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 A modern rhetoric. 
 
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 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
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 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031672532 
 
Modern Rhetoric 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE E. MERKLEY, M.A. Oxon., Ph D. 
 
 ENGLISH MASTER IN THE BETHLEHEM 
 PREPARATORY SCHOOL 
 
 NEWSON & COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
Copyright, 1902, by Newson & Company 
 AU rights reservoi. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This book purposes to be what the title implies, 
 "A Modern Rhetoric," a working text-book prima- 
 rily designed for class-room drill. The teacher, 
 therefore, will not find in it the old-time formal 
 treatise on rhetoric, but, on the contrary, the prac- 
 tical application of the leading principles which 
 underlie good composition. 
 
 The plan of the book is psychologic. Informal 
 composition is taken up almost at the beginning, 
 and ■ is treated broadly as a whole before the closer 
 study of sentences and paragraphs is introduced. 
 The pupil is thus encouraged to express himself 
 freely, before he is required to write, as Quintilian 
 puts it, "with force, point, and vehemence of 
 style." The stages through which he passes from 
 elementary to formal composition are easy and 
 gradual. All help is given to make him feel that 
 composition is a practical and profitable exercise, 
 and that it is not a task to be performed grudgingly 
 and painfully. 
 
 The method of treatment is analytic. Few of the 
 old stereotyped rules are given, but essential prin- 
 ciples are drawn from an examination of carefully 
 chosen extracts, and the application of these prin- 
 ciples is taught by means of abundant exercises. 
 
IV PREFACE 
 
 The pupil thus learns the use of principles before 
 he is required to formulate them into rules; in 
 short, he learns the art of comgosition by writing. 
 By this method it is hoped that the formidable 
 "don'ts" which so often confront the student of 
 rhetoric may be dispensed with, and that by learn- 
 ing what to do in his composition work the pupil 
 will learn what to avoid. 
 
 Throughout the book much stress is laid on ex- 
 ercises. These are so arranged that they may be 
 abridged to suit the convenience of the teacher, 
 who, owing to an overcrowded curriculum, labors 
 too often under the disadvantage of having to 
 shorten the work in English under pressure of so- 
 called "subjects of more importance." 
 
 Poetry and figures of speech — subjects which aie 
 ignored in many recently published works on rhet- 
 oric — are treated in as thorough a manner as the 
 scope of a school text-book will allow. It would 
 seem that a modern school rhetoric should not 
 merely lay down rules foi correct and effective 
 writing, but that, by directing the attention of the 
 pupil to the higher qualities of style, it should lead 
 him to an appreciation of what is good in literature. 
 
 Especially important is the study of beauty in 
 diction and imagery, when it is remembered that 
 pupils in high schools and secondary institutions of 
 learning are required to study portions of Shakes- 
 peare, Milton, Tennyson, Coleridge, Macaulay, and 
 Burke — authors whose merit lies so largely in their 
 wealth of imagery and in their artistic finish of 
 expression. 
 
PREFACE V 
 
 The author takes this opportunity to^acknowledge 
 his indebtedness to Mr. Huber Gray Buehler, author 
 of "A Modern English Grammar" — a text-book 
 that has laid all teachers of elementary English 
 under obligations — for his kindly criticism of the 
 manuscript and proofs, and for encouragement and 
 valuable help in the preparation of this volume. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 rAGB 
 
 Introduction i 
 
 BOOK I.— COMPOSITION 
 Part I. — The Beginnings of Composition 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. Elementary Principles 5 
 
 II. Punctuation zi 
 
 Part II. — Words 
 
 I. Good Use 33 
 
 II. Incorrect Words 43 
 
 III. Misused Words 50 
 
 IV. Superfluous Words : 60 
 
 Part III. — Sentences 
 
 I. The Form of Sentences 70 
 
 II. Correctness 86 
 
 III. Clearness 114 
 
 IV. Unity 124 
 
 V. Force 134 
 
 VI. Ease 147 
 
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Part IV. — Paragraphs 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Structure of the Paragraph 158 
 
 II. Requirements o£ the Paragraph 167 
 
 III. Paragraphs in Succession 176 
 
 Part V. — The Whole Composition 
 
 I. Structure of the Whole Composition ; . . . 184 
 
 II. Essentials of the Whole Composition 192 
 
 BOOK II.— KINDS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 Part I. — Prose 
 
 I. Description 199 
 
 II. Narration 212 
 
 III. Exposition 221 
 
 IV. Argument 229 
 
 V. Letters 238 
 
 VI. Other Forms of Composition 245 
 
 Part II. — Figures of Speech 
 
 I; Meaning and Value of Imagery ±53 
 
 II. Figures Based on Resemblance 256 
 
 III. Figures Based on Contrast 269 
 
 IV. Figures Based on Other Relations 273 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix 
 Part III. — Poetry 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Qualities of Poetry 281 
 
 II. Poetic Elements 285 
 
 III. Kinds of Poetry 289 
 
 IV. Versification 291 
 
 Appendix 305 
 
 Index 311 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 1. Purpose of Rhetoric. — When we talk or write, 
 we use language to express our thoughts. Our 
 words may be chosen and arranged so carefully that 
 they will express just what we wish to say, or they 
 may be chosen and arranged so carelessly that they 
 win not express what we have in mind. It is the 
 purpose of rhetoric to teach us to express in clear 
 and forcible language precisely what we mean. 
 
 2. Definition of Rhetoric. — Rhetoric is the art 
 of effective expression by means of appropriate 
 language. 
 
 3. History of the "Word "Rhetoric."— The word 
 "rhetoric" comes from the Greek pTjTopiicTJ {rhetorike), 
 which means "the art of speaking." Rhetoric 
 originated when public speaking was much more 
 common than writing, and it was but natural that 
 men should give the study a name signifying 
 what it then meant. If rhetoric had originated 
 after printing made books common, no doubt a 
 name would have been given it which would have 
 had some reference to writing. In modern usage, 
 however, the word "rhetoric" applies to written as 
 well as to spoken language. 
 
2 INTRODUCTION 
 
 4. Ehetoric a Science and an Art. — A science 
 teaches us to know ; an art, to do. In other words, 
 a science furnishes us with knowledge, and an art 
 teaches us to apply knowledge. In its broadest 
 sense, rhetoric is both a science and an art. It im- 
 plies a knowledge of principles, and it teaches us 
 to apply these principles to speaking and writing. 
 
 5. Tw^o Sides to Rhetoric. — Rhetoric not only 
 teaches us to write effectively, but it also aids us in 
 determining what to write. It has, therefore, both 
 an expression side and a thought side. The first 
 requisite of good expression is clear and forcible 
 thinking. When we have a clear idea of wUat 
 we wish to express, we shall find, by applying the 
 principles of rhetoric, that it is not a difiicult task 
 to clothe our thoughts in appropriate language. 
 
 6. Belation to Grammar and Logic. — When 
 we speak and write correctly, we employ the prin- 
 ciples of grammar ; when we speak and write effect- 
 ively, we employ the principles of rhetoric; when 
 we think correctly, we employ the principles of 
 logic. In dealing with expression, rhetoric touches 
 the sphere of grammar; in dealing with thought, it 
 touches the sphere of logic. It therefore lies mid- 
 way between grammar and logic : it begins where 
 grammar leaves off, and ends where logic begins. 
 
BOOK I 
 
 COMPOSITION 
 
PART I 
 
 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 
 
 7. Composition, Oral and Written. — Speaking 
 broadly, everything we say is composition. The 
 main difference is that in conversation we use 
 spoken language, and very often express only 
 detached single ideas ; whereas, in writing, our 
 thoughts are formed into related sentences, and 
 sentences into larger groups called paragraphs, 
 and paragraphs into whole compositions. 
 
 8. Good Spealcing Leads to Good Writing. — 
 
 Since all conversation is composition, it follows 
 that if we are careful to use good language in 
 speaking, we shall find it easier to use good lan- 
 guage in writing. 
 
 9. Dr. Johnson's Rule. — Dr. Samuel Johnson, 
 although too fond of long words, had a marvelous 
 command of language. When asked once how he 
 came to acquire such fluency, he answered that he 
 had made it a rule, in early life, never to express 
 
6 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 himself carelessly, but always to use the best words 
 in the language, and to use them properly in con- 
 versation and in writing. 
 
 10. Importance of Practise. — To study the 
 principles of rhetoric without applying them is 
 of little advantage. As well might the pupil 
 hope to become a good swimmer merely by reading 
 an exercise on swimming. To acquire facility in 
 any art, much practise is necessary. Each pupil 
 should write at least one short composition a week, 
 and thus make use of the principles of rhetoric as 
 he learns them. 
 
 EXERCISE 1, 
 
 Rewrite the following dialogue, using the third 
 person : 
 
 " Father," said a freshman, home on his first vacation, " how 
 many chickens are there on the table ? " 
 
 " Two, my son." 
 
 " No, sir, there are three, and I can prove it. There is one, isn't 
 there ? " 
 
 " Yes, my son." 
 
 " And there [pointing to the other] are two, aren't there ? " 
 
 " Yes, my son." 
 
 " And one and two make three, don't they ? " 
 
 " Yes, my son ; what a great thing learning is, to be sure ! Well, 
 since there are three chickens there, I will hand this one to your 
 mother, I will take this one myself, and you shall have the third for 
 your logic." 
 
 EXERCISE 2. 
 
 Read again on pages five and six how Dr. Johnson 
 said he acquired fluency of speech, and write the story 
 \n your own words. 
 
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 7 
 
 11. Choice of a Subject. — The first requisite of 
 composition is a good subject. It should be a 
 subject in which the writer feels an interest, and 
 with which he already has some familiarity. As a 
 rule, it is better to avoid general topics such as 
 "Education," "Idleness," "Friendship"; because 
 subjects so broad cannot be developed in short 
 compositions. These subjects may be rendered 
 more suitable by being narrowed in their scope, 
 as follows: " Advantages of an Education," " Evil 
 Effects of Idleness in School," "School Friend- 
 ships." A better class of subjects consists of those 
 taken from the writer's own surroundings. A keen 
 observer will find many interesting topics near at 
 hand. Things that have lately been seen in or 
 about town, glimpses of the school here and there, 
 little episodes of every-day life — all these are good 
 subjects. Some of the best literature in the lan- 
 guage is about such commonplace things as dan- 
 delions, mice, grasshoppers, night, sleep, personal 
 acquaintances. Whatever arrests attention and 
 stirs feeling is likely to offer good material for com- 
 position. Pupils who read the "College Entrance 
 Requirements in English" will find that these books 
 furnish many excellent topics. 
 
 EXERCISE 3. 
 
 Grammatical Review Questions. — i. Name and define the 
 parts of speech. 2. Distinguish between the definite and the in- 
 definite article. 3. When is a verb transitive ? When intransitive ? 
 4. Define and illustrate subject, predicate, object complement or 
 direct object, attribute complement or predicate noun, objective com- 
 plement or factitive object. 5. Name and define the different kinds 
 
8 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 of pronouns. 6. How are adjectives and adverbs compared? 7. Dis- 
 tinguish between prepositions and conjunctions. 8. What is meant 
 by inflection? 9. What parts of speech are inflected? 10. Inflect 
 /, thou, he, she, it, who. 11. What is a sentence? 12. Distin- 
 guish between a phrase and a clause. 13. Define simple, com- 
 pound, and complex sentences. 14. Distinguish between strong 
 or old and weak or new verbs. 
 
 EXERCISE 4. 
 
 Write out answers to the following questions. Each 
 answer should consist of at least one complete sentence: 
 
 1. Define rhetoric. 
 
 2. What is an art ? 
 
 3. What is a science? 
 
 4. Is rhetoric a science or an art ? 
 
 5. Is grammar a science or an art ? Give reasons for your 
 answer. 
 
 6. Mention a study that you think is a science, and tell why 
 you think it is a science. 
 
 7. How is rhetoric related to grammar ? 
 
 8. What does the word " rhetoric " mean ? 
 
 EXERCISE 5. 
 Narrow the following subjects so as to make them 
 more suitable for compositions : 
 
 I. Pride. 2. Intemperance. 3. Home. 4. Poverty. 5. Elec- 
 tricity. 6. Commerce. 7. Novel-Reading. 8. Immigration. 
 9. Wealth. 10. Habits. 11. Trusts. 12. Music. 
 
 EXERCISE 6. 
 
 1 . Make a list of ten subjects, suggested by scenes or 
 events near at hand, which you think would be suitable 
 for composition. 
 
 2. Make a list often subjects for composition suggested 
 by your reading. 
 
 EXERCISE 7. 
 From the subjects given belo^v select three that you 
 think could be treated in a composition of a page ; three 
 
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES g 
 
 that would require a longer treatment ; and three 
 that are too broad for treatment in a school com- 
 position : 
 
 1. Canals. 1 1. The First Railroad. 
 
 2. The Use of Winds. 12. How Coal is Formed. 
 
 3. The Cultivation of Roses. 13. My First Sail. 
 
 4. How Charcoal is Made. 14. War. 
 
 5. Heroism in Private Life. 15. TheExhibitionat Buffalo. 
 
 6. How Electricity is Produced. 16. Good Literature. 
 
 7. TheLayingof aCorner-Stone. 17. American Colonies. 
 
 8. The Circulation of the Blood. 18. The Great Eastern. 
 
 9. How Chalk is Prepared for 19. Why "Ivanhoe" is an 
 
 Use. Interesting Book. 
 
 10. The First Sewing Machine. 20. Poetry. 
 
 IS. Titles. — After a suitable subject has been 
 chosen it is necessary to decide upon a title. The 
 purpose of the title should be to interest the reader 
 in the composition. Titles should, therefore, be 
 short and attractive, and should indicate what is 
 contained in the composition. If the subject meets 
 these requirements, it may be used as a title. The 
 following subject is not suitable for a title, besause 
 it is too long : "It would be advisable for the 
 United States to adopt the English plan of not 
 paying members of Congress." An appropriate 
 title for this subject would be, ' ' Members of Con- 
 gress should not be Paid." 
 
 13. How to Write a Title. — The title should be 
 written in the middle of the blank space at the head 
 of the paper, or about three-quarters of an inch from 
 
lo THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 the top, with equal spaces to the right and left. If the 
 title is so long that two lines are necessary, as much 
 of it as will look well should be put on the first line, 
 and the rest in the middle of the next line, thus : 
 
 How THE President of the United States 
 IS Elected. 
 
 Jt i> oiistnmary to begin with a ca pital letter the 
 
 first word of j, title, and every _noun , adjective, and 
 
 verb in it.' 
 ^- — - EXERCISE 8. 
 
 Write appropriate titles for the following subjects: 
 
 1. The poor are subject to greater temptations than the rich. 
 
 2. The youth of our generation, in order to be successful in life, 
 require a higher degree of education than was given in the past. 
 
 3. A knowledge of Latin and Greek is of great value to the 
 person who would use English intelligently. 
 
 4. Every schoolroom should have pictures on its walls, because 
 pictures cultivate an artistic taste in the young. 
 
 5. Many great authors produced their best works after they 
 were fifty years old. 
 
 6. Excessive novel-reading distracts the mind, and leads to a 
 craving for the sensational. 
 
 EXERCISE 9. 
 
 1 . From some book that you have recently read, make 
 a list of jive subjects about tvhich you could ivrite com- 
 positions of three hundred ivords each, and suggest ap- 
 propriate titles for them. 
 
 2. From the daily newspapers make a list of jive sub- 
 jects about which you could write compositions of three 
 hundred words each, and give appropriate titles. 
 
 * Some authorities advocate the use of capitals in titles only at the beginning of the 
 first word and at the beginning of proper nouns and proper adjectives. 
 
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES ll 
 
 3. Prepare a list of composition subjects suggested by 
 happenings in your school, and write appropriate titles 
 for them. 
 
 EXERCISE 10. 
 
 1. From a newspaper select three head-lines that seem 
 to you good titles for the subjects treated. 
 
 2. From a newspaper select three head-lines that you 
 think are not good titles, and explain their faults. 
 
 14. Finding Material to Write About. — Before 
 beginning to write, it is necessary to have an under- 
 standing of the subject. If a game of ball is to be 
 described, the necessary material should be obtained 
 by personal observation. All the details of the game 
 should be noted carefully even though many of 
 them may not be useful. If the subject is one that 
 requires research among books, one source of infor- 
 mation should not be depended upon, but, if pos- 
 sible, different articles should be read. News- 
 papers and magazines as well as books, and also 
 men who are well informed on the subject, should 
 be consulted. 
 
 15. Arrangement of Material. — When the ma- 
 terial has been collected, it should be gone over 
 and the leading facts should be summed up in dis- 
 tinct sentences, including as much as possible of 
 the thought. Any matter left over should be care- 
 fully examined, and should then be assigned a place 
 in the outline, or cast aside as irrelevant. When 
 the material has been classified, it should be deter- 
 mined which part is to come first, which last, and 
 
12 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 whicli in the body of the composition, and the sen- 
 tences should be numbered in the order in which 
 they are to come. Each sentence should then be 
 expanded into several sentences so as to express in 
 full all that it is desirable to say on the subject. 
 
 16. The Form of the Composition, — In prepar- 
 ing compositions, the pupil, unless otherwise in- 
 structed by his teacher, should observe the follow- 
 ing directions: 
 
 1 . Use white paper about eight by ten inches in 
 size. 
 
 2. Use black ink and write legibly. 
 
 3. Write on only one side of the paper. 
 
 4. Observe the directions already given about 
 writing the title. 
 
 5 . Leave a margin of at least one inch at the left 
 for the teacher's corrections. Begin every line of 
 the composition, except the first line of each para- 
 graph, close to this margin. The first line of a 
 paragraph is indicated in writing by beginning it 
 about an inch farther to the right than the other 
 lines. This is called indenting. 
 
 6. In dividing a word at the end of a line, where 
 there is not room to write the entire word, be care- 
 ful not to divide a syllable. If you are in doubt 
 about the correct division of a word, look for it 
 in a dictionary. 
 
 7. Number each page of your composition, if 
 there be more than one, in the upper right-hand 
 corner, and put the pages together in the order in 
 which they are to be read. 
 
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 13 
 
 8. Fold the paper once lengthwise. Then, with 
 the crease of the paper on the left, write on the top 
 of the outside page your name, the title, and the 
 date, thus: 
 
 James L. Wilson, 
 
 Silas Marner's Gold, 
 
 November 29, 1902. 
 
 Example. — Observe how the material given be- 
 low is arranged and expanded : 
 
 The Army of Peace. 
 Outline. 
 
 1. Those who serve our government constitute an army of peace. 
 
 2. The qualities of a good soldier are bravery, obedience, loyalty, 
 truth. 
 
 3. Our country, in time of peace, needs men to serve her who 
 have all the qualities of good soldiers. . 
 
 4. A good soldier wishes only for the prosperity and happiness 
 of the country. 
 
 Outline Expanded. 
 
 1. The thousands of men and women who serve our government 
 form an army ; but it is an army of peace and not of war. It is 
 not to frighten men, but to help and benefit them. It is not for the 
 good of Americans alone, but for the good of all people. 
 
 2. What kind of man do we need for a soldier.' He must be 
 brave and obedient ; he must not serve for pay, or for a pension, or 
 to get honor for himself, or in order to be promoted to a higher 
 office. He must serve, as Washington and Grant served, simply 
 for the sake of helping his country. They were not soldiers in 
 order to get their living out of their country, but because the coun- 
 try needed them. They were soldiers for the sake of the welfare 
 of the people. 
 
 3. The country needs the same kind of men for its army of 
 peace. It wants obedient and faithful men to keep its accounts 
 and to carry its mails. It wants kind and courteous men in its 
 
14 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 offices, who will do their best for the convenience of its people. 
 It wants fearless and upright judges who will do no wrong. It 
 wants friendly men in the Indian agencies, to help the Indians to 
 become civilized. It wants men of courage in its lighthouses and 
 in the life-saving stations. Our government cannot really bear to 
 have mean and selfish men anywhere, but it needs men as good 
 as the very best soldiers, who are in its service for the sake of 
 their country. 
 
 4. What does a good soldier desire more than anything else ? 
 He desires that the cause of his country shall succeed. What does 
 every good American wish most of all ? He wishes that his work 
 may make his country richer and happier. He wishes, like Abraham 
 Lincoln, to leave his country better and nobler for his having 
 served her.' 
 
 EXEECISE 11. 
 
 Outline the following story, and then tell it in your 
 
 own words : 
 
 Narcissus is said to have been extremely beautiful and comely, 
 but intolerably proud and disdainful; so that, pleased with himself, 
 and scorning the world, he led a solitary life in the woods; hunting 
 only with a few followers, who were his professed ad[nirers, amongst 
 whom the nymph Echo was his constant attendant. In this method 
 of life it was once his fate to approach a clear fountain, where he 
 laid himself down to rest, in the noonday heat; when, beholding 
 his image in the water, he fell into such rapture and admiration of' 
 himself that he could by no means be got away, but remained con- 
 tinually fixed and gazing, till at length he was turned into a flower, 
 of his own name, which appears early in the spring, and is conse- 
 crated to the infernal deities, Pluto, Proserpine, and the Furies. — 
 Lord Bacon. 
 
 EXERCISE 12. 
 
 Expand the following outline : 
 
 A boy was attracted by a beautiful butterfly. He attempted to 
 catch it, but it eluded him for some time. At length he observed 
 it half buried in the cup of a tulip. He rushed forward, snatched 
 
 » From TAt Young Citizen : C. F. Dole. Copyright by D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 15 
 
 it with violence, and, in so doing, crushed it. The boy was very 
 sorry. The insect, seeing his chagrin, said, "See the end of thy 
 unprofitable solicitude, and learn that all pleasure is but a painted 
 butterfly." 
 
 EXERCISE 13. 
 
 Prepare an outline on one of the following subjects, 
 and then expand the outline into a composition : 
 
 1. Athletics. 8. An Incident in the Night. 
 
 2. Amateur Photography. 9. The Mississippi River. 
 
 3. An Intelligent Dog. 10. The Historical Novel. 
 
 4. A Visit to a Picture Gallery. n. How Gold is Mined. 
 
 5. The Advantages of Having a 12. The First Electric Tele- 
 
 Trade, graph. 
 
 6. A Ramble in the Woods. 13. The Cultivation of Silk 
 
 7. King Arthur. Worms. 
 
 17. Sentences. — It matters little whether long or 
 short sentences are used in composition. The chief 
 aim should be to express the thought so that others 
 will understand what is written as clearly as the 
 writer himself does. As a rule, it is easier to make 
 the meaning plain by the. use of short sentences. A 
 new thought should be expressed in a new sentence. 
 
 Modifiers should generally be kept in the body of 
 the sentence, and placed near enough to the word or 
 words they modify to indicate their relations. 
 
 18. Paragraphs. — If we look over the article on 
 page thirteen, entitled "The Army of Peace," we 
 shall find the sentences arranged in groups. We shall 
 also find, if we look closely into the subject-matter, 
 that each of these groups of sentences develops an 
 idea. Each group forms, as it were, a minor com- 
 position, which has, at the same time, its place in 
 
i6 
 
 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 making up the entire composition. Such groups are 
 called PARAGRAPHS. Each paragraph has its own 
 subject, which is wrought out as one would develop 
 and arrange the material for a composition. Para- 
 graphs, then, are natural divisions of a subject; 
 they are not formed by accident, but on fixed prin- 
 ciples. Their purpose is to indicate to the reader 
 the divisions that an author wishes to make in his 
 subject-matter. 
 
 Example. — The idea developed in each of the 
 following paragraphs is given in the margin : 
 
 The assem- 
 bling of the 
 warriors in 
 Magua's hut. 
 
 The depar- 
 ture of the 
 warriors un- 
 der Magua. 
 
 The direc- 
 tion the war- 
 riors took. 
 
 Long before the day dawned, however, warrior 
 after warrior entered tlie solitary hut of Magua, 
 until they had collected to the number of twenty. 
 Each bore his rifle, and all the other accoutrements 
 of war, though the paint was uniformly peaceful. 
 The entrance of these fierce-looking beings was 
 unnoticed ; some seating themselves in the shadows 
 of the place, and others standing like motionless 
 statues, until the whole of the designated band was 
 collected. 
 
 Then Magua arose and gave the signal to pro- 
 ceed, marching himself in advance. They followed 
 their leader singly, and in that well-known order 
 which has obtained the distinguishing appellation 
 of " Indian file." Unlike other men engaged in 
 the spirit-stirring business of war, they stole from 
 their camp unostentatiously and unobserved, re- 
 sembling a band of gliding spectres, more than 
 warriors speking the bubble reputation by deeds of 
 desperate daring. 
 
 Instead of taking the path which led directly 
 toward the camp of the Delawares, Magua led his 
 party for some distance down the windings of the 
 stream, and along the little artificial lake of the 
 beavers.— James Fenimore Cooper. 
 
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 17 
 
 EXERCISE 14. 
 
 Divide the following passage into paragraphs, and 
 write in the margin the thought which is developed in 
 each paragraph : 
 
 It must be remembered that we were now in the open bay, in 
 the full line of the great ice-drift to the Atlantic, and in boats so 
 frail and unseaworthy as to require constant bailing to keep them 
 afloat. It was in this crisis of our fortunes that we saw a large 
 seal floating — as is the custom of these animals — on a small patch 
 of ice, and seemingly asleep. It was an ussuk, and so large that I 
 at first mistook it for a walrus./ Signal was made for the Hope to 
 follow astern, and, trembling with anxiety, we prepared to crawl 
 down upon him. 1 Peterson, with the long English rifle, was sta- 
 tioned in the bow, and stockings were drawn over the oars as muf- 
 flers. As we neared the animal our excitement became so intense 
 that the men could hardly keep stroke. I had a set of signals for 
 such occasions, which spared us the noise of the voice ; and when 
 about three hundred yards off", the oars were taken in, and we 
 moved on in deep silence with a single scull astern. / He was not 
 asleep, for he reared his head when we were almost within rifle 
 shot ; and to this day I can remember the hard, careworn, almo=it 
 despairing expression on the men's thin faces as they saw him 
 move; their lives depended on his capture. — Elisha Kent Kane. 
 
 EXERCISE 15. 
 
 Develop the idea expressed in each of the following 
 sentences into a paragraph of not fewer than eight 
 lines : 
 
 1. The annexation of Texas to the United States led to a war 
 with Mexico, which lasted two years. 
 
 2. Andre's story is the one overmastering romance of the Revo- 
 lution. 
 
 3. Goldsmith had no idea of economy, and lacked ordinary 
 prudence in money matters. 
 
 4. Hoping to gain health by a change of climate and surround- 
 ings, Scott sailed for the south of Eurppe. 
 
i8 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 EXERCISE 16. 
 
 Write a paragraph on one or more of the following 
 subjects : 
 
 I. 
 
 The Monroe Doctrine. 
 
 8. 
 
 Front de Boeuf. 
 
 2. 
 
 Burgoyne's Invasion. 
 
 9- 
 
 Manual Training. 
 
 3- 
 
 King Pliilip's War. 
 
 lO. 
 
 Milton's Blindness. 
 
 4- 
 
 Arctic Expeditions. 
 
 II. 
 
 An Old Water-Mill. 
 
 5- 
 
 Description of an Or- 
 
 12. 
 
 The Preservation of our 
 
 
 chard. 
 
 
 Forests. 
 
 6. 
 
 Winter. 
 
 13- 
 
 An Old House. 
 
 7- 
 
 The Preparation of Tea 
 
 H- 
 
 What I Saw on my Way to 
 
 
 for Market. 
 
 
 School. 
 
 19. Importance of a Good Vocabulary. — It is of 
 
 the highest importance to know a great number of 
 words and to be able to use them properly. No 
 one can be a successful writer or speaker who has 
 not a large vocabulary at his command. As Eng- 
 lish abounds in words that express similar mean- 
 ings, it is often necessary to exercise great care 
 in choosing words that will express exactly what 
 we mean. An extensive vocabulary will not only 
 help us to express ourselves accurately, but it will 
 also enable us to give variety to our manner of 
 expression. 
 
 20. Ho'w to Obtain a Large Vocabiilai-y. — The 
 
 best means of securing a command of language 
 are: 
 
 1 . To listen to good speakers. 
 
 2. To converse with educated people. 
 
 3. To read good literature. 
 
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES ig 
 
 4. To refer to a dictionary when a word is not 
 understood. 
 
 5 . To fix in the memory the words learned, by 
 employing them in one's own conversation and 
 composition. 
 
 6. To translate aloud from other languages. 
 
 31. An Easy Style. — One who would write in a 
 graceful, fluent style should, from the beginning, 
 aim at a certain freedom of expression. He must 
 not imagine that he is simply to write correct sen- 
 tences, or that he is doing a rule-and-compass exer- 
 cise in rhetoric ; but he should enter into the spirit 
 of his subject, and write as if impressed with the 
 importance of his own ideas. Expression must 
 be made subservient to thought, not thought to 
 expression. 
 
 The following extract will show us how easily 
 and naturally Cooper employs his sentences to tell 
 us about the Indian Magna, who sits alone in his 
 tent at night, brooding on his wrongs and plotting 
 vengeance : 
 
 Hither, then, Magua retired, when his labors of policy were 
 ended. While others slept, however, he neither knew nor sought 
 repose. Had there been one sufficiently curious to have watched 
 the movements of the newly elected chief, he would have seen him 
 seated in a comer of his lodge, musing on the subject of his future 
 plans,, from the hour of his retirement to the time he had appointed 
 for the warriors to assemble again. Occasionally the air breathed 
 through the crevices of the hut, and the low flames that fluttered 
 about the embers of the fire threw their wavering light on the per- 
 son of the sullen recluse. At such moments it would not have 
 been difficult to have fancied the dusky savage the Prince of Dark- 
 ness, brooding on his own fancied wrongs and plotting evil. 
 
20 ■ THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 EXERCISE 17. 
 
 Study the passage about Magua and tell whether the 
 author presents Magua clearly to your mind. What 
 impression of Magua' s character do you get from this 
 passage ? Point out four words which give a peculiar 
 force to the sentences in which they are used. Give a 
 reason for each selection. 
 
 EXERCISE 18. 
 
 Arrange material for a composition on one or m.ore 
 of the following subjects : 
 
 I. 
 
 Indian Character. 
 
 7- 
 
 Bird Life around my Home. 
 
 2. 
 
 My Native Town. 
 
 8. 
 
 Joan of Arc. 
 
 3- 
 
 A Game of Ball. 
 
 9- 
 
 The Story of Regulus. 
 
 4- 
 
 James Fenimore Cooper. 
 
 ID. 
 
 Bicycling. 
 
 S- 
 
 The Battle of Gettys- 
 
 II. 
 
 The Salem Witchcraft 
 
 
 burg. 
 
 
 Delusion. 
 
 6. 
 
 Jhe Thousand Islands. 
 
 12. 
 
 The Battle of Saratoga. 
 
PUNCTUATION 21 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 PUNCTUATION 
 
 SS. The Theory of Punctuation. — In speaking 
 we make inflections and pauses in order to ren- 
 der our meaning clear. In writing we employ a 
 variety of marks to do for the eye what, in oral 
 discourse, pauses and inflections do for the ear. 
 Observe how diiificult it is to understand a group 
 of words when unpunctuated : 
 
 And our arms asked I our guns guns what for do not moun- 
 taineers attack the bear with a dagger and is not steel surer than 
 lead. 
 
 If properly punctuated the meaning is clear : 
 
 " And our arms ? " asked I ; "our guns ? " 
 " Guns ! What for ? Do not mountaineers attack the bear with 
 a dagger, and is not steel surer than lead ? " 
 
 From the passage just quoted we learn that punc- 
 tuation helps to make the meaning clear, because 
 it points out grammatical relations, and indicates 
 whether a sentence is assertive, interrogative, or 
 exclamatory. 
 
 S3. The Period. — The period (.) is used: 
 
 1 . After every complete sentence that is neither 
 interrogative nor exclamatory. 
 
 2. After abbreviations, and usually after Roman 
 numerals and the headings of chapters and sections. 
 
22 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 Note on Abbreviation. — Sometimes in abbreviating a word 
 the first letter only is used ; as, p. ^ox page. To form the plural of 
 the abbreviation, this letter is doubled; as, //. ior pages. In such 
 cases a period is not inserted between the two letters. This explains 
 why there is no period between the two L's in the title LL.D. 
 {Legum Doctor), the LL. standing for the Latin plural Legum. 
 Sometimes we abbreviate by taking the first letter and some lead- 
 ing letter in the middle of the word ; as, MS. for manuscript. 
 In such cases the period is used only at the end of the combined 
 letters ; and we make the abbreviation plural by doubling the last 
 letter; as, MSS. for manuscripts. The terms i-to, 8vo, ISmo, etc., 
 and the words 1st, Sd, 3d, etc., are not strictly abbreviations, and 
 they do not, therefore, require the period. 
 
 EXEECISE 19. 
 Insert periods where necessary, and give reasons for 
 so doing : 
 
 1. He sent the goods COD 
 
 2. He sent his MSS on the loth ult 
 
 3. He has the degrees B S and C E 
 
 4. Cf (Latin, confer') means compare 
 
 5. Pro tern meansyor the time being 
 
 6. Ph D stands for Doctor of Philosophy 
 
 7. Richard II and James II were dethroned 
 
 8. Charles II was called the Merry Monarch 
 
 9. The degree Bachelor of Arts may be written A B or B A 
 10. LL B stands for Bachelor of Laws and LL D for Doctor of 
 
 Laws 
 
 34. The Semicolon.— The semicolon (;) is used: 
 
 1 . To separate the principal clauses in a compound 
 sentence when no conjunction is used; as, " Touch 
 not; taste not; handle not." 
 
 2. To separate a series of clauses or phrases that 
 depend upon a common statement; as, " There was 
 
PUNCTUATION 23 
 
 now a sound behind me like a rushing blast ; I heard 
 the clatter of a thousand hoofs; and countless 
 throngs overtook me." 
 
 3. To precede such expressions as "as," "viz.," 
 ■sv^hen examples or illustrations follow ; ' for example, 
 ' ' The subject of the command may be omitted ; as, 
 'Come [you] on.' " 
 
 EXERCISE 20. 
 
 Insert semicolons where necessary, and give reasons 
 for so doing : 
 
 1. His answer was brief his manner courteous. 
 
 2. Holmes is, like Lowell, a humorist but, like Lowell, he knows 
 how to be earnest, serious, and even pathetic. 
 
 3. They forget that in England not one shilling of paper money 
 of any description is received but of choice that the whole has had 
 its origin in cash actually deposited and that it is convertible, at 
 pleasure, in an instant, and without the smallest loss, into cash 
 again. 
 
 4. The Puritan spoke with disdain of the low standard of popu- 
 lar morality his life was regulated by a far more rigid code his 
 virtue was sustained by motives unknown to men of the world. 
 
 5. Separate ownership is indicated by adding the sign of the 
 possessive to each name as, Alice's and Jennie's dresses. 
 
 35. Tlie Colon — The colon (:) is used: 
 I . To introduce a list, a direct quotation of con- 
 siderable length, or an explanatory statement ; as : 
 
 He bought the following books : a German grammar, a Webster's 
 dictionary, a geography, and a classical dictionary. 
 
 Pope says : " There never was any party, faction, sect, or cabal 
 whatsoever, in which the most ignorant were not the most violent." 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men are created 
 equal, etc. 
 
 ^ Some authors use the colon in such places. 
 
24 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 2. To separate the clauses of a compound sentence 
 in which the latter clause is an explanation or an 
 illustration of the former ; as, " We could not follow 
 him : the danger was too great." 
 
 3. After such phrases as "Dear sir," "Ladies and 
 gentlemen." 
 
 Note. — Sometimes the comma and the dash are used in such 
 constructions ; but the colon is preferable. 
 
 EXERCISE 21. 
 
 Insert colons where necessary, and give reasons for so 
 doing: 
 
 1. Terms three dollars a year, in advance. 
 
 2. The capital leading questions on which you must this day 
 decide are these two i. Whether you ought to concede. 2. What 
 your concession ought to be. 
 
 3. I am no traveler it is ten years since I have left my naUve 
 village. 
 
 4. Shakespeare says 
 
 How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds 
 Makes ill deeds done. 
 
 5. Some things we can, and others we cannot do we can walk, 
 but we cannot fly. 
 
 6. King Midas found on his plate not a goldfish, but a gold fish 
 its little bones were golden wires, and its scales were thin plates of 
 gold. 
 
 7. He who seldom thinks of heaven is not likely to get there 
 the only way to hit the mark is to keep the eye fixed on it. 
 
 26. The Comma. — The comma (,) is used: 
 I . To separate the elements of a sentence that are 
 grammatically independent or parenthetical; as, 
 "Accept, my dear friend, this token of my regard " ; 
 " Grammar is, after all, the basis of rhstoric." 
 
PUNCTUATION 2$ 
 
 2. To separate words, phrases, or clauses used in 
 apposition ; as, " Whittier, the Quaker poet, lived in 
 Massachusetts." 
 
 Note. — A common and a proper noun used together as a 
 single name should not be separated by commas , as, " The philos- 
 opher Diogenes lived in a tub." 
 
 3. To separate a relative clause when not re- 
 strictive; as, "Music, which refines and elevates 
 the mind, should form part of a liberal education." 
 
 NOTE.-^A relative clause is restrictive when it limits or defines 
 its antecedent ; as, " Fruit that is too ripe is unwholesome." Here 
 the clause " that is too ripe " is equivalent to an adjective limiting 
 " fruit." In the sentence " He sent me fruit, which I shall be glad 
 to share with you," the relative clause is not restrictive ; because it 
 is equivalent to an additional principal clause, " and I shall be glad 
 to share it with you." 
 
 4. To separate a conditional clause, when it comes 
 first, from the rest of the sentence ; as, " If a cour- 
 tier was fond of dress, oil was flung over his richest 
 suit." 
 
 5. To indicate omitted words ; as, " He was a tall, 
 [and] large man. " 
 
 6. To indicate a change in subject between parts 
 of a compound sentence ; as, ' ' Pure water is trans- 
 parent, but milk is not." 
 
 Note. — If the members of a compound sentence are long, the 
 comma may be used even when there is no change of subject. 
 
 7. To separate words and phrases in a series ; as, 
 " He is old, blind, and poor." 
 
 8. To separate the phrase or clause introduced 
 by an explanatory " or " ; as, " The skull, or eraaium, 
 is not of uniform thickness." 
 
26 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 9, To separate adverb-phrases when they begin 
 a sentence, or are not closely connected with the 
 context ; as, " On the arrival of my friend, we pro- 
 ceeded to the hotel." 
 
 Note. — When the adverb-phrase is short, the comma may be 
 omitted ; as, " In the sentence just quoted we see that the comma 
 is used." 
 
 ID. To separate a logical subject,- if it ends in a 
 verb, or is very long ; as, " The town in which 
 Shakespeare was born, and in which he died, is 
 Stratford-on- Avon. " 
 
 EXERCISE 22. 
 
 Complete the punctuation of the following sentences, 
 explaining the use of each comma you insert: 
 
 1. Ring out wild bells to the wild sky. 
 
 2. Diogenes the Greek philosopher lived in a tub. 
 
 3. Water which is oxygen and hydrogen united is essential to 
 life. 
 
 4. The soul being immortal its character will determine its 
 destiny. 
 
 5. Though the mills of God grind slowly yet they grind exceed- 
 ing small. 
 
 6. They were the framers of the constitution which has endured 
 for a century. 
 
 7. Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire them and 
 wise men use them. 
 
 8. If you would be loved as a companion avoid unnecessary criti- 
 cism upon those with whom you live. 
 
 9. The hound caught the scent after a long delay and led us 
 over the hill to the next piece of woods. 
 
 IQ. He lost the thread of his discourse hesitated repeated the 
 same words several times and was so confused that in speaking of 
 the Act of Settlement he could not recall the name of the Electress 
 Sophia. 
 
PUNCTUATION 27 
 
 37. The Question Mark. — The question mark (?) 
 is placed at the end of every direct question ; as, 
 " How can I tell?" It is not placed after indirect 
 questions. 
 
 28. Tlie Exclamation Mark. — The exclamation 
 mark (!) is used after exclamatory words, phrases, 
 and sentences; as, "Pshaw!" "O blissful days!" 
 " Hail, holy light ! offspring of heaven, firstborn!" 
 An exclamatory sentence beginning with an inter- 
 jection may, for the purpose of holding the emotion 
 in suspense, have a comma after the interjection 
 and an exclamation mark at the end of the sentence; 
 as, "Ah, you are back again!" 
 
 29. The Dash. — The dash ( — ) is used : 
 
 1. To indicate an abrupt change in thought 01 
 construction; as, "Down I fell through the chill, 
 thick, pitchy air, till, striking with a mighty force 
 on the rocks beneath — I waked, and lo, it was a 
 dream!" 
 
 2 . Sometimes to enclose parenthetic matter ; as, 
 "The real question is. Are the United States — so 
 far as language is concerned — still provinces of 
 England, or do they constitute a nation?" 
 
 3. To indicate that special stress is placed on a 
 certain part of the sentence, as dn the case of the 
 italicized words below : 
 
 Yet we in Oxford, brought up amidst the beauty and sweetness 
 of that beautiful place, have not failed to seize one truth — the truth 
 that beauty and sweetness are essential characters of a complete 
 human perfection. 
 
28 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 4. To take the place of omitted words, letters, or 
 figures ; as, ' ' He was born in the v^illage of U — , in 
 the year 18 — ." 
 
 30. Parentheses and Brackets. — Parentheses 
 ( ) are used to enclose some incidental remark 
 which is independent of the grammatical construc- 
 tion of the sentence ; as, "I told him (and who would 
 not?) just what I thought of him." Brackets [ ] 
 have the same use, but are generally employed to 
 enclose some remark or explanation interpolated by 
 someone other than the author; as, "It ['Gray's 
 Elegy '] abounds with images which find a mirror in 
 every mind, and with sentiments to which every 
 bosom returns an echo." 
 
 31. The Hyphen. — A hyphen (-) is used : 
 
 1. To join the parts of some compound and de- 
 rivative words ; as, "broad-brimmed," "Vice-Presi- 
 dent." 
 
 2. To divide words at the end of a line. Care 
 should be taken to divide a word only where a syl- 
 lable ends. 
 
 32. The Apostrophe. — The apostrophe (') is 
 
 used: 
 
 1 . To denote the omission of one or more letters ; 
 as, "O'er crag and o'er dune." 
 
 2. To distinguish the possessive case ; as, "John's 
 horses." 
 
 3. To form the plural of letters and figures; as, 
 "a's," "3's." 
 
PUNCTUATION 2g 
 
 33. Quotation Marks. — Double quotation marks 
 (*' ") should enclose a direct quotation; as, He said, 
 '• I will do it." The single marks (' ') should be used 
 for a quotation within a quotation ; as, " He said, 
 ' I will do it. ' " Double quotation marks are also 
 sometimes used to indicate the title of a book, 
 magazine, or newspaper. 
 
 Note. — English usage is the reverse of American, single marks 
 being used to enclose a direct quotation, and double marks to en- 
 close a quotation within a quotation, 
 
 34. Capitals. — A capital is used for the initial 
 letter of : 
 
 1 . The first word of a sentence, a line of poetry, 
 or a direct quotation ; as, " Ask yourself the ques- 
 t !on. Is it right or wrong ? " 
 
 "Straight mine eye hath caught new pleasures 
 Whilst the landscape round it measures: 
 Russet lawns and fallows gray 
 Where the nibbling flocks do stray." 
 
 2. Any name or title of the Deity or personal 
 pronoun referring to Him ; as, " O Thou Almighty 
 God, .who weighest the nations of the earth." 
 
 3. Any personal title when it is equivalent to a 
 proper noun ; as, " The President and the Vice- 
 President were there." 
 
 4. Any proper noun, or any word derived from 
 a proper noun, unless by long usage it has ceased 
 to be associated with the noun from which it is 
 derived ; as, " My cousin Arthur says that the 
 porcelain known as china was brought originally 
 from China." 
 
30 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 5 . The name of a day of the week or a month of 
 the year, but not the name of a season; as, " Fri- 
 day, the twenty-first day of March, is the first day 
 of spring." 
 
 6. Any word representing an important event in 
 history; as, "The American Revolution, the Mid- 
 dle Ages." 
 
 7. The word " Bible," the word " Scriptures," or 
 the name of any book of the Bible ; as, ' ' The first 
 book in the Bible is Genesis." 
 
 8. The words "North," "South," " East," and 
 " West," when they refer to parts of the country, 
 not simply to the points of the compass ; as, "I 
 have a brother living in the West." 
 
 / and O used as words are written with capital 
 letters ; as, " How it happened, O sir, I do not 
 know." 
 
 35. Remarks on Punctuation. — We do not punc- 
 tuate now as writers did a century ago. We use 
 fewer marks, especially commas ; for the tendency 
 is to simplify punctuation. The great principle on 
 which all rules are based is that parts closely con- 
 nected in sense do not require separation, but that 
 any interruption of the sense, or any modification of 
 it by qualifying statements, should be indicated by 
 appropriate marks. He who would punctuate accu- 
 rately should first understand the construction of 
 his sentence, and then should keep in mind that the 
 purpose of punctuation is to enable the reader to see 
 at a glance which words belong together and which 
 words are to be kept apart, 
 
PUNCTUATION 31 
 
 EXERCISE 23. 
 
 Punctuate the following sentences : 
 
 1. Oh do tell me 
 
 2. I ask you shall I go 
 
 3. What a sigh was there 
 
 4. Its not its length was twenty feet 
 
 5. Who wrote the breezy call of incense-breathing morn 
 
 6. The title of this book is Rome Its Rise and Fall 
 
 7. The two motives love of man and love of God were constant 
 
 8. Shakespeare says 
 
 The evil that men do lives after them 
 
 9. He wrote on the margin Deut xx 21 2 Sam xix A D 1899 
 
 10. Bought 9 mos credit 4 yds at 12 cts a yard 
 
 1 1. Be our plain answer this the throne we honor is the people's 
 choice 
 
 12. There are three genders the masculine the feminine and 
 the neuter 
 
 13. The books which contained pictures maps and autographs 
 brought a high price 
 
 14. Good temper is like a sunny day it sheds its brightness over 
 everything 
 
 15. All the cabin passengers who were beyond the center of the 
 boat were saved 
 
 16. Julius Caesar wrote in a clear natural correct and flowing 
 style 
 
 17. No other writer has depicted with so much art or so much 
 accuracy the habits manners and customs of his day 
 
 18. Break break break 
 
 On thy cold gray stones O sea 
 
 19. We next went to London which is the largest city in the 
 world 
 
 20. The country is romantic but the soil is poor 
 
 21. If you want a thing done do it yourself 
 
 22. He must advance or reeede and it is impossible to advance 
 without peri] or recede without humiliation 
 
32 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 23. Such a one and no other I conceive has had a liberal edu- 
 cation for he is as completely as a man can be in harmony with 
 nature 
 
 24. Glorious islets too I have seen rise out of the haze but they 
 were few and soon swallowed in the general element again 
 
 25. These are the pamphleteers oh no these are the gazetteers 
 
 26. A great general who died on the field of victory said before 
 his death I hope my country will be satisfied 
 
 27. Strike till the last armed foe expires 
 
 28. What you leave at your death let it be without controversy 
 or else the lawyers will be your heirs 
 
 29. I have no room to illustrate these rules fully let them be re- 
 membered and they will exemplify themselves with experience and 
 practice 
 
 30. The fire might warm you or thick clothes but her ' 
 Nothing can warm again 
 
 EXERCISE 24. 
 
 ht- the f Mow ing- p ara gr aph the liask- t ndiedr es the 
 e nd » f a s ewttncr. Replace the dash with the proper 
 mark, insert capitals where necessary, and complete the 
 punctuation of each sentence: 
 
 In yonder wooden steeple which crowns the .summit of that red 
 brick State-house stands an old man with snow white hair and sun- 
 burnt face — he is clad in humble attire yet his eye gleams as it is 
 fixed on the ponderous outline of the bell suspended in the steeple 
 there — by his side gazing into his sunburnt face in wonder stands 
 a flaxen-haired boy with laughing eyes of summer blue — the old 
 man ponders for a moment upon the strange words written upon 
 the bell then gathering the boy in his arms he speaks look here 
 my child— will you do this old man a kindness — then hasten down 
 the stairs and wait in the hall below till a man gives you a message 
 for me when he gives you that word run out into the street and 
 shout it up to me— do you mind — the boy sprang from the old 
 man's arms and threaded his way down the dark stairs — George 
 Lippard : Washington and his Generals. 
 
PART It 
 WORDS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 GOOD USE 
 
 36. What Is Meant by Good Use. — Since the pur- 
 pose of language is to communicate thought, it is 
 evident that he who would make his meaning clear 
 must use words that are now generally understood 
 by intelligent people wherever the English lan- 
 guage is spoken ; that is, he must use words that 
 are present, national, and reputable. 
 
 37. Present Use. — When we try to read a book 
 written three or four hundred years ago, we find in 
 it many words and phrases that seem strange to us. 
 For example,' here is a sentence from a book writ- 
 ten about 1356: 
 
 He let voiden out of his chamber all manner of men, lords and 
 other; for he would speak with me in counsel. 
 
 In the fourteenth century the word ' ' voiden " was 
 as well understood as "to dismiss" is in our time; 
 but it is scarcely intelligible to us now. 
 
34 WORDS 
 
 Words that once were current in our language 
 but have fallen into disuse are called obsolete 
 WORDS. A word that is passing' out of use is said 
 
 to be OBSOLESCENT. 
 
 38. Words -with. Obsolete Meanings. — Some words 
 do not mean now what they did four or five cen- 
 turies ago. Thus, clerk once meant a "clergy- 
 man" or a "college student"; now it means "a 
 person who keeps accounts or sells merchandise." 
 Clerk is with us a good word, but in the sense of 
 "clergyman" it is now obsolete. The italicized 
 words below are examples of words that have 
 changed in meaning : 
 
 I prevented (went before) the dawning of the morning. — Ps. 
 cxix, iJfT, 
 
 Let none admire (wonder) that riches grow in heU. — Milton. 
 
 A station (standing posture) like the herald Mercury 
 New-lighted on a heaven-kissing hill. — Shakespeare. 
 
 Some words are obsolete when taken separately, 
 but are properly used in connection with other 
 words with which they have long been associated ; 
 as, "kith and kin," "to and fro," "null and void." 
 
 39. "Words Obsolete in Pi-ose but Not in Poetry. — 
 
 Some words obsolete in prose are still sometimes 
 used in poetry and in solemn or sacred language ; 
 as, marvel for "wonder," welkin for "sky," ere 
 for ''heiore," deem for "think," o/t for "often," 
 perchance for " perhaps, " z-rt/i? for "valley," /«'«»« 
 for "two," thou andye for "you." 
 
GOOD USE 35 
 
 40. National Use. — In Pennsylvania india-rubber 
 overshoes are often called gums, and in some of the 
 Southern States watering-troughs are called gums, 
 because they are made out of solid blocks of the 
 gum-tree. The use of the word " gums" in either 
 of these senses is local, and is wrong in writing 
 which is intended for general readers, because the 
 word has not these meanings in all parts of the 
 country. Aword t hat has a me aning pefiuliar-te- 
 one part of the country is_calkd_a^^OiviJiCiALiSM. 
 
 41. Teelinical "Words. — Words which belong _to 
 the nomenclature of speciaL ar,ts_and sciences, are 
 commonly called technical words. They~are 
 preperly used only where scientific accuracy is 
 demanded, or when they are addressed to those 
 who know the science or art in question. Unless 
 we have studied geology, the following description 
 of a species of rock called diorite is unintelligible 
 to us: 
 
 Diorite, a crystalline-granular compound of oligoclase and 
 hornblende. 
 
 EXERCISE 25. 
 
 Rewrite the following extract from a newspaper ac- 
 count of a baseball game, substituting where possible 
 good English for the expressions not in national use : 
 
 Alder drew a base on balls, Salmon fumbled Reese's grounder, 
 De Schweinitz hit for a base, and then McKelvey came to the 
 plate. He bunted a slow one towards third, on which .\lder 
 scored, but McKelvey was thrown out at first. In the meanwhile 
 poor coaching got Reese mixed up on third base, with the result 
 that he was put out. Howard laced out a two-bagger, Chalmers 
 
36 
 
 WORDS 
 
 sacrificed, and Howard scored on Grey's scratch hit to right field. 
 .... It was in the ninth inning, and the visitors' weakest batters 
 came up to the rubber. Even the umpire expected to see them go 
 out in one, two, three order and victory perch on the Brown and 
 White's banner. Willis was first to bat and rapped a hot one to 
 Taylor, who threw him out at first. Launt hit an easy one to 
 Eisenhardt, who fumbled it, to everybody's surprise, and instead 
 of Lauut being the second out he was safe on first on the error. 
 Salmon popped up a little foul fly off third base and McKelvey 
 made a muff of it. 
 
 43. English, and American Use. — There are 
 many words used in America which are not met 
 with in England. The question arises, Are such 
 words provincialisms ? Words which are under- 
 stood in every part of our country, even though 
 they are not used in England, are not regarded as 
 provincialisms. Whatever changes in our language 
 our different social and political institutions require 
 may be made, and are made, without hesitation. 
 We have the words "state-house," "congress," 
 "lobbyist," because we need them, and do not 
 require the sanction of English use to make them 
 national. In the following list of words, the Ameri- 
 can is as proper as the British use : 
 
 British. 
 
 American. 
 
 British. 
 
 American. 
 
 luggage-van 
 
 baggage car 
 
 perambulator 
 
 baby carriage 
 
 lift 
 
 elevator 
 
 antimacassar 
 
 tidy 
 
 jug 
 
 pitcher 
 
 stoker 
 
 fireman 
 
 engine driver 
 
 engineer 
 
 haberdasher 
 
 men's furnisher 
 
 
 'ICiilOIIUUU. 
 
 guard 
 
 conductor 
 
 form 
 
 bench 
 
 booking-clerk 
 
 ticket agent 
 
 Such differences in American and English use 
 need not be decried. " They serve," as Professor 
 
GOOD USE 37 
 
 Freeman says, ' ' to show on which side of the 
 ocean an author writes." But, on the other hand, it 
 is true that the language of the educated English- 
 man does not differ widely from the language of 
 the educated American. A careful American 
 writer will not say pants for "trousers," vest for 
 "waistcoat," reckon, calculate, or guess for "think," 
 smart or brainy for "clever," folks for "family," 
 fix for "repair," truck for "garden produce," 
 proven for " proved," to be through for "to finish," 
 right off for "immediately," well posted for "well 
 informed," a party for "a person," or depot for 
 "station." These words are not used in England, 
 nor are they in good use in America, 
 
 43. Other Provincialisms. — Other examples of 
 provincialisms are: dumb for "stupid," grip for 
 "hand bag," hitch up (horses) for "harness," lines 
 for "reins" (of harness), right for "very," watch 
 out for "take care," to pack for "to carry," ban- 
 quette for " sidewalk, " ^fl//i?r7 for " veranda," /^r^- 
 handed for "well-to-do," flunk for " fail," to enthuse 
 for "to inspire or feel enthusiasm," allow for 
 " think" or "believe," calculate for "intend," even 
 up for "get even with," to rag at for "to rail at," to 
 fetch up for ' ' to bring up," to hail from for "to come 
 ixoxa.," shay for " chaise, " r^?^,^ for " stone " (large 
 or small), dever for " amiable," smart for " good." 
 
 44. Reputable Use. — Word s which are in_gen: 
 eral us e jimong writers. aad-Speak&rs of established 
 reputation are said to be reputable. 
 
38 WORDS 
 
 EXERCISE 26. 
 
 In the following sentences point out the provincialisms^ 
 and substitute correct words for them : 
 
 1. Let us go snucks for it. 
 
 2. There is a right smart of men here. 
 
 3. They shivareed him when he returned. 
 
 4. We waited on the train nearly an hour. 
 
 5. I never saw such a snarl of dogs as he keeps. 
 
 6. He scooted past me so that I could not catch him. 
 
 7. The colored man was evidently looking for trouble. 
 
 8. He held the lines tightly, but the horse did not slacken his 
 pace. 
 
 45. Literary, Colloquial, and Tulgar I^nglish.. — 
 
 We hear in ordinary conversation many words and 
 contracted forms which we do not find in books. 
 Some of these expressions are so widely used by 
 intelligent people that we cannot refuse them a 
 place in our language ; others are used only by 
 uneducated and careless speakers, and we cannot, 
 therefore, admit them to the companionship of good 
 words. We, _ha.ve,- -then, three kinds of English, 
 namely, literary English, or„ that which is found 
 in„-W£ll-auitteiL-- hooks.; colloquial English, or 
 that which we hear used in conversation by edu- 
 cated people; and vulgar English, or that which 
 distinguishes the speech of the illiterate or careless 
 from that of the educated and careful. In colloquial 
 English, we find such words as "don't," "can't," 
 " shan't," and " won't." Although these words are 
 proper in conversation, we should not use them in 
 our compositions, unless we are writing a conversa- 
 tion. Vulgar English, which includes such words as 
 
GOOD USE 39 
 
 "hain't," "darsn't," " hern," and all present parti- 
 ciples in which the final "g" is not pronounced, 
 should be rejected as incorrect. Under the head 
 of vulgar English come slang and such contrac- 
 tions as " exam.," " math.," " trig." 
 
 46. Purity. — Language that is present, national, 
 and reputable is said to be J>ure. 
 
 Words that are no t present, national, and reputa- 
 ble are called barbarisms. 
 
 47. Standard of Purity. — Our standard of purity 
 is the usage of the best writers and speakers of our 
 time. By "the best writers" we do not always mean 
 the most popular writers. Light and trashy books, 
 written with little or no regard to rhetorical purity, 
 and often with nothing remarkable in them but 
 their vulgarity, are easily puffed into popularity by 
 advertising and made to run through many editions. 
 Such books do not give us a standard of purity. 
 Hawthorne, Holmes, Emerson, and Lowell are 
 standard writers who, although not living now, are 
 so modern in point of time that their works may be 
 taken as examples of good usage. 
 
 48 . Divided TJse. — As usage among good writers 
 is by no means uniform, we sometimes find our- 
 selves compelled, as it were, to choose between two 
 masters. In such cases we may be guided by the 
 following rules : 
 
 I . Choose the simpler expression ; as, approve 
 rather than "approve of." 
 
40 WORDS 
 
 2 . Prefer the word that is easier to pronounce ; as, 
 ingenuity rather than "ingeniousness." 
 
