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 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014464543 
 
SCHOOL PROGRAM IN 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 BY 
 CLARK W. HETHERINGTON 
 
 Of the Institute of Educational Research 
 
 Teachers College, Columbia University 
 
 Formerly Supervisor of Physical Education 
 
 State of California 
 
 Prepared as a subcommittee report 
 to the Commission on Revision of 
 
 Elementary Education 
 National Education Association 
 
 Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York 
 WORLD BOOK COMPANY 
 
WORLD BOOK COMPANY 
 
 THE HOUSE OF APPLIED KNOWLEDGE 
 Established 1905 by Caspar W. Hodgson 
 
 YoNKERS-ON-HuDSON, NEW YoRK 
 
 2126 Pbairie Avenue, Chicago 
 
 Notwithstanding the great amount of dis- 
 cussion that physical education in our schools 
 has elicited, it cannot be said that we have 
 had any complete published statement on 
 an American program in the subject. The 
 elements of a program have been evolving 
 gradually; but the program has not been 
 interpreted or described, and its principles 
 have not been formulated. The present 
 report embodies the first attempt to formu- 
 late for physical education a school program 
 that is indigenous to America. This program 
 builds on the growth that has been taking 
 place; it interprets that growth; it analyzes 
 present tendencies; and it formulates the 
 principles involved in the organization of a 
 program in physical education to meet the 
 needs of children in their preparation for 
 citizenship. In a strict sense this book applies 
 American knowledge to American needs; 
 and in a larger sense it assuredly meets the 
 requirements of World Book Company's 
 motto for its texts, "Books that apply the 
 world's knowledge to the world's needs " 
 
 .J 
 
 2; 
 
 f 
 
 Copyright 1922 by World Book Company 
 
 Copyright in Great Britain 
 
 All rights reserved 
 
 PRINTED IN U.S. A. 
 
FOREWORD 
 
 The report of Clark W. Hetherington, herewith 
 submitted, on a proposed "School Program in Physical 
 Education" is very broad in its scope. Beginning with a 
 concise review of the rise of physical education in the 
 public schools, it proceeds to a destructive critical analy- 
 sis of the attempts that have been made to adapt Euro- 
 pean methods of physical education to American 
 schools, and thence it passes to a constructive scientific 
 presentation of the problems, objectives, and princi- 
 ples involved in the organization of a school program. 
 
 Perhaps the greatest contribution made by the 
 author in this report is to be found in his treatment of 
 the primary aims of physical education. He shows how 
 the big-muscle activities must be organized as an essen- 
 tial and bulky phase of child life, and then how these 
 big-muscle activities must be organized in such ways as 
 to secure their inherent values for the development of 
 the fundamental intellectual, emotional, nervous, and 
 organic powers underlying efficiency in life. 
 
 Mr. Hetherington has had much experience and much 
 success both as a teacher and as a supervisor of phys- 
 ical education. His theories, therefore, have been sub- 
 mitted to the test of experiment in school work and 
 on the playground. They are the conclusions derived 
 from long observation and much experimentation as 
 well as from thought and study. 
 
 Margaret S. McNaught 
 
 Chairman of Committee on Revision of Elementary Education. 
 
COMMISSION ON REVISION OF ELEMENTARY 
 
 EDUCATION, NATIONAL EDUCATION 
 
 ASSOCIATION 
 
 Margaret S. McNaught, Chairman 
 State Commissioner of Elementary Schools, Sacra- 
 mento, California 
 
 Elizabeth Ash Woodward, Secretary 
 
 University of State of New York, Albany, New York 
 
 Georgia Alexander, Indianapolis, Indiana 
 
 Rubye A. Batte, Memphis, Tennessee 
 
 Abbie Louise Day, New York City 
 
 Saba H. Fahey, Brooklyn, New York 
 
 Anna Laura Force, Denver, Colorado 
 
 Theda Gildemeister, State Normal School, Winona, 
 Minnesota 
 
 Frances H. Harden, Chicago, Illinois 
 
 Clark W. Hetherlngton, New York City 
 
 Olive M. Jones, New York City 
 
 Abby E. Lane, Chicago, Illinois 
 
 Marianna March, Child Culture School, Memphis, 
 Tennessee 
 
 Carroll Gardner Pearse, State Normal School, Mil- 
 waukee, Wisconsin 
 
 Payson Smith, State Commissioner of Education, 
 Boston, Massachusetts 
 
 Lida Lee Tall, State Normal School, Towson, Mary- 
 land 
 
 Lewis M. Terman, Leland Stanford Junior University, 
 Stanford University, California 
 
CONTENTS 1 
 
 Author's Preface vii 
 
 Introduction 1 
 
 Part I. The Sociological Status of Physical 
 
 Education 5 
 
 Part II. The Objectives of Physical Education . 21 
 
 Part III. The Program in Physical Education . . 47 
 
 A. introduction to the four phases of the 
 
 program. 
 
 1. The four phases of the program. 
 
 2. The school officers involved. 
 
 3. Criteria for selecting and organizing 
 
 activities. 
 
 B. the four phases of the program. 
 Section One. The Program in Physical- 
 Training Activities — 
 The Developmental 
 Program 53 
 
 Section Two. The Program of Training 
 in Character, Morals, 
 and Manners .... 87 
 
 Section Three. The Program in Teaching 
 
 Hygienic Behavior . . 105 
 Section Four. The Program in the Con- 
 trol of Health Condi- 
 tions or Health Handi- 
 caps 123 
 
 1 A detailed table of contents ia given at the beginning of each section. 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 The plan for organizing physical education as pre- 
 sented in this book is the product of long years of ex- 
 periment and research. It had its beginnings at Stan- 
 ford University in 1894, and its final and most severe 
 experimental testing as the state program of California, 
 where it was set up under the state physical education 
 law of 1917. 
 
 While the author was instructor in the gymnasium at 
 Stanford University, he observed that the coaches of 
 athletic teams were getting results which could not be 
 secured through the most systematic and intensive 
 organization of gymnastics. This observation led to a 
 long series of experiments for developing forms of 
 athletic activity and organization adapted to the mass 
 of average students who had no ability to engage with 
 satisfaction in the specialized forms of activities to.be 
 had in the athletic associations. The experiments begun 
 at Stanford were shifted, in 1896, to the Whittier State 
 School, a juvenile reformatory. There, during two 
 years, the development of institutional playgrounds 
 and the practical conduct of them revealed in a most 
 striking manner the moral and hygienic values of an 
 educational organization of natural big-muscle activi- 
 ties and related "training" or conditioning procedures. 
 
 Later, at the University of Missouri from 1900 to 
 1910, with a department organization which controlled 
 all the physical activities, inter-collegiate and intra- 
 collegiate, of both men and women students, the author 
 subjected to an elaborate and exhaustive experimental 
 development the idea of educational athletics for all 
 
viii AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 the students. An essential part of this idea was the 
 use of play fields, which were considered as laboratories 
 of moral and hygienic self-discipline as well as of 
 physical development. At the same time the author, in 
 organized university extension work in physical educa- 
 tion, conducted a wide promotion of educational 
 athletics in the high schools of the state, and of play- 
 grounds and play programs in rural and small-town 
 elementary schools. These organizations of school 
 community play centers and of programs of play 
 activities were studied as local experiments. Later, in 
 the University of Wisconsin from 1912 to 1918, the 
 author, as professor in charge of professional training 
 courses in physical education, further developed the 
 practical details of the program through a study of the 
 practice teaching of students in professional training 
 courses. 
 
 In addition to all these practical experiments, obser- 
 vations, and experiences, theoretical studies and investi- 
 gations have furnished the basis for the principles under- 
 lying the program. The principles determining the 
 selection and adaptation of activities were worked out 
 with students in advanced theory courses in physical 
 education at the University of Wisconsin. This in- 
 volved, on the one hand, a classification of age incen- 
 tives, capacities, and needs with sex differentiations 
 and individual differences; and, on the other hand, a 
 psychological analysis of all the play activities in which 
 children engage, and a numerical evaluation of the 
 activities according to criteria of values of the big- 
 muscle activities. 
 
 The statement of objectives is a summary of a broader 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE k 
 
 treatment, which has been given as a course on the 
 principles of physical education and formulated (on a 
 background of the general philosophy of education) 
 from a study of the results of the experiments and from 
 many investigations which have not been published. 
 
 The references to the status of children's play, to the 
 influences of social conditions on play, and to play 
 conditions in schools are based on play and recreational 
 surveys made by various persons since 1906, but espe- 
 cially on the author's observations and on surveys 
 which he conducted or directed. The most important 
 of the latter was the Madison Recreational Survey 
 published by the Madison Board of Commerce. Wide 
 and careful study of conditions in five states, and more 
 rapid observations made possible through extensive 
 travel in many states (especially under the Joseph Fels 
 Endowment), give some scientific basis for the state- 
 ments made about play. 
 
 Physical education has come under the sway of 
 social and educational movements that are creating a 
 new conception of it and are determining its place in 
 the organization of the school curriculum. These move- 
 ments and their influences must be understood if a 
 program of physical education is to be formulated which 
 will meet the needs of children and the social demands 
 of the times. This sociological analysis is given in Part 
 I of this book, the contents of which are divided into 
 three parts. 
 
 Physical education has objectives that are different 
 in emphasis from those of other subjects of the school 
 curriculum. Else why should there be a program of 
 physical education at all? Part II is devoted to the 
 
x AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 formulation of the distinctive objectives of physical 
 education. 
 
 Finally, physical education requires the selection and 
 organization of a curriculum of activities and a formula- 
 tion of procedures in dealing with children; and the 
 procedures must be based on principles that will 
 achieve the special objectives of physical education 
 under present-day social conditions. The principles 
 for guidance in this task are formulated in the four 
 sections under Part III. 
 
 In a word, this book is essentially a brief treatment 
 of the social status, the objectives, and the principles of 
 organization of the school curriculum in physical edu- 
 cation. The detailed organization of the selected activ- 
 ities and procedures with children, for the daily use of 
 teachers and supervisors, is to be dealt with in teach- 
 ers' manuals; namely, one on the leadership of big- 
 muscle activities; one on teaching efficient living or 
 health; one on character training through big-muscle 
 activities; and one on the control of growth conditions, 
 or health supervision. These books, in the original 
 plan of the author, were to be issued as a unified series. 
 The desire of the National Education Association 
 Commission on the Revision of Elementary Education 
 for a report on a school program in physical education 
 has resulted in the publication of this book as a separate 
 condensed report. 
 
 While this report is presented under the auspices of 
 a commission on elementary education, the principles 
 in the program apply to secondary education with no 
 less force than to elementary education. 
 
 The author is indebted to Dr. E. L. Thorndike, Dr. 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE xi 
 
 David Snedden, and Dr. Albert Shiels, of Teachers Col- 
 lege, Columbia University, for reading the manuscript 
 and for encouragement and valuable suggestions. 
 
 ClAKK W. HETHERINGTON 
 
 Institute of Educational Research, 
 Teachebs College, Columbia Univebhitt 
 
 June, 1922 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 1. The steps in constructing the curriculum. 
 
 2. The word "program." 
 
 3. The word "activity." 
 
 4. The conception of the program. 
 
SCHOOL PROGRAM IN 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 1. THE STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING THE CURRICULUM 
 
 The construction of the school curriculum in physical 
 education requires four steps: (1) An analysis of the 
 influences of social changes upon the activities of 
 children and of the status of physical education in the 
 community as a whole, (2) a formulation of the special 
 aims or objectives of physical education, (3) the formu- 
 lation of a school program in physical education, and 
 (4) the formulation of detailed courses of activities, 
 with a specification of materials and an outline of 
 procedures for the convenience of teachers and children. 
 
 2. THE WORD "PROGRAM" 
 
 By an educational program here is meant a plan of 
 organization of some phase of the school curriculum, 
 considered necessary to bring out the essential objectives 
 of that phase of the curriculum. Teaching and adminis- 
 trative procedures are based on the plan. 
 
 3. THE WORD "ACTIVITY" 
 
 The word "activity" will be used as the inclusive 
 term covering the whole content of the educative 
 process, of both play and work, in school and out of 
 school. It covers all the educative behavior, physical 
 or mental, out of school; it covers the whole school 
 
 l 
 
2 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 curriculum (referred to as a curriculum of activities), 
 or any specific item in the curriculum (referred to 
 as an activity). It is the total response involving all 
 physical and mental elements. It includes the situation, 
 the response, the results. The idea or fact is not the 
 core of the curriculum; it is only one item in a total 
 activity. The "project" is an activity or a series of 
 activities. The "problem" is the difficulty in an activ- 
 ity or series of activities. Experience, itself, is an ac- 
 tivity or a result of activity. Activity is the sole 
 means of education. 
 
 4. THE CONCEPTION OF THE PROGRAM 
 
 The school as an institution performs two broad 
 functions in dealing with children: (1) It formulates 
 a curriculum of activities with educational objectives, 
 and it organizes and leads the activities; and (2) it 
 formulates a program in physical welfare (i.e., the pro- 
 tection of children from mechanical injury, fire and 
 health handicaps), and it controls these injurious 
 and handicapping influences. These are the old func- 
 tions of parents, organized as school functions. The 
 relationships and distinctions between these two 
 functions as school functions and as responsibilities 
 of the teacher are of fundamental importance in build- 
 ing a program in physical education. 
 
 Physical education began its evolution in the school 
 primarily as a program of activities. It has been cen- 
 tered in a program of physical-training activities. If 
 it were not for. this historic fact and the influence of the 
 old distinction between the mind and the body, the 
 term "physical training," and then, later, the term 
 
INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 "physical education" (with the confusing use of the 
 word "physical") would not have arisen. Physical 
 education has been, and of necessity must be, in 
 control of one of the great major divisions of edu- 
 cative activities, the big-muscle or physical-training 
 activities. Thus physical education is apt to be inter- 
 preted by adults from an adult standpoint merely as 
 exercise. But the meaning of physical education is not 
 confined to the organization and leadership of the 
 activities as exercises in the adult sense. The program in 
 •physical education is determined by the inherent and 
 essential values of the activities for the normal growth and 
 development of children, and by the functions of the school 
 and teachers in the leadership of children. Therefore, the 
 formulation of the program must be based on prelimin- 
 ary studies of the sociological status and the educative 
 and protective functions of physical education. Further, 
 the formulation of the detailed course of activities for 
 the use of teachers must be based on a clear under- 
 standing of the principles involved in the program with 
 its background of social demands and of objectives. 
 For these reasons, the analyses and formulations which 
 follow, will be confined to the first three steps outlined 
 in the opening paragraph above, and presented under 
 three parts as follows: 
 
 Part I. The sociological status of physical education. 
 
 Part II. The objectives or aims of physical education. 
 
 Part III. The program in physical education, divided 
 into four sections. 
 
PART I 
 
 The Sociological Status of Physical Education 
 
 1. The changing program in physical education, and causes. 
 
 2. The retarded development of physical education. 
 8. The rise of physical education. 
 
 4. The reconstructing movements — 
 
 A. The athletic movement. 
 
 B. The playground movement. 
 
 C. Educational-recreational movements. 
 
 D. The "health through exercise" movement. 
 
 E. The war examinations and physical-efficiency cam- 
 
 paigns. 
 
 5. The results of the movements — 
 
 A. The development of a public opinion for an American 
 
 program. 
 
 B. The development and formulation of the technical 
 
 material of a program. 
 
 (1) Divisions and descriptions. 
 
 (2) Detailed classification. 
 
PART I 
 
 The Sociological Status of Physical Education 
 
 1. the changing program in physical education, 
 and causes 
 
 The content and purpose of the program in physical 
 education, as organized in the public schools, is in 
 the process of an enormously important change. 
 This is coincident with the changes which have taken 
 place in recent years in the functions of the school as a 
 whole. Social conditions (growing out of the introduc- 
 tion of machinery into industry), have squeezed much 
 of the old industrial, social, recreative, and domestic 
 educational activities out of the home, and the new 
 demands of a civilization daily growing more complex 
 have compelled the school to take over and greatly 
 elaborate the old simple processes of education in 
 the home and the community. Hence we have seen 
 the shifting of the old educational functions of the home 
 and the community to the school, and their elaboration 
 in the forms of "cultural education," science, manual 
 training, home economics, industrial and vocational 
 education, civic education, social education, moral edu- 
 cation, art education, health education, recreational 
 education, etc., with even suggestions of religious edu- 
 cation. 
 
 Physical education is caught up in this general move- 
 ment, but under peculiar attitudes. 
 
 Originally there was no physical education in the 
 public schools. It went on in the vigorous play and the 
 hard work of the home and the community; that is, in 
 
6 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the stunts on the natural apparatus of the environment, 
 in the chasing and fleeing games, in the swimming and 
 the hunting, in activities stimulated by the activities of 
 parents, in running about, in the arduous walking and 
 riding in getting from place to place, in the work of the 
 home, etc. These activities went on through most of 
 the waking hours, during practically three hundred and 
 sixty-five days in the year, and all through childhood 
 and youth. In a word, the functions of the school were 
 chiefly to teach the written language. 
 
 This situation, during the last forty years especially, 
 has changed radically. The rise of new adult social 
 customs has eliminated a large part of the old activi- 
 ties 1 and interfered with traditions in respect to 
 children's play activities. The school also has made 
 new demands on children's time. A new need for a uni- 
 versal and systematically organized physical education 
 in the schools has been in evidence for at least the life- 
 time of the present generation of school children. 
 
 2. RETARDED DEVELOPMENT OP PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Four powerful groups of social influences have inhi- 
 bited the developmentof a program of physical education 
 to meet the growing demands of the time: 
 
 A. Public opinion about school functions has been 
 conservative. The introduction into the curriculum of 
 new activities with new aims has been difficult. As 
 the ideas of the old linguistic and intellectual functions 
 of the school persisted, the "physical" activities with 
 their different aims naturally received late general 
 consideration. 
 
 1 Based on numerous social and recreational surveys made since 1906. 
 
SOCIOLOGICAL STATUS 7 
 
 B. National experience has been against the develop- 
 ment of a public opinion in favor of physical education. 
 Only within a few years has the nation come out of the 
 dominating influences of pioneer life. In the youth and 
 the traditions of the generation which until recently 
 controlled public opinion, life was more generally in the 
 open, more strenuous, varied, and exciting. Children 
 had a natural, outdoor life which stimulated play, and 
 they entered directly into the simple, multitudinous 
 activities of the home and the community, and imi- 
 tated these activities in dramatic play. Adult recrea- 
 tive customs were closely knit into the domestic, indus- 
 trial, and social life, and children entered into these 
 activities. Hence a general consciousness of the need 
 for a school-organized physical education has been of 
 recent origin. 
 
 C. Powerful prejudices which are subtle social sur- 
 vivals in the cultured public mind have militated against 
 the development of physical education. These are (1) 
 asceticism with its exaltation of the mind and contempt 
 for the "physical"; (2) scholasticism with its emphasis 
 on the intellect and neglect of the instincts and emo- 
 tions; and (3) Puritanism with its worship of serious- 
 ness and its depreciation and fear of play. Children 
 have suffered from the common American idea that play 
 is synonymous with fooling, or is an activity that is not 
 worth while. 
 
 All these surviving emotional attitudes have been 
 focused on the "physical" side of education. The 
 word "physical" arouses the old subtle contrast 
 with the "mind." To the traditional thinker the play 
 of the emotions in physical-training activities is more 
 
8 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 conspicuous than the functioning of the intellect. 
 "Physical play," so misunderstood by the Puritan, is 
 the chief technique of physical education. 
 
 The influence of these traditional attitudes has been 
 profound; and they are still the controlling under- 
 current in the progress of physical education. 
 
 D. Traditional educational thought, research, and 
 professional training have been directed to the intellec- 
 tual side of education and its psychological foundations. 
 The corresponding study of physical education and its 
 physiological, as well as psychological, foundation has 
 been neglected by educational experts. University 
 schools of education have neglected the training of ex- 
 perts in physical education. Hence school officials, 
 graduates of these schools, have been left without 
 criteria for judging the values of the activities, their 
 organization, and the teaching process in physical edu- 
 cation with the same skill that they judge other phases 
 of education. 
 
 3. THE EISE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 The rise of technical school physical education 
 proved to be uninviting to the majority of children, 
 teachers, school officials, and scientific students of 
 education. It took the form of drills. Naturallyi 
 when school authorities in Europe began to think of 
 physical education in a society controlled by military 
 discipline and in a school organization dominated by 
 formal discipline, they thought of gymnastic drills. 
 This idea took root in America. Gymnastic or calis- 
 thenic drills (schoolroom gymnastics) have been, 
 until recently, the traditional activities emphasized 
 
SOCIOLOGICAL STATUS 9 
 
 wherever physical education has been organized in 
 the public schools. Most people have thought that 
 physical education consisted of drills. Associated 
 with this idea were notions of the values of the drills for 
 "health" and "discipline." The old aims of school 
 physical education were to correct postural defects and 
 to keep children fit for their intellectual work. 
 
 It was natural, in the rise of physical education in the 
 United States, for the advocates of the German and the 
 Swedish systems to struggle for their establishment. 
 This led to a controversy; but the efforts to establish 
 either system failed. Both contributed generously to 
 an American program; but it now seems clear that a 
 program of physical education which is not indigenous 
 to the soil will not work in America. Elements that are 
 common to the life of humanity will work satisfactorily 
 in any nation; but a system which has drawn the breath 
 of life from a foreign culture radically different in its 
 purposes from anything in the life of America, cannot 
 be transplanted. America demands and is building a 
 program which helps train children for the free, demo- 
 cratic self -directing responsibilities of American citizen- 
 ship. 
 
 Though the drill program has until recently held the 
 spotlight, it has been neither universal in application 
 nor satisfactory in results. The activities were not cal- 
 culated to make it popular. The results were not in- 
 spiring. Gymnastic drills have been conducted in some 
 schools for many years, yet, except in cities where the 
 school administration employed a supervisor, and in 
 an occasional small-town or rural elementary school, the 
 vast majority of schools, and of children in those 
 
10 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 schools, have never had even a first experience in such 
 drills, to say nothing of a more liberal organization of 
 physical education. Moreover, where drills were or- 
 ganized, the educational results were very narrow and 
 unsatisfactory, and there was no real contribution to 
 a physically and morally disciplined citizenship. 
 
 4. THE RECONSTHTJCTING MOVEMENTS 
 
 For many years great social and great educational 
 movements have been evolving an American program. 
 
