent of the parties, who 
 had been apprehended near Calais, Moreau and Lajolais 
 were arrested. Pichegru and Georges for a while eluded 
 the vigilance of the police, but were afterwards discovered 
 and committed to prison. The city of Paris was declared 
 to be in a state of siege. Pichegru died under rather 
 suspicious circumstances in prison. Georges, Polignac, 
 Eiviere, Coster, and sixteen others, were found guilty of 
 having conspired against the life of the chief magistrate of 
 the French nation, and condemned to death. About ten 
 of them were executed. Eiviere was pardoned at the suit 
 of Murat ; Moreau was sentenced to two years' imprison- 
 ment, which was afterwards commuted into banishment to 
 the United States. In violation of the law of nations, the 
 duke d'Enghien, eldest son of the duke of Bourbon, was 
 seized in the castle of Ettenheim, in the grand duchy of 
 Baden (March 15), and conveyed first to Strasburg and 
 then to the Temple. Thence he was removed to Vincennes, 
 and barbarously shot. While these events were in pro- 
 gress, Buonaparte exerted himself in every possible way in 
 order to obtain the imperial dignity. - His agents laboured 
 zealously, and the tribunate, the legislative body, and the 
 senate, all under the direction of Napoleon, voted for the 
 empire, which was proclaimed at St. Cloud (May 18, 1804). 
 On the same day a senatus-consultum modified the constitu- 
 tion. All publicity was destroyed ; the liberty of the press 
 had been already subjected to a censorship ; there remained 
 only one tribune open to spectators, and this was abolished. 
 Joseph and Louis Buonaparte were recognized French 
 princes. Eighteen of his favourite officers were nominated 
 marshals of the empire. That nothing might be wanting to 
 finish ofi" this piece of pageantry, application was made to 
 Pope Pius VII. to take a journey to Paris, for the purpose 
 of placing the crown upon the head of Napoleon. 
 
 § 692. The coronation took place on Sunday, Decem- 
 ber 2nd, in the church of Notre Dame. The emperor 
 went to the metropolitan church, escorted by his guard. 
 Marshal Kellermann carried the crown, the Marshal Perig- 
 non the sceptre of Charlemagne. The Empress Josephine, 
 in a carriage surmounted by a crown, and drawn by eight 
 white horses, formed part of the procession. The pope, tha 
 cardinals, the archbishops, the bishops, ajid all the high 
 
WAR BETWEEN ENGLAND AND SPAIN. S47 
 
 officers of the state, awaited him in the cathedral, which 
 had been magnificently ornamented for this extraordinary 
 occasion. He was harangued at the gate ; and then, 
 clothed in the imperial mantle, the crown on his head and 
 the sceptre in his hand, he ascended the throne, which 
 was raised at the bottom of the church. Tbe grand 
 almoner, a cardinal, and a bishop, came to conduct him to 
 the foot of the altar, to be there consecrated. The pope, 
 having anointed him, pronounced a prayer, and led him 
 back with great solemnity to the throae, when he took 
 the oath prescribed by the new constitution. [Festivities 
 and rejoicings followed. The murder of the duke d'Bnghien, 
 who, at the time of his arrest, was living peaceably on 
 neutral territory, excited general indignation, and induced 
 the emperor of Eussia to break off friendly relations with 
 France. By the treaty of St. Udefonso, concluded in 1796, 
 Spain had covenanted to furnish a stated contingent of naval 
 and military force, for the prosecution of any war in which 
 Prance might think proper to engage. For prudential 
 reasons, Great Britain abstained from exercising the right 
 which she possessed of compelling Spain to renounce this 
 treaty. Acting directly under the influence of Buonaparte, 
 the Spanish rulers not only furnished him with funds, but 
 prepared considerable armaments in her ports. The English 
 government remonstrated, and sent a squadron to the coast 
 of Spain. As this did not produce the desired effect, orders 
 were issued for the capture of all Spanish ships of war. 
 Three frigates were taken, and another destroyed off Cadiz 
 (Oct. 5, 1804). Negotiations were carried on for some time, 
 but without effect, and war was eventually declared by 
 Spain (Dec. 12). Buonaparte exerted himself strenuously 
 in order to strengthen his navy, and having induced the 
 Ligurian republic to place its harbours, dockyards, and 
 arsenals at his disposal, he took possession of Genoa, and 
 began fitting out a squadron in its harbour. 
 
 § 693. The threat of invasion was kept up against 
 England during the whole of the year 1804, and to 
 counteract it, several operations were at difi'erent times 
 undertaken against the enemy's armaments on the coasts 
 of France and Holland, but they were seldom crowned 
 with success. The gaHant Sir Sidney Smith, in the Antelope 
 frigate, with some sloops of war, attempted to prevent 
 the junction of the flotilla which lay in the harbour of 
 Flushing with that of Ostend (May 16). His failure was 
 2k 2 
 
543 THE CATAMARANS. 
 
 attributed to the want of gun-boats. Pifty-nine sail of tho 
 Plusbing division reached their destination in safety ; and 
 the English force were obliged to haul off into deep water, 
 with the loss of about fifty men killed and wounded. In 
 July several attacks were made on the flotilla anchored in 
 the roads of Boulogne, but with little success ; and others 
 made about the same period at Havre also failed. In the 
 beginning of October, so great a proportion of the enemy's 
 flotilla had collected at Boulogne, that the alarm of invasion 
 became universal throughout England ; and ministers were 
 induced to sanction a project for destroying the whole arma^ 
 ment by means of copper vessels of an oblong form filled 
 with combustibles, and so constructed as to explode by 
 clock-work in a given time. These vessels, which obtained 
 the name of Catamarans, were to be towed and fastened 
 under the. bottoms of the enemy's gun-boats by a man in a 
 small raft, who, being seated up to the chin in water, might 
 possibly elude detection in a dark night. Fire-ships of 
 various constructions were to co-operate in the attack. On 
 the 2nd of October, Lord Keith anchored off the harbour, 
 and the requisite preparations were made for commencing 
 the attack at night. At a quarter past nine, the first 
 detachment of the fire-ships was launched. The vessels of 
 the flotilla opened a passage for them as they approached, 
 and so completely avoided them, that they passed into the 
 rear of the line without doing any damage. At half-past 
 ten the first explosion-ship blew up, producing an immense 
 column of fire, but no mischief either to the ships or the 
 batteries. A second, and a third, and a fourth, succeeded 
 no better ; and at length, when twelve had been exploded, 
 the engagement ceased, and the English smaller vessels 
 drew off without the loss of a man. Thus terminated, to 
 the confusion of the projectors, and the disappointment of 
 the public, an expedition prepared at a greater expense than 
 the merits of the plan, on mature examination, might have 
 warranted. 
 
 Letter 3. — The History of Europe continued, from the Return of 
 William Pitt to Office till his Death, a.d. 1804—1806. Vol. iv., 
 pages 27—37. 
 
 § 694. On resuming office for the last time (May 12, 
 1804), William Pitt felt the necessity of strengthening bis 
 administration, and after various overtures, formed an 
 alliance with his predecessor, Mr. Addington, who was 
 
ITALIAN KINGDOMS. 549 
 
 created Lord Sidmouth (Jan. 11, 1805). New taxes Tvere 
 levied, a loan was raised, and great exertions were made for 
 carrying on the war vigorously. During the session, Lord 
 Melville, first lord of the Admiralty, was charged with 
 having improperly applied the pnhlic money while treasurer 
 of the Navy, between the years 1786—1800 (April 6) . The 
 accused was heard at the bar of the House of Commons 
 (June 11) ; and was afterwards impeached. His trial did 
 not take place till the following year (April 29, 1806), when 
 the evidence and arguments having closed (May 17), a 
 verdict of "not guilty" was returned (June 12). Sir 
 Charles Middleton succeeded to the Admiralty, and was 
 created Lord Barham. The public events of the year 1805, 
 both political and military, were of the most important 
 character. Buonaparte having moulded the neighbouring 
 states into republics, wished to constitute them on the 
 model of the empire. An order in council of the Cisalpine 
 republic decided that hereditary monarchy should be re- 
 established in his favour, and its vice-president, M. Melzy, 
 re] aired to Paris to oflfer the crown to Napoleon (March 17). 
 The emperor went to take possession of this realm, received 
 the iron crown of the Lombards (May 26), and nominated 
 -Eugene Beauharnais, his adopted son, viceroy of Italy. 
 Genoa was also induced to abandon itself to his sovereignty. 
 Its territory was reunited to the empire, and formed the 
 three departments of Genoa, of Montenotte, and of the 
 Appenines (June 4). The small republic of Lucca was 
 also comprised in this monarchic revolution. Upon the 
 demand of its chief magistrate, it was bestowed as an 
 appendage on the prince and princess of Piombino, one of 
 the sisters of Napoleon. He himself, after his royal pro- 
 gress, repassed the Alps, and returned to the capital of his 
 empire (Aug. 12), from which he shortly after set out for 
 the camp of Boulogne, where he was preparing a maritime 
 expedition against England. 
 
 § 695. A flotilla of two thousand small vessels, manned 
 by sixteen thousand sailors, capable of carrying an army of 
 a hundred and sixty thousand men, nine thousand horse, 
 and a numerous artillery, was assembled in the ports 
 opposite England. Squadrons of French ships were 
 hazarded out at sea, in order to divide the British naval 
 force ; while greater enterprises were projected by the 
 junction of the Spanish and French fleets. The prepara- 
 tions in England to resist the invasion were of the most 
 
550 BATTLE OF ATJSTERLITZ. 
 
 formidable character. The southern coast was fortified on 
 the most exposed parts by a range of Martello towers, and 
 every eifort was made for increasing the forces by sea and 
 land. Intelligence of a new coalition, the third organized 
 by England, and the advance of the Austrians, produced an 
 entire change in Napoleon's plans. He returned to Paris, 
 obtained a levy of eighty thousand men, and set out for the 
 Ehine (Sept. 24). The Austrian general, Mack, was sur- 
 rounded at TJlm, and he surrendered with about thirty 
 thousand men (Oct. 20). The French advanced upon 
 Yienna, which city they entered almost without opposition 
 (Nov. 13). The Austrian army, having effected a junction 
 with the Eussians, was attacked and defeated by the Prench 
 in the plain of Austerlitz, between Vienna and Olmiitz 
 (Dec. 2). The rival forces were nearly equal in numbers, 
 but the French army was composed for the most part of 
 veterans, which gave Buonaparte a great advantage. By 
 an armistice (Dec. 4), it was agreed that the French army 
 should remain in possession of all its conquests till the con- 
 cliision of a definitive peace, or till the rupture of the nego- 
 tiations ; in the latter case, hostilities were not to recom- 
 mence till fourteen days after notice formally given. The 
 emperor of Russia refused to become a party to this accom- 
 modation, and commenced his retreat (Dec. 6). 
 
 § 696. While these events were in progress in Germany, 
 the Austrians had also been defeated in Italy, and were 
 thus completely discouraged. The peace of Presburg fol- 
 lowed the victories of Ulm and Austerlitz (Dec. 26). 
 Austria ceded the provinces of Dalmatia and Albania to 
 the kingdom of Italy ; the district of Tyrol, the town of 
 Augsburg, the principality of Eichstadt, a part of the 
 territory of Passau, and all its possessions in Swabia, 
 Brisgau, and Ortenau, to the electorates of Bavaria and 
 "Wurtemberg, which were transformed into kingdoms. The 
 grand duchy of Baden was also enriched by its spoils. The 
 treaty of Presburg completed the humiliation of Austria — 
 an abasement begun by the treaty of Campo-Formio, and 
 continued by that of Luneville. Napoleon was highly elated 
 by these events ; but the news of the glorious naval victory 
 of Trafalgar caused him grave apprehension. Early in 1805, 
 the French fleet had put to sea, and effected a jnnctioa 
 with the Spanish squadron. The united fleets sailed for the 
 "West Indies, and Nelson, who, at the time of their' departurei 
 was in the Mediterranean, immediately went iia pursuit. 
 
VICTORY OF TEAF ALGAE. 551 
 
 Unfortunately he did not catch them, but he ordered Sir 
 Bobert Calder to be on the look out, and that officer fell in 
 with them off Ferrol. Although he had but fifteen ships, 
 whUe his opponents mustered twenty sail of the line, seven 
 frigates, and two brigs, this gallant officer determined 
 upon giving action (July 22, 1805). Owing to a thick 
 fog, the engagement was partial, and the French and 
 Spaniards managed to get off with the loss of two ships. 
 
 § 697. Great dissatisfaction was expressed in England at 
 the escape of the enemy, and Sir E. Calder demanded a 
 court-martial. Lord Nelson, on his return from the West 
 Indies, proceeded to London, and was at once placed in 
 command of a fleet of sufficient force to cope with the 
 enemy. After several manoeuvres, he enticed the French 
 and Spaniards to sea. Their force amounted to thirty-two 
 sail of the line, seven firigates, and eight corvettes ; while 
 Nelson could only muster twenty-seven sail of the line and 
 four frigates. On the morning of Monday, October 21at, 
 about daybreak, Cape Trafalgar bearing east by south, the 
 combined fleets were discovered six or seven miles to the 
 eastward. Nelson, delighted at having at length found the 
 enemy, of which he had been so long in search, gave orders 
 for the engagement, and hoisted his celebrated signal : 
 " England expects eveet man to do his dtttt." Ad- 
 miral CoUingwood, in the Moyal Sovereign, commenced the 
 action about noon. The conflict was tremendous, but the 
 impetuosity of the English seamen overcame all obstacles, 
 and victory crowned their efforts. Nineteen ships of the 
 line were captured, with the French admiral, Villeneuve, and 
 two Spanish admirals. Tet this triumph was dearly pur- 
 chased. In the middle of the action Lord Nelson was 
 wounded in the left breast, and the surgeons at once pro- 
 nounced the wound to be mortal. On being told that the 
 British flag was triumphant, and that fifteen sail of the line 
 had struck. Nelson appeared much consoled. A few moments 
 before his death, he said to Captain Hardy, " I could have 
 wished to live to enjoy this day ; but God's will be done." 
 "My lord," replied the captain, "you die in the midst of 
 triumph !" Nelson replied, " God be praised !" and almost 
 instantly expired. Thus fell the hero of the Nile, of Copen- 
 hagen, and of Trafalgar, after a victory which utterly blasted 
 the hopes of Napoleon for the subjugation and ruin of 
 England. His contemporaries mourned his loss ; posterity 
 revere his talents and courage; the pages of history will 
 
552 DEATH OF WILLIAM PITT. 
 
 record his fame and immortalize his name, while his example 
 will long be held up for the imitation of future commanders. 
 The mortal remains of the British admiral were conveyed to 
 England, and interred with the highest public honours. 
 
 § 698. On the death of Nelson, Admiral Collingwood 
 Succeeded to the command, and by his humane efforts saved 
 the lives of many of the wounded. This gallant officer was 
 raised to the peerage, and a liberal subscription was set on 
 foot for the relief of those who had suffered in the cause 
 of their country. After the return of Mr. Pitt to office, 
 scarcely anything had occurred, the great victory of Trafalgar 
 excepted, but disaster and disappointment. The total failure 
 of the continental coalition greatly augmented the gloom and 
 disquietude which had begun to prevail in England, in con- 
 sequence of the alarming illness of Mr. Pitt. At the close 
 of the former session of Parliament, this distinguished 
 statesman had been compelled, by the decline of a consti- 
 tution originally delicate, to relinquish all active share in 
 public business, and retire to Bath ; from which place he 
 returned in the commencement of the year (1806), in a state 
 of debility and exhaustion, no doubt augmented by anxiety 
 and disappointment. It has been supposed, that the fatal 
 intelligence of the battle of Austerlitz produced an agitation 
 of spirits which powerfully increased his disorder. He 
 breathed his last at his villa, at Putney (Jan. 23, 1806), in the 
 forty-seventh year of his age, having directed the affairs of 
 his country for a longerperiod than any other minister. Under 
 his auspices the maritime supremacy of England was con- 
 firmed by a series of most splendid victories ; her colonial 
 acquisitions were greatly extended ; but her public burdens 
 were also enormously augmented. Disinterestedness in 
 regard to pecuniary matters was one of his distinguishing 
 characteristics. After an administration of two-and-twenty 
 years he was so far from having enriched himself, that he left 
 behind him very considerable debts, which he was unable to 
 liquidate. Whatever errors his opponents might discover, 
 or fancy they discovered, in his political views, he was 
 certainly a great man. As a statesman, his name will be 
 celebrated in the annals of Europe, and his conduct will long 
 be the theme of both censure and applause. His country 
 showed its respect for his memory by taking on itself the 
 payment of his debts ; and an address to the king was pre- 
 sented by Parliament, praying his majesty to direct that the 
 temains of the minister should be interred at the public 
 
CONFEDEEATIOIT OF THE RHINE. 553 
 
 expense, and that a monument should be erected to his 
 memory in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Letter i. — History of the Affairs of Europe, from the Peace of Pres- 
 biirg to that of Tilsit, a.d. 1805—1807. Vol. iv., pages 38—56. 
 § 699. The events which had taken place on the continent 
 of Europe during the campaign of 1805 tended to strengthen 
 the system which Napoleon had adopted. The victory of 
 Marengo and the peace of Luneville had given a sanction to 
 the consular government : the victory of Austerlitz and the 
 peace of Presburg consolidated the empire — the last remains 
 of the Eevolution were now abandoned. On the 1st of 
 January, 1806, the republican calendar, after an existence 
 of fourteen years, was definitively replaced by the common 
 one. But the efibrts of Napoleon were primarily directed 
 to extend his sway over the continent of Europe. Eerdinand, 
 the king of Naples, having in his late war violated the treaty 
 of peace with France, his states were invaded, and Joseph 
 Buonaparte was declared king of the Two Sicilies (March 
 30, 1806). Shortly after, Holland, or the United Provinces, 
 was changed into a kingdom, and received for its monarch 
 Louis Buonaparte, another brother of the emperor (June 5, 
 1806). None of the republics, created by the Convention 
 or the Directory existed. Napoleon, who nominated the 
 secondary kings, re-established the hierarchical military 
 regime, adopting the exploded titles of the middle ages. 
 He constituted Dalmatia, Istria, Friuli, Codore, Belluno, &c. 
 &c., duchies, or grand fiefs of the empire. Berthier was 
 invested with the principality of Neufchatel, Talleyrand 
 with that of Benevento, the Prince Borghese and his wife 
 with that of Guastalla, Murat with the grand duchy of 
 Cleves and Berg. Napoleon, who had not dared to destroy 
 the Swiss republic, now declared himself its mediator ; and 
 he finished the organization of his military empire by making 
 the Germanic body dependent on himself. On the 12th of 
 July, 1806, fourteen princes on the south and west of Ger- 
 many were united in the " Confederation of the Ehine," and 
 Buonaparte was recognized as their protector. On the 1st 
 of August, they notified to the diet of Eatisbon their sepa- 
 ration from the Germanic body ; the German empire itself 
 ceased to exist, and Erancis II. abdicating the title, now 
 adopted that of " Bmpeeob of Atjstbia." On the death 
 of "William Pitt, Lord Grenville became prime minister, with 
 Charles Eox as foreign secretary (Feb. 5). This was called 
 
554 ABOLITION OF THE SLAVE-TRADE. 
 
 the ministry of "All the Talents." The policy of the 
 government was not, however, changed. Prussia, long vacil- 
 lating, now openly opposed England. On the 30th of 
 January, 1806, his Prussian majesty issued a proclamation, 
 in which he signified his intention of taking possession of 
 Hanover, agreeably to a convention entered into with the 
 emperor of France. This was followed by a second procla- 
 mation (March 28), ordering the Prussian ports to be shut 
 against the ships and commerce of Great Britain. In con- 
 sequence of these hostile proceedings, Mr. Fox adopted 
 measures of just retaliation, by issuing orders for the blockade 
 of the Elbe, the "Weser, and the Eras, and for the capture of 
 Prussian vessels, of which official notice was given to the 
 ministers of neutral powers (April 16). 
 
 § 700. During this session the very important measure 
 for the abolition of the slave-trade was carried. Mr. Gran- 
 ville Sharp was the first individual in England who stood 
 forward as the advocate of the Africans : and with him the 
 movements for the abolition of the traffic in human fleah 
 originated. From the year 1765 to 1772, he laboured by 
 all possible means to enlighten the public on the sub- 
 ject, and draw their attention to this horrible traffic. 
 Mr. Clarkson, a gentleman of spirit and talents, under- 
 took the tedious and irksome task of instituting in- 
 quiries and collecting evidence on the subject. The 
 magnitude of the evil only required to be known to render 
 it generally detested ; and from this period the society 
 found numerous coadjutors. Men in all ranks, and of all 
 religious denominations, united to attempt the removal of 
 this national disgrace. The first public notice that was 
 taken of the subject was in the year 1788, when Mr. Wilber- 
 force communicated to Parliament his intention of bringing 
 forward a measure respecting the slave-trade ; and from 
 that period to the death of Mr. Pitt, the subject was 
 from time to time debated in Parliament, with different 
 success. It, however, gradually gained ground ; and on the 
 20th of February, 1805, the bill for the abolition was lost 
 in the House of Commons by a majority of only seven. On 
 the 11th of June, 1806, Mr. Fox had the honour to carry a 
 resolution in the House of Commons for the entire abolition 
 of the slave-trade. It was couched in the following terms : — 
 " That this house, conceiving the African slave-trade to be 
 contrary to the principles of justice, humanity, and sound 
 policy, will, with all practical expedition, take effectual 
 
NAVAL TICTOBIES. 555 
 
 measures for abolishing the said trade, in such manner, and 
 at such period, as may be deemed most desirable." The 
 bill met with only a feeble opposition. It was strenuously 
 supported by Mr. "Wilberforce and all the members of the 
 administration, and carried by a majority of one hundred 
 and fourteen votes, against only fifteen dissenting voices. 
 The abolition of African slavery forms a glorious event 
 in the reign of George III. 
 
 § 701. A French army, under the command of Jerome 
 Buonaparte, took possession of Naples (Feb. 15, 1806). 
 Joseph was proclaimed king (March 30) ; but the arrival of 
 Sir Sidney Smith with an English fleet, early in April, 
 changed the aspect of affairs, and, after several skirmishes, 
 the French were defeated and expelled. Sir Home Popbam 
 captured Buenos Ayres (June 27), with a large amount of 
 public treasure. Later in the year, the Spaniards succeeded 
 in recovering the place. Admiral Duckworth defeated a 
 French squadron of five sail of the line, off St. Domingo 
 (Feb. 6). The English force was superior in point of 
 numbers ; and three of the French ships were captured and 
 two destroyed. Sir John Warren captured the French 
 admiral Linois (March 13), with a small squadron, in the 
 East Indies, and Sir S. Hood intercepted a large convoy 
 from Eocheibrt, and took four frigates carrying troops to 
 the West Indies (Sept. 25). The prostration of the con- 
 tinental rulers to Buonaparte was at this period complete. 
 Negotiations for peace were carried on between Fox and 
 Talleyrand, and at one time with some prospect of success. 
 The illness and death of Fox, however, produced an un- 
 favourable change in these negotiations. Lord Lauderdale 
 was sent to Paris to assist Lord Yarmouth, who had been 
 for some months engaged in the business ; but it all fell to 
 the ground. Charles Fox died of dropsy, in the fifty-ninth 
 year of his age (Sept. 13, 1806) ; and thus, in the midst of 
 tumultuous wars and of uncertain negotiations. Great 
 Britain was called to mourn the loss of a patriot and a 
 statesman, who has had few equals. For his own glory he 
 had lived suflnciently long ; but his existence was too short 
 for the good of his country. 
 
 § 702. On the death of this lamented statesman, some 
 new arrangements became necessary among the members 
 of the administration. Mr. Grey (Lord Howick) succeeded 
 Mr. Fox in the office of secretary of state for Foreign Afiairs, 
 and Mr. Thomas Grenville succeeded the former as first 
 
556 BATTLE OF JENA. 
 
 lord of tte Admiralty. Mr. Tierney became president of 
 the Board of Control. Lord Sidmouth was president of the 
 Council in the room of Earl Pitzwilliam, who retired in ill 
 health ; and the vacant office of Privy-seal was assigned to 
 Lord Holland. These changes were followed by a dissolu- 
 tion of Parliament ; but this appeal to the people procured 
 for ministers no great accession of strength in the House of 
 Commons. The offer made by Buonaparte, during his 
 negotiations with the English government, to restore 
 Hanover to England, which electorate he had promised to 
 Prussia, led to a rupture between the courts of Berlin and 
 Paris. As long as anything was to be gained by supporting 
 Buonaparte, the king of Prussia remained one of the moat 
 obsequious of his slaves ; but the moment this wily monarch 
 found himself neglected, he prepared to join the coalition 
 against him. Diifferences with England were settled; and 
 vrarlike preparations made. On the Ist of October, 1806, the 
 Prussian ambassador presented in due form the demands of 
 his sovereign : — 1st, that the French armies without delay 
 repass the Ehine ; 2nd, the establishment of the northern 
 Germanic confederation ; 3rd, the separation of certain 
 places from the Confederation of the Ehine. To these 
 requisitions the emperor of Prance did not deign to reply, 
 but advanced at the head of his troops with rapid steps, and 
 approached the frontier of Upper Saxony before Prussia 
 could possibly receive any aid from her ally the emperor of 
 Russia. 
 
 § 703. Erederick "William's declaration (Oct. 9) was a 
 humiliating document, in which it was clearly shown that 
 interest, not principle, was the mainspring of his policy. 
 The French troops continued to advance ; and, after several 
 skirmishes, defeated the Prussians at Jena (Oct. 14). 
 The victory was decisive ; nothing resembling even a 
 regular retreat could be effected ; and in their flight, 
 multitudes of the Prussians were slaughtered, and a still 
 greater number made prisoners. The duke of Brunswick 
 himself was mortally wounded, and the entire loss did not 
 fall short of forty thousand men ; while that of the French 
 was about six thousand. Erfurt, Magdeburg, Stettin, 
 Leipsic, and Spandau, surrendered almost on the first sum- 
 mons ; and on the 25th of October the Marshals Davoust 
 and Augereau entered Berlin. Prussia fell prostrate at one 
 blow. In the space of little more than a month (Oct. 9 
 to Nov. 12), the French had taken no less than one 
 
BEELIN DECREE. 557 
 
 hundred and forty thousand prisoners, two hundred and 
 fifty standards, and above forty-eight hundred pieces of 
 cannon, of which eight hundred were captured in the field, 
 and above four thousand were found in Berlin and the 
 fortresses vrhich had capitulated. Buonaparte succeeded in 
 detaching the elector of Saxony from Prussia, overrun the 
 country, and ordered the sequestration of all English pro- 
 perty. This was the prelude to a decree issued from Berlin 
 by the French emperor (Nov. 20, 1806), interdicting all 
 commerce and correspondence between the countries under 
 his government and the islands of Great Britain, which he 
 declared to be in a state of blockade ; denouncing all English 
 property as lawful prize ; and all vessels touching at any 
 port in England, or any English colony, were excluded from 
 the harbours of France, or the countries under its control. 
 After the defeat at Jena, the king of Prussia retired to 
 Konigsberg. i 
 
 § 704. The emperor of Russia, alarmed by the successes 
 of the French and their advance towards his dominions, 
 assembled large forces on the frontiers, and prepared once 
 more to take an active part in the war. The first conflict 
 of any consequence occurred at Pultusk (Dec. 26), in which, 
 after a furious struggle, both parties claimed the victorv. 
 The battle of Eylau, fought on the 7th and 8th of February, 
 1807, was another terrible encounter, and once more the 
 triumph was disputed. The E,ussians remained masters of 
 the field of battle, but commenced their retreat the next 
 day. From this period the grand armies of France and 
 Eussia remained for a considerable time inactive. "Warlike 
 operations, however, continued in Swedish Pomerania, where, 
 after a number of actions fought with varied success, the 
 Swedes were driven into Stralsund. In the month of April 
 a division of the French army commenced the siege of 
 Dantzio. The garrison made vigorous sorties ; several ob- 
 stinate actions took place in the environs, and it at lenoth 
 surrendered to the French (May 28). The French and 
 Eussians laboured incessantly to strengthen their positions, 
 and to increase their numbers. Buonaparte at length 
 resolved to attack the Eussian position at Friedland (June 
 14). This, after a terrible struggle, he carried, compelling 
 the Russians to retreat. Their losses were immense. 
 
 § 705. This sanguinary action was followed by an inter- 
 view between the emperors of France and Russia and the 
 kmg of Prussia (July 7), and a treaty of peace was con- 
 
658 PEACE OF TILSIT. 
 
 eluded at Tilsit between France and Eussia, and a few 
 days afterwards between France and Prussia. The princi- 
 pal articles were, that a part of the Prussian dominions, 
 especially on the eastern side of the Elbe, should be annexed 
 to the new kingdom of Westphalia. Those parts which had 
 been wrested from Poland, and become subject to Prussia, 
 were ceded to the king of Saxony, under the title of the 
 duchy of "Warsaw, with a free communication with Saxony 
 by a military road through the king of Prussia's dominions. 
 The city of Dantzic, with a surrounding territory of two 
 leagues, was restored to independence. The navigation of 
 the Vistula was to be free. Eussia acknowledged Joseph 
 Buonaparte and his brother Louis, as kings of Naples and 
 Holland, and Jerome as king of Westphalia. The emperor 
 of all the Eussiaa also acknowledged the Confederation of 
 the Ehine. All these princes and states were included in 
 the treaty of peace. It was also stipulated, that hostilities 
 should instantly cease between Eussia and the Ottoman 
 Porte ; and the emperor of Eussia agreed to accept the 
 mediation of the emperor of France, for the conclusion of a 
 peace between the two powers. The French emperor also 
 agreed to accept the mediation of the emperor of Eussia, in 
 order to negotiate and conclude a peace with Great Britain, 
 under the condition, however, that this mediation should be 
 accepted by England within a month after the conclusion 
 of the treaty of Tilsit. The secret articles of this celebrated 
 treaty were, however, by far the most important, and, in 
 spite of the greatest caution, ultimately oozed out. Alex- 
 ander and Buonaparte divided Europe between them, and, 
 in so doing, endeavoured to outwit each other. Alexander 
 desired to obtain Turkey, while Buonaparte wished to have 
 full power on the continent, and to be able to prosecute the 
 war against England. The king of Sweden refused to accede 
 to the treaty of Tilsit, and attempted the defence of Pome- 
 rania; but his efforts were useless, as the whole power of 
 France could now be directed to that quarter. His Swedish 
 majesty, however, succeeded on the 19th and 20th of August 
 in withdrawing his forces from Stralsund, before the enemy 
 was apprised of his intention, after which he crossed the 
 Baltic and retired into Sweden. 
 
COPENHAGEN BOMBARDED. 559 
 
 lyETTEK 5. — ^History of the Affairs of Great Britain, from the Opening 
 of the new ParUament, summoned by the "All the Talents" Ad- 
 ministration, to the Rupture between England and Russia and the 
 Dispute with America. A.D. 1806—1808. Vol. ir., pages 56—64. 
 
 § 706. The Parliament summoned by the new ministry 
 met on the 19th of December (1806), when the afiairs of 
 Prussia, the conduct of the ministry, and the negotiations 
 with France were freely discussed. A misunderstanding 
 with the king relative to a measure proposed by ministers 
 to enable Eoman Catholics to hold commissions in the army 
 and navy, brought the brief career of the administration to 
 an end (March 25). The duke of Portland became first 
 lord of the Treasury, with Canning as Foreign secretary, 
 Castlereagh as Colonial, and Sir Arthur WeUesley secretary 
 for Ireland. An expedition under General Whitelocke, 
 intended for the reduction of Buenos Ayres, failed in its 
 object, which occasioned much discontent in England. 
 Whitelocke was tried by court-martial and cashiered. The 
 Dutch settlement of Curafoa was captured (Jan. 1807). 
 Eussia had declared war with Turkey, in which contest 
 England became involved. Sir John Duckworth forced the 
 passage of the Dardanelles (Feb. 19), but failing in his 
 efforts to obtain terms with the Turks, he was compelled 
 to retire (March 1). 
 
 § 707. An expedition consisting of about five thousand 
 men, sent from Messina into Egypt, was more fortunate. 
 Aboukir was captured (March 18), and Alexandria sub- 
 mitted (March 20). An attempt against Eosetta failed 
 (May 21), and the English troops being afterwards reduced 
 to great straits, General Eraser offered to evacuate Egypt 
 with his army. The conditions were accepted; and he 
 departed (Sept. 23). Denmark had for some time been aug- 
 menting its fleet and collecting naval stores. The English 
 ministers, aware that these armaments would in all probability 
 be turned against England, by the influence of France, de- 
 manded the temporary deposit of the Danish ships in some 
 British ports. This was refused, and an English force landed 
 near Copenhagen (Aug. 16). Sir Arthur Wellesley defeated 
 the Danish army (Aug. 29), and Copenhagen was bom- 
 barded by sea and land (Sept. 5-7). A capitulation was 
 entered into and the Danish fleet surrendered. It consisted 
 of eighteen ships of the line, fifteen frigates, five brigs, and 
 twenty-five gun-boats; a force which in the hands of Na- 
 
560 RUSSIA DECLARES WAR. 
 
 poleon, might have proved the means of great annoyance to 
 England. The loss of the British in this expedition was in- 
 considerable, especially if vre take into account the magnitude 
 of the object attained. The capitulation, however, was not 
 ratified by the crown-prince ; and the Danish government, 
 rejecting every conciliatory proposal, issued a formal decla- 
 ration of war against England. Notwithstanding these 
 demonstrations of hostility, the occupation of Zealand was 
 found to require a greater number of troops than Great 
 Britain could spare from other services, and the country 
 was consequently evacuated according to the convention. 
 
 § 708. The emperor Alexander of Kussia seized upon this 
 conflict as a pretext for declaring war against England. In 
 his manifesto (Oct. 31, 1807), he accused the British govern- 
 ment of rejecting his mediation for peace, of not co-operating 
 with the allies against Erance during the war, of sending 
 troops against Buenos Ayrea and Alexandria, instead of 
 making a diversion in Italy, or some other part of the Euro- 
 pean continent, and of attacking Denmark, and disturbing 
 the commerce of Eussia. In consequence of these causes 
 of complaint, Alexander declared that friendly intercourse 
 was broken off between Eussia and Great Britain, and ah 
 imperial ukase was immediately published, ordering the 
 detention of all British ships and property. Buonaparte's 
 celebrated Berlin decree against England induced the 
 government to retaliate, and the famous orders in council 
 were issued (Nov. 11), declaring France in a state of 
 blockade, with all the countries under her immediate power 
 and influence ; and subjecting to seizure all vessels whatever 
 that should attempt to trade between neutral and hostile 
 ports, or that should have on board any such certificate as 
 was required 'by the Berlin decree. These restrictive regu- 
 lations instituted by France and England, proved extremely 
 incommodious to the Americans, who had become the 
 general carriers of Europe, especially of colonial produce. 
 The Congress of the United States retaliated by an embargo 
 in all their ports ; and notwithstanding the consequent 
 annihilation of their commerce, they persisted in this mea- 
 sure. Negotiations for a settlement of this matter were 
 carried on between the American, British, and French 
 governments ; but at the meeting of Congress (Nov. 1808), 
 the president, in his message, stated that they had not been 
 successful. 
 
INTEIGUES IN THE PENINSULA. 561 
 
 Letteb 6. — ^History of the Affiiira of Spain and Portngal, from the 
 Interference of Buonaparte to the Battle of Cornnna and the Death 
 ofSir John Moore. A.D. 1807— 1809. Vol. iv., pages 65— 76. 
 § 709. The peace of Tilsit having freed the French em- 
 peror from all apprehensions in the north, he was left at 
 leisure to pursue his schemes of rapacity and aggrandize- 
 ment in the south. Portugal had long been the faithful 
 ally of Great Britain, and both countries found their interest 
 in the connection. The former received political support 
 and protection ; the latter enjoyed a lucrative commerce. 
 The hatred aud jealousy of the emperor of France prompted 
 him to threaten the invasion of Portugal with his troops of 
 marauders, and thus intimidated the court of Lisbon into a 
 compliance with his requisitions to shut the ports of that 
 kingdom against the ships and commerce of Great Britain ; 
 to which effect a decree was issued at Lisbon on the 22nd 
 of October, 1807. In Spain, the weak monarch Charles IV. 
 had entirely surrendered himself to the influence of Godoy, 
 Prince of Peace. This caused dissensions, which Buona- 
 parte did all he could to inflame, and Ferdinand, the heir- 
 apparent, was accused of having conspired against the life 
 of the king. To secure the subserviency of the imbecile 
 monarch and the favourite Godoy, and at the same time 
 fecUitate the seizure of the monarchy, Napoleon (Oct. 27, 
 1807) concluded at Fontainebleau a treaty for the dismem- 
 berment of Portugal. It was stipulated that the northern 
 division of that kingdom should be transferred to the king 
 of Etruria, and the southern part to the Prince of Peace, 
 under the guarantee and protection of the king of Spain; 
 that the middle portion should remain in sequestration, for 
 future disposal ; and that the colonial territories of the 
 same crown should be divided between France and Spain. 
 By a separate convention, twenty-eight thousand French 
 troops were allowed to enter Spain, under the pretext ot 
 proceeding to Lisbon ; but a much greater number, com- 
 manded by Murat, embraced the opportunity of intrusion, 
 since, according to General Foy's statement, the French 
 armies which entered the Peninsula prior to the 1st of 
 June, 1808, amounted to no less than one hundred and 
 seventeen thousand men, divided into five corps ^armee, 
 under Junot, Dupont, Moncey, Bessieres, and Duhesne, with 
 a reserve of the imperial guard ; and the numbers which thu3 
 crossed the Pyrenees were followed, before the 15th oi 
 2 
 
562 NAPOLEON'S SCHEMES. 
 
 August, by a reinforcement of forty thousand, making a 
 total of nearly one hundred and sixty thousand men. This 
 immense force, once admitted, obtained with little difficulty 
 possession of some of the strongest towns. 
 
 § 710. Buonaparte had also sent an army to Portugal, 
 and compelled the prince regent to sign an order for the 
 detention of all British subjects, and the sequestrar 
 tion of all British property (Nov. 8, 1807). The 
 prince regent, anxious to escape from the influence of the 
 Prench, embarked on board the English fleet (Nov. 29), 
 and was conveyed by Sir Sidney Smith to Eio Janeiro, in the 
 Brazils (Jan. 19, 1808). A commercial arrangement was 
 entered into, and a direct intercourse established, between 
 Great Britain and the Portuguese empire of South America, 
 an event which forms an epoch in the history of the com- 
 mercial relations between the two nations. The Brazils and 
 Great Britain were mutually benefited at the expense of 
 Lisbon, which had before been the medium of that intercourse. 
 Spain was also attacked. On the 30th of October, 1807, a sin- 
 gular manifesto was issued by the king of Spain, Charles IV., 
 to the effect that his life and crown had been endangered 
 by a conspiracy of which his own son was the author, whom, 
 in consequence, he had caused to be arrested. The afiair 
 was afterwards arranged, but it appears that the prince of 
 the Asturias had been in treaty with Buonaparte, who used 
 every effort in order to fan the flames of dissension in that 
 unhappy kingdom. 
 
 § 711. The royal family of Spain, perceiving that Buona- 
 parte had formed a subtle scheme for their destruction, 
 determined upon removing the seat of the government to 
 Mexico. No sooner was this determination suffered to 
 transpire than the greatest excitement prevailed in Madrid, 
 and several tumults ensued. In the midst of these the king 
 abdicated in favour of his son (March 19), and the French 
 army entered Madrid. Charles IV. and his son were in- 
 duced to repair to Bayonne, but the Prench had become so 
 unpopular that an insurrection against their rule broke out 
 in the capital (May 2). This was just what Buonaparte 
 ■ desired ; and an imperial decree was issued (May 25), de- 
 claring the throne of Spain vacant by the abdication of the 
 reigning family, and ordering a,n assembly of notables, con- 
 sisting of the prelates, grandees, &e., to be held at Bayonne, 
 for the purpose of fixing the basis of a new government. 
 Sfoae but the partisans of Prance attended the junta. 
 
THE SPANIAEDS RISE AGAINST BUONAPAKTE. 563 
 
 Buonaparte perBevered, and conferred the crown of Spaia 
 upon his brother Joseph (June 6, 1808). He abdicated his 
 kingdom of Naples in favour of Murat, who had married the 
 sister of Napoleon. Although the French troops had entered 
 Spain in great numbers, the news of the deposition of the 
 king was the signal for a general insurrection. The patriotic 
 flame burst forth in Asturia. From this province the in- 
 surrection spread into GUicia, and into several districts 
 of Leon. An assembly convened at Oviedo published a 
 formal declaration of war against the French government, 
 and, having appointed the marquis of Santa Cruz general- 
 issimo of the patriotic army, sent deputies to request the 
 assistance of England. This request was immediately ac- 
 ceded to, and his majesty issued a proclamation (July 4) 
 declaring that Great Britain was at peace with the Spanish 
 nation. The authority of the supreme council at Madrid 
 had been rejected, and war declared against Buonaparte 
 (June 6). A French squadron in the port of Cadiz was 
 compelled to surrender (June 14). General Moncey was 
 repulsed before Valencia with terrible slaughter (June 28). 
 Saragossa defied their utmost efforts, and even the Spanish 
 women fought against the invaders. In Andalusia, the 
 French general and his troops, after a terrible defeat at 
 Baylen, surrendered (July 20) ; and many of the French 
 were either cut to pieces or driven out of Spain. 
 
 § 712. Joseph Buonaparte, ignorant of these reverses, 
 prepared to take possession of his new kingdom, and, having 
 published a proclamation at Vittoria, pushed on and made 
 his public entrance into the capital (July 20). Successive 
 accounts of the disasters of the French armies in Spain, and 
 of the approach of the patriots towards Madrid, indicated 
 that his crown was likely to prove one of thorns, and 
 warned him of the propriety of a timely flight. After a 
 short stay, he began his retreat from Madrid (July 29), 
 carrying off with him the crown jewels, and all that was 
 most valuable, from the palace of the ancient sovereigns, and 
 retired precipitately towards France, while the patriots 
 advanced and took possession of the capital. The patriotic 
 spirit by which the Spaniards were influenced spread to 
 Portugal, and in a short space of time Junot was compelled 
 to concentrate his troops in and about Lisbon. England 
 prepared to lend a helping hand. About the end of July a 
 force of fourteen thousand men, under the command of Sir 
 Arthur Wellesley, was despatched to Portugal, the espulaion 
 2o 2 
 
564 CONVENTION OF CINTRA. 
 
 of the Frencli from that country being the primary object 
 6f the expedition. Having effected a landing, only a few- 
 days elapsed before they commenced military operations. 
 The French general, Laborde, was strongly posted on the 
 heights near Eoleia ; and as there was reason to apprehend 
 he might be joined by General Loison, who was then at Eio 
 Major, the British general resolved to attack before the 
 junction could take place. The enemy's positions were 
 formidable, and defended with great bravery and skill ; hut 
 the attack made by the British columns proved irresistible 
 (Aug. 17, 1808). After an obstinate engagement, the 
 French were compelled to retire, with the loss of a con-- 
 siderable number of men and three pieces of cannon. The 
 moment was now approaching which was to decide the fate 
 of the French army in Portugal, and of the Eussian fleet in 
 the Tagus. General Junot, on whom the emperor of France 
 had conferred the title of due d'Abrantes, having collected 
 aU his detachments, attacked the British army (Aug. 21) 
 in its strong position at the village of Vimiera. The French 
 were everywhere repulsed. The day after the battle, General 
 Dalrymple landed and took command of the army. A 
 cessation of hostilities was agreed on (Aug. 30), and eight 
 days afterwards a definitive convention, called the Conven- 
 tion of Cintra, was signed by the French and British 
 commanders. By this treaty the French were to carry off 
 all their arms, ammunition, artillery, carriages, and horses, 
 with their military chest, and all the plunder acquired by 
 contributions, and to be conveyed to France in British 
 vessels, without any restrictions in regard to future service. 
 The Portuguese artillery, Ac, with the military and naval 
 arsenals, were to be surrendered to the British army and 
 navy. The Eussian fleet in the Tagus, consistbg of nine 
 ships of the line and a frigate, surrendered to the British 
 government as a deposit, to be given up six months after 
 the conclusion of a peace ; but the officers and seamen, 
 above five thousand six hundred in number, were to be 
 immediately carried to Eussia. 
 
 § 713. The British army, having consumed more than 
 two months in Lisbon, commenced its march for Spain 
 (Oct. 27), under the command of Sir John Moore, and 
 immediately proceeded to Salamanca. Sir David Baird had 
 landed a strong body of troops at Corunna (Oct. 13), and, 
 after many delays aud innumerable difficulties, arrived at 
 Astorga (Jsov. 19). In the mean while, the emperor of 
 
BATTLE OF COEUNNA. 565 
 
 France had entered Spain, with a view of conducting 
 the operations of the war. The patriotic armies having 
 been successively defeated at Burgos, Espinosa, and 
 Tudela, the French army forced the pass of Sommo Sierra, 
 and on the 2nd of December advanced to Madrid. The 
 city surrendered on the 4th ; and Buonaparte immediately 
 set off to intercept the retreat of the British. Sir John 
 Moore hastened to Corunna (Jan. 11, 1809) ; the transports 
 had not arrived. The French in the mean time reached the 
 scene of action, and the embarkation was consequently 
 delayed. Sir John Moore drew up his small army unden 
 the walls of Corunna, where it was attacked by the over-, 
 whelming forces of the French (Jan. 16). The British 
 troops stood like a wall, and with calm intrepidity received 
 and repulsed the repeated assaults of the enemy. A vigorous 
 charge with the bayonet decided the affair, and compelled 
 the French to retreat to the heights. Sir David Baird lost 
 his arm, and Sir John Moore was wounded by a shot in the 
 shoulder, of which he died before midnight. Like "Wolfe, 
 Abercrombie, and Nelson, he expired in the arms of 
 victory ; and, like theirs, his name and memory will ever be 
 dear to his country. In this unfortunate expedition, the 
 British army lost all its ammunition and magazines, and five 
 or six thousand men. The action ended about five in the 
 evening. The command of the British troops devolved upon 
 (3-eneral Hope, who completed the victory, and with great 
 ability directed the embarkation, which recommenced about 
 ten o'clock on the evening of the battle, and before the 
 morning of the 18th was completely effected, with a celerity 
 of which there are few examples. Corunna capitulated soon 
 after the departure of the army, and the French also obt 
 tained possession of Ferrol, Bilboa, St. Andero, and all the 
 most important places on the northern coast of Spain. 
 
 Letter 7. — History of the State of Affairs in the North of Europe, 
 from the Meeting between Alexander and Napoleon at Erfurth to 
 the Peace concluded at Vienna, a.d. 1808 — 1809. Vol. iv., pages 
 76—83. 
 
 § 714. Before 'setting out for Spain, Buonaparte had an 
 interview with Alexander at Erfurth (Sept. 27, 1808), at 
 which the masters of the West and the North guaranteed the 
 repose and the submission of Europe. While Napoleon was 
 engaged in an attempt to subvert the liberties of Spain and 
 Portugal, Alexander attacked Sweden. Denmark, the sub- 
 
566 BUONAPARTE STJPBEME. 
 
 Bervient tool of the czars, made common cause with the 
 powerful aggressor, and ten thousand British troops, under 
 Sir John Moore, were sent for the defence of Sweden. 
 G-ustavus IV. was, however, an ambitious ruler, and wished, 
 instead of employing them solely in defence of Sweden, to 
 undertake the conquest of Norway, and to make an attack 
 upon Copenhagen. To this the English generals Would not 
 assent. The Eussians captured Abo and Sweaborg, and the 
 incapacity of the Swedish monarch led to a revolution. He was 
 arrested (March 13, 1809), sent prisoner to Drotningholm, 
 and deposed ; while the duke of Sudermania, under the title 
 of Charles XIII., was elected king. A treaty of peace 
 followed with Itussia, by which the whole of Finland, and 
 that valuable portion of Bothnia bounded by the Tomeo, 
 with the isle of Aland, were ceded to Bussia (Sept. 17). 
 British ships, with certain exceptions, were excluded from 
 the Swedish ports. The deposed monarch was soon after 
 liberated from his state of confinement, and an ample 
 provision was made for his maintenance, on condition of 
 fixing his residence in Switzerland, to which he readily and 
 even gratefully acceded, contenting himself with the title of 
 Count Gottorp. An accommodation between Sweden and 
 France took place in December, 1809, in consequence of 
 which the former recovered Pomerania and the isle of Bugen. 
 § 715. The peace of Tilsit had completely extended the 
 French domination over the continent of Europe. The 
 imperial power was at this moment at its height. IfflpoleOn 
 employed aU his activity to create maritime resources, 
 capable of balancing the power of England, which alone 
 resisted his will, and which had then eleven hundred vessels of 
 war of every description. He formed harbours, fortified the 
 coasts, built ships, and prepared everything frar struggling 
 in a few years on this new field of battle. But at this 
 epoch was manifested the first -opposition to the domination 
 of the emperor and to the continental system. As if to 
 manifest his contempt for all the rulers of Europe, the 
 emperor of France gave an extraordinary proof of confidence 
 in the plenitude of his power. By a decree of the senate, 
 the fortresses of Kehl, Wesel, Cassel, all on the right 
 bank of the Bhine, and Flushing at the mouth of the 
 Scheldt, were annexed to the French empire. By decree 
 (May, 1808), the duchies of Urbino, Ancona, Macevata, 
 and Camerino were for ever united to the kingdom of Italy. 
 This called forth a protest from the pope, but it did not 
 
BATTLES OF ESSLING AND WAGRAM. 667 
 
 prevent the entry of a French army, which took possession 
 of all the strong places in the ecclesiastical territories. And 
 this was followed by the annexation of Parma, Placentia, 
 and Tuscany to the French empire, under the appellation 
 of the Taro, the Arno, &c.; so that the kingdom of Italy was 
 now guarded on every side by the empire of France. The 
 pope next tried excommunication (June 10, 1809), but was 
 himself seized, and carried prisoner to Avignon (July 6). 
 The Neapolitan crown, vacated by Joseph Buonaparte, was, 
 as we have seen, conferred on Marshal Murat, who took th© 
 title of Joachim I. The succession of the kingdom of Italy 
 was also at this time settled on Eugene Beauharnais, the 
 viceroy, stepson of Napoleon, whose mild and beneficent 
 government had made him almost adored in Lombardy. 
 
 § 716. Soon after the battle of Corunna, Buonaparte 
 returned to France. Austria had seized the opportunity of 
 his absence to join the coalition ; the Tyrolese were in arms, 
 Jerome had been expelled by the Westphalians, and Prussia 
 and Italy stood ready to declare war against the emperor at 
 the fiyst news of a reverse. The Austrians took Eatisbon, 
 but Napoleon joined his army and, defeated them at Eckmiihl 
 (April 22, 1809), and once more entered Vienna (May 10). 
 The archduke Charles arrived in the environs with his army, 
 and a sanguinary encounter occurred at Essling (May 21 and 
 22), at which neither side gained any decisive advantage. 
 In fact, Napoleon was in a most critical position, being shut 
 up in an island on the Danube, and a long interval of 
 inaction ensued. By the niglit of the 4th of July, bridges of 
 vast dimensions had been thrown across the river, with altnost 
 magical expedition and skill, opposite the left wing of the 
 Austrians stationed at "Wagram. Early next morning the 
 whole French army had crossed the river, and appeared in 
 order of battle. Thus surprised and disconcerted, the 
 archduke Charles spent the day in manoeuvring and altering 
 his dispositions. On the 6th of July, at sunrise, the long- 
 expected contest commenced. The French in great force 
 attacked the centre of the Austrian army, and broke the 
 first line by the impetuosity of their charge ; but the gallant 
 archduke exerted himself at this critical moment with such 
 spirit and address, that the Austrians rallied, and compelled 
 (their adversaries to retreat behind a small river. Nignt put 
 an end to the engagement, and the French, without just 
 .pretensions, claimed the victory. The combat was renewed 
 on the following day with varied success, but at last the 
 
568 THE WAIiCHEEEN EXPEDITIOIir. 
 
 Austrians retired. The emperor Francis treated for peace, 
 an armistice was acceded to, and at last a definitive treaty was 
 signed at Vienna (Oct. 11, 1809). To Bavaria the emperor 
 Francis was obliged to yield the important territory of 
 Saltzburg, with other districts in the vicinity. To France 
 were ceded Fiume and Trieste, with the entire line of coast 
 connecting the dominions of France on both sides of the 
 Adriatic. In Poland the king of Saxony obtained, in addi- 
 tion to the provinces constituting the duchy of Warsaw, the 
 western Galicia, with the city of Cracow. Another portion 
 of Austrian Poland was assigned to Eussia, which had 
 derived advantages from the misfortunes of every other 
 nation. The title of Joseph Buonaparte as king of Spaiii 
 was recognized. The Tyrolese were abandoned to their 
 fate, and were at last overwhelmed. 
 
 liETTER 8. — ^History of the Affairs of Great Britain, fi-om the Signature 
 of the Treaty of Alliance with Spain to the Refusal of the American 
 Government to hold Communication with the EngUsh Envoy. 
 A.D. 1808—1810. Vol. iv., pages 83—89. , 
 
 § 717. Peace had been proclaimed with Spain (July 5, 
 1808), and measures taken to aid the Spaniards in their 
 struggle against the overwhelming forces of France. On the 
 meeting of the English Parliament (Jan. 19, 1809), the 
 assistance afforded to Spain and the expedition to Portugal 
 were discussed. An investigation into the conduct of the 
 duke of York, commander-in-chief of the British army, who 
 was accused, on the testimony of Mrs. Clarke, of connivance 
 at corruption, occupied public attention ; but the imputation 
 was proved to be unfounded. The duke of York, howererj 
 resigned the office of commander-in-chief. Lord Castlereagh 
 was accused of having, while he presided at the India Board, 
 endeavoured to obtain a seat in Parliament for a friend iu 
 return for a writership. The charge could not be sustained, 
 and a resolution of censure was defeated (April 25) . During 
 the session a bill was passed extending the laws against 
 bribery, and intended to prevent the traffic in seats of 
 Parliament. 
 
 § 718. Early in the month of May, 1809, preparations 
 commenced for fitting out an expedition against the dock- 
 yards and fleets in the Netherlands, and towards the end of 
 July an army of forty thousand men was collected, to be 
 assisted by a fleet of thirty-nine sail of the line, and thirty- 
 Bis frigates, besides numerous gunboats, bomb-vessels, and 
 
THE YEAR OF JUBILEE. 669 
 
 small craft. The command of the whole armament was 
 intrusted to the earl of Chatham. The armament set sail 
 on the 28th July (1809) , and invested Tlushmg (Aug. 1) . A 
 tremendous cannonade and bombardment commenced on the 
 13th, which two days afterwards led the commander of the 
 garrison to request a suspension of arms. This was fol- 
 lowed by a surrender of the place, with its garrison, con- 
 sisting of about five thousand men, who were sent to England 
 prisoners of war. But here terminated the success of the 
 British. Antwerp was put into a state of defence, the 
 country inundated, and strong batteries erected. The Eng- 
 lish naval and military authorities disagreed, the troops 
 grew sickly, and Lord Chatham departed to England with 
 a great part of the expedition. The remainder kept pos- 
 session of Walcheren, where, owing to the pestilential 
 vapours of the marshes and stagnant waters, the men died 
 by hundreds. At length the fortifications of Flushing were 
 blown up, and "Walcheren was abandoned (Dec. 23). A 
 dispute between Lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning led to 
 a duel, iu which the latter was wounded (Sept. 23, 1809). 
 Canning immediately retired from the ministry, and the 
 marquis of WeUesley became secretary at war. 
 
 § 719. In this distracted state of affairs the duke of Port- 
 land died, and after some attempts had been made to form 
 a coalition cabinet, Mr. Perceval became prime minister. 
 The 25th of October, 1809, being the fifth celebration of 
 George the Third's accession to the throne, was distin- 
 guished throughout the United Kingdom as a jubilee, and 
 was marked by every demonstration of loyal attachment 
 and reverence. The arms of England met with success in 
 many quarters. Martinique was taken from the Preneh 
 (Feb. 23), and Cayenne was also captured. A large portion 
 of a French squadron was destroyed in Basque Eoads, near 
 Eochelle, under the batteries, by Lord Cochrane (April 12). 
 Lord Collingwood took possession of the Ionian Isles (Oct.l); 
 and a French squadron was chased on shore and destroyed 
 off the mouth of the Ehone (Oct. 25). The dispute with 
 America remained unadjusted, and, in spite of the conces- 
 sions offered by England, the American authorities refused 
 to hold any communication with the English envoy Jackson 
 (Oct. 1810). 
 
670 SIECE OF SARAGOSSA. 
 
 Letter 9. — History of the Second Oampajgn in the Peninsula, from 
 the Renewal of the Siege of Saragossa to the Defeat at Alba. 
 A.D. 1808—1809. Vol. iv., pages 90—96. 
 
 § 720. The British army having embarked from Corunna, 
 the French directed all their efforts towards the subjugation 
 of Spain. A number of fugitives from the army of Castanos, 
 ■which was defeated at Tudela (Nov. 23, 1808), had retreated 
 to Saragossa, and these, added to its martial citizens and 
 armed peasants, composed abody of fiftythousand men, under 
 the command of General Palafox. On the 20th of January, 
 1809, the French made their grand attack. The determmed 
 resolution of the inhabitants, who disputed every inch of 
 ground, and converted every house into a fortress, reduced 
 the French to the necessity of mining and blowing up the 
 bouses. During these terrible operations the bjatteries kept 
 up an incessant fire ; but the French at length became 
 masters of the city (Feb. 21). Not fewer than tseenty 
 thousand of its brave defenders were buried under its ruinsj 
 after a resistance to which history can scarcely furnish a 
 parallel, and which will render the siege of Saragossa 
 memorable to all future ages. A series of disasters, falling 
 in rapid succession, now seemed to have sealed the doom of 
 Spain. An advantage gained by the duke of Albuquerque, 
 on the 22nd of February, over a corps of French at Con- 
 sevegra, was but a slender compensation for these multi- 
 plied misfortunes. The French army in Catalonia made 
 three powerful attacks on that of Spain under General 
 Reding. In the last of these actions, the Spanish g^ieral, 
 after an obstinate conflict in which he was severely wounded, 
 was driven from his position and compelled to retire to 
 I'arragona (March 12). Soon after this disaster General 
 Cuesta was defeated (March 29) at Medellin, and forced to 
 retire to Monasterio. The patriots about this time recovered 
 Vigo ; but the French were masters of the centre of the 
 Mngdom. 
 
