Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924080081007 3 1924 080 081 007 ALBERT a -miii Mtmint CDucational imonograpi^ji EDITED BY HENRY SUZZALLO PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON, SEATTLE DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER BY GEORGE MALCOLM STRATTON PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY BOSTON, NEW YORK, CHICAGO, SAN FRANCISCO COPYRIGHT, igZZ, BY GEORGE MAX.COLM StRATTON ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CAMBRIDGE • MASSACHUSETTS FRINIED IN THE VJSJk. NOTE A PART of what is here offered has appeared in an article called "The Mind as Misrepresented to Teachers." The author wishes to thank the Editor of the Atlantic Monthly, where the paper was first published, for permission to reprint it. In preparing the present monograph, however, the earlier paper has been entirely rewritten and new material has been added. CONTENTS Editor's Introduction vii I. Is THE Mind a Gymnasium or a Tool-Chest? i II. Defects in the Rival Accounts 7 III. The Interplay of Mind and Body 18 IV. Influences within Intelligence 24 V. Emotion and Mental Energy 29 VI. The Organization of Impulses and Will 36 VII. The Care of the Emotions 43 VIII. Instincts Wild and Tame 50 IX. Exercises for the Will 56 X. Establishing Government in the Mind 66 Outline 73 EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION Every teacher requires a working knowledge of the fundamental nature of the human mind. Without it teaching cannot be made either an interesting or a creative occupation. When psy- chologically uninformed, the teacher can operate on the mind of youth only in a formal and me- chanical way, applying traditional and contem- poraneous methods of procedure without much ability to adapt technique to conditions for the purpose of gaining predictable results. Certainly the teacher who would make his teaching life an interesting and effective adven- ture with youth will wish to possess whatever scientific insight is necessary to an artful stimu- lation and control of growing minds. We recog- nize the field of human psychology as vast. At best its mastery is a patient and difficult matter. The important thing is to make a correct begin- ning. It will be highty economical of energy and discouragement. The waste of wrong views and partial views can hardly be overestimated. And such waste is largely avoidable if only the first general view of the nature of mind is accurately acquired. Fundamental truths gained and held vii a comprehensive way will be a continuing urce of critical and constructive suggestion, a instant safeguard against error, a persisting lide to the accurate interpretation of new facts id theories of mind prolifically offered in an age ;eply interested in psychological truth. We have long sought a presentation which ould giye teachers and other daily workers ith mind a simple general view of mental life in 5 fundamental working aspects. We have been irtunate enough to find the exposition required, id it is offered in this monograph. We are con- ient of the influence it will have upon the Amer- an public which reads books on psychology, 1q are especially glad to offer this statement of le theory of the developing mind in a series itended for teachers because of the particular •rm of argument which the author has utilized ) express his views. It meets with beneficent irectness most of the fundamental doubts and mtroversies which have enmeshed the teaching rof ession for a quarter of a century. For a long time the managers of school or- inizations, the makers of curricula, and the ipervisors of teaching processes have been di- ided as to which particular theory of mind they lould follow in the settling of their practical viii EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION educational affairs. Should they follow the gen- eral faculty psychologists, hallowed by a long tradition, and say that the subjects of study are not of primary importance, inasmuch as cer- tain large functions of the mind, such as memory, imagination, reasoning, etc., may be trained in almost any subject because the power gained will transfer? If so, then only a few subjects need to be included within the curriculum, and the traditional courses with a well-established technique wiU obviate the waste of mastering new subjects and the methods of teaching them. Or should they follow the special disciplinarians, taking sanction from recent scientific evidences, and say that the mind is so highly and finely differentiated and specialized that the only way to be sure of a whoUy disciplined mind is to give it training through as large a variation of special experience as it is possible for the school to give? If so, then subjects or contents are of prime importance, the curriculum must contain many subjects instead of a few, new as well as old. Each side of the controversy has summoned respectable scientific evidence to support its particular point of view, and by interpretation minimized the significance of the opposing facts. Gradually there has been an abandonment of ix EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION extreme claims on both sides, but for all the scut- tling of arguments, two points of view have re- mained to confuse the layman and the teacher. In the case of the educationalist it has meant continuing confusion, dualism, and indecision in educational practice. It is therefore not difficult to understand the warm appreciation which experienced and thoughtful tealchers will have for a theory of mind which will settle controversial matters in a way that is obedient to the sum total of science and consistent with the faiths created by long expe- rience, supply missing considerations which a purely intellectual interpretation of mind has ignored, and give that unity of view which will make the apphcation of psychology to the prob- lems of mental development, at least in funda- mental matters, a consistent matter free of the controversies and confusions, the compromises and the indecisions of the last two or three dec- ades. It is with the greatest assurance that we predict the influence of this small volume. Teach- ers everywhere should read and discuss it. Then the most fundamental controversy which has harassed the profession will cease to exact most of its toll of wasted argument and lop-sided action. DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER IS THE MIND A GYMNASIUM OR A TOOL-CHEST? If we can see, though in outline, what the mind is, much that is dark both to parent and to teacher begins to clear. One may now know in what quarter there is hope of success, and where failure, and may set his course accordingly. De- cision as to the general character of the mind is thus momentous; it almost of itself writes down one's educational creed. Yet upon the very outline of the mind the doc- tors disagree. Science is brought to the support of opposite assertions, and the layman, bewil- dered, knows hardly where to look for guid- ance. Perhaps for a short time we shall do well if we merely sit by, listening to the contention, knowing that it is of weight for practice and is no mere pleasant play of wits; knowing that we can- not, as teachers and parents, avoid decision and must heed the disputants so that our conclusion may be more wise than theirs. I DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER The child's mind, says the one contending group, is a union of a few powers or faculties — like attention, observation, memory, imagination, and reason. And such powers it is the teacher's duty to render strong and supple by well-chosen exercises, found, some have held, in subjects such as mathematics or the classic languages. These great mental powers, once they become vigorous and elastic, stand ready through- out life for all important needs. Nor does it greatly matter whether the subjects studied have intrinsic value; the weighty thing is that they should discipline the mind. Reasoning, for instance, is of such value that time is well given to its cultivation even by a study such as geometry, a knowledge of which may never in itself be of any practical good. The particular kinds of knowledge needed for one's life-work, it is held, caimot be foreseen, depending so largely on later circumstance and choice. But by a mind disciplined this knowledge will readily be gained when the need itself is clear. Schooling so planned need not be with an eye wholly averted from the useful; there may be heed first of all to the most useful of things, namely, the mind itself, training it well in the be- ginning and expecting it thus to meet, in true 2 A GYMNASIUM OR A TOOL-CHEST economy, the demands of whatever later is the work in hand. Schoohnen who hold to this be- lief purpose that the mind's powers shall be given strength and full activity; and that, if this work, be well done, the person will meet the later need not only of buying and selling, of medicine and law, but also of the still wider service and enjoy- ment which is not a matter of bargain and sale. But now for a moment their opponents shall have the floor. And these impatiently declare that all who believe in a few great mental powers and would direct the school to their discipline are suckled in a creed outworn. Science has de- stroyed the simple faith. Experiments by James, Thorndike, Woodworth, and others have shown how idle is the attempt to train these general powers; have shown, indeed, tiiat there are no general powers to train. The belief in such powers goes with the antiquated idea of mental faculties, now of merely historic interest and swept aside with phrenology and its absurd map of the skull and brain. No study gives general training ; it gives only particular training. James, for example, carefully noted the time required for him to learn a certain number of lines of Victor Hugo's Satyr and then for more than a month 3 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER "trained" himself memorizing the entire first book of Paradise Lost. On going back to learn a new portion of Victor Hugo's work of exactly the length of the old, how much evidence did he find of a memory strengthened by its month or more of exercise? No evidence; he had to give more time than before to the task. Likewise Thomdike and Wobdworth, who practiced the estimation of the area of rectangles, found that a marked improvement with rectangles of a given shape and size brought no like improvement with rectangles of another shape and size. And it has been observed that neatness attained in arith- metic papers brought no slightest neatness in papers of language and spelling. Having destroyed in this way the faith in general powers and their training, what do the destroyers offer in its place? A belief in particu- lars and in particulars only. Instead of a single power of memory, there is a power to recall colors, another power to recall sounds; and so on, we know not how far. The mind, this group maintains, is our convenient name for countless special operations or functions. We may train one of these functions or a number of them, but not a faculty in general — attention in general, or observation in general, or reasoning. Further, 4 A GYMNASIUM OR A TOOL-CHEST these countless particular functions are inde- pendent; they act almost as though they were in- sulated from one another; when you have trained one of them, you have trained that limited func- tion and none else. What you do to the mind by way of education knows its place; it never spreads. You train what you train. The educational corollary of this latter belief is of wide effect. It means that we must discover the specific reactions, the specific information, which the child will use in after life and make sure that he possesses these and ;onlv_ these. If life will not demand of him the particular knowl- edge, the particular functions used in algebra, the study of algebra is time wasted. If in life he will find application for the special ideas, the special reactions involved in chemistry, time spent upon chemistry is well spent. The teacher's direction of attention here veers from east to west. At the center of interest is no longer the child's mind, but the particular situations in life which the child, become man, will have to face. Of a study we are to ask, "Does it contribute to the doing of the things that later will have to be done?" and not, "Does the study make the child's mind more alert, or sound, or sane?" "The purpose for which subjects are taught," 5 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER writes Dr. Abraham Flexner, "lies not in the pupil's mind, but in the subject-matter and its re- lation to existence and life." Dr. Ernest C. Moore, who speaks with vigor at this point, holds that "when we teach we do not make minds or strengthen minds or draw them out." Instead of giving to 'he mind form, we give it information. Instead of moulding the mind, we are to fill the mind. Where the education whose aim is men- tal discipline might have as its symbol a stripped athlete busied with Indian clubs and chest weights for strength and agility, the education which opposes mental discipline and calls for mental contents might have as its symbol some receptacle that is being filled — a ,tool-chest, with screw-driver, chisel, and plane. II DEFECTS IN THE RIVAL ACCOUNTS The controversy is