 A. The athletic movement. The oldest of these 
 movements is the athletic movement. The interest in 
 athletics, inherited from Great Britain, took root in 
 our colleges. In the form of intercollegiate contests 
 it gradually gained momentum, and swept across 
 the continent in the late eighties and nineties. It 
 spread to the private secondary schools and high 
 schools, and interscholastic contests became practically 
 universal. In 1905 the movement for the organization 
 of athletics for elementary-school children became 
 marked and soon gained nation-wide recognition. 
 This first took the form of public-school athletic 
 leagues. The significant part of this movement at 
 present is the growing emphasis on educational athletics 
 as distinct from spectator's athletics. Because educators 
 neglected the direction of these activities, as part of 
 the education of youth, and let them grow up under the 
 influence of the spectator, a bad spectator attitude has 
 developed. Consequently, interschool contests in uni- 
 versities, colleges, and most high schools are dominated 
 in spirit and management by the ideas of the partisan 
 spectator. But in spite of this the athletic movement 
 
SOCIOLOGICAL STATUS 11 
 
 has established national athletic sentiments and ideals, 
 which are being rationalized by the struggle for educa- 
 tional athletics. Athletics bulk large in the national con- 
 ception of a program of physical education. 
 
 B. The playground movement Next in point of 
 time is the playground movement, which began in formal 
 organization in 1906. It quickly became a national, 
 then a world movement. This playground move- 
 ment arose out of the needs of children and society 
 for the creation of playgrounds to take the place 
 of the old play spaces, and especially the organiza- 
 tion of educational play so largely destroyed by adult 
 industrial society. Children have always had their 
 rallying places ■ — places where they met to play. Any 
 place they played in was to them a "playground" in 
 this old spontaneous sense. The playground is a new 
 educational institution organized by society to perpetu- 
 ate this old play life of children. It is a play center for 
 the children of the community, where they can enjoy 
 the same activities and get the same development and 
 discipline they have always secured through similar 
 activities in the home environment. 
 
 The movement started with the idea of establishing 
 play spaces for children in the congested parts of cities. 
 But experience quickly demonstrated that playgrounds 
 were as essential for every section of city and country; 
 that their significance for morals and the development 
 of citizenship was as important as their values for 
 physical development and health, and that proper 
 leadership was even more important than the spaces. 
 Although other than physical-training (big-muscle) 
 activities have been organized on these playgrounds, 
 
12 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the characteristic and permanent activities of the 
 playground are the physical-training activities. For 
 instance, music and dramatics have been organized 
 on the playgrounds. The playground is a physical- 
 training plant, and the essential activities of the play- 
 ground are physical-training activities. 
 
 Stimulated by this vitalizing movement, technical ex- 
 perts revived and systematized the old, natural physi- 
 cal-training activities. The stunts formerly performed 
 with the natural facilities of the environment were 
 revived on new play apparatus. The old tag games 
 were revamped in great numbers for practical use. The 
 folk games of the nations were selected and formulated 
 as physical-training activities for children. Athletic 
 activities were simplified and enormously expanded. 
 The old swimming hole was reincarnated in a cement- 
 and-tile-lined structure. Hiking and outing trips were 
 reestablished as holiday functions. Winter sports were 
 promoted, and so on. These are the essential activities 
 of the new, yet old, physical education, and the striking 
 fact is the way in which these activities are being in- 
 corporated into the physical-education program of the 
 school. The school playground is coming to be the 
 natural play center for the children of the district. 
 
 C. Educational recreational movements. Several 
 educational-recreation movements, the most conspic- 
 uous of which is the Boy Scouts of America, have added 
 a powerful influence. The Boy Scouts' program, 
 for example, covers other than physical-training 
 activities — such as the manual activities — but the 
 group membership, the group leadership, the tactical 
 control of the group, the games, the organization of 
 
SOCIOLOGICAL STATUS 13 
 
 hiking activities with self -protective skills and first-aid 
 resourcefulness, and the incentives to achievement for 
 honors, etc., are all essential elements in a physical- 
 training program; and some of them are specifically 
 physical-educational procedures. The Boy Scout move- 
 ment has helped to set public opinion for a constructive 
 program in physical education. 
 
 D. The "health through exercise" movement. Since 
 the late nineties a great popular movement for health 
 through exercise has arisen. The increasing strenuous- 
 ness and confinement of occupations created, among 
 business and professional men especially, a growing 
 consciousness of a personal need for exercise. It had 
 no scientific leadership largely because of the old 
 ascetic attitude toward the "physical." But the 
 extent of the feeling of need is illustrated by the host 
 of advertising "Physical Culturists" who arose to 
 supply and to stimulate a demand. The advertising 
 columns of any of the popular magazines of the last 
 twenty-five years illustrate the point. Some of these 
 advertisers made large sums of money in a single year. 
 
 Better expressions of this same need and interest are 
 seen in the great development of golf and other recrea- 
 tions, and in the war efforts to promote "keeping fit." 
 This all represents a development of public opinion in 
 favor of the first essential element in physical education 
 — physical exercise. 
 
 E. War examinations and physical-efficiency cam- 
 paigns. The revelations of the war-draft examinations 
 concerning national physical efficiency came as a shock 
 to public opinion. Although scientific physical educa- 
 tors knew, as a result of great experience in giving 
 
14 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 physical examinations, that the poor physical conditions 
 existed, they could not get a hearing for an organization 
 of a program of physical education which would be pro- 
 ductive of results. But when the conditions became 
 known generally they aroused the public conscience. 
 The efforts to condition the army recruits through 
 physical training, the added use of recreative athletics 
 in developing a morale among soldiers, and the pro- 
 motion of a civilian "keep fit" program, were pro- 
 foundly educational in arousing a consciousness of 
 a great national need for physical development. 
 
 5. THE RESULTS OF THE MOVEMENTS 
 
 These movements and others, like the school health 
 movement, which need not be described 1 here, have 
 resulted in two things: a public opinion and a technique. 
 
 A. Public Opinion. The movements have developed a 
 public opinion, a body of ideas, sentiments, convictions, 
 faiths concerning the big essential elements in a pro- 
 gram of physical education, which are characteristic 
 of the spirit and the life of America. A conscience con- 
 cerning an educational need has been stimulated. It 
 was submerged under the atrophying influence of 
 subtle social traditions. Public opinion is not yet clear 
 in its recognition of all the elements in the movements 
 under the correlating heading of physical education, 
 but it is none the less influential in counteracting the old 
 ascetic, scholastic, and Puritanical prejudices which 
 made impossible an effective organization of physical 
 education to meet the needs of the time. 
 
 1 Given under the program in the control of health conditions. 
 
SOCIOLOGICAL STATUS 15 
 
 B. Technique. Divisions and descriptions. The tech- 
 nical result of these movements is a great mass of 
 formulated physical-training activities which are the 
 essential "materials" in a program of physical educa- 
 tion. The activities must be classified under three 
 broad divisions, or classes, as follows : First, the natural ; 
 second, the related; and, third, the formal physical- 
 training activities. Each of these has several sub- 
 divisions or groups. 
 
 The natural physical-training activities all arise 
 out of children's instinct tendencies and emotions in 
 play; the forms of the activities are determined largely 
 by tradition. The several groups of natural activities 
 arise (I) out of children's interest in self-testing, or 
 in stunts; (II) out of the mimetic or dramatic tendency 
 as expressed in big-muscle activities; (III) out of the 
 enjoyment of rhythmical movements to music; (IV) 
 out of the chasing, fleeing and tag, or hunting games; 
 
 (V) out of the competitive tendency in athletics, and 
 
 (VI) in personal combat. All the tendencies in these 
 activities are repeated (VII) in water activities and 
 (VIII) in winter activities, where the different physical 
 conditions or environments give new opportunities for 
 their expression. 
 
 The related physical-training activities are also natural 
 activities. They are classified under a different heading 
 because they arise, entirely or in part, from mixed 
 interests or from interests other than those which 
 have for their purpose pure physical education. They 
 include, (IX) locomotion from place to place; (X) outing 
 activities involving a nature or sporting interest, and 
 (XI) labor or vigorous industrial activities. 
 
16 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 The formal physical-training activities are all in- 
 vented movements, or natural movements, like walking, 
 formalized for formal purposes. They include, (XII) 
 marching and tactical activities in great variety; 
 (XIII) postural activities for teaching posture; (XIV) 
 gymnastic drill activities formulated from the three 
 standpoints of postural correction, discipline, and de- 
 velopment, and in variety to the limit of invention in 
 human motor mechanics. 
 
 A detailed classification of physical-training or big- 
 muscle activities is presented below: 
 
 First. NATURAL OR PLA YFUL ACTIVITIES. 
 
 Activities Arising out of Instinct Tenden- 
 cies. 
 I. Self-testing Activities. Achievements or 
 Stunts. 
 
 A. Locomotor stunts. 
 
 B. Floor or ground stunts. 
 
 1. Individual and partner. 
 
 2. Group (pyramids). 
 
 C. Apparatus activities or stunts. Appa- 
 
 ratus play or gymnastics on play- 
 ground and gymnastic apparatus. 
 II. Dramatic Activities. 
 
 A. Impersonating plays. Story plays. 
 
 B. Constructive dramatics, circus, etc. 
 III. Rhythmical Activities. Dancing. 
 
 A. Singing games and folk dancing. 
 
 B. Gymnastic dancing. 
 
 C. iEsthetic dancing; Interpretive and ex- 
 
 pressive dancing. 
 
 D. Social dancing. 
 
SOCIOLOGICAL STATUS 17 
 
 IV. Hunting Plays and Games. 
 
 A. Chasing, fleeing, tag or "It" games. 
 
 B. Tag ball games (not athletic or team 
 
 games). 
 V. Athletic Activities or Contests (Measurable 
 or scorable activities). 
 
 A. Individual events. Running or track 
 
 events and floor or field events; also 
 measurable elements of athletic games 
 and adjustment achievements. 
 
 B. Athletic games. 
 
 1. Single and dual (Tennis, racquets, 
 
 etc.) . 
 
 2. Team games (Minor or major co- 
 
 operation). 
 VI. Personal Combative Activities. 
 
 A. In combative plays. 
 
 B. In formal fighting activities or achieve- 
 
 ments. 
 
 1. Wrestling. 
 
 2. Boxing. 
 
 3. Fencing. 
 
 a. Single stick (cane). 
 
 b. Broadsword. 
 
 c. Foils. 
 
 4. Miscellaneous forms. 
 VII. Water Activities (Aquatic). 
 
 A. Wading, swimming, and diving activities. 
 
 1. Swimming and diving achievements. 
 
 2. Swimming contests. 
 
 a. Individual events (also teamed). 
 
 b. Team games. 
 
18 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 B. Boating and canoeing activities. 
 
 1. Rowing and paddling achievements. 
 
 2. Contests. 
 
 a. Individual events or contests. 
 
 b. Crew rowing and paddling events. 
 
 C. See Sailing under Outing Activities 
 
 (Div. B). 
 VIII. Winter Activities (Snow and Ice). 
 
 A. Snow dramatizations and games. 
 
 B. Locomotor achievements. 
 
 1. Skating. Stunts. Figure skating. 
 
 2. Skiing. 
 
 3. Snowshoeing. 
 
 C. Snow and ice contests. Winter contests. 
 
 1. Individual events. 
 
 a. Skating and jumping events or 
 contests. 
 
 b. Skiing and jumping events or con- 
 
 tests. 
 
 c. Snowshoeing events or contests. 
 
 2. Team games. Skating games. 
 Second. RELATED ACTIVITIES: Activities aris- 
 ing out of necessity or a "nature" or in- 
 dustrial interest. 
 
 IX. Locomotor or Place Adjustments. 
 
 A. Walking from place to place. 
 
 B. Locomotor adjustments with aid of ani- 
 
 mals and play machines. 
 
 X. Outing Activities involving a nature interest. 
 
 Chiefly of value for week-ends and holi- 
 days, or for adults. 
 
SOCIOLOGICAL STATUS 19 
 
 A. The more vigorous forms. 
 
 1. Tramping or "hiking." Climbing. 
 
 2. Nature Excursions. 
 
 3. Bicycling trips. 
 
 4. Canoeing trips. 
 
 5. Hunting and fishing trips (with 
 
 tramping). 
 
 6. Horseback riding. 
 
 B. The more passive forms. 
 
 1. Shooting (marksmanship without 
 
 tramping). 
 
 2. Camping (apart from tramping) and 
 
 Houseboating. 
 
 3. Driving 
 
 4. Fishing (without tramping). 
 
 5. Sailing. 
 
 6. Power boating. 
 XI. Industrial Activities. 
 
 Especially those involving free, vigorous 
 and stimulating muscular activity; i.e., 
 gardening, vigorous manual activities, etc. 
 Third. FORMALIZED OR INVENTED MOVE- 
 MENTS: Exercises and drills. 
 XII. Marching, Tactics or Military Drill. 
 Formalized locomotion. 
 
 XIII. Postural Instruction. 
 
 XIV. Drills. Corrective, disciplinary or develop- 
 
 mental movements; calisthenic or gym- 
 nastic drills. 
 XV. Special Corrective Movements or Gymnas- 
 tics. Selected for a special functional 
 purpose. 
 
PART II 
 
 The Objectives of Physical Education 
 
 1. The immediate objectives in the organization and the 
 
 leadership of child life as expressed in big-muscle 
 activities. 
 
 2. The remote objectives in adult social adjustment or 
 
 efficiency. 
 
 3. The objectives in development — 
 
 A. The development of the instinct mechanisms. 
 
 B. The development of the intellectual mechanisms. 
 
 C. The development of neuro-muscular mechanisms and 
 
 nervous power. 
 
 D. The development of organic power. 
 
 4. The objectives in social standards. 
 
 5. The objectives in the control of health conditions. 
 
 6. Definition of physical education. 
 
PART II 
 
 The Objectives of Physical Education 
 
 the five objectives 
 
 Physical education is a phase of general education, 
 and its objectives should be interpreted in terms of 
 the objectives of education as a whole. The difficulty 
 with this effort is that physical education adds special 
 and new objectives to the old objectives of the school. 
 Every new activity absorbed into the school curriculum 
 expands the objectives of school education. 
 
 One of the striking facts about the history of educa- 
 tion is that it presents a long series of the ideas of 
 thinkers about education and of analyses of school 
 practices. Relatively little is said about the education 
 which went on outside the school; yet the vital phases 
 of education went on in the home and in the social 
 life of the community. The school arose to teach the 
 written language. This took but a few hours for a few 
 months through a few years. The education outside 
 the school went on through the total waking hours, 
 three hundred and sixty-five days of the year, and 
 through the succession of the years of life. Gradually 
 the school has taken over, one by one, these home and 
 community activities, and has elaborated and sys- 
 tematized them for school ends. Each addition has 
 changed the total aims of school education. 
 
 Now that the old physical education of the home 
 and the community is being organized as a school 
 function, the aims of school education require another 
 revision: they must include the values inherent in the 
 
 21 
 
22 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 nature of physical training. These values are not given 
 in the same degree by any other kind of activity in 
 child life; yet they are part of the total aims or objec- 
 tives of education. 
 
 Therefore the objectives of physical education must 
 be stated, on a background of education as a whole, 
 from five standpoints: 
 
 1. The immediate objectives in the organization and 
 the leadership of child life as expressed in big-muscle 
 activities. 
 
 2. The remote objectives in adult social adjustment 
 and efficiency. 
 
 3. The objectives in development, or the changes in 
 capacities, necessary to realize the adjustment. 
 
 4. The objectives in social standards as applied to 
 the activities, the development, and the adjustment. 
 
 5. The objectives in the control of health conditions. 
 Each of these will be considered in order. 
 
 1. THE IMMEDIATE OBJECTIVES 
 
 The first and immediate objective of physical education 
 is the organization of child life as expressed in big- 
 muscle or physical-training activities. The organization 
 of child life is the first aim of any phase of education 
 controlling a natural activity. In this objective the 
 adult leader and the children meet on common ground. 
 It is the starting point in organized education. 
 
 Although children tend to enter into big-muscle 
 activities, and all play activities, spontaneously, they 
 need adult leadership. This need of adult leadership 
 continues up through childhood and youth. The 
 condition of American intercollegiate athletics indicates 
 
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 23 
 
 what follows the neglect of leadership even in the 
 college age. Social and traditional forms of play are 
 always led either by older and experienced children or 
 by adults. Leadership in physical-training activities 
 has always been a natural function of adults, except as 
 asceticism and Puritanism have eliminated it from 
 among dignified avocations and vocations. Only re- 
 cently, through the play movements, has the function 
 gained recognition in America. It gained recognition 
 because the influences of an adult organization of 
 society were destroying the opportunity for, and the 
 efficiency of, children's spontaneous play life. The 
 cramp of the city and the isolation of children in the 
 country suggest many influences that make children's 
 play inefficient. 
 
 The big-muscle play life of children cannot progress 
 normally without adult leadership. To some extent 
 children will educate themselves in their natural 
 activities if they are merely supervised so they will not 
 destroy themselves. The spontaneous or play activities 
 are the primary source of all education; but even in 
 these, children require and they demand adult leader- 
 ship. Little children cry for help, and they ask ques- 
 tions. These are instinctively driven appeals for help 
 or for leadership. Even in the most spontaneous big- 
 muscle play activities, problems or difficulties arise 
 which are beyond the children's imagination as to 
 resources for their solution; and unless they have a 
 cooperating adult leadership, the play and the education 
 involved in the play break down. Discouragement in 
 projects is the daily tragedy of child life. The leading-on 
 of the child's interest to the solution of the problem, 
 
24 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 and to the resultant satisfaction, is the function of 
 adult leadership. 
 
 Big-muscle activities naturally consume large 
 amounts of time. They continue through the three 
 hundred and sixty-five days of the year, all through 
 childhood and youth. A large part of child life is 
 centered in them. Yet social conditions in the homes 
 and in the community life of most children are all set 
 against an efficient organization of these activities. 
 Schools are demanding increasing amounts of the time 
 of children, and larger numbers of children are being 
 brought together in school. Hence the big-muscle 
 play is being centered in the school. In these crowded 
 play centers a democratic organization of play is 
 beyond the imagination of children. This organization 
 is an adult function. Therefore, the first objective of 
 physical education is to make this play life efficient. 
 
 2. THE REMOTE OBJECTIVES 
 
 The second point of view in considering objectives is 
 social adjustments. Social adjustment is the remote 
 objective of education. The race has built a complex 
 mass of customs which relate to the functions of life. 
 These customs are adult adjusting activities. Thus 
 we have several great groups of adjusting activities 
 and customs: economic, defensive, domestic, com- 
 municative, civic, interpretive, artistic, and recreative. 
 Every child born into any community must become 
 adjusted, in some degree, during childhood and youth, 
 to these adult customs. The process is slow. 
 
 Adjustments are largely gained by entering into the 
 specific adjusting activities of adult life. Children enter 
 
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 25 
 
 into these activities gradually, and as gradually gain 
 adjustment. But they go through years of growth, and 
 they spend huge amounts of time in activities which 
 have no direct specific relationship whatever to adult 
 adjustment. Thus, although some adolescent physical- 
 training activities contribute directly and specifically 
 to several phases of adult adjustment, like protective 
 and recreative skills, most of the activities make no 
 direct contribution to any phase of adult social adjust- 
 ment. These activities must be learned, but they are 
 not learned because they are to be used in adult life. 
 Children do not perform stunts on the apparatus or 
 play tag because these activities are to be used in adult 
 life. These activities have no serious place in adult life, 
 yet they consume a large amount of time in child life. 
 Children do not engage in folk games, or even in 
 athletic or water activities because these activities 
 are to be carried over into the adult functions of life; and 
 adults do not teach these activities for any such reason. 
 All these activities are pure developers of latent powers. 
 They are spontaneous play activities. They arise out of 
 growth needs, and are determined in form by growing 
 instinct tendencies and emotions as expressed through 
 the big-muscle mechanisms. In this exercise of the 
 instincts and the emotions children gain great satis- 
 faction. The activities consume large amounts of time 
 because they meet fundamental growth needs and are 
 so satisfying. Their values for adults are not in the 
 "carry over" of the activities, but in the development 
 resulting from the activities. They are part of Nature's 
 scheme of developing abilities which make it possible 
 for children to enter into adult adjusting activities. 
 
26 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Physical-training activities, then, develop a great 
 range of powers which gradually establish the capacity 
 for the specific activities of adjustment. They are the 
 developmental foundation of adult efficiency in any 
 phase of adjustment. This must be shown by a con- 
 sideration of the developmental objectives. 
 
 3. THE OBJECTIVES IN DEVELOPMENT 
 
 The third standpoint in considering objectives is the 
 development of latent powers or capacities. The 
 development of personal capacity is the mediate objective 
 of education. Children go through a long period of 
 growth, engage in a vast variety of activities, and thus 
 develop latent capacities. The results of this develop- 
 mental process are accumulative. Changes take place 
 in behavior and in the functional capacities of the 
 organism, which must be analyzed from four stand- 
 points: (^4) The development of the instinct mech- 
 anisms; (B) the development of the intellectual 
 mechanisms; (C) the development of the neuro- 
 muscular mechanisms; and (D) the development of the 
 organic mechanisms. These phases of development 
 will be considered in order. 
 
 A. The development of the instinct mechanisms. 
 Activities arise out of hungers and out of instinct 
 tendencies to respond to certain situations. The ten- 
 dencies to respond are developed through resulting 
 satisfactions or annoyances. The end products are 
 character traits. The process in development is a build- 
 ing of a great mass of desires, impulse habits, ideas, and 
 
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 27 
 
 ideals. The quality of the traits developed is deter- 
 mined by leadership and judged by social standards. 
 These traits are the objectives of education in the field 
 of character and morals. 
 
 All activities have character-training values according 
 to the instinct tendencies they exercise. The worth of any 
 activity for character discipline is determined primarily 
 by the nature of the instincts and the emotions exer- 
 cised. Some activities are better for the development 
 of certain traits; others are better for the development 
 of other traits. 
 
 The values of physical education in character training 
 bulk large, because natural big-muscle activities are the 
 outcroppings of the most fundamental instincts and 
 emotions in human nature. 
 
 To illustrate: The activities, or stunts, on the ground 
 or on the apparatus of the playground or of the gym- 
 nasium are all self-testing activities, and exercise the 
 deeper instinct tendencies which drive to a mastery of 
 the big-muscle motor mechanisms of the body. There 
 are, also, manual, vocal, and sensory self-experimenta- 
 tions, but the character discipline and the moral 
 challenge in these are not so great, The hundreds of 
 chasing-fleeing-tag games are all dramatizations of situ- 
 ations in the social relationships of children which 
 exercise the old racial instincts and emotions of hunting, 
 attacking, fleeing, escaping, etc., in the acquisition of 
 goods and in the protection of the self — that is, in 
 getting food, and in keeping from becoming food, or 
 from being destroyed by human enemies. As such, they 
 express in the social relationships of children the 
 deepest instincts of human nature. These instinct 
 
28 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 tendencies have no comparable exercise in any other 
 activity of child life. 
 
 Again, athletics are big-muscle, social, fighting plays. 
 By the word "athletics" is meant all forms of big- 
 muscle competition in which all boys and girls engage, 
 not interschool athletics alone. Athletics involve (a) a 
 social relationship between two or more individuals, 
 which expresses the social instincts and emotions. 
 This relationship (b) is centered in a contest which 
 exercises the fighting-instinct mechanisms and emotions. 
 In the contest (c) egoistic feelings are at stake, which 
 is indicated by the anticipation of the outcome of the 
 contest and by the final elation or depression. Thus 
 athletics exercise deep, powerful, social, fighting and 
 egoistic tendencies and emotions. 
 