 § 721. General Beresford was employed in Portugal 
 organizing a native force to act with the British army, and 
 Sir A. Wellesley landed at Lisbon with a reinforcement of 
 British troops (April 22). Instantly repairing to Coimbra, 
 he put himself at the head of his assembled forces, and 
 advanced against Oporto, at the same time detaching Mar- 
 shal Beresford to occupy the fords of the upper Douro. 
 Marshal Soult, finding himself in danger of being insulated, 
 
JOSEPHINE DrVOECED. 571 
 
 judged it necessary to evacuate Oporto, and to retreat with 
 all possible expedition into Qalicia, which he did, not with- 
 out sustaining some loss. Sir Arthur Wellesley, having 
 effected a junction with the Spanish forces, took up his 
 position at Talavera, where he was attacked by Victor, at the 
 head of very superior numbers (July 28, 1809). The French 
 were defeated, and lost in killed and wounded about ten 
 thousand men. The arrival of Soult and Ney with powerful 
 reinforcements compelled the British to fall back. The' 
 Eoglish government, anxious to insure the welfare of Spain, 
 sent the marquis of Wellesley to the seat of the supreme 
 junta, then sitting at Cadiz. He pointed out the necessity 
 of organization, and a ready support of the British troops, 
 hinting that it would be expedient to appoint his brother 
 to the chief command. These suggestions were not attended 
 to at the time, but they were not without effect. The 
 junta addressed itself to the task of directing affairs with 
 energy, and ordered the Cortes to be summoned. Gr«rona, 
 at this time besieged, made a most gallant defence. The 
 post of the castle of Monjuich, though not strongly 
 garrisoned, repelled five assaults (July). The Spanish 
 armies were defeated at Ocana (Nov. 19), and at Alba^ on 
 the river Tormes (Nov. 26), and the second campaign ter- 
 minated unfavourably for the national cause. 
 
 Lbttee 10. — ^History of Europe, from the Divorce of Josephine to the 
 Elevation of Bemadotte to the Throne of Sweden and the Declaration 
 of War against England by that Power, a.d. 1809 — 1810. Vol. iv., 
 pages 96—102. 
 
 § 722. As Josephine bore him no children, Buonaparte 
 formed a plan for a divorce, and he entered into negotiations, 
 first with the royal family of St. Petersburg, and afterwards 
 with that of Vienna, for an alliance with one of its members. 
 The senate passed a Consultum, or decree, authorizing 
 the divorce, and assuring to Josephine a dowry of two 
 millions of francs, and the rank of empress during life 
 (Dec. 16, 1809). Josephine retired to the beautiful villa of 
 Malmaison, near St. Germains, where she spent the remaining 
 years of her life. Maria Louisa, archduchess of Austria, 
 daughter of the emperor Francis II., was the person chosen 
 for the new empress. The ceremony of marriage, in which 
 the archduke Charles received the hand of his niece, as the 
 representative of Buonaparte, was celebrated at Vienna 
 (March 11, 1810). The royal lovers were afterwards united 
 
572 BEENADOTTE MADE KING. 
 
 with great pomp at Paris-(April 1, 1810). Prince Swartzen- 
 berg, the Austrian ambassador, gave a ball on the occasion^ 
 when a temporary dancing-room caught fire. No efforts could 
 stop the progress of the flames, in which several persons 
 perished, and among others the sister of the ambassador 
 himself. This tragical circumstance struck a damp on the 
 public mind, and was considered as a bad omen, especially 
 when people called to mind that the marriage of Louis XVI, 
 with a former princess of the house of Austria had been 
 signalized by a similar disaster. 
 
 § 723. The emperor of France at this moment beheld the 
 whole continent of Europe, Spain and Portugal excepted, 
 either as his allies or his obsequious vassals. Persevering iii 
 his plan of annexation, he seized upon the seven Dutch pro- 
 vinces, of which he had recently constituted his brother Louis 
 king. Porty thousand French soldiers were, therefore, 
 gradually, but unceremoniously, introduced into Holland, and 
 troops were quartered at the mouths of the rivers, accom- 
 panied by French custom-house ofScers, in order to prevent 
 all commerce with England. Louis abdicated (July 1, 1810), 
 and the Seven Provinces were united to France by an im- 
 perial decree (July 9). The Valais of Piedmont were also 
 annexed to France (Nov. 12), for the purpose of securing 
 the passage of the Alps by the Simplon ; and possession was 
 taken of the Hanse Towns, and of the whole country from the 
 Elbe to the Ems. The electorate of Hanover was annexed 
 to the kingdom of Westphalia, and its very name was oWi- 
 terated from the map of Europe ; while to that country and 
 all the other dependent kingdoms, the conscription laws 
 were extended. The affairs of Sweden took a very singular 
 turn at this period. On the 29th of May, the prince of 
 Augustenburg, presumptive heir to the crown of Sweden, 
 died suddenly ; and a diet was assembled at Orebo, to supply 
 the vacancy thus occasioned (Aug. 21). In consequence of 
 a strong and pointed recommendation from the emperor 
 Napoleon, the king of Sweden proposed Marshal Bernadotte 
 as the person on whom he wished the choice to fall. The 
 king's nomination, therefore, was unanimously approved; 
 and on the 1st of November Bernadotte was installed in due 
 form. A declaration of war was issued against Great Britain 
 (Nov. 17) ; but the pacific intention ofthecourtof Stockholm 
 was sufficiently apparent, and the war, to the disappointment 
 of Napoleon, proved little more than nominal. The hostility 
 
EARLY CAREER OP ARTHUR WELLESLEY. 573 
 
 of Denmark was indeed real and great, but her power was 
 circumscribed ; and a British squadron took possession of 
 the Danish isle of Anholt, situated in the sea called the 
 Cattegat (May 18, 1809) .» 
 
 ' As the earlier successes of Arthur Wellesley in the Peninsula are 
 recorded in this chapter, it seems to be the proper place to afford the 
 student some information respecting his remarkable career in India. 
 Towards the close of 1797, Lord Momington, afterwards marquis of 
 Wellesley, Arthur Wellesley's brother, was appointed Governor-general 
 of India. He proceeded to the seat of his goTernment in the following 
 year, and at once took measures to establish the authority of England 
 upon a sure and permanent basis. Having defeated Tippoo and captured 
 his capital, he made a partition treaty with the Mahrattas. Tippoo was 
 slain during the siege, and the French intrigues entirely defeated. In 
 1802 the French again stirred up a rebellion amongst the Mahratta 
 chieftains, and in the operations that followed, the Governor-general 
 intrusted his brother, then Major-General Wellesley, with a high 
 command. The young soldier justified the confidence reposed in him, 
 and won several battles. Ahmednuggur fell before his arras (Aug. 12, 
 1803). With a force of about 5,000 this persevering officer advanced 
 against the Mahratta chieftains, who were at the head of nearly 50,000 
 men. He found them encamped near the village of Aaaaye. They 
 had ninety guns and were strongly posted. In spite of the great disparity 
 in numbers, Wellesley gave the order for the attack, and, after a short 
 but terrible struggle, gained a, complete victory (Sept, 23, 1803). 
 General Lake was equally successful in the northern part of India, and 
 the British arms triumphed in other portions of the country. Arthur 
 Wellesley pursued his victorious career in ,the Deccan, defeated the 
 enemy at Argaum (Nov. 29, 1803), and Gawilghur and Seindiah fell 
 soon after. These reverses induced the Mahratta chieftains to submit, 
 and soon after this distinguished soldier returned to Europe, to gain even 
 more glorious laurels on other fiields of fame. 
 
574 SESSION OF 1810. 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 Lettee 11. — History of the Affaire of Great Britain, from tlie Com. 
 raencement of the Session of 1810 to the Appointment of a Regencv, 
 A.D. 1810—1811. Vol. iv., pages 102—106. 
 
 § 724. The state of affairs on the assembling of Parlia- 
 ment (Jan. 23, 1810) was anything but cheering. The 
 Icing's speech was delivered by the lord chancellor; and 
 although nearly the whole of Europe was at the mercy of 
 Euonaparte, its tone was not desponding. After referring 
 to the expulsion of the French from Portugal, it stated that 
 his majesty had received assurances of the friendly disposition 
 of America, and that the state of the national commerce 
 of Great Britain was flourishing, and the produce of the 
 revenue increasing. In the House of Cbmmons Lord Por- 
 chester's proposal for the appointment of a committee to 
 inquire into the policy and conduct of the Walcheren ex- 
 pedition (Jan. 26) was carried by a small majority. Several 
 debates on this fruitful topic of dissension followed, and 
 Lord Chatham, conceiving that a censure had been passed 
 upon him, resigned his office of master-general of the 
 ordnance (March 2). During the inquiry an animated 
 discussion occurred relative to the admission of reporters 
 to the house, and the public were excluded. Some rather 
 acrimonious criticisms upon this interference with the rights 
 of the people were expressed at a popular debating society, 
 and the motion carried on the occasion was placarded in the 
 streets of London (Feb. 19). This was regarded as a 
 violation of the privileges of the house, for which Mr. Jones, 
 the principal person implicated, was committed to Newgate 
 (Feb. 21). Sir F. Burdett, who had not been present when 
 these proceedings took place, called the attention of the 
 house to them, and in vain endeavoured to obtain the dis- 
 charge of Mr. Jones (March 12). Failing in this, he 
 published a letter to his constituents, in " Cobbett's "Weekly 
 Eegister " (March 24), denying the power of the House of 
 
FRENCH AND DUTCH COLONIES CAPTURED. 575 
 
 Commons to imprison the people of England. This led to 
 further debate, and Sir Prancia Burdett was ordered to be 
 committed to the Tower for a breach of the privileges of 
 the House of Commons. Great numbers of the populace 
 escorted Sir Francis to the Tower, and on their return a 
 riot ensued, in which three persons were killed and several 
 wounded (April 9, 1810). Sir Francis brought actions at law 
 against the speaker and the serjeant-at-arms, but these were 
 not successful, and at the prorogation he was liberated. 
 
 § 725. The isle of Bourbon was captured (July 10), and 
 the isle of France, or the Mauritius, capitulated to a British 
 force (Dec. 3). The island, with a large quantity of stores 
 and merchandise, five large frigates, and some smaller ships 
 of war, twenty-eight merchantmen, and two English East- 
 Indiamen that had been captured, were surrendered. The 
 garrison was to be sent to France. This was the most valu- 
 able of the French possessions to the eastward of the Cape of 
 Good Hope. Three frigates were afterwards despatched 
 to destroy the French batteries at Tametava, on the coast of 
 Madagascar, and to root them out from some other small 
 nestling-places, which they completely effected (Jan. 10, 
 1811) ; and thus there was not remaining to France, at the 
 beginning of the following year, a slip of land in either Indies, 
 nor a ship in the Indian seas. The French, however, captured 
 two English East-Indiamen ; and in an attempt to recover 
 them, three English frigates went aground, and were lost 
 (Aug. 1810). In the same quarter of the globe, further 
 conquests were also made from the Dutch. Their settlement 
 of Amboyna, with its dependent islands, surrendered to a 
 British force from Madras (Feb. 17, 1810). A party of 
 seamen commanded by Captain Cole, of the Caroline frigate, 
 having carried a fort at Band Neira,the whole island of Banda, 
 the principal of the Spice Islands, with its dependencies, 
 though protected by seven hundred regular troops and three 
 hundred militia, surrendered unconditionally, and afforded a 
 rich prize to the captors (Aug. 8). The illness and death of 
 the king's youngest daughter, the Princess Amelia (Nov. 2, 
 1810), brought on another attack of his majesty's mental 
 complaint. After several adjournments of Parliament, Mr. 
 Perceval, adopting the mode of procedure of 1788-9, moved 
 three resolutions, affirming, 1st, the incapacity of the king ; 
 2ndly, the rights of the two houses to provide the means of 
 supplying the defect ; and Srdly, the necessity of determin- 
 ing upon the means of giving the royal assent to a bill for 
 
676 WAR IN THE PENINSULA. 
 
 that purpose (Dec 20, 1810). Thereupon the prince of 
 "Wales, the heir apparent, was appointed regent, under 
 certain limitations (Peb. 5, 1811). 
 
 Letteb 12. — History of the War in the Peninsiila during the Third 
 Campaign, with some Account of the Attempted Invasion of Sicily 
 by Murat. a.d. 1810. Vol. iv., pages 107—112. 
 
 ^ 726. At the commencement of the year 1810, the cause 
 of Spanish independence was reduced to so low an ebb that 
 many of its friends in England were inclined to give way to 
 despondency. About the middle of January the main body 
 of the Trench forced their way through the mountain-passes 
 of the Sierra Morena, and descended into Andalusia. At 
 Jaen and Cordova they found large quantities of military 
 stores and ordnance. Sebastiani marched upon Granada, 
 -which city threw open its gates (Jan. 28), and Malaga 
 surrendered soon after (Feb. 6). Joseph Buonaparte issued 
 a manifesto to the Spanish nation (Jan. 29), and Seville 
 was next attacked and captured (Peb. 10). Great prepara- 
 tions were made for the defence of Cadiz. British troops 
 were admitted to assist the garrison, and the most deter- 
 mined efforts of the French for its capture frustrated. A 
 kind of guerilla warfare was maintained in other parts of 
 the peninsula. These Spanish levies everywhere attacked 
 detached parties of the enemy, and harassed the invaders 
 in all their movements. They intercepted their convoys, 
 their escorts, and their despatches; so that the French could 
 at no time, by the mere capture of towns and fortresses, be 
 said to be in possession of the surrounding country. The 
 regular forces of the kingdom, too, however dispersed, were 
 still numerous ; and, though Spain in this war had produced 
 no Gonzalvo, it abounded in valiant and active oflScers. 
 
 § 727. The most interesting events of the campaign 
 occurred on the side of Portugal. It was evidently the 
 grand object of Napoleon to acquire the entire possession 
 of that country. With this view it had been determined 
 to commence with the reduction of the strong fortress of 
 Ciudad Eodrigo, and Almeida, the situation of which, being 
 on the frontier between the two kingdoms, would give them 
 the command of a free military communication from one to 
 the other. The garrison of the former made a gallant 
 defence, but were compelled to surrender (July 10) ; and 
 Almeida, after an equally heroic struggle, accepted terms of 
 Capitulation (Aug. 27). A vigorous contest for the posses- 
 
OPERATIONS IN PORTUGAIi. 577 
 
 sion of Portugal was now to commence. "Wellington, to 
 whom its defence was committed, had, during the month of 
 December, found it advisable to retire from Badajos, to the 
 north of the Tagus. In February, 1810, the English and 
 Portuguese troops were posted at a number of different 
 points in Portugal, and its frontier on the side of Spain, 
 Lord Wellington having his head-quarters during the two fol- 
 lowing months at Yiseu ; for, after the surrender of Almeida, 
 Wellington had concentrated the different divisions of the 
 allied army, and commenced his retreat towards Lisbon. He 
 had formed a defensive plan, to which he steadily adhered. 
 Masaena, confident in his numbers, attacked the English at 
 Busaco (Sept. 27), but was repulsed. He managed, how- 
 ever, to turn the British position, and Wellington retired to 
 the strong lines of Torres Vedras, about thirty miles from 
 Lisbon. Massena followed closely ; and having reconnoitred 
 the position, which was one of great strength, made no 
 attempt to disturb the allied English and Portuguese army. 
 The Spanish Cortes assembled (Sept. 24), swore allegiance 
 to Ferdinand VII., and appointed a regency, in which the 
 executive power was vested. Some commotions occurred in 
 the Spanish provinces in South America, and on the 19th 
 of April, 1810, the flourishing province of the Caraccas, 
 with the surrounding districts, formed a union, under the 
 name of the Republic of Venezuela ; and General Miranda 
 was invited to take the command of their forces. Murat, 
 the new king of Naples, collected a powerful armament on 
 the coast of Calabria, for the purpose of invading Sicily. 
 Sir John Stuart, who commanded in the Mediterranean, took 
 measures for the defence of this island. In an action near 
 Faro Point, where the French had landed some of their 
 forces, they were defeated by Major-G-en. Campbell, and 
 about nine hundred taken prisoners (Sept. 18, 1810). The 
 remnant re-embarked, and the French expedition was 
 recalled (Oct. 3). 
 
 IiETTEE 13. — History of Affairs upon the Continent of Europe, from 
 the Capture of Tortosa by Marshal Sachet, to the Russian Declara- 
 tion of War against France, a.d. 1811 — 1812. Vol. iv., pages 112 
 -118. 
 
 § 728. The next campaign in the Peninsula commenced 
 
 at a very early season of the year. The French army was 
 
 in three grand divisions, in Portugal, in Andalusia, and in 
 
 Catalonia. Suchet captured Tortosa (Jan. 2, 1811), and 
 
 2 p 
 
57?i BATTLES OF BAEOSSA AND ALBUEEA. 
 
 Soult obtained possession of Olivenza (Jan. 23, 1811). The,, 
 siege of Cadiz was still prosecuted by the French, and an 
 army of English, Spaniards, and Portuguese landed at 
 Algesiras (Feb.). The allied force, amounting to about six 
 thousand men, advanced against Victor, who was at the head 
 of eight thousand troops, and, after a sharp contest, gained 
 a decided victory, on the heights of Barossa (March 5). The 
 French lost about three thousand in killed, wounded, and 
 prisoners ; one eagle, six pieces of cannon, their ammunition- 
 waggons aiid horses. The loss of the allies was only twelve 
 hundred. "Wellington in another direction pressed hard 
 upon Massena, at that time in full retreat. The French 
 rear-guard was defeated in a skirmish at Pombal (March 11), 
 but on the same day, Badajos, after a vigorous resistance, 
 surrendered to Soult. Wellington, however, continued to 
 advance. Olivenza fell before Beresford (April 15), and an 
 attempt was made to regain possession of Badajos. The 
 return of Soult at the bead of a large army compelled the 
 British commanders to raise the siege and fight a battle. 
 The allies had the advantage in point of numbers, but the 
 French were veteran troops. The encounter at Albuera 
 (May 16) was one of the most hotly contested during the 
 peninsular war, in which, after a daring struggle, the French 
 once more retreated. 
 
 § 729. After this victory Wellington recommenced the 
 siege of Badajos, which the return of Soult with Marmont 
 had induced him to abandon. In Catalonia Suchet had 
 carried Fort Balaguer by assault (Jan. 9), but was defeated 
 by the Spanish general Sarsfield (Jan. 15). The Spaniards 
 also recovered Figueras (April 10). Suchet, after some delay, 
 besieged Tarragona, which resisted gallantly, but was finally 
 carried, under circumstances of great barbarity (June 28). 
 Suchet entered the province of Valencia and captured Mur- 
 yiedro (Sept. 27) . General Blake failed in an attempt to 
 arrest the French general's progress, and the city of Valenciai. i 
 was invested on every side (Dec. 25). While waging this con- 
 test in the Peninsula, Napoleon pursued his grand projects 
 of totally excluding British commerce from the continent of 
 Europe, and of raising a navy which might in time contend 
 with that of England for the dominion of the sea. The 
 great commercial city of Hamburg was annexed to the 
 French empire (Jan. 1, 1811), and a plan of marine con-: 
 scription adopted, for the purpose of strengthening the 
 French navy. The empress was safely delivered of a son 
 
EUSSIA DECLARES WAE. 579 
 
 andlieir (March 20, 1811), and the infant received the title of 
 the king of Home. In the autumn, Napoleon, accompanied 
 by the empress, went on a tour to the coasts of France, the 
 Netherlands, and Holland. During this time, and after his 
 return to Paris, the emperor was actively employed in 
 negotiating with the northern powers ; the consequences of 
 which soon began to develop themselves. The year closed 
 with an immediate call for a hundred and twenty thousand 
 conscripts for the year 1812. Although Germany lay pro- 
 strate at Napoleon's feet, Sweden remained true to her 
 long-standing i'riendship with England. The Danes were 
 repulsed in an attempt to regain possession of the island of 
 Anholt (March 14), which was occupied by an English 
 garrison. During ttie year 1811 Eussia waged war against 
 the Turks with considerable success. In spite of the efforts 
 made by Napoleon to bind the czar to his interest, a 
 flourishing commerce was carried on between Grreat Britain 
 and Eussia. The annexation of the duchy of Oldenburg, 
 and Buonaparte's continued aggressions, alarmed Alexander, 
 and he was evidently preparing to make a stand against the 
 disturber of the peace of Europe. Negotiations failed to 
 avert the blow, and, early in 1812, war was declared against 
 France by an imperial ukase. 
 
 Letter 14. — History of Affairs in Great Britain, from the Debates in 
 Parliament on George the Third's Indisposition, to the Formation of 
 the Liverpool Administration, a.d. 1811 — 1812. "Vol. iv., pages 
 119—125. 
 
 § 730. The melancholy situation of the monarch again 
 rendered the appointment of a regency necessary to the 
 regular administration of the affairs of government. The 
 ministry, willing to believe that the king's incapacity would 
 not be permanent, continued to govern in his name for 
 eight weeks, before any parliamentary arrangements were 
 made. The House of Commons then voted that it was 
 their right and duty, in concert with the Peers, to pro- 
 vide the means of supplying the deficiency of the execu- 
 tive power. The Lords, after some remonstrances, agreed 
 to the proposal. The prince of "Wales, afterwards George 
 the Fourth, was made regent, under certain restrictions. 
 The Irish Eoman Catholics agitated their claims ; and some 
 state prosecutions, which terminated in the acquittal of the 
 defendants, were instituted. An attempt to interfere with 
 the privileges of the dissenters pi'ovoked considerable oppo- 
 2p2 
 
580 DEATH OF PERCIVAL. 
 
 sition, and was finally abandoned. The dispute with America 
 remained unadjusted, and on the meeting of Congress 
 (Not. 4, 1811) the President announced the necessity .of 
 making preparations for war. The island of Java svir- 
 rendered (Aug. 8, 1811) to a British expedition despatched 
 from Madras, and the Dutch forces, which had retired 
 further up the island, were pursued and defeated (Aug. 26) ; 
 after which they surrendered. Hoste with five frigates 
 dispersed a more numerous French squadron in the Adriatic, 
 and made several captures (March 13) ; and in the Indian 
 Sea, near Madagascar, Captain Schomberg took a French 
 frigate and destroyed some batteries (May 20 and 21). 
 Some terrible storms occurred in the month of December, 
 by which great losses were inflicted upon the British navy. 
 § 731. The continuance of the war caused depression in 
 home industry. The factory operatives in Nottingham com- 
 menced rioting, the discontent spread to Derbyshire and 
 Leicestershire, and many collisions between the authorities 
 and the rioters ensued. As the latter destroyed the frames, 
 this was made a capital offence, and increased powers were 
 obtained from Parliament early in the session of 1812. The 
 restrictions in the Kegency Act were to expire in Feb. 1812, 
 and on the 13th the Prince Eegent addressed a letter to 
 the duke of York upon that subject. The epistle contained 
 allusions to a change of ministry, and created considerable 
 discussion. The ministry, however, remained in office, and 
 a tragical event at last produced a change. As Mr. Percival 
 was entering the lobby of the House of Commons, at about 
 five in the afternoon, he was shot through the heart by a 
 person named Bellingham, iii revenge for an imaginary 
 slight (May 11). A ministerial crisis followed, and after 
 several statesmen had failed in their endeavours to form a 
 cabinet. Lord Liverpool was made prime minister (June 9, 
 1812). 
 
 Letter 15. — History of the War In the Peninsula, from the Capture 
 of Ciudad Rodrigo to Wellington's Failure before Burgos and 
 Retreat to Freynada. a.d. 1812, Jan. 19— Nov. 24. Vol. iv., pages 
 126—130. 
 
 § 732. Early in 1812 Lord 'Wellington crossed the 
 Agueda, and invested Ciudad Eodrigo, which did not long 
 resist his efforts (Jan. 19). Thence the English general 
 advanced upon Badajos, and after a gallant resistance the 
 fortress surrendered (April 6). Marmont, who had in the 
 
WELLINGTON AT MADRID. 581 
 
 mean time penetrated into Portugal, no sooner received the 
 intelligence of its fall than he commenced his retreat ; and 
 Soult also retired. Lord Wellington started in pursuit, 
 fought several skirmishes vrith the enemy, and took Sala- 
 manca, after a siege of ten days (June 27, 1812). Marmont 
 for some time refused a battle, but was at length compelled 
 to engage at Salamanca, and being defeated (July 22), 
 retreated upon Burgos. "Wellington immediately hastened 
 towards Madrid. King Joseph took the alarm and aban- 
 doned the capital, which the English commander entered 
 amid the acclamations of the inhabitants, who welcomed 
 him as their deliverer (Aug. 12). The French generals 
 concentrated their forces around Burgos, determined to 
 make a desperate effort to retrieve their losses. "Wellington 
 followed and laid siege to the place. The French, how- 
 ever, moved their forces with such rapidity that "Wel- 
 lington was compelled to retire. He recalled his troops 
 from Madrid, and after a masterly retreat, in the presence 
 of very superior forces, succeeded in fixing his head-quarters 
 at Freynada, on the Portuguese frontier (Nov. 24). 
 
 Letter 16. — ^Napoleon's Campaign in Bussia, A.D. 1812. 
 Vol. iv., pages 130—138. 
 
 § 733. From the commencement of the year 1812, the 
 eyes of all Europe had been directed towards a new scene 
 which was opening in the north, and which gave rise to a 
 variety df political conjectures. For some time the two 
 powerful emperors, who from the treaty of Tilsit had main- 
 tained a state of strict amity and alliance, exhibited indications 
 of misunderstanding and even of hostility. The support of 
 the continental system, contrived for the purpose of annihi- 
 lating the commerce of Great Britain, and drying up the 
 sources of her wealth, was the favourite object of the ruler 
 of France. The overthrow of this system was evidently the 
 interest of Eussia, Sweden, and Prussia ; but the resources 
 of Sweden were inconsiderable, and Prussia was in vassalage 
 to France. Eussia was the only power that could take the 
 lead in an attempt of that nature, in which, however, she 
 was certain of being supported by Great Britain. The 
 emperor of the French, with the forces of Prussia and those 
 of the Confederation of the Ehine at his command, and with 
 every reason to expect the assistance of Austria, might 
 probably suppose that his appearance in the field, with so 
 vast a display of military strength, would intimidate Eussia 
 
582 KAPOLEON INVADES RUSSIA. 
 
 into a compliance witli his demands ; or, calling to mind tlie 
 ensanguined fields of Austerlitz and Triedland, he might 
 flatter himself that one successful campaign, or one decisive 
 victory, would enable him to dictate the conditions of peace. 
 But whatever might be the views and expectations of the 
 emperor of France, he began, very early in the spring of 
 1812, to move numerous bodies of troops into the interior 
 of Germany. The Eussian emperor also prepared to meet 
 the impending storm ; and after issuing a declaration of 
 war, put his armies in motion, and by an imperial ukase, 
 dated the 23rd of March, 1812, ordered a levy of men 
 throughout his extensive dominions. Preparatory to 
 the great contest, the emperor of the IVench con- 
 cluded treaties of alliance with Prussia and Austria, by 
 which these two powers engaged to assist him with very 
 considerable forces. The emperor of Eussia also concluded 
 a treaty of peace with the Ottoman Porte, to which he 
 restored the conquests he had made in Moldavia and Wal- 
 lachia, and this accommodation enabled him to withdraw his 
 armies from the banks of the Danube. All matters of dispute, 
 were also settled between Eussia and Great Britain (July 18, 
 1812). 
 
 § 734. Buonaparte, accompanied by the empress, quitted 
 Paris on the 9th of May, and after spending a few hours at 
 Mayence, proceeded to Dresden, at which city a number of 
 continental sovereigns had assembled to pay him homage. 
 He remained there nearly a fortnight to receive their congra- 
 tulations and to mature his plans, and then set out to join his 
 army. It consisted of combatants from almost every nation in 
 Europe, who had been brought together in the country lying 
 between the Vistula and the Memen. The numbers have been 
 variously estimated, some authorities rating them at nearly 
 seven hundred thousand, and others as low as four hundred 
 thousand. Capefigue, generally a^ safe guide, estimates the 
 grand total at 498,000 men ; composed as follows : 60,000 
 Poles ; 20,000 Saxons ; 30,000 Austrians ; 80,000 Bavarians; 
 22,000 Prussians ; 20,000 Westphalians ; 32,000 from the 
 minor states of Germany ; 20,000 Italians and Neapolitans ; 
 4,000 Spanish and Portuguese ; 10,000 Swiss, and 250,000 
 French. On the 80th of May Buonaparte entered Poland, 
 and soon after joined his levies, then in full march for the 
 Niemen, which river they began crossing on the 24th of June. 
 Prom wing to wing of this mighty force, a distance of nearly 
 three hundred miles interposed, and the fact that this was 
 
THE FEENCH ENTEK MOSCOW. 68S 
 
 oftener increased than diminished during the campaign, will 
 account for many of the calamities that befell this truly un- 
 fortunate expedition. The czar prepared to resist the inva- 
 sion, and could at first bring but 180,000 men into the field: 
 Clausewitz says, " The Russian army on the frontier, at 
 the opening of the campaign, was disposed in three main 
 branches : — 1. The army of the "West under Barclay, 90,000, 
 its head-quarters being at "Wilna. 2. The second army of 
 the West under Bagration, 45,000 strong. 3. The reserve, 
 35,000, and about 10,000 Cossacks. The Eussian plan of 
 the campaign was to retire slowly, and take post on the 
 Diina, at Drissa, where an intrenched camp had been pre- 
 pared, and Napoleon's aim was to bring these troops to an 
 engagement as soon as possible; but subsequent events caused 
 both the assailants and the assailed to modify their plans. 
 
 § 735. The Eussians, alarmed at the numbers brought 
 against them, retired more rapidly than had been at first 
 intended. Buonaparte entered Wilna on the 28th of June, 
 and halted in the town three weeks. Several skirmishes 
 took place at various points ; and although the Eussians at 
 one time seemed willing to risk an encounter, they abandoned 
 their intrenched camp, and Buonaparte entered Witepsk, 
 where he wasted three weeks. At this point the abandon- 
 ment of the expedition was contemplated ; but, unwilling to 
 become the laughing-stock of Europe, the emperor pushed 
 on, and after some sharp actions before Smolensko, found 
 the Eussian army drawn up at Borodino, under the command 
 of the veteran Kutusoff. On the eve of the battle, the news 
 of Wellington's victory at Salamanca reached the Prench 
 camp. There was no great disparity in the strength of the 
 opposing armies, and a moat sanguinary engagement was 
 fought (Sept. 7). Night put an end to the conflict, and the 
 Eussians retired, abandoning even their capital to the 
 invader. The French came in sight of Moscow on the 14th 
 of September, and entered the city in triumph. Whilst the 
 invaders were engaged in pillage and riot, flames burst out 
 in several places. All efibrts to obtain a mastery over the 
 devouring element proved unavailing; and Buonaparte's 
 levies were without shelter or supplies. To all proposals of 
 peace the czar returned no answer ; and, after a useless delay 
 of five weeks, the order for the retreat was given. The French 
 emperor's attempt to retire by another route, through a tract 
 of country in which supplies had not been exhausted, was 
 frustrated, and the Eussians pressed around his retreating 
 
584 RETREAT FROM RUSSIA. 
 
 troopBj and brought on a fierce encounter at Malo- Jaroslawitz 
 {Oct. 24, 1812), in which they were victorious. 
 
 § 736. On the 6th of November the severity of winter 
 added to the horrors of the march. On that day the snow 
 began to fall, and beneath it the strong and the brave sank 
 to rise nt more. Ill fed, scantily apparelled, pressed hard 
 by an insolent and implacable enemy, the remnant of Buo- 
 naparte's army was ever in the presence of the avenger. 
 Discipline became gradually relaxed, spoils were abandoned, 
 disputes occurred among both officers and men, and the 
 most lamentable sufferings prevailed in every rank. Smo- 
 lensko was reached on the 9th of November, but it afforded 
 no refuge to the retreating army, and on the 25th Buonaparte 
 arrived at the banks of the Beresina. Here he found hia 
 retreat cut off by a Eussian force that had recently arrived 
 from the Danube. Extricating himself by a clever manoeuvre, 
 Buonaparte continued his flight towards Poland. At Smor- 
 goni (Dec. 5) he quitted his levies, and entered the palace 
 of the TuUeries a fugitive, on the night of the 18th of De- 
 cember. The wretched remnant of his army struggled 
 towards the Niemen ; and of that magnificent array, which 
 had crossed during the summer, not more than 42,000 
 returned, and of these only 18,000 were French. This 
 expedition, like the attack upon Spain, was another of 
 Buonaparte's great mistakes. It cannot be denied that the 
 resistance of the Eussians was obstinate, but their leaders 
 lacked ability. Had the defence been vigorously waged, the 
 French would never have reached Moscow. 
 
 Letter 17. — History of the European War, from the Meeting 
 of the English Parliament in 1812, to the First Abdication 
 of Napoleon and his Withdrawal to Elba. A.D. 1812—1813. 
 Vol. iv. pages 138—145. 
 
 § 737. A general election took place in England during 
 the autumn of 1812, and soon after the assembling of 
 the new Parliament (Nov. 24), one hundred thousand 
 pounds were voted to the duke of "Wellington as a reward 
 for his military services, and two hundred thousand pounds 
 for the relief of the sufferers in Eussia. The campaign in 
 Spain commenced under favourable auspices. The advance 
 of Wellington once more induced King Joseph to quit the 
 capital, and the French army was defeated at Vittoria, losing 
 their artillery and baggage (Jane 21, 1813). They con- 
 trived to retreat ; and, before the end of the year, had been 
 
CAMPAIGN OF 1813. 585 
 
 driven out of the Peninsula. Wellington followed them 
 into France, and at the passage of the Nive, a series of 
 briUiant actions ensued (Dec. 9 — 13, 1813), in which victory- 
 remained with the allies. The field of battle was transferred 
 to Dresden in 1813, and was around Paris in 1814 — so 
 rapid was the reverse of fortune. The cabinet of Berlin 
 began the defection. On the 1st of March, 1813, Prussia 
 reunited its arms with those of Russia and England, which 
 formed the sixth coalition ; and Sweden shortly after was 
 added to the confederacy. The emperor, whom the allies 
 considered to be crushed, opened the campaign with new 
 successes. The battle of Lutzen, hotly contested (May 2, 
 1813) ; the occupation of Dresden (May 8) ; the battle of 
 Bautzen (May 20 and 21) ; and the war carried to the 
 banks of the Elbe, astonished the coalition. Austria 
 meditated a change of alliance, and proposed itself as 
 mediator between Napoleon and the confederates. Its 
 mediation was accepted; an armistice was concluded at 
 Pleswitz (June 4), and a congress assembled at Prague, 
 to negotiate the peace. The views of the parties, however, 
 were soon found to be strangely at variance with each 
 other. Napoleon would on no account consent to a diminu- 
 tion of his power, and Europe refused to remain subject to 
 him. The confederated powers, in concurrence with Austria, 
 demanded that the empire of Prance should be bounded by 
 the Bhine, the Alps, and the Mouse ; which was disdain- 
 fully rejected, and the negotiators separated without coming 
 to any conclusion. 
 
 § 738. War alone could terminate this grand debate. 
 Napoleon wished to drive the allies beyond the Elbe, and 
 dissolve as usual this new coalition by the promptitude and 
 vigour of his measures ; and for a short time victory 
 clung to his standards. He beat the allies at Dresden 
 (Aug. 26 and 27), but the defeats of his lieutenants 
 deranged his plans. Macdonald was vanquished in Silesia ; 
 Ney, near Berlin ; Vandamme, at Culm. Finding himself 
 unable to make head against the enemy, which was now 
 ready to burst upon him from every quarter, Napoleon 
 began to think of retreating. The princes of the Con- 
 federation of the Rhine chose this moment to desert the 
 French empire. A sanguinary engagement took place 
 between the two armies at Leipsic (Oct. 16, 18, and 
 19), and Napoleon was compelled to retreat, after a fearful 
 struggle. His army marched in the greatest confusion 
 
586 FRANCE INVADED. 
 
 towards the Rhine, fought a battle at Hanau, and re-entered 
 the territory of the empire on the 30th of October, 1813. 
 The end of this campaign was almost as disadvantageous as 
 that of the preceding. Sir Walter Scott, speaking of these 
 events, says : " The rupture of the armistice seemed to 
 be the date of his declension, as indeed the junction of 
 the Austrians enabled the allies to bear him down by 
 resistless numbers. Nine battles had been fought since 
 that period, including the action at Culm, which, in its 
 results, is well entitled to the name. Of these, Buona- 
 parte only gained two — those of Dresden and Hanau; 
 that at Wachau was indecisive ; while at Gross-Beeren, at 
 Jauer on the Katzbach, at Culm, at Dennewitz, at Mookern, 
 and at Leipsic, the allies obtained decisive and important 
 victories." Napoleon returned to Paris on the 9th of 
 November, and having obtained from the senate a levy of 
 three hundred thousand men, he made with the greatest 
 ardour preparations for a new campaign. 
 
 § 739. At Frankfort the allied sovereigns issued a decla- 
 ration (Dec. 1), couched in the most moderate language, 
 Buonaparte refused to make any concessions, and suddenly 
 dissolved the Legislative Assembly, which seemed anxious for 
 peace (Dec. 31). In the mean time the allies were invading 
 the empire at all points. The Austrians were advancing 
 into Italy, while the British troops, who had made them- 
 selves masters of the entire peninsula, had passed the 
 Bidaasoa under the victorious Wellington, and crossed the 
 Pyrenees. Three large armies were hanging on France to 
 the east and the north. The grand allied army, of a hundred 
 and fifty thousand men, under the command of Prince 
 Schwartzenberg, was entering by way of Switzerland ; that 
 of Silesia under Blucher, consisting of a hundred and thirty 
 thousand men, was entering by Frankfort ; and that of the 
 north, of a hundred thousand men, under Bernadotte, the 
 crown prince of Sweden, had invaded Holland and penetrated 
 into Belgium. Disregarding in their turn the fortified 
 places, and instructed by Napoleon in the principles of 
 carrying on war upon a grand scale, the allies determined 
 to march upon the capital. At the moment when the 
 emperor was quitting Paris to put his troops in motion, the 
 two armies of Schwartzenberg and Blucher were upon the 
 point of efiecting their junction in Champagne. The 
 campaign was of short duration, but it aflforded Buonaparte 
 several opportunities for the display of his great . military 
 
KAPOLEON ABDICATES. 587 
 
 genius. The battle of Brienne was fought on the 29th of 
 January, 1814, when Buonaparte succeeded in driving Blu- 
 cher from a strong position before that town ; but the allies, 
 having concentrated their forces, retaliated at La Eothiere 
 (Feb. 1), on which occasion the French were repulsed with 
 great loss. Having received intelligence that part of the 
 allied army was advancing upon Paris, Napoleon went in 
 pursuit. The victories of Champaubert (Feb. 10), Mont- 
 mirail (Feb. 11), and Vauchamps (Feb. 14) were of the 
 most brilliant character. Negotiations were carried on at 
 the congress of Chatillon-sur-Seine ; but the arrogance of 
 Napoleon convinced the allies that their sole chance lay in 
 Tfictory. They pressed around the retreating emperor, 
 several battles were fought with varied success, and Paris 
 surrendered on the 31st of March. The allies issued a 
 proclamation, declaring that neither Napoleon nor any of 
 his family would be treated with. A provisional government 
 was formed, Buonaparte was deposed, and the Bourbon 
 family recalled. He endeavoured to struggle against this 
 decision ; but being deserted by most of his generals, at 
 last signed his abdication (April 6). The small island of 
 Elba, in the Mediterranean, was assigned to him, and on 
 the 20th of April he quitted Fontainebleau, being attended 
 by four commissioners. 
 
 Lettek 18. — History of AfEairs coDtinued, from tte Declaration of 
 War by the United States against England, to the Visit of the 
 Allied Sovereigns to Loudon, a.d. 1812 — 1814. Vol. iv., pages 
 146—155. 
 
 § 740. The English government consented to revoke 
 the orders in council ; but before any notification of this 
 reached Congress, after making great preparations, the 
 United States declared w^ar (June 18, 1812). The conquest 
 of Canada was an object which the American government 
 evidently had in view when they declared hostilities, re- 
 garding it no doubt of easy attainment, the British force in 
 that country being small, and the attachment of the people 
 equivocal. Their operations against it commenced early in 
 July, 1812. General Hull entered the province of Upper 
 Canada, above Fort Detroit, and issued a proclamation to 
 the inhabitants, in a style expressive of his high confidence 
 of success. His progress was speedily checked ; he was 
 besieged in Detroit, and compelled to surrender to a much 
 inferior force of British and Indians (Aug. 16). Another 
 
588 VICTORY OP THE SHANNON. 
 
 attempt near Queenstown also failed ; but these disgraces to 
 the American arms by land were in some degree com- 
 pensated by their successes at sea. Their navy consisted 
 of a few frigates, of a rate corresponding to the largest 
 British, but in size, weight of metal, and number of men, 
 nearly equal to ships of the line. Hence, when encountered 
 by British frigates, the latter found themselves, as it were, 
 surprised into a conflict with antagonists of much superior 
 force. In this manner the Ouerriere (Aug. 19, 1812) and 
 the Macedoniam, (Oct. 25) were captured, after desperate en- 
 gagements, by American ships greatly superior in armament 
 and weight of metal. During 1813, several efforts were 
 made by the Americans to obtain possession of Canada, but 
 after many conflicts they were driven out of both provinces. 
 At sea the English maintained their superiority, and before 
 the end of the year, the American flag had been driven from 
 the ocean. Of the numerous actions fought at this period, 
 that between the Shannon and the Ohesa/pedke was the 
 most glorious. The English frigate, the Shannon, Captain 
 Broke, stationed off the port of Boston, had been brought 
 to a state of the most perfect discipline by her commander, 
 who assiduously exercised his men in the use of great and 
 small arms. On the 1st of June Captain Broke stood close 
 in with the Boston lighthouse, by way of a challenge to 
 the United States frigate, the Chesapeake. The American 
 accepted the proffered combat, and, standing out of the har- 
 bour, confidently bore down upon his foe. The ships were 
 soon in close contact, when Captain Broke, perceiving a 
 ■favourable opportunity, gave orders to board the Chesapeake, 
 himself setting the example. The conflict was severe, but 
 short." The war was waged during 1814 with renewed 
 vigour. The English retaliated for the various attacks made 
 upon Canada, by invading the American territory, burning 
 Washington (Aug. 24), and defeating the American army 
 at Baltimore (Sept. 12). Negotiations for peace were 
 carried on, first at Gottenburg and afterwards at Ghent, 
 
 • This is one of the most brilliant naval actions on record. The 
 strength of the ships was as follows : — 
 
 Tons. Guns. Crew. 
 
 Chesa/pedke 1135 60 376 
 
 Shatmon 1066 49 330 
 
 In one quarter of an hour the ChesapeaTce was captured, with a loss of 
 
 46 killed and 106 wounded. The Shavmn had 24 killed and 59 
 
 wounded. 
 
EESTOEATION OF THE BOURBONS. 589 
 
 and a treaty, which put an end to the war, was signed on 
 the 24th of December. 
 
 § 741. On the overthrow of Napoleon, Louis XVIII., 
 who had long lived in England, was raised to the throne. 
 France was reduced within its limits of 1792. Buonaparte 
 pursued his journey towards Elba, and in passing through 
 Avignon nearly fell a prey to the fury of the popiilace. At 
 Frejus he embarked on board an English frigate, which 
 carried him in safety to his place of exile. The negotiations 
 between France and the combined powers were conducted 
 without acrimony. Louis XVIII. and Talleyrand were 
 sensible of the necessity of abandoning Napoleon's conquests, 
 and of restricting the kingdom to moderate limits. Great 
 Britain agreed to yield all her conquests in the West 
 Indies, except Tobago, St. Lucia, and the Spanish part of 
 St. Domingo, with the Isle of France. Malta was confirmed 
 to England ; and France engaged to erect no fortifications 
 in India ; she also pledged herself to co-operate with Great 
 Britain in the eventual abolition of the slave-trade. This 
 treaty, which was signed at Paris (May 30, 1814), also 
 contained an article, ordering a congress to be held at 
 Vienna, consisting of plenipotentiaries of the contracting 
 powers, for the adjustment of the balance of power and of a 
 durable peace. Having so far arranged the new order of 
 things in France, the allied sovereigns received a respectful 
 invitation from the Prince Eegent to visit England, of which 
 several of them cheerfully availed themselves. They reached 
 London in the beginning of June, and received a most 
 cordial welcome (1814). 
 
590 BUONAPAETE QUITS ELBA. 
 
 CHAPTEE III, 
 
 Lbttee 19. — ^History of Earopean Affairs, from the Eestoration of 
 the Bourbons in France, to Napoleon's Escape from Elba, and the 
 Renewal of the War. A.D. 1814 — 1815. Vol. iv., pages 155— 
 164. 
 
 § 742. The French people quickly grew dissatisfied with 
 the terms of the pacification. The loss of all their conquests 
 afilicted them deeply, and although certain concessions were 
 made to gratify their vanity, these did not compensate them 
 for what they had lost. In the mean time Buonaparte ap- 
 peared to resign himself to his fate ; and declared that his 
 intentions were henceforth to devote himself to the pursuits 
 of science and literature. He traversed his new empire in 
 every direction ; planned improvements or alterations, which, 
 had they been carried into eflnect, with the means which 
 he possessed, would probably have occupied his whole 
 lifetime. He established his court upon an ambitious 
 scale, considering his limited territory and slender income : 
 the interior of his household, though reduced to thirty-five 
 persons, still held the titles, and affected the rank proper to 
 an imperial court ; and his body-guard, consisting of about 
 seven hundred infantry and eighty cavalry, seemed to occupy 
 as much of his attention as the grand army had formerly 
 done. They were constantly exercised, and, in a short time, 
 he was observed to be anxious about obtaining recruits. 
 Buonaparte was greatly annoyed at his separation from 
 the empress and his son, and the delay which occurred in 
 the payment of his pension. Intrigues were carried on for 
 some time, and on the 26th of February, 1815, he quitted 
 Elba, with all the friends he could muster. He landed 
 at Cannes (March 1), and commenced his march upon Paris. 
 Louis XVIII. took the alarm at the enthusiasm with 
 which Buonaparte was received, and abandoned his capital 
 (March 20), which his rival entered a few hours after- 
 wards. The allied sovereigns, owing to the determination 
 of Alexander to obtain Poland, were on the point of coming 
 
THE HUNDRED DATS. 591 
 
 to a rupture at Vienna, when the intelligence of Buona- 
 parte's return to France arrived. On the 13th of March, 
 1815, the following declaration appeared : — " By thus break- 
 ing the convention, which had established him in the island 
 of Elba, Napoleon Buonaparte destroys the only legal title 
 on which his political existence depended. By appearing in 
 France with projects of confusion and disorder, he has 
 deprived himself of the protection of the law, and has mani- 
 fested to the universe that there can be neither peace nor 
 truce with him. The powers consequently declare, that 
 Napoleon Buonaparte has placed himself without the pale 
 of civil and social relations ; and, that, as an enemy and 
 disturber of the tranquillity of the world, he has rendered 
 himself liable to public vengeance." 
 
 § 743. All Europe now raug with preparations for war. 
 A treaty was formed (March 15) between Great Britain, 
 Austria, Prussia, and Bussia, in which the contracting 
 parties agreed to maintain and enforce the treaty of 
 Paris, which excluded Buonaparte from the throne, and 
 the decree of outlawry issued against him ; each of the 
 contracting parties agreed to keep constantly in the field an 
 army of one hundred and fifty thousand men, and not to 
 lay down their arms but by common consent, with numerous 
 other stipulations. In the mean time Napoleon did not 
 hesitate to express to the ministers of the allied powers his 
 willingness to acquiesce in the treaty of Paris. He sent a 
 letter to the allied sovereigns, expressing his desire to 
 make peace on the same principles which had been ar- 
 ranged with the Bourbons. No answers were returned; 
 the decision of the allies had been already adopted. Napo- 
 leon soon became sensible that the grand point at issue 
 eould only be decided on the field of battle. He conse- 
 quently set himself in good earnest to conciliate the French 
 people, and ingratiate himself with them. He published a 
 list of his grievances in justification of the step he had 
 taken ; such as his separation from his family, the non- 
 payment of his pension, &c. Ac, and especially insisted 
 upon his having been recalled by the voice of the nation. 
 Had he said the voice of the army, he might have 
 obtained more credit ; for certainly the army had shown 
 great devotion to him, upon grounds which are easily 
 appreciated. But the French people no longer trusted 
 him implicitly as they had done in former years. A modi- 
 fication of the constitution which he presented to the 
 
592 WATERLOO. 
 
 chambers was not well received, and Buonaparte, on quit- 
 ting Paris to join the army, left the chambers to alter it 
 as they deemed fit (June 12, 1815). 
 
 Leitbb 20. — ^History of European Aflfairs continued, from the De- 
 parture of Napoleon from Paris to his Retreat from Waterloo. 
 A.D. 1815, June 12—18. Vol. iv., pages 164—175. 
 
 § 744. The moment the escape of Buonaparte was known, 
 England sent reinforcements into the Belgian fortresses, in 
 which she had retained garrisons, and the duke of Wellington 
 repaired to Brussels to take the command of the army. 
 The Prussians assembled near Namur, and the Russians 
 were marching towards the theatre of the war. The French 
 army crossed the frontier on the 15th of June. Buona- 
 parte's plan of campaign was, if possible, to interpose 
 between the English and Prussian armies, and beat them 
 in detail. Not succeeding in that so well as he had antici- 
 pated, the emperor despatched Ney against the English at 
 Quatre Bras, whilst he attacked the Prussians at Ligny 
 (June 16). Ney was defeated, but Buonaparte gained 
 some advantages. On hearing of the repulse which Blueher 
 had sustained, "Wellington determined to fall back upon 
 Waterloo, whither he was immediately followed by Napo- 
 leon. The allied army, drawn up on that memorable battle- 
 field, consisted of 67,655 men, with 156 guns. Of this 
 force, about one third were English. Napoleon had a fine 
 array of 71,947 men, with 246 guns. Of these, a great 
 number were veteran troops. During the night of the 17th 
 of June, rain continued to fall without intermission, but on 
 the morning of the 18th, the weather cleared up a little. 
 
 § 745. The battle commenced about eleven by an attack 
 upon Hougoumont. The British at first remained on the de- 
 fensive, and Napoleon directed all his efforts to break their 
 line. The Dutch-Belgian troops turned and fled, but the Bri- 
 tish infantry stood firm. A Erench writer declares that the 
 firmness of these soldiers was such as almost to induce one 
 to believe that " they were rooted to the ground." They 
 formed themselves into squares, and received the repeated 
 charges of the Erench cavalry with wonderful fortitude. 
 At six in the evening, after a long succession of the most 
 furious attacks, the French had gained no success, except 
 occupying for a short time the wood around Hougoumont, 
 from which they had been expelled, and the farm-house of 
 La Haye Sainte, which also had been recovered. The 
 
FALL OF BUONAPARTE. 593 
 
 British, on the other hand, had suffered very severely, but 
 had not lost one inch of ground. Ten thousand men were, 
 however, killed or wounded ; some of the foreign regiments 
 had given way, though others had shown the most deter- 
 mined bra^very. The ranks were thinned, both by the actual 
 fugitives and by the absence of individuals, who left the 
 ensanguined field for the purpose of carrying off the 
 wounded, and some of them would naturally be in no 
 hurry to return to so fatal a scene. Buonaparte was 
 anxiously expecting the arrival of Grouchy with reinforce- 
 ments, while Wellington as eagerly looked forward for the 
 promised support of Blucher. Under these circumstances 
 the contest was fiercely waged. At length Buonaparte 
 ordered a charge of the Old Guard, under the command of 
 Marshal Ney. The British met these brave troops with, 
 undaunted courage, and after the first shock, received the 
 order to advance. This they did with loud acclamations, 
 and the most hotly contested victory of modem times 
 was gained. At this moment the Prussian columns began 
 to emerge from the woods on the left, and these fresh troops 
 continued the pursuit. The French army was completely 
 annihilated, while the loss on the part of the British was, 
 as "Wellington termed it, " immense." One hundred officers 
 were killed, five hundred wounded, and 15,000 men killed 
 or wounded. 
 
 Lettee 21. — History of European Affairs continued, from the Battla 
 of Waterloo to the Death of Buonaparte. a.d. 1815 — 1821. 
 • Vol. iv., pages 175—186. 
 
 § 746. Buonaparte with difficulty made his escape 
 amongst the host of fugitives, and reached Paris on the 
 evening of the 21st of June. Discontent prevailed in the 
 capital, rumours of disaster were in circulation, and the 
 aspect of affairs was most unpromising. In this emergency 
 Buonaparte desired to be invested with the dictatorship, 
 but this was not conceded, and finding himself deserted, he 
 abdicated in favour of his son (June 22). A provisional 
 government, was formed, and Buonaparte, who had retired 
 to Malmaison, set out for Eochefort (June 29), intending 
 to sail for America. Paris capitulated on the 3rd of July, 
 and the allied armies entered soon after. In the mean time 
 the English cruisers effectually cut off Buonaparte's retreat, 
 and he surrendered to Captain Maitland, on board the Sel- 
 hrophon (July 15). The English government would not 
 2 Q 
 
694 THE HOLY ALLIANCE, 
 
 allow him to land in England, and after mature delibera- 
 tion, resolved upon sending him to the island of St. Helena, 
 where he arrived in the middle of October. Buonaparte 
 always complained of the conduct of the English govern- 
 ment in treating him as their prisoner ; but his surrender 
 was unconditional, and before he set foot upon the Belle' 
 ropTion, the English naval commanders repejitedly refused to 
 pledge themselves to his agents in any way whatever. The 
 conduct of this fallen hero in his captivity was most undig- 
 nified. Although he had twice abdicated, he claimed the 
 title of emperor, and embittered the closing years of his 
 existence by absurd disputes on points of etiquette and 
 various trivial matters. 
 
 § 747. Louis XVIII, re-entered Paris on the 6th of 
 July. On the 26bh of September, the sovereigns of 
 Eussia, Austria, and Prussia entered into a treaty at 
 Paris. By the tenor of this singular document, which 
 received the name of " the Holy Alliance," being couched 
 in the most devout and solemn language, the high contract- 
 ing parties declared their resolution to take for their sole 
 guide, both in their domestic administration and foreign 
 relations, the precepts of the holy religion of Christ their 
 Saviour. In consequence, they bound themselves to the 
 observance of three articles : — The first of these united 
 them in a fraternity of mutual assistance, and in the com» 
 mon protection of religion, peace, and justice ; which in the 
 second article was explained to mean, that they regarded 
 themselves as delegated by Providence to govern three 
 branches of one and the same Christian nation, of which 
 the Divine Being, under his three characters, was the sole 
 real sovereign. The third article declared a readiness to 
 receive into the holy alliance all the powers who should 
 solemnly avow the sacred principles which had dictated it, 
 Louis XVIII. had resumed the crown under circumstances ^ 
 which rendered it truly a crown of thorns. Some of the ' 
 principal towns in France, which had held out under their 
 military commanders, were at length brought to submit j 
 and the Erench army itself, that dangerous organ of power, 
 was finally dissolved, to be replaced by a new one levied 
 on national principles. The public discontent was, however, 
 greatly aggravated by an act of resumption exercised by 
 the allies ; it was that of entirely stripping the museum 
 of the Louvre of all those fruits of conquest which had 
 rendered it the repository of the most famous works of ar^ 
 
SETTLEMENT OF EUEOPE. 595 
 
 in Europe. These spoliations were now reclaimed, and 
 restored to Germany, to Flanders, and to Italy. Venice 
 received back the famous Corinthian horse ; Florence, the 
 Venus de Medicis ; Rome, the Apollo Behidere, and the 
 ehefs-d'ceuvre of Italian art. 
 