thus in brief before us, each side with its different account of the 5»ind. "Be- lieve the psychologist," cries a recent, writer to the schoolmen. And this encourages one to examine these two descriptions, and judge them by our present scientific knowledge. It may well be that neither can be accepted; that in their place there must be a picture of the mind mark- edly different from either and with a far richer promise for education. Even in opposing these rival accounts a truer outline of the mind will, I believe, appear. Surely the mind is ill-described by most be- lievers in mental discipline. In so far as our remembering is explained by a faculty of mem- ory, and our reasoning' by a faculty of reason, we are offered mere words in the place of causes. But along with explanations that do not explain are clear errors. The mind is divided into great powers — like sight, hearing, memory, imagina- tion, reason — each of which is supposed to be 7 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER almost simple and unifonn throughout. And this we know is false. Memory is not a simple thing, but involves many kinds of acts, several of which are no more important for remembering than for seeing, imagining, or reasoning. Again, if by reason we mean syllogizing, it is not one of our principal powers; and if we mean by it the ability to think and act reasonably, this comes only from a fine conspiring of almost every power we have. Moreover, the believers in mental discipline too often fix their interest upon the powers by which we know, our intellectual faculties, and treat like a stepmother those great powers by which we take delight and are moved to passion and make resolve and act. Not only do large matters thus suffer neglect, but in consequence the very spring and strength of our intellec- tual powers themselves are ill-understood. The sources of judgment are not seen nor the condi- tions of its success. A certain deftness of bare intellect is overvalued, to the misprising of the deep forces that drive and direct the intellect, as well as of something more nearly external, the definite and detailed knowledge of the objects with which intelligence must deal. The defects of this account of mind are thus 8 DEFECTS IN THE RIVAL ACCOUNTS greater than many even of its critics seem to know. But some of the defects are caught and well denounced by those who hold the mind but as a receptacle to be given "contents." They rightly see the mind helpless even were it deft and strong, they see its lack of actual knowledge. They see also that the mind is of immeasurably more varied powers than are nominated in the short list of faculties in which the old school- master was taught to believe. But with these rugged virtues why not take the whole doctrine of "contents" to our hearts? First and perhaps least important, its watch- word confirms the ignorant in their ignorance. We are only too ready to regard the child's mind as a vessel into which knowledge is to be poured,/ and the new doctrine would appear to give to this crude notion a scientific seal. So far as the child's training is viewed as mental contents, the mind itself is viewed as a receptacle, a container. And a container is both inert and indifferent. A tool-chest takes no active part to receive its tools, and a sharp chisel is to it no better than a rusty broken one. Merely glance at the meta- phor and its absurdity is revealed depth on depth. Those who believe in mental contents would 9 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER cry out with one voice that they did not mean that. For if there is anything upon which psycholo- gists are agreed, it is that the mind is active; not indifferent but selective, forever choosing and rejecting. Even its humblest experiences, the colors and sounds by which the world is known, are not *' given " us, but are the mind's unique and mysterious response to external stimulation. Hue and tone, as we directly experience them, the students of physics and psychology are agreed, do not exist in the external world. They are our reaction; and with them we create for our- selves a strange counterpart of the reality with- out. And for one object awakening enough in- terest to be noticed, ten have vainly assailed our eyes and ears and been ignored. These acts of notice and selection do not seem acts, being with- out effort, without strain of will. But action is not always marked by effort: a child at play is as active as a child at some deadening task. If the things we see and hear enter the mind hardly as into a passive receptacle, more clearly is this true of our recollections, oUr imaginings, our conclusions reasoned out. Unless we ac- tively reconstruct the past and recognize it as past, we do not remember. The child can pos- lO DEFECTS IN THE RIVAL ACCOUNTS sessno imaginings or judgments save what he has himself imagined or judged. Nor can he create them once, and forever after "contain" them; each time that they are before him they must be created afresh — on the instant, usually, and with no slightest hint that power has gone into their remaking. As well call the ever-new movements of some graceful dancer the "contents" of her body as use this name for the marvelous expres- sions of the mind. And still more clearly is this dead image broken by the will. In his purpose the boy proclaims himself no mere recipient, but a doer; not clay, but the potter. He takes his place among the infant deities, imposing his ideas upon brute substance until in some measure it is made into the likeness of his mind, But we waste time upon this unhappy watch- word of the party. Not until we find a tool-chest that helps to fashion and use the tools it holds, a tool-chest that is also both machinist and car- penter — not until then will this image do more than darken counsel. Turning now from metaphor to plain state- ment, let us ask whether it be true that practice keeps its place, that you train only what you II DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER train. It would be of startling, and, to some, almost disheartening, importance if the child's improvement in a foreign language — French or Latin, let us say — had no effect upon his com- mand of the English language, or upon his inter- est in European history. The experiments in clear support of this doc- trine, however — that you train merely what you train — are few; most experiments con- tradict it. Improvement in judging the area of certain figures, as was just said, does not bring equal improvement in judging other figures. But the judgment of these other figures is not left imtouched. On the contrary, it receives marked benefit. And while neatness in classroom may remain within narrow limits, it can easily be made to pass these limits. If the children in writing their arithmetic lesson, for example, are urged to neatness as of universal value, their papers in geography also will be neater, even though this other subject may not be named in the urging. Or, again, if a person practice with the right hand the tossing and catching of balls, keeping two in the air at once, until he has at- tained a high degree of skill, will the effect of the practice be confined to the right hand? No; it will appear also in the left; it may be as though 12 DEFECTS IN THE RIVAL ACCOUNTS fully two thirds of the practice had in some way been transferred to the hand that has not been practiced at all. And in many other directions of research, transfer of training is found. The cul- tivation of the mind is thus not at all like that of land, where the ploughing of one field does not affect the soil beyond the fence. Effects here do not stay confined, but spread. It will hardly be possible to follow the at- tempted explanation of this spread; it can hardly be explained away. Nor need the teacher feel dismayed because the improvement in one study — let us say physics — is not transferred entire to all other forms of acqtiisition; that some of the good is lost in transit. Even a spread of small amount, as Thorndike has said, may be im- portant; the effort would be well repaid' if prac- tice in justness of conduct in school were to bring even the slightest increase in justice of conduct in all other relations of life; or if his accuracy in work at school make him even a little more ac- curate in all ways when he has left school. Instead, then, of proving that you train what you train, the psychological experiments which have so troubled the waters of education prove that normally you train what you do not train. Indeed, these experiments seem to have been DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER seized upon by men convinced already and beat- ing about for evidence, rather than by men im- biased and glad to go wherever the evidence might lead. But the question just considered, Whether the benefits of training can be transferred to regions that have not been the immediate place of the training? is intimately connected with another. Indeed, we shall find this other but an aspect of the problem of transfer. But to it we must attend if we would judge aright the position of the par- tisans of "contents." Is it then true, as some maintain, that our mental powers are stubbornly particular and never general in their character? Is it, for ex- ample, absurd to think that there can be a habit of pimctuality, in accordance with which the child, and later the man, may practice prompt- ness in keeping all manner of appointments? Or must we think that such a habit must be mere promptness at school, and promptness in no wider kind of conduct? Taken rigorously such a contention would seem to mean that there could be no pimctuality for school in general, but only for the particular school, for the particular room in the school, for — but one must not press too far. 14 DEFECTS IN THE RIVAL ACCOUNTS From some assertions that are heard one might think that a mental function is something good for little more than a single narrow situation, like the special bow that can be used only upon presentation at court. Let us, to test the truth of this, take almost an extreme case. Even so particular a response, so particular a habit, as that of answering the telephone is far less particular than it seems; it is run through and through with generality. It is called forth in many different situations; varied, too, is the action called forth. What you respond to is never quite the same: now it is a loud ring near by, and now a tinkle in the distance; now it is the clear note of a bell, now it is the whirr of a "buz- zer." And your response is never the same: you arise, take a few steps and stand at the instru- ment; or again, you remain seated and bring the instrument to you; you speak with deference, you speak with impatience, you speak with a martyr's resignation. Never quite tihe same sig- nal, never quite the same movements of the body, never the same words spoken, never in the same tone, never to the same purpose. If one cannot but see the breadth and openness in even so restricted a habit as this, how much more general are the significant forms of action IS DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER which the schools can rightly have at heart. The child who is inclined to "give up" at the least difficulty has a habit which applies to many and most varied situations. And if, instead, he can be turned about, can be made to assume a fighting attitude toward what is hard to do, he has been brought to attain what is applicable in ten thou- sand times and places. The attitude of credulity, of helpless acceptance of whatever is stoutly asserted, is almost universal in little children. Nor is it a trait which is called forth only in some few and special situations; but rather upon all those infinitely varied occasions when persons meet and speak. And in its stead there can be the habit which means that one will hesitate, will weigh and test, will look to the evidence for all important statements. Likewise the child's im- pulse to look first and foremost to his own partic- ular self — to be vain, to be selfish, to sulk — this is a general form of action which displays itself in endless variety of detail and place. And no less general is the change from all this, so that he begins to see the interest of others and to let this be a constant check upon his self-seeking, a spur to action that is generous. These habits of mind, and a host like them, are perhaps less wide than the memory-in-general or DEFECTS IN THE RIVAL ACCOUNTS the reason-in-general of the older education. The question whether the only appropriate term for them is "particular" or "general" would have delighted the professors of old Padua or Bologna. For us the important thing is to see their im- mense range of use, in all manner of situations and by all manner of men, whether they be day- laborers or diplomatists. Considered with care, then, we can heartily accept neither the description in which the mind is made to be a composite of a few great faculties, nor that in which the mind appears as an endless array of distinct functions. We have discerned something of what is wrong in these accounts. Ill THE INTERPLAY OF MIND AND BODY Even in what has been reviewed thus far, we have caught glimpses of the mind's behavior. But there has been interest in refutation, in de- nial; and denial by itself profits little. Perhaps