 In a similar manner the other natural physical- 
 training activities might be analyzed. In the activities 
 character traits are developed. Human character is 
 fundamentally an expression of the instincts exercised. 
 Social life cannot go on a minute without an expression 
 of them. In the activities they are developed inevitably. 
 The development is inherent in the nature of the activities. 
 The form of the development determines the funda- 
 mental qualities of any character. Physical education 
 gives this development; its most inspiring objective is 
 to determine the quality of the development. 
 
 The essential thing to recognize in this connection, 
 therefore, is that, in physical-training activities, the 
 deepest, most powerful instinct tendencies, and 
 emotions of human nature are exercised. This is 
 important, since a great deal of uncritical popular 
 material has been written in recent years concerning 
 
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 29 
 
 the character development and the moral training 
 which take place in physical-training activities. The 
 traits developed have been expressed frequently in 
 terms of the old abstract, or formal, moral education, 
 viz., "initiative," "honesty," "cooperation," "self- 
 subordination to the leader," "loyalty to the group," 
 and so on through the whole category of virtues. Now, 
 these qualities undoubtedly appear in the activities; and 
 they may or may not have some relationship to similarly 
 named qualities in adult social life. Educators object 
 to the terms because they suggest a transfer of train- 
 ing. But the essential points to understand are: 
 (a) that growing human tendencies are being exer- 
 cised, and (b) the exercise of them may be at either end 
 of, or at any stage between the extremes of inspiring 
 fineness and utter viciousness. If there is self-subordi- 
 nation to a leader (and there frequently is), it may be 
 to an extremely bad leader as well as to a noble leader. 
 If there are loyalty and cooperation (and there fre- 
 quently are), they may be to a bad organization and 
 in a bad cause, as well as to the best of these. Character 
 traits are exercised, but they are exercised for good or 
 for ill. 
 
 The expressions of character or of morals may be 
 good or bad, hence the development tends to be good or 
 bad according to the leadership. The leader sets the 
 standards. In no other activity does adult leadership 
 have greater moral power. In this leadership we have 
 a laboratory method in moral education. It is a 
 foundation method on which the more refining activities 
 may be built. Character and moral training, therefore, is 
 an essential developmental objective of physical education. 
 
30 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 It arises out of the inherent nature of the activities. The 
 quality of the traits developed depends on the leadership 
 supplied by physical education. 
 
 B. The development of the intellectual mechanisms. 
 Physical-training activities must be learned; hence, 
 there must be thinking or an exercise of the intellectual 
 function and an acquisition of information. 
 
 The primary learning process in the activities is 
 centered in mastering the coordinations of the big- 
 muscle groups of the body, and in adjusting these 
 coordinations to the situations of the environment. 
 This learning of coordinations begins in the early move- 
 ments of locomotion; i.e., in learning to sit up, to creep, 
 stand, walk, run, climb; it continues in the great variety 
 of stunts on playground and gymnasium apparatus, 
 in handling big objects, in games, in athletics, in 
 swimming, etc. These coordinations are made in 
 relationship to the shifting situations of the environ- 
 ment. 
 
 There are several other forms of motor learning, such 
 as the use of the hand in the fine manual activities, and 
 the use of the vocal mechanism in oral communication, 
 or in singing. All this learning of coordinations in- 
 volves thinking. Mental connections or bonds are 
 made; habits are formed; skills are established. In this 
 way the capacity to think, and to will the movements of the 
 body is established. It is the source of motor skill and 
 of motor will power in adjustment. 
 
 In the adjustments of the movements to the shifting 
 situations of the environment, there is alertness of 
 attention, thinking to size up the situation, judgment 
 and response. The lightning-like rapidity of these 
 
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 31 
 
 strategic judgments are conspicuous in such games as 
 basket-ball and football; but they are just as essential 
 in a lesser degree in every game. These activities de- 
 velop strategic judgment: a habit in thinking. Skill in 
 strategic judgment is the source of personal "safety 
 first" motor efficiency. Athletes are not run down by 
 automobiles and street cars. Strategic judgment is also 
 an essential element in the industrial adaptability and 
 recreative resourcefulness of adults. 
 
 The information acquired in the learning of these big- 
 muscle activities is of two kinds. The less important, 
 though fundamentally essential for the activities them- 
 selves, is the knowledge of the physical characteristics 
 of the environment and of the paraphernalia used in the 
 activities. The other and more important knowledge is 
 the insight gained into human nature. The natural 
 physical-training activities are very intensive social 
 experiences. They are expressions of human nature; 
 they are experiments with human nature. In the actions 
 and the reactions of children in their play relationships, 
 ideas and habits of judgment about human nature 
 are acquired. 
 
 While other and higher reaches of insight into human 
 nature are gained through the specialized linguistic and 
 social activities, for the majority of children the more 
 fundamental insights are gained through big-muscle 
 play. All children engage in these activities; they bulk 
 large in time consumed. Judgment of human nature is 
 part of that profoundly important knowledge and skill 
 which contributes to all phases of personal social effi- 
 ciency requiring ability to deal with human nature. 
 
 It should be noted that the development of the 
 
32 SCHOOL PEOGRAM EST PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 capacities to think and to will big-muscle coordinations, 
 and to make the strategic judgments and to judge 
 human nature as described, are inherent in the nature of 
 physical-training activities. Participation in the activi- 
 ties automatically develops the capacities, and the 
 quality of development depends on leadership. 
 
 C. The development of neuro-muscular mechanisms 
 and nervous power. In learning big-muscle or physical- 
 training activities, nervous connections are made and 
 muscle tissues developed. In the repetition of the 
 activities, strengths and skills are developed. The 
 development of strengths and skills is the source of 
 all the motor powers of the athlete, gymnast, swimmer, 
 and dancer. This point of view in considering the 
 learning process emphasizes the results on the muscular 
 and the nervous structures and functions. This 
 development is frequently referred to as neuro-muscular 
 development, since the mechanisms of behavior are 
 muscle-nerve structures. It may also be called menti- 
 motor or psycho-motor development. All such special 
 habits and skills as posture and carriage are phases of 
 this general neuro-motor development. 
 
 The development of muscular tissue is in itself of 
 importance. But the nervous development is of chief 
 importance. The nervous system carries the burdens of 
 modern civilization. Nervous development means build- 
 ing power for action out of the latent inherited resources in 
 the nervous system. The development is gained only 
 through muscular exercise. 
 
 Objection has been made to the development of large 
 muscles, since our civilization does not require great 
 muscular strength. This is a sociological argument 
 
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION S3 
 
 without an understanding of the relationship between 
 muscular development and nervous development. 
 Natural muscular development is a symbol of nervous 
 development and functional power. The nervous centers 
 controlling the muscles can be developed only through 
 exercising them by exercising the muscles. A thorough 
 development of the big muscles means an equal develop- 
 ment of the nervous centers controlling these muscles. 
 It means an elaboration and strengthening of the ner- 
 vous connections. 
 
 Every group of muscles has a group of nervous cen- 
 ters controlling it. There are nervous centers which 
 control the big muscles of the trunk and of the limbs; 
 and there are nervous centers which control the small 
 muscles of the manual mechanism or of the vocal 
 mechanism. For the development of nervous func- 
 tional powers, the big-muscle activities are of first 
 importance. The manual and the vocal mechanisms 
 are relatively small. In the big-muscle activities 
 all the nervous centers of the spinal column, the medulla, 
 the cerebellum, the basal ganglia, and the motor cen- 
 ters of the cortex are involved and developed — all 
 except those centers controlling the finer integrations 
 of the fingers, the vocal and sensory mechanisms. 
 
 This development is the source of all the funda- 
 mental strengths and skills; but, much more important, 
 it is the source of developed nervous vitality and stay- 
 ing power: i.e., nutritive power which is explained 
 under organic development. Every normally developed 
 nervous center means so much functional power and 
 capacity to endure. The learning of a series of move- 
 ments gives the power to think and to will the move- 
 
34 SCHOOL PEOGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 ments. The repetition of the movements to the 
 point of developed strength and skill integrates the 
 body as a powerful organ of the will in those move- 
 ments. 
 
 This nervous power in the big neuro-muscular mech- 
 anisms is the source of nervous efficiency for action in 
 all phases of adult adjustment. It gives special adap- 
 tabilities in protective, recreative, and vocational effi- 
 ciencies. The nerves that control the big muscles 
 evolved to carry the burdens of life and to support the 
 nervous centers that make the finer coordinations. 
 Civilization is throwing the burden of activity on the 
 finer muscles and the nervous centers controlling them 
 — even on the higher associative centers. The big 
 muscles and the controlling nervous centers have 
 relatively less exercise in present-day adult life. On 
 the development of them during childhood and youth, 
 a large part of the physical efficiency of civilization 
 depends. 
 
 The degree of the development of nervous functional 
 power in any individual is determined, within the 
 limits of heredity, by the variety, amount, and intensity 
 of the activities during the years of growth. Nature 
 gives the impulses for the proper amount of activity in the 
 repetition of play. A boy throws a baseball ten thousand 
 times in order to learn to throw it effectively. So it is 
 with each activity. Through infinite repetition, the 
 nervous centers controlling the movements are devel- 
 oped. Thus nervous functional power is developed, 
 and it is developed in no other way. 
 
 Nervous development must be gained through con- 
 tinuous activity during the whole period of childhood 
 
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 35 
 
 and youth. It cannot be gained after maturity, and 
 it cannot be gained in any one year or group of 
 years in either childhood or youth. No process of 
 training can give the boy of eight the development 
 possible to a boy of eighteen. And no training will give 
 the boy of eighteen the development that should 
 naturally be his, if the training of previous years has 
 been neglected. The growth order in the child must be 
 observed, and the normal development natural to 
 each age must be secured. Not only does development 
 require activity at each age, it requires also huge 
 amounts of this activity. It is most apt to be neglected 
 after the onset of adolescence. 
 
 It should be noted that these aims of physical educa- 
 tion in the development of strength and skill and 
 related nervous development are primarily educational; 
 yet they have an important health value in the power 
 and the stability of the nervous functions. This build- 
 ing of strength and skill and functional power in the 
 fundamental integrating nervous centers of the body 
 is an essential objective of physical education. 
 
 D. The development of organic power. In big-muscle 
 activities the organs and the functions of nutrition and 
 elimination are developed; in a word, nutritive power 
 is developed. Synonyms of organic power are vitality, 
 vigor, capacity to assimilate food and to expend great 
 energy in work or in play, with a slow onset of fatigue 
 or with a rapid recuperation. These powers indicate a 
 development of the circulatory mechanism, respiratory 
 mechanism, digestive mechanism, heat-regulating mech- 
 anism, the eliminating mechanism, and the nutritive 
 processes in general. The development of these general 
 
36 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 organic powers, latent within the hereditary possibili- 
 ties of the organism, depends on vigorous activities. 
 
 The functional source of organic development is the 
 combustion in the muscles and the nervous centers dur- 
 ing activity; and the value of big-muscle activities for 
 this development is in the amount of the combustion. 
 In the vocal and manual activities the combustion in 
 the muscles and the nervous centers used causes an 
 increase in local circulation. Out of the exercise of 
 these local nutritive changes are developed the great 
 vocal endurance of the public singer or speaker and the 
 great manual endurance of the pianist or of the typist. 
 In these cases, however, the amount of combustion is 
 not sufficient to heighten appreciably the general 
 circulation or respiration. 
 
 On the other hand, in big-muscle activities (running, 
 for example) the bulk of muscles involved and the 
 amount of combustion are so great that the call for 
 oxygen and the need for elimination of waste prod- 
 ucts causes a greatly increased Junctional activity of the 
 circulatory, respiratory, and heat-regulating mech- 
 anisms, and soon of the digestive mechanism. The well- 
 recognized signs of this heightened functional activity 
 in vigorous big-muscle activities are the heart throb- 
 bing, the panting, the heat, or the sweating, and the 
 later increased appetite, assimilation, and elimination. 
 Increasedmuscular activity causesincreasedorganicactivity. 
 
 This development of organic power begins in the 
 squirming and random movements of the infant, and 
 continues in the creeping, walking, running about, and 
 all the vigorous stunts, plays, and games of childhood 
 and youth. 
 
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 37 
 
 Although we have, generally speaking, no volitional 
 control over the organic functions, by controlling the 
 intensity and the duration of big-muscle activity we can 
 control indirectly and to a fine degree the heightened 
 functional activity or exercise of the organic mechanisms 
 and nutritive 'processes. In this way we control the 
 development of organic power. The process is well 
 illustrated by the training of the athlete. For example, 
 the distance of the run, or the amount of big-muscle 
 activity, is determined from day to day, and thus the 
 amount of activity, or exercise, of the organic mechan- 
 isms is determined. In the popular training cant we 
 "run with our hearts" and "breathe with our legs." 
 More, in this process we control the amount of assimi- 
 lation. The athlete, according to his temperament, loses 
 weight each day and gains it back the next day. This 
 recovery of weight without left-over fatigue is the chief 
 guide in "training," or the conditioning process. Since 
 the food for this recovery of weight must come from the 
 digestive mechanism, the process involves a tremendous 
 heightening of the nutritive functions. They are exercised 
 to meet large demands and are thus developed. The 
 results in development are inherent in the nature of the 
 activities. If the activities are engaged in, the results in 
 development naturally follow. 
 
 The leadership of big-muscle activities to gain in- 
 directly the exercise of organic functions, and thus the 
 development of organic power, is an educational 
 procedure; i.e., an organization of activities for educa- 
 tional ends. It establishes organic habits. The process 
 is organic education. It is as accurate an educational 
 
38 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 procedure as learning to read or to write. In some ways 
 it can be more accurately determined. 
 
 Organic development (apart from the local develop- 
 ment associated with vocal and manual skills) is purely 
 the product of big-muscle activities, and thus the 
 undivided function of physical education. The power 
 is essential for efficiency in every phase of life adjust- 
 ment; and it is a power which must be gained by the 
 accumulative stimulation of nutrition all through 
 childhood and youth. Organic development or education 
 is therefore an essential aim of physical education. 
 
 Here is where physical education makes a direct 
 contribution to health. It develops organic power, 
 vitality, vigor — the developmental source of health. 
 The developmental process alone, however, does not 
 guarantee health. There are several other factors which 
 influence health, chief among which are sleep and rest, 
 diet, and avoidance of infection. Yet activity is the only 
 source of organic power this side of heredity. All the 
 other factors are favorable or unfavorable to the 
 proper functioning of the organism — that is, to growth 
 or to health. Activity is the only source of the development 
 of the latent powers that are planted in the organism by 
 heredity. This is not a distinction between the impor- 
 tance of the activity and the other factors. Sleep and 
 proper nutrition are just as important as the activity, 
 and they help determine physical condition for the 
 activity. The distinction is between functions. Activity 
 alone, of all the factors, develops latent resources. The 
 other factors, as well as activity, determine physical 
 condition. 
 
 It is important to note also that physical education 
 
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 39 
 
 in its direct interest in organic development must 
 emphasize the educational rather than the health objec- 
 tive. This is because (a) physical-training activities, if 
 they are effective for children and for youth, require a 
 special educational organization of facilities and leader- 
 ship; because (6) the children's interests in the activities 
 as educational achievements give the only school means 
 of fostering a self-directing control of health habits 
 through the "training" or the conditioning process; 
 and because (c) exercise has a health value in adult life 
 in maintaining nutritive efficiency, and adults with a 
 refined egoism insist on applying adult hygienic stand- 
 ards to children. 
 
 The last point is important. According to popular 
 standards, twenty minutes of exercise a day is sufficient 
 for adult health. Adults apply this standard to children. 
 Note our state laws. Experience has shown, however, 
 that children of the elementary school age (if they are 
 to gain the development necessary for efficient citizen- 
 ship) need between four and five hours of exercise or 
 big-muscle activities each day, and children of the 
 high school age need from two to three hours. The 
 difference between the two to five hours for children and 
 the twenty minutes for adults indicates the difference in 
 importance between the educational function in develop- 
 ing power through the years of childhood and youth, on 
 the one hand, and the hygienic function in maintaining 
 efficiency after maturity, on the other hand. Organic 
 education, as here defined, is the most fundamental of 
 all phases of education. 
 
 In summarizing these objectives in development it 
 should be noted that the four phases of the learning 
 
40 SCHOOL PROGEAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 and developmental process enumerated above include 
 all capacities in the development of human nature. 
 Activity is the source of this development. In order to 
 make clear the significance of activity in growth and 
 development, a distinction should be made between the 
 words growth and development. 
 
 Growth (in this differentiated sense) is the product of 
 the hereditary momentum started at conception. It 
 drives on to the completion of the structural and 
 functional type latent in the germ plasm; i.e., the 
 height, proportions, color, and response tendencies. 
 Development (in this differentiated sense) is the product 
 of activity which arouses or stimulates latent resources 
 in the growing cells of the organs and systems of 
 organs to functional activity. It is the change of 
 potential possibilities into realized abilities. Given 
 the essentials of food, sleep, freedom from infection, and 
 sufficient exercise to keep the neuro-muscular tissues 
 alive, the growth processes drive on toward the com- 
 pletion of the hereditary type; but there will be no 
 development of the various latent capacities in. the 
 organism without a broad variety and intense quality 
 of play and work. In these specialized senses the growth 
 tendencies and possibilities are primarily hereditary 
 matters, influenced favorably or handicapped by the 
 environment; development, on the contrary, is essen- 
 tially the product of the developmental activities of 
 play and work and is an educational matter. Develop- 
 mental activity is the sole means of education. 
 
 It has been shown that the big-muscle activities give 
 the fundamental part of the development in each group 
 of capacities; that is, in the development of the instinct, 
 
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 41 
 
 the intellectual, the neuro-muscular^ and the organic 
 mechanisms. On the development of the powers 
 enumerated, all phases of adult social adjustment 
 depend, directly or indirectly. Other than big-muscle 
 activities develop the powers for the finer coordinations 
 and adjustments in life. The latter activities are more 
 specific in their adjusting values than the big-muscle 
 activities. The differences in results for the classes of 
 activities are due primarily to the different inherent 
 values of the activities for development. In a word, it 
 may be said that physical-training activities give the 
 broad, bulky foundation aims of education. On these 
 foundation aims all the rest of education and of life 
 adjustment are built as a refining superstructure. 
 
 Other values and corresponding objectives flow out of 
 the opportunities which big-muscle activities give for 
 a leadership in standards. 
 
 4. THE OBJECTIVES IN SOCIAL STANDARDS 
 
 The fourth point of view in considering objectives 
 is social standards. Standards are the idealizing objec- 
 tives of education. Society has created and is still 
 creating criteria for judging every phase of human 
 behavior and every trait in development or in adjust- 
 ment. An individual may gain economic independence 
 as a gambler, a quack, or a shyster. He may amass 
 information without any truth. He may gain organic 
 development, neuro-muscular skills, and impulsive and 
 emotional development, and be unhealthy, awkward, 
 and a "mucker." 
 
 Standards, as objectives in education, are criteria for 
 guiding all activities which give development or adjust- 
 
42 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 ment, and for judging the results in development and 
 adjustment. By them the quality of the activities, the 
 development, and the adjustment are evaluated. 
 Standards are not different or separate activities from 
 the activities which give development or adjustment. 
 They function only as they are used to guide and to 
 evaluate these activities, or the educational results of 
 the activities. Further, development and adjustment 
 are inherent in the specific values of different activities. 
 On the contrary, the quality of the development and of 
 the adjustment are due to the way the activities are 
 guided by a standardizing leadership. 
 
 To classify standards on the same level with develop- 
 mental or adjusting activities, or with the results in 
 development or adjustment, leads to confused thinking. 
 Standards are overhead objectives. They are on a 
 higher level and apply to all other objectives. They 
 require the establishment of another tier of habits, 
 ideas, and attitudes in control of the habits, ideas, and 
 attitudes being developed as results of the inherent 
 values of the activities. 
 
 The distinction between activities and the standards 
 in activities is important, because children tend 
 to enter spontaneously into activities, and with satis- 
 faction they drive on to some kind of development and 
 some form of adjustment. But they are not directly 
 interested in adult standards. They learn standards 
 only through a painstaking standardizing leadership. 
 The leader is apt to get lost in the concrete leadership 
 of the activities and to forget the standards. 
 
 Physical education has objectives in three great 
 groups of standards in addition to a number of technical 
 
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 43 
 
 standards like posture and carriage. These broad 
 objectives are in morals, manners, and health. 
 
 Because of the values of physical-training activities 
 in the exercise of fundamental character traits, physical 
 education must set up the proper moral habits, ideas, 
 and attitudes which should come out of the leadership 
 of the activities, and formulate a teaching technique 
 to build them. The same is true of manners and of 
 courtesy. This leadership is supplying standards in the 
 development of the instinct mechanisms. 
 
 Health is a condition of the organism which is 
 conserved or promoted by building standard habits, 
 ideas, and attitudes in control of the activities which 
 give direct satisfaction; e.g., eating, sleep, elimination, 
 etc. Because physical education organizes and leads 
 activities which are the chief developmental source of 
 health, and because these activities focus the interest 
 of children on physical education, the leader of the 
 activities is in a key position to establish health habits. 
 It should be remembered, however, that there are other 
 phases of the curriculum concerned with health, such as 
 biology, home economics, civics, etc. 
 
 In connection with standards as objectives it should be 
 noted that citizenship is the great correlating objective 
 of education. When analyzed, however, as an objective, 
 citizenship breaks up into the several phases of devel- 
 opment and adjustment enumerated above, judged 
 according to social standards. Citizenship cannot be 
 achieved by some separate or artificial scheme of 
 activities. It is realized through the natural activities 
 which give the several phases of development and the 
 several phases of adjustment, which must be guided 
 
44 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 according to social standards. Citizenship is the cor- 
 relating ideal of democracy for guiding all the activities 
 and all development and adjustment. 
 
 To realize standards in education, all the activities 
 and all the leadership of teachers must be saturated 
 with the overhead objectives. 
 
 Physical education contributes to the citizenship 
 objective just in proportion as the inherent values of 
 the activities which it controls contribute to the 
 development of capacities or adjustments necessary for 
 citizenship; and it contributes just in proportion as the 
 activities and their values give the leader a strategic 
 opportunity to establish standard habits, ideas, or 
 attitudes in any phase of behavior. 
 
 5. THE OBJECTIVES IN THE CONTROL OF HEALTH 
 CONDITIONS 
 
 The fifth point of view in considering objectives is the 
 control of health conditions. This health control, or 
 supervision, as an objective of the school is quite in 
 contrast to the educational objectives. It is the protective 
 and preventive function of the school. Its purpose is 
 to free the educational process from handicapping 
 influences. 
 