 § 748. The congress of Vienna at length settled the terms 
 upon which the general pacification of Europe was to be 
 based. The treaty was definitively signed at Paris (Nov. 20, 
 1815), and it stipulated that Louis should cede to the allies 
 the important fortresses of Landau, Saar-Louis, Philippe- 
 ville, and Marienburg, with the duchy of Bouillon. Versoix, 
 and part of the territory of G-ex, were yielded to the Hel- 
 vetic confederacy ; the works of Huningen were dismantled ; 
 and France engaged not to erect others within the distance 
 of three leagues from Basle; thus leaving a free passage into 
 the heart of France. Seventeen of the principal towns on 
 the frontiers of French Flanders, Champagne, Lorraine, and 
 Alsace, were to be delivered up to the aiUies, to be held in 
 trust for five years by an army of occupation, consisting of 
 a hundred and fifty thousand men, maintained solely at the 
 expense of France. Several peers were degraded. Marshal 
 Key and others, who had proved traitors to the cause of the 
 Bourbons, were tried and executed. Holland and Belgium 
 were united into one kingdom, and William, prince of 
 Orange, stadtholder, became the first king. The war left 
 England under the pressure of taxation ; but great reduc- 
 tions were made, and the public burthens materially 
 lightened. A reaction, however, occurred, and both the 
 agricultural and manufacturing interests were seriously 
 depressed. Rioting ensued in consequence, and many 
 outrages were committed. During the session of 1817, 
 the distracted state of the country was discussed in Parlia- 
 ment, and measures were adopted to, repress the turbulent 
 proceedings of certain sections of the community. Mr. 
 Abbot, the 'Speaker, resigned, and Charles Manners Sutton 
 was appointed in his stead. Lord Amherst, who had left 
 England on an embassy to China in the preceding year, 
 returned in the autumn of 1817, without having accom- 
 plished the purpose of his mission. The Princess Charlotte 
 of Wales, heiress presumptive to the crown, a great favourite 
 with the English nation, died in child-bed (Nov. 6, 1817.) 
 Her marriage to Prince Leopold, of Saje-Coburg (May 2, 
 1816), had given general satisfaction. 
 § 749. In the year 1818, a new dynasty commenced in 
 2 Q 2 
 
596 DEATH OF BUONAPAETE. 
 
 Sweden. On the 5th of February the king died, after a 
 tedious illness, and was succeeded by Charles-John Berna* 
 dotte, who assumed the royal functions with all the confidence 
 of an hereditary sovereign, but not without the acquiescence 
 of the nobility and people at large. A session of the diet 
 was conducted under his auspices with decorum and tran- 
 quillity ; and some useful enactments and regulations evinced 
 his desire of continuing in a state of harmony with his 
 subjects. The apparent tranquillity which prevailed in 
 Prance, and the probability of its continuance, induced the 
 allied sovereigns to gratify the French people by recalling 
 the whole army of occupation two years before the stipulated 
 time. A congress was convoked at Aix-la-Chapelle (Feb. 14, 
 1818) ; and as the affair had been already settled in theii? 
 respective cabinets, the proposition of recall was speedily 
 sanctioned. In the mean time Buonaparte's residence at 
 St. Helena was embittered by a series of disputes between 
 himself, his attendants, and the governor of the island. Sir 
 Hudson Lowe. Eecent investigations have proved beyond 
 all doubt that the latter has been hitherto unjustly cen- 
 sured. Restrictions as to the limits of the captive's rides, 
 and the necessity of his showing himself occasionally that the 
 governor might be assured of his safe custody, furnished 
 matters of dispute. His health declined, he was attacked 
 by cancer in the stomach, and, in spite of the care of his 
 medical attendants, grew worse. The last consolations of 
 religion were administered' (April 29, 1821). At intervals 
 his mind wandered, and he gradually sank, until the evening 
 of the 5th of May, when he breathed his last. His career 
 was indeed a most extraordinary one. He rose from an 
 inferior station to wield all but universal power, and died 
 an unhappy eiile. Had his ambition been tempered by 
 prudence, he might have worn the crown till his death ; but 
 his own vices became the means of certain retribution. 
 
 Letter 22. — Histoiy of European Affairs, from the Eevolutioii ia 
 Spain to the Interference of the Membera of the Holy Alliance 
 in the Affairs of Naples. a.d. 1820—1821. Vol. iv. pages 
 186—194. 
 
 § 750. After the withdrawal of the allied troops, France 
 was in a very distracted condition. The tyrannical proceed- 
 ings of Ferdinand VII. led to a revolution in Spain (1820). 
 Several deaths occurred amongst the members of the royal 
 family of England about this time. Queen Charlotte, after 
 
AEEIVAL OF QUEEN CAROLINE. 597 
 
 a long, useful, and exemplary life, expired on the 7tli of 
 November, 1818 ; the duke of Kent died Jan. 23, 1820, 
 after a short illness. He left an infant daughter, Alexandrina 
 Victoria, afterwards queen of England. Only six days later 
 (Jan. 29), George III. died at Windsor, in the eighty-second 
 year of his age, after a reign of nearly fifty-nine years. His 
 conduct both as a king and a man deserves the highest 
 praise, and entitles his memory to esteem and veneration. 
 The Prince Eegent succeeded, under the title of George IV. 
 The proclamation was scarcely over ere he was attacked by 
 illness, which brought him to the brink of the grave. A 
 conspiracy was formed by a person of the name of Thistle- 
 wood, for the assassination of the members of the cabinet. 
 The conspirators held their meetings in Cato-street, Mary- 
 lebone, but the plot was discovered, and they were tried and 
 executed (May 1). 
 
 § 751. When the new Parliament assembled, the business 
 of the two houses proceeded for some time, attended with 
 but few indications of party animosity. But an incident 
 at length arose which disturbed the tranquillity of the court, 
 and threw the whole empire into an extraordinary ferment. 
 This was the arrival of the queen — the discarded wife of 
 George IV., who had been long absent from the scene of her 
 ill-treatment. While residing in Italy, she had received the 
 melancholy news of her daughter's lamented death ; and 
 intelligence had reached her of the demise of her royal uncle, 
 to whose kindness and patronage she had formerly owed 
 much. It was the wish of the new king that she should 
 ipdefinitely prolong her absence from England ; but her high 
 spirit emboldened her to defy his menaces and his resent- 
 ment, both of which she had experienced. In consequence 
 of reports unfavourable to her character, two gentlemen of 
 the law had been sent to the continent in 1818 to collect 
 evidence on the subject, with a view to a divorce ; but their 
 discoveries were not then communicated to the public. 
 Queen Caroline landed at Dover (June 6), and her progress 
 to London had the air of a triumph. After many lamentable 
 disputes, a bill of pains and penalties was introduced into 
 the House of Lords. Although the promoters of this 
 measure at first obtained a nia.iority, they ultimately aban- 
 doned the bill (Nov. 10), and this was hailed with the most 
 extraordinary manifestations of delight. The metropolis 
 was illuminated for three nights. The queen received an 
 income, but her name was omitted from the liturgy, and she 
 
598 CONTINENTAL CONSTITUTIONS. 
 
 did not long survive this terrible ordeal. She died Aug. 7, 
 1821. 
 
 § 752. In 1820 a revolution occurred in Portugal, but 
 in the following year the king returned from the Brazils, 
 and tranquillity was restored. France remained in a very 
 distracted condition. The duke of Berri, the heir to the 
 throne, was assassinated by a political fanatic (Feb. 13, 1820). 
 In the Netherlands and in Germany internal repose was 
 maintained, and in the latter country considerable progress 
 was made towards the establishment of representative 
 government. The grand duke of Hesse consented to the 
 formation of two legislative assemblies. The king of Saxony, 
 even while his subjects did not seem eagerly bent upon 
 reform, made such concessions as rendered his government 
 still more popular. But none of the improvements which 
 at this period took place among the German states were 
 more remarkable than the new constitutions which were 
 granted by the kings of Wurtemburg and Bavaria. In the 
 former, the states of the realm were transformed into a 
 regular parliament, to the great joy of the citizens of Stut- 
 gard, who hailed the king with loud acclamations as the brave 
 defender of his country, and the beneficent father of his 
 people. In the latter, the system of despotism was repealed, 
 and the king, who assembled the new legislature with appa- 
 rent satisfaction, expressed his hope that the new constitution 
 would prove a support to his throne and a blessing to his 
 people. The conduct of the king of Prussia, howevet, 
 formed an affecting contrast to that afforded by rulers in 
 other countries. He ordered the arrest of many obnoxious 
 individuals ; subjected all publications to a rigid censorship ; 
 and as the majority of the students at the universities were 
 supposed to be influenced by uncourtly sentiments, he com- 
 missioned servile agents to superintend and correct the 
 lectures of the professors, and to introduce that discipline 
 which would insure political forbearance and moderation. An 
 insurrection excited by the Carbonari at Naples aroused the 
 members of the Holy Alliance. They assembled a congress 
 at Troppau, summoned the king of Naples to meet them 
 at Laybach, when they took possession of his capital, dis- 
 solved the Parliament, and endeavoured to suppress the 
 Carbonari (1821). 
 
GEEEK BETOLUTIOBT. 599 
 
 IiETTEB 23. — History of Europe continued, from the Coronation ot 
 George IV. to the Battle of Navarino. a.d. 1821—1827. YoL iv., 
 pages 194—200. 
 
 § 753. George lY. was crowned at "Westminster Abbey 
 (July 19, 1821) -vrith mucb pomp. In August the king 
 visited Ireland and Hanover, and in the followJng year 
 went to Scotland. When Parliament met in 1822, the king 
 congratulated the two houses on the improvement that had 
 taken place in the commerce and manufactures, and con- 
 sequently the revenue, of the United Kingdom, at the same 
 time deeply regretting the depressed state of the agricul- 
 tural interest. For the settlement of the disordered affairs 
 of Ireland, the rigour of coercion was preferred to the 
 gentler methods of conciliation. The Sdbeas corpus Act was 
 Suspended, and the act against insurrection revived. In 
 consequence of the unfavourable state of the seasons, the 
 crops of potatoes and other vegetables failed, and a famine 
 harassed the general population, in the southern parts of 
 the country ; to relieve which government evinced symptom* 
 of benevolence by advancing money and finding employment 
 for the poor. A call was also made upon the people of 
 Great Britain to contribute to the relief of their suffering 
 brethren, and, as might be expected, it was answered with 
 a promptness and alacrity which filled the Irish with 
 joy and gratitude, while it reflected great honour upon the 
 benevolence of the English character. The marquis of 
 Londonderry, better known as Lord Castlereagh, who for 
 many years had borne a prominent part in the government 
 of the country, destroyed himself in a fit of temporary 
 insanity (Aug. 12, 1822). His death made way for G-eorge 
 Canning; but the latter also sank under the toils of office 
 (Aug. 8, 1827). 
 
 § 754. On finding that the congress of Vienna had made 
 no arrangements to rescue them from the sway af the 
 Turks, the Greeks began to agitate, in order to secure their 
 freedom. As early as 1817 they had made some attempts 
 at rebellion. A revolt in the provinces of Moldavia and 
 Wallachia afforded the Greeks the opportunity they de- 
 sired, and a rising took place in the Morea (1821). Several 
 massacres of Christians followed in the Turkish strongholds, 
 and large armies were raised for the suppression of the 
 revolt. The independence of Greece was proclaimed (Jan. 
 27, 1822), and after struggling some time with varied sue- 
 
600 BATlrLB OF NA'^'AEINO. 
 
 cess, tte conflict began to attract the attention of Europe. 
 Lord Byron and several English gentlemen assisted the 
 Greeks both personally and with money. The noble poet 
 granted the Greek committee a loan of £10,000, took five 
 hundred men into his pay, and was invested with the com- 
 mand of three thousand. But, with all the influence of his 
 name and talents, he could effect but little in the way of 
 securing their obedience, or promoting the success of the 
 war. By exposing himself to a climate to which he was not 
 accustomed, he brought on a rheumatic fever, of which he 
 died, at Missolonghi (April 19, 1824). 
 
 § 755. The war of Grecian independence had lasted 
 through four campaigns; and although- the Greeks had 
 gained many advantages, it was evident that they were not 
 in a condition to struggle against the Turks. Accordingly 
 the great powers of Europe, having in vain offered to me- 
 diate, prepared to interfere. A treaty, called the Treaty 
 of London, was signed by England, France, and Eussia, 
 in which the three contracting parties engaged to equip 
 a fleet for the purpose of staying the further progress 
 of hostilities. The Egyptian fleet effected a junction with 
 that of Turkey, and took up a position at Navarino. Here 
 they were attacked and completely destroyed by Sir Edward 
 Codrington, at the head of the Erench, English, and Eussian 
 equadron (Oct. 20, 1827). The bloody and destructive 
 battle raged for four hours, and the scene of wreck and 
 devastation which presented itself at its termination was 
 such as has rarely been witnessed. Of the Turkish fleet, 
 which at the commencement of the action consisted of 
 seventy sail, no less than sixty-two were burnt, sunk, or 
 driven on shore complete wrecks ; and, from a statement 
 of the Turkish admiral, it appears that on board of two 
 line-of-battle ships, each with a crew of eight hundred and 
 fifty men, there were killed, in one ship six hundred and 
 fifty, and in the other four hundred. 
 
 Letter 24. — History of Affairs in various Parts of the Globe, from the 
 War with the Ashantees in Western Africa, to the Accession of 
 Nicholas I. to the Throne of Eussia. a.d. 1823—1825. Vol. iv., 
 pages 201—210. 
 
 § 756. In the early part of the year 1824, the British 
 government were not a little surprised at receiving intelli- 
 gence that a war had broken out at one of their colonies in 
 Western Africa. The Fantees, who occupied the country 
 
STATE OP FRANCE. 601 
 
 near Cape-Coast Castle, were involved in hostilities through 
 the ambitious and restless spririt of the Ashantees, a 
 people possessing an extensive range of country immedi- 
 ately behind the Gold Coast. Unable to withstand this 
 powerful nation, the Fantees had for some time become 
 vassals and tributaries to them ; a treaty was concluded on 
 that basis ; and they acknowledged themselves the tenants 
 of the victorious king. The governor of the colony, however, 
 was not inclined to adhere to this treaty, and Sir Charles 
 WCarthj, who had been sent out from England to take 
 the command upon the Gold Coast, promised to support the 
 Fantees in a revolt from their new masters. The conse- 
 quence was a war, in which the Ashantees manifested both 
 courage and cruelty. The colonial force gained the advan- 
 tage in some slight conflicts; but the Ashantees having 
 mustered an army of ten thousand men, came down upon 
 the garrison of Fettue, which did not consist of one 
 thousand, under the command of Sir Charles, when they 
 completely surrounded his battalions, put most of them 
 to the sword, and among the rest the commander himself 
 (Jan. 21, 1824). Major Chisholm avenged in some measure 
 this outrage, by inflicting a severe chastisement on the Ashan- 
 tees ; but he was precluded, by the retreat of his African 
 auxiliaries, from converting the repulse into a defeat. In a 
 subsequent contest, the Ashantees, with a force of fifteen 
 thousand men, were met by Colonel Sutherland with about 
 four hundred regulars and militia, to whom he was enabled 
 to add four thousand six hundred and fifty unorganized 
 volunteers, all of whom fought with such zeal and alacrity 
 that the enemy were defeated, a great desertion ensued, 
 and the Ashantees were glad to discontinue their hostile 
 operations (July, 1824). 
 
 § 757. In France, people, both in the metropolis and in 
 the principal towns, were far from being reconciled to the 
 new order of things under the Bourbons. The king 
 attempted ministerial modifications, but these did not 
 satisfy the nation. Insurrections broke out in various 
 places, the most important of which were those at Saumur, 
 Bochelle, and Toulon ; but they were quelled with the loss 
 of a few lives. In the Peninsula, matters were in a much 
 more distracted state than in France. The Spanish Cortes, 
 who were in possession of the reins of government, did all 
 they could to keep the imbecile Ferdinand VII. in check ; 
 and his attempts to shake off the trammels to which he was 
 
602' TEEEIBLE HUEEICANE. 
 
 subject, concurred with the efforts of his adherents to create 
 disorder and confusion. Eiego presided in a session of the 
 ordinary Cortes, and that assembly pursued a course that 
 by no means suited the views or feelings of his majesty.; 
 At the close of the session a military riot ensued, which, 
 after some loss of lives, terminated in favour of the consti- 
 tutional party. In Portugal, the revolution proceeded with 
 singular success. The Cortes completed the new constitu- 
 tion, though with much apparent labour ; and on its 
 promulgation, it was found to bear a great resemblance to 
 the new code of Spain. These proceedings aroused the 
 jealousy of the despotic powers, who had signed the Holy 
 Alliance, and they persuaded the French government to 
 raise an army for the invasion of Spain (1823). The duke of 
 Angouleme took the command, and marched to Madrid 
 without encountering any serious opposition. The whole 
 kingdom was speedily subdued; and the Portuguese, 
 alarmed at what was going on in Spain, applied to England 
 for support. Italy remained tranquil, and the rulers of Prussia 
 and of Austria continued to foUow their humiliating policy. 
 Louis XVIII. fell a victim to a complication of disorders 
 (Sept. 16,. 1824). He was succeeded by his brother, the 
 count of Artois, under the title of Charles X. 
 
 § 758. The close of the year was signalized by a hur- 
 ricane, which caused great devastation in various parts of 
 Europe. It appeared to have originated on the coasts of 
 England and Holland, from whence it swept along the 
 North Sea, which was everywhere furiously agitated. It 
 traversed Sweden, prostrating whole forests in its course. 
 Gottenburg and Stockholm suffered severely. The hurri- 
 cane forced the waters of the Baltic into the Gulf of 
 Finland. At St. Petersburg there was an inundation of 
 the Neva, such as was never before remembered. Whole 
 villages in the neighbourhood were swept away. The 
 inundation appears to have subsided almost as suddenly 
 as it came on — in one day it began and ended. Cronstadt 
 was completely under water, and many vessels were lost. 
 The imperial navy suffered greatly. At Portsmouth ships 
 foundered in every direction. All the houses fronting the 
 sea at Seaford, had their foundations sapped, and many 
 cottages were washed away. At Dover, the tempest 
 was more severe than any that had been experienced for 
 many years. Off Margate, a brig went down, and all on 
 board perished. Off Weymouth, a large ship was wrecked. 
 
DEATH OF ALEXANDER OF EUSSIA. 603 
 
 with similar results. . The breakwater, and nearly the 
 whole of the esplanade were washed away. At Plymouth, 
 some of the shipping in the Sound parted, cut their cables, 
 and becoming unmanageable, went foul of other vessels, 
 carrying away their masts, bowsprits, &c., drifting upon the 
 rocks. On the Devonshire coast, within the small compass 
 of three hundred yards, were to be seen the wrecks of no 
 less than sixteen fine merchantmen. Similar calamities, 
 such as the unroofing of houses and the falling of chimneys, 
 occurred in various parts of the kingdom. This hurricane, 
 the most extraordinary phenomenon of its kind upon record, 
 traversed in a double curve of about four hundred leagues, 
 in a very few minutes, the north of Europe. 
 
 § 759. In the month of February, 1825, the Emperor 
 Alexander of Eussia issued a proclamation, convoking the 
 estates of the kingdom of Poland, for the third general diet, 
 to open on the 13th of May, and to close on the 13th of June. 
 The diet met at Warsaw, according to appointment. During 
 the greater part of the year, Alexander spent his time in 
 traversing the various provinces of his dominions. Towards 
 the end of autumn he visited the Crimea. On the 10th of 
 JS'ovember, he quitted the port of Sebastopol, after having 
 minutely inspected it, and everything connected with the 
 fleet in the Black Sea. On his way to Bakschiserai, he 
 found himself slightly aifected with a pain in his head, 
 which he attributed to his having taken cold. On his 
 return, however, he made one of a party on horseback 
 along the shore of the Sea of Azoff. He halted at Tagan- 
 rog, a tpwn situated on the clifi" of a very lofty promontory, 
 commanding an extensive prospect of the sea, and of all 
 the European coast, to the mouths of the Don. Here his 
 indisposition increased, he became delirious (Nov. 27), and 
 expired on the 1st of December. Constantine, the right- 
 ful heir, had renounced his succession (1822), and Nicholas 
 succeeded. Having satisfied himself that Constantine was 
 sincere in his renunciation of the imperial dignity, he was 
 proclaimed emperor, and issued a manifesto. A general in- 
 surrection broke out against him in St. Petersburg, and had 
 it not been for the firmness displayed by Nicholas, his throne 
 must have been swept away. 
 
604 THE PANIC OP 1825. 
 
 PART V. 
 
 FEOM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDEE, THE ETJSSIAN- 
 EMPEEOE, IN 1825, TO THE CLOSE OF THE EUSSIAN 
 WAE IN 1856. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 Lettee l.'^— History of European Afiairs from the Panic of 1825 to the 
 Autumnal Session of the British Parliament in 1826. A.D. 182S — 
 1826, VoL iv., pages 211—217. 
 
 § 760. The year 1825 is noted for the general prosperity 
 ■which characterized its advent, and the almost unparalleled 
 ruin and desolation with which it closed. The mania for 
 speculation produced this untoward result, and towards the 
 end of the year, the aspect of affairs in England became 
 gloomy in the extreme. Early in December some metro- 
 politan banking establishments stopped payment ; and the 
 inability of their proprietors to meet their engagements 
 caused the ruin of numerous provincial houses. About 
 seventy banks were closed at this juncture. A general 
 panic ensued. Cabinet councils were summoned in rapid 
 succession, and measures adopted to afford relief. One and 
 two-pound notes were issued, and money coined with extra- 
 ordinary expedition. The sacrifices entailed upon aU classes 
 'by a mania for speculation were truly terrific. Public 
 companies, firms, and private concerns, were swept away 
 wholesale. Every vestige of the colossal fortune, as well 
 as of the smaller hoard, disappeared in the whirlpool. The 
 Burmese war, waged with varied success from the year 
 1823, was brought to a triumphant conclusion in the spring 
 of 1826. The session of 1826 commenced on the 2nd of 
 February, and the government, anxious to relieve com- 
 
SESSION OF 1826, 605 
 
 xaerce, prohibited, after a certain period, the circulation 
 of one and two-pound notes. The measure met with con- 
 fiiderable opposition. Other plana were adopted for the 
 same purpose, and although ministers refused to authorize 
 an extraordinary issue * of Exchequer bUls, they induced 
 the bank authorities to make advances to private indi- 
 viduals upon the deposit of goods, merchandise, and other 
 securities ; but the whole sum to be advanced was not 
 to exceed three millions. 
 
 § 761. Emigration and the corn-laws occupied the atten- 
 tion of Parliament at this juncture. A select committee 
 was appointed to inquire into the former subject, but a 
 motion for a committee to consider the propriety of a 
 revision of the corn-laws was lost by a large majority. Two 
 resolutions were, however, passed, the one admitting com 
 at a lower rate of duty, and the other giving ministers a 
 discretionary power respecting the admission of foreign 
 grain during the recess. The commercial crisis caused 
 much discontent among operatives and labourers, and 
 in the spring of 1826, many places became the scene of 
 fearful riots. In Lancashire, Yorkshire, Staffordshire, Cum- 
 berland, Norfolk, and Middlesex, as well as in Ireland and 
 Scotland, serious disturbances occurred. Joseph Hume 
 brought forward a motion upon the state of the nation. It 
 was based upon forty-five resolutions, and met with little 
 favour. Lord John Eussell's resolutions against bribery at 
 elections were carried by the Speaker's casting vote, and 
 his motion for parliamentary reform was rejected by a 
 majority of two to one. Several matters of minor import- 
 ance were discussed, and Parliament was dissolved (June 2). 
 The failure in the crop of certain kinds of grain, and a 
 rather alarming drought early in the autumn, induced the 
 government to issue an order in council, authorizing the 
 immediate importation of several sorts of agricultural pro- 
 duce, at very reduced rates of duty. This rendered an 
 autumnal session of the new Parliament necessary, that 
 ministers might obtain an act of indemnity. It was opened 
 on the 21st of November by the king in person. The act 
 of indemnity, joint-stock companies, bribery at elections, 
 and the dispute between Spain and Portugal, were the 
 principal matters of discussion previous to the adjourn- 
 ment, which occurred about ten days before Christmas. 
 
 § 762. France seemed to settle down tranquilly under 
 
606 DEATH OF JOHN VI. OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 the rule of her new king, Charlea the Tenth. The occup*- 
 tion of Spain by French troops was a popular measure, and 
 served to attract the attention of the people from home 
 affairs. During the session that followed, almost immedi- 
 ately upon his accession to the thtone, three measures of 
 considerable importance were proposed and adopted. These 
 referred to the settlement of the civil list ; the indemnifica- 
 tion of those emigrants whose property had been confiscated 
 in the stormy period of the Kevolution ; and to the conver- 
 sion of the five per cents, into a lower denomination of 
 stock. A temporary effervescence was excited by some 
 unsuccessful prosecutions of the press ; and the passing of 
 a very severe law for the punishment of sacrilege created 
 much discussion in the chambers, and attracted considerable 
 attention in many parts of Europe. The long-pending 
 negotiation between France and St. Domingo terminated in 
 the recognition, by the former, of the independence of Hayti. 
 The expenses of the army of occupation in Spain, the case 
 of the contractor Ouvrard, and the introduction of the law 
 of primogeniture, furnished matter for angry discussion 
 during the session of 1826. The Jesuits again sought to 
 curb the freedom of the press, by instituting proceedings 
 against authors. Towards the end of the year, the policy of 
 the French government with respect to the state of affairs 
 in the Peninsula was brought more in harmony with that 
 of Great Britain, the French minister being recalled, and 
 the Swiss guards in the pay of the government of France 
 withdrawn from Madrid. In Eussia, the new emperor, 
 Nicholas, sought to consolidate his authority, so seriously 
 menaced on his accession to the throne. An inves- 
 tigation into the conspiracy was at once instituted, which 
 lasted nearly six months. This led to the discovery 
 of a well-organized association, with members amongst 
 all classes of the empire. The chief concocters of the 
 rebellion were punished. A war broke out between 
 Russia and Persia, having reference to disputed questions 
 of territory in Georgia, and the Persians were defeated 
 (Sept. 26). John VI., king of Portugal, died on the 10th of 
 March, 1826. His son, Don Pedro, the rightful heir, in 
 order to retain the sceptre of the Brazils, relinquished the 
 crown of Portugal to his own daughter, Donna Maria di 
 Gloria, a mere child. A threatened rupture between Spain- 
 and Portugal was by the influence of Canning averted. 
 
MTNISTEEIAL CHANGES. 607 
 
 Count Eostopchin died on the 8th of January, and Karamsin, 
 the historian of Bussia, on the 3rd of June, 1826. Plaxman, 
 the sculptor, the Protestant bishops Barringtou and Heber, 
 and the Soman Catholic bishop Milner, died during the 
 same year. 
 
 Letteb 2. — History of Afiairs in Great Britain, from the Formation of 
 the Roman Catholic Association to the Fall of the Wellington 
 Cabinet, a.d. 1823—1830. Vol. iv., pages 217—228. 
 
 § 763. After the close of the great war, the question of 
 the emancipation of the Eoman Catholics began to attract 
 attention, and the members of the government were divided 
 in opinion upon the subject. Agitators availed themselves 
 of the sufferings of the lower orders in Ireland to create 
 discontent, and in 1823 founded the Eoman Catholic Asso- 
 ciation. Money was collected for the purposes of this 
 society, which came under the notice of Parliament in 
 1824. The next year a bill was passed for the suppression 
 of illegal societies in Ireland. Several motions having 
 reference to the claims of the Eoman Catholics were made 
 and rejected, until the sudden illness of Lord Liverpool, 
 early in 1827, led to the elevation of Mr. Canning to the 
 premiership. Thereupon the duke of Wellington, Mr. Peel, 
 and others resigned, and the ministry sought allies amongst 
 its former opponents. Mr. Canning did not long survive 
 his elevation, and at his death (Aug. 8, 1827), Lord Goderich 
 was made first minister. Internal divisions led to the fall 
 of this cabinet (Jan. 8, 1828), whereupon the duke of 
 "Wellington and Mr. Peel accepted ofiBce. Towards the end 
 of the year ministers resolved to concede those claims of the 
 Eoman Catholics which they had before resisted, and having 
 induced the king to alter his views, passed during the session 
 of 1829 the Eoman Catholic Eelief Bill. This measure did 
 not, however, appease the popular agitators, and Daniel 
 O'Connell, finding that he could no longer trade upon 
 emancipation, took up the question of the Eepeal of the 
 Union. He issued a most violent address to the electors of 
 Clare, and induced the Association to vote the sum of 
 f 5,000 for the expenses of the contest. A duel between 
 the duke of Wellington and the earl of Winchelsea 
 (March 21) which happily terminated without bloodshed, 
 caused considerable excitement. 
 
 . § 764. The Whigs and Canningites, who had assisted the 
 Wellington administration to carry the Eoman Catholic 
 
608 DEATH OF GEOEGE IV. 
 
 relief bill, soon after united their forces with the Eadicals, 
 to the embarrassment of the goyernment. The session of 
 1830 was opened by commission on the 4th of February. 
 The state of the country was sufficiently alarming. Great 
 sufferings prevailed amongst the lower orders, both in the 
 agricultural and the manufacturing districts. Some prose- 
 cutions of the press, instituted by the ministry against the 
 proprietors and editor of the Morning Journal, served to 
 render them still more unpopular. The budget Was well 
 received, as the reductions amounted to £3,400,000, Several 
 reform schemes were agitated during the session, and some 
 of these originated from men actuated by very different 
 motives. They were all rejected, and a motion for the 
 repeal of Jewish disabilities shared the same fate. Political 
 unions were formed in the large towns, and a regular 
 outdoor agitation for reform commenced. A committee 
 was appointed to inquire into the question of the renewal or 
 modification of the East-India Company's charter. Some 
 legal reforms were attempted, and Sir Jonah Barrington, 
 judge of the high court of Admiralty, was removed for mal- 
 versation. In the mean time the health of George IV. had 
 been declining, and he expired on the 26th of June. The 
 duke of Clarence, under the title of WUliam IV., succeeded 
 on the 28th, and in the following month Parliament was 
 dissolved. The result of the general election was altogether 
 unfavourable to the government. The state of the southern 
 portion of England during the autumn became quite alarm- 
 ing. Earm-houses were fired, grain and stock consumed, 
 machinery was destroyed, and threatening letters sent to 
 many landlords and farmers. Parliament met in November, 
 and the defeat of the Wellington administration on a ques- 
 tion of the civil list led to its resignation. On the 15th of 
 September, 1880, Mr. Huskisson, the friend of the lamented 
 George Canning, met with an accident at the opening of 
 the Manchester and Liverpool railroad which caused his 
 death. In 1827, England lost Mitford the historian, and 
 Switzerland Pestalozzi the popular instructor. Volta the 
 Italian philosopher, and Laplace the Erench mathematician 
 and astronomer, both died on the same day (March 5, 1827). 
 Erederick Von Schlegel died on the 11th of Eebruary, 1829, 
 and Sir Humphrey Davy on the 30th of May. Sir Thomas 
 Lawrence, the celebrated painter, died on the 16th of 
 January, 1830, and on the 25th, George Tierney, the 
 statesman. 
 
EEVOLTJTION IN PAEIS. 609 
 
 liETTEB 3. — History of Affairs on the Continent, from the Commence- 
 ment of the Struggles that led to the French Kevolution of 1830, to 
 the Separation of Holland and Belgiam. a.d. 1827 — 1830. Vol. iv., 
 pages 228—234. 
 
 § 765. The recall of the Trench troops from the Peninsula 
 was by no means a popular measure, and the interference 
 of the English government in Portuguese affairs only served 
 to increase the national displeasure. The Villele cabinet 
 lost ground daily, and the proposed restrictions upon the 
 liberty of the press in 1827 brought matters to a crisis. 
 The measure being, after a desperate struggle, carried 
 ^;ll^ough the Chamber of Deputies, met with such a reception 
 in the House of Peers that it was eventually withdrawn. 
 Immediately after the close of the session three decrees 
 appeared, re-establishing the censorship of the press, dis- 
 solving the Chamber of Deputies, and creating seventy-six 
 new peers. The result of the elections was most unfavour- 
 able to the ministry, and the formation of a cabinet under 
 Prince Polignac increased public discontent. Another 
 election having been tried with no better results, a cotip 
 d'etat was resolved upon. On the morning of the 26th of 
 July, 1830, a ministerial memorial and three ordinances 
 appeared in the Mbniteur. The first destroyed the liberty 
 of the press, the second dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, 
 and the third provided for reform in the electoral law. 
 Certain proprietors and editors met at the oflSce of the 
 National on the 27th of July, and signed the celebrated 
 protest, in which they declared their intention of resisting 
 the decree. The outbreak commenced on the same after- 
 noon, all the serious fighting occurred on the 28th, and by 
 the evening of the 29th the city was in the hands of 
 the populace. A provisional government was formed, the 
 national guard called out, and to G-eneral Lafayette was 
 intrusted the command. The duke of Orleans assumed the 
 direction of afiairs, and afterwards ascended the vacant 
 throne under the title of Louis Philippe. Charles X. 
 escaped to England, where the government placed at his 
 disposal the palace of Holyrood. 
 
 § 766. In Portugal Don Miguel managed to obtain the 
 direction of affairs, and was proclaimed king. Peace was 
 concluded between Bussia and Persia (Feb. 28, 1828) ; and 
 the czar declared war against Turkey. The Eussians passed 
 the Balkan (July, 1829), and the fall of Adrianople induced 
 2 E 
 
610 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 
 
 the Porte to submit. A treaty was signed ; Turkey con- 
 ceded many important rights, and engaged to pay an 
 indemnity to Eussian subjects for losses occasioned by the 
 war, as well as an indemnity to the Eussian government for 
 the actual expenses of the contest. The struggle between the 
 Greeks and the Turks was brought to a close in 1829, and a 
 protocol signed at London, defining the extent of the new 
 kingdom of Greece and settling its government. At the 
 congress of Vienna, Belgium had been incorporated with 
 Holland under the name of the kingdom of the Netherlands. 
 The alliance was not very intimate, and an insurrection at 
 Brussels in August, 1830, led to a separation. A congress of 
 European ambassadors signed a protocol in favour of the sepa- 
 ration (Dec. 20, 1830), and the choice of a sovereign was 
 left in the hands of the people. Commotions ensued in many 
 continental towns during the autumn of 1830. Germany, 
 as usual, followed the lead of France. In Dresden, Leipsic, 
 .Brunswick, Cologne, Cassel, &c., insurrections broke out 
 against the authorities, but they were suppressed with little 
 difficulty. The Austrian rule in Italy received a shock, and 
 even Switzerland did not escape the general contagion. 
 Poland made a gallant struggle to regain its liberty ; the 
 grand-duke Constantino and his troops were expelled, 
 and an opportunity thus afforded to the European 
 powers of erecting a formidable barrier against the stream 
 of Muscovite aggression. Spain was seriously convulsed. 
 Frederick Augustus, king of Saxony, died at Dresden on 
 the 5th of May, 1827. Pope Leo XII., who died on the 
 10th of February, 1829, was succeeded by Pius VIII. He 
 died in December, 1830. The vacancy was not, however, 
 filled up until February, 1831, when Mauro Capellari, under 
 the pontifical title of Gregory XVI., was elected by the 
 conclave of cardinals, and his elevation caused a serious 
 convulsion in Italy. Francis Joseph, king of Naples and 
 the two Sicilies, succumbed on the 7th of November, 1830. 
 His son Ferdinand II. ascended the vacant throne. 
 
 Letter 4. — Great Britain during the Reform Struggle. 
 A.D. 1831—1832. Vol. iv., pages 235—243. 
 
 § 767. The Eoman Catholic relief bill had no sooner 
 received the. royal assent than the struggle for reform com- 
 menced in good earnest. On the fall of the "Wellington 
 administration, a cabinet pledged to carry reform succeeded 
 to office, under the leadership of Earl Grey. Agitation rose 
 
CRISIS OF THE EEFOEM STRUGGLE. 611 
 
 to a fearful pitch in the country, and the hill was read a 
 first time without opposition. The second reading was 
 carried hy a majority of one (March 23, 1831). General 
 Grascoyne's amendment against the measure ohtained a 
 majority of twenty-nine. Amid the most extraordinary 
 excitement, ministers induced the king, much against his 
 inclination, to dissolve Parliament (April 22). The elections 
 proceeded amid scenes of riot and confusion, and resulted 
 in a large ministerial majority. Parliament met on the 14th 
 of June, and on the 24th Lord John Eussell obtained leave 
 to bring in his reform hill, the second reading being carried 
 on the 6th of July by a majority of 136. On the 21st 
 of September the bill passed by a majority of 109. The 
 triumph produced another illumination, with its attendant 
 folhes and excesses. In October the Peers threw out the bill 
 by a majority of forty-one. The Commons passed a vote of 
 confidence in ministers, and postponed the further consider- 
 ation of the measure till the next session. The reformers 
 in various parts of the kingdom committed the most extra- 
 ordinary outrages. Their opponents were attacked, property 
 was destroyed, and blood spilt. Bristol was for several 
 hours at the mercy of a mob, who liberated the prisoners, 
 fired the tovra in several places, and spread terror and alarm 
 amongst the inhabitants. Although Parliament had been 
 prorogued on the 20th of October, it met again early in 
 December. A new reform bill, essentially different to the 
 former measure, was immediately introduced, and carried 
 through the lower house. The second reading in the Lords 
 was affirmed by a majority of nine (April 13, 1832). After 
 the Easter recess, the House of Lords immediately went into 
 committee. Lord Lyndhurst proposed an amendment, to 
 the effect, that the enfranchising clauses of the biU should 
 be considered before the disenfranchising clauses ; and 
 although Lord Grey hinted that its adoption would be 
 followed by the resignation of the government, it was 
 carried by 151 to 116 (May 7). Ministers required of the 
 king an immediate creation of peers, to enable them to carry 
 their bill ; stating, that only upon these terms could they 
 consent to remain in office. William IV. refused to do this, 
 and the government resigned (May 9). 
 
 § 768. The excitement both in and out of Parliament 
 was excessive. As Lord Lyndhurst and the duke of Wel- 
 lington had failed in their endeavours to form a ministry, 
 the Grey cabinet was recalled on the distinct understanding 
 2 E 2 
 
612 FIRST VISIT OF CHOLEBA. 
 
 . that a number of peers should, if necessary, be created to in- 
 sure the passing of the Eeform Bill. In consequence of this 
 pledge, a number of peers absented themselves from the divi- 
 sions, and the measure was passed (June 7, 1832). The Irish 
 and Scotch reform bills also received the sanction of the legis- 
 lature. 0' Connell continued his dangerous game of agitation, 
 and became the subject of a state prosecution. Althougli 
 he pleaded guilty, he was not brought up for sentence. He 
 gave ministers his support in Parliament ; in fact, a silent 
 compromise had been effected. The failure of the potato 
 crop in Ireland caused considerable suffering, and political 
 agitation increased the horrors of the period. A dreadful 
 visitant, the Asiatic cholera, made its first appearance in 
 these islands in 1831. It broke out in Sunderland on the 
 26th of October, and speedily passed on to Newcastle and 
 Gateshead, travelling thence into Scotland. The disease 
 reached London in February, 1832, and spread gradually all 
 over the kingdom. But the visitation was not severe, the 
 deaths not amounting to one-third of those attacked. The 
 expulsion of Mr. Irving by the Scotch church led to the 
 formation of a new sect, known by the name of the Irvingites. 
 In 1832 the religious system of fraternity and equality, 
 called St. Simonism, was first preached in England.. In the 
 Established Church, Tractarianism had already manifested 
 itself, and was daily growing in importance. New London 
 Bridge was opened by the king in August, 1831. Amongst 
 the celebrated men removed from the scene during the 
 period may be mentioned Bolivar, the South-American 
 reformer (December, 1830). In January, 1831, G-ermany 
 mourned the loss of Niebuhr the historian. Mrs. Siddons 
 and Mr. EUiston, ornaments of the British stage, died, the 
 former in June, and the latter in July of the same year. 
 John Abernethy, the eminent surgeon, expired in April, 
 1831. In 1832, Napoleon Erancis Joseph Charles, the only 
 son of the great Napoleon, died at the palace of Schoenbrunn, 
 in Yienna, at the early age of twenty-one years (July 22), 
 Crabbe, the poet of the poor, died February 8th, Sir James 
 Mackintosh, the historian, on the 30th of May, and Sir 
 Walter Scott on the 21st of September, 1832. Barou 
 Cuvier and Goethe died during the same year. 
 
LOUIS PHILIPPE MADE KING. 613 
 
 LirrTER 5. — History of European Afiaire from the Aoeession of Louis 
 Philippe to the French Throne, to the Proclamation of Donna Maria 
 as Queen of Portugal a.d. 1830—1833. Vol. iv., pages 243—251. 
 
 § 769. The intrigues of the duke of Orleans were suc- 
 cessful, the elder branch of the Bourbons was set aside, and 
 the veteran schemer mounted the throne under the title of 
 Louis Philippe the First. Material guarantees were required 
 for the good conduct of this monarch. The censorship of 
 the press was abolished, and it was decreed that the sovereign 
 had no power either to suspend the laws or to dispense with 
 their execution. The national guard was organized, and 
 the hereditary peerage of France abolished. Nevertheless, 
 discontents speedily followed. In La Vendee, the duchess 
 of Bern, mother of the young duke of Bordeaux, endeavoured 
 to get up an insurrection in favour of the elder branch of 
 the Bourbons. Her efforts, however, failed, and she was 
 taken prisoner. A revolt occurred in Paris on the 5th of 
 June, 1832, the day of the funeral of General Lamarque, one 
 of the elder Napoleon's fortunate soldiers, who, during the 
 later years of his life, had become an idol of the popular 
 party. The insurrection was suppressed with diificulty, and 
 martial law proclaimed in Paris. The terms of the separation 
 between Holland and Belgium led to very serious disputes. 
 The Peninsula was sadly agitated during the years 1831 and 
 1832. A Carlist conspiracy in Spain was temporarily 
 successful, and Don Pedro landed in Portugal (July, 1832), 
 with a view of wresting the crown from the usurper Miguel. 
 The Polish struggle of 1831 ended in the defeat of the 
 patriots. Ibrahim Pacha, viceroy of Egypt, made war upon 
 Syria, but, owing to the interference of Russia (1833), was 
 compelled to retire. Early in 1833, Prince Otho, son of the 
 king of Bavaria, mounted the throne of the new kingdom of 
 Greece. 
 
 § 770. The English Parliament was dissolved in 1832, and 
 the first election under the Reform Act followed in due 
 course. The session opened on the 5th of February, 1833. 
 The Irish Coercion Bill was passed, as well as a measure for 
 regulating the Irish Church, and another authorizing a grant 
 of money to the clergy of the Irish Church, till the question 
 of tithes should be definitively settled. The Bank charter 
 was amended, and the monopoly enjoyed by the East-India 
 Company, which had been materially relaxed in 1813, was 
 daring the session of 1833 almost entirely destroyed. The 
 
614 , EMANCIPATION OF THE SLAVES. 
 
 charter was indeed renewed for twenty years, but the terri- 
 torial government alone remained in the hands of the 
 company. The first reformed Parliament was in all respects 
 an important one. A measure passed in 1807 put a stop to 
 the commerce in slaves ; and another of 1833 declared that 
 from the 1st of August, 1834, they should be free. The 
 emancipation cost the country twenty millions, that being 
 the amount paid to the planters as an indemnification. The 
 reductions in the budget amounted to no less than £1,349,000. 
 Two select committees were appointed, the one to inquire 
 into the condition of the agricultural, and the other of the 
 shipping interest. Several motions for the repeal of parti- 
 cular taxes were rejected ; and the session closed on the 29th 
 of August. The duchess of Berri having given birth to a 
 daughter in the castle of Blaye, confessed that she had 
 secretly contracted a marriage with Count Palli, a Neapohtan 
 nobleman, and on her recovery was sent home to her husband. 
 The fortifications rising up around Paris, and the numerous 
 prosecutions of the press, excited a profound sensation 
 in Prance. Ferdinand YII. of Spain died Sept. 29, 1833, 
 when another Carlist rebellion broke out. The Carlists 
 met with severe reverses, and in the sister kingdom, Don 
 Miguel was expelled, and Donna Maria entered Lisbon, as 
 queen (Sept. 23, 1833). In several parts of Germany dis- 
 cussions relative to the freedom of the press ensued, and 
 dissensions broke out in Switzerland with reference to the 
 refugee question. In August, 1833, the remains of the 
 great champion of the slaves, and Christian philanthropist, 
 William Wilberforce, were laid with much state in West- 
 minster Abbey. Lord Exmouth died oh the 6th of February; 
 and the Eev. Eowland Hill, the celebrated minister, on the 
 11th of April. John O'Keefe, the dramatic author, and 
 Edmund Xean, the eminent tragic actor, both died in the 
 spring of 1838. 
 
 Lettee 6. — History of European Affairs continued, from the Opening 
 of the English Parliament in 1834, to the Accession of Queen 
 Victoria, a.d. 1834—1837. Vol. iv., pages 251—269. 
 
 § 771. The struggle for the repeal of the Union com- 
 menced during the session of 1834 in good earnest. All 
 Mr. O'ConneU's motions were defeated by large majorities. 
 A difierence of opinion in the government respecting the 
 manner in which the Irish Church question was to be dealt 
 with led to the resignation of Mr. Stanley and three other 
 
HOUSES OF PAELIAMENT DESTROYED. 615 
 
 jnembers. Differences, having reference to Irisli measures, 
 brought about the resignation of Lord Grey (July 9, 1834). 
 Lord Melbourne assumed the leadership, and Lord Althorp 
 was induced to retain office as Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
 The Poor-law Amendment Bill was passed, but the Irish 
 Tithe Bill was lost in the Lords. Taxes to the amount of 
 £1,581,000 were remitted ; various schemes for the repeal 
 of taxes and the alteration of the institutions of the country 
 were rejected, and Parliament was prorogued on the 15th of 
 August The death of Earl Spencer led to the elevation of 
 Lord Althorp to the House of Lords, and on Lord John ' 
 Eussell's being proposed as his successor, the king dismissed 
 the cabinet. The duke of Wellington received the royal 
 command to form an administration, and summoned Sir 
 Eobert Peel from Italy. The new premier reached London 
 early in December ; and very soon completed his arrange- 
 ments. Anxious to obtain the verdict of the electors of the- 
 United Kingdom on the ministerial changes, Sir Eobert 
 Peel dissolved Parliament on the 30th of December. A. 
 great national disaster happened in the autumn. On the 
 16th of October both houses of Parliament were discovered 
 to be in flames, and in spite of the exertions of the firemen, 
 fell a prey to the fury of the devouring element. The 
 painte(v chamber, rich in historical associations, and the 
 magnificent libraries, together with many valuable records 
 and relics of ancient art, perished in the flames. West- 
 minster Hall was fortunately preserved. 
 
 § 772. Louis Philippe pursued a very unpopular course 
 in Prance. In 1834, he induced the chambers to pass two 
 laws, the one curtailing the liberty of the press, and the 
 other suppressing political clubs and societies. Disturbances 
 followed in various parts of the country. Marshal Soult 
 resigned the premiership and was succeeded by Marshal 
 Gerard, who soon gave way to the duke of Bassano, and he 
 was replaced by Marshal Mortier. Algiers was permanently 
 annexed to France, and two new corps, the Zouaves and the 
 Chasseurs d'Afrique, were established. A treaty was signed 
 at London on the 22nd of April, 1834, by the plenipo- 
 tentiaries of England, Prance, Portugal, and Spain, having 
 for its object the termination of the civil war then raging in 
 Spain and Portugal. Prance and England agreed to inter- 
 fere, and Don Miguel was speedily expelled, although Don 
 Carlos carried on the war for some time. Early in 1834 a 
 treaty was signed by Eussia, Prussia, and Austria, by which 
 
616 DESPOTISM IN FRANCE. 
 
 these powers mutually agfeed to deliver up rebels, traitors, 
 and political offenders. Disturbances broke out in Germany, 
 but they were on a very small scale, and led to no definite 
 results. The principality of Leuchtenberg, which had been 
 created at the congress of Vienna and awarded to the duke 
 of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, was (1834) ceded to the king of 
 Prussia, the duke receiving an annual stipend, as an indem- 
 nity. In dtber parts of Germany, the laws relating to the 
 press were increased in severity and rigorously enforced. 
 The commercial league in Gertnany, known as the Zollverein, 
 was, by the exertions of the king of Prussia, greatly ex- 
 tended. The shelter given by Switzerland to some Polish 
 refugees induced the despotic powers to attempt an invasion 
 of its rights, and the quarrel between Holland and Belgium 
 was far from being settled. The career of the Peel adminis- 
 tration was one continued series of defeats, and on the 8th 
 of Aprils ministers resigned. Lord Melbourne returned to 
 power, and prepared to deal with the questions of municipal 
 reform and the Irish Church. The former measure was 
 passed, but the Peers struck the approprialiion clauses out 
 of the latter, and ministers abandoned it. The subject of 
 Orangeism created much excitement during the session. 
 Some slight reductions were made in taxation, and Parlia- 
 ment was prorogued in September. 
 
 § 773. Louis Philippe's system became daily more un- 
 popular. The French Chamber of Peers was converted into 
 a tribunal for the trial of state prisoners, and in the spring 
 of 1835, one hundired and twenty-one were brought before 
 it ; of which number the greatest portion were found guilty, 
 and sentenced. These trials created much excitement, and 
 whilst they were going on, twenty-eight of the accused 
 managed to itiake their escape from the prison of St. Pelagie, 
 in which they had been confined. The attempt of Pieschi 
 to destroy the king and his ministers by means of an infernal 
 machine excited general indignation. The king escaped, 
 but fourteen persons were killed and twenty-seven wounded. 
 The liberty of the press was soon after entirely abolished, 
 the jury law materially altered, and the sale of caricatures 
 and prints placed under very galling restrictions. A French 
 expedition was sent to put a stop to the civil war in Spain, 
 and the duke of Leuchtenberg, who the year before had 
 espoused the youthful queen of Portugal, died of quinsy 
 (March 28, 1835). Francis II., emperor of Austria, ex- 
 pired on the 2nd of March, in the sixty-eighth year of his 
 
SESSION OF 1836, 617 
 
 age. He had reigned for nearly half a century, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Ferdinand Joseph. A popular tumult took 
 place at Amsterdam on the 4th of July, 1835. The Eussian, 
 Austrian, and Prussian cabinets attempted to interfere in 
 the affairs of Switzerland, and the government of Naples 
 actually recalled its ambassador from Eome. But the 
 Vorort maintained the right of Switzerland to act as an 
 independent power, and replied boldly to the menaces of its 
 formidable assailants. The third Jubilee of the Eeformation 
 was celebrated at Geneva with much ceremony and rejoicing 
 during the month of August. Eepresentatives from many 
 of the Protestant churches of Europe assisted at the cele- 
 bration, and perfect unanimity prevailed. 
 
 § 774. King Wjlliam IV. opened Parliament in person on 
 the 4th of February, 1836 ; and it was the last session at the 
 inauguration of which this monarch presided. The agitation 
 against the Orange lodges was renewed, and a condemnatory 
 address having been passed, they were at once dissolved. A 
 proclamation was issued for their suppression, and the mat- 
 ter was speedily forgotten. In consequence of a difference 
 of Opinion between the two houses relative to the manner 
 of reforming the Irish corporations, the ministerial measure 
 was lost. The appropriation principle in the Irish Tithe 
 Bill having been again rejected by the upper house, the 
 matter was once more adjourned. The English Municipal 
 Corporation Act Amendment Bill shared a similar fate. 
 The most decidedly useful measures of the session were — a 
 bill for the registration of births, deaths, and marriages, and 
 one for the amendment of the law respecting marriages. A 
 measure for the commutation of English tithes also passed ; 
 and some of the recommendations of the Church Commis- 
 sioners were adopted. Some judicious law reforms were 
 also effected. The budget was brought forward on the 6th 
 of May. Certain taxes were either reduced or altogether 
 repealed. The direct violation by Austrian, Eussian, and 
 Prussian troops, of the territory of Cracow, which, by the 
 9th article of the treaty of Vienna, had been declared free 
 and independent, created a profound sensation. This act 
 of aggression was perpetrated in February, 1836, and during 
 the same month a long discussion took place in the House 
 of Commons on the threatening attitude of Eussia. Various 
 ministerial changes' occurred in Paris. M. Thiers suc- 
 ceeded the duke of Broglie, and at length gave way to 
 Count Mole. Louis Napoleon made a descent upon Stras- 
 
618 DEATH OF WILLIAM IV. t 
 
 burg (Oct. 30, 1836), was arrested and sent to America,: 
 and Charles X. died in seclusion at Gratz (Nov. 6). Abd- 
 el-Kader took a prominent part in the war in Algeria, and 
 repulsed the French in several encounters. The civil war 
 in Spain continued, and the queen of Portugal contracted a 
 second marriage with Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg. A revolt 
 occurred at Lisbon, and the constitution of 1822 was pro- 
 claimed. The Circassians rose against Eussia, and addressed 
 a circular to the European courts, setting forth their right 
 to be regarded as an independent nation. 
 
 § 775. The winter in England was unusually severe. A 
 terrible storm swept over the metropolis, and other parts of 
 the kingdom, on the 29th of November, 1836, destroying 
 houses, rooting up trees, sending the shipping adrift, and 
 causing the destruction of the smaller crait. At Christmas 
 one of the heaviest falls of snow ever remembered visited 
 the country, stopping all the usual means of intercommuni- 
 cation, and involving loss of life and property. About the 
 same time, influenza, ^tten^d by inflammation and other 
 violent symptoms, prevailed. It was almost as fatal in its 
 efiects as the Asiatic cholera had been in the years 1832 and 
 1833. The session of 1837 was opened by commission on 
 the 31st of January. Parliament was engaged in discussions 
 on municipal reform for Ireland, the tithe and poor-law 
 questions, &c. So unsatisfactory was the state of public busi- 
 ness, that Lord Brougham called the attention of the Peers 
 to the matter (June 5), into which a committee was appointed 
 to inquire. During the spring the king's health had rapidly 
 declined, and in June bulletins began to make their appear- 
 ance. He gradually sank, and expired on the 20th of June, 
 in the seventy-second year of his age. The death of Wil- 
 liam IV. suspended the parliamentary conflict, and brought 
 the session to a sudden close. Victoria was proclaimed 
 queen, and she signified her intention of retaining the Mel- 
 bourne cabinet in office. In introducing the budget on the 
 30th of June, the Chancellor of the Exchequer showed that 
 the increase on the revenue of the year was considerable, 
 and that the state of the country continued to be prosperous. 
 Queen Victoria prorogued Parliament in person on the 17th 
 of July, and on the same evening a proclamatiomvas issued, 
 announcing a dissolution. The citizen king, ever anxious 
 to found a more despotic government in France, succeeded 
 in passing a new municipal law, which placed the adminis- 
 tration of the afl'airs of the cities, towns, villages, and com- 
 
COXJNT MOLfi'S MINISTET. 619 
 
 munes, directly under the authority of the government. 
 Bat his obsequious ministers were defeated in an attempt 
 to render civilians suspected of political offences amenable 
 to military tribunals, for the Chamber of Deputies rejected 
 the proposal by a majority of two votes. Thereupon a 
 ministerial crisis occurred, and after many abortive attempts 
 to form a new administration. Count Mole retained the pre- 
 sidency, M. Guizot and his colleagues, known as the Doc- 
 trinaire party, having seceded. A sad accident occurred at 
 Paris on the 14th of June, 1837, the day fixed upon for the 
 celebration of the public festivities in honour of the marriage 
 of the duke of Orleans with the princess Helen of Mecklen- 
 burg. A panic having seized upon a portion of the crowd 
 assembled to witness the fireworks and the illuminations, a 
 scene of terrible confusion ensued, in which about thirty 
 persons were killed, and nearly one hundred more or less 
 injured. On the 4th October the chambers were dissolved, 
 upon which an election followed, which did not make any 
 very great changes in the relative strength of the different 
 parties in Prance. 
 
 § 776. A new constitution was promulgated in Spain, 
 which conferred many privileges upon the people. After 
 several retrograde movements, Espartero drove the Carlists 
 out of a great part of the kingdom ; and a revolution broke 
 out in Lisbon in the autumn. The statue of Gruttemberg, 
 the inventor of printing, was inaugurated at Mayence on 
 the 14th of August. In Eome and its environs, as well as 
 in Sicily, the cholera raged, during the summer and autumn 
 of 1837, with fearful violence. In Catania, more than one- 
 half of the inhabitants fell victims to this terrible pestilence. 
 The delightful poetess, Felicia Hemans, died on the 16th 
 of May, 1835, and Charles Matthews, the comedian, on 
 the 28th of June in the same year. The Abbe Sieyes, 
 who played so prominent a part in the French revolution, 
 expired on the 20th of June, 1836. Madame Malibran de 
 Beriot, the exquisite vocalist, was cut off at an early age in 
 September; George Colman the younger, on the 26th of 
 October ; John Bannister, the actor, on the 8th of November; 
 and Horace Vemet, the great historical painter of France, 
 on the 27th of November, 1836. In the same month, the 
 Eev. Charles Simeon died, and on the 4th of December, 
 Bichard Westall, the celebrated artist. At St. Gall, in 
 Switzerland, on the 7th of February, 1837, Gustavus Adol- 
 phus IV., ex-king of Sweden, died. The exiled monarch 
 
620 CELEBRATED CHAEACTEES. 
 
 had long lived in retirement, having abdicated during the 
 revolutionary troubles in 1809. On the 27th of March, 
 Mrs. Fitzherbert expired. She had been married, according 
 to the ceremonies of the Soman Catholic Church, to 
 George IV., whilst that monarch was prince of Wales. On 
 the 31st of May, G-riraaldi, the prince of clowns, succumbed. 
 The Abb6 de Pradt died at Paris in June, 1837, and in Sep- 
 tember the Polish dwarf. Count Borowlaski. This remarkable 
 Specimen of the human race was only thirty-six inches in 
 height. Hortense, ex-queen of Holland, and mother of the 
 Emperor Napoleon III,, died at Arenenberg, in Switzerland, 
 on the 3rd of October, 1837, and on the 8th day of the same 
 month Samuel Wesley was gathered to his fathers. 
 
 Lbtteb 7. — History of European Affiiirs continued, from the Acces- 
 sion of Queen Victoria to the Birth of the Prince of Wales. 
 A.D. 1837—1841, Vol. iv., pages 270—286. 
 
 § 777. The death ®f William the Fourth and the accession 
 of Victoria to the British throne procured for Lord Mel- 
 bourne's w^eak administration a short extension of its tenure 
 of office. The general election of 1887 was unfavourable to 
 ministers. The young queen dined in state with the corpo- 
 ration of London on the 9th of November. Little business 
 was transacted in the autumnal session. The Irish Muni- 
 cipal Eeform Bill was again lost in 1838, but the Irish Tithe 
 Bill was passed, the appropriation principle having been 
 abandoned. Thus ministers gave up that for which 
 they had so long contended, and in opposing which Sir 
 Eobert Peel's administration had been defeated. In the 
 mean time Canada was in a state of open rebellion. The 
 Assembly of the lower province had stopped the supplies in 
 1833, and that of the upper province did the same in 1836. 
 "The one required that the Legislative Council should be 
 made responsible to the Assembly, the other that it should 
 be elective. Lord John Eussell moved (March 6, 1837) ten 
 resolutions, providing for the payment of the charges for the 
 administration of justice and the support of the civil govern- 
 ment of Lower Canada. These were carried after several 
 divisions, and in a short time Canada was in a state of open 
 insurrection. The rebels were speedily defeated in both 
 provinces. The home government suspended the consti- 
 tution and sent out the earl of Durham as governor-general, 
 armed with full powers to settle the matters in dispute, 
 Lord Dutrham landed at Quebec on the 29th of M?.y, 1838, 
 
THE BEDCHAMBER rNTEIGTJE. 621 
 
 and issued his celebrated ordinance on the 28th of June. 
 Ministers disallowed the ordinance. Lord Durham was at 
 this time making a tour through the colony; but he no sooner 
 received intelligence of this proceeding on the part of the 
 home government, than he threw up his office and returned 
 to England. 
 
