The ^nthon Libi^ RY. COLLECTED BY CHARLES ANTHON, Professor of Greek and Latin in Columbia College. PurchaseA by Cornell University, 1868. University Library The JBfonuncjS!',!?'' o' Greekaccent and qu 3 1924 021 601 947 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924021601947 THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK; ACCENT AND QUANTITY. A PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRY. JOHN STUART BLACKIE, PBOPESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURail. EDINBUEGH: SUTHERLAND AND KNOX. LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO. MDCCCLIL ?k^ EDINBURGH : T. CONSTABLE, PRINTER TO HBR MAJESTY. " Sit omnibus rehits suum senium, sua juventus ; et id verba verbis, sic etiam sonis sonos succedere permittamus." — Bishop Gardiner. " This new pronunciation hath since prevailed, whereby we Englishmen speak Greek, and are able to understand one another, which nobody else can." — Thomas Fuller. " Maxims cupio ut in omnibus Academiis nostris hodierna Grrcecorum pronuntiatio recipiatur." — Boissonade. " Neque dubitamus quin Erasmus, si in tantam Grcecce pro- nuntiationis discrepantiam incidisset, vulgarem usum intactum et salvum reliquisset." — Seyffarth. • "7cA gebe der neugriechischen Aus-sprache im Oanzen bei weitem den Vorzug." — Thiersch. " Neque enim de ccelo dilapsa ad nos pervenit Orcecorum lingua, sed e patria sua una cum omnibus quae habemus subsidiis, sua vestita cultu prodiit, quem tollere aut immuiare velle esset imperium in linguam liberam exercere." — Wetsten. " Die sogenannte Erasmische Aus-sprache, wie es in Deutsch- land erscheint, ist vollig grundlos, ein Gebilde man weiss nicht von wannen es kam, ein Gemische welches jeder sich zustutzt nach eigner Lust und Willkiihr." — Liscov. THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, &c It is purely as a practical man, and with a direct practical result in view, that I venture to put forth a few words on the vexed question of the Peondncia- TION OF Greek. He were a frigid pedant, indeed, ,who, with the whole glorious literature of Hellas be- fore him, and the rich vein of Hellenic Archa)ology, scarcely yet opened in Scotland, should, for the mere gratification of a subtle speculative restlessness, walk direct into this region of philological thorns. So far as my personal curiosity was concerned, Sir John Cheke, wrapt in his many folded mantle of Cicero- nian verboseness, and the Right Reverend Stephen Gardiner's prsetorian edicts in favour of Greek sounds,^ and the /Stj S'rj of the old comedian's Attic sheep, might have been allowed to sleep undisturbed on the ' E'jo sonmum cavsam tueor ex edicto j-osfe/soiio, at tit }irator, inlerdiji de possessione. 6 THE PKONUNCIATION OF GREEK ; library shelves. I had settled the question long ago in my own mind on broad grounds of common sense, rather than on any nice results that seemed obtain- able from the investigations of the learned ; but the nature of the pilblic duties now imposed on me does not allow me to take my own course in such matters, merely because I think it right. I must shew to the satisfaction of my fellow-teachers and of ray stu- dents, that I am not seeking after an ephemeral noto- riety by the public galvanisation of a dead crotchet ; that any innovations which I may propose are in reality, as so often happens in the political world also, and in the ecclesiastical, a mere recurrence to the ancient and established practice of centuries, and that whatever opinions I may entertain on points confessedly open to debate, I entertain not for myself alone, but in company with some of the ripest scho- lars and profoundest philologists of modern times. I have reason also for thinking with a recent writer, that the present time is peculiarly favourable for the reconsideration of the question ;^ for, although Sir ' An Essay on the Pronunciation of the Greek Language. By G. T. Pennington, M.A., late Fellow of King's College, Camtiridge. London : Murray. 1844. This is the work that I recommend to the English student who wishes to understand the subject in detail, without wading through the confounding mass of pertinent and impertinent matter that the learned eloquence of more than throe centuries has heaped up. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 7 John Cheke might have said with some show of truth in his day, " Oroeca jam lingua nemini patria est,"'^ none but a prophetic partisan of universal Rus- sian domination in the Mediterranean will now assert, that the living Greeks are not a nation and a people who have a right to be heard on the question, how their own language is to be pronounced. Taking the Greek language as it appears in the works of the learned commentator Corais, in the poetry of the Soutzos and Rangabe, in the history of Perraebus, so highly spoken of by Niebuhr, and in the publications of the daily press at Athens ; and taking the new kingdom for no greater thing than the intrigues of meddling diplomatists, its own wretched cabals, and the guns of Admiral Parker will allow it to be ; it is plain that to disregard the witness of such a speak- ing fact, standing as it does upon the unbroken tradi- tion and catholic philological succession of eighteen centuries, would be, much more manifestly now than in the days of the learned Wetsten, to " exercise a despotism over a free language," such as no man has a right 'to claim.^ Besides, in Scotland we have ' Sylloge sori/.itm-um qui de lingucB GrceccB mm et recta pronuntlatione Commentarios reliquerunf ; edirlit Haveeoampus. Lvdrj. Bat., 1740. Vol. ii. p. 220. ' Jon. RuDOLFi Wetstenh : pro Grceca et ffcnuiiia linijiice Grcecie pro- nuntiatione Oraliones Apolugeticce. Basil ; 1686, p. 27. The whole pas- sage! is quoted in the prefixed mottoes. 8 THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK ; already had our orthodox hereditary routine iu this matter disturbed by the invasion of Enghsh teach- ers of the Greek language ; an invasion, no doubt, which our strong national feeling may look on with jealousy, but which we brought on ourselves by the shameful condition of prostration in which we allowed the philological classes in our higher schools and colleges to lie for two centuries ; and it was not to be expected that these English teachers, being placed in a position which enabled them to give the law within a certain influential circle, should sacri- fice their own traditional pronunciation of the Greek language, however arbitrary, to ours, in favour of which, in some points, there was little but the mere conservatism of an equally arbitrary usage to plead. Finding matters in this condition, I feel it impossible for me to waive the discussion of a matter already fermenting with all the elements of imcertainty. I have therefore taken the trouble of working my way through Havercamp's two volumes, and comparing the arguments used in the famous old Cantabrigian controversy with those advanced by a well-informed modern member of the same learned corporation. I have taken the learned Germans, too, as in duty bound, on such a question, into my counsels ; I have devoted not a little time and attention to the lau- ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 9 guage and literature of modern Greece ; and above all, I have