 3. Have regard to the analogy of language. Use 
 .contemporary instead of " cotemporary " ; since the 
 
 n of "con" is usually retained before a consonant 
 ^and dropped before a vowel. 
 
 4. Choose the word or phrase that has but one 
 meaning in preference to that which has two or 
 more meanings. Insurance policy is preferable to 
 "assurance" policy, because assurance means also 
 ' ' confidence. " International exhibition is better than 
 "international exposition," for the reason that expo- 
 sition is also used in such phrases as ' ' exposition of 
 doctrine." 
 
 EXERCISE 27. 
 Write an answer consisting of at least two complete 
 sentences to each of the following questions : 
 
 1. What is the difference between literary and colloquial Eng- 
 lish ? between colloquial and vulgar English .' 
 
 2. When is language said to be national? when reputable? 
 when present? 
 
 3. What are technical words ? When is their use proper? 
 
 EXERCISE 28. 
 
 For the colloquialisms given below substitute literary 
 English : 
 
 1 . He is a slick man. 
 
 2. What a slouch he is ! 
 
 3. I am in no shape for work. 
 
 4. He had no show to succeed. 
 
 5. The scheme slumped through. 
 
 6. We sized him up before he spoke. 
 
GOOD USE 4! 
 
 7. He had a close shave in the wreck. 
 
 8. He was badly rattled by the applause. 
 
 9. Yes, I have been traipsing about all day. 
 
 10. We knew that he was shaky, so we would not trust him. 
 
 EXERCISE 29. 
 
 Write a composition on one of the following subjects : 
 
 1. A Sailor's Life. 11. A Hunting Trip. 
 
 2. Unknown Heroes. 12. Joseph Addison. 
 
 3. The Story of Cinderella. 13. Our National Songs. 
 
 4. A Chinese Laundryman. 14. The Industry of Bees. 
 
 5. The Story of John Gilpin. 15. Milton as a Statesman. 
 
 6. The Character of the Puri- 16. The Capture of Agui- 
 
 tans. naldo. 
 
 7. The Pan-American Exlii- 17. Rebecca, in Scott's "Ivan- 
 
 bition. hoe." 
 
 8. Patriotism in the Public 18. Description of Sleepy 
 
 Schools. Hollow. 
 
 9. The Assassination of Pres- 19. The Cultivation of the 
 
 ident McKinley. , Coffee Plant. 
 
 10. Hepzibah Pyncheon, in 20. Advantages of Having a 
 
 Hawthorne's " House of High School Literary 
 
 Seven Gables." Society. 
 
 EXERCISE 30. 
 
 Jn the following sentences substitute proper expres- 
 sions for those in italics : 
 
 1. The candy is all. 
 
 2. He ain't reasortable. 
 
 3. I disremember your name. 
 
 4. yi^ folks won't leave me go. 
 
 5. He allowed that I was right. 
 
 6. He toted the grip all over town. 
 
 7. He tried to pass a iogus cheque. 
 
Aa WORDS 
 
 8. He is too dumb to learn algebra. 
 
 9. My chum knows a thing or two. 
 
 10. He is the smartest boy in school. 
 
 1 1. The weather is pert this morning. 
 
 12. I reckon he will loan me his horse. 
 
 13. He forgot hisgums and his umbrella. 
 
 14. Is this jelly boughten or home-made? 
 
 1 5. He raises a heap of truck on his place. 
 
 16. The difference betwixt these is not great. 
 
 17. The tramp said that his/arrfwas a tough. 
 
 18. We have just returned from a smart walk. 
 
 19. He stood by the door as though he wanted in. 
 
 20. They forgot to take grub with them, and so they were 
 hungry. 
 
INCORRECT WORDS 43 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 INCORRECT WORDS 
 
 49. Incorrect Words. — The standard of correct 
 English, to which all who would excel as writers 
 must conform, is the use established by a great 
 number, if not by the majority, of celebrated authors 
 in their writings. When doubt arises whether a 
 word is present, national, or reputable, or whether 
 It IS correctly used, recourse must be had to the 
 works of these authors as the only standard. Devi- 
 ations from this standard fall, for the most part, 
 under three general heads; viz., i. Incorrect words ; 
 2. Misused words; 3. Incorrect grammar. 
 
 60. Incorrect "Words Classified. — The commoner 
 kinds of incorrect words are : 
 
 1. Words that are too new. 
 
 2. Slang words. . 
 
 3. Abbreviations -not in gjood use. 
 
 4. Words unnecessarily invented by newspaper 
 reporte rs. 
 
 51. "Words that are too New.^New words are 
 coming into use almost constantly. Many of them, 
 like "swat" (a blow), " poppycock " (trivial talk), 
 "swag" (booty), and "rustler" (an active person), 
 lead a short and not creditable existence ; while 
 others, like "boycott," "cablegram,"' "telegram," 
 
 * Now widely used, alkhougK objected to by purists. 
 
44 WORDS 
 
 after a precarious career, are finally recognized as 
 serviceable, and become a part of our established 
 speech. If a new word supplies a want, if we have 
 no other word quite so appropriate or expressive, 
 it will receive in time the sanction of good use. 
 We should find much difficulty iji doing without 
 such words as "typewriter," "automobile," "tele- 
 phone," "bicycle," "phonograph"; and yet all these 
 words are comparatively new. Because we needed 
 them, they quickly became a part of our estab- 
 lished speech. New words which are not needed 
 should be rejected. It is not an easy matter to de- 
 termine just when a new word is needed. The old 
 rule given by the poet Pope is a safe guide : 
 
 In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold; 
 Alike fantastic, if too new, or old ; 
 ' Be not the first by whom the new is tried. 
 Nor yet the last to lay the old aside. 
 
 Dictionaries often will help us in determining 
 whether a new word is needed or not; for they 
 will inform us whether we have already a word 
 which expresses the idea conveyed by the new 
 word. A good dictionary will tell us, for example, 
 that we should not use deputize for "commission," 
 effectuate ior "effect," eventuate iox"endi," banj'oist 
 for "player on the banjo," swipe for " steal." 
 
 52. Slang. — Temporary words, and phrases 
 springing from some local condition and not 
 needed in our language, are called slang. Such 
 expressions for the most part are coarse and should 
 be avoided, because he who acquires the habit of 
 
INCORRECT WORDS 45 
 
 using slang will soon become so accustomed to it 
 that the ordinary reputable vocabulary will seem 
 to him incapable of expressing his ideas. 
 
 Words admirable in themselves and authorized 
 by dictionaries are sometimes used with a slang 
 significance; that is, in a sense not sanctioned by 
 good authors. The following extract from a lec- 
 ture given in one of our prominent universities by 
 a professor, who attempted to teach history by the 
 use of slang, shows to what extent language may 
 be perverted : 
 
 Some whale of a knight had a scrap with his attendant, got 
 the drop on the King and put him out of the ring. Then his son 
 took the throne; but he had no kick coming, for with the throne 
 he got a mortgage on the coffers of the realm and the bulge on all 
 comers. 
 
 EXERCISE 31. 
 
 In the following sentences substitute literary English 
 for the slang expressions given in italics : 
 
 1. Let us not talk sAop. 
 
 2. It was a swell turnout. 
 
 3. He said he had no use for me. 
 
 4. They cut up shines every night. 
 
 5. We tried to give him the shake. 
 
 6. They skedaddled down the street. 
 
 7. There is a big combine formed in the city. 
 
 8. They kicked against the umpire's decision. 
 
 9. He slugged his opponent before he could escape. 
 
 10. He was laying for us as we came around the corner. 
 
 11. We knew that they would back out of the agreement. 
 
 53. Abbreviated Words. — Certain abbreviated 
 words have, by long usage, become established in 
 
46 WORDS 
 
 our language. For instance, nobody would think 
 of objecting to the form "Mrs.," which stands for 
 Mistress; or "Mr.," which stands for Master; or 
 "cab," which stands for cabriolet. The following 
 contractions, however, are objectionable: 
 
 gents, for gentlemen photo, for photograph 
 
 incog, for incognito phiz, for physiognomy 
 
 ain't, for are not co-ed, for woman student 
 
 'phone, for telephone cap, for captain 
 
 ad, for advertisement spec, for speculation 
 
 doc, for doctor specs, for spectacles 
 
 gym, for gymnasium prelim, for preliminary 
 
 cute, for acute pard, for partner 
 
 bike, for bicycle rep, for reputation 
 
 54. Kewspaper "Words. — The vocabulary of the 
 ordinary newspaper, though usually expressive, 
 contains many words that have not the sanction of 
 good use. The following are objectionable even in 
 colloquial English : 
 
 an invite to suicide to culture educationalist 
 
 a tough to enthuse to railroad suspicioned 
 
 a combine to bag to jail a recommend 
 
 a fake to burglarize to jug to stop (for to stay) 
 
 a steal to defalcate to probate (a will) to wire (for to telegraph) 
 
 Other newspaper words, such as "to clerk," "repor- 
 torial," "talented" (in the sense of "gifted"), "par- 
 tially" (in the sense of "partly"), and "curious" 
 (in the sense of " singular "), have at least gained 
 the rank of colloquial English. 
 
 55. Other Objectionable Words. — The following 
 words are incorrect even in colloquial English : 
 
INCORRECT WORDS 47 
 
 bogus inside of (within) onto preventative 
 
 indecided a permit confliction complainable 
 
 firstly casuality off-handed disillusioned 
 
 illy manageress second-handed poloist 
 
 doubtlessly donate walkist ungallantry 
 
 56. Foreign Words. — It is unwise to employ 
 foreign words in a sentence when there are 
 English words which will express the thought. 
 An English or an American author who has any- 
 thing worth writing will always write it to the best 
 advantage in plain English. 
 
 We have before us an article from the pen of a very clever 
 writer, and, as it appears in a magazine which specially professes 
 to represent the " best society," it may be taken as a good specimen 
 of the style. It describes a dancing party, and we discover for the 
 first time how much learning is necessary to describe a "hop" 
 properly. The reader is informed that all the people of the dance 
 belong to the beau monde, -as may be seen at a coup d'oeil ; the 
 demi-monde is scrupulously excluded, and in fact everything about 
 it bespeaks i\\e. haut ton of the whole affair. A lady who has been 
 happy in her hairdresser is said to be coiffie a ravir. Then there 
 is the bold man to describe. Having acquired savotr faire, he 
 is never afraid of making a faux pas, but no matter what kind of 
 conversation is started plunges at once in medias res. Following 
 him is the fair debutante, who is already on the lookout for un ton 
 parti, but whose nes retroussi is a decided obstacle to her success. 
 She is, of course, accompanied by mamma en g7ande toilette, who, 
 entre nous, looks rather ridie even in gaslight. — Leeds Mercury. 
 
 57. Foreign "Words Domesticated. — Although 
 the use of foreign words which are not domesticated 
 is a violation of rhetorical purity, there are many 
 words and phrases borrowed from other languages 
 which have become part of our common speech, 
 because they express the idea more accurately than 
 
48 WORDS 
 
 do the corresponding native English words. Such 
 words are " nom de plume," "fiat," "ignoramus," 
 "quorum," "incognito," "ennui, "and "anathema." 
 These words will be found in any good English 
 dictionary, and we may use them when occasion 
 requires. The words "d6but" and "elite," although 
 not sanctioned by our best authorities, seem to 
 be gaining ground, and eventually may become 
 domesticated. 
 
 EXERCISE 32. 
 
 In tlie following sentences substitute correct woi'ds for 
 those in italics : 
 
 1. We had lots of fun. 
 
 2. I disremember his name. 
 
 3. He dove to the bottom twice. ^ 
 
 4. I expect that he intends to go. 
 
 5. He belongs to the upper-crust. 
 
 6. We had a nice time at the party. 
 
 7. It will be apt to rain to-morrow. 
 
 8. This is an exceptionable advantage. 
 
 9. He was suflfering with the teethache. 
 
 10. His gallantness is indeed remarkable. 
 
 11. I have \^zSV.e.^ further than you have. 
 
 12. He lived in extenuated CAxcaxnAsxxss. ^ 
 
 13. The educationalist suicided \slS\. week. 
 
 14. He delineates Yankee dialect perfectly. 
 
 1 5. He has proven that the contract is bogus. 
 
 16. He said he would come for a couple of days. 
 
 17. He takes great delight in doing outre things. 
 
 18. You have as much right as I to be punished. 
 
 19. Governor Stone Sundayed s.\. the Metropolitan. 
 
 20. The events all transpired inside of three weeks. 
 
INCORRECT WORDS 49 
 
 21. His style of Rving corresponded with his means. 
 
 22. He wired v.% that he would stop a few days at the Central. 
 
 23. It seems funtiy that the two children should die within a 
 year. 
 
 24. View the matter as we will, there seems to be something 
 underhanded m it. 
 
 25. I have just received your (cind invitation to visit you, and am 
 sorry that I cannot ^c. 
 
 26. The walkist received a permit from the managers to go 
 onto the track at 8 o'clock. 
 
 27. The tramp Roderick, who burgled the two houses on West 
 Hill last week and -^a^ jailed Sunday night, broke out last even- 
 ing, but -^lA policed clear to the river, where, finding escape impos- 
 sible, he suicided by jumping into the river. 
 
 EXERCISE 33. 
 
 For the following barbarisms substitute words in 
 good use : 
 
 I. Role. 2. Furore. 3. Illy. 4. Faddist. 5. Chic. 6. Exam. 
 7. Snide. 8. Photo. 9. Finicky. 10. Tote. 11. Onto. 12. Firstly, 
 13. A disappoint. 14. A try. 15. A steal. 16. A fake. 
 
50 WORDS 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 MISUSED WORDS 
 
 58. Misused Words. — To use good English words 
 in a wrong sense is a common error. Sheridan, in 
 his comedy, "TheRivals," has an amusing character, 
 appropriately called Mrs. Malaprop, who through 
 ignorance persistently uses words in a wrong sense. 
 It was she who wanted her niece to ' ' illiterate " 
 (obliterate) her lover, and who said that her " afflu- 
 ence " (influence) over her niece was very small. On 
 another occasion she thus soliloquizes about a duel : 
 
 Here's fine work ! — here's fine suicide, parricide, and simulation 
 going on in the fields! And Sir Anthony not to be found to pre- 
 vent the antistrophe ! . . . That gentleman can tell you — 'twas he 
 enveloped the affair to me . . . but he can tell you the perpendicu- 
 lars . . . We should only participate things . . . Nay, no delusions 
 to the past. 
 
 Errors less ludicrous, however, claim our atten- 
 tion. In the following sentences, the words in 
 parentheses should be used instead of those which 
 are italicized : 
 
 He is not liable (likely) to meet with such good fortune. 
 
 Likely suggests " probability " ; liable^ " unpleasant probability." 
 
 It is impossible to predicate (predict) the result. 
 
 To predict means " to foretell " ; to predicate^ *' to assert." 
 
 The prisoner was doomed to expatiate (expiate) his crime. 
 
 To expiate means *' to atone for " ; to expatiate^ " to extend." 
 
 The observation (observance) of the Sabbath. 
 
 Observance means " ceremonious regard for " ; observation^ ** looking carefully a»." 
 
 He died with (of) the measles. 
 
 To die with a disease is incorrect ; use rather die t^f. 
 
MISUSED WORDS Si 
 
 The misuse^ of a word is technically called an 
 
 IMPROERIETY. 
 
 Improprieties may arise from : 
 
 1. Thejise of ambigupus words, i. e., words hav- 
 ing more meanings than one. 
 
 2. A misunderstanding of the real meaning of 
 words. 
 
 59. Ambiguous "Words. — Consider the meaning 
 of the italicized word in the following sentence : 
 
 The minister's resignation in these circumstances cannot be 
 too highly praised. 
 
 This sentence may mean either of two very dif- 
 ferent things, since resignation may denote "the 
 act of giving up office" or "the state of being 
 submissive." 
 
 The obscurity arising from the use of an ambig- 
 uous word may usually be avoided by a slight change 
 in the structure of the sentence. If the sentence 
 given above be rearranged in either of the following 
 ways, the meaning, whichever it may be, will be 
 clear : 
 
 The minister's resignation of his office in these circumstances 
 cannot be too highly praised. 
 
 The resignation shown by the minister in these circumstances 
 cannot be too highly praised. 
 
 Ambiguity may also result from a careless use of 
 pronouns ; as, ' ' The youth promised his father 
 never to abandon his friends." Here it is impossi- 
 ble to tell whether the pronoun italicized refers to 
 the youth or to the father. If it refers to the youth. 
 
52 WORDS 
 
 the obscurity may be avoided by rearrarigiug the 
 sentence thus : ' ' The youth said to his father, ' I 
 promise you never to abandon my friends.' " If the 
 reference is to the father, the sentence may read, 
 ' ' The youth said to his father, ' I promise you never 
 to abandon your friends.'" 
 
 60. Words often Confounded. — Words are some- 
 times confounded owing to their resemblance in 
 form or sound. In the following sentences the 
 words in parentheses are correct : 
 
 The cold effected (affected) his hearing. 
 
 To affect means '* to act upon '*; to effect^ " to accomplish.** 
 
 The counsel (council) having the matter in charge gave the 
 people wise council (counsel). 
 
 Council is " an advising body "; counsel^ " the advice given.** 
 
 Errors sometimes spring from a wrong under- 
 standing of synonyms, i. e., M'ords having nearly the 
 same meaning. The words "courage" and "forti- 
 tude " are said to be synonymous, yet they cannot 
 be used indiscriminately. Consider their use in the 
 following sentences : ^ 
 
 Our soldiers displayed great courage in attacking so large an 
 army. 
 
 John displayed ^taX fortitude while undergoing the operation. 
 
 If we consult a dictionary we shall find that cour- 
 age implies fearlessness in acting, and fortitude, a 
 firm endurance of suffering. Substitute fortitude 
 iov courage or courage ior fortitude, and the meaning 
 becomes absurd. It is clear that a careful study of 
 synonyms is essential to accuracy of expression. 
 
MISUSED WORDS 53 
 
 EXERCISE 34. ^ 
 
 By the help of a dictionary, select the correct synonym 
 in each sentence : 
 
 1. "W^iZX. further {farther) need have we of caution. 
 
 2. Our acts {actions) generally proceed from instinct or impulse. 
 
 3. The house was stripped of its furniture, and was entirely 
 empty {vacant). 
 
 4. This circumstance alone {only) is sufficient to prove his 
 wort hlessn ess. 
 
 5. We avow {acknowledge, own, confess) a neglect of duty. 
 
 6. He lell in {into) the river. 
 
 7. Although many applications were made for the prisoner's 
 forgiveness {pardon), they were all unsuccessful {ineffectual). 
 
 8. A very successful social {sociable) was held in the vestry of 
 the church. 
 
 9. Notwithstanding all his efforts he could not recollect {remem- 
 ber) the date. 
 
 10. The man who desires the esteem of others is not proud 
 {vain). 
 
 11. My old and tried friend introduced {presented) me to his 
 wife. 
 
 12. He was aware {conscious) of a very unpleasant feeling 
 coming over him. 
 
 13. Jhe negligence {neglect) of this leaves us exposed to an 
 uncommon levity in our conversation. 
 
 14. The enormity {enormousness) of the distance between the 
 earth and the sun produces these effects. 
 
 15. Continual {continuous) droppings wear away the stone. 
 
 16. The food furnished to the men was healthful {wholesome). 
 
 17. In the most rigorous weather he is scsLrct\y sensitive to {sen- 
 sible of) the cold. 
 
 18. He was surprised by the appearance of a heavenly visitor 
 (pisitant). 
 
 19. After that witness had given his evidence {testimony), the 
 case was adjourned. 
 
j4 WORDS 
 
 20. Her arrival was hourly anticipated {expected). 
 
 21. It was due {owing) to his earnestness that the plan suc- 
 ceeded. 
 
 22. He acted towards the prisoner with too much lenity {leni- 
 ency), 
 
 23. There were not less {fewer) than twenty persons present. 
 
 24. Having examined the affair, I wish to say {state) that I find 
 nothing wrong. 
 
 25. I have frequently heard him utter {express, pronounce) 
 that opinion. 
 
 26. He held a very decided {decisive) opinion on almost all such 
 subjects. 
 
 27. He has not yet answered {replied to) my letter. 
 
 28. The murderer was hanged {hung) on the 17th of last 
 month. 
 
 29. He rejected ihe proposal {proposition) made by his friend. 
 
 30. I have found the package alluded {Referred) to in your 
 advertisement. 
 
 31. When he came \i& fetched {brought) me the book. 
 
 32. I like {love) oranges. 
 
 33. He lives {dwells) at 26 New Street. 
 
 EXERCISE 35. 
 
 In the following sentences substitute correct words for 
 those in italics: 
 
 1. Apples are //^«(y this year. 
 
 2. The vegetation was luxurious, 
 
 3. It all happened inside of a year. 
 
 4. I can't go without he takes my place. 
 
 5. He wore a hat of e.woxmo\x^ proportiotis. 
 
 6. A terrible accident transpired yesterday. 
 
 7. He keeps up the observation of the old rites. 
 "3. He demeaned himself by his unmanly conduct. 
 
 p. He took a deathly poison and turned deadly pale. 
 
MISUSED WORDS 
 
 55 
 
 10. I do not know wh^t character you have for accuracy. 
 
 11. There was a large audience at the ball game yesterday. 
 
 12. He is an important /ac/o^- in the prosperity of the Wwn. 
 
 13. The seniors may leave the room ; the balance of the students 
 will remain. 
 
 14. He completes the book with a chapter on thp. Spanish- 
 American war. 
 
 EXERCISE 36. 
 
 By the help of a dictionary discuss the words in each 
 group below, and construct sentences illustrating their 
 use: 
 
 I. Aggravate, provoke. 2. Allude, elude. 3. Accept, except. 
 
 ■4.-Ae6eEf-l-,i.iiginnti, fflm 5. Admire, like. 6. Accredit, credit. 
 
 7. Decimate, destroy. 8. Demean, degrade. 9. Defect, fault. 
 10. Apprehend, comprehend, ii. Defend, protect. 12. Discover, 
 invent. 13. Fly, flee, flow. 14. Fix, repair, mend. 15. Hanged, 
 hung. 16. Inaugurate, begin, commence. 17. Lease, hire. 18. Pur- 
 pose, propose. 19. Prosecute, persecute. 20. Proscribe, prescribe. 
 21. Promise, assure. 22. Learn, teach. 23. Locate, settle. 24. Pre- 
 sent, introduce. 25. Stop, stay. 26. Transpire, happen. 27. Subtle, 
 subtile. 28. Ride, drive. 29. Avocation, vocation. 30. Couple, 
 pair. 31. Character, reputation. 32. Emigrant, Immigrant. 
 33, House, home, residence. 34. Individual, man. 35. Majority, 
 plurality. 36. Party, person. 37. Plenty, plentiful. 38. Recipe, 
 receipt. 39. Most, almost. 40. When, while. 41. Eminent, prom- 
 inent. 42. Odd, funny. 43! Posted, informed. 44. Practicable, 
 practical. 45. Pitiable, pitiful. 46. Prospective, perspective. 47. Su- 
 preme, last. 48, Womanly, womanish. 49. Manly, mannish. 
 
 61. Misuse of Shall and Will. — Shall and will 
 are often misused by careless writers. The original 
 signification of shall is "obligation"; that of will 
 is "determination." These primitive meanings, 
 though somewhat modified, still obtain. 
 
 Twill do means, I purpose doing — I am determined to do. 
 t shall do means radically. I ought to 4a; sriu as a man is supposed 
 
56 WORDS 
 
 to do what he sees he ought to do, / shall do came to mean, / am 
 about doing — to be, in fact, a mere announcement of future action, 
 more or less remote. But you shall do means radically, you ought 
 to do ; and therefore unless we mean to impose an obligation or to 
 announce an action on the part of another person, over whom we 
 claim control, shall in speaking of the voluntary future action of 
 another person, is inappropriate; and we therefore ^.a^j you will, 
 assuming that it is the volition of the other person to do thus or 
 so.— R. G. White. 
 
 The following scheme will show the common uses 
 
 of shall and will : 
 
 ( first person — simple futurity. 
 ) second and third persons — compulsion. 
 .^-. I firsr person — purpose or intent. 
 
 \ second and third persons — simple futurity. 
 
 Thus, when a speaker desires simply to state 
 what will take place, he must say, " I (we) shall," 
 "you will," " he (they) will." When the speaker 
 desires to express volition on his part, to make a 
 command or threat, he must say, " I (we) will," 
 "you shall," " he (they) shall." 
 
 A departure from this usage is made if the speaker 
 wishes to command very politely; e. g., "You will 
 report to the lieutenant." 
 
 In questions of the first person, shall is the proper 
 auxiliary; in the second and third persons, one 
 should use in the question the form expected in the 
 answer. To ask, "Will I receive my wages?" is 
 absurd, for the speaker asks another about his 
 own will. "Will you go?" (Answer, " I will go") 
 
 In indirect assertions, when both clauses have the 
 same subject, shall in all three persons expresses 
 simple futurity; thus, "I think that I shall go," 
 
MISUSED WORDS 57 
 
 "you think that you shall go," "he thinks that 
 he shall go." When the two clauses have dif- 
 ferent subjects, the same auxiliary is used in 
 the dependent clause as would be required if the 
 clause were independent; as, "You think or he 
 thinks that I shall go;" "I think or he thinks 
 that you will go;" "I think or he thinks that he 
 will go." 
 
 62. Should and -would. — Should and would 2::% the 
 past tenses of shall and will, and, in general, follow 
 the same rules. 
 
 A correspondent of a leading New York daily newspaper, 
 himself a well-known editor, writes : " As we have the gold standard 
 established we would lose thousands of millions and gain nothing 
 by its disestablishment." This statement as it stands expresses a 
 national wish for the loss of this vast sum. It is as if the writer 
 had said in direct statement, " We tuill \ost thousands of millions," 
 i. e., it is our intention to do so. " We shall lose thousands of 
 millions," simply states a future fact. This put into the form of 
 indirect statement must become should ; as, "We should lose thou- 
 sands of millions." Such loss being the inevitable result, the neces- 
 sary future of such action, though not by our intent or will. — 
 Standard Dictionary. 
 
 Sometimes should and would have meanings pe- 
 culiarly their own. Thus should may be used in the 
 sense of ought; as, " You should go." Sometimes in 
 a conditional sense ; as, ' ' Should you ask me whence 
 these stories." It is also used after /^.rz*. " He fled 
 lest he should be imprisoned." 
 
 Would is sometimes used to signify habitual ac- 
 tion ; as, " He would often speak of the matter to 
 his friends." It is also used to express a wish ; as, 
 "Would that Cyrus were now living!" 
 
S8 WORDS 
 
 The following sentences show incorrect uses of 
 
 shall and will, should and would : 
 
 I say he ivill (shall) come if I summon him. 
 
 The train was late or we would (should) have missed it. 
 
 If I were to walk that far, I would (should) get tired. 
 
 He said he should (would) come in time if we should (would) 
 promise to meet him. 
 
 I am unable to devote as much time and attention to other sub- 
 jects as I will (shall) be under the necessity of doing. 
 
 I feel assured that I will (shall) not have the misfortune to find 
 conflicting views held by one so enlightened as your excellency. 
 
 EXERCISE 37. 
 
 Insert the proper auxiliary {shall or will) in each 
 blank in the following sentences: 
 
 1. we go to-morrow ? 
 
 2. I be obliged to you. 
 
 3. I bring you the book .' 
 
 4. How I send the package .'' 
 
 5. Do you think we have rain ? 
 
 6. I be glad to hear from you. 
 
 7. We not soon forget this day. 
 
 8. He says he be glad to see you. 
 
 9. John thinks he go to-morrow. 
 
 10. He says he not be able to go. 
 
 11. We be pleased to have you call. 
 
 12. We have stormy weather to-morrow. 
 
 13. ■ you undertake to do this service for me ?. 
 
 14. We have to go whether we like it or not. 
 
 15. I be lost, nobody coine to my rescue. 
 
 16. He repent of his folly when it is too late. 
 
 17. Do you think that I be in time for the train? 
 
 18. I be obliged to enter into a minute discussion of the 
 
 structure and parts of this sentence. 
 
 19. Let the educated men consent to hold office and we • 
 
 find that in a few years there be a great change in politics. 
 
 20. If she hate me, then believe 
 She die ere I grieve. 
 
MISUSED WORDS 59 
 
 EXERCISE 38. 
 Insert the proper auxiliary {would or should) in each 
 blank in the following sentences: 
 
 1. He thought I be hurt. 
 
 2. I like to see thie Rhine. 
 
 3. We prefer to go by boat. 
 
 4. I be sorry to miss the train. 
 
 5. I did not think he notice us. 
 
 6. you be sorry to leave school } 
 
 7. What we do without friends ? 
 
 8. I like to have gone on Tuesday. 
 
 9. He said he depend on you coming. 
 
 10. Do you think you — ; — agree with him ? 
 
 11. He said that he accept the proposal. 
 
 12. Were I to study Latin, I find it difficult. 
 
 13. The principal decided that you be promoted. 
 
 14- I not have wanted help, if the place had not beer 
 
 destroyed. 
 
 EXERCISE 39. 
 
 Distinguish in meaning between the following sen- 
 tences : 
 
 1. Will (Shall) he go ? 
 
 2. I will (shall) not be left alone. 
 
 3. I shall (will) ask him to come. 
 
 4. She will (shall) study grammar. 
 
 5. We shall (will) do this to-morrow. 
 
 6. He said he would (should) not go. 
 
 7. You will (shall) carry my message. 
 
 8. He thought I would' (should) wait. 
 
 9. Shall (Will) you be here to-morrow ? 
 
 10. John says he shall (will) stay at home to-day. 
 
 11. He said he would (should) stay to see the game. 
 
 12. If we disobeyed, we would (should) be punished. 
 
 13. He thought there should (would) be an entrance fee. 
 
 14. You shall (will) know to-morrow what has happened. 
 
 15. If they would (should) come, matters would soon be settled, 
 
6o WORDS 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 SUPERFLUOUS WORDS 
 
 63. Superfluous Words.— We have thus far stud- 
 ied the choice and use of words in conformity with 
 good usage. A writer, however, may use none but 
 good words, may use them in their proper place, 
 and yet fail to impress the reader with the full force 
 of his meaning. 
 
 64. Redundancy. — Compare the sentences in the 
 parallel columns below: 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. His spirit has burst the i. He is dead, 
 bonds of time and soared into 
 
 the realms of immortality. 
 
 2. The prophecy has been ful- 2. The prophecy has been ful- 
 filled literally to the letter. filled literally. 
 
 3. After reading the letter, he 3. After reading the letter, he 
 arose from the chair, went into went to his room and wrote a 
 his room, seated himself by his haughty reply. 
 
 writing desk, and, taking up his 
 pen, wrote a haughty reply. 
 
 It is plain that the sentences in the column on 
 the left, though longer, do not express more than 
 those in the right-hand column. Moreover, if we 
 should ask about the health of a friend and 
 should be told that his spirit had "burst the bonds 
 of time and soared into the realms of immortality," 
 the answer would be confusing rather than im- 
 
SUPERFLUOUS WORDS 6l 
 
 pressive, because the language is unusual and unnat- 
 ural. But if we should be told briefly, " He is 
 dead," the meaning would come upon us with over- 
 whelming force. In the longer sentence our atten- 
 tion is given partly to the language, while in the 
 shorter it is given wholly to the thought. So also 
 in the sentence, ' ' The prophecy has been fulfilled 
 literally to the letter," there are more words than 
 are necessary, and the additional words serve only 
 to divert our attention from the thought. We have 
 all the meaning of the sentence in " The prophecy 
 has been fulfilled literally." The expression is 
 weakened by the use of the needless words ' ' to the 
 letter." In the third sentence the numerous details 
 obscure the thought. The _use._ of unnecessary 
 words and circumstances is caUed-REDUNDANCY. 
 
 65. Tautology. — Redundancy, as we have seen 
 from the examples already given, may take various 
 forms. Examine the following sentences : 
 
 It was audible to the ear. 
 
 He was popular with the people. 
 
 Let us glance briefly at these facts. 
 
 Here the words in italics are redundant, since 
 they repeat the idea elsewhere expressed. This 
 form of redundancy, which consists in the repetition 
 of the sense in different words, is called tautology. 
 
 EXERCISE 40. 
 
 Omit the tautological words in the following sentences: 
 
 I. His funeral obsequies are over. 
 3. He received divine help from God. 
 
62 WORDS 
 
 3. The cloth was a verdant green color. 
 
 4. The sound was not audible to the ear. 
 
 5. Please repeat again what you just said. 
 
 6. The balloon ascended up at ten o'clock. 
 
 7. He is busy writing his own autobiography. 
 
 8. The cold snow fell upon her upturned face. 
 
 9. He was completely surrounded on all sides. 
 
 10. He delivered the address orally from the stage. 
 
 11. The island was entirely surrounded by shallow water. 
 
 12. The plot of ground was perfectly square with its four sides 
 all equal. 
 
 13. Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the universal 
 love and esteem of all men. 
 
 14. Redundancy sometimes arises from a want of thought, 
 which leads the author to repeat over and over again the little 
 modicum of sense at his command. 
 
 66. Wlien Tautology is Permissible. — Tautology 
 is allowed in the following instances : 
 
 1. When words are so commonly used together 
 that they have come to express but one idea; e. g., 
 "sum and substance," "part and parcel," "ways 
 and means," "end and aim," "null and void," 
 " safe and sound." 
 
 2 . When it gives greater emphasis : 
 
 I am astonished, I am shocked to hear such principles con- 
 fessed ; I am resolved this day to have nothing at all to do with 
 the question of the right of taxation. Some gentlemen startle — 
 but it is true ; I put it totally out of the question. It is less than 
 nothing to my consideration. 
 
 67, Pleonasm. — Another form of redysdancy is 
 seen in f hejollowing sentences : 
 
 What news have you Aeartf ixornXjenoa.? 
 I \\a.xt got a cold iog?i/ier^\\iY\ a fever. 
 
 There can be ng, doubt i«^ /Jh»i_newspapers at present are read 
 altogether too much. 
 
SUPERFLUOUS WORDS 63 
 
 Here the (italicized words are redundant because 
 they add nothing to the meaning. This form of 
 redundancy is called pleonasm. 
 
 Pleonasm consists in the addition of words which 
 maybe omitteoi without affecting the "meaning or 
 the constructioniof the sentence,^^,' '" 
 
 The italicized wtords belo-w: are pleonastic : 
 
 He made a very master\y speech. 
 
 Both the President aijjl^e Vice-President were there. 
 
 There is nothing which t^sgusts us sooner than the empty 
 pomp of language. \ 
 
 His very ewftllent discourse w^ most intolerable and extremely 
 inconsider^it'e in the eyes of his enemy. 
 
 For in resting so mainly on his army,, and drawing from it such 
 unlimited power, he cont rive d a new varifety of monarchy. 
 
 68. Pleonastic Adjectives. — Inexperienced wri- 
 ters sometimes fall into the error of using too 
 many adjectives. Life has often been likened to a 
 river, and the comparison when neatly expressed 
 is pleasing ; but it took the genius of a sophomore 
 to trick out the old figure in this garb : ' ' Life like 
 a mighty river, springing in unseen fountains deep 
 in some mountain glen, meandering, a ceaseless 
 sparkling rivulet, through verdant meadows and 
 adown many steeps," etc. 
 
 EXERCISE 41. 
 
 Omit the pleonastic words in the following sentences : 
 
 1. He was a man of powerful strength. 
 
 2. And the cold white snow fell lightly. 
 
 3. Both the children stared at each other. 
 
 4. The feathery, downy snow, so soft and white, fell thick and 
 fist. 
 
64 WORDS 
 
 5. Your very excellent letter reached me this morning betore 
 breakfast. 
 
 6. He gave us a very able address, and which we could easily 
 I understand. 
 
 \. \ 7. There can be no doubt but that his failure was due to his 
 carelessness. 
 
 8. A misfortune of a somewhat unique kind has befallen the 
 Bishop of Sydney. 
 
 9. There is nothing which disgusts us sooner than the empty 
 pomp of language. 
 
 10. "And so," says he, " I will tell you a story, and now I hope 
 you will all listen.'' 
 
 11. Being content with deserving a triumph, he refused to re- 
 ceive the honor that was offered him. 
 
 12. Our commencement will be a unique and ever memorable 
 occasion, and which will attract public attention. 
 
 69. Verbosity — Another form of redundancy is 
 seen in the following sentences : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. He stood gazing at the i. He stood gazing at the 
 spangled canopy, which ap- starry sky. 
 
 peared. to be lit up with innu- 
 merable orbs. 
 
 2. The solitary sound of one 2, It was nearly two o'clock 
 o'clock had long since resolinded at night. 
 
 on the ebon ear of night, and 
 the next signal of the advance of 
 time was close approaching. 
 
 Here the sentences in the column on the left ex- 
 press in a roundabout way what can be more clearly 
 expressed in fewer words. T^js form of fedij; 
 dancy, which cannot be remedied^by the omission of 
 words, is called VERBQSITV. 
 'Verbosity consists in a diffuse or roundabout 
 
SUPERFLUOUS WORDS 65 
 
 mode of expression, which so pervades the sentence 
 that the only remedy is to recast the whole ih fewer 
 words. 
 
 70. Circumlocution. — A form of verbosity called 
 CIRCUMLOCUTION consists in using indirect statement 
 for dignifying thought or for softening the force 
 of an expression. When circumlocution is carried 
 to excess it leads to affectation. Some people can- 
 not be brought to speak of common things by com- 
 mon names ; with them teeth are always ' ' dental 
 organs," ice is " congealed moisture," breakfast is 
 " the morning meal," a farmer is "a horny-handed 
 son of toil." 
 
 At the time of the Irish famine, no clergyman could bring him- 
 self to say the word " potato " in the pulpit. Preachers called it 
 " that root upon which so many of God's creatures depend for sup- 
 port, and which in His wise purposes had for a time ceased to 
 flourish "; or spoke of " that esculent, the loss of which had de- 
 prived so many hungry sinners of their daily sustenance " ; but no 
 one said " potato." — C. H. Grundy : Dull Sermons. 
 
 71. "WTien Circumlocution is Permissible. -^Cir- 
 cumlocution may be used with advantage : 
 
 1 . To avoid repetition ; as, ' ' Had he [Dryden] 
 been such a man, the same conviction which had 
 led him to join the Church of Rome would surely 
 have prevented him from violating grossly and 
 habitually rules which that Church, in common 
 with every other Christian society, recognizes as 
 binding." Here "Christian society" is used in- 
 stead of "Church," which has already appeared 
 twice in the sentence. 
 
 2 . To soften the force of a direct expression ; as, 
 " He departed this life" for "He died." 
 
66 
 
 WORDS 
 
 II. 
 On receiving thie message, he 
 started for Plymouth by thie 
 eleven o'cIocl< train. 
 
 72. Prolixity. — Another form of redundancy i3 
 given below : 
 
 I. 
 
 On receiving tlie message, he 
 arose from his chair, put on his 
 coat and hat, took his umbrella, 
 went down stairs, wall<ed to 
 the railway station, bought a 
 ticket for Plymouth, and started 
 on the eleven o'clock train. 
 
 Here we have details mentioned which do not add 
 to the force or clearness of the expression. This 
 form of redundancy is called prolixity. 
 
 Prolixity consists is enumerating de tails tha t are 
 not worth mentioning. 
 
 73. When. Prolixity Is Permissible. — Prolixity 
 when skilfully employed, as in the following exam- 
 ples, may give force to an expression : 
 
 Abridged rorm. 
 
 About that time a worthy 
 member of great parliamentary 
 experience told me things were 
 come to such a pass that our 
 former methods of proceeding in 
 the House would be no longer 
 tolerated. 
 
 Prolix Form. 
 
 About that time a worthy 
 member of great parliamentary 
 experience, who in the year 1766 
 filled the chair of the American 
 Committee with much ability, 
 took me aside, and, lamenting 
 the present aspect of our poli- 
 tics, told me things were come 
 to such a pass that our former 
 methods of proceeding in the 
 House would be no longer tol- 
 erated. 
 
 The sentence in its abridged form contains the 
 essential fact brought out in the fuller statement; 
 but observe how Burke, by the use of details, gives 
 
SUPERFLUOUS WORDS 6^ 
 
 prominence to the "worthy member," and thus 
 attaches importance to what that gentleman told 
 him privately. 
 
 Summary. — There are five forms of redijn- 
 danc^ I . Tautology, which is a direct repetition of 
 the thovight. 2. Pleonasm, which is thQ/'iise of 
 needless words that do not repeat the thought. 
 3. Verbosity,\Kich. is a diffuse, circuitous mode of 
 expression, ^y^olixity, which consists in mention- 
 irig details not woraajnentioniiag. 5 . Circumlocution, 
 which is a roundaboub^^^mbastic way of saying 
 what should generallYrbe "feaM in plain language. 
 
 Tautology andy^eonasm can be remedied by 
 omitting wordsr Verbosity can be" rejnedied only 
 by re writmg completely. Prolixity can usually be 
 remedi^dnDy omittiiig the needless details. Circum- 
 locution can be remedied only by rewriting com- 
 pldtely. 
 
 EXERCISE 42. 
 
 Tell the form of redundancy used in each of the fol- 
 lowing sentences, and remove it : 
 
 1. He was seated at the hospitable board of Colonel Howard. 
 
 2. He is completely surrounded on all sides by a howling mob. 
 
 3. He is a student doing work in the department of mathematics. 
 
 4. He[Pitt]ceasedtobreathe on the morningofthe 23dof January. 
 
 5. Sharp words had ensued from Joan and who had offered to 
 leave at once. 
 
 6. There were, as yet, but few people in the car, and I glanced 
 briefly at some of them. 
 
 7. The Dominie, unable to stifle his emotions, ran away to 
 empty the feelings of his heart at his eyes. 
 
 8. He had scarcely achieved the utterance of these words when 
 he received a manual compliment on the head. 
 
68 WORDS 
 
 9. They had music to dance by, and all sorts of games for amuse- 
 ment, in order that the young people might pass the time away. 
 
 10. All doubt as to Antony's real character, if any doubt had 
 before existed, was settled when his will was found and published. 
 
 11. There was a number of families which were supposed to be 
 descended from a common ancestor which formed a clan called 
 gens. 
 
 12. Hadrian did not believe that the mission of Rome was to 
 conquer the world, but he believed that her mission was to civilize 
 her subjects. 
 
 13. It is with the most unfeigned and heartfelt gratitude that I 
 appear before this enlightened and intelligent audience, to thank 
 them, as I do, for their kind and generous sympathy. 
 
 14. Tennyson's attitude toward the progress of the nineteenth 
 century shows that he is very much in sympathy with progress. 
 Especially all his late poems relate to progress and his desire to 
 see the world advance. 
 
 EXERCISE 43. 
 
 Rewrite the following wordy composition in compact 
 
 form : 
 
 A Deferred Picnic. 
 
 It had rained in the morning, and as the weather was damp and 
 cloudy and too disagreeable to start on our picnic when we had 
 intended, that was at nine o'clock, we were under the necessity, 
 impatient though we were, of deferring the time of our departure 
 for the woods in which we were to hold the picnic. 
 
 The woods, to the umbrageous shade of which we had planned 
 to go to and spend the day, were situated on the sloping side of 
 a hill with a gentle declivity running down to a small stream, or 
 creek, at the foot of the hill. 
 
 The rain, which, as I have said, began early in the morning, 
 ceased to fall from the heavens at ten o'clock, and the damp clouds 
 which obscured the bright orb of day began to break. Here and 
 there lighter streaks were seen among the clouds in the sky. We 
 began to maintain hopes that the state of the atmosphere would 
 soon be more serene, and that the sun, which the poets call the eye 
 of day, would soon drink up the moisture, and that the ground 
 would be dry enough for us to start early in the afternoon. 
 
SUPERFLUOUS WORDS 6g 
 
 Brighter and brighter the sky became, and the clouds grew less 
 dark and gloomy and somber as the hour hand of the horologe ap- 
 proached slowly to the dark figure XII, which stood out in bold 
 relief. We were told that if the sun shone brightly by twelve 
 o'clock, we might start at two o'clock. 
 
 Slowly the time passed, and slowly the hour hand drew near the 
 midday mark, and just as twelve o'clock struck, the sun, that mag- 
 nificent monarch of the sky, flashed out in all his glory, and illu- 
 minated with his bright light the village and the hills and the woods 
 and the fields far around. 
 
 We began to get ready our eatables and our clothing and 
 everything we needed for the picnic. But the time passed even 
 slower now, as we were so impatient for two o'clock to come ; 
 second by second, minute by minute it dragged on, until at length 
 it was nearly time for us to start. We paid little attention to the 
 weather now. Our thoughts were centered on the pleasures we 
 were to enjoy that afternoon. 
 
 Two o'clock at length came, and we were on the point of start- 
 ing, when a cloud again obscured the sun, and the thunder began 
 to roll in the distance, and as we looked, dismayed and disappointed, 
 down came the rain in torrents from the skies. 
 
 So we deferred our picnic. 
 
 EXERCISE 44. 
 
 Write a composition on one or more of the following 
 subjects, taking care not to use more words than are 
 necessary : 
 
 1. Anthracite Coal. 4. The Cuban Revolt. 
 
 2. How Bills become Laws at 5. The Cultivation of Coffee. 
 
 Washington. 6. The Circumstances of the 
 
 3. Impeachment of Andrew Writing and Publication 
 
 Johnson. of "Silas Marner." 
 
 EXERCISE 45. 
 
 Write a short composition showing that the following 
 statement is true: 
 
 ' " The theme of ' Silas Marner ' is the recovery, through a child's 
 love, of sympathy and contact with social life " 
 
PART III 
 
 SENTENCES 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE FORM OF SENTENCES 
 
 75. Short and ILong Sentences. — No rule can 
 be given for the length of sentences. Sometimes 
 a long sentence and sometimes a short one will 
 best convey the meaning. Examine the following 
 passages : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 There is no situation which 
 tries so severely the patience o( 
 the soldier as a life of idleness 
 in camp, where his thoughts, in-, 
 stead of being bent on enter- 
 prise and action, are fastened on 
 himself and the inevitable priva- 
 tions and dangers of his condi- 
 tion. This was particularly the 
 case in the present instance, 
 where, in addition to the evils of 
 a scanty subsistence, the troops 
 suffered from excessive heat, 
 swarms of venomous insects, and 
 other annoyances of a sultry 
 climate. — Prescott. 
 
 The theatres were closed. 
 The players were flogged. The 
 press was put under the guardi- 
 anship of austere licensers. The 
 muses were banished from their 
 own favorite haunts, Cambridge 
 and Oxford. Cowley, Cranshaw, 
 and Cleveland were ejected from 
 their fellowships. — Macaulay. 
 
THE FORM OF SENTENCES 71 
 
 Macaulay by the use of short sentences gives 
 a sprightliness to his style. Events pass in rapid 
 succession. No needless details, no unnecessary 
 words are employed, but the bare facts stand out 
 like rough sketches drawn by a master hand. 
 He might have combined his sentences thus-. 
 "The theatres were closed, and the players flogged. 
 The press was put under the guardianship of aus- 
 tere licensers, and the muses were banished from 
 their own favorite haunts," but much of the force 
 would have been lost. The sentences as they stand 
 describe in the best manner the rapid changes in 
 England after the Puritans came into power. 
 
 Prescott, on the other hand, employs sentences 
 of ordinary length. They suit his theme best, 
 because no rapidity of motion is needed. He is 
 describing the effect of long inactivity and of a sultry 
 climate on soldiers in camp. Short sentences such 
 as are found in the extract from Macaulay would 
 be out of place. 
 
 Sometimes short sentences can be combined with 
 good effect ; for example, the sentences in column I. , 
 below, give us in pieces what in reality belongs to 
 one expression : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1, He might well be out of i. He might well be out of 
 temper. His defeat had been temper, for his defeat had been 
 complete and most humiliating. complete and most humiliating. 
 
 2. Every writer had his own 2. Every writer had his own 
 style of spelling. Very often style of spelling, and very often 
 there were two or three different there were two or three different 
 forms of the same word in a sin- forms of the same word in a sin- 
 gle page. gle page. 
 
 6 
 
72 
 
 SENTENCES 
 
 We learn from the foregoing extracts that each 
 kind of sentence has its peculiar advantage. The 
 advantages of short sentences are that they are 
 easily written and easily understood, whereas it re- 
 quires much skill to write long sentences correctly. 
 Moreover, short sentences give an air of sprightli- 
 ness to a composition. But too many short sen- 
 tences become wearisome. The advantages of long 
 sentences are that, although requiring more skill 
 to compose, they are statelier and more musical. 
 They also afford greater scope for the expression of 
 subordinate particulars. The writer will do best 
 to employ both short and long sentences so as to 
 avoid monotony, and to adapt his style always to 
 the nature of his theme. 
 
 76. Iioose and Periodic Sentences. — Consider 
 
 the structure of the following sentences : 
 
 liOose. Periodic. 
 
 1. The vices of the adminis- i. To the weakness of the 
 tration must be chiefly ascribed king and to the levity and vio- 
 to the weakness of the king and fence of the favorite, the vices of 
 to the levity and violence of the the administration must be chiefly 
 favorite. ascribed. 
 
 2. We have thrown each tract 2. That the ruling power 
 of land, as it was peopled, into should never be wholly out of 
 districts, that the ruling power sight, we have thrown each tract 
 should never be wholly out of of land, as it was peopled, into 
 sight. districts. 
 
 Observe that in the left-hand column we might 
 close the first sentence after "king," and the second 
 after "districts," and have, in each case, grammat- 
 ical completeness. But in the column on the left 
 
THE FORM OF SENTENCES 73 
 
 the arrangement is such that neither sentence can 
 be brought to a grammatical close before the end 
 is reached. 
 
 A_senteiififiJJia.t- may .be-bimiight to a grammatijcal 
 close b efore the end is reach ed, is called .A_LQiiap 
 sentence. A sentence that cannot be JbtflUglit. to a 
 grammatical close before_the£iLd,isxeaclieiLisxaUed 
 a PERIODIC sentence. 
 
 77. Advantages of Loose Sentences. — Loose 
 sentences are the m.ost natural, because they fol- 
 low the order in which an English-speaking person 
 commonly expresses his thoughts. They, therefore, 
 give to composition an air of ease and freedom from 
 restraint which periodic sentences cannot give. 
 
 78. ranlty Ijoose Sentences. — Loose sentences 
 are the easier to write, but care must be taken to 
 form them so that they will convey the meaning 
 clearly. The danger is that clause will be loosely 
 attached to clause until the sentence becomes un- 
 wieldy and obscure. The following sentence is 
 faulty in this respect : 
 
 Gathering up lately a portion of what I had written, for publi- 
 cation, I have given it as careful a revision as my leisure would 
 allow, have indeed in many parts rewritten it, seeking to profit by 
 the results of the latest criticisms, as far as I have been able to 
 acquaint myself with them. — Trench. 
 
 This sentence may be improved by transposing 
 the words "for publication" to their proper place, 
 and by dividing it into two distinct sentences 
 thusr 
 
74 SENTENCES 
 
 Gathering up lately for publication a portion of what I had 
 written, I have given it as careful a revision as my leisure would 
 allow. I have indeed in many parts rewritten it, seeking to profit 
 by the results of the latest criticisms, as far as I have been able to 
 acquaint myself with them. 
 
 79. Looseness of Thought Causes l/ooseness of 
 Expression. — A faulty loose sentence is usually 
 caused by looseness of thought. Thus, in a memoir 
 of Robespierre, we find this sentence: "This ex- 
 traordinary man left no children except his brother, 
 who was. killed at the same time." It is beyond 
 the province of rhetoric to remedy this sentence. 
 A writer must clearly understand what he wishes 
 to express before he can hope to express himself 
 correctly. 
 
 80. Rules for the Construction of Loose Sen- 
 tences. — In the construction of loose sentences 
 the following rules should be observed : 
 
 i: The meaning should be held in suspense--to 
 such an extent -thgt the reader will^ncrTfeel that he 
 has the entire thought unlTThe has reached the end 
 of the sentence. 
 
 2. There~.§hould be as few places as ppasihle aL 
 which the sentence'Tcanr-fee't^rought to a grammatical 
 close." 
 
 3. The relation between the parts should be suf- 
 ficiently close to justify each additional clause. 
 
 The following examples conform to these rules : 
 
 First came the execution of Raleigh, an act which, if done in a 
 proper manner, might have been defensible, but which, under all 
 the circumstances, must be considered as a dastardly murder.— 
 
 Macaulay. 
 
THE FORM OF SENTENCES 75 
 
 For nearly two hours I had heard fierce winds arising ; and the 
 whole atmosphere had, by this time, become one vast laboratory of 
 hostile movements in all directions. — De Quincey. 
 
 Many were the brave warriors who laid down their lives on that 
 fatal field, and ere nightfall the old cemetery contained more dead 
 above the ground than beneath it. — Elson. 
 
 81. Advantages of Periodic Sentences. — The 
 
 periodic is usually preferable to the loose sentence 
 when the writer wishes to express his thought with 
 force and precision. A short sentence is more 
 easily put in periodic form than a long one, because 
 there are fewer subsidiary parts to dispose of; but 
 care must be taken lest, by the use of too many peri- 
 odic sentences, the writer should seem to have 
 given more attention to the manner of his expres- 
 sion than to the thought. The following sentences 
 appear forced and unnatural when put in periodic 
 form : 
 
 Loose. Periodic. 
 
 1. Burke's mind, at once phil- i. In every part of those huge 
 osophical and poetical, found bales of Indian information 
 something to instruct and to de- which repelled almost all other 
 light, in every part of those huge readers, Burke's mind, at once 
 bales of Indian information philosophical and poetical, found 
 which repelled almost all other something to interest and to de- 
 readers, light. 
 
 2. Milton's nature selected and 2. From the Parliament and 
 drew to itself whatever was great from the court, from the conven- 
 and good from the Parliament tide and from the cloister, from 
 and from the court, from the thegloomy and sepulchral circles 
 conventicle and from the cloister, of the Roundheads and from the 
 from the gloomy and sepulchral Christmas revel of the hospitable 
 circles of the Roundheads and Cavalier, Milton's nature selected 
 from the Christmas revel of the and drew to itself whatever was 
 hospitable Cavalier. great and good- 
 
•]6 SENTENCES 
 
 83. lioose Sentences Made Periodic. — A loose 
 sentence may usually be made periodic by : 
 
 1 . The inversion of a part of the sentence ; as : 
 
 Loose. Periodic. 
 
 He does not remember the Although he read the book, 
 
 story, although he read the book, he does not remember the story. 
 
 2 . The use of correlatives ; as : 
 
 Loose. Periodic. 
 
 He did not advocate expan- He neither advocated expan- 
 sion, nor did he justify the policy sion nor justified the policy of 
 of the present government. the present government. 
 
 3. Substituting a subordinate for a coordinate 
 conjunction ; as : 
 
 Loose. Periodic. 
 
 He rowed with all his might. Though he rowed with all his 
 
 but arrived at Radley an hour might, he arrived at Radley an 
 
 too late. hour too late. 
 
 4. Using a participial construction and rearran- 
 ging the sentence ; as : 
 
 Loose. Periodic. 
 
 He did not know what to do. Being neither a soldier nor a 
 
 since he was neither a soldier civilian, he did not know what 
 
 nor a civilian. to do. 
 
 In converting loose sentences into periodic ones, 
 or short sentences into longer ones, care must be 
 taken to grade, distribute, and connect all the parts 
 in such a way as to make each part perform its 
 proper function in making clear the meaning. For 
 example, in combining "Wheat was an abundant 
 crop last year. It yielded twenty bushels to the 
 acre," it would be improper to say, "Wheat, being an 
 abundant crop last year, yielded twenty bushels to 
 the acre." This would attach too much importance 
 
THE FORM OF SENTENCES 77 
 
 to the verb "yielded," and thus make prominent 
 the minor idea of the sentence. What we must 
 make emphatic is, ' ' Wheat was an abundant crop 
 last year." The finite verb must therefore be placed 
 in this part of the sentence. It would then read, 
 "Wheat was an abundant crop last year, yielding- 
 twenty bushels to the acre." 
 
 83. Bflfect of Periodic Sentences. — Periodic sen- 
 tences give dignity and force to style. There is a pas- 
 sage in "Hamlet" which might be thus paraphrased : 
 
 Revenge thy father's foul and most unnatural murder, if thou 
 didst ever love him. 
 
 The sentence, in this form, is loose. Observe 
 how much more effective it is when in a periodic 
 form as expressed by Shakespeare : 
 
 Ghost. If thou didst ever thy dear father love — 
 
 Hamlet. O God ! 
 
 Ghost. Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder. 
 
 Care must be taken, however, that the suspen- 
 sion caused by the use of the periodic sentence 
 does not make too great a strain upon the reader's 
 attention ; for example : 
 
 In the beautiful village of Weimar, in the springtime of 1832, 
 just as the dial was touching noon, there sat in his easy chair, with 
 mind flitting hither and thither, the great poet Goethe. " Surrounded 
 by friends near and dear, who had failed to bar the door against 
 the death angel, beneath the wings of the shadowy messenger that 
 hovered obtrusively near, he was slowly breathing forth his life. 
 While he still felt the warm clasp of the hand in his, while friendly 
 voices sounded yet near, while the Inved faces were just beginning 
 to fade from his sight, mistaking the approach of death for even- 
 tide, he, lifting his almost palsieil hand and beckoning toward the 
 open window, cried, "More light." 
 
78 SENTENCES 
 
 84. Effect of lioose Sentences. — As the natural 
 tendency is to write loose sentences, they render 
 expression less studied and give an easier and more 
 natural flow to language. The effect of loose sen- 
 tences may be seen in the passage from Cooper on 
 page 1 6, where the author has employed only the 
 loose form. If we rewrite this passage, making the 
 sentences periodic instead of loose, we shall render 
 the style stiff and awkward, instead of graceful and 
 easy. 
 