 Health control, however, is an essential function of 
 the teacher. Every teacher must look after the safety 
 and the health of children. The teacher is the one 
 essential officer in the school, and the professional 
 substitute for the parent. Where the school is depart- 
 mentally organized, and the responsibilities in teaching 
 different activities somewhat divided, the bulk of the 
 responsibility for health control rests on the depart- 
 
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 45 
 
 mental instructor in physical education. To realize the 
 educational values of the big-muscle activities the 
 teacher must control health conditions. As the over- 
 head supervision of this control is an administrative 
 problem, not a problem of objectives, it need not be 
 considered here. With reference to this administration, 
 however, it should be observed that these analyses of 
 objectives show how utterly administrators miss the 
 essence of the educative process when they attempt to set up 
 departments of health or morals or citizenship as separate 
 or inclusive administrative units. Instead, they should set 
 up a conscience and a technique in teaching standards 
 in every phase of the teaching process. 
 
 6. DEFINITION OP PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 In summary of these objectives, we may define 
 physical education as follows: Physical education is that 
 phase of education which is concerned, first, with the 
 organization and the leadership of children in big-muscle 
 activities, to gain the development and the adjustment 
 inherent in the activities according to social standards; and, 
 second, with the control of health or growth conditions 
 naturally associated with the leadership of the activities, 
 so that the educational process may go on without growth 
 handicaps. 
 
PART III 
 
 The Pkogham in Physical Education 
 a. introduction to the four phases of the 
 
 PROGRAM 
 
 1. The four phases. 
 
 2. The school officers involved. 
 
 3. Criteria for selecting and organizing 
 
 activities. 
 
PART III 
 
 The Program in Physical Education 
 a. introduction to the four phases of the 
 
 PROGRAM 
 
 1. The Four Phases 
 
 The objectives of physical education just enumer- 
 ated require the formulation of a program in physical 
 education in four phases or sections, as follows: 
 
 Section One. A program in physical training (or in 
 big-muscle activities) which is the source of all the 
 developmental objectives of physical education. This 
 may be called the developmental program or the 
 program in big-muscle or physical-training activities. 
 
 Section Two. A program in character, morals, and 
 manners, in two phases, (A) A program in character and 
 moral training based oh the inherent values of the activi- 
 ties in the exercise and training of the instinct tendencies 
 and emotions and the necessity of adult leadership 
 in moral standards in this automatic training; and 
 
 (B) A program in training in manners based on the 
 social nature of the activities, the spontaneous expres- 
 sion in manners, and the necessity of adult leadership 
 in standards of courtesy. 
 
 Section Three. A program in teaching hygiene or 
 health based on the inherent values of the activities in 
 the development of organic power as the developmental 
 source of health and in the opportunities the activities 
 give the leader for the organization of self-impelling 
 incentives in developing health habits and attitudes. 
 
 47 
 
48 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Section Four. A program in the control of health 
 conditions {health control, protection, or supervision for 
 short) which is a general function of the school and of 
 all teachers. 
 
 2. The School Officers Involved 
 
 In the formulation of the programs, the different 
 school officials involved in the practical conduct of them 
 must be taken into account. 
 
 In the elementary schools there are, in all schools, the 
 elementary classroom teachers, and, in large schools, 
 special or departmental teachers, usually one for boys 
 and one for girls. In city and sometimes in county 
 school systems there are supervisors and administrators, 
 and frequently associated with these are special 
 inspectors, corrective, and medical experts. 
 
 In schools above the elementary grades, the depart- 
 mental organization, with directors or specialists, one 
 for each of the sexes, is the customary organization. 
 Frequently these organizing specialists in large insti- 
 tutions are assisted by a number of special instructors 
 in the different activities and by other examining and 
 corrective experts. The importance of this situation 
 lies in the fact that the organization in these higher 
 institutions is frequently suggested as a model for the 
 organization in the elementary grades. The organiza- 
 tion adapted to the college is shoved down into the 
 lower grades. 
 
 In most elementary schools the whole burden of 
 physical education rests on the elementary classroom 
 teacher, as is customary in the other activities of the 
 curriculum. This is the case, especially, in small rural 
 
THE PROGRAM 49 
 
 schools and in most small-town or small city schools. 
 Very few elementary schools can have special depart- 
 mental teachers. 1 Hence the program must be for- 
 mulated in a detailed course of activities 2 so that the 
 elementary teacher can conduct it; and the elementary 
 teacher must be trained for the performance of the 
 essential functions in the program. Even where the 
 program is formulated in this way and the teachers 
 trained in the essential processes, skilled supervisors are 
 required. It is customary and necessary to place such 
 supervisors in charge of elementary teachers. They 
 should be experts and able to solve those problems for 
 the teacher which require technical or professional 
 skill. Even in large schools where special departmental 
 teachers are employed, the more expert supervisor is 
 usually necessary. 
 
 In large systems of schools the administrative func- 
 tions of the supervisors are centralized in an adminis- 
 trative officer who ranks as an assistant to the superin- 
 tendent. 
 
 In the formulation of the programs these supervisory 
 and overhead administrative problems will be touched 
 upon at the end of each section. 
 
 3. Criteria for Selecting and Organizing Activities 
 
 The criteria adopted for the selection and organi- 
 zation of activities in a curriculum in physical education 
 are two : (a) children's needs, interests, and problems, 
 and (6) adult social needs. The latter may be considered 
 
 1 The departmental organization with special teachers probably represents 
 the future organization in all large schools. 
 a These are given in a separate manual. 
 
50 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 from the standpoints of the children's future adult 
 needs or the needs of society in their future behavior. 
 
 With the rise of the scientific movement in the or- 
 ganization of the curriculum, there has been a strong 
 tendency to emphasize adult social needs as the basis 
 of validity for selecting activities or materials for the 
 curriculum. This emphasis on adult social needs is 
 eliminating much useless material from the curriculum, 
 and it suggests the total amount of the activities (or 
 material) which should be covered by the end of school 
 life. The emphasis on adult social needs gives, however, 
 no indication of the grade placement or the relationships 
 of the activities to the whole learning and teaching 
 process. 
 
 The children's own native tendencies to enter into 
 activities or deal with materials spontaneously and by 
 age periods are the only scientific source for a selection 
 of activities for grade placement (or age adaptation) 
 and for the natural sequence in the learning and teach- 
 ing process. As suggested under objectives, the chil- 
 dren's own spontaneous or natural activities are the 
 developmental source of the ability to enter into adult 
 adjusting activities. The development, through the 
 natural activities, is primary. Only gradually are these 
 developmental activities and their results changed into 
 the adjusting activities, and not until adolescence does 
 the change become conspicuously rapid. The selection 
 of activities according to adult social needs gives the 
 content of the curriculum in adult adjusting activities. 
 But children have their own laws of growth and develop- 
 ment, and their own activities are related to this growth 
 and development. The whole curriculum should be an 
 
THE PROGRAM 51 
 
 elaborated, systematized, and selected organization of 
 developmental and adjusting activities, because these 
 activities present opportunities for children to carry on 
 their life enterprises with a natural progression, and 
 they afford resources for teachers to help children solve 
 their problems as they arise progressively. The very 
 nature of big-muscle activities compels this attitude in 
 the organization of the curriculum in physical education, 
 whatever may be done in the other activities of the 
 school. 
 
B. THE FOUR PHASES OF THE PROGRAM 
 
 Section I. The Program in Physical-Training 
 Activities — The Developmental Program 
 
 I. Selection of Activities. (Present attitudes.) 
 
 A. The necessity of selection. 
 
 B. Selection between the three great divisions of activities. 
 
 1. Emphasis on the natural activities. Reasons. 
 
 a. Selection according to relative values for de- 
 
 velopment. 
 
 b. Selection according to children's interests. 
 
 c. Selection according to the development needs. 
 
 (1) The needs. The school's responsibility. 
 
 (2) Fatigue and amount of activity. 
 
 d. Selection according to the teacher's function. 
 
 2. Place and selection of formal activities. 
 
 a. Marching and tactics. 
 
 b. Postural instruction. 
 
 c. Gymnastic drills of three classes. 
 
 d. Special corrective drills. 
 
 3. Place and selection of related activities. 
 
 a. Walking and outing activities. 
 
 b. Work or labor. 
 
 C. Adaptive selection. 
 
 1. Age adaptation. 
 
 2. Sex differentiation. 
 
 3. Individual adaptation. The examination for fitness. 
 
 D. Evaluation. 
 
 E. Practical selection. Environmental conditions. 
 
 II. Organization of the Program. Analysis of the teaching 
 situation : 
 
 A. Facilities. 
 
 B. Organization of the time allotment. 
 
 C. Plan of activities. 
 
 D. Organization of children. 
 
 E. Leadership and teaching. 
 
 1. Managerial organization. 
 
 2. Organization of incentives. 
 
 3. Technical teaching and supervision. 
 
 4. Class discussion. 
 
 F. Supervision and administration. 
 
THE FOUR PHASES OF THE PROGRAM 
 
 Section I. The Program in Physical-Training 
 Activities — The Developmental Program 
 
 I. The Selection of Activities 
 The program in physical-training activities requires 
 a selection of activities and a school organization for 
 teaching and administration. 
 
 A. THE NECESSITY OF SELECTION 
 
 From the great variety and enormous number of 
 physical-training activities indicated in the fifteen 
 groups on pages 16 to 19, a selection must be made for a 
 curriculum of activities in the school. All cannot be 
 used, and they are of unequal value in the education of 
 children. Present attitudes in this selection vary 
 greatly in different schools. They range from selections 
 in which formal drills predominate to those in which the 
 natural activities predominate; from those in which the 
 old ideas of discipline, the correction of bad influ- 
 ences of the schoolroom, and ideas of keeping fit for 
 school studies alone predominate, to those in which the 
 newer ideas of the special and educationally essential 
 values of natural physical-training activities predom- 
 inate. This situation indicates the need for a scien- 
 tifically valid selection and organization of a course of 
 activities. The selection should be according to prin- 
 ciples which will meet school conditions generally. 
 
 b. selection between the three great 
 divisions op activities 
 I. Emphasis on the natural activities. Each of 
 the three great divisions of physical-training activi- 
 
 53 
 
54 SCHOOL PROGRAM LN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 ties classified above has values; but the emphasis in 
 selection for a curriculum of activities in the school to 
 meet the needs of children and present-day social de- 
 mands must be on the natural or big-muscle play 
 activities. Four groups of reasons for this emphasis on 
 big-muscle activities, may be enumerated as follows: 
 (a) Relative values, (6) the interest of children, (c) the 
 development needs of children, and (d) the attitude of 
 teachers. 
 
 c. Selection according to relative values. The natural 
 physical-training (big-muscle) activities are education- 
 ally more valuable than gymnastic drills. They give a 
 certain development of intellectual, emotional, nervous, 
 and organic powers not given in the same degree by 
 any other kind of activity in child life, and it is impos- 
 sible to gain the broad and more significant phases of 
 these values through drills. A comparison of values 
 makes apparent the greater importance of the natural 
 activities. 
 
 b. Selection according to children's interests. The 
 natural physical-training activities arise out of chil- 
 dren's play tendencies. They are satisfying because 
 they meet growth needs. These needs are not met 
 by any other kind of activity. The natural activities are 
 an essential part of child life. On the other hand, 
 gymnastic drills or calisthenic movements are pure adult 
 inventions. They are artificial or invented movements 
 derived from the army idea of "training" and were in- 
 corporated into the school program in Germany and 
 Sweden when formal discipline was in vogue. Any 
 business, professional, or school man, who, conscious 
 of the growing need of exercise, has attempted to take 
 
THE PROGRAM 55 
 
 morning calisthenics, realizes keenly the irksomeness 
 of the task. The movements have no meaning or mo- 
 tive or interest except for the association with a desire 
 for health or an idea of duty. They require will power in 
 their execution and a consciously directed effort that is 
 fatiguing. These movements have less meaning for chil- 
 dren than for adults, and children have less-developed will 
 power or capacity for sustained effort. They have less 
 capacity to keep up meaningless movements for the 
 sake of a remote need or an abstract ideal. The drills 
 are more irksome to them than to adults. They are 
 adult activities, not child activities. 
 
 It is frequently said that children enjoy drills. They 
 do as a novelty, which is short-lived, and as a relief from 
 the necessary inhibitions and the depression of sitting still 
 at a desk for long periods (the most artificial thing a 
 normal child can be asked to do) ; but this "enjoyment" 
 is quite in contrast with the enjoyment of the natural 
 play activities, as may readily be seen if children are 
 given the choice between drills and play on the play- 
 ground. 
 
 From the standpoint of children's interests alone the 
 emphasis in the selection of activities must be on the 
 natural. 
 
 c. Selection according to the developmental needs of 
 children in relation to the time problem. (1) The needs. 
 The school's responsibility. The needs of children for 
 the nervous and organic development that is to be 
 gained from physical-training activities are such that 
 the maximum time allotment possible for the activities 
 within school hours is insufficient. The school time 
 for activities must be supplemented by time for 
 
56 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 activities out of school. This indicates a selection of 
 activities for teaching within school which will tend to 
 go on out of school. 
 
 The average time per day required to gain essential 
 results for efficient citizenship from big-muscle activities 
 is enormous. It seems to be about as follows: For 
 children of the elementary school age, it is between 
 four and five hours per day; for children of the high- 
 school age, or during early adolescence, it is between 
 two and three hours per day; and for the college period 
 or late adolescence, it is between one and two hours per 
 day. 
 
 The contrast between these figures and those accepted 
 in school tradition is apt to arouse skepticism, yet the 
 figures are based on the tendencies in activities of 
 children themselves, the experience of experts, the 
 observations of large numbers of earnest parents and 
 teachers, the accumulated data from many social and 
 recreational surveys, and a mass of statistical and case 
 studies of adult physical and mental conditions (deter- 
 mined seemingly by full experience or lack of adequate 
 experience in big-muscle activities during childhood and 
 youth). Though the data have never been amassed in 
 one thesis for the information of educators, the indica- 
 tions of the facts are such that it seems unsafe to ignore 
 them. Especially is this true since the -problem is 
 relatively simple of solution. 
 
 The needs of children for big-muscle developmental 
 activities are quite different from those of adults. The 
 period of rapid growth of the fundamental mechanisms 
 and the metabolic functions, is the period for the 
 development of all the latent resources in power for the 
 
THE PROGRAM 57 
 
 functions of life. After maturity the objective is to 
 maintain the functional efficiency of the developed 
 fundamental powers and to acquire relatively slight 
 variations in new adjustments. The needs of children in 
 big-muscle activities are for development; the needs of 
 adults are to "keep fit." 
 
 This time problem has to do with the time that is 
 necessary for big-muscle activities, if children are to 
 reach maturity with that fundamental development of 
 the emotional, nervous, and organic powers which seems 
 essential to stand the strain of the functions of modern 
 life. It does not involve a question of conflict in interests 
 with other activities of the school curriculum. Child 
 welfare demands that the school shall meet the problem 
 with a solution somehow. The solution is merely a 
 matter of an intelligent organization of the relationships 
 between within-school activities and out-of-school activities. 
 
 The activities selected to be taught within school 
 hours must tend to carry over by their own dynamic 
 drive into the out-of-school play periods. During child- 
 hood and youth the only activities which will be carried 
 on with intensity for any length of time are the play 
 activities. These activities tend to be continued be- 
 cause of the pleasure they give. Formalized and arti- 
 ficial activities are fatiguing and particularly uninter- 
 esting after the novelty has worn off, and they cease to 
 go on as soon as adult compulsion is discontinued. Drills 
 never impel children to spontaneous action. Children do 
 not rush together spontaneously at recess or after school 
 hours and start a gymnastic drill. But this is precisely 
 what must happen from activities taught in school hours 
 if physical education is to help produce citizens. This fact 
 
58 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 alone puts the emphasis in the selection of activities on 
 the natural activities. 
 
 The relationship between the periods within school 
 hours and those out of school hours will be considered 
 under "II. Organization." 
 
 (#). Fatigue and amount of activity. Even if it were 
 conceivable that all the time which children, under 
 natural stimulus and satisfaction, normally devote to 
 big-muscle activities could be organized within school 
 periods, the children's developmental needs could not 
 be met by formal drills. Within the limits of normal 
 fatigue, development is in proportion to the intensity 
 and the duration of the daily activities. In the joy of 
 play the onset of fatigue is very slow, while in drills it 
 is very rapid. Drills exhaust children long before a small 
 part of the time needed for development has been covered. 
 For development the dynamic drive of the natural 
 activities is necessary. Therefore the emphasis in the 
 selection of the great bulk of physical-training activities 
 must be on the natural. 
 
 d. Selection according to the teacher's function. The 
 typical teacher will go through conscientiously with 
 any program set up by school authorities (even mean- 
 ingless movements); and many individuals are so 
 constituted mentally that they enjoy watching even 
 rows of mechanically arranged children executing me- 
 chanical movements to command or in rhythm. Any 
 group of human beings executing movements together 
 appeals to the spectator's impulses; but this spectator's 
 enjoyment has no necessary relationship to the child's 
 life or education. Frequently mass calisthenic drills 
 are organized for the enjoyment they give to the spec- 
 
THE PROGRAM 59 
 
 tator. The danger is that such drills will be organized 
 with great labor for the teachers and loss of time for the 
 children, not because of their educational value, but 
 simply because they do appeal to the spectator. The 
 same is true of marching. Many teachers also give 
 drills because it is what they have been trained to do. 
 They do not know how to do anything else and they are 
 required to do something. 
 
 To the majority of teachers, however, all this is 
 consciously a part of the burden of teaching, in the 
 sense of driving children to do something they do not 
 want to do. Yet physical training, of all the activities 
 of the school curriculum, should carry its own drive and 
 even contribute to the spirit of the school to the extent 
 of lessening the requirement for discipline in other 
 subjects. Properly organized, it does carry its own 
 drive, as can be proved by reference to the organized 
 physical-training activities on the playground. In 
 direct contrast with anything that ever happens in 
 artificial drills is the wide-awake, concentrated, enthu- 
 siastic, thrilling, joyous response of children at play 
 under a trained teacher. The enjoyment-giving and life- 
 giving service of the teacher are equally conspicuous. 
 The activities are an inspiration to the children; the 
 children's responses are an inspiration to the teacher. 
 If consistent results are to be secured from the educa- 
 tional process, this joyous attitude the teacher must 
 have; so it is worthy of consideration in the selection of 
 activities. Teachers must live in the activities as well 
 as the children. 
 
 2. Place and selection of formal activities. The 
 formal activities include four groups: (a) the marching 
 
60 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 and tactical activities; (fe) the postural instructional 
 activities; (c) gymnastic drill activities for postural 
 correction, for "discipline," or for development, and 
 (d) the special corrective activities. 
 
 a. Marching and tactics have a value and a place in 
 the physical-training program, as illustrated in fire 
 drills and in the need for handling children in groups or 
 masses in school or civic functions or in teaching 
 physical-training activities. These needs are specific 
 and the training should be specified and limited. 
 Marching and tactics have no "disciplinary" value 
 except in developing the ability to respond in mass and 
 with precision to command, and they have these values 
 only where such specific responses have a meaning in 
 the school and the social life of the community. 
 
 b. Postural instruction is essential in proportion as 
 children are confined indoors for long hours (which in 
 itself is devitalizing) and compelled to sit in seats at 
 tasks which tend to induce bad posture and depress 
 nutrition. Good posture implies a standard way of 
 sitting, standing, or walking. It is a product of neuro- 
 muscular strength and skill; hence it must be established 
 in motor habits and supported by an ideal. The 
 strength is a product primarily of strength-giving and 
 nutrition-stimulating vigorous play. The skill is a 
 product of ways that have been learned for assuming 
 good posture. The habits are a product of properly 
 adjusted furniture and constant effective coaching to 
 help develop a habit and fix an ideal. Postural instruc- 
 tion should be distinguished from "postural" or 
 "corrective" drills. The postural instruction should 
 be an abiding thought (as should the teaching of all 
 
THE PROGRAM 61 
 
 ideals) in the mind of the teacher and the instruction 
 should be repeated frequently. The drills can be 
 given only at stated intervals even in the later grades. 
 They should not be given at all during the early grades. 
 c. Gymnastic drills include the activities designated 
 by such phrases as "calisthenics," and "setting-up 
 exercises." They are organized from the standpoints 
 of (1) postural correction, (2) "discipline" and (3) 
 development. 
 
 (1) "Postural drills" have a limited value for chil- 
 dren whose posture habits are poor. They are artificial 
 ways of toning up muscles left weak by insufficient 
 natural exercise and relaxed through bad posture in 
 unnatural occupations. Real postural exercises are few 
 in number and they are specifically selected to tone up 
 the special groups of muscles involved in maintaining 
 good posture. They should be organized for those who 
 need them and always in addition to the regular develop- 
 mental activities. The danger of these postural drills is 
 that they will be given as substitutes for the large 
 amount of nutrition-stimulating and strength-giving 
 natural activities. 
 
 (2) "Disciplinary drills" are exercises executed to 
 command with great precision. The traditional gym- 
 nastic exercises of this class are artificial, and the 
 "discipline" in them is largely an exploded idea. It is 
 confined to the responses in executing artificial stunts. 
 Except for the ability to think and will artificial move- 
 ments and the egoistic satisfaction in this mastery of 
 the body, the "discipline" has no meaning whatever. 
 The "disciplinary" idea in these artificial movements 
 has no place in the school curriculum except as it is 
 
62 SCHOOL PROGRAM EN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 identified with postural instruction and with the initia- 
 tion or control of movements in developmental drills. 
 
 (3) Developmental drills are series of vigorous exer- 
 cises initiated either by command or example and re- 
 peated rhythmically several times. They have a limited 
 value in the later grades in that a teacher can organize 
 large numbers of pupils, in a small space for a limited 
 time, and thus meet the temporary needs for relief from 
 sedentary activities or for exercise in inclement weather 
 and under cramping conditions as to facilities. It may 
 be argued that a little experience in these activities has 
 a possible value for adult life in giving a technique 
 which may be carried over as a means of exercise under 
 conditions of sedentary life. Such an argument is easy 
 of exaggeration and of doubtful validity. Developmental 
 drills should be organized only as bad-weather activities or 
 as artificial substitutes for natural activities where it is 
 impossible to organize the latter adequately. The danger 
 of these drills is that they will be organized as the real 
 developmental activities instead of as artificial substi- 
 tutes, or that they will be made the center of the 
 physical-training program instead of a minor item or a 
 convenience. The possibilities of realizing their limited 
 values increases with the age of the children. They have 
 no value in the early grades. Ten to twelve minutes at 
 a time is the limit of their real value in the late grades, 
 and about twenty minutes in the late high-school or 
 college age. Teachers are apt to give these exercises because 
 they are easy to organize; but to get real results they are the 
 hardest to teach of all the activities. 
 
 d. Special corrective activities are movements or 
 manipulations selected especially for their remedial, 
 
THE PROGRAM 63 
 
 physiological, or anatomical effect. As the term implies, 
 these activities are for particular individual cases and 
 require generally special skill in their application. The 
 supervisor of physical education in any school system 
 should have the elements at least of this special skill. 
 3. Place and selection of related activities. The re- 
 lated activities arise from the daily need of going from 
 place to place, from the outing impulse, and the 
 necessity for labor. These activities are important for 
 physical-training purposes; but they are usually diffi- 
 cult to organize for daily systematic physical-training 
 results, and they are one-sided in values. 
 
 a. Walking to and from school within reasonable 
 distances should be systematically encouraged. But it 
 should never be a substitute for play, which is apt to 
 be the case in rural communities. Walking is fatiguing 
 and low in physical-training value for children. For 
 equal allotments of time, it gives very little of the values 
 of vigorous social play. 
 