this spirit of contention can now be quieted, to become the prelude of something positive and favoring, and we shall be willing to look directly at the mind itself, to see, if possible, its constitu- tion. When once we have ceased to notice our disputants save upon occasion and out of the cor- ner of the eye, their artificial divisions of the mind into faculty and function will in due time tone down to their proper value. The reality of the mind will gradually be restored to us; even, as in looking at the picture of the dissected muscles of the face, we can in time correct their true and yet false impression, knowing that these ghastly members are in life fed with warm blood and clothed in soft skin and controlled by affection and intelligence, and in their stead we see once more the human and expressive countenance. And first of all we shall see that the mind with all its variety of operation is one, is organized, is i8 THE INTERPLAY OF MIND AND BODY whole. Its powers may be distinguished and named and discussed separately, but they hold together; no one of them can be understood, much less trained and educated, apart from its fellows. Indeed, the mind itself is vitally connected with the body, and the child is both mind and body. Whatever seriously influences his body influences his mind. If he is mentally slow or is widely xminterested, we may well inquire whether he is undernourished or physically fatigued, or in bodily discomfort, or is sick. Poisons unelimi- nated that disturb the child's nerves and muscles disturb also his mind; they poison his intelli- gence, his emotions, his will. Some of the great discouragements of teaching will be gone when, by wise cooperation with the home and with phy- sicians and nurses, these conditions in the bodies of school-children are everywhere recognized and are given the care which science would suggest. Deafness, defects of sight, may be at the bottom of what seems utter lack of interest. The child's sense of vigor, of well-being, which makes him ready to push on through difficulties; or that opposite condition, in which he is listless or dis- couraged or irritable — these are often the ex- pression of the bodily state, and are weakened or 19 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER made more intense, according to the direction in which the bodily state is changed. Even the muscular "set" of the face reacts upon the mind. A child will more easily be cheerful deep within, if his sour expression can even artificially be sweetened. A sullen look if forced to become a smile is apt to start a change which leavens all his feeling imtil the smile is free and genuine. Likewise the position of the body affects the attitude toward the object of our attention. A child will notice the difference, if first he undertake his problem -with body all lan- guid and ill-supported, and now he pull his body together, making it energetic, even aggressive, toward the task in hand. That the body, if ill-treated, will take venge- ance upon the mind may be illustrated in an- other way. It is not safe even for the health and progress of the mind to interfere with what seems so unmental a fimction as that of right-handed- ness or left-handedness. A left-handed child, if he be compelled continuously to suppress his pref- erence and to act as though he were right-handed, will in some cases show symptoms that are a clear fusion of bodily and mental distress. He may come to stutter and, becoming embarrassed, may incline to remain alone. The original vio- 20 THE INTERPLAY OF MIND AND BODY lation of that which, according to our present knowledge, is an innate advantage of one side of the body, has here disturbed the delicate nervous mechanism of speech and, through that, has changed the color of distant regions of the mind; and reUef has been known to come when the in- terference ceased. We are only at the threshold of our knowledge of the brain and of the inter- relations of brain and mind. It is improbable that a serious effect in one part of the brain-cortex ever leaves the rest of the brain-cortex, or leaves all forms of mental action, unaffected. The change may be greater in one region than in another, but it is perhaps never narrowly circumscribed. But while the body thus influences the mind, the reverse is also true. The eagerness of the child's interest is reflected in his kindly look, his for- ward-bent body; his boredom, his vacant eye, his fidgeting. But in a less passing way the mental condition is all the while helping to build or tear down the body's strength and health. The digestion of food, the rate and depth of breathing, the action of the heart and of the other parts of the system that carries the blood — all these and more are constantly being spurred or reined in — because of what goes on in the mind. 21 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER Healthful interests, healthful enjoyment, freedom from worry, are strength-giving for the mind and body of children as of adults. The effect of emu- lation in school, that within bounds is so whole- some; the hunger for the praise, the dread of the blame, of teacher and parent; — these are rightly kept short of persistent anxiety, espe- cially in the weak and the sensitive. Moreover, certain forms of skill found in professional work would be impossible without strong support from consciousness. A dentist whom I know is of the opinion that the young men among his fellow stu- dents who had character have become the more skillful dentists ; those of weaker stuff did not drive themselves on, but rested with inferior work ; that the one man in a large city who he knew had the greatest reputation for skill had carried through and then taken out the same piece of work six times before he could himself be satisfied with it. How much more is the creative skill of hand of the great sculptors, painters, and musicians connected with extraordinary powers of mind, and not of body only. Yet one might easily from all this expect a more precise accord between certain bodily and mental functions than is actually found: it has not been proved, for example, that success in 22 THE INTERPLAY OF MIND AND BODY manual training points to success in such studies as English, mathematics, or science; those that have unusual skiU of muscular movement do not, as a class, appear to be the ones that have high intellectual ability. It would seem, then, that although we can well expect large mental bene- fits from whatever makes the body well-knit and resistant to disease, yet we can prophesy less surely for the mind from those physical activities that include some particular precision and skill, and which are found to occur, not infrequently, without full strength and health of the body entire. But in spite of these particular excep- tions, it has been found by Mead that normal children as a group are heavier, taller, and stronger of body than are feeble-minded chil- dren. And DoU showed that even within a group of defective children there is a relation be- tween their bodily and their mental measure- ments: as we go down the scale of mental defects, we come to greater physical defects as well. Thus we find reciprocity between mind and body; currents of cause and effect run back and forth between them, bringing consciousness and the nervous system with all the other physical organs into an intercourse that is constant, unit- ing them to make the person one and complete. 23 IV INFLUENCES WITHIN INTELLIGENCE Passing from these evidences that the bodily and the mental functions interplay, let us now ob- serve to what extent the mind's own functions touch one another. We shall see the need, first of all, of knowl- edge. If one is to think effectively of sugar beets or airplane engines, he must study such beets, such engines. But he will not think, effectively upon these if he think of these alone; his interest and his knowledge must widen to the principles of agriculture or of aerodsmamics; and beyond, he will need botany or physics, and chemistry. Chemistry, then, is important for a lad uncer- tain whether he will deal with beets or engines. But what of the boy who does not himself know, and whom no one as yet can tell, whether beets, engines, taxation, tuberculosis, or the Gospel will lie at the center of his thinking in the time to come? Must he give laborious years to all of these and to a thousand things beside, that he may be ready for the day of action? Inevitable and enormous waste is in that direction. He had 24 INFLUENCE WITHIN INTELLIGENCE best be at home in the central studies into which all special subjects lead. These more central studies may be less attractive just because they are more abstract, more remote from some par- ticular work in hand; and for that reason more of art may be needed to make the "practical" youth, hating abstractions, ready to give him- self heartily to their forbidding generalities. The skill of the teacher is displayed in conquests of this kind. General truths, when seen and under- stood, are so much more powerful instruments than are mere particular and detached bits of knowledge, that surrender upon this point will hardly be permitted by any able teacher. Most children prefer to play with an electro-magnet than to ascend from this to the principles of electro-magnetism; prefer to look at striking chemical reactions than to attack with vigor the general truths involved; prefer to draw circles and polygons than to xmderstand geometry. The interest in these general truths is, in a sense, less natural, more a matter of civilization, and has to be imposed upon the child by a kind of con- tagious interest felt by another who can see the endless applications of what is imiversal. One has to fortify himself with the stern conviction of this, in order to resist those who see only the at- 25 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER tractiveness of an endless list of particular studies of nature and of handicraft and who would urge them to such a pitch that there is no firm grasp of the sciences which deal with principles. Partic- ular and general ideas conjoined is our need; er- rors of practice are thus avoided; economy of ac- tion is reached. Judd foimd, in striking at a tar- get under water where refraction had to be al- lowed for, that those who were instructed in the principles of refraction had the advantage over those who merely kept at their interesting target practice without instruction. And in the experi- ments upon neatness it will be remembered that the neatness spread to other work when there was presented the general idea of neatness and of its value as a universal trait. Ideas, then, are guides, are directors of habit; in them is com- pacted wisdom, and whoever tries to do without a good stock of them foregoes the advantage which comes from the experience of the race. They per- meate the special fimctions which seem so sepa- rate, and bind them into a common plan and use. The organizing effect of such ideas helps one to escape that pseudo-education given by books of ten thousand facts, which is so attractive to scattered wits. But with knowledge, with the ideas, the lad 26 INFLUENCE WITHIN INTELLIGENCE wiU need certain established habits of mind that are not knowledge or ideas; such as Abraham Lincoln had, who must " bound " every impor- tant idea he would use, never at ease until he saw clearly what limited it on north; south, east, and west, with no borders lost in the mist. Such a habit is of use for any idea and for anybody. Because it is not the whole of reason we must not be blind to the part it can play in reason, im- , mensely wide, even universal in its sweep. Then other habits are part of right intellectual equip- ment: controlled attention to the task in hand; energetic attack upon it; accuracy in interpret- ing, remembering and reporting what is seen or read or heard; the power to distinguish important and unimportant. These are part of intellectual training; these and other things take the place of the few faculties of the older belief. They stand out significant to an eye bewildered by the end- less array of special functions which for some are the only things left. These wide and superior powers call for training, and the lad who has them trained has an incalculable advantage over every lad in whom they remain untrained. There is cheer at this point for the teacher, the parent, discouraged by the child's talent for for- 27 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER getting what has been pamfully taught. Under the old creed which laid such stress upon mem- ory, and even vmder the new with its stress upon "contents," there seems here but wasted effort. But we can now demonstrate experimentally that virtue may go into even the adept forgetter; power once developed remains even though upon, the moment's examination the mind seems to have lost all its contents. Thomas Hanna, after a brain injury by a blow upon his head, lost alH the detailed knowledge from both life and school- i ing; his " education " had in a certain sense been knocked out of him. And yet it remained, since he rapidly relearned what he had lost. So, too, the normal person, after disuse of the tjqpewriter for years, so that nearly all the original skill seems gone, needs but a small part of the original prac- tice to restore the whole. And the same seems to be true of poetry once learned and apparently qxiite forgotten. This is evidence that educa- ^on^goes..de^]e£jthaELJii£iBQ£y and gives power that cannot be lost. The measure of accomplish- ment is now known to lie, not solely in what the child can recollect, but also in an imparted abil- ity, temporarily become latent, but ready witH little effort to be brought to full express)rai. This is a fact of cheer to weary workers. 