 85. Effect of Variety In Sentences. — In order to 
 write well it is necessary to study variety in expres- 
 sion. A writer who varies his style and adapts it to 
 the needs of his discourse will, if he has anything 
 worth telling, generally hold the attention of his 
 reader ; but, however interesting the subject in it- 
 self may be, the reader soon grows weary of the 
 monotony of an unvaried style. Observe the effect 
 of alternating long with short, and loose with peri- 
 odic sentences in the following passage : 
 
 The Mayflower sought our shores under no high-wrought spirit 
 of commercial adventure, no love of gold, no mixture of purpose 
 warlike or hostile to any human being. Like the dove from the 
 ark, she had put forth only to find rest. Solemn supplications on 
 the shore of the sea, in Holland, had invoked for her, at her depar- 
 ture, the blessings of Providence. The stars which guided her 
 were the unobscured constellations of civil and religious liberty. 
 Her deck was the altar of the living God. Fei-vent prayers on 
 bended knees mingled, morning and evening, with the voices of 
 ocean and the sighing of the wind in her shrouds. Every prosper- 
 ous breeze, which, gently swelling her sails, helped the pilgrims 
 onward in their course, awoke new anthems of praise ; and when 
 the elements were wrought into a fury, neither the tempest, tossing 
 the fragile bark like a feather, nor the darkness and howling of the 
 
THE FORM OF SENTENCES 79 
 
 midnight storm, ever disturbed, in man or woman, the firm and 
 settled purpose of tlieir souls, to undergo all, and to do all, that 
 the meekest patience, the boldest resolution, and the highest tryst 
 in God would enable human beings to suffer or to perform. — 
 Webster. 
 
 86. Balanced Sentences. — Examine the structure 
 of the. following sentences : 
 
 The character of Milton was peculiarly distinguished by lofti- 
 ness of spirit ; that of Dante by intensity of feeling. 
 
 It was true that no man had incurred equal guilt ; but it was 
 true also that no man had it in his power to make equal reparation. 
 
 Each of these sentences is made up of two members 
 which are similar in structure. In the first the char- 
 acter of Milton is brought in contrast with that of 
 Dante, and as objects that are unlike impress us 
 most strongly by their dissimilarity when brought 
 side by side, so this sentence gains strength by 
 bringing the characters of the two poets together • 
 in such a way that we cannot fail to be struck with 
 their unlikeness. The second sentence gains em- 
 phasis by a similar arrangement, but its members 
 are parallel to, rather than in^ contrast; with, each 
 other. (L It^Xi^^ "^^ .aM,,,:/i -,:,, 4_,jTriJ^] . 
 
 A -sentence that is composed of two clauses sim-^ 
 ilar in form, and -©itlagrparallel or -contrasted in' ' 
 meaning, is called ,a~BA.Lrt«SS5^^a<FFEistC£^ < •'' ' 
 
 87. Advantages of Balanced Sentences. — i he, , 
 
 balanced sentence is appropriate only where two/^ 
 objects or two views are to be contrasted. If prop-^ 
 erly used, it brings out the meaning with great .1 
 force ; but if used to excess, it renders discourse j. 
 
8o SENTENCES 
 
 monotonous and wearisome. Macaulay, in contrast- 
 ing the Puritan with the comic poet, employs bal- 
 anced sentences with good effect : 
 
 The Puritan had affected formality ; the comic poet laughed at 
 decorum. The Puritan had frowned at innocent diversions ; the 
 comic poet took under his patronage the most flagitious excesses. 
 The Puritan had canted ; the comic poet blasphemed. The Puri- 
 tan had made an affair of gallantry felony without benefit of clergy; 
 the comic poet represented it as an honorable distinction. 
 
 88. Summary. — The loose sentence, if properly 
 formed, will be found most serviceable in ordinary 
 discourse, as in telling a story or in describing some- 
 thing. It is the kind of sentence most commonly 
 used not only in conversation and informal writing, 
 but also in the works of standard authors. ■ 
 
 The periodic sentence, as it is usually clear and 
 concSse, will be found appropriate when arguing a 
 point, or when attempting to convince or influence 
 a person. If a writer wishes to hold the reader in 
 suspense, he will find the periodic sentence much 
 more effective than any other form of expression. 
 But the periodic sentence is formal and should 
 not be used too frequently, lest it give an artificial 
 air to discourse. 
 
 The balanced sentence, since it is used only for 
 the purpose of contrast or comparison, is so rarely 
 possible that it is not liable to be used to excess. 
 The one rule is, Study variety of expression in the 
 works of standard authors, and employ it in your 
 own writing, until from force of habit you express 
 yourself clearly, without seeming to give too much 
 attention to the forming o'f your sentences. 
 
THE FORM OF SENTENCES 8l 
 
 EXERCISE 46. 
 
 Choose from your own reading five sentences which 
 seem to you particularly well made, and tell whether 
 they are loose, periodic, or balanced. 
 
 EXERCISE 47. 
 
 Break up the following paragraph into sentences of 
 ordinary length, supplying where necessary new subjects, 
 new predicates, and new connectives. Make as many 
 periodic sentences as you think advisable : 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh. — Born at Haye's Farm in Devonshire ; 
 educated at Oriel College, Oxford ; entered upon his brilliant and 
 adventurous career as a volunteer in the cause of the French Prot- 
 estants at the age of seventeen ; fought for more than five years in 
 the continental wafs ; joined England's maritime expeditions ; be- 
 came a dauntless sailor, braving alike the blistering calms of the 
 tropics, and the icy breath of the frigid seas ; sailed to the New 
 World, and planted colonies in its wilds ; rose to be a favorite 
 with the Queen, and was knighted ; was her chief adviser in thwart- 
 ing the Spanish invasion of the Armada; was made commander of 
 her guard, riding abroad with her in a dress gorgeous with jewels, 
 from the huge' diamond which buttoned his feather, to the shoes 
 powdered with pearls ; incurred the Queen's displeasure by con- 
 tracting a marriage with one of her maids of honor, and was 
 thrown into prison ; counterfeited the most poignant grief at his 
 royal mistress's displeasure, and was released ; went in search of 
 the El Dorado which he believed to be in South America, but re- 
 turned to England disappointed and disheartened ; was received 
 into royal favor again ; discountenanced by James I., who succeeded 
 to the throne at the death of Elizabeth ; charged with being impli- 
 cated in a plot to seize the king and place Lady Arabella Stuart 
 on the throne; brought to trial at Winchester Castle, where he 
 confronted his enemies with unshaken firmness from eight in the 
 morning until nearly midnight ; convicted, condemned to death, 
 but reprieved and committed tp the Tower, where he remained in 
 confinement for nearly thirteen years ; tempted the king by a vision 
 
82 SENTENCES 
 
 of a gold mine and a new empire in India; sailed to South Amer- 
 ica, where he destroyed the Spanish town of St. Thomas ; sought 
 to escape, but was forced by his men to return to Englaind, a baf- 
 fled dreamer, a ruined and disappointed adventurer; was beheaded 
 by the king, who pretended to appease the wralh of the Spanish 
 court, but who really carried out the old sentence which had long 
 hung suspended over the head of the unfortunate Raleigh like the 
 sword of Damocles. 
 
 EXERCISE 48, 
 
 Group the short statements given in each division 
 below into longer sentences, supplying any necessary 
 words. Use your own judgment in deciding ^vhethcr a 
 loose, a periodic, or a balanced sentence zuill best express 
 the thought : 
 
 1. Beware of avarice. Avarice is incompatible with reason. 
 Avarice has ruined the souls of many. 
 
 2. A stone was placed at the head of the grave'. This stone 
 had a simple inscription on it. This inscription was written by an 
 intimate friend. 
 
 3. Calvin was educated for the Church. Calvin was bom at 
 Noyon. Noyon is in Picardy, Calvin was born in 1509. Calvin 
 was the son of a cooper. 
 
 4. Direction of speech is more than eloquence. To speak in 
 good words or in good order is much. To speak agreeably to him 
 with whom we deal is more. 
 
 5. There are few delights in any life so high and so rare as the 
 subtle and strong delight of sovereign art and poetry. There are 
 none more pure and sublime. 
 
 6. Xerxes resolved to invade Greece. He raised an army. The 
 army consisted of two millions of men. This was the greatest 
 force ever brought into the field. 
 
 7. An Indian was attracted by the aroma of coffee and broth. 
 This aroma arose from the bivouac. He moved down the patK 
 He met a bombastic bra\o. The bravo was troubled with 
 
 bronchitis. 
 
THE FORM OF SENTENCES 83 
 
 8. Frederic resolved on this course. He acted with ability and 
 vigor. It was impossible wholly to conceal his preparations. 
 Throughout the Prussian territories regiments, guns, and baggage 
 were in motion. 
 
 9. To have read the greatest work o( any great poet is a pos- 
 session added to the best things of life. To have beheld or heard 
 the words of any great painter or musician is a possession added 
 to the best things of life. 
 
 10. Before the council Fawkes displayed the same intrepid firm- 
 ness. This firmness was mixed even with scorn and disdain. 
 Fawkes refused to discover his accomplices. Fawkes showed no 
 concern but for the failure of the enterprise. 
 
 11. Oblige, for instance, in a complimentary sense, is a word 
 recently introduced from France. This is a meaning unknown to 
 Shakespeare. As a word of ceremonial phraseology it was first 
 pronounced oileege. It is now almost uniformly articulated with 
 the English sound of i long. 
 
 EXERCISE 49. 
 
 Make the following loose sentences periodic : 
 
 1. I shall not vote for this measure unless it is clearly 
 constitutional. 
 
 2. His actions were frequently criticized, but his character was 
 above criticism. 
 
 3. He clothed his wit and his sense in forcible and natural ex- 
 pressions when he talked. 
 
 4. Refined taste forms a good critic ; but genius is necessary 
 to form the poet or the orator.' 
 
 5. He had taught himself to be idle arrogantly, but he had 
 never planned how to earn his own hving. 
 
 6. He would now have a moderate competence, after all his 
 losses, if he had practised a strict economy. 
 
 7. The. Romans consider religion a part of virtue; the Jews, on 
 the contrary, consider virtue a part of religion. 
 
 8. Mythology has it that Achilles when a child was dipped in 
 the river Styx in order to render him invulnerable. 
 
 ^ Is this sentence improved by changing it to the periodic form? 
 
84 SENTENCES 
 
 9. Burns, again, is distinguished by the clearness of his con- 
 ceptions, and by their impetuous force, in equal measure. 
 
 10. The horses were confided to Grey, in spite of the remon- 
 strances of some who remembered the mishap of Bridgeport.' 
 
 11. It is sometimes necessary to reconstruct the sentence entirely, 
 in attempting to give periodic form to a loose sentence of this 
 l<ind. 
 
 12. The United States has experienced the destructive pangs of 
 the double standard, and the whole world has in truth experienced 
 them. 
 
 13. Still he pressed forward, waving his sword and cheering his 
 soldiers to the attack, but a third shot lodged deep within his 
 breast. 
 
 14. The lottery is the most pernicious and widespread form of 
 gambling, because it uses for its instrument the Post-Office Depart- 
 ment ; that is, the Government. 
 
 15. This happy region was peopled with innumerable swarms 
 of spirits, who applied themselves to exercises and diversions ac- 
 cording as their fancies led them. 
 
 16. I wish not to conceal or excuse the depravity of the mind that 
 can trade in corruption, and can deliberately pollute itself with 
 ideal wickedness for the sake of spreading the contagion in 
 society. 
 
 17. The diction and versification of English poetry were most 
 correct, in the sense in which the word is commonly used, dur- 
 ing the thirty years which preceded the appearance of Johnson's 
 " Lives." 
 
 18. If, whilst they profess to please only, they advise and give 
 instruction secretly, they may be esteemed the best and most 
 honorable among authors, with justice, perhaps, now, as well as 
 formerly. 
 
 EXERCISE 50. 
 
 I . Compose, on any subject, five sentences in ivhich 
 the structure is loose, yet not faulty, and five in which 
 it is periodic. 
 
 ' Is this sentence improved by changing it to the periodic form? 
 
THE FORM OF SENTENCES 85 
 
 2. Compose balanced sentences on each of the follow- 
 ing pairs of subjects : 
 
 1. Baseball, Football. 4. Napoleon, Washington. 
 
 2. Rural Life, City Life. 5. The Soldier, the States- 
 
 3. Mathematics, History. man. 
 
 EXERCISE 51. 
 
 Compose, on any subject, a composition of about twenty 
 sentences, paying special attention to form. State at 
 the end of the composition the structure of each sentence. 
 
86 SENTENCES 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 CO RRECTNESS 
 
 89. Incorrect English. — Incorrect English may 
 be due to errors in grammar, commonly called sol- 
 ecisms, as well as to violations of rhetorical usage. 
 Some common errors are given below. As rhetoric 
 deals with effective expression, it requires that sen- 
 tences should be grammatically correct. Expres- 
 sions such as "He don't," "You was," "Them 
 apples are good," and similar violations of the rules 
 of grammar, hinder effective expression, and hence 
 come within the province of rhetoric. 
 
 90. Incomplete Sentences. — Every sentence 
 should express a complete thought. " Milton, a 
 student and a recluse even in youth ; and in man- 
 hood, grave, dignified, independent, austere, proud, 
 possessing a grandeur and a haughtiness that defy 
 the critic's analysis," is not a complete sentence and 
 should not be used as one. It lacks a predicate for 
 the noun " Milton." 
 
 91. Articles. — Articles should not be omitted 
 when the sense requires their use. 
 
 Referring to One Object. Referring to Two Objects. 
 
 1. A black and white cow. i. A black and a white cow. 
 
 2. The poet and statesman. 2. The poet and the statesman. 
 
 The article should be repeated when the second 
 
CORRECTNESS 87 
 
 of two connected nouns or adjectives refers to a 
 different object. 
 
 Articles should be omitted when they are not 
 necessary to the sense. 
 
 He is the kind of a man I admire. 
 
 What sort of a measure did they adopt ? 
 
 The women and the children were removed to a place of safety. 
 
 Here kind refers not to one man but to a distinct 
 class of men ; and sort refers not to one people 
 but to a distinct class of people. A is therefore 
 incorrectly used after "kind" and "sort" in the 
 sentences given above. When two nouns are closely 
 related in meaning or from frequent association are 
 considered to form one class, as in the third ex- 
 ample, the article is omitted. 
 
 When there are more than two connected adjec- 
 tives referring to the same object, the article may 
 be repeated for emphasis. 
 
 Of these pamphlets the longest, the bitterest, and the ablest was 
 commonly ascribed to Ferguson.— Macaulay. 
 A sadder and a wiser man 
 He rose the morrow morn. — Coleridge. 
 
 EXERCISE 52. 
 
 Insert articles where necessary in the blank spaces 
 below; leave the space blank where no article is 
 needed : 
 
 1. Wanted, a nurse and housemaid. 
 
 2. The house and barn were both burned. 
 
 3. The French and English writers do not agree. 
 
 4. Sing the fourth, fifth, and seventh stanzas. 
 
 5. The elder and younger son were seldom at home. 
 
88 SENTENCES 
 
 6. The grace and beauty of his diction is unquestioned. 
 
 7. He consulted both the German and English dictionaries. 
 
 8. She never considered the quality, but merit of her visitors. 
 
 9. They were subject to prosecution by the civil and crim- 
 inal court. 
 
 10. It occurred before the use of the loadstone or inven- 
 tion of the compass. 
 
 n. The creed of Zoroaster supposes the coexistence of a benev- 
 olent and malevolent principle. 
 
 12. Dare any one breathe a word against the sweetest, 
 
 tenderest, the most angelical, of young women ? 
 
 93. Nouns: Formation of the Plural. — Care 
 should be taken to form correctly the plural of com- 
 oound words and foreigfn nouns., Tlie plural of inost / 
 compound nouns is formed by pluralizmg t«e part 
 which is described by the rest of* the phrase ; as, 
 "lookers-on," "men-of-war," "mothers-in-law," 
 "man-clerks," "woman-clerks." The following 
 nouns, which are often mistaken for compounds, add 
 "s" to the end of the word: " Mussulman," "Otto- 
 man," " talisman. " 
 
 Some foreign nouns retain their foreign plurals; 
 others that are much used in English follow the 
 rule of English nouns ii'i forming their plural. 
 Many foreign nouns have two plurals — one foreign, 
 the other English. In such cases the English plu- 
 ral is preferable. Some foreign nouns which have 
 double plurals are given below : 
 
 formulas 
 formulae 
 
 
CORRECTNESS 89 
 
 93. Nouns : Formation and Use of the Possess- 
 ive.— In modern prose the possessive is" chiefly con- 
 fined to nouns denoting persons or animals. " The 
 man's hand," "the horse's ear," are preferable to 
 "the hand of the man," "the ear of the horse." 
 With inanimate objects and plants the preposition 
 "of" is used instead of the possessive; as, "the top 
 of the hill," "the branches of the tree," "the chim- 
 ney of the house." 
 
 As a rule, the possessive should be used only to 
 denote actual possession. Thus it is good usage 
 to say "the horse's head," but not "the horse's 
 harness." 
 
 Sometimes, when the use of the possessive would 
 give us an awkward combination of sounds, v/e 
 may use the prepositional phrase to denote pos 
 session; as, "the salary of the President of the 
 United States." 
 
 We should observe that the possessive does not 
 necessarily convey the same meaning as the prepo- 
 sitional phrase; thus, "John's story" is a story 
 told by John, but "the story of John" is a story 
 told about John, "the President's reception" 
 means the reception held by the President, but 
 " the reception of the President " means the recep- 
 tion held for the President. 
 
 In the following sentences the words in parenthe- 
 ses are correct: "I rememhev /o/m (John's) going"; 
 "Excuse ;«f (my) asking you." "Going" and "ask- 
 ing" you here perform the functions of nouns and 
 should be limited by the possessive of the noun 
 "John " and the pronoun " my." 
 
90 SENTENCES 
 
 EXERCISE 53. 
 
 Form the plural of the following nouns : 
 
 I. German. 2. Breakdown. 3. Chief-of-police. 4. Man-servant. 
 5. Forget-me-not. 6. Major-general. 7. Knight-templar. 8. Tal- 
 isman. 9. Brahman. 10. Goose-quill. 11. Courtyard. 12. Step- 
 son. 13. Bill-of-fare. 14. Aide-de-camp. 15. Formula. 
 
 EXERCISE 54.' 
 
 Turn into possessives the nouns used with "of" in 
 the following phrases, and comment on the change in 
 meaning: 
 
 1. The care of his mother. 
 
 2. The books of the author. 
 
 3. The robbery of Mr. Smith. 
 
 4. The picture of my brother. 
 ;. The disregard of my friend. 
 
 6. The murder of my neighbor. 
 
 7. The loss of the Czar of Russia. 
 
 8. The good opinion of my father. 
 
 EXERCISE 55. 
 
 Are the italicized forms correct f 
 
 1. I AmitA John s arriving in time. 
 
 2. What is the use of me speaking ? 
 
 3. I rely on my brother's being on time. 
 
 4. There is no doubt of him going now. 
 
 5. What do you think of 7ne studying Frerch ? 
 
 6. Do you remember my brother's speaking to you about it? 
 
 94. Pronouns. — Mistakes in the use of pronouns 
 may arise from the following causes : 
 
 I. The use of the nominative form for the ob- 
 
CORRECTNESS 91 
 
 jective, or the objective form for the nominative ; 
 as, " If it had been me (I) who (whom) he abused so." 
 
 2 . The use of the wrong relative ; as, ' ' Those 
 whom he saw every day were the only people for 
 which (whom) he formed an attachment." 
 
 Which as a relative is used of animals or things ; 
 who is used chiefly of persons, but sometimes of 
 animals. That is used of either persons or things. 
 In many cases euphony must help us to decide 
 whether which or that is to be preferred; for exam- 
 ple, "They have cut down the beeches that grew 
 by the river." " The sandwich that I bought." 
 
 3. The use of the singular for the plural, or the 
 plural for the singular; as, " It was the eve of the 
 departure of one of the boys to make their (his) mark 
 in the world." 
 
 4. The use of the compound personal pronouns 
 when the sense does not require them. Compound 
 personal pronouns; i. e., pronouns ending in -self, 
 have two uses: i. For emphasis; as, "I will go my- 
 self." 2. As reflexives; as, " I hurt myself" The 
 following sentences are wrong : 
 
 Bedford was forced to be still at times, for Bradley was nine 
 inches taller than himself (he). 
 
 And then — it was part of his honest geniality of character to 
 admire those who "get on " in the.world. Himself Q^t) had been^ 
 almost from boyhood, in contact with great affairs. 
 
 5. The omission of necessary pronouns ; as, "In 
 answer to your question, ^ would say ^ am sorry I 
 was not at home; ^ hope to see you next week." 
 
 Pronouns should not be omitted when the sense 
 requires their use. 
 
92 SENTENCES 
 
 6. The use of unnecessary pronouns; as, "The 
 lesson on pronouns, it was very difficult." 
 
 7. The use of pronouns which do not agree in 
 gender and number with their antecedents, when 
 the construction requires such agreement; as, "It 
 is understood that the congregation has taken action, 
 but their (its) decision will not be made public till 
 to-morrow." Here "congregation" which, as is 
 shown by the singular verb "has taken," is to be 
 regarded as singular, should not be referred to by 
 a plural pronoun. 
 
 Literary usage regards the expressions "any- 
 body," "everybody," " each," "either," "neither," 
 and "nobody" as grammatically singular. Such 
 expressions should be referred to by singular pro- 
 nouns; as, " If anybody calls, ask him to wait." 
 
 When gender is not a matter of importance, the 
 masculine pronoun is to be used without regard to 
 the gender of the antecedent; as, "When perspec- 
 tive was first discovered everybody amused himself 
 with it." 
 
 EXERCISE 56. 
 
 Which of tlic italicized forms is correct? Give the 
 reason for your choice : 
 
 I, Me. 
 
 I. Let you and me (/) go. " 2. Turning the corner, my brother 
 and me (/) came upon the shop we were looking for. 3. That 
 makes no difference between such old friends as you and / {me). 
 4. John says you are taller than me (/). S. Was it he (Jiim) you 
 meant? 6. \Yho wrote this? /(JM. 7. When all had gone but 
 I {lite). 8. She imagined it to be/ (wfV 9. Is it 7 (w/^) you wish to 
 speak to? 10. He spoke to everybody in the room but / {me'). 
 II. He sent word for you and me {I) to come. 12. Who would 
 have supposed it to be kim (Jie) ? 
 
CORRECTNESS 93 
 
 We, ITS. 
 
 I. They will let neither our friends nor we {us) go. 2. Us ( We) 
 
 boys will learn to swim. 3. Are they older than us (we)} 4. He 
 
 left word for we [us) to come. 5. They knew it to be us {we) from 
 
 our hats. 6. He knew it was us {we) who did it. 7. He knows it 
 
 as well as we {us). 8. It may have been us {we) whom he meant. 
 
 9. They can play better than we {us). 10. People Vikewe {us) ought 
 
 not to go to such places. 
 
 He, Him, Slie, Her. 
 
 I. I imagined it to be ^zm {he). 2. He said that he {him) and 
 
 her {she) might go. 3. Was it you or him {he) who rang the bell } 
 
 4. Is he taller than her {she) } 5. It may have been he {him) to 
 
 whom you referred. 6. He said that he would go if he were her 
 
 (she). 7. The child is more confiding than y^^ (^zV«). 8. Her {She) 
 
 and her sister will come to-morrow. 9. They found fault with his 
 
 brother and he {him). 
 
 They, Them. 
 
 I. Yes, it was ihem {they). 2. They {Them) and their friends 
 went early. 3. I knew it to be them {they). 4. Boys like the7n 
 {they) should know better. 5. Let they {them) who wield the scep- 
 tre wear the crown. 6. None but they {them) who strive deserve 
 
 to succeed. 
 
 Who, Whom. 
 
 I. Who {Whom) did you mean ? 2. Who { Whom) do you think 
 
 will be chosen ? 3. Whom { Who) do men think me to be ? 4. Who 
 
 ( Whom) do you think they will elect ? 5. He is the man who {whom) 
 
 they expected to arrive. 6. He is the man who {whom) they thought 
 
 would arrive. 7. We did not know who {whom) they referred to. 
 
 8. jEneas was our king, than who {whom) no man was nobler. 
 
 9. Who {Whom) did you suppose it was? 10. He is a man who 
 {whom) I know to be honest, it. He is a man whom (who) I know 
 is honest. 12. He gave it to us who {whom) he knew. 
 
 PronoTins In -self. 
 
 Are the italicized forms correct f Give reasons for 
 your answers : 
 
 I. They can do it themselves. 2. We wrapped ourselves in 
 blankets. 3. The newspaper itself is wrong. 4. All this time 
 Tweedledee was trying his best to fold up the umbrella with himself 
 in it. 5. I myself will go. 6. She wrote the letter herself. 
 
94 SENTENCES 
 
 EXERCISE 57. 
 
 Insert "that" or " wh ich ' ' in the following sentences: 
 
 • 
 
 1. A birch grew on the bank. 
 
 2. It was the arch caught fire. 
 
 3. It was the time he referred to. 
 
 4. The books that man borrowed are lost. 
 
 5. The dog barked all night had been shot. 
 
 6. The witches Macbeth met read his future. 
 
 EXERCISE 58. 
 
 In the following sentences correct the italicized pro- 
 nouns : 
 
 1. Everybody had been dull, but had been kind in their way. 
 
 2. The Parliament was assembled and the King made them a 
 plausible speech. 
 
 3. Not a servant was ever allowed to do anything for me but 
 what it was their duty to do. 
 
 4. My good lord often talked of visiting that land in Virginia 
 which King Charles gave us — gave his ancestor. 
 
 5. Each of the sexes should keep within its proper bounds, and 
 content themselves to exalt within their respective districts. 
 
 6. The war then exciting attention to the American colonies is 
 one of the chief points in dispute, they came out in two volume? 
 octavo. 
 
 95. Verbs. — Errors in the use of verbs frequently 
 arise from the following causes : 
 
 1 . The use of a transitive for an intransitive verb, 
 or an intransitive for a transitive verb ; as, "I found 
 it /«;/2«^ (lying) on the floor." "She sat (set) the 
 doll on the chair." 
 
 2. An error in the form; as, "Idone (did) it." 
 " I seen (saw) him." 
 
CORRECTNESS 95 
 
 3. The use of a singular verb with a plural sub- 
 ject, or of a plural verb with a singular subject ; as, 
 "The general, with all his men, were (was) massa- 
 cred." (Here the subject is general, and the verb 
 should be singular.) "It don't (doesn't) make any 
 difference." {Don't is a contraction for "do not," 
 and is plural.) 
 
 The pronoun you takes a plural verb even when 
 the meaning is singular. 
 
 A collective noun takes a singular verb when 
 the collection is viewed as a whole ; a plural verb 
 when the members of the collection are taken indi- 
 vidually; as, "The jury was discharged"; "The 
 jury were eating dinner." 
 
 When two nouns in the singular mean the 
 same thing or are taken together as one thing, 
 the verb should be singular ; as, " Bread and butter 
 is his chief diet." But when the nouns mean 
 different things or represent different ideas, the 
 verb must be plural ; as, ' ' Pen and paper were fur- 
 nished free." 
 
 4. A disagreement in person; as, "It is I who 
 are (am) objecting." 
 
 In relative clauses the verb should have the same 
 person as the antecedent of the relative. 
 
 5 . A wrong tense in the principal verb ; as, " The 
 doctor affirmed that fever always produced (produces) 
 thirst." 
 
 Universal truths should be expressed by the 
 present tense. 
 
 6. A wrong tense in the dependent clause ; as, 
 ' ' I wanted to have asked (to ask) you . " To have asked 
 
96 SENTENCES 
 
 expresses time completed relatively to the time in- 
 dicated by the verb wanted, which is absurd. 
 
 The tense in the dependent clause of a complex 
 sentence should be present, past, or future with 
 reference to the tense of the verb in the independ- 
 ent clause. 
 
 7. The use of the indicative mode for the sub- 
 junctive. The subjunctive is correctly used in the 
 following sentences: 
 
 Oh, that I were young ! (A wish.) 
 He strives that he may conquer. (A purpose.) 
 He feared lest he inight miss the way. (A possibility.) 
 If I were you, I would not go. (" Were," an inipossible con- 
 dition ; " would," its ccnclusion.) 
 
 The subjunctive mode expresses existence, con- 
 dition, or action, not as a fact, but as something 
 merely thought of. It is now less used than for- 
 merly, but it must not be disregarded by those who 
 would become masters of exact expression. 
 
 8. The omission of a necessary verb ; as, "I do 
 not think we want a genius more than the rest of 
 our neighbors (do)." 
 
 EXERCISE 59. 
 
 Construct sentences in zvhich the following verb forms 
 are correctly used . 
 
 I. Lie. 2. Lay. 3. Lying. 4. Laying. 5. Lain. 6. Laid. 
 7. Rise. 8. Rose. 9. Risen. 10. Raise. 11. Raised. 12. Sit. 
 
 13. Sat. 14. Set. 
 
 EXERCISE 60. 
 
 Give the principal parts of tlic follotving verbs : 
 I. Begin. 2. Blow. 3. Break. 4. Burst. 5. Come. 6. Dive. 
 7. Do. 8. Drive. 9. Eat. 10. Fly. n. Freeze. 12. Forget. 
 
CORRECTNESS 97 
 
 13. Get. 14. Go. '5 ^i?y [*" '•^'■"^f '" 'i*"} 16 . Lie (to recline) . 
 17. Prove. 18. Ride. 19. Rise. 20. Raise (to cause to rise). 
 21. Run. 22. See. 23. .Set (to put ; of the sun, moon, etc., to sink). 
 24. Sit. 25. Shake. 26. Show. 27. Speak. 28. Take. 29. Throw. 
 30. Wake.' 
 
 EXERCISE 61. 
 
 Insert the proper form of the verb '^ to be" in each 
 of the blank spaces : 
 
 1. Book.s a common noun. 
 
 2. Ten minutes — — a short time. 
 
 3. Wages very low in this town. 
 
 4. Every one of these books mine. 
 
 5. Honor and fame all he cares for. 
 
 6. I who here speak in your defence. 
 
 7. " Gulliver's Travels " an interesting book. 
 
 ' 8. The general, with his whole force, in great danger. 
 
 9. One of the most striking features of the river its rocks. 
 
 10. America, as well as England, interested in the enterprise. 
 
 11. A harmless substitute for the sacred music which his instru- 
 ment or skill unable to achieve. 
 
 EXERCISE 62. 
 
 Which of the italicized forms in each of the follow- 
 ing sentences is correct f 
 
 1. He dare {dares) not do the deed. 
 
 2. Already a day or two have {has) passed. 
 
 3. The greater part of the congregation has {have) gone. 
 
 4. This is one of the books that giiies {give) me pleasure. 
 
 5. Vergil, as well as Homer, have {has) celebrated his exploits. 
 
 6. Swift was one of the most unhappy men that has (have) evei 
 lived. 
 
 * See BuehlerV Modern Engltsk Grammar^ % 200. 
 
98 SENTENCES 
 
 7. He made one of the best speeches that have {has) ever been 
 made in Congress. 
 
 8. The sewing machine is one of the most useful inventions that 
 have {has) ever been made. 
 
 EXERCISE 63. 
 
 Which of the italicized forms in each of the following 
 sentences is correct ? 
 
 1. He hoped to go (to have gone). 
 
 2. I intended to go (Jo have gone). 
 
 3. What did you say his name was {is) ? 
 
 4. I intended to call {to have called) earlier. 
 
 5. He said that two and two jnade {makes) four. 
 
 6. I expected to have seen {to see) you yesterday. 
 
 7. He had thought to have enjoyed {to enjoy) health. -^^ 
 
 8. He said education improved {improves) the morals. 
 
 9. It would have been better to wait {to have waited). 
 
 10. Homer is supposed to have lived {to live) about 800 B. C. 
 
 1 1. The furniture was to be sold {to have been sold) at auction. 
 
 12. It was {is) Goldsmith who wrote "The Vicar of Wakefield." 
 
 13. He asked how far it is {was) from Philadelphia to New York. 
 
 14. He did not know that water was {is) composed of two gases. 
 
 15. I intended to have insisted {to insist) on this sympathy at 
 greater length. 
 
 16. I had hoped never to have seen {to see) the statues again 
 when I missed them on the bridge. 
 
 EXERCISE 64. 
 
 Which of the italicized forms in each of the follon'- 
 ing sentences is preferable ? Give the reason for your 
 choice : 
 
 1. If she ^(7 {goes), I will go. 
 
 2. If it rain (rains), we cannot go. 
 
 3. I wish I was (were) going home. 
 
CORRECTNESS 99 
 
 4. If it rains {rain), we will not go. 
 
 5. I wish that my friend was i^eri) here. 
 
 6. He said if he were {was) I, he would go. 
 
 7. If there was {were) smoke, there was fire. 
 
 8. If this be {is) treason, make the most of it. 
 
 9. Whether he come {comes) or not, we will go. 
 
 10. If he were {was) studious, he would succeed. 
 
 11. If he were {was) here, we would speak to him. 
 
 12. If he speak {speaks) again, he will be punished. 
 
 13. If h& follows {follow) my advice, he will be rich. 
 
 14. I would tell him though he were {was) twice as large as I. 
 
 EXERCISE 65. 
 
 In the following sentences the caret marks the omis- 
 sion of a verb necessary to the sense. Study the sen- 
 tences and supply the verbs : 
 
 1. His diet was abstemious, his prayers /^ long and fervent. 
 
 2. Discoursing on politics is looked upon as /^ dull as talking on 
 weather. ' ' 
 
 3. He lamented the fatal mistake they had been ^ so long in 
 using silkworms. 
 
 4. The story ends as many y^. " They were married and lived 
 happily ever after." 
 
 5. I am anxious for the time when he will talk as much nonsense 
 to me as I have y^ to him. 
 
 6. In this he closely resembled the greatest of advocates in 
 modern times, and /^ second to none of the ancients. 
 
 7. He then addressed to his troops a few words of encourage- 
 ment, as y^ customary with him on the eve of an engagement. 
 
 96. Adjectives and Adverbs. — Errors in the use 
 of adjectives and adverbs arise from : 
 
 I . Using one part of speech where the sense re- 
 
loo SENTENCES 
 
 quires another,' as, "He was near (nearly) drowned.' 
 "The rose smells sweetly (sweet)." "He says he 
 feels good (well)." " He is most (almost) done." 
 
 2. Using the superlative degree for the compar- 
 ative, or the comparative for the superlative ; as, 
 " The mother seemed t\\Q youngest (younger) of the 
 two." ' ' He is younger than any (the youngest) mem- 
 ber of his class." 
 
 The comparative degree implies a comparison of 
 two things or sets of things; the superlative, of 
 more than two. 
 
 3. By comparing a thing with itself ; as, "I pre- 
 fer ' Paradise Lost' to any poem." (We should 
 say to any other poem, since " Paradise Lost " is itself 
 a poem.) 
 
 EXERCISE 66. 
 
 Which of the italicized words in each of the following 
 sentences is correct ? 
 
 1 . H'e behaved bad {badly). 
 
 2. We are Jiear {nearly) done. 
 
 3. The snow falls soft {softly). 
 
 4. They fought brave {bravely). 
 
 5. He has written plain {plainly). 
 
 6. It rains most {almost) every dav. 
 
 7. We feel this matter deep {deeply). 
 
 8. He plays the piano ivell {good). 
 
 9. He did not \ook good (well) to-day. 
 
 10. She was dressed warm {warmly). 
 
 11. She looks som,e {somewhat) like her mother. 
 
 1 2. A person should dress suitable {suitably) to the occasion. 
 
 * See Buehler's Modem English Grammar^ g 232. 
 
CORRECTNESS loi 
 
 EXERCISE 67. 
 
 Criticise the following sentences : 
 
 1. He is richer than any man in the world. 
 
 2. The rose is more beautiful than any flower. 
 
 3. He is better versed in history than any man living. 
 j't. I know none so happy in his metaphors as Addison. 
 
 / 5. Errors in education should be less indulged in than any. 
 
 ( 6. This noble nation hath of all others admitted fewer corrup- 
 tions. 
 
 7. He thinks that the rose smells more sweetly than any flower 
 that blooms. 
 
 97. Misplacing Adverbs. — Only is a troublesome 
 word to place .so that it will bring out the correct 
 meaning, as may be shown by the history of the 
 inscription on our postal cards : 
 
 The direction at first was, "Write the address 
 only on this side." If only is read in connection 
 with address, as intended, the meaning is clear; but 
 if read in connection with on this side, it becomes 
 ridiculous, for nobody would write the address on 
 both sides. 
 
 Then the direction was, ' ' Write the address on 
 this side — the message on the other." But this 
 seemed unnecessary, for any one accustomed to 
 writing letters would put the address on the same 
 side with the stamp. 
 
 The direction was then changed to, "Nothing 
 but the address can be placed on this side." Of 
 this it has been well remarked that the average 
 schoolboy knows better. He "can" place a good 
 deal more than the address on that side. 
 
 Finally the direction reads, " This side is for the 
 
102 
 
 SENTENCES 
 
 address only." The troublesome word only at length 
 found its proper place. 
 
 Adverbs should be so placed that it is clear what 
 word or words they modify. 
 
 EXERCISE 68. 
 
 Remove the word ' ' only " to the blank in each sentence 
 and tell what change is made in the meaning : 
 
 1. Only text-books are sold here . 
 
 2. He advised us to drink only milk. 
 
 3. These books are only sold in sets . 
 
 4. I have only read three books of " Paradise Lost." 
 
 EXERCISE 69. 
 
 Which oj the italicized forms is correct ? 
 
 1. It arrived safe {safely). 
 
 2. Your suit fi\.s good {well). 
 
 3. I live free {freely) from care. 
 
 4. Go as quiet {quietly) as you can. 
 
 5. He informed us wrong {wrongly). 
 
 6. Of two evils choose the less {least). 
 
 7. Come as quick {quickly) as you can. 
 
 8. He is ill {illy) prepared for the task. 
 
 9. The field ploughs smooth {smoothly). 
 
 10. He felt bad {badly) because of his loss. 
 
 11. He xea.d.s plainer {more plainly) than I. 
 
 12. He wrote the \^\.\.i.x previous {previously) to going. 
 
 13. Speak slaw (slowly) and enunciate distinct {distinctly). 
 
 98. Prepositions. — Errors in the use of preposi- 
 tions arise from the following causes : 
 
 I. From failing to choose the preposition which 
 
CORRECTNESS 
 
 103 
 
 expresses the meaning intended. Examine the 
 following sentences : 
 
 There is need_/i)r (of) reform. 
 
 The wagon collided against (with) the car. 
 
 They dissented to (from) the plan. 
 
 He was named for (after) George. 
 
 He is zealous of (for) good works. 
 
 Some words require special prepositions. A par- 
 tial list is here given : 
 
 abhorrence of 
 
 abhorrent to 
 
 absolve from 
 
 accord with 
 
 acquit of 
 
 adapted to, for 
 
 agree with (a person) 
 
 agree to (a proposal) 
 
 agree upon (conditions) 
 
 bestow upon 
 
 change for (a thing) 
 
 change with (a person) 
 
 comply with 
 
 confide in (= to trust in) 
 
 confide to (to intrust to) 
 
 conform to 
 
 in conformity with 
 
 convenient for, to 
 
 conversant with 
 
 dependent on 
 
 derogatory to 
 
 die of (a disease) 
 
 differ from (a person or thing) 
 
 dissent from 
 
 disappointed of (what we 
 
 cannot get) 
 disappointed in (what we 
 
 have) 
 glad at, of 
 involve in 
 live at (a village) 
 live in (a city, country) 
 martyr for, to 
 name after, from 
 need of 
 
 part from, with 
 profit by 
 receive of, from 
 reconcile to, with 
 risk of (a thing) 
 
 sick with (a disease) 
 
 taste of (food) 
 
 taste for (art) 
 
 thirst for, after 
 
 thirsty with (poetic use) 
 
 trust in, to 
 
 vexed with, at 
 
 zealous for,in 
 
 2. From omitting necessary prepositions. In 
 the following sentences the prepositions in paren- 
 theses are required by usage : 
 
I04 SENTENCES 
 
 He is not (at) home to-day. 
 It is worthy (of) your notice. 
 
 Persons are prohibited from riding or (from) driving cattle on 
 the foot-path. 
 
 Before "home," in the sense of at home, the pre- 
 position "at" should never be omitted. 
 
 3. From the use of unnecessary prepositions. 
 The italicized prepositions below are not needed : 
 
 He examined into the subject. 
 
 At about what time will the train start ? 
 
 The use of two or more prepositions with the 
 same object should be avoided; as, "It is a prin 
 ciple we give heed to but cannot abide by." 
 
 EXERCISE 70. 
 
 Insert the proper preposition in .each blank : 
 
 1. He is ill fever. 
 
 2. He is sick politics. 
 
 3. He lives New York. 
 
 4. The bird flew the tree. 
 
 5. I beg leave to differ you. 
 
 6. I dissent that proposition. 
 
 7. My nephew was called me. 
 
 8. They accused him larceny. 
 
 9. He compared wisdom gold. 
 
 10. He is adapted an outdoor Hfe. 
 
 1 1 . I shall be glad your company. 
 
 12. We shall profit his experience. 
 
 13. His sisters are dependent him. 
 
 14. The eye adapts itself darkness. 
 
 15. The medicine agrees the patient. 
 
 16. The house was adapted occupation. 
 
 17. He concurred me my decision. 
 
CORRECTNESS 105 
 
 18. Edward VII. was educated Oxford. 
 
 ig. Persons differ in opinion one another. 
 
 20. He was glad — — the report of your success. 
 
 21. They absolved us all further obligations. 
 
 22. The opposing party agreed the proposition. 
 
 23. He had a controversy me the scheme. 
 
 24. When he had agreed the laborers for a penny a day. 
 
 25. The severity of the punishment accords the gravity of 
 
 the offence. 
 
 26. There is no book that can compare ihe Bible for the 
 
 variety and importance of the information it gives. 
 
 EXERCISE 71. 
 
 In the following sentences remove or insert preposi- 
 tions as required : 
 
 1. He fell off of the porch. 
 
 2. It is unworthy your notice. 
 
 3. What use is this broken pen ? 
 
 4. Get on to the bicycle this way. 
 
 5. We entreat of thee to hear us. 
 
 6. It is a mystery we firmly adhere. 
 
 7. This side the river the ground is level. 
 
 8. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 
 
 9. There is much of reason in what you say. 
 ID. Let us consider the works of nature and art. 
 
 11. He sympathized not with their cause but their fate. 
 
 12. Was he home when you called? No, but they were expect- 
 ing him home. 
 
 ^3. It was caused by the bursting of the Mississippi scheme 
 and South Sea bubble. 
 
 14. The Sabbath was regarded as a day for rest from worldly 
 occupations and holy joy. 
 
 15. Wise women choose not husbands for the eye, merit, or 
 birth, but wealth and sovereignty. 
 
io6 SENTENCES 
 
 99. Prepositions and Conjunctions. — Errors in 
 the use of prepositions and conjunctions arise from 
 using one part of speech for another; as, "He 
 writes like (as) I write." ''Except (Unless) you go 
 with me, I shall not go." 
 
 The function of the preposition is to bring a noun 
 or pronoun into a modifying relation with some 
 other word in the sentence ; the function of the con- 
 junction is to connect words, phrases, or clauses. 
 The following notes on some special uses of a few 
 prepositions and conjunctions may prove helpful. 
 
 100. Ijike or As. — Like may be said to perform 
 the function of a preposition ; it is never used as a 
 conjunction. Such expressions as "He reads like 
 I read," "He does like I do," are therefore 
 incorrect. 
 
 101. But. — ^This word may be used as a preposi- 
 tion or as a conjunction, as the case requires. As a 
 conjunction it is nearly equivalent to however, yet, 
 on the other hand ; as, " He spoke briefly, but he 
 spoke to the point." Butan, from which is derived 
 our word "but," was a preposition in Anglo-Saxon, 
 and it has been freely used as a preposition in 
 English of all periods. The following sentences 
 are therefore correct : 
 
 Whence all but hirn had fled. — Mrs. Hemans. 
 
 . . . They could not swim. 
 So nobody arrived on shore but him. — Byron. 
 
 As a preposition, but has the meaning of ' 'except," 
 " barring." 
 
CORRECTNESS 107 
 
 103. Except, Without, Unless. — Except and with- 
 out are used in modern prose as prepositions only ; 
 as, " All went except me," " He went without me." 
 Unless is a conjunction. The following sentences 
 show incorrect uses of ^jrc^/^ and without: ''Except 
 you go with me, I shall not go." " Without he does 
 that, we shall not go." The conjunction unless is 
 the proper word to use in each of these sentences, 
 because it is followed not by a noun or pronoun but 
 by a clause. 
 
 103. Conjunctions. — Errors in the use of con junc- 
 tions may arise from the foU^wing causes : 
 
 K From a careless uge^'M conijeetives. ^ Much^of 
 slovepWness of^-^chool corfnpositjon's wqjjJd' ais;. 
 attentjem wei>-given to'the u^e<of 
 Hem^ an. extract ta&n at r^dom 
 school exercise : 
 
 Although Macbeth and Lady Macbeth made a great display of 
 grief, and the proof against the grooms was very strong, yet the 
 suspicion fell strongly on Macbeth, and the king's sons fled, and 
 having thus vacated the throne, Macbeth, as next heir, was crowned 
 king, fl^^thus the predictions of the witches were fulfilled. 
 
 In this passage the sentences are carelessly strung 
 together by an unskilful use of conjunctions. 
 
 The following extract shows- a skilful use of con- 
 junctions: 
 
 Rip Van Winkle, however, was one of those happy mortals, of 
 foolish, well-oiled dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white 
 bread or brown, whichever can be got with least thought or trouble, 
 and would rather starve on a penny than work for a poun,d. If left 
 to himself, he would have whistled life away in perfect contentment; 
 but his wife kept continually dinning in his ears about his idleness, 
 
io8 SENTENCES 
 
 his carelessness, and the ruin he was bringing on his family. Morn- 
 ing, noon, and night her tongue was incessantly going, and every- 
 thing he said or did was sure to produce a torrent of household 
 eloquence. — Irving. 
 
 Y ^. From the use of the wrong conjunction. As 
 should not be used for that ; as, "I do not know as 
 it is so." Say rather, " I do not know that it is so." 
 As should not be used for so in negative assertions; 
 as, " This is not as good as the other." Say rather, 
 " This is not so good as the other." 
 
 3. From the omission of conjunctions necessary 
 either to the grammar or to the sense; as, "My 
 writing is as plain, if not plainer than yours." This 
 sentence will be improved by omitting than and 
 connecting the related words "plain" and "yours" 
 by as. Thus, ' ' My writing is as plain as 5'ours, if 
 not plainer." 
 
 .^ 4. From the use of unnecessary conjunctions; 
 as, "The principal and distinguishing excellence 
 of Vergil, and which, in my opinion, he possesses 
 above all others, is his artistic skill." The italicized 
 and is superfluous. 
 
 And is generally to be avoided before a relative 
 pronoun, for the reason that the relative itself is a 
 connecting word. 
 
 c^ i. From the misuse of correlative conjunctions. 
 Correlative conjunctions go in pairs, e. g., "both — 
 and," "either — or," "neither — nor," "whether — 
 or," "not only — but also." These words should be 
 so placed that they connect the parts of the sentence 
 intended to be correlated. The following sentence 
 is wrong: "I neither spoke French nor German." 
 
CORRECTNESS log 
 
 Since the words to be correlated here are French 
 and German, the sentence should read, "I spoke 
 neither French nor German." Avoid the error of 
 using neither with or, and of omitting also or even 
 after but when these words are correlated with 
 "not only"; as, "I neither love or hate him," "He 
 could not only spell but read." These sentences 
 should read, "I neither love nor hate him," "He 
 could not only spell but also read." A similar error 
 is the use of nor after not or no ; as, " He could not 
 read Latin nor Greek." This sentence should read, 
 " He could not read Latin or Greek." 
 
 EXERCISE 72. 
 
 Insert the proper word (like, as, so) in each blank: 
 
 1. He walks me. 
 
 2. He does I do, 
 
 3. We can read John. 
 
 4. She looks her brother. 
 
 5. She sings (if) she had a cold. 
 
 6. I did not think it bad that. 
 
 7. There are few that could do much. . 
 
 8. Times are not good now as they were. 
 
 9. I have been idle since, liut never happy. 
 
 10. I like him well, but I do not like her well. 
 
 EXERCISE 73. 
 
 Insert the proper word (except, without, unless) in 
 each blank : 
 
 1. Al^ my sister went. 
 
 2. We cannot go you. 
 
 3. you go, I cannot go. 
 
 4. We cannot live friends. 
 
 5. All were there — — my brother. 
 
no SENTENCES 
 
 6. Do not come I write to you. 
 
 7. I shall blame you you write. 
 
 8. He cannot go his father's consent. 
 
 EXERCISE 74. 
 
 Insert the proper conjunction in each blank : 
 
 1. I wonder he will come. 
 
 2. I cannot deny he is honest. 
 
 3. We shall walk, you shall ride. 
 
 4. There is no doubt he will recover. 
 
 5. We were there early, we had seats. 
 
 6. She watches him a cat would a mouse. 
 
 7. Scarcely had we gone out : it began to rain. 
 
 8. He gave a short — =- interesting account of the game, 
 g. He could measure lands presage times tides. 
 
 10. He understands the language, he does not speak it. 
 
 11. The gun was not loaded, it could not be discharged. 
 
 12. they were without provisions, they were compelled to 
 
 surrender. 
 
 13. The chiefs lay beside their vessels, rosy morn had pur- 
 pled o'er the sky. 
 
 14. Mutual mea.ns reciprocal, not common ; two persons may 
 
 be mutual friends, A cannot be a mutual friend to B and C. 
 
 1 5. At first, capitals alone were employed, they were run 
 
 together without spaces points, in the illustration given 
 
 above. 
 
 EXERCISE 75. 
 
 Remove or insert conjunctions as required: 
 
 1. He is considered as an excellent scholar. 
 
 2. He spoke in- a low tone, but which we could distinctly hear. 
 
 3. He is a writer of great experience, and whose suggestions 
 will be found helpful to you. 
 
 4. He was an intelligent man, very influential at that time, and 
 in whom we had much confidence. 
 
 5. But although Macbeth was king and his wife queen, they still 
 remembered the prediction of the witches. 
 
CORRECTNESS iiI 
 
 EXEKCISE 76. 
 
 Insert the proper correlative in each blank : 
 
 1. He would not come go. 
 
 2. He can neither read write. 
 
 3. I could neither buy borrow it. 
 
 4. He felt neither gratitude — honor. 
 
 5. The work was neither neat clear. 
 
 6. He gave me not only advice help. 
 
 7. He does not care whether you I go. 
 
 8. I do not know whether I shall walk ride. 
 
 9. The work is both interesting instructive. 
 
 10. The work is not only pleasant interesting. 
 
 11. A petty constable will act neither cheerfully wisely. 
 
 12. Their language frequently amounts not only to bad sense, 
 to nonsense. 
 
 104. Double NegatlTes. — Expressions at variance 
 with our modern idiom and yet not grammatically 
 incorrect are sometimes found in the works of 
 standard authors. The italicized words below form 
 what is called a DOUBLE negative : 
 
 What is it ? Greenbacks ? No, noi that neither. — Raskin. 
 
 Double negatives, although much used in early 
 English, are condemned by the best modern usage. 
 
 105. The Split Infinitive. — The split infinitive, as 
 it is called, consists in the use of an adverb or ad- 
 verbial phrase between to and the infinitive ; as, 
 '.'To clearly explain," "to ^^oro«^/«/;/ understand." 
 Although this construction is sometimes used by 
 reputable authors, it should be avoided by careful 
 writers. 
 
112 SENTENCES 
 
 106. Dangling Participles. — A participle should 
 not be used unless the noun or' pronoun to which it 
 is related is expressed. The following sentence is 
 faulty: " Seeing the man, it was thought advisable 
 to speak to him." We might change this sentence 
 so that it would read, " Seeing the man, we thought 
 it advisable to speak to him," or, " When we saw 
 the man, we thought it advisable to speak to him." 
 By the careless use of participles, a writer some- 
 times conveys a meaning quite different from what 
 he purposes ; as, " Being early killed, I sent a 
 party in search of his mangled body." 
 
 The custom of loosely attaching a participial 
 phrase to a sentence should be avoided. The fol- 
 lowing sentences in the left-hand column thus vio- 
 late good usage : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. The man is a musician, i. The man is a musician 
 having come to America to gain who has come to America to 
 a reputation. gain a reputation. 
 
 2. In this village he built a 2. In this village he built a 
 largehouse.callingitfirstWorces- large house which he at first 
 ter Place, and changing that called Worcester Place, and af- 
 name later to Worcester Villa. terwards Worcester Villa. 
 
 • 
 
 EXERCISE 77. 
 
 1. Read a biography of George Eliot ^ and ivritc at 
 least two paragraphs on her early life and education, 
 bringing out the following points : 
 
 George Eliot was proficient in Greek, Latin, French, German, 
 Italian, Hebrew, and music. Her education was largely obtained 
 without the aid of an instructor. 
 
 2. Read what you can on the Puritans, and ivrite a 
 
CORRECTNESS 113 
 
 paragraph showing the truth or falsity of the following 
 statement: 
 
 The Puritan haled bear-baitinjj, not because it gave pain to 
 the bear, but because it gave pleasure to the spectators.— Macaulay. 
 
 3. Reproduce in your own words the conversation 
 given below, using only the direct form of discourse : 
 
 V/ordsworth boasted that he could write just like Shakespeare, 
 if he had a mind to. Charles Lamb told him that the trouble was 
 that he hadn't the mind. 
 
 4. Describe some practical joke that has come under 
 your observation or about which you have read. 
 
 5. Write a short notice to be posted on the bulletin 
 board, saying that you have lost a pocket-knife, a fountain 
 pen, or a book. Tell when and where you think you have 
 lost it. Describe it sufficiently for the finder to identify 
 it as yours. Tell where it may be returned to you. 
 
 6. Write a short item for a local newspaper, announc- 
 ing a lecture to be given for the benefit of the school 
 library. 
 
114 SENTENCES 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 CLEARNESS ' 
 
 107. Requirements of tlie Sentence. — The re- 
 quirements of a sentence will be considered un- 
 der four heads : I. Clearness; 2. Unity; 3. Force; 
 4. Ease. 
 
 108. Clearness Defined. — Quintilian, the great 
 Roman rhetorician, said care should be taken not 
 that the hearer may understand, but that he must 
 understand. This is an injunction that everywriter 
 who aims to make his meaning clear must keep 
 constantly in mind. When a sentence is so con - 
 gtrm-tprl tViat tVip rpadpf g rasps th e .thougMiLcon- 
 tains withnnteverj-^pn, it is said t,n \ie. (^lear. 
 
 109. Importance of Clearness. — The first requi- 
 site of a sentence is that it shall be clear. Unless 
 a writer expresses his meaning in language that is 
 readily understood, he will have few readers, and 
 these few he will neither influence nor convince. A 
 reader soon grows weary of searching for the mean- 
 ing among "ifs" and "ands" and "wherefores." 
 
 By comparing clear sentences with obscure ones, 
 we shall learn what to do and what to avoid in 
 order to attain clearness. 
 
 ^ Sometimes called perspicuity* 
 
CLEARNESS 115 
 
 Clearness is violated in the following ways : 
 I. By misusing words: 
 
 I. 11. 
 
 1. The teacher said that if I. The teacher said that if 
 we behaved we should be dis- we behavedwelj we should be 
 missed at three o'clock. dismissed at three o'clock. 
 
 "To behave" means simply to act. To convey 
 the meaning intended, it is clear that "behaved" 
 should be qualified by the adverb "well." 
 
 I. II. 
 
 2. He excepted the gift with 2. He accepted the gift with 
 many expressions of gratitude. many expressions of gratitude. 
 
 "To except" means to omit, leave out, or reject; 
 "to accept," to receive. The latter meaning is here 
 intended. 
 
 2. By misplacing modifiers: 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. The French nearly lost i. The French lost nearly 
 five thousand men. {Nearly five thousand men. 
 
 should modify " five thousand.") 
 
 2. She wore a diamond pin 2. She wore in her hair a dia- 
 in her hair which was bought in mond pin which was bought in 
 Paris. Paris. 
 
 3. The witness had been or- 3. In consequence of being 
 dered to withdravi' from the bar intoxicated, the witness, by the 
 of the House in consequence of motion of the honorable mem- 
 being intoxicated, by the motion ber, had been ordered to with- 
 of the honorable member. draw from the House. 
 
 4. We came to a house walk- 4. Walking along the road, 
 ing along the road. we came to a house. 
 
 Subordinate expressions should be placed where 
 they will at once show what word or group of words 
 
Il6 
 
 SENTENCES 
 
 they modify. In order to effect this arrange- 
 ment, it is generally necessary to place the sub- 
 ordinate parts near the word or words which they 
 qualify. 
 
 3. By misplacing correlative conjunctions : 
 
 I. 
 
 1. He not only gave me ad- 
 vice but also help. 
 
 2. Because we neither knowr 
 the nature of our own ideas nor 
 of the soul. 
 
 3. By greatness I do not only 
 mean the bulk of any single ob- 
 ject, but also the largeness of the 
 whole view. 
 
 II. 
 
 1. He gave me not only ad- 
 vice but also help. 
 
 2. Because we know neither 
 the nature of our own ideas nor 
 the nature of the soul. 
 
 3. By greatness I mean not 
 only the bulk of any single ob- 
 ject, but also the largeness of the 
 whole view. 
 
 Correlative conjunctions should be so placed as 
 to show at once what ideas are to be connected in 
 thought. As a rule, the word following the first 
 correlative should be the same part of speech as 
 that following the second correlative. 
 
 4. By a careless use of pronouns : 
 
 I. 
 
 1. John told his neighbor that 
 he had seen his friend in his 
 back yard. (The only remedy 
 here is to put the sentence in the 
 direct form.) 
 
 2. It is folly to pretend to arm 
 ourselves against the accidents 
 of life, by heaping up treasures 
 which nothing can protect us 
 against but the good providence 
 of our Heavenly Father. 
 
 II. 
 I. John said to his neighbor, 
 " I have seen your friend in my 
 back yard." 
 
 2. It is folly to pretend that, 
 by heaping up treasures, we can 
 arm ourselves against the acci- 
 dents of life, which nothing but 
 the good will of ouf. Heavenly 
 Father can protect us against. 
 