 The outing activities with all their "educational- 
 recreational" features should also be systematically 
 developed. They can be organized very systematically 
 on week-ends and holidays, and should be so organized. 
 They are extremely valuable to supplement and expand 
 the more regularly organized natural activities. 
 
 b. Work also must be recognized. Vigorous hard 
 work in the past has occupied a prominent and, in 
 many cases, a dominant place in the physical education 
 of youth. Today, however, few children have the op- 
 portunities to participate in real developmental work. 
 Play, therefore, has become the dominant influence and 
 for the majority of children the only constructive physi- 
 
64 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 cal-training activity. Work cannot be organized by any 
 flight of the imagination as a systematic physical- 
 training procedure for all the children of the nation. 
 And because of the influence of machinery on work, and 
 its specialization, very little of the work children have 
 to do, even on the farm, has any developmental value. 
 It lacks especially the values for organic development, 
 and the values which come out of the social discipline 
 of vigorous play. However, when real developmental 
 work comes into the experience of children, it is so 
 much to their advantage. It should never exclude, 
 however, the free exercise of the instincts and emotions 
 in the big-muscle, social play. 
 
 C. ADAPTIVE SELECTION 
 
 Physical-training activities must be selected accord- 
 ing to natural principles of adaptation to the incentives, 
 capacities, and needs of each age period, with sex 
 differentiation and individual differences taken into 
 account. The selection is adaptive, and it must be 
 determined by continuous educational research. 
 
 i. Age adaptation. The adaptation of activities to 
 age periods requires a selection according to age ten- 
 dencies, capacities, and needs. This gives a selection 
 according to the principle of progression in age incen- 
 tive, capacities, and needs. The selection may be very 
 precise and scientific. Age adaptation requires (a) that 
 the activities shall be selected which are most charac- 
 teristic of the natural tendencies of the age. They 
 should be the activities which tend to arise spon- 
 taneously. They should tend to go on irrespective of 
 adult organization. This is not a question of what it 
 
THE PROGRAM 65 
 
 is possible to teach children. For example, specialized 
 teaching can produce prodigies in any activity; but it 
 is not advisable to attempt this with many children. 
 Further, there is always a tendency on account of 
 adult criteria to shove down the activities of adults 
 and of older children into the lower age periods. Again, 
 age adaptation requires that the activities shall be 
 analyzed, and those selected (6) which best suit the 
 natural capacities of the age in strength and skill, and 
 (c) which best suit the need for a full and proper stimu- 
 lation of the nutritive functions within the limits of 
 fatigue. In a word, the activities must be selected for 
 the best educational results in each age — mentally, 
 nervously, and organically. A selection according to 
 these criteria will give a thoroughly scientific curriculum 
 of natural physical-training activities. No formal activi- 
 ties should be selected for general use in the early age 
 periods apart from postural instruction and simple 
 marching for fire drills or for school needs. In the later 
 grades they should be selected only to meet individual 
 needs and artificial conditions. 
 
 2. Sex differentiation. Sex differences within age 
 periods after approximately ten years of age demand a 
 differentiation in the adaptive selection of activities for 
 boys and for girls. Previous to ten years of age boys and 
 girls naturally engage in the same activities and no 
 general differentiation in the activities is required. But 
 with the beginning of pubescence, important differences 
 in capacities, if not in incentives and needs, begin to 
 appear, and these divergences become more conspicuous 
 with years. A special selection and adaptation of 
 activities according to sex differentiations is therefore 
 
66 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 necessary. Considering the training of teachers in 
 general, the safest time for this division of the sexes 
 (even if then still engaged in the same activities) is ten 
 years of age. Playing together after this age has social 
 values for both boys and girls, but the more vigorous 
 types of play should be organized only by the skilled 
 teacher or supervisor. 
 
 3. Individual adaptation. Finally, individual differ- 
 ences within each age period require a further selection 
 and adaptation of activities according to individual 
 needs, capacities, and incentives. Individual differences 
 are apparent from birth, but, except for children who 
 have organic lesions, who are crippled, who are exces- 
 sively fat, or who have other special handicaps or needs, 
 it is not necessary to make many individual adaptations 
 previous to nine or ten years of age. The great mass of 
 children need a large amount of joy-giving vigorous 
 play, and if this is provided the slight variations in 
 strength and skill will take care of themselves. This 
 assumes, however, the attention to the individual which is 
 supposed to be given to all children in the teaching 
 process. Any maladjustments due to fear or social 
 timidity, or any wrong attitudes created by previous 
 unfortunate experiences may require special temporary 
 adaptations of activities as a teaching and learning 
 expediency. Children who have special organic or 
 structural handicaps should have special adaptations 
 of activities. These must be determined usually by a 
 physical examination and should be handled by the 
 expert or the supervisor. 
 
 After the age of ten years, approximately, it becomes 
 increasingly important to have children classified for 
 
THE PROGRAM 67 
 
 big-muscle activities according to individual needs, 
 capacities, and incentives and to have activities adapted 
 accordingly. This need for the individual classification 
 of children and the adaptation of activities is due to 
 the fact that the bad effects of home and school life and 
 of neglect of training are cumulative; and that interests 
 arise and develop into ambitions in the more complex 
 strength- and skill-demanding activities. Participation 
 in these vigorous activities should be determined by 
 individual fitness or capacity to enter them with good 
 educational results. The basis of this determination is 
 the physical examination for fitness or capacity. This 
 is an educational examination and should be kept 
 distinct in thought from the health examination, 
 though the two examinations may be given at the same 
 time. The distinction between the examinations lies in 
 the fact that one is for the guidance of the teacher in 
 leading physical-training activities, while the other is 
 for the control of growth handicaps or for "health 
 supervision," which will be considered later. This 
 special adaptation of big-muscle activities to the needs 
 of individuals can be handled only by the expert 
 supervisor of physical education. 
 
 D. EVALUATION 
 
 The activities which have been adapted to age 
 incentives, capacities, and needs with a sex differentia- 
 tion, and to individual differences in capacities and 
 needs, exist in great variety and they differ in values 
 for the various objectives of physical education. 
 They should be evaluated in detail, and should be 
 selected accordingly. 
 
68 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 E. PRACTICAL SELECTION 
 
 Finally, the activities should be selected according to 
 local conditions as to physical and social environment, 
 the season, available facilities, .and the talents or 
 training of the teachers. The selection and organi- 
 zation of activities may well differ strikingly in a school 
 in the mountains and one on the plains, in winter and 
 spring, in a hot and a cold climate, on the desert and 
 near a lake. There is no conflict between this practical 
 selection and the general laws of adaptation. In a word, 
 the selection and organization should continue from the 
 broad problems down to the last detail of the practical 
 daily conduct of the activities by the teacher. The 
 broad problems are the task of the expert; the detailed 
 selection and organization is the task of the teacher, 
 with the help of the supervisor. 
 
 II. Organization of the Program in 
 Physical Training 
 
 The success of the program in physical training de- 
 pends as much on its organization in the school as 
 on the selection of the activities. It depends especially 
 on the teaching and administrative attitudes toward 
 its organization. Further, the success of the other pro- 
 grams or sub-programs in physical education (to be 
 described later) depends on the organization of this 
 program in physical-training activities. 
 
 The problems in organization may be indicated by an 
 analysis as follows: 
 
THE PROGRAM 69 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE TEACHING SITUATION 
 
 In every teaching situation there are five elements 
 which create five special problems in teaching and in 
 management (or administration). They are: (1) the 
 teacher or leader, (2) the child, (3) the activity, (4) the 
 place, (5) the time. These may be put into an educa- 
 tional formula as follows: Every teaching situation 
 involves (1) the leadership, (2) of one or more children, 
 (3) in some activity, (4) at some place, (5) at some time. 
 Even in the simplest teaching situation where only one 
 child is being taught for a moment, as in answering a 
 question, or in admonishing a child, all these elements 
 are present. Where the number of children, the 
 number of activities taught, the number of periods, and 
 the number of places under a teacher increase, the 
 relationships between the elements become complicated 
 and there arises the problem of "schoolroom manage- 
 ment," or "school management," or what will be called 
 here managerial organization or leadership. Where the 
 number of units, as rooms, schools, or playgrounds, 
 each with a number of teachers, increases, the manage- 
 ment expands into the problems of an overhead adminis- 
 tration. For the administrator, the elements in the 
 teaching situation become (1) the employment and 
 supervision of teachers, (2) the classification and grad- 
 ing of the children, (3) the organization of a curric- 
 ulum, (4) the construction, purchase, and care of the 
 school equipment, (5) the organization of a schedule. 
 The teacher, therefore, even in the simplest teaching 
 situation, is dealing with the elements of school manage- 
 ment and administration. 
 
 Each of these elements requires separate considera- 
 
70 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 tion for teaching or for administration. And the teacher 
 in the practical process of teaching must correlate all 
 the elements as a working whole. The attitude and the 
 problems in organization of the physical-training 
 program are outlined below. 
 
 A. THE FACILITIES 
 
 The place for the activities refers to the school 
 opportunities in space and equipment for physical 
 education. These include the classrooms, the hallways, 
 the school yard or playground, the gymnasium, the 
 swimming pool, the dancing floor, or any place or 
 equipment which may be used for big-muscle activities. 
 These facilities may be very limited or very generous. 
 The important point is the principle involved in the 
 administrative attitude. A 'program of physical educa- 
 tion which is confined to the limitations of the classroom is 
 not educationally defensible. The activities should be 
 out of doors in all but impossible weather; and this 
 requires an adequate playground. Adequate indoor 
 activities require a gymnasium floor. The gymnasium 
 floor should be considered a bad-weather institution or a 
 necessary substitute for outdoor facilities in congested 
 districts. These statements refer to the controlling 
 administrative educational doctrine, not to local 
 conditions as to facilities. School plants built according 
 to past conceptions of school functions cramp every 
 newer phase of education. Nevertheless, out-of-date 
 plants will determine, to some extent, the school 
 organization of physical education; but to accept the 
 cramping of child life as inevitable is professionally 
 indefensible in a democracy. The teaching and adminis- 
 
THE PROGRAM 71 
 
 trative attitude toward proper facilities, and the proper 
 use of such facilities as there are, should be dynamic 
 and insistent. The criteria for proper facilities may be 
 illustrated by reference to the situation on the play- 
 ground. 
 
 The school yard or playground always has been a 
 play space during recess, but until recently it was 
 seldom planned, equipped, or organized as the com- 
 munity play center for use not only during school 
 hours and intermissions, but also before school, after 
 school, and on Saturdays and holidays. Sufficient 
 evidence of this is seen in the inadequate size and 
 miserable equipment of old school grounds. A new 
 attitude is necessary because society has destroyed for 
 most children the opportunities for social physical- 
 training activities at home and in the home community, 
 and few parents can afford to supply these opportuni- 
 ties. Still fewer parents know how to organize the 
 activities. Rural children are isolated. The physical 
 training opportunities must be supplied as other 
 essential educational opportunities are supplied; i.e., 
 by the school. 
 
 People are becoming accustomed to think of the 
 necessity of playgrounds, but usually of the widely 
 promoted municipal type. Isolated playgrounds for 
 school children, apart from the school, are obviously a 
 misfit. The children are required by law to be at school 
 a large part of the year; they are required by law in 
 many states to have physical-training activities; and 
 they play before school, at noon, at recess, and fre- 
 quently after school. For these activities playgrounds, 
 equipment, and leadership must be supplied. Further, 
 
72 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the schools are located by the school administration as 
 conveniently as possible for all the children of the 
 community. The remote municipal playground, on 
 the other hand, can be used by school children only 
 after school and on Saturdays and holidays. Its use re- 
 quires a trip to another center than the school, with 
 additional worries for parents; and it serves effectively 
 only those children within a quarter-mile radius of it. 
 Obviously, the natural place to organize the community 
 opportunities for children's physical-training play is at 
 the school, on an adequate school playground. To set up 
 sufficient municipal playgrounds apart from the school, 
 properly equipped and supervised to meet the needs 
 of all the children of each community and in duplication 
 of what the schools must have, might bankrupt a 
 city. The school playground must become the com- 
 munity center for the child's physical-training activities. 
 It must be the extra-home institutional center set up 
 by society for the education of all the children. This 
 requires a new emphasis in attitude toward the school 
 playground and other physical-training facilities. The 
 school must represent society's organized opportunities for 
 the children to get an education through essential activities 
 that cannot be organized by the home. The same argu- 
 ment holds for gymnasium floors and swimming pooh 
 with necessary dressing rooms. The argument, however, 
 does not militate against the establishment of municipal 
 playgrounds, athletic fields, and natatoriums to meet 
 the needs of the older boys and girls beyond school age 
 and of young men and women. It only goes to show 
 that the community playgrounds for children of school 
 age should be at or around the school. 
 
THE PROGRAM 73 
 
 Old school plants with small or inadequate play- 
 grounds, where the location cannot be changed, must 
 of necessity depend on large gymnasia. These should be 
 provided even if the buildings have to be reconstructed. 
 Physical education cannot succeed without facilities, 
 and the retarded physical development of children 
 cannot be "made up" like a deficiency in an academic 
 subject. 
 
 The general criterion is: Are the school facilities for 
 physical education in natural activities such that all the 
 children in the community, of all school ages, can find 
 the opportunity for their community play during play 
 periods? 
 
 B. THE ORGANIZATION OP THE TIME ALLOTMENT 
 
 The time needs of children for physical-training 
 activities and the influences of adult social conditions 
 on play out of school demand that the time needs should 
 be guaranteed, in so far as possible, by the school. This 
 requires an adjustment in the organization of activities, 
 between the time allotment and teaching within school 
 hours, and the time naturally devoted to the activities 
 out of school hours. 
 
 The periods before school, after school, at noon, and 
 especially at recess, have always been physical-training 
 periods. Children naturally use them for big-muscle 
 activities. They have been supervised to some extent, 
 and occasionally the activities for these periods have 
 been definitely organized by teachers. Yet nothing is 
 more striking in the present-day school than the 
 ineffectiveness of these play periods for the majority 
 of children unless the children have come under the 
 
74 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 influence of an adult play leader. It is important, under 
 present-day social conditions, that the periods should 
 be recognized for what they are, as physical-education 
 periods, and that they should be definitely utilized to be 
 effective as such, and thus add to the results in educa- 
 tion and to the children's enjoyment as well. The 
 time is too valuable to be wasted by "fooling," as it 
 usually is under present-day conditions. 
 
 The in-school and the out-of-school time should be 
 organized on the following plan: The time allotted 
 within school hours should be regarded as instructional 
 or teaching periods, and the time available out of school 
 hours as play, athletic, or training periods. This suggests 
 an organization for school conditions, in which the 
 learning and the practice inherent in children's play 
 are divided and the bulk of the practice put outside of 
 present school periods. The instructional period within 
 school hours should be devoted primarily to teaching 
 those activities which will tend to go on spontaneously 
 during the play or athletic periods. The play or 
 athletic periods cover the time before school and after 
 school and during recess and the time devoted to big- 
 muscle play on Saturdays and holidays. These periods 
 naturally devoted to big-muscle activities should be 
 organized for the larger training in the activities, to 
 secure their cumulative educational results. At least 
 part of the total play time out of school should be organized 
 to establish worth-while big-muscle play habits. Only as 
 these two classes of periods are looped together by organiza- 
 tion can the time and therefore the physical education 
 necessary for citizenship be secured. They should 
 function as one. Associated with these two main 
 
THE PROGRAM 75 
 
 periods there should be several two- or four-minute 
 between-class relief -periods to counteract the detri- 
 mental influences of desk and indoor life, and such 
 special corrective periods as are necessary for individual 
 cases. 
 
 The general criteria should be: Do the activities 
 taught in the instructional periods go on in the play 
 periods; and are all the children definitely organized for 
 a part of the playtime in selected and evaluated 
 activities? 
 
 C. THE PLAN OP ACTIVITIES 
 
 If physical education is to be a success, the natural 
 physical-training activities must be recognized as 
 educational activities; and they must be organized on a 
 plan which will secure their inherent educational values. 
 
 The natural activities should be taught within school 
 hours so that they will flow over into the children's play 
 periods and there be organized to mold skills, habits, 
 and attitudes for recreation all through life. These 
 activities have gone on in the past by the drive of the 
 children's own play impulses. They have been con- 
 sidered by adults under the sway of traditional pre- 
 judices as of little educational value and frequently as 
 "just play," "fooling," a "mere excess of steam," or 
 "a necessary evil." These prejudices have persisted as 
 the survivals of old exploded philosophies and especially 
 on account of the ascetic contempt for the body and the 
 Puritanical fear of play. Consequently the play 
 activities have not been considered essential to educa- 
 tion, or an essential function of the school. Now that 
 science and experience have proved the values of these 
 
76 SCHOOL PROGRAM LN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 activities and social conditions have made them part 
 of the school function, the traditional school attitude 
 should be changed to one of earnest solicitude for their 
 proper organization. 
 
 The activities require a plan of organization for 
 teaching, which is in addition to the selection, adap- 
 tation, and evaluation outlined above. The plan should 
 
 (1) cover both the instructional and the play periods, 
 
 (2) meet the abilities of very inexperienced and unskilled 
 pupils, as well as those highly trained, and (3) give the 
 basis for organizing incentives for achievement. 
 
 The plan should be centered in an organization of 
 individual events selected from most or all the broad 
 groups of natural and related big-muscle activities. 
 By individual activities as used here is meant those 
 activities in which each individual carries on the whole 
 activity by himself without dependence on the activities 
 of others. The advantages of individual activities are as 
 follows: (a) The activities can be organized equally well 
 in the instructional period or play periods; (b) they can 
 be practiced (when learned) by individual children 
 themselves; (c) they can be engaged in by the individual 
 or by a social group; (d) they give the best physical- 
 training results because each individual is active all the 
 time, or active in turn, and gets all the benefit of each 
 activity; (e) the activities can be graded progressively 
 to each pupil's needs or to the needs of small groups of 
 pupils; (/) each pupil can be taught or observed as an 
 individual and each can progress as an individual; (g) 
 the activities can be organized by the average teacher, 
 anywhere, under any conditions. 
 
 A large part of physical-training activities are of this 
 
THE PROGRAM 77 
 
 individual nature. 1 Those that are not individual can 
 best be learned or taught by individualizing them. 
 Team games are the best illustration of this. These 
 team games are the great standard big-muscle play 
 activities of late adolescence and early adult life. Be- 
 cause they are ball games and competitive, they are the 
 most stimulating activities after nine or ten years of 
 age. But, usually, children between nine and fourteen 
 years of age, and frequently older children, do not 
 have the strength or the skill to play these games 
 effectively in the school time available, or under school 
 conditions, and get educational results out of them. 
 This is especially true of girls. Most of the time in the 
 game is wasted through tjhe awkwardness of mates or 
 opponents. The games, however, can be modified to 
 meet the plan by making individual contests out of the 
 elements of the games. By devising contests based on the 
 characteristic elements of each game the ball and the 
 competitive features are retained, as, for example, 
 throwing the basket-ball for goals or throwing a 
 baseball for strikes. Such events give very stimulating 
 educational athletic activities for the younger 'teen or 
 inexperienced children. These individualized events 
 give a rapid development of strength and skills for the 
 standard games and, together with track events in 
 running and jumping for boys, should form the great 
 bulk of the educational athletic activities. 
 These individual events, selected from several of the 
 
 1 All the self-testing activities or stunts on the apparatus or floor except 
 the advanced " two- or three-brother acts " and pyramids may be classed 
 as individual events. So may be classed all track and field events, combat- 
 ive activities (though an opponent furnishes the resistance), most of the 
 water and winter activities, and many of the folk games. 
 
78 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 groups of activities, should be conceived of as a broad 
 circle of developmental activities in as many arcs as 
 there are groups of activities. Out beyond this circle 
 we may conceive of a broad expansive circle of activities 
 containing as many arcs as the first, in which lie the 
 standard recreative activities of the later adolescent 
 years. We may further think of a small circle in the 
 center containing a selected group of ten key activities 
 representative of the developmental groups and through 
 them of the standard activities, which ten key activities 
 may serve as a test of progress or a scale of achievement. 
 This gives a natural test of achievement in a natural 
 program of activities. 
 
 The individual developmental activities should be 
 organized both in the instructional and the play period. 
 They develop strengths and skills for the standard 
 activities, and develop the incentives to participate in 
 the latter. The standard recreative activities should be 
 organized for the inexperienced or unskilled, as a 
 stimulation and a broader range of practice, only in the 
 play periods. For the skilled, the standard activities 
 in their complex form should be organized in both the 
 instructional periods and the play periods. The tests of 
 achievement as individual events are themselves 
 practice events and can be practiced by children at any 
 time. Children will keep their own achievement records 
 on pupil score cards. Official tests of progress should be 
 made two or three times a year. 
 
 This plan (of individual events as developmental 
 activities leading to standard events, and the related 
 test of progress) is so simple that it lends itself to a 
 broad range of adjustment to local conditions. It can, 
 
THE PROGRAM 79 
 
 with a little instruction, be handled by a rural teacher 
 with few facilities, and it will serve as an inspiring 
 organization for a city system. 
 
 D. ORGANIZATION OF CHILDREN 
 
 Children must be classified (1) by incentives, capa- 
 cities, and needs, and (2) for teaching or leadership. 
 
 As suggested under the heading "adaptive selection/' 
 children must be classified according to age incentives, 
 capacities, and needs, with a sex differentiation. The 
 usual school organization does this in a rough way. 
 Children should also be classified according to individual 
 needs, capacities, and incentives. They should be 
 examined periodically to discover those needing special 
 individual attention. The physical examination to 
 determine capacity to enter into activities can be given 
 only by an expert; so the classification according to 
 individual needs should be made by the supervisor for 
 the ordinary teacher. Any teacher, who will study the 
 process, can learn to give the achievement tests. 
 