 § 778. The coronation of Queen Victoria took place on 
 the 28th of June, 1838. The ceremony was performed with 
 much state. In the evening the metropolis was illuminated, 
 displays of fireworks were provided in the parks, and the 
 theatres were opened gratuitously. On the 10th of January 
 the Eoyal Exchange was burnt to the ground. Great ad- 
 vances were made in ocean steam-navigation during the 
 year, and two steamers sailed from England for America. 
 A wretched lunatic, named Thorn, who had assumed the 
 name of Sir "William Courtenay, knight of Malta, endea- 
 voured to mislead the labouring classes in parts of Kent. 
 He appeared at Canterbury, announcing himself as the 
 saviour of the world, and was killed in a skirmish with some 
 troops sent to effect his arrest. The session of 1839 com- 
 menced on the 5th of Eebruary. Lord E,oden's motion for 
 the appointment of a committee to inquire into the state of 
 Ireland was carried in the House of Lords by a majority 
 of five, but ministers succeeded in setting it aside in the 
 lower house. The legislative affairs of the colony of 
 Jamaica having, in consequence of a dispute between the 
 governor and the House of Assembly, come to a dead lock, 
 the government proposed to suspend the constitution for 
 five years, and to vest the authority in a governor and 
 council. The motion for going into committee was carried 
 in a full house, by a ma-jority of five (May 6), and ministers 
 resigned. Sir Eobert Peel accepted the task of forming a 
 cabinet, but the attempt, owing to what was called the bed- 
 chamber intrigue, proved abortive. The queen, acting on 
 the advice of her former ministers, refused to part with the 
 ladies of her household, and the Melbourne cabinet was 
 reinstated in office. 
 
 § 779. Mr. Shaw Lefevre was appointed speaker, a modified 
 measure for the settlement of the Jamaica disputes was 
 adopted, and the Irish Municipal Beform BUI again passed 
 through the Commons, but was lost in the Lords. The 
 postage on letters was reduced to fourpence the half-ounce 
 from Dec. 5th, as an introduction to the uniform penny 
 postage which came into operation on the 10th of January, 
 
622 EISE OF THE CHARTISTS. 
 
 1840. About this time Chartism sprang up amongst the 
 lower classes. The first great demonstration was held in 
 the open air near Birmingham (Aug. 6, 1838). Mr. Attwood 
 presided, and Feargus O'Connor addressed the crowd. A 
 petition in favour of the people's charter was numerously 
 signed. A similar demonstration took place at Manchester, 
 and meetings were held in various places in the country. 
 Riots occurred in many places, and lives were lost in the 
 conflicts that ensued. On the 4th of November the town 
 of Newport, in Wales, was attacked by some thousands of 
 the Chartists, under the direction of one Frost, formerly 
 a magistrate of that town. About a dozen men were killed 
 and thirty wounded in the contest. Amongst the latter was 
 the mayor, P. Phillips, who was afterwards knighted for his 
 gallantry on the occasion. The ringleaders were brought to 
 trial, and the most guilty sentenced to transportation for 
 life. In this gloomy period, when the price of provisions 
 was rising rapidly, and the trade of the country declining, 
 the Anti-corn-law League was first formed. At a public 
 dinner given to Dr. Bowring, at Manchester, on the 18th of 
 September, 1838, those present formed themselves into an 
 association for the promotion of free trade. Lord Eglintoun 
 held a tournament at his castle in Ayrshire (Aug. 28-30, 
 1839) ; and the Cinque ports entertained the duke of Wel- 
 lington, lord warden, at a banquet at Dover (Aug. 30). 
 
 § 780. A ministerial crisis occurred in Paris early in 1839; 
 but Marshal Soult did not succeed in forming a government, 
 as it was expected that he would do, and the former ministers 
 were recalled. The king dissolved the chambers, and con- 
 voked new ones to meet on the 26th of March. The result 
 of the elections was unfavourable to ministers, and they 
 resigned. A kind of provisional government was appointed, 
 which in a short time made way for an administration under 
 the presidency of Marshal Soult. A revolt which broke out 
 in Paris in May was speedily suppressed. The civil war in 
 Spain was brought to a close by the Convention of Bergara 
 (Aug. 29), and Don Carlos sought refuge in France. The 
 long-pending dispute between Holland and Belgium was 
 settled in 1839. The quarrel between the sultan and 
 the pacha of Egypt led to the renewal of hostilities. The 
 year 1840 was rather a gloomy one for England. Minis- 
 ters had involved themselves in inextricable difficulties ; the 
 revenue was declining, and discontent prevailed throughout 
 the country. The queen was married to Prince Albert of 
 
LOUIS NAPOLEON'S SECOND ATTEMPT. 623 
 
 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha on tlie 10th of Pebruary, 1840, 
 £30,000 per annum having been voted by Parliament 
 for his use. The agitation for the repeal of the corn- 
 laws began to assume a definite character. A convention 
 assembled in the metropolis, at which delegates from all parts 
 of the kingdom attended ; and motions made in Parliament 
 ■were rejected by large majorities. The Irish Municipal 
 Eeform Bill, vehich had been bandied about from one house 
 of Parliament to the other for so many years, was passed 
 during the session (1840). A bill was also passed for 
 the legislative union of the two Canadas ; and, although some 
 riots occurred at the elections, attended with loss of life, the 
 colony gradually resumed its tranquillity, under the able 
 government of Lord Sydenham. The budget, which was 
 introduced on the 15th of May, still showed a defi- 
 ciency. The proceedings of the Chartists excited con- 
 siderable alarm. Humours of a general rising against 
 the constitutional authorities were in circulation, and 
 a day was named in which it was said that insurrection 
 would break out in the metropolis. Precautionary measures 
 were adopted, several arrests followed in consequence, and 
 numbers of misguided men were sentenced to various terms 
 of imprisonment for their share in these illegal proceedings. 
 The queen was also exposed to some most dastardly attacks. 
 On the 10th of June, she was fired at, whilst going up Con- 
 stitution HiU in her carriage, by a man named Edward 
 Oxford. He was acquitted on the ground of insanity, and 
 the leniency with which this culprit was treated induced 
 others to become his imitators. On the 21st of November, 
 Queen Victoria gave birth to her first child, the Princess 
 Eoyal, at Buckingham Palace. A considerable portictti of 
 York Minster was destroyed by fire on the 20fch of May. 
 
 § 781. The dispute between the sultan and the pacha of 
 Egypt caused a temporary estrangement between England 
 and France ; but the Thiers ministry, who had done what 
 they could to create embarrassment, were driven from office, 
 and matters were finally accommodated. Louis Napoleon 
 made his second attempt to wrest the crown of Erance from 
 the Orleans family, by landing in the neighbourhood of 
 Boulogne (Aug. 6, 1840). He was taken prisoner, and 
 sentenced to imprisonment for life in a fortress. The Erench 
 government applied to England for permission to remove 
 the remains of Napoleon Buonaparte from St. Helena, which 
 was accorded, and they were conveyed to Erance in the 
 
63i PALL or THE MELBOUENE CABINET, 
 
 Belle Foule, under the command of the prince of Joinville. 
 They reached Cherbourg in November; thence they were re- 
 moved to Paris, and interred with great pomp and solemnity 
 in the church of the Invalides (Dec. 15, 1840). Espartera 
 defeated some Carlista who would not accept the Convention 
 of Bergara, and he became dictator during an insurrection, 
 in which the queen-mother, Christina, was driven from the 
 kingdom. William I., king of Holland, abdicated in favour 
 of bis son, and Frederick William III. of Prussia died 
 (June 7),andwas succeeded by his son Prederick William IV. 
 The year 1841 witnessed the fall of the Whig administration. 
 Parliament was opened by the queen in person on the 26th 
 of January. Little was done during the session. The budget 
 showed a lamentable deficiency. In five years this amounted 
 to no less a sum than seven millions and a half, and for the 
 current year the deficit was estimated at £2,400,000. Minis-, 
 ters proposed to restore the elasticity of the public revenue,, 
 by reducing the duties on timber and sugar, and a fixed duty 
 of eight shillings per quarter on corn. An amendment 
 moved by Lord Sandon against the proposed change in the 
 sugar duties was carried by a majority of thirty-six (May 18). 
 Sir Eobert Peel afterwards brought forward a resolution of 
 want of confidence. After a protracted debate, this was 
 affirmed by a majority of one. Thereupon Lord John Eussell 
 stated that ministers would only take the estimates for sit, 
 months, as they intended to submit their case to the country. 
 The general election which followed turned entirely upon 
 the corn-laws. The new Parliament was opened by com- 
 mission in August, and an amendment to the address, 
 expressive of want of confidence in ministers, having been, 
 carried in the upper house by a majority of seventy-two, 
 and in the lower of ninety-one, they resigned. A Conser- 
 vative government was immediately formed by Sir Eobert 
 Peel. 
 
 § 782. War had broken out in the East Indies and in 
 China. The Chinese government made a vigorous attempt 
 to suppress the opium-trade. In 1839 a skirmish took place 
 between some Chinese war-junks and two English frigates ; 
 and in July 1840, troops and ships having been despatched 
 to the scene of the contest by the English government, the 
 island of Chusan was attacked and captured. The Chinese 
 made some signs of submission, but hostilities were after- 
 wards waged with vigour. Amoy and Ningpo were cap- 
 tured during the year. The treacherous attack of thp 
 
BIRTH OF THE PEIKCE OF WALES. 625 
 
 Affghans upon a small British force at Cabul (Nov. 2, 1841), 
 and the almost total destruction of the troops, induced the 
 government to adopt stringent measures to vindicate our 
 outraged authority. A fire broke out in the Tower of Lon- 
 don, causing considerable damage (Oct. 30). The queen 
 gave birth to her second child, the prince of Wales, on 
 Lord Mayor's day. The newly-appointed French ministers 
 restored the alliance with England. They took measures 
 to remedy the isolation to which France had been doomed 
 by her exclusion from the treaty for the settlement of the 
 differences between Turkey and Egypt, signed by Austria, 
 Eussia, Prussia, Turkey, and England, on the 15th of July, 
 1840. A supplementary treaty, to which France became a 
 party, was concluded in London on the 13th of July, 1841. 
 An attempt was made upon the lives of the Orleans princes, 
 but the miscreant failed in his murderous design, was 
 arrested, and, with his accomplices, punished. The war in 
 Algiers, in which the French had made but little progress, 
 was prosecuted with great vigour, but without producing 
 any commensurate advantage. The fortifications of Paris 
 were pushed forward with energy, as many as 10,000 work- 
 men being at one time employed upon them. Insurrections 
 broke out at Toulouse, Lyons, &c., which were, however, 
 suppressed, without having produced any very serious con- 
 sequences. Some disturbances occurred in Spain during the 
 year ; but Espartero, who had been appointed Regent for 
 the queen's minority, speedily quelled them, and maintained 
 his authority. 
 
 § 783. The great Lord Eldon died on the 13th of January, 
 1838, at an advanced age. Prince Talleyrand expired on 
 the 17th of IVTay, aged eighty-four. On the 15th of Octo- 
 ber, Mrs. Maclean, the charming poetess, better known as 
 L. E. L., died at Cape Coast castle. On the 23rd of June, 
 ^ 1839, the eccentric and accomplished Lady Hester Stanhope 
 died at her villa on Mount Lebanon. She was niece to 
 William Pitt, and acted for some time as his secretary. 
 Lady Flora Hastings died on the 5th of July. Her death 
 was accelerated by a false report circulated in court circles. 
 On the 20th of September, in the same year. Sir Thomas 
 M. Hardy breathed his last at Greenwich Hospital, of which 
 he was governor. He was one of the Trafalgar heroes, and 
 in his arms the heroic Nelson expired. Frederick VI., king 
 of Denmark, died on the 3rd of December. On the 30th 
 Admiral Sir F. Maitland breathed his last. The celebrated 
 2 s 
 
626 CELEEKATED CHAEACTERS. 
 
 authoress, Madame D'Arblay, better known under her 
 maiden name of Fanny Burney, died on the 6th of January, 
 1840, aged eighty-eight. On the 26th of May the nation 
 lost Sir Sidney Smith, the hero who checked Napoleon's 
 victorious career in Egypt, in the breach of Acre. On the 
 20th of June, Lucien Buonaparte, prince of Canino, brother 
 to the Emperor Napoleon I., breathed his last at Viterbo, 
 near Eome. Sir David Wilkie, the painter, died on the 1st 
 of June, and Theodore Hook, the humorist, on the 24th 
 of August, 1841. T. Dibdin, the dramatic author, son of 
 Charles Dibdin, the naval song writer, died on the 16th 
 of September ; and Sir Erancis Chantrey, the celebrated 
 sculptor, on the 25th of November. 
 
SIR ROBERT PEEL'S POLICY. 627 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 Letter 8. — History of European Affairs continued, from the Acces- 
 sion to Office of Sir Robert Peel's Cabinet to the Formation of the 
 Sonderbund. A.D. 1841—1846. Vol. iv., pages 286—299. 
 
 § 784. SiE Eobert Peel's position at the commencement 
 of 1842 was one of which any minister might justly be 
 proud ; and soon after the commencement of the session he 
 detailed the financial measures by which he hoped to restore 
 the elasticity of the revenue. The first of these was a 
 property and income-tax upon all incomes over £150 per 
 annum. It was to last for three years, and did not extend 
 to Ireland. This, with a tax of four shillings per ton on 
 coals, afterwards reduced one-half, and certain alterations 
 in the spirit and stamp duties, Sir Eobert calculated would 
 produce a handsome surplus. A reduction, and, in some 
 cases, a total repeal of the duties paid upon 750 articles in 
 the tariff was at the same time adopted. A Copyright Bill 
 was passed, and, in consequence of repeated attempts upon 
 the life of her majesty, a measure for the better security 
 and protection of her person. Some judicious enactments 
 were made relative to the employment of women and chil- 
 dren in mines and factories, and the laws of lunacy and 
 bankruptcy were amended. The Chinese war was brought 
 to a conclusion. China engaged to pay an indemnity of 
 twenty-one millions of dollars, to throw open the ports of 
 Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, and Shang-hae, to 
 British merchants, and to cede the island of Hong-Kong in 
 perpetuity to her Britannic majesty and her heirs. Lord 
 EUenborough, who had been appointed governor-general of 
 India, brought the war in Affghanistan to an honourable 
 conclusion, but was 'himself soon after recalled. A train on 
 the Versailles railroad caught fire (May 8), and nearly 
 fifty lives were lost. On the 13th of July the duke of 
 Orleans was thrown from his carriage and killed. Another 
 revolution occurred in Portugal in 1842, when the queen 
 gave way; Don Pedro's Charter was declared to be the law 
 2 s 2 
 
628 O'CONNELL'S REPEAL SCHEME. 
 
 of the land, and a new ministry formed. Several insurrec- 
 tionary movements took place in diiferent parts of Spain, 
 and a revolt at Barcelona, in the -winter, at one time seemed 
 to threaten very serious consequences. A terrible conflagra- 
 tion spread ruin and devastation through the city of Ham- 
 burg (May 4, 1842) ; the Eussian town of Kasan was 
 nearly destroyed, by a similar calamity, and, in October, a 
 tremendous hurricane did much damage in Madeira. 
 
 § 785. The session of 1843 opened on the 2nd of February. 
 The ministerial majority remained firm and compact, and 
 several wholesome measures were passed. , The turnpikes in 
 Wales were attacked and destroyed by lawless gangs, bearing 
 the name of " Rebecca and her Daughters." Mr. O'Connell 
 had publicly announced that 1843 should be the Eepeal year, 
 and he held monster meetings in the open air. At the first 
 of these, at Trim (March 16), it was supposed that 80,000 
 people attended, and at another at Mullingar (May 14), the 
 numbers swelled to 120,000. The crowds that assembled 
 at his bidding on the hill of Tara, estimated at 250,000 souls, 
 were promised immediate emancipation. The Eepeal rent 
 flowed into the treasury at Conciliation Hall, and £500 or 
 £600 were collected weekly. But the monster meetings 
 had aroused the attention of ministers, and a proclamation 
 was issued by the lord-lieutenant, prohibiting a meeting 
 that had been appointed by O'Connell to be held at Clontarf, 
 near Dublin, on the 8th of October, and O'Connell sneaked 
 away and hid himself from the public gaze. On the 14th 
 of October, the liberator and several of his confederates 
 were arrested on charges of conspiracy and sedition. A 
 true bill was found against them by the grand jury on the 
 8th of November, but the trial was postponed until the 
 next year. This energetic prosecution was the death-blow 
 to the Eepeal agitation. An extraordinary movement oc- 
 curred in the Established Church of Scotland during the 
 year. In consequence of a disagreement respecting the ap- 
 pointment of ministers, 169 ministers seceded. They marched 
 in procession to a hall at Canonmills, where they were 
 joined by 300 more seceders. These members formed them- 
 selves into what is called the Free Church. Dr. Chal- 
 mers took a prominent part in the movement, and a sum 
 amounting to £300,000 was collected. Tractarianism con- 
 tinued to trouble the English Church, and Dr. Pusey was 
 suspended from preaching at Oxford for two years. Th* 
 
SESSION OF 1844. 629 
 
 Anti-com-law League was very active, and held monster 
 meetings in various parts. The Thames Tunnel was opened 
 on the 25th March (1843). The duke of Sussex died on 
 the 21st of April. Sir Charles Napier completely subdued 
 Scinde. The Guizot administration proved to be the 
 strongest that had held ofiSce in Prance since the accession 
 of Louis Philippe. Abd-el-Kader caused the French in 
 Africa much embarrassment, and the violent proceedings of 
 some French officers in Tahiti threatened the rupture of 
 the alliance with England. A formidable revolt against the 
 authority of the regent Espartero, broke out in various 
 parts of Spain. It was successful; Madrid surrendered on 
 the 24th of July, and Espartero made his escape to England, 
 where he was welcomed with much enthusiasm, and even 
 honoured with a reception from the queen at Windsor Castle. 
 § 786. The year 1844 commenced under fairer auspices. 
 A cheek had been given to the agitation that had so long 
 harassed Ireland, and the commerce of the United Kingdom 
 showed symptoms of reaction. Parliament was opened by 
 the queen on the 1st of February. The three-and-a-half 
 per cents, were reduced during the year ; the government 
 proposal, which was adopted, being that the three-and-a-half 
 should be exchanged for three-and-a-quarter per cent, stock 
 for ten years, and for three per cent, in 1854. Holders were 
 guaranteed against any further reduction for twenty years 
 from the latter date. The new charter granted to the Bank 
 of England in 1833, provided that, although it was a charter 
 for twenty-one years, a modification might be made in it at 
 the expiration of ten, upon six months' notice of the change 
 being given to Parliament. Ministers availed themselves 
 of this proviso, and some alterations were accordingly intro- 
 duced into the charter during this session. The Alien Act 
 was also modified, and the naturalization of foreigners there- 
 by rendered more easy of accomplishment. The Irish state 
 trials resulted in the conviction of O'Connell and his col- 
 leagues, but the decision was reversed in the House of Lords, 
 and they were released from prison. Nicholas, emperor of 
 Eussia, visited England in June, and Louis Philippe in Octo- 
 ber. The queen presided at the inauguration of the new 
 Eoyal Exchange. France became involved in a war with 
 Morocco. Tangier and Mogador were successfully bombarded, 
 and the emperor acceded to the French ultimatum. The 
 arrest of the British Consul at Tahiti led to further complica- 
 
630 PEESSUEE OF BAD TIMES. 
 
 tions between Prance and England, but tbe matter was finally- 
 arranged. Spain was rent asunder by political convulsions, 
 the Cortes was suspended, and the whole country placed 
 under martial law. Inundations caused great destruction 
 of life and property both in Sweden and Italy. 
 
 § 787. The income tax in England was, in 1845, renewed 
 for three years. A special vote of £30,000, with £26,000 per 
 annum, was made to the .College of Maynooth. On the 9th of 
 August the queen prorogued the Parliament. The state of 
 the weather soon gave rise to the most gloomy forebodings. 
 The summer and autumn months proved very rainy, 
 and fears were entertained respecting the harvest. Then 
 \t was discovered that the potato-crop in Ireland bad 
 been blighted, and that thus the staple article of food 
 for the poorer inhabitants was almost entirely destroyed. 
 The queen visited Belgium and Prussia in the autumn, 
 calling at the Chateau d'Eu on her way home. The 
 admission of tbe Jesuits into Lucerne caused dissensions in 
 Switzerland, and inundations devastated many parts of 
 Germany. A ministerial crisis occurred in the autumn, 
 owing to a sudden change in the policy of the government. 
 This was, however, brought to a close ; and early in 1846, 
 Sir Eobert announced his intention of repealing the corn- 
 laws. The total repeal was to take place in three years, 
 and in the mean time a graduated scale was to be retained 
 of ten shillings per quarter when wheat was under forty- 
 eight shillings per quarter, and of four shillings per quarter 
 when wheat reached fifty-three shillings. Those Conserva- 
 tives, who refused to follow Sir Eobert Peel, formed 
 themselves into what was called the Protectionist party, 
 under the lead of Lord Creorge Bentinck and Mr. Disraeli, 
 In spite of all opposition the bill was passed, and became 
 law on the 26th of June, the day after that on which Sir 
 Eobert Peel's ministry was outvoted on the Irish Arms 
 Bill. Sir Eobert Peel resigned, and Lord John Eussell 
 came into power. A measure, establishing local tribunals 
 in the principal towns of England for the recovery of small 
 debts, was passed ; also an act for the gradual reduction of 
 the sugar duties. The remaining business of the session 
 was quickly disposed of, and Parliament was prorogued by 
 commission on the 28th of August. The question of the 
 broad and narrow gauges was decided in favour of the 
 latter. The Sikhs invaded our Indian empire ; but having 
 been defeated at Moodkee (Dec. 18, 1845), Perozepore 
 
THE SPANISH MAEEIAGES. 631 
 
 (Dec. 21, 22, 1845), Aliwal (Jan. 28, 1846), and Sobraon 
 (Feb. 10), they submitted. 
 
 § 788. In 1846 two attempts were made upon the life of 
 Louis PhUippe, and Louis Napoleon escaped from the 
 fortress of Ham (May 25). The court of Trance entered 
 into an ill-fated matrimonial project, called the Spanish 
 marriages. For the queen of Spain a consort was found 
 in Don Francisco d'Assis ; whilst for her sister, Louis 
 Philippe brought forward his own younger son, the duke of 
 Montpensier. In spite of the remonstrances, and even the 
 formal protest of the English government, the two marriages 
 were celebrated at Madrid on the 10th of October. About 
 the same time the count de Montemolin, the eldest son of 
 Don Carlos, escaped from Bourges, arrived in safety in 
 England, and published a proclamation to the Spanish 
 people. The Narvaez ministry was overthrown, and its 
 chief driven into exile. The Peninsula continued in a de- 
 plorable condition throughout the year. Bussia made another 
 step towards the overthrow of the independence of Europe. In 
 consequence of an insurrection in Poland, the three despotic 
 powers, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, in the beginning of 
 the year, invested Cracow, which had in 1815 been declared 
 independent. A long interval of time did not elapse ere it 
 was announced that the republic of Cracow had been incor- 
 porated with the Austrian empire. Gregory XVI. died at 
 Eome in June, 1846, aged eighty years. He was succeeded 
 by Cardinal Mastei, under the title of Pope Pius IX. 
 The shock of an earthquake was felt in difierent parts of 
 Tuscany on the 14th of August. A revolutionary move- 
 ment occured in Geneva in October. The Jesuit party, 
 which had been for some time intriguing in Switzerland, 
 induced Lucerne and six Catholic cantons to form a separate 
 league, called the Sonderbund, and thus create an imperirim 
 in imperio. The Jesuits hoped to have everything their 
 own way, but the Diet voted the proceeding illegal, and a 
 collision ensued. 
 
 § 789. The Eev. Thomas Arnold, master of Eugby 
 school, died on the 12th of June, 1842. Sismondi, the his- 
 torian, expired at his seat, near Geneva, on the 25th of June. 
 John Eanim, the Irish novelist, author of " The O'Hara 
 Tales," and other amusing works, sank on the 4th, and 
 William Maginn on the 20th of August. The marquis of 
 TVellesley died on the 25th of September, in his eighty-third 
 year. Lord Hill, the Peninsula hero, died on the 10th of 
 
632 PEKIOD OF SUFFERING. 
 
 December (1842). On the 21st of March (1843), the country 
 lost Eohert Southey. John Murray, the celebrated publisher, 
 died on the 27th of June. William Frederick, ex -king of 
 Holland, who, when an old man, abdicated, a slave to the 
 tender passion, died on the l-2th of December. Charles 
 John XIV., king of Norway and Sweden, breathed his last 
 on the 8th of March, 1844. Thorwaldsen, the celebrated 
 sculptor, died at Copenhagen on the 24th of March ; 
 Thomas Campbell, the poet, author of the " Pleasures of 
 Hope," and some heart-stirring lyrics, at Boulogne on 
 the 15th of June ; Joseph Buonaparte, once king of Naples, 
 and afterwards king of Spain, expired at Florence, on 
 the 28th of July, and Dr. Gary, the translator of Dante 
 and Pindar, on the 14th of August. Three humorous 
 writers, possessing great power, yet employing very different 
 styles, died in 1845 — viz., Sydney Smith, on the 21st of 
 February, Thomas Hood, on the 3rd of May; and the 
 Eev. E. H. Barham, on the 17th of June. Sir William 
 FoUett, the attorney-general, died on the 28th of June ; and 
 John Liston, the comic actor, on the 22nd of March, 1846. 
 On the 22nd of June, Haydon, the historical painter, 
 destroyed himself in a fit of despair. Thomas Grenville, 
 the statesman, breathed his last on the 17th of December, 
 being then in his ninety-first year. Louis Napoleon 
 Buonaparte, ex-king of Holland, died at Leghorn on the 
 25th of June. He had married Hortense, daughter of the 
 Empress Josephine, and was the father of the Emperor 
 Napoleon III. 
 
 Lettbe 9. — ^Histoiy of European Affairs eontinued, from the Famine of 
 1846 to the Excitement caused in England by the Australian Gold 
 Discoveries, a.d. 1846—1851. Vol. iv., pages 300—315. 
 
 § 790. The calamities which Sir Eobert Peel dreaded fell 
 upon the country with fearful violence. The common 
 necessaries of life rose to an exorbitant price, and in many 
 districts they could scarcely be obtained at any price. The 
 close of 1846 and the whole of 1847 were periods of un- 
 paralleled sufiering. In Ireland, owing to the entire failure 
 of the potato-crop, many persons perished. Parliament 
 assembled on the i9th of January. Every efibrt was made 
 to give relief; the corn duties and the navigation laws 
 were temporarily suspended, and facilities afforded for the 
 use of sugar in breweries and distilleries. Several measures 
 were passed for the relief of destitution in Ireland. Lord 
 
REFORM BANQUETS IN FRANCE. 633 
 
 Greorge Bentinek's proposal for a government loan to assist 
 in the formation of railroads in Ireland was rejected, 
 althougli ministers ultimately adopted the principle, by 
 granting a loan of £620,000 between three Irish railroads. 
 The budget showed that, in spite of distress and destitution, 
 the public revenue was in a flourishing condition. Parliament 
 was prorogued (July 23, 1847), and a royal proclamation 
 issued for a dissolution. Consols had fallen to 79, railway 
 shares had declined fifty per cent, in vailue, and many 
 extensive failures created a panic in the commercial world. 
 An autumnal session became indispensable, and the new 
 Parliament assembled on the 18th of November. The royal 
 speech was delivered by commission on the 23rd. A bill 
 for the repression of crime and outrages in Ireland, and 
 another to facilitate the completion of public works in that 
 portion of the United Kingdom, were passed. The disastrous 
 Caffi"e war was temporarily suspended, by the submission of 
 the chiefs of Caffreland ; and a rupture with the Chinese 
 settled, after the capture of the forts at the Bocca Tigris. 
 
 § 791. The investigation of certain charges of official 
 corruption created a great sensation in France. General 
 Cubieres and M. Teste, the former once minister of war, 
 and the latter of public works, with two others, were im- 
 peached, for having accepted offers, gifts, and presents, as 
 inducements to do certain official acts. M. Teste committed 
 suicide while the trial was in progress, and the other 
 defendants were found guilty and punished. In the autumn, 
 reform banquets were held at many of the principal towns 
 in France, and at these public festivals the king's health 
 was not proposed. Abd-el-Kader, who had so long and so 
 valiantly contended against the French in Algeria, sur- 
 rendered in December. The queen of Spain and her hus- 
 band were estranged, and the former, it is said, endeavoured 
 to obtain a divorce. After several ministerial changes in 
 Madrid, Espartero was recalled from exile. The civil war 
 in Portugal was brought to a close by the intervention of 
 England. Austria, annoyed at the reforms introduced by 
 the pope, occupied the town and citadel of Ferrara, and the 
 whole of Italy was greatly agitated by the occurrence, when 
 the Austrian government consented to withdraw the troops. 
 The conflict in Switzerland between the Federal army and 
 the forces of the Sonderbund occurred in 1847. The Diet 
 voted on the 20th of July, that the Sonderbund, or separate 
 league of the s^ven Boman Catholic cantons, was illegal. 
 
634 THE TENTH OF APEIL. 
 
 "War was soon after declared ; Priburg, the strongbold of the 
 Jesuits, surrendered on the 14th of November, 1847, and 
 Lucerne fell on the 24tb. Valais, the last of the outstand- 
 ing cantons, submitted soon after. The Eoman Catholic 
 cantons were compelled to defray the expenses of the war 
 caused by their intrigues with the Jesuits. 
 
 § 792. The English Parliament re-assembled on the 3rd of 
 February, 1848. Though the session was long and stormy, 
 but little was accomplished. Measures for the preservation 
 of order and the support of the authorities engrossed the 
 attention of legislators. The revolutionary commotions on 
 the Continent aroused the Chartists to action. They met 
 in London, and proposed to carry a monster petition in 
 procession to the House of Commons on the 10th of April. 
 A bill was passed providing for the better security of the 
 crown, and the government of the United Kingdom. The 
 10th of April dawned gloomily, but eitensive preparations 
 had been made to maintain the public peace ; thousands of 
 citizens were sworn in as special constables, and the meeting 
 was dispersed. An examination of the petition showed that 
 the number of those who had signed it did not amount to 
 one third of what bad been represented, nor were these 
 iond fide signatures. In consequence of information re- 
 ceived by the authorities in August, several Chartist leaders 
 were taken, tried, and sentenced to transportation for life. 
 Eiots occurred in various parts of the kingdom, and Ireland 
 was convulsed. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended. 
 Messrs. O'Brien and Meagher were arrested for having 
 made seditious speeches, but were admitted to bail, and 
 ultimately escaped conviction. Mr. Michel, the registered 
 proprietor of the "United Irishman," was sentenced to 
 fourteen years' transportation, for having published sedi- 
 tious articles in his paper. Mr. O'Brien, emboldened by 
 his escape, advocated open rebellion. A reward was oflFered 
 for his capture, and in a skirmish in a cabbage-garden, near 
 Ballingarry (July 29), he did not display much courage. 
 He was captured (Aug. 5), tried, and sentenced to death 
 for high treason, but his life was spared. Thus ended the 
 Irish rebellion of 1848, concerning which bo much was said, 
 but which in its results proved utterly contemptible. Lord 
 John Eussell's proposal to renew the income-tax for five 
 years, and to increase it from three to five per cent, for the 
 first two years, excited so much dissatisfaction, that it was 
 withdrawn. A bill for establishing diplomatic relations 
 
GOLD DISCOVEEIES. 635 
 
 .with Eome was passed during tte session, and the Jewish 
 Disabihties Eemoval Bill, was again carried through the 
 House of Commons, but lost in the House of Lords. The 
 condition of the "West-Indian colonies occupied the atten- 
 tion of Parliament, and, on the motion of Lord G-eorge 
 Bentinck, a select committee was appointed to inquire into 
 their prospects, and to consider whether any measures could 
 be adopted for their relief. A grant of £170,000 as a 
 loan, for the purpose of promoting the immigration of 
 free labourers into the colonies of British Guiana and 
 Trinidad, was afterwards voted ; and later in the session some 
 alterations in the Sugar Act of 1846 were adopted. A bill 
 for facilitating the transfer of encumbered estates in Ireland 
 was introduced and passed, and Parliament was prorogued 
 by the queen in person on the 5th of September (1848). 
 
 § 793. In England trade began to revive in 1849, but the 
 re-appearance of the cholera cast a gloom over the country. 
 Upon this, its second visitation, it broke out in the autumn 
 of 1848, and continued its ravages till the winter of the fol- 
 lowing year. The queen opened Parliament in person on 
 the 1st of February. The navigation laws were repealed 
 during the session. Grants of money were again made for 
 the suffering Irish, the poor-law in Ireland was amended, 
 and as the measure of the previous session for facilitating 
 the transfer of encumbered estates in Ireland had proved 
 inoperative, another was introduced and passed. The budget 
 (June 22) showed a slight increase of expenditure over the 
 receipts. An act was passed for the consolidation and 
 reform of the bankrupt law, and Parliament was prorogued 
 by commission (Aug. 1). The queen visited Ireland in the 
 autumn, and was most enthusiastically received. The repose 
 of our Indian empire was disturbed by intrigues amongst the 
 native chiefs. Moolraj, governor of Moultan, assassinated 
 some English of&cers, raised a rebellion, which was speedily 
 suppressed, and he was taken prisoner (Jan. 22, 1849). 
 He was sentenced to imprisonment for life in the Chunar 
 fort. Some riots occurred in Canada, and the mob fired the 
 House of Assembly at Montreal. The intelligence which 
 created the liveliest curiosity both in the new world and the 
 old, was that relating to the discovery, in 1848, of gold in 
 the Sacramento, a river rising in the mountains of California. 
 The desire of amassing riches seized upon many, and the 
 tide of emigration set strongly in the direction of the new 
 El Dorado. 
 
636 ATTACK UPON GREECE. 
 
 § 794. On the 3rd of January, 1850, a royal com- 
 mission was published in the London Gazette, referring to 
 the project for the Exhibition of the Works of Industry of 
 All Nations, proposed to be held in the metropolis during the 
 ensuing year. It was finally determined to erect a large 
 building in Hyde Park, composed principally of glass and 
 iron. The site for the stately edifice was delivered to the 
 contractors on the 30th of July, and the first column wag 
 fixed on the 26th of September. It covered eighteen acres 
 of ground. The total area of the ground-floor was 772,000 
 square feet, that of the galleries 217,100 square feet. Par- 
 liament was opened by commission on the 31st of January. 
 The great debate of the session arose out of some very 
 questionable proceedings, on the part of Lord Palmerston, 
 against the newly-constituted kingdom of Greece. In 
 January, the British minister at Athens peremptorily de- 
 manded an indemnity for M. Pacifico, a Jew, whose house 
 had been sacked during the disturbances in 1826, and as the 
 request was not complied with, the British fleet captured some 
 Greek vessels and blockaded the ports. This policy was cen- 
 sured in the upper house by a majority of thirty-seven, but 
 in the lower Mr. Eoebuck threw himself into the breach, and 
 ministers obtained a majority of forty-six. Acts were passed 
 for the better government of the Australian colonies, and 
 the extension of the elective franchise in Ireland. The 
 Factory Act of 1847 was amended, the jurisdiction of the 
 County Courts extended, the Ecclesiastical Commission re- 
 modelled, a commission of inquiry into the state of the 
 universities granted, and Parliament prorogued in August. 
 
 § 795. The Great Exhibition of Works of Industry of All 
 Nations, erected in Hyde Park, was opened by the queen 
 (May I, 1851) . Thousands of strangers flocked to London 
 to see this latest wonder of the world, and after having been 
 kept open for nearly six months, and afforded delight and in- 
 struction to the miHion, it was closed on the 15th of October. 
 It certainly caused a great stir in the world. The queen 
 opened Parliament on the 4th of February. The attempt 
 on the part of the pope to exercise spiritual authority in 
 England was the chief topic of debate. The difficulty of 
 dealing with the matter was increased by a ministerial crisis. 
 A small majority of fourteen against Mr. Disraeli's motion 
 for the relief of the agricultual interest (Feb. 13), and a 
 positive majority of forty-eight against ministers on Mr. 
 Locke King's County Franchise Bill (Feb. 20), induced Lord 
 
CAFFEE WAE. 637 
 
 John Eussell to resign. The opposition chiefs were unable 
 to form a cabinet, and the Eussell administration was re- 
 instated in office. The Ecclesiastical Titles Bill underwent 
 considerable modification, was fiercely opposed by the Irish 
 brigade and the Peelites, but, with certain amendments, 
 passed through both houses of Parliament. A bill for the 
 removal of Smithfield market passed into a law. Government 
 suffered several defeats, and Parliament was prorogued on the 
 8th of August, 1851. The census was taken in the 31st of 
 March, and showed an increase in the population of nearly 
 two millions and a half since 1841. In Ireland the results 
 were very different, the population having decreased a 
 million and a half in the same period. The Caffre war 
 continued during the year. Sir Harry Smith was recalled, 
 and Sir George Cathcart sent out in his place. Gold was 
 discovered in great abundance in the mountain-ranges of 
 Australia ; in the autumn some of the precious metal reached 
 England, and thousands of persona set out for the colony in 
 hopes of making a rapid fortune. 
 
 § 796. Death had been busy during the years we have just 
 considered. Sharon Turner died on the 13th of Pebruary, 
 1847. William Collins, the artist, died on the 17th of 
 Pebruary, and on the 20th of March, Mademoiselle Mars, 
 the glory of the Prench stage. Prince Jules de Polignac 
 breathed his last on the 29th of the same month. Daniel 
 O'Connell, the Irish agitator, expired at Genoa in his 
 seventy-second year, on the 15th of May. Eobert Listen, 
 the eminent anatomist, expired on the 7th of December, and 
 the elder Napoleon's second wife, Maria Louisa, archduchess 
 of Parma, on the 17th. Amongst the deaths in 1848 were 
 Isaac D'lsraeli, author of " Curiosities of Literature," 
 (January 19); Chateaubriand (July 4); Capt. Marryatt 
 (Aug. 2) ; Sir Harris Nicolas (Aug. 3) ; George Stephenson 
 (Aug. 12) ; Lord G. Bentinck, very suddenly (Sept. 21) ; 
 and Lord Melbourne (Nov. 24). In 1849, died Maria 
 Edgeworth (May 21) ; the countess of Blessington (June 4) ; 
 Adelaide, the queen dowager (Dec. 2) ; Sir M. I Brunei, 
 designer and architect of the Thames Tunnel (Dec. 12). 
 In 1850, "William Wordsworth, poet-laureate, died (April 23), 
 and Miss Jane Porter (May 24). A lamentable accident 
 deprived England of the services of Sir Eobert Peel. He 
 was thrown from his horse on the 29th of June, and expired 
 in great agony on the 2nd of July. The deaths of the 
 duke of Cambridge (July 8) ; Mrs. Glover, the actress 
 
638 CONTINENTAL CONVtrLSIONS. 
 
 (July 16) ; and W. H. Maxwell, author of "Stories of Water- 
 loo," &c. (Dec. 29), occurred during the same year. The 
 principal persons removed during 1851, were John Audubon. 
 (Jan.27); Joanna Baillie (Jan. 23); E. Lalor Shiel (May 23)j 
 Marshal Soult (Nov. 26) ; and Turner, the artist (Dec. 19). 
 
 Letter 10. — History of the Revolutions on the Continent of Europe, 
 from the Parisian Insurrection of February, 1848, to Louis Napo- 
 leon's (7o«p d'Etatot the 2nd December, a.d. 18i8 — 1861. Vol. iv., 
 pages 316—3.36. 
 
 § 797. The political convulsions of the year 1848 are of 
 so extraordinary a character as to demand special attention. 
 At a period of general tranquillity, when Europe was just 
 emerging from the severe ordeal of calamity, consequent upon 
 the famine of 1846 and 1847, almost without a signal of 
 alarm, the mass of the people rose against their rulers. The 
 standard of revolt floated from almost every capital of 
 Europe, olden dynasties were subverted, and kings who had 
 grown grey in learning to rule wisely, were compelled to flee' 
 for their lives. As usual, the first explosion of any conse- 
 quence occurred at Paris. Charles the Tenth defied the' 
 people, and, although he had made no preparations for a 
 contest, fought boldly to the last extremity. Louis Phillips 
 fortified Paris, filled the capital with troops, and took every 
 precaution to suppress a rebellion ; yet, when the storm 
 burst upon him, retreated without striking a blow. The 
 Eeform banquets had given deep offence to the Orleans dy- 
 nasty, and the attempt to suppress them led to its overthrow. 
 The citizens of the twelfth arrondissement of the capital 
 invited the democratic representatives to a reform banquet, 
 ultimately fixed to take place on the 22nd of February. 
 The government interdicted the banquet, the opposition 
 persevered, and laid upon the table of the Chamber of 
 Deputies an impeachment of ministers. Groups collected 
 in air parts of Paris; the military were insulted, but the 
 day passed without bloodshed, and at night the troops 
 bivouacked in the public thoroughfares. In spite of this 
 precaution, barricades were erected, and great preparations 
 made for a struggle. On Wednesday, the 23rd, M. Guizot 
 announced the resignation of ministers. Count Mol6, who 
 had been summoned by the king, being unwilling to form a 
 cabinet, the task was intrusted to M. Thiers, associated with 
 M. Odillon Barrot. A shot, fired by some person in a noisy 
 crowd that had assembled round M. Guizot's residence, on 
 
ABDICATION OF LOUIS PHILIPPE. 639 
 
 tlie Boulevard des Capucins, was the signal for the renewal 
 of the contest, which the new ministers endeavoured to 
 avert. The fighting continued, and in this extremity M. 
 EmUe de Girardin advised the king to resign, which he did, 
 after some hesitation, in favour of the count of Paris. 
 
 § 798. This act of concession came too late ; the red re- 
 publicans had triumphed, and Paris was at the mercy of the 
 mob. In vain the duchess of Orleans forced her way into 
 the Chamber of Deputies ; a provisional government was 
 called for, and the republic proclaimed. The National , 
 Assembly was ordered to meet on the 4th of May, and the 
 elections were fixed for the 23rd of April, 1848. In the mean 
 time the royal family had escaped in various directions, 
 and the mob took possession of the Palais Eoyal and the 
 Tuileries, committing the greatest excesses. The provisional 
 government attempted to amuse the people by planting 
 tees of liberty, and holding national fetes. In spite of 
 Blanqui's demonstration, at the head of about 10,000 
 discontented workmen, on the 16th of April, a grand 
 festival in honour of the triumph of the principles of 
 liberty, equality, and fraternity, was held on the 20th. 
 Thousands of all classes fraternized in the streets, and this 
 may, upon the whole, be looked upon as the saturnalia of 
 republicanism. The National Assembly met on the 4th of 
 May. The republic was proclaimed in the presence of the 
 people, and on the 9th an executive committee elected, 
 composed of Arago, Gamier Pages, Marie, Lamartine, and 
 Ledru EoUin. This committee appointed the ministers to 
 the various public departments. These measures had 
 only just been adopted, when Paris was threatened with 
 a fresh revolution. The Socialists, and ultras of every kind, 
 under the pretext of petitioning in favour of Poland, 
 assembled in force (May 15) ; the plot miscarried, and some 
 of the leaders were arrested. It was settled that there 
 should be a president and a single chamber, consisting of 
 750 members, both to be elected by universal sufirage. The 
 suppression of the ateliers na^onauxcsmaei a fearful struggle. 
 The contest began on the 23rd of June, and was waged for 
 three days. General Cavaignac was made dictator. The 
 slaughter at the barricades was terrible. The archbishop of 
 Paris, in seeking to efiect peace, was shot, and about 2,000 
 soldiers were killed. Louis Napoleon took his seat as a 
 representative of the department of the Seine on the 26th 
 of November, and on the 20th of December was pro- 
 
64Q LOUIS NAPOLEON PEESIDENT. 
 
 claimed president. The prince proceeded to one of the royal 
 palaces, and in the evening theMoniteur contained the names 
 of the ministers he had chosen : M. Odillon Barrot was 
 president of the council, whilst M. Drouyn de Lhuys took 
 the portfolio of foreign afiairs. 
 
 § 799. A struggle soon commenced between the differ- 
 ent powers that the revolution had raised to authority 
 in the state. The National Assembly did not seem 
 much inclined to abdicate its functions. Tet, before the 
 day fixed upon for its dissolution arrived, it dealt many 
 dangerous blows at the president whom the people had 
 elected. Ministerial changes followed. The removal of 
 the trees of liberty, early in 1850, gave rise to some dis- 
 turbances in Paris, whicb were speedily suppressed. Louis 
 Napoleon made a tour in the provinces during the autumn, 
 and met with a most enthusiastic reception. At Strasburg, 
 the scene of his early attempt to wrest the crown from the 
 Orleans family, his visit excited the most lively enthusiasm. 
 On the re-assembling of the Legislative Assembly, in 
 November, another long message from the president was 
 read from the tribune by the Minister of the Interior. As 
 the period for the termination of Louis Napoleon's term of 
 ofiSce as president of the republic approached, the contest 
 between the executive and legislative powers grew more 
 bitter. That struggle was decided in 1851. Tet the 
 Assembly was not the only antagonist with whom the 
 president had to contend. General Changarnier and others 
 aimed at power, but their plans were defeated by the coup 
 d'etat (Dec. 2, 1851). The National Assembly was dissolved, 
 and the people, by an overwhelming majority, voted in 
 favour of the maintenance of authority by Louis Napoleon. 
 On the 31st of December he received the report of the 
 result of the ballot, and thus terminated the system intro- 
 duced amid anarchy and rebellion in 1848. 
 
 § 800. A revolution at Paris is certain to produce con- 
 vulsions all over the continent; nor was the revolution of 
 1848 an exception in this respect. In some places the 
 elements of confusion had long been prepared, and the spftrk 
 alone was wanted to fire tbe train. It was scarcely possible, 
 for instance, that the various races of which the Austrian 
 empire is composed should remain tranquil in such a stormy 
 period. In 1830, the Hungarian Diet had commenced that 
 movement of Magyarism, which aroused the jealousy of the 
 Slavonian races. It substituted the Magyar language for the 
 
EEVOLTJnON IN AUSTRIA. 641 
 
 Latin, that had been so long in use, and imposed this change 
 not only upon the Hungarians themselves, but also upon 
 the Slavonians. Tlie Diet of Croatia and Slavonia, vrhich 
 claimed to be independent of the Hungarian Diet at Pesth, 
 assembled at Agram, the capital of Croatia, and adopted 
 retaliatory measures. On the 13th of March, 1848, the Diet 
 for lower Austria assembled at Vienna. The greatest ex- 
 citement prevailed, the mob burst into the chambers, and 
 peace was only restored on the promise of a new constitution 
 and the resignation of Prince Metternich. Two days after 
 this outbreak a deputation, headed by the Archduke Stephen, 
 and containing amongst its members Count Batthyanyi and 
 Louis Kossuth, arrived to demand extensive reforms for 
 Hungary. These were granted. The hostUe attitude of 
 certain sections of the people alarmed the sovereign, and 
 the royal family withdrew to Innspruck (May 17). The 
 Hungarian agitators, not content with a separate ministry 
 and parliament, demanded a distinct administration of war, 
 of finance, and of foreign affairs for Hungary — in fact, the 
 dismemberment of the Austrian empire. This aroused the 
 Croats, who soon made common cause with the emperor 
 against Hungary. At Prague a provisional government 
 was formed, which the authorities at Vienna refused to 
 recognize ; a revolt occurred in the former city in June^ 
 when the wife of Prince Windischgratz, the Austrian 
 governor, was killed. 
 
 § 801. Kossuth managed to get power into his hands, 
 and he resolved upon a separation from Austria. The 
 imperial commissioner. Count Lamberg, was murdered at 
 Pesth (Sept. 29), and an imperial decree proclaiming martial 
 law in Hungary was issued (Oct. 3). The Hungarian 
 parliament was at the same time dissolved by proclamation, 
 and all its acts, done without the sanction of the emperor, 
 were declared null and void. Great was the excitement in 
 Vienna when these things were made known, and on the 
 6th of October a terrible insurrection occurred. The aged 
 minister of war. Count Latour, was inhumanly butchered in 
 the public streets. The revolt was occasioned by the order 
 given for the march of troops to suppress the Hungarian 
 insurrection. Jellachich advanced upon Vienna, with his 
 Croatians, and was soon after joined by an army under 
 Prince "Windischgratz. The chief command was assumed 
 by the latter, and on the 31st he reconquered the city, 
 disbanded the national guard, suppressed the clubs, and 
 2 T 
 
642 COMMOTIONS IN ITALY. 
 
 dissolved the diet. But the emperor, who had taken up 
 his residence at Olmutz, could not be induced to resume 
 the reins of power, and on the 2nd of December, 1848, he 
 formally abdicated in favour of his nephew, Erancis Joseph. 
 Such was the real origin of the Hungarian war. Kossuth and 
 other adventurers fanned the flames of rebellion, plunged 
 the country into all. the horrors of civil strife, and, instead 
 of procuring liberty for the unfortunate people, delivered 
 them over to a more bitter bondage than that under which 
 they had long groaned. The Hungarians fought well, and 
 their efforts were worthy of a better cause and a nobler 
 leader. Indeed their success, during the first months of 
 the war, induced Kossuth to force upon the Hungariaa 
 chamber a series of violent resolutions, deposing the House 
 of Hapsburg, and electing Hungary and Transylvania into 
 a free state. By this measure the dictator disgusted Gorgey 
 and other Hungarian leaders, as at a former part of the 
 struggle he had done the Count Batfchyanyi. At one time 
 the dismemberment of the Austrian empire seemed inevita- 
 ble ; but in this emergency the emperor obtained the aid of 
 Russia. The Muscovite hordes, amounting to 150,000, 
 marched into Hungary, and the surrender of Gorgey with 
 35,000 men to the Eussian general (Aug. 13, 1849) brought 
 the civil war to a close. 
 
 § 802. The commotions caused in Italy by the Prench 
 revolution of 1848 were the source of much anxiety and 
 perplexity to the Austrian government. Charles Albert, 
 king of Sardinia, eager to ingratiate himself with the Italian 
 people, seized upon the opportunity afforded by revolts 
 in Milan, Venice, and other cities, and marched against the 
 Austrians. An indecisive battle was fought before Verona 
 (May 6). The Piedmontese contended bravely for the 
 independence of Italy, won several battles, but were crushed 
 by superior numbers. France and England interfered, and 
 an armistice was signed (Aug. 5). The arbitrary conduct 
 of the Austrians led to the renewal of the war. Charles 
 Albert, having been defeated at Novaro (March 24, 1849), 
 abdicated in favour of his son, and retired to Oporto, *here 
 he soon after died (July 28). Commotions occurred in 
 Germany, and William IV., of Prussia, tried to win the 
 favour of the mob. Louis, king, of Bavaria, alarmed at an 
 insurrection, resigned his crown (March 21, 1848) in favour 
 his son, Maximilian II. In Cologne, Dresden, Hanoverj, 
 Hesse-Cassel, Wisbaden, and other towns, riots occurred, 
 
IDEA OF GERMAN UNITY. 643 
 
 and concessions were made by the authorities to the popular 
 agitators. But it was not only in isolated and independent 
 revolts of this kind that the French revolution affected 
 Germany. The idea of unity vras uppermost in the minds 
 of the German agitators, and measures were adopted for 
 summoning a grand national congress. 
 
 § 803. Early in March the subject attracted the attention 
 of the most ardent German reformers, and soon after 
 several men of note, most of them members of the 
 legislatures of different German states, assembled at Heidel- 
 berg. They passed resolutions, and appointed a committee 
 of seven, which immediately set to work upon the idea of 
 the German parliament, and a preliminary or Vor-parliament 
 was ordered to be held at Frankfort on the 30fch of March. 
 This opened as determined upon, and measures were adopted 
 for summoning the great national assembly. One repre- 
 sentative was to be returned for every 70,000 souls ; and on 
 ■the 18th of May a parliament thus elected assembled in the 
 church of St. Paul's, at Frankfort. The old German diet 
 offered to co-operate with the newly-elected representatives, 
 and the offer was most cordially received. The Archduke 
 John of Austria was by a large majority elected lieutenant- 
 general, or regent of the German empire. A dispute about 
 the armistice of Malmo led to an outbreak (Sept. 16), which 
 was, however, suppressed. The rivalry of Austria and 
 Prussia proved fatal to the Frankfort parliament, and in 
 1849 it was dissolved. Various efforts were made by the 
 rulers of Prussia and Austria to obtain the ascendancy, but 
 they did not lead to any definite results ; and in 1851 the 
 old Frankfort diet was restored, in the same state that it 
 had existed since 1815. 
 
 § 804. Christian VIII., king of Denmark, died on 
 the 20th of January, 1848, and was succeeded by his 
 •son, Frederick VII. What were called the German sub- 
 jects of the Danish monarch had for many years agitated 
 •about their rights, and the revolution of 1848 led to a 
 rupture. A meeting was held at Eeudsburgh, in March, 
 and a deputation was sent to Copenhagen to protest against 
 the union of the representatives of Denmark with those of 
 the duchies, and to demand a separate chamber. This was 
 refused, and a revolution broke out at Kiel on the 24th of 
 March, when a provisional government was proclaimed ; and, 
 being secretly counselled by Prussia, the duchies of Schles- 
 wig and Holstein renounced their allegiance. The Danes 
 
 ■ 2 T 2 ; 
 
644 EOMAN INSUEEECTION. 
 
 were not unprepared for the struggle, and victory crowned 
 their earlier efforts. Whilst the refractory duchies were 
 supported hy Prussia and the German agitators, Swedea 
 and Eussia came forward to the assistance of the Danes. An 
 armistice between the belligerents was concluded at Malmo 
 on the 26th of August, 1848, through the intervention of 
 England. It was to last for seven months. The strife was, 
 however, renewed at the conclusion of the period fixed for 
 the duration of the armistice, early in 1849 ; and after 
 several engagements, another armistice was concluded, 
 followed by a treaty of peace. Holstein refused to accept 
 the terms, and the war broke out afresh. But Prussia 
 became involved in difficulties, and was compelled to with- 
 draw the secret support she had hitherto accorded to the 
 refractory duchies ; and, by the end of 1850, the war had 
 terminated, and the duchies submitted to Denmark. 
 
 § 805. A Sicilian insurrection had broken out in Palermo 
 on the 12th of January, 1848, when a parliament was sum- 
 moned, and the Bourbons were expelled. The king, however, 
 collected his forces, and attacked the insurgents, , Messina 
 was bombarded, and fearful cruelties were perpetrated. 
 The Trench and English interfered, and the king of Naples 
 was restored to his throne, but the provisional government 
 refused to submit. The war was renewed ; Catania fell 
 after a severe bombardment, Syracuse submitted without 
 making the least resistance, and on the 22nd of AprU the 
 keys of the city of Palermo were delivered into the hands of 
 the commanders of the king's forces. The popul?,r party at 
 Eome grew tired of their reforming pontiff the moment that 
 he refused to advance as rapidly as they wished. The first 
 cause of offence was his unwillingness to declare war against 
 Austria, .and to come forward to support Charles Albert in his 
 crusade for the liberation of Italy. Incited by the republi- 
 can leaders, the populace at Eome rose on the 15th of Novemr 
 ber, 1848, and murdered Count Eossi, the prime minister. 
 The pope contrived to escape from Eome a few days after- 
 wards, when he took refuge at Gaeta, a town in the Near 
 politan territory. A rescript was soon after sent by the 
 pontiff, annulling all that had been done at Eome, and 
 appointing a state commission with supreme authority. 
 But the democrats chose a provisional government, and 
 summoned a national assembly, which, in February, 1849, 
 passed a decree deposing the pope, and proclaiming a rer 
 public. 
 
PAPAL USURPATION. 645 
 
 § 806. Thenceforward anarchy prevailed in the eternal 
 citj, which was only brought to a close by the surrender of 
 the rebels to the French expeditionary array in July, 1849. 
 The pope showed but little inclination to quit his retreat 
 at Gaeta for the troublesome atmosphere of Eorae, and 
 did not venture to return until the I3th of April, 1850. 
 In the autumn he issued a papal brief, dividing England 
 into dioceses. At the same time, Dr. Wiseman was made a 
 cardinal, and archbishop of Westminster. Mehemet Ali, 
 pacha of Egypt, who had often rendered important services 
 to the sultan, and had at other times caused embarrassment 
 by his rebellious proceedings, died at Alexandria on the 2nd 
 of August, 1849. The king of Hanover expired on the 18th 
 of November, 1851, in his eighty-first year. His son suc- 
 ceeded him under the title of George V. The Peninsula 
 was not seriously convulsed during these troublous times. 
 Portugal remained tranquil, until, in April, 1851, the duke 
 of Saldanha issued a proclamation inviting the people to 
 revolt. The attempt was successful, and the duke was re- 
 warded for his bold stroke by being intrusted with the task 
 of forming an administration. Several outbreaks occurred 
 in Spain in 1848 ; and, on the 17th of May, the Spanish 
 government sent the English ambassador. Sir Henry Bulwer, 
 his passports, with notice to leave the capital in eight-and- 
 forty hours. Diplomatic relations were not renewed between 
 the two countries until the spring of 1850, when Lord 
 Howden went out as British ambassador. 
 
 Letter 11. — History of European Affairs from the Commencement of 
 the English Session of Parliament in 1852, to the Publication of the 
 Austrian Concordat. a.d. 1852—1855. Vol. iv., pages 336-369. 
 