28 EMOTION AND MENTAL ENERGY But were we now to look to the energy of the mind, we should find something of wider bearing, evident not only in our thinking, but in every form of will. This energy makes itself known in the strength of the man's attention, in the vigor of his intellectual attack, and, out beyond intel- ligence, in his endurance, in the impact and tenac- ity of his purpose. Its amount is not the same as the amount available, which suffers changes not due merely to the ups and downs of health. Some crisis, as all know from James's essay on "The Energies of Men," may open a hidden res- ervoir from which power now flows into a man's every act. In the World War, men and women who had before been working to their utmost, suddenly assumed duties that trebled their task. The occasion, the solemn public demand, worked in them so that energy came forth to meet the need. No new fimction may have been called to life, but rather the long-familiar acts felt an ac- cess of energy — as an electric light, burning dull, suddenly receives fresh current, and leaps into 29 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER brilliance. In this store of energy connected with all functions, whether they be special or general, we have an intimation of the mind as of another plan than has too often been taught. It is not a mere composite of general faculties, nor a composite of particular functions, but something single and yet varied, holding together all func- tions, and energizing them with a common life. Now, if we were to ask as to the sources of energy, we should be led close to the emotions, where are found changes deep and wide that reveal new possibilities in education. For the fruit of every one^of our intellectual powers is markedly affected by the emotions be- hind them and interfused with them. There is a whole group of passions which in certain forms and intensities are strength-giving, are energetic — hope, for example, and gladness and anger: to these we should doubtless look for the cause of that opening of the gates of energy in crises when energy is our sorest need. They make and unmake the man. They hold our powers together; they disorganize and disrupt. The war brought new illustrations of this, where emotional stress and strain, without wounds, caused soldiers to be blind and deaf, tunable to speak even their own 30 EMOTION AND MENTAL ENERGY names, great stretches of their past a blank to them. A like influence of emotion upon the total organization of the mind has long been observed in hysteria, with its f imctional blindness and deaf- ness, its functional paralyses, its disturbance of memory and of the very feeling of one's identity. In all these cases something beneath the special functions has broken, and for the time their cun- ning is gone. Their life, then, is clearly not in themselves; in part at least it wells up from deeper sources. But far short of these violent disturbances, we may see the emotions, the feelings, the moods, widely influencing the mind. The effect of emo- tion upon judgment is notorious: according as we like or dislike a person, will his acts be differently interpreted; according as we are elated or de- pressed will a task seem easily within or quite beyond our powers. For this reason children whose vitaUty is low cannot be expected to enter upon their work with normal interest and zeal. It seems probable that emotional depres- sion hinders the power to recollect, and that rec- ollection improves with a Ufting of the emo- tional level. Strange to say, emotion even works backward, increasing or diminishing our power to recollect what occurred before, as well as 31 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER during, the emotion itself. A knowledge of these interconnections makes for tolerance: the teacher's, the parent's own judgment is subject to fluctuations due to abundance or want of cheer. Health and buoyancy in the teacher, health and buoyancy in the taught, multiply the power avail- able. Some experiments in our laboratory have a bearing upon matters of the school, showing that surroundings clearly influence the power to learn. Students were set by Dr. Brown the task of solving a series of problems, working day after day, all at the same series of problems. Half of the youths worked one at a time in a room neatly carpeted, orderly, bright, and with a cheer- ful outlook. The other half were required to work one at a time in a room with bare floors, dingy, chaotic with odds and ends of apparatus, well lighted from above, but with no outlook. Those who had the pleasanter surroundings greatly outdistanced their competitors. It en- courages us to think that schoolrooms, study- rooms at home, if made pleasant, give more than pleasure itself; they increase the work accom- plished, the fruit of the effort. And in a dif- ferent experiment the effect of the emotional at- 32 EMOTION AND MENTAL ENERGY titude of the worker showed its effect. A score or more of youths had singly been set by Mrs. McCharles the same problems to solve; half of the workers were charged to regard each task as something well-disposed to them and to be met in as friendly a spirit as possible ; the other half were to regard the work as an enemy that must be at- tacked with anger. The latter spirit, in a group of students otherwise not superior to their com- petitors, brought much larger success in the work. With animals in our laboratory it is found, by stu- dents under Dr. Tolman's direction, that a mild penalty attached to each mistake shortens the process of learning — an incentive more in favor with an older generation of schoolmasters, and which I here report " without recommendation." Nor would all be willing to imitate that similar use of the emotions as an aid to learning, reported by Benvenuto Cellini, when his father, showing him a salamander in their household fire, beat the lad lest he forget the rare experience. Emotions never know their place; they wander and make strange transfers and associations. They appear in imexpected places. A yoimg woman whom I know came near drowning upon a moonlit night some years ago; and now upon any 22 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER night when the moon is bright the old distress in awakened form returns, there is an echo of the agony of her struggle. So far as this goes it tends to disturb and hinder the free expression of power. In a wider and beneficent way, we know that love may quicken the thought, the imagina- tion, the purposes, of the lover; "fresh life has pulsed through all his powers. The play of emotion thus reveals the mind. If its powers seem stubbornly specialized and sepa- rate and insulated, this is true only in part and for the surface. Deep within we find free inter- course, free circulation. For all its particular- ized abilities, then, the mind is whole and fluid. A pasaon acts in it like a drop of strong chemical, that causes ebullition or precipitation throughout the whole. We cannot afford to neglect these imiversal potencies. The sect called Christian Scientists, with its eye upon some of these ener- gizing emotions, shows that the neglect is being noted and avenged. And the growing attention to play is something of a belated redress. We once thought that health and mental vigor needed mere muscular contractions, so many f oot-poimds of exercise fer diem. The spirit of play in the exercise is the secret elixir, and with it apparently the exercise can almost be spared. Some day we 34 EMOTION AND MENTAL ENERGY shall know how much the great and balanced workers owe to their power to play — in mind if not in body. Wilson, like Lincoln, enjoyed the theater; and humor was a grace of each. With a right grasp of the mind's character the emo- tions will come into their own. They are not mere disturbers, mere ornaments; they decide whether the abilities shall be blocked or set free. Time and some impatience will bring us to share the conviction of the wise physician. Sir James Crichton-Browne, that in all education the emo- tions need uncommon care; that the right and sensitive emotions of the person can alone give effect to his learning and his judgment and his skill of hand. VI THE ORGANIZATION OF IMPULSES AND WILL But the emotions are not alone in need of care. The impulses and the will cry out their own neg- lect. This is the more important, for they too lead us beyond the thought of independent functions and faculties, until we see the mind's worth as something decided largely by the quality of its organization, and we see, too, that this organiza- tion can be directed toward the better or the worse. The neglect and the opportimity here in- vite our full attention. All children, if we look closely at their con- duct, show a niunber of inborn traits — among others, an interest in possessing things, an attach- ment to other persons, a desire to shine in one's own and in others' eyes, a curiosity, a driving to- ward contention and domineering. And accord- ing as these native impulses, similar in all chil- dren and youths, are bound together in one or another way, there result men that stand opposite to one another like day and night. Let us take extremes to see the difference clear. 36 IMPULSES AND WILL In one kind of youth these various impulses act almost in independence. Each pushes toward its goal with hardly a touch from the others; un- checked, the youth drives straight at what he would possess; when curious he prowls and pries without let or hindrance; now he is all affection and generosity, now he is wholly the bully and braggart. In another youth these impulses are made the slaves of one of their roughest number. The in- terest in possessions, let us say, or in self-aggran- dizement, has become a ruling passion; and if curiosity is still alive, it lives only to serve this master. In still a third youth the impulses are strong and united, but in a freer way, keeping watch upon one another; no one of them can stir with- out ears pricked up in all the rest; and its behav- ior is subject to their urging and restraint. But our present youth is, indeed, a fortunate youth, for in Him the sense of attachment to others, expanded and refined into obligation, speaks the last word to all the competing interests. Curi- osity is free, the love of admiration, the love of property, is free, and is encouraged to fresh life; each may summon the rest to its assistance; but always this free life is within the wide bounds 37 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER fixed by respect for other persons. Such a mind is not in chains; its love of distinction is not dead, neither is it inordinate; there is a desire to shine, but not at any cost or in any manner. Instead of vanity and lie craving for notoriety (the rank growth of aggrandizement in fops and in some criminals), the love of admiration has been trained to fine strength. The native impulses have been brought to their place and proportion, each active, each tempered by its neighbors, each contributing to the right expression of the whole, each trained like the soldiers of the Tenth Le- gion both to command and to obey. Such training is both private and social. The individual is enriched and also the community. For in a man so trained the instincts that either devastate or upbuild our common life, the in- stincts of pugnacity and of sex, have become not enemies, but friends of the general good. Disloy- alty to this great interest, even that exceptional treachery which takes the form of crime, is usu- ally from neglect or misguidance. Few, if any, men are born with truly tmgovemable passions. The criminal is usually one in whom the right relation, the righForganization, of his own deep promptings has been possible, but has never been attained. He has remained uneducated, even 38 IMPULSES AND WILL though his mind may have heen filled with use- ful knowledge — used in his case for perverse ends. It is thus evident that the mind is not a mere assembling of powers side by side; it is an organ- ization of powers, some within others, some rul- ing others, using others as their instruments. There is a hierarchy of functions; and we must see to the regnant ones, making sure that the right impulsions rule, and that they are also made skillfvd and given concrete knowledge so that they may rule aright. Now, the possibility and the need of care and organization of these deep impulses, called in- stincts, until they attain a right form of will, hardly appear in many a picture of the mind. Neither a group of independent faculties nor a group of independent functions reveals this con- stitution and opportunity. The mental disci- plinarian, all eyes upon observation, memory, and reasoning, would strike into the depths of intel- lect, but misses those still lower depths of the affection, the instincts, and the will. Advocates of "contents" declare that the^mind needs no care for its form and organization; it