carefully examined those places of the ancient rhetoricians and grammarians that touch upon the various branches of the subject. With all these precautions, if I shall not succeed in making converts to my views, I hope, at least with reason- able men, to escape the imputation of rashness and superficiality. The exact history of our present pronunciation of Greek, both in England and Scotland, I have not learning enough curiously to trace ; but one thing seems to me plain, that all the great scholars in this country, and on the continent generally, in the fifteenth, and the early part of the sixteenth century, could have know^n nothing of our present arbitrary method of pronouncing ; i for they could pronounce Greek no other way than as they receiv- ed it from Chrysoloras, Gaza, Lascaris, Musurus, and the other native Greeks who were their masters. Erasmus was, if not absolutely the first,^ certainly the first scholar of extensive European influence and popularity who ventured to disturb the tradition of the Byzantine elders in this matter ; but his famous 1 See the opinions of Scaligee, Salmasius, and some others, quoted by Wetstes. 2 Wbtsten refei-s to a work by Aldus Mandtiis de potestate literarum, which 1 have not seen. 10 THE PEONUNCIATION OF GEEEK ; dialogue, Be recta Latin i GroBcique sermonis pronun- tiatione, did not appear till the year 1528, by which time so strong a prescription had already run in favour of the received method, that it seems strange how even his learning and wit should have prevailed to overturn it. But there are periods in the history of the world when the minds of men are naturally disposed to receive all sorts of novelties ; and the era of the Reformation was one of them. Erasmus, though a conservative in religion, (as many persons are who are conservative in nothing else,) pleased his free speculative whim with all sorts of imagina- tions ; and among other things fell — though, if what Wetsten tells be true, in a very strange way^ — on the ' " Amdui M. Rutgerum Resclimm professorem Linguce Orreoce in collegia Buslidiano apud Lovanunses, ineuin pice metnorice prmceptorem, tiarrantem^ ss habitasse in Liliensi pmiagogej vna cum Erasmo, eo superius, se itiferius cubictdum obtinente. Henricum autum Glareaniim Farlsiis Lonanium venisse, atque ab JErasmo in collegium vocatum fuisse ad prandium ; quo cum nenissH, quid novi adferret interrogatum dixisse (quod in itinere coinmenius erat, quod sciret Erasmum plus satis rerum nor.arum studiusum ac mire credulum') quos- dain in Grcecia naios Lntniiam venissii, virus oil miraculum doctos; qui lunge aliam Greed sermonis pronunciationem usurparent, quam quae vulgo in hisce partibus reoepla esset : Eos nempe sonare pro Vita Beta, pro n ita Eta, piro Ai, oifpro 01, oi, et sic in ccetcris. Quo audita Erasmum paulo post conscrip- sisse dialogum de recta Latini Grcecique sermonis pronunciatione, ut mdeie- tur hujus rei ipse inventor, et obtuUsse Petro Alostensi Typographo imprimen- dmn: Qui cum forte aliis ocoupatus renueret, aut certe se turn cito excudere quam volebat non posse diceret, viisisse lihellam Basileam ad Frobenium, a quo mux impressus in lucem prodiit. Verum Erasmum cognita fraude, nun- qaam ea pronuncimidi ratione postea usum, nee amiciSj quibuscum- famifiarl- ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 11 notion of purging the pronunciation of the classical languages of all those defects which belonged to it, ■whether by degenerate tradition or perverse provin- cialism, and erecting in its stead an ideal pronun- ciation, made up of erxidite conjecture and philoso- phical argumentation. Nothing -was more easy than to prove that in the course of two thousand years the orthoepy of the language of the Greeks had de- clined considerably from the perfection in which its musical fulness had rolled like a river of gold from the mouth of Plato, or had been dashed like a thun- derbolt of Jove from the indignant lips of Demos- thenes ; yet more easy was it, and admirable game for such a fine spirit as Erasmus, to evoke the shades of Cicero and Quinctilian, and make mirth to them out of a Latin oration delivered before the Emperor Maximilian, by a twittering French courtier and a splay-mouthed Westphalian baron. ^ It is certain also that there are in that dialogue many admirable observations on the blundering practices of the schoolmasters, and even the learned professors, his contemporaries, which very many of them in that ter vivebut, ut earn oksena/rent, pr, for in it the mouth is rounded, and contracts the lips, and the stroke of the mouth is sent against the extreme end of the mouth, {aKpoaro/xiov, the lips, I presume.) Infei'ior to this is the v, for in this vowel an observ- able contraction takes place in the extreme region of the lips, so that the sonorous breath comes out attenuated and compressed. Last of all comes t, for here the stroke of the breath takes place about the teeth, while the opening of the mouth is small, and the lips contribute nothing towards giving the sound more dignity as it passes through. Of the short vowels, neither is sonorous ; but o is the least agree- able, for it parts the mouth more than the other, and receives the stroke nearer the wind-pipe." 28 THE PllONUNCIATION OF GEEEK ; Now, while every point of this physiological descrip- tion may not be curiously accurate,'' there is enough of obvious certainty in it to settle some of the most important points of Greek orthoepy, so far as the rhetorician of Halicarnassus is concerned ; and his authority in this matter is that of a man of the highest skill, which, as the daily practice of our law courts shows, is worth that of a thousand persons taken at random. That the Itacism of the modern Greeks did not exist, or was not allowed by good speakers 2 in the time of this writer, so far as the single VQwels are concerned, is abundantly mani- fest ; for not only do iy, i, v, which the modern Greeks identify, mean different sounds, but the sound of the 7] in particular is removed as far from the i as it could well be in an}"- scale of vocalization, which sets out with the supremacy of the broad A. And if these sounds were distinguished by polished ears in the days of Augustus Caesar, it is contrary to all ' What lie says about the tongue performing no part in the formation of the vowels is manifestly false, as any one may convince himself by pro- nouncing the three sounds, au, ai, ee, successively, with open mouth- before a mirror. He will thus observe a gradual elevation and advance of the tongue, as the sound to be emitted becomes more slender. ' This limitation must be carefully borne in mind ; for after Athens ceased to be a capital, being overwhelmed by Alexandria, it still remained a sort of literary metropolis, giving, or affecting to give, the law in matters of taste, long after Its authority had ceased practically to bind large masses of those whose usage fashioned the existing language. ACCENT AND QtlANTlTY. 