 § 807. Lord John Eussell's tottering administration was 
 dissolved early in 1852. Its fall, which had long been 
 inevitable, was, perhaps, accelerated by the dismissal of the 
 Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston. The queen opened 
 parliament in person on the 3rd of February, and the 
 address passed without a division. The ministry were de- 
 feated on an amendment to their Militia Bill (Feb. 20), by 
 a majority of eleven, whereupon they resigned, and a Con- 
 servative government acceded to office under the premier- 
 ship of the earl of Derby. The new ministers announced 
 their intention of dissolving parliament, and of holding an 
 autumnal session. The budget was introduced on the 30th 
 of April, when the Chancellor of the Exchequer drew a 
 
«46 DEATH OF WELLINGTON. 
 
 very flattering picture of the state of the country, and pro- 
 posed the continuance of the income-tax for one year, in 
 order that certain alterations might, at the expiration of 
 that period, be made. A writer remarks : — " The prin- 
 cipal laws of public importance added to the statute-book,, 
 between the accession of Lord Derby to office and the dis- 
 solution of parliament, were — the Militia Act ; the New 
 Zealand Constitution Act; several measures of reform in 
 the Courts of Law and Equity, including an act to diminish 
 the .technicalities of Special Pleading, and to amend the 
 procedure in the Common Law Courts ; an act to remedy 
 some of the long-standing grievances in the Court of 
 Chancery, by abolishing the office of the masters and other 
 changes ; and an act to extend the jurisdiction of the 
 County Courts. In addition to these, there were several 
 aicts for important sanitary objects — for improving the supply 
 of waterto the metropolis, and for restricting intramural inter-/ 
 ments therein." Parliament was prorogued on the 1st of July^ 
 and an order for its dissolution was issued. A proclamation 
 was published in the London Gazette (Tuesday, June IS, 
 1852), against Soman Catholic processions. Some ill-disposed 
 persons at Stockport availed themselves of this to create dis- 
 turbances, and several chapels were demolished, and private 
 houses sacked. 
 
 § 808. The duke of "Wellington died suddenly at "Walmer 
 Castle, near Dover. On the Monday he took his ordinary 
 exercise, and retired to rest apparently in good health. His 
 valet called him at his usual hour on the following morning, 
 but the duke complained of indisposition, and requested thac 
 an apothecary might be sent for. This was done, and medicine 
 administered ; but a succession of epileptic fits ensued, and 
 at five-and-twenty minutes after three, in the afternoon of 
 Tuesday, the 14th of September, Arthur Duke of Wellington 
 breathed his last. The real extent of his popularity was 
 shown by the burst of lamentation caused by his decease. 
 Everybody had a kind word and an affectionate regret for that 
 illustrious man, who had served the state so well, and so long. 
 A public funeral was awarded to him by general acclamation, 
 and on the 10th of November the body was removed from 
 Walmer Castle to London. The remains lay in state at Chel- 
 sea Hospital, and so great was the crush to obtain a view, on 
 the first day of admission for the public, that three persons 
 were killed, and two died shortly after from injuries received 
 in the struggle. The interment took place on the 18th of 
 
THE EMPIRE EE-ESTABLISHED IN FRANCE. 6i7 
 
 If ovember, 1852, when the body was conveyed in great state, 
 upon a magnificent car constructed for the occasion, to St. 
 Paul's Cathedral. Some idea of the procession may be formed 
 from the fact that it extended two miles. The weather, 
 which had long been unfavourable, suddenly brightened up, 
 and the metropolis probably never before contained so many 
 people, all attracted to pay homage to one man. Business 
 was entirely suspended ; and the most extraordinary sums 
 were paid for windows commanding a view of the pro- 
 cession. 
 
 § 809. The elections did not make any very material • 
 changes in the strength of parties, the Conservative govern- 
 ment still being exposed to the chance of defeat whenever 
 the various sections of the opposition might unite. The 
 queen opened the autumnal session in person on the 11th of 
 November ; and the campaign commenced on the 23rd of 
 November, when Mr. 0. Villiers moved some resolutions 
 eulogizing the free-trade measure of 1846. These were, how- 
 ever, on the 26th of November rejected by 336 to 256, and 
 some resolutions proposed by Lord Palmerston, and accepted 
 by the government, were carried by a majority of 468 to 53. 
 Seventy-one members quitted the house before the final 
 division occurred. In the division on the budget the 
 government was in a minority of nineteen, and a coalition 
 ministry, with Lord Aberdeen as premier, acceded to 
 office. The "West-India mail steam-packet Amazon, was 
 destroyed by fire in the Bay of Biscay (Jan. 4), when 102 
 persons perished ; and her Majesty's steam-transport Sir- 
 kenhead was wrecked near the Cape of Grood Hope (Feb. 26), 
 and 486 persons, the majority being soldiers, were drowned. 
 A reservoir near Holmfirth, Derbyshire, burst during a storm 
 (Feb. 5), when entire families perished, and much property 
 was destroyed. The country was visited with some violent 
 storms and inundations. By a decree of the 11th of 
 January, the National Guard throughout France was recon- 
 structed upon a fresh basis. The new constitution, which 
 vested the government of the French republic in the hands 
 of Louis Napoleon for ten years, was promulgated (Jan. 14) . 
 In November the question of the re-establishment of the 
 French empire was submitted to the people, and more tlian 
 seven millions voted in favour of the change. Napoleon 
 took up his residence at the Tuileries (Dec. 2), and a decree 
 was immediately promulgated, creating Louis Napoleon 
 jBmperor under the title of Napoleon III. 
 
648 SESSION OF 1853. 
 
 § 810. Both Houses of Parliament — which had adjournedjl 
 after the autumnal session of 1852, on theSlst of December — 
 re-assembled on the 10th of February, 1853. The programme 
 of the new coalition cabinet was — peace with foreign powers, 
 and conservative progress at home. Tet ministers were 
 singularly unfortunate in their efforts to preserve harmony 
 abroad, although they succeeded in passing many of their 
 reformatory measures in home legislation. On the 10th of 
 February, Lord John Hussell enumerated the principal 
 measures which the government intended to bring forward 
 during the session. These were : — first, a bill to enable the 
 legislature of Canada to dispose of the clergy reserves j 
 secondly, a Pilotage Bill ; thirdly, the consideration of the 
 disabilities of the Jews, with a view to their removal ; 
 fourthly, a measure upon the important subject of education. 
 Government also engaged to state the course they intended 
 to adopt with reference to the reports of the commissioners 
 appointed to inquire into the universities ; and as regarded 
 the future disposition of criminals. Several measures of 
 legal reform were promised ; but the scheme for the reform 
 of parliamentary representation was postponed till another 
 session. The Canadian Clergy Eeserves Bill was passed. 
 The Jewish disabilities were discussed soon after, and the 
 measure was carried through the Lower, but rejected by the 
 Upper House. The Pilotage Bill, a Mercantile Marine Bill, 
 and a Naval Coast Volunteers Bill passed. A most useful act 
 for the suppression of the betting-houses, and another for 
 the abatement of the smoke nuisance, were carried. To 
 these may be added the India Bill, a proposal for regulating 
 charitable trusts, from the operation of which the Eoman 
 Catholic charities were exempted; a bill for altering the 
 punishment of transportation; a new Cab Aot; and a measure 
 for the better prevention and punishmeht of aggravated 
 assaults upon women and children. 
 
 § 811. On the 8th of April, Mr. Grladstone proposed his 
 resolutions on the national debt. His plan was for the 
 conversion of stock. It was accepted, and the budget in- 
 troduced (April 18). The income-tax was renewed for 
 seven years, on a sliding scale; and it was extended to Ire- 
 land. Ministers proposed a change in the succession duties, 
 and to add one shilling per gallon duty on Scotch, and ' 
 eight-pence on Irish spirits, allowing a drawback for waste 
 upon spirits in bond. The licences of brewers, maltsters, 
 dealers in tea and coffee, tobacco and soap, were increased^ 
 
WAELIEE PEEPAEATIONS. 649 
 
 and Ireland reliieved from the consolidated annuities. The 
 duties on soap were repealed, and thbse payable on life 
 assurance, indentures of apprenticeship, advertiseinents, 
 hackney-coaches, servants, private carriages, horses, dogs, and 
 many other articles, were reduced, and great changes made in 
 the customs. The tea-duties were gradually reduced until 
 1856, when they were to remain at one shilling. Mr. Mikier 
 G-ihson carried a motion against the government for the 
 repeal of the advertisement duty. The attitude of Russia 
 in the East attracted the attention of the legislature, and 
 gave rise to several discussions. A camp was formed at 
 Chobham in Surrey, and a grand field-day held, in presence 
 of the queen (June 21) ; and a naval review at Spithead 
 (Aug. 11). The Dublin Exhibition was opened (May 12), 
 and proved eminently successful. Windsor Castle had a 
 narrow escape from destruction on the 19th of March. A little 
 after ten in the evening,a fire was found to have broken oat in 
 the Prince of Wales's Tower. The queen and other members 
 of the royal family happened to be there at the time. The fire 
 was soon extinguished. The cab-proprietors, dissatisfied 
 with the new law, withdrew all their vehicles, and for three 
 days (July 27-30) London was without a cab. The second 
 Burmese war, which commenced in 1852, was brought to a 
 termination early in 1853. The Cafires also submitted to our 
 government and entered into a treaty of peace (March 9)." 
 The Emperor Napoleon III. was married to Eugenie 
 de Montijo, countess of Teba (Jan. 29) ; and the queen of 
 Portugal died in childbed on the 15th of November. 
 ■ § 812. The session of 1854 was opened on the 31st of 
 January. The Eastern question engrossed the attention of 
 the public ; and, although war had not been declared, it was 
 generally admitted that, after the passage of the Pruth by 
 the Eussian hordes, and the murderous outrage at Sinope, 
 this could not be much longer delayed. Several debates 
 occurred upon the alleged mismanagement of afl&iirs, and on 
 the 27th of March a royal message was communicated to, 
 Parliament, in which war against Eussia was at last declared. 
 On the 24th of July, a demand for further supplies of money 
 towards the expenses of the war, was brought under the 
 consideration of both Houses of Parliament. Minister^ 
 required £3,000,000, and the proposition received the 
 immediate sanction of the legislature. Yet the dis- 
 cussion upon the vote led to a curious scene in the House 
 of Commons. Lord John Eussell spoke for about aa 
 
650 SESSION OF 1854. 
 
 Lour, and insisted very strongly upon the necessity of the 
 active prosecution of the war. Towards the close of the 
 debate he seemed anxious to retract what he had before 
 asserted, and much indignation was expressed by various 
 members. Lord John Eussell's Eeform Bill was brought 
 in and withdrawn ; the measure for reform in the university 
 of Oxford, the West India Encumbered Estates Bill, the 
 Canadian Legislative Council Bill, the Public Revenue 
 and Consolidated Funds Chai;ges , Bill, an act to throw 
 open the coasting trade to foreign vessels, another to 
 amend and consolidate the acts relating to merchant 
 shipping, and one for the repeal of the usury law, swere 
 
 § 813. The great ministerial defeat of the session was 
 upon the Parliamentary Oaths BiU. Ministers proposed to 
 abolish the oaths of supremacy, allegiana^ and abjuration, 
 and substitute one more simple lOath. in their place. The 
 bill was thrown out on its second reading (May 25), 251 
 voting against it, and 247 in its favour. The financial 
 measures of the government provoked considerable discus- 
 sion. They proposed an increased incom.e-tax, an alteration 
 in the stamp-duties, and a vote of £1,750,000 in Exchequer 
 bills. The war budget was introduced on the 6th of May. 
 It provided for the additional expenditure by raising the 
 duties on Scotch and Irish spirits, augmenting, the malt- 
 tax, altering certain import duties on spirits in Ireland and 
 Scotland, and an additional duty upon sugars. A separate 
 set of resolutions were proposed, empowering government 
 to raise money on Exchequer bonds., During the session a 
 fourth secretaryship of state was created, the proper dis- 
 charge of the duties of war and colonial minister, which had 
 before been combined, having been found, from the increased 
 pressure consequent upon the war, too much for one indi- 
 vidual. The duke of Newcastle received the appointment 
 of war minister. 
 
 § 814. Eew will forget the gloom and the depression that 
 hung over the country during the autumn of 1854. The 
 conviction that ministers were unequal to the crisis, and the 
 heart-rending accounts from the Crimea, caused general 
 consternation and sorrow. The ministerial determination 
 to call Parliament together in December, was hailed as a 
 kind of relief, and the people awaited the re-assembling of 
 their representatives with anxiety and impatience. A Militia 
 Bill and a Poreigners' Enlistment BiU were passed, and Par-i 
 
TALL OF THE ABERDEEN MINISTRY. 651 
 
 liament adjourned on the 23rd of December (1854). A bril- 
 liant assemblage, amounting to 40,000 people, witnessed the 
 inaugural ceremony of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham 
 (Jane 10,1854). The cholera, which had re-appeared in 1853, 
 subsided during the winter, but broke out again with great 
 violence in the summer months. The disease was at its height 
 early in September, 1854, when a kind of panic seized upon 
 the inhabitants of London. The false report of the capture 
 of Sebastopol created a wonderful degree of excitement in 
 Europe early in October, and kept the English public in a 
 state of suspense for several days. A dreadful conflagration 
 broke out near Newcastle on the 6th of October, destroying 
 a great amount of property. It originated in a hosiery 
 manufactory at G-ateshead; and caused a terrible explo- 
 sion, which scattered the burning material in every 
 direction. About fifty people were killed and many 
 severely wounded. A revolution broke out at Madrid 
 (June 28) ; the queen-mother was expelled, and O'Donnell 
 and Espartero were made ministers. On the 24th of 
 April, the emperor of Austria married the princess Eliza- 
 beth of Bavaria. 
 
 § 815. England at the commencement of 1855 was un- 
 usually agitated and disturbed. The coalition ministry were 
 distrusted, and a motion for a committee of inquiry into the 
 condition of the army before Sebastopol was carried against 
 them by a majority of 157 (Jan. 29). A ministry was formed 
 by Lord Palmerston, from which the Peelite party seceded 
 soon after. Lord John EusseU was made colonial minister 
 and British plenipotentiary at the conferences then about 
 to commence at Vienna. The Czar Nicholas, the real cause 
 of the war, died suddenly on the 2nd of March. The 
 Emperor Napoleon and the Empress Eugenie visited 
 England in April, and spent a week with the queen. 
 Their reception in London was most enthusiastic. 
 Little beyond the necessary measures for the prosecu- 
 tion of the war was done in the English legislature 
 during the session. The budget was introduced on the 
 20th of April. The Chancellor of the Exchequer showed 
 that the expenditure would probably exceed the income 
 by £23,000,000. He proposed to supply the deficit, by 
 adding one per cent, to the income-tax, raising the duty on 
 sugar three shillings per cwt., and that on cofiee one penny 
 per lb. The tea-duties were increased from Is. 6d. to Is. 9(1. 
 per lb. ; the duty on Scotch spirits raised from 63. to 7s. lOd. 
 
652 EVENTS OP 1855. 
 
 per gallon, and that on Irish whisky from 4s. to 5s. per gallon- 
 In addition to a loan of £16,000,000 previously negotiated, 
 the government proposed to issue Exchequer bills fot 
 £3,000,000. On the 14ith of May, 1855, Lord Ellenborough 
 brought forward a motion in favour of adtoinistrative reform. 
 It was resisted by the government, iand defeated by a largS 
 majority. The laW respecting the newspaper-stamp was 
 altered,aLimitedLiabilityBill,and another for effecting great 
 changes in the university of Cambridge, were passed. Lord 
 Eobert G-rosvenor's Sunday Trading Bill created much sen- 
 sation amongst the lower orders, and was eventually with-i 
 drawn ; and a resolution for opening the British Museum 
 on Sundays was rejected by a large majority. Some govern^ 
 ment measures were thrown out, others withdrawn, such as 
 the Scotch Education Bill, Tenants' Improvemient Compensa-' 
 tion Bill, and the Testanlentary Jurisdiction !6ill. The reso-^ 
 lution, proposed in a committee' of ways and means, for 
 granting a loan of five millions to Turkey, in joint security 
 with France, was carried by a tnajority df three. 
 
 § 816. Soon after- Lord John RusseH's returli from the 
 Vienna conferences, it oozed out that, although he had 
 rejected the terms offered by Russia, arid denounced Eussia 
 in his place in. the House of Commons, he was favourable 
 to a modification proposed by the Austrian minister, and 
 Upon this matter he difiered in opinion from the majority 
 of bis colleagues in office. The retention of office, after aS 
 Split in the cabinet on a vital point of policy, incurred general 
 censure, and Lord John Bussell only saved -the goyernriient 
 from a hostile vote by an 'immediate resignatidn of office 
 (July 16). The new metropolitan cattle-market in Copen.* 
 hagen-fields was opened oh the 13th of' June. The bank- 
 ruptcy of Strahain, Paul, and Bates.'bankets and army agents, 
 created quite a panic in the commercial world, which subse- 
 quent revelations served only to increase. They were tried 
 for fraudulent practices, foiind guilty,- arid on the 27th of 
 October sentenced to fbui-teeti years' transportation. The 
 21st of March was set ' apart as a day of humiliation ; and, 
 on the I'eceipt of favourable in telligeriee from the Crimea, 
 the 80th of September was appointed as a day Of thanks- 
 giving. Victor Emmanuel II., king of Sardinia, visited 
 England in- Noveuiber, and early in the same month the 
 queen and Prince Albert paid a retrirn visit to the emperor 
 and empress of the ^French, at Paris'. Towards the end of 
 the year Erancis Joseph- of Austria promulgated the con« 
 
CELEBRATED CHAEACTEES. 653 
 
 cordat which he had signed with the pope. It was, without 
 exception, the most humiliating and disgraceful concession 
 to temporal and spiritual despotism that can be conceived. 
 The nineteenth century has hitherto produced nothing 
 equally degrading. Disturbances broke out in Spain during 
 the summer ; and half of the village of Chamouni in Switzer- 
 land was laid in ruins by a fire, that commenced early in the 
 morning of the 20th of July, 1855. 
 
 § 817. Many celebrated characters were summoned from 
 the busy scenes of- life during these few years; Thomas 
 Moore, the poet, died in the seventy-third year of his age, 
 on the 26th of February, 1852. Marmont, the last of the 
 elder Napoleon's marshals, expired at Venice on the 2nd of 
 March; the Count D'Orsay died on the 4th of August, and 
 Ada, countess of Lovelace, daughter of the .poet Byron, on 
 the 27th of November. In 1853 Ludwig Tieck died at 
 Berlin (April 28).; Lieutenant Bellot perished in the ice 
 (Aug. 21) ; Sir Charles Napier died on the 29th of August, 
 Arago the astronomer, on the 2nd of October, and Amelia 
 Opie on the 2nd of December. Silvio Pellico, the victim of 
 Austrian tyranny, died on the 1st of January, 1854. Lord 
 Beresford, the hero of Albuera (Jan. 8) ; Sir Thomas Noon 
 Talfourd, an eminent judge and a successful author, expired 
 on the bench at Stafford (March 15) ; Professor "Wilson 
 (April 3), Lord Cockbum, (April 26), the marquis of 
 Anglesey, a celebrated cavalry officer (April 29), James 
 Montgomery, the poet (April 30), and the countess of 
 , Jlossi, better known as Madame Sontag (June 17). On 
 the 20th of June the gallant Captain Butler, who volun.. 
 teered his services to the Turkish garrison of Siliatria, died 
 of a wound he had received, while defending that town. 
 • § 818. Thomas Crofton Croker, the antiquarian and coIt 
 lector of the legends and songs of the Irish, died on the 
 8th of August, Lord Denman sank on the 22nd of Sep- 
 tember. Sir George Cathcart fell in the battle of Inkermann, 
 on the 5th of November. On the 17th of the same month 
 Lord Dudley Stuart died at Stockholm. John Gibson Lock- 
 hart, long editor of the QuaHerhf Review, and the author of 
 several works in prose and verse, died on the 25th of 
 itfaverober. John Kitto, the celebrated biblical scholar, 
 died in Germany on the same day. M. Leon Faueher, 
 an eminent politician, died at Marseilles on the 15th 
 pf December. Dr. Eouth^ President of Magdalene Col- 
 lege, 'Oxford, succumbed in hig 100th year, on the 22nd of 
 
eri THE HOLY PLACES. 
 
 December, 1854. The royal family of Sardinia suffered 
 three bereavetnents early in 1855. The queen-dowager, 
 widow of Charles Albert, died at Turin on the 12th of 
 January, and the queen, Maria Adelaide, wife of Victor 
 Emmanuel, sank under an attack of typhus fever (Jan. 20). 
 The king's younger brother, the duke of Genoa, died on the 
 10th of February. The other remarkable persons whose 
 deaths occurred during the year were Mary Mitford, au-. 
 thoress (Jan. 10); Joseph Hume, the political economist 
 (Feb. 20) ; Mrs. Charlotte Nicbolls, better known as " Jane 
 Eyre" (May 31) ; Sir Eobert Inglis, statesman (April 24) ; 
 Dr. G-aisford, the celebrated classic (June 2) ; Sir William 
 Molesworth (Oct. 22) ; Count Mole, the statesman (Nov.23), 
 and Samuel Eogers, the banker and poet, in his ninety-sixth 
 year (Dec. 18). 
 
 Letteb 12. — History of the Eastern Question, from tbe Attempt of 
 the French Government to obtain a Settlement of the Question 
 having reference to the Holy Places at Jerusalem, to the Treaty of 
 Paris. A.D. 1850—1856. Vol. iv., pages 369—456. 
 
 § 819. The guardianship and possession of certain places 
 at Jerusalem have been for many years the source of 
 an animated contest between Christians belonging to the 
 Greek and Latin Churches. These spots, known as the 
 Holy Places, are hallowed from a supposed connection with 
 our Saviour, the Virgin Mary, or some of His early dis- 
 ciples. Amongst them the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 
 built upon Mount Calvary, and in which the sepulchre of 
 Christ is said to exist, occupies a prominent position. In 
 the year 1690 this Holy Sepulchre was appropriated to the 
 Latins, and though other Christians were allowed to enter 
 it for the purpose of private devotions, the Latins alone 
 were allowed to celebrate mass therein. It continued to 
 afford constant matter of dispute between various denomi- 
 nations of Christians, and France always appeared as the 
 champion of the Latin, and Eussia in modern times es- 
 poused the cause of the Greek Church : for the conflict 
 has been at length confined to these rival sects. In 1740 
 a treaty was signed between France and the Porte, having 
 special reference to this question. Alleged infractions in 
 the terms of this treaty, and encroachments by the Greek 
 Christians upon the privileges and possessions of the Latin 
 Church, formed, on several occasions, the subject of complaint 
 from the French government. 
 
THE CZAH'S SCHEMES. 655 
 
 • § 820. In 175Y a very serious outbreak occurred at 
 Jerusalem, caused by dissensions between the followers 
 of the rival churches, and soon after a hatti-scheriff 
 was promulgated, expelling the Latins from the Church 
 of the Tomb of the Virgin, and the Church of Bethle- 
 hem, and placing the holy sanctuaries under the pro- 
 tection of the Greek monks. Thus were the rights and 
 privileges granted to the Latins by the treaty of 1740, 
 gradually encroached upon and abrogated by successive 
 decrees issued at Constantinople in favour of the Greek 
 Christians. These matters continued to be as fiercely con- 
 tested at Jerusalem as ever, until further complicated by a 
 fire that consumed a considerable portion of the Holy 
 Sepulchre, in 1808. Thereupon the Greeks obtained per- 
 mission to rebuild the edifice, and grounded upon this 
 concession additional rights and prerogatives. In 1819 
 France and Eussia again interfered, and each of them sent 
 a commissioner into Palestine, to inquire into and report 
 upon these disputed claims. In the following year, M. 
 Marcellus, the French commissioner, drew up a list of the holy 
 places, and enumerated the prerogatives of the Latin Church. 
 ' § 821. A satisfactory settlement could not, however, be 
 made; and after a temporary lull, the French government, 
 in 1850, directed their representative at Constantinople to 
 endeavour to efiect some arrangement. The Turkish go- 
 vernment admitted the justice of the French claims, and 
 things were progressing very favourably when the Emperor 
 Nicholas wrote a letter to the Sultan, requiring his adherence 
 to the status quo. Pressed by these formidable rivals, the 
 Sultan knew not how to act ; and as the discussion was 
 prolonged, the Emperor Nicholas gradually disclosed his 
 real intentions. An arrangement was nearly concluded 
 in 1852 ; but towards the close of the year the czar 
 began to set the forces of his empire in motion. In 
 February, 1853, Prince Menschikoff repaired to Constan- 
 tinople, as extraordinary ambassador from Russia ; and 
 although the real nature of his mission did not at first 
 transpire, it soon became evident that the ruin of Turkey 
 was intended. At a conference on the 31st of March the 
 Russian ambassador expressed the emperor's wish to enter 
 into a secret treaty with Turkey, putting a fleet and 
 400,000 men at her disposal, if she ever needed aid against 
 any Western Power whatever. Russia further secretly 
 demanded an addition to the treaty of Kainardji, whereby 
 
^5Q VICTORIES OF THE TUBKS. 
 
 the iGrreek Ghurch should, be placed entirely under Eussian 
 protectiqn,. without reference to Turkey, which was , to bfe 
 the, equivalent for the proiFered aid above mentioued. The 
 {Sultan firmly resisted this attack upon his independence; 
 and after , having exhausted threats, . Prince Menschikoff 
 withdrew from , Constantinople, taking with him the. im- 
 perial legation (May 21, 1853). . , 
 
 § 822,. The Eussian forces crossed ,the Pruth (July 2) ; 
 occupied the Turkish provinces of Moldavia andWallachia, 
 and although , eyery effprt was made, the czar would not 
 listen to terms of. accommodatiop. Austria and Prussia 
 refused to assist the Sultan ; but the Erench and English 
 squadrons passied the Dardanelles towards the end of 
 October, and Nicholas isgued a formal declaration of war 
 (Nov. 1), , The Turks resisted manfully, worsted the 
 Eussiausi in. several engagements, and commenced tha 
 struggle ipost auspiciqusly. Omer Pacha found, himself at 
 ijhe head of 1QO,000 mpn. ; "With this force- the passage of 
 the Danube was effected .at four different places, between 
 the 28th of October and the 4th of November. One division 
 occupied Kalafat, another took possession of a small island 
 on the Danube, .between; Eustchuk and Giurgevo, a third 
 division establighedi themselves at Oltenitza, and a fourtb 
 prossed over at Silistria, and rested upop Kalarashe, 
 Several skirmishes ensued, in which the Turks were vie 
 toripus, and on the, 4th,: the battle of Oltenitza was fought^ 
 About 20,000 Turks awaited the approach of 30,000 Russians, 
 Thelatterattempted to drivetheTurks fromtheposition which 
 they had taken up and fortified, but failed.; and they were 
 compelled to retreat with a loss: of s 1,200 men in, killed and 
 V'ounded. . They were also defeated at other points on tha 
 line of the Danube, in which they, endeavoured to arrest 
 the progress of the Turks, In consequence of insitructions 
 iieceived from Constantinople, Omer Pacha soon after with- 
 drew his forces from Oltenitza, having first blown up his 
 works there, and retired across .the Danube; but he kept 
 possession of Kalafat, and thus showed i a; determined front 
 to the Eussians on the left bank of the Danube, 
 . § 823. So unwilling were the Western Powers to give- 
 the slightest cause of joffence to the czar, thatj their fleets 
 only passed, the Dardanelles, taking, up their, station near 
 Constantinople, and did not proceed; as they might and- 
 o.ught to have done, into the Black Sea, for. the protection, 
 of the Turkish ships in those waters. It happened that ioj 
 
OTTTEAGE AT SINOPE. 657 
 
 November the Turkish fleet lay at anchor near Sinope, 
 a small seaport town of Anatolia, situated about mid- 
 way between Constantinople and Trebizond. The Turkish 
 fleet consisted of six fiigates, two corvettes, a steamer, 
 and three transports. On the 30th of November, 1853, 
 a Eussian squadron, composed of six sail of the line, two 
 frigates, and three steamers, entered the bay and anchored 
 near the Turkish vessels. At two in the afternoon they 
 opened fire upon this small fleet, then badly arranged to 
 repel an attack, and actually destroyed the whole flotilla, 
 with the exception of the steamer, which managed to escape. 
 The town of Sinope suffered terribly from the cannonade. 
 The struggle was maintained with heroic firmness by the 
 Turks; but against their powerful assailant they literally 
 had not a shadow of a chance, and 4000 of them fell in the 
 conflict, though its duration w^as but short. The Russian 
 fleet, having committed this atrocity and completed the 
 work of destruction, sailed back to the shelter of the fortifi- 
 cations of Sebastopol, its commanders lacking the courage to 
 remain and face the allied squadrons. The annals of aggres- 
 sive warfare contain nothing equal in atrocity to this attack. 
 The English and Trench fleets soon after entered the Black 
 Sea, and although the greatest efforts were made to avert 
 hostilities, and every possible expedient was tried, the czar 
 would not yield, and war was declared (March 27, 1854). 
 
 § 824. The Grreeks have for many years regarded the 
 Turks with extreme jealousy ; they have been engaged in 
 several severe conflicts with them ; and they await with 
 impatience the overthrow of the Ottoman power in Europe, 
 befieving that its extinction will lead to the revival of their 
 own influence, and the reconstruction of a modem kingdom 
 which in its glories and power shall rival ancient G-reece. 
 Moreover, agitation has long been fostered in King Otho's 
 dominions. Many of his subjects were dissatisfied with the 
 settlement of affairs at the termination of the war of inde- 
 pendence, and desired not only the incorporation of Epirus 
 and Thessaly, provinces of Turkey containing a great 
 number of Christians of the Greek church, but even 
 the thorough humiliation of the Porte. Secret societies 
 grew in importance ; and although the members of these 
 were actuated by different motives, they all looked for- 
 ward to one consummation, — the triumph of the cross 
 over the crescent. They talked enthusiastically of the 
 period when the ancient Bvzantium should once more 
 2'v 
 
658 GREEK INSTJREECTION. 
 
 become a citadel of Christianity ; and, being supported by 
 Russia, they believed that the fulfilment of their hopes could 
 not be much longer delayed. Although the emperor of 
 Bussia had no intention of assisting in the elevation of 
 Greece, yet he skilfully turned this antipathy between the 
 neighbouring states to his own advantage, and strained 
 every nerve to extend his influence with the Greeks, and to 
 induce them to regard him, not only in a political, but also 
 in a religious point of view, as their friend and protector. 
 "While Prince Menschikoff was employed at Constantinople, 
 early in 1853, in his arrogant mission, Admiral Korniloff 
 was holding private interviews with the king and queen of 
 Greece, both already sufficiently subservient to Nicholas, 
 and preparing them for any contingencies that might 
 arise. The consequence was that an insurrection broke 
 out in Greece early in 1854, and a crusade, secretly sup- 
 ported by King Otho, was proclaimed against the Turks. 
 After several sanguinary encounters had taken place, France 
 and England interfered, and in May, 1854, their expe- 
 ditionary forces, amounting to nearly 9000 men, reached 
 the Pirteus, and the Greek conspiracy was crushed. 
 
 § 825. To the surprise of most people, and to the delight 
 of a great many, the Turkish army on the banks of the 
 Danube continued its victorious career. The czar, exaspe- 
 rated by the frequent and serious defeats inilicted upon his 
 troops, whose entrance into the Principalities had been 
 announced in such bombastic terms, kept changing both his 
 plans and his generals. At different times, in the space 
 of about twelve months, Ouer Pacha encountered several 
 of his most able commanders, and Paskiewitch, Liiders, 
 Schilders, Osten-Sacken, Gortschakoff, and Dannenberg, 
 each in his turn sought to retrieve the adverse fortunes of 
 the war. The winter season did not prove so great an 
 obstacle to the prosecution of the campaign as Omer Pacha 
 had at first imagined ; and accordingly, in the commencement 
 of January, being once more released from the influence of 
 diplomatists, the rival armies showed signs of actions. The 
 first encounter of any consequence took place near Kalafat 
 on tlie 6th of January ; and here Omer Pacha gained 
 another victory. All efibrts to effect an accommodation 
 having proved unavailing, a treaty was signed at Constanti- 
 nople (March 12), relative to the military aid to be given 
 by the allied powers to Turkey, and forces were despatched 
 to the seat of the war. The first levies landed at Malta early 
 
WAR DECLARED AGAINST RUSSIA. 659 
 
 in Marcb, 1854. Thence they proceeded firat to GallipoH, 
 and afterwards to Scutari and Varna. In a short time 
 30,000 French and English troops were assembled for the 
 defence of the Ottoman empire. 
 
 § 826. The gallant Turks were in the mean while 
 struggling against overwhelming numbers on the banks 
 of the Danube. In March the Eussians crossed the river 
 in great force, took possession of the Dobrudscha, and 
 besieged Silistria. Though it was fiercely assailed, the 
 small garrison held out heroically, and, after having made 
 several attacks, the Russians were obliged to retire. This 
 occurred towards the end of June, and on the 8th of July a 
 sanguinary battle, in which the Turks were victorious, was 
 fought at Giurgevo. This action terminated the campaign 
 on the Danube, for the llussians were in full retreat. A 
 convention had been signed at Boyadji-Keuy (June 14), in 
 virtue of which the Austrians took possession of the Princi- 
 palities. They entered Wallachia in August, and arrived at 
 Bucharest on the 6bh of September. The allied fleets came 
 into collision with the Russians some time before their milt- 
 tary forces met the foe. EarlyinApril the steamer Furious had 
 been despatched to Odessa to bring off the English consul. 
 She anchored in the bay with a flag of truce at the mast- 
 head, and her boat put ofl', likewise bearing a flag of truce. 
 One of the Russian batteries opened upon the steamer and 
 boat, and fired several shots, none of which,fortunately,hit the 
 mark. The allied admirals demanded an explanation of this 
 violation of all the rules of honourable warfare, and took up 
 their station before the city. The town was bombarded on the 
 22nd of April. Several batteries were seriously injured, two 
 powder magazines blown up, some ships of war sunk, and 
 immense quantities of military stores destroyed. During a 
 dense fog (May 12), the OKger, war steamer of 1,200 tons, 
 went on shore near Odessa, and was captured by the Russians. 
 
 § 827. Operations were also carried on in the Baltic. On 
 the 11th of August, 1853, the queen had reviewed a powerful 
 squadron at Spithead, consisting of twenty-five ships of war ; 
 and, although many of these were afterwards sent into the 
 Black Sea, and elsewhere, the vacancies were supplied by 
 other vessels, several additions were made, and, in the spring 
 of 1854, a fine fleet was again assembled at Spithead, and 
 placed under the command of Sir Charles Napier. Before 
 anything could, however, be done, the courts of Norway and 
 Sweden, and of Denmark, bad decided upon neutrality. 
 2 TJ 2 
 
660 INVASION OF THE CRIMEA. 
 
 The English fleet reached the Baltic in the spring, and 
 blockaded the Eussian ports. A French squadron joined 
 them, and 10,000 troops, under General Baraguay d'Hilliers, 
 were sent out in British ships to assist in the reduction of the 
 Aland Isles. They arrived on the 7th of August, and the 
 fortifications were assailed and carried. An English squadron 
 penetrated into the "White Sea, and destroyed some batteries, 
 but in the Pacific they were less successful, and fell into an 
 ambuscade near Petropaulowski (Sep. 4, 1854). 
 
 § 828. In a short space of time a large army of French, 
 English, Turks, and Egyptians, had assembled in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Varna. The flight of the Eussians from the 
 Danube induced the allied commanders to attempt a 
 descent upon the Crimea. The cholera showed itself 
 amongst the troops during the preparations, but, nothing 
 daunted, they embarked, and reached Old Fort, near 
 Eupatoria, on the 12th of September. In a few days aU 
 the expeditionary forces had landed. The English mustered 
 26,000 men, with 54 guns. The French had 24^500, with 
 70 guns, and there were about 7,000 Turks. A cavalry 
 skirmish with the Cossacks took place at Bouljanak 
 (Sep. 19), and the next day the Eussians were attacked, 
 and driven from a strong position on the river Alma. This 
 was a great triumph, as the enemy felt confident of victory, 
 relying upon their superior numbers and a position that 
 ought to have been impregnable. After this glorious 
 victory the allies were detained, tending the wounded and 
 burying the dead, until the 23rd. Had the English army 
 been properly provided with means of transport, and had 
 the expedition possessed a sufficient cavalry force, Sebas- 
 topol might have been captured forthwith. On the 33rd 
 the troops marched forward to the Katcha, and thence to 
 the Belbek on the 24th, when Lord Eaglan and Marshal 
 St. Arnaud suddenly changed the plan of the campaign, 
 and resolved upon marching round Sebastopol instead of 
 attacking it upon the north side. This was accomplished 
 by the celebrated flank march, which has been so much dis- 
 cussed, and of which such very conflicting opinions have 
 been expressed. It certainly took the Eussians by surprise, 
 for, on the 25th, the English vanguard came upon the Eus- 
 sian rear. The enemy was in fact executing a similar move- 
 ment, and his astonishment at encountering the English in 
 that direction was great. The Eussians, dispirited by the 
 attack at the Alma, would not wait for a charge, but 
 
BATTLE OF BALAKLAVA. 661 
 
 rusbed away in confusion, leaving baggage, stores, and 
 ammunition at the mercy of our troops. The English 
 army entered Balaklava on the 26th of September, whither 
 they had been preceded by the fleet. The place was 
 speedily captured, the French took up a position at 
 Kamiesch bay, the stores and siege material were landed, 
 and the siege commenced. 
 
 § 829. The first bombardment opened on the 17th of 
 October, 1854. The French batteries were speedily silenced, 
 but the cannonade was continued by the English until the 
 24th. The terrified garrison had been joined by fresh levies, 
 and the £>ussians prepared to act on the oflfensive. Early on 
 the 25th of October, the Russians drove the Turks out of 
 some earthen redoubts in front of the English position, but 
 were stopped by the 9.3rd Highlanders. The British heavy 
 cavalry, which had by this time reached the scene of action, 
 charged the enemy's squadrons, and scattered them like 
 chaff. Upon the defeat of the Eussian horse, both their 
 cavalry and infantry withdrew towards the entrance of a 
 gorge, in the valley beneath. Six battalions of infantry, pro- 
 tected by thirty guns, were drawn up in this position, 
 and the hills at the side covered with Kussian infantry. 
 Owing to some misconception the light brigade were ordered 
 to charge these formidable forces. Upon that perilous 
 exploit they advanced 070 strong. Before them lay an 
 army in position, consisting of both cavalry and infantry, 
 protected by a powerful artillery. Tet upou that forlorn 
 hope these British horsemen rode fearlessly onward. When 
 more than twelve hundred yards from the foe, a murderous 
 discharge from the enemy's batteries decimated their ranks, 
 and many gallant fellows were struck down before they 
 could come up with the Eussians. Every gap in the first 
 line was immediately closed up from the second, and witb 
 a loud shout, the men dashed into the batteries. They 
 cut down the artillerymen, and drove back the Eussian 
 infantry, when a strong corps of lancers was hurled upon 
 their flank. While contending with their fresh assailants, 
 the Eussian artillerymen, with unparalleled atrocity, opened 
 upon the struggling masses, thus sweeping down both 
 friend and foe. The heavy cavalry came forward to cover 
 their retreat, and the French Chasseurs d'Afrique executed 
 a brilliant charge on a battery on the left, and thus the 
 remnant of the light brigade was saved. The glorious but 
 fatal charge lasted twenty-five minutes, in which time 400 
 
662 BATTLE OF INKEEMANN. 
 
 men were killed or wounded, and nearly four hundred horses 
 destroyed. After this the Eussians gradually withdrew, and 
 retired into Sebastopol. From that fatal day, the English 
 lines were contracted, and the "Woronzoff road, the best 
 means of communication possessed by our army, was 
 effectually closed to us. 
 
 § 830. One part of the English position, facing towards 
 the head of the harbour, and the caverns of Inkermaun, was 
 very weak, and here, the day after the battle of Balaklava, 
 the Eussians attempted a surprise. They were repulsed ; 
 but, having received reinforcements, in the gloom of a wintry 
 morning, they assaulted our weak lines with about 50,000men 
 (Nov. 5, 1854): Our soldiers fought desperately, and although 
 outnumbered, were not subdued. Eor several hours 8,000 
 British troops, encountered at various points, and kept 
 back 50,000 Eussiansj until at length General Bosquet, at 
 the head of 6,300 of our gallant allies, came to the rescue, 
 and hurled the Eussian masses down the fatal heights. 
 Such a victory entailed many bitter sacrifices. Sir George 
 Cathcart, in attempting to charge! the enemy in flank, at 
 the head of the 4th division, was surrounded, and fell. 
 Generals Goldie and Strangeways were killed, and Sir 
 George Brown and Generals Bentinck, Torrens, Codring- 
 ton, and several other officers, were wounded. The total 
 loss of the English army in killed, wounded, and missing, 
 amounted to nearly 3,000 men. The Erench loss was 
 1,726, and the Eussian must have been about 15,000. This 
 glorious victory brought the campaign of 1854 to a close. 
 In three encounters had the allied armies valiantly sustained 
 the reputation of their arms, and the honour of their cause. 
 At the Alma 26,000 English, and 24,500 French troops, 
 with a small body of Turks, drove the Eussians, 50,000 in 
 number, from a natural position of great strength, fortified 
 with skill, and bristling with cannon. The heroic charge at 
 Balaklava is without a parallel in the annals of war. In 
 that brilliant afiFair a small body of English horse attacked 
 an army, reposing in fancied security behind their guns, 
 and spread terror and confusion through their ranks. At 
 the battle of Inkermann, 8,000 English for several hours 
 withstood the assault of 50,000 of the flower of the Eussian 
 levies, and eventually, with the aid of 6,300 French, routed 
 and drove them into Sebastopol. These, the first victories 
 of the French and English alliance, created a wonderful 
 sensation in Europe ; aud showed that France and England 
 
CAMPAIGN OF 1854. 663 
 
 united rnigTit defy the world in arms. No wonder that 
 the pride of the czar received a shock, when he discovered 
 that even numbers could not secure victory, and that a 
 smnll band of Western warriors could resist the onslaught 
 of his most powerful battalions. He awoke from his dream of 
 conquest, to findthe rod thathe wielded crumbling inhisgrasp. 
 
 § 831. The allied armies had not had time to recover 
 from the effects of this dearly-purchased triumph, when 
 stormy weather set in, increasing the difficulties, and multi- 
 plying the dangers by which they were environed. A gale 
 arose on the 11th of November, 1854, which by the 14th 
 had grown into a hurricane. Tents were blown down, 
 stores destroyed, and the shipping outside the harbour of 
 Balaklava, and in the bay of Kamiesch, suffered con- 
 siderably. Immense quantities of stores disappeared, and 
 the men were reduced to great extremities. On the 7th of 
 the month the Eussians made a cavalry attack on Eupatoria, 
 which was repulsed. They occasionally issued out of Sebas- 
 topol, and attempted a surprise. But the victory of Inker- 
 mann had completely cowed them ; and, although they might 
 have inflicted a serious blow upon the allied armies, they 
 did not venture to attack, and the remainder of 1854 was 
 chiefly spent in repairing previous losses, and making 
 preparations for future operations. On the last day pf 
 November the Grand Duke Michael and a large staff made 
 a reconnaissance of the English lines, and on the 30th of 
 December the Prench and English beat up the Eussian 
 position. During this eventful year the Turkish army in 
 Asia was reinforced, and the fortifications of Ears repaired. 
 Several partial engagements ensued, and the Eussians 
 gained victories in two battles, one at Bayazid (July 29), 
 and the other at Kurekdere (Aug. 6). In spite of these 
 advantages, the Eussians were not able to penetrate further 
 into the Turkish territory, and both armies retired into 
 winter quarters. 
 
 § 832. The accounts that reached England during the 
 gloomy winter of 1854 — 1855, convinced the public that 
 our gallant defenders were suffering unparalleled privations. 
 A Times Fund, the Crimean Army Fund, and other similar 
 plans of affording aid were adopted. Supplies of food and 
 clothing were despatched to the East, and doctors and 
 nurses followed. Of the latter Miss Florence Nightingale, 
 a lady of high station and good fortune, took the control. 
 The activity of the people aroused the government from 
 
664 PLANS OF RELIEF. 
 
 its letliargy, and they adopted several plans for remedy- 
 ing the ill effects of previous neglect. The chief of these 
 was the railroad from Balaklava to the camp, for the 
 conveyance of stores, reinforcements, and ammunition. It 
 was evident that nothing very effectual in the way of relief 
 could be accomplished, until a quick and constant means of 
 communication was established between the trenches and 
 the landing-place at Balaklava. Various plans were proposed, 
 but the preference was given to a railroad, and some eminent 
 railway contractors immediately undertook the line. Navvies 
 were sent off to the Crimea, and by the beginning of April 
 1855, this great work was in operation. It proved of im- 
 mense service to our overtasked troops. While the allies 
 were repairing the losses of neglect, disease, and warfare, and 
 taking measures to renew the bombardment, the Russians 
 did not remain inactive. They strengthened the defences of 
 Sebastopol, erected new fortifications, and made repeated 
 sorties on the besiegers. Several affairs of the kind oc- 
 curred, now upon the French, now upon the English lines, 
 but they were all defeated. 
 
 § 833. The news of the adhesion of Sardinia to the 
 "Western Alliance, and of the death of the Czar Nicholas, 
 reached the Crimea in the spring; but no pause took 
 place in the siege. The king of Sardinia engaged to 
 provide five brigades, consisting of 15,000 men, for the 
 war in the East, and to keep up that number by rein- 
 forcements ; while France and England guaranteed the 
 integrity of his dominions, and engaged to defend them 
 against any attack during the continuance of the war. 
 England also furnished the king of Sardinia with a loan 
 of a million sterling, at four per cent, per annum interest. 
 In case the war should be prolonged beyond a year 
 after the payment of the first instalment, another loan of 
 the same amount was to be advanced. The ratifications 
 of these agreements were soon after exchanged, and the 
 Sardinian contingent joined the allied armies in the 
 Crimea. Just after the completion of the railroad, on 
 Easter Monday the 2nd of April, the second bombardment 
 of Sebastopol commenced. So well had the secret been kept, 
 that it was not until the second day that the enemy was able 
 to return the fire with anything like effect. During the 
 night of the 13th the Eussians made a fierce assault upon 
 the French lines, but were gallantly repulsed with severe 
 loss. On the 15th the French exploded some mines, causing 
 
EXPEDITION TO THE SEA OF AZOFF. 665 
 
 much damage to the Sussian works, and on the 24ith the 
 bomhardment was suspended. In May, 1855, General Can- 
 robert resigned the French command, and General Pelissier 
 succeeded him. Attacks and sorties continued to distract the 
 attention of the besiegers, and to impede the progress of 
 their operations, the Eussians assaulting with vigour, in spite 
 of their numerous defeats. In these affairs the French 
 suffered considerably ; and, as their works approached nearer 
 to the more important fortifications of Sebastopol, they be- 
 came the centre of the severest struggles. 
 
 § 834. On the 23rd of May an expedition, consisting of 
 nearly twenty thousand of the allied forces, set sail for the 
 Sea of Azoff, and achieved a decided triumph. The vessels 
 forced the entrance of the straits of Kertch and Tenikale, 
 destroyed the Russian forts on the coast, and put their 
 garrisons to flight. The expeditionary forces landed at 
 Cape Takli, captured Ambalaki, Kertch, and Yenikale. A 
 flying squadron under Captain Lyons pushed into the Sea 
 of Azoff, and in a few days destroyed 245 Eussian vessels 
 employed in carrying provisions to the Eussian army in the 
 Crimea. Immense magazines of corn and flour were burnt. 
 Bordiansk, Genitchi, and Arabat were visited, and the 
 Eussian magazines levelled, their forts silenced, and their 
 garrisons dispersed. On the Circassian coast the Eussians 
 themselves performed the work of destruction, and blew up 
 and abandoned Anapa and other strongholds, as the allied 
 squadrons approached. The expedition, having accomplished 
 its mission, prepared to return to head-quarters. Fortifica- 
 tions were thrown up between Kertch and Tenikale, and a 
 sufficient force left to hold the place, and very effectually 
 cut off the Eussian supplies from that quarter. 
 
 § 835. The siege had been in the mean time prosecuted 
 with great vigour. The third bombardment commenced in 
 the afternoon of the 6th of June, and the next evening the 
 Mamelon and the Quarries were assaulted, the former by 
 the French, and the latter by the English. Both of these 
 were carried and held, in spite of the repeated attempts of 
 the Eussians to regain them. The bombardment continued 
 at intervals, and preparations were made for an assault upon 
 the Malakoff and the Great Eedan. These operations were, 
 however, defeated with very severe loss (June 18). Anxiety 
 preyed upon Lord Eaglan's shattered frame ; and on the 
 24t"h of June his friend and associate, General Estcourt, 
 Adjutant-general of the army, sank under an attack of 
 
666 DEATH OF LOED BAGLAN. 
 
 cholera. Soon after, Lord Kaglan was taken ill of diarrhcEa ; 
 cholera supervened, and on the 28th of June, 1855, at nine in 
 the evening, his gallant spirit took flight. Few commanders 
 were more regretted. The tact and kind-heartedness of the 
 old soldier won the good-will of all those with whom he was 
 called upon to associate. His long life had been spent in 
 honour ; and in honour's cause he laid it down at last. In 
 the peninsula and at Waterloo his earlier laurels had been 
 gained ; and for many years he diligently performed the 
 duties of military secretary to the Duke of Wellington. If 
 not endowed with any extraordinary military genius, h? was 
 a careful commander, and above all a good and a humane 
 man. His fortitude was truly admirable. Amid the elements 
 of strife and confusion his gentle nature shone out- like a 
 star, and he will long be remembered as the good Lord 
 Kaglan. With his death the second act of the grand drama 
 closed. A temporary pause in the struggle ensued, aud 
 Lieutenant-general Simpson succeeded to the vacant com- 
 mand. 
 
 § 836. Though the allied armies took the field, negotiations 
 were not on that account discontinued. The sophistries of 
 diplomacy hung like a spell upon France and England, 
 paralysing their efforts, and prejudicing their cause. More 
 allies would have flocked to their standard had they boldly 
 cut the Grordian knot of German temporizing. Sweden 
 would have declared herself sooner; and stronger, though 
 not more patriotic, states than Sardinia have sent their 
 soldiers to the Crimea. Between principals in a war dis- 
 cussions cannot possibly do any harm ; and the great evil in 
 the diplomatic tournaments of 1853, 1854, and 1855, was 
 the anomalous position occupied by Austria and Prussia. 
 The former power was under obligations to the Czar for the 
 assistance rendered in the suppression of the Hungarian 
 rebellion, and the king of Prussia was connected with the 
 royal family of Eussia, his sister being the wife of the Czar. 
 It was therefore evident that they were both interested 
 parties; and, in addition to the circumstances above men- 
 tioned, had always aided the aggressive policy of the court 
 of St. Petersburg. Only as principals in the strife should 
 we have allowed either Prussia or Austria to interfere. The 
 ofiensive and defensive alliance signed between Austria and 
 Prussia on the 20th of April, 1854, in spite of the additional 
 article upon which so much stress was laid, really came to 
 nothing. Austria seized the Principalities, and Prussia 
 
THE VIENNA CONFERENCES. 667 
 
 soon after Tirtually withdrew from the alliance. On the 8th 
 of August, 1854, a note was signed at Vienna by the 
 representatives of England, Prance, and Austria, defining 
 the conditions on which peace might be restored to Europe. 
 A treaty of alliance was also signed at Vienna (Dee. 2) 
 between England, France, and Austria. On the 28th of 
 December, the plenipotentiaries of Austria, Erance, and 
 Great Britain drew up a memorandum, containing the four 
 points, and the sense in which they interpreted them. 
 
 § 837. These terms had been previously communicated to 
 the Czar ; he agreed to accept them as the point of departure 
 for negotiations, and a meeting took place at Vienna on the 
 7th of January, 1855, at which it was determined that con- 
 ferences should be summoned forthwith. But before the 
 plenipotentiaries assembled at the Austrian capital,important 
 changes occurred. Sardinia joined the Western alliance on 
 the 26th of January, Lord Aberdeen's government was 
 overthrown on the 29th of the same month, and the Czar 
 Nicholas died on the 2nd of March. No sooner was the 
 opening of the conferences decided upon, than Prussia 
 sought to share in them, and actually addressed a demand 
 of the kind to the "Western Powers, which was, however, 
 refused. In the mean time a new ministry, under the 
 premiership of Lord Palmerston, had accepted office in 
 England, and Lord John Itussell was chosen as the English 
 plenipotentiary at Vienna. The selection was generally 
 considered unfortunate on account of Lord John Eussell's 
 vacillating character, and it proved even more disastrous 
 than had been anticipated. Instructions were given to 
 Lord John fiussell on the 22nd of February, and he set off 
 upon his mission, visiting first the courts of Paris and 
 Berlin. The inaugural conference was held on the 15th of 
 March. For the settlement of the third point, relating to 
 the Black Sea, several plans were proposed by the allied 
 powers, but Itussia would agree to none of them. Her re- 
 presentatives oflered a proposition that the Black Sea 
 should be open to all ships- of war, and that Bussia and 
 Turkey should be at liberty to maintain as many of these as 
 they chose. This led to the rupture of the negotiations. 
 Lord John Eussell stated that his instructions were ex- 
 hausted, and although another conference was held on the 
 26th of April, he did not attend. Ministers, when questioned, 
 asserted that negotiations were not entirely broken ofi'; and, 
 on the 24th of May, Mr. Disraeli brought forward a motion, 
 
668 OPERATIONS IN THE BALTIC. 
 
 censuring the government for ambiguous language and un- 
 certain conduct. In order to defeat this, Lord John Russell 
 made a warlike speech, and the result was a majority of 100 
 in favour of the cabinet. A few days afterwards. Count 
 Buol published a circular, in which he stated that Lord John 
 Eussell and M. Drouyn de Lhuys had both agreed to urge 
 the acceptance of the Austrian plan upon their respective 
 governments. This announcement produced a great sen- 
 sation in England; and, on questions being asked in the 
 legislature, people learned for the first time that there had 
 been a split in the cabinet. M. Drouyn de Lhuys, on 
 differing in opinion with the emperor of France, immediately 
 resigned, but Lord John Eussell sought to retain his position. 
 Seldom does retributive justice so quickly overtake a delin- 
 quent, as it did this erring politician. In a few weeks after 
 his return from Vienna, Lord John Eussell was compelled 
 to resign, having lost the confidence of all parties, and 
 incurred the censure of the English people. 
 
 § 838. The command of the Baltic fleet of 1855 was 
 intrusted to Eear-adrairal Eiehard Saunders Dundas. The 
 flying squadron, under Captain Watson, left Spithead on the 
 20th of March, and the main body of the flieet on the 4th of 
 April. A considerable improvement had been made upon 
 the armament of the former year, and several gun and 
 mortar boats and floating batteries increased its efficiency. 
 Still it was not exactly the kind of fleet calculated to pro- 
 duce an impression upon Eussia. Admiral Dundas was 
 joined by a small French squadron, under Admiral Penaud, 
 on the 1st of June. It is scarcely necessary to enter into 
 any detailed account of the cruisings, expeditions, and other 
 operations of the allied armada. The Eussian rulers had 
 availed themselves of the winter season to strengthen their 
 defences and multiply their means of resistance. Several 
 infernal machines, intended to damage the ships by explod- 
 ing under the water, and coming in contact with them, were 
 discovered and removed without doing any harm. Cron- 
 stadt was deemed unassailable, at least by the kind of 
 armament at the disposal of the admirals, and they resolved 
 not to attempt an enterprise in which the chances of failure 
 were so great. Two matters in the Baltic campaign of 
 1855 deserve especial notice ; the Hango massacre, and the 
 bombardment of Sweaborg. In the former the Eussians 
 waited in ambush for a boat carrying a flag of truce, and 
 actually fired upon and murdered several of the crew, who 
 
BATTLE OF THE TCHERNAYA. 669 
 
 had landed without arms. This outrage created a terrible 
 sensation in Europe. The attack upon Sweaborg on the 
 9th, 10th, and 11th of August, 1855, was only partially suc- 
 cessful. The fortress, or rather the fortifications known under 
 this name, are erected upon six small islands in front of the 
 town of Helsingfors. They lie in an almost inaccessible 
 position in the Gulf of Finland, about 140 miles from Cron- 
 stadt. Of these six islands, three serve as outworks, while 
 the other three compose the fortress. This mass of solid 
 masonry, upon foundations of granite, was connected by 
 bridges, and is so strong that it has been called " the Gib- 
 raltar of the North." Although the forts themselves were 
 not much damaged by the fire of the allied ships and floating- 
 batteries, yet storehouses, magazines, barracks and a quan- 
 tity of valuable property were destroyed. The gun-boats 
 proved of immense service, and fully showed what might be 
 accomplished in the Baltic if the proper weapons were placed 
 in the hands of our admirals. The blockade was maintained 
 during the autumn, and before Christmas all the fleet had 
 withdrawn. 
 
 § 839. The eyes of mankind were directed towards the 
 Crimea, where Kussia was maintaining a terrible struggle 
 against the forces of France, England, and Turkey, which 
 had been joined by the Sardinian contingent. In this 
 contest of giants whole armies disappeared ; for war's 
 destroying angel, aided by disease and want, struck down 
 hosts at a blow. After the death of Lord Eaglan there was 
 a temporary pause in this sad drama ; but the preparations 
 were pushed forward on every side with great energy, and 
 the Eussians received large reinforcements. When the 
 Sardinians reached the camp, towards the end of April, it 
 was resolved to occupy a strong position on the left bank of 
 the Tchemaya, and accordingly the French, the Turks, the 
 Sardinians, and some English cavalry and artillery, advanced 
 in this direction. The Eussians remained in great force on 
 the heights of Aitodor and the Upper Belbek, and it was to 
 prevent their taking the allied army in the rear that this 
 movement had been made. The Eussians having again 
 received reinforcements, descended suddenly into the plain 
 on the morning of the 16th of August, crossed the river at the 
 Traktir Bridge, but were repulsed with great slaughter. The 
 Eussians must have lost six or seven thousand men, for the 
 slaughter at the bridge, owing to the excellent practice of 
 the artillery, was fearful, and the French alone took 2,200 
 
670 FINAL BOMBAKDMENT. 
 
 Eussian wounded and prisoners. The Prench loss in killed 
 and wounded was about 1,200, and that of the Sardinians 200. 
 