CLEARNESS 117 
 
 3. With the burial by the 3. With the burial by the 
 lake side among the maples lake side among the maples red- 
 reddening with the autumnal dening with autumnal changes, 
 changes, which abound in the the ceremonies of the memorial 
 most beautiful city of that vast week of President Garfield have 
 western valley of which he was come to an end. (The sentence 
 a child, the ceremonies of the will be improved by placing a 
 memorial week of President Gar- comma after maples, or by insert- 
 field have come to an end. ing "trees" after which) 
 
 What is the antecedent of the italicized which in 
 the third sentence ? It cannot be changes, for this 
 would make nonsense; it must be maples ; yet the 
 pronoun does not point to maples as its antecedent. 
 The whole adjectival clause should be omitted, not 
 only because of the ambiguity arising from its use, 
 but also because it interrupts the expression of the 
 main idea — the funeral ceremonies of President 
 Garfield. 
 
 Where a pronoun does not clearly point out its 
 antecedent, the sentence should be recast or the 
 antecedent repeated. 
 
 5 . By the omission of words that are necessary to 
 the sense : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. He likes me better than i. He likes me better than he 
 you. likes you. 
 
 After than or as, if there is any danger of obscU' 
 rity, the ellipsis should be supplied. 
 
 I. II. 
 
 2. There is a difference be- 2. There is a difference be- 
 tween the duties of a nation and tween the duties of a nation and 
 of an individual. those of an individual. 
 
ii8 SENTENCES 
 
 The insertion of the pronoun those or the repe- 
 tition of the noun duties is here necessary. 
 
 I. II- 
 
 3. While we idled we con- 3. While we idled we con- 
 soled ourselves that the exam- soled ourselves with the thought 
 inations would be easy. that the examinations would be 
 
 easy. 
 
 4. Harry eyed her with such 4. Harry eyed her with a rap- 
 a rapture as the first lover is ture such as that with which, ac- 
 described as having eyed by cording to Milton, the first of 
 Milton. ' lovers eyed his mistress. 
 
 5. You may go if you wish to. 5. You may go if you wish 
 
 to go. 
 
 The writer should be on his guard against omit- 
 ting words that are necessary to the clear expres- 
 sion of his thought. He should not hesitate to re- 
 peat a word if by so doing he can make his meaning 
 clearer, (in the Bible we find this sentence : " The 
 lad cannot leave his father : for if he should leave 
 his father, his father would die.^' If pronouns 
 had been used instead of repeating the nouns, it 
 would be difficult to determine the meaning of this 
 passage. 
 
 Repetition is one of the means by which Macau- 
 lay secured clearness. " I learned from Macaulay," 
 says Freeman, "never to be afraid of using the 
 same word or name over again, if by that means 
 anything could be added to clearness or force. 
 Macaulay never goes on, like some writers, talking 
 about 'the former' and 'the latter,' 'he, she, it, 
 they,' through clause after clause, while his reader 
 
 1 Gen. xiiv, 32, 
 
CLEARNESS iig 
 
 has to look back to see which of several persons it 
 is that is so darkly referred to. "J 
 
 6. By a careless use of participles: 
 
 I. II. 
 
 I. -I did not hear what you i. Entering so suddenly, I 
 
 said, entering so suddenly. did not hear what you said. 
 
 This sentence is ambiguous, because the writer 
 has failed to make plain the connection between the 
 participle "entering" and the pronoun to which it 
 belongs. If the participle is intended to refer to the 
 pronoun "you, ".the sentence should read, "What 
 you said on entering so suddenly, I did not hear." 
 
 I. 11. 
 2. The admiral was called 2. The admiral was called 
 upon to say whether he recog- upon to say whether he recog- 
 nized in the body present the nized in the body present the 
 corpse of the Emperor Maximil- corpse of the Emperor Maximil- 
 ian. Replying in the affirmative, ian. Upon the admiral's reply- 
 the coffin was closed. ing in the affirmative the coffin 
 
 was closed. 
 
 A writer should be careful not to omit the noun 
 or pronoun to which the participle is related, and 
 should so place the participle that its relation to the 
 noun or pronoun shall be unmistakable. 
 
 7. By the use of faulty long sentences : 
 
 And then those who are of an inferior condition, and they 
 labor and be diligent in ,the work of an honest calling, for this is 
 privately good and profitable unto men and their families ; and to 
 those who are above this necessity, and. are in a better capacity to 
 maintain good works properly so called, works of piety and charity 
 and justice, that they be careful to promote and advance them 
 according to their power and Opportunity, because these things are 
 publicly good and beneficial to mankind^ 
 
120 SENTENCES 
 
 The only way to make this unwieldy sentence 
 clear is to rewrite it, breaking it up into several 
 sentences. 
 
 If the writer wishes to use long sentences, he 
 should be careful to form them so that each "sen- 
 tence expresses a clearly defined idea. 
 
 HO. Summary. — We have learned from an ex- 
 amination of the sentences given that clearness can 
 be attained by the following methods : i . By using 
 words with their correct meanings ; 2 . By a skilful 
 arrangement of modifiers; 3. By a proper arrange- 
 ment of correlative conjunctions; 4. By taking 
 care in employing pronouns; 5. By avoiding im- 
 proper ellipses; 6. By taking care in employing 
 participles ; 7. By avoiding faulty long sentences. 
 
 EXERCISE 78. 
 
 In the following sentences insert correct words for 
 the misused words : 
 
 I. He is an odd old party. 
 
 2 No human ever climbed that mountain. 
 
 3. They were bound to get to the top of the hill first. 
 
 4. The speaker alluded to the subject for half an hour. 
 
 5. It is estimated that the city discharges every day one hun- 
 dred tons of sewerage into the canal. 
 
 EXERCISE 79. 
 
 By placing the modifiers where they properly belongs 
 make the follo2ving sentences clear : 
 
 1. Wanted, a drug clerk immediately. 
 
 2. He found a pair of black ladies' kid gloves. 
 
 3. The secretary sat writing a letter with a Roman nose. 
 
CLEARNESS 121 
 
 4. They live in a house in Boston seven stories high. 
 
 5. I spoke rarely, for she seldom paused, and I asked few ques- 
 tions. 
 
 6. The teacher spoke to him before he left the room most 
 sharply. 
 
 7. He said many disagreeable things of me because of my fail- 
 ure behind my back. 
 
 8. Wanted, a maid to do light housework and take care of a 
 baby, who is not over 16 years old. 
 
 EXERCISE 80. 
 
 In the following sentences place the correlatives so as 
 to make the meaning clear : 
 
 1. They neither found oil nor coal. 
 
 2. We not only need more men, but also money. 
 
 3. We neither saw the sun nor the moon on our voyage. 
 
 4. We not only observed that he was polite, but also that he 
 was kind. 
 
 J. By friends I do not only mean those who helped me, but also 
 those who offered their services. 
 
 EXERCISE 81. 
 
 In the following sentences place the pronouns so as to 
 make the meaning clear : 
 
 1. The figs were in a box which we ate. 
 
 2. James told John that his horse had run away. 
 
 3. The mad dog bit a horse on the leg which has since died. 
 
 4. Fieschi discharged an "infernal machine" at the king as he 
 passed the window. 
 
 5. Johnson visited Goldsmith, and found that his landlady had 
 arrested him for debt, at which he was very angry. 
 
 6. The Frenchmen asked the Germans whether the guns which 
 they had in their hands were those they had seen in their tents. 
 
122 SENTENCES 
 
 EXERCISE 82. 
 
 In the following sentences supply the words needed to 
 make the meaning clear : 
 
 1. The rhythm of the second and third stanzas is imperfect. 
 
 2. The poetry of Dante is picturesque beyond any ever written. 
 
 3. After the maid showed her the room prepared for her use, 
 she retired. 
 
 4. The days of Charles II. were the golden age of the coward, 
 bigot, and slave. 
 
 5. Competition has produced activity where monopoly would 
 have sluggishness. 
 
 6. The horses became fatigued, and after holding a council they 
 decided to go no farther. 
 
 7. His son had grown to be a man, arvd he inherited all his 
 good nature and laziness. 
 
 8. We are charmed by that singularly and delicate humor in 
 which Addison excelled all men. 
 
 9. The bark is rather light and smooth, the leaves coarsely 
 notched, and the wings of the fruit about an inch long. 
 
 EXERCISE 83. 
 
 In the folloiving sentences place the participles so that 
 they tvill indicate clearly to luhich notins they arc re- 
 lated, or change the participial phrases to clauses, and 
 rewrite the sentences, making the meaning clear : 
 
 1. The captain spoke a passing ship clinging to a raft. 
 
 2. I counted twenty-five meteors, the other night, sitting on the 
 back porch. 
 
 3. The Athenians wrote the name of a person, wishing to banish 
 him, on a shell. 
 
 4. Being exceedingly fond of game, a keeper was always seen 
 within his grounds. 
 
 5. I called on him a year ago, while living in Brooklyn, where 
 he made his home for a short time. 
 
CLEARNESS 123 
 
 EXERCISE 84. 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences, making them clear : 
 
 1. Will he beat me as these others? 
 
 2. Contraction only takes place before a vowel. 
 
 3. In his prose Southey is a master in his art, who works with 
 grace and skill. 
 
 4. When the travelers complained of the ferocity of his dogs, he 
 said they were ill-bred curs. 
 
 5. Soon after taking our chairs, the long lines of convicts began 
 to file in and take their accustomed places. 
 
 6. I must go and help Alice with the heifer; she is not very 
 quiet yet, and I see her going out with her pail. 
 
 7. 1 have always liked books froin which I could feel that I had 
 learned something when I finished reading them. 
 
 8. In a few moments more, he was mounted on a fine powerful 
 black horse, and followed by Sampson, on his road to London. 
 
 9. The scale was turned in its favor by a speech which ranks 
 among the masterpieces of American oratory from Fisher Adams. 
 
 10. There is no reason why a prose writer should not avail him- 
 self, as well as a poet, of all means of expressing nice shades of 
 meaning. 
 
 11. The early Roman occupation of Britain lasted from about 
 40 B. C. to 410 A. D., but they left behind them in all that time 
 only six words. 
 
 12. Gibbon incurred the imputation of avarice, while he was, in 
 fact, exceedingly generous, simply by his ignorance of the purchas- 
 ing power of money. 
 
 13. The smooth monotony of the leading religious topics, as 
 managed by the French orators, under the treatment of Jeremy 
 Taylor, receives at each turn of the sentence a new flexure. 
 
 14. The Island of Mackinaw is a rock of limestone, covered with 
 a rough and hard but fertile soil, and, originally with a heavy 
 growth of timber, such as sugar-maple, beech, birch, basswood, 
 poplar, hemlock, cedar, and spruce — elevated considerably above 
 the mainland in its vicinity, which is low, flat, and swampy : it is 
 from an Indian word which means turtle, because it looks like one 
 on the water from a distance. 
 
124 SENTENCES 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 UNITY 
 
 111. Unity Defined, — The following sentence 
 does not impress us as being well formed : 
 
 No accident occurred at the Czar's coronation except that a 
 Court chamberlain was thrown and broke his head, and the recep- 
 tion by the people was most enthusiastic. 
 
 Here are two ideas: (i) that only one accident 
 occurred at the Czar's coronation ; (2) that the recep- 
 tion by the people was most enthusiastic. These two 
 ideas are not related to each other. Many accidents 
 might have occurred, and the reception by the peo- 
 ple might nevertheless have been most enthusiastic. 
 A sentence containing i deas that are not rel ated is 
 said to lack unitj^ thought.. 
 
 The sentence " He left the school and said, ' We 
 shall meet again,' " also lacks unity. 
 
 Here the ideas are related, but they are not ex- 
 pressed so as to show the relation between them. 
 The sentence may be unified by throwing the less 
 important idea into the form of a subordinate clause 
 or phrase; thus, "As he left the school he said, 
 ' We shall meet again ' " ; or " He left the school, say- 
 ing, as he went, ' We shall meet again.' " Though a 
 sentence contains relatjd_jdeaSi_ii_is said tojack 
 unity in form if it ^oes not show the relation of 
 every part to the principal clause. ~ 
 
UNITY 125 
 
 A senten c g has unit ^ wTt^" ?t-^ontain,° "nl;^ rHat''^ 
 ideas ^nd is so framed th at it gJY'^s th'? iTT'p^'"°sion 
 of having said one thing. 
 
 113. Unity In Compound Sentences. — Unity does 
 not forbid the use of compound sentences; because, 
 in a compound sentence, the clauses contain thoughts 
 that are so related to one another as to produce the 
 effect of a single idea; thus, "Fear God and keep 
 his commandments." In the foregoing example 
 the same line of thought runs through both clauses. 
 " We arrived in time, but our friends had gone." 
 In the example just given the clauses are united, 
 because they stand in contrast. "The ink was 
 spilled or somebody took it." In the preceding 
 example the clauses express thoughts between 
 which a choice is to be made. " It rained on Satur- 
 day, so we put off the game." Here the clauses 
 present an assertion and its consequent. 
 
 113. Importance of Unity. — A sentence that 
 lacks unity fails to make the impression that the 
 writer wishes it to make. The reader's mind is 
 drawn away from the thought by ideas which are 
 not related to it or is left in doubt as to which is 
 the main thought. 
 
 114. Unity in Thouglit. — Unity of thought is 
 promoted in either of the following ways : 
 
 I . By combining in one sentence such ideas only 
 as are related : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 I. The church has been built I. The church has been built 
 two years ; and it cost ten thou- two years. It cost ten thousand 
 sand dollars. dollars. 
 
126 
 
 SENTENCES 
 
 Here are two ideas: (i) that the church has been 
 built two years ; (2) that it cost ten thousand dollars. 
 As these two ideas are not dependent on each other, 
 the meaning is brought out better by putting each 
 in a separate sentence. 
 
 I. 
 
 2. Mozart, when a boy, was 
 very precocious, and seemed to 
 master all the principles of music 
 without effort ; and once, when 
 he was in Rome, he wrote out 
 from memory the score of a mass 
 that he had heard sung in the 
 Sistine Chapel. , 
 
 11 
 ^2, Mozart, when a boy, was so 
 precocious that he seemed to 
 master all the principles of music 
 without effort. Once, when at 
 Rome, he wrote out from mem- 
 ory the score of a mass that he 
 had heard sung in the Sistine 
 Chapel. 
 
 Here are three ideas: (i) Mozart's precocity; 
 
 (2) his easy mastering of the principles of music; 
 
 (3) his writing out from memory the score of a 
 certain mass. The first and second ideas are closely 
 enough related to form one sentence. The third 
 idea is better expressed in' a separate sentence. 
 
 Ideas brought together in a sentence should 
 be so related to one another that the sentence, 
 whether short or long, simple, compound, or com- 
 plex, shall produce the effect of having spoken 
 one thing. 
 
 2. By avoiding the use of sentences that embody 
 too many ideas : 
 
 I- II. 
 
 I. With Mr. Webster came i. With Mr. Webster came 
 
 Mr. Jeremiah Mason, a senator Mr. Jeremiah Mason, a senator 
 from New Hampshire, still living, from New Hampshire. Mr. 
 an eminent lawyer from Boston. Mason, who is still living, is an 
 
 eminent lawyer of Boston. 
 
UNITY 12; 
 
 2. Their march was through 2. Then- march was through 
 an uncultivated country, whose an uncultivated country, the in- 
 savage inhabitants fared badly, habitants of which fared badly, 
 having no other riches than a because they had no other riches 
 breed of lean sheep, whose flesh than a breed of lean sheep. The 
 was rank and unsavory, by reason flesh of these animals was rank 
 of their continual feeding upon and unsavory, by reason of their 
 sea-fish. continual feeding upon sea-fish. 
 
 Here several entirely different things are spo- 
 ken of: (i) the march; (2) the hard fare of the 
 inhabitants ; (3) the quality of their sheep ; (4) the 
 reason why the mutton was unsavory. In the re- 
 written form the various details are subordinated 
 to two leading thoughts and are expressed in two 
 sentences. 
 
 A writer should not attempt to make a sentence ex- 
 press too much. There is no error more common, 
 and none more destructive to unity, than a num- 
 ber of assertions loosely strung together by means 
 of conjunctions. 
 
 EXERCISE 85. 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences so as to give them 
 unity in thought : 
 
 1. December opens with unusual planetary attractions, although 
 the weather has been very cold for the season. 
 
 2. He broke the bottle before we started the journey, and by 
 the time we reached the island the weather had cleared. 
 
 3. I was passionately fond of shooting, and as soon as I 
 received my cousin's invitation, I determined to accept it, and as 
 my preparations were soon made, I had nothing to do but to start 
 at once. 
 
 4. Certain good qualities are, of course, required in a nurse ; 
 good health is the first essential, and the second is an education 
 not only theoretical, but also practical, which, while comprising a 
 
128 
 
 SENTENCES 
 
 study of literature and of science, shall inculcate the principles of 
 thrift and economy. 
 
 5. It was in the second half of the fifteenth century that France 
 passed through a series of upheavals which were to prepare the 
 way for future events, and finally to result in elevating her to be one 
 of the foremost of the great European nations, and the beginnings 
 of this desirable end were already noticeable when Louis XI. 
 ascended the tottering throne. 
 
 115. Unity in Form. — Unity in form is promoted 
 
 in either of the following ways : 
 
 I. By subordinating minor details to the main 
 
 idea: 
 
 I. II. 
 
 I. Empress Frederic was like i. Like some greater people, 
 
 some greater people, in that she Empress Frederic was more hon- 
 
 was more honored in her death ored in her death than in her life, 
 than in her life. 
 
 The main idea here is that Empress Frederic was 
 honored more in her death than in her life, and to 
 this idea the rest of the sentence should be made 
 subordinate. 
 
 I. 
 2. He went into the church 
 and saw the singers in their ac- 
 customed place in the gallery; 
 and he thought of his recent 
 affliction, in which he had en- 
 tirely lost his voice, and the 
 thought came over him with 
 overwhelming force, and he 
 rushed out of the church and 
 into his house, which was not 
 far away, and he threw himself 
 on the sofa utterly miserable and 
 discouraged. 
 
 II. 
 2. As he went into the church 
 and saw the singers in their ac- 
 customed place in the gallery, the 
 thought of his recent affliction, 
 in which he had entirely lost his 
 voice, came over him with such 
 overwhelming force that, rush- 
 ing out of the church and into his 
 house, which was not far away, 
 he threw himself on the sofa ut- 
 terly miserable and discouraged. 
 
UNITY i2g 
 
 The main idea of this sentence is that the thought 
 of his recent affliction came over him with such over- 
 whelming force that he threw himself on the sofa 
 utterly miserable and discouraged. To this idea, 
 which is an assertion, and to its consequent, the 
 numerous details of the sentence should be sub- 
 ordinated. 
 
 In the following long sentence observe how Hux- 
 ley keeps prominent the main idea — what constitutes 
 a liberal education — and subordinates all minor 
 statements : 
 
 That man, I think, has had a liberal education, who has been so 
 trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and 
 does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it 
 is capable of ; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all 
 its parts of equal strength and in smooth working order, ready, 
 like a steam engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the 
 gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind ; whose mind is 
 stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of 
 Nature and the laws of her operations ; one who, no stunted ascetic, 
 is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to 
 heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender conscience ; who has 
 learned to love all beauty, whether of nature or art, to hate kll vile- 
 ness, and to respect others as himself. 
 
 Though a sentence should be so constructed as to 
 give the reader the impression of one thought, it is 
 neither necessary, nor is it advisable that it should, 
 as a rule, contain only one thought. Two or more 
 ideas of equal rank, as has been already observed, 
 may be fittingly expressed by means of a compound 
 sentence ; but where there are a number of details 
 of unequal rank, it is best to subordinate the less 
 important to the more important parts, keeping 
 constantly in mind that the details thus subordi- 
 
130 SENTENCES 
 
 nated should be closely enough related to the 
 
 leading ideas to warrant being joined to them. 
 
 2. By maintaining one point of view in the sem- 
 
 tence : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. As I approached the church, i. Asl approached the church, 
 the symmetry of the tower im- I was more and more impressed 
 pressed me more and more. by the symmetry of the tower. 
 
 We maintain the same point of view when we 
 say, "I approached" and "I was impressed"; we 
 change the point of view when we say, " I ap- 
 proached" and "the symmetry of the tower im- 
 pressed me." 
 
 I. II. 
 
 2. Although we generally think 2. Macaulay, although gen- 
 of Macaulay only as a prose erally thought of as a prose 
 writer, he had rare gifts as a poet, writer, had rare gifts as a poet. 
 
 EXERCISE 86. 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences so as to give them 
 unity inform: 
 
 1. The court-house is a marvelous structure, counting its age 
 by centuries. 
 
 2. As we approached the island its lofty cliffs impressed us 
 more and more. 
 
 3. The east-bound train was known as No. 4 that collided with 
 the emigrant train. 
 
 4. The village is like some more pretentious places in that it has 
 a stone court-house and a public park. 
 
 5. The problem appeared easy when I first looked at it, but I 
 thought it very difficult after it had engaged my attention for half 
 an hour. 
 
 116. Summary — Unity in thought is attained 
 (i) by combining those ideas only that are related: 
 
UNITY 131 
 
 (2) by avoiding sentences that express too many 
 ideas. Unity in form is attained (i) by subordi- 
 nating minor details to principal assertions ; (2) by 
 maintaining one point of view in the sentence. 
 
 EXERCISE 87. 
 
 Tell wherein the following sentences lack unity, and re- 
 write them so as to secure unity in thought and in form : 
 
 1. He wore a green hunting-jacket, and his father was a lawyer, 
 and he had three sisters away at school. 
 
 2. So at eleven o'clock I called, and we had a lovely drive, saun- 
 tering later through the Medici galleries, and I parted with her at 
 her door, at which I again presented myself at seven. 
 
 3. The ladders were now applied and mounted by several men, 
 which the monkey observing, and finding himself almost encom- 
 passed, and not being able to make speed enough with his three 
 legs, let me drop on a ridge tile and made his escape. 
 
 4. He was a man of prodigious learning, and though only twenty- 
 five years of age had already written a treatise on the Greek par- 
 ticles, through which he became known to the learned world, which 
 is slow to recognize merit in any man who has not reached a ripe age. 
 
 5. Nicholas, taking the insensible girl in his arms, bore her from 
 the chamber and down-stairs into the room he had just quitted, 
 followed by his sister and the faithful servant, whom he charged to 
 procure a coach directly while he and Kate bent over their beauti- 
 ful charge and endeavored, but in vain, to restore her to animation. 
 
 6. The town and castle of Steineck lay on the northern spur of the 
 Harz Mountains, looking toward Hildesheim, which at that time 
 was ruled by the famous Bishop Hugo — that warrior priest who 
 was just as stark a soldier in the field as he was a stubborn de- 
 fender of the Church's rights in the consistory and the council room. 
 
 7. The time was about the beginning of those long wars which 
 were waged promiscuously about Europe, and almost unceasingly 
 in middle Germany, soon after Martin Luther had, as the old his- 
 torians say, hatched the egg that Erasmus laid, and produced that 
 dragon of religious discord whose ragings are even yet not silent 
 among us. 
 
132 SENTENCES 
 
 EXERCISE 88. 
 
 The following setitences lack unity. Rewrite them, 
 taking care to subordinate minor parts to main asser- 
 tions : 
 
 1. The train left us at Russel, and we climbed to the rear seat 
 of a wagon. 
 
 2. He was brought up in the Puritan traditions, and he shows 
 this in all his actions and opinions. 
 
 3. There are fine bits of description throughout, which take the 
 place of illustrations, and in style it may be compared with any of 
 Scott's novels. 
 
 4. I was walking along the street when I saw two little messen- 
 ger boys sitting on the steps and opening some bundles which they 
 were carrying. 
 
 5. Silas Marner was an undersized, stooped, pale-faced man, 
 with long hair and protruding brown eyes, and his trade was that 
 of a linen weaver. 
 
 6. These doors were opened by a grim old Highlander with a 
 long white beard, and displayed a very steep and narrow flight o' 
 steps leading downward. 
 
 7. The parricide, common murderer, and tyrant are all forgot- 
 ten, but to see the King in Irving is to remember the lurid bril- 
 liancy of a magnificent sovereign. 
 
 8. The three years at college did not take much money, and I 
 found that by working during my spare time I could finish a two- 
 year course in law, and was not long in deciding to do it. 
 
 9. Cuba is the largest of the West India Islands, and it lies at 
 the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico, about 1 30 miles south of Florida, 
 and the northern coast is 918 miles long and has 32 harbors. 
 
 10. There were once three princesses and they were thrown into 
 the tower of the Alhambra ; and two of them were captured by 
 three cavaliers, and when they were crossing the bridge Kadig, the 
 nurse, fell off the horse, and a fisherman got her. 
 
 11. At this moment the forms of the Indians and Cora appeared 
 in outline against an opening in the sky, and they disappeared, and 
 Heyward and Uncas were nearly frantic with disappointment, and 
 reached the opening in time to note the direction of the Hurons. 
 
UNITY 133 
 
 12. Important experiments are being made at Penzance \iy 
 representatives of influential capitalists in connection with a scheme 
 for the extraction of gold from sea water, the process of which is 
 to precipitate it by means of lime, and then to extract the gold 
 electrically. 
 
 1 3. Leadenhall Street, London, which has been prolific of archaeo- 
 logical discoveries has just contributed a most interesting seven- 
 teenth century relic to the Guildhall Museum, which is a large piece 
 of stonework bearing the arms of the city of London, together with 
 the date 1609, which was removed from an old and recently demol- 
 ished building. 
 
 EXERCISE 89. 
 
 Write a composition of about three hundred words on 
 one of the following subjects, giving close attention to 
 clearness and unity : 
 
 1. Haying. 8. Life in a Lumber Camp. 
 
 2. Vassar College. 9. Silas Marner's Early Life. 
 
 3. Independence Bell. 10. The Departure of Sir Launfal. 
 
 4. Life in a Coal Mine. 11. The Manufacture of Arti- 
 
 5. Harvard University. ficial Ice. 
 
 6. Adventures with an Air 12. Show that "Silas Marner " 
 
 Rifle. has the three essentials of 
 
 7. Coverley Hall and its Sur- a novel — action,, dialogue, 
 
 foundings. and character building. 
 
i.U 
 
 SENTENCES 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 FORCE 
 
 117. Force Defined. — An idea may be clearly and 
 correctly expressed, yet if it fails to arrest the read- 
 er's attention, or to impress him with its meaning, 
 there is something wanting in the expression, there 
 is a lack of force. 
 
 A sentence has force when it is constructed in 
 such a way as to render its meaning effective. 
 
 Note the superiority, as to force, of the sentences 
 in the second column over those in the first : 
 
 I. ' II. 
 
 1. All their sabres flashed i. Flashed all their sabres 
 bare. bare. 
 
 2. Marshal Canrobeit denies 2. Much to the satisfaction of 
 the report that he is about to some people. Marshal Canro- 
 publish his memoirs, much to bert denies the report that he is 
 the satisfaction of some people. about to publish his memoirs. 
 
 118. Importance of Force. — By employing a 
 forcible mode of expression, we shall make a 
 stronger impression upon the reader than is gained 
 by expressing our thought in the ordinary way. 
 Force is, therefore, especially valuable when we 
 wish Jtp, pei"sua(le pr convince another, i ^ -r \ 
 
 By avoi 
 
 
FORCE 
 
 ns 
 
 I. 
 
 1. The book is so written as 
 to give the reader a sense of 
 tediousness. 
 
 2. Byron, although he was a 
 professed skeptic, yet believed in 
 Christianity. 
 
 II. 
 The book is tedious. 
 
 2. Byron, although a pro- 
 fessed skeptic, believed in Chris- 
 tia.nity. 
 
 A word that does not add to the meaning of a 
 sentence enfeebles it; hence, to give force to an 
 expression, reject all superfluous words. 
 
 The caution to avoid unnecessary words does not 
 prohibit the skilful repetition of a word or phrase 
 for the sake of emphasis. Observe the force that is 
 gained by repetition in the following sentences : 
 
 It is by his poetry that Milton is best known ; and it is of his 
 poetry that we wish first to speak. — Macaulay. 
 
 Milton did not strictly belong to any of the classes which we 
 have described. He was not a Puritan. He was not a freethinker. 
 He was not a Royalist. — Macaulay. 
 
 Though fallen on evil days. 
 On evil days though fallen, and evil tongues. — Milton. 
 
 s-T-Bf-a-veMmg 
 
 ifessiy-lT)Ti^-words-: 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. Rising in anger, he ex- i. Rising in anger, he ex- 
 claimedj "Withdraw your pres- claimed, "Be off." 
 
 ence." 
 
 2. The preparation is of an 2. The preparation is oily, 
 oleaginous nature. 
 
 As a rule, simple words will be found the most 
 expressive. As they are easily understood by the 
 average reader, their meaning can be taken in at a 
 glance. Few readers have time or inclination to 
 
 10 
 
136 SENTENCES 
 
 searcli for the meaning of a sentence that is made 
 up of " five- jointed words." 
 J ^ By the use of specific or individual words, in- 
 stead of generic words. By a general, or generic, 
 word we mean a class name, as " color" ; by a spe- 
 cific word we mean the- name of an individual of the 
 class, as "red," "blue." "Motion" is generic, while 
 "run," "jump," and "skip " are specific. Examples 
 of sentences rendered feeble by the use of generic 
 words are : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. Major Andr6 was executed. i. Major Andrfe was hanged. 
 
 2. If you are susceptible of 2. If you have tear.s, prepare 
 sorrow, prepare to feel it now. to shed them now. 
 
 3. How the kitten moves 3. How the kitten starts, 
 about ! crouches, stretches, paws, and 
 
 darts ! 
 
 4. In proportion as the man- 4. In proportion as men de- 
 ners, customs, and amusements light in battles, bull-fights, and 
 of a nation are cruel and barba- combats of gladiators, will they 
 rous, the regulations of their punish by hanging, burning, and 
 penal code will be severe. the rack. 
 
 Specific words have a life and energy that are 
 lacking in generic words. It is of great impor- 
 tance, therefore, to use specific words when we wish 
 to describe anything vividly or to make a strong 
 impression. Contrast the generic with the specific 
 words in the following selection : 
 
 Those beautiful English words boys and girls are almost ban- 
 ished from our modern vocabulary. Boys and girls are trans- 
 formed into juveniles ; workmen have become operatives ; and 
 people in general are now individuals. These individuals, be it ob- 
 served, are never dressed, but always altired or arrayed ; they are 
 never angry, but often irate ; they never go into a shop, though 
 
FORCE 137 
 
 they sometimes condescend to enter an emporium, or perhaps a 
 depot ; and when they return home they never /rt^t? off their things^ 
 but divest themselves of their habiliments. 
 
 Another practice with these writers is to substitute for single 
 terms milk-and-water definitions of them. With them a fire is 
 always the devouring element, a man is an individual of the mas- 
 culine gender; a footman is a superb menial ; and a schoolmaster 
 is the principal of a collegiate institute. — Graham. 
 
 Observe the force of the specific words in the 
 following sentences : 
 
 Do men gather grapes of thorns or figs of thistles ? 
 I sat by her cradle, I followed her hearse. 
 
 The long light shakes across the lakes, 
 And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 
 The lights begin to twinkle from the rocks : 
 The long day wanes: the slow moon climbs: the deep 
 Moans round with many voices. 
 
 The brittle fleet * * * 
 Touched, clinked, and clashed, and vanished. 
 
 By repeating the subject or some word or 
 
 words that will stand as a summary of what has 
 
 been said. Observe the effective repetition of the 
 
 italicized words below : 
 
 Major-generals fleecing their districts ; soldiers revelling on the 
 spoils of a ruined peasantry ; upstarts, enriched by the public plun- 
 der, taking possession of the hospitable firesides and hereditary 
 trees of the old gentry ; boys smashing the beautiful windows of 
 cathedrals; Quakers riding naked through the market-place shout- 
 ing for King Jesus ; agitators lecturing from the tops of tubs on 
 the fate of Agag — all these, they tell us, were the offspring of the 
 Great Rebellion. — Macaulay. 
 
 Force as well as clearness may be gained by judi- 
 cious repetition ; but to repeat when there is no 
 need of so doing is to be tedious. "Tediousness," 
 says Dr. Johnson, "is the most fatal of all faults." 
 
138 SENTENCES 
 
 5 . By inversion : 
 
 Normal Order. Inverted Order. 
 
 1. Diana of the Ephesians i. Great is Diana of the 
 is great. Ephesians. 
 
 2. The breeze dropt down. 2. Down dropt the breeze. 
 
 3. They broke right through 3. Right through the Une 
 the line. they brolce. 
 
 While inversion gives force to an expression, it 
 would make a very clumsy style to carry it to ex- 
 cess. A sentence should be inverted only when 
 great force is needed. To say, " Green are the 
 mountains," or "Large are the trees," is simply 
 affectation — a fault as much to be avoided in writing 
 as in manners. The normal order is best for com- 
 mon sentences; and the inverted order is effective 
 on occasions when great emphasis is needed. 
 y^ By beginning and ending sentences with im- 
 portant words : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. I think the right to express i. The right to express one's 
 one's private opinion is a priv- private opinion is, I think, a priv- 
 ilege not to be abused. ilege not to be abused. 
 
 The words " I think" are of so little importance 
 in bringing out the meaning that they should not 
 occupy so conspicuous a place as at the beginning of 
 a sentence. The emphatic places in a sentence are 
 at the beginning and the end, and these places 
 should be reserved for emphatic words. 
 
 I. n. 
 
 2. It is not probable, judging 2. Judging frofti the Chinese 
 trom the Chinese character, that character, it is not probable that 
 China will readily adopt Western China will readily adopt Western 
 svilization. civilization. 
 
FORCE 139 
 
 In this sentence the words " it is not probable " 
 are of the least importance, and should be placed in 
 the body of the sentence. 
 
 I. II. 
 
 3. The house occupied five 3. The house occupied five 
 years in building, and cost the years in building, and cost the 
 proprietor a hundred thousand proprietor, I was informed, a 
 dollars, I was informed. hundred thousand dollars. 
 
 This sentence has a weak ending. The words 
 " I was informed " give a weak ending. Being of 
 little importance they should not come in so em- 
 phatic a place as the end of a sentence. 
 
 I. II. 
 
 4. This is a principle that he 4. This is a principle to which 
 is pledged to and that he de- he is pledged and upon which he 
 pends upon. depends. 
 
 The word "upon," if used at the end of this 
 sentence, usurps the emphasis that should fall on 
 " depends." 
 
 A sentence should neither begin nor end with 
 words of little importance. 
 
 Observe, in the following sentences, the force 
 gained by a proper arrangement of important 
 words : j jj 
 
 1. Xerxes resolved to invade i. Xerxes resolved to invade 
 Greece; and he raised an army Greece; and for this purpose he 
 of two millions of men to carry raised an army of two millions 
 out his purpose.' of men. 
 
 2. He listened with absorb- 2. He listened to his friend 
 ing attention to his friend. with absorbing attention. 
 
 3. It is said that the Indians 3. The Indians, it is said, are 
 are exceedingly skilful in "shoot- exceedingly skilful in shooting 
 ing buffaloes. buffaloes. 
 
 > Has this sentence unity ? 
 
I40 SENTENCES 
 
 4. Good composition requires 4. Good composition, oui 
 a judicious mixture of long and teacher says, requires a judi- 
 short sentences, our teacher cious mixture of long and short 
 says. sentences. 
 
 5. It is absurd to judge either 5. It is absurd to judge either 
 Spenser or Ariosto by precepts Spenser or Ariosto by precepts 
 which they did not attend to. to which they did not attend. 
 
 Q. /^ By arranging the sentence so as to bring into 
 contrast words, phrases, or sentiments : 
 
 Kings will be tyrants from policy, when subjects are rebels from 
 principle. 
 
 Lord Byron's verse glows like a flame, consuming everything in 
 its way; Sir Walter Scott's glides like a river, — clear, gentle, 
 harmless. ^^ r ,<>iXa-«,^ •\^ 
 
 Words, phrases, or sentiments^hus placed in con 
 t^aet are said to be in antithesis. 
 
 It requires much skill to apply antithesis with 
 effect. Its use can best be learned by observing how 
 its principles are applied by good authors. The 
 following are some excellent examples : 
 
 The voices of the present say "Come!" But the voices of the 
 past say " Wait ! " — Longfellow. 
 
 They work to pass [their examinations], not to know; and out- 
 raged science takes her revenge. They do pass, and they don't 
 know. — Huxley. 
 
 You begin with betraying the people ; you conclude with be- 
 traying the King. — Junius. 
 
 For many are called, but few are chosen.— .l/a^/. xxii, 14. 
 
 The question with me is not whether you have a right to 
 render your people miserable, but whether it is not your interest to 
 make them happy. It is not what a lawyer tells me I vtay do ; but 
 what humanity, reason, and justice tell me I ought to do. Is a 
 politic act the worse for being a generous one ? Is no concession 
 proper but that which is made from your want of right to keep 
 what you grant ? — Burke. 
 
FORCE 141 
 
 Antithesis is sometimes peculiarly valuable in se- 
 curing not only force but also clearness. It should 
 not, however, be dragged into discourse when the 
 idea is not of sufficient importance to warrant the use 
 of so forcible a mode of expression. It is futile to pa- 
 rade weak, commonplace thought in stilted or formal 
 language. Besides, much care is needed to construct 
 an antithesis. The properly balanced terms must 
 present an actual contrast, or the antithesis is faulty. 
 /f. By an arrangement of the parts of a sentence 
 in the order of their importance, the less important 
 coming first : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. That event would usher in i. That event would usher in, 
 a crisis, a series of crises, and not a lull, but a crisis, a series 
 certainly not a lull. of crises. 
 
 2. All the talents of Charles I. 2. All the talents of Charles I. 
 and all his virtues did not save and all his virtues did not save 
 him from a prison, from a scaf- him from unpopularity, from civil 
 iold, from a bar, from civil war, war, from a prison, from a bar, 
 from unpopularity. from a scaffold. 
 
 This form of expression — which consists in ar- 
 ranging words, phrases, or clauses so that the less 
 important comes before the more important, the 
 less interesting before the more interesting — is 
 called CLIMAX. The opposite arrangement, which 
 is used only for comic effect, is called anticlimax. 
 
 The climax, if skilfully employed, will promote 
 force. This form of expression, however, is un- 
 suited for ordinary discourse. It should not be 
 used unless the thought is of great importance, 
 and unless what precedes has prepared the mind 
 for an emphatic assertion. 
 
142 
 
 SENTENCES 
 
 Examples of the effective use of climax are as 
 follows : 
 
 He has gone, he has left us, he has escaped, he has broken 
 away. — Cicero. 
 
 To weep for fear is childish ; to weep for anger is womanish ; 
 to weep for grief is human ; to weep for compassion is divine. 
 
 A day, an hour, an instant may prove fatal. 
 
 Your children do not grow faster from infancy to manhood 
 than they [the American colonists] spread from families to com- 
 munities, and from villages to nations. — Burke. 
 
 It is the spirit of the English constitution, which, infused 
 through the mighty mass, pervades, feeds, unites, invigorates,- vivi- 
 fies every part of the empire, even down to the minutest member.— 
 Burke. 
 
 \ 119. Siipataary- — Force may be .promoted (ij Dy 
 employing a stiffici^t numbe^</M .wrords, b^ax not, 
 mor& than are 
 ■words instead^ long on^; (3^ by 
 
 " cific in plape of genepc word's ; (4)i)y 
 tition ; 0*0 by invej^on of^he natural 
 placiag imporj^t wo/us in/ empl^tic pdsitioj 
 {.7)Joy a proper use^pa antitl^sis; (^) by^ eff-^tive 
 of clrthaxes. 
 
 K/^ 
 
 
 ^'EXERCISE 90. 
 
 ^'' In each of the following sentences tell -whether force 
 ts^gained or lost by the repetition : 
 
 I. He took a pitcher of water and watered the flowers. 
 
 -f 
 
 2. They told us that our team was the first team that their team 
 had played this season. 
 
 3. I make no pretence of being an art critic, but I say that the 
 art displayed was good. 
 
 4. As we lined up two of their men stood on our right and two 
 on our left ; and as the two on our right stepped forward, the twe 
 on our left stepped backward. 
 
FORCE 143 
 
 EXERCISE 91. 
 
 In the following sentences replace the generic words 
 in italics by specific words, and note the gain in force: 
 
 1. He was drawing figures on the board. 
 
 2. The enclosure contained many kinds of flowers. 
 
 3. A number 0/ sturdy youth took part in ihegajne. 
 
 4. The vessel went very fast through the moving waves. 
 
 5. 'Y\\^ little animal moved quickly along the log and then sprang 
 over the ditch. 
 
 EXERCISE 92. 
 
 Change the following sentences to their natural order 
 and note the loss of force : 
 
 1. Out burst all with one accord. 
 
 2. Bound for the hall I am sure was he. 
 
 3. Before the gates there sat 
 
 On either side a formidable shape. 
 
 4. Now is the winter, of our discontent 
 
 Made glorious summer by this sun of York. 
 
 5. Thus done the tales, to bed they creep, 
 By whispering winds soon lulled to sleep. 
 
 6. Since I was man. 
 
 Such sheets of fire, such bursts of horrid thunder, 
 Such groans of roaring wind and rain, I never 
 Remember to have heard. 
 
 EXERCISE 93. 
 
 Rearrange the following sentences so as to place im- 
 portant words in emphatic positions and unimportant 
 ivords where they zvill not receive undue stress: 
 
 1. The " House of Seven Gables " is Hawthorne's best book, I 
 think. 
 
 2. It is an enterprise that he has given the best years of his 
 life to. 
 
144 SENTENCES 
 
 3. Many a man goes the downward way for want of a helping 
 hand, no doubt. 
 
 4. The basement and nearly all of the first floor are completed, 
 as far as the exterior goes. 
 
 5. Can you not see that one can do whatever he sets his heart 
 upon doing if it is possible ? 
 
 6. I think he devoted his attention to the cultivation of flowers, 
 which is a pleasant pastime. 
 
 EXERCISE 94. 
 
 In the following sentences improve the climaxes that 
 are not well arranged : 
 
 1. He lost his wife, his child, his household goods, and his dog, 
 at one fell swoop. 
 
 2. Our existence, our safety, our political happiness, depend 
 upon the union of these States. 
 
 /"Tz- The arm of the Lord is as fixed as fate, as sure as eternity, 
 as strong as the rock of Gibraltar. 
 
 4. Without union we should undergo the unspeakable calamities 
 which bloodshed, discord, war, turbulence, and faction produce. 
 
 5. The enemy is now hovering on our borders, preparing to 
 press the knife to our throats, to devastate our fields, to quarter 
 themselves in our houses, and to devour our poultry. 
 
 EXEHCISE 95. 
 Construct two sentences that illustrate skilful repeti- 
 tion; two that show inverted order ; tivo that show a 
 proper use of antithesis ; and two that show a proper 
 use of the climax. 
 
 EXERCISE 96. 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences, g'^'^^ing thevi greater 
 force : 
 
 1. The uses of adversity are sweet. 
 
 2. I seek not to penetrate the veil beyond that. 
 
 3. Large white roads radiate in all directions shaded by poplars. 
 
FORCE I4S 
 
 4. No doubt Daray's long silence upon that subject came from 
 his pride. 
 
 5. Verres, both as quasstor and as praetor, was guilty of shame- 
 ful outrages. » 
 
 6. The destruction was immense not only of public but of pri- 
 vate property. 
 
 7. Society did never before witness a total prohibition of all 
 intercourse like this. 
 
 8. The terrific sublimity of the field of Waterloo hangs around 
 no Homeric battle-field. 
 
 9. Epic poetry recites the exploits of a hero, but pastoral poetry 
 describes rural life, I think. 
 
 10. He drove the enemy by terrible blows, he outflanked him 
 by swift and silent marches. 
 
 u. Summer is warm, but extremely pleasant; while winter 
 brings gloomy days and cold. 
 
 12. We reached that Union only by the discipline of our virtues 
 in the severe school of adversity. 
 
 13. It seems that the Chinese Wall was built to prevent the Tar- 
 tars from making incursions on the north. 
 
 14. To imprison all the crew seems unjust, although care should 
 be taken that the murderer does not escape. 
 
 15. Phidias, the most renowned sculptor the world has ever 
 seen, has never had an equal before or since. 
 
 16. It is not probable, judging from Asiatic history, that Abbas II. 
 will content himself long merely with being sulky. 
 
 17. A man, having incautiously stepped into an airhole, was 
 drowned yesterday at Lake Whitney, while cutting ice. 
 
 18. Contemplate the flowers of the plain; they perform no man- 
 ner of work, and yet the greatest and wisest monarch at his highest 
 estate of prosperity could not boast such beauty of apparel as they. 
 
 19. This university offers facilities such as can be enjoyed no- 
 where else for gaining a knowledge of the languages of ancient 
 Greece and Rome, and of various studies connected with number, 
 and quantity. 
 
146 
 
 SENTENCES 
 
 EXERCISE 97. 
 
 Write a composition on one of the following subjects^ 
 in 'which you pay special attenjion to clearness, unity, 
 and force : 
 
 6. An Old House. 
 
 7. The Pilgrim Fathers. 
 
 8. The Story of Laocoon. 
 
 9. The Legend ofWilliamTell. 
 10. The Albatross in " The An- 
 
 that you read. cient Mariner." 
 
 1. Friar Tuck. 
 
 2. Colonial Expansion. 
 
 3. The American Indian. 
 
 4. The Songs in "The Princess." 
 
 5. Why you liked the last book 
 
EASE 147 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 EASE 
 
 ISO. Ease Deflned. — We may frame pur sen- 
 tences so that they shall have clearness, unity, and 
 force, yet if we employ words or combinations of 
 words that are difficult to pronounce, we shall 
 render our language harsh and jarring on the ear. 
 Compare the sentences in the columns below : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. It is the foolishest ques- i. It is the most foolish ques- 
 tion ever asked. tion ever asked. 
 
 2. The river bears the same 2. The river bears the name 
 name as the name that the In- that the Indians gave it. 
 
 dians gave it. 
 
 The quality which renders language agreeable 
 is called ease. 
 
 A sentence has ease when it is made up of words 
 or combinations of words that are pleasing to the 
 ear. 
 
 121. Importance of :Ease. — Ideas expressed in 
 refined and graceful phraseology hold our interest 
 and win our approval more readily than do the 
 same ideas when expressed in language that is 
 harsh and difficult to pronounce. 
 
 Ease is promoted in any of the following ways : 
 I . By the use of words and phrases that are easy 
 
u8 SENTENCES 
 
 to pronounce. The italicized expressions below are 
 
 harsh-sounding : 
 
 High and low they are an unctuous texture. 
 
 Thou that smooth'dsl the rough, rugged bed of pain. 
 
 No large bodj- of men look thitherward for healing. 
 
 With the roughness of these sentences compare 
 the easy flow of the following passages : 
 
 If I take the wings of the morning, and dwell in the uttermost 
 parts of the sea ; even there shall thy hand lead me, and thy right 
 hand shall hold me. — Ps. cxxxix, 9, 10. 
 
 We wish, finally, that the last object in the sight of him who 
 leaves his native shore, and the first to gladden his who revisits it, 
 may be something which shall remind him of the liberty and the 
 glory of his country. Let it [the Bunker Hill monument] rise ! let 
 it rise, till it meet the sun in his coming ; let the earliest light of the 
 morning gild it, and the parting day linger and play on its summit. 
 — Webster. 
 
 Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns, 
 
 And the round ocean, and the living air. — Wordsworth. 
 
 If we examine the words and phrases that are 
 difficult to pronounce, we shall find in them more 
 consonants than vowels; while in words that flow 
 easily vowels and consonants alternate to a con- 
 siderable extent, and there is moreover a prepon- 
 derance of liquid consonants. 
 
 Whatever jars on the ear should be struck out, 
 and the sentence should be remodeled until it flows 
 smoothly and gracefully. U^-McV^-^ 
 
 2. By avoiding the disagreeable repetition of a^ 
 sound. "It is an exceedingly carelessly and clumsily 
 constructed paragraph." Here the words in italics 
 clash disagreeably. "It is a remarkably tastefully 
 got up monthly and will undoubtedly win a way to 
 
EASE 149 
 
 rapid popularity." In this sentence the repetition 
 of "ly" grates on the ear. " The fact is, the rules 
 of emphasis come in in interruption of your sup- 
 posed general law of position." The three "ins" 
 give a disagreeable combination. 
 
 The jingling recurrence of the same or of simi- 
 lar sounds is generally disagreeable and should be 
 avoided. 
 
 X*. By avoiding the unnecessary repetition of a 
 word: 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. Maybe I may be able to I. Perhaps I may be able to 
 come before the year is out. come before the year is out. 
 
 2. This is a very painful cir- 2. This is a very painful cir- 
 cumstance; a circumstance that cumstance; one that I much re- 
 I very much regret ; and all who gret ; and all who hear of it will, 
 hear it will, I am sure, regret that I am sure, be sorry that such a 
 such a circumstance should have thing should have occurred, 
 occurred. 
 
 The clashing caused by the needless repetition of 
 " circumstance" may be avoided by the use of syn- 
 onyms. Care should be taken, however, not to sup- 
 plant by weak circumlocutions words that add to the 
 force and clearness of an expression. 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. He milked the cow and put i. He milked the cow and put 
 the lacteal fluid m a can. the milk in a can. 
 
 2. What is true in this prob- 2. What is true in this 'fxo\i- 
 \emis liiewise to de/ou/idinthat. lem is also true in that. 
 
 The circumlocutions in italics clearly detract from 
 the merits of these sentences. Repetition here pro- 
 motes not only clearness and force, but also ease. 
 
 Ease may be promoted or destroyed by repetition 
 
ISO SENTENCES 
 
 — promoted when the words repeated help to bring 
 out the meaning with greater clearness and force, 
 and destroyed when they are needlessly thrown in by 
 writers too indolent to search for proper synonyms. 
 The best rule is to test the sentences by reading them 
 aloud in order to determine whether they gain or lose 
 by the repetition of the words, and if in your judg- 
 ment they lose, employ synonyms ; for ease is a mat- 
 ter of taste, and a writer's judgment is his only guide. 
 ^ j^ By avoiding awkward constructions : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 1. Among the frequently vio- i. Among the injunctions fre- 
 lated injunctions is, " Love thy quently violated is, " Love thy 
 neighbor as thyself." neighbor as thyself." 
 
 The adjectival phrase, if long, should be placed 
 after the noun it qualifies. 
 
 I. II. 
 
 2. The prisoner is a young 2. The prisoner is a young 
 German having come to this German who came to this coun- 
 country to seek his fortune. try to seek his fortune. 
 
 This sentence, which lacks unity as well as ease, 
 exemplifies a common fault — that of loosely attach- 
 ing a participle to the main clause. 
 ^ , ^ By taking care not to place words or phrases 
 of little importance where too much stress falls 
 upon them : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 I. The examination was as l. The examination was as 
 
 hard as, almost harder than, that hard as that of last year— almost 
 of last year. harder. 
 
 In this sentence as originally written, the stress 
 falls on the unimportant words " than " and " as." 
 
EASE 151 
 
 I. II. 
 
 2. She was filled with grati- 2. She was filled with grati- 
 tude to and admiration for her tude to her benefactor and ad- 
 benefactor, miration for him. 
 
 Here the stress falls too heavily on the preposi- 
 tions "to" and "for," the least important words in 
 the sentence. 
 
 I. II. 
 
 3. He is the best qualified by 3. Of all men I know he is by 
 far of all men I know for the far the best qualified for the 
 undertaking. undertaking. 
 
 This sentence lacks force as well as ease. As 
 originally written it gives undue stress to unimpor- 
 tant words. 
 
 To place words of little importance where the 
 stress falls heavily upon them is to destroy force as 
 well as ease. 
 
 EXERCISE 98. 
 
 Explain the lack of ease in the following sentences, and 
 make the necessary corrections : 
 
 1. Which witch was burned? 
 
 2. The field we went around was round. 
 
 3. A blight white light flashed into the room. 
 
 4. In India innocent infants are thrown into the Ganges. 
 
 5. He has a deep sense of the obligation in which his situation 
 places him. 
 
 EXERCISE 99. 
 Explain the lack of ease in the following sentences^ 
 and rnake the necessary corrections : 
 
 1. He is a young man, having his way to make yet. 
 
 2. We have as many friends as you have, perhaps more. 
 
 3. His right arm was broken, having been caught in the drive 
 
 wheel. 
 11 
 
152 SENTENCES 
 
 4. It is an interesting story, having been a personal experience 
 of his. 
 
 5. Harold caught my eye with a serious look which indicated 
 that he wished to speak to me. 
 
 las. Prepositions at tlie End of a Sentence. — 
 
 Some text-books maintain that a sentence should 
 never end with a preposition, but the idiom of our 
 language is at variance with this assertion. Some- 
 times a preposition at the end of a sentence promotes 
 ease, sometimes it has the opposite effect, and some- 
 times its position is a matter of choice between a 
 more formal and a less formal expression. 
 
 In each of the following sentences the preposition 
 at the end promotes ease : ' ' They gave him what 
 he asked for " ; "The proposal was readily agreed 
 to"; " See what his conduct has brought him to." 
 
 The preposition at the end of the following sen- 
 tence destroys ease : " It is a mystery which we firmly 
 believe the truth of, and humbly adore the depth 
 of." A better order is, " It is a mystery, the truth 
 of which we firmly believe, and the depth of which 
 we humbly adore." 
 
 In the following sentence the position of the 
 preposition is a matter of choice between a more 
 or less formal mode of expression : 
 
 rornial. Less Formal. 
 
 These were the authorities to These were the authorities 
 
 which he referred or upon which which he referred to or com- 
 
 he commented. mented on. 
 
 133. Clearness and Force not to be Sacrificed 
 to Ease. — In their endeavor to attain ease, some 
 writers sacrifice sense to sound, and thus, while 
 
EASE 153 
 
 they make their language agreeable to the ear, fail 
 in point of clearness and force. A writer's first 
 duty to his readers is to make his language clearly 
 and easily understood. On this point Dean Alford 
 gives us the following advice : 
 
 "■ Be simple, be unaffectb d in yo ur_sp eaking and 
 "'^HiiS^-— ■^'Sy^^-i^'SS-3^ longword jKhere a short j)ne 
 will do. C all_a_^ade^a spade, ^ot_ a well-known 
 oblong instrument of manual husbandry ; let home be 
 home, not a residence ;'& place a place, not a locality; 
 and so of the rest. Where a short word will do, you 
 always lose by using a long one. . . . Elegance of 
 language may not be in the power of all of us; 
 but simplicity and straightforwardness are. Write 
 much as you would speak; speak as you think. If 
 with your inferiors, speak no coarser than usual; if 
 with your superiors, no finer." 
 
 Nevertheless, he who wishes to please his reader 
 must not only avoid clumsy constructions, but must 
 also make what he says attractive. A rough style 
 repels the reader and predisposes him unfavorably. 
 
 If we examine the sentences of authors noted for 
 ease, we shall find that they not only avoid harsh 
 words and constructions, but that they give to their 
 language a certain indefinable grace, which seems 
 to spring from the writer's personality. A helpful 
 exercise in acquiring ease is to read aloud from 
 such authors as Goldsmith, Irving, and Cardinal 
 Newman, whose works are specially noted for this 
 quality. 
 
 The following extract from Washington Irving 
 is remarkable for its ease : 
 
154 SENTENCES 
 
 But Europe held forth all the charms of storied and poetical 
 association. There were to be seen the masterpieces of art, the 
 refinement of highly cultivated society, the quaint peculiarities of 
 ancient and local custom. My native country was full of youthful 
 promise ; Europe was rich in the accumulated treasures of age. 
 Her very ruins told the history of times gone by, and every molder- 
 ing stone was a chronicle. I longed to wander over the scenes of 
 renowned achievement — to tread, as it were, in the footsteps of an- 
 tiquity — to loiter about the ruined castle — to meditate on the falling 
 tower — to escape, in short, from the commonplace realities of the 
 present, and lose myself in the shadowy grandeur of the past. 
 
 134. Summary. — Ease may be promoted by 
 avoiding (i) harsh sounding words and phrases, 
 (2) the disagreeable repetition of sounds, (3^— th e- 
 -aa H G Gcasar y— rep^ition of words, (^(^ awkward con- 
 structions, and^tft) by taking care not to place words 
 and phrases of little importance where they will 
 receive undue stress. 
 
 EXERCISE 100. 
 
 Tell wherein the following sentences lack ease, and re- 
 write them : 
 
 1. He excelled in keen satire and in broad humor too. 
 
 2. He pulled out his purse to reimburse the unfortunate man. 
 
 3. Thou rushedst into the midst of the conflict and swervedst 
 not. 
 
 4. They were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven from, the 
 house. 
 
 5. The farmer gave orders to his son to order the hired man to 
 put the reaper in order . 
 
 6. That institution was inaugurated ' under the auspices of a 
 most distinguished personage. 
 
 7. She lingered long and lovingly to look at the window where 
 widows' weeds were on exhibition. 
 
 1 Is this word correctly used ? 
 
EASE 155 
 
 8. I bore the diminution of my riches without any outrages of 
 sorrow or pusillanimity of dejection. 
 
 9. The house that was lately in process of erection has been 
 destroyed by the devouring element. 
 
 10. Shakespeare was the sun among the lesser lights of English 
 poetry, and a native of Stratford-on-Avon. 
 
 11. Should is used to express a future, dependent on a past 
 tense, and when the event is under our control. 
 
 12. She listened while he opened the street door and closed it, 
 and to his footsteps growing fainter along the pavement outside. 
 
 13. After attending divine service, a vast concourse congregated 
 to behold the victims of unbridled passion launched into eternity. 
 
 14. As he stood on the stoop tranquilly soliloquizing, a mysterious 
 visitant of our terrestrial sphere shot athwart the inky atmosphere. 
 
 15. The orders of the department are ordinarily posted on the 
 bulletin board, in order that mistakes may be detected and corrected. 
 
 16. On Washington and Richmond the eyes of the world were 
 fixed, and by the turns of the balance on it the chances on it of 
 the combatants measured. 
 
 EXEECISE 101. 
 
 The following sentences violate unity or ease. Correct 
 them : 
 
 1. He turned to the left and left the room. 
 
 2. This affords just grounds to the other colleges for indignation, 
 
 3. Francis, in this state of affairs, vacillated between two points. 
 
 4. The performer on and author of the instrument was for- 
 gotten in his work. 
 
 5. Marner was a weaver by trade and was looked upon as a 
 man having control over evil spirits. 
 
 6. Pope was born a few miles from London, and from the age 
 of twelve he educated himself at home. 
 
 7. Marner was a palhd young man with prominent, short-sighted, 
 brown eyes, round shoulders, and below the medium height. 
 