29 analogy of language to suppose that in the days of Alexander the Great, Plato, or Pericles, they should have been confounded. Provincialisms, indeed, and certain itacizing peculiarities, such as that noticed by Plato, (page 24, above,) there might have been ; but that any language should confound its vowel- sounds in its best days, and distinguish them in its days of commencing feebleness, is contrary to all that succession of things which we daily witness. Differ- ent letters were originally invented to express differ- ent sounds, and did so naturally for a long time, till fashion and frea.k combined with habit, either over- ran the phonetic rule of speech by a rank growth of exceptive oddities, (as has happened in English,) or fixed upon the organs of articulation some strong tendency towards the predominance of a particular sound, which in process of time became a marked idiosyncrasy, from which centuries of supervening usage could not shake the language free. This is what has taken place in Greece with regard to cer- tain vowel-sounds. But before pursuing these ob- servations further, let us see distinctly what the special points are, that this remarkable passage of the Halicarnassian distinctly brings out. The ascer- tained points are these, — 1. The long or slender sound of the English A, (as 30 THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK ; ill lane,) is not acknowledged by Dionysius, nor is its existence possible under his description. It is alto- gether an anomaly and a monstrosity — like so many things in this island — and should never have been tolerated for a moment in the pronunciation of Latin or Greek. ^ 2. The slender sound of ■>? used by the Eng- lish and the modei-n Greefo, is an attenuation the farthest possible removed from the conception of Dionysius. About e there is no dispute anywhere. 3. The sound of v described is manifestly the French u, or German ii heard in Bruder, Buhne : a very delicate and elegant sound bordering closely on the slender sound of i, {ee, English,) into which it is sometimes attenuated by the Germans, and with which, by a poetical license, it is allowed to rhyme, (as Bruder — nieder,) but having no connection with the English sound of oo, (as in boom,) with which, ' In some English schools a small concession has been made to common sense, and to sound principles of teaching, by confining the long slender sound of a to the long «, while the short « is pronounced like the short a in hat. Now, as changes are not easily made in England, especially among schoolmasters, who are a stifi-necked generation everywhere, it would have been worth while when they were moving, to kick the bar- barous English A out of the scholastic world altogether. But their conser- vatism was too strong for this ; besides, the ears of many were so gross that they would not have distinguished, or would have sworn that they could not distinguish, a long a from a short one, without giving the former the sound of an entirely distinct vowel ! There is no limit to the nonsense that men will talk in defence of an inveterate absurdity. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 31 in Scotland, it is confounded. This with us is the more unpardonable, as our Doric dialect in the south possesses a similar sound in such words as guid, bluid, attenuated by the Northerns into the slender sound of gueed, and bleed. The English sound of long u is, as Walker has pointed out, a compound sound, of which one element is a sort of consonant — Y. It is, besides, altogether a piece of English idiosyncrasy, that we have no reason to suppose ever existed ^.ny- where, either amongst Greeks or Romans.^ 4. The English sound of i is another of John Bull's phonetic crotchets, and must be utterly dis- carded. It is, in fact, a compound sound, of which the deep vowel a is the predominant element-r-an element which, we have seen, stands at the very opposite end of the Halicarnassian's scale ! So far as we see, therefore, the English, Scotch, and modern Greek methods of pronouncing the five vowels all depart in some point from the highest authority that can be produced on the subject ; in ' The following passage from Mitford (Pennington, p. 37) may stand here as an instructive lesson, how blindly prejudice may sometimes speak : " Strong national partiality only, and determined habit, could lead to the imagination cherished by the French critics, that the Greek u was a sound so unpleasant, produced by a position of the lips so ungraceful as the French n." History, book ii. sec. iii., note. Scaliger (Opuscula : Paris, 1610, p. 181) says rightly, "Est obsourissimus sonus in Grscoa vocali u, quae ita pronuntianda est ut proxime accedat ad iota." 32 THR PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK ; fact, the single vowel w alone has preserved its full rounded purity uncorrnpted by any party. But with regard to the other four vowels, there is a marked difference in the degree of deflection from the classical norm ; for, while the Scotch err only in one point, v, the modern Greeks err in two, ■»/ and v, (though their error is but a very nice one in the case of V, and has, in both cases, long centuries of undeviating usage to stand on,) and the English err in all the four points, a, v, t, and v, and that in the most paradoxical and abnormal fashion that could have been invented, had it been the direct purpose of our Oxonian and Etonian doctors to put all clas- sical propriety at defiance. In such lawless anarchy has ended the restoration of the divine speech of Plato, so loftily promised by Sir John Cheke ; and so true in this small matter also, is that -wise parable of the New Testament, which advises reformers to beware of putting new patches on old vestments. Instead of the robe of genuine Melibean purple which Erasmus wished to throw round the shoulders of the old Greek gods, our English scholars, following in his track of conjectural innovation, have produced an English clown's motley jacket, which the Zeus of Olympus never saw, and even Momus would disdain. But let us proceed to the diphthongs. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 33 Unhappily Dionysius, by a very unaccountable omission, has given us no information on this head ; so we are left to pursue our inquiries over a wide field of stray inquiry, and conclude from a greater mass of materials with much less appearance of scientific certainty. The following results, however, to any man that will fairly weigh the cumulative power of the evidence brought together with such laborious conscientiousness by Liscov and Seyfiarth, must appear unquestionable : — 1. It is proved by evidence reaching as far back as the time of the first Ptolemies, that the diphthong Ai was pronounced like the same diphthong in our English word gainA So the diphthong is pronounced by the living Greek nation. There is, therefore, the evidence of more than 2000 years in its favour, and against the prevalent pronunciation, which gives it the broad sound of ai in the German word kaiser, rhyming pretty nearly with our English word WISEE. 