SPECIAL CONSULAR REPORTS. 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS 
 
 IN 
 
 FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 REPORTS FROM THE CONSULS OF THE UNITED STATES ON STREETS 
 
 AND HIGHWAYS IN THEIR SEVERAL DISTRICTS, IN ANSWER 
 
 TO A CIRCULAR FROM THE DEPARTJIENT OP STATE. 
 
 ISSUED FROM THE BUREAU OF STATISTICS, DEPARTMENT OP STATE. 
 
 ALL EEQUESTS FOK TIIESS KEPOSTS SHOULD BE ADDKESSED 
 10 THE SECEETAEY OF STATE. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 1891. 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 92400501 7771 
 
SFEOI^L CONSUL A.R REPORTS. 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS 
 
 JN 
 
 FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 REPORTS FROM THE CONSULS OF THE UNITED STATES ON STREET! 
 
 AND HIGHWAYS IN THEIR SEVERAL DISTRICTS, IN ANSWER 
 
 TO A CIRCULAR FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE. 
 
 ISSUED FROM THE BUREAU OF STATISTICS, DEPARTMENT OF STATE. 
 
 ALL BEQUESTS FOB THESE BEFOBTS SHOULD BE ASDBESSEB 
 TO THE SECBETAEY OF STATE. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 
 <■ • 
 
 GOVERNMENT PEINTIITG OFFICE. 
 
 1891. 
 
 
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 8 
 
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 B<S*lMh# 
 
SPECIAL CONSULAR REPORTS 
 
 OF 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COITRIES. 
 
 CONTINENT OF EUROPE. 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 . REPORT BY CONSVL-GENHRAL GOLDSCMMIDT, OF VIENNA. 
 HIGHWAYS. 
 
 In speakiug of the construction, maintenance, and management of 
 public roads in Austria a distinction must be made between the so- 
 called Imperial or state roads, which are subject to the legislation and 
 administration of the state, and the public streets and roads, -which 
 are subject to provincial legislation. 
 
 1. STATE OR IMPEltlAL ROADS. 
 
 The principal regulations concerning the state roads have been given 
 from case to case by special laws or orders. Of these may be men- 
 tioned, provisional regulations for the maintenance of country roads, 
 (order by the department of the interior of October 13, 1849, No. 415, 
 E. B.) ; building and maintenance of those parts of imperial roads lead- 
 ing through communities (order by tlie department of the interior of 
 March 20, 1855, JSTo. 53) ; the clearing away of snow from state roads 
 (law of January 2, 1877, E. G. Bl., Nos. 33, 34). In addition to this, 
 order by the department of the interior of May 5, 1877, and of July 7, 
 '1876 (E. G. B., No. 100). 
 
 The total length of state or imperial roads throughout the kingdoms 
 and provinces at present represented in Parliament amounted in the year 
 1828 to 11,436 kilometres and in the year 1873 to 15,003 kilometres ; 
 therefore the increase in length in this time amounts to 24 per cent, of 
 the latter figure. One square kilometre of state territory is conse- 
 quently intersected by 0.0508 kilometre of state roads. 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 33A 1 
 
STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 A. Construction op the State Roads. 
 
 Only the state roads of Bohemia and the Tyrol are throughout or 
 with but few exceptions constructed in the manner of regular highways 
 (Chauss^en), that is to say provided with a stone foundation. 
 
 In the other provinces, as Moravia, Lower Austria, Upper Austria, 
 Salzburg, Silesia, Styria, Oarinthia, Oarniola, Galicia, Bukowina, nearly 
 all the state roads are constructed after the manner of country roads, 
 that is without any stone foundation and built exclusively of ballast 
 {broken stone). 
 
 In Lower Austria, for instance, only two-tenths of the state roads are 
 built upon a stone foundation. 
 
 These state roads in the above provinces have as a rule originated 
 from the old parish roads and ways, which in some cases have only 
 been corrected and widened. 
 
 a. TRANSVERSE SECTION OP THE STATE ROADS. 
 
 For the constructing of new state roads it is prescribed that the maxi- 
 mum breadth (even in the vicinity of large towns) should be 9.5 metres. 
 Only the' largest state roads, leading from the city of Vienna, have the 
 exceptional breadth of 11.4 metres. 
 
 The normal transverse sections of the newly built state roads, which 
 are all provided with a stone foundation, are shown iniigures 1,2,3, 
 and 4 of the annexed drawing. 
 