 § 840. The siege was prosecuted with vigour, and prepa- 
 rations were made for the final bombardment and assault. 
 Every one perceived that the capture of Sebastopol would 
 prove the turning-point in the war ; and the combatants, 
 aware of the fact, renewed their exertions. On the 30th of 
 August, 1855, a dreadful explosion occurred in the Mamelon, 
 destroying great quantities of ammunition, and killing or 
 wounding 150 officers and men. Nothing daunted by this 
 sad disaster, the Erench pushed forward their works, and 
 on the 5th of September the batteries commenced the sixth 
 and final bombardment. Such a fire as that opened by the 
 rival batteries never before shook the earth ; and surely such 
 a storm of shot, shell, and warlike missiles, bearing death 
 and destruction on their wings, never descended upon a be- 
 leaguered city. TheEussians seemed utterly paralysed by this 
 mighty effort of their antagonists. Night brought them no 
 relief, and the air continued to be illumined by flights of 
 shells. In the evening a frigate caught fire and sank. Thi^ 
 fearfnl onslaught was continued on the 6th and 7th, and, in 
 addition to minor conflagrations, on the latter day a Eassian 
 two-decker was fired and destroyed. At mid-day a council 
 of generals was held at the English head-quarters, and the 
 assault arranged for the morrow. The French were to 
 attack the Malakofi^, the key of the position, in great force, 
 and the tricolor floating from its summit was to be the signal 
 for the advance of the English against the Great Eedan. ; 
 
 § 841. Accordingly, on the morning of the memorable 8th 
 of September, after a furious cannonade, the fire suddenly 
 languished, and at five minutes to twelve the French rushed 
 from their trenches, and swarmed into the Malakoff. The 
 Russians, indulging in the usual siesta, were taken com- 
 pletely by surprise ; and although, for seven hours, they 
 made gallant attempts to regain the Malakoff", they did not 
 succeed in their object. The English attack upon the Great 
 Eedan was less successful. The French had but a few 
 yards to run in order to get into the Malakoff; our men had 
 200 yards to traverse before they reached the Great Eedan ; 
 so that when they entered the place they were already 
 fatigued. The French attacking columns were 10,000 strong, 
 ours only a quarter of that number. Colonel Windham did 
 all that an officer could do to encourage his troops, but the 
 want of reserves rendered his efforts unavailing ; and, after 
 
CAPTURE OF THE MALAEOFF. 671 
 
 having contended vainly for nearly two hours, in which 
 struggle the loss was very great, the English retired. The 
 killed and wounded exceeded 2,000; and another attack 
 was arranged for the following morning. The loss of the 
 Malakoff induced the E.ussian general to retire. In the 
 three days of the bombardment he is said to have lost 
 18,000 men. He felt that it was the key of the position, 
 and the desperate though fruitless efforts made to retake it 
 show the value set upon it by the foe. The Eassians 
 carried off what stores and ammunition they could ; they 
 then set fire to the town in several places, dismantled and 
 blew up their strongest fortifications, and fired their ships. 
 They retreated by the bridge of boats to the north side. 
 The enemy fortified himself on the north side, while the 
 allies cleared out the ruined city, made themselves as com- 
 fortable as they could, and divided the spoils of war. 
 Medals, clasps, and honours were freely distributed ; and, 
 although rumours of expeditions and of important opera- 
 tions were constantly in circulation, nothing whatever was 
 done, and the belligerents amused themselves by occasionally 
 getting up a brisk fire, which, owing to the distance, could 
 do but little harm on either side. 
 
 § 842. Early in October a number of French and Eng- 
 lish ships, carrying about 10,000 troops, left Kamiesch 
 and Kazatch Bays, and anchored off Odessa on the 8th. 
 The expedition was to be directed towards the mouths of 
 the Bug and the Dnieper, and the various strongholds in 
 that direction. Detained for several days by unsettled 
 weather off Odessa, the inhabitants of that city were kept in 
 a state of tremulous excitement, which was relieved by the 
 departure of the armament on the 14th. Kinburn, a strong 
 fortification on the south side of the bay of Kherson, was 
 bombarded on the 17th for about four hours, when the 
 governor and the garrison, to the number of 1,420 men and 
 40 oflncers, perceiving the hopeless nature of the contest, 
 surrendered. They bad lost 200 killed and .350 wounded. 
 Two rafts of timber, valued at £20,000, were captured on the 
 25th, but they afterwards got adrift in a storm. Some 
 vessels ascended the Bug and the Dnieper, but little was 
 accomplished; certain defences were destroyed and a gar- 
 rison left at Kinburn, and in the first week of November 
 the expedition returned to the camp. 
 
 § 843. The campaign in Asia was if possible more dis- 
 astrous to the allied cause than that of 1854 had been. Just 
 
672 CAMPAIGN IN ASIA. 
 
 before intelligence of the disasters at Bayazid and Kurek- 
 dere reached Europe, Lieutenant-colonel Williams had been 
 selected by the government as English commissioner, at 
 the head-quarters of the Turkish army in Asia. Colonel 
 Williams arrived near Kars on the 23rd of September, 1854, 
 and joined the Turkish army on the 24th. The authorities 
 seemed at first inclined to thwart the English commis- 
 sioner ; but he proved himself a man of extraordinary 
 energy and power, and soon brought Zarif Mustapha Pacha 
 and his subordinates to their senses. Colonel Williams 
 found that the army, estimated at 40,000, did not amount 
 to half that number ; but he set to work earnestly, had the 
 men properly clothed, fed, and drilled ; and organized this 
 small force. His endeavours were crowned with success ; 
 the fortifications of Kars were strengthened, the discipline 
 and spirit of the troops restored, and the little garrison 
 learned not only to obey, but admire and esteem. Colonel 
 Williams and his small band of heroic assistants. But he 
 was not properly supported by the authorities at home, 
 neither reinforcements nor supplies of money were fur- 
 nished to him, and he could not therefore keep the prize. 
 Although he repulsed the Eussians, inflicting great loss 
 upon them (Sep. 29, 1855), he was ultimately compelled 
 to surrender the fortress (Nov. 24). General Mouravieff 
 behaved nobly towards his gallant opponents ; he returned 
 the officers their swords, and treated his prisoners with every 
 consideration. The chief officers were sent into Bussia. 
 Omer Pacha and his army retraced their steps towards the 
 sea-coast, and the Bussians remained masters of Kars. Their 
 triumph in Asia more than compensated for the fall of Se- 
 bastopol ; and while the intelligence of the former circulated 
 far and wide in Persia, and among the tribes of the Caucasus, 
 the knowledge of the latter was carefully concealed from 
 them. Thus Bussia extracted victory out of disaster, and, 
 through the imbecility of diplomatists, struck a blow at 
 Turkey the importance of which was felt throughout the East. 
 § 844. The time had, however, arrived for the termination 
 of the strife. On the rupture of the Vienna conferences in 
 the spring of 1855, the Western Powers in vain sought to 
 induce Austria to fulfil the pledge that she had given, and 
 declare war against Bussia. This she resolutely refused to 
 do, and her relations with the courts of St. Petersburg and 
 Berlin became daily more intimate and cordial. Although 
 unwilling to aid the Western PowerSj^Austria continued to. 
 
TREACHERY OF AUSTRIA. 673 
 
 do her best to further the cause of the czar, and endeavoured 
 by every means in her power to obtain easier terms than 
 those laid down at the Vienna conferences. In this she 
 was at the time unsuccessfu], owing more to the determined 
 attitude of the English people than to anything else ; for 
 they were at length thoroughly aroused, and would have 
 expelled any government from power that ventured to accept 
 the humiliating conditions whicli had been once indignantly 
 rejected. The success of the 8th of September, 1855, 
 spread alarm and confusion in the courts of Berlin, Vienna, 
 and St. Petersburg. Other and even more serious reasons 
 for anxiety and alarm existed, which even the most sanguine 
 had scarcely anticipated. The mighty military resources of 
 Eussia were exhausted, and she had almost staked her last 
 man in the defence of the Crimea. While the telegraph 
 and the press magnified the losses and sufferings of the 
 allied armies, nothing had been said of the wholesale 
 destruction of the Eussian forces. Our brave fellows, it 
 is true, died by hundreds, but they were perishing by 
 thousands, and entire armies disappeared. 
 
 § 845. The czar had many causes for anxiety. Disgusted 
 with the Grerman powers, the allies at last sought the assist- 
 ance of those states whose aid was likely to be of some 
 effect. In November, General Canrobert visited Copenhagen 
 and Stockholm, and his reception both by the monarchs 
 and their subjects was most enthusiastic. This distin- 
 guished French negotiator succeeded in obtaining a treaty 
 with the King of Sweden, by which the integrity of the 
 united kingdoms of Sweden and Norway was assured by 
 France and England. The treaty was concluded on the 
 21st of November, the ratifications were exchanged on the 
 17th of December, and this important state paper was soon 
 after published in the Moniteur. It was a most severe blow 
 to Eussia and the Grerman courts ; it showed that the allies 
 had at length obtained some idea of their true mission — the 
 repression of the aggressive designs of the czars ; and it would 
 have rendered peace impossible, had Eussia been able to con- 
 tinue the contest. Never was the treachery of Austria more 
 apparent than at this juncture. The fall of Sebastopol and the 
 treaty with Sweden thoroughly alarmed her ; and, although 
 she before undertook to extricate the czar from a portion of 
 his diflaculties, she now redoubled her efforts. Count Buol 
 obtained from the "Western Powers the terms upon which 
 they would make peace, and having used every exertion to 
 2 X 
 
674 NEGOTIATIONS AT PARIS. 
 
 render them as easy for Russia as possible, despatched them 
 to St. Petersburg by Count Esterhazy, towards the end of 
 December. About the same time Russia transmitted her own 
 proposals of peace, which were rejected ; the czar accepted 
 those that had been sent by Austria, and preparations were 
 at once made for the opening of conferences at Paris. 
 
 § 846. On the 25th of February, 1856, the representatives 
 of Erance, England, Turkey, Sardinia, Austria, and Eussia 
 assembled at Paris, when an armistice at the seat of the 
 war until the 31st of March was agreed upon. No change 
 was made in the maritime blockade ; in fact, Russia was so 
 completely exhausted and humbled, that she was quite at 
 the mercy of the allies. On the 18th of March, Prussia 
 was admitted to the conferences, and on the 30th the treaty 
 of Paris was signed, and three conventions bearing upon it. 
 The treaty consisted of thirty-four articles. Turkey was 
 admitted into the European system, and the contracting 
 parties guaranteed its independence. The freedom of the 
 Danube was secured, the rectification of the Russian frontier 
 in Bessarabia promised, and the status quo ante helium in 
 Asia determined upon. Three conventions were annexed to 
 the treaty ; the first signed by all parties to the treaty of 
 Paris, providing for the exclusion of ships of war of all 
 nations from the straits of the Dardanelles and of the Bos- 
 phorus, in time of peace ; the second was between the 
 emperor of Eussia and the sultan, by which they each of 
 them engaged to maintain in the ]31ack Sea " six steam- 
 vessels of fifty mfetres in length at the line of flotation, of a 
 tonnage of 800 tons at the maximum, and four light steam 
 or sailing vessels, of a tonnage which shall not exceed 200 
 tons each ; " and the third between Erance, England, and 
 Russia, by which the latter power engaged that " the Aland 
 Isles shall not be fortified, and that no military or naval 
 establishment shall be maintained or created there." 
 
 § 847. Several other matters were discussed at this con- 
 gress, such as the law of mediation in case of a disagreement 
 between Turkey and any European power, and the laws on 
 privateering. With reference to the latter subject, the 
 congress adopted the following declaration : — " 1. Privateer- 
 ing is and remains abolished. 2. The neutral flag covers 
 enemy's goods, with the exception of contraband of war. 
 3. Neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of war, 
 are not liable to capture under enemy's flag. 4. Blockades, 
 in order to be binding, must be effective ; that is to say, 
 
TREATY OF PEACE. 675 
 
 maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to 
 the coasts of the enemy." A general discussion ensued on 
 the state of Europe, in which the condition of Greece and 
 the allied occupation, Italy, the Belgian press, and the 
 rights of neutrals, were reviewed and commented upon, but 
 led to no definite results, the views of the various parties to 
 the treaty of Paris being on these points so opposite. 
 Nevertheless the discussion was recorded in a protocol. The 
 Sardinian plenipotentiaries addressed a memorial to the 
 governments of France and England, relating to the affairs 
 of Italy, in which they deplored the influence wielded by 
 Austria at the conferences, which prevented the settlement 
 of this difficult question. They declared in this memorial 
 that " Sardinia is the only state in Italy that has been able 
 to raise an impassable barrier to the revolutionary spirit, 
 and at the same time remain independent of Austria. It is 
 the counterpoise to her invading influence. If Sardinia 
 succumbed, exhausted of power, abandoned by her allies — if 
 she also was obliged to submit to Austrian domination, then 
 the conquest of Italy, by this power would be achieved ; and 
 Austria, after having obtained, without its costing her the 
 least sacrifice, the immense benefit of the free navigation of 
 the Danube, and the neutralization of the Black Sea, would 
 acquire a preponderating influence in the west." 
 
 § 848. Such was the treaty of Paris, and the discussions 
 to which it gave rise ; in which nearly everything was sacri- 
 ficed to Eussia and to Austria. Even the great concession 
 of which so much was said by its admirers — the neutraliza- 
 tion of the Black Sea — was forced upon Turkey, as well as 
 upon Eussia. Because the latter had abused her power in 
 these waters, Turkey, the victor in the strife, the injured 
 state in whose behalf Erance and England had waged war, 
 was actually compelled to reduce her naval armament within 
 the same limits as Eussia. The Muscovite fleet, and not 
 the Ottoman, was the menace to Europe, and that alone 
 ought to have been reduced. Then again, with reference to 
 the expenses of the war, Eussia was permitted to escape 
 scot-free. Tet at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, France 
 was not let off thus easily ; nor did Eussia forget to claim 
 compensation for her efforts to bring it to a termination. 
 If we examine into former transactions between Turkey 
 and Eussia, and look to the treaty of Adrianople, we find 
 that, by a separate act, Turkey engaged to pay 1,500,000 
 ducats of Holland, by way of " reparation for the losses 
 2x2 
 
676 PERILOUS INFLUENCE OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 and injuries suffered by Eussian subjects and merchants at 
 various times since tbe year 1806 ;" and a furtber sum of 
 10,000,000 ducats of Holland by way of indemnification 
 for the expenses of the war, and the Sultan's territories 
 were not to be evacuated by the Muscovite hordes, until 
 these sums were paid. It was clearly Russia's turn to 
 defray the expenses of this conflict, provoked by her arro- 
 gance and rapacity ; and if the allied powers in their mag- 
 nanimity refused to demand the reimbursement of what 
 they had spent, their duty was to see that Turkey was 
 amply compensated. The Sultan could ill afford the addi- 
 tional strain upon his resources caused by this great war, 
 concluded in so shameful a manner ; and both France and 
 England were unfaithful to his cause in permitting the czar 
 to escape without engaging to refund the necessary expenses 
 of the same. Nor was anything done in behalf of the Cir- 
 cassians, and the brave tribes of the Caucasus, who have so 
 long maintained a glorious struggle to preserve their inde- 
 pendence, and who offered to join in the crusade against 
 Eussia. Asia Minor was also given up to Eussia, the poor 
 Tartars relinquished into her power, and the whole of the 
 Crimea restored j even the Sardinians, who in the hour of 
 gloom and depression came gallantly forward to the rescue, 
 were delivered over to the tender mercies of the house of 
 Hapsburg. 
 
 § 849. Austria in fact gained everything without making 
 a single concession. From the first hour of the dispute she 
 had all her own way. By the advice of her diplomatists the 
 passage of the Pruth was not at once regarded by the Porte 
 as a casus belli ; and when at length the sword was drawn, 
 she interfered and checked the advance of Omer Pacha 
 after the victory of Oltenitza. When Eussia was finally 
 worsted on the Danube, Austria entered the Principalities, 
 from which the Muscovite hordes had been expelled, and 
 thus shielded this frontier of the czar's empire. At all 
 times and places she was negotiating in favour of Eussia ; 
 seeking, by every means in her power save an actual alliance 
 with the czar, to further his cause. The little value placed 
 upon the treaty of Paris is shown by the tripartite treaty 
 between Austria, Prance, and England, signed at Paris 
 on the 15th of April. It was as follows : — " Art. I. The 
 high contracting parties guarantee, jointly and severally, 
 the independence and integrity of the Ottoman empire, re- 
 corded in the treaty concluded at Paris on the 30th of 
 
TRIPARTITE TEEATT. 677 
 
 Marcb, 1856. Art. II. Any infraction of the stipulations 
 of the said treaty vf ill be considered by the powers signing 
 the present treaty as a casus helli. They will come to an 
 understanding with the Sublime Porte as to the measures 
 which have become necessary, and wUl without delay deter- 
 mine among themselves as to the employment of their 
 military and naval forces." The army of occupation found 
 pleasant repose in Sebastopol. They destroyed the docks, 
 divided the spoils, and made themselves comfortable for the 
 winter. The armistice afforded the belligerents an oppor- 
 tunity for the exchange of civilities, and several friendly 
 meetings took place. The moment the treaty was signed 
 preparations commenced for putting it into execution. The 
 allied troops gradually withdrew from the Crimea, the block- 
 ade was removed from the Eussian ports, and the allied 
 fleets retired. Commerce began once more to flow in its 
 accustomed channels, and the warrior found that his occu- 
 pation was gone. 
 
 § 850. This war has shown the danger, and it has also re- 
 vealed the real defence of the nations. The cordial alliance 
 of France and England has rendered them irresistible. Let 
 them remain united, and they may defy the world in arms. 
 These people, so often honourable foes, have become firm 
 friends at last. They have met and associated together for 
 their mutual advantage. They have broken through an 
 absurd barrier of prejudice and unreasonable dislike, and 
 looked rather curiously into each other's souls. Both have 
 found qualities to admire — something which teaches them 
 that they ought to be friends. They are the leaders in the 
 great movement for social and general progression — the 
 champions of oppressed nationalities ; both toiling, though 
 perhaps in different ways, for the advancement of the 
 human race. We speak not now of particular systems, nor 
 the accidental elevation of certain dynasties to power, but 
 of that which is better founded and more enduring — the 
 spirit of a people. On stern battle-fields they have fought 
 side by side; in sore trials and afilictions they have ministered 
 to each other's wants ; the wounded English soldier has 
 been snatched from the blood-stained turf by his French 
 comrade ; the grave of the Gallic hero watered by the tears 
 of the British warrior. By many a lonely watch-fire, in the 
 broken accents of a true affection, have friendships been 
 contracted which death alone can sever. There is nothing 
 like the companionship of danger for bringing out the purer 
 
678 BLESSINGS OF PEACE. 
 
 traits of human character. May we not, then, confidently hope 
 that this alliance will stand the wear and tear of human 
 adversities ; that it will outlive the petty animosities of any 
 momentary excitement ? May we not regard it as a pledge, 
 that the two mightiest states in this world's history have dis- 
 covered, that, whilst in warfare they can gain little save the 
 laurel that grows out of the tomb, their open and honest 
 alliance will scatter the blessings of liberty on thousands 
 of the oppressed, and bequeath the rich legacy of peace to 
 many generations ? Should the Eussian war have shown 
 the rulers and the people of France and England their true 
 destinies, the historian may chronicle it as the most merci- 
 ful contest of all time. It will, indeed, be the means of 
 saving whole hecatombs of human lives ; it will be a 
 fountain of joy in millions of thankful hearts, and a song of 
 rejoicing by happy firesides now lying deeply hidden in the 
 recesses of an inscrutable future. 
 
 THE E3S'D. 
 
 PRINTED BY COX AND WYMAN, GRKAT QUEEN-STREBT. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abassidxs, family of the, Q. 
 
 Abd-el-Kader, the Algerine chieftain, 6l8, 
 629; BUirenders to the French, 633. 
 
 Abderahman, founds the Mooriah kingdom 
 of Cordova in Spain, 9 ; bis learning and 
 wisdom, ib. 
 
 Abercrombie, Gen. 424 ; in N. America, 
 431 ; in Egypt, 525 ; killed, ib. 
 
 Aberdeen, Lord, his administration, 647 
 et seq. ; overthrown, 667. 
 
 Abemethy, John, 6l2, 
 
 Aboukir, bay of, 520. 
 
 Acceptants, 442. 
 
 Achmet III. of Turkey, 388, 392. 
 
 Acre, siege of, 521, 522; defended by Sir 
 Sidney Smith, id. 
 
 Act of Uniformity, 303, 304. 
 
 Adams, the architect, 449. 
 
 Adda, the river, 505, 506. 
 
 Addington Administration, 525. 
 
 Addison, 445, 446. 
 
 Adelaide, Queen, death of, 637. 
 
 Adolphns, emperor of Germany, 88. 
 
 Adrian IV., Pope, 65, ISQ. 
 
 Adrianople, captured by the Turks, 119; 
 fall of, 609. 
 
 Adriatic, ceremony of wedding the, 66. 
 
 Advertisement duty repealed, 649. 
 
 AfFghanistan, war in, 625, 627. 
 
 Africa, French settlements in, 431. 
 
 Agincourt, battle of, lOQ. 
 
 Agitators, the, 272. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 419, 420 ; cuc- 
 ceeded by the peace and happiness of 
 Europe, 421; its conditions, ib.; con- 
 gress of, 596. 
 
 Akenside, the poet, 446. 
 
 Aland Islands, reduction of the, 660. 
 
 Alhano, Cardinal, 74. 
 
 Albcroni, the Spanish minister, 393, 394. 
 
 Albert I., emperor of Germany, 88. 
 
 Albert II., of Austria, elected emperor of 
 Germany, 106. 
 
 Albert of Brandenburg ; his ambitious pro- 
 jects and contests, >62. 
 
 Albigenses, papal crut>ade against the, 70 ; 
 account of the, 7 1 note. 
 
 Alhoin, king of the Lombards, subdues 
 Italy, 9; treacherously slain, ib, 
 
 Albuquerque, Alphonse, the illustrious 
 navigator, 134. 
 
 Alcazar-quiver, battle of, 198, 
 
 Alcuin, learning of, 16, 20. 
 
 Alen^on, duke of, 186. 
 
 Alexander II., Pope, 3p. 
 
 Alexander III., Pope, 66. 
 
 Alexander VI., Pope, 125, 126. 
 
 Alexander, emperor of Russia, 524 ; de- 
 clares war against Great Britain, 56o ; 
 his co-operation with Buonaparte, s6-5, 
 566 ; convokes the diet of Poland, 603 ; 
 his travels, ib. ,- his death, ib. 
 
 Alexandria, battle of, 525. 
 
 Alfred the Great, 24 ; his contests with the 
 Danes, 24, 25 ; his wise institutions. 25, 26. 
 
 Algiers, expedition to, by Charles V., 145 ; 
 annexed to France, 6l5; French opera- 
 tions io, 625. 
 
 Alien Act modified, 629. 
 
 *' All the Talents," ministry of, 554. 
 
 Allied Sovereigns visit England, 589. 
 
 Alma, battle of, 66O. 
 
 Alphonso II. of Naples, 125. 
 
 AlphoDso VI. of Castile, 133. 
 
 Alphonso VII. of Spain, 134. 
 
 Alps, passage of the, by the French, 534. 
 
 Alva, duke of, l64, l65 ; his tyranny in the 
 Low Countries, 180 ; his victories, 188. 
 
 Alvinzi, Marshal, campaign of, 512; de- 
 feated by Buonaparte, ib. 
 
 Aroboise, convention of, 174- 
 
 Amboyna captured, 575. 
 
 Amelia, Princesa, death of, 575. 
 
 America, discovery of, by Columbus, 135; 
 colonies in, 300, 301. 
 
 America, North, military operations in, 
 423, 424, 425, 428 ; the British contests 
 with the French, 431, 433, 435; his- 
 torical review of our early disputes with 
 the colonics of, 451 ; general history of 
 the war thence arising, 460-472 ; thir- 
 teen colonies declare their independenccr 
 466 ; their treaty of peace with Great 
 Britain, by which their independence 
 was acknowledged, 475. (See United 
 States.) 
 
 Amherst, General, 431, 594. 
 
 Amiens, treaties of, 526, 536. 
 
 Amurath, the Turkish sultan, Tig— 121; 
 organizes the Janissaries, lig. 
 
 Anabaptists, disorders committed by the, 
 
 142. 
 
 Anacletus II., anti-pope, 58. 
 Ancients, council of the, 528, 532. 
 Andre. Major, 470. 
 Anglesey, marquis of, death of, 653. 
 
 ■A T 
 
680 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Anglo-Saxons, invited to the assistance of 
 the Britons, 13; their character, 14; 
 heptarchy established by the, 15; con- 
 verted to Christi^ity, t6.; their govern- 
 ment and laws, l6 ; their monarchy ter- 
 minated, 40. 
 
 Angora, battle of, 120. 
 
 Anjou, duke of, succeeds to the Spanish 
 throne, 367. 
 
 Anne of Austria, regent of France, 278. 
 
 Anne, queen of England, 370; court in- 
 trigues of her reign, 377 ; state of litera- 
 ture and arts during her reign, 445. 
 
 Anson, Commodore, 406 ; reaches the Pa- 
 cific, 407 ; his naval operations, 407, 408, 
 41S. 
 
 Antharis, king of the Lombards, embraces 
 Christianity, 10. . 
 
 Anti-corii-law league, 622. 
 
 Antoninus, wall of, 13. 
 
 Arabs expelled from Granada, 122. 
 
 Architects of the eighteenth century, 448, 
 449, 
 
 Areola, battle of, 512. 
 
 Arcot, capture of, 422. 
 
 Argyle, earl of, 332. 
 
 Argyle, duke of, 387. 398. 
 
 Armada, Spanish, invades England, 103; 
 its destruction, 194, 
 
 Armagnac faction, 108, 109. 
 
 Arminius, of Holland, 206, 
 
 Armstrong, the poet, 447< 
 
 Arnold,' general, 470. 
 
 Arnold, Rev. T., death of, 631. 
 
 Arragon, kingdom of, 121, 122. 
 
 Artevelde, James Van, of Ghent, 92. 
 
 Arthur, prince of the Silurea, 15. 
 
 Artillery, first used at Cressy, 93. 
 
 Arts, revival of, in Europe, 131 ; their pro- 
 gress during the sixteenth and seven- 
 teenth centuries, 356 et seq. ; during the 
 eighteenth century, 444 et seq. 
 
 Ascue, Anne, burnt, 150. 
 
 Ashantees, at war with the Fantees, 601 ; 
 their contests with the British, ib. 
 
 Assassins, prince of the, 69. 
 
 Assiento, the, 395. 
 
 Aasignats issued, 483. 
 
 Astolph invades Italy, 12. 
 
 Atheling, Edgar, 51. , 
 
 Athelatan, the Anglo-Saxon king, 32. 
 
 Athelwold, violent death of, 34. 
 
 Atterbury, Bishop, 450. 
 
 Audubon, John, death of, 638. 
 
 Augsburg, diets at, 129, 138, 152; con- 
 fession of, 141 ; recess of, l63; league of, 
 337. 
 
 Augustine, the .monk, converts the Anglo- 
 Saxons, 15. 
 
 Aulic Council of Germany, 130. 
 
 Autic Council, modifications in the, 222. 
 
 Austerlitz, buttle of, 550. 
 
 Auatralia, gold discovered In, 637. 
 
 Austria, annexed to the dominions of the 
 house of Hapshurg, 87 ; ambition of, 
 233; affairs^ of (1740-6), 40p et seq.; 
 her contentions with Prussia, 413; at 
 war with Pruaaia, 425 et seq. ; the French 
 revolutionists declare war against, 489 > 
 
 title of "emperor of" adopted, 533; 
 revolution in, 641, 642; assisted by 
 Russia, 642 ; her treacherous policy, 673 ; 
 perilous influence of, 676. 
 
 Austria, house of ; its ambition, 208. 
 
 Austrians, their military operations against 
 the French and Spaniards, 417, 5U8, 613 
 et seq, ; defeated in Italy, 650. 
 
 Avignon,- papal see removed to, 91. 
 
 Azo£f, expedition to the sea of, 665. 
 
 Babington'a conspiracy, igi, 
 
 Babceuf, conspiracy of, 527. 
 
 Bacon, Sir F. (Lord Verulam) ;. his great 
 
 genius, 362, 3d3. 
 Badajoa captured, 580. 
 Bahama Islands, their diacovery, 135. 
 Baillie, Joanna, death of, 638. 
 Baird, Sir David, in Portugal, 564. 
 Bajazet defeated by Tamerlane, 120. 
 Balaclava, capture of, 66I ; battle of, 662. 
 Baldwin, count of Flandera, commander*of 
 
 the crusades, 73. 
 Baldwin II. expelled from Constantinople, 
 
 74. 
 Baldwin V., earl of Flanders, 36. 
 Balliol, John ; his claims to the Scottish 
 
 crown. 85. 
 Balliol, Edward, crowned king of Scotland, 
 
 92. 
 Baltic, naval operations in the, 6S9, 668. 
 Baltimore, hostilities at, 588. 
 Banda, island of, captured, 575' 
 Banim, J., death of, 631. 
 Bank charter modified, 6)3, 629. 
 Banner, the Swedish general, 214, 215; 
 
 death of, 21 7. 
 Bannister, John, death of. 619. 
 Bannockburn, battle of, 83. 
 Barbarians,tbelr settlement in Europe; ne- 
 ver wholly subdued by the Romans, 1, 2 ; 
 
 their warlike spirit, 3, 4 ; meaning of the 
 
 term, 3 note; their contempt for Roman 
 
 civilization, 4; their system of policy and 
 
 legislation, 5. 
 Barbarossa, Frederick,emperor of Germany, 
 
 59. {See Frederick I.) 
 Barbarossa, the corsair, defeated, 142. 
 Barb ary states, expeditions against the, 142, 
 
 144. 
 Barclay, Sir G., the Jacobite, 350. 
 Barham, lord, 549. 
 Barham, Rev. R. H., death of, 632. 
 Barnet, battle nf, 116. 
 Barneveldt, 206. 
 Barons, their contentions with Henry III., 
 
 78. 
 Barraa, commander of the sections, 502;- 
 
 the French director, 528. 
 Barricades, battle of the, 194. 
 Barrington, Bishop, 607. 
 Barrot, Odillon, 638, 640. 
 Basle, council of, 113. 
 Bastile, destruction of the, 479- 
 Batavia founded, 206. 
 Batavian republic, 504. 
 Bautzen, battle of, 585. 
 Bavaria, change of family dynasty in, 455; 
 
 the war there&om arising, ib. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 681 
 
 Bavarians, their military defeats, 372* 
 
 Bayard, Chevalier, MS, 139. 
 
 Beachy Head, naval battle of, 352. 
 
 Beam, principality of, 207. 
 
 Beaufort. Cardinal, his influence, 112. 
 
 Beanhamais, Josephine, married to Napo- 
 leon Buonaparte, 502. 
 
 Beauhamaifl, Eugene, made ^ceroy of Italy, 
 549. 
 
 Eeaulieu, General, 5og. 
 
 Bed of Justice, in France, 443 — 458. 
 
 Belgium, conquered by the French, 496 ; 
 her union with Holland, and her separa- 
 tion, 610. 
 
 Belgrade, siege of, 392. 
 
 Belleisle, naval action of, 418. 
 
 Bender, the resort of Charles XII., 3/9— 
 388. 
 
 Benedict II., Pope, 31. 
 
 Benedict VIII., Pope, 32. 
 
 Benedict XI., Pope, 90. 
 
 Benedict XII., Pope, QQ. 
 
 Benedict XIII., Pope. 106. 
 
 Benedict XIV., Pope, 443. 
 
 Bengal, CUve's conquests in, 428. 
 
 Bentinck, Lord, death of, 637. 
 
 Bentley, Dr., 449. 
 
 Benton, Cardinal, 149; his preat ascend- 
 ancy, 157- 
 
 Berenger II., bing of Burgundy, 30. 
 
 Beresford, Marshal, 570, 578- 
 
 Beresina, battle of, 584. 
 
 Bergara, convention of, 622. 
 
 Bergen- op- Zoom captured, 418. 
 
 Bergerac, treaty of, 186. 
 
 Berlin, captured by the French troops, 556 ; 
 decree of, 557. 
 
 Bemadotte, Marshal Charles John, king of 
 Sweden, 572, 596. 
 
 Bernard, the monk, 60. 
 
 Bern, duchess of, 6l3, 6l4. 
 
 Berti, duke of, assassinated, 598. 
 
 Berta, wife of Carloman, 18. 
 
 Bertha, queen of Robert king of France, 
 35. 
 
 Beza, Theodore, 173. 
 
 Bible translated by Luther, 138, 141. 
 
 Birmingham, riots in, 496. 
 
 Bishops, their committal to the Tower by 
 James II., 342 ; their acquittal, ib. 
 
 Black-hole of Calcutta, 425. 
 
 Blake, Admiral, 287; his naval victories, 
 287, 283, 290. 
 
 Blenheim, battle of, 372. 
 
 Blesaiogton, countess of, death of, 637« 
 
 Bligb, General, 431. 
 
 Bloody Bill, the, 148. 
 
 Blore Heath, battle of, 114. 
 
 Blucher, General, 586. 
 
 Boccaccio, 132. 
 
 Bohemia, troubles of, 104 ; revolutionary 
 struggles in, 205. 
 
 Bbleyn, Anne, 147, 148. 
 
 Bolingbroke, Lord fSt. John), 372; his 
 literary talents, 446, 
 
 Bolivar, death of, 6l2. 
 
 Bologna, captured by the French republi- 
 ans 514. 
 
 Bonaparte ; see Buonaparte. 
 
 Boniface VIII., Pope, 85, go. 
 
 Bonner, Bishop, 159, 16O. 
 
 Bora, Katherine de, 141. 
 
 Borgia, Csesar, I26. 
 
 Boris, the Russian minister, 209> 
 
 Borodino, battle of, 583. 
 
 Boscawen, Admiral, 419, 434. 
 
 Boston, capture of, 466. 
 
 Bosworth Field, battle of, 117- 
 
 Bothwell, James Hepburo, earl of, marries 
 Mary, queen of Scots, 177 ; his miserable 
 end, lb. 
 
 Boulogne, French flotilla at, for the inva- 
 sion of England, 548, 549- 
 
 Bourbon, isle of, captured, 575, 
 
 Bourbon, duke of, captures Rome, 140. 
 
 Bourbons, their family contract, 437 ; their 
 alliance with the house of Hapsburg, 
 459; their restoration to the throne of 
 France, 587, 589- 
 
 Bouvines, battle of, 72. 
 
 Bowring, Dr., 622. 
 
 Boyne, battle of the, 348. 
 
 Braban9ons devastate England, 77. 
 
 Braddock, General, 423. 
 
 Bradshaw, the republican, 275. 
 
 Brandenburg, elector of, 204, 
 
 Brandywine, battle of, 467. 
 
 Brazils, discovery of, 134 ; British com- 
 mercial intercourse with, 562 ; captured 
 by the Portuguese, 299- 
 
 Breda, treaty of, 308. 
 
 Bretigni, treaty of, 96. 
 
 Bretons submit to Henry VII. 124. 
 
 Brienne, battle of, 587. 
 
 Brissot, 488. 
 
 Britain, early history of, 13 et seg. 
 
 Britons defeated by the Saxons and driven 
 to the mountains of Wales, 14, 15, 
 
 Brittany united to France, II9. 
 
 Broke, Captain, 588. 
 
 Bruce, Robert, his claims to the Scottish 
 crown, 85 ; made king of Scotland, 86. 
 
 Bruce, David, invades England, 94; de- 
 feated and captured, ib. 
 
 Brunei, Sir M. I., death of, 637. 
 
 Brunswick, duke of, 49O. 
 
 Buccaneers, their marauding spirit, 403 
 et seq. 
 
 Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, 207 i 
 the favounte of James I,, 22B ; his mis- 
 conduct, 232 ; bis military blundering 
 and unpopularity, 236 ; assassinated, 238, 
 
 Buffon. 444. 
 
 Bulwer, Sir H. 645. 
 
 Bunker's Hill, battle of, 466. 
 
 Buonaparte, Napoleon, first distinguUhed 
 at the siege of Toulon, 498 ; biographical 
 account of, 501, 502; appointed general 
 of the republican armies, 502 ; married to 
 Josephine Beauharnais, ib. ; his campaign 
 in Italy, 505 — 507; his victories and 
 spoliations, SOS ; bis contests with the 
 Austrians, 513 ; invades Egypt, 519; in- 
 vades Syria, 521, 522 ; quits Egypt, 522 ; 
 his reception at Paris, 52S ; crosses the 
 Alps, and gains the battle of Marengo, 
 534, 535: made first consul, 533; signs 
 the treaty of Amiens, 536 ; made consul 
 
 2t2 
 
682 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 for life, 540; his various political measures 
 and military operations, 540 — 544, 549, 
 553, 557, 563 ; conspiracy against, 546 ; 
 his despotic measures, id.; made em- 
 peror, 546; creates several new kingdoms, 
 and makes the Germanic body depend- 
 ent on himself, 553; at the height of 
 his power, 566, 572 ; his numerous an- 
 nexations, 566, 567, 572 J divorced from 
 Josephine, 571 ; married to Maria Louisa 
 of Austria, 5:71 ; his Russian campaign, 
 S81 et seq.j his immense army, 5Si ; his 
 capture of Moscow, 583 ; his disastrous 
 retreat, 5S4 ; his campaign of 1813, 585 ; 
 his defeats, 586 ; his abdication, 587 ; his 
 escape from Elba, and arrival at Paris, 
 591 ; his hostile preparations, 591* 526; 
 defeated at Waterloo, 592, 593 ; exiled to 
 ,St. Helena, 594; his death, 596; hi» re- 
 mains removed from St. Helena, and in- 
 terred in the InvaUdes. 623, 624. 
 
 Buonaparte, Napoleon F. J. C, death of, 
 612. 
 
 Buonaparte, Jerome, king of Westphalia, 
 558. 
 
 Buonaparte, Joseph, appointed king of the 
 Two Sicilies, 653, 555; of Spain, 563; 
 his death, 632. 
 
 Buonaparte, Louis, created king of Holland, 
 553 ; death of, 632. 
 
 Buonaparte, Lucien, death of, 626. 
 
 Buonaparte, Louis Napoleon (son of the ex- 
 king of Holland), bis revolutionary at- 
 tempt on Strasburg, 617; his attempt at 
 Boulogne, 623 ; imprisoned in the fortress 
 of Ham, ib.; his escape from Ham, 631 ; 
 elected a representative of the Seine, 639 ; 
 elected president, 640 ; elected emperor, 
 under the title of Napoleon III., 647; 
 his marriage, 649; visits England, 651 ; 
 visited by Queen Victoria, 652, 
 
 Burdett, SirF., committed to the Tower, 
 575. 
 
 Burgundian and Armaguac factions, 108, 
 109. 
 
 Burke, Edward, 493. 
 
 Burleigh, Lo.rd. the patron of art, 448. 
 
 Burmese war, 604. 
 
 Bute, earl of, prime minister, 439, 452. 
 
 Byng, Sir George, 377 J his naval victories, 
 S94;- superseded, tried, and executeil, 
 424-426. 
 
 Byron, Lord, death of, 600. 
 
 Calial, the, 311. 
 
 Cabochiens, faction of the, 108. 
 
 Cabot, Admiral, 300. 
 
 Oabrai, Alvarez, the navigator, 134. 
 
 Caffre war continued, 637. 
 
 Cajetan, Cardinal, 130. 
 
 Calais, captured by Edward III., 94 ; by 
 
 the French, 161. 
 Calcutta, captured by Rajah al Dowlah, 
 
 425 ; recovery of, 428. 
 Calendar, of the French revolution, 499, 
 
 SOO ; restored, 553. 
 Calicut, in India, 134. 
 California, gold discoveries in, 635, 
 Caliphs of Bagdad, 41, 
 
 Calistus II., Pope, 49. 
 
 Calixtus III., Anti-pope, 67- 
 
 Cambray, league of, 127 ; pacification of. 
 140. 
 
 Cambridge, duke of, his death, 637, 
 
 Camiaards, the, 373. 
 
 Camoens, the Portuguese poet, 184 note. 
 
 Campbell, Thomfls, death of, 632. 
 
 Campe, treaty of, 145. 
 
 Campeggio, Cardinal, 147. 
 
 Campio Formio; treaty of, 5l6. 
 
 Canada, ceded to the English, 435 ; con- 
 teats in, with the Americans, 587 ; re- 
 bellion of, 620 ; Lord Durham appointed 
 governor of, ib., union of the two Canadas, 
 623 ; riots in, 635 : Clergy Reserves Bill, 
 648, 650. 
 
 Candia, capture of, 310. 
 
 Canning, Right Hon. G., 545 ; prime 
 minister, 599, 607; his death, 607* 
 
 Canon law, introduced into England, 6I ; 
 abolished, 78. 
 
 Canrobert, General, 673. 
 
 Canute, king of Denmark, 35 ; becomes 
 king of England, 36; his conquests and 
 high character, 37, 
 
 Cape Finisterre, naval battle, of, 418. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, discovery of the, 191. 
 
 Cape St. Vincent, naval battle of, 517. 
 
 Capet, Hugh, assumes the throne of France, 
 29 ; seizes the French crown, 35 ; his 
 character, ib. 
 
 Carbonari, at Naples, 598. 
 
 Carlists, of Spain, defeated, 6l4. 
 
 Carloman, sou of Pepin, 12 ; king of 
 France, 18, 26, 27. 
 
 Carlovingian race, extinction of the, 29. 
 
 Carnatic, British acquisitions in the, 434. 
 
 Carnot, General, 509. 
 
 Caroline, Queen, arrives in England, 597; 
 bill of pains and penalties against, tdf 
 death of, 598. 
 
 Carre, Robert, 227. 
 
 Carthagena, attack on, 407, 408. 
 
 Cary, Dr., death of, 632. 
 
 Cash payments, restriction of, 517. 
 
 Castile, kingdom of, 121, 122. 
 
 Castlereagb, Lord, 569 ; commits suicids, 
 599. 
 
 Catamarans, 548. 
 
 Cateau-Cambr^sis, treaties of, I66. 
 
 Catesby, the conspirator, 226. 
 
 Catherine, wife of Peter the Great, 389; 
 crowned as empress, 392. 
 
 Catherine II., empress of Russia, 439, 
 
 Catholic emancipation, public agitatioi^ 
 respecting, 607. 
 
 Catinat, Marshal, 352, 353. 
 
 Cato-street conspiracy, 597* 
 
 Cattle market of London, 652^ 
 
 Cavaignac, General, 639. 
 
 Cavaliers, 254. 
 
 Cavendish, Admiral, hia naval exploits, 129, 
 
 Census for 1851, 637. 
 
 Ceorles, among the Anglo-Saxons, 16. 
 
 Cercamp, congress of, 1 65. 
 
 Ceresuola, battle of. 145. 
 
 Chantrey, Sir F., death of, 626. 
 
 Charlemagne (Charles the Great), king of. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 £83 
 
 France and emperor of the Weat, 12, 
 16; history of hia reign, 18-21 ; crowned 
 emperor of the West, 20; bis death, 21 ; 
 history of his empire, 21 et seq., 2B note, 
 
 Cbarlca of Anjou, king of Naples, SQ. , 
 
 Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 116; 
 his daughter Margaret, ib. 
 
 Chftrles I., of England, his political and 
 parliamentary disputes, 23i et seq. ; his 
 contests with the Scotch, 244, 245 ; his 
 
 - forces everywhere defeated, 270, 271 ; 
 captured, 271 ; his trial and execution, 
 
 . 275, 276 ; his literary tastes, 36l. 
 
 Charles I. (the Bald) of France, 31, 22. 
 
 Charles I. of Spain ; see Charles V. of 
 Germany. 
 
 Charles II. of England, his vain efforts 
 against the Commonwealth, 283, 285 ; 
 his exile, 285, 283 ; his restoration, 295, 
 2d6; his reign, 302 et seq,; his new 
 measures, 303; his arbitrary conduct, 
 304 ; his contentions with Parliament, 
 330, 331 ; his death, 332. 
 
 Charles II. of Navarre, 94. 
 
 Charles II., king of Spain, 364, S66. 
 
 Charles III. of Spun, 437, 46o. 
 
 Charles III. of France, 27. 
 
 Charles IV. of Germany, W. 
 
 Charles IV. of France, 29, 91. 
 
 Charles IV. of Snain, his weakness, 56l ; 
 his manifesto, 562; abdicates m favour 
 of his son, ib. 
 
 Charles V., king of Spain, and emperor of 
 Germany, 129, 137; proclaimed king of 
 Italy, 141 ; his expedition against Che 
 piratical states of Africa, 142, 144 ; his 
 contests with Francis I. 143 et seq. i his 
 political and religious contests in Ger- 
 many, 150 — 15€; is deceived by Muirice, 
 154; his CDnsternation and flight, 155; 
 signs the treaty of Passau, ib, ; his mili- 
 tary and political contests, (62 ; his 
 abdication and retirement to the Monas- 
 tery of Yuste, 164, 165 ; his death, 166. 
 
 Charles V., king of France, 96. 
 
 Charles VI., emperor of Germany, 392. 
 
 Charles VII. of Germany, 410. 
 
 Charles VII., king of France, 110. 
 
 Charles VIII. of France, lid; his invasion 
 of Italy, 125. 
 
 Charles IX. of France, 172; his treachery 
 to the Huguenots, 16S, 182; his loath 
 some death, 182, 183. 
 
 Charles X, of France, 602 ; his despotic 
 measures and final overthrow, 609 ; his 
 death, € 1 8. 
 
 Charles X., king of Sweden, 281 ; conquers 
 Poland, 282. 
 
 Charles XII. of Sweden, 366 ; his military 
 career and genius, 368 et seq, ; invades 
 Poland, and dethrones the king, 375 ; 
 his victorious career, 375; defeated at 
 Pultowa, 379 ; escapes to Bender, 379, 
 388 ; his death, 390; his character, 391. 
 
 Charles XIII. of Sweden, 566. 
 
 Charles, archduke of Austria, his contests 
 with Buonaparte, 514 et seg., 567. 
 
 Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, 642; hie 
 defeats, id.; his abdication, ib. 
 
 Charles Stuart, see Pretender. 
 
 Chambers, Sir W., 449* 
 
 Chambers of Inquest, 443. 
 
 Changarnicr, General, 640. 
 
 Charlotte, Princess, death of, 595. 
 
 Charlotte, Queen, death of, 596. 
 
 Chartists, disturbance of the, 622, 623 ; 
 agitation of the, 634 ; their monster 
 petition, ib. 
 
 Chartres, duke of, 481. 
 
 Chasseurs d'Afrique, the, 6l5. 
 
 Chateaubriand, death of, 637. 
 
 Chatham, earl of. 452 ; death of. 468. . 
 
 Chatham, John Pitt, earl of, his expedition 
 to the Netherlands, 569. 
 
 Chaucer, Geo£Frey, the poet, 133, 361-. 
 
 Cheltenham, medicinal waters of, 494. 
 
 Cherbourg, capture of, 431. 
 
 Chesterfield, lK>rd, his literary talents, 
 446. 
 
 China, renewed hostilities with, 624 ; con- 
 clusion of the war with, 627. 
 
 Chisholm, Major, 60 1. 
 
 Chivalry, origin of, 43, 44. 
 
 Chobham encampment, 649. 
 
 Cholera, visit of the, 6l2; at Rome, &c., 
 €19; in England, 635; in 1854, €51. 
 
 Christian II. and III., kings of Denmark, 
 168, 169^ 
 
 Christian IV. of Denmark, 203. 
 
 Christianity, its early progress in Europe, 
 3 ; its difficulties and persecutions, ib, ; 
 fifth and sixth centuries of, 5 ; when first 
 adopted in England, 15. 
 
 Christina, queen of Sweden, 281 ; her 
 resignation, ib. 
 
 Church, abuses of the, 61 ; contentions of 
 the, 103—106. 
 
 Church property appropriated, 483. 
 
 Cibber, the dramatist, 447. 
 
 Cid (the) of Spain, 80 ; his victories, 8U 
 
 Cintra, convention of, 564. 
 
 Circassians, their revolt, 6I8. 
 
 Cisalpine commonwealth, 514. 
 
 Ciudad Uodrigo, captured, 530. 
 
 Clarendon, constitutions of, 62. 
 
 Clarendon, Lord, writings of, 362. 
 
 Clarkson, Mrs.. 554. 
 
 Clement II., Pope, 46. 
 
 Clement III., Pope, 67. 
 
 Clement VI., Pope, 99. 
 
 Clement XIII., Pope, 458. 
 
 Clement XIV., Pope, 458, 46l. 
 
 Clement, Jacques, 194. 
 
 Cleoph, king of the Lombards, 9. 
 
 Clergy, their usurpations, 22 ; their extor- 
 tions, 61, 78 ; their disputes in France, 
 442, 443. 
 
 Cleves, Anne of, US. 
 
 Cleves, John William, duke of, 203. 
 
 Clinton, Sir Henry, 470 ; his military ope- 
 rations against the Americans, 471 et seq* 
 
 CHssau, battle of, 375. 
 
 Clive, General Robert, his career in India, 
 422 ; his successes, 428. 
 
 Closter- Seven, convention of, 427. 
 
 Clothaire 11. becomes sole monarch of 
 France, 7. 
 
 Clovis, the first king of the French, 7 ; de- 
 
684 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 feats the Allemanni, and receives liaptiam 
 as a Christian, 7; vanquishes Alaric the 
 Goth, ib.f his. cruelties and death, ib; 
 hia dorainiona divided among; his four 
 sons, ib. 
 
 Clubsof Paris, 485. 
 
 Coalition ministry, 493. 
 
 Coalition, European, against France, 486 ; 
 its operations and defeats, 491 et seg.; 
 dissolved, 504 ; against Buonaparte, 585. 
 
 Cobham, Richard, Lord, murdered, 112. 
 
 Coblentz, manifesto of, 490. 
 
 Codrington, Sir £., 600. 
 
 Colbert, minister of Louis XIV., 336, 337- 
 
 Colligny, Admiral, l64; his contests, 1/9, 
 180; assassinated, 182. 
 
 CoUiogwood, Admiral, 551. 
 
 Collins, the poet, 447- 
 
 Qollina, William, deaih of, 637. 
 
 Colman, the dramatist, 448. 
 
 Colonization, progress of, during the l6th 
 and 17th centuries, 2g6 ; from I66O to 
 1739,401. 
 
 Colonna faction, 88. 
 
 Colonna Prospera, 139. 
 
 Columbus, Christopher, the Genoese navi- 
 gator, his great discoveries, 122, 134, 
 135; his difficulties, 135. 
 
 Commerce, progress of, during the l6tb and 
 17th centuries, 296 ei seg. ; from 1660 to 
 1739, 401 ei seg. J improvement of, 699; 
 distressing crisis of, 605. 
 
 Common law, origin of the, 26. 
 
 Commons, House of, established in France, 
 90, gi ; of England, its disputes with 
 Charles I., 234 et seg.j its daring re- 
 sistance, 255, 256. {See Parliament.) 
 
 Commonwealth of England, history of the, 
 282 et aeq,; its naval conquests, 290. 
 
 Concini. executed, 207. 
 
 Concordat, between Buonaparte and the 
 Pope, 540, 541 ; between Austria and the 
 Pope, 653. 
 
 Cond€, Prince, of, J72; supports the Hu- 
 guenots, 174; his contests, 179; assassi- 
 nated, 179. 
 
 Cond6, Prince of, the Great, 218, 221 ; his 
 ascendancy, 279- 
 
 Cooflans, treaty of, 118. 
 
 Congregation of the Lord, associated in 
 Scotland, 170, 171. 
 
 Congreve, 445, 446. 
 
 Conrad I., emperor of Germany, 28. 
 
 Conrad II. of Germany, 46. 
 
 Conrad III. of Germany, 59. 
 
 Constance, council of, 105. 
 
 CoDBtans, emperor of Constantinople, de- 
 feated by the Lombards, 10. 
 
 Constantine V. (Copronymus), 12. 
 
 Constantine XIV,, the last Christian em- 
 peror, 121. 
 
 Constantinople, removal of the imperial 
 court to, 3; history of, a.d. 862 — 1068, 
 42 ; subjection of, 75 ; captured by the 
 Turks, 113, 121. 
 
 Constituent Assembly of France, 487* 
 
 Consular government of France, 533. 
 
 Copenhagen, attack on, 524 ; bombardment 
 of, 559. 
 
 Copernicus, 358. 
 
 Copyright bill, 627. 
 
 Corday, Charlotte, stabs Marat, 497. 
 
 Cordeliers, executed, 500. 
 
 Cordova, the ancient capital of the Moors, 
 founded by Abderahman, 9. 
 
 Corn-laws, agitation on the, 605 ; struggles 
 for their repeal, 622, 623, 629; rep^of 
 the, 6.S0. 
 
 Corneille, poetic genius of, 357. 
 
 Comwallis, Lord, 47O; his military opera- 
 tions against the Americans, 471 et seg. 
 
 Corporations deprived of their charters, 
 332. 
 
 Corsica ceded to France, 457. 
 
 Cortes, Hernando, the conqueror of Mexico, 
 135, 136. 
 
 Cortes of Spain, 602> 
 
 Coruuna, battle of, 565. 
 
 Coun^ courts, instituted .by Alfred, 25 ; 
 established in 1845, €30'; their jurisdic- 
 tion extended, 636. 
 
 Court and country parties, 232 ; heads of 
 the country party, 234. 
 
 Covenanters of Scotland, 243, 244; abolish 
 episcopacy in Scotland, 244; defeated, 
 261 ; tbeir treatment of Charles II., 293, 
 284 ; defeated by Cromwell, 28a ; their 
 struggles, 329, 
 
 Coverdale, Bishop, 159. 
 
 Crabbe, the poet, death of, 6l2. 
 
 Cracow, incorporated vrith the Austrian 
 empire, 631 ; violation of the territory of, 
 617- 
 
 Cranmer, Archbishop, 147. 
 
 Crebillon, 444. 
 
 Crespi, treaty of, 145. 
 
 Cressy, battle of, 93. 
 
 Crimea, captured by the Russians, 454 ; 
 war in the, 650 ; entered by the united 
 English and French forces, 66O; tbeir 
 contests with the Russian troops, 660 
 et seq. ; distress of the British forces, in 
 the, and public subscriptions for them, 
 663, 664. 
 
 Croats, the, 641. 
 
 Croker, T. C, death of, 653. 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver, the Parliamentary gene- 
 ral, 264 et seq. ; his ambitious views, 268 ; 
 his energetic measures and victorious 
 career, 282 et seq.; dissolves Parliament^ 
 287 ; biographical notices of, 2S7> 288 ; 
 appointed Protector of the Common- 
 wealth, 288 ; his death, 292. 
 
 Cromwell, Richard, 292, 293. 
 
 Crusades, first instigated by Peter the 
 Hermit, 55; general summary of the, 
 55, 66, note ; account of the, 57, 60 ; the 
 tlurd one, 67, 68 ; the fourth one, 73 ; 
 their commercial and political influence, 
 82. 
 
 Crystal palace, at Sydenham, 651. 
 
 Cuba, discovery of, 135. 
 
 Culloden, battle of, 4I6. 
 
 Cumberland, William Augustus, duke of, 
 defeats the Pretender, 4l6; defeated at 
 Hartenbeck, 427. 
 
 Cura9oa captured, 559. 
 
 Custine, General, 498. 
 
IXDEX. 
 
 6&£ 
 
 Cuvier. death of, 6l2. 
 
 Cyprus, captured by the Turks, 184. 
 
 Czaslau, battle of, 410. 
 
 D'AIembert, 444. 
 
 Palrymple, General, 564. 
 
 Damasus II., Pope, 46, 
 
 Uamiea, Francis, the assassin, 426. 
 
 Damietta. capture of, 74 ; surrender of, 75. 
 
 Dampierre, General, killed, 408. 
 
 Danby, earl of, 305 et seq. 
 
 I)anegel4 tax, 34. 
 
 Danes, their ferocity and ravages, 22, 23 ; 
 slaughter of the, 34; their retributive 
 vengeaDce. 34, 35; their conquest of 
 Eoglaod, 37. {See Dfnmark.J 
 
 Dante, the Italian poet, 132. 
 
 DautOD, the French revolutionist, 438 ; ex- 
 ecuted, 500. 
 
 Danube, Russian and Turkish contcots oo 
 ^e banks of the, 656, 658, ()5g. 
 
 D'Arblay. death of. 626. 
 
 Darien, Scotch settlers at, 366. 
 
 Damley, Lord, married to Mary queen of 
 Scots, 175 ; murdered, 176. 
 
 Dauphin* title of, 94, 
 
 Davidowich, General, 510, 511, 512. 
 
 Davy, Sir H., death of, 608. 
 
 De Choiseul, the French miuister, 458, 459> 
 
 " Defender of the Faith," title of, 146, 
 
 Defoe, Daniel, 450. 
 
 D*£glantine, 488. 
 
 Delaunay, M., killed, 479. 
 
 Demetrius, prince of Russia, murdered, 
 
 . 209; the impostor, ib. 
 
 P*Enghien, duke, executed, 546. 
 
 Denmau, Lord, death of, 653. 
 
 Denmark, early history of, 168; her con- 
 teats with Sweden, 282 ; her constitution 
 Emd govemmenc, 464 ; her fleet destroyed 
 by Nelson, 524 ; her fleet surrendered to 
 the British, 559; revolt among the Ger- 
 man subjects of, 643; the duchies of 
 Schleswig and Holatein renounce their 
 allegiance, 643. {See Schleswig.) 
 
 Denny, Sir A., 150. 
 
 De Ruyter, the Dutch Admiral, his naval 
 contests, 304, 306, 3i)7, 312, 316. 
 