2. The diphthong Ei was pronounced in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus like the English ee in seen, ' ' " Vt ut sit, id saltern nacti sumus interpretum S. so. eingularum atque omnium auctoritate ut constet ai matttre atque optimis adeo Grcecorum tem- poribus simplici coocdi E respondisse" — Seyfeabth, p. 101. iSee also the Stanza from Callimaohus, where vxl^' echoes to 'ixti, Epig. xxx. 5, (and Sbxtus Empibicus adv. Qrammat. c. 6.) C 34 THE PRONUNCIATION OP GREEK ; or ea in beamJ This pronunciation it retains at the present day. In this, as in the preceding case, we have a striking proof of tTae tenacity with which a great nation clings to elocutional peculiarities. What likelihood is there that a people, so constant to itself for 2000 years under the most adverse circum- stances, should, in the 200 years previous to that period, have known nothing of what was afterwards one of its most marked characteristics 1 3. The evidence for the pronunciation of the diph- thong 01 is more scanty. Unfortunately the Septua- gint translators use this diphthong only once for expressing a 'Hebrew name in the whole compass of the Old Testament. From other evidence, and by a train of deduction that appears somewhat slippery, Seyflfarth comes to the conclusion that its original pronunciation was probably that of the Grerman oe, from which it was by degrees softened into the French u, and lastly into the slender sound of i (ee), which it now has. But as I am dealing ^^ith cer- tainties in this paper, and not with probabilities, it will be enough to say that Liscov has produced ' " Qua potestate literm mfuerint ed Grcecorum cetate in quam veteres So. s. ' interpretes incidunt ex plurimis Usque variis verbis in singulas linguas con- versis adeo clarum est ut nidlafere restei causx de ed dubitare." — Seypfaeth. The Old Testament translators, in fact, use it as regularly for JB^irek and Tud, as they do ai for Tzere, Seijol, and Shera. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 35 evidence to shew that it was confounded with i so early as the time of Julius Caesar, IIINISTHS being found on a coin of the great dictator for oiavfo-TTj?. So in the coins of Emperors of the second century, OIKOXTOT frequently occurs for eiKoaroi,} That \otyito9 was not pronounced exactly like Xt/^o? in the time of Thucydides, has been concluded from a well-known passage in his second book, (c. 54 ;) but the passage is of doubtful interpretation,^ and no man can tell at this time of day what the exact, perhaps a very small shade of, difference, was be- tween the two sounds. 4. In the above three examples, the Scotch and the English have equally conspired to overthrow the living tradition of two centuries, by an act of arbitrary academical conceit or pedagogic careless- ness. In the case of oa, we Northerns have again ' With regard to this sort of evidence arising from wrong spelt words, it is manifest that a single example proves nothing. When Aimt Chloe, for instance, in the American novel, says, " I'm clar on't," this is no proof that the Americans pronounce the ea in dear like a ; the only conclusion is, that certain vulgar people in America pronounce it so, and a word with a different vocalization must he written in order to express their peculiar method of utterance. But when mistakes of this kind occur ex- tensively, and In quarters where there is no reason to suspect anything particularly vulgar, they authorize a conclusion as general as the fact, especially where no evidence exists pointing in a different direction. ' Thieesoh uses the passage as a proof of the antiquity of the modern slender sound. — SpracliUhre, § 16, 5. 36 THE PEON UNCI ATION OF GREEK ; been happy ; while the EngUsh, with their fatal facility of blundering in such matters, have in- vented a pronunciation of this diphthong which seems more natural to a growling Saxon mastiff than to the smooth fulness of ancient Greek eloquence. The Greek writers, with great uniformity, agree in expressing by this diphthong the sound of the Latin u ; while the modern Greeks, with equal uniformity, agree in pronouncing their ov as the Italians pro- nounce u ; that is to say, like the English oo in boom. Seyffarth classes this diphthong with a and i, and e, as a sound about which there is no con- troversy. 5. The diphthongs au and eu follow ; and in their case the contrast between the pronunciation of the living Greeks, and that of those who are taught only out of dead grammars and dictionaries, is so striking, that the contest has been peculiarly keen, Here, however, as is wont to be the case in more important matters, it may be that after much dusty discussion, erudite wrangling, and inky hostility, it shall turn out that both parties are in the right, On the first blush of the matter, it seems plain that such words as /Sao-iXew, vavv, KaXevvrat, sound ex- tremely harsh, and not according to the famous euphony of the Attic ear, if in them the second ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 37 letter of the diphthong receive the consonantal sound of V or / given by the modern Greeks. Vasilefs, Napn, Calepntae — these are sounds which no chaste classic ear can tolerate, and which, among the phenomena of human articulation, are moi'e naturally classed with such harsh Germanisms as Pfingst, Probst, &c., than with any sound that can be imagined to have been wedded euphoniously to Apollo's lute. All this is very true ; and yet, as modern German is not all harsh, so ancient Greek, it may be, was not all mellow ; and no mere general talk about euphony or cacophony can, in so freakish a thing as human speech, be allowed to settle any question of orthoepy. Now, when we look into the matter an inch beyond the film of such shallow scholastic declamation, we find that so early as the time of Crassus, that is, in the first half of the first century before the Christian era, the diphthong au, which we pronounce ou, (as in bound,) and the English like the same vowel in their own language, (as in vault,) was actually enunciated consonantally like av or af. For Cicero (Divinat. ii. 40) tells the anec- dote how, when that unfortunate soldier was on his way to the East, and about embarking in a ship at Brundusium, he happened to meet a Greek on the quay calling out Caunias ! by which call the basket 38 THE PEONUNCIATION OF GREEK ; slung over his shoulder might have plainly indicated that he meant Figs ! figs of the best quality (worthy of a triumvir) from Caunus, in the south-west corner of Asia Minor ; but the triumvir's ear — dark destiny brooding in his soul — caught up the syllables separ- ately, as Cm' m eas — Beware how you go ! Now, as no person pretends that the v in caveo was pro- nounced like the u in causa, or could be so scanned in existing Latin poetry, it follows that the au in Caunias was pronounced by a Greek of those times as a «; or /, exactly as the living Greeks pronounce it now. This is one example, among the many that we have adduced, shewing in a particularly striking way how impossible it is for modern schoolmasters, judging from mere abstract considerations, and bad scholastic habits, to say how the ancient Greeks might or might not have pronounced any particular combination of sounds. No doubt this Calabrian fig-merchant might not have pronounced that com- bination of letters exactly in the same way that Pericles did 400 years earlier, when, from the tribunal on the Athenian Pnyx, with the ominous roar of a thirty years' war in his ear, "he lightened and thundered and confounded Greece ;" but there is no reason, on the other hand, why a Greek fig- merchant and a Greek statesman should not have ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 39 pronounced certain rough syllables in the same