 As will be seen from the 'following drawings the width of the road- 
 way varies, according to the importance of the road, from 6.3 to 8 
 metres, and the width of the banquette, on both sides, or in narrow 
 valleys or ravines only on the valley side, from to 1.6 metres.. 
 
 The foundation pavement is from 24 to 32 centimetres, and the 
 second ballast (of broken stones or gravel) placed thereon from 16 to 
 24 ceutinietres high. The convexity of the road surface is 1 in 50 to 1 
 in 30. The road ditch has an average depth of from 30 to 63 centi- 
 metres and a bottom width of from 30 to 63 centimetres. In the normal 
 transverse section of the state roads for Moravia the foundation bed 
 appears provided with exceptionally high bordering stones, which have . 
 the object of holding together the ballast. 
 
 The section of the state roads for Bohemia is essentially the same 
 as that for Lower Austria, with the only difference that it has a width of 
 roadway of 7.5 metres, a stone foundation of 37 centimetres, and a second 
 ballast or covering of broken stones or gravel of 15 centimetres. The 
 
EUROPE — AUSTRIA. 
 
 3 
 
 five state roads leading from Vienna are iu its immediate vicinity 
 paved with granite cubes on account of tlie great trafQc tliereon. The 
 total length of this paving amounts to 22,000 metres. 
 
 Fisf.l. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 . O'S-l'ff 
 
 6'3m. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 7' 0-7- 5 m. 
 
 Closely connected with the width of the roads are the regulations of 
 the road police, according to which, for instance in Lower Austria, 
 Bohemia, Styria, and Camiola, the load of a wagon must not exceed 3 
 metres in breadth, while in Carinthia this maximum is fixed at 2.2 
 metres. 
 
 h. OTHER RBGULATIONS. 
 
 Where there is a steep r ise or fall of ground along the banks of the 
 road a sufficient number of safety posts or bars must be provided. In 
 the beginning of winter temporary roads must be marked out with 
 poles or branches of at least 2 metres height upon such roads as are . 
 regularly rendered impassible by snowdrifts, and teams are obliged to 
 use these temporary roads. 
 
4 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 B. Tub Maintenancis of the State Roads. 
 
 Daring the last century experiments have been made with the letting 
 of the maintenance of the state roads to private parties, which experi- 
 ments have, however, proved unsatisfactory. Then the Government 
 took iu hand the work of maintaining the state roads, and has adhered 
 to this system up to the present day, with a short interruption in the 
 years 1 858-1861, during which time the keeping of the roads was again 
 contracted for by way of experiraenb, which again gave but unsatisfac- 
 tory results. 
 
 For the immediate carrying out of the work necessary for keeping in 
 repair the state roads, road-keepers are employed by the Government, 
 the number of which, according to the statement of 1872, was 3,625 ; ^ 
 consequently there was on an average one keeper for every 4.14 kilo- 
 metres of state roads. Lately the number of road-keepers in Lower 
 Austiia and Salzburg has been reduced. 
 
 In larger districts road masters or inspectors are employed for con- 
 ducting and superintending the work on the roads. The number of 
 these inspectors in the year 1875 was 413, so that on an average there 
 were 36.52 kilometres of road for every inspector to attend to. 
 
 a. METHOD OF MAINTAINING THE ROADS. 
 
 The maintenance of the Austrian state roads is carried on after the 
 system of the so-called re-covering. After numerous experiments with 
 other systems of keeping the roads, which have always failed, the 
 above method has ever proved the best. According to this method the 
 smaller defects of the road are continually repaired by the regular road- 
 keepers, by removing the dust and mud from the ruts and hollows and 
 filling them with gravel. It is then as a rule left to the passing wagons 
 to pack these stones and roll them in. After certain longer periods of 
 time, when the ballast of the roadbed has been thoroughly worn out, cer- 
 tain lengths of the road are again completely covered with ballast up to 
 their normal height. This work is as much as possible carried out in 
 wet weather, as a rule iu the fall and spring of the year. 
 
 The rolling of the new layers of ballast, as formerly practiced, is now 
 omitted. Experiments which have been made with rolling and with 
 the so called patching system iu the years 1856-1858, 1861-1864 and 
 1868 have neither financially nor technically given any satisfactory 
 results. The reason for this may to a great extent be found in the 
 circumstance that the most of the roads are not constructed in the 
 manner of regular highways and were not provided with sufficiently 
 thick layers of ballast. 
 
EUROPE — AUSTRIA. 5 
 
 b. CONSUMPTION OIT BALLAST IN MAINTAINING THE ROADS, AND PROPORTION OIT 
 
 TRAFFIC. 
 