 Children must be organized also for teaching during 
 the instructional period and effective practice during 
 the play or athletic periods. In play periods they tend 
 to organize themselves. But aggressiveness and selfish- 
 ness on the part of some children and fear of physical 
 injury or social timidity, awkwardness, and inexperi- 
 ence on the part of others, make the natural classifi- 
 cation very unsatisfactory. A few usurp all the facili- 
 ties. The rest are relegated to ineffective activities or 
 none at all. Contentiousness and the large numbers 
 concentrated on small playgrounds exaggerate these 
 tendencies. To overcome them children should be 
 
80 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 classified in small groups and each assigned to definite 
 facilities at a given time and organized in selected activities 
 under a group leader. 
 
 The nature of the activity being taught or organized 
 determines largely the necessary groupings of children. 
 For individual events, groups of five or six under their 
 own leaders give the best working organization. After 
 nine or ten years of age, children should be organized 
 for competition by weight, or by age-height-weight. 
 They should also be organized in a permanent team or 
 club. These groups are the basis for group social 
 achievement and for the discussion of problems. 
 
 E. LEADERSHIP AND TEACHING 
 
 Leadership or teaching has several levels of emphasis. 
 
 i. The managerial organization. The teacher must 
 work out a coordinated teaching organization that 
 takes into account each of the five elements in a 
 teaching situation outlined in the introduction to this 
 section (page 69). In physical-training activities this 
 managerial organization is very conspicuous — more so 
 than in most school activities. In classroom subjects 
 like history, for example, the managerial organization 
 is simple; the technical teaching is conspicuous. In 
 formal physical-training activities the managerial 
 organization is somewhat more complicated, since 
 these activities require marching maneuvers; but in 
 the natural physical-training activities the managerial 
 organization becomes more conspicuous than the 
 technical teaching. This difference in emphasis may be 
 understood by thinking of the organization of children 
 according to the formation required, in small squads 
 
THE PROGRAM 81 
 
 for individual events, or in teams under captains. 
 The teacher must visualize groups or teams of chil- 
 dren under their own leaders, in different activities, in 
 different places with facilities, at different times, and see 
 or think a complete shift or change in this arrangement 
 frequently and without loss of time. The process is very 
 simple when understood. It is an organizing leadership. 
 
 2. The organization of incentives. Incentives must 
 be organized. Children tend to play; but, as shown 
 above, their play tendencies are frequently thwarted or 
 rendered ineffective by adult social influences, school 
 demands on time, parental ambitions in other activities, 
 and the difficulties of organizing large numbers in the 
 schools. The tendency may result in mere fooling or 
 in highly educative activities. Therefore the tendencies 
 must be built into habits. 
 
 For little children the organization of incentives 
 requires no more, usually, than the opportunities offered 
 by the managerial organization; i.e., facilities, com- 
 panionship, time, and leadership. 
 
 After the age of nine or ten years, however, the con- 
 flict in social pulls and the drag of neglected physical 
 condition require that the natural tendencies in the 
 activities shall be organized, developed, and established 
 as habits. The social drive of rivalry and also the desire 
 for objective symbols of prowess and skill become 
 progressively more influential. Hence it is impor- 
 tant to organize activities that give social satis- 
 faction, to recognize the rivalry in contests, and to 
 set up tests of achievement in a point system by which all 
 the activities may be scored. A point system is the 
 natural means also of preventing too great specialization 
 
82 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 and of coordinating the values of several different kinds 
 of activities like stunts, games, and outing activities. 
 It is the basis for a natural scale of achievement and thus 
 it enables the individual to compete against himself as 
 well as against his mates. The word achievement becomes 
 a correlating center representing both a process of 
 accomplishment and an ideal. 
 
 3. Technical teaching and supervision. Physical- 
 training activities require both technical teaching and 
 a broad leadership. The technical teaching situation 
 arises when a problem must be solved in a new coordina- 
 tion as in learning a stunt or a new dancing step or the 
 handling of a ball, or in learning a new element in the 
 rules or the strategy of a situation. This technical 
 teaching is at first specific; it then becomes a critical 
 supervision in practice. Thus technical teaching should 
 be emphasized in the instructional periods and flow 
 right over into the play periods. This requires a modern 
 attitude toward the leadership of play. The traditional 
 American attitude was to rebel at the idea of teaching 
 play. But baseball, swimming, boxing, and even the 
 most traditional games of little children have always 
 been taught. These activities must be learned as other 
 activities are learned. In the past this learning for most 
 children came about through the older and more 
 experienced children teaching the younger and less 
 experienced. Adults took an active part in it. But as 
 civilization has specialized adult life, as the school 
 organization has classified children by grade and sex, 
 and as the physical-training activities have been 
 elaborated, systematized, and perfected for educational 
 ends, the incidental transmission from older to younger 
 
THE PROGRAM 83 
 
 is no longer effective. The teaching requires an adult. 
 An effective physical education cannot go on without 
 adult leadership. 
 
 Technical teaching changes to critical supervision; 
 and critical supervision again gives way to technical 
 teaching. During the play periods in the gymnasium 
 or on the playground, when a going organization has 
 been set up, — i.e., when the children are in groups in 
 their chosen places, in their own activities, under then- 
 own leaders, — the teacher's function is to be present 
 as an observer, coach, umpire, source of appeal, judge, 
 or final arbiter to keep the organization going educa- 
 tionally. It will be seen from this discussion that the 
 word supervision is used in physical education and 
 play organization with four shades of meaning, ranging 
 from technical teaching through the control of a play 
 organization with and without teaching to a mere care 
 and protection. All these phases of leadership are 
 necessary for the proper educational direction of 
 children and youth. There is no conflict between super- 
 vised and so-called "free play." Play should always 
 be supervised. Free play is a product of an attitude of 
 mind. It may be the product of fleeting impulse, or it 
 may be highly organized under an adult leader. Where 
 there are large numbers of children there can be no 
 free play unless there is democracy, and there can be 
 no democracy on a playground or in a gymnasium 
 without an organization under adult leadership. 
 
 4. Class discussion. There should be class discus- 
 sions about the problems in the physical-training 
 activities. Such discussions are quite common for 
 the few boys and girls who are members of interschool 
 
84 SCHOOL PEOGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 teams. The practice should be extended to all children. 
 It is essential for a well-organized physical education. 
 The class discussion should cover such problems 
 in the activities as groupings of children and the 
 election of leaders or captains, the time of practice 
 and use of facilities, the planning of schedules, the 
 methods of keeping records in a point system to 
 relieve the teacher of clerical work, and the assign- 
 ment of problems to committees or captains. All 
 these problems should be settled in the quiet of the 
 classroom. The less discussion there is during the 
 instructional or play periods, the better. These periods 
 should be for practice, not talk. The discussions give 
 the teacher the opportunity to lift the practice of the 
 instructional and play periods to the level of general 
 ideas and intelligent attitudes. It is also the basis, as 
 will be shown in other programs, for a correlated dis- 
 cussion of hygienic, moral, and similar problems which 
 arise in connection with the activities. 
 
 F. SUPERVISION AND ADMINISTRATION 
 
 It must be assumed that the elementary class teacher 
 in most schools will conduct the physical-training 
 activities. None of the rural schools and few of the 
 smaller city schools will be able to have a special 
 teacher. Many teachers, however, have not been 
 trained for this leadership as they have been trained 
 for the older subjects of the curriculum. Some have 
 not even had earlier experience in the activities. 
 Nevertheless it has been demonstrated in states where 
 physical education laws have been passed recently, 
 that the average earnest elementary teacher can 
 
THE PROGRAM 85 
 
 conduct the activities with success if a supervisor 
 provides three helps: First, a syllabus giving a detailed 
 list and description of the activities and their organi- 
 zation by grades must be supplied. Second, the teacher 
 must be taught to use the syllabus so that it will give 
 the ability to organize and lead the activities, even if 
 personal skill in performance cannot be acquired. 
 Third, the supervisor must set up the preliminary 
 managerial organization, test and classify the children, 
 plan the schedule and use of facilities, and show the 
 teacher how to conduct this managerial organization 
 and how to draw out the ability that some children 
 have for demonstrating activities before other children. 
 
 The supervisor should be an expert on these educa- 
 tional problems; the elementary teacher cannot be. 
 
 In large school systems a special administrative 
 officer of physical education is necessary. This officer, 
 to administer a physical-training program which will 
 meet the demands of the time, must be trained to 
 perform the following functions : 
 
 1. Select and judge activities for their educational 
 values. 
 
 2. Examine and classify children as to capacities 
 and needs. 
 
 3. Teach the teachers and supervise their teaching. 
 
 4. Plan, construct, and equip school gymnasiums, 
 playgrounds, etc., and administer their upkeep. 
 
 5. Plan the schedules in physical education. 
 
 These functions refer specifically to the physical- 
 training or developmental program. Other adminis- 
 trative functions in the moral-training, hygiene-teach- 
 ing, and health-control programs will be considered later. 
 
Section II. The Program of Training in 
 Character, Morals, and Manners 
 
 I. Character and moral training. 
 
 A. Basis of the program. 
 
 B. The range and importance of the program. 
 
 C. The content in moral situations. Illustrations, 
 
 D. The procedure in organization and leadership. 
 
 1. The managerial organization. 
 
 2. The organization of incentives. 
 
 3. Technical teaching and supervision. 
 
 4. Class discussion. 
 
 5. Supervision. 
 
 II. The program in manners or courtesy. 
 
Section II. The Program of Training est Character, 
 Morals, and Manners 
 
 I. Character and Moral Training 
 
 Physical education has a fundamental responsibility 
 in character and moral training. This is due to the 
 nature of the activities it organizes and leads. 
 
 A. basis of the program 
 
 All activities both in school and out of school 
 have character and moral-training values. All are 
 expressions of character in some degree. All present 
 moral situations that require moral responses at least 
 occasionally. The moral-training value of each depends 
 upon instinct mechanisms and what emotions it exer- 
 cises and the opportunity it gives the group leader to 
 direct the response tendencies according to moral 
 standards. 
 
 The activities out of school are centered (a) in the 
 domestic life of the family and other adult adjusting 
 activities, (b) in the spontaneous exercise of capacity 
 in play, (c) in the play and education organized by 
 other agencies than the school and home, and (d) in 
 labor for economic gain, in the cases of some children. 
 
 The play life of children in its various forms has 
 always been reoognized as a powerful moral force. 
 The anxiety of earnest parents about the companionship 
 of their children illustrates the point. Play gone 
 wrong is the source of most of the bad habits known to 
 childhood and youth. The tendency to play may drift 
 into the most vicious activities or into the most valuable 
 
 87 
 
88 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 of moral activities. Play is nature's method of educa- 
 tion, but nature did not standardize the quality of play. 
 The standards must be supplied by adults. With the 
 progress of the modern spirit toward children in 
 America and the reaction against the ascetic and 
 Puritanical attitudes toward play, all forms of play are 
 coming under a natural adult leadership; and the 
 activities are being expanded, elaborated, and refined 
 for better educational results. This is conspicuously 
 true of physical-training activities, as suggested in the 
 previous sections. 
 
 Big-muscle play, or physical-training activities, are 
 primarily of the play type. The artificial physical- 
 training activities occupy a relatively restricted and 
 insignificant place. The values of the natural activities 
 for character and moral training, as shown under the 
 section on the objectives of physical education, are 
 very great. It was shown that the activities are the 
 spontaneous exercise of the most fundamental instincts 
 and emotions in human nature; that the activities 
 express fundamental character traits and thus develop 
 them; that the development is inherent in the nature 
 of the activities; that the form of expression determines 
 the quality of character traits developed; and that the 
 quality of the expression can be determined by leader- 
 ship. It was shown that physical education must set up 
 standards for the proper habits and attitudes (which 
 should be the outcome of a leadership of the activities) 
 and formulate the teaching procedure to build the 
 habits and attitudes. 
 
 The objectives of physical education in character 
 and moral training are to guide the development of 
 
THE PROGRAM 89 
 
 certain fundamental response tendencies according to 
 standards and to establish the capacity for self -direction 
 according to standards. 
 
 B. THE RANGE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE PROGRAM 
 
 The range and importance of the character and 
 moral-training program in physical education as a 
 laboratory program and as part of a general school 
 program in moral education is suggested by the 
 following facts : 
 
 a. The activities begin in infancy and continue on 
 into adulthood. 
 
 b. The time spent in the activities each day through- 
 out the year is naturally great, and this is in keeping 
 with fundamental growth and educational needs. 
 
 c. The activities are common to all children irrespec- 
 tive of mental type. The moral training that inheres 
 in them does not depend upon the child's intellectual 
 capacity to get ideas or inspiration out of books. 
 
 d. The activities reveal character in a concrete form, 
 both to the teacher and the participant. They are a 
 constant concrete expression of fundamental response 
 tendencies, habits, attitudes, and moods. They also 
 reveal, through physical condition, secret habits. The 
 teachers can see the working and the results of character 
 traits and so have a basis for leading the practical 
 habit-building behavior. 
 
 e. The children's desire for leadership in the activi- 
 ties is so spontaneous and their need for leadership is 
 so fundamental, that the teacher who enters into the 
 spirit of the organization of the activities has great 
 power. 
 
90 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 /. The incentives to the big-muscle activities are so 
 fundamental and participation in them is so enjoyable, 
 that interest can be led on to a point where children will 
 submit to a severity of moral discipline willingly and 
 with a cooperation that is not excelled or even equaled 
 in any other activity in early life. 
 
 C. THE CONTENT IN MORAL SITUATIONS 
 
 Illustrations. The content of the physical-training 
 activities for character discipline and moral education 
 may be suggested by several illustrations of moral 
 situations which arise out of the activities. 
 
 a. Courage is expressed in three forms of situations in 
 physical-training activities. The big-muscle activities 
 are all originally self-testing stunts and they are all 
 vigorous or violent. They impress children with the 
 possibility of getting hurt. This is shown in the 
 tendency to stump each other, to dare and to take dares. 
 Under proper leadership, there is little excuse for any 
 injury of consequence; but children feel the necessity 
 frequently of "screwing up" courage. Under any 
 conditions there are the hard body contacts, the bumps, 
 and slight abrasions. These are met with fortitude in 
 proportion as the "indifferent" attitude is developed. 
 The situation gives the opportunity to develop the 
 satisfying courageous motor response along with skill 
 and achievement. 
 
 To the socially timid child, the social organization of 
 a mass of children at play is awe-inspiring. This awe 
 frequently results in withdrawal by the child from all 
 vigorous play. The leadership of timid children is often 
 a delicate task. They can be and should be led on to 
 
THE PROGRAM 91 
 
 the effective social confidence which is essential for 
 development. 
 
 The violence and aggressiveness of the skilled and 
 experienced children arouses fear and a feeling of 
 helplessness in many inexperienced children. This 
 frequently destroys a natural unfolding of ambition 
 and inhibits progress in achievement. The situation 
 requires individual guidance in activities until a 
 spontaneous participation with the groups is established. 
 
 b. Taking turns presents a moral situation with a 
 moral issue. Facilities are usually limited; some of 
 those available are better than others. Each child 
 wants his chance — his education depends on his 
 getting his chance. In opposition to this, there is the 
 primary human tendency for the aggressive or skilled to 
 usurp what facilities there are, or the best of them, and 
 use them selfishly, to the disadvantage of others. 
 Taking turns is a primary expression of justice. It 
 applies to groups of children and on ball fields, as well 
 as to individual children and on pieces of apparatus. 
 The proper responses to the morals and the courtesy 
 of taking turns can be built into fine habits. 
 
 c. Rules of the game are limitations on the mode of 
 procedure in achievement. If they are obeyed they 
 limit the means that may be used to win; but honor 
 requires obedience to the rules. If they are disobeyed 
 one gets an advantage, but it is more important to 
 be honorable than to win. Rules, then, call forth 
 responses to moral situations. Rules exercise honesty 
 and fairness, in social competition. The habits and 
 attitudes about fair play developed on the playground 
 may be vicious or of an inspiring quality. 
 
92 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 d. Manners are an exhibition of character traits as 
 well as of familiarity with social usages. The usages 
 are treated in the program on manners. Here it should 
 be emphasized that the attitudes lying back of the forms 
 of address and response to companions in all the social 
 relationships of the activities are exhibitions of charac- 
 ter traits and moral attitudes. They give the leader 
 an opportunity to interpret social dispositions of 
 individuals and their results in social relationships. 
 The responses can be led on to build fine habits and 
 attitudes. 
 
 e. The expression of the fighting tendencies is an 
 essential element in all contests and combative activ- 
 ities. In addition to the primary expression in the 
 contest, there may also be an expression in jangling 
 and contention, even to the destruction of the play by 
 a real fight. On the other hand, the expression may be 
 confined to hard exercise of the fighting mechanism, 
 and this gives all the stimulating satisfaction of a real 
 fight without any of its disagreeable emotions or 
 consequences. To exercise the fighting mechanism 
 without loss of self-control requires self -discipline; and 
 habits of self -discipline can be built by the leader even 
 among the crudest boys and girls. 
 
 /. The expression of egoism is conspicuous in physical- 
 training activities. It may spend itself in wholesome 
 self-testing, in achievement, in strength and skill and 
 in normal ambition in competition, or it may take 
 the form of showing off in an unwholesome manner and 
 later in "grandstanding." The exhibition of the 
 tendencies are concrete. They give the leader the op- 
 portunities to cultivate wholesome egoistic ideals. 
 
THE PROGRAM 93 
 
 g. Eligibility presents a moral situation. There must 
 be a classification of children to secure fairness in 
 competition. A superior individual in a lower classi- 
 fication has an advantage, and a team with a superior 
 player has an advantage. Thus, there is a tendency to 
 try to win by violating the classification. This is the 
 problem of eligibility, and to maintain fairness in 
 competition, "eligibility" must become an ideal. 
 In essence it is a moral problem. Regulations help, 
 but honor alone prevents a violation of eligibility rules. 
 The eligibility rules are the source of a constant moral 
 struggle. 
 
 h. The spectator creates a moral issue in the 
 social organization of a group or team. When a social 
 group or team becomes conscious of the spectator and 
 organizes its activities or contests for the enjoyment of 
 the spectator, the tendency is for the spectator, if the 
 activity is interesting and the group skillful enough, 
 to turn on the group organization and demand that it 
 shall be organized primarily for the enjoyment of the 
 spectator. The spectator, then, comes to dominate the 
 social organization of the activities, their management, 
 and objectives. This is the source of the American 
 interschool athletic problem. Spectator athletics tend 
 to break down amateur athletics and substitute com- 
 mercialized, professional athletics. This is the tendency 
 in all sports. If the spectator is recognized, there is a 
 difficult balance to be maintained. The tendency 
 to cater to the spectator presents a moral problem in 
 organization. It tests the leader's and the pupils' 
 loyalty to the ideal of a purely educational or play or- 
 ganization; i.e., it confuses the problem of amateurism. 
 
94 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 i. The tendency to specialize presents still another 
 moral situation. Children are prone to specialize or to 
 become habituated to inadequate or poor activities, 
 the inducing factors being, for example, a lack of 
 facilities for a broad range of activities, an all-absorbing 
 interest in some satisfying activity like dancing, or a 
 dominating tendency to gain skill to show off or win 
 in competition. There is an incompatibility between 
 the children's specialized interests and their need for 
 many kinds of activity to develop varied talents or 
 abilities. Too early or too great specialization at any 
 age before maturity is a disadvantage. There is a moral 
 problem for children in the choice between specialized 
 enjoyment and fulfilling an obligation to the future 
 self. It is a problem of indulgence versus regard for 
 ultimate personal welfare. For the teacher the tendency 
 to specialize emphasizes the need for organizing a 
 wide range of opportunities in activities, but still 
 more the need for a leadership of incentives in the 
 activities. 
 
 These and many other situations give the "material" 
 for character and moral training in physical education. 
 They are the situations that constitute the basis for a 
 laboratory program. The problems in the situations are 
 inherent in the activities. The solution of the problems 
 should be carried over into class discussions where the 
 ideas and ideals gained should be generalized. 
 
 D. PROCEDURE IN ORGANIZATION AND LEADERSHIP 
 
 The procedure in character and moral training in 
 physical education should naturally be very practical 
 and it is susceptible of a high degree of organization. 
 
THE PROGRAM 95 
 
 In this organization the children themselves, if properly 
 led, will supply the drive and critical judgment. 
 
 i. The managerial organization. The managerial 
 organization of the physical-training activities (as dis- 
 cussed under the organization of the physical-training 
 program) must be set up from the standpoint of charac- 
 ter and moral training. Character and moral training 
 require standardizing criteria for considering the 
 organization of the educational process which goes on 
 in the physical-training activities. These criteria have 
 to do with the process from the standpoint of moral 
 responses required in the activities. The selection and 
 organization of the physical-training activities must be 
 made from the standpoint of their values for moral 
 training as well as for the development of motor 
 volition, nervous and organic power. The activities 
 should be selected and organized as opportunities for 
 character and moral training in a laboratory of moral 
 action and thinking. 
 
 2. The organization of incentives. Children tend to 
 set up standards in the form of rules and customs to 
 control their own moral behavior in activities. They 
 have, however, no native tendency to respond to adult 
 moral standards except as these satisfy a need in their 
 own lives. Therefore the tendencies to self-discipline 
 in character traits and to self-direction according to 
 moral standards in their own lives should be organized 
 and led on to a conscious self-direction according to 
 adult moral standards. There should be a guidance in 
 judgment about moral situations. 
 
 Character traits and moral habits and attitudes as 
 expressed in the big-muscle activities can be scored 
 
96 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 under a point system. The several elements in moral 
 behavior in this point-scoring procedure can be set up 
 under the correlating word "sportsmanship." Sports- 
 manship becomes a slogan. Sportsmanship may thus 
 typify for children the elementary principles involved 
 in nearly all morals. The enormous use of the nomen- 
 clature of play, including such terms as "play the 
 game" and "fair play," in current press discussions of 
 business, politics, and war indicates the fundamental 
 moral nature of sportsmanship. Sportsmanship has to 
 do with the spirit of the game, a fair chance, honesty in 
 obeying the rules of the game, honesty in the classifica- 
 tion or eligibility for competition, and loyalty toward 
 the social organization. Thus sportsmanship as a 
 correlating word indicates a process of conforming to 
 standards of justice. It is an ideal. In this sense 
 sportsmanship is the Golden Rule applied as the 
 ethics of play. 
 
 The habits and attitudes involved in sportsmanship 
 can be classified under a list of headings and scored 
 along with achievement. This scoring makes the judg- 
 ment of moral traits visual and concrete. However, the 
 value of scoring moral behavior depends on whether 
 the children have thought out the requirements and 
 adopted them in their social relationships and are 
 striving to conform to them. The scoring is a concrete 
 step in developing a personal self-respect that makes 
 behavior conform to adult standards. The teacher, 
 through the children's leaders, can develop the natural 
 tendencies until a social spirit is established which is 
 a source of group pride. Giving the correct responses 
 should be made the fashion — the popular thing to do. 
 