way, (for a great orator requires rough as well as smooth syllables ;) and this much at least is certain, the anecdote proves that the modern pro- nunciation of avTos, aftos, is ancient as well as modern ; and the talk of those who will have it that this, and other most characteristic sounds of the living orthoepy, were introduced by the Turks and the Venetians, or the Greeks themselves under their perverse influence, is mere talk — talk of that kind in which scholastic men are fond of indulging, when, knowing nothing, they wish to have it appear that they know everything. What was the real state of the pronunciation with regard to this and the other diphthong ev in the days of Pericles or Plato, we have no means of knowing. Meanwhile the result which Seyffarth, after a long and learned inves- tigation, brings out, that they were pronounced before a vowel as v, or the German w, and before a consonant as a real diphthong, seems probable enough. This agrees both with the natural laws of elocutional physiology, and explains how the im- perial name Flayius in Roman coins {Liscov, p. 51) came to be written sometimes ^AATIOX and some- times ^AABWS- However this be, there is no doubt that the consonantal pronunciation of these 40 THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK ; letters has for more than 1800 years been known among the Greeks. It has therefore all the claims that belong to a venerable conservatism ; whereas, if we reject its title, we throw ourselves loose into an element of mere conjecture ; as no person can tell us whether Demosthenes pronounced av in the Scotch or English way, (supposing one of the two to be right;) and as for ev, what extraordinary feats the human tongue can play with it, we may learn from the Germans, who pronounce it like oy in our boy — a rare lesson to the restorers of a lost pro- nunciation how much is to be learnt in such a field from mere argument and analogy ! Let us now collect the different points of this inquiry under a single glance. In the days of the first Emperors, and, in a majority of cases, as early as the first Ptolemies, the scale of Greek vocalization, according to the best evidence now obtainable, was as follows : — Letter. Power. Long A = a, as ia father. Short A = a, „ hat. H = ai, „ pain. E = e, „ get. n = 0, „ pot^e. = 0, „ got. Long Y = u, „ Buhne. Short Y — the same shortened ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 41 Letter. Power. Long I = ee, as in green. Short I = the same shortened. AI = ai, as in pain. EI = ee., „ green. 01 = ee, „ green. OU = 00, „ boom. " AU = av, af, or? EU = ev, ef, or ? Now, in stating the results thus, I wish it to be ob- served in the iirst place, that I throw no sort of doubt on the possibility that in the days of Herodotus and Pericles some of the diphthongal sounds here declared normal in the days of the Ptolemies and the Caesars might have been pronounced otherwise. The theory of Pennington, also, (p. 51,) that there might have co-existed in ancient times a system of orthoepy for reciting the old poets, considerably different from" that used in common conversation, may be enter- tained by whosoever pleases, and is not without its uses ; but in the present purely practical inquiry we must leave all mere theory out of view. It is also perfectly open to Liscov, or any philologist, working out a suggestion of the great Herman, to prove from the internal analogy of the language, and especially from a comparison of the most ancient dialects,^ that ' GoDOFREDi Hermani de emendenda ratione Grwcce grammaticoe, Lib. i. 0. 2, quoted at length by Liscov, p. 21. 42 THE PEONUNCIATION OP GREEK; originally the diphthongs were pronounced differently from what they are now, and were in the days of Ptolemy Philadelphus, (Homer unquestionably said, Trat? — pals, and noi pace. II. Z, 467 ;) but in the pre- sent investigation, as a practical man, I want some- thing better than general probabilities and philoso- phical negations, or even isolated correct assertions ; I want a complete scheme of Greek pronunciation, for some particular age, congruous within itself, and standing on something like historical evidence. This I find only in the pronunciation of the modern Greeks, or in that of the Ptolemies and Csesars, which differs from the other only in a very few points. What then, we may ask, should hinder us from at once adopting this pronunciation 1 Nothing, I ima- gine, but the dull inertness of mere conservatism, (which in such matters is very potent,) the conceit of academical men, proud of their own clumsy inven- tion, and the dread of Itacism. Is it not monstrous, we hear it said, that half a dozen diflferent vowels, or combinations of vowels, should be pronounced in the same way, and that in such a fashion as only curs yelp, and mice squeak, and tenuous shades with feeble whine flit through the airy paths that lead to Pluto's unsubstantial hall 1 Now, I at once admit that the prevalence of the slender sound of i {ee), is ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 43 a corruption from the original purity of Hellenic vocalization, from -which I have no doubt the Pelasgi, and the venerable patriarchs who put up the lions, now seen on the gates of Mycense, were free ; but no language spoken by a polished people is frefe from some corruption of this kind ; and this particu- lar corruption, like the defects observable in men of great original genius, is characteristic. In such strongly marked men as Beethoven, Samuel Johnson, and John Hunter the physiologist, nothing is more easy than for the nice moralist to point out half a dozen points of character that he could have wished otherwise. So it is with language. Who, for in- stance, would not wish to reform the capriciousness of our English systemless system of spelling and pronunciation 1 Who can say that we have not too much of the sibilant sound of s and th in our lan- guage ? who will not lament the want of body in our vocalization, and the tendency to the ineifec- tive tribrachic and even proceleusmatic accent in the termination of our polysyllables 1 In German, again, who does not indulge in a spurt of indigna- tion against " Wenn Ich mich nicht," and other such common collocations of gutturals 1 and in Italian are we not so cloyed with ones and ares, and other broad trochaic modulations, that we long for the 44 THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK ; resurrection of some Gothic Quinctilian to ino- culate the luscious "lingua Toscana in bocca Ro- mana," with a few harsh solecisms j while the French, who for cleverness and refinement, (and some other things also,) are a sort of Greeks, do so clip and mince the stout old Roman lingo, which they have adopted, that except in the mouth of flower girls and ballet dancers, their dialect is altogether intol- erable to many a masculine ear. All these things are true ; but no sane man thinks of rebelling against such hereditary characteristics of a human language, any more than he would against the ingrained peculiarities of human character. We take these things as we find them ; just as we must make the best of a snub nose, or a set of bad teeth in an otherwise pretty face. So also we must even attune our ears to the Itacism of the Greeks ; otherwise we