 Althouglx the traffic upon the roads has not decreased since the 
 building and development of the railways, but on the contrary has in- 
 creased, the consumption of ballast (broken stones and gravel) iipon 
 the state roads has, since the year 1856, decreased continually. The 
 average quantity of ballast per year and kilometre of state road 
 amounted, in 1850-1856 , to 93.3 cubic metres ; in 1857-1864 to 70.7 cubic 
 metres ; and in 1865-1 872 to 62.4 cubic metres. 
 
 From the proceeds of the tolls collected upon the state roads, an 
 average traffic of 200 vehicles per day maybe calculated. Prom this 
 there results as the specific consumijtiou of ballast, i. e., per kilometre 
 of road, per year, and. with a daily traffic of 100 vehicles, a quantity 
 of 31.2 cubic metres of ballast, taking the average of the 7 years' period 
 of 1865 to 1872. This quantity must be considered as very small in 
 comparison with the ana logons requirements of other well-conducted 
 countries. 
 
 In Lower Austria alone 180 cubic metres of ballast were used on an 
 average per year and kilometre of state roads in the years 1850 to 
 1875; the maximum consumption was 285 cubic metres in the year 
 1853, and the minimum 130 cubic metres in the year 1863. 
 
 The a,verage traffic on the roads of Lower Austria, however, is 800 
 vehicles per day. The average specific consumption of ballast there- 
 fore was 23.5 cubic metres. 
 
 In Bohemia, where excellent material for ballast is at disposition, 
 the consumption of ballast, with an average traffic of 150 vehicles per 
 day, amounted per kilometre and year, in the average of the years 
 1850-1875, only to 48 cubic metres, and in the year 1875 only to 40.4 
 cubic metres ; consequently the specific co nsumption of ballast was 32 
 and 27 cubic metres, respectively. 
 
 C. THE CLEARING AWAY OF THE SNOW. 
 
 According to the regulations of the law, mentioned before (of Jan. 
 2, 1877), those communities (or estates), the territory of which is inter- 
 sected by a state road, or which are not any further than 8 kilometres from 
 such road, are obliged to cause the removal of the snow in so far as it 
 is necessary for keeping up the traffic on such roads. 
 
 The Government, however, has the right to deviate from this rule 
 and to cause the removal of the snow in any other manner. 
 
 The parties obliged to do this work receive a remuneration from the 
 state road fund. 
 
 In those parts of roads, however, which are situated within a town, 
 village, etc., as far as they form a passage through such town, etc., 
 the respective town, etc., has to atte^d to without any remuneration. 
 
6 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 C. "The Passage Roads. 
 
 Of the costs of construction and maintenance of snch parts of state* 
 roads as lead through towns, villages, etc., the state only pays the 
 same amount as is required for the construction and maintenance of 
 the continuation of the same roads outside of such towns, villages, etc. 
 Therefore the removal of the mud scraped from such parts of roads and 
 taken from the ditches thereof has to be attended to by the state road 
 beepers. 
 
 When such parts of state roads forming a passage through towns, 
 villages, etc., are paved throughout, the respective communities have 
 to attend to the keeping of such roads. For this they receive a remu- 
 neration from the state road fund, but only in such proportion as if the 
 road were a common highway (not paved). 
 
 D. Important Regulations of the Road Police. 
 
 All wagons built for a load of more than 2J tons must have wheels 
 with rims of at least 11 centimetres width (Styria and Cariiithia), and 
 if they are built for more than 4J tons (in Styria). or more than 3^ tons 
 (in Oarinthia) the rims of the wheels must be at least 16 centimetres 
 wide. 
 
 lu Lower Austria a width of wheel rim of 11.5 centimetres is pre- 
 scribed for loaded wagons drawn by two or three horses, and in Bohe- 
 mia the same for wagons drawn bj' two horses. 
 
 In going down hill the wheels must only be locked by means of brakes 
 or drags (skid shoes), the latter of a minimum width of 18.4, The em- 
 ployment of chains for locking the wheels Is not permitted. 
 
 If the road leads through woods, a clearance of at least 4 metres on 
 either side of the ditch must be made. 
 
 The driving across the ditches, where there is no bridge or special 
 crossing jirovided, or the driving on the blanquettes (borders) is for- 
 bidden, as well as the grazing of cattle on the latter. 
 