needs only to be filled. Such a mistake is not made by Wil- li DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER liam James when he says that "there is reason to suppose that if we often flinch from making an effort, before we know it the effort-making capac- ity will be gone"; and that "the man who has daily inured himself to habits of concentrated attention, energetic volition, and self-denial in unnecessary things . . . will stand like a tower when everything rocks around him, and when his softer fellow-mortals are winnowed like chaff in the blast." We might well regard the mind as inviting, and indeed requiring, not only particular training and useful information, but also a profound re- directing and strengthening of its inner order, not wholly tmUke religious conversion. Such a change will usually not be sudden or marked by emotional storm, but gradually and in calm there will come a new perception and a new attachment of the affections and a striving toward a new goal. Something like this is in Plato's thought, that true education is that which leads us to love what we ought to love and to hate what we ought to hate from the beginning to the end. Changes in the direction of the affections, even changes that seem instantaneous, are not con- fined to religion, but are general possibilities of our nature. A friend of mine, working ably in 40 IMPULSES AND WILL science, veered round to poetry, which there- after remained his chief and lifelong interest. Another man, a successful merchant, was con- verted to learning, and selling all that he had, began years of further schooling. The interest which in such cases turns the man around has of course not been created on the instant; it was ac- tive all the while, but subordinate; and the con- version is but the final stage of a long struggle within. A new ordering of old interests and impulses has at last come, and a new stabiUty is the result — as with an iceberg that by long melting below the ocean's surface must find a lost balance, and with a plimge shows to the air a new side. Such changes with most of us, when they occur, are less cataclysmic, although no less real and profoimd. They are invited in early childhood and in the years when school and college are working in us good or ill. No system of educa- tion can afford to miss them and the constitution of the mind which they imply. The mind as we study it begins to reveal an immensity and an inner life hardly dreamt of by many who repeat solemnly what they take to be the final word of science. Each man's mind is doubtless as varied and deep and wide, in its own way, as is the phys- .41 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER ical world. Its soundings and its sweep will for- ever exceed description, yet we can already dimly discern some of the forces that bind and move and strain the whole, a view which does not contra- dict but corrects those who notice only what is local and minute. VII THE CARE OF THE EMOTIONS But some, while admitting that the corrected ac- coxmt of the mind may be truer to the facts, will deny that it is. important for education. We must forever go on storing the mind and exercis- ing its separate functions or faculties, they would hold, not because this alone is good, but because this alone is possible. "How can we unlock the child's reservoir of energy?" they will ask; "How are we to make his emotions strengtJi-givers in- deed and not his ruin? Is it possible to enter among his wild instincts, leaving them no longer to howl in anarchy or under despotism, but to be a commonwealth governed freely by the best?" It will require genius here as elsewhere to re- veal fully what is admirable and fit for the work — genius that, when it comes, will make all that has gone before seem mere groping. Yet even now we can see something of the way along which we must go. Let me set down, almost as in a for- mal catalogue, particulars close to practice that promise to be of use in dealing with the emotions. 43 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER 1. Emotions are of two kinds: strength-giving, sthenic emotions, like cheer, self-confidence, good- will, love; and the strength- taking, asthenic emo- tions, like fear, shame, gloom. Even the weak- ening emotions have their place and use ; there are times when we should be checked in mid-career. Yet such emotions are good only by exception and for a short time. The strength-giving emo- tions are for long and steady use; they add impe- tus, they put driving force into the machinery of interest and purpose. These are the emotions of the child which we should strive to make endur- ing. 2. What shall be the dominant emotions of the child will depend in part upon the condition of his body: upon freedom from disease; upon suitable food; upon physical exercise, including work that is measured to his strength; and upon sufficient and regular sleep. There is a natural cheer in children; they normally will have the strength- giving emotions if the hindrances to such emo- tions are removed. 3. But much will count beside bodily condi- tion. A teacher who is happy can hardly have unhappy pupils; an irritable teacher will hardly have them other than cheerless and perplexed. Children catch more than learning; they catch 44 THE CARE OF THE EMOTIONS the emotions of those about them. They are im- itative; they feel, even when they cannot fathom, the good-will, the hope, the want of interest, the depression, of the teacher, 4. But besides example and imitation, there are ways to arouse admiration, confidence, cheer, and affection. Words of encouragement and ap- preciation, an occasional bit of merriment, a good- natured pleasantry even to drag from some dis- affected one a smile, a zeal for the children and for their work — these, when added to the rec- ognized teacher-abilities, help to give an under- tone of joy in the work. Children's healthy ad- miration for the teacher, and honest pride in her person and power, is not to be despised. Stanley, when in darkest Africa, felt that he must look to his person and dress, even to hold his black fol- lowers. Trivial means may increase prestige and give a buoyant confidence that difficulties are su- perable, which adds to the power actually to over- come them. 5. There should be those externals that give a sense of pleasing order in the room without crowding and distraction; there should be simple and harmonious ornament by wall-tinting and pictures and flowers. Cheery lighting with a pleasant garden or wooded outlook may at times 45 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER coax interest away from studies, but it will in the end repay in added energy for the work. 6. Irresponsible enjo)rment of fine things, en- joyment directly sought and without ulterior mo- tive, is worth the having. Pictures, instrumen- tal music, songs, poetry, stories, and plays, if beautiful, are their own excuse for being; and the child should be encoiu:aged to enjoy them, with- out tricking him through them into learning. If children can be taught to sing with pleasure some melodies of Bach's (as I have seen it done by little children at Mrs. Hocking's school at Cam- bridge), I should prefer to leave it unknown to them who Bach was or when or where he lived or any other fact of him or his music that the chil- dren imprompted did not care to know. Where fine appreciation is forever subordinated to the art of wedging knowledge into the mind, a large end is defeated. We must multiply and keep open the channels of right pleasure, of right ap- preciation, as having an equal place with knowl- edge. 7. Imagination and courtesies are a means to heighten sjonpathy and pleasure. Only by im- agination can one see through the opaque cov- ering of many a stranger, into the life beneath. Fairy tales are an early way to know that appear^ 46 THE CARE OF THE EMOTIONS ance may belie reality, that the hunchback may be a prince in disguise, the toad an enchanted maiden. Imaginative stories supplement ac- quaintance, giving pleasure from unaccustomed goodness and evil, showing without disastrous ex- perience the right opportimities for fear and con- fidence, for love and hate. Maimers, courtesies, are also a stimulant to appreciation, as symbols of respect and good-will. While they may be but empty insincerity, they will normally suggest the value of others and will soften the asperities of self-interest which youth is apt to show. 8. The fine arts should be attempted and prized for their hidden effect within the child, and far less or not at all for some external product de- lightful to observers. Moreover, in plays or in dramatic singing, besides the delight of the chil- dren in the immediate performance, and the taste which will open to them new delights, something may be expected from assigning the parts so as not to give the most admirable result to the audi- ence. I mean that while a blithe girl might more skillfully take a happy r61e, yet it would be shrewd to give the part to one who needs the gayety, let- ting some one well grounded in happiness play at solemnity or gloom. Those especially should try to sing who have no promise of voice, those paint 47 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER who never will be able to paint. Youthful at- tempts at the violin and sketching which come to nothing, I can testify, may make music and land- scape constant sources of deUght. Not, then, by their fruits visible to others are these childhood practices to be judged, but by what they leave behind concealed in the permanent springs of appreciation. 9. Emotions, if they are to be steady strength- eners of the mind, must become silent habits of emotion. An emotion is of little service that is a passing ebullition; it must become a durable trend, a lasting sentiment. Only occasionally will a situation arise that needs a passionate out- pouring, fire and fury or ecstasy. And as for habits of emotion, they are knit up with habits of emotional expression, with habits of smiling, laughing, frowning, pouting, and the like. To attack or to build stronger the emotion-habit, one may well attack or fortify the emotional expres- sion, making the scowler stop scowling, making the pout give way to a smile, even though it be at first galvanic. Youths and adults, even teachers, may gain by some suggestion to themselves of the feeling that should be there. They will learn, too, that iu choosing one's associates — of per- sons, books, plays, or music — one is choosing 48 THE CARE OF THE EMOTIONS also in some degree the hue of his own feeling. Persons inclined to melancholy will hardly profit by books or friends that hang the heavens with black. Teachers should occasionally read Lea- cock and Lamb and Uncle Remus, and leave to the humorists the works of Schopenhauer and the whole tribe of the prophets of despair. VIII INSTINCTS WILD AND TAME But the emotions cannot be separated from the instincts, nor these from the will. All are dis- tinctions within the total life, and if the full mind is to be made effective, we must sketch some plan of action that drives hard into the realm of pur- pose. Can something here be suggested for those bent upon deeds and weary of theory and discus- sion? A few things should perhaps be set down, I. To train the child's will we must have in it the great natural driving forces, but have these made beneficent. Each of the great native de- sires or impulses which we already have con- sidered — the impulse to have property, to shine before others and to lord it over them, to feel their power and to humble ourselves before them, to quarrel, to love wife or husband, to love child, parent, and friend — each of these great forces is needed for its energy. Nor is each a rigid and intractable thing; it can be modified, can be ed- ucated, and through it the others can be reached. Indeed, each becomes safe and civil only by bind- ing it into a system with the others, having them check and subdue it, compelling it to have outlet 50 INSTINCTS WILD AND TAME and expression only with them. Let us consider some of these great impulses and see how the desired end is to be reached. 2. The passion for having and collecting things can be carried up into a love of great possessions. Birds' eggs, butterflies, minerals, and endless other things, may, with youths too solitary or self-centered, be made a way of entrance into companionship with those interested in like ob- jects, and into sharing with new-found friends; with others, in whom taste or precise observa- tion would be increased, they can be made to lead into drawing, painting, and literary description; with the joyless and all others, into an interested pleasure in the places and setting of the collected objects, a pleasure in trees, streams, mountains, and all nature that cannot be collected or appro- priated. Starting as a narrow eagerness — a sheer cupidity, a passion to grasp and make many things mine and to exclude others from them — this greed is led on until it finds itself a delight freed from this exclusiveness, a delight in what is beautiful or wild, a delight in conversation, in friendship, in goods that are not subject to greed and amassing. Those who would civilize the possessive and commercial passion early can here find opportunity. SI DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER 3. Self -appreciation, the desire to win admira- tion, must keep its strength and be disciplined into right ambition. In its early form it is a crude love of attention, and it may, if continued, become an itch for notoriety of any kind. But it need not remain base. It can be a wholesome sat- isfaction in one's own physical strength, and then a pleasure in one's wiU rather than strength, thence passing to skill of mind valued above deft- ness, imtil satisfaction is chiefly in the finer uses to which such spiritual skill can be put. This, when attained, delights to add to the things that are prized lastingly, and the early vanity of am- bition has disappeared. Gladstone, we are told by John Morley, urged the students of Edin- burgh to seek distinction, to gain reputation through true excellence. The power of ambi- tion is thus used without its sting. 