shall assuredly sin against a notable characteristic of the language, much more intimately connected with the genius of that singular people, than many a clipper of new Greek grammars and filcher of notes to old Attic plays imagines. What says Quinctilian'? Non possumus esse tarn GRACiLES ; simus PoETiOEES, (xii. 10.) Now, I ask the defenders of our modern system of pronouncing Greek in this country, which some of them perhaps call classical and Erasmian, but which is in fact, as ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 45 has been proved, an incoherent jabber of barbarisms, what if the so much decried Itacism were part of this gracilitas, this slenderness or tenuity of ancient Hellenic speech, by which it was to the ear of the greatest of Latin rhetoricians so strikingly distin- guished from the Roman 1 Certain it is, that the rude Teutonic sounds of ou and ?', (English i and ai in Kaiser,) that we hear so often in English Greek, do not answer to Quinctihan's description. In fact, both English and Scotch, instead of preserving this natural contrast between Greek and Roman enuncia- tion, have in this, and in other matters, (as we shall see presently, when we come to talk of accents,) done everything in their power to sweep it away ; and of nothing am I more firmly convinced than of this, that a living conception of what the spoken Greek lan- guage really was in its best days, will never be at- tained by any scholar who has not the courage to kick all the Erasmian academic gear aside for a sea- son, and take a free amble with some living Christo- poulos, or Papadopoulos, on the banks of the Ilissus, or round the base of Lycabettus. This living experi- ence of the language is indeed the only efficient way to argue against the learned prejudices of academic men ; for, as Thieesch well observes, every one laughs at that pronunciation to which he has not been accus- 46 THE PRONUNCIATION OP GREEK ; tomed, {Sprachlehre, sect. xvii. 3 ;) and no man can live at Athens for any time, without having his ears reconciled to a slight deviation from perfect euphony, or even coming to admire it, as one sometimes does the lisp of a pretty woman, or the squint of an arch humorist. 1 So much for the vowel-sounds. I say nothing of the consonants, because they are of less consequence in the controversy. I have already spoken incident- ally about j8, (p. 21 above,) and I have no wish to write a complete treatise. Detailed information on ' On revisal it strikes me I have given the enemies of Itaoism au unfair advantage by not stating, that, while in any other language the attenuation of so many different sounds into one, might have proved a very grievous evil, there is such a richness of the full sound of a (which the English have effaced) and a in Greek, that the blemish rarely offends. I have to mention also, that, while a certain prominence even of this slender sound seems necessary to the phonetic character of Greek, as distinguished from Latin, I have no objection, in reading Homer and the elder poets, (were it only for the sake of the often quoted trsXuyXojVfio/o 6a,\autitm !) to pronounce ot, as hoy in English, and n, as we do it in Scotland ; just as in reading Chaucer we may be forced to adopt some of the peculiarities of the pronunciation of his day. But in the common use of the prose language, I think it safer to stick by the tradition of so many centuries, than to venture on patches of classical restoration, where it is impossible to revive a consistent whole. I may say also, that if u be pronounced uniformly like the French v, the itacism will be diminished by one letter, while the difference between that and the mo- dern Greek pronunciation is so slight, that a Scotchman so speaking in Athens will be generally understood, whereas our broad Scotch u (oo) besides being entirely without classical authority, recedes so far from the actual pronunciation of the Greeks, as to be a serious bar in the way of intel- ligibility. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 47 minute points of neo-Hellenic pronunciation may be found in Pennington's work already quoted, and in a recent work by Corpe.^ I now proceed to the mat- ter of ACCENT, which we shall find to be no less im- portant, but happily much more easily settled. "In the pronunciation of a Greek word," says Jelf,2 " regard ought to be bad both to accent and quantity ;" a most significant power lying in that word OUGHT, as we know well that many teachers iu this country pay a very irregular regard to quantity in reading, and very few, if any, pay any regard to accent.^ But that the proposition laid down by Mr. Jblp is true, no scholar can doubt for a moment, though Mr. Pennington, in the year 1844, most evidently anticipated a great amount of stolidity, obstinacy, and scepticism, among his academic friends on this point ; with such minute and scru- pulous care, and breadth of philological preparation does he set himself to prove, what no man that had 1 Coepe's Neo-Hellenic Greek Grammar. London, 1851. See also a notice of this work in the AthenjEDm for last year, where I am happy to observe that the opinions advocated in this paper are supported. 2 Greek Grammar. 1851, sect. 44, 45. Donaldson (Greek Grammar, p. 17) pays, " The accent is the sharp or elevated sound with which one of the last three syllables of a Greek word ia regularly pronounced. This " re- gularly" is as significant as Mr. Jelf's "ought." ' Of course I except Professor Masson of Belfast, whose complete mastery of the living dialect of Greece is the object of admiration to all who know him. 48 THE PEONUNCIATION OP GREEK ; ever dipped into an ancient Greek grammar, or a common Latin work on rhetoric, would ever dream of denying. However, I gave myself some trouble to set forth this matter learnedly some years ago,^ knowing that I might have to do with persons not always open to reason, and utterly inapervious to nature and common sense ; and the Fellow of King's also might have had occasion to know that it is one thing to prick soft flesh with a pin, another to drive nails into a stone wall. The fact is, that the living Greek language having come down to us with most audible accentuation, and the signs of these accents being contained in all printed Greek books, and not only so, but commented on by a long series of gram- marians, from Herodian and Arcadius, down through the Homeric bishop of Thessalonica, to Gaza and Las- caris ; in this state of the case, if any man does not pronounce Greek according to accents, while I do, the burden of proof lies with him who throws off all established authority in the matter, not with me who acknowledge it. If there is no authority for accent in the ancient grammarians, then as little is there for quantity. The fact of the existence of the one as a living characteristic of the spoken and written lan- guage of ancient Greece, - stands exactly on the ' Classical Museum, vol. i. p. 338. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 49 same foundation as the other. So many ancient grammars, and comments on grammars have been published ■within the last fifty years by Bekker and other library-excavators, that the teacher who now requires to be taught formally that the ancients really used accents in their public elocution, is more worthy of a good flogging than the greatest dunce in his drill. But what were accents ? Ac- cents are an intension and remission (eTr/rao-t? and avea-K) of the voice in articulate speech, whereby one syllable receives a marked predominance over the others, this predominance manifesting itself princi- pally in a higher note or intonation given to the, ac- cented syllable.! Tiijg definition occurs fifty times if it occurs once in the works of the ancient gramma- rians and rhetoricians ; so I need not trouble myself here by an array of erudite citations to prove it ; and that such an accent is both possible and easy to bring out in the case of any Greek word, may be experi- enced by anybody who will pronounce «e0aX^ with a marked rise of the voice on the last syllable, or vev tov «9 ti Trapadvpov KUTa T-qv SiaSaariv TOV Kai eirpoicaXeae /iiav eptv ev Trj 6ha> Sia va (TTa/j,aTTjar) TTjv TeOpiwoV TOV. ToiovTOTpoTTWi Be KaTospOasae va \dSr) \adpa oir^i fiovov ttjv eiKova tov Mayvapov ' Hpaio<;, aWa Kat, aKKcov Tecraapcov evpuTKO/ievoov /mct avTov ev ttj dfj.a^7}. 'O Koacrovd evpivKero evTO^ d/ji,a^<; viro ef KaaTavo'^ocov iTTTTcov crvpo/ievr]<{ e^opei Be aToXrjv OvyypL/crjv, icat eiri tov irtkov TOV fieKav TTTepdv."^ 'EXXiivaiv xai ^OSufnavuv Kavdi ri to ^ovXiov xa) ' AvetToXlxhv EXX«0x x^a tov 1820 fit^XS' "^"^ 1829 'irovs. Ivyy^K^tvra, ira^a roZ 'ivvray/ictra^^eu X^tffTo^o^au TltppaiSov TOV e§ ''OXvfi^ou t«5 SiTTaktcts, xai iiip^^fltvz tig Tofjcovs %vu. 'Ev 'A^vivats, ix Tvif Twoyfitt^'tots 'AvS^iaw Ki^a^wXa, 'OSflf'*Kf^oy, 'A^irf. 215. 183G " = " Atmx, Dccemb. 31, 1861." 76 THE PRONUNCIATION OF GEEEK ; These are as fair specimens of the current dialect of Greece as I can produce. For it is manifest that while it would be quite easj on the one hand to select a specimen of the living dialect written by mere men of learning, (as from the works of QilcoNO- Mas,) which should make a much nearer approach to the idiom of Xenophon, it would be equally open on the other to produce a brigand's song from the moun- tains of Acarnania containing a great deal more of the elements of what the admirers of unmixed Atti- cism would be entitled to call corruption. But it is evident that a specimen of the first kind would be no more a fair specimen of the average Greek now spoken, than the polished style of George Buchanan was of the average Latin current in his day ; and a bri- gand's song were just as fair a specimen of the Greek spoken by people of education in modern Athens, as a ballad in the Cumberland or the Craven dialect is of the English of Macaulay's History, or Wordsworth's White Doe. With this remark, by waj of explana- tion, let any person who can read common classical Greek without a dictionary, tell me with what face it can be asserted that the above is a specimen of a new language, in the same sense that Italian is a dif- ferent language from Latin, and Dutch from German. I find nothing in the extracts given, but such slight ACCENT AND QUANTITY. *J^ variations in verbal form, and in the use of one or two prepositions and pronouns, as the reader of Xenophon will find in far greater abundance when he turns to Homer. The principal syntactic diflFerence observ- able is the use of va (for tm), with the subjunctive mood, instead of the infinitive, which the modern Greeks have allowed to drop ; but this is a usage, borrowed from the Latin I have often thought, of which very frequent examples occur in the New Tes- tament ; and besides, a mere new fashion in the syn- tactical form of a sentence was never dreamt of by any sane grammarian, as the sufficient sign of a new language. In English, for instance, we say, / heg you will accept this, and, / beg you to accept this. Now suppose one of these forms of expression to become obsolete, by a change which mere fashion may effect any day, and the other to become all dominant, could, I ask, any such change as this, or a whole score of such changes, be said to corrupt the English language in such a degree as to constitute a new tongue 1 Much less could the introduction of a few new words, formed according to the analogy of the language, be said to achieve such a transformation, though an academic purist might indeed refuse to put such words as rlKioTinrta (photography), and uTfio- irkolov (a steam-boat), into his lexicon. As little 78 -,THE FRONUNCIATION OF GREEK ; could a philosophical classical scholar be offended by the loss of the optative mood, (used in the New Testa- ment so sparingly,) and the substitution for it of the auxiliary verb 9e\,a, which, though it is of compara- tively rare occurrence, is just as much according to the genius of the Greek language, as the frequent use of the other auxiliary verb to be, both in classical Grreek and Latin. Instead of fastening upon such insignificant peculiarities, a catholic-minded scholar will rather be astonished to find that in three columns of a Greeh newspaper of the year 1852, there do not certainly occur three words that are not pure native Greeh. In fact the language, so far from being cor- rupt, as its ignorant detractors assert, is the most uncorrupt language in Europe, perhaps in the world, at the present moment. The Germans boast of their linguistic purity, and sing songs to Hermann who sent the legions of Varus with their lingo so bravely out of the Westphalian swamps ; but let any man compare a column of a German newspaper with a column from the A&HNA, or any other e^fiepk issued within the girth of King Otho's dominions, and he will understand that while the Greek lan- guage even now is as a perfectly pure vestment, the German in its familiar use is defaced by the ingrained blots of many ages, which no philologic sponge of ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 79 Adelung or Jacob Grimrn will ever prevail to wash out. There are reasons for this remarkable pheno- menon in the history of language, which to a thought- ful student of the history of the Greek people will readily suggest themselves. I content myself with stating the fact. These things being so, the natural observation that will occur to every one, as bearing on our pre- sent inquiry, is, that as the Greek is manifestly a living language, and never was dead, but only suf- fering for a season under a cutaneous disease now thrown off, those who speak that language are en- titled to a decisive voice in the question how their language is to be pronounced, and this on the mere ground that they are alive and speak it ; and to their decision we must bow on the sole ground of living authority and posses-?ory right. For every living language exercises this despotic authority over those who learn it ; and it is not in the nature of things that one should escape from such a sovereignty. No doubt there may be certain exceptions to which, for certain special philological purposes, this general rule of obedience is liable ; but the rule remains. Such an exception, for instance, in the literature of our existing English language, is the peculiar accentua- tion of many words that occur in Shakspeare, and 80 THE PRONUNCTATION OP GREEK ; even in Milton, different from that now used, whereby their rhythm limps to our ear in the places where such words occur. Such exceptions, also, are the dissyllabic words