 8. Eppie's mother started for Squire Cass' house, she took 
 opium, and went to sleep in the snow near Marner's hut, and died, 
 
156 SENTENCES 
 
 9. I had been cooped up in the house all morning and so 
 started out in the middle of the afternoon for a walk. 
 
 10. While at Raveloe, before he met Eppie, Marner's chief inter- 
 est in life was to gain a large sum of money, and during the even- 
 ing hours he would enjoy himself in counting his gold until he 
 Icnew every piece. 
 
 11. The moon is situated about two hundred and forty thou- 
 sand miles from the earth, and is supposed to be an opaque body 
 shining only by the reflection of the rays passing from the sun, and 
 it influences the waters of the earth in such a way as to produce 
 a tidal wave twice in twenty-four hours. 
 
 EXERCISE 102. 
 
 The following sentences violate clearness or force. 
 Correct them : 
 
 1. I'll leave a prescription to rub her with. 
 
 2. The end does not justify the means in art. 
 
 3. He accepted the invitation, but he did not go, I think. 
 
 4. Wanted — a domestic who can cook and wash children. 
 
 5. Wanted — a boy who can open oysters, with a reference. 
 
 6. I shall work for the success of this measure rather than the 
 other. 
 
 7. Jessica, although she was a Jewess, yet she believed in 
 Christianity. 
 
 8. A room wanted by two gentlemen, about thirty feet long 
 and twenty feet wide. 
 
 9. He may be a good churchman, but his whole sympathies are 
 evidently with her enemies. 
 
 10. While asleep the Lilliputians discovered him and bound him 
 with numberless fine threads. 
 
 11. The responsibility of command proved too great for him, 
 accustomed to obey from his youth. 
 
 12. Honesty of purpose is the only power that ever has or cvei 
 will sustain a man in such a situation. 
 
 13. A steel engraving is suspended from the back end of the 
 wall, of the " Heroes of the Revolution.'' 
 
EASE 157 
 
 14. There are some men who may be called the guiding and 
 restraining conscience of their community. 
 
 15. The Jewish nation is an object of study than which there is 
 no more interesting in the annals of history. 
 
 16. Flower-pots should be washed as often as mold or fungus 
 growth appears, to allow evaporation and a free access of air. 
 
 17. But these classes are the right English slock, and may fairly 
 show the national qualities, before yet art and education have dealt 
 with them. 
 
 18. By the time I had taken five bottles, I found myself com- 
 pletely cured, after having been brought so near the gates of death, 
 by means of your invaluable medicine. 
 
 19. We may recur to an earlier period, when the crown was 
 divisible by will in England, or when at least the succession was 
 settled in accordance with the desires of a dying sovereign, for some 
 kind of parallel. 
 
 EXERCISE 103. 
 
 Select from the book you are reading half a dozen sen- 
 tences conspicuous for ease. 
 
 EXEKCISE 104. 
 
 Write a composition of three hundred xvords on one of 
 the folloziaing subjects : 
 
 1. Will Wimble, 9- Mr. Burchell. 
 
 2. The Civil Service. 10. Yacht Racing. 
 
 3. Wrongs of Hazing. 1 1. Sir Roger at the Play. 
 
 4. The Fall of Quebec. 12. The Principle of the Cam- 
 
 5. The Origin of Thanksgiving. era. 
 
 6. A "Mardi Gras" Festi- 13. June and December in Sir 
 
 val. Launfal. 
 
 7. The Origin of the American 14. The Early History of New 
 
 Flag. York City. 
 
 8. The Destruction of Sing- 15. Macaulay's Estimate of 
 
 ing Birds. Milton and Dante. 
 
PART IV 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE PARAGRAPH 
 
 135. Paragrapli Defined. — Our work thus far has 
 been mainly on the choice and use of words, and on 
 the requirements of a sentence in the attainment 
 of correctness, clearness, unity, force, and ease. 
 Much of our composition work has involved the 
 writing of several sentences on one topic. A group 
 of sentences closely connected and bearing oilj 
 topTcli^c ailed a paragraph. 
 
 136. Importance of Paragraphs. — Considered in 
 relation to discourse, paragraphs indicate changes 
 in thought and divisions in subject-matter: thus 
 they help a reader to follow the writer step by step 
 and to comprehend his meaning. Not only is a 
 composition written without paragraphs difficult to 
 understand, but the unbroken text tires the eye and 
 confuses the mind. On the other hand, too many 
 paragraphs, or wrong divisions of a text into para- 
 graphs, are misdirecting and lead to confusion. 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE PARAGRAPH 159 
 
 137. "Ways of Constructing Paragraphs. — Exam- 
 ine the structure of the following paragraphs : 
 
 1. The governnient went on oppressing at home and blundering 
 abroad. A war was foolishly undertaken against France, and 
 more foolishly conducted. Buckingham led an expedition against 
 Rh6, and failed ignominiously. In the meantime soldiers were 
 billeted on the people. Crimes of which ordinary justice should 
 have taken cognizance were punished by martial law. — Macaulay. 
 (This paragraph goes on enumerating other kinds of " oppression " 
 and " blundering.") 
 
 Here the first sentence makes a general statement 
 of the mistakes of the government. The rest of 
 the paragraph specifies in what ways the govern- 
 ment "oppressed" and "blundered." Since the 
 first sentence contains a statement of the general 
 topi^, it inay'fee'cailed the topic sentence. 
 
 2. The proposition is peace. Not peace through Topic sen- 
 the medium of war ; not peace to be hunted tence. (The 
 through the labyrinth of intricate and endless nego- proposition is 
 tiations ; not peace to arise out of universal discord, peace.) 
 fomented from principle, in all parts of the empire ; What kind 
 not peace to depend on the judicial determination of peace is not 
 of perplexing questions, or the precise marking the meant, 
 shadowy boundaries of a complex government. 
 
 It is simple peace, sought in its natural course, and What kind 
 
 in its ordinary haunts. It is peace sought in the °' peace h 
 
 spirit of peace, and laid in principles purely pacific, Meant, 
 etc. — Burke : Speech on Conciliation. 
 
 In paragraphs i and 2 the topic sentence comes 
 first. It is short and definite. The rest of the 
 paragraph, in each case, is devoted to an exposition 
 of the idea in the topic sentence. 
 
 One sentence may in this manner be expanded 
 into a paragraph. Explanations and illustrative 
 
i6o PARAGRAPHS 
 
 matter may follow to suit the theme, or as the con- 
 venience of the writer may require. But whatever 
 details are given, they must all ha\'e a bearing on 
 the idea developed in the topic sentence ; else the 
 paragi'aph fails in unity of impression. 
 
 jj_ ' However, it is not necessary that the topic be 
 stated in the first sentence of the paragraph. The 
 
 ^.fest sentence may serve to indicate the direction in 
 
 ^j(*rhich the thought is to move : 
 
 In the first 3. His [Byron's] lot was cast in the time of .a 
 
 sentence the great literary revolution. That poetical dynasty 
 
 thought is di- which had dethroned the successors of Shakespeare 
 
 rected to the and Spenser was, in its turn, dethroned by a race 
 
 great literary who represented themselves as heirs of the ancient 
 
 revolution, and line, so long dispossessed by usurpers. The real 
 
 this becomes nature of this revolution has not, we think, been 
 
 the topic of the comprehended by the great majority of those who 
 
 paragraph. concurred in it. — Macaulay. 
 
 ^ ) Sometimes the first sentence is intended to con- 
 'nect the paragraph with the one that precedes, and 
 also to introduce a topic sentence : 
 
 The first 4. Traces, indeed, of the peculiar character of 
 sentence is Milton maybe found in all his works; but it is 
 connective most strongly displayed in his sonnets. These re- 
 and introduc- markable poems have been undervalued by critics 
 tory. who have not understood their nature. They have 
 
 no epigrammatic point. There is none of the in- 
 genuity of Filicaja in the thought, none of the hard 
 and brilliant enamel of Petrarch in the style. — 
 Macaulay. (The rest of the paragraph treats of 
 rhe merits of the sonnets.) 
 
 In some paragraphs the topic sentence is not defi- 
 nitely stated: 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE PARAGRAPH l6i 
 
 5. When we begin to read the " Iliad," we find Subject- 
 ourselves in the region of the most remote and matter: A 
 even unrefined antiquity. When we open the comparison of /^ 
 "jEneid," we discover all the correctness and the the opening / 
 improvements of the Augustan age. We meet with lines of the 
 no contentions of heroes about a female slave, no "Iliad" with 
 violent scoldings, no abusive language ; but the those of the 
 poem opens with the utmost magnificence ; with "yEneid." 
 Juno forming designs for preventing jEneas's estab- 
 
 hshment in Italy, and ^Eneas himself presented to 
 us witli all his fleet, in the middle of a storm, which 
 is described in the highest style of poetry. — Blair. 
 
 As the author nowhere pointedly states his topic, 
 paragraphs developed in this manner are liable to 
 be tedious. Moreover, they lack distinctness. In- 
 stead of being impressed with the meaning, the 
 reader is under the necessity of pausing at the end 
 to frame his own topic sentence. 
 
 The topic sentence may come at the end of a para- 
 graph; \ 
 
 6. We should justly ridicule a general, who, just Subject- 
 before an action, should suddenly disarm his men, matter: Error 
 and putting into the hands of all of them a Bible, can be corn- 
 should order them, thus equipped, to march against bated only by 
 the enemy. Here we plainly see the folly of calling argument. 
 
 in the Bible to support the sword ; but is it not as 
 great a folly to call in the sword, to support the 
 Bible ? Our Saviour divided force from reason, 
 and let no man presume to join what God hath put 
 asunder. When we combat error with any other Topic sen- 
 weapon than argument, we err more than those fence, 
 whom we attack. — Colton. 
 
 The tendency of this method is to create con- 
 fusion. The reader may be left in doubt as to 
 what the purpose of the paragraph is until he has 
 
I62 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 come to the end. • Then the mind must go back to 
 trace the bearing of the subject-matter on the topic 
 sentence. 
 
 sen 
 
 128. Most Eflfectlve Method of Constructing a 
 Paragraph. — ^We have seen that a paragraph may- 
 be constructed in any of tlie foUowiijg ways : 
 
 *^ ^A^ay ei!^andin gf^he topic 
 
 ~ ^2<^B^(^aking/aie first^ente 
 
 _^(^of tifought, afid thep^eve, 
 
 -Hiimicated^/ 
 
 x/iv '/■s?'^y''beginn«ig tjie paras 
 
 oT introductory seKtence,^'ud leadings 
 sentence and it* development. 
 
 ' jif'. By dey61opin^ one main 
 nowhere ''definit^y stating the 1 
 
 5 . By developing an idea and embodying it in a 
 topic sentence at the end. 
 
 The most natural and, usually, the most advan- 
 tageous method of constructing a paragraph is to 
 begin with a topic sentence, or with a sentence which 
 indicates the direction in which the thought is to 
 move, and, by expanding, amplifying, and illustra- 
 ting this, to develop the thought until even the 
 careless reader must be impressed with its signifi- 
 cance. 
 
 EXERCISE 105. 
 
 Find in your reading three paragraphs beginning with 
 a topic sentence ; three paragraphs beginning with a 
 sentence zvhich indicates the trend of thought ; three be- 
 ginning with a connecting sentence ivhich leads up to the 
 topic. 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE PARAGRAPH 163 
 
 139. Ease In Transition. — As the paragraph is a 
 collection of sentences, it is clear that these ser- 
 tences must be so related to one another that, when 
 put together, they form an effective whole. The 
 transition from one sentence to another should be 
 natural and easy. 
 
 Ease in transition may be effected : 
 
 1 . By repeating a word or phrase : 
 
 But the sound of a sharp bark inside, as Eppie put the key in 
 the door, modified the donkey's views, and he limped away again 
 without bidding. The sharp bark was the sign of an excited wel- 
 come that was awaiting them from the knowing terrier, etc. — 
 George Eliot : Silas Marner, chap. xvi. 
 
 In the paragraph just quoted transition is ren- 
 dered easy by the repetition of the words in italics. 
 
 2. By using connectives: 
 
 The challenge of Athelstane was delivered with no good 
 grace; for a large mouthful, which required the exercise of both 
 jaws at once, added to a natural hesitation, considerably dampened 
 the effect of the bold defiance it contained. Still, however, his 
 speech was hailed by Cedric as an incontestable token of reviving 
 spirit in his companion, whose previous indifference had begun, 
 notwithstanding his respect for Athelstane's descent, to wear out 
 his patience. But he now cordially shook hands with him in token 
 of his approbation, etc.— Scott : Ivanhoe, chap. xxi. 
 
 In this paragraph quoted above ease in transi- 
 tion is brought about by means of the italicized 
 connectives. 
 
 3. By connecting the sentences so closely in 
 thought that neither repetition nor connectives 
 are needed: 
 
 The first thing that we have to consider with regard to the 
 nature of the object is the number of people in the colonies. I 
 have taken for some years a good deal of pains on that point. I 
 
l64 PARAGRAi'HS 
 
 can by no calculation justify myself in placing the ntimber below 
 two inillions of inhnbitants of our own blood and color, lesides at 
 \it?i.%\. five hundred thousand others, who form no inconsiderable part' 
 of the strength and opulence of the whole. This, sir, is, I believe, 
 about the true number. There is no occabion to exaggerate \{he.re 
 pl.iin truth is of so much weight and importance. But whether I put 
 the present ««/«ferj too high or too low is a matter of little moment. 
 Such is the strength with which population shoots in that part of 
 I he world that, state the numbers as high as you will, while the dis- 
 pute continues the exaggeration ends. While we are discussing any 
 given magnitude, they are grown to it. While we spend our time 
 in deliberating on the mode of governing two millions, we shall find 
 we have millions more to manage. Your children do not grow 
 taster from infancy to manhood than they spread from families 
 to communities, and from villages to nations. — Burke : Speech on 
 Conciliation. 
 
 Here the subject-matter contained in the topic 
 sentence is the number of people in the colonies, 
 and the italicized part of each sentence is a direct 
 allusion to the idea embodied in the topic sentence. 
 
 130. Means of Effecting Ease in Transition. — 
 
 Ease in transition may be effected b}' (i) repeating 
 a word or phrase, (2) using connectives, (3) making 
 the connection in thought so close lliat repeated 
 words and connectives are unnecessary. 
 
 In a well-framed paragraph the movement from 
 sentence to sentence will be so easy and natural that 
 connectives will either not be needed at all, or, if 
 needed, will be employed only for the sake of giving 
 variety to the construction. 
 
 EXEECISE 106. 
 
 Tell in tvhat way transition from sentence to sentence 
 is effected in your last composition. 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE PARAGRAPH 165 
 
 EXERCISE 107, 
 
 Tell in tvhat way each of the following paragraphs is 
 constructed, and how transition from sentence to sentence 
 is effected: 
 
 One afternoon, when the sun was going down, a mother and 
 her little boy sat at the door of their cottage, talking about the 
 Great Stone Face. They had but to lift their eyes, and there it 
 was plainly to be seen, though miles away, with the sunshine bright- 
 ening all its features. — Hawthorne : Twice-Told Tales. 
 
 The gulls are the children of sky and ocean, bred to storm. 
 They have no music. Their voices are shrill like the boatswains. 
 They have no home save a spot of sand or rock where their young 
 are reared near thundering surf and moaning tides. Their lives 
 are long continued buffeting with wind and wave, voyages under 
 white wings across monotonous wastes of water. They are the 
 mariners among birds, and all their ways have the mark of the sea 
 upon them. The sea rules them, charms them, binds them to 
 itself, and robs ihem, as it robs their human counterpart of much 
 of the sweetness and rest of home. — Frank Bolles : From Blomi- 
 don to Smoky. 
 
 There is one day when all things are tired, and the very smells, 
 as they drift on the heavy air, are old and used. One cannot ex- 
 plain this, but it feels so. Then there is another day — to the eye 
 nothing whatever is changed — when all the smells are new and 
 delightful, and the whiskers of the Jungle People quiver to their 
 roots, and the winter hair comes away from their sides in long 
 draggled locks. Then, perhaps, a little rain falls, and the trees and 
 the bushes and baml)Oos and the mosses and the juicy-leaved 
 plants wake with a noise of growing that you can almost hear, and 
 under this noise runs, day and night, a deep hum. That is the 
 noise of the spring — a vibrating boom, which is neither bees nor 
 falling water, nor the wind in the tree tops, but the purring of the 
 warm, happy world. — Kipling : The fungle Book. 
 
 EXERCISE 108. 
 
 Criticize with reference to transition from sentence te 
 sentence the paragraphs quoted on pages 167 and 168. 
 
i66 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 EXERCISE 109. 
 
 Rewrite the following composition, making the tran- 
 sition from sentence to sentence easier : 
 
 Diving for Coins. 
 
 Most of those boys in India who are fortunate enough to be able 
 to spend their Uves on the seacoast occupy themselves a great deal 
 in swimming around ships and under them. 
 
 The mail steamer bound to and from England always touches 
 at Aden, a. small island in the Arabian Sea, not far from the 
 southern mouth of the Red Sea. This island is famous for the 
 large number of expert little divers which it contains. As soon as 
 the steamer has dropped its anchor, it is surrounded by fifty or 
 sixty little dug-outs, about six feet long and a foot wide. Each 
 diver has one of these little boats, which he can maneuver with 
 amazing ease and speed. They all make a rush for the gangway, 
 and are on deck in a few seconds, begging the gentlemen to throw 
 silver pieces into the water. As soon as the coin strikes the water, 
 the diver, who has now reached the highest point he can in the 
 riggjing, dives ; and I never saw one miss his coin yet. They gen- 
 erally get a good sum of money out of every steamer that comes 
 into port, a dollar, perhaps, which will support an average native 
 for over two months. The dive is generally about fifty feet, and at 
 that height, to make sure of a coin every time takes a pretty good 
 eye. They secure their money in their mouths or ears while diving, 
 and it is curious to see what a large number of pieces they can hold. 
 
 EXERCISE 110. 
 
 Select three paragraphs from, your reading; show the 
 construction of each and the transition from sentence to 
 sentence. 
 
REQUIREMENTS OF THE PARAGRAPH 167 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 REQUIREMENTS OF THE PARAGRAPH 
 
 131. Tlie Sentence and tlie Paragraph. — The 
 
 sentence, as we have seen, should possess clear- 
 ness, unity, force, and ease. What has been said 
 with reference to the requirements of the sentence 
 will apply to the paragraph. As the sentence is 
 the development of one idea, so the paragraph is 
 the development of one topic. A paragraph, like 
 a sentence, should be complete in itself, and it 
 should be developed with the same regard to clear- 
 ness, unity, force, and ease. Read carefully the 
 following paragraphs, noting their structure and the 
 transitions from sentence to sentence : 
 
 I have always preferred cheerfulness to mirth. Topic sen- 
 The latter I consider as an act, the former as a habit tence. (Cheer- 
 of the mind. Mirth is short and transient, cheer- fulness pre- 
 fulness fixed and permanent. Those are often ferred to 
 raised into the greatest transports of mirth who are mirth.) 
 subject to the greatest depressions of melancholy. Develop- 
 On the contrary, cheerfulness, though it does not ment. (Why 
 give the mind such an exquisite gladness, prevents the author pre- 
 us from falling into any depths of sorrow. Mirth fers cheerful- 
 is like a flash of lightning, that breaks through a ness to mirth.) 
 gloom of clouds, and glitters for a moment ; cheer- Illustration, 
 fulness keeps up a kind of daylight in the mind, and 
 fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity. — 
 Addison : The Spectator, No. 381. 
 
 This paragraph has clearness, because it keeps 
 
 prominent one leading thought and presents this 
 12 
 
l68 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 thought SO that it is easily understood. It has 
 unity, because it contains nothing foreign to the 
 topic and deals with one main idea, which it pre- 
 sents from one point of view. It has force, be- 
 cause it emphasizes one main subject, grows in 
 interest as it proceeds, and closes with an effective 
 sentence. It has ease, because the movement from 
 sentence to sentence is smooth, and the transition 
 is effected without checking the flow of thought. 
 
 Topic sen- The recompense which the wits of that age 
 tence. could obtain from the public was so small that they 
 
 were under the necessity of eking out their incomes 
 Particularized, by levying contributions on the great. Every rich 
 and good-natured lord was pestered by authors 
 with a mendicancy so importunate, and a flattery 
 so abject, as may in our time seem incredible. The 
 patron to whom a work was inscribed was expected 
 to reward the writer with a pur->e of gold. The 
 fee paiil for the dedication of a book was often 
 much larger than the sum which any publisher 
 would give for the copyright. Books were there- 
 fore frequently printed merely that they might be 
 dedicated. This traffic in , praise produced the 
 effect which might have been expected. Adulation 
 pushed to the verge sometimes of nonsense and 
 sometimes of impiety, was not thought to disgrace 
 a poet. Independency, veracity, self-respect were 
 things not required by the world from him. In 
 truth, he was in morals something between a pan- 
 der and a beggar. — Macaulay. 
 
 Results. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The foregoing extract fulfils the requirements 
 of a good paragraph. Note the logical develop- 
 ment of the topic, the easy transition from one sen- 
 tence to another, and how force is gained by the 
 effective summary sentence at the end. 
 
REQUIREMENTS OF THE PARAGRAPH l6g 
 
 Taste, in the sense in which I have explained it, Transition 
 is a faculty common in some degree to all men. and topic. 
 Nothing that belongs to human nature is more 
 general than the relish o£ beauty of one kind or 
 other; of what is orderly, proportioned, grand. Topic re- 
 harmonious, new, or sprightly. In children, the stated, 
 rudiments of tastes discover themselves very early 
 in a thousand instances ; in their fondness for regu- Particularized, 
 lar bodies, their admiration of pictures and statues, 
 and imitations of all kinds ; and their strong at- 
 tachment to whatever is new or marvelous. The 
 most ignorant peasants are delighted with ballads 
 and tales, and are struck with the beautiful appear- 
 ance of nature in the earth and heavens. Even in 
 the deserts of America, where human nature shows 
 itself in its most uncultivated state, the savages 
 have their ornaments of dress, their war and their 
 death songs, their harangues and their orators. 
 We must therefore conclude the principles of taste Conclusion 
 to be deeply founded in the human mind. It is no and reitera- 
 less esseniial to man to have some discernment of tion. 
 beauty, than it is to possess the attributes of reason 
 and of speech. — Blair. 
 
 The foregoing paragraph is good. Note the in- 
 crease in force gained by reiteration. 
 
 I am fully persuaded that one of the best springs Topic, 
 
 of generous and worthy action is to have gen- 
 erous and worthy thoughts of ourselves. Whoever The contrary, 
 has a mean opinion of the dignity of his nature will 
 act in no higher a rank than he has allotted himself 
 in his own estimation. If he considers his being as 
 circumscribed by the uncertain term of a few years, ' 
 
 his designs will he contracted into the same narrow Result of 
 space he imagines is to bound his existence. this contrary. 
 
 The foregoing paragraph is well constructed. 
 The assertion in the topic sentence is proved by 
 showing the results of the contrary. 
 
t;o 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 Illustration. 
 
 Reasons for 
 dis appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Topic. (Dis- This work' has greatly disappointed us. What- 
 appomtment.) ever faults we may have been prepared lo find 
 What had in it, we fully expected that it would be a valuable 
 been expected, addition to English literature ; that it would contain 
 many curious facts and many judicious remarks ; 
 that the style of the notes would be neat, clear, and 
 precise ; and that the typographical execution would 
 be, as in new editions of classical works it ought 
 to be, almost faultless. We are sorry to be obliged 
 to say that the merits of Mr. Croker's performance 
 are on a par with those of a certain leg of mutton 
 on which Dr. Johnson dined, while traveling from 
 London to Oxford, and which he, with character- 
 istic energy, pronounced to be "as bad as bad 
 could be, ill fed, ill killed, ill kept, and ill dressed." 
 This edition is ill compiled, ill arranged, ill written, 
 and ill printed. 
 
 This extract meets all the requirements of a good 
 paragraph. 
 
 Devices for securing Clearness : 
 
 I . Keep prominent the idea contained in the topic 
 sentence. 
 
 Devices for securing Unity: 
 I . Write the paragraph with a purpose. 
 2-„Mak©^ the-ptrrpwse-appa*©«t iH-ev«ry-s©Bteji£je, 
 3. Exclude 1 
 
 Devices jor securing M)rce : 
 
 1 . Bring early injp^he paragraph a bri'ef, esplicil 
 topfc sentence, or some^..«€ntence,that wi 
 the "trend of inougl 
 
 2 . A^'you prpdeed wit]^ the d&y^opme6t o^^-tfie 
 papar^aph, arrange the various/aetails^in tb^rdei 
 m their iniportance-, thus fonning a clfmaJ^ 
 
 ' Li/e and Works 0/ Samuel Johnson^ edited by J. W. Croker. — Macaulay. 
 
 roff.e.aeouG matter. 
 
Topic 
 
 sen- 
 
 tence. 
 
 
 Matter 
 
 net 
 
 related to 
 
 the 
 
 topic. 
 
 
 , REQUIREMENTS OF THE PARAGRAPH I?' 
 
 . 17. — a i.\s>^^ — i — i^ — and comparison^, *v^^« 
 
 4i_£mploy-jadiek).us.4te¥ftti©fi . 
 Devices for securing Ease : 
 iT-See-tkat-©ae-br-s©B-te n ce-has ease . 
 2. See that the transition from sentence to sen- 
 tence is gradual and without interruption. 
 
 13a. Analysis and Criticism of Paragraphs. — 
 
 We listened to the song with deep interest, 
 and were moved no less by the sweet clear voice 
 than by the pathetic and tender words. The hour 
 was late, and we had decided to go after the song 
 was finished. Our friends were expecting us at 
 home, but the weather being disagreeable, we had 
 deferred going till this late hour. 
 
 This paragraph lacks clearness, because it is writ- 
 ten without a definite purpose, and because it fails 
 to make prominent one leading thought. It lacks 
 unity, because it does not convey a complete idea, 
 and because the last sentence is not related to the 
 rest of the paragraph. It lacks force, because it 
 does not convey a distinct impression. It lacks ease, 
 because the transition from sentence to sentence is 
 abrupt. 
 
 His reading was desultory. A novel, a poem. Topic sen- 
 a work on philosophy or political economy — what- tence. 
 . ever he might chance to take up — absorbed bim for Explanatory, 
 the time being. His range of knowledge was, there- 
 fore, broad, but it was unclassified knowledge, and Result, 
 seldom served a useful purpose either m writing or 
 m conversation. He was scarcely twenty-five years Foreign 
 old, though he looked older. matter. 
 
 The last sentence of this paragraph violates unity 
 because it contains an idea foreign to the topic. 
 
172 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 Transition On the third clay after the action the dead 
 
 and introduc- yvere buried in the naval churchyard ; the ceremony 
 
 tory sentence. , ui- i i .i_ 
 
 ri, . was made as public^nd as solemn as the occasion 
 
 movesforward required. A public monument was erected upon the 
 to the erection spot where the slain were gathered together. A sub- 
 of the monu- scription was opened on the day of the funeral lor 
 
 "^^, ■ .. (he relief of the sufferers, and collections were made 
 
 1 he action . 
 goes back to '" '^"^ °' '' throughout all the churches in the king- 
 the luneral. dom. This appeal to the feelings of the people was 
 made wilh circumstances which gave it full effect. 
 
 We are car- ^ monument was raised in the midst of the church ; 
 
 ried forward ... 
 
 a"aiii to the yo"J"S maidens, dressed in white, stood round it; 
 
 monument. and a suitable oration was delivered from the pulpit. 
 
 The foregoing paragraph lacks unity, and the 
 sentences do not follow the order of events. 
 
 133. Suiiimai*5% — A paragraph has clearness when 
 it keeps prominent op«neading tlj^mght, allS presej 
 tlu-^ thought so that it is eagity undp^tood i/izhas 
 tin ity -When it expresses a-^omplet-e ideay^d con- 
 tains only matter that is relatedoo this idea; it 
 force when it emphasizes oii^main s^ject, 
 a distinct impression, and iftcrease^«i interest as it 
 proceeds ; it has ease wh^ the trafisitioiyirom sen- 
 tence to sentence is smooth and Mninterrupted. 
 
 EXERCISE 111. 
 
 After the manner indicated above, analyse and criti- 
 cise the following paragraphs : 
 
 When most di.sguised and repressed, the wisdom of the gospel 
 has been modifying our philosophy and teaching a loftier system^ 
 its own. A Howard, soundings and circumnavigating the ocean of 
 human misery, is only an obedient agent of its philanthropy. A 
 Clarkson and a Wilberforce have only given utterance to its 
 tender and righteous appeals lor the slave. A Raikes, a Bell, and 
 
REQUIREMENTS OF THE PARAGRAPH 173 
 
 a Lancaster have simply remembered its long neglected injunction, 
 " Suffer little children to come unto me.'' 
 
 Have we proof or illustration of the topic in the 
 foregoing ? Does the quotation at the close confirm 
 the topic ? 
 
 It is a twice-told tale that the_worW Js_passingLaway: from ^us. 
 God has written it upon every page of his creation that there is 
 nothing here which lasts. Our affections change. The friendships 
 of the man are not the friendships of the boy. The face of the 
 visible world is altering around us : we have the gray moldering 
 ruins to tell of what once was. Our laborers strike their plow- 
 shares against the foundations of buildings which once echoed to 
 human mirth — skeletons of men to whom life was once dear — urns 
 and coins that remind the antiquarian of a magnificent empire. 
 This is the history of the world, and all that is in it. It passes 
 while we look at it. Like as when you watch the melting tints of 
 the evening sky — purple-crimson, gorgeous gold, a few pulsations 
 of quivering light, and it is all gone. " We are such stuff as dreams 
 are made of." 
 
 In the foregoing paragraph note the repetition of 
 the topic. With which sentence does the author 
 begin particularizing ? Does he summarize ? 
 
 The other sort of men were ihe politicians. To them, who had 
 little or not at all reflected on the subject, jdjgion was in itself tto 
 object of love or hatred. They disbelieved it, and that was all. 
 Neutral with regard to that object, they took the order, which in 
 the present state of things might best answer their purposes. They 
 soon found that they could not do without the philosophers; and 
 the philosophers soon made thein sensible that the destruction ol 
 religion was to supply them with means of conquest, first at home 
 and then abroad. 
 
 Notice that the word or words italicized in each 
 sentence suggest the thought of the sentence follow- 
 ing — a peculiar characteristic of Burke's style. Is 
 
174 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 the first a topic sentence ? What is the domina- 
 ting word in each sentence ? 
 
 The next clay Walker attacked Massana and gained the first 
 plaza. But to get possession in a like manner of the other plazas 
 would have necessitated great loss of life. Recognizing this, he 
 began a regular and slow approach. 
 
 Note the change in the point of view. 
 
 Louder and louder became the wailing, both inside and out. 
 The squaws formed in a procession and walked around the corpse, 
 each taking a handful of earth from the basket and scattering it over 
 the body. The earth was dry and soon filled the air with dust. 
 
 EXERCISE 112. 
 
 Analyze three or four paragraphs selected from sotne 
 book. 
 
 EXEECISE 113. 
 
 Construct a paragraph on the personal appearance of 
 Washington, making use of the facts given below : 
 
 1. Washington was tall, strong, and muscular. He was over six 
 feet tall — weighed 20o pounds — was erect in carriage — his coun- 
 tenance was dark — his hair turning to red — his eyes were cold 
 gray — his nose prominent — his hands large — he wore a number 
 13 boot — very athletic — could cover 22 feet with a single running 
 jump — was an excellent shot, swordsman, and rider. 
 
 Finish paragraph 2 by defining each kind of govern- 
 ment. 
 
 2. All the governments in the world can be reduced to three 
 kinds — monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. 
 
 IVith S as a topic sentence, write a paragraph describ- 
 ing Texas. 
 
 3. Texas is the largest State in the Union. 
 
REQUIREMENTS OF THE PARAGRAPH 175 
 
 With If. as a topic sentence, write a paragraph telling 
 what you can about the character and fortunes of Andr'e. 
 
 4. There is something singularly interesting in the character and 
 fortunes of Andrfe. 
 
 Taking 5 as a topic sentence, develop a paragraph 
 showing that the sentiment is true. 
 
 5. An overweening conceit of our own merits and superiority, 
 accompanied by a mean opinion of every other person, will be a 
 source of such constant annoyance to us as to embitter life and 
 make us very unhappy. 
 
 EXERCISE 114. 
 
 Write a good paragraph on one or more of the follow- 
 ijtg subjects : 
 
 1. Slang. 8. The Paragraph. 
 
 2. The Busybody. 9. A Winter Walk. 
 
 3. The Mocking-Bird. 10. The Fourth of July. 
 
 4. Character of Goldsmith. 1 1 . The American Pioneer. 
 
 5. Winter in my Native State. 1 2. The Sagacity of the Spider. 
 
 6. Cornelia, the Mother of the 13. The Surrender of Ticon- 
 
 Gracchi. deroga. 
 
 7. Some Uses and Abuses of 14. Requirements of the Para- 
 
 Amusement, graph. 
 
176 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 PARAGRAPHS IN SUCCESSION 
 
 134. Too Many Paragraphs. — Sometimes a para- 
 graph is indicated where the matter is so closely 
 connected that no division is needed ; as : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 It was not until the year 1802 It was not until the year 1802 
 
 that the monarchs of England that the monarchs of England 
 
 ceased to style themselves " King ceased to style themselves " King 
 
 of France, "a title which they had of France," a title which they had 
 
 borne ever since the days of King borne ever since the days of King 
 
 Henry V. Henry V. It was abandoned as 
 
 This title was abandoned as the result of the Treaty of Amiens 
 
 theresult of theTreaty of Amiens between England and France, 
 
 between England and France, and a clause to that effect was 
 
 and a clause to that effect was embodied in the agreement, 
 embodied in the agreement. 
 
 The relation between these sentences is so close 
 and the transition so easy that they naturally fall 
 into one paragraph. 
 
 135. Too Few Paragraphs. — Sometimes a para- 
 graph is not indicated where there is a sufficient 
 break in the context to require one ; as : 
 
 !• II. 
 There is a special interest ' There is a special interest 
 taken just now in Arctic explora- taken just now in Arctic explora- 
 tion, and the eyes of several tion, and the eyes of several 
 nations are turned towards ■?!*< nations are turned towards the 
 the Pole. The method proposed Pole. 
 
PARAGRAPHS IN SUCCESSION 177 
 
 by Captain Bernier seems the The method proposed by Cap- 
 most feasible of all those hereto- tain Bernier seems the most 
 fore proposed. It has the ap- feasibleof all those proposed. It 
 proval- of all experts in the way has the approval of all experts 
 of Arctic navigation to whom it in Arctic navigation to whom it 
 has been submitted in various has been submitted in various 
 parts of the globe. parts of the globe. 
 
 Here is material for two paragraphs : the firstdirects 
 the reader's attention to the interest taken by sev- 
 eral nations in Arctic explorations ; the second refers 
 to the method proposed by a certain man . Both sen- 
 tences refer to Arctic exploration, but the change in 
 the point of view necessitates a new paragraph. 
 
 A change in the topic or a change in the point of 
 view should be indicated by a new paragraph. 
 
 EXERCISE 115. 
 
 Divide the following article at the proper places into 
 three paragraphs : 
 
 Cloves are now cultivated in many of the tropical regions of the 
 earth. A clove-tree begins to bear at the age of ten years, and 
 continues until it reaches the age of seventy-five years. There are 
 two crops a year, one in June and one in December. The tree is 
 an evergreen and grows from forty to fifty feet high, with large 
 oblong leaves, and crimson flowers at the end of small branches in 
 clusters of from ten to twenty. The cloves, which are the unde- 
 veloped buds, are at first white, then light green, and at the lime 
 of gathering bright red. Pieces of white cloth are spread under 
 the trees at harvesting time, and the branches are beaten gently 
 with bamboo sticks until the cloves drop. They are dried in the 
 sun, being tossed about daily until they attain the rich dark color 
 which proclaims them ready for shipment. 
 
 136. Transition. — The easy transition from para- 
 graph to paragraph is a matter of no less importance 
 than the easy transition from sentence to sentence. 
 
178 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 In the following paragraphs easier transition may 
 be effected by a few slight changes in the struc- 
 ture of the sentences : 
 
 I. 
 
 His voice was clear, but his 
 enunciation was not distinct. 
 He seemed to make an effort to 
 pronounce the vowels, while he 
 left the consonants to take care 
 of themselves. 
 
 Doubtless his long residence 
 in Italy and his devotion to the 
 study of the Latin languages 
 helped to give him this peculiar- 
 ity. The peculiar softness of 
 the Latin languages is, in great 
 measure, due to the fact that 
 greater stress is laid on the 
 vowels in pronunciation than on 
 the consonants. 
 
 n. 
 
 His voice was clear, but his 
 enunciation was not distinct. 
 He seemed to pronounce the 
 vowels, while he left the conso- 
 nants to take care of themselves. 
 
 This peculiarity was doubt- 
 less due to his long residence in 
 Italy and to his devotion to the 
 study of the Latin languages. 
 The peculiar softness of the 
 Latin languages is, in great 
 measure, due to the fact that 
 greater stress in pronunciation is 
 laid on the vowels than on the 
 consonants. 
 
 Because the words "this peculiarity" point back 
 to the first paragraph, the transition is rendered 
 easier by placing them at the beginning of the sec- 
 ond paragraph. 
 
 In the following passage the lack of a connecting 
 link hinders easy transition : 
 
 I. 
 
 Probably no human invention 
 has aided the course of justice 
 to a greater extent than the snap- 
 shot camera. It has been in- 
 strumental in condemning crim- 
 inals, and has also been the 
 means before now of saving in- 
 nocent lives. 
 
 Alfred Grayson, an English- 
 
 II. 
 
 Probably no human invention 
 has aided the course of justice 
 more than the snapshot camera. 
 It has been instrumental in con- 
 demning criminals, and has also 
 been the means before now of 
 saving innocent lives. 
 
 A case in point is that of Al- 
 fred Grayson, an Englishman, 
 
PARAGRAPHS IN SUCCESSION 
 
 179 
 
 man, who was living a few years 
 ago at Rio de Janeiro, was ac- 
 cused of the murder of a Brazil- 
 ian named Linares, a clerk in the 
 same office with himself. 
 
 who was living a few years ago 
 at Rio de Janeiro. He was ac- 
 cused of the murder of a Brazil- 
 ian named Linares, a clerk in the 
 same office with himself. 
 
 The words added bridge over the gap between 
 the two paragraphs. 
 
 Sometimes transition is rendered easier by the 
 use of a connective : 
 
 I. 
 
 There can be no doubt that 
 English has been making rapid 
 strides in the line of becoming 
 a universal language. On the 
 Baltic and Black Seas shipping 
 charters are commonly drawn in 
 English, whatever the nationality 
 of the parties interested. At the 
 present time one or two authors 
 of foreign nationality write in 
 English in preference to their 
 native tongues, since a wider 
 circle of readeis is thus open to 
 them. 
 
 It must be admitted that 
 English has some serious draw- 
 backs. The system, or rather 
 the lack of system, of spelling is a 
 serious hindrance, and although 
 this is a matter that might be 
 remedied, there is a yet greater 
 hindrance. It is easier to be 
 ambiguous in English than in 
 any other language. 
 
 XL 
 
 There can be no doubt that 
 English has been making rapid 
 progress toward becoming a uni- 
 versal language. On the Bal- 
 tic and the Black Seas shipping 
 charters are commonly drawn in 
 English, whatever the nationality 
 of the parties interested. At the 
 present time one or two authors 
 of foreign nationality write in 
 English in preference to their 
 native tongues, since a wider 
 circle of readers is thus open to 
 them. 
 
 It must be admitted, however, 
 that English has some serious 
 drawbacks. The system, or 
 rather the lack of system, of 
 spelling is a serious hioidrance; 
 and although this might be 
 remedied, there is a yet greater 
 hindrance. It is easier to be 
 ambiguous in English than in 
 any other language. 
 
 Here the word " however " near the beginning of 
 the second paragraph helps to make the transition 
 easy. 
 
i8o PARAGRAPHS 
 
 Transition may be rendered smoother by the 
 repetition of some dominant word which serves as 
 a link between paragraphs : 
 
 Liberty came to a race of slaves crouching under Eg^tian whips, 
 and led them forth from the house of bondage. She hardened 
 them in the desert, and made them a race of conquerors. The free 
 spirit of the Mosaic law took their thinkers up to lieights where they 
 beheld the unity of God, and inspired their poets with strains that 
 yet phrase the highest exaltations of thought. 
 
 Liberty dawned on the Phoenician coast, and ships passed the 
 Pillars of Hercules to plow the unknown sea. She shed a partial 
 light on Greece ; and marble grew to shapes of ideal beauty, words 
 became the instruments of subtlest thought, and against the scanty 
 militia of free cities the countless hosts of the great King broke like 
 surges against a rock. 
 
 She cast her beams on the four-acre farms of Italian husband- 
 men, etc. — Henry George. 
 
 Here the word ' ' Liberty " repeated in the second 
 paragraph and the use of the pronoun "she," which 
 stands for Liberty, in the third paragraph make a 
 smooth and graceful transition. 
 
 The connection between paragraphs may be so 
 close that the transition is smooth without the aid 
 of devices for securing continuity : 
 
 William Phipps was a poor man's son, and was born in the 
 province of Maine, at the time when our country was under British 
 rule. 
 
 In his boyhood and youth he used to tend sheep upon the hills, 
 and until he had grown to be a man he did not even know how to 
 read or write. Tired of tending sheep he next apprenticed himself 
 to a ship-carpenter, and spent about four years in hewing the 
 crooked limbs of oak trees into keels for vessels. — Hawthorne. 
 
 Here an account of Sir William Phipps' boyhood 
 so naturally follows what is contained in the first 
 paragraph that no device for connection is needed. 
 
PARAGRAPHS IN SUCCESSION »8i 
 
 137. Suminary. — Transition may be effected by 
 (*)■ non s tni f.- 'ting the firat - s eirtgnue of leach -paragfaph 
 so_thatJt_m. 1 1 de arly i adicate its Td^tiOTi~ttr th'ST 
 
 t ence where thexe^ seems to be- a- gap -or -break- be- 
 t5Ke£n__toLO-pa*agrapbs, {^ by using connectives, 
 g^by the repetition of a word or the use of a pro- 
 noun, @) by a close relation between paragraphs. 
 
 In passing from paragraph to paragraph there 
 should be no perceptible interruption in the ilow 
 of thought, no break in the continuity of the 
 discourse. From beginning to end each successive 
 paragraph should arise naturally from what pre- 
 cedes* and should lead gradually to what follows. 
 In employing devices for connecting sentences and 
 paragraphs, it should be borne in mind that the 
 best style is that which aims to give variety, and 
 which attains its end without diverting the atten- 
 tion of the reader from the thought to the manner 
 of expression. 
 
 EXERCISE 116. 
 
 Find in your reading three consecutive paragraphs 
 and tell how they are connected. 
 
 EXERCISE 117. 
 
 Analyze each of the following paragraphs and tell 
 how transition from one to the other is effected : 
 
 If you would be loved as a companion, avoid unnecessary 
 criticism upon those with whom you live. The number of people 
 who have taken out judges' patents for themselves is very large in 
 any society. Now it would be hard for a man to live with another 
 who was always criticizing his actions, even if it were just and 
 kindly criticism. It would be like living between the glasses of a 
 
,82 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 microscope. But these self-elected judges, like their prototypes, 
 are very apt to have the persons they judge brought before them 
 in the guise of culprits. 
 
 One of the most provoking forms of the criticism above alluded to 
 is that which may be called criticism over the shoulder. "Had I 
 been consulted," " Had you listened to me," " But you always will," 
 and such short snaps of sentences may remind many of us of disser-. 
 tations which we have suffered and inflicted, and of which we cannot 
 call to mind any soothing effect. 
 
 Another rule is, not to let familiarity swallow up all courtesy. 
 Many of us have a habit of saying to those with whom we live such 
 things as we say about strangers behind their backs. There is no 
 place, however, where real politeness is of more value than whete 
 we mostly think it would be superfluous. You may say more truth, 
 or rather speak out more plainly, to your associates, but not less 
 courteously, than you do to strangers. 
 
 Again, we must not expect more from the society of our friends 
 and companions than it can give ; and especially must not expect 
 contrary things, etc. 
 
 EXERCISE 118. 
 
 Rewrite the following extract, improving the transi- 
 tion from paragraph to paragraph : 
 
 In the battle of Copenhagen, Nelson, fighting against terrible 
 odds, gained a magnificent victory. The Danes were about to 
 enter into an alliance with France, and Nelson was sent to inter- 
 cept their fleet. 
 
 The first admiral was Sir Hyde Parker ; but, as his ship had 
 stuck upon some shoals, he was obliged to look on idly while Nel- 
 son was fighting. Fearing that the enemy was about to triumph. 
 Admiral Parker ordered the signal-flag to be put up which meant 
 that the British should cease fighting. 
 
 Nelson raised his telescope to his sightless eye — for he could use 
 only one of his eyes — and cried : " I don't see the signal ! Keep 
 mine flying for close battle — nail it to the mast ! That is the way 
 to answer such signals ! " 
 
 It is easy to conceive the effect upon the gallant tars. The 
 Danes were crushed, and the possibility of an alliance between 
 Denmark and France was removed. 
 
PARAGRAPHS IN SUCCESSION 
 
 183 
 
 EXERCISE 119. 
 
 Write three consecutive paragraphs on one of the 
 following subjects. Pay special attention to para- 
 graph structure and to transition from paragraph to 
 paragraph : 
 
 1. Arbor Day. 
 
 2. A Snow-Storm. 
 
 3. Every-Day Heroes. 
 
 4. The Story of John Maynard. 
 
 5. Three Common Wild 
 
 Flowers. 
 
 6. Burke as a Literary Man, 
 
 as an Orator, and as a 
 Statesman. 
 13 
 
 7. A County Fair. 
 
 8. Burns' Sympathy. 
 
 9. A Geological Excursion. 
 
 10. The Death of Socrates. 
 
 11. What a Country Owes to 
 
 Agriculture. 
 
 12. The Black Knight in 
 
 " Ivanhoe." 
 
PART V 
 THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 
 
 138. Structure of tlie "Whole Composition. — 
 
 What has been said on the structure of the sen- 
 tence and the paragraph is true of the structure 
 of the whole composition. In brief, as the para- 
 graph may be regarded as an expanded sentence, 
 so the whole composition is a series of consecutive 
 paragraphs bearing on one subject. 
 
 139. A Poor Composition. — Cardinal Newman in 
 "The Idea of a University" gives an example of a 
 composition which he says is only too common in 
 schools and colleges. This example is quoted be- 
 low as a warning against the folly of choosing 
 unwieldy subjects, and to show the absurdity of 
 attempting to write a composition without having 
 a definite purpose : 
 
 Fortes Fortuna Adjuvat.' 
 
 Of all the uncertain and capricious powers which rule our destiny, 
 
 fortune is the chief. Who has not heard of the poor being raised 
 
 up, and the rich being laid low ? Alexander the Great said that he 
 
 envied Diogenes in his tub, because Diogenes could have nothing 
 
 * Fortune helps the brav«. 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 185 
 
 less. We need not go far for an instance of fortune. Who was so 
 great as Nicholas, the Czar of all the Russias, a year ago, and 
 now he is " fallen, fallen from his high estate, without a friend to 
 grace his obsequies." The Turks are the finest specimens of the 
 human race, yet they, too, have experienced the vicissitudes of 
 fortune. Horace says that we should wrap ourselves in our 
 virtue, when fortune changes. Napoleon, too, shows us how little 
 we can rely on fortune ; but his faults, great as they were, are being 
 redeemed by his nephew Louis Napoleon, who has shown himself 
 very different from what we expected, though he has never explained 
 how he came to swear to the Constitution, and then mounted the 
 imperial throne. 
 
 From all this it appears that we should rely on fortune only 
 while it remains — recollecting the words of the thesis, " Fortes 
 fortuna adjuvat " ; and that, above all, we should ever cultivate 
 those virtues which will never fail us, and which are a sure basis of 
 respectability, and will profit us here and hereafter. 
 
 This composition with its Latin title, its allusions 
 CO great men, and its classical quotations sounds as 
 if it might be something more than ordinary ; but 
 after reading it, we cannot lay hold of anything 
 definite that has been said on the subject. There 
 is no reason why the first sentence should not stand 
 second and the second first, or why these sentences 
 should not be placed in the middle or at the end of 
 the composition. Indeed the order of the sentences 
 throughout might be reversed without materially 
 changing the thought. From the first word of the 
 title to the close of the composition there are faults 
 which every writer should guard against. 
 
 140. The Title. — A less pretentious title would 
 be better, and it should be given in English. The 
 reader scarcely knows what to expect from so high- 
 sounding a title as "Fortes Fortuna Adjuvat." It 
 
i86 THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 
 
 is better to choose a title that is within the range 
 of a pupil's knowledge, one in which he feels an 
 interest and about which he can write something 
 rational. The title should be suggestive of the 
 subject-matter, or should suggest the central idea 
 of the composition. Moreover, it should be such 
 as is likely to interest the reader, or, at least, to 
 arouse his curiosity. When a suitable title cannot 
 at first be thought of, it is sometimes advisable to 
 write the composition, keeping closely to the sub- 
 ject, and to reserve the final wording of the title 
 until the composition is finished. 
 
 141. Gath.erlng' Material — One reason why we 
 can lay hold of nothing definite in Cardinal New- 
 man's example of a stupid composition is because 
 the writer has taken no pains to collect ideas bear- 
 ing on his topic. Even in a school composition it 
 is impossible to make something out of nothing. 
 In the sample given by Cardinal Newman, the 
 writer goes off at once into a dissertation on ' ' for- 
 tune," which is not his subject. He wanders from 
 Alexander to Diogenes, and from Czar Nicholas to 
 the Turks, and from the Turks to Louis Napoleon ; 
 and in all there is not one sentence bearing on 
 his title. To avoid writing in this slipshod, ram- 
 bling manner, one should store his mind with in- 
 formation on his subject before beginning to write. 
 "The rule is, " says Cardinal Newman, "first think, 
 and then write: don't write when you have noth- 
 ing to say; for, if you do, you will make a mess 
 of it." 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 187 
 
 143. The Plan. — Though the writer had gath- 
 ered abundant material on "Fortes Fortuna Adju- 
 vat," he would not have been able to write a good 
 composition without having previously outlined a 
 definite plan. To be of any use material must be so 
 arranged as to follow a certain order. As Thoreau 
 says, " Nothing goes by chance in a composition." 
 The first question should be, "What is the pur- 
 pose of this composition ? " When a definite purpose 
 has been decided on, it is important to arrange the 
 material that has been gathered so that it will bring 
 out in the best manner possible the central idea in 
 the composition. As in the case of sentences and 
 paragraphs, important ideas must come in emphatic 
 places, and ideas of minor importance in places 
 where they will not receive undue attention. 
 
 In the preparation of the plan it will be advan- 
 tageous to jot down ideas on the subject, and then 
 to frame general assertions embodying as many of 
 these ideas as possible. These assertions will serve 
 as topic sentences, and the subordinate ideas will 
 be of use in developing the paragraphs. 
 
 143. The Parts of a Composition. — When ma- 
 terial has been thus gathered and thoughts grouped 
 together, the next step is to consider the subject- 
 matter with reference to the three divisions into 
 which compositions naturally fall: introduction, 
 
 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION. 
 
 The function of each of these parts may be seen 
 in the following account of a football game as pop- 
 ularly written : 
 
THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 
 
 H , lo; U , 5. 
 
 Introduction. To-day's game against U was one of the 
 
 most exciting seen on the H field this year, and, 
 
 although H won by a score of 10 to 5, the game 
 
 she put up was not such a one as would augur well 
 
 for the outcome of the S game. The team cannot 
 
 overcome its great fault of playing a sleepy game 
 in the first half. It always takes more than half the 
 game to get the H players thoroughly awake. 
 
 In the first half to-day Captain K , of U^ — . 
 
 had the advanta.^e of a strong wind, and by punting 
 at every opportunity worked the ball down, gaining 
 ten to twenty yards on every exchange of punts, 
 
 until the ball was U 's on H — — 's twenty-yard 
 
 line. H succeeded in kicking a goal from a 
 
 place-kick a few minutes before the end of the half. 
 Score : U -, 5 ; H , o. 
 
 In the second half, with the wind in her favor, 
 
 H resorted to punting, and finally got the ball 
 
 in U 's thirty-yard line. A series of steady line 
 
 plunges carried it over after about ten minutes of 
 play. The second touch-down was made in the 
 
 same way, and F was pushed over the line for 
 
 his second touch-down, after about ten minutes of 
 play. The ball was kept in about the middle of the 
 field during the remainder of the half, and no more 
 scoring was done by either side. The line men all 
 
 played well during the second half, L especially 
 
 distinguishing himself at center. P , the quar- 
 ter-back, showed some improvement in his manage- 
 ment of the team, and got the plays off quicker than 
 
 usual. H , S , F , and M all played 
 
 fast and snappy ball in the back field. The good 
 playing, however, all came in the second half, and 
 the team seems unnble to play a hard game from 
 start to finish.' 
 Conclusion. (Here follow the line-up, names of the umpire 
 
 and the referee, number of touch-downs, time, etc.) 
 
 ' Ptibit'c Ledger, Philadelphia, 
 
 Discussion. 
 (Particulars of 
 the first half of 
 the game.) 
 
 (Particulars of 
 the second 
 half of the 
 game.) 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION i8g 
 
 144. The Preparation of a Scheme. — Before be- 
 ginning to write, the pupil should arrange the matter 
 which he has gathered under certain general heads, 
 and group under each of these heads all ideas re- 
 lated to it. Such an arrangement of the material 
 may be called a scheme. 
 
 145. The Introduction. — The nature of the sub- 
 ject arid the method of treatment will usually be a 
 sufficient guide in shaping a proper introduction. 
 It should not be long. Its purpose should be to 
 prepare the mind of the reader to understand and 
 appreciate what is to come in the body of the com- 
 position. The language should be simple, and the 
 style unpretentious. It is not politic to arouse in 
 the introduction expectations which cannot be fully 
 met in the discussion. 
 
 146. The Discussion. — The discussion of the sub- 
 ject must follow the introduction. Here all the facts, 
 illustrations, and arguments bearing on the theme 
 must be arranged and set forth in such a way as 
 will best serve the purpose of the composition. 
 Everything that does not bear directly on the theme 
 should be rejected. The purpose of the composition 
 should be apparent in every sentence. The discus- 
 sion should treat the subject with fullness and clear- 
 ness. What has been said of Macaulay is worthy 
 of imitation : "What he saw at all he saw distinctly ; 
 what he believed he believed with his whole 
 strength ; he wrote on subjects with which he had 
 been long familiar; and he made lucidity his primary 
 object in composition." 
 
ipo THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 
 
 147. The Conclusion. — No unfailing rule can be 
 given for writing a conclusion. It should be the 
 natural sequence of the discussion. Much, however, 
 depends on the nature of the discourse. If the 
 theme be argumentative, the conclusion may sum 
 up forcibly the leading points made in the discussion. 
 
 148. Example of a Scheme. — The following 
 scheme is the work of a high school pupil : 
 
 Subject : Advantages of having a High School Literary Society. 
 Introduction : 
 
 1. Its scope. 
 
 2. Its purpose. 
 
 Discussion: It teaches the student to 
 
 1. Think quickly and independently. 
 
 2. Speak extemporaneously. 
 
 3. Combat argument. 
 
 4. Respect the views of others. 
 
 5. Debate. 
 
 6. Declaim. 
 
 7. Write compositions. 
 
 8. Make the best use of his abilities. 
 
 9. Take part in public gatherings. 
 10. Take charge of public meetings. 
 
 Conclusion : 
 
 1. It enlarges a student's views. 
 
 2. It has a cultivating and a refining influence. 
 
 EXERCISE 120. 
 
 Narrow one of the following subjects, and arrange a 
 scheme for it : 
 
 I. Milton. 2. Reading. 3. Commerce. 4. Navigation. 5. Bad 
 Habits. 6. Trusts. 7. Strikes. 8, School Sports. 9. Agriculture- 
 10. Idleness, 11. Macbeth. 12. Interscholastic Athletics. 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 191 
 
 EXERCISE 121. 
 
 Write a paragraph on each of the following subjects : 
 
 Burke's Introduction to his 3. Carlyle's Conclusion to his 
 "Speech on Conciliation." "Essay on Burns.'' 
 
 Macaulay's Introduction to 4. Macaulay's Conclusion to his 
 his " Essay on Addison." " Essay on Milton." 
 
 EXERCISE 122. 
 
 Write an introduction to a composition on one of the 
 following subjects : 
 
 1. Stamp Collecting. 
 
 2. The Amateur Athlete. 
 
 3. Addison's Political Career. 
 
 4. Thoughts Suggested by an 
 
 Old Fireplace. 
 
 5. The Advantages Offered by 
 
 Small Colleges. 
 
 6. The Woods in Winter. 
 
 7. The Olympian Games. 
 
 8. Addison's Foreign Travels. 
 
 9. First Signs o( Spring in the 
 
 City. 
 10. American Literature during 
 the Colonial Period. 
 
192 THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 ESSENTIALS OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 
 
 149. Essentials of tlie Whole Composition. — 
 
 The requirements of the whole composition are 
 similar to the requirements of the sentence and the 
 paragraph. It should have clearness, unity, force, 
 and ease. 
 
 150. Clearness. — Clearness in the whole compo- 
 sition implies clearness in each sentence and 
 paragraph, and the general arrangement of the 
 paragraphs in a clear and effective order. Each 
 paragraph should be a complete exposition of its 
 own topic, and the whole composition should pre- 
 sent a full development of the subject. 
 
 151. Unity. — To have unity in a composition each 
 paragraph should be a unit, and all parts should be 
 woven into a continuous whole. There should be 
 one subject, and all matter foreign to this subject 
 should be excluded. 
 
 152. Force. — Force in the whole composition, as 
 in the paragraph and the sentence, prescribes that 
 important ideas must occupy important places, that 
 what is of most importance to the subject should be 
 treated at length, and that what is of minor impor- 
 tance should be passed over lightly. A length}'- in- 
 
ESSENTIALS OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 193 
 
 troduction is hostile to force, unless the subject is 
 treated at a length proportionate to the introduction. 
 Rambling digressions and long parentheses should 
 be guarded against, since whatever diverts the read- 
 er's attention from the subject weakens the general 
 effect of the whole composition. 
 