4. Self-abasement and pugnacity must also be there, trained into loyalty. The child's sense of insufficiency, of the masterful importance of others, which early appears as bashf ulness before elders, and as " tagging after " those whose sta- tion is less imposing, may be guided into fealty. Boys find their heroes in men of strength and skill; in wrestlers, football captains, and mighty hunters. Samson,' young David, Achilles, Liv- 52 INSTINCTS WILD AND TAME ingstone, the hunter Roosevelt, rightly win the youth's attachment. But from prowess the ad- miring look can be reserved for the one who fights a good fight. The search for some one that can enlist the affections thus grows into a search for a cause worthy of one's full devotion and fighting strength, a cause that with time can almost be personified into the captain of one's ^oul. At- tachment can join hands with fine jealousy and pugnacity, and the youth finds himself a volun- teer against vice, against ignorance and disease, against human wastage in mines and factories, or against war; a volunteer in the fight for the wel- fare of children and women, for sanitation, for education, for social and political reform, for in- ternational order and organization. These great ardors, where one forgets himself and emembers only the great enterprise, are in childhood petty enough; and yet the petty forms are to be re- spected for what comes of them. 5. With regard to the sex impulse, more is needed than to satisfy curiosity, good as this may be. This imperious motive strikes into far more than intellect and questioning; it colors and forms imagination, emotion, sentiment, im- pulse, choice, and purpose. What becomes of this passion decides whether the character shall 53 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER be stable and upright or be out of plumb, resting on cracked foundations. Taboo is bad; but bad is it also to leave sex to physiology and hygiene. The whole mind must give it a right place, faced against giggling and prying, against the reading and pictures and conversation that stir and de- grade, welcoming instead a loyal interest and a chivalry toward those of another sex. The high expectations which men have for women, and women for men, are the expression of this spirit; in such forms as these the troublesome impulse has become of right effect. The sex interest can- not be killed by free feeding; hope lies only in control, without fear, and in a free strength given to other interests. To resent coarseness in others helps to free one's self. Examples of such re- sentment in fine characters here will help. Colo- nel Newcome leaving the room in hot indigna- tion when that old reprobate. Captain Costigan, sang a lewd song; that other colonel without fear, Theodore Roosevelt, rebuking a group of his men- hosts in the Northwest, telling them then and there, before all, that to his mind motherhood was not a/ subject for Jest — these will help boys to avoid timid submission to what is gross, will elevate their interests and give courage. 6. The kindly attachments which nm between 54 INSTINCTS WILD AND TAME parent and child, brother and brother, friend and friend, need to come into wide good-will. The circle of affection which at first is narrowed to family and close companions must be widened to include in the mild yet strong sentiment of friend- liness what is below, far out at one's own level, and above. The fabric of society comes from this quiet activity. Here, too, imagination enriched by acquaintance and by indirect experience through the reading of novels, biography, history, and poetry, may be joined with some overt sug- gestion, by teacher and parent, of what is hidden in the stranger. Pets, also, are educators of the affections and are occasions of angry defense, which is also a healthy expression of good-will. 7. These lacks in the passions show how far we must be carried beyond the regions of usual schooling and intelligence. No tests as yet strike in here. The talented youth who comes to naught; the unbrilliant youth who comes to great achievement; the apathetic child; the timid child, of "broken will"; — these and a host of other incompletions reveal how much is needed in ed- ucation besides what is commonly included either in mental discipline or in information. Educa- tion must deal solidly with the sources of the mind's power, in emotion and will. 55 IX EXERCISES FOR THE WILL With this glance at the savage instincts become civilized, one may well turn to the will, ask what a strong will really is, and by what forging it has its temper. 1. And first we shall see that there are three features in a will that is trained, and that we must not thiak too exclusively of its sheer force. Violent, stormy children and adults have ample force, yet with wills imdisciplined. An effective will has vigor; but, besides, it has steadiness; and, still more, Tightness of aim. The will is not schooled until it has been brought to right meas- ure in all these three respects, so that it is at once forcible, imswerving, and aimed a little above the very center of the target. 2. Steadiness has ten times the worth of sheer weight of blow. A friend of mine, a mere child, standing on the dock at Lake Tahoe, and lean- ing against a vessel there, gradually and without knowing it pushed the vessel away until she fell into the water. Had she rushed against the craft, she might have dashed herself to pieces S6 EXERCISES FOR THE WILL without budging it. So with the mind ; the child's will is the wind's will, at first gusty and variable, until it can blow true, like the trades. Steadiness not only has ten times the efEect of violence, it is ten times more readily attained. We can expect by training to make the will constant, where we can do little to alter its original force of attack. Let us then carry our admiration from the strong to the constant will. "It's dogged as does it!" 3. Steadiness of will means power to do the irk- some, to resist the lure of the easy and the com- fortable. The child must be psychically tough- ened, ready to defy his present sensations. Spartan youths were taught to stand pain. Their Athenian critic said that they and all other lads had better be taught to stand pleasure where character so often breaks down. This does not mean that there is no need to enlarge the cir- cle of the agreeable; or that, with Mr. Dooley, it does not matter what you study so long as you hate it. More tasks can be made pleasant, but there will remain many unpleasant tasks that should not be avoided. The world will soon enough assign work which will be distasteful and must for success be labored into and through. Young Grenfell taking to 'the North Sea and then to Labrador, yoimg Lincoln training himself where- 57 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER all was uninviting — such men show the spare sinews of the will contemptuous of the merely pleasant. 4. Within reason, a decision once made should be held to tooth and nail. It may be that the purpose should be changed, but there should be prejudice against this. In general we can trust a child to adjust his will to new evidence, new ex- perience, new opportunities; we can less securely trust him to escape the loss from that common trick of the mind by which upon committiag one's self to a course, whatever it be, that course comes to seem rough and sunless. The vacillation which results is wasteful from the start, and grows to a habit of (dropping things hardly begun. Children in whom this fickleness is not trained out, grow into men and women forever remodel- ing their houses before they are half-built. 5. Interruptions will occur; the will must swing back to its old direction, like a compass needle when the obstruction goes. Steadiness of will can in practice never mean an unbroken advance to the goal. It means a forgetting of the break, a homing again and again. Exercises could and should be conceived to bring the child spontaneously and of habit back to the imfinished work, to keep active in his subconsciousness the S8 EXERCISES FOR THE WILL old interest, ready to stand forth and summon him back to what is incomplete. Discouragement because of interruption i,is disastrous and avoid- able; it should be forestalled by becoming expect- ant of breaks, and prepared to meet them on their own ground. 6. Will depends upon habits of muscular ac- tion and of thinking, along with habits of feeling and emotion. An effective will requires the sup- port of an organized group of habits, habits of hand, of speech, of weighing and deciding, of steady attachments and aversions, in a thousand forms and directions. Will has built into it hab- its; and imless they be for us they will be against us. No one can conquer who has not an army of such helpers that can be depended upon — no more than can a general, a genius in strategy, but without troops. 7. There must be a right direction of the will. It is not enough that the will be powerful and un- swerving. The himter of steady aim must aim at the right thing; and not, as did one in the Sierra, who wounded a friend of mine, mistaking him for a bear! Napoleon, Bismarck, of almost irresist- ible purpose, lacked some powerful ingredient to complete their will. The defect is not so much a failure to see the facts, as a failure to appraise the 59 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER facts seen; a true scale of valuation is lacking. Until this is supplied by an imparting of taste, morals, and religion, the will has only a form of training, and lacks substance. Without wisdom, then, the will is a powerful instrument whose effect is all insecure. Guidance must enter into the constitution of will; its impxilses must be sub- ject to a love of the Best. 8. The desired qualities of will should be sought not alone by maxim, encouragement, and command; graded exercises there should be, suited to the age of the child. Parents and teachers might well invent and assign things to be done, rewarding in themselves, and chosen, perhaps, from cooking, drawing, modeling, painting, act- ing, reading, or any other of a hundred things — but now used in order to make habitual the right ways of purpose, applicable in any work. These right ways might here be set down, with 'another purpose than was guiding us earlier in this sec- tion, as: (a) suitable forethought; (6) speed and energy of attack, once the decision is made; (c) perseverance in what is undertaken; (d) economy of action, elimination of waste effort, "form"; (e) excellence of result in the product; (J) restora- tion of order when the work is done, putting away of tools and materials, clearing and clean- 60 EXERCISES FOR THE WILL ing up. Each of these six phases of the process should receive due attention, — perhaps one at a time, as Benjamin Frankhn practiced the vir- tues, — but recurring, and with different degrees of difficulty. There should be brief explanation before and after the fact, that the idea of what is sought should come with the practice, and should help to make the practice itself more fruitful and ready to reappear spontaneously in new places. And whatever is approved elsewhere as a means to interest and progress might be used here; if "marks," rewards, praise, or rivalries are good to spur on in niunbering or writing or any other study, this present learning to will aright is as worthy of their incentive. 