in Chaucer, that are now shortened into monosyllables, and 'yet must be read as dis- syllables by all those who will enjoy the original harmony of the poet's rhythm. In Greek, as I have already observed, the whole quantitative value of the language has had its poles inverted ; in which practice we cannot possibly follow the living users of the tongue, because we learn the language not to speak with them, as a main object, (though this also has its uses seldom thought of by schoolmasters,^) but to read the works of their ancient poets, the rhythmical value of whose works their living speech disowns. This is a sweeping exception to that domi- nancy of usage which Horace recognises as supreme ' Perhaps some classical young gentleman at Oxford or Cambridge may be moved by the consideration brought forward in the following passage : — "I was much delighted with this really Grecian ball, at which I was the only foreigner. The Grecian fair I have ever found peculiarly agreeable in society. They are not in the smallest degree tainted with the artificial refinements and affectations of more civilised life, while they have all its graces and fascinations ; and I cannot help thinking that as some one thought it worth while to learn ancient Greek at the age of seventy, for the sole purpose of reading the Iliad, so it is well worthy the pains of learning modern Greek at any age, for the pleasure of conversing, in her own tongue, with a. young and cultivated Greek beauty." — Wanderings in Greece, by George Cocurax, Esq. London, 1837. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 81 ill language ; but philological necessity compels ; and the modern Athenians must even submit in such points to receive laws from learned foreigners. But with all this large exceptive liberty, we dare not disown the rule. We must follow the authority of their living dictation, so far as the object we have in view allows ; and if we are philosophical students of the language, our object never can be resolutely to ignore all knowledge of the elocutional genius and habits of the living people who speak it. It must be borne in mind also, with how much greater ease a living language can be acquired than a dead one ; so that were it only for the sake of the speedy mastery of the ancient dialect, a thorough practical familiarity with the spoken tongue ought first to be cultivated. The present practice, indeed, of teaching Greek in our schools and colleges, altogether as a dead language, can be regarded only as a great scholastic mistake ; and it may be confidently af- firmed by any person who has reflected on the method of nature in teaching languages, that more Greek will be learned by three months' well-directed study at Athens, where it is spoken, than by three years' devotion to the language under the influence of our common scholastic and academic appliances in this country. 82 THE PliONUNCIATION OF GREEK ; I am now led, in the last place, to observe, that whatever may be thought of Itacism and of accents, as the dominant norm for the teaching of Greek in this country, one thing is plain, that no scholar of large and catholic views can, after what has been said and proved in this paper, content himself with teaching Greek according to the present arbitrary and anti-classical fashion only. The living dialect also must be taught with all its peculiarities, not only because the heroic exploits of a modern Ad- miral Miaulis are as well worthy of the attention of a Hellenic student as those of an ancient Phormion ; but for strictly philological uses also, and that of more kinds than one. The transcribers of the MSS., for one thing, in the Middle Ages, all wrote with their ear under the habitual influence of the pro- nunciation which now prevails ; and were accord- ingly constantly liable to make mistakes that reveal themselves at once to those who are acquainted with that pronunciation, but will only slowly be gathered by those whose ears have not been trained in the same way. But what is of more consequence for Hellenic philologers to note accurately is, that the spoken dialect of the Greek tongue, though modern in name and form, is nowise altogether modern in substance ; but like the conglomerate strata of the ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 83 geologists, contains imbedded very valuable frag- ments of the oldest language of the country. Of this it were easy to adduce proofs from so common a book as Passow's Greek-German Dictionary, where occasional reference is made to the modern dialect in illustration of the ancient ; from which source, I pre- sume, with much else that is of first-rate excellence in lexicography, such references have passed into the Enghsh work of Liddell and Scott. But on this head I shall content myself with simply directing the student's attention to the fact, and appending below the testimony of Professor Ross of Halle — a man who has travelled much in Greece, can write the language with perfect fluency, and is entitled, if any man in Europe is, to speak with the voice of authority on such a point. ^ ' In a paper on the Comparison of the Forma of the Nominative Case in certain Latin and Greek Nouns, (Zeitschrifi fUr die Altertkums-Wissen- scha/t. 9'«^ Jahrgang, No. 49,) Professor Ross writes to Professor Bekgh of Marburg, as follows : — " My views are founded chiefly on the obser- vation of the dialect used by the common people of Greece, among whom and with whom I lived so long. This dialect, indeed, now spoken by the Greek shepherds and sailors, and which, of course, is not to be learnt from books, but from actual intercourse with the people, the majority of philologists are apt to hold cheap, but it has been to me a mine of rich in- struction, and I have no hesitation in saying that, at all events, in reference to the non-Attic dialects of the Greek tongue, to Latin, Oscan, and even Etruscan, more may be got from this source than from the many bulky commentaries of the grammarians of the Middle Ages. See what I have said on this point in my lieiseii aufden Griechisckeii Inseln, iii. p. 155." 84 THE PEONUN'CIATION OF GREEK. I have now finished all that I had to say on this subject, which has proved pei-haps more fertile of speculative suggestion and of practical direction than the title at first promised. What I have said will at least serve the purpose for which it was immediately intended, that of justifying my conduct should I find it expedient to introduce any decided innovations in the practice of teaching Greek in our metropolitan University. And if it should further have the effect of inducing any thoughtful teacher to inquire into a curious branch of philology which he may have hitherto overlooked, and to question the soundness of the established routine of classical inculcation in some points, whatever disagreeable labour I may have gone through in clearing the learned rubbish from so perplexed a path will not have been without its reward. Any sympathizing reader who may communicate with me, wishing that I should explain, reconsider, or modify any state- ment here made, will find me, I hope, as willing to listen as to speak, and not more zealous for victory than for truth. EDixnuKcn : t. covsiablk, rKixTt.E to her majf.stv. 5B!£Si&T.-j!w33gc™8;iigiia-'