 Pfciwentwater, earl of, executed, 388. 
 
 Desiderius, king of the liombards, 18. 
 
 Desmoulins, Camille, 4/9, 488; executed, 
 500. 
 
 Despenser, Hugh le, 8/. 
 
 Deasaix, General, 519; death of, 535. 
 
 Detroit, capture of, 587. 
 
 Dettingen, battle of, 411. 
 
 De Witts, killed, 314. 
 
 Diaz, Bartholomew, the navigator, 134. 
 
 Dibdin, T., death of, 626. 
 
 Diderot, 444. 
 
 Directory of France, 502 ; their high pre- 
 tensions, 504 ; dissolved, 532. 
 
 Discovery, progress of, during the l6th 
 and 17th centuries, 296 et seq.; from 
 
 , 1660 to 1739, 401 etseg, 
 
 D'IsraeU, I,, death of, 63?. 
 
 Distresses of the country, 595, 604, 608, 
 6-22. 
 
 Doddridge, Dr., 449. 
 
 Doggerbank, action of the, 47< 
 
 Domesday Book, 52. 
 
 Donunican Friars, 76. 
 
 Donnington castle, siege of, 266. 
 
 Doria, Andrew, the Genoese admiral, 140. 
 
 Douglas, George. 176, 178. 
 
 Drake, Admirad F., 189 ; his exploits, 190, 
 192, 193 ; his natal successes, 300. 
 
 Drama, state of, in the IStb century, 447, 
 448. 
 
 Dresden, treaty of, 4l6 ; battle of, 585. 
 
 Drogheda, capture of, by Cromwell, ;:S3. 
 
 Dryden. the poet, 362. 
 
 Dublin University founded, 200. 
 
 Duckworth, Admiral Sir John, 555, .559. 
 
 Dudley, Lord Guildford, 159, I60. 
 
 Dn Hamel, 444. 
 
 Dumonier, 496, 497 ; his treachery, 497. 
 
 Dunbar, biattle of, 285. 
 
 Duncan, Admiral, defeats the Dutch, 516. 
 
 Dundas, Admiral, 6K8. 
 
 Dunstan, abbot of Glastonbury, 33. 
 
 Dupleix, M., 421, 422. 
 
 Dutch, their naval prowess and defeats, 
 287, 288; their commerce and colonial 
 possessions, 298, 299; their continued 
 naval struggles, 305 el seq., 313; their 
 brave resistance to England and France, 
 313 et seq.i capture of their fleet, 523. 
 {See Holland and United Provinces ) 
 
 Earthquakes in Europe, 423 ; the great one 
 of Lisbon, 456. 
 
 East, state of the, in the 13th century, 80. 
 
 East-India Company; their establishment, 
 299 ; their charter materially altered, 6l3. 
 
 East-India Company, French, 401 ; its 
 bankruptcy, 458. 
 
 East Indies, Dutch settlements in the, 206 ; 
 conquests of England and France re- 
 stored, 421 ; state of the, 421, 422 ; hos- 
 tilities in, 425, 426, 624, 625 ; disturb- 
 ances in tiie, 635. 
 
 Eastern question, history of the, 654 et seq. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Courts, establishment of, 52. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, 637. 
 
 Eckmul, battle of, 597* 
 
 Edgar, the Anglo-Saxon king, 33. 
 
 Edgehill, battle of, 259. 
 
 Edgeworth, Maria, death of, 637. 
 
 Edmund, tbe Anglo-Saxon king, 32, 35. 
 
 Edred, the Anglo-Saxon king, 33. 
 
 Edward, the Anglo-Saxon king, 32. 
 
 Edward the Confessor, 37t 38. 
 
 Edward I. of England, 84 ; his conteits 
 with the Welsh and the Scots, 84—86 ; 
 his wise and energetic measures. 85, 86. 
 
 Edward II., the Martyr, kmg of England, 
 assassinated, 87. 
 
 Edward III. of England, B7, 92; his wars 
 in France, 93, 94, 96. 
 
 Edward the Black Prince, 93 ; gains the 
 battles of Cressy and of Foictiers, 93, 95 ; 
 his defeats, 97 ; quits France, 98. . 
 
 Edward IV. of England, 115; bis civil 
 contests, 115, II6; hiainvasionofFrance, 
 116. 
 
 Edward VI, of England, 156; the pro- 
 moter of the Protestant teligioo, ib. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Kdwy, the Anglo-Saxon king, 33. 
 
 Effingham, Lord Howard of, igs. 
 
 Kgbcrt, the first king of England. 38. 
 
 Bglinton, Lord, tournament of> 622. 
 
 Egmont, Count, l65. 
 
 Egypt, Buonaparte's expedition to, 519 ; his 
 conqueata, 520 ; hia military and naval 
 operations in, 520, 521 ; British expe- 
 ditions to, 525, 5sg. 
 
 El Ariach, battle of, 521. 
 
 Elba, Buonaparte exiled to, 58/. 
 
 Elbe, war on the banks of the, 685. 
 
 Eldon, Lord, death of, 625. 
 
 Eleanor, wife of Louis VIL, divorced and 
 mari:ied to Henry PJantagenet, 60. 
 
 Elfrida, queen of Bdgar, 34. 
 
 Elizabeth, queen of England, l6l, 170, 
 173 ; favourable to the Reformation, 173 ; 
 her support of the Protestants, 179 ; con- 
 ■ spiracies against, 181, IQO, 191 ; her pre- 
 parationii for the Spanish invasion, 193; 
 her death, 201 ; the glories of her reign, 
 ib. 
 
 Elliottt Admiral, 436. 
 
 Elliaton, the actor, 6l2. 
 
 Emanuel I. of Portugal, 134. 
 
 Emigrant princes of France, 486; their 
 measures, 487. 
 
 Emigrants of France, destruction of the, 
 499. 
 
 Emigration, parliamentary discussions on, 
 
 ' 605. , 
 
 Emmett, the Irish conspirator, 545. 
 
 Engagers, 284. 
 
 Enghien. duke of, 218, 220. (See Cond£.) 
 
 England, ancient territory of, 15 ; history 
 of, from the Saxon heptarchy to the 
 death of Alfred the Great, 23-26; from 
 the death of Alfred to the Norman con- 
 quest, 32-35, 36-40; from IO66 to 1135, 
 50-^54; from 1135 to lisg, 60-65; from 
 1189 to 1215, 68-72; from 1215 to 1272, 
 77; during the reigns of Edward I. II. 
 and III., 84, 85, 92; from the death of 
 Edward III, to the accession of Henry V. 
 101; from 1415 to 1453, 108-112; her 
 forces expelled from France, 112; con- 
 tests between the houses of York and 
 Jjancaster, lis et seg.} during the reign 
 of Henry VII. 123 ; polished court of, 
 132; restoration of tournament pageants, 
 8ic. 133; history of, during the reign of 
 Henry VIII. 140 et seq. ; from the death 
 of Henry VIII. to the accession of Eliza- 
 beth, 156-161 ; temp. Elizabeth, 17O, 
 173, 199, S02; general history of, from 
 the accession of James I. (l603) to the 
 subversion of the mODarcby (1649J. 223- 
 277 ; at war with Spain, 233 ; civil war 
 in 258-277; state of parties in, 272-275; 
 history of, during the Commonwealth, 
 282 et seq. ; after the death of Cromwell, 
 293 et seq,; her colonization during the 
 17th century, 299-39 1 ; her history from 
 the period of the Restoration, 302 et seq. ; 
 during the reign of Charles II. 322 et 
 seq. } of James II. 338 et seq,; question 
 - of the succession, 367, 368; her union 
 with Scotland, 376 {see Great Britain) ; 
 
 threatened invasion of, 526, 550 ; famine 
 in, 632 ; declares war against Russia, 649 ; 
 misconduct of the war, 650 ; agitations 
 in, 651. 
 
 England and France, advantages of their 
 cordial alliance. 677. 
 
 Episcopacy abolished in Scotland, 244. 
 
 Eric XIV. of Sweden, 209. 
 
 Escurial, origin of the, l64. 
 
 Espartero, General, of Spain, flight of, 629 ; 
 hia recidl, 633. 
 
 Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of, 200, 257. 
 
 Essling, battle of, 567. 
 
 £ate, house of, 89. 
 
 Ethelbald, the Anglo<Saxon king, 24. 
 
 Ij^thelbert, the Anglo-Saxon king, 24. 
 
 Ethelred, the Anglo-Saxon king, 24, 34. 
 
 Ethelwolf, the Anglo-Saxon king, 23. 
 
 Eudea, Count, regent of France, 27. 
 
 Eugene, prince ; his contests with the 
 French, 367 et seq.; his military suc- 
 cesses, 372 et seq.; his operations, 383; 
 defeats the Turks, 392, 393. 
 
 EusOFB, view of the ancient state of, 1 ; 
 divided into three classes, the Greeks, 
 Romans, and Barbarians, ib, ; inundated 
 by the northern nations, 4; general 
 sketch of the history of, 7 et seq. ; her 
 calamitous history during the ninth 
 century, 26, 27 ; progress of society from 
 A.D. 476 to 1050, 42-51 ; progress of 
 navigation in, 133 et seq.; general view 
 of, from the invasion of Italy by Charles 
 VIII. (1494) to the establishment of the 
 Reformation and the peace of Cateau- 
 Cambr^sis (1559), 125-130, 137, 141, 
 150, 162-167; from 1594 to 1598, 186 
 et acq.; from the assassination of Henry 
 IV. to the peace of Westphalia, a.d. 
 1610-1648, 204-222 ; from the peace of 
 Westphalia to the league of Augsburg 
 (1687J, 278, 302, 310, 334-337; her 
 military contests from l689 to 1699, 
 351 ; progress of society in, 355 ; general 
 view of, from the treaty of Ryswlck to 
 the peace of Aix-Ia-Chapelle (a.d. I697- 
 1748), 364, 369, 377, 885, 392, 409, 4l6- 
 420 ; peace and happiness of, after^e 
 treaty of Ais-la-Chapelle, 421 ; state of, 
 from 1756 to the peace of Paris, in 1763, 
 424, 432, 436-440; progress of society 
 in, 440-430 ; the general war, and rela- 
 tive strength of the different powers in 
 1758, 432 ; history of, from the peace of 
 Paris, in 1763, to the treaty of Amiens, 
 in 1802, 451 etseq.; view of the Northern 
 States of, A.D. 1763-1773, 453; history 
 of, from 1789 to 1810, 537-573j state 
 of affairs in the north of, a.d. 1808-9, 
 565-568; view of, from 1811 to 1814, 
 577, 584, 587; from 1814 to 1827, 690, 
 592, 593, 596, 599, 604 ; settlement of, in 
 1BI4, 595; continental constitutions of, 
 598; history of, from 1827 to 1832,609. 
 610-6)2; agitations and revolutionary 
 changes in, 61O, 6l3, 6)4 ; political com- 
 motions in, 633; revolutions of 1848, 
 638 et seq. 
 Eustace de St. Pierre, 94* 
 
INDEX. 
 
 687 
 
 Evangelical UnioD, the, 210, 211. 
 Evesham, battle of, 79. 
 Ezcluaion, bill of, 330. 
 Exmouth, Lord, ^eath of, 6l4. 
 E;lau, battle of, 55?. 
 
 Factory system amended, 636. 
 
 Fairfax, Sir Thomas, the parliamentary 
 
 general, 264 et aeq. 
 Falkirk, battle of, 86. 
 Famine of 1846 and 1847. 633. 
 Fantees, at war with the Ashantees, 601. 
 Fatimites, the, 41. 
 Favraa, marijuis of, executed, 484. 
 Fawkes, Guido, 226. 
 Felton, John, 179. 
 Felton, the assassin, 238. 
 Feneloo, 441. 
 
 Feodore, sovereign of Russia, 20g. 
 Ferdinand. I. of Castile, 80. 
 Ferdinand I., emperor of Germany, l66, 
 
 183. 
 Ferdinand II. of Germany, his bigotry and 
 
 tyranny, 205. 
 Ferdinand II., king of the Two Sicilies, 
 
 6l0. 
 Ferdinand III., emperor of Germany, 214. 
 Ferdinand III. ot Castile, 82. 
 Ferdinand IV. of Castile, 82, 
 Ferdioand VI. of Spain, 417- 
 Ferdinand VII. of Spain, his misrule, 596; 
 
 his death, 6i4. 
 Ferdinand of Gratz, king of Bohemia, 
 . 205. 
 Ferdinand, Don, king of the Two Sicilies, 
 
 437. 
 Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, 121 ; 
 
 their conquest of Granada, 122. 
 Ferrar, Bishop, l6o. 
 Feudal system, origin of the, a, 6 ; effects 
 
 of the, 43. 
 Feuillants, the, 490. 
 Field of the Cloth of Gold, 137. 
 Welding, 447. 
 Fiery cross, the, 4l6. 
 Fieschi, the assassin, 6l6. 
 FifUi-monarchy men, 268. 
 Finland, &c. ceded to Ru-tsia, 566. 
 Fire of London (1666). 306. 
 Fisher, bishop of Rochester, 148. 
 Five Hundred, Council of the, 628, 532; 
 
 dissolved, 533. 
 Flanders, conquest of, by Marlborough, 374. 
 Flemings, duke of Alva's tyranny over the, 
 
 180. 181. 
 Flemish privateers, 187i 
 Fleury, Cardinal, 398. 
 Flodden Field, battle of, 128. 
 Flushing, attack on, 569. 
 Follett, Sir W,, death of, 632. 
 Fontainebleau, peace of, 439. 
 Fontenoy, battle of, 413. 
 Foote, Samuel, 448. 
 Fort Pitt captured, 431. 
 Fort Washington, 466. 
 Fort William Henry captured by the 
 
 French, 428. 
 Forteacue, Sir F., 260. 
 Fox, .Commodore, 418. 
 
 Fox, Charles James, 472) 495 ; death of, 
 555. 
 
 Fox, George, the Quaker, 277 note. 
 
 France, rise of her monarchy, 7 ; her 
 history under the Merovingian kings, 
 7, 8 ; under the empire of Cbarlemagne, 
 21, 22; history of, from the death of 
 Charles the Bald to that of Louis IV., 
 26, 27 ; history of, from a.o. 912 to )066, 
 29-35 ; from 1066 to 1137, 55-58 ; 
 from 1137 to 1152, 59; from 1223 to 
 1270, 79 ; from the death of Louis IX. 
 to the accession of the house of Valois, 
 89 ; civil distractions of, 95 ; history of, 
 from A. D. 1380 to 1453,107-112; dis- 
 tracted »tate of, 107 et seq. ; the English 
 lose their possessions in, 112; from 
 1453 to 1494, 117-119; her struggles 
 with the Burgundians, 118 ; from 1559 to 
 1561, 170 J from 1561 to U67,'l73; from 
 the peace of Vervins to the death of 
 Henry IV. 202-204 ; civil and religious 
 disputes in, 206-208 ; affairs of, a.d. 
 1635-1648, 212 et seq. ; her military con- 
 tests, 212 et seq.; her alliance with 
 Sweden, ib. ; her successful contests 
 with Spain, 280 ; state of, under Louis 
 XIV., 308; her military successes, 309; 
 her contests with Holland, Zi^etseq.j 
 naval triumphs of, 319 ; her vast military 
 operations on the continent of Europe, 
 352 et seq. ; literature and art in, during 
 the 17th century, 356, 357 ; her alliance 
 with Prussia, 412; at war with Great 
 Britain, 423, 424; with Prussia, 426 
 et seq. ; family compact of the Bour- 
 bons, 437 : state of, in the 18th century, 
 441 ; distinguished writers of, 444 ; 
 internal affairs of, a.d. I763-I774, 
 457-459 ; her deplorable condition and 
 political struggles, ib. ; Great Britain 
 declares war against, 469 ; peace with, 
 475 ; history of, from the accession of 
 Luuis XVI. to the assembling of the 
 states-general, 475-478; dreadfid state 
 of, during the revolution of 1789, 479 et 
 seq. ; divided into departments, 483 ; 
 declares war against Austria, 489 * in- 
 vaded by the allies under the duke of 
 Brunswick, 491 ; history of, during the 
 revolution from 1793 to 1802, 503-516; 
 everywhere victorious, 503 et seq.; her 
 spoliations in Italy, 505; her prepara- 
 tions for war in 1803, 544 ; extensjve 
 annexations to, S64, 567, 572 ; invasion 
 and occupation of, 586, 587 ; distracted 
 state of, 596-598 ; insurrections in, 6pi ; 
 political struggles in, 6O9 ; the liberty of 
 the press overturned, 609 ; revolution in, 
 and overthrow of Charles X. ib,; its 
 revolutionary effect on the continent, 
 610 ; affairs of, on the accession of Louis 
 Philippe, 613 ; the National Guard re- 
 stored, and the . hereditary peerage ab- 
 olished, ib. ; despotism in, 6l6-til9 ; 
 ministerial changes in, 617 ; reform 
 banquets in, 633 ; the political revolu- 
 tion of 184S, 638, 639; Louis Napoleon 
 Buonaparte elected emperor, under the 
 
688 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 title of Napoleon Illi 617; ^ci' claims 
 respecting the holy places of Jerusalem, 
 654, 655 ; at war with Russia, iu concert 
 
 - ivith Ejigland, 657 et seg. 
 
 Francis I., emperor of Germany, 41H. 
 
 Francis I., kiuf; of France, 128; hia contests 
 in Europe, ib. ; a competitor for the em- 
 pire of Germany, 137 i his^ contests with 
 Charles V., 138 ; defeated and taken 
 prisoner at Pavia, 139 ; conditions of his 
 release, 140; his contests with Charles 
 V. 142 etseq.; his death, 151 ; his lite- 
 rary taste, 356. 
 
 Francis II. of France, 167; married to Mary, 
 
 . queen of Scots, 167< 
 
 Francis II. of Austria, his defeats, 503 et 
 seg. i renounces the empire of Germany, 
 and adopts the title of "Emperor of 
 
 . Austria," 553 ; his death, 607- 
 
 Franciscan friars, 76. 
 
 Frankfort, parliament of, 643 ; diet of, ib. 
 
 Franklin, Dr., 449. 
 
 Franks take possession of Gaul, 4. 
 
 Frederic I. emperor of Germany (Barba- 
 roasa), his energetic measures, 65, 66 ; 
 drowned in the river Cydnus, 67. 
 
 Frederic I. king of Denmark, l6g. 
 
 Frederic II. of Germany, 74 ; engages in 
 the fourth crusade, 75 ; his contests with 
 the iiopes, 76- 
 
 Frederic II. ^ king of Prussia, 409 ; obtains 
 Silesia, 410; his military contests, 425-7, 
 429; European combination against him, 
 426 ; his danger, 427 et seq. ; his nume- 
 rous victories, 430 ; his defeats, 433 ; 
 
 . his successes, 435 ; his military contests, 
 439 et seg. 
 
 Frederic Augustus II. of Poland, 453. 
 
 Frederic III., emperor of Germany, 112; 
 crowned king of Lombardy, 113. 
 
 Frederic III., king of Denmark, 282. 
 
 Frederick William IV., king of Prussia, 
 624 ; hia force destroyed by the French, 
 and his capital captured, 556, 557. 
 
 Frederic V., elector palatine, his fate, 231, 
 
 Frederic VII. of Denmark, 632. 
 
 Frederic Augustus, king of Poland, 369. 
 
 Frederic Augustus, of Saxony, 425. 
 
 " Free Companies," of France, 96, 97. 
 
 Free Church of Scotland, 628. 
 
 French, their various defeats in North 
 America and the East Indies, 433-6 ; 
 their advance on Russia, in 1812,583; 
 their disastrous retreat, 584 ; expelled 
 from the Peninsula, 585 ; their gallantry 
 in the Crimea, 660 ei seg, 
 
 French revolution, history of the, from 
 1789 to the death of Louis XVI. in 
 1793, 479-493; during the reign of 
 terror, to the fall of Robespierre, 496- 
 580; under Napoleon Buonaparte, SOI 
 etaeg.i political contests of parties,527, 
 
 . S28 ; military operations in 1799, 530. 
 
 Friedland captured, 557. 
 
 Frost, the Chartist, 622. 
 
 Galeazzo, Visconti, 104. 
 Galileo, persecution of, 359. 
 Garcia, Don, of Sicily, 183. 
 
 Gardiner, Bishop, his persecuting Hpirit, 
 149, 159. 160. 
 
 Garrick, David, 448. 
 
 Garter, order Of the, 94. 
 
 Gaston de Foiz, 127> 
 
 GaudeC, 488. 
 
 Gaul, possessed by the Franks, 4, 7. 
 
 Gaveston, Piers, 86. 
 
 Gay, the poet. 448. 
 
 GelasiusII., Pope, 49. 
 
 General Assembly, of Scotland, 244. 
 
 Genghis Khan, 79 ; empire of, 80 ; hia 
 conquests and dominion, 120. 
 
 Genod, capture of, byColonna, 139; block- 
 ade of, 63S, 
 
 Gensonn^, 488. 
 
 George I., king of England, 385 ; death of, 
 399. 
 
 George II. of England, 399 ; his death, 436. 
 
 George III. of England, 436; hia jubilee, 
 569 ; hia mental aberration, 494 ; his in- 
 capacity, 575 ; death of, 597. 
 
 George IV, of England, b^J % his wife. 
 Queen Caroline, ib, ; coronation of, 599; 
 death of, 6O8. 
 
 George V., king of Hanover, 645. 
 
 George, prince of Denmark, 378. 
 
 Georges, conspiracy of, 546. 
 
 German Circles, conatitution and govern- 
 ment of the,. 463. 
 
 Gebman Emfibe, history of, from a.d. 
 1024 to 1125, 46-50; from the death of 
 Henry V. to the election of Frederic I., 
 A. n. ] 125-52, 58 ; under Barburossa, 
 65, 66 ; from ligo to 1273, 72 et seg. ; 
 from the election of Rodolph of Haps- 
 burg, 87; from 1314 to 1378, 98; con- 
 tentions with the Papal See, 99 ; from 
 1378 to 1437, 103 et seg.; from 1437 to 
 1493, 113; from 1576 to I6IO, 203; an- 
 nihilated by Buonaparte, S53. 
 
 Germany, under Charlemagne, 19 ; history 
 of the empire of, a.d. 911 to 1024, 28, 29 
 (See German Emfibb) ; civil war in, 
 74 ; divided into circles, ISO ; imperial 
 chamber of, ib. ; progress of the Reform- 
 ation, 141 et seg.; from the abdication of 
 Charles V. to the death of Maximilian, 
 183; literature and art in, during the 
 ' 17th century, 357, 3^6; military opera- 
 tions in, 410; the French campaign in, 
 509; despotic changes in, 616; revolu- 
 tionary commotions of 1848, 642-644 ; 
 plan of German unity, 643. 
 
 Gertruydenberg, conferences at, 379. 
 
 Ghent, revolt in, 143; pacification of, 187. 
 
 Gibraltar, capture of, 373 ; invasion of, 471 ; 
 bombardment of, 473. 
 
 Girardin, Emily de, 639. 
 
 Girondittts, th«, 488 ; measures of the, 489 ; 
 their struggles, 492 ; executed, 499 ; their 
 fall, ib. 
 
 Glencoe, massacre of, 349* 
 
 Glendower, Owen, his rebellion, 102, 103. 
 
 Goa, in India, 134. 
 
 Goderich, lord, prime minister, 607. 
 
 Godfrey, the Norman leader, 20. 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon, a leader of the first 
 crusade, and king «f Jerusalem, 57* 
 
INDEX. 
 
 689 
 
 Godfrey, Sir E., murder of, 325, 
 
 Godolphin, fall of, 380. 
 
 Godoy, prince of peace, 56l. 
 
 Godwin, ear], 37. 
 
 Goertz, baron, 390. 
 
 Goethe, death of, 612. 
 
 Gold, (Uscoveriea of, in California, 635 ; in 
 Australia, 637. 
 
 Gold Coast, hostilities on the, 601. 
 
 Golden Bull, constitution of the, 100. 
 
 Gomarista, of Holland, 206. 
 
 Gordon, Lord George, 469; riots occasioned 
 by, 470. 
 
 Granada, captured by Ferdinand and Isa< 
 bella, 122. 
 
 Granby, Marquis of, 439. 
 
 Grand Alliance, their treaty respecting the 
 Spanbh succession, 367 ; their military 
 struggles, 371 et seq. 
 
 Gratz, capture of, 515. 
 
 ffray, the poet, 447. 
 
 Great Beitaim (See England, Ireland, 
 and Scotland), kingdom of, commences 
 by the union of England and Scotland 
 (1707), 376 ; from the peace of Utrecht 
 to the suppression of the rebellion, 385 ; 
 domestic history of, a.d. 1742-6, 414; 
 ' at war with France, 423, 424 ; her litera- 
 ture and arts during the 18th century, 
 444, 445 ; history of, from the termina- 
 tion of the Seven Years' War to the 
 dissensions in the American Colonies, 
 451 ; (A.D. 1763-1774), 451 et seq. ; her 
 contests with the North American colo- 
 nies, until acknowledgment of their in- 
 dependence, 465, 472-475 ; at war with 
 France and Spain, 469; with Holland, 
 471 ; concludes a peace, 475 ; view of her 
 domestic affairs, a.d. 1783-92, 493 ; 
 declares war against the French revolu- 
 tionists, 496 ; history of her struggles 
 with revolutionary France, 1793 to 1802, 
 503, 516; union of, with Ireland, 522; 
 at war with Spain, 547 > her military and 
 -, naval successes, 569 ; history of, a.d. 
 1806-12, 659, 568, 674, 579 ; the United 
 States declare war against, 587 ; in al- 
 liance with France, and at war with 
 
 ■ Russia, 657 et seq. 
 
 Greece, rebellion in, 599; her independ- 
 ence proclaimed, zd. ; declared, 61 0; 
 prince Otho the king of, 613 ; compelled 
 to give satisfaction to England, 636; her 
 revolt against Turkey, 657. 658. 
 
 Greek Empire, history of the, from a.d. 
 862 to 1068, 42 ; fall of the, 119-121. 
 
 Gregory, the astronomer, 449. 
 
 Gregory I., pope of Rome, 10. 
 
 Gregory II., pope of Rome, ll; his con- 
 tentions with Leo the Isaurian respect- 
 ing image worship, ib. ; his death, 12. 
 
 Gregory III., Pope, 12, 
 
 Gregory IV., Pope, 21. 
 
 Gregory V., JPope, 32. 
 
 Gregory VII., Pope, 47; his contests with 
 Henry IV. of Germany, 47, 48 ; projects 
 . the Crusades, 56. 
 
 Gregory VIII., Pope, AQ, Q7. 
 Gregory IX., Pope, 76, 76. 
 
 Gregory XIII., Pope, 184. 
 
 Gregory XVI., Pope, 610. 
 
 Grenville, George, 452, 
 
 Grenville, Thomas, death of, 532. 
 
 Grenville, Lord, prime minister, 553* 
 
 (irey, Lady Elizabeth, 115. 
 
 Grey, Lady Jane, 159,- 160. 
 
 Grey, Earl, 610, 61I. 
 
 Grimoald, king of the Lombards, 10. 
 
 Grouchy, Marshal, 593. 
 
 Guadaloupe, capture of, 433, 
 
 GuardaCostas, of Spain, 405. . 
 
 Guelf and Ghibelia factions, 49} 59, 75, 76, 
 
 88. 
 Gueuz, the, 187. 
 Guienne, 85, 87. 
 
 Guise, Francis, duke of, I62, l64, l65. 
 Guise faction, 194. 
 
 Guise, duke of, 19O; assassinated, 194. 
 Guises, the princes of Lorraine, 170 ; their 
 
 influence in Scotland, 170, 171. 
 Guizot, M., 638. 
 
 Gunilda, the Dane, butchered, 34. 
 Gunpowder Plot, 225. 
 Gustavus Vasa, king of Sweden, l68^ I69. 
 Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, 209 ; 
 
 takes up arms in favour of Protestantism, 
 
 ihi his victorious course and death, 210. 
 Gustavus III. of Sweden, 459 ; assassinated, 
 
 490. 
 Gustavus IV., deposed, 666; death of, 6l9. 
 Guttemberg, statue of, 619. 
 Guy of Lusignan, king of Cyprus, 68. . 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act, passed, 329 ; suspen- 
 sion of the. 599, 634. 
 
 Haddock, Admiral, 406. 
 
 Halifax, capital of Nova Scotia, 422. 
 
 Halley, the astronomer, 449. 
 
 Hamburg, £re of, 628. 
 
 Hamilton, Mary of, 244, 
 
 Hampden, Sir Edmund, 235, 
 
 Hampden, John, his resistance to an illegal 
 impost, 242 ; his death, 260. 
 
 Hampton Court, conference at, 224. 
 
 Hanau, battle of, 586. 
 
 Handel, the musical dramatist, 448. 
 
 Hango massacre, 66b. 
 
 Hanover, treaty of, 398 ; at war with the 
 French. 427, 429 ; invasion of, 541 ; 
 annexed to Westphalia, S72. 
 
 Hanseatic League, 76, 77. 
 
 Hapsburg, house of, in Germany, 76. 
 
 Hardy, Sir Thomas, death of, 626. 
 
 Harfleur, capture of, 109, 
 
 Harley, secretary of State, 372. 
 
 Harold I., king of England, 37> 
 
 Harold II., the Anglo-Saxon king, 38 ; 
 defeated and slain at Hastings, 39. 
 
 Haroun-al-Raschid, the great Sultan, 20> 
 
 Harrison, Col., 275. 
 
 Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of 
 the blood, 363. 
 
 Haselrig, Sir A., 293. 
 
 Hastings, battle of, 39. 
 
 Hastings, Lady Flora, death of, 625. 
 
 Hastings, Warren, trial of, 493, 494. 
 
 Hawke, Admiral, 418, 424. 
 
 Hawley, General, defeated, 416. 
 
690 
 
 .INDEX. 
 
 Haydamacka, the, 453. 
 
 Haydon, the painter, death of, 632. 
 
 Hayti, independence of, 6o6, 
 
 Heber, Bishop, 607. 
 
 Hedgley Moor, battle of, 1 15. 
 
 Helvetius, 444. 
 
 Hemana, Mrs., death of, 619. 
 
 Hengist, the Saxon chief, 14. 
 
 Henry I., eraperor of Germany, 23. 
 
 Henry I ., king of France, 36. 
 
 Henry I., king of Bngland, 53 ; his mea- 
 sures, 54. 
 
 Henry II., emperor of Germany, 32. 
 
 Henry 11. (Plantagenet), 61 ; his political 
 and religious contentions,^ 6l-o3 ; his 
 conquest of Ireland, 63 ; his wise mea- 
 sures and admirable character, 64 ; his 
 sons rebel against him, 65. 
 
 Henry II., of Navarre, 97. 
 
 Henry II., of France, 153; killed, 16?. 
 
 Heary III., emperor of Germany, 46. 
 
 Henry III., of England, 77 ; his contentions 
 with the barons, 78 . 
 
 Henry III., of France, 186; assassinated, 
 194. 
 
 Henry III., king of Portugal, 134. 
 
 Henry IV., eraperor of Germany, 47; his 
 contests with the boly see, 47, 48. 
 
 Henry IV., king of England (of the house 
 of Lancaster), 102 ; deposes Richard, and 
 persecutes the followers of Wickliflfe, ib, ; 
 his contentions, 103 ; his wise measures, 
 ib. 
 
 Henry IV., king of France, 195; his diffi- 
 
 - eulties, 195-197; his abjuration, 196; 
 issues the edict of Nantes, 197 ; his suc- 
 cesses, ib.; his wise measures, 202, 203 ; 
 assassinated, 204. 
 
 Henry V., emperor of Germany, 49, 
 
 Henry V., kiug of Englaad, 108 ; invades 
 France, 109. 
 
 Henry VI., emperor of Germany, 72. 
 
 Henry VI., king of England, 1 13. 
 
 Henry VII., emperor of Germaay, 88. 
 
 Henry VII., king of England, 117 ; founder 
 of the Tudor dynasty, 123 ; unites by 
 marriage the rival houses of York and 
 Lancaster, ib.; his measures, 124; his 
 avarice, 125. 
 
 Henry VIII., king of England, 128; his 
 interviews with Francis 1. and Charles V., 
 137; receives the title of "Defender of 
 the -Faith," 146; his quarrel with the 
 holy see, 147; declared the only supreme 
 head of the Churchiof England, 147 ; his 
 numerous wives, I47, 148; destroys the 
 monastic establishments, 148 ; his reli- 
 gLous persecutions, 150 ; his literary 
 tastes, 360. 
 
 H«nry of Brunswick, l62. 
 
 Henry, the Lion, duke of Saxony, 67. 
 
 Heptarchy, Anglo-Saxon, 15, 16. 
 
 Herbert, Mrs., death of, 620. 
 
 Hereward, the Anglo-Saxon chief, 52. 
 
 Herrings, battle of. 111. 
 
 Heruli conquer Italy, 9. 
 
 Hesse, landgrave of, 152 ; his imprison-' 
 ment, 153. 
 
 Hexham, battle of, 115. 
 
 High-Commission of Scotland abolished, 
 244. 
 
 Hildebrand, Pope, his priestly despotism, 
 47, 48. 
 
 Hill, Aaron, 448. 
 
 Hill, Lord, death of, 631. 
 
 Hill, Rev. Rowland, death of, 614. 
 
 Hispaniola, discovery of, 135; prosperity 
 of, 405. 
 
 Hobbes, writings of, 363. 
 
 Hogarth, the painter, 449. 
 
 Holland, Province of, throws off the 
 Spanish yoke, 187 J United Provinces of, 
 188; league against, 312; constitution 
 and government of, 462 ; Great Britain 
 declares war against, 471 ; peace with, 
 475; conquered by the French, 496; in- 
 vaded by the British, 523, 530. {See 
 Dutch, and United Provinces.) 
 
 Holland and Belgium, uoionof, 595 ; sepa- 
 rated, 610. 
 
 Holmflrth, fatal inundation at, 647. 
 
 Holwcll, Mr., 425. 
 
 Holy Alliance, of 1814, 594. 
 
 Holy Brotherhood of Spaiu, 121. 
 
 Holy League of Italy, 127, 140. 
 
 Holy places at Jerusalem, 654. 
 
 Hooorius III., Pope, instigates the crusade, 
 74, 75. 
 
 Hood, Sir S., 555. 
 
 Hood, Thomas, death of, 632. 
 
 Hook, Theodore, death of, 626. 
 
 Hooper, Bishop, 159, I60. 
 
 Hope, General, 565. 
 
 Horsa, the Saxon chief, 14. 
 
 Hortense, mother of Napoleon III., death 
 bf, 620. 
 
 Hosier, Admiral, 398, 
 
 Howard, Katherine, 149. 
 
 Howden, Lord, 645. 
 
 Howe, General, 466, 477. 
 
 Howe, Lord, death of, 431. 
 
 Hugh the Great, count of Paris, 29. 
 
 Hugoumont, contests at, 592. 
 
 Huguenots, of France, 171 ; persecutions 
 of the, 174; their victorious career, 16.; 
 aided by Queen Elizabeth, 180 ; massacre 
 of the, 182; their struggles and difiB- 
 culties, 194, 207 ; take refuge in the Ce- 
 vennes, 3/3 ; fly to England and Holland, 
 402. 
 
 Hull, General, 587- 
 
 Hume, David, 447, 449. 
 
 Hume, Joseph, death of, 653. 
 
 Hundreds, origin of, 25. 
 
 Hungary, in the fifteenth centnry, 113; 
 civil struggles in, 205 ; rebelliflin in> S3o ; 
 subdued by Soliman H., 144; invaded 
 by the Turks, 310 ; recovered by the Im- 
 perialists, 336; revolution in, 640, 641, 
 642 ; subdued by the Russians, 642. 
 
 Huniades, Joho, defeats the Turks, 113. 
 
 Huns take possession of Fannonia, 4. 
 
 Hurricaoe, in the West Indies, 470; in dif- 
 ferent parts of Europe, 602. 
 
 Huskisson, Mr., death of, 6O8. 
 
 Husfl, John, preaching of, 104, 105; burnt, 
 106. 
 
 Hussites, their religious Contentions, 106. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 691 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha, €l3. 
 
 Ich dien, motto of, 94. 
 
 Iconoclasts, the image-breakers, their con- 
 tests, U ei n. 
 
 Iglau, treat; of, I06. 
 
 Imperial Chamber of Germany, 130; modi- 
 fications in the, 222. 
 
 ImperialiEts of Germany, their struggles 
 with the Swedes, 2\Q et seq.j their con- 
 tests with Louts XIV., 371 et seq. {See 
 German Empire.; 
 
 Incasof Peru, 136. 
 
 Income-tax, 627 ; renewal of the, 646, 
 648 ; increase of the, 650, 651. 
 
 ladepeodents, the, 267 ; their contentions, 
 268 ; their political ascendancy, 271-273. 
 
 Indplgence, declaration of, 315, 341 ; re- 
 sistance to, 341, 342. 
 
 Indulgences, sale of, stirs up the Reform- 
 atioD, 129. 
 
 Influenza, prevalence of, 6I8. 
 
 Inglis, Sir R., death of, 653. 
 
 Inkermaon, battle of, 662. 
 
 Innocent II., Pope, 58. 
 
 Innocent III., Pope, excommunicates King 
 John, 70. 
 
 Innocent IV., Pope, 76. 
 
 Innocent XL, Pope, 337. 
 
 lonocent XII., Pope, 366. 
 
 Inquisition, establishment of the, 79; es- 
 tablished in Spain, 121. 
 
 "Interim," of Augsburg, edict of the, 144, 
 152. 153. 
 
 Investiture, right of, 49. 
 
 Ireland, subdued by Henry II., 63; 
 affairs of, temp. Elizabeth, 200 ; re- 
 forms in, under James I., 226 ; state of, 
 temp. Charles I., 250; rebellion and ge- 
 neral massacre of Protestants in, 251 ; 
 preparations for the invasion of, 252 ; re- 
 duced by Cromwell, 283 ; rebellions in, 
 348, 518, 519; insurrection of 1803. 545; 
 distresses of, 599 ; subscriptions for, ib.; 
 manicipal reform for, 6I8 ; blight of po- 
 tatoes in, 630; famine in, 632; relief 
 granted to, 633 ; trial and convictiQus of 
 the rebel agitators, 634 ; visited by the 
 queen, 635 ; encumbered estates of. 635 ; 
 various measures for the relief of, id. 
 
 Irene, empress of the East, 20. 
 
 Ireton, General, 273. 
 
 Irish Coercion Bill, &c. Gl3. 
 
 Irish Church, 6l4. 
 
 Irish Tithe BiU,- 617, 620. 
 
 Irvingites, the, 6l2. 
 
 Isaac Coraneaus, king of Cy4)ru8, 6S. 
 
 lanard, 488. 
 
 Itahan epic, 132. 
 
 Italian republic, the, 542. 
 
 Italt, possessed by the Ostrogoths, 4; 
 experiences a variety of fortunes, 9 ; un- 
 der the dominion of the Ostrogoths and 
 Lombards, 9, 10; Papal states of, a.d. 
 936-1024, 29; state of, in the 8th 
 century, 10 et seq. ; state of, under Char- 
 lemagne, 19; assumes a new form of 
 government, 77 ; factions in, 88, 89 ; re- 
 ligious contentions in, 104; invasion of, 
 i)y Charles VIIJ., 125^ commercial pros- 
 
 perity of, daring the 14th and 15th cen- 
 turies, 131; the battle-field of Europe, 
 140 ; military operations in, 377 ; state of, 
 in the ISth century, 441 ; the French 
 campaign in, under Buonaparte, 505, 
 507 ; converted into a kingdom, 549 ; 
 Eug&ne Beauharnais. the viceroy of, id.; 
 annexed to the French empire, 567 ,- po- 
 litical convulsions in, 642. 
 
 Ivan III. and IV., czars of Russia, I69, 
 
 Ivan IV. of Russia, 209, 
 
 Jacobins of Paris, 485 ; their revolutionary 
 violence, 49O, 492 et seq., 497, 527 
 their exterminating atrocities, 499; their 
 club suppressed, 502. 
 
 Jacobites, the, 349, 377; fheir conspiracies, 
 350 ; their power, 385. 
 
 Jacquerie, La, horrors of the, 142. 
 
 Jamaica, capture of, 2g0. 
 
 James I., king of England, 223 ; conspira-. 
 cies against, 224 et seq.; his favourites, 
 227 ; his religious contests with the 
 Scotch, 228, 229, 242-245, vrith his par- 
 liaments, 2'i2 ; bis literary tastes, 36l. 
 
 James II., duke of York, entrusted with 
 the government of Scotiand, 320 ; ban- 
 ished, 327 ; becomes king of England, 
 338 ; his arbitrary measures, 340 et seq. ; 
 commits the bishops to the Tower, 342 ; 
 his flight and abdication, 345 ; his strug- 
 gles and defeats, 347, 348 ; his death, 36g. 
 
 James I., II., and III., kings cf Scotland, 
 115. 
 
 James V. of Scotland, 149- 
 
 James VI. of Scotland, afterwards James I. 
 of England, 176, 177. 
 
 Janissaries established by Amurath, II9. 
 
 Janowitz, battle of, 219. 
 
 Jansenists, their religious disputes, 442, 
 
 Jarnac, battle of, 179. 
 
 Java, capture of, 580. 
 
 Jellachich, the Croat, 641. 
 
 Jemappes, battle of, 496. 
 
 Jena, battle of, 556. 
 
 Jerome of Prague, the Reformer, 155 ; 
 burnt, 106. 
 
 Jerusalem, captured by the crusaders, 57; 
 holy places at, 654. 
 
 Jervis, Admiral Sir John, 517> 
 
 Jesuits, founded by Loyola, 189 ; establish- 
 ment of the, 359 ; their great influeirte, 
 3d0; their religious disputes, 442, 413; 
 expelled from France, 444 ; their in- 
 trigues, and expulsion from Europe, 46l ; 
 in Switzerland, 631, 634. 
 
 Jewish Disabilities Bill, 648. 
 
 Jews, persecutions of the, 122, 453. 
 
 Joachim I. of Naples, 567* 
 
 Joan, queen of Naples, murdered, 104, 
 
 Joan of Arc. (See Orleans, maid of.) 
 
 Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella. 122. 
 
 John, king of England, 7O; his quanrels 
 with the popes, 70, 71 ; his submission, 
 
 - 72; grants Magna Charta, ib. ; hia trou- 
 bles and death, 77* 
 
 John II., king of France, 94. 
 
 John II. of Arragon, 122, 
 
692 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 John II., king of Portugal, 134, 
 
 John III., king of Sweden, 209' 
 
 John VI., Poiie, 120. 
 
 John XII., XIII., XV., and XVL, Popes, 
 
 30, 31, 32. 
 JohnXXII., Pope. 98. 
 John, king of Bohemia, 93. 
 John of Bricnne, 7^, Jh, 
 John, the bastard, of Portugal, 134. 
 John of Leyden, the Anabaptiac, 142. 
 John uf Austria, 184, 187. 
 John, Don, of Austria, 320. 
 John, archduke of Auatiia, elected regent 
 
 of the German empire, 643. 
 Johnson, General Sir William, 423, 433. 
 Johnson, Dr. S., 446, 
 Jones, Gale, committed to Newgate, 574. 
 Jones, Znigo, the architect, 448. 
 Jonson, Ben, the dramatist, 3t)l. 
 Joseph, emperor of Germany, death of, 381 . 
 Joseph Emmanuel I. of Portugal, 455. 
 Jourdan, General, 509, S27- 
 Julius II., Pope, 127. 
 Junot, General, 564. 
 Juries, origin of, 25. 
 Justinian's Pandects, S3. 
 
 Kainardjii, treaty of, 454. 
 
 Kara Mustapha, the grand vixier, defeated 
 by Sobieski, 335. 
 
 Kars, fortifications of, 663 ; siege and sur- 
 render of, 672. 
 
 Kasan destroyed by fire, 628. 
 
 Katherine, queen of England; her divorce, 
 146, 147. 
 
 Katherine de Medicis, 172. 
 
 Kean, Edmund, death of, 6 1 4. 
 
 Keith, Admiral, in Egypt, 525. 
 
 Kellerman, the French general, 353, 491, 
 507. 
 
 -Kenmure, Lord, executed, 388. 
 
 Kent, duke of, his death, 597. 
 
 Kent, the architect, 448. 
 
 Kepler, the astronomer, genius of, 358, 359. 
 
 Keppel, Admiral, 469. 
 
 Kinburn, capture of, 67I. 
 
 Kitto, Dr., death of, 653. 
 
 Knighthood, origin of, 44. 
 
 Knights errant, of Spain, 81. 
 
 Knights Templars, 81 note; suppressed, 91, 
 
 Knowles, Admiral, 419. 
 
 Knox, John, the Scottish Reformer, 171. 
 
 Kossuth, Louis, 641, 642. 
 
 Kupruli, the Turkish vizier, 310. 
 
 Kutusoff, General, 583. 
 
 Ladislaus, king of Hungary, 113; defeated 
 by the Turks, 120, 121. 
 
 Ladrones, discovery of the, 297. 
 
 Lafayette, General, 482, 483. 
 
 La Hoguej battle of, 360. 
 
 La Jacquerie, insurrection of the, 95. 
 
 Lamberg, Count, murdered, 641, 
 
 Lambert, General, 293. 
 
 Lancastrians, their contests with the York- 
 ists, 114-116; their hopes annihilated, 
 116. 
 
 Langton, Stephen, 70. 
 
 Laasdown Hill, battle of, 26l, 
 
 Laplace, death of, 6O8. 
 
 Larochejaquelein, General, 499. 
 
 Latimer, Bishop, 159, I60. 
 
 Latour, Count, 641. 
 
 Laud, Archbishop, executed, 269. 
 
 Lautrec, the governor of Milan, 138. 
 
 La Vendue, revolt of, 488-497 i massacres 
 in, 499. 
 
 Law, John, his Mississippi scheme, 394, 
 
 Law, early reform of the, 83. 
 
 Law of the Six Articles, 148; repealed, 
 l.')8. 
 
 Lawrence, Sir T., death of, 6O8. 
 
 Laws, good ones essential to good govern- 
 ment, 2 ; established by King Alfred^ 
 25, 26. 
 
 League of France, 108 ; contests with the, 
 194. 
 
 Learning, revival of, 131. {See Literature.) 
 
 Lee, the dramatist, 362. 
 
 Lefevre, Shaw, appointed Speaker, 621;' 
 
 Legion of Honour instituted, 541. 
 
 Lehwald, Marshal, 426. 
 
 Leipsic, battles of, 210, 585. 
 
 Lennox, duke of, regent of Scotland, exe- 
 cuted, 181. 
 
 Leo III., the Isaurian, emperor of Con- 
 stantinople, prohibits the worship of 
 Images, )0; his contestswith Gregory II., 
 11 ; his death, 12. 
 
 Leo VIII. and IX., Popes, 31, 47. 
 
 LeoX., Pope, one of the most illustrious 
 of the pontifTs, 128 ; publishes a general 
 sale of indulgences, 129. 
 
 Leoben, treaty of, 515, 616. 
 
 Leopold, emperor of Germany, 281: 
 
 Leopold I., emperor of Germany, his vic- 
 tories over the Turks and Hungarians, 
 335, 336. 
 
 Leopold II., of Germany, resists the 
 Spanish succession, 367 et seq.; his 
 death, 373. 
 
 Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, married 
 to Princess Charlotte, 595. 
 
 Lepanto, naval battle of, 184. 
 
 Leslie, Norman, 157. 
 
 Letters, revival of, in Europe, 131. 
 
 Lettrea-de-cachet, 475. 
 
 Leuchtenburg, Prince, death of, 616. 
 
 Levellers, the, 273. 
 
 Ligurian republic, 543. 
 
 Linnseus, 441. 
 
 Lisbon, destroyed by an earthquake, 423 ; 
 revolt at, 618. 
 
 Liston, John, death of, 632. 
 
 Liston, E., death of, 637. 
 
 Literature, suppressed by the northern 
 barbarians, 4 ; revival of, in Europe, 
 131; progress of, during the l6thand 17th 
 centuries, 356 et seg. ; state of, during^ 
 the 18th century, 444 et seq. 
 
 Lithuania, 170. 
 
 Liverpool, Lord ; his ministry, 580. 
 
 Llewellyn, prince of Wales, defeated and 
 slain, 84. 
 
 Locke, writings of, 363, 445. 
 
 Lockhart, J. G.. death of, 653. 
 
 Lodi, passage of the bridge of, 506^ 
 
 Lollards, persecution of the, 108. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Lombards* subdue Italy, 9 ; their kings, 1 ; 
 their domiDion in Italy annihilated, 19, 
 
 Lombardy, freedom granted to the cities of, 
 77; the French campaign in, 505, 507; 
 conquered by Buonaparte, 513, 514; 
 revolutionary struggles In, 642. 
 
 London, treaty of, 600. 
 
 Iiondon Bridge opened, 612. 
 
 Long Island captured, 466. 
 
 Long Parliament, the, 245, 248. 
 
 Longjumeau, peace of, 179. 
 
 Lords of Articles, abolished, 250. 
 
 Lorraine, Cardinal of, 173. 
 
 Lorraine, Charles of, 417. 
 
 Lothaire, king of Fran'ce, 21, 29. 
 
 Lothaire II. emperor of Uermany, 5S. 
 
 Loudon, earl of* 424. 
 
 Louis, king of Lower Burgundy, 27. 
 
 Louis le.Uebonnaire, king of France, 21. 
 
 Louis II., king of France, 22, 26. 
 
 Louis III., emperor of Germany, 27. 
 
 Louis III., king of France, 26, 27. 
 
 Louis IV., emperor of Germany, 98. 
 
 Louis IV., king of France, 29. 
 
 Louis V. of France, 29. 
 
 Louis VI. of France, 58. 
 
 Louis VII. of France, 59 ; enters into the 
 crusades, 60 ; his quarrels with England, 
 61 ;.his death, 65. 
 
 Louis VIII. of France, 79- 
 
 Louis IX. {St. Louis), of France, 79; en- 
 gages in Che crusades, and dies in Africa, 
 79, 80. 
 
 Louis X. of France, 91. 
 
 Louis XI. of France, 118 ; his rapacity and 
 treachery, ib. 
 
 Louis XII. of France, 126. 
 
 Louis XIII. of France, 206-208. 
 
 Louis XIV. of France, 278, 308; his con- 
 tests with the Dutch, 313 et seq.; his 
 successes, 321 ; confederacy against him, 
 334 ; his acquisitions and grandeur, 336 ; 
 revokes the edict of Nantes, 337; his 
 military operations on the conUnent of 
 Burope, 351 et seq.; his family claims to 
 the Spanish succession, 364, 367 ; his 
 great contests and defeats, 371 et seq. ; 
 signs the treaty of Utrecht, 383. 
 
 Louis XV. of France, 398. 
 
 Louis XVI. of France, 476 ; his struggles 
 with the revolutionists, 479 et seq. ; his 
 flight and capture, 486 ; his e:£ecution, 
 493. 
 
 Louis XVIII. of Francs, 589; his flight 
 
 , from Paris, 590 ; his return, 594. 
 
 Louis Philippe, of France (duke of Orleans), 
 609 ; made king of the French, 6i3; his 
 unpopular measures, 6l5, 616,619; at- 
 tempts on his life, 631 ; abdicates, 639. 
 
 Louis, king of Bavaria,, abdicates, 642. 
 
 Low Countries, struggles in the, 196. 
 
 Lowe, Sir Hudson, at St. Helena, 596. 
 
 Loyola, Ignatius, founder of the Jesuits, 
 
 189. 
 Lucas, Sir Charles, 266. 
 Luitprand, king of the Lombards, 10, 11 ; 
 
 his ftreat qualities, id. 
 Luneville, treaty of, 541. 
 
 Luther, Martin, the great Reformer, 129; 
 summoned to Rome, 130 ; refuses to 
 recant, ib. ; is excommunicated, 138 ; 
 protected by the Elector of daxony, il/. 
 
 Lutzen, battles of, 210, 585. 
 
 Luxemburg, duke of, 352, 353. 
 
 Lyons, massacres at, 498. 
 
 Macdonald, of Glencoe, 349. 
 
 Macdonald, Marshal, defeated, .'j85. 
 
 Macguire, Lord, 250. 
 
 Macintosh, Sir James, death of, 6l2. 
 
 Maclaurin, the mathematician, 449* 
 
 Maclean, Mrs.,, death of, 625. 
 
 Madrid, revolt at, 629. 
 
 Maestricht, surrender of, 414. 
 
 Magellan, Fernando, the circumnavigator, 
 296, 297. 
 
 Maginn, Dr., death of, 631. 
 
 Magna Charta, granted by King John, 72. 
 
 Mahomet U., the Turkish sultan, captures 
 Constantinople, 113, 121 ; his ambitious 
 views, 121. 
 
 Mahomet, the Prophet, standard of, cap- 
 tured, 336. 
 
 Mainteoon, Madame de, 441. 
 
 Maitland, Admiral Sir F., 593; death of, 625. 
 
 Malenherbes, counsel for Louis XVI. 492. 
 
 Malibran, Madame, death of, 619. 
 
 Malignanta, 284. 
 
 Malice, the poet, 449. 
 
 Malmesbury, Lord, his offers of peace 
 rejected, 504. 
 
 Malta, captured by Buonaparte, 519; dis- 
 putes respecting, 543, 
 
 Manufactures of Italy and Flanders during 
 the I4th and 15th centuries, 131. 
 
 Manillas, discovery of the, 297, 293. 
 
 Mantua, siege of, 510 ; surrender of, to the 
 French republicans, 5J3. 
 
 Manufactures, improvement of, 599. 
 
 Marat, 488; assassinated, 497. 
 
 Marcel, Stephen, provost of Paris, 95. 
 
 Marches, boundaries of the, 19, 
 
 Marciano, battle of, I63. 
 
 Marengo, battle of, 535; its important re- 
 sults, 535, 536. 
 
 Margaret, queen of Denmark, the Semira- 
 mis of the North, 104, 168. 
 
 Margaret of Anjou, 112. 
 
 Margaret, queen of Henry V., her heroism, 
 114, 115. 
 
 Margaret of Valois, 203. 
 
 Marie Antoinette, 459 ; fatal accident at 
 her marriage, td. ; executed,. 499, 
 
 Maria Louisa, of Austria, marrieil to Na- 
 poleon Buonaparte, 571 ; death of, 637. 
 
 Maria Theresa, of Austria, 409 ; ber appeal 
 to the Hungarians, 41U; success of her 
 arms, 410, 411. 
 
 Maria di Gloria, queea of Portugal, 6O6, 
 614 ; her second marriage, 6I8. 
 
 Marlborough, earl of (afterwards duke), 
 compels the submission of Ireland, 348 ; 
 bis military successes on the continent, 
 370, 371 ; his dismissal, 381. 
 
 Marmontel, 444. 
 
 Marryatt, Captain, death of, C37. 
 
 Mars, Madlle., death of, 367. 
 
6H 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Marston Moor, battle of, 266. 
 Martel, Charles, duke of France, defeats 
 the Saracens, 8 ; his vigorous adminis- 
 tration, ib. 
 
 Martinique, naval victory of, 402, 
 Mary, queen of Scots, 149; married to 
 Francis II. of France, 17O; death of her 
 husband, and her departure from France, 
 173 ; her reception in Scotland, 173 ; her 
 turbulent reign, 175 ; married to Lord 
 Darnley, ib, ; to the earl of Bothwell^ 
 177; her resignation, ib.; her flight to 
 England, and imprisonment, 178, 179; 
 her trial and execution, 191 \ reflections 
 on, 191 note. 
 
 Mary, queen of England, 159; her bigotry 
 and sanguinary persecutions, ib, ; mar- 
 ried to Philip of Spain, td. 
 
 Maryland, colony of, 300. 
 
 Masham, Mrs., her intrigues, 377, 380. 
 
 Masaena, General, his defence of Genoa, 
 535. 
 
 Maaaoura, battle of, 80. 
 
 Matilda, daughter of Henry I., and queen 
 of England, 48, 54 ; her right super- 
 seded, 48. 
 
 Matthews, Charles, death of, 619. 
 
 Matthias, the Anabaptist, 142. 
 
 Matthias, archduke of Austria, 188. 
 
 Matthias, king of Hungary, 203, 205. 
 
 Maurice, marquis of Miania, afterwards 
 elector of Saxony, his treachery towards 
 Charles v., 151-155; is slain, 162. 
 
 Maurice, Prince, his contests in the Low 
 Countries, 206. 
 
 Mauritius captured, 575. 
 
 Maximilian, emperor of Germany, 118; 
 married to Margaret, duchess of Bur- 
 gundy, ib. 
 
 Maximilian II. of Germany, 183. 
 
 Maximilian II. of Bavaria, 642, 
 
 Maxwell, W. H., death of, 638. 
 
 Mayenne, duke of, 196. 
 
 Maynooth, grant to, 630. 
 
 Mayors of the Palace, of France, 8. 
 
 Mazarine, Cardinal, 218, 220, 27s ; his 
 intrigues, 279. 
 
 McCarthy, Sir Charles, 601. 
 
 Medici, Mary of, 283. 
 
 Mehemet Ali, death of, 645. 
 
 Melancthon, the Reformer, 141. 
 
 Melas, the Austrian general, 535. 
 
 Melbourne, Lord, - prime minister, 616 ; 
 f&n of his cabinet, 624 ; death of, 637. 
 
 Melville, Lord, 549. 
 
 MenachikofF, Prince, 655, 656, 
 
 Merton, parliament of, 78. 
 
 Methodists, origin of the name, 450. 
 
 Bfetiernich, Prince, 641 . 
 
 Mexico, conquest of, 135, 136. 
 
 Miguel, Don, of Portugal, 609 ; expelled, 
 614, 61s. 
 
 Milan, contentions respecting. 126; cap- 
 tured by Buonaparte, 506. 
 
 Military orders established, 81, note. 
 
 Militia bill, 645, 646. 
 
 Millenarians, the, 288. 
 
 Milne, the architect, 449, 
 
 Milton, John, geniue of, 36l. 
 