 153. Ease. — Ease prescribes the arrangement of 
 a plan for the whole composition and strict con- 
 formity to this plan. A composition that has ease 
 will be so constructed that the omission of one sen- 
 tence will interrupt the flow of thought and weaken 
 the general effect of the whole. 
 
 154. Example from Addison. — The following 
 extract from Addison exemplifies the requirements 
 of a composition : 
 
 Cheerfulness Preferred to Mirth. 
 
 I have always preferred cheerfulness to mirth. 
 The latter I consider as an act, the former as a habit Introduction, 
 of the mind. Mirth is short and tran^ent, cheer- 
 fulness fixed and permanent. Those are often 
 raised into the greatest transports of mirth who are 
 subject to the greatest depressions of melancholy. 
 On the contrary, cheerfulness, though it does not 
 give the mind such an exquisite gladness, prevents 
 us from falling into any depths of sorrow. Mirth 
 is like a flash of lightning, that breaks through a 
 gloom of clouds, and glitters for a moment ; cheer- 
 fulness keeps up a kind of daylight in the mind, 
 and fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity. 
 
 Men of austere principles look upon mirth as too How men of 
 wanton and dissolute for a state of probation, and austere princi- 
 as filled with a certain triumph and insolence of pies regard 
 heart that is inconsistent with a life which is every mirth, 
 
194 THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 
 
 moment obnoxious to the greatest dangers. Writeri 
 of this complexion have observed that the Sacred 
 Person who was the great pattern of perfection was 
 never seen to laugh. 
 Character of Cheerfulness of mind is not liable to any of these 
 cheerfulness, exceptions ; it is of a serious and composed nature : 
 it does not throw the mind into a condition im- 
 proper for the present state of humanity, ar.d is 
 very conspicuous in the characters of those who are 
 looked upon as the greatest philosophers among the 
 heathens, as well as among those who have been 
 deservedly esteemed as saints and holy men among 
 Christians. 
 Cheerfulness If we consider cheerfulness in three lights, with 
 considered in regard to ourselves, to those we converse with, and 
 threp lights. to the great Author of our being, it will not a little 
 recommend itself on each of these accounts. The 
 
 1. With re- man who is possessed of this excellent frame of 
 gard to our- mind, is not only easy in his thoughts, but a perfect 
 selves. master of all the powers and faculties of the soul. 
 
 His imagination is always clear, and his judgment 
 undisturbed ; his temper is even and unruffled, 
 whether in action or in solitude. He comes with a 
 relish to all those goods which nature has provided 
 for him, tastes all the pleasures of the creation 
 which are poured about him, and does not feel the 
 full weight of those accidental evils which may 
 befall him. 
 
 2. With re- If we consider him in relation to the persons 
 gard to others, whom he converses with, it naturally produces love 
 
 and good will towards him. A cheerful mind is 
 not only disposed to be affable and obliging, but 
 raises the same good humor in those who come 
 within its influence. A man finds himself pleased, 
 he does not know why, with the cheerfulness of his 
 companion. It is like a sudden sunshine that 
 awakens a secret delight in the mind, without her 
 attending to it, the heart rejoices of its own accord, 
 and naturally flows out into friendship and benevo- 
 
ESSENTIALS OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 195 
 
 lence towards the person who has so kindly an effect 
 upon it. 
 
 When I consider this cheerful state of mind in 3. With re- 
 its third relation, I cannot but look upon it as a gard to God. 
 constant habitual gratitude to the great Author 
 of nature. An inward cheerfulness is an implicit 
 praise and thanksgiving to Providence under all 
 dispensations. It is a kind of acquiescence in the 
 state wherein we are placed, and a secret approba- 
 tion of the divine will in his conduct towards man. 
 
 EXERCISE 123. 
 
 Write a composition on a subject of your own choosing^ 
 paying close attention to clearness, unity, force, and ease. 
 
BOOK II 
 
 KINDS OF COMPOSITION 
 
PART I 
 PROSE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 155. Various Forms of Prose Composition. — 
 
 The various kinds of prose composition are too 
 numerous to mention here, yet if we examine the 
 ordinary forms with which we are most familiar, we 
 shall find that the writers have tried (i) to make us 
 see objects as they see them (description); (2) to 
 give us an idea of something that has happened 
 (narration) ; (3) to explain something so that we 
 shall clearly understand it (exposition) ; (4) to con- 
 vince us of some truth or to induce us to believe as 
 they believe (argument). For practical purposes 
 we may consider that all forms of composition come 
 under one or another of these four heads. Yet these 
 divisions are distinct in theory only ; in practice we 
 regularly have two or more of them combined. 
 Narration and description are so frequently inter- 
 mingled that it would be difficult to find a passage of 
 considerable length that is purely descriptive or 
 purely narrative. Exposition and argument, as well 
 as exposition and description, are likewise often 
 
 intermingled. 
 14 
 
200 PROSE 
 
 156. Literary Description. — A writer who at- 
 tempts to describe anything must have in his own 
 mind a picture of the thing he is going to describe. 
 In a sense he is an artist who uses words as a 
 painter uses colors ; that is, for the purpose of mak- 
 ing others see an object as it appears to him. The 
 writer, however, has the advantage in this respect — 
 he can convey by his language impressions which the 
 painter cannot produce by means of colors. Take, 
 for example, the following description of a horse 
 from Irving's "Legend of Sleepy Hollow": 
 
 The animal he bestrode was a broken-down plough horse, that 
 had outlived almost everything but his viciousness. He was gaunt 
 and shagged, with a ewe neck and a head like a hammer; his rusty 
 mane and tail were tangled and knotted with burs; one eye had 
 lost its pupil, and was glaring and spectral ; but the other had the 
 gleam of a genuine devil in it. 
 
 This description is certainly vivid. We can al- 
 most see the animal, and we have a feeling that he 
 may be uncomfortably near us. Let us see how 
 Irving conveys this impression. He first gives 
 the^g^ejeral appearance of the animal — " a broken- 
 down plough horse, gaunt and shagged," old, worth- 
 less, and vicious. This is a general outline of the 
 beast, yet it is a suggestive outline. We feel that 
 he has had a hard life, that he has been roughl)' 
 handled and neglected, and that he is ready to resent 
 his harsh treatment. But observe how Irving pro- 
 ceeds, giving a_few characteristic details to inake 
 the picture complete. The horse had "a ewe netk 
 and a head like a hammer." Note what force is 
 given by the comparisons here emplo3'ed. "His 
 
DESCRIPTION 201 
 
 rusty mane and tail were tangled and knotted with 
 burs." The^ description of his mane and tail is ^n 
 perfect harmony with the description of his neck 
 and head._ Then we have a closer view of the ani- 
 mal — " one eye had lost its pupil, and was glaring 
 and spectral." This detail is almost suggestive of 
 something supernatural. The other eye " had the 
 gleam of a genuine devil in it." This detail com- 
 pletes the picture, and gives us an idea of the beast's 
 ugly disposition. In this description observe how 
 all the details harmonize, and how they all unite to 
 form the complete picture. No pains are taken 
 to give us the size or color or weight of the ani- 
 mal, yet the author, by a few well-selected details, 
 makes us see the horse as he appeared to him. 
 This kind of description is called suggestive or 
 LITERARY DESCRIPTION. 
 
 Compare with Irvin'g's description the following 
 advertisement from a newspaper: 
 
 For Sale. — Exceptionally handsome gray mare, with dark 
 points, sound, kind, high-headed, spirited, and a very fast, square 
 trotter, height 13^ hands, weight 1,010 lbs. 
 
 Here we have a greater number of details and 
 more precise information about the animal, but 
 the description does not stimulate the imagination. 
 This kind of composition is called scientific 
 DESCRIPTION. 
 
 157. Literary and Scientiflo Description. — The 
 
 purpose of literary description is to stimulate the 
 reader's mind in such a way as to make him see the 
 object as a whole ; the purpose of scientific descrip- 
 
202 PROSE 
 
 tion is to give-exact-Jjioruiatiog^as ^a means of 
 identifying objects. It is obvious that literary de- 
 scription is a higher form of composition, and it is 
 with literary description that rhetoric has to deal. 
 
 158. Observation Essential to Description. — 
 
 All description rests on observation. To describe 
 well, one must observe well ; but the ability to ob- 
 serve an object well comes to one only after much 
 painstaking practice. To illustrate : Two men 
 visited a flower show in Philadelphia. One was an 
 experienced newspaper reporter who went to write 
 a description of the show for his paper. The other 
 was a young man, just from college, who was am- 
 bitious to become a reporter. The men agreed that 
 each should write an account of the show, and that 
 afterwards they would compare what they had writ- 
 ten. The novice could find material for three 
 sentences only — " The display of flowers was very 
 beautiful. The chrysanthemums were especially 
 fine. The show was a credit to the horticultural 
 industry of the city." Any child could have made 
 these observations. They gave the reader no idea 
 of what the show was actually like. The reporter, 
 on the other hand, wrote a column article for his 
 paper, and one felt, after reading the description, 
 that he had actually been at the show himself. 
 The excellence of the reporter's description was 
 due to the fact that he had trained himself to ob- 
 serve striking particulars and to put them together 
 coherently so as to form a complete picture. It is 
 clear, therefore, that a person who desires to write 
 
DESCRIPTION 203 
 
 a good description must observe the following 
 directions: i. Observe str iking^ particulajs ; 2.^ Put 
 them togetherjioherently ; 3. With them fojin.. a 
 complete picture. 
 
 159. Striking Particulars. — It would be useless 
 to attempt to give all the details about an object. 
 We can, at best, but make a selection of striking 
 or suggestive facts, and leave the reader's imagina- 
 tion to supply the rest. But the difficulty lies in 
 selecting such facts as will, when they are put 
 together, suggest other details of the picture. The 
 facts selected must be such as distinguish the object 
 described from other objects of the same class, and 
 they must be such as will stimulate the imagination 
 to^rftture all necessary details. 
 ^/Bret Harte, in describing a snow-storm in the 
 California Sierras, selects striking particulars with 
 good effect : 
 
 Snow everywhere. As far as the eye could reach Snow. 
 — fifty rtiiles, looking southward from the highest Mountain- 
 white peak — filling ravines and gulches, and drop- ous region, 
 ping from the walls of canons in white shroud-like 
 drifts, fashioning the dividing ridge into the like- 
 ness of a monstrous grave, hiding the bases of 
 giant trees, and completely covering young trees Trees, 
 and larches, rimming with porcelain the bowl-like 
 edges of still cold lakes, and undulating in motion- Lakes, 
 less white billows to the edge of the distant hori- -D i slant 
 zon. Snow lying everywhere over the California P'a-in. 
 Sierras on the 15th day of March, 1848, and still 
 falling. 
 
 It had been snowing for ten days, snowing in 
 finely granulated powder, in damp_ spongy flakes, 
 in thin feathery plumes; snowing from a leaden 
 
204 PROSE 
 
 More partic- sky steadily, snowing fiercely, shaken out of purple 
 
 ular descrip- black clouds in white flocculent masses, or drop- 
 
 tion of snow, ping in long level lines, like white lances from the 
 
 sky, and trees, tumbled and broken heavens. But always silently I 
 
 The woods were so choked wiih it, the branches 
 
 were so laden with it — it had so permeated, filled, 
 
 and possessed earth and sky I'it had so cushioned 
 
 and muffled the ringing rocks and echoing hills, 
 
 that all sound was deadened. The strongest gust. 
 
 Stillness. the fiercest blast, awoke no sigh or complaint from 
 
 the snow-packed, rigid files of forest. There was 
 
 no cracking of boughs nor crackle of underbrush ; 
 
 the overladen branches of pine and fir yielded and. 
 
 gave way without a sound. The silence was vast, 
 
 measureless, complete. 
 
 Note how each particular in the description 
 .^iven above is suggestive of the vastness of the fall 
 of snow. 
 
 160. Coherence of Part ictilai-s. — It is not enough 
 
 that the particulars be striking and suggestive of 
 the thing described. They must fall naturally into 
 their proper places, and, being thus combined, 
 create an image in the mind of the reader. If de- 
 tails are put together at random, as they occur to 
 the writer, the result will probably be confusing to 
 the reader. There must be a definite plan formed 
 in the writer's mind, and every detail should fill its 
 part in carrying out this plan. The point of view 
 from which the spectator describes the scene or ob- 
 ject should be indicated in the plan and not need- 
 lessly changed. 
 
 The following extract from Victor Hugo exem- 
 plifies coherence of particulars : 
 
DESCRIPTION 205 
 
 One day early in the month of October, 181 5, Time, 
 about an hour before sunset, a man traveling afoot Point of 
 
 entered the town of D . The few inhabitants view : from 
 
 who at this moment chanced to be at their win- doorstep or 
 dows or on doorsteps of their houses, looked at window, 
 this traveler with a vague sense of uneasiness. One 
 would not often meet a wayfarer more wretched General ap- 
 in appearance. He was a man of medium- height, pearance of 
 thickset and sturdy, and in the full vigor of life, the traveler. 
 He might be forty-six or forty-eight years of age. 
 A cap with a leather lip well pulled down partly Striking de- 
 concealed his face, which was bronzed by the sun tails of dress 
 and dripping with sweat. His shirt, of some coarse and appear- 
 yellow stuff, fastened at the throat by a little silver ance. 
 anchor, fell open suflRciently to give a glimpse of a 
 shaggy breast. He wore a twisted cravat, shabby 
 breeches of blue ticking, white at one knee, worn 
 through at the other, and an old tattered gray 
 blouse, pieced at one of the elbows with a patch of 
 green cloth sewed on with pack-thread. On his 
 back he carried a well-filled knapsack, tightly 
 buckled and quite new; in his hand an enormous 
 knotted stick. His stockingless feet were encased 
 in shoes shod with iron. His head was shaved, his 
 beard long. The perspiration, the heat, the jour- 
 ney on foot, the dust, gave to his whole person an 
 inexpressible air of misery and squalor. 
 
 161. The Complete Picture. — The purpose of 
 every description is to form a word-picture. Hence, 
 the details should be introduced as a means, not as 
 an end. If a detail does not help to form the word- 
 picture, it has no right to stand in the composition. 
 Its presence only dims the picture. In the fol- 
 lowing passage the purpose is to describe a house 
 that has gone to ruin. Observe how the various 
 details combine to form the complete picture : 
 
2o6 PROSE 
 
 Point of Sylvia Crane's house was tlie one in which her 
 view : outside grandmother had been born, and was the oldest 
 the house. house in the village. It was known as the " old 
 
 Crane place." It had never been painted, it was 
 Details giv- shedding its flopping gray shingles like grayscales, 
 ing a complete the roof sagged in a mossy hollow before the chim- 
 picture. ney, the windows and the doors were awry, and 
 
 the whole house was full of undulations and waver- 
 ing lines, which gave it a curiously unreal look in 
 broad daylight. In the moonlight it was the shad- 
 owy edifice built of a dream. — Hawthorne. 
 
 162. Faulty Description. — In the following ex- 
 tract from a popular inag»izine the particulars are 
 not well chosen, the point of view is repeatedly 
 changed, and little or no attempt is made to present 
 a complete picture : 
 
 The morning breeze blew into the room cheerily in its Septem- 
 ber freshness. The long white curtains, escaped from their loops, 
 were streaming with their deep fringes across a table, where lay 
 books, papers, and writing materials. 
 
 The chamber was at the top of a very high house almost on the 
 summit of a hill. Here the winds revelled at their will in the 
 branches of the tall trees encircling the house, and all day the birds 
 rocked there securely, or picked from the ledges of the windows 
 the crumbs which a careful hand had placed there to tempt them 
 into familiarity. 
 
 The walls of the room were of a light stone color, a subdued 
 tint, which suited well the hangings of the fine pictures which 
 adorned them. One entire side of the chamber was filled with 
 books in rare bindings. Excepting the books and pictures there 
 was nothing that did not present an air of grave simplicity; and 
 yet there was not wanting an air of elegance that bespoke a culti- 
 vated taste and ample means to exercise it. 
 
 By a long table in the center of the room a young man was sit- 
 ting in deep abstraction, etc. 
 
 In this extract it is difficult to determine the aim 
 of the author. He has no definite point of view. 
 
DESCRIPTION 20} 
 
 In the first paragraph he directs our attention to 
 " the morning breeze," and incidentally mentions a 
 room and other details which are out of place here. 
 In the second paragraph he again directs our atten- 
 tion to the room, and then he goes rambling over 
 the surrounding country from trees to birds and 
 from birds to " a careful hand." In the third para- 
 graph he abruptly reverts to the room, but fails 
 to describe it adequately, because he has no picture 
 of it in his own mind ; then he passes on to a young 
 man seated at a long table "in deep abstraction." 
 Compare with this diffuse and rambling passage 
 the following excellent descriptions : 
 
 The monarch is a little, keen, fresh-colored old man, with 
 very protruding eyes, attired in plain, old-fashioned snuff-colored 
 clothes and brown stockings, his only ornament the blue ribbon of 
 the Order of the Garter. — Thackeray. 
 
 Here Thackeray's aim is to give by means of 
 a few striking particulars a picture of George II. 
 The few well-chosen details stimulate the reader's 
 imagination to complete the picture. 
 
 One stiff blind horse, his every bone a-stare. — Byron. 
 
 Note the few details, and the effectiveness of the 
 picture. 
 
 That spring the mohwa tree, that Baloo was so fond of, 
 never flowered. The greeny, cream-colored, waxy blossoms were 
 heat-killed before they were born, and only a few bad-smelling 
 petals came down when he stood on his hind legs and shook 
 the tree. Then, inch by inch, the untempered heat crept into the 
 heart of the jungle, turning it yellow, brown, and at last black. 
 The green growths in the sides of the ravines burned up to 
 broken wires and curled films of dead stuff"; the hidden pools 
 sank down and caked over, keeping the least footmark on their 
 
2o8 PROSE 
 
 edges as if it had been cast in iron ; the juicy-stemmed creepers 
 fell away from the trees they clung to and died at their feet ; the 
 bamboos withered, clanking when the hot winds blew, and the 
 moss peeled off the rocks deep in the jungle, till they were as bare 
 and hot as the quivering blue boulders in the bed of the stream. 
 
 Kipling's aim is to place before the reader a 
 scene of intense heat and long-continued drought. 
 Note the striking particulars. 
 
 Long lines of cliff breaking have left a chasm ; 
 
 And in that chasm are foam and yellow sands, 
 
 Beyond, red roofs about a narrow wharf 
 
 In cluster; then a moldered church; and higher 
 
 A long street climbs to one tall-towered mill; 
 
 And high in heaven behind it a gray down 
 
 With Danish barrows ; and a hazel-wood 
 
 By autumn hunters haunted, flourishes 
 
 Green in a cuplike hollow of the down. — Tennyson. 
 
 Here Tennyson with a few well-chosen particu- 
 lars makes a vivid picture of the port. 
 
 Soon stars are hidden. A light breeze seems rather to trem- 
 ble and hang poised than to blow. The rolling clouds, the dark wil- 
 derness, and the watery waste shine out every moment in the wide 
 gleam of lightnings still hidden by the wood, and are wrapped 
 again in ever-thickening darkness over which thunders roll and jar 
 and answer one another across the sky. Then, like a charge of ten 
 thousand lancers, come the wind and the rain, their onset covered 
 by all the artiUerj of heaven. The lightnings leap, hiss, and blaze ; 
 the thunders crack and roar; the rain lashes, the waters writhe ; 
 the wind smites and howls. For five, for ten, for twenty minutes — 
 for an hour, for two hours — the sky and the flood are never for an 
 instant wholly dark, or the thunder for one moment silent; but 
 while the universal roar sinks and swells, and the wide, vibrant 
 illumination shows all things in ghostly half-concealment, fresh 
 floods of lightning every moment rend the dim curtain and leap 
 forth ; the glare of day falls upon the swaying wood, the reeling, 
 bowing, tossing willows, the seething waters, the whirling rain, and 
 in the midst the small form of the distressed steamer, her revolving 
 
DESCRIPTION 
 
 209 
 
 paddle-wheels toiling behind to lighten the strain upon her anchor 
 cliains ; then all are dim ghosts again, while a peal, as if the 
 heavens were rent, rolls off around the sky, comes backs in shocks 
 and throbs, and sinks in a long roar that before it can die is swal- 
 lowed up in the next flash and peal. — George W. Cable. 
 
 Here the aim of the author is by a careful selec- 
 tion of particulars to stimulate the reader's imagi- 
 nation and to impress him with the awfulness of 
 the storm. Note the ehiployment and the effect 
 of sound, color, and motion in this passage. 
 
 163. Outline. — As in other kinds of composition, 
 it is advisable to frame a scheme before attempting 
 to write a description. The following outline taken 
 from a short description of a sunset may serve as 
 an example: 
 
 Theme: A Beautiful Sunset. 
 " I. Introduction: i. The point from which viewed. 
 
 2. The sun's altitude, 
 il. Discussion: i. The appearance of the clouds. 
 
 2. Shapes and colors constantly varying. 
 
 3. Effect on the landscape. 
 
 4. Appearance of particular objects in the sun- 
 
 set light. 
 
 5. The disappearance of the sun. 
 
 6. The purple and violet tints deepen. 
 
 7. The clouds grow larger and assume the 
 
 shape of mountains. 
 
 8. The colors deepen into blue and dark gray. 
 g. The clouds become dark masses, with only 
 
 here and there a tint of deepest violet. 
 
 10. All color in the west is gone, but the clouds 
 
 in the east have caught the departing 
 glory of day. 
 
 11. Soon they, too, fade and darkness settles 
 
 slowly down. 
 III. Conclusion ; Impressions left upon the mind by the sunset. 
 
2IO 
 
 PROSE 
 
 164. Summary.--It is essential to good descrip- 
 tion, then, that: i. The writer shall select strik- 
 ing particulars that will stimulate the reader's 
 imagination. 2. He shall gut the particulars to- 
 gether in proper order so that one leads directly to 
 the other. 3. He shall see that the details that 
 are chosen, when properly arranged, form or rather 
 suggest a complete picture. 
 
 EXERCISE 124. 
 
 Select three descriptions which give you clear pic- 
 tures, enumerate the striking particulars, and tell 
 the order in which the details are arranged. 
 
 EXERCISE 125. 
 
 Outline the following description by making a list oj 
 the details. Then, taking the same point of vieiv, de- 
 scribe the object in your own language : 
 
 Come on, sir ; here's the place. Stand still. How fearful 
 
 And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low ! 
 
 The crows and choughs that wing the midway air 
 
 Show scarce so gross as beetles. Halfway down 
 
 Hangs one that gathers samphire, dreadful trade ! 
 
 Methinks he seems no bigger than his head. 
 
 The fishermen that walk upon the beach 
 
 Appear like mice ; and yond tall anchoring bark 
 
 Diminished to her cock ; her cock, a buoy 
 
 Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge. 
 
 That on the unnumbered idle pebbles chafes. 
 
 Cannot be heard so high. I'll look no more, 
 
 Lest my brain turn and the deficient sight 
 
 Topple down headlong. — Shakespeare. 
 
DESCRIPTION 
 
 211 
 
 EXERCISE 126. 
 
 Write a description of one of the following subjects, 
 first making an outline : 
 
 I. 
 
 A Storm. 
 
 
 6. 
 
 An Old Mill. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 An Apple Orchard. 
 
 
 7- 
 
 A Fisherman. 
 
 
 3- 
 
 The Laocoon Group. 
 
 
 8. 
 
 View from my Window. 
 
 
 4- 
 
 The Falls of Niagara. 
 
 
 9- 
 
 Mountains I Have Seen. 
 
 
 S- 
 
 Personal Appearance 
 Silas Marner. 
 
 of 
 
 lO. 
 
 A Scientific Description 
 Some Flower. 
 
 of 
 
212 r^ (Zctii-<^ ■ PROSE 
 
 . c , •■•w .-< «juva u^vt *' ^ * '- -^ c^^A ^ ^-^ « 
 Chapter ii 
 
 llM^r ;, ^v^ rj L NARRATION J ,,UU ' ^ ^ ' 
 
 165. Definition and Aim of Narration, — Narra- 
 tion in its simplest sense is telling how something 
 happened. It forms a large part of our daily con- 
 versation, and is one of the most common kinds of 
 composition. It may give an account of imaginary 
 events, as in short stories, novels, and romances, or 
 it may relate what actually took place, as in accounts 
 ,of games and races, or in histories, biographies, and 
 autobiographies. In all forms of narration the aini 
 should be to make the reader see events as if he. 
 had been an eye-witness of them. 
 
 166. Essentials of Narration. — In order to tell a 
 story we must have (i) actors, who bring about the 
 events or take part in them ; (2) the circumstances 
 under which the actors perform their deeds; 
 and (3) the action itself. Without these elements 
 there can be no narration. 
 
 167. The Actors. — Usually it is important to 
 interest the reader in the characters who take part 
 in the action. This may be done by briefly men- 
 tioning a few striking particulars suggestive of the 
 character of each. Lengthy character sketches re- 
 tard the narrative or break the thread of the story. 
 In descriptions of races or of games it is usually not 
 
NARRATION 213 
 
 necessary to mention or describe the actors. The 
 action begins when the race or play starts, and the 
 interest at once centers in the contest. In the fol- 
 lowing extracts we may observe how noted authors 
 introduce their actors and awaken an interest in 
 them : 
 
 A very stout, puffy man, in buckskins and Hessian boots, with 
 several immense neck-cloths, that rose almost to his nose, with a 
 red striped waistcoat and an apple-green coat with steel buttons 
 almost as large as crown pieces (it was the morning costume of a 
 dandy, or blood, of those days), was reading the paper by the fire 
 when the two girls entered, and bounced off. his arm-chair, and 
 blushed excessively, and hid his entire face almost in his neck-cloths 
 at this apparition. — Thackeray. 
 
 This is the manner in which Thackeray intro- 
 duces bashful, awkward, vain Joseph Sedley in 
 "Vanity Fair." 
 
 Small, shining, neat, methodical, and buxom was Miss Peecher; 
 cherry-cheeked and tuneful of voice. A little pincushion, a little 
 housewife, a little book, a little work-box, a little set of tables and 
 weights and measures, and a little woman all in one. She could 
 write a little essay on any subject, exactly a slate long, beginning 
 at the left-hand top of one side and ending at the right-hand bot- 
 tom of the other, and the essay would be strictly according to rule. 
 — Dickens. 
 
 In such language Dickens describes neat and 
 precise Miss Peecher in " Our Mutual Friend." 
 
 168. Tlie Circumstances. — As persons are influ- 
 enced greatly by surroundings and act differently 
 under different circumstances, it may be readily in- 
 ferred that time and environment play an impor- 
 tant part in narration. Circumstances should be 
 so in keeping with the time and place of the story 
 
214 PROSE 
 
 as to give it the air of reality. A story of colonial 
 life should have about it the air of colonial times. 
 A story of French or English life should take us 
 to France or to England. Touches of local color, 
 allusions to social customs andglii^aes of environ- 
 ment help to givo thootoi'yveriijiniilitud o. The 
 following extract derives its reality from allusions 
 to the military costumes, the manners, and the 
 religion of ancient Rome : 
 
 Let us take our stand by the gate, just out of the edge of the 
 currents — one flowing in, the other out — and use our eyes and ears 
 awhile. 
 
 In good time ! Here come two men of a most noteworthy 
 class. 
 
 " Gods ! How cold it is ! " says one of them, a powerful figure 
 in armor ; on his head a brazen helmet, on his body a shining 
 breastplate and skirts of mail. " How cold it is ! Dost thou 
 remember, my Caius, that vault in the comitium at home which 
 he fiamens say is the entrance to the lower world ? By Pluto, I 
 could stand there this morning, long enough at least to get warm 
 again ! " 
 
 The party' addressed drops the hood of his military' cloak, leav- 
 ing bare his head and face, and replies, with an ironic smile, " The 
 htimets of the legions which conquered Mark Antony were full of 
 Gallic snow ; but thou — ah, my poor friend ! — thou hast just come 
 from Egypt, bringing its summer in thy blood." 
 
 And with a last word they disappear through the entrance. 
 Though they had been silent, the armor and the sturdy step would 
 have published them Roman soldiers. — Lew Wallace : Ben-Hur. 
 
 169. Requirements of Narration. — In narration 
 there should be a plan or plot in which the interest 
 centers. In some forms of narration, as in the short 
 story and the novel, the aim of the writer is to de- 
 velop the plot so as to hold the interest of the reader 
 
 Is this a correct use of the word "party" ? 
 
NARRATION 215 
 
 until the end; in other forms, as in history and 
 biography, the plot is of less importance, and the 
 interest centers rather in the action. Still there 
 must be some definite end in view and some plot or 
 plan by which this end may be reached. The 
 writer should select for his narrative such incidents 
 only as will aid in the development of the plot, and 
 he should arrange these incidents so that they will 
 increase in interest and importance as the story 
 proceeds. The chief requirements of narration, 
 therefore, are (i) the plan or plot, (2) the action, 
 (3) method in the action, and (4) climax.. 
 
 170. The Plan or Plot. — The plan or plot is the 
 framework of the incidents which make up the narra- 
 tive. Its purpose is primarily to interest the reader. 
 It should be definite as a whole, and more or less 
 intricate in its details. Its development should be 
 gradual, leading up to a climax, so as to hold the 
 reader in suspense to the end. The writer should 
 use such incidents only as are necessary to the 
 development of the plot. Whatever does not in 
 some way further the story will interrupt the nar- 
 rative and divert the reader's attention. If the 
 plot be imaginary, it should present the incidents 
 as they are likely to happen in life. If the theme 
 be historical, the incidents will be furnished the 
 writer, and with these he should frame a plan 
 which "will give the reader a distinct idea of what 
 has taken place. In either case, the writer should 
 have in mind and make clear the purpose for which 
 
 he is writing. In the following passage the writer's 
 15 
 
2i6 PROSE 
 
 aim is to give us the impression made by the news of 
 the surrender of Yorktown : 
 
 Early on a dark morning of the fourth week in October, an 
 honest old German, slowly pacing the streets of Philadelphia on his 
 night watch, began shouting, " Basht dree o'glock, und GornvalHs 
 ish dakend ! " and light sleepers sprang out of bed and threw up 
 their windows. Washington's couriers laid the despatches before 
 Congress in the forenoon, and after dinner a service of prayer and 
 thanksgiving was held in the Lutheran Church. At New Haven 
 and Cambridge the students sang triumphant hymns, and every 
 village green in the country was ablaze with bonfires. The Duke 
 de Lauzun sailed for France in a swift ship, and on the 27th of No- 
 vember all the houses in Paris were illuminated, and the aisles of 
 Notre Dame resounded with the Te Deum. At noon of November 
 25 the news was brought to Lord George Germain, at his house in 
 Pall Mall. Getting into a cab, he drove hastily to the Lord Chan- 
 cellor's house in Great Russel Street, Bloomsbury, and took him in ; 
 and then they drove to Lord North's office in Downing Street. At 
 the staggering news all the Prime Minister's wonted gaiety forsook 
 him. He walked wildly up and down the room, throwing his arms 
 about and crying, " O God ! it is all over ! it is all over ! it is all over ! " 
 A despatch was sent to the King at Kew, and when Lord George 
 received the answer that evening, at dinner, he observed that his 
 majesty wrote calmly, but had forgotten to date hi? letter — a thing 
 which had never happened before. — John Fiske : The American 
 Revolution. 
 
 Observe how lifelike every detail is, and how 
 everything serves to emphasize the narrator's plan. 
 
 171. The Action. — As narration deals with ob- 
 jects in motion its basis is action. The action may 
 be represented as going on or as having taken 
 place ; that is, the writer may, by using the present 
 tense, endeavor to make the reader an eye-witness 
 of the event, or he may relate it as a story told 
 after the event has taken place. Ordinarily it is 
 
NARRATION 21J 
 
 better to use the past tense, as the present is prop- 
 erly used only in the narrative of important events 
 in highly animated discourse. In the use of either 
 tense it is essential to begin with action as soon as 
 possible. In a short narrative the actors may be 
 introduced and the circumstances indicated with 
 little delay. When once Taegun, the action should 
 not be interrupted by digressions or circumstances 
 not essential to the plot. 
 
 17S. Method in tlie Action. — Since narration 
 rests upon action, it is clear that to produce the best 
 effect the action must be carried on according to a 
 distinct method. As a rule, the action should be 
 in chronological order — events following events as 
 they happened or as they would naturally happen. 
 Reflections, comments, descriptions, and expla- 
 nations, if they do not hinder the movement of the 
 narrative, but increase the interest in it, may be 
 introduced with good effect. The point of view 
 from which the author writes should not be 
 changed. The thread of the narrative should not 
 be interrupted by digressions. But the writer 
 should have a steady onward movement, dwelling 
 at length on the more important incidents, and 
 keeping the less important in the background. 
 When, as in most forms of lengthy narration, it is 
 necessary to carry along several trains of action 
 which are related to one another in the development 
 of the plot, the writer may take up one train at a 
 time and carry it as far as he deems advisable ; then, 
 discontinuing it for a while, bring up another train 
 
21 8 PROSE 
 
 of incidents. Thus he may carry on several threads 
 in succession, and yet give a unified impression. 
 
 In the following account of the beheading of 
 Mary, Queen of Scots, observe the movement of the 
 narrative — not an interruption : 
 
 When the psalm was finished she felt for the block, and, 
 laying down her head, muttered : " In manus tuas, Domine, com- 
 mendo animam meam." The hard wood seemed to hurt her, for 
 she placed her hands under her neck. The executioners gently re- 
 moved them, lest they should deaden the blow, and then one of 
 them holding her slightly, the other raised the axe and struck. 
 The scene had been too trying even for the practised headsman of 
 the Tower. His arm wandered. The blow fell on the knot of the 
 handkerchief, and scarcely broke the skin. She neither spoke nor 
 moved. He struck again, this time effectively. The head hung by 
 a shred of skin, which he divided without withdrawing the axe; and 
 at once a metamorphosis was witnessed, strange as was ever 
 vyrought by the hand of fabled enchanter. The coif fell off and the 
 false plaits. The labored illusion vanished. The lady who had 
 knelt before the block was in the maturity of grace and loveliness. 
 The executioner, when he raised the head, as usual, to show to the 
 crowd, exposed the withered features of a grizzled, wrinkled old 
 woman. — Froude. 
 
 173. Climax. — All the details in narration should 
 work toward a climax ; that is, they should gi'ow in 
 interest as the plot develops, hold the reader in 
 suspense, and surprise him with the unexpected at 
 the end. The following passage may be taken as 
 an example of good narration : 
 
 Gerard ran back to his tree and climbed it swiftly. But, while 
 his legs were dangling some eight feet from the ground, the bear 
 came rearing and struck with her forepaw, and out flew a piece of 
 bloody cloth from Gerard's hose. He climbed and climbed ; and 
 presently he heard, as it were in the air, a voice say, " Go out on the 
 bough ! " He looked, and there was a long, massive branch before 
 
NARRATION 219 
 
 him, shooting upwards at a slight angle; he threw his body across 
 it, and by a series of convulsive efforts worked up it to the end. 
 
 Then he looked round, panting. 
 
 The bear was mounting the tree on the other side. He heard 
 her claws scrape, and saw her bulge on both sides of the massive 
 tree. Her eye not being very quick, she reached the fork and 
 passed it, mounting the main stem. Gerard drew breath more 
 freely. The bear either heard him or knew by scent she was wrong ; 
 she paused ; presently she caught sight of him. She eyed him 
 steadily, then quietly descended to the fork. 
 
 Slowly and cautiously she stretched out a paw and tried the 
 bough. It was a stiff oak branch, sound as iron. Instinct taught 
 the creature this ; it crawled carefully out on the bough, growling 
 savagely as it came. 
 
 Gerard looked wildly down. He was forty feet from the ground. 
 Death below. Death moving slow but sure on him in a still more 
 horrible form. His hair bristled. The sweat poured from him. 
 He sat helpless, fascinated, tongue-tied. 
 
 As the fearful monster crawled growling toward him, incon- 
 gruous thoughts coursed through his mind. Margaret, — the Vul- 
 gate, where it speaks of the rage of a she-bear robbed of her whelps, 
 — Rome, — Eternity. 
 
 The bear crawled on. And now the stupor of death fell on the 
 doomed man ; he saw the opened jaws and bloodshot eyes coming, 
 but in a mist. 
 
 As in a mist he heard a twang ; he glanced down ; Denys, white 
 and silent as death, was shooting up at the bear. The bear snarled 
 at the twang, but crawled on. Again the crossbow twanged, and 
 the bear snarled and came nearer. Again the crossbow t\yanged, 
 and the next moment the bear was close upon Gerard, where lie 
 sat, with hair standiiig stiff on end and eyes starting from their 
 sockets, palsied. The bear opened her jaws Hke a grave ; and hoi 
 blood spouted from them upon Gerard as from a pump. The bough 
 rocked. The wounded monster was reeling; it clung, it stuck its 
 sickles of claws deep into the wood ; it toppled ; its claws held firm, 
 but its body rolled off, and the sudden shock to the branch shook 
 Gerard forward on his stomach with his face on one of the bear's 
 straining paws. At this, by a convulsive effort she raised her head 
 up, up, up, till he felt her hot fetid breath. Then huge teeth 
 
220 PROSE 
 
 snapped together loudly close below him in the air, with a last 
 effort of baffled hate. The ponflerous carcase rent the claws out of 
 the bough, then pounded the earth with a tremendous thump. 
 There was a shout of triumph below, and the very next instant a 
 cry of dismay ; for Gerard had swooned, and, without an attempt 
 to save himself, rolled headlong from the perilous height. — Charles 
 Reade : The Cloister and the Hearth. 
 
 EXEBCISE 127. 
 
 1 . Find two or three examples of good narration, and 
 show wherein they fulfil the requirements of narration. 
 
 2. Select some novel and tell how the characters ar£ 
 introduced. 
 
 3. Write a short narrative on one of the following 
 topics : 
 
 1. Moses at the Fair. 6. A Rabbit Hunt. 
 
 2. The Boston Tea-Party. 7. Climbing a Mountain. 
 
 3. The Charge of the Light 8. Locksley at the Touma- 
 
 Brigade. ment. 
 
 4. The Sinking of the Mer- 9. The Story of a Fishing 
 
 rimac. Party. 
 
 5. The Death of Front-de- 10. The Assassination of Lin- 
 
 Boeuf. coin. 
 
 EXERCISE 128. 
 
 I. Write an account of the tournament in " Tht 
 Princess, " and in your story explain : 
 
 1. Why it was fought. 2. What were the terms. 3. The 
 courseof events in the fight. 4. The state of the Princess. 5. The 
 defeat of the Princess in triumph. 
 
 2. Write a full description of some battle, giving its 
 historical setting. 
 
EXPOSITION 221 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 EXPOSITION 
 
 174. Meaning of Exposition. — In its broadest 
 sense exposition means explanation. It consists in 
 setting forth doctrines, principles, or views for the 
 instruction of others. In narration and description 
 the material is obtained chiefly through the senses, 
 but in exposition it is the product of the reasoning 
 faculty. 
 
 175. Purpose of Exposition. — It is the purpose 
 of exposition to make the reader understand the 
 subject under discussion. Important terms must, 
 therefore, be defined, obscure parts elucidated, 
 and the whole subject made clear to the under- 
 standing of the reader. 
 
 Exposition is one of the commonest forms of 
 composition. The lawyer employs exposition when 
 he explains the points in his argument, the clergy- 
 man when he unfolds the meaning of his text, the 
 teacher when he explains anything of a scientific or 
 literary character, and the editor when he writes 
 his editorials. Text-books, books of science, essays, 
 reviews, sermons, lectures, and criticisms are, for 
 the most part, expositions. 
 
 Strictly speaking, a material object or an actual 
 event is not a subject for exposition. The writer 
 should choose a subject that will allow definition, 
 explanation, or reflection. 
 
222 PROSE 
 
 176. Definition. — Definition is a species of ex- 
 position. A good definition must give the genus 
 and the differentia. By the genus we mean the 
 class to which the thing defined belongs ; by the 
 differentia, the qualities which make the object dif- 
 ferent from other objects of the same class. Thus, 
 a statesman is a man (genus) versed in the arts of 
 government (differentia) ; a municipality is a town 
 or city (genus) possessed of local self-government 
 (differentia) ; a nation is a people (genus) inhabit- 
 ing a certain extent of territory and having com- 
 mon political institutions (differentia). 
 
 The chief requirements of a definition are : 
 (i) that it should give the genus and the differen- 
 tia of the object; (2) that it should not be nega- 
 tive where it can be affirmative. The following 
 definitions are defective : 
 
 Procrastination is the thief of time. 
 
 Fails to give the genus and the differentia. 
 
 Man is an animal with two legs. 
 
 Fails to give the differentia. 
 
 Light is the opposite of darkness. 
 
 Negative. 
 
 Pain is the discipline of character. 
 
 Fails to give the genus and the differentia. 
 
 EXERCISE 129. 
 
 Name and define seven common nouns. Test each 
 definition by the requirements given above. 
 
 177. Kinds of Exposition. — There are two kinds 
 of exposition : i. Scientific exposition; 2. Literary 
 exposition. 
 
EXPOSITION 223 
 
 178. Scientific Exposition. — Scientific exposi- 
 tion deals with scientific subjects. The writer pro- 
 ceeds directly through the discussion, step by step, 
 unfolding the subject, illustrating what is difficult, 
 stating the facts clearly and concisely in natural 
 order. The personal feelings of the writer must 
 be kept in the background. There should not be 
 the faintest suspicion of prejudice or exaggeration. 
 Facts should be set forth with absolute impartiality. 
 
 179. liiterary Exposition. — Literary exposition 
 has a wider range. It includes criticisms, reviews, 
 essays, and all compositions which deal with the 
 rights and duties of man. Book reviews, editori- 
 als, essays, sei-mons, and even speeches come under 
 the head of literary exposition. The writer, in his 
 method of treatment, may adopt any plan that is 
 suitable to the development of his subject. 
 
 180. Selection of a Subject. — In selecting a sub- 
 ject for literary exposition, care should be taken to 
 limit it so that it may be easily comprehended and 
 effectively explained. We should find difficulty in 
 writing a composition on " Mathematics," because 
 it would have to be viewed from every possible 
 standpoint, but if we should limit the subject to 
 ' ' Advantages of a Thorough Course in Mathemat- 
 ics," it would be easy to determine the line of 
 thought which we should follow in order to make 
 a good exposition of the subject. 
 
 181. Requirements of Exposition — As clear- 
 ness is the chief object to be attained, the language 
 should be plain, the style neat and concise. Every 
 
224 PROSE 
 
 sentence should bear upon the subject; whatever 
 does not help to make the meaning clear tends 
 to break the unity of the discourse. Illustration, 
 description, and narration may be used when they 
 serve to make the point clearer and to give 
 greater force to the explanation. It is evident, 
 therefore, that clearness, unity, force, and ease apply 
 to exposition as to other kinds of writing. 
 
 182. The Parts of Exposition. — In the intro- 
 duction should be placed the formal statement of 
 the principles or views to be unfolded ; the discus- 
 sion, or body of the composition, should contain the 
 methodical development of the proposition ; and the 
 conclusion should be a summary of the whole. 
 
 Here is an example of exposition in the form of 
 a dialogue : 
 
 Miss Ilex : Few may perceive an inaccuracy, but to those who 
 do, it causes a great diminution, if not a total destruction, of pleas- 
 ure in perusal. Shakespeare never makes a flower blossom out of 
 season ! Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey are true to nature 
 in this and all other respects, even in their wildest imaginings. 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Opimian : Yet here is a combination, by one of 
 our greatest poets [Milton], of flowers that never blossom in the 
 same season : 
 
 " Bring the rathe primrose that forsaken dies. 
 
 The tufted crow-toe and pale jessamine, 
 
 The white pink, and the pansy freaked with jet. 
 
 The glowing violet ; 
 
 The musk-rose, and the well-attired woodbine. 
 
 With cowslips wan that hang the pensive head. 
 
 And every flower that sad embroidery wears: 
 
 Bid amaranthus all his beauty shed. 
 
 And daffodilhes fill their cups with tears, 
 
 To deck the laureate hearse where Lycid lies." 
 
EXPOSITION 225 
 
 And at the same time he plucks the berries of the myrtle and the 
 Ivy. 
 
 Miss Ilex : Very beautiful, if not true to English seasons ; but 
 Milton might have thought himself justified in making this com- 
 bination in Arcadia. Generally, he is strictly accurate, to a degree 
 that is in itself a beauty. For instance, in his address to the 
 nightingale : 
 
 " Thee, chantress, oft the woods among, 
 
 I woo, to hear thy even-song, 
 
 And missing thee, I walk unseen 
 
 On the dry smooth-shaven green." 
 
 The song of the nightingale ceases about the time the grass is 
 
 mown. 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Opimian : The old Greek poetry is always true 
 
 to nature, and will bear any degree of critical analysis. I must say 
 
 I take no pleasure in poetry that will not. 
 
 Mr. Mac-Borrow-dale : No poet is truer to nature than Burns, 
 
 and no one less so than Moore. His imagery is almost always 
 
 false. Here is a highly applauded stanza, and very taking at first 
 
 sight : 
 
 " The night-dew of heaven, though in silence it weeps, 
 Shall brighten with verdure the sod where he sleeps ; 
 And Ihe tear that we shed, though in secret it rolls, 
 Shall long keep his memory green in our souls." 
 
 But it will not bear analysis. The dew is the cause of the verdure, 
 but the tear is not the cause of the memory : the memory is the 
 cause of the tear. 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Opimian : There are inaccuracies more offensive 
 to me than even false imagery. Here is one in a song which I have 
 often heard with displeasure. A young man goes up a mountain, 
 and as he goes higher and higher, he repeats Excelsior ! but excelsior 
 is only taller in the comparison of things on a common basis, not 
 higher as a detached object in the air. Jack's bean-stalk was ex- 
 celsior the higher it grew, but Jack himself was no more celsus at 
 the top than he had been at the bottom. 
 
 Mr. Mac-Borrow-dale : I am afraid, doctor, if you look for pro- 
 found knowledge in popular poetry you will often be disappointed. 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Opimian : I do not look for profound knowledge ; 
 
226 PROSE 
 
 but I do expect that poets should understand what they talk of. 
 Burns was not a scholar, but he was always master of his subject. 
 All the scholarship of the world would not have produced " Tam 
 o' Shanter," but in the whole of that poem there is not a false image 
 nor a misused word. What do you suppose these lines represent .' 
 
 " I turning saw, throned on a fiowery rise, 
 One sitting on a crimson scarf unrolled^— 
 
 A queen with swarthy cheeks and bold black eyes. 
 Brow-bound with burning gold." 
 
 Mr. Mac-Borrow-dale : 1 should take it to be a description of 
 the Queen of Bambo. 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Opimian : Yet thus one of our most popular poets 
 [Tennyson] describes Cleopatra, and oneof our most popularartists 
 has illustrated the description by a portrait of a hideous grinning 
 Ethiop ! Moore led the way to this perversion by demonstrating that 
 the Egyptian women must have been beautiful because they were 
 the countrywomen of Cleopatra. Here we have a sort of counter- 
 demonstration that Cleopatra must have been a fright because she 
 was the countrywoman of the Egyptians. But Cleopatra was a 
 Greek, the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes and a lady of Pontus. The 
 Ptolemies were Greeks, and whoever will look at their genealogy, 
 their coins, and their medals, will see how carefully they kept their 
 pure blood uncontaminated by African intermixture. T hink of this 
 description and this picture applied to one who, Dio says — ^and all 
 antiquity confirms him — was " the most superlatively beautiful of 
 women, splendid to see, and delightful to hear." For she was 
 eminently accomplished ; she spoke many languages' with grace and 
 facility. Her mind was as wonderful as her personal beauty. — 
 Thomas Love Peacock : Gryll Grange. 
 
 The following examples serve to illustrate the 
 difference between scientific and literary exposition : 
 
 When hydrogen is surrounded by nitrogen boiling in a vacuum it 
 may be condensed to a colorless liquid. At ordinary pressure it 
 boils at — 243.5, and its critical temperature is — 234.5, so that it 
 cannot be liquefied at any pressure above — 234.5. Liquid hydrogen 
 may be used to obtain the lowest temperatures yet reached. — En- 
 cyclopaidia Britannica. 
 
EXPOSITION 22J., 
 
 In the modern arrangements of society, it is no uncommon thing 
 that a man of genius must, lilce Burns, " ask for bread and receive 
 a stone " ; for, in spite of our grand maxim of supply and demand, 
 it is by no means the highest excellence that men are most forward 
 to recognize. The inventor of a spinning-jenny is pretty sure of his 
 reward in his own day; but the writer of a true poem, like the 
 apostle of a true religion, is nearly as sure of the contrary. We do 
 not know whether it is not an aggravation of the injustice that 
 there is generally a posthumous retribution. Robert Burns, in the 
 course of nature, might yet have been living' ; but his short life was 
 spent in toil and penury ; and he died in the prime of his manhood, 
 miserable and neglected : and yet already a brave" mausoleum shines 
 over his dust, and more than one splendid monument has been 
 reared in other places to his fame; the street where he languished 
 in poverty is called by his name ; the highest personages in our lit- 
 erature have been proud to appear as his commentators and ad- 
 mirers ; and here is the sixth narrative of his Life that has been 
 given to the world ! — Carlyle ; Essay on Burns. 
 
 EXERCISE 130. 
 
 Do you notice any change in the literary style when 
 you pass front one of the e^ampl^ given above to the 
 other? If so, in what does this difference consist? Point 
 out any peculiarities you may notice in the formation of, 
 the sentences ; in the punctuation. 
 
 *. ' ■ *. 
 
 183. The Plan. — In exposition, as in description 
 
 and narration, a definite plan is necessary^* It would? 
 be impossible to write an intelligent exposition 
 without first forming a framework or plan for it. 
 All information should be properly classified and 
 o;rouped. The following is a plan for a composi- 
 tion on ' ' Popular Prejudices against Higher Educa- 
 tion" : 
 
 ■ Z828. ^ Meaning of 3rave here / 
 
228 
 
 PROSE 
 
 Theme: Popular Prejudices against Higher Education 
 
 I. Introduction: i. Progress of education in general. 
 
 2. Higher education most strongly opposed, 
 n. Discussion: i. Prejudice of those who object to taxing all 
 to educate a few. 
 
 2. Prejudice of the rich : 
 
 a. Who do not wish to be taxed. 
 
 b. Who prefer class education. 
 
 3. Prejudice of those who think higher educa- 
 
 tion injures the pupil. 
 
 4. Prejudice of the poorer and more ignorant. 
 
 5. Prejudice arisijig from supposed faults in the 
 
 system. 
 
 6. Prejudice of men of reputation. 
 HI. Conclusion ; The need of higher education. 
 
 EXERCISE 131. 
 
 Select five subjects for literary exposition, and outline 
 one as indicated above. Develop your outline into a 
 composition. 
 
 9 . Ca^ tCu.'i^-*'*^ 
 
ARGUMENT 229 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 ARGUMENT 
 184. Meaning of Argument. — That kind of com- 
 
 posi tion in which a proof n r.T.easQa-is--afl:e.red. Jor-IT" 
 anything is called argumenx, The object of argu- 
 ttrenTTs'to modify or induce belief by means of 
 showing the truth or falsity of a proposition.' If 
 we make the proposition, ' ' Compulsory education 
 is a failure," we must be prepared to show the truth 
 of our assertion. How can this be done? We 
 must first make clear what is meant by compulsory 
 education, and then show wherein it has failed. In 
 order to do this it may be necessary to employ one 
 or more of the kinds of composition already men- 
 tioned — description, narration, exposition. 
 
 185. The Statement of the Proposition. — As 
 
 the purpose of argument is to prove or disprove an 
 assertion, it is obvious that a subject for argument 
 should be in the form of a proposition. One may 
 write a description of "Canada" or an exposition 
 on " Honesty," but he cannot write an argument 
 on either of these subjects, because the form in 
 which they are expressed does not call for proof or 
 confutation. But if the subjects be stated thus, 
 " Canada should be annexed to the United States," 
 
 * In rhetoric a proposition is a *' subject of discourse.'' 
 
230 PROSE 
 
 or " Honesty is the best policy," the forms are 
 definite assertions, about the truth or falsity of 
 which much may be said. 
 
 186. Parts of an Argument.— Every argument 
 may be divided into three parts — the introduction, 
 the proof, and the conclusion. The introduction 
 may contain an explanation of the terms of the 
 proposition or may make clear what is meant by the 
 question at issue. After the introduction follow the 
 arguments which make up the proof. These should 
 be so arranged as to work toward a climax. The 
 connection between the arguments should be made 
 clear in each case. The conclusion may consist of a 
 restatement of the proposition together with a for- 
 cible summing up of all the arguments. 
 
 187. Proof. — The materials for the proof, as for 
 other kinds of composition, may be derived directly 
 through the senses or indirectly through reading, 
 illustration, or personal testimony. But proof, it 
 must be remembered, is something more than a 
 mere assertion of sentiment or opinion. What 
 one believes about compulsory education does not 
 affect the question any more than what he believes 
 about the sun affects that luminary. In argument, 
 therefore, one should refrain from making asser- 
 tions which he does not prove to be true; and, 
 above all, he should not let weak and worthless 
 sentiment take the place of proof; for every asser- 
 tion that is not in the form of proof weakens the 
 argument. 
 
ARGUMENT 231 
 
 188. Proof Difficult to Obtaiu. — It is often diffi- 
 cult or impossible to get absolute proof in support 
 of an argument. In such cases we should employ 
 with the best possible effect what facts can be 
 gathered. We should beware of prejudicing against 
 us those who differ from us, as it is almost impossible 
 to convince or persuade when we have aroused prej- 
 udice. We should, therefore, show a due respect for 
 the opinions of those who have different views, and 
 not presume that we are right because they are wrong. 
 We should begin with facts or principles that our 
 reader or hearer willaccept as true ; and, having stated 
 these facts, we should draw conclusions in favor of 
 our view and support them by an appeal to facts. For 
 instance, we observe marks on rocks, and wish to 
 prove that they were caused by glaciers. We have 
 as yet no proof for our assertion. But we examine 
 the marks made by glaciers on rocks at the present 
 time in Switzerland and find that they are the same. 
 The marks, moreover, are such as glaciers always 
 make. Our assertion at once becomes probable and 
 is generally accepted as true. 
 
 189. Methods of Proof. — Proof may be the re- 
 sult of deductive or of inductive reasoning. 
 
 \Q _dediict ive reasoning we" assert that w hat is true 
 of a class of abiects is true 6f Snv~ob1ect of_ _t]mL. 
 class. Here is a common form of deductive argu- 
 ment as old as Aristotle : 
 
 All men are mortal. 
 
 Socrates is a man. 
 
 Therefore Socrates is mortal, 
 16 
 
■232 PROSE 
 
 Our assertion is first of men in general, then of 
 Socrates in particular. We may apply this method 
 of reasoning to the question of reporting contagious 
 diseases to the Board of Health. Thus: 
 
 Laws that cannot be enforced are a failure. 
 
 The law compelling people to report contagious diseases to the 
 Board of Health cannot be enforced. 
 
 Therefore the law compelling people .to report contagious dis- 
 eases to the Board of Health is a failure. 
 
 This manner of reasoning may be variously stated. 
 Here is a common way of expressing it, " The law 
 compelling people to report contagious diseases to 
 the Board of Health is a failure, because it cannot 
 be enforced." 
 
 .In ind uctive reasoning we assert that what is true 
 of a certain number of^ndi viduals . of a class is true 
 oF fhe~whole class. .Thus, we may say that all 
 planets move round the sun from west to east, be- 
 cause all yet discovered do so. 
 
 190. Fallacies in Deduction. — There are certain 
 errors in deductive reasoning which we should guard 
 against. Among these may be mentioned the 
 following : 
 
 1. Fallacy of Accident, which consists in arguing 
 from a general rule to a special case; as, " To kill 
 intentionally a fellow-man is murder: therefore a 
 hangman is a murderer." 
 
 2. Converse Fallacy of Accident, which consists in 
 arguing from a special case to a general rule ; as, 
 "Almsgiving to beggars promotes mendicancy 
 therefore nothing should be given in charity." 
 
ARGUMENT 233 
 
 3. Irrelevant Conclusion, which consists in arguing 
 to a wrong point ; as if in the discussion as to the 
 beauty of two styles of architecture, it is asserted 
 that one is more useful than the other. 
 
 4. Begging the Question, or Arguing in a Circle, 
 which consists in proving a conclusion by means of 
 itself; as, " Opium causes sleep, for it is a soporific 
 substance." 
 
 5 . Fallacy of Consequent, when the conclusion has 
 no connection with what we wish to prove; as, "If 
 I liked beans I should like to eat them ; but as I 
 don't like beans, to eat them would be unpleasant : 
 therefore I am glad I don't like beans." 
 
 6. False Cause, which consists in assuming that 
 one thing is the cause of another without sufficient 
 grounds ; as, " This change in the weather must be 
 due to the moon." 
 
 191. Imperfect Induction. — Inductive arguments 
 are not at all times conclusive. Thus when we 
 say that all planets move around the sun from 
 west to e£.st, we can assert that this is true only 
 with reference to the planets we happen to know 
 of. There may be other planets that move in a 
 different direction. We may also say that the planet 
 Mars has an atmosphere, clouds, mist, seas, and 
 lands, like the Earth: therefore it is inhabited. But 
 we can never be certain of such a conclusion ; be- 
 cause we can never be sure that the two cases are 
 alike in all material points. The probability of 
 such a conclusion is increased by the number of 
 points of resemblance observed, but there is always 
 
234 PROSE 
 
 danger of falling into the error of supposing that 
 similarity in some points is an evidence of similarity 
 in other points, when there is really no connection 
 between the observed and the unobserved points. 
 Again, to argue that because an individual and a 
 state both grow from small beginnings, therefore a 
 state must grow old and worn-out like a man is 
 to argue wrongly. The points of resemblance are 
 too remote ; besides, a state is continually being 
 supplied with new members. 
 
 EXERCISE 132. 
 
 Examine each of the following arguments, and tell 
 
 what the fallacy is : 
 
 )^ I. You say that I am no gentleman, hut you are no judge. 
 
 2. This book must be good because it has had a very extensive 
 sale. 
 
 ^)\3. Livy's history cannot be believed, for he describes impos- 
 sible prodigies. 
 