9. As an exercise in suitable forethought, the following might serve as a door to something bet- ter. There is, let us say, but ten minutes left, and the child must choose between cutting some design in paper and making candy; and the choice is then appraised, with explanation, according as the child has stopped to think, to look ahead, be- fore deciding. Or, again, having at hand only some modeling wax, a pair of scissors, and some very narrow strips of thin colored paper, one must decide whether to build a paper house or make the figure of a dog. Or still again, the 61 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER child, without actual materials at hand and with the use only of his imagination, must say — with no change of vote permitted — which line of con- duct is suitable, either in cases like those Just given, or where some one of a thousand other sit- uations is described — where, perhaps, a child has visiting playmates who have come walking from afar and up a long steep hill; shall they at first play "authors" or play "tag"? lo. For an exercise in persistence, the child, having started upon something which he him- self, perhaps, has chosen, is "marked," is praised or left impraised, according to the full constancy with which he continues to its end the work in hand. For the earlier and easier steps in such an exercise, that can be matched in its duration and in all else to the child's years and progress, there will be an absence of intentional distraction and temptation that must be resisted; there wiU be enough to contend with in the spontaneous prompting to slow up, to stop, to do something else. But when self-control has reached its proper pitch, the set task will be to continue without remission when things lie at hand to play with, or when the other children are at attractive work or at play. If it is known beforehand to be a trial of constancy, joyously announced as a 62 EXERCISES FOR THE WILL chance to show the stuff one is made of, with praise and reward waiting on success, the child can delight to stand the test, as a young Redskin schooled and glad to endure pain. Good workers often seem to need something to struggle against, some challenge that wakes and nerves them to put their muscles and brain in fighting trim. With fuller mastery there must also be actual inter- ruptions, with free return to the work as soon as possible. Power to remember and re-attack work broken into is central to all excellence. I II. It is clear that a will fully trained is in truth a character trained. It is an organization of many, indeed all, of our different impulses, na- tive and acquired, colored by all our conscious interests and affections, colored and guided by experience and knowledge and formulated princi- ples of action. All the parts and forces of will should come within our planning, should be dealt with by a system that draws from the imagina- tion and from the findings of careful experiment. Many and great are the trained will's require- ments: to be intelligent, escaping at once the missteps that come from stupidity and from in- experience; to be self-reliant, yet receiving the help of others which no one can forego; to be a seeker of possessions, but mainly of the kind that 63 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER no one can steal; to be cheerful and of good-will; to have conscience Ut with knowledge. The teacher's task is thus to remake the child entire, to make of him a person; it is, to use Stevenson's words, a task for all that a man has of fortitude and delicacy. The task is, indeed, difficult and demands the talent of creative artists. Not in one generation nor in two will the means be discovered and brought to bear. But whatever comes of the best family life or of forttmate friendships or of great public opportunity and need — whatever comes to the mind's benefit from these is clearly within the aim of right education. Whatever can be wrought by happy environment can in some measure be wrought by the school, which is an environment planned and chosen. The result may be of less amoimt than comes from beyond school, but it need have no different quality. And most of all where the world beyond school promises the child not the best, but only the worst family Ufe, with no fortunate friendships and only the bleak prospect of factory and mill and mine, then is the demand insistent that we neglect nothing that will even slightly remake the mind into what is right and whole. Men per- severed at aviation from the days of Daedalus, 64 EXERCISES FOR THE WILL closing their ears to the wagging gray-beards who cried "impossible." An honored professor of mine, a physicist of distinction, used to demon- strate to us that the attempt to make a flying ma- chine was absurd; even as others had proved that slavery was part of the eternal ordinance of God. But once recognize the demand, and the inven- tive will of man is indomitable. So in education we shall have faith in things to come; we shall welcome aU manner of experimental schools, es- pecially those which look steadily to true under- standing and to the will and the affections, out of which are the issues of Hfe. Effectively to love what ought to be loved and to hate what ought to be hated requires, not heart alone, but brain and hand and tongue. X ESTABLISHING GOVERNMENT IN THE MIND The education that is needed will touch the per- son, part and entire, body and spirit, running through senses, memory, understanding, affec- tions, and will. It will not frown "upon special activities; they are facts which, if neglected by any plan, will grind it to powder. The school, then, will take particular fimctions in hand, practicing them to do their work. There will be no reluctance to give substantial knowledge to the child, without which his action will be blind. But going beyond the empty exercise of intellec- tual powers, while valuing them and the knowl- edge that should be had, it will, above all, look to the total organization, the foundation, the great stresses and strains in the structure of the person. The relation of this to the rival assertions which were early examined and found disappoint- ing, is perhaps thus entirely clear; but it may be illustrated from the human body which, with all its separate organs and special functions, must attain a unity which is not there from the begin- ning, so that ear serves eye, eye hand, hand lips. 66 GOVERNMENT IN THE MIND The interrelations of these members are multi- plied and strengthened; they are stirred and con- trolled by hidden glands, by nerves, by brain that is both servant and master of them all. Powers are present which no one of us can outright cre- ate, but by taking thought we extend, contract, and modify them into harmony and fuller coop- eration. So it must be with the whole person. His to- tal nature must not escape us, lost in particulars. The child is a living system of many powers, powers not side by side, indifferent, mosaic-like. He cannot be taken and educated piecemeal. The forces that drive through his whole being, that make or unmake him, must never be lost to view. It will be clear that there is no special virtue in doing what is mtrinsically useless, although poetry may be as useful as typewriting. But the sinews of the mind caEt strengthen on what is of service and delight, of which there is enough, without incessant treadmill work. Better to paint the ship, for discipline, than to knock rust off the anchor. There is, in the view here attained, aid and comfort for those who would interconnect the 67 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER different sides of schooling, making each interest of the child, each subject studied, enrich and kindle the rest: making literature add to history and geometry, and receive from them ; while music and drawing and acting inspire them all. Going thus far, one can go farther, contriving subjects and situations and exercises that do not scatter, but unite, bringing the child's interests into more perfect order, making his will to be of steady and wise power. In all this we must hold fast to the good, while hospitable toward the imtried. When we are offered a new lamp for an old, we must rub the new to see how much of the old Aladdin magic it contains. Let us have the new with the least loss. The cry for special training is a cry also for specialists as teachers; and desir- able as they are, they will bear watching; for in choosing them, the temptation will be to ask only what and how much they know. And, as in the new proposal the child is almost forgotten for the things he is to learn, so the stuff of the teacher can too easily disappear behind the bales of informa- tion he offers. Moreover, with specialists it is touch-and-go with their pupils. In the great city schools there is little of the leisurely contact, little of the intimacy, without which the impart- ing of useful knowledge is as sounding brass. The 68 GOVERNMENT IN THE MIND archaic teacher who taught the same children everything that lay between Shakespeare and the rings of Saturn, at least became acquainted with his pupils, and little in him escaped their ferret eyes. Factory methods may be excellent for highly specialized mental functions, but not for the whole strong structure of the mind. Up- building can come only from those that have it, and the demand for it must not weaken in the de- mand for the expert in his field. An erect mind knowing the salient things will do more to quicken and give a right facing to other minds than will a dozen husks of humanity with the entire alpha- bet in capitals after their names. Instead, then, of following whole-heartedly the new lights of education whose gospel is that sub- jects are more important than minds, we shall re- affirm the exact opposite while yet opening the door to the useful. The child is bigger than any- thing he can carry to market. In him is a divin- ity ready for emplo3Tnent, but greater than any employment that he will choose. In fitting the child to his job, we must have a live child left. This means no slighting of details. His general powers must be brought down to particulars, and to particulars that are useful. His thinking will 69 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER not be counted as trained until he can demon- strate, not only some proposition in geometry, but the truths that touch children, women, and men, that touch the life of farm and city, that touch international security. If the child be more than his information, we shall not neglect his taste. He will be sensitive to beauty, but by some toughening of his fiber he will escape daintiness and a repugnance to what is wholesome and of the soil. He will know the way into the enchanted world of music and painting and literature, but with a strengthened grasp of common duty; he will not treat lightly what he owes to family and friend and to plain man everywhere. And he will have reverence. This great com- pletion may not aid him as a producer of com- modities; it may even hinder. But as Dr. Cabot has reminded us that some of the greatest things of life are unhygienic, so we shall not forget that some are uneconomic. Man, as was said of old, is indeed the great amphibian. He suffocates if kept from the upper air. There must be inter- course with uses great and small, but also with that great world which passes judgment upon all use. No symbol does justice to the mysterious re- 70 GOVERNMENT IN THE MIND lation between the mind and him who helps it to its power. The teacher is like a physician, assist- ing at the birth of the mind, the mind which before exists all cramped, not breathing as yet. But he also feeds the mind, hp guides its first steps, he gives it gymnastics, he gives toys and tools. He is the mind's autocrat, bat an auto- crat who knows when revolution is due, and abdicates; so wise that he has provided against anarchy, has trained many for ofl&ce, and has trained others to recognize them, so that self- government moves quietly into the departed ruler's place. No symbol is adequate, but should we not be shrewd bargainers if we exchanged both the image of the stripped athlete with Indian clubs, and the image of the tool-chest well stocked, for the figure of a city-state with its inhabit- ants becoming trained to artisan tasks, trained to build and enjoy parks and museums, the- aters and sanctuaries; trained also to enter and to respect the massive halls of justice and law- making and command? At home in all these broad spaces, he who is bringing into order the great city pauses here for a moment and en- courages, passes on and sits down and patiently guides; and in the end, and with many helpers 71 DEVELOPING MENTAL POWER difEerent from himself and with a favoring for- tune, the republic of the mind is established and unfurls its splendid banner with festival and song. OUTLINE I. IS THE MIND A GYMNASIUM OR A TOOL-CHEST? 1. Importance of knowing the general character of mind i 2. Controversy as to the nature of mind and its training i 3. One view: the discipline of a few general faculties 2 4. Some scientific evidences which undermine this vifcw 2 5. Another view: the training of countless inde- pendent operations 3 6. The educational consequences of this doctrine. . 5 II. DEFECTS IN THE RIVAL ACCOUNTS z. The errors of the mental disciplinarians 7 a. Mental powers are not simple and uniform 7 , b. The deep forces behind intellection are neg- lected 8 c. Powers are infinitely varied and actual knowledge is important 8 3. Errors in the current doctrine of "contents". . 9 a. The mind is active and selective 10 b. Practice effects are not rigidly confined. . . 11 c. The complex and varied nature of our par- ticular responses 14 III, THE INTERPLAY OF MIND AND BODY I. The mind is an organized unit with distinguish- ableparts 18 73 OUTLINE 3. The mind is vitally connected with the body. . . ig a. Whatever influences the body influences the mind 19 h. Muscular expression and mental effective- ness 20 c. The instance of left-handedness 20 3. The body is also vitally influenced by the mind 21 a. Some concrete illustrations 21 IV. INFLUENCES WITHIN INTELLIGENCE 1. Particular and general ideas in educative knowl- edge 24 2. Wide and superior powers gained through trained habits of mind 26 3. Imparted ability is a better measure of education than recollection 27 V. EMOTION AND MENTAL ENERGY 1. The emotional life as an underlying source of energy 29 2. The effect of violent disturbances of the emo- tions 30 3. The influence of ordinary emotional tones 31 4. Environment clearly influences power to learn.. 