THE PROGRAM 97 
 
 3. Technical teaching and supervision. In the 
 practical leadership of physical-training activities, the 
 character discipline and moral teaching should be as 
 conspicuous as the teaching of the motor technique. 
 The discipline, instruction, and critical supervision are 
 important; but the organization of a moral self -direction 
 among the children is more important. 
 
 Standards should be set up and maintained. The 
 moral situations need interpretation according to moral 
 standards, and the acts should be judged right in the 
 heat of the activity by the teacher and, after some 
 experience, by the children or captain. There should be 
 a great deal of incidental teaching or coaching — a 
 constant critical oversight. Judgment on the incident 
 should be very systematic. This judgment of the moral 
 quality of the act, in the midst of the experience, is the 
 keystone of the laboratory method in moral education. 
 The children's interest in the activities and the desire 
 for adult leadership is the source of the teacher's 
 unique disciplinary power. The power of this discipline 
 is well recognized in the high school and college, but 
 not so well understood in the elementary grades 
 where it may be even more consistent. The back- 
 ground of authority is necessary, but to depend on it 
 alone is mere coercion and builds no self-directing 
 power. Discipline by the teacher must be transformed 
 into a self-judging process by the children themselves 
 or by their self-chosen leaders. This is the natural 
 tendency. Nothing is more conspicuous in the physical 
 training or big-muscle play of children than the rapid- 
 fire judgments about the conduct of mates. Their 
 judgments cover all the practical and moral issues 
 
98 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 embodied in the game and are expressed in comments, 
 protests, and jangling. The teacher must direct and 
 develop the judging tendencies of children according to 
 social standards in order to establish the capacity for 
 self-direction. The activities should be self-judged and 
 lead to satisfaction through self-direction and thus 
 foster initiative in applying standards to behavior. 
 
 4. Class discussion. Discussions in class, team, and 
 athletic club or association are necessary for the organi- 
 zation and conduct of the activities. These discussions 
 are naturally centered on the primary issues in which 
 the children are interested — that is, the organization 
 of the activities. But the successful organization of the 
 activities requires that the social situations and moral 
 problems in their concrete form shall be taken up and 
 solved. This is the leader's opportunity to lead on 
 the interests and the discussions to the point of generali- 
 zation. The activities in the gymnasium and on the 
 playground give many concrete moral experiences. 
 The responses are specific and the judgments by the 
 teacher or associates are specific. But in the class 
 discussion judgments concerning many particular acts 
 may be built into a general idea. The principles evolved 
 from concrete experience may be raised to the level of 
 a rationalized attitude. Further, the class discussions 
 give the opportunity to loop up the moral training in 
 physical education with that derived from other sources. 
 
 5. Supervision. The last point suggests that the 
 overlapping training in the different activities or 
 subjects of the curriculum requires a teaching and 
 administrative cooperation in considering the bearing 
 of all the activities on the common problem of building 
 
THE PROGRAM 99 
 
 moral habits and attitudes. Especially where the 
 activities are departmentalized in the late grades, 
 must there be cooperation among departmental 
 teachers on moral education. This cooperation should 
 also be a definite administrative problem. Since moral 
 education is an education in moral standards applied 
 to all activities of the curriculum, it cross-cuts the 
 supervision of all the activities and thus is not usually 
 set up as an administrative unit for special supervision. 
 But the supervisors and administrators of physical 
 education (and of other activities) should be just as 
 keen about moral training in physical-training activities 
 as they are about the achievements in strength, skills, 
 and organic power. This is true, especially in the 
 physical-training activities, because moral training — 
 one way or another — is more certainly inherent in the 
 nature of these activities than in other activities of the 
 curriculum, say geography or history. 
 
 II. The Program in Manners or Courtesy 
 
 Physical education has a responsibility for training 
 in manners and courtesy. By manners is meant the 
 spirit and the form of address, recognition, and consid- 
 eration, which make social intercourse easy and delight- 
 ful, even a source of spiritual exchange or education 
 and a solution of many social problems. The forms 
 of social intercourse are entirely a matter of education 
 in manners. The spirit is a trait of character and 
 therefore largely a matter of character education as it 
 expresses itself in courtesy. 
 
 Children ordinarily acquire their manners by imita- 
 tion, supplemented by an incidental coaching according 
 
100 SCHOOL PROGRAM EST PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 to the standards of the family and its associates. Only 
 a few children from exceptional families have large 
 experience or a systematic training in all forms of 
 social technique. 
 
 In school, children express manners and acquire 
 manners (a) in the formal activities of the curriculum, 
 (6) in the miscellaneous social relationships and com- 
 munications of school life, (c) in the organized extra- 
 curricular activities, and (d) in the formal social 
 events such as parties and celebrations. 
 
 In all these social relationships children may build up 
 habits and attitudes in courtesy. In the formal activities 
 of the curriculum the teacher builds a technique of 
 address — a simple group of habits. Seldom are the 
 social relationships in the other activities of the school 
 organized for teaching a social technique or for super- 
 vising the development of manners. If children are to 
 learn good manners they must be taught the technique of 
 polite social intercourse in different social relationships, 
 and have the opportunity to practice good manners. The 
 school's social experience should be organized as an 
 expression of good manners. 
 
 Physical education, because of the nature of the 
 activities it organizes, gives an intensive training in 
 manners and offers an important opportunity for 
 teaching a technique and for establishing an effective 
 supervision of manners. 
 
 The managerial organization of physical-training 
 activities sets up a laboratory for the expression of 
 manners and for a discipline in manners. Of all the 
 activities in the school curriculum, the natural physical- 
 training activities exhibit the most extreme expression 
 
THE PROGRAM 101 
 
 of manners. Reference again to the analysis of games 
 under the head of "objectives" will suggest the power 
 of the emotions in the social relationships of the games 
 and the tension on the forms of courtesy. The expres- 
 sion of manners is inherent in the nature of the activi- 
 ties. Manners are formed automatically. The social 
 spirit shines out. Habits and emotional attitudes are 
 expressed and cultivated. The responsibility of the 
 leader cannot be avoided. These expressions in man- 
 ners, of the conflicting emotions and interests, are the 
 opportunities of the leader to teach and discipline in 
 manners and courtesy, both in form and spirit. The in- 
 terest in the activities, the time required for them and 
 the intimate relationships of the leader with the children, 
 make the opportunity of the leader in the teaching and 
 the disciplining of great importance. And the experience 
 of many workers has demonstrated on a large scale 
 that even crude boys and girls can be trained in an 
 attitude and a form of expression in courtesy which 
 is encouraging. This is a laboratory procedure which 
 should be elaborated for all teachers. 
 
 The incentives in the development of manners 
 should be organized in connection with the organization 
 of incentives in physical-training activities. Children 
 enjoy and take pride in applying the spirit and forms of 
 courtesy in their school relationships. The several 
 forms of expression of manners can be correlated under 
 the word fellowship and scored under the point system 
 in association with achievement and morals. Fellow- 
 ship in this sense becomes an ideal and a process of 
 observance of the forms of mutual consideration. 
 
 Successful experiments have demonstrated that 
 
102 SCHOOL PROGEAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 in a regularly organized weekly "social hour" which is 
 recognized by the school and the parents as the social 
 event of the week, a social technique can be cultivated 
 which is democratic, simple, and wholesome. Young 
 people need such experience in their social contacts. 
 The experience satisfies a craving, which, unsatisfied, 
 sends many boys and girls astray. The big-muscle 
 activities can be organized to be of great value in social 
 experience and in the forms of polite society. This 
 experience and knowledge gives young people the 
 confidence for proper social relationships. 
 
 Finally, all the children's problems arising out of 
 this "coaching" in manners, this organization of 
 incentives, and teaching of a technique should be taken 
 up in class discussion right along with the discussion 
 of the problems in physical-training activities and 
 morals. There should be an interpretation of the 
 principles underlying the spirit and the forms of 
 courtesy. The thought-out principles should make 
 manners in social intercourse an intelligent matter and 
 not a mere mass of mechanical conformations. The 
 discussions give opportunity to generalize ideas from a 
 consideration of the manifestations of courtesy, and 
 the ideas so gained will influence behavior in the mis- 
 cellaneous social contacts of the school. 
 
Section III. The Program in Teaching Hygienic 
 Behavior 
 
 A. Definitions and factors influencing health. 
 
 B. Two forms of effort in promoting health. 
 
 C. Objectives in teaching health. 
 
 D. The school's difficulties in teaching health. 
 
 E. The function of physical education in teaching health. 
 
 1. The activities as the developmental source of health. 
 
 2. The activities carry the health motive. 
 
 F. The bases of the program. 
 
 G. Organization and leadership. 
 H. Methods of reinforcing ideas. 
 
 7. Contribution of other subjects in the curriculum. 
 J. Supervision and administration. 
 
Section III. The Program in Teaching Hygienic 
 Behavior 
 
 Physical education has a responsible function in 
 the school curriculum in establishing standards in be- 
 havior according to health laws. This is the field of 
 teaching hygiene and health habits, or "health educa- 
 tion." It should be distinguished, as an educational 
 process, from "health supervision" as a control process 
 which will be considered under the control of health 
 conditions. 
 
 A. definitions and factors influencing health 
 
 Health is a condition of the organism. It refers to 
 the functional condition of the organism at any stage 
 of growth. Normal growth, year by year, is dependent 
 on this functional condition. A disturbance of this 
 healthy functional condition is a handicap on normal 
 growth. The healthy condition and normal growth are 
 determined by numerous factors or influences which 
 may be grouped under several headings, as follows: 
 
 (1) The hereditary potentialities and growth tend- 
 encies. Removal of growth defects. 
 
 (2) Developmental activities, or play and work, 
 (a) Amount and variety of activity. 
 
 (6) Development of healthful emotional atti- 
 tudes. 
 
 (3) Diet; nutrition. 
 
 (4) Sleep and rest. 
 
 (5) Avoidance of infection. 
 
 (6) Respiration, oxygenation, fresh air, sunshine. 
 
 (7) Elimination. 
 
 105 
 
106 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 (8) Temperature regulation. 
 
 (9) Cleanliness. 
 
 (10) Avoidance of physical injury in play or work. 
 
 (11) Care of the motor mechanisms and sense organs. 
 
 (12) Care of the skin and nails and hair. 
 
 (13) Avoidance of stimulants and drugs. 
 
 (14) Care and regulation of the sex functions and 
 emotions. 
 
 All the factors or influences affecting health and 
 normal growth are not of equal importance. This 
 may be seen by reclassifying them under the broad 
 headings of general influences which determine the 
 results of all growth and development, as follows: 
 
 Factors Controlling Health 
 (Partial statement to indicate relationship) 
 
 
 ACTIVITY 
 
 Environmental 
 
 Hereditary 
 
 Developmental 
 
 Survival and ad- 
 
 influences. 
 
 tendencies 
 
 activities 
 
 justing activities 
 
 Social customs 
 
 (1) Remova' of 
 
 
 
 (1) Health super- 
 
 growth de- 
 
 
 
 vision and clini- 
 
 fects 
 
 
 
 cal facilities 
 
 
 (2) Developmental 
 
 
 (2) Opportunities 
 
 
 play and work 
 
 
 and leadership 
 
 
 (a) Variety and 
 
 
 
 
 amount 
 
 
 
 
 (b) Emotional ha- 
 
 
 
 
 bits 
 
 
 
 
 
 (3) Diet; nutrition 
 
 (3) Home condi- 
 tions and cus- 
 toms. Activity 
 
 
 
 (4) Sleep and rest 
 
 (4) Home con- 
 ditions and cus- 
 toms 
 
 
 
 (5) Avoidance of 
 
 (5) Health condi- 
 
 
 
 infection 
 
 tions; inspec- 
 tion and control 
 
THE PROGRAM 
 
 107 
 
 
 ACTIVITY 
 
 Environmental 
 
 Hereditary 
 
 Developmental 
 
 Survival and ad- 
 
 influences. 
 
 tendencies 
 
 activities 
 
 justing activities 
 
 Social customs 
 
 
 
 (6) Oxygenation 
 
 (6) Residential lo- 
 cation. Venti- 
 lation. Cloth- 
 ing. Time out 
 of doors 
 
 
 
 (7) Elimination 
 
 (7) Facilities 
 
 
 
 (8) Temperature 
 
 (8) Clothing; heat- 
 
 
 
 regulation 
 
 ing and ventila- 
 tion 
 
 
 
 (9) Cleanliness 
 
 (9) Bathing and 
 toilet customs, 
 and facilities. 
 Clothing 
 
 
 (10) Avoidance of 
 
 (10) Dangers and 
 
 
 physical injury 
 
 safeguards 
 
 
 (11) Care of motor 
 
 (11) Seating cus- 
 
 
 
 mechanisms 
 
 toms, lighting, 
 
 
 
 and sense or- 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 
 gans 
 
 
 
 
 (12) Care of skin 
 
 (12) Customs; fa- 
 
 
 
 and append- 
 
 cilities 
 
 
 
 ages 
 
 
 
 
 (13) Avoidance of 
 
 (13) Adult cus- 
 
 
 
 stimulants and 
 
 toms; example 
 
 
 
 drugs 
 
 
 
 
 (14) Care and reg- 
 
 (14) Social cus- 
 
 
 
 ulation of sex 
 
 toms; develop- 
 
 
 
 functions and 
 
 mental activi- 
 
 
 
 emotions 
 
 ties; leadership 
 
 Even this very brief outline indicates (a) that 
 heredity sets the potential capacities for health which 
 education must accept; (6) that the environment con- 
 sists in numerous physical and social conditions 
 influencing health, and (c) that personal activity is the 
 individual's source of health. 
 
 By "developmental activities" is meant play and 
 work that develops latent powers or educates. By 
 
108 SCHOOL PROGRAM LN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 "survival activities" is meant activities that are 
 necessary for survival from day to day, like eating, 
 sleeping, elimination, respiration, and avoidance of 
 injury. By "adjusting activities" is meant those 
 activities that give adjustment to social customs. 
 
 B. TWO FORMS OF EFFORT IN PROMOTING HEALTH 
 
 The efforts of society, the home, and the school to 
 promote or conserve the health of children (i.e., the 
 efforts this side of hereditary and a positive eugenics) 
 fall under two classes. 
 
 First, there is the control of health influences or con- 
 ditions exercised by boards of health, the home, and the 
 school in the attempt to prevent contagious diseases, 
 to remove growth defects, and to provide a hygienic 
 environment. 
 
 Second, there is the leadership of children in their own 
 personal activities to the end that these activities shall 
 be carried on hygienically. 
 
 These two classes of efforts are related in the functions 
 of the parent or the teacher, but the objectives of each 
 class of effort in dealing with children are quite distinct. 
 One is an effort to control conditions influencing children 
 irrespective of the children's interest or motives. The 
 other is an effort to teach the children how to behave 
 in accordance with health laws. The technique of the 
 adult in each is different. Hence, the procedures in 
 the two efforts are given in separate programs. The 
 program in the control of growth conditions is given* 
 in the next section; the teaching is given in this sec- 
 tion. 
 
THE PROGRAM 109 
 
 C. OBJECTIVES IN TEACHING HEALTH 
 
 The objectives in teaching health are to establish 
 the capacity in children for self-direction according to 
 the laws of health. To establish the capacity for 
 independent self-direction is a very slow process. 
 Children at first are totally dependent on the parent 
 for care and for the direction of their behavior. Gradu- 
 ally they learn, under leadership, to direct their own 
 behavior. The capacity for self-direction is not fully 
 established until late adolescence, if then; and there is, 
 always a dependence, even of adults, on the control of 
 public health by public-health officials. 
 
 Health, in so far as any individual can determine 
 his own health, is due to his personal behavior according 
 to the laws of health. Hygiene sets up laws, principles, 
 or ways of behaving in each of the activities outlined 
 under the classification of factors given at the beginning 
 of this section. The activities are the ordinary activities 
 of everyday life, i.e., work and play and the survival 
 activities of eating, sleeping, and avoidance of infection. 
 Hygienic behavior is the standardization of these 
 activities. There are no new types of activities to be 
 learned apart from the developmental and survival 
 activities. These ordinary activities of life are stand- 
 ardized in hygiene. The standards determine the 
 hygienic quality of the activities of everyday life. 
 Health is not a product of some mysterious way of 
 behaving. Health depends on behaving according to 
 hygienic standards. 
 
 To establish the capacity for self-direction according 
 to the standards of hygiene the teacher must build 
 habits, ideas, and attitudes in each of the ways of 
 
110 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 acting listed above. Learning hygienic behavior is 
 acquiring standardized habits and attitudes toward each 
 of the activity factors controlling health. 
 
 Thus the objectives of health teaching are personal self- 
 direction in the activities of life according to the facts and 
 laws of hygiene. The process consists in building a 
 series of habits and attitudes. Health teaching is 
 concerned exclusively with developing health standards 
 in personal behavior; i.e., with developing the quality 
 of the habits, ideas, and attitudes controlling health. 
 
 D. the school's difficulties in teaching health 
 
 The difficulties in teaching health are two. 
 
 First, many of the most important activities which 
 determine health are not under the control of the school. 
 They are controlled by the home. This is especially 
 true of eating, sleeping, and bathing. Therefore, the 
 influence of the school in teaching health must carry over 
 to out-of-school behavior. This might be said about 
 other studies; it is true in a peculiar sense in the teaching 
 of health habits. It complicates the school problem in 
 health teaching. 
 
 Second, children are not directly interested in adult- 
 hygienic standards. They are interested in the direct 
 satisfactions of such activities as eating. They must 
 learn that there are standard ways of behaving. 
 
 Hence, on account of these two difficulties, the school 
 methods in building health habits and attitudes must 
 arouse incentives which will control behavior in out-of- 
 school activities. 
 
THE PROGRAM 111 
 
 E. THE FUNCTION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 IN TEACHING HEALTH 
 
 Several of the activities or subjects of study of 
 the school curriculum have important values in the total 
 school effort to establish the capacity for self-direction 
 according to the laws of health. Especially must biol- 
 ogy and, later, home economics, civics, and hygiene as 
 sciences be emphasized. Physical education, however, 
 has two unique values, inherent in the nature of the 
 activities, which make it of central importance. 
 
 i. The developmental source of health. The 
 first of these values lies in the development resulting 
 from physical-training activities. Big-muscle activities 
 are a developmental source of health. Any educational 
 process which develops a latent capacity and establishes 
 wholesome interests has a developmental health value. 
 
 But physical-training or big-muscle activities have 
 special values as a source of health which are not to be 
 found in any other activity. These values were ana- 
 lyzed in the section on objectives in the paragraphs on 
 the development of the instincts and emotions; nervous 
 development; and organic development. In the matter 
 on social adjustment, also, it was shown that the big- 
 muscle activities are not learned because they are 
 carried over into later life, but because they are among 
 the most spontaneous and instinctively driven activities 
 in child life, and so command enormous amounts of 
 time. They are pure developers of latent powers. As 
 developers of fundamental powers they are the primary 
 developmental source of health. 
 
 This developmental source of health as one of the 
 factors needs to be contrasted with the other factors 
 
112 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 controlling health this side of heredity. It is the one 
 constructive factor. Food, for example, is an essential 
 for existence; but eating the best food develops no 
 skill or talent. Correcting eye defects and removing 
 adenoids eliminate handicaps on normal growth, but 
 the correction and the removal develop no latent 
 capacity. The developmental activities alone "draw 
 out" latent resources in the growing organism. All 
 the other factors are, in contrast, merely favorable or 
 unfavorable to health. Further, the developmental 
 source of health must be given a conspicuous place in the 
 organization of health efforts in the school. Only three 
 other factors this side of heredity in the list of factors 
 controlling health enumerated above approach it in 
 importance; viz., nutrition, sleep, and avoidance of 
 infection. Development requires special and costly 
 space and equipment and a large allotment of time. 
 It is realized only by making the program in big-muscle 
 activities effective. 
 
 2. The activities carry the health motive. The 
 second important point about teaching health habits in 
 connection with physical-training activities is that the 
 activities naturally carry the health motive and are a 
 natural correlating center of health interests. These 
 facts are illuminated by the following points: 
 
 (a) Children are intensely interested in the activities. 
 
 (6) The time devoted to the activities is great. The 
 interest in the activities and the natural need for the 
 activities bulk large. The time which should be devoted 
 to them during the elementary school age is between 
 four and five hours a day. 
 
THE PROGRAM 113 
 
 (c) The activities continue from infancy to maturity. 
 They are constant in influence during the year and 
 through the succession of years. They must be organ- 
 ized in the school each year, unlike other activities of 
 the curriculum. 
 
 (d) The activities carry a consciousness of the physi- 
 cal self with which the health motive is easily associated. 
 The activities arise primarily out of self-testing im- 
 pulses and continue in social comparison in achieve- 
 ment. They tend to stimulate an interest in physical 
 prowess, skill, and welfare. 
 
 (e) The leadership in the activities is extremely inti- 
 mate and fosters a bond of sympathy between the 
 leader and the children. 
 
 (/) The activities reveal physical characteristics and 
 needs to the teacher. These signs of condition serve as 
 guides to the teacher in directing the "training" 
 process. 
 
 (g) The procedure in the organization of the chil- 
 dren in the activities requires a physical examination, 
 and tests of achievement and regular weighing for 
 guidance in training. These attentions foster an interest 
 in personal physical conditions. 
 
 F. THE BASES OF THE PROGRAM 
 
 The several characteristics just enumerated are 
 inherent in the nature of the big-muscle activities. They 
 give a natural school method for building health habits 
 and self -impelling attitudes in observing health laws. 
 This natural method, after nine or ten years of age, is 
 based on the fact that children are spontaneously inter- 
 ested in their big-muscle achievements, and that there is 
 
114 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 a direct relationship between achievement and physical 
 condition. Achievement in big-muscle activities is de- 
 pendent on physical condition, just as success in life is 
 dependent on condition or health. It is easy to show a 
 boy that he cannot do his best in his efforts to achieve 
 unless he "trains" or "conditions" himself. This re- 
 quires wholesome living. Condition is determined by 
 obedience to the laws of health. This is "training." 
 The coach, in a crude way, has always required this 
 observance. But he has required it not for health, but 
 to win. His procedure must be made educationally 
 sound, be applied to all children, and be made self- 
 impelling. 
 
 Children in their physical education must be con- 
 sidered "in training." Their interest in achievement 
 and associated condition under proper leadership 
 goes on from satisfaction to satisfaction until it becomes 
 a powerful force in behavior. To see that this develop- 
 ment of interest takes place is the most important 
 function in teaching health. Thus the teacher is able 
 to see that good physical condition is acquired through 
 a self-impelled observance of the laws of health. It is a 
 simple matter gradually to expand this ideal that has 
 to do with the maintenance of condition for athletic 
 achievement into an ideal of maintaining condition for 
 all the functions of life. Health, then, gains a meaning 
 for life. Every fact of personal hygiene, physiology, 
 and anatomy, by this method, may be looped up 
 naturally to the child's spontaneous interest in his 
 achievement. His own problem in maintaining condi- 
 tion for achievement motivates his health activities. 
 The method and the material tend to lead on to 
 
THE PROGRAM 115 
 
 his own self-direction. Physical education thus has a 
 natural means of establishing health habits and atti- 
 tudes. 
 