 4. All the republics of antiquity have fallen : therefore the 
 United States shall fall. 
 
 5. The Divine law orders that rulers should be honored : there- 
 fore this king should be honored. 
 
 6. To write compositions is a disagreeable task: therefore I 
 am glad I do not like to write compositions. 
 
 7. The prosperity of this country greatly increased after our war 
 with Spain ; therefore the war with Spain was a benefit. 
 
 8. That the prisoner has set up an alibi is a strong argument 
 against him, for the plea of alibi is always the refuge of the guilty. 
 
 9. It has snowed for three successive years on the seventeenth 
 of March : therefore it will snow next year on the seventeenth of 
 March. 
 
 10. During a country walk one sees many things of interest : but 
 a country walk may be taken on a pitch-dark night: therefore on 
 a pitch-dark night one may see many things of interest. 
 
ARGUMENT a3S 
 
 19a. La-ws of Composition In Argument. — The 
 
 writer . should select only important arguments and 
 such as bear directly on the proposition. Th-e 
 proof, if possible, should center in a climax. In 
 this manner force may be secured. Each sub- 
 proposition should be related to the principal one, 
 and it should be remembered that, in argument, it 
 is not only necessary to think, but one must think 
 connectedly. The writer should keep the object of 
 his argument constantly in mind, and show by 
 every statement he makes that he means to accom- 
 plish his object. By so doing, unity may be se- 
 cured. Little or no ornament is required in argu- 
 ment. The language should be plain, and the 
 style neat, but sufficiently diffuse to make the points 
 of the argument easily seen. Every argument 
 should have illustrations, examples, or instances, 
 to make its force and meaning perfectly clear. 
 
 193. The Outline.^ Before attempting to make 
 an argument it is advisable to arrange systemat- 
 ically the facts which are to be used; the facts thus 
 arranged form what is called an outline or a brief. 
 The outline should be made so that it will contain 
 an introduction, which will prepare the mind of the 
 reader or listener for the argument ; a main part, 
 which will contain the proof ; and a conclusion, which 
 will sum up concisely and clearly the main points of 
 the argument. The best outline is one that states a 
 proposition for each main division, and as many sub- 
 ordinate propositions as may be necessary to prove 
 the ptoposition under which they are grouped : 
 
236 PROSE 
 
 Outline of an Argument. 
 Proposition; Resolved, That a system of compulsory education 
 is advisable. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 1. What is meant by compulsory education. 
 
 2. What can be said in favor of education in general can be 
 said in favor of compulsory education. 
 
 3. It advances the standard of intelligence (a) among the people 
 as a whole, (b) especially among the humbler classes. 
 
 4. If we can prove that a system of compulsory education 
 (a) lessens crime, (1^) promotes individual and national pros- 
 perity, and (c) conduces to human happiness, we shall prove our 
 proposition. 
 
 Proof. 
 A system of compulsory education is advisable ; for, 
 
 A. It lessens crime ; since, 
 
 1. It raises the standard of intelligence, and crime is less prev- 
 
 alent among the intelligent. 
 
 2. An intelligent people are law-abiding. 
 
 B. It promotes individual and national prosperity; for, 
 
 1. It increases the productiveness of labor. 
 
 2. It lessens political corruption ; since educated men are less 
 
 likely to be dominated by bosses. 
 
 3. It conduces to peace. 
 
 " Education is the cheap defense of nations." 
 
 4. Nations that have had a system of compulsory education 
 
 are more prosperous than those that have not had such 
 a system. 
 
 C. It conduces to human happiness ; for, 
 
 1. It promotes morality. 
 
 2. It affords intellectual pleasure. 
 
 3. It teaches men to respect the rights of others. 
 
 4. It promotes the sanitary condition of a people. 
 
 5. It takes children from sweat shops and places them in the 
 
 more wholesome atmosphere of the modern schoolroom. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 If a system of compulsory education lessens vice, promotes indi- 
 vidual and national prosperity, and conduces to human happiness, 
 it must be desirable. 
 
ARGUMENT 237 
 
 EXEBCISE 133. 
 
 Form briefs on the affirmative or the negative of two 
 dr more of the follmving propositions : 
 
 Resolved, i. Vivisection is justifiable. 
 
 2. All the West Indies will be annexed to the United 
 
 States within the next twenty-five years. 
 
 3. A policy of expansion is advantageous to the 
 
 United States. 
 
 4. A classical education is preferable to a scientific 
 
 education. 
 
 5. Capital punishment is a benefit to the State. 
 
 6. Manhood suffrage is desirable. 
 
 7. Cremation should supersede burial. 
 
 8. Our cities should own and operate their street 
 
 railways. 
 
 9. Immigration should be restricted. 
 
 10. The President of the United States should be 
 elected by popular vote. 
 
238 PROSE 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 LETTERS 
 
 194. Letter- Writing. — The most useful form of 
 composition is letter- writing. We may never be called 
 on to write a newspaper or a magazine article or a 
 book, but we are all sure to be required at some 
 time in our lives to write letters ; and the difference 
 in effect between a letter well written and a letter 
 badly written can scarcely be overestimated. 
 
 195. Style of Composition. — While letters should 
 be written with much care, we should guard against 
 making them too formal and artificial. Letter- 
 writing is a kind of personal address, and it is, 
 therefore, less formal and more direct than other 
 forms of written composition. " ]\Iuch of the merit 
 and the agreeableness of epistolary writing," says 
 Blair, ' ' will depend on its introducing us into some 
 acquaintance with the writer. There, if anywhere, 
 we look for the man, not for the author." The 
 rules for punctuation, grammar, and paragraphing, 
 however, should be observed as in other forms of 
 composition. 
 
 196. Foi'ms of Iiettei-s. — While letter- writing is 
 the most informal kind of composition, yet there 
 are certain forms which custom has settled for us, 
 and to which we should invariably conform. The 
 
LETTERS 239 
 
 subscription of letters, together -with the position of 
 the date and the place from which they are written, 
 have been so long settled by usage, that no depar- 
 ture from fixed rules is allowed. 
 
 197. Business Letters. — In business letters the 
 following directions are usually observed : 
 
 1. The place where and the time when the letter 
 is written are always placed in the upper right-hand 
 corner of the first page. 
 
 2. The name, title, and address of the person or 
 firm to whom the letter is sent are placed to the left 
 above the body of the letter. 
 
 3. "Sir:— ," "Sirs:— ," " Dear Sir :—," or " Gen- 
 tlemen : — " is used for the salutation. 
 
 4. The writer signs himself, "Yours truly," or 
 "Very truly yours," rarely "Respectfully yours." 
 Terms of excessive politeness, such as ' ' Your obe- 
 dient servant," and " Humbly yours," are no longer 
 used in general correspondence. "Respectfully" 
 is reserved for very formal letters, such as public 
 letters and petitions. Capitals are used only with 
 the first word of the term of respect. The follow- 
 ing example illustrates the ordinary form of begin- 
 ning and closing business letters : 
 
 1295 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. 
 Oct. I, 1902. 
 Newson & Company, 
 1 5 East Seventeenth Street, 
 
 New York City. 
 Dear Sirs ; — 
 
 Very truly yours, 
 James Holden. 
 
240 PROSE 
 
 198. Style of Business Letters. — Letters of busi- 
 ness should be clear, brief, direct, and courteous. 
 Abbreviations should be used sparingly or not at 
 all, important words should never be omitted, and 
 slang words should be avoided. 
 
 The signature should be so written as to show 
 whether the writer is a man or a woman. A mar- 
 ried woman or a widow in writing to a stranger, 
 should prefix Mrs. to her name. 
 
 199. rormal Letters In the First Person. — These 
 are similar to business letters. They are petitions 
 and letters asking or conferring favors. They may 
 be written to strangers, or to persons with whom the 
 writer is slightly acquainted. Politeness demands 
 that they should be brief and deal solely with the 
 matter under consideration. 
 
 200. Forms for Formal Letters. — In formal let- 
 ters the following rules are observed : 
 
 1. The address and date is placed in the saine 
 position as in business letters. 
 
 2. The name of the person to whom the letter 
 is sent is usually placed at the close, to the left of 
 the signature. 
 
 3. "Dear Sir: — " (or "Dear Madam: — "), "My 
 dear Sir: — ," or "Gentlemen: — "is used for the 
 introductioji. 
 
 4. "Very truly yours," "Faithfully yours," or 
 " Respectfully yours," as occasion requires, is used 
 for the subscription. The following example will 
 serve to illustrate the ordinary form : 
 
LETTERS 241 
 
 156 Fifth Avenue, New York City. 
 June 14, igoi. 
 
 My dear Sir : — 
 
 Faithfully yours, 
 
 John Cook. 
 Prof. H. W. Jones,. Ph.D. 
 
 301. The Use of Titles. — It is courteous in ad- 
 dressing persons to use their titles. The use of 
 esquire (Esq.), though still much used in England, 
 is gradually disappearing in America. Judges, 
 Members of Congress, and some other officers of 
 government are entitled to the prefix "Honorable." 
 The governor of a State is usually addressed as 
 " His Excellency," and this is written on a separate 
 line, with the full name on a second line, and the 
 official title on a third line. Thus : 
 
 His Excellency 
 
 William A. Stone, 
 
 Governor of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Clergymen always have the prefix "Rev.," and 
 Bishops that of " Rt. Rev.," and these prefixes 
 a;re usually retained where " D.D.," or some other 
 honorary title is used after their names. 
 
 20s. Formal Letters In the Third Person. — These 
 are short letters or notes, generally limited to a 
 single point of business. They are usually formal 
 invitations, acceptances, and regrets. They should 
 be written in the third person throughout, and the 
 phrasing should follow conventional models. The 
 address and date (now more commonly written out) 
 should be placed at the lower left-hand of the page ; 
 
242 
 
 PROSE 
 
 the date of entertainment and the place should be 
 written in full. Care must be taken in writing 
 notes to use the grammatical persons consistently ; 
 as, " Mrs. Brown presents her compliments to Mrs. 
 Smith, and solicits the pleasure of her [not your] 
 company on Saturday evening, the eighteenth 
 instant." 
 
 203. Cautions. — The following " don'ts" may be 
 found useful : 
 
 1 . Never sign a note with your initials or your 
 first name only, unless you are writing to an inti- 
 mate friend. 
 
 2 . Never conclude a note with ' ' Fraternally 
 yours;" never say merely "Yours;" never say 
 " Yours etc.," and never omit the " Yours." 
 
 3. Do not leave the closing sentence incomplete. 
 The following is inaccurate : ' ' Trusting that you 
 will be able to make this arrangement, Verv truly 
 yours." Supply the words "I am," before the 
 term of respect. 
 
 4. Never use a title with your name when signing 
 a letter. Rev., Hon., and Prof, are prefixed to the 
 names of gentlemen by others, but never by them- 
 selves, unless they are ill informed of good usage. 
 Of course the sex of a writer, as has been said, 
 should always be evident from the signature, and 
 ladies are often under the necessity of prefixing 
 Mrs. or Miss to their names. 
 
 5. Do not duplicate titles; as. Dr. E. M. Jones, 
 M.D., or j\Ir. Thomas Gray, Esq. We maj-, how- 
 ever, write. Rev. H. W. Tope, D.D. Where two 
 
LETTERS 243 
 
 or more degrees are used, we should" put the great- 
 est last; as, Rev. H. W. Tope, Ph.D., D.D., LL.D. 
 6. Never write a discourteous letter. Be sure 
 your penmanship is distinct. 
 
 EXERCISE 134. 
 
 Write out the different forms of introductions and 
 heads to letters between friends ; punctuate and capi- 
 talize the forms correctly. 
 
 Write a letter to a publishing house ordering a text- 
 book. 
 
 Write a letter to a college president requesting a 
 catalogue. 
 
 .XWrite a letter to a friend giving an account of your 
 /^ day's work at school. 
 
 Write a formal note to a friend asking him, to spend 
 the evening at your house. 
 
 / Write a note of thanks for a book received as a gift. 
 . Write a letter of introduction to your clergyman for 
 one of your friends. 
 
 J Apply to a business house for a position as book- 
 keeper. State your qualifications and recommendations. 
 
 S04. Ke-vrs Letters. — News letters are communi- 
 cations "to n.ewspapers containing accounts' of events 
 in various places, descriptions of ceremonies and 
 eminent persons, and reports of opinions gathered 
 from eminent men. While these letters do not 
 demand much literary talent, »they offer a useful 
 field to young persons ambitious to become writers. 
 
 205. Suggestions for Ke-ws Letters. — Have 
 something to tell. The writer should keep his own 
 
244 PROSE 
 
 general reflections on matters to himself, as the 
 public cares nothing for his views. He should not 
 write so much on what interests him, but rather on 
 what is likely to interest the readers of the news- 
 paper for which he is writing. To excel as a cor- 
 respondent one must have sharp eyes, quick ears, 
 and an ever-ready note-book. Newspaper readers 
 have no time to waste on introductions. A writer's 
 excuse for occupying space is that he has something 
 to tell ; therefore he should not write excuses. If 
 he can think of any incident typical of the whole 
 affair, or any witty remark that summarizes it, he 
 may use this as. an introductory sentence; other- 
 wise he should begin abruptly. The style should 
 be simple and straightforward. The writer should 
 not strive after effective periods. If he has a 
 specially characteristic incident, he should save it 
 for the last sentence. 
 
 EXERCISE 135. 
 
 Describe as for a newspaper some fire you have lately 
 seen, or give an account of some entertainment or concert. 
 
OTHER FORMS OF COMPOSITION 245 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 OTHER FORMS OF COMPOSITION 
 
 206. Function of Criticism. — It is not the func- 
 tion of criticism to point out the faults in a literary 
 production and hold them- up to ridicule. Glaring 
 errors may be noticed and condemned, but the critic, 
 if he does his duty, will also estimate the merits of 
 the work he has under discussion. "Criticism," 
 wrote Dryden, " as it was first instituted by Aristotle, 
 meant a standard of judging well; the chiefest 
 part of which is to observe those excellencies which 
 should delight a reasonable reader." 
 
 The incident quoted below gives a wrong view of 
 the critic's function. 
 
 It was said that William Cullen Bryant was very loath to con- 
 demn the first book of a young author. Entering the editorial 
 room one day he found a critic gloating over the flatness of a vol- 
 ume of poems. 
 
 " Surely there must be some good point about the book,'' pleaded 
 Mr. Bryant. 
 
 " Not one,'' protested the critic ; " the book is utterly stale, flat, 
 and unprofitable.'' 
 
 " At any rate," said Mr. Bryant, handing the volume back, "' you 
 might say that the binding is neat, and that the edges are evenly cut." 
 
 The following extracts from the critique which 
 appeared in the "Edinburgh Review "'on Lord 
 Byron's first volume of poetry represents the swing 
 
 ^ No. 22 ; January, 1808. 
 
246 PROSE 
 
 of the pendulum to the opposite extreme. It is not 
 criticism ; it is abuse : 
 
 The poesy of this young Lord belongs to the class which neither 
 gods nor men are said to permit. Indeed, we do not recollect to 
 have seen a quantity of verse with so few deviations in either direc- 
 tion from that exact standard. His effusions are spread over a 
 dead flat, and can no more get above or below the level, than if 
 tliey were so much stagnant water. As an extenuation of this 
 offense, the noble author is pecuUarly forward in pleading minority. 
 We have it in the title-page, and on the very back of the volume ; 
 it follows his name like a favorite part of his style. 
 
 But whatever judgment may be passed on the poems of this noble 
 minor, it seems we must take them as we find them, and be con- 
 tent ; for they are the last we shall ever have from him. He is at 
 best, he says, but an intruder into the groves of Parnassus : he 
 never lived in a garret, like thorough-bred poets. 
 
 Therefore, let us take what we get, and be thankful. What 
 right have we poor devils to be nice .' We are well off to have got 
 so much from a man in this Lord's station, who does not live in a 
 garret, but " has the sway ' of Newstead Abbey. Again, we say, 
 let us be thankful ; and with honest Sancho bid God bless the 
 giver, nor look the gift horse in the mouth. 
 
 True criticism lies in a happy mean between the 
 extremes cited above. 
 
 307. Necessity of Careful Keating. — Sainte- 
 Beuve said, " A skilful reader is a skilful critic." 
 In order to appreciate the merits of a literary work 
 or to observe incongruities, one must read carefully 
 and give close attention to what constitutes the 
 merits or the defects of what he is reading. To 
 read a book for the story only is by no means self- 
 improving. Hasty reading is, moreover, seldom 
 profitable. One should read good books, such as 
 have received the hall-mark of genuineness, and 
 
OTHER FORMS OF COMPOSITION 247 
 
 read them in order to determine, if possible, in what 
 their merit chiefly Has. 
 
 S08. Criticism of a :N'ovel. — In taking up the 
 study of a novel it is well for the student to read it 
 over once, having as his aim the enjoyment of the 
 story. Then he must seek for the qualities that 
 make the book enjoyable. He will find that the 
 interest centers in the story and in the characters 
 which take part in shaping the plot. In a good 
 story the characters seem, while we are reading, 
 actual personages. They remind us of people we 
 know ; they often act as we fancy we should act 
 under similar circumstances. In short, they appeal 
 to us because they are true to nature. 
 
 In studying the novel more closely in a second 
 reading, we should endeavor to get better acquainted 
 with the characters. In reading the descriptive 
 passages we may, with a little exercise of the 
 imagination, picture the scenes described. The 
 narrative portions of the story will also afford much 
 pleasure if studied from a literary point of view. 
 The principles laid down in this book in the chap- 
 ter on narration will, if they are kept in mind, 
 enable the student to estimate the merits of the nar- 
 rative portions of the story. 
 
 309. Preparation of Themes.^ — In studying the 
 characters or the incidents in a novel, it will be 
 found helpful to choose themes for short sketches. 
 The pupil may gather material for themes by writ- 
 ing notes on them as he reads the book a second 
 17 
 
248 PROSE 
 
 time. He may arrange the material thus gathered 
 as has been done in the case of other compositions. 
 Tlie phraseology of the book should not be copied ; 
 ideas should be expressed in the writers own 
 language. 
 
 In the following theme the italicized portions are 
 copied almost verbatim from the ' ' Vicar of Wake- 
 field": 
 
 Olivia and Sophia. 
 
 Olivia and Sophia were the two daughters of Dr. Primrose, 
 Vicar of Wakefield. These two romantic names were not of the 
 Vicar's choosing, but were the preference of his wife, and one of 
 her friends. Brought up without softness, the girls were beautiful, 
 healthy, and blooming. Olivia had the luxuriancy of beauty with 
 which Hebe is generally painted, while Sophia's features were 7nod- 
 est and alluring, although at first less impressive than her sister's. 
 The one vanquished by a single blow, the other by efforts success- 
 fully repeated. 
 
 Olivia was sometimes affected from too great a desire to 
 please, while Sophia often withheld excellence from her fear to 
 offend. Olivia, the eldest, was very different from Sophia ; but 
 there was a family likeness, as both were simple, generous, and 
 inoffensive. Olivia desired to have many suitors, Sophia to secure 
 one. One was pleased when you were gay, the other when you 
 were serious. 
 
 Both girls were fond of ribbons and finery, but a suit of mourn- 
 ing often transformed the coquette into a prude, while some new 
 ornaments gave Sophia unusual vivacity. .-Xlthough they were 
 fond of beautiful things, they were slow to recognize beauty in 
 other young ladies. But they courted good looks themselves, 
 trying to improve both face and h.ands by washes carefully 
 prepared, and avoiding the rays of the sun out of doors and the 
 fire withindoors. Their mother, moreover, insisted l\\M getting up 
 too early spoiled their eyes, and that hands were nci'cr as beautiful 
 as when they did no work. 
 
 In this theme the writer has failed because he has 
 not assimilated the material which the book fur- 
 
OTHER FORMS OF COMPOSITION 249 
 
 nishes, and because he has not felt that the charac- 
 ters are real personages. He has undertaken a task, 
 which he has performed grudgingly, and hence he 
 has failed. 
 
 The writer of the following theme has done better, 
 because he has realized the character of the Vicar 
 and written with more freedom : 
 
 Dr. Primrose. 
 
 There is much to admire in the character of Dr. Primrose. He 
 is a good-natured, kind-hearted, generous man, who always makes 
 the best of circumstances which he cannot improve. The only 
 time he shows a hasty temper is when he sends Mr. Burchell from 
 the vicarage after loading him with reproaches ; but even here we 
 can make an allowance for his biased judgment, because he was 
 laboring under the mistaken idea that Mr. Burchell had maligned 
 his family. 
 
 The traits I most admire in Dr. Primrose's character are his 
 simplicity, his frankness, and his cheerfulness under misfortunes. 
 Being free from malice himself, he never suspected evil in another, 
 and hence he was an easy prey to crafly and world-wise men. 
 After the loss of his fortune he accommodated himself to his 
 changed circumstances with a dignity and independence that 
 showed his real greatness. After Moses returned inglorious from 
 the fair, the good Doctor did not side with the rest of the family in 
 condemning the lad's poor judgment in the purchase of the " green 
 spectacles," but he drew the philosophical conclusion that other 
 misfortunes would come upon the family if they tried to appear richer 
 than they were. Though his grief was very great at the misfortunes 
 which befell his daughters and his son George, he did not give 
 himself up to despair, but tried to see the hand of an all-ruling 
 Providence even in his adversity. In prison, although his own 
 sufferings were great, he tried to do good and to give comfort to 
 the distressed. 
 
 The good old Vicar had his peculiarities and his hobbies. He 
 was fond of argument, and he dearly loved to display his conver- 
 sational powers. Hospitality was with him almost a sacred word, 
 and he never turned from his door the stranger who sought food 
 
250 
 
 PROSE 
 
 and shelter there. His hobby was monogamy, a subject on which 
 he wrote several books. 
 
 There are few characters in fiction that take so strong a hold 
 on the reader's mind as he does, and I know of none whom I would 
 rather meet and hear talk than I should Dr. Primrose. 
 
 210. Essays. — The essay is a species of exposition 
 more formal and systematic than a theme. It may 
 be on any subject ; and great diversity is allowed in 
 style and treatment. As the purpose of the essay 
 is to instruct, the writer should have a thorough 
 acquaintance with his subject and treat it ex- 
 haustively. The term essay is sometimes applied 
 to lengthy and elaborate discourses, covering hun- 
 dreds of pages, and designed for publication. De 
 Quincey, Carlyle, Macaulay, and Sir Arthur Helps 
 furnish us many examples of this kind of com- 
 position. 
 
 311. Oration. — An oration is a discourse intended 
 to be delivered in public. Its purpose is to enter- 
 tain, to inform, to interest, to arouse the emotions, 
 or to move the will. An oration should be written 
 with a view to being spoken. The style should 
 be direct and forcible, and the treatment of the sub- 
 ject lucid. It should express the writer's thoughts 
 and emotions naturally and without ostentation. 
 Lincoln, one of our greatest orators, when asked 
 what was the secret of his success in public debate, 
 replied, ' ' I always assume that my audience are in 
 many things wiser than I, and I say the most suit- 
 able thing I can to them. I never found that they 
 did not understand me." 
 
OTHER FORMS OF COMPOSITION 251 
 
 "Universally," says Whately, "a writer or 
 speaker should endeavor to maintain the appear- 
 ance of expressing himself not as if he wanted to 
 say something, but as if he had something to say." 
 
 213. Novels and Romances. — A novel is a ficti- 
 tious story designed to interest and amuse the 
 reader. It deals with incidents of the writer's own 
 creation, audit is . his privilege to shape the inci- 
 dents to suit his story instead of shaping his story 
 to suit the incidents. A romance deals with wild, 
 startling adventure. The novel should always be 
 true to life and human nature. The romance allows 
 greater liberty ; it does not bind itself to human 
 nature, but gives scope to imagination and idealiza- 
 tion. Scott, Dickens, and Thackeray were novel- 
 ists; Hawthorne is perhaps our greatest romance 
 writer. 
 
 EXERCISE 136. 
 
 Write themes on any of the following titles: ' 
 
 IVANHOE. — I. The Dining Hall of Cediic the Saxon. 2. The 
 Black Knight at Ashley-de-la-Zouche. 3. Scott's Financial Troubles. 
 4. Robin Hood.' 5. Gurth and the Robbers. 6. Athelstane's 
 Funeral. 7. What Rebecca Saw from the Window of Torquilstone. 
 
 Silas Marner. — i. The Incidents that Brought Eppie to Mar- 
 ner's Hut. 2. The Change that Took Place in Marner's Character 
 under Eppie 's Influence. 3. The Moral Purpose of" Silas Marner.'' 
 4. A short sketch of George Eliot's Life. 
 
 The Vicar OF Wakefield.— I. Moses at the Fair. 2. The 
 Vicar's Faith in Mankind. 3. A Brief Summary of the Story. 
 4. Dr. Primrose's Family. 5. The Cause of the Continued Popu- 
 larity of the Story. 6. A Character Sketch of Olivia and Sophia. 
 
 * These titles are for the most part taken from university entrance examination papers, 
 
252 PROSE 
 
 Macaulay's Essay on Addison. — i. The Life of Addison. 
 2. Addison's Place in Literature. 3. Macaulay's Estimate of Ad- 
 dison (a) as a Prose Writer, (b) as a Poet. 4. An Account of the 
 Periodicals with which Addison was Connected. 
 
 Macaulay's Essay on Milton.— i. "No poet has ever had 
 to struggle with more unfavorable circumstances than Milton." 
 What were these Circumstancfis .' 2. The most striking Charac- 
 teristics of Milton's Poetry. 3. Milton and Dante. 4. " If ever 
 despondency and asperity could be excused in a man. it might have 
 been excused in Milton." Why? 
 
 Burke's Speech on Conciliation with America. — i. Ac- 
 count for Burke's Sympathy with America. 2. Outline Burke's 
 Argument for Conciliaticm. 3. What does Burke Give as the 
 Cause of the Colonists' Resistance? 4. Upon What Grounds did 
 Burke Advocate the Conciliation of the American Colonies ? 
 
 Essay on Burns. — i. Carlyle's Idea of a Biography. 2. What 
 is his Criterion of a Poet's Greatness? 3. The Distinguishing 
 Traits of Burns's Poetry. 4. What Part of Burns's Poetry does 
 Carlyle Think most Valuable? 5. What does he Say of "Tarn 
 o' Shanter"? 6. Carlyle's Estimate of Burns as a Poet. 7. Car- 
 lyle's Opinion of the Age in which Burns Worked, and of the Diffi- 
 culties which Confronted him. 8. Carlyle's Opinion of Burns's 
 Work as Compared with Byron's Work. 9. Carlyle's Opinion of 
 Burns's Songs, and his Reasons for this Opinion. 10. The Sub- 
 stance of Sir Walter Scott's Description of Burns. 
 
PART II 
 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 MEANING AND VALUE OF IMAGERY 
 
 313. Meaning and Value of Imagery. — Thus far 
 we have considered the selection and right use 
 of words, the forming of words into sentences, of 
 sentences into paragraphs, and of paragraphs into 
 compositions ; but the study of rtietoric does not 
 stop here. There are higher qualities of style 
 which must receive our attention. The function 
 of rhetoric is not merely to teach us to express 
 ourselves clearly, accurately, and effectively, but 
 also to lead us to an appreciation of the beauties of 
 style and diction which we find in the works of good 
 authors, and to employ, when proper, these beauties 
 in our own composition. 
 
 314. Definition of Imagery To say, "An 
 
 hour before sunrise," is to state an ordinary fact in 
 ordinary language. It is a mere observation which 
 anyone could make if occasion required him to do so. 
 But Shakespeare, with the same fact before him, ex- 
 presses the thought differently. The east suggests 
 
254 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 to him a huge window, through which the yellow 
 light of morning comes streaming and behind which 
 he sees the sun as a person peering out upon the 
 world, and he expresses this thought as follows : 
 
 " An hour before the worshipped sun 
 Pe'ered forth the golden window of the east." 
 
 The manner of expression is no longer that of the 
 ordinary workaday world, but something loftier and 
 more impressive. What the poet has added to the 
 original expression — "An hour before sunrise" — is 
 clearly the product of the imagination and may be 
 called IMAGERY. To speak of the east as a window 
 and of the sun as a person is to speak of literal 
 things imder the form of something suggested to 
 the imagination. This kind of expression is said to 
 be figurative, and such deviations from the literal 
 and ordinary mode of expression are called figures 
 
 OF SPEECH.' 
 
 In the following examples, observe the superior 
 force and beauty of the figurative language : 
 
 Literal : 
 
 Day is dawning over the high hills in the east. 
 
 Figurative : 
 
 The morn, in russet mantle clad. 
 Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. — Shakespeare. 
 
 Literal : 
 
 Day is now dawning. 
 
 Figurative : 
 
 Now morn, her rosy steps in th' eastern clime 
 Advancing, sow'd the earth with orient pearl. — Milton. 
 
 ' Called also tropes and images. 
 
MEANING AND VALUE OF IMAGERY 255 
 
 Literal : 
 
 I have won the esteem of all. 
 
 Figurative : 
 
 I have bought 
 Golden opinions from all sorts of people. — Shakespeare. 
 
 Literal : 
 
 The Assyrian king with his army came down at sunset all armed 
 with spears, and with their cohorts gleaming in purple and goldi 
 but the next morning they lay dead upon the field. 
 
 Figurative : 
 
 The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, 
 And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ; 
 And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea. 
 When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. 
 
 Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green. 
 That host with their banners at sunset were seen : 
 Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath blown. 
 That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. — Byron. 
 
 We observe by comparing literal with figurative 
 language that figures of speech add beauty and 
 dignity to what we say, that they please us by 
 unexpectedly calling up images, that they multiply 
 the resources of language by enabling us to use the 
 same word in many senses, and that they aid us in 
 expressing our thoughts more clearly and forcibly 
 than we could express them in literal language. 
 
256 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 FIGURES BASED ON RESEMBLANCE 
 
 315. The Simile. — Read carefully the following 
 sentences, noting the imagery: 
 
 Their lives glide on like rivers that water the woodlaiids. 
 
 The little bird sits at his door in the sun, 
 Atilt like a blossoin annong the leaves. 
 
 In each of these sentences there is a comparison 
 based upon some likeness between the objects com- 
 pared. Thus in the first example, life gliding 
 silently on is likened to a river gliding among 
 woodlands. While life and a river are not, gen- 
 erally speaking, alike, yet both glide on quieth', 
 ceaselessly, and it is on this silent, ceaseless glid- 
 ing that the comparison is based. In the second, a 
 bird is likened to a blossom. It is true a bird 
 does not bear a close resemblance to a blossom, 5'et 
 a bird sitting among the leaves where blossoms are 
 to be found naturally suggests a likeness to a flower. 
 Some point or points of i-esemblance, therefore, such 
 as the bird's color, size, or its position among the 
 leaves, struck the poet's fancy, and on this resem- 
 blance the comparison was made. Such compain- 
 sons are called similes. 
 
 A figure of speech in whicha. likeness is pointed 
 out or asserted between things in other resp££ts_ 
 
FIGURES BASED ON RESEMBLANCE 257 
 
 unlike is called a simile. Examples of good similes 
 are given belowT" 
 
 It [mercy] droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 
 Upon the place beneath.— Shakespeare. 
 The [Satan's] imperial ensign, which, full high advanced. 
 Shone like a meteor, streaming to the wind. — Milton. 
 A fatal habit settles upon one like a vampire, and sucks his 
 blood. 
 
 His words were shed softer than leaves from the pine. 
 
 And they fell on Sir Launfal, as snows on the brine. — Lowell. 
 
 Note. — Observe that in these examples likeness is expressed by 
 like, as, or than. 
 
 EXERCISE 137. 
 
 In the examples given above point out the objects com- 
 pared and tell on zvhat likeness the figures are based. 
 
 316. Faulty Similes Similes are faulty when 
 
 constructed in any of the following ways : 
 
 1. When they are drawn from objects unfamiliar 
 to ordinary readers; e. g., " The ship's sail looked 
 like the summit of Ararat." 
 
 Few people know what the summit of Ararat 
 looks like, and few who have seen it would think of 
 likening a ship's sail to it. 
 
 2. When they are made by comparing objects 
 between which the likeness is too far-fetched or re- 
 mote, as in the following lines : 
 
 " The clouds float round in gorgeous groups 
 
 Through heaven's open sky; 
 The sun like a huge red poppy droops. 
 
 And sheds his bloom on high." 
 
 The comparison of the sun to a poppy is ridicu- 
 lous. But it is a good specimen of magazine poetry. 
 
258 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 317. Rhetorical Value of the Simile. — The simile 
 aids the understanding by making the thought easier 
 of apprehension ; and it impresses us more forcibly 
 by indicating a likeness \yhere none was expected. 
 
 ai8. The Metaphor. — Note the imagery in the 
 following sentences : 
 
 Charles I. stopped and turned back the tide of loyal feeling. 
 Our doubts are traitors, 
 And make us lose the good we oft might win. 
 
 These figures are obviously not similes, though, 
 like similes, they are founded on likeness. Had 
 the first sentence read ' ' turned back the loyal feel- 
 ing which was like the tide," and the second had 
 said, " Our doubts are like traitors," we should have 
 had similes. But in the first sentence the loyal feel- 
 ing sweeping over the country is spoken of as a tide, 
 because in spreading from hamlet to hamlet and 
 from county to county,- it may be likened to a tide 
 sweeping over the land. In the second example, 
 Shakespeare founds his figure on the fact that doubts 
 do for us what traitors do — " make us lose the good 
 we oft might win" — and he therefore calls our doubts 
 "traitors." In each figure the author has indicated 
 the likeness by applying to one thing the name of 
 that to which it is likened; thus in the first the 
 loyal feeling is called a " tide," and in the second 
 doubts are called "traitors."" Such figures are 
 known as metaphors. 
 
 — A figure of speec h in whiVh f^pp "hjer'J: is asserted— 
 to be another wjiich it resembles in some respects 
 is called a metaphor. 
 
FIGURES BASED ON RESEMBLANCE 259 
 
 819. Metaphor and Simile. — The metaphor, dif- 
 fers from the simile only in form. Both figures are 
 founded on likeness ; but the simile, by means of 
 some word such as like or as, affirms that one object 
 or act is like another; the metaphor, assuming a 
 likeness, calls one by the name of the other. Ex- 
 amples of good metaphors are : 
 
 The king's name is a tower of strength. — Shakespeai-e. 
 All the world's a stage 
 And all the men and women merely players. — Shakespeare. 
 For hope is but the dream of those that wake. — Prior. 
 Thy liquid notes that close the eye of day. — Milton. 
 'Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore. — Campbell. 
 
 EXERCISE 138. 
 
 Change each of the metaphors given above into a 
 simile by supplying ^^ like" or "as." 
 
 330. Condensed Metaphors Sometimes the 
 
 metaphor lies in one word-. Thus in Tennyson we 
 find : " The streets were dumb with snow " ; and in 
 Coleridge, " At one stride comes the dark." These 
 metaphors are much more expressive than if they 
 were expanded. They are, in short, the acme of 
 artistic finish in poetry. Tennyson has happily 
 characterized such words in the following line : 
 
 " All the charms of all the Muses often flowering in a lonely word." 
 
 331. Faulty Metaphors. — Metaphors are faulty 
 when constructed in any of the following ways : 
 
 J . When they combine in one sentence a figura- 
 tive and a literal statement, as : "In peace thou art 
 the gale of spring, in war the valiant soldier." 
 
20O ' FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 This metaphor is objectionable, because it calls 
 a man (figuratively) a gale of spring and (literally) 
 a valiant soldier. 
 
 2. When they involve a comparison with two 
 different things in the same sentence ; as, " His 
 parents wished to pave his way over the stormy sea 
 of temptation." 
 
 To speak of paving one's way in life is a natural 
 and graceful metaphor, but as ways are not paved 
 over seas, the second comparison is incorrect. ( i ) and 
 (2) are called mixed metaphors. 
 
 3. When the comparison is between things which 
 are too nearly alike ; as, ' ' New York is the Lon- 
 don of America." 
 
 The comparison on which the metaphor is based 
 should be such as to give the reader a surprise. One 
 city, taken as a whole, is too nearly like another to 
 cause a surprise. 
 
 4. When they are carried too far ; that is, when 
 the writer attempts to extend the likeness to all qual- 
 ities and characteristics ; as : 
 
 The truth is that Macaulay was not only accustomed, like many 
 more of us, to go out hobby-riding, but from the portentous vigor 
 of the animal he mounted, was lialile, more than most of us, to be 
 run away with. His merit is, that he could keep his seat in such a 
 steeplechase ; but as the object in view is arbitrarily chosen, so it 
 is reached by cutting up the fields, spoiling the crops, and spoiling 
 or breaking down the fences needful to secure to labor its profit 
 and to man at large the full enjoyment of the fruits of the earth. 
 
 Here we lose sight of ]\Iacaulay in the intricate 
 details through which the comparison is carried. 
 Such faulty figures are called strained met.\phors. 
 Sometimes it may be advantageous to keep a figure 
 
FIGURES BASED ON RESEMBLANCE 261 
 
 before the reader for a considerable length of time, 
 but in such cases the writer's judgment is his only- 
 guide. 
 
 5 . When anything of a lofty or sublime character 
 is compared with what is low or trivial ; for example, 
 a popular orator, speaking of one of our common 
 anniversary days, uses the following language : 
 ' ' Pharos of the ages, we hail thy glimmerings 'mid 
 the cataracts of time." 
 
 Note. — What makes a faulty simile will also make a faulty 
 metaphor. 
 
 EXERCISE 139. 
 
 Criticise the following faulty figures : 
 
 1. Her cheeks bloomed with roses and health. 
 
 2. He alone can manage the storm-tossed ship of state on its 
 march. 
 
 3. Opposite in the blue vault stood the moon like a silver shield, 
 raining her bright arrows on the sea. 
 
 4. The stream sparkles through a lovely valley like a gold chain 
 over an embroidered waistcoat. 
 
 5. He was the very keystone of the state, and remarkable for 
 his delicate handwriting. 
 
 6. Our prayers and God's mercy are like two buckets in a well; 
 while one ascends the other descends. 
 
 7. And silence, like a poultice, comes 
 To heal the blows of sound. 
 
 8. He is a strong pillar in the prosperity of the town and a shin« 
 ing social light. 
 
 9. The sun had long since in the lap 
 Of Thetis taken out his nap. 
 
 And, like a lobster boiled, the morn 
 From black to red began to turn. 
 10. Her hair drooped down her pallid cheeks, 
 
 Like seaweed on a clam. 
 
262 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 EXERCISE 140. 
 
 Select from the books you are reading several examplei 
 of correct simile, metaphor, and personification. 
 
 232. Rhetorical Value of tlie Metaplior. — The 
 
 rhetorical value of the metaphor differs but 
 slightly from that of the simile ; it is a more con ■ 
 densed form of expression, and is, therefore, gen- 
 erally a more effective and beautiful figure. Yet 
 the metaphor cannot always be used to advantage 
 instead of the simile. Thus, in speaking of a wounded 
 chief tossing on a bed of sickness, to say " that he 
 is a stranded vessel shaken by the waves " is less 
 expressive than to say ' ' He lay like a stranded 
 vessel shaken by the waves;" because in stating the 
 resemblance here, we add to the clearness. 
 
 333. Th.e Simile and the Metaphor together. — 
 
 Sometimes a simile may be used with advantage to 
 
 make the meaning clear, and a metaphor to give 
 
 force to the expression; as: 
 
 Some minds are wonderful for keeping their bloom in the way, 
 as a patriarchal goldfish [simile] apparently retains to the last its 
 youthful illusion that it can swim in a straight line beyond the 
 encircling glass. Mrs. Tulliver was an amiable fish [metaphor] of 
 this kind ; and, after running her head against the same resisting 
 medium for thirteen years, would go at it again to-day with un- 
 duUed alacrity. — George Eliot. 
 
 Here the simile may be said to prepare the way 
 for the metaphor, by making clear the meaning 
 which is afterwards forcibly expressed by the 
 metaphor. 
 
 Sometimes the metaphor comes first and is fol- 
 lowed by a simile ; as : 
 
FIGURES BASED ON RESEMBLANCE 263 
 
 Then indeed he would glare upon us from the thick shrubbery 
 of his meditations [metaphor] like a tiger [simile] out of a jungle. — 
 Hawthorne. 
 
 The arrangement here is advantageous, because 
 the metaphor coming first gives in a general way 
 what is afterwards made particular by the compari- 
 son in the simile. 
 
 334. Personification, — Examine the imagery in 
 the following sentences : 
 
 The angry sea. 
 
 The sun rose in his splendor. 
 
 The dog laughed and said, " You don't deceive me that way." 
 
 In each of these figures we have a comparison. 
 The sea is "angry," that is, it is likened to an 
 enraged animate object, the sun is likened to a 
 living being endowed with the ability to rise, and 
 the dog is spoken qf as a person, because human 
 attributes — "laughed and said" — are attributed to 
 him. In the first two examples the objects men- 
 tioned, though inanimate, are spoken of as ani- 
 mate. In the third sentence the dog, because he 
 has the ability to laugh and speak, is raised to the 
 rank of a human being. Such figures are called 
 
 PERSONIFICATION. 
 
 Personification consists in treating inanimate 
 objects as though they were animate, or in endow- 
 ing animals with human attributes. Examples : 
 
 Freedom shrieked. 
 
 The wind howled. 
 
 As modest Want the tale of woe reveals. 
 
 " Hide ! Hide ! " said the mother partridge. 
 
 The morning stars sang together. 
 18 
 
264 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 EXERCISE 141. 
 
 Tell what is personified in each of the sentences given 
 on page 26S. 
 
 225. Rhetorical "Value of Pei-sonlflcation. — 
 
 Greater importance is attached to inanimate objects 
 and the lower animals when they are raised to a 
 higher plane, and our interest in them becomes 
 greater. Personification, therefore, adds dignity, 
 animation, and force to style. 
 
 226. Bangers of Personification. — Personifica- 
 tion should not be carried to excess. It is an easy 
 thing to attribute personality to inanimate objects, 
 but it is not so easy to introduce these personifica- 
 tions just where they will be effective. If forcibly 
 dragged into our discourse, they conduce to that 
 objectionable style known as fine -curiti?ig. The ex- 
 cessive personification of abstract ideas gives our 
 style an artificial air, and forms what Coleridge 
 called ' ' mere printer's devil's personifications. " The 
 following lines from Gray's "Ode on a Distant 
 Prospect of Eton College " are objectionable from 
 this point of view : 
 
 These shall the fury Passions tear, 
 
 The vultures of the mind. 
 Disdainful Anger, pallid Fear, 
 
 And Shame that skulks behind ; 
 Or pining Love shall waste their youth. 
 Or Jealousy with rankling tooth, 
 
 That inly gnaws the secret heart. 
 And Envy wan, and faded Care, 
 Grim-visaged comfortless Despair, 
 
 And Sorrow's piercing dart. 
 
FIGURES BASED ON RESEMBLANCE 265 
 
 337. Apostrophe. — Note the imagery in the fol- 
 lowing sentences : 
 
 Toll ! toll ! toll ! 
 Thou bell by billows swung. 
 O spirits of the departed ! 
 O Death, where is thy sting ? 
 
 In these sentences we have a direct address to 
 something inanimate, to something absent, or to 
 the dead. The address is made as if the object 
 were present. Such a figure is called an apostrophe. 
 
 A figure of speech in which the absent are ad- 
 dressed as if present, the inanimate as if intelligent, 
 and the dead as if living, is called an apostrophe. 
 
 338. Personiflcatlon and Apostroplie. — ^When 
 inanimate objects are addressed, they are, of course, 
 personified ; but the difference between these two 
 figures consists in the address. Objects personi- 
 fied are carried up towards, or to, the rank of per- 
 sons, but they are not addressed ; objects apostro- 
 phized, whether animate or inanimate, are directly 
 addressed. Personification and apostrophe are usu- 
 ally found together. 
 
 339. Continuous Address. — The term apostrophe 
 is sometimes applied to a continuous composition of 
 direct address, as when, at the conclusion of " Childe 
 Harold," Byron turns aside from the regular theme 
 and, at some length, addresses the ocean. Milton's 
 Apostrophe to Light at the beginning of the third 
 book of " Paradise Lost " is another instance of this 
 use of the figure. 
 
266 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 EXERCISE 142. 
 
 In the following expressions tell -which figures come 
 under the head of personification and which under the 
 head of apostrophe : 
 
 1. The pestilence that walketh in darkness. 
 
 2. Tongue was the lawyer and argued the cause. 
 
 3. They were swallowed up by the hungry sea. 
 
 4. Suspicion always haunts the guilty mind. 
 
 5. My country, 'tis of thee. 
 
 6. Thou, too, sail on, O ship of state. 
 
 7. Presumptuous man ! the reason wouldst ihou find 
 Why formed so weak, so little, and so blind ? 
 
 8. Fall, creeping on like a monk in his hood. 
 Plucks the thick rustling wealth of the maize. 
 
 330. Allegory. — Compare the following selec- 
 tions : 
 
 The Children of Israel are like a vine which the Lord brought 
 out of Egypt. [Simile.] 
 
 The Children of Israel are a vine which the Lord brought out 
 of Egypt. [Metaphor.] 
 
 Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out 
 the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and 
 didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills 
 were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were 
 like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and 
 her branches unto the river. Why hast thou then broken down her 
 hedges, so that all they which pass by the way do pluck her ? The 
 boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the field 
 doth devour it. — Psa. Ixxx, 8-13. [Allegory.] 
 
 Observe that in each of these three selections the 
 Children of Israel are likened to a vine, and that in 
 the third selection the figure is carried to consider- 
 able length without anj' mention of the i-eal subject. 
 
FIGURES BASED ON RESEMBLANCE 267 
 
 the Children of Israel. Figures such as the third 
 are called allegories. 
 
 A fictitious story designed to teach some truth 
 by means of an extended comparison in which 
 the subject is implied, not expressed, is called an 
 allegory. 
 
 'Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress," Spenser's "Faerie 
 Queen," Swift's "Tale of a Tub," and Addison's 
 "Vision of Mirza" are noted allegories. 
 
 231. Allegory and Metaphor. — An allegory may 
 be regarded as an extended or prolonged metaphor. 
 This difference is to be observed, however: in 
 the metaphor the real subject must be expressed, 
 but the allegory requires that it shall be kept out 
 of view, and be indicated merely by figurative 
 language. 
 
 333. Parable. — Similar to the allegory is the 
 parable, which is a short account of something real 
 or supposed, and is designed to enforce a moral 
 precept. 
 
 333. Fable. — Along with allegories and parables 
 may be mentioned fables. The fable is a short story 
 invented to teach some useful lesson by introducing 
 animals, and sometimes inanimate things, as rational 
 speakers and actors. 
 
 334. Defects of Allegory. — In allegory the figur- 
 ative must be so expressed as to suggest at all times 
 the literal. There is danger that the figurative may 
 becomie too remote an^ indistinct, or that a confusion 
 
268 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 of figures may result. Matthew Arnold, in discus- 
 sing the question whether the Church of England 
 ought to be disestablished, said that the cry of the 
 Nonconformists was " like that proposal of the fox 
 who had lost his own tail, to put all the other foxes 
 in the same boat." Here the expression "in the 
 same boat" makes a confusion of figures. 
 
FIGURES BASED ON CONTRAST 26(, 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 FIGURES BASED ON CONTRAST 
 
 S35. Antithesis. — Examine closely the arrange- 
 ment of the following sentences : 
 
 Flattery brings friends ; truth brings foes. 
 Better to reign in hell, than serve in heaven. 
 From grave to gay, from lively to serene. 
 
 Observe that each of these sentences has two main 
 divisions, and that a word or sentiment in the first 
 part stands in opposition or contrast to a word -or 
 sentiment in the second part. Thus in the first 
 example "flattery" and "truth," "friends" and 
 "foes" are contrasted. In the second "to reign 
 in hell" is contrasted with "to serve in heaven." 
 Such figures are called antitheses. 
 
 A figure in which strongly contrasted words, 
 phrases, or sentiments are balanced against each 
 other is called an antithesis. 
 
 236. TTTiiiinnmrmt" of a Good Antithesis — To 
 
 make the antithesis most effective, the contrasted 
 ideas should be expressed by similar verbal con- 
 structions. Verbs should be contrasted with verbs, 
 adjectives with adjectives, nouns with nouns, etc. 
 For example : 
 
 Though gentle, yet not dull ; 
 
 Strong without rage ; without o'erflowing, full. 
 
270 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 Contrasted faults through all their manners reign; 
 
 Though poor, luxurious; though submissive, vain; 
 
 Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue ; 
 
 And e'en in penance planning things anew. 
 Dryden's page is a natural field, rising into inequalities, and 
 diversified by the varied exuberance of abundant vegetation ; Pope's 
 is a velvet lawn, shaven by the scythe, and levelled by the roller. 
 
 EXERCISE 143. 
 
 In the examples given above, tell what things are 
 contrasted, and state whether there is more than one 
 contrast in each sentence. 
 
 S37. Rhetorical Value of Antithesis. — Things 
 appeal to us most strongly when they are brought 
 into contrast, as health with sickness, war with 
 peace, riches with poverty, etc. Antithesis, there- 
 fore, gives force to an expression. 
 
 338. Epigram — Note the form and the meaning 
 of each of the following sentences : 
 Well begun is half done. 
 The child is father to the man. 
 
 Each of these sentences is a brief pointed saying 
 in which there is an apparent contradiction between 
 the form of language and the meaning really con- 
 veyed. In the first the meaning is, when we have 
 fairly undertaken a task, it is comparatively easy to 
 finish it ; by the second Wordsworth means that the 
 child shows what kind of a man he will develop 
 into. Such expressions are called epigrams. 
 
 A condensed, pointed saying, in which there is an 
 apparent contradiction between the intended mean- 
 
FIGURES BASED ON CONTRAST 271 
 
 ing and the form of the expression, is called an 
 epigram. 
 
 The word epigram formerly me^nt an inscription 
 on a monument — an epitaph. It next came to mean 
 a short poem containing some single thought point- 
 edly expressed. It is now often used in a broad 
 sense to mean any condensed, pithy statement of 
 a shrewd observation. 
 
 When you have nothing to say, say it. 
 Some are too foolish to commit follies. 
 By indignities menxome to dignities. 
 We cannot see the wood for the trees. 
 
 Treason doth never prosper, what's the reason ? 
 
 Why, if it prosper, none dare call it treason. 
 
 EXEECISE 144. 
 
 Give the real and the intended meaning of each of the 
 epigrams given above. 
 
 339. Irony Note carefully the form and mean- 
 ing of the following lines : 
 
 What has the gray-haired prisoner done ? 
 
 Has murder stained his hands with gore? 
 Not so ; his crime is a fouler one — 
 
 God made the old man poor. — Whittier. 
 
 Whittier's language, if taken literally, says that 
 it is a crime for the old man to be poor;' but when 
 we read the lines we see at once that his object is to 
 ridicule this idea. To say a thing in such a man- 
 ner that its very absurdity indicates that you intend 
 the opposite meaning to be taken is to employ a 
 figure of speech called irony. 
 
272 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 That figure of speech in which a writer or speaker 
 represents his thought in a form that naturally ex- 
 presses its opposite is called irony. For example : 
 
 Here under leave of Brutus and the rest, 
 
 (For Brutus is an honorable man, 
 
 So are they all, all honorable men ;) 
 
 Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral. 
 
 He was my friend, faithful and just to me ; 
 
 But Brutus says he was ambitious ; 
 
 And Brutus is an honorable man. 
 Have not the Indians been kindly and justly treated.' Have 
 not the temporal things, the vain bauble and filthy lucre of this 
 world, which were too apt to engage their worldly and selfish 
 thoughts, been benevolently taken from them ? and have they not, 
 instead thereof, been taught to set their affections on things above .' 
 
 EXERCISE 145. 
 
 In the examples given above indicate the expressions 
 that are ironic. 
 
FIGURES BASED ON OTHER RELATIONS 273 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 FIGURES BASED ON OTHER RELATIONS 
 
 S40. Metonymy. — Note the imagery in the fol- 
 lowing examples : 
 
 The kettle boils. 
 
 Meaning the water in the kettle boils. The container is here put for the thing 
 contained. 
 
 The crescent wanes before the cross. 
 
 Meaning Mohammedanistit wanes be/ore Christianity, Here the sign stands 
 for the thing signified. 
 
 There is death in the liquor. 
 
 Meaning liquor causes death. Here the cause stands for the effect. 
 
 Gray hairs should be respected. 
 
 Meaning age should be respected. Here the effect is put for the cause. 
 
 He employs fifty hands. 
 
 Meaning he employs fi/ty men. Here the part is put for the whole. 
 
 All Europe resounded with preparations for war. 
 
 Meaning a great pari 0/ Europe resounded with preparations Xor i^/ar. 
 
 In these examples the figures are not founded on 
 likeiiess, for the thing spoken of and the thing 
 meant may be wholly unlike ; nor are they founded 
 on unlikeness, for there is no attempt made to con- 
 trast words or ideas as is done in antithesis. Yet 
 in each example the relation on which the figure is 
 founded is so obvious that the words expressed 
 readily suggest the meaning intended. This figure is 
 known as metonymy, a word with a change of name. 
 
 A figure of speech in which the name of one ob- 
 ject is put for another, the two being so related that 
 the mention of the one naturally suggests the other, 
 is called metonymy. 
 
274 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 The fifth and sixth examples given above, in 
 which a part is put for the whole, or the whole for 
 a part, are sometimes taken as forming a separate 
 figure known as synecdoche. Examples: 
 
 Our ships opened fire. 
 
 He deserves the palm. 
 
 He is an excellent shot. 
 
 He addressed the chair. 
 
 A hundred head of sheep. 
 
 He writes a beautiful hand. 
 
 The world knows his worth. 
 
 Have you read Shakespeare ? 
 
 Who steals my purse steals trash. 
 
 They have too much red tape at this university. 
 
 EXEECISE 146. 
 
 In tJie examples of metonymy given above, tell on what 
 relation each figure is founded. 
 
 341. Rhetorical Value. — When an object is 
 named so as to suggest another object, the reader's 
 attention is directed in a special manner to the 
 object suggested. Metonymy, therefore, gives vivid- 
 ness and force to an expression. 
 
 S4a. Hyperbole. — Note the imagery in- the fol- 
 lowing sentences : 
 
 The waves were mountains high. 
 The tumult reached the stars. 
 
 It is evident that these sentences are not to be 
 taken literally, but that they are intended to express 
 forcibly that the waves were very high and that the 
 tumult was very great. This sort of figure is called 
 HYPERBOLE. 
 
FIGURES BASED ON OTHER RELATIONS 275 
 
 A figure of speech in which things are magnified 
 beyond their natural limits is called hyperbole. For 
 example : 
 
 Rivers of blood and hills of slain. 
 
 He is a man of boundless knowledge. 
 
 I've been looking all over creation for you. 
 
 Rivers of water run down my eyes because they keep not thy law. 
 
 Here [at Concord] once the embattled farmers stood. 
 
 And fired the shot heard round the world. — Emerson. 
 
 343. Excessive Use of Hyperbole. — Hyperbole is 
 an effective figure when properly used. It should 
 be introduced only where our language indicates 
 strong excitement or emotion ; and even here we 
 should avoid running into extravagance of expres- 
 sion; It is, in our day, a much overworked figure. 
 We are no longer content with saying that a thing 
 is elegant, it must be perfectly elegant or gorgeous or 
 sublime. People seldom get tired any more, they 
 get azvfully tired or simply dead. With a boy, an 
 article of clothing a trifle large is a mile too big. A 
 schoolgirl adores pickles and just dotes upon mince 
 pies. It is hardly necessary to state that this prac- 
 tise is to be strongly reproved. Hyperbole is much 
 used in burlesque and other comic writings. 
 
 EXERCISE 147. 
 
 Tell which of the following hyperboles would be prop- 
 erly used in serious discourse, and which should not be 
 used under any circumstances : 
 
 He was awfully funny. 
 
 What a perfectly lovely pug dog ! 
 
276 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 He was crazy with the toothache. 
 
 I think your dog is exquisitely ugly. 
 
 We were just tired to death after our walk. 
 
 They were swifter than eagles ; they were stronger than lions. 
 
 So frowned the mighty combatants, that hell grew darker at 
 their frown. 
 
 He was so gaunt that the case of flageolet would have been a 
 mansion for him. 
 
 244. Climax and Anticlimax. — The climax has 
 been sufficiently explained on page 141. The anti- 
 climax is the reverse of the climax, i. e., the series 
 of thoughts or statements gradually decrease in 
 importance. The anticlimax is properly used only 
 in humorous writings. Examples: 
 
 A day, an hour, an instant may prove fatal. 
 
 We may die, die colonists, die slaves, die, it may be ignomin- 
 4ously and on the scaffold. 
 
 The arm of the Lord is as fixed as fate, as sure as eternity, 
 as strong as the rock of Gibraltar. 
 
 Great men such as Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Arnold, 
 and the friend of my worthy opponent. 
 
 The enemy is now hovering upon our borders, preparing to 
 press the knife to our throats, to devastate our fields, to quarter 
 themselves in our houses, and to devour our poultry. 
 
 EXERCISE 148. 
 
 In the examples given above indicate which figures are 
 climaxes and which anticlimaxes. 
 
 345. Interrogation and Exclamation. — Note the 
 
 form of the following sentences : 
 
 Wl\o hath not heard our report ? 
 
 What a piece of work is man ! how noble in reason t how 
 infinite in faculties ! 
 
FIGURES BASED ON OTHER RELATIONS 277 
 
 These sentences are not to be taken literally. In 
 the first the meaning is, no one hath heard our report; 
 in ordinary form the second would be expressed 
 as follows : ' ' Man is a wonderful work ; noble in rea- 
 son, infinite in faculties." The figure in the first 
 sentence is called interrogation ; that in the sec- 
 ond sentence is called exclamation. 
 
 A figure of speech in which a question is asked, 
 not for the purpose of obtaining an answer, but for 
 rhetorical effect, is called interrogation. That figure 
 of speech which, under strong emotion, employs the 
 exclamatory form to give greater force to what is 
 said is called exclamation. 
 
 246. Remark on tlie Definitions. — Not every 
 interrogative or exclamatory sentence is a rhetorical 
 figure. The ordinary question that expects an 
 answer and the interjections Oh ! and Alas! and 
 such exclamatory expressions as Oh, yes ! and What 
 a pity I are not figures of speech. 
 