32 5. Emotions make strong transfers and associa- tions 33 6. The mind, though particularized in abiUty, is whole and fluid 34 VI. THE ORGANIZATION OF IMPULSES AND WILL 1. The impulses and will as neglected opportunity. 36 2. Two extreme types of mental organization 37 74 OUTLINE a. Various impulses acting with considerable independence 37 b. Various impulses subordinated to a ruling passion 37 3. A third and wholesome type of organized mind. 38 4. The care and organization of instincts requires emphasis 39 5. Changes in emotional reorganization may be gradual and calm or sudden and marked 40 VII. THE CARE OF THE EMOTIONS I. Emotions are of two kinds 44 a. The sthenic emotions are for long and steady use 44 b. The asthenic emotions have only a limited and short use 44 9. The dominant emotions of childhood depend in part on bodily condition 44 3. Example and imitation have a profound effect on feeling 44 4. Other special means of giving an undertone of joy to work 45 5. Pleasing order in externals will assist 45 6. The irresponsible enjoyment of fine things is of value 46 7. Imagination and courtesy as aids 46 8. The fine arts should be prized for the pupil 47 9. Worthy emotions must be made into lasting sentiments 48 VIII. INSTINCTS WILD AND TAME I. Making the great natural forces beneficent is will-training 50 75 OUTLINE 2. The'passion for having and coUecting things. . . 51 3. Ambition or the desire to win admiration 52 4. Self-abasement and pugnacity 52 5. The sex impulse S3 6. Personal attachments 54 7. Education must penetrate beyond usual school- ing and intelligence 55 IX. EXERCISES FOR THE WILL I. The three features of a trained will S^ a. Vigor, steadiness, and rightness of aim 56 3. The great value of steadiness of will 56 3. Steadiness of will means power to do the irksome. S7 4. The prejudice against change of decision 58 5. Steadiness of will must anticipate interruptions. 58 6. Will depends upon habits of muscular action and ^ feeling fS9 7. A trained will aims at the right thing 59 8. Desired qualities of will gained through graded exercises 60 9. Practice in suitable forethought 61 10. Developing the trait of persistence , 6a 11. A Will fully trained constitutes character 63 1 2. Education demands the talent of creative artists. 64 X. ESTABLISHING GOVERNMENT IN THE MIND 1. Education looks to the total organization of the person 66 2. It seeks a fuller co5peration of existing powers through their modification 66 3. The child must be educa,ted as a whole, not piecemeal 67 76 OUTLINE 4. There is no special virtue in doing what is in- trinsically useless 67 5. The different sides of schooling require intercon- necting 67 6. The danger of specialists in giving needed special training 68 7. Minds are more important than subjects 69 8. A trained taste, a strengthened sense of duty and reverence 70 9. The true relation between mind and the teacher 71 OTHER BOOKS BY GEORGE M. STRATTON Experimental Psychology and its Bear- ing UPON Culture. London and New York, 1903. Psychology op the Religious Lipe, London and New York, 191 1. Theophrastus and the Greek Physio- logical Psychology before Aristotle. London and New York, 1917. RIVERSIDE EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS Edited by HENRY SUZZALLO Andress's The Teaching of Hygiene in the Grades Atwood's The Theory and Practice of the Kindergarten Bailey's Art Education Betts's New Ideals in Rural Schools Betts's The Recitation Bloomfield's Vocational Guidance of 7outh Cabot's Volunteer Help to the Schools Cole's Industrial Education in the Elementary School Cooley's Language Teaching in the Grades Cubberley's Changing Conceptions of Education Cubberley's The Improvement of Rural Schools Dewey's Interest and Effort in Education Dewey's Moral Principles in Education Dooley's The Education of the Ne'er-Do-Well ^arhart's Teaching Children to Study Eliot's Education for EfSciency Eliot's Concrete and Practical in Modern Education Emerson's Education Evans's The Teaching of High School Mathematics Fairchild's The Teaching of Poetry in the High School Fiske's The Meaning of Infancy Freeman's The Teaching of Handwriting Haliburton and Smith's Teaching Poetry in the Grades Hartwell's The Teaching of History Eaynes's Economics in the Secondary School Hill's The Teaching of Civics Home's The Teacher as Artist Hyde's The Teacher's Philosophy Jenkins's Reading in the Primary Grades Judd's The Evolution of a Democratic School System Kendall and Stryker's History in the Elemental? Grades Kilpatrick's The Montessori System Examined Leonard's English Composition as a Social Problem Lewis's Democracy's High School Maxwell's The Observation of Teaching Maxwell's The Selection of Textbooks Meredith's The Educational Bearings of Modern Psychology Palmer's Ethical and Moral Instruction in the Schools Palmer's Self-Cultivation in English Palmer's The Ideal Teacher Palmer's Trades and Professions Ferry's Status of the Teacher Prosser's The Teacher and Old Age Russell's Economy in Secondary Educatioa Smith's Establishing Industrial Schools Snedden's The Problem of Vocational Education Stockton's Project Work in Education Stratton's Developing Mental Power Suzzallo's The Teaching of Primary Arithmetie Suzzallo's The Teaching of Spelling Swift's Speech Defects in School Childieo Terman's The Teacher's Health Thorndike's Individuality Tuell's The Study of Nations Weeks's The People's School 3416 RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS IN EDUCATION Gmtral BducaUoual Thnry AvEEixi: Psychology for Normal Schools Fkeeman: Experimental Education Freeman: How Children Learn Freeuan: The Psychology of the Common Branches Ferry: Disdpliiie as a School Problem Smith: An Introduction to Educational Sociology Thomas: Training for Effective Study Waddle: An Introduction to Child Psychology History ofEducotiou CuBBERLEY : The History of Education Cdbberley : A Brief History of Education CuBBERLEY : Readings in the History of Education CuBBEELEY : Public Education in the United States Administration and Supervision of Schools Aybes, Williams, Wood : Healthful Schools CuBBEBLEY : Public School Administration Cdbberley : Rural Life and Education HoAG Ain> Teeman : Health Work in the Schools Monroe: Measuring the Results of Teaching Monroe, DeVoss, Kelly: Educational Tests and Meas- urements NuTT. The Supervision of Instruction Rugg: Statistical Methods Applied to Education Sears: Classroom Organization and Control ShowaLter: a Handbook for Rural School OfScers Terman: The Hygiene of the School Child Terman: The Measurement of Intelligence Tebman: The Intelligence of School Children Methods of Teaching BoLENius: Teaching Literature in the Grammar Grades and High School Kendall, Mirice: How to Teach the Fundamental Subjects Kendall, Mirice: How to Teach the Special Subjects Stone: Silent and Oral Reading Trabton: The Teaching of Science in the Elementary School Woofter: Teachiag in Rural Schools Secondary Education Briggs: The Junior High School iNOLis: Principles of Secondary Education Snedden: Problems of Secondary Education Thomas: The Teaching of English in the Secondary School HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 1724 HOW TO STUDY AND TEACHING HOW TO STUDY By F. M. McMURRY Professor of Elementary Education, Teachers College Columbia University Every teacher, student, and parent should read this book, — perhaps the most funda- mentally important educational book that has recently appeared. Some of the questions which are fully and helpfully answered in the book: Why young people have not been learning to study effectively. The changes necessary to be made in the schools in order that they may learn to study properly. How the large amount of waste in home study can be prevented. How adults should study. To what extent children have the native capa- city and experience necessary for fruitful study. What can be done towards teaching even the youngest children to form the right habits of study. HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY PROBLEMS OF CONDUCT BY DURANT DRAKE Professor qf Philosophy, Vassar Cottegt An Introductory Survey of Ethics The Boston Transcript says: "It is the great merit of Professor Drake's book that it moves always in a concrete sphere of life as we daily live it. It never moralizes, it never lays down obiter dicta, it simply talks over with us our personal problems pre- cisely as a keen, experienced, and always sympathetic friend might do. Through and through scientific and scholarly, it is never academic in method and matter." PROBLEMS OF RELIGION BY DuRANT Drake This book, like Professor Drake's Problems of Conduct, represents a course of lectures given for several years to undergraduates of Wesley an Univer- sity. Their aim is to give a rapid survey of the field, such that the man who is confused by the chaos ol opinions on these matters, and himself but little able to judge between conflicting statements, may here get his bearings and see his jvay to stable belief and energetic .action. ' HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 1929 VOCATIONAL PREPARATION The Vocational Guidance of Youtli, by Mbteb Bloomfield A monograph by the former Director of the Vocation Bureau of BoBton. Youth, School, and Vocation, by Meteb Blooufibld A. flrat-hand presentatiou of the meaning and wotIe of the voca- tional guidance movement. Choosing a Vocation, by Pramk Pabsons This book is an indispensable manual for every vocational coun- selor. The Problem of Vocational Education, by David Snbddbn The author is one of the leaders in the movement for the closer adap- tation of public sdiooia to the actual needs of youth. Prevocational Education, by Fbane M. Leavitt and Edith Brown The first authoritative book to tell hov the public schools may pre- pare pupils to select wisely the work to which they are best adapted. The People's School, by Ruth Mart Weeks A statement regarding the vocational training movement in this country and abroad. Vocations for Girls, by Mart A. Laselle andKATHE- RINB WlLET Information as to conditions of work imd the opportunities in tha more common vocations open to girls with only a high-school edu- cation. Vocational Education, by David Snedden, Ruth Mart "Weeks, and Ellwood P., Cubbbrlet A combination of three volumes from the Riverside Educaiiorud Monographs treating different phases of vocational' education,-^ theory, aaministration, and practice. Principles and Methods of Industrial Education, by "William H. Doolbt This is a book for use in teacher training claBses. There is an In- troduction by ChabIiES A. Fbosseb. Industrial Education, by Albert H. Leake A study and criticism of the opportunities provided for the educa- tion of the industrial worker. Establishing Industrial Schools, by Harrt Bradlet Smith A practical discussion of the steps to be taken in establishing indus- trial schools. HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 1930 THE HOUGHTON MIFFLIN PROFESSIONAL UBRARY For Teachers and Stodents of Education Practical Aspects of Education Andeess's Health Education in Sural Scboola Charteks's Teaching the Conunon Branches Nolan's The Teaching of Agriculture Eashakt'e Types of Teaching Wilson's The Motivation of School Work Leavht and Beown's Prevocational Education in the Public Schools Hall's The Question as a Factor in Teaching Keeadv's a Stud; of Fairy Tales Bryant's How to Tell Stories to Children Cabot's Ethics for Children Brownlee's Cliaracter Building in School A Course in Citizenship and Patriotism Bloomtield's Youth, School, and Vocation Colby's Literature and Life in School Foluer's The Use of the Kindergarten Gifts Bates's Talks on Teaching Literature Theory and Principles of Education DooLEY's Principles and Methods of Industrial Education BoBBrrx's The Curricultun McMoRRY's (F. M.) How to Study and Teaclung How to Stu^ McMdrky's (C. a.) Conflicting Principles in Teaching Woodley's The Profession of Teaching Kkefatrice's Fundamentals of Sodolog; Eiskpatrice's The Individual in the Making Rdedigee's The Principles of Education O'Shea's Social Development and Education Tyler's Growth and Education Henderson's Education and the Larger Life CaANCELLOR's ATbeory of Motives, Ideals and Values in Edocatlaa Valuable Helps to RURAL SCHOOL TEACHERS Andress. Health Education in Rural Schools Betts. New Ideals in Rural Schools Betts. The Recitation Biownlee. Character Building in School Cabot. Ethics for Children Cabot, et als. A Course in Citizenship and Pa- triotism Charters. Teaching the Common Branches Cubberley. The Improvement of Rural Sdiools Cubberley. Rural Life and Education Earhart. Types of Teaching Hoag and Terman. Health Work in the Schools Kendall and Mirick. How to Teach the Funda- mental Subjects Eendall and Miiick. How to Teach the Spedal Subjects Maxwell. The Selection of Textbooks McMurry. How to Study Monroe. Measuring the Results of Teaching Nolan. The Teaching of Agriculture Showalter. Handbook for Rural School Officers Terman. The Hygiene of the School Child -Thomas. Training for EfiEective Study Webster. Americanization and Citizenship Wilson. The Motivation of School Work Woodley. The Profession of Teaching Woofter. Teaching in Rural Schools HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 1946