 The "training" idea or ideal is not so specific in its 
 control of conduct for achievement among little 
 children, or as we go down the scale of ages below 
 nine. In a broader and simpler sense, however, the 
 influences are just as potent. Even the kindergarten 
 children are profoundly interested in themselves and 
 in being "big" and "strong." Concrete evidence of 
 "condition" or of what is "good for me" or "bad 
 for me," as revealed by weight or tests or activities, 
 has a strong influence on independently controlled 
 behavior. Little children, also, are inclined to have an 
 unquestioning faith in the teacher. It is easy to form 
 the association between the idea of "condition" and 
 what is "good" or "bad" in health habits. 
 
 It will be seen from this analysis that while children 
 have no direct interest in the laws of health as sys- 
 tematized by hygiene, they have a thoroughgoing 
 interest in two essentials for a self-driven acquisition 
 of health habits and attitudes. First, they have a 
 keen interest in all activities in which they gain sat- 
 isfaction and in achievement in these activities. It 
 is the first function of a natural educational method 
 to lead on this interest from spontaneous forms to 
 established forms as a basis for progress in education. 
 It is the first function of physical education, from the 
 standpoint of health, to develop the interest in big- 
 muscle activities as a basis for a self-driven interest in 
 achievement. Second, children have an intense interest 
 in themselves, their own characteristics and abilities, 
 
116 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 and in any controllable influences which are favorable or 
 unfavorable to these traits. It is the business of educa- 
 tion to lead on the development of such of these egoistic 
 interests as are valuable for establishing virtues neces- 
 sary for good citizenship. It is the business of physical 
 education, from the standpoint of health, to lead on the 
 development of such of these interests as are the basis 
 for a self-directing interest in personal physical condition 
 for achievement and later for the functions of life. 
 
 This "conditioning" ideal is the controlling influence 
 in the adult's keep-fit program as well as the child's. 
 The adult, in so far as he becomes conscious of his health 
 ideals at all, controls his behavior according to health 
 laws because he wishes to succeed in his work, realize 
 some ambition, or merely enjoy life with absence of the 
 annoyance of pain or discomfort. 
 
 Thus the ideal of "training," "conditioning" the self, 
 or "keeping fit," is effective from early childhood right 
 on through adult life. It is the fundamental life motive 
 with regard to health. It is at the basis of effective school 
 methods of teaching health, because it establishes self- 
 directing incentives in the control of health habits which 
 carry over from the school activities to out-of-school 
 behavior where the most important health habits are 
 exercised. 
 
 G. ORGANIZATION AND LEADERSHIP 
 
 a. To be effective, the self-conditioning method 
 must be based on the selection and organization of the 
 big-muscle activities. The activities must be selected 
 and organized from the standpoint of opportunities for 
 "training." Formalized activities arouse no incentives 
 
THE PROGRAM 117 
 
 to "train." The activities which are competitive or 
 which give the sense of achievement and hold the 
 imagination for considerable spans of time naturally 
 tend to enlist the self-driving impulse to condition the 
 self for achievement. Therefore the organization of the 
 activities in the physical-training program should 
 emphasize, from the standpoint of health, as well as 
 from that of morals, manners, and organic and nervous 
 development, the opportunities for a full sway of the 
 achieving and competitive impulses. 
 
 A closely related opportunity is the organization of 
 the children to control the hygienic influences of the 
 school. The children should be organized in the health- 
 control process of the school so that they will themselves 
 take the detailed responsibility for such matters as 
 the regulation of ventilation, temperature, and humid- 
 ity, and keeping the premises clean. This organization 
 emphasizes social or community responsibility in 
 health. It furnishes laboratory practice in the control 
 of community hygiene. It is part of the conditioning 
 process in its social aspects. 
 
 b. In the practical leadership of big-muscle activities 
 and of school sanitation there should be constant 
 cultivation of the essential mental connections in 
 developing the training ideal. As suggested above, there 
 is no instinctive response to health laws. The mental 
 connection between hygienic laws or habits and physical 
 condition and the relation of these to achievement must 
 be learned. The idea of "training" for condition by a 
 self-impelled obedience to health laws must be associ- 
 ated with an idea of the significance of condition for 
 achievement or enjoyment. The idea of the control of 
 
118 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 sanitary conditions, also, must be associated with the 
 idea of the influence of the sanitary environment upon 
 the community welfare. These ideas should be 
 "coached" in the daily routine of the activities just as 
 morals and manners are coached. For example, the 
 pupil's success or failure in achievement, the scoring 
 of achievement, the morning inspection of health condi- 
 tions, the regular weighing for classification, and the 
 physical examination are all routine procedures which 
 should reveal "condition" of the organism and influences 
 affecting it, and arouse an inquiring attitude as to causes 
 in terms of health-habits. The training idea should be 
 conspicuous in the pupil's daily thinking about the 
 activities, and it should be developed as a habit of 
 judgment about personal and health situations. 
 
 The results of the conditioning process should also be 
 scored in the point system along with the scoring of 
 achievement, sportsmanship, and fellowship. As con- 
 dition is determined by a number of health habits which 
 can be listed and arranged in a scale, it is a simple matter 
 to score in points the observance of the habits. " Train- 
 ing" thus becomes visualized, and the scoring may be 
 organized for competition against one's own best 
 record or against the records of others. The scoring 
 also gives the means of comparing the effectiveness of 
 training on achievement in activities, or on daily 
 enjoyment. It is visualized as an ideal and as a process 
 of behavior requiring self-control. 
 
 c. Class discussions should be organized to interpret 
 the problems arising in the practical training process and 
 to expand the pupil's thinking into a broader acquisi- 
 tion of hygienic ideas and attitudes. 
 
THE PROGRAM ■ 119 
 
 The primary subject matter for these discussions 
 should be the problems concerning the conditioning 
 process which arise right in the daily activities, includ- 
 ing the pupil's participation in the control of the 
 school's hygienic environment. This connects ideas 
 with action. The condition of each pupil may differ 
 from day to day. There is a cause. Incidents occur 
 in the daily activities of the school and in the experience 
 or behavior of different pupils, that have a health 
 significance. Further, children will ask questions 
 about their activities and about their bodily functions, 
 if given a chance and properly led, which strike down 
 to the roots of personal physical problems. These 
 problems require a physiological and hygienic explana- 
 tion, and pupils will solve them if properly led in class 
 discussion. The incidents and questions are the basis 
 for leading on the thinking about health problems to 
 the point of generalized ideas and attitudes. As the 
 incidents and experiences differ from day to day, 
 they give the opportunity for the large amount of 
 repetition necessary to build general ideas. 
 
 H. METHODS OF REINFORCING IDEAS 
 
 A number of special methods or devices are of value, 
 especially in the early grades, in interpreting and 
 reinforcing the ideas and habits that are being developed 
 in the conditioning process. The methods or devices 
 are dramatization, rhymes, picture materials, stories, 
 and special health days or events. These methods build 
 ideas about habits — not the habits themselves. They 
 are of value in proportion as they reinforce the action 
 tendencies developed in the practice of health habits 
 
120 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 each day. The ideas of themselves have no health 
 value except as they influence behavior and promote 
 self-control. 
 
 I. CONTKIBUTION OF OTHER SUBJECTS OF CURRICULUM 
 
 A broader building of ideas and attitudes should 
 be attained through many other subjects of the school 
 curriculum. In the early grades, health material 
 is being injected into the reading, composition, and 
 arithmetic. Nature study, geography, and history 
 make their contributions. In the more advanced 
 grades, the contributions of biology, civics, and 
 home economics are especially important. In these 
 latter subjects a broader range of information about 
 the social significance of health must be developed. 
 The information acquired in these subjects is of value 
 for health in proportion as it is looped up with the 
 personal incentives to act. Ideals and attitudes should 
 be expanded for social action. Thus all the activities 
 of the school which touch at all upon health should 
 contribute to the expansion of the ideals and attitudes 
 about the conditioning process and sanitary control. 
 This requires, in the late grades where activities are 
 departmentally organized, a cooperation between 
 departmental teachers. 
 
 J. SUPERVISION AND ADMINISTRATION 
 
 In most elementary schools the classroom teacher 
 will be required to conduct the program in teaching 
 health. The range of habit building which the teacher 
 can undertake will depend upon the teacher's training 
 and the expert supervision supplied. The supervisor 
 
THE PROGRAM 121 
 
 must supply the teacher with three forms of help. 
 First, a syllabus should be supplied giving a detailed 
 exposition of the procedure in teaching health habits. 
 Second, the supervisor must show the teacher how 
 to use the syllabus in the daily teaching. Third, 
 the supervisor must supervise the conditioning process, 
 the participation of children in the control of school 
 sanitation (a teaching process), the use of devices to 
 reinforce health ideas, and the method of correlating 
 the contribution of other subjects with the ideas and 
 habits being developed in the physical-training process. 
 Frequently it is suggested that there should be an 
 overhead administrative officer for health. This would 
 mean, if the suggestion is logical or reasonable, that a 
 special administrative officer, in addition to the super- 
 intendent of schools or his general assistants, would 
 supervise all the supervisors and all the teachers in all 
 the activities or subjects which make a contribution to 
 health (practically all subjects) from the standpoint of 
 the one standard of health alone. The same argument 
 might be made for morals or manners or aesthetics or 
 truth. A little thought will reveal the fallacy of such 
 a suggestion. Standards in health, just like standards 
 in morals or manners or truth, will be built in the teaching 
 process, not by making them a separate responsibility 
 apart from the teaching of all activities, but by making 
 them a part of the conscious and conscientious objectives 
 of every teacher in teaching every phase of every activity 
 or subject in the curriculum. The process that works 
 consists in saturating all the school procedures with a 
 teaching conscience about health. 
 
Section iv. The Program in the Control of 
 Health Conditions or Health Handicaps 
 
 A. Definition. 
 
 B. Rise of the program. 
 
 C. The elements in a complete organization. 
 
 D. The degree of organization. 
 
 E. The essential procedure and personnel. 
 
 F. Functions of special health experts. 
 
 G. The administrative organization of health control. 
 
Section IV. The Program in the Control of 
 Health Conditions or Health Handicaps 
 
 The school has been forced to organize a program for 
 the control of health conditions, and especially for the 
 control of growth handicaps. This control is frequently 
 called "health supervision" or "health service." But 
 these terms are sometimes confusing because they are 
 used with various meanings. 
 
 A. definition 
 
 By the control of health conditions is meant the 
 efforts to protect children from contagious diseases 
 or an insanitary environment, or from defects in 
 their own growing organisms, or from any influence 
 which handicaps normal growth or development and 
 thus impedes the best educational progress. It is called 
 the control of health conditions because it is a control 
 process, or a prevention or correction of handicapping 
 influences, and quite distinct in technique and purpose 
 from the educational process as embodied in the activities 
 of the curriculum. The latter process is to teach children 
 to control themselves. 
 
 B. rise of the program 
 
 This health protection is another phase of the 
 function of the home which is being supplemented or 
 taken over in part by the school. Parents, in proportion 
 to their intelligence, watch over the physical welfare 
 of their children. In case of illness or the discovery of 
 some defect, a physician is consulted. If the illness is 
 
 123 
 
124 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 contagious, the board of health exercises its quarantine 
 power. But this home care is not general or systematic 
 enough to insure children against defects that might 
 handicap their growth and normal school progress. 
 Hence the school is being compelled to take over the 
 responsibility of seeing that handicaps are removed. 
 
 The program in the control of health conditions, like 
 the school curriculum, has had an evolution. The first 
 step in its organization was an extension to the schools 
 of the functions of the board of health in controlling 
 contagious diseases. Next, the effects of school life 
 on children gave rise to the school hygiene of heating, 
 lighting, ventilation, and cleanliness. The movement 
 then passed on to the detection and removal of handi- 
 caps such as defects of the teeth, eyes, ears, nose, 
 throat, glands, and nutrition. The demand now is to 
 make these controls effective. The money cost of 
 retardation through sickness and defects, and the 
 results of these in later life, are forcing the issue. The 
 school and society in self-defense must see that all 
 remedial physical handicaps on educational progress are 
 removed. 
 
 C. THE ELEMENTS IN A COMPLETE OHGANIZATION 
 
 The elements in a complete control of health, from 
 the school standpoint, may be indicated by the following 
 outline. 
 
THE PROGRAM 125 
 
 1. Health Conditions to be Controlled 1 
 
 a. Contagious diseases. 
 
 b. Physical defects of eyes, ears, nose, throat, 
 
 and glands; nutrition. 
 
 c. The school environment: Such as ventilation, 
 
 lighting, heating, and cleanliness. 
 
 d. Home and community conditions that in- 
 
 fluence the pupil's health. 
 
 2. School Procedure in the Control of Health Condi- 
 
 tions. 
 
 a. Health inspection: 
 
 (1) Of the pupil— 
 
 (a) By daily inspection and continuous 
 observation for the signs or symp- 
 toms of contagious diseases. 
 
 (6) By a periodic physical examination 
 for growth defects. 
 
 (2) Of the environment — 
 
 (a) By the inspection of the school hy- 
 gienic environment. 
 
 (6) By inspection of the home and com- 
 munity conditions. 
 
 b. Recommendations and "follow-up" procedure 
 
 in dealing with school administrators, the 
 home and boards of health. 
 
 c. Social service; i.e., hot lunches, nutrition 
 
 classes, etc. 
 
 d. Clinical service; i.e., dental and other clinics. 
 It will be noted from this outline that there are 
 
 definite health conditions to be controlled, and that there 
 
 'The hygiene of school activities or the "hygiene of instruction," al- 
 though this really belongs to hygiene as applied to the curriculum, is some- 
 times included. 
 
126 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 are certain recognized school 'procedures for the control 
 of the conditions. The health control procedure presents 
 the problem in the organization of the school program. 
 
 D. THE DEGREE OF ORGANIZATION 
 
 The degree of organization of the school procedure in 
 health control may range from nothing more than 
 sending children home when they are obviously ill to 
 providing a very elaborate organization with a costly 
 supervising staff and with clinics manned by experts. 
 The organization possible in any school or community 
 depends on the population and local school finances. 
 Therefore, a distinction must be made between the essen- 
 tial school procedures in health protection and the more 
 elaborate organization for increased skill and service. 
 
 A program proposed for the control of health condi- 
 tions in the public schools generally, must give all the 
 essential procedures for the conservation of children's 
 health; yet it must be susceptible of operation anywhere. 
 It must of necessity work for the seven million children 
 in the one- and two-room schools of the country, as 
 well as for the children in the highly organized city 
 schools. The essential procedures must work anywhere; 
 they must be so fundamental as to be susceptible of 
 elaboration to any degree of organization desired by 
 any community. 
 
 E. THE ESSENTIAL PROCEDURES AND PERSONNEL 
 
 The essential procedures in health control are 
 (1) the continuous and daily inspection or observation 
 of children for signs of contagious diseases or growth 
 defects; {2) exclusion, in case of signs of contagious 
 
THE PROGRAM 127 
 
 diseases — with reference to the home and to health 
 authorities where possible — and refusing admission 
 before the disappearance of the signs or the presentation 
 of a physician's certificate; (3) reference to parents, 
 in case of signs of defects, with recommendations 
 or form instructions on what to do, with a form 
 "follow-up"; (4) the inspection of the school environ- 
 ment, followed by adjustments or a recommendation 
 about remedial conditions to school administrators. 
 This procedure may include also a simple social service, 
 as the supervision of lunches. 
 
 The essential officer in the control of the essential pro- 
 cedures is the elementary teacher. It is customary, in 
 the more elaborate organizations of health protection, 
 to employ nurses and doctors, but these officers should 
 not perform the essential functions of the teacher. 
 The necessity of requiring the teacher to stand as the 
 central officer in the control of health conditions may 
 be considered from four standpoints. 
 
 1. The teacher, considered from any standpoint, is 
 the essential officer in the school system. No other 
 officer can take the teacher's place. There can be no 
 teaching without the teacher. Even the superintendent 
 exists to make the teacher's work possible. A nurse 
 cannot be substituted for the teacher. 
 
 2. The teacher must know the children taught. This 
 requires constant study of the children; and this study 
 must cover health and growth conditions as well as 
 intellectual activities, or the teacher will make bad 
 mistakes. Hence, for proper teaching, the teacher must 
 be trained to observe and be required to inspect health 
 conditions. The essential procedures are very simple, 
 
128 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 and the teacher can in a short time be trained to per- 
 form them. 
 
 3. The control of growth conditions is a daily func- 
 tion requiring constant observation. The teacher is the 
 only person conceivable in the school system who can 
 be in constant contact with the children and make con- 
 stant observations. The teacher is on the firing line 
 all the time. In most rural schools, unless the teacher 
 is responsible, there will be no health control. A dis- 
 trict nurse, even if one exists, can make the rounds of 
 schools occasionally only. And in city school systems, 
 where the organization provides a staff of nurses and 
 doctors, it has been found that the teacher is the most 
 effective officer in the control procedure as an inter- 
 mediary in inspection between the children and the 
 experts, before there is reference to the home or the 
 clinic. A nurse cannot be in attendance all the time, 
 and to have either a nurse or a doctor perform the 
 duties that a teacher should perform as a matter of 
 routine, is too costly to be considered. The teacher 
 neither trained to control health nor expected to do so 
 stands for inefficiency and economic waste in the 
 school health control. 
 
 U. The teacher's responsibility in health protection is 
 essential to the inculcation of health habits. The control of 
 health conditions is not an educational process; it is a 
 school care and protection of the children; yet the inci- 
 dents or situations which arise in the control of health 
 give one of the effective opportunities for teaching 
 health habits. This teaching is not a function that 
 should be performed by a nurse or a doctor. The 
 nurse and the doctor are not teachers. The method of 
 
THE PROGRAM 129 
 
 teaching will be effective only as the teacher is trained 
 and is expected to observe health conditions. 
 
 Where the school and the teaching are departmentally 
 organized, the essential health-control functions of the 
 teacher still hold, but they also become somewhat de- 
 partmentalized. One departmental teacher has a spe- 
 cial and peculiar relationship to health control. This 
 is the departmental teacher or director in physical 
 education. This teacher, as a teacher, has a special re- 
 sponsibility in the control of health or growth condi- 
 tions, because of the nature of the activities organ- 
 ized. These activities bring this teacher more than 
 any other into intimate contact with the pupil and 
 reveal physical condition to the teacher in a way that 
 it is not revealed to the doctor or the nurse. The 
 contacts are daily and for long periods, not only in 
 the exercise places, but in the locker rooms, dressing 
 rooms, and consultation rooms. The activities require 
 an examination to determine fitness for participation 
 in the different events and games, or for special needs. 
 They require a constant weighing of pupils as a guide 
 in "training," and just as constant testing of achieve- 
 ment. All these facts make the responsibility of the 
 departmental teacher in physical education for the 
 control of health conditions so intimate that it cannot 
 be avoided. Efficiency requires the fulfillment of these 
 more specialized responsibilities which the grade 
 teacher performs. Any organization that deprives the 
 teacher 1 of the control responsibilities takes away 
 
 1 Where administrative officials appoint mere athletes, or, worse, 
 mere gymnasts, as departmental directors or supervisors, these persons 
 of course cannot perform the functions described and inefficiency must 
 be the result. 
 
130 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 fundamental elements for efficiency in teaching and 
 reduces the effectiveness of the school health control. 
 
 It should be noted that the functions and responsi- 
 bilities referred to here are essentially those of the 
 teacher, and that they remain those of the teacher no 
 matter what the overhead administrative organization 
 of health control may be. 
 
 F. FUNCTIONS OF SPECIAL HEALTH EXPERTS 
 
 Any degree of organization in health control above the 
 essential procedures and functions is for the purpose 
 (1) of making the essential procedures more effective, 
 or (2) of adding a service that the teacher cannot give 
 alone. 
 
 1. The experts (doctors or school nurses) can add 
 effectiveness to the essential procedure in three ways. 
 
 a. They can train the teacher to make inspections 
 and see that the teacher systematically conducts the 
 inspections. 
 
 6. They can stand as intermediate reference officials 
 for more expert judgment on doubtful cases before 
 recommendations are made to parents or guardians. 
 From the standpoint of school economy, in this con- 
 nection, it must be remembered that in the essential 
 procedures as usually organized the most expert doctor 
 or nurse simply makes a judgment and refers the case 
 to the home or to the health authorities. There is no 
 detailed diagnosis or treatment. Nothing is added to 
 the essential service which children receive except the 
 expert judgment. 
 
 (c) They can give a more effective follow-up by 
 visiting the home. The teacher is tied to the classroom 
 
THE PROGRAM 131 
 
 during school hours. This visitation gives the means of 
 carrying instruction into the home (a function of the 
 school which is becoming well recognized), and of 
 organizing, in cases of contagious diseases, effective 
 methods of exclusion, quarantine, and readmission. 
 
 Experts can add a skilled social service and clinical 
 service. They can add a social service which is be- 
 yond the training of the teachers. They can add a 
 clinical diagnosis and treatment to the essential pro- 
 cedure in inspection, recommendation, and follow-up. 
 The degree of this higher organization of social service 
 and clinical service determines the expert staff required. 
 
 G. THE ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION OP 
 HEALTH CONTROL 
 
 In large school systems an administrative officer is 
 usually placed in charge of the health-control functions 
 of the school and the health-control duties of teachers 
 and expert assistants. The administrative organization 
 for the control of health, apart from other school 
 functions, is complicated only by its relationships 
 with the functions of the board of health. 
 
 An administrative organization of health control 
 may be under the jurisdiction of the board of health 
 or of the board of education. In either case there must 
 be a recognition of the functions of each board. The 
 school board is in charge of the schools and responsible 
 for the welfare of the children in the school. The 
 health board is responsible for public health. The 
 drift of opinion favors an organization of health 
 control under the school authorities. Efficiency in the 
 
132 SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 general-health care of children demands the latter 
 organization. Yet there must be a clear recognition of 
 the fact that the police power for the control of conta- 
 gious diseases resides in the board of health and that 
 therefore school officials must work through a co- 
 operative agreement with the board of health, or at 
 least obey all the regulations of the board of health 
 in questions of elimination, quarantine, and readmis- 
 sion. They may meet the requirements of the situation 
 by strict exclusion of all cases of contagious diseases or 
 suspected cases and reference of them to the public- 
 health officials, or by having the expert in the school 
 organization deputized as an official of the board of 
 health. However, inspection and examination for 
 defects, and recommendations to the home, the 
 follow-up, and the social and clinical service concerning 
 defects, bulk much larger in significance for child 
 welfare than do measures against infection. These 
 broader functions that have such a deep influence on 
 education should be under the administration of school 
 officials who think about the needs of the children from 
 the school standpoint.