 E. Cost op Construction and Maintenance op State Roads. 
 
 During the period from 1828 to 1877 an average amount of 891,409 
 florins per year has been expended for the building and the more im- 
 portant reconstruction of state roads. The maximum costs, in the 
 year 1874, amounted to 2,091,260 florins, and the minimum, in the 
 year 1865, to 418,157 florins (since 1800). The maintenance of the 
 gravel or broken-stone road surface, including the costs and transport 
 of the stones, and the wages for workmen, etc., cost per kilometre of 
 state road : 
 
 Fl. kr. 
 
 In the year 1850 180.46 
 
 In the year 1869 167.88 
 
 In the year 1371 183.54 
 
 In the year 187.3 207.02 
 
EUROPE — AUSTRIA. 7 
 
 The average cost for the period of 24 years from 1850 to 1873 maji be 
 calculated at 187 florins per year and idloinetre of state road. 
 
 The amount of the total costs of maintenance, that is, for the road 
 surface and for the other constructions appertaining to the roads, 
 amounted from 1847 to 1873 to an average of 284 florins per year and 
 kilometre. 
 
 In Lower Austria alone the expenses for the maintenance of state 
 roads were 484 florins per kilometre in the year 1866, arid in the years 
 1870-'73, on an average, 608 florins per year. 
 
 The average wages of the road-keepers and their assistants in the? 
 years 1868-1873 amounted to 43 florins 86 kreutzers per year and kilo-- 
 metre of road. 
 
 The average price of the ballast in the year 1873 was 2 florins 28 
 kreutzers per cubic metre. 
 
 In Bohemia the expenses for the maintenance of the road on the part 
 of the state were as follows : 
 
 Fiorina. 
 
 1877 1,239,197 
 
 1879 .• 1,185,306 
 
 1881.... 1,074,920 
 
 Of these sums the expenses for the ballast alone were : 
 
 Florins. 
 
 1877 039,706, or 52 per cent, of the total costs. 
 
 1879 586,464, or 50 per cent, of the total costa. 
 
 1B81 '. 526,521, or 49 per cent, of the total costs. 
 
 F. State Roads— Toll Receipts 
 
 In Austria the receipts of toll, collected upon the state roads in the 
 average of the yearS 1860-1873, amounted to 2,618,549 florins net per 
 year, with the maximum of 2,678,827 florins in 1861 and the minimum 
 of 2,461,240 florins in 1873. 
 
 The net toll-receipts per kilometre of state road in the year 1873 was 
 172 florins 50 kreutzers. 
 
 In Lower Austria the. annual net receipts for tolls increased from 
 554,612 florins in the year 1847 to 654,814 florins in 1873, in which latter 
 year the annual receipts per kilometre of state road amounted to 944 
 
 florins. 
 
 In Bohemia these receipts increased in the above period from 478,217 
 florins to 553,002 florins in 1873. 
 
 The toll collected upon the state roads, the same as that for entering 
 the city limits of Vienna, is : 
 
 Kreutzers. 
 
 For a 2-horse vehicle 8 
 
 l''or a 1-horse vehicle 4 
 
 For one borne, not hitched 2 
 
 Per head of cattle ^ 1 
 
8 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 2. COMMON PUBLIC (NOT STATE) ROADS. 
 
 AH other public streets and roads, which are not state roads, are 
 subject to the independent administration of the single respective prov- 
 inces, and with regard to them the respective provincial laws are in 
 force. The most important of these laws are the following : 
 
 Province law for Lower Austria concerning the construction and 
 maintenance of roads, not belonging to the state. (November 3, 1868. 
 L. G. Bl. No. 17.) 
 
 Province law for Lower Austria of January 8, 1873, concerning cer- 
 tain alterations of the law before cited. (L. G. Bl. No. 5.) 
 
 Eegulations of the road police for the public roads, not belonging to 
 the state, in Lower Austria, excluding Vienna. (Law of October 24, 
 1868; L. G. Bl. No. 15.) 
 
 Province law for Upper Austria of December 11, 1869, concerning 
 the building and maintenance of roads not belonging to the state. (L. 
 G. Bl. No. 31.) The same for Moravia (L. G. Bl. No. 4, excluding 1869) ; 
 Styria (L. G. Bl. No. 22, law of June 23, 1866); Carinthia (L. G. Bl. 
 No. 15, law of July 25, 1864) ; Tyrol and Vorarlberg (law of February 
 21, 1870, L, G. Bl. No. 16 ). 
 
 A. Classitication of the Pubmc Roads. 
 
 The different provincial laws classify the respective roads generally 
 into provincial roads, district roads, and community roads. 
 