 EXERCISE 149. 
 
 Tell which of the following expressions are figures of 
 speech and which are to be taken literally : 
 
 Am I not free ? 
 
 What a sad event ! 
 
 Am I Rome's slave ? 
 
 Are you not studying Latin ? 
 
 Oh, yes, we shall go with you. 
 
 Are you going to school to-day? 
 
 Are not ye my work in the Lord ? 
 
 A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse ! 
 
 Oh ! why should the spirit of mortal be proud ? 
 
 Do we provoke the Lord to jealousy ? are we stronger than he? 
 
278 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 347. Tision. — Note that the following lines de- 
 scribe an imaginary scene as if present to the author 
 as he writes : 
 
 I see before me the gladiator lie ; 
 
 He leans upon his hand — his manly brow 
 
 Consents to death, but conquers agony, 
 
 And his drooped head sinks gradually low; 
 
 While from his side the black drops, ebbing slow 
 
 From the red gash, fall heavy one by one. — Byron. 
 
 This figure, which is frequently combined with 
 personification and apostrophe, is called vision. 
 
 That figure of speech which describes past, ab- 
 sent, or imaginary scenes as if they were present 
 and actually seen by the writer, is called vision. For 
 example : 
 
 From the tapestry that adorns these walls, the immortal, the 
 immortal ancestor of this noble lord frowns with indignation at the 
 disgrace of his country. — Chatham. 
 
 348. Summarj^ of Figures of Speecli. — The 
 
 figures of speech and the forms of association by 
 which they are suggested may be given as follows : 
 
 Figures based on resemblance. ^ 
 
 ' Simile. 
 
 Metaphor. 
 
 Personification. 
 
 Apostrophe. 
 
 Allegory. 
 C Antithesis. 
 Figures based on contrast, -j Epigram. 
 [ Irony. 
 
 Figures based on other relations. 
 
 Metonymy. 
 
 Hyperbole. 
 
 Climax. 
 
 Interrogation. 
 
 Exclamation. 
 
 Vision. 
 
FIGURES BASED ON OTHER RELATIONS 279 
 
 EXEECISE 150. 
 
 Indicate the figure or figures in each of the following 
 passages : 
 
 1. Ambition is the daughter of presumption. 
 
 2. Fair is foul and foul is fair. 
 
 3. Nothing is but what is not. 
 
 4. Memory, the warder of the brain. 
 
 5. Fie, my lord, fie ! a soldier, and afeard ? 
 
 6. The insane root that takes the reason prisoner. 
 
 7. Your face, my Thane, is as a book, where men 
 May read strange matters. 
 
 8. All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand 
 
 9. Can such things be. 
 
 And overcome us hke a summer's cloud, 
 Without our special wonder ? 
 
 10. The wine of life is drawn, and the mere lees 
 Is left this vault to brag of. 
 
 11. I have no spur 
 
 To prick the sides of my intent ; but only 
 Vaulting ambition, which o'erleaps itself, 
 And falls on the other side; 
 
 12. There's husbandry in heaven ; 
 Their candles are all out. 
 
 13. We fail ! 
 
 But screw your courage to the sticking place 
 And we'll not fail. 
 
 14. If you can look into the seeds of time. 
 
 And say which grain will grow, and which will not, 
 
 15. Thick as autumnal leaves that strow the brooks 
 In Vallombrosa. 
 
 16. Sonorous metal blowing martial sounds : 
 At which the universal host up sent 
 
 A shout that tore hell's concave, and beyond 
 Frighted the reign of chaos and old night. 
 
 17. Anon out of the earth a fabric huge 
 
 Rose like an exhalation. 
 19 
 
28o FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 18. The lowering element 
 
 Scowls o'er the darken 'd landscape. 
 
 19. Incens'd with indigpiation Satan stood 
 Unterrified, and like a comet burn'd 
 That fires the length of Ophiucus huge 
 In the arctic sky, and from his horrid hair 
 Shakes pestilence and war. 
 
 20. A man's character is like a fence — you cannot strengthen it 
 by whitewash. 
 
 21. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much ; 
 Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. 
 
 22. Glory is like a circle in the water 
 Which never ceaseth to enlarge itself 
 
 Till by broad spreading it disperse to naught. 
 
 23. How sleep the brave who sink to rest 
 By all their country's wishes blest ! 
 
 24. " No more ! " Oh, how majestically mournful are those words ! 
 They sound like the roar of the wind through a forest of pines. 
 
 25. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand 
 and heart to this vote. 
 
 26. A life on the ocean wave, a home on the rolling deep. 
 
 27. Great truths are oftefn said in fewest words. 
 
 28. God made the country, and man made the town. 
 
 29. Although I would have you early instil into your children's 
 hearts the love of cruelty, yet by no means call it by its true name, 
 but encourage them in it under the name of fun. 
 
 30. A Gourd wound itself around a lofty Palm, and in a few days 
 climbed to its very top. " How old mayst thou be ? " asked the 
 newcomer. •• About a hundred years." " About a hundred years, 
 and no taller ! Only see ! I have grown as tall as you in fewer 
 days than you can count years." " I know that very well," replied 
 the Palm. "Every summer of my life a Gourd has climbed up 
 around me, as proud as thou art, and as short-lived as thou wilt be ! " 
 
PART III 
 POETRY 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 QUALITIES OF POETRY 
 
 249. Definition. — Many writers have attempted 
 to define poetry, but their definitions have, without 
 exception, failed to express all that is implied in 
 the word. Here, perhaps, is the best attempt made 
 by a modern writer : 
 
 Poetry is rhythmical, imaginative language expressing the in- 
 vention, taste, thought, passion, and insight of the human soul. — 
 E. C. Stedman : Nature of Poetry. 
 
 "The qualities we should look for in poetry,'' says a writer to 
 the "Edinburgh Review," " are, in the first place, a distinctly con- 
 ceived idea or motive . . . the choice ... of the very best words 
 in which it can be expressed; the most conscientious finish bestowed 
 on both literary and metrical ccfnstruction; the avoidance ... of 
 all affectation of diction . . . the elimination of all that does not 
 directly assist or adorn the expression of the central idea . . . and, 
 finally, the obvious moulding of the language in accordance with 
 the conditions of verse." 
 
 250. Poetry and Prose. — Poetry differs from 
 prose in {a) its mission, {b) its diction, {c) its excessive 
 use of figurative language, (d') its form. 
 
282 POETRY 
 
 251. Missioii»f^oetj^ — The,,alission of'poetry^^ 
 is primarily to dej^i^p the^^motionai-^ side of /-dur 
 rrature-^ side^Kat in ourr practical:, matt^-oi-Jc 
 age sdmy ng^ds cultivation." Poetry, in '£nus,,amng 
 
 5on theremotions,' has a refining ipfluet 
 
 S52. Poetic Diction. — The language in which 
 poetry finds expression differs in many respects 
 from the language of prose. The poet chooses his 
 words with a special regard to beauty of sound and 
 picturesqueness of expression. To illustrate : Cole- 
 ridge, in his " Ancient Mariner," has these lines: 
 
 We were the first that ever burst 
 Into that silent sea. 
 
 The language here could scarcely be simpler, 5'et it 
 is not altogether the language of prose. A prose 
 writer would probably have expressed himself thus, 
 " We were the first to enter that silent sea." Now 
 in what does the difference lie? Manifestly in the 
 use of the word ' ' burst." This word gives a pictur- 
 esqueness to the expression which in its ordinary 
 meaning and use it could not give. Shakespeare, 
 in his " Merchant of Venice," says: 
 
 How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! 
 Here will we sit, and let the sounds of music 
 Creep in our ears : soft stillness and the night 
 Become the touches of sweet harmony. 
 Sit, Jessica. Look, how the floor of heaven 
 Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold : 
 There's not the smallest orb which thou beholdest 
 But in his motion like an angel sings. 
 Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubim, — 
 Such harmony is in immortal souls ; 
 But, whilst this muddy vesture of decay 
 Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it. 
 
QUALITIES OF POETRY 283 
 
 As far as the first colon, the only words used 
 poetically are ."sweet," "sleeps, "and "creep;" they 
 are used in a sense in which no writer would employ 
 them in prose ; but, as the poet continues the pas- 
 sage, the entire thought rises into the realm of 
 poetry. The diction becomes graphic, the flow of 
 language is stately, and the whole passage is richly 
 figurative. There are clipped expressions, obsolete 
 words, omissions, strange grammatical forms, and 
 elisions, but we do not think of imperfect periods, 
 contractions, or verbal eccentricities, as the splendor 
 of the poet's conceptions and of his lofty imagery 
 flashes upon our minds and awakens within us 
 higher and nobler emotions. 
 
 On the poetic force of a single word Ruskin gives 
 us the following passage : 
 
 "The object in all art is not to inform but to 
 suggest ; not to add to the knowledge but to kindle 
 the imagination. He is the best poet who can by 
 the fewest words touch the grea,test number of 
 secret chords of thought in his reader's own mind, 
 and set them to work in their own way. I will take 
 a single instance in epithet. Byron begins some- 
 thing or other, ' 'Tis midnight: on the mountains 
 brown the pale round moon shines deeply down.' 
 Now the first eleven words are not poetry, except 
 by their measure and preparation for rhyme ; they 
 are simply information, which might just as well 
 have been given in prose — it is prose, in fact. It is 
 twelve o'clock — the moon is pale — it is round — it is 
 shining on brown mountains. Any fool who had 
 seen it could tell us all that. At last comes the 
 
284 POETRY 
 
 poetry in the single epithet ' deeply. ' Had he 
 said 'softly,' or 'brightly,' it would have been 
 simply information." 
 
 Poetry also uses such abbreviations as "o'er," 
 "ne'er," "e'er," "'gan," for "over," "never," 
 "ever," "began." The solemn style, that is, the 
 use of "thou," "thy," "thine," and "ye," is also 
 commonly found in poetry. 
 
 353. Use of Figurative I>aiiguage In Poetry.— 
 
 The language of poetry is particularly character- 
 ized by the use of rhetorical figures. The aim of 
 poetry is to please, and, as figures serve the same 
 purpose, they are aptly employed in poetry. In 
 the following extract there is scarcely a line that is 
 not figurative : 
 
 A sensitive plant in a garden grew. 
 And the young winds-fed it with silver dew. 
 And it opened its fanlike leaves to the light, 
 And closed them again 'neath the kisses of night. 
 
 And the spring arose on the garden fair, 
 
 And the spirit of love fell everywhere ; 
 
 And each flower and herb on earth's dark breast 
 
 Rose from the dreams of its wintry rest. 
 
 But none ever trembled and panted with bliss 
 In the garden, the field, or the wilderness. 
 Like a doe in the noontide with love's sweet want, 
 As the companionless sensitive plant. — Shelley. 
 
POETIC ELEMENTS 28s 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 POETIC ELEMENTS 
 
 254. Poetic Elements. — Sometimes the poetry of 
 a passage lies in its imagery, sometimes in its 
 sentiment, and sometimes in its form of expression. 
 
 By imagery we mean the figures which poetry 
 employs. This has already been illustrated. Grave 
 and exalted sentiment finds fitting expression in 
 poetry, as in Bryant's " Thanatopsis " and Byron's 
 " Apostrophe to the Ocean." Sometimes the most 
 striking poetic feature is the intensity of emotion 
 expressed or implied in the lines. In Tennyson's 
 " Maud " we have this stanza: 
 
 She is coming, my own, my sweet ; 
 
 Were it ever so airy a tread. 
 My heart would hear her and beat. 
 
 Were it earth in an earthy bed ; 
 My dust would hear her and beat. 
 
 Had I lain for a century dead. 
 Would start and tremble under her feet. 
 
 And blossom in purple and red. 
 
 Often the sentiment is implied rather than ex- 
 pressed, as in Tennyson's " Break, break, break," 
 which has well been called an expression of the 
 inexpressible. But the sentiment may be varied. 
 It may be pathetic or jocund ; it may be the senti- 
 -ment of love, as in Burns's songs, or the sterner 
 sentiment which we find in satires and criticisms. 
 
286 POETRY 
 
 A poet may express in appropriate form the 
 beauty or the truth which all see and feel, but 
 -which no one has ever before so happily expressed. 
 Thus: 
 
 A thing of beauty is a joy forever. — Keats. 
 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view. — Campbell. 
 The proper study of mankind is man. — Pope. 
 An undevout astronomer is mad. — Young. 
 Where ignorance is bliss, 
 'Tis folly to be wise. — Gray. 
 The paths of glory lead but to the grave.— Gray. 
 Variety's the very spice of life. 
 That gives it all its flavor. — Cowper. 
 
 85 5. Tlie Artistic in Poetry. — Poetry describes 
 things from an artistic point of view. A few strik- 
 ing characteristics of an object are given in such 
 a way as to give us an idea of the whole. Thus 
 Wordsworth describes the green linnet : 
 
 Amid yon tuft of hazel trees. 
 That twinkle to the gusty breeze. 
 Behold him perched in ecstasies, 
 Yet seeming still to hover ; 
 
 There ! where the flutter of his wings 
 Upon his back and body flings 
 Shadows and sunny glimmerings. 
 That cover him all over. 
 
 My dazzled sight he oft deceives, 
 A brother of the dancing leaves ; 
 Then flits, and from the cottage eaves 
 Pours forth his song in gushes. 
 
 S56. Euphony — In the diction of poetry special 
 attention is given to sound. For the purpose of 
 
POETIC ELEMENTS 287 
 
 heightening the music of the lines, free use is made 
 
 of ALLITERATION and IMITATIVE HARMONY. ■ 
 
 Alliteration consists in the repetition of sounds 
 at the beginning of consecutive words or of words 
 that come closely together. Only emphatic words 
 should be made to alliterate. Example: "Our 
 hoard is little, but our hearts are great." 
 
 Alliteration should not be carried to excess; it 
 should not seem to be used for effect. The follow- 
 ing passage shows a constant striving after allitera- 
 tion, and, as a consequence, what might otherwise 
 have been euphonious is marred by the persistent 
 clashing of sounds: 
 
 Maiden, and mistress of the months and stars 
 
 Now folded in the flowerless fields of heaven, 
 
 Goddess whom all gods love with threefold heart, 
 
 Being treble in thy divided deity, 
 
 A light for dead men and dark hours, a foot 
 
 Swift on the hills as morning, and a hand 
 
 To all things fierce and fleet that roar and range. 
 
 ■ — Swinburne. 
 
 With this unwieldy repetition of letters compare 
 the following passages, and note the charm which 
 artless and judicious alliteration gives to poetry: 
 
 As vague as the visions of night. 
 Like a glowworm golden 
 In a dell of dew. — Shelley. 
 Lured by the love of the genii that move. — Shelley. 
 
 Imitative harmony in words and movement, com- 
 monly called ONOMATOPOEIA, consists in the use of 
 words that are formed in imitation of natural 
 sounds, as "whiz," "splash," "bow-wow," etc. 
 
288 POKTRY 
 
 These onomatopoetic words, when properly com- 
 bined, add greatly to the force and harmonious 
 effect of poetry. Examples : 
 
 The moan of doves in immemorial elms. 
 And murmuring of innumerable bees. — Tennyson. 
 It was a close, warin, breezeless summer night. 
 Wan, dull, and glaring, with a dripping fog 
 Low-hung and thick that covered all the sky. 
 
 — Wordsworth. 
 But that large-moulded man. 
 His visage all agrin as at a wake, 
 Made at me through the press, and, staggering back. 
 With stroke on stroke the horse and horsemen, came 
 As comes a pillar of electric cloud. 
 Flaying the roofs and sucking up the drains. 
 And shadowing down the champaign till it strikes 
 On a wood, and takes, and breaks, and cracks, and splits, 
 And twists the grain with such a roar that earth 
 Reels, and the herdsmen cry. — Tennyson. 
 
KINDS OF POETRY 289 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 KINDS OF POETRY 
 
 357. Didactic Poetry. — Didactic poetry is that 
 ■which aims to instruct. To teach may not be its 
 prime object, but it does in some manner convey 
 instruction. Longfellow's "Excelsior" and Bry- 
 ant's lines "To a Waterfowl" are didactic. 
 
 358. Satiric Poetry. — Satiric poetry deals with 
 the vices and follies of men. It is usually little 
 more than rhymed prose. Byron's " English Bards 
 and Scotch Reviewers" and Pope's " Dunciad " are 
 satires. 
 
 359. Lyric Poetry.^ — -Though lyric poetry, as the 
 name indicates, was formerly written to be sung, 
 and the voice to be accompanied by the lyre, the 
 term is now applied to short poems in which the 
 author gives free expression to his emotions and 
 feelings. Lyric poetry should therefore bear as 
 its distinguishing feature the stamp of the author's 
 personality. It is the oldest kind of poetry known 
 to literature. Odes, songs, and hymns come under 
 this head. Burns is our greatest lyric poet. 
 
 360. Epic Poetry. — Epic poetry is that which 
 deals with the life and adventures of some real or 
 mythical hero. It is the highest and most difficult 
 
290 POETRY 
 
 kind of poetical composition. The conventional 
 feature of the epic is that it starts in the middle of 
 the story, and brings in, as the plot develops, the 
 earlier incidents by means of conversation among 
 the actors. The three greatest epics are Homer's 
 "IHad," Vergil's " ^neid," and Milton's "Para- 
 dise Lost." 
 
 261. Pastoral Poetry 
 
 which deals with rura 
 
 263. Elegiac Poetry. — Elegiac poetry is of a 
 mournful character, and usually celebrates the vir- 
 tues of some one deceased. 
 
 363. Dramatic Poetry. — Dramatic poetry is usu- 
 ally intended to be acted upon the stage. What 
 the epic narrates the drama represents as actu- 
 ally going on before our eyes. The action is car- 
 ried on solely by means of dialogue between the 
 actors. The two principal kinds of drama are 
 TRAGEDY " and COMEDY — terms which need no 
 definition. 
 
VERSIFICATION 291 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 VERSIFICATION 
 
 S64. Versification. — Versification is that part of 
 rhetoric which has to do with the mechanism of 
 poetry. Its leading features may be studied under 
 (i) Meter, (2) Rhyme, (3) Stanza. 
 
 265. Meter. — In reading poetry we are conscious 
 that a pleasurable emotion is produced by regu- 
 larity in the arrangement of accented and unac- 
 cented syllables. Take the following lines : 
 
 (a) It was eve, at anchor riding, 
 
 Stately ships were lulled to rest ; 
 And the burnished sun was gliding 
 Down the golden-pillared west. 
 
 Here we have commonplace imagery, and, for the 
 most part, the language of ordinary prose, yet there 
 is an indescribable charm in the flow of words. We 
 observe, as we read the passage more carefully, that 
 the stately movement of the lines depends upon 
 the distribution of accented and unaccented sylla- 
 bles. In the first line we have eight syllables, and 
 these syllables naturally fall into four .divisions, 
 commonly called feet. These divisions or feet are 
 determined by the regular fall of the accent on the 
 first, the third, the fifth, and the seventh syllables. 
 If we mark an accented syllable thus — , and an 
 
292 POETRY 
 
 unaccented one thus — ', we may divide the line, 
 that is, scan it, after this manner : 
 
 The second line is made up of seven syllables. The 
 scansion is as follows : 
 
 The third line corresponds with the first, and the 
 fourth with the second. 
 
 The accent may fall on the second syllable of the 
 foot. This arrangement gives a slower movement 
 to the lines : 
 
 (b) Tlie curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 
 
 The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 
 
 -- - I - - I - - ! - - I - - 
 Each foot may be made up of three syllables, 
 with the accent falling on the third syllable of each 
 foot: 
 
 (c) At the dead of the night a sweet vision I saw ; 
 
 or the accent may fall on the first syllable of each 
 foot: 
 
 (d) Brightest and best of the sons of the morning. 
 
 - - - I - - - I - ■- - I - - 
 It will be observed that in this meter the last foot 
 is made up of but two syllables. 
 
 266. Kinds of Feet. — The following table exhibits 
 the metrical feet most common in English : 
 
 Trochee, — — ; as in (a) above. 
 Iambus, •^ — ; as in (b) above. 
 Anapaest, --'-_'—; as in (c) above. 
 Dactyl, — ~— ^ ; as in (d) above. 
 
VERSIFICATION 
 
 293 
 
 To this table may be added the spondee ( ) ; 
 
 -which, however, is rarely met with in English 
 poetry. In the following line we have three 
 spondees ; 
 
 Rocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades of death. 
 
 267. A Verse. — A verse or line of poetry is a 
 combination of feet. 
 
 368. Kinds of Verse. — Meter is doubly named: 
 first, from the kind of foot; secondly, from the 
 number of feet in the line. Thus : 
 
 A line of one , iambic foot is called iambic monometer. 
 
 two " feet 
 
 ' " " dimeter. 
 
 three " 
 
 " trimeter. 
 
 four " " 
 
 ' " " tetrameter. 
 
 five " " 
 
 ' " " pentameter. 
 
 six " " 
 
 " " hexameter. 
 
 seven " " 
 
 • " " heptameter 
 
 Similarly we may have trochaic, anapaestic, or 
 dactylic monometer, dimeter, trimeter, etc. 
 
 An iambic hexameter is sometimes called an 
 ALEXANDRINE, because early French romantic poems 
 on Alexander the Great were written in this 
 measure. Heroic verse consists of five iambic feet. 
 
 369. Substituted Feet. — Sometimes one kind of 
 foot is inserted in a verse made up of another 
 kind. This is done to give variety or richness to 
 the music of a line. Thus: 
 
 A trochee for an iambus ; as : 
 
 Whence and what art thou, execrable shape ? 
 
294 POETRY 
 
 An anapaest for an iambus ; as : 
 
 And the mother gave, in tears and pain, 
 The flowers she so much loved. 
 
 A dactyl for a trochee ; as : 
 
 Many an evening on the moorland. 
 
 An iambus for an anapaest ; as : 
 
 O'er crag and o'er dune, through the vale and the gi-ove. 
 
 370. Elision. — Sometimes a syllable is dropped 
 
 from a line, or is elided or slurred over, in order to 
 
 make it conform to the meter of the other line^. 
 
 Thus: 
 
 Now morn, her rosy steps in th' eastern clime. 
 
 Some say that ever 'gainst that season comes. 
 
 So he with difficulty and labor hard 
 
 Moved on, with difficulty, and labor he. 
 
 371. Incomplete Feet. — Not infrequently the un- 
 accented syllable or syllables are omitted, and the 
 omission supplied by a pause. Thus : 
 
 In the light of other days, 
 
 Shadows fell, though skies were bright. 
 
 Break, break, break 
 
 On thy cold g^ay stones, O sea. 
 
 Sometimes a line has more than the regular 
 number of syllables ; as : 
 
 To be or not to be, that is the question. 
 
VERSIFICATION 295 
 
 a 73. Mixed "Verse. — Different kinds of feet are 
 sometimes used in the same line or in successive 
 lines. Thus : 
 
 Perhaps it is pretty to force together 
 Thoughts so all unlike each other ; 
 To mutter and mock a broken charm, 
 To dally with wrong that does no harm. 
 
 373. Quantity. — Besides accent, poets take into 
 consideration quantity ; that is, the length of time 
 required to pronounce a syllable. A succession of 
 long syllables gives slowness, solemnity, and state- 
 liness to a line. 
 
 And breathless darkness, and the narrow house. 
 Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound. 
 
 On the other hand a succession of short, light 
 syllables gives sprightliness and rapidity of move- 
 ment. 
 
 Come and trip it as you go. 
 
 On the light fantastic toe. 
 
 374. Dactylic Hexameter. — There is a peculiar 
 form of mixed verse known as dactylic hexameter. 
 The verse is not entirely dactylic. There is a free 
 intermixture of iambuses, trochees, anapaests, and 
 spondees ; but the verse is prevailingly dactylic. In 
 the Greek and Latin languages, where the foot de- 
 pends upon quantity and not upon accent, it is a 
 very common measure ; but the English ear has 
 
 never become accustomed to dactylic hexameters. 
 30 
 
296 POETRY 
 
 There are, however, some very pretty effects pro- 
 duced in English by this meter. Our poet Long- 
 fellow has done much to popularize it by employing 
 it to great advantage in " Evangeline " and in "The 
 Courtship of Miles Standish." Here is the challenge 
 which the " stalwart captain of Plymouth " gives to 
 the defiant Indian : 
 
 Then from the rattlesnake's skin, with a sudden contemptuous 
 
 gesture, 
 Jerking the Indian arro.ws, he filled it with powder and bullets 
 Full to the very jaws, and handed it back to the savage. 
 Saying in thundering tones : " Here, take it ! this is your answer! " 
 Silently out of the room then glided the glistening savage. 
 Bearing the serpent's skin, and seeming himself like a serpent. 
 Winding his sinuous way in the dark to the depths of the forest. 
 
 It will be observed that the last foot is a trochee, 
 and the second last, a dactyl. The other feet may 
 be iambuses, trochees, or dactyls, as they may best 
 serve the purpose of poetic expression. 
 
 275. Verse Pauses. — In nearly every line of con- 
 siderable length there is a metrical break occurring 
 in the middle of a foot and usually near the middle 
 of the line. This break in the rhythm, called the 
 caesural pause, coincides with a pause in delivery or 
 recitation. If the line is long, there are commonly 
 two pauses. In the following lines the caesural pause 
 is indicated: 
 
 The proper study | of mankind is man. 
 
 Thou with eternal wisdom | didst converse. 
 
 Naught but tradition remains ) of the beautiful village of 
 Grand-Prfe. 
 
 Bearded with moss | and in \ garments green, | indistinct in the 
 twiligKt. " ' 
 
VERSIFICATION 297 
 
 EXERCISE 151. 
 
 Scan the lines on pages 284 ccnd 296, pointing out the 
 ccBSural pauses. 
 
 S76. RhjTne. — Rhyme, more correctly spelled 
 rime, is a correspondence in sound between sylla- 
 bles which in the plan of the stanza have some 
 relation to one another. 
 
 This correspondence in sound must be between 
 words that in some way are related ; for instance, 
 words at the ends of lines, or words that mark one 
 part of a line as corresponding to another part, and 
 so on. In fact, the location of rhyme is not limited. 
 
 Perfect rhymes should conform to the following 
 rules : 
 
 1. The vowel sounds should be the same. 
 
 2. The consonants after the vowels should be 
 similar in sound. 
 
 3. The consonants before the vowels should be 
 different in sound. 
 
 4. The rhyming syllables should be similarly 
 accented. 
 
 Thus r««^ rhymes with' 'sing," but not with "pleas- 
 ing"; /ia:.f^^ rhymes with "waste," but not with "last" ; 
 love rhymes with " above," but not with " move." 
 
 277. Double Bhymes. — The rhymes given above 
 are single, but there are also double rhymes, in 
 which two syllables agree in sound. We may even 
 have triple rhyme, in which there is a consonance 
 in three syllables. Thus charming may be made 
 to rhyme with "alarming," and philanthropy with 
 " misanthropy." 
 
298 POETRY 
 
 378. Imperfect Rhymes. — Imperfect rhymes 
 are allowable ; they sometimes break the monotony 
 of verse. All poets freely use words which corre- 
 spond in sound, even though the spelling be differ- 
 ent. Thus blood may rhyme with " mud," new with 
 "hue," and runs with "sons." Such rhymes as 
 nature with "water" and fear with "air" are too 
 far-fetched to be tolerated. 
 
 279. Blank "Verse. — Verse without rhyme is called 
 blank verse. 
 
 EXERCISE 152. 
 
 Criticize the rhymes in the following verses : 
 
 Wine or delicious fruits unto tlie taste, 
 
 A music in the ears will ever last. — Johnson. 
 
 But thinks, admitted to that equal sky, 
 
 His faithful dog will bear him company. — Pope. 
 
 So some rats of amphibious nature. 
 
 Are either for the land or water. — Butler. 
 
 Yet to his guest though no way sparing. 
 He ate himself the rind and paring. — Pope. 
 
 And pulpit, drum ecclesiastic. 
 
 Was beat with fist instead of a stick. — Butler. 
 
 There taught us how to live ; and (oh ! too high 
 
 The price for knowledge) taught us how to die. — Tickell. 
 
 280. A Stanza. — A stanza is a division of a poem 
 containing two or more verses. There are a great 
 many kinds of stanza in English poetry. 
 
 281. A Distich or Cotiplet. — A distich or couplet 
 consists of two verses. 
 
VERSIFICATION 299 
 
 283. A Triplet. — A triplet consists of three 
 verses. 
 
 S83. A Quatrain — A quatrain is a stanza of four 
 lines rhyming alternately. The Rubal is a quat- 
 rain in which the first, second, and fourth lines 
 rhyme, while the third line is not rhymed. 
 
 384. The Rhyme-Royal. — The rhyme-royal is a 
 seven-line stanza, introduced by Chaucer. It is 
 composed of iambic pentameter lines, the first four 
 being a quatrain, the fifth repeating the rhyme of the 
 fourth, and the last two being a rhyming couplet. 
 
 385. The Spenserian Stanza. — The Spenserian 
 stanza, first used by Edmund Spenser, is made up 
 of eight iambic pentameters, followed by an iambic 
 hexameter. The rhyme is intricate, as will be seen 
 from this' stanza: 
 
 He who ascends to mountain-tops shall find 
 
 The loftiest peaks most wrapt in clouds and snow ; 
 He who surpasses or subdues mankind 
 
 Must look down on the hate of those below. 
 
 Though high above the sun of glory glow. 
 And far beneath the earth and ocean spread, 
 
 Round him are icy rocks, and loudly blow 
 Contending tempests on his naked head, 
 And thus reward the toils which to those summits led. — Byron. 
 
 286. The Sonnet Stanza. — The sonnet contains 
 fourteen iambic pentameters. It consists of two 
 divisions, called the major and the minor. The 
 major division contains eight lines, and the minor 
 six. Great license is allowed in the order of the 
 rhymes. Example : 
 
30O POETRY 
 
 Weak is the will of man, his judgment blind. 
 
 Remembrance persecutes, and hope betrays ; 
 Heavy is woe, and joy, for humankind 
 A mournful thing, so transient is the blaze ! 
 Thus might he paint our lot of mortal days. 
 Who wants the glorious faculty assigned 
 To elevate the more than reasoning mind. 
 And color life's dark cloud with orient rays. 
 Imagination is that sacred power. 
 Imagination lofty and refined; 
 
 'Tis hers to pluck the amaranthine flower 
 Of faith, and round the sufferer's temple bind 
 
 Wreaths that endure affliction's heaviest shower. 
 And do not shrink from sorrow's keenest wind. ' 
 
 — Wordsworth. 
 . EXERCISE 153. 
 In the following quotations tell whether the poetry lies 
 in the imagery, in the sentiment, or in the form of ex- 
 pression. Point out any words which have a peculiar 
 poetic force. Scan the verses, and observe any peculiar^ 
 ities of meter raid rhythm : 
 
 In full-orbed glory, yonder moon divine 
 Rolls through the dark blue depths. — Southey. 
 To me the meanest flower that blows can give 
 Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears. — Wordsworth. 
 
 The morn, in russet mantle clad, 
 Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. — Shakespeare. 
 Heaven opened wide 
 Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound 
 On golden hinges moving. — Milton. 
 Arms on armor clashing bray'd 
 Horrible discord, and the madding wheels 
 Of brazen chariots rag'd ; dire was the noise of conflict.— Miltoa 
 On a sudden open fly 
 With impetuous recoil and jarring sound 
 Th' infernal doors, and on their hinges grate 
 Harsh thunder. — Milton. 
 
 > Point out the figures of speech in this sonnet. 
 
VERSIFICATION 30? 
 
 Our wasted oil unprofitably burns, 
 
 Like hidden lamps in old sepulchral urns. — Cowper. 
 
 Embosom'd in the deep where Holland lies, 
 Methinks her patient sons before me stand 
 Where the broad ocean leans against the land. — Goldsmith. 
 The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 
 
 And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave. 
 Await alike th' inevitable hour : — 
 The paths of glory lead but to the grave. — Gray. 
 
 Catch, then, O catch the transient hour ; 
 
 Improve each moment as it flies ; 
 Life's a short summer — man a flower — 
 
 He dies — alas I how soon he dies. — Samuel Johnson. 
 The One remains, the many change and pass. 
 Heaven's light forever shines, earth's shadows pass ; 
 Life like a dome of many colored glass. 
 Stains the white radiance of eternity. 
 Until death tramples it to fragments. — Shelley. 
 
 Sweet are the uses of adversity. 
 
 Which, like a toad, ugly and venomous. 
 
 Wears yet a precious jewel in his head : 
 
 And this our life, exempt from public haunt. 
 
 Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks. 
 
 Sermons in stones, and good in everything. — Shakespeare. 
 
 Behold ! 
 The rocks are cloven, and through the purple night 
 I see cars drawn by rainbow-winged steeds. 
 Which trample the dim winds : in each there stands 
 A wild-eyed charioteer urging their flight. 
 Some look behind, as fiends pursued them there. 
 And yet I see no shapes but the keen stars : 
 Others, with burning eyes, lean forth and drink 
 With eager lips the wind of their own speed. 
 As if the thing they loved fled on before. 
 And now, even now, they clasp it. Their bright locks 
 Stream like a comet's flashing hair : they all sweep onward. 
 
 These are the immortal Hours, 
 Of whom thou didst demand. One waits for thee. — Shelley. 
 
303 POETRY 
 
 We look before and after. 
 
 And pine for what is not : 
 Our sincerest laughter 
 
 With some pain is fraught : 
 Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought. — Shelley. 
 
 The lights begin to twinkle from the rocks ; 
 
 The long day wanes : the slow moon climbs : the deep 
 
 Moans round with many voices. — Tennyson. 
 
 Close to her father's side was the gentle Evangeline seated. 
 Spinning flax for the loom that stood in the corner behind her. 
 
 — Longfellow. 
 
 EXERCISE 154. 
 
 Write themes on the following subjects : 
 
 The Rime OF THE Ancient Mariner. — i. The Story. 2. Why 
 was the Curse Imposed and How was it Removed ? 3. The Ex- 
 periences of the Ancient Mariner after Hearing the Two Voices. 
 
 Pope's Homer's Iliad. — i. Hector's Interview with his Mother. 
 2. The Meeting between Glaucus and Diomed. 3. The Death of 
 Adrastus. 4. The Debate of the Gods Concerning the Fate of 
 Hector. 5. The Funeral of Hector. 6. Priam's Visit to Achilles. 
 7. A Brief Characterization of Achilles ; of Hector. 8. The Parts 
 Jove and Minerva Play in the " Iliad." 
 
 The Vision of Sir Launfal. — i. Give an Account of Sir 
 Launfal's Pilgrimage ; the Occasion that Prompted it ; Incidents 
 and Result. 2. The Finding of the Grail. 
 
 Macbeth. — i. Make a Character Sketch of Macbeth, Illus- 
 trating every Trait by Reference to the Play. Use \'erbal Quota- 
 tions as far as Possible. 2. The Murder of Duncan. 3. Effect of 
 the Crime on Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. 4. Give a Brief Outline 
 of the Third Act. 5. A Brief Characterization of Duncan, Banquo, 
 Macduff, and Siward. 
 
 Paradise Lost. — i. The Successive Incidents of Satan's 
 Journey when he Left the Infernal Regions. 2. The Chiaf Char- 
 acteristics of the Other Leaders among the Fallen Angels. 3. In- 
 dicate Briefly the Relation of the Incidents of the First Book to 
 those of the Second. 4. Relate the Story of Books One and Two. 
 
VERSIFICATION 303 
 
 The Princess. — i. The Character of the Princess. 2. The 
 College for Women. 3. The Tournament. 
 
 Milton's Minor Poems. — i. Compare " L' Allegro " with " II 
 Penseroso." 2. What Lesson Does Milton Teach in "Comus"? 
 3. What is the Theme of " Lycidas " ? 
 
 The Merchant of Venice.— i. Tell the Story of the 
 " Merchant of Venice." 2. Write Character Sketches on {a) Shy- 
 lock ; ip) Portia ; (c) Antonio. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 Examination Papers in Elementary Englisli. 
 
 Note. — In the examination papers given below, questions not 
 bearing on the English Classics, questions dealing with the inter- 
 pretation of the text, and questions on books no longer required to 
 be read, are omitted. 
 
 FOR ADMISSION TO HARVARD COLLEGE, JUNE, igol. 
 I. 
 
 Select three of the following topics, and write a composition on 
 each : 
 
 1. An estimate of Ihe literary value of the "Sir Roger de 
 Coverley Papers.'' 
 
 2. What contribution to the English novel, as we know it to- 
 day, did Addison and his colleagues make in the " Sir Roger de 
 Coverley Papers " ? 
 
 3. The origin and the history of the "Spectator." 
 4.^ The " Spectator " as a literary character. 
 
 5. A sketch of the members of the " Spectator's " club. 
 
 6. Will Honeycomb. 
 
 7. Sir Roger on the bench. 
 
 8. The Coverley Hunt. 
 
 9. Sir Roger in Londoii. 
 
 10. The plot in " The Princess." 
 
 11. The Princess Ida. 
 
 12. A sketch of Tennyson's life up to the time when " The 
 Princess " waswritten. 
 
 13. The songs in "The Princess." 
 
 14. The circumstances under which "The Princess" was 
 written, as described in the Prologue. 
 
3o6 ' APPENDIX 
 
 Omit three. 
 
 1. Sketch briefly the life of Edmund Burke. 
 
 2. Under what circumstances did Burlte deliver his " Speech on 
 Conciliation with America"? 
 
 3. What was Burke's opinion of the temper and character of 
 the Americans? 
 
 4. What was Burke's opinion of coercion as applied to the 
 Americans? Why? 
 
 5. What policy did Burke desire England to adopt toward the 
 colonies? Why? 
 
 6. Give your opinion of Burke and your reason therefor. 
 
 New Method. 
 
 1. Discuss the principles of arrangement whereby those parts of 
 a composition (words, sentences, paragraphs, or larger portions) 
 which deserve emphasis may be so placed that they shall receive it. 
 
 2. a. Is the following sentence in italics periodic or loose ? 
 Why ? Rewrite the sentence so that it shall be the kind of sentence, 
 periodic or loose, which in its present form it is not : 
 
 Our cousins, too, even to the fortieth remove, all remembered 
 their affinity, without any help from the herald's office, and came 
 very frequently to see us. 
 
 b. Define and illustrate the following terms : climax ; deduction ; 
 trope ; metaphor ; circumlocution. 
 
 3. Discuss the general principles of Good Use and their applica- 
 tion to the choice of words, and to the construction of sentences, 
 paragraphs, and whole compositions. 
 
 FOR ADMISSION TO YALE COLLEGE, JUNE, tpol. 
 A. 
 
 Write about two hundred words on each of four topics selected 
 by yourself from the following list : 
 Miss Arabella Wilmot. 
 The Life of Oliver Goldsmith. 
 Friar Tuck. 
 
 Coverley Hall and its Surroundings. 
 Portia's Suitors. 
 
APPENDIX 307 
 
 The Albatross in " The Ancient Mariner."^ 
 
 Silas Marner's Early Life. 
 
 The Departure of Sir Launfal. 
 
 The Fight between Achilles and Hector. ,- 
 
 B. 
 
 1. In what various ways did Addison employ his literary powers ? 
 In which of these was he most successful ? 
 
 2. a. What are two favorite occupations of " the happy man " in 
 " L'AUegro " } Point out the corresponding opposite employments 
 of " II Penseroso." ' 
 
 b. How does the metre of " Lycidas " differ from that-of " II 
 Penseroso " ? Illustrate. 
 
 3. Quote at least ten consecutive lines from the " Speech on Con- 
 ciliation," or " Macbeth,'' or the minor poems of Milton. 
 
 4. " I would state that, as far as I am capable of discerning, 
 there are but three ways of proceeding relative to this stubborn 
 spirit which prevails in your colonies, and disturbs your govern- 
 ment. These are : to change that spirit, as inconvenient, by re- 
 moving the causes ; to prosecute it as criminal ; or to comply with 
 it as necessary." 
 
 Which " way of proceeding " does Burke recommend as the 
 most expedient? What examples does he cite in support of it? 
 What part of his oration follows immediately after his discussion of 
 these points ? 
 
 FOR ADMISSION TO PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, JUNE, I90I. 
 
 A. 
 Write a paragraph of at least a hundred words on one, and only 
 one, topic in each group : 
 
 I. a. The Suitors of Portia. 
 
 b. The Reasons for Shylock's Hatred of Antonio. 
 
 c. The Character of Portia. 
 
 d. A General Estimate of the " Merchant of Venice." 
 II. a. The Wrath of Achilles ; Its Causes and Results. 
 
 b. The Death and Funeral of Hector. 
 
 c. The Spectre Ship in the " Ancient Mariner." , 
 
 d. The Return of the Ancient Mariner. 
 
3o8 APPENDIX 
 
 III. a. The Results of the Tournament in the " Princess." 
 
 b. The Underlying Lessons of the " Princess." 
 
 c. The Preludes in " Sir Launfal." 
 
 d. Sir Launfal as He Went to Search for the Holy Grail and 
 
 as He Returned. 
 
 IV. a. The Character of the Supposed Author of the " Specta- 
 
 tor." 
 
 b. Sir Roger de Coverley in Town and in the Country. 
 
 c. The Life of Goldsmith. 
 
 d. Traits of Goldsmith's Character as Revealed in the 
 • " Vicar of Wakefield. " 
 
 V.'a. The Normans and the Saxons in "Ivanhoe." 
 
 b. Which novel do you prefer, " Ivanhoe " or " Silas 
 Marner " ? Give reasons for your preference. 
 
 B. 
 
 1. To what period of Shakespeare's work does "Macbeth" 
 belong? What supernatural elements are introduced into the 
 drama? What is the significance of the sleep-walking scene? 
 
 2. If thou speak'st false. 
 
 Upon the next tree shalt thou hang alive. 
 Till famine cling thee. If thy speech be sooth 
 I care not if thou dost for me as much. — 
 5 I pull in resolution, and begin 
 
 To doubt the equivocation of the fiend 
 
 That lies like truth : " Fear not, till Bimam wood 
 
 Do come to Dunsinane." 
 
 By whom, to whom, and under what circumstances are these 
 words spoken ? Rewrite the passage in simple English prose. 
 Who was " the fiend " ? Where was " Dunsinane " ? Scan 1. 6. 
 
 3. Who was Edmund Burke? Why did he take the side of the 
 colonists against the English government ? Under what circum- 
 stances was this speech delivered ? Give a brief outline of the 
 argument. 
 
 4. a. What does Macaulay say of the personal character of 
 Milton ? How did Milton differ from the ordinary Puritans? 
 
 b. Describe the founding of the "Tatler"and "Spectator." 
 
APPENDIX 309 
 
 What influence did Addison exert on English morals ? How did 
 his humor contribute to this result ? 
 5. Answer any two of the following: 
 
 a. Quote a passage of at least six lines from " L' Allegro " or 
 " II Penseroso." 
 
 b. What idea do these two poems give us, of Milton's tastes 
 and character ? 
 
 c. What is the theme of " Comus," and how is it developed ? 
 
 d. What is a " Masque " ? What necessary elements of the 
 Masque appear in " Comus " ? 
 
 e. Under what circumstances was " Lycidas " written ? What 
 does the poem show us as to Milton's aspirations and religious 
 belief? 
 
 FOR ADMISSION TO UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, JUNE, I90I. 
 
 A. 
 I. Write a composition of not less than three hundred words 
 upon one of the following subjects taken from the required reading: 
 
 a. Normans and Saxons in England. 
 
 b. The Story of the Ancient Mariner. 
 
 c. Dolly Winthrop. 
 
 B. 
 
 I. Questions on the books prescribed for general reading. 
 
 a. What was the chief interest in Silas Marner's life before he 
 found Eppie ? 
 
 b. Give a brief account of the trial scene in the " Merchant of 
 Venice." 
 
 c. Describe the portraits at Sir Roger de Coverley's house? 
 
 d. What elements in " The Rime of the Ancient Mariner " are 
 supernatural ? 
 
 II. Questions on the books prescribed for special study. 
 
 1. a. To what period of Shakespeare's work does "Macbeth " 
 belong ? b. Why are the witches introduced at the opening of the 
 play ? c. What is the ruling trait in Lady Macbeth's character ? 
 
 2. a. How did Burke describe the temper and character of the 
 American colonists ? b. What was the nature of his conclusion ? 
 
 3. «. How does Macaulay compare Milton and Dante ? b. What 
 does Macaulay say of Milton's use of proper names in poetry ? 
 
3IO APPENDIX 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM ENTRANCE PAPERS TO OTHER COLLEGES. 
 
 Explain how rhetoric is related to grammar and to logic. 
 Explain present use of words, reputable use, national use. 
 
 What is a Barbarism? an Impropriety? a Solecism? Discuss 
 Barbarisms in detail. 
 
 Construct a table showing the correct use of shall and wilL 
 
 Define Redundancy. Name and define the divisions of redun- 
 dancy. 
 
 What is Antithesis ? Climax ? meaning and value of Unity ? 
 How violated ? 
 
 Give examples of the periodic sentence ; the loose sentence ; 
 the balanced sentence. Mentiop the advantages in the use of each 
 kind. 
 
INDEX 
 
 The numbers refer to pages. 
 
 C 
 
 Abbreviations 45 
 
 Addison, J 167, 193 
 
 Adjectives gg 
 
 Adverbs . . , gg 
 
 Alexandrine » 2g3 
 
 Alford, Dean 153 
 
 Allegory, 266 ; compared with 
 metaphor, 267; defect of. .. .267 
 
 Alliteration 287 
 
 Ambiguity ; 51 
 
 Anapaest 2g2 
 
 Anticlimax 141 , 276 
 
 Antithesis, 140, 267; require- 
 ments of, 26g; rhetorical val- 
 ue of. 270 
 
 Apostrophe 28, 265 
 
 Argument, 22g-237 ; meaning 
 of, 22g; statement of the 
 proposition, 22g; fallacies in 
 deduction, 232; imperfect in- 
 duction, Z33; laws of compo- 
 sition in, 235; the outline 235 
 
 Articles 86 
 
 As 106 
 
 Bacon, Lord 14 
 
 Banjoist 44 
 
 Barbarisms 3g 
 
 Behave 115 
 
 Bible 118, 140, 148, 266 
 
 Blair, B 161, i6g 
 
 Blank verse .2g8 
 
 Bolles, F 165 
 
 Brackets 28 
 
 Burke, E 140, 142, I5g, 164 
 
 But io6 
 
 Butler, S 2g8 
 
 Byron, Lord 106, 207, 255, 
 
 31 278, 299 
 
 Cable, G. W , . .209 
 
 Campbell, T 25g, 286 
 
 Capitals. 29 
 
 Carlyle, T 227 
 
 Chatham, Earl 278 
 
 Cicero 142 
 
 Circumlocution 65, 149 
 
 Clearness, in the sentence, 114- 
 123; in the paragraph, 167, 
 
 170; in the composition 192 
 
 Climax 141, 218, 276 
 
 Coleridge, S. T 87 
 
 Colloquialisms 38 
 
 Colon 23 
 
 Colton, C i6r 
 
 Comedy 290 
 
 Comma 24 
 
 Composition, elementary prin- 
 ciples, 5-20; oral and written, 
 5; importance of good speak- 
 iiigi 5; Dr. Johnson's rule, 5; 
 importance of practice, 6; 
 choice of subject, 7; titles, 9, 
 185; how written, g; finding 
 material, II, 186; arrangement, 
 II; form, 12; outline, 13, 209; 
 structure of the whole, 184- 
 195; parts, 187; preparation 
 of scheme, 189; introduction, 
 i8g; discussion, i8g; conclu- 
 sion, 190; essentials of the 
 whole, 192-195; clearness, 
 192; unity, 192; force, 192; 
 
 ease 193 
 
 Conjunctions 107, 116 
 
 Cooper, J. F 16, ig 
 
 Correctness, in the sentence, 
 
 86-113 
 
 Couplet 298 
 
 CowPER, W 286, 301 
 
 Criticism 245 
 
312 
 
 INDEX 
 
 D 
 
 Dactyl 2g2 
 
 Dangling participles 112 
 
 Dash 27 
 
 Deputize 44 
 
 Description, igg-212; forms of, 
 
 199; literary, 200; scientific, 
 
 201; striking particulars, 203; 
 
 coherence of particulars, 204; 
 
 the complete picture 205 
 
 Dickens, C 213 
 
 Dimeter 293 
 
 Distich 298 
 
 Dole, C. F 14 
 
 E 
 
 Ease, in the sentence, 147-157; 
 in the paragraph, 163, 167, 
 171; in the whole compo- 
 sition 193 
 
 Edinburgh Review 281 
 
 Effectuate 44 
 
 Eliot, George 163, 262 
 
 Emerson, R. W 275 
 
 Encyclopedia Britannica.. .226 
 
 Epigram 270 
 
 Essay on Addison 252 
 
 Essay on Burns 252 
 
 Essay on Milton 252 
 
 Essays 250 
 
 Euphony 286 
 
 Eventuate 44 
 
 Except 107, 115 
 
 Exclamation 276 
 
 Exclamation mark 27 
 
 Exposition, 221-228; meaning 
 of, 221; purpose of, 221; parts 
 of, 224; the plan 227 
 
 F 
 
 Fable 267 
 
 Feet, 292; kinds of, 292; sub- 
 stituted 293 
 
 Figures of speech 253-280 
 
 FisKE, John 216 
 
 Force, in the sentence, 134-146; 
 in the paragraph, 167, 170; 
 in the whole composition. . . . 192 
 
 Foreign words 47 
 
 Froude, J. A 2x8 
 
 G 
 
 Generic words 136 
 
 Goldsmith, O 301 
 
 Good use, 33-42; meaning of, 
 33; present use, 33; obsolete 
 words, 34; words with obso- 
 lete meanings, 34; words ob- 
 solete in prose, but not in po- 
 etry, 34; national use, 35; 
 technical words, 35 ; Ameri- 
 can and English use, 36; 
 reputable words, 37; collo- 
 quialisms and vulgarisms, 38; 
 purity, 39; standard of purity, 
 
 39; divided use 39 
 
 Graham 137 
 
 Gray, T 264, 286, 301 
 
 Grundy, C. H 65 
 
 H 
 
 Harte, Bret 203 
 
 Hawthorne, N 165, 206, 263 
 
 Hemans, Mrs 106 
 
 Heptameter 293 
 
 Hexameter 293 
 
 Homer's Iliad 302 
 
 Hugo, V 204 
 
 Huslev, T. H i2g, 140 
 
 Hyperbole, 274; excessive use 
 
 of 275 
 
 Hyphen 28 
 
 I 
 
 Iambus 292 
 
 Imagery, 253-255; meaningand 
 value of, 253; definition of. .253 
 
 Images , 254 
 
 Imitative harmony 287 
 
 Improprieties 51 
 
 Incorrect words, 43-49; classifi- 
 cation of, 43; words too new, 
 43; slang, 44; abbreviations, 
 
 45; newspaper words 46 
 
 Interrogation 276 
 
 Interrogation mark, see Question 
 mark. 
 
 I'ony 271 
 
 Irving, W 153 
 
 Ivanhoe : 2-1 
 
INDEX 
 
 313 
 
 J 
 
 Johnson, Dr 5, 137, 298, 301 
 
 Junius 140 
 
 K 
 
 Kane, E. K 17 
 
 Keats, J 286 
 
 Kipling, R 165, 208 
 
 L 
 
 Leeds Mercury 47 
 
 Letters, 238-244; forms of, 238; 
 
 business, 239; formal, 240; 
 
 news 243 
 
 Like 106 
 
 LiPPARD, G 32 
 
 Literary description 201 
 
 Longfellow, H. W 140, 302 
 
 Lowell, J. R 257 
 
 M 
 
 Macaulay, Lord 87, 137, 
 
 159, 160, 168, 170 
 
 Macbeth 302 
 
 Merchant of Venice 303 
 
 Metaphor, 258; compared with 
 simile, 259; condensed 259; 
 faulty, 259; mixed, 260; 
 strained, 260; rhetorical value 
 of, 262; combined with sim- 
 ile 262 
 
 Meter 2gl 
 
 Metonomy, 273; rhetorical val- 
 ue of 274 
 
 Milton, J.. 135, 254, 257, 259, 300 
 
 Milton's minor poems 303 
 
 Misused words, 50-59; ambigu- 
 ous words, 51; misuse of shall 
 and will, 55; should and 
 
 would 57 
 
 Monometer 293 
 
 Narration, 212-220; definition 
 and aim of, 212; essentials 
 of, 212; the actors, 212; cir- 
 cumstances, 213; require- 
 ments, 214; the plan or plot, 
 215; the action, 216; meth- 
 od in the action, 217; cli- 
 max .218 
 
 Newman, Cardinal 184 
 
 Newspaper words 46 
 
 Nouns, formation of plural, 88; 
 formation and use of possess- 
 ive 89 
 
 Novel 247, 251 
 
 o 
 
 Obsolete, Obsolescent 34 
 
 Only loi 
 
 Onomatopoeia 287 
 
 Oration 250 
 
 Outline 13, 209, 235 
 
 P 
 
 Parable i . . 267 
 
 Paradise Lost 302 
 
 Paragraph, 15; structure of, 158- 
 166; defined, 158; importance 
 of, 158; ways of constructing. 
 159; most effective method 
 of constructing, 162; ease in 
 transition, 163; means of ef- 
 fecting ease in transition, 164; 
 requirements of, 167-175; in 
 
 succession 176-183 
 
 Parenthesis 28 
 
 Peacock, Sir Thomas Love.. 226 
 
 Pentameter 293 
 
 Period 21 
 
 Personification, 263; rhetorical 
 value of, 264; dangers of, 264; 
 compared with apostrophe. ..265 
 
 Perspicuity 114 
 
 Plural of nouns 88 
 
 Pleonasm 62, 67 
 
 Poetry, 281; definition of, 281; 
 compared with prose, 281; 
 mission of, 281; poetic dic- 
 tion, 282; the artistic in, 286; 
 didactic, 289; satiric, 289; 
 lyric, 289; epic, 289; pastoral, 
 290; elegiac, 290; dramatic. .290 
 
 Pope, A 44, 298 
 
 Possessive of nouns 89 
 
 Prepositions 106 
 
 Princess, The 303 
 
 Prior, M 259 
 
 Prolixity 66 
 
 Pronouns 90, 116 
 
 Pi ovincialisms 35 
 
314 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Punctuation, 21-32; theory of, 
 21; semicolon, 22; colon, 23; 
 ' comma, 24; question mark, 
 27; exclamation mark, 27; 
 dash, 27; parentheses and 
 brackets, 28; hyphen, 28; 
 apostrophe, 28; quotation 
 marks, 29; capitals, 29; re- 
 marks on 30 
 
 Purity 39 
 
 Q 
 
 Quatrain 299 
 
 Quotation marks 29 
 
 R 
 
 Reade, C 220 
 
 Redundancy , . 60 
 
 Rhetoric, purpose, definition, 
 history of the word, I ; a sci- 
 ence and an art, two sides, 
 relation t o grammar an d 
 
 logic , . . . . 2 
 
 Rhyme, 297; double, 297; im- 
 perfect 298 
 
 Rhyme, royal 299 
 
 Rime of the Ancient Mar- 
 iner 302 
 
 Romance 251 
 
 Rubai „ . o 299 
 
 RusKiN, J Ill, 283 
 
 S 
 
 Scientific description 20 
 
 Scott, W 163 
 
 Semicolon 22 
 
 Sentences, 15; form of, 70-85; 
 short and long, 70; loose and 
 periodic, 72; variety in, 78; 
 balanced, 79; correctness in, 
 86; incompletion, 86; articles, 
 86; nouns, 88; pronouns, 90; 
 verbs, 94; adjectives and ad- 
 verbs, 99; prepositions, 106; 
 conjunctions, 107; double 
 negatives, iii; split infini- 
 tives, III; dangling partici- 
 ples, 112; clearness defined, 
 114; importance of clearness, 
 114; unity defined, 124; unity 
 in compound sentences, 125; 
 
 importance of unity, 125; 
 unity in thought, 125; unity 
 in form, 128; definition aijd 
 importance of force, 134; 
 definition and importance of 
 ease, 147; weak endings. .. .152 
 Shakespeare. .210, 254, 255, 
 
 257, 259, 282, 300, 301 
 
 Shallandwill 55 
 
 Shelley, P. B. . . , 301, 302 
 
 Should and would 57 
 
 Silas Marner 251 
 
 Simile, 256; faulty, 257; rhetor- 
 ical value of 258 
 
 Slang 44 
 
 Sonnet 299 
 
 SouTHEY, R 300 
 
 Specific words 136 
 
 Speech on Concillation with 
 
 America 252 
 
 Sylit infinitives Ill 
 
 Standard Dictionary. 57 
 
 Stanza, 298; Spenserian 299 
 
 Stedman, E. C 281 
 
 Superfluous words, 60-69; ^^' 
 dundancy, 60; tautology, 61; 
 pleonasm, 62; verbosity, 64; 
 circumlocution, 65; prolixity, 66 
 
 Synecdoche 274 
 
 Swinburne, A.C 287 
 
 T 
 
 Tautology 61 
 
 Technical words 35 
 
 Tennyson, A.. 208, 259, 288, 302 
 
 Tetrameter 293 
 
 Thackeray, W. M 207, 213 
 
 Themes 247 
 
 Tickell, T 298 
 
 Titles, how written 9, 185 
 
 Topic sentence 159 
 
 Tragedy 290 
 
 Trimeter 293 
 
 Triplet 299 
 
 Trochee . 292 
 
 Tropes 254 
 
 IT 
 
 Unity, in sentences, 124-133; 
 
 in the paragraph, 167, 170; 
 
 in the whole composition. , . ,192 
 Unless , 107 
 
INDEX 
 
 315 
 
 V 
 
 Verbosity. 64 
 
 Verbs , 94 
 
 Verse, 293; kinds of . . , 293 
 
 Versification 291 
 
 ViCAR OF Wakefield 251 
 
 Vision 278 
 
 Vision of Sir Launfal 302 
 
 Vocabulary, importance, how 
 
 obtained, 18; style 19 
 
 Vulgarisms 38 
 
 w 
 
 Wallace, L 214 
 
 Webster, D 148 
 
 White, R. G 56 
 
 Whittier, J. G 271 
 
 Will, see Shall. 
 
 Without : 107 
 
 Wordsworth, W 148, 286, 
 
 288, 300 
 Would, see Should, 
 
 Y 
 
 Young, E. 286