 Minden, capture of, 432. 
 
 Minorca, loss of, 424< 
 
 Mirabeau, the French orator, 4/9; death 
 of, 485. 
 
 Mississippi scheme, 394. 
 
 Mitford, the historian, 6O8. 
 
 Mitford, Miss, death of, 6S3. 
 
 Modena delivered to the French republi- 
 cans, 513. 
 
 Modena, duke of, submits to Buonaparte, 
 513. 
 
 Mogul Tartars, 79, 80; under Ghengis 
 Khan, 120. 
 
 Mol€, Count, 619, 638. 
 
 Molesworth, Sir Wm., death of, 653. 
 
 Monasteries, establishment of, 39, 
 
 Monastic system, 44, 45. 
 
 Monk, General, defeats the Dutch at sea, 
 289. 294; his dubious policy, 295 et 
 seg, ; created earl of Albemarle, 302. 
 
 Monka, establishment of, 33. 
 
 Monmouth, duke of, defeats the Covenant- 
 ers, 329; his rebellion and execution, i6, 
 
 Montbars, the buccaneer, 403. 
 
 Montcalm, General, 434 et note. 
 
 Montecuccoli, General, 310, 3l6. 
 
 Montemolin, Count, 631, 
 
 Montesquieu, 444. 
 
 Montezuma, emperor of Mexico, 136. 
 
 Montfort, Countess de, 93. 
 
 Montgomery, J., death of, 653. 
 
 Montlh^ry, battle of, 1 18. 
 
 Montmgrency, constable of France, l64, 
 
 Montrose, James, marquis of, defeats the 
 Covenanters, 269 ; his execution, 284. 
 
 Moore, Sir T., his high character, 147; his 
 execution, 148. 
 
 Moore, General Sir John, in Portugal, 564 ; 
 his death at Corunna, 565. 
 
 Moore, Thomas, death of, 653. 
 
 Moors, or Morescoes, their dominion in 
 Spain, 8 ; defeated by Charles Martel, 
 ib.; their contests with the Spaniards, 
 81, 82; expelled from Spain, 122, igg. 
 
 More, Roger, 250. 
 
 Morea, its conquest, 392. 
 
 Morcau, the French general, 509, 510,5^3, 
 534 ; conspiracy of, 546. 
 
 Morgan, Henry, the buccaneer, 404. 
 
 Morocco at war with France, 629. 
 
 Mortimer's Cross, battle of, 115. 
 
 Mortimer, Roger, executed, 92. 
 
 Morton, earl of, regent of Scotland, 181 ; 
 beheaded, 189. 
 
 Moscow, captured by Buonaparte, 583 ; 
 conflagration of, id. 
 
 Moultan, rebellion in, 635. 
 
 Mountain, party of the, in Paris, 402; their 
 ascendancy, 496 ; theur sanguinary atro- 
 cities, 499. 
 
 Mountjoy, Lord, 200. 
 
 MouraviefF, General, 6/2. 
 
 Muncer, the Anabaptist, 14S. 
 
 Municipal reform, English, 616 ; Irish, 623. 
 
 Nantes, edict of, 197; revocation of the 
 
 edict of, 337. 
 Napier, General Sir C, death of, 653. 
 Napier, Admiral Sir C, 659- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 695 
 
 Naples, civil contests in, 100; contentions 
 respecting, 12ti, 12? j insurrection at, 598. 
 Narva, siege of, 368. 
 Naseby, battle of, 270. 
 Nassau, William of, his contests with the 
 
 duke of Alva, 180. 
 National Assembly of France, 480 ; its pro- 
 ceedings, 482 ?/ seg. ; of 1848,639,640. 
 National Convention of France, 491 ; its 
 violent proceedings, 492, 496 et seq. ; its 
 sanguinary career, 497, 500 ; its over- 
 throw, 502. 
 National debt, the, 395 ; plan for regu- 
 
 latiag the, 643. 
 National Guards of France, 479 ; recon- 
 stituted, 64;. 
 National Legislative Assembly of France, 
 
 488. 
 Navarino, battle of, 600. 
 Navigation, progress of, a.d. 1100-1533, 
 133 et seq.} progress of, during the l6th 
 smd 17th centuries, 296 et seq.; from 
 1660 to 1739,401 ttseq. 
 Navigation Act, 301. 
 Navigation laws, repealed, 635. 
 Navy, British, successful operations of*the, 
 4\9, 4,1% et passim i its glorious victories, 
 430, 431, 434. 437. 471 et seq., 524, 525, 
 555 ; mutinies in the, 517, 518 ; its con- 
 tests with America, 588. 
 Naylor, John, the fanatic, 277 note. 
 Necker, the French financier, 478, 479. 
 Nelson, Admiral Lord, 517; his victory of 
 the Nile, 521 ; destroys the Danish fleet, 
 524 ; gains the victory of Trafalgar, 551 ; 
 his death, ib. • 
 
 Netherlands, expedition against the, S68, 
 
 569 {See Holland and Belgium). 
 Neuburg, duke of, 204. 
 Neva, inundation of the, 602. 
 Neville's Cross, battle of, 94. 
 New England, colony of, 300. 
 New Forest, Hampshire, 52. 
 New and old styles, 40S note. 
 New Plymouth, colony of, 300. 
 New York, captured, 467. 
 Newbury, battle of, 263. 
 Newcastle, duke of, prime minister, 438. 
 Newcastle, fire at, 65 1 . 
 Newfoundland, discovery of, 300. 
 Newton, his philosophy, 363. 
 Ney, Marshal, in Portu^, 571 ; defeated, 
 585 ; at Waterloo, 592, 593 ; tried and 
 executed, 595. 
 Niagara, fortress of, captured, 433. 
 Nicholas I., Pope of Rome, 22. 
 Nicholas v.. Pope, 113. 
 Nicholas, emperor of Buesia, 603 ; his 
 
 death, 651. 
 Nicolas, Sir H., death of, 637< 
 Niebuhr, death of, 6l2. 
 Nightingale, Miss F.,363. 
 Nile, battle of the, 521 . 
 Nimeguen, congress of, 319; treaty of, 321. 
 Nismes, pacification of, 20S. 
 Nive, passage of the, 585. 
 Noulles, Marshal, 353. 
 Nobility, letters of, first granted in France, 
 90. 
 
 Nosrdlingen, battle of, 211. 
 
 Nora, mutiny of the, 518. 
 
 Norfolk, Thomas Howard, duke of, 149, 
 
 150 ; executed, 181. 
 Normandy, settled by Rollo the Norman, 
 
 27. 
 Normans, their ferocity and ravages, 22, 
 
 23 ; establish themselves in France, 
 
 under Rollo, 27, 29 ; their invasion of 
 
 England, 38, 39. 
 North, Lord, 452, 468, 469 
 North, kingdoms of the, I68. 
 Northern nations, never wholly subdued by 
 
 the Romans, 1 ; overthrow the Roman 
 
 empire, 1, 4; establish the feudal system, 
 
 5,6. 
 Northern states of Europe, view of, from 
 
 1763 to 1773, 453. 
 Northumberland, Henry Percy, duke of, 
 
 slain, 114. 
 Northumberland, JtAn Dudley, duke of, 
 
 158; executed, 159, 
 Northumberland, Thomas Percy, duke of, 
 
 executed, 181. 
 Norway, early history of, I68. 
 Notables of France, 477. 
 Nova Scotia, colonization of, 422. 
 
 Oates, "ntUB, his popish plot, 323. 
 O'Brien, and other Irish agitators, tried 
 
 and convicted, 634. 
 O'Connell, Daniel, 607 ; his monster meet- 
 ings, 628 ; arrested, id. ; tried and eoa- 
 victed, 629 ; death of, 637. 
 Odessa, attack on, 659 ; siege of, 671 > 
 Odin, the god of the Scandinavians, 22,23. 
 Oeyras, Count de, of Portugal, 456. 
 Of^, king of Mercia,^ 1 6. 
 Ogle, Sir C, 406. 
 O'Keefe, J., death of, 6l4, 
 Oldcastle, Sir J., leader of the Lollards, 
 
 108; burnt, ib. 
 Olenitza, battle of, 656-676. 
 Oliva, treaty of, 282. 
 Olivares, 205. 
 Omer Pacha, 658-672. 
 Ommiades, family of the, &. 
 O'Neil, Hugh, earl of Tyrone, rebelHoB of, 
 
 200. 
 O'Neile, Sir Phelim, the sanguinary Irish 
 
 rebel. 250, 251. 
 Opie, Mrs., death of, 653. 
 Orange, William, prince of, stadtholder of 
 
 Holland, 187, 18&; assassinated, 190. 
 Orange, WUliam III. of Holland ; his re- 
 sistance to England and France, 314 et 
 seq. 
 Orange, William, prince of, M9-3t3. (See 
 
 William III. of England.) 
 Orangeibm in Ireland, 616; lodges dis- 
 solved, 617, 
 Ordeal, trial by. abolished, S3. 
 Oriflamme,the royal standard of France, 58. 
 Orleans, maid of, her extraordinary career, 
 
 111 ; burnt as a witch, 112. 
 Orleans, duke of (Egalite), 481-484 ; exe- 
 cuted, 499' 
 Orieans, duke of, son of Louis Philippe, 
 I killed, 627. 
 
 2 z 
 
696 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ormond, marc^uis of, S83. 
 
 Osborne, Admiral^ 430, 
 
 Ostend, siege of, 198. 
 
 Oatend East-India Company, 399' 
 
 Ostrogoths hold possession of Italy, 4, g. 
 
 Othman, founder of the Ottoman empire, 
 
 119. 
 Otho the Great, of Germany, 29-31 ; his 
 
 conquests, 30, 31. 
 Otho II. and III. emperors of Germany, 
 
 31, 32. 
 Otho I V. emperor of Germany, 74. 
 Otho, king of Greece, 6l3. 
 Ottocar, king of Bohemia, defeated and 
 
 slain, 87. 
 Otway, the poet. 362. 
 Overbury, Sir Thos., 227. 
 Ozen^tiem, Chancellor, 211. 
 Oxford, provisions of, 78 * parliament at, 
 
 331. 
 Oxford University, its resistance to the 
 
 arbitrary attempts of James II. 341, 343. 
 Oxford, Edward, 623. 
 
 Pacific Ocean, its first discovery, 297. 
 
 Palermo, insurrection at, 644. 
 
 PaJmerston, Lord, prime minister, 667' 
 
 Panama attacked by the buccaneers, 404. 
 
 Panic of 1825, 604. 
 
 Pannonia possessed by the Huns, 4. 
 
 Pantheon of Paris, 485. 
 
 Papal government, abuses of the, I2g. 
 
 Papal See, contentions for the, 10^106, 
 105, ] 13. 
 
 Papal states invaded by Buonaparte, 514 ; 
 
 . annexed to the French empire, 567* 
 
 Paper, invention of, 131. 
 
 Paper mill, the first one established at 
 Dartford, 201, 
 
 Paris, civil commotions in. 278 ; treaty of, 
 439, 440 ; popular outrages in, 479 ; dread- 
 ful state of, during the French revolution 
 of 1789, 479 et seg.; treaty of , in 1814, 
 589; in 1815, 595; jsanguinary contests 
 in, 609; fortifications of, &14, 625; po- 
 litical revolution of, in 1848, 938, 639; 
 conferences at, in 1856, 674; treaty of, 
 6/5; tripartite treaty of, 676, 677- 
 
 Parker, the mutineer, 518. 
 
 Parliament, the first English one, 78 * its 
 political dibputes with Charles I., 3S4 et 
 seq.i of the Commonwealth, 288, 289; 
 dissolved by Cromwell, 2^, 292 ; elected 
 after the death of Cromwell, 295 ; squab- 
 bles of parties in the time of Charles II., 
 328, 330 ; the first united one, 377 ; 
 violent proceedings in, respecting the 
 French revolution, 495 et seg.; session 
 of I8O9, 568; opening of, in 1810, 574; 
 session of 1826, 604, 605, 606 ; houses of, 
 destroyed by fire, 615; session of 1852 and 
 its various measures, 646, 648, 649, 652. 
 
 Parliamentary Keform, agitation for, 496 ; 
 violent struggles for, 611, 6l2 ; first 
 meeting of parliament under the Reform 
 Act, 613. 
 
 Parma, contest respecting, 153. 
 
 Parma, duke of, 189; his victories, 190 ; 
 his death, 196. 
 
 Parr, Katherine, 150. 
 
 Parrot, Sir John, 200. 
 
 Parry, William, executed, 190. 
 
 Partition, treaties of, 365. 
 
 Pascal II., Pope, 49. 
 
 Passarowitz, peace of, 393. 
 
 Pansau, treaty of, 155 ; pacification of, nm- 
 firmed by the treaty of Westpbalia, 222. 
 
 Paul, emperor of Russia, 524. 
 
 Paul III., Pope, 143. 
 
 Paul IV., Pope, 163, 164. 
 
 Pavia, battle of, 139; insurrection of, 6O7. 
 
 Peace, blessings of, 67B. 
 
 Pedro, I>on, of Portugal, 606; his arrival 
 in Portugal to support the claims of bis 
 daughter, 6l3. 
 
 Peel, Sir R., appointed prime minister, 
 6l5; defeated, 616 ; his ministerial diffi- 
 culties, 621 ; his commercial and finan- 
 cial measures, 627 ; abolishes the corn- 
 laws, 630 ; his resignation, ib, .* his death, 
 637. 
 
 Pelagius, the Visigoth, founds a Christian 
 kingdom in Asturia, 8. 
 
 Pelham administration, 414. 
 
 Pen&nce, origin of, 6I . 
 
 Peninsula, decupled by the French troops, 
 561 ; insurrections in, 563 ; military ope- 
 rations in, 570, 676, 577, 580 ; the Frennh 
 expelled from the, 585, 586; political 
 agitations in, 618. 
 
 Peno, Admiral, SQO. 
 
 Pepin Heristal, duke of Austrasia, usurps 
 tbe throne of France. 8. 
 
 Pepin II., king of France, 8, 12 ; his death, 
 
 Perceval, Right Hon. Mr*, prime minister, 
 shot, 680. 
 
 Percy, Harry, slain, J 03. 
 
 Peru, conquest of, 130. 
 
 Pestalozzi, death of, 6O8. 
 
 Peter the Hermit, instigates the first cru- 
 sade, 55*e^ seg, 
 
 Peter I. (the cruel) of Navarre, 96. 
 
 Peter the Great, of Russia, 366 ; his geniu» 
 and application, 365, 366; builds St. 
 Petersburg, 3C5 ; his difficulties, 389*; 
 his victims, 390; takes the title of em- 
 peror, 392 ; his death and character, t&. 
 
 Peter III , emperor of Russia, 439. 
 
 Peterborough, Charles, carl of, his suc- 
 cesses in Spain, 378. 
 
 Petersburg, built by Peter the Great, 375. 
 
 Peter warfulin, battle of, 39^. 
 
 Petion, mayor of Paris, 489^. 
 
 Petition of Right, 237. 
 
 Petrarch, 132. 
 
 Peyton, Commodore, 417. 
 
 Philadelphia, capture of, 468. 
 
 Philip, emperor of Germany, 74- 
 
 Philip Augustus, king of France, hns con- 
 quests, 79. 
 
 Philip I ., king of France, 36, 52, 55. 
 
 Philip II. of France, 65; engages in the 
 third crusade, 68. 
 
 Philip II. of Spain, married to queen 
 Mary, 159 ; his bigotry and persecu- 
 tions, 173 ; gains possession of Pbrtugal, 
 188. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 697 
 
 Philip III. of France. 89. 
 
 Philip III. of Spain, igs, igg. 
 
 Philip IV. of France, 90. 
 
 Philip IV. of Spain, 205. 
 
 Philip V. of France, 91 . 
 
 Philip V. (duke of Anjou) succeeds to the 
 Spanish throne, 367. 
 
 Philip VI. of Valois, king of France, 91. 
 
 Philip, son of Maximilian I. 122. 
 
 Philippa, queen of Edward III. 94. 
 
 Philippines, the, 298. 
 
 Philosophers of England during the six- 
 teenth century, 363. 
 
 FiccoIomiDi, the imperialist commander, 
 a-2I. 
 
 Pichegro, General, S27, 528 ; conspiracy 
 of, 546. 
 
 piedmont, her contests with Austria in 
 1648, 642. 
 
 Pilnitz, declaration of, 487. 
 
 Pitt, William, prime minister of England, 
 437, 473, 493, S45 ; death of, 552. 
 
 Pius IV., Pope, 183. 
 
 Pins v.. Pope, excommunicates queen 
 Elisabeth, 179. 
 
 Pius VII., Pope, taken prisoner, and bis 
 dominions annexed to the French empire, 
 567. 
 
 Pius IX., Pope, 631 ; bis flight and depo- 
 sition, 644 ; issues a papal brief dividing 
 Engluid into dioceses, 645. 
 
 Pizarro, Francisco, his conquest of Peru, 
 136. 
 
 Plague of Europe in 1384, 94 ; of London, 
 234 ; of 1665, 305 ; of Moscow, 454. 
 
 Plantagenet, origin of the family, 60. 
 
 Plectrude, wife of Pepin of France, 8. 
 
 Pleswitz, armistice of. 585. 
 
 Poetry, state of, in England and France, 
 132, 133. 
 
 Poictiers, battle of, 95. 
 
 Poissy, conference of, 173. 
 
 PoLAifo, conquered, by the Swedes, 282 ; 
 invaded by Charles XII., 375 ; state of, 
 in the 18th century, 440 ; anarchy of, 483 ; 
 partition of, id.; general diet of, 603. 
 
 Pole, Cardinal, 159, 1^0. 
 
 Polignac, Prince, bis violent measures and 
 overthrow, 609 ; death of, 637. 
 
 Politicians, party of the, 1S6. 
 
 Poll-tax, the, 101. 
 
 Pondicherry, surrender of, 435. 
 
 Poor-law Ajnendment Bill, 6l5. 
 
 Pope, Alexander, poetical talents of, 446. 
 
 Popes of Rome, rise of their temporal 
 power, 10 etseq.; their contests respect- 
 ing the empire of Germany, 99< 
 
 Popham, Sir Home, 555. 
 
 Porter, Miss, death of, 637. 
 
 Portland, duke of, 493. 
 
 Porto Bello, fair of, 395, 396 ; captured by 
 the buccaneers, 404; by the English, 
 406 ; its importance, U>. 
 
 Portugal, introduction to the history of, 
 133; navigation promoted by, 134, 135; 
 her barbarities, 135, 136 ; decline of, 136 ; , 
 annexed to Spain, 188 ; regains her inde- I 
 pendence, 2l6 ; her colonnU possessions, 
 297, 298 ; the Bourbon league against, | 
 
 438 ; defended by England, 438 ; affairs 
 of, A.D. 175&-1763, 455, 456; history of, 
 (rom I8O7 to 1809, 56l-56S ; dismember- 
 ment of, 561 ; abandoned by the ro^al 
 &mlty, 563 ; insurrection in, 563 ; mili- 
 tary operations in, 570, 576, 577, 580 ; re- 
 volutionary troubles in . 598, 602, 627, 645 . 
 
 Postage of letters reduced, 621, 
 
 Potatoes, introduction of, 191 ; blight of, 
 630, 632. 
 
 Pradt, Abbe de, death of, 62n. 
 
 Prsetorian bands of Rome, 3. 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction, 409. 
 
 Prague, treaty of, 211; capture of, 410; 
 congress of, 585. 
 
 Praise-God Barebones, 288. 
 
 Presburg, peace of, 553. 
 
 Presbyterianism established in Scotland, 
 172, 228, 229, 242-245. 
 
 Presbyterians, their contentions, 267; their 
 struggles against the persecutions of 
 Charles II. 304, 307, 323, 
 
 Press, prosecutions of the, 6O8 ; ita strug- 
 gles m France, 609. 
 
 Preston Pans, battle of, 415. 
 
 Pretender (Prince Charles Stuart), his in- 
 vasion of Scotland, 377 ; his claims, 386 ; 
 lands in S«)tland, but re-embarks, 387. 
 
 Pretender (Charles Edward Stuart, son of 
 the preceding), lands in Scotland, 414 ; 
 advances into England. 415; his army 
 defeated, 4l6; his flight, 4l6. 
 
 Priestley, Dr., popular violence against, 496. 
 
 Priests, their early influence, 43. 
 
 Printing, invention of, 131, 
 
 Prior, the poet, 445. 
 
 Privileges, abolition of, in France, 481. 
 
 Procopius, the Hussite, 106. 
 
 Protestants, origin of the name, 141 ; 
 granted liberty of conscience, id.; perse- 
 cutions of the, in France, 174 ; league 
 formed against the, 175 ; supported by 
 queen Elizabeth, 179 ; massacre of, in 
 France, 182; their subnussion in France, 
 208 ; their treaty with the Imperialists, 
 21 1 ; their struggles terminated with the 
 treaty of Westphalia, 222. 
 
 Protestant Association, the, 469. 
 
 Proven9al poetry, 132. 
 
 Pkdssia, her alliance with France, 412; 
 her contentions with Austria, 413; her 
 military contests under Frederic II. 425- 
 427, 429 et seg.f her utter prostration 
 before the French arms, 556 ; despotism 
 of, in 1820, 598. 
 
 Pruth, Peter the Great's difficulties on the, 
 389. 
 
 Ptolem^, captured by Richard I. 63. 
 
 Public funds, the, 395. 
 
 Public safety, committee of, in Paris, 496 % 
 its atrocities, 499. 
 
 Pultowa, battle of, 379. 
 
 Purcell, the poet, 362. 
 
 Puritans, the, 200, 224; their increasiug 
 influence, 246. 
 
 Pusey, Dr., 628. 
 
 Pyrenees, treaty of the, 280. 
 
 Quadruple Alliance, 393, 394. 
 
698 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Quahers, origin of the, 277 note. 
 Quebec, siege and capture of, 433, 434. 
 
 Eacine, 441i 
 
 Raglan, Lord, military commander in the 
 
 Crimea, €60 ; his death, 666. 
 Railwajs, broad and narrow gauges, 630. 
 Bajah al Dowlah, 425, 428. 
 Baleigh, Sir Walter, 224 ; his extraordinary 
 genius and discoveries, 230, 231 ; his dis- 
 covery of Virginia, 300 ; execution, 231. 
 Bamillies, battle of, 374. 
 Ratisbon, diet of, 141, 143, 2l6. 
 Bavaillac, the assassin, 204. 
 Ravenna, the capital of the Ostrogoths, 
 
 captured by Luitprand, 10. 
 Recess of Augsburg, l63. 
 Recusants, 442. 
 
 Reform, various measures of, 646, 648. 
 Reform, parliamentary, violent struggles 
 for. 611 ; finally settled, 6l2; first par- 
 liament held under the act, 613. 
 Reform banquets in France, 633. 
 Reformation, rise and progress of, in Ger- 
 many, 105, 129, 141 et seg.; defended 
 by Martin Luther, 129, 130; general 
 progress of, 138 ; progress of, in England 
 and Scotland, 157, 158, 170, 172; its 
 Btrupgles, 173 et seq,; third jubilee of 
 the, 617. (See Protestants.) 
 Beformeis, their early struggles, 102 note; 
 
 the promoters of literMure, 358. 
 Regency appointed, 676. 
 Reign of Terror in France, 497-500. 
 Religion, state of, A.d. 476-1050, 44, 45. 
 Requesens, the Spanish governor of the 
 
 Low Countries, I87. 
 Restitution, edict of, 208. 
 Retz, Cardinal, 278. 
 Revenue, measures for regulating the, 627, 
 
 648, 649, 650,651. 
 Revolution of l6S8, 346; of France in 17S9, 
 
 47g et seg. 
 Revolutions in France, 6O6 V o^ the Conti- 
 nent of Europe, 6IO ; of 1S4S, 639 et seg. 
 Rhine, confederation of the, 553. 
 Rhode Island, surrender of, 466. 
 Richard I. of England engages in the 
 crusades, 68, 69 ; his difficulties, 69, 70. 
 Richard II., king of England, 101 ; deposed, 
 
 102. 
 Richard III. of England, his sanguinary 
 despotism, 1 16, 1 17 ; the murderer of his 
 nephews, 117 ; defeated and slain, ib. 
 Richardson, the novelist, 447< 
 Richelieu, Cardinal, 207; liis iron rule, 212 ; 
 
 his death, 218. 
 Richmond, duke of, 468. 
 Ridley, Bishop, 159, I60. 
 Rienzi, Nicola di, his reforms, 99. 
 Riots of London, 470 ; of Paris, 482, 483 ; 
 in Birmingham, 496 ; in Nottingham 
 and other places, 580 ; in different parts 
 jof England, 595; in 1838, 622; in 
 Canada, 635. 
 Bizzio, David, 175 ; assassinated, 176. 
 Robert, count of Paris, 29. 
 Robert, king of France, 35. 
 Robert, duke of Normandy, 36. 
 
 Robert, son of William I. 52, 53. 
 Robert of Anjou, king of Naples, 100. 
 Robert of Artois killed, 93. 
 Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, 101. 
 Robertson, the historian, 447. 
 Robespierre, 488 ; his sanguinary atro* 
 
 cities, 497 ; executed, 500. 
 Rochelle, siege of, 208; siege and sur- 
 render of, 238, 239. 
 Rochester, Robert, Lord, 227. 
 Rockingham, marquis of, prime minister, 
 
 452, 472, 473. 
 Roderigo, Don, the Cid of Spain, 80, 81. 
 Rodney, Admiral, his victories, 471, 472. 
 Rodolph II., king of Burgundy, 30. 
 Rodolph of Hapsburg, elected emperor of 
 Germany, 76 ; his energetic measures, 87. 
 Rodolph II., emperor of Germany, 184, I87. 
 Rogers, Samuel, death of, 654. 
 Roland, death of, 20. 
 Roland, Madame, 488; executed, 409. 
 : Rolin, battle of, 426. 
 Rollo, the leader of the Normans, 27. 
 Roman Catholic league, 190. 
 Roman Catholics, their conspiracies against 
 
 queen Elizabeth, 191, iQi. 
 Roman Catholic processions, 646. 
 Roman empire, history of its decline and 
 fall, 1 ; causes of its dissolution, 2 ; the 
 three periods of its fall, 2 note ; removal 
 of theimperial court to Constantinople, 3. 
 Romance, rise of, 132. 
 Romanoff, Michael, of Russia, 20g. 
 Rome and the Italian states, from a.d. 
 936 to 1024, 29-32; revolt at, 59; cap- 
 tured by the duke of Bourbon, 140 ; 
 state of, 445, 446; affairs of, &om a.d. 
 1759 to 1773, 461 ; changed into a repub- 
 lic, 629 ; revolutionary struggles in, GH ; 
 flight of the pope, ib. ; the pope deposed, 
 id. ; occupied by the French, 645. 
 Roncesvalles, battle of, 20. 
 Rooke, Admiral Sir 6. 353, 371, 373. 
 Rosenthal, battle of, 88. 
 Rosea, wars of the, 114-117. 
 Rossi, Count, murdered, 644. 
 Roundheads, 254. 
 Rousseau, Jean Jacques. 444. 
 Royal Exchange burnt, 621 ; rebuilt, 629. 
 Royal Exhibition of National Industry, 636. 
 Royal George, fatal accident to the, 473. 
 Royalists, their struggles against the Com- 
 monwealth, 28Qet8eq.i defeat of their 
 plans, 528. 
 Royalists of France, their defeats, 4gS; 
 
 their emigration, 499- 
 Royal Society, founded, 363. 
 Rudolph, duke of Burgundy, 29. 
 Rump, the, 275, 293; their resignation, 293. 
 .Runnemede, conference at, 72. 
 Rupert, emperor of Germany, 104. 
 Rupert, Prmce, the royalist general, 260 
 
 et seq. 
 Ruric, line of, extinguished in Russia, 209. 
 Russell, Lord Wm., his rebellion, 332 ; his 
 
 execution, 333. 
 Russell, Admiral, 351. 
 Russell, Lord John, hia administration dis- 
 solved, 645; at the Vienna conferences,667. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 699 
 
 Russia, history of« in the l6th century, 
 l6g ; ^m 15S4 to 1629, 20g ; at war with 
 Swecl,en, 368; under Peter the Great, 
 375, 388-392 J at war with Turkey, 389 ; 
 at war with Frusiia, 426 etseq.; state 
 of, in the 1 8th century, 440 ; her rupture 
 with Turkey (1768), 454; her acquisi- 
 tions, ib.; her contests nith the French, 
 557 ; declares war against France in 
 1812, 579 ; Buonaparte's campaign in, 
 581 etaeq.; at war with Persia, 606; at 
 war with Turkey, 609 ; her great acqui- 
 sitions, 610 ; assists Austria in suppress- 
 ing the revolution of 1848, 642 ; declara- 
 tion of war against, 649 ; history of her 
 late struggles with Turkey, 654 et seq. , 
 her contests in the Crimea, 660 ei seq. . 
 
 Ruthven, Lord, 176. 
 
 Rye-house plot, 333. 
 
 Ryswick, peace of, 354, 355. 
 
 Sacheverell, Dr., 380. 
 
 SackviUe, Lord George, 432. 
 
 St. Albans, battle of, 114. 115. 
 
 St. Antoine, battle of, 279* 
 
 St. Amaud, Marshal, €60. 
 
 St. Bartholomew, massacre of, 1 82. 
 
 St. Catherine attacked by buccaneers, 404. 
 
 St. Domingo, revolution in, 538. 
 
 St. Germain-en- Laye, trea^ of, 180. 
 
 St. Helena, Buonaparte's captivity at, 596. 
 
 St. Ildefonso, treaty of, 547' 
 
 St. John, knights of, 81 note. 
 
 St. Just, 4S8. 
 
 SU Quentin, battle of, l64. 
 
 St. Simonism, 6l2. 
 
 Saladin, his conquests in Palestine, Qj i his 
 contests with Richard 1. 69 ; his death, ib. 
 
 Salamanca captured, 581. 
 
 Salic law established in France, gi, 
 
 Saracens, their dominion of Spain, 8; de- 
 feated by Charles Martel, ib. ; their in- 
 vasions, 21, 22 ; early history, 41, 42. 
 
 Saragossa, siege of, 570. 
 
 Sardinia signs a peace with Buonaparte, 
 505 ; joins the English and French 
 alliance against Russia, 664, 667. 
 
 Saumerez, Admiral Sir J. 525, 526. 
 
 Sautr£, William, burnt, 102. 
 
 Savoy, duke of, l64. 
 
 Saxe, Marshal, 413, 417. 419* 
 
 Saze-Weimar, duke of 213, 214, 215. 
 
 Saxon heptarchy, 13-16 ; its termination, 23. 
 
 SaxoDs take possession of the British Ro- 
 man provinces, 4. (See Anglo-Saxons.) 
 
 Saxouy, successors of the house of, 29, 30 ; 
 her defeats, 425. 
 
 Saxony, elector of, protects Luther, 138, 
 
 Scandinavia, modem kingdoms of, 168. 
 
 Schlegel, death of, 60S. 
 
 Schleswig and Holstein renounce their 
 allegiance to Denmark, 643 j their sub- 
 mission. 644. 
 
 Schmalkaiden, league of, 141. 
 
 Schools, establishment of, under lay pre- 
 ceptors, 131 ; founded by Elizabeth, 201. 
 
 Schwartzenberg, General, 586. 
 
 Sctnde, subjection of, 629. 
 
 Scotch support the Pretender, 386, 387. 
 
 Scotch settlers at Darien, 366. 
 
 Scotland, her contests with Edward I. 
 84-86 ; her independence secured by 
 Bruce, 86; history of, during the reign 
 of Edward III. 92-94 ; distracted state 
 of, in the 15th century, 115 ; affairs of, 
 from 1547 to 1548, 157; A.D. 1559-1561, 
 170 ; Presbyterian form of worship esta- 
 blished in, 1 72 J history of, during the 
 reignof queen Mary, 173, 175-177; politi- 
 cal troubles of, ISQ ; religious contests in, 
 228, 229, 242-245 ; Covenauters of, 243, 
 244 ; episcopacy abolished, 244 ; contests 
 with Charles I. 244, 245; resists the 
 measures of Charles II. 304-307; during 
 the reign of Charles II. 323; rebellion 
 in, 348 ; reduced to submission by 
 William III. 349; union of, vrith Eng- 
 land, 376 ; supports the Pretender, 415, 
 416 ; free church of, 628, 
 
 Scots and Picts, their devastations, 13, 14. 
 
 Scptt, Sir Walter, death of, 6l2. 
 
 Scutage, origin of, 61. 
 
 Sebastian, Don, of Portugal, slain, 188. 
 
 Sebastopol, siege of, 661 at seq. ; capture 
 of, 670, 671 ; destruction of, 677. 
 
 Sections of Paris, conflict with the, 502. 
 
 Self-denying Ordinance, 292. 
 
 Selim II. of Turkey, 184 ; captiures Cy- 
 prus, ib. 
 
 Settlement, Act of, 350. 
 
 Seven Years' War, commencement of the, 
 
 424. 
 
 Seville, treaty of, 399. 
 Seymour, Jane, 148. 
 Sfor2a, family of, 126. 
 Shaftesbury, Lord, writings of, 363. 
 Shakspeare, the father of our drama, 36l. 
 Shannon and Chesapeake, naval batile of 
 
 the, 588. 
 Sharp, Granville, 554. 
 Sharp, Archbishop, murdered, 329. 
 Shelbourne, Lord, prime minister, 473,493. 
 Shenstone, the poet, 447. 
 Sheridan, 494. 
 
 Sheriffs esUblished by Alfred, 26. 
 Sbiel, R. L„ death of, 638. 
 Sibylla of Cleves, 151. 
 Sicilian Vespers, massacre of the, 89, 90. 
 Sicily, revolutionary struggles in, 644. 
 Sidmoutfa, Lord, 549. 
 Sidney, Algernon, 332; executed, 333. 
 Sidney, Sir Philip, slain, 191. 
 Sifeyes, Abb6, the political writer, 477» 4/8, 
 
 531; death of, 619. 
 Sigismuud, king of Hungary, 105, loC ; 
 
 elected emperorof Germany, 106. 
 Sigismund I. and II., lungs of Poland, I69. 
 Sigismund III., king of Poland, 209. 
 Sikhs, invasion of the, 639 ; their defeat 
 
 and BubmisBion, ib. 
 Silesia taken from the Prussians, 410. 
 Silistria, siege of, 659. 
 Simeon, Rev. C, death of, 619. 
 Simnel, Lambert, 123. 
 Simon of Montfort, his cruelties towards 
 
 the Albigenses, 70. 
 Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, his 
 
 ambitious views, 78* 
 
700 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Simpson, General. 666. 
 
 Sinope, sanguinary outrage at, 657* 
 
 Siamondi, death of, 631. 
 
 Sixteen, council of, 195, 196. 
 
 Sixtus v.. Pope, 194. 
 
 Slave trade, bill for its abolition, 495; 
 abolition of the, 554. 
 
 Slavery emancipation, 6l4. 
 
 Smith, Sir Sidney, defends Acre, 521 ; his 
 naval gallantry, 547 ; death of, 626. 
 
 Smithfield, bill for removing, 637> 
 
 Smo'lett, 447. 
 
 Suhicski, John, kin^ of Poland, defeats 
 the Turks before Vienna, 335. 
 
 Society, progress of, in Europe, a.d. 476- 
 1050,4*2-45; during the 13th and 13th 
 centuries, 82 ; the 14th and 15th centu- 
 ries, 131 ; A.D. 1550-1700, 355-363, 
 
 Soldiers of Rome become mercenaries, 3. 
 
 Solemn league and covenant, 365. 
 
 Soliman I. of Turkey, his conquests, isg. 
 
 Soliman II., the sultan, subdues Hungary, 
 144-183. 
 
 Somerset, Henry de Beaufort, duke of, 
 slain, 114. 
 
 Somerset, Edward Seymour, duke of, 157 ; 
 executed, 158. 
 
 Sonderbuod, the, 631 ; its conflicts, 633. 
 
 Sophia Dorothea, wife of George I. 399. 
 
 Soult, Marshal, in Portugal, 571 ; minister 
 of France, 622 ; death of, 638. 
 
 Southey, R., death of, 632.. 
 
 South-Sea scheme, 395, 396; bursting of 
 the bubble, 397> 
 
 Spain, under the dominion of the Visi- 
 goths, 4, 8; of the Saracens, 8; ^her 
 history from a.d. 862 to IO68, 40, 41 ; 
 from 1035 to 1312, SO; her history during 
 the 14th century, 97 ; from the death of 
 Peter the Gruel to the conquest of Gra- 
 nada, 121; barbarities of, 135, 136; 
 decline of, 136; annexes Portugal, 188; 
 loses the United Provinces, ib, ; her 
 struggles and losses, igs, 199 ; the Moors 
 expelled from, 199 ; declares war against 
 England, 291 ; her naval losses, ih. ; her 
 colonial possessions, 297) 298 ; decline of, 
 301; military contests in, 374 ; England 
 declares war against, 393-405 ; view of 
 her monarchy, a.d. 1763-178O, 460 ; mis- 
 government and corruptions of, 460,46l ; 
 Great Britain declares war against, 469 ; 
 peace with, 475; history of, a.d. 1807- 
 I8O9, 561-565 ; Napoleon Buonaparte's 
 seizure of, 562 ; Joseph Buonaparte ap- 
 pointed sovereign, 563 ; insurrection in, 
 i/f.i military operations in, 570, 576, 577, 
 580, 684; revolution in, 596; civil contests 
 in, 601, 602 ; invaded by France, and 
 Ferdinand restored to arbitrary power, 
 602; Carlist conspiracy in, 613; new 
 constitution of, 619 ; revolutionary move- 
 ments in, 624, 628, 629, 630, 645, 651 ; 
 the queen-mother expelled, id. 
 
 Spenser, the poet, 361. 
 
 Spires, diet of, 141. 
 
 Spurs, battle of the, 128. 
 
 Stacl, Madame de, 488. 
 
 Sta£ford, Lord, executed, 330. 
 
 Stamp Act, in North America, 451, 452. 
 
 Stanhope, Lady Hester, death of, 626. 
 
 Stanislas, king of Poland, 375, 379.. 
 
 Stanislas, Augustus, of Poland, 463. 
 
 States General of France (1356), its con- 
 tentions, 95;' under Louis XVI. 477, 
 478 ; changed into the National Assem- 
 bly, 480. 
 
 Steele, 445, 446. 
 
 Steenkerke, battle of, 352. 
 
 Stephen II. and III., Popes, 12. 
 
 Stephen, king of England, 60 ; civil con- 
 tentions during his reign, 60, 61. 
 
 Stephenson, G., death o^ 637. 
 
 Stockholm, treaty of, 391. 
 
 Stoke, battle of, 123. < 
 
 Stolbova, peace of, 209> 
 
 Strafford, earl of, impeached, 245, 247; 
 executed, 249. 
 
 Strahan's bankruptcy, 6S2. 
 
 Strelitz of Russia, 169> 
 
 Stuart family, accession of the, 223. 
 
 Stuart, Arabella, conspiracy in favour of, 
 224. 
 
 Styles, new and old, 408 note. 
 
 Succession, Spanish, war of the, 364, 367 
 ei seq. 
 
 Suchet, Marshal, 577. 
 
 Sugar duties, reduction of the, 630. 
 
 Suger, minister of Louis VII. 60. 
 
 Sully, duke of, 202, 204, 224. 
 
 Summerhausen, battle of, 221. 
 
 Sunday Trading Bill, 652. 
 
 Sweaborg, attack on, 669, 
 
 Sweden, early history of, 168 ; sovereigns 
 of, 209 ; her rising importance, ib.; her 
 victorious struggles with the Imperialists, 
 210 etseq.i her alliance with France, zd.; 
 conquers Poland, 282 ; league gainst, 
 366 ; at war with Russia, 368 ; at war 
 with Prussia, 426 et seq. ; state of, in the 
 18th century, 440, 455 ; her cessions to 
 Russia, 566 ; Bernadotte made king, 
 572 ; new dynasty in, 596 ; her treaty 
 with England and France, 673. 
 
 Sweyn, the Danish king, 34. 
 
 Swift, 445. 
 
 Swiss guards of France annihilated, 491. 
 
 SwiTZE&LAHD, republic of, 88; declared 
 to be a sovereign state, 222 ; state of, in 
 the 18th century, 441 ; revolutionized, 
 629; reduction of, 542, 543; her bold 
 assertions of independence, 607 ; revo- 
 lutionary movement in, 631 ; conflicts in, 
 633, 634. 
 
 Tahiti, British consul at, 629. 
 Talfourd, Sir T„ death of, 653. 
 Talleyrand, Prince, bishop of Autun, 434 ; 
 
 death of, 625. 
 Tamerlane, his conquests, 120. 
 Tancred of Naples, 72, 73. 
 Tariff of Sir R. Peel, 627. 
 Tasso, the Italian poet, 184 note. 
 Tatler, the, 446. 
 Tchernaya, battle of the, 669. 
 Tea, duty on, resisted by the American 
 
 colonists, 452. 
 Temeswar, peace of, 310. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 701 
 
 Temple, Sir W., sag, 317 ; his writings, 362. 
 
 Teschen, treaty of, 455, 
 
 Test Act, 315. 
 
 Teutonic knights, 73, 81 note. 
 
 Thamea Tunnel opened, 623. 
 
 Thanes, dignity of, l6. 
 
 Theodoric, the first Gothic king of Italy, Q, 
 
 Theophamia, princess, 31. 
 
 Tbennes, Marshal, defeat of, l65. 
 
 Thermidonians, the, 502. * 
 
 Thirty Years' War, the, 205. 
 
 Thorn, the lunatic, 621. 
 
 Tbomas k Becket, Ma contentions with 
 Uenry II., 62. 63 ; is assassinated, 63. 
 
 Thomson, the poet, 446. 
 
 Thorwaldsen, death of, 632. 
 
 Three-and-a-half per cent. Consols, re- 
 duced, 629. 
 
 Thnrot, Admiral, 436. 
 
 TierB-Etat, of France, 476, 478, 479. 
 
 Tillotsoo, Archbishop, writings of, 362. 
 
 Tilsit, treaty of, 558, 566 
 
 Tithes, English, measure for commuting, 
 617. 
 
 lathings, ori^ of, 25. 
 
 Tobacco introduced, igi. 
 
 Toloaa, battle of, 82. 
 
 Tories, party of the, 330 ; their political 
 power, 399 . 
 
 Tortoga, island of, 403, 
 
 Tortosa, capture of^ 577' 
 
 Tosti, duke of Northumberland, 38. 
 
 Toulon, siege of, 498. 
 
 Tourville, Admiral, 353. 
 
 TonssaintL'OuTerture, 539. 
 
 Tower of London, fire in the, 625. 
 
 Towton, battle of, lis. 
 
 Tractarianism, 6l2; progress of, 628. 
 
 Trafalgar, naval battle of, 551. 
 
 Trebizond, empire of, 74* 
 
 Trcek, L., death of, 653. 
 
 Trent, council of, 150, 155, 183 ; broken up, 
 155. 
 
 Triennial parliaments, 350 ; act for, re- 
 pealed, 392. 
 
 Trincomalee, capture of, 472. 
 
 Trinidad, capture of, 517. 
 
 Tripartite treaty of Paris, 677. 
 
 Triple alliance, 309. 
 
 Tromp, Martin Van, the Dutch admiral, 
 slain, 289. 
 
 Tromp, Nicolas Van, the Dutch admiral, 
 his naval contests, 3('5, 306, 3l6. 
 
 Troppau, congress at, 598. 
 
 Troubadours, 132. 
 
 Troyea, treaty of, 110. 
 
 Tudor family, IIO-II7. 
 
 Tunis captured by Charles V. 142. 
 
 Tnrenne, Marshal, 214, 219, 220. 
 
 Turkey, at war with Russia, H89 ; her rup- 
 ture with Russia (1768), 454; her con- 
 tests with Greece, 599, 600 ; at war with 
 Russia, 609 ; her grreat concessions, 610 ; 
 loan to, 652 ; history of her late struggles 
 with Russia, 654 et neq. ; her armies in 
 Asia, 663 ; her operations in Asia, 671 , 672. 
 
 Turks, or Turcomans, 41 ; their alarming 
 progress in Europe, 113; capture Con- 
 stantinople, id, i their victorious pro- 
 
 gress from 1261 to 1453, lig-121 ; their 
 conquests, 184; their victorious career, 
 310; defeated before Vienna, 335; their 
 successes, 354 ; their defeat, 355. 
 
 Turner, Sharon, death of, 637. 
 
 Turner, the painter, death of, 638. 
 
 Turnpikes of Wales, destroyed, 628. 
 
 Tyrrell, Walter, kiUs WUliam II. 63. 
 
 Ulster, rebellion and massacre in, 251. 
 
 Unigenitus, the bull, 442, 443. 
 
 Union between England and Scotland, 376 ; 
 articles of the, ih. 
 
 Union of Great Britain and Ireland, 523; 
 agitation for repeal of the, 607, 6l4, 628. 
 
 United Irishmen, 518. 
 
 United Provinces of Holland, 188; 
 their prosperity and independence se- 
 cured, 198, 199 ; religious contentions 
 in, A.D. 1609-1622, SO6 ; their extended 
 commerce, ib.^ their contentions with 
 England, 287 ; reduction of their navy 
 and commerce, 40t ; state of in the 18tb 
 century, 441 ; assume the name of 
 Batavian Republic, 504 ; amalgamated 
 with France, 572. 
 
 United States, declare war against Eng- 
 land, 587; their contests in Canada, 
 587 ; their naval successes, 588. 
 
 Urban II., Pope, 55. 
 
 Urban VI., Pope, 103, 104. 
 
 Ursini faction, 88. 
 
 Utrecht, union of, 188; conferences at 
 382; treaty of, 383. 
 
 Valois, house of, succeeds to the French 
 throne, 91 ; dynasty of, extinct, 195. 
 
 Vanbrugh, 445, 446. 
 
 Vandamme, Marshal, defeated, 585. 
 
 Vandyke, 36l. 
 
 Varna, battle of, 121. 
 
 Vasco de Gama, the navigator, 134. 
 
 Vauban, the engineer, 317> 
 
 Vaudois, the, 71 note. 
 
 Venetians, iheir contests with the Turks, 
 184. 
 
 Venice, republic of, 127; her submission 
 to Buonaparte, 5l6. 
 
 Vergniaud, the Girondist, 488. 
 
 Vemet, Horace, death of, 619. 
 
 Vernon, Adnural, 406. 
 
 Vervins, treaty of, I97. 
 
 Victor II., Pope, 417. 
 
 Victor Emmanuel II. of Sardinia visits 
 England, 652. 
 
 Victor IV., Pope, 66. 
 
 Victoria, queen of England, birth of, 597 ^ 
 proclaimed - queen, 6I8 ; her coronation, 
 621 ; married to Prince Albert of Saxe 
 Gotha, 622 ; gives birth to a son, 625 ; 
 visits Belgium and Prussia, 630. 
 
 ^enna, besieged by the Turks, 335 ; trea- 
 ties of, 398, 568 ; convention at, in sup- 
 port of the emigrant princes of France, 
 486 ; captured by the French, 567 ; con- 
 gress 01,591,595; conferences at, 651, 
 652, 667- 
 
 Villsuns, among the Anglo-Saxons, 16, 
 
 Villeroy, Marshal, 354. 
 
702 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Villiers, George Viscnunt, 228. 
 
 Vimiera, battle of, &64, 
 
 Virginia, colony of, 300. 
 
 Visconti, family of, 126. 
 
 Visigoths, their dominion of Spain, 4, 8 ; 
 
 annihilated by the Saracens, 8. 
 Vittoria, battle of, 584. 
 Volta, death of, 608. 
 Voltaire, 444. 
 
 Vortigern, king of the Britons, 13. 
 Vortimer, king of the Britons, 14. 
 
 Wagram, battle of, 567. 
 
 Walcheren, expedition to, 569. 
 
 Waldenses, the, 71 note, 
 
 Wales subdued by Edward I. 84. 
 
 Wales, prince of, origin of the title, 84. 
 
 Wales, Albert Edward, prince of, born , 625 . 
 
 Wallace, Sir William, his heroism, 86. 
 
 Wallenstein, General, 210; assa&sinated, 
 211. 
 
 Waller, Edmund, the poet, 362. 
 
 Waller, Sir William, 26l. 
 
 Walloons, the, 188; defeated, 218. 
 
 Walpole, Sir B , prime minister, 399 ; bis 
 administration terminated, 410. 
 
 War budget, the, 650, 651. 
 
 Warbeck, Perkin, 124. 
 
 Warren, Admiral Sir John, 418, 519, 555; 
 
 Warthurg, the residence of Luther, 138. 
 
 Warwick, Richard Nevill, duke of, "the 
 kin^-maker,** 114. 
 
 Washington, city of, burnt, 588. 
 
 Washington, General, commander-in-chief 
 of the North American forces, 466 ; his 
 military operations, 466 et seq. 
 
 Water Gensen, the, 187. 
 
 Waterloo, battle of, 592. 
 
 Wataon, Admiral, 428. 
 
 Watt Tyler, insurrection of, 10 1. 
 
 Watts, Dr., 449. 
 
 Wellesley, Marquis, death of, 631. 
 
 Wellesley, Sir Arthur, 559 (See Welling- 
 ton). 
 
 Wellington, Lord Arthur (afterwards duke 
 of), his expedition to the Peninsula, 563 ; 
 his military operations in Portugal, 570, 
 571 ; history of his career in India, 573 
 TMte ; his military operations in the 
 Peninsula, 577, 580 ; rewards bestowed 
 upon, 584 ; expels the French from the 
 Peninsula, 685, 586 ; his duel with Lord 
 Winchelsea, 607 ; his resignation as 
 minister, 6O8; hia death, 646; his public 
 funeral, ib. 
 
 Wenceslaus, emperor of Germany, 103. 
 
 Wentworth, Peter, the Puritan, 200. 
 
 Wentworth, Sir Thomas, 241. 
 
 Wentworth, General, 406. 
 
 West, empire of the, under Charlemagne, 
 20; Bchisraof the, 103— 106. 
 
 West India Islands, colonization of the, 
 301 ; captured by the British, 439; grant 
 to the, 635. 
 
 Westphalia, treaty of, in 1648, 921, 222. 
 
 Whigs and Tories, 330. 
 
 Whigs and Radicals, union of the, 607, 6O8. 
 
 ^Vhitelock, General, 559. 
 
 Whitworth, Lord, 544. 
 
 Wickliffe, the Reformer, 1 02. 
 
 Wilberforce, William, 554 ; death of, 614. 
 
 Wilkes, John, 452. 
 
 Wilkie, Sir D., death of. 626. 
 
 William I. (the Conqueror), his pretensions 
 to the English throne, 38 ; defeats Harold,. 
 39 ; becomes king of England, 40 ; his 
 policy, 50, 51 ; his death, 52. 
 
 William II., king of England, 63 ; killed 
 by an arrow, ib. 
 
 William III, of England (prince of 
 Orange), 339, 343; lands at Torbay, 
 344 ; bis reception, 344 ; declarpd joint 
 sovereign with his wife Princess Mary, 
 846 ; his reign, 347 ^^ ^^? • i bis death, 37b. 
 
 William IV., death of, 6I8. 
 
 Williams, Colonel, 672. 
 
 Windham, Colonel, 670, 671. 
 
 Wishart, the Scotch Reformer, 157. 
 
 Wit, John de, 304, 307. 
 
 Witengemot, assembly of the, 16. 
 
 Witikind, General, 19. 
 
 Wittstock, battle of, 214. 
 
 Wolfe, General, besieges and captures 
 Quebec, 433 ; his death, 434 ; notices of, 
 434 Ttote. 
 
 Wolsey, Cardinal, his great power, 146; 
 his disgrace and death, 147. 
 
 Worcester, battle of, 285. 
 
 Wordsworth, William, death of, 637. 
 
 Worms, diet of, 137, 138 ; its edicts against 
 Luther, 141 ; treaty of, 411. 
 
 Wren, Sir C-, 448. 
 
 Wright, the fanatic, 226. * 
 
 Writers of England during the l6th cen- 
 tury, 36l ; during the 18th century, 445- 
 450. 
 
 Wurmser, General, 509, 510, 5U. 
 
 Wyat, the architect, 449. 
 
 Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 160. 
 
 Ximenes, Cardinal, 129. 
 
 York, Frederick, duke of, his expeditions to 
 Holland, 523, 530 ; charges against, 568^ 
 
 York and Lancaster, contests between the 
 houses of, 114-117. 
 
 York Minster, destroyed by fire, 623. 
 
 Young, Dr., 449. 
 
 Yuste,* monastery of, the retirement of 
 Charles V. l65. 
 
 Zachary, Pope, 12. 
 
 Ziska, leader of the Hussites, 106. 
 
 Zisim, the Turkish prince, 125. 
 
 ZoUverein, the, 616. 
 
 Zouaves, the, 615. 
 
 Zuinglius, the Reformer, 138; 
 
 Zutphen, battle of, 191. 
 
 PRINTKU BY cox AND WVMAW, GREAT QUKEN-STRKBT. 
 
[From the Morning Advertiser, Dec. 6th, 1856.] 
 
 ROUTLEQGE'S ILLUSTRATED SHMESPEARE. 
 
 EDITED BY H. STAUNTON. 
 ILLUSTRATED BY JOHN GILBERT. 
 
 Pvhlishing Monthly. 
 
 If anything can be more extraordinary than the genius of 
 William Shakespeare, it is the enthusiastic manner in which 
 his works are now received, and the daily-increasing magnitude 
 of his fame. Other authors achieve popularity, — ^have their 
 season of boisterous admiration, — are talked about, lauded, and 
 sometimes even studied, and then settle down in a very quiefc 
 matter-of-fact renown ; but it is not thus with our great dra- 
 matist. After a short period of comparative neglect, he emerged 
 suddenly into eminence, and has since been hourly and daily 
 gaining upon the -mind of the public. The more his writings 
 are read, and the keener the criticism brought to bear upon 
 them, the more valuable do they become. By the aid of modera 
 inventions, spots have been discovered upon the face of the sun, 
 but the telescope of criticism only serves to bring out more fully 
 the splendours of our great literary luminary. The severest 
 scrutiny, instead of detecting blemishes, finds nothing but fresh 
 beauties. In the universality of his fame, Shakespeare stands ■ 
 alone and unapproachable. He is the poet to whom mankind, 
 by general acclaim, have awarded the richest crown. 
 
 The first part of a new illustrated edition of Shakespeare is 
 now before us. It contains the Tioo Qentlemen of Verona, 
 splendidly illustrated, with foot-notes at each page by Mr. 
 Howard Staunton, giving just the kind of information the general 
 reader requires ; a preliminary notice, and illustrative comments 
 upon the more difficult passages in each act. How excellence in 
 so many respects can be combined is wonder enough, and how 
 it can be offered to the public at so small a cost is a marvel that 
 we shall not seek to explain. We have only to deal with the 
 fact, that this is not only the best, but actually the cheapest 
 edition of our great dramatist's works that we have yet seen. 
 Other publishers have shown how far they could go towards 
 producing an edition of Shakespeare worthy of his world-wide 
 renown ; but Messrs. Eoutledge have boldly taken such a stride 
 in advance, that henceforward the difficulty wUl be not to sur- 
 pass, but to come within a reasonable distance of their successful 
 effort. Por general excellence in so many particulars, at a 
 remarkably low price, we know of no publication that can be 
 compared with these for^-eight pages of elegant letter-press, 
 beautifully illustrated by John Gilbert. Many will be inclined 
 to imagine that no single artist is equal to the difficult task of 
 illustrating the varied and numerous dramas of Shakespeare, but 
 
2 
 
 a glance at the specimen number, wMoli contains illustrations 
 from four different plays, will convince such people that the idea 
 is erroneous. Indeed, we hardly know which to admire most, 
 the calm and dignified beauty of Julia in the illustration of the 
 Two Gentlemen of Verona, the quaint group from the Merry 
 Wives of Windsor, in which Falstaff, Pistol, and Nym are 
 drawn to the life, or the idiotic appearance of that 
 
 " Abhorred slave, 
 Which any print of goodness will not take. 
 Being capable of all ill," 
 
 the Caliban of the Tempest. The fair woman, the portly and 
 humorous Falstaff, and the savage being, the wonder of suc- 
 cessive generations, are all equally well delineated, proving that 
 John Gilbert possesses genius of the highest order. Nor can we 
 forget the beautiful design that appears upon the cover of the 
 first part, in which Launce and his dog Crab form a picture upon 
 which the eye dwells with delight. It is eminently suggestive ; 
 it might, indeed, be called a revelation of character. Both the 
 master and his ill-mannered cur are seized with a graphic power 
 perfectly astonishing. If no poet but Shakespeare could have 
 imagined such a scene, so rich in truth and humour, surely John 
 Gilbert is the only artist that could have thus interpreted the 
 poet, and given his creations a life-hke reality. 
 
 In the Brothers Dalziel, the illustrator found kindred spirits ; 
 nor can we withhold our tribute of commendation from the 
 printer. The manner in which this part is got up is highly 
 creditable to his establishment. Shakespeare wrote for all 
 time, and at length we have a reasonable hope of getting an 
 edition of his works equally enduring. There must be some 
 standard, and we fancy that this will become the Shakespeare of 
 the people. Within the reach of all classes, it will serve every 
 purpose ; while the beautiful illustrations show the characters 
 that Shakespeare drew. These delightful conceptions Uve anew 
 Tinder the pencil of John Gilbert ; and in reading the poet with 
 Bueh an interpreter, we could almost fancy that the characters 
 of our great dramatist had passed from their ideal state, to enter 
 our dwellings, sit down at our hearths, and plot and converse 
 just as they did before the mental eyes of that magician who 
 called them into existence to be the delight, the wonder, and the 
 instruction of successive generations. 
 
 This edition of Shakespeare is another great triumph achieved 
 by those publishers who have made literature, once the feast of 
 the rich and the learned, a banquet for all classes ; and who, in 
 extending the influence of the good and the beautiful, have done 
 more for the general advancement of the human race than hosts 
 of noisy benefactors. 
 
 London : G. EOUTLEDGE & Co., Fabeingdon Street.