 The following provinces classify their roads differently : 
 
 Carinthia, into provincial roads, subventioned roads, and community 
 roads. Styria into district roads first class, district roads second class, 
 and community roads. Bukowiua and the coast district, into provincial 
 roads, competition roads and community roads, etc. • * 
 
 Provincial roads are those roads which according to their importance 
 have been declared as such by resolution of the diet ; this refers in 
 Lower Austria also to the district roads and in Styria to the first class 
 district roads. District roads (second class in Styria) are those which 
 have been appointed as such by the respective district authorities. All 
 other roads (public), are community roads. 
 
 In Bohemia the total length of district roads in 1876 was 12,406 
 kilometres, and that of the community roads 4,675 kilometres ; in 1881 
 these lengths were 13,492 kilometres and 4,894 kilometres, respectively ; 
 so that in the latter year there was an average of 0.260 kilometre of 
 district roads and 0.094 kilometre of community roads per square kilo- 
 metre of territory. 
 
 B. CONSTKUCTION OF THE PUBLIC EOADS. 
 
 a. THEIR TRANSVERSE SECTION. 
 
 The provincial and district roads of Lower Austria as well as the 
 provincial roads of Upper Austria are constructed in the manner of 
 
EUROPE — AUSTRIA. V 
 
 regular highways, with a width of 6 metres ; the community roads, 
 however (Lower Austria), are built according to the requirements of the 
 local teaming, with a width of at least 4 metres, and the smallest roads 
 with a width of 3 metres. 
 
 The provincial and competition roads (Tyrol, Dalmatia, coast dis- 
 trict) also have a stone foundation and a width of at least 5 metres and 
 at most 6 metres. In Bukowina the roads have a width of 8 metres. 
 The provincial and subventioned roads of Carinthiaare from 3.8 to 4.75 
 wide and in Salzburg the provincial roads are from 4 to 6 metres wide. 
 In-Bohemia (seeFfg. 4 of the foregoing drawing) the provincial roads, 
 must have a width of from 6.3 to 7.6 metres, and must have a stone 
 foundation of 4.45 to 5.06 metres in breadth and 0.24 to 0.26 metre 
 depth. The covering layer of ballast must be 0.1 to 0.13 metre, which 
 is again to be covered by a layer of sand of 0.03 to 0.05 metre. Bottom 
 width of the road ditch 0.47 metre, convexity of the road surface 0.13 
 to 0.16, with a width of road of 6.3 and 0.16 to 0.21 metre, with a width 
 of road of 7.6 metre, i. e. 1 in 18 to 1 in 24. 
 
 For the district roads in Bohemia the following measurements are 
 prescribed : Width of road surface, 5.7 to 6.7, or 3.8 to 4.75 metres ; 
 depth of stone foundation, 0.16 to 0.24 metre; covering of ballast, 0.8 
 to 0.10 metre; top layer of sand, 0.026; convexity, 1 in 21 to 1 in 27 ; 
 bottom width of ditch, 0,40. 
 
 In districts where the stone for the foundation layer would be 
 too expensive to get the road may be macadamized. In such cases 
 the ballast must be put on in layers and rolled until it has reached a 
 thickness of 0.26 to 0.32 metre with provincial roads and 0.21 to 0.26 
 with district roads. The road must in such cases be provided with 
 bordering stones on either side, in order to prevent the ballast from 
 leaving the road wheu being rolled. 
 
 Provincial and district roads are to be planted with trees in distances 
 of from 20 to 25 metres (Lower Austria, Carniola, Carinthia). In Mora- 
 via, if possible, fruit trees must be planted along the roads in distances of 
 10 metres apart and 0.15 metre distant from the outside border of the 
 road; otherwise these trees are to be planted on the adjoining ground 
 at a distance of 0.60 or at the most 0.65 metre from the outside border 
 
 of the ditch, 
 
 b. Gradient op the Roads. 
 
 ' The gradient of provincial roads (in Bohemia) as a rule must not be 
 any more than -^, and only with very unfavorable territory it may be 
 as much as xo. Steeper gradients are permitted as an exception only on 
 mountain roads, and there only in lengths of at most 95 metres, when 
 these ascents are interrupted by stretches of horizontal or nearly hori- 
 zontal road. 
 
 The district roads of Bohemia are not to have a gradient of more than 
 iV, and with very unfavorable territory not more than -^j; steeper 
 ascents are only allowed as an exception on roads for less heavy teaming 
 than the usual, and only by special permission of the board. 
 
10 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, 
 
 c. Maintenance of the Public Roads. 
 
 The respective regulations for Lower Austria, to which those of the 
 other proviuces are similar, are the following: 
 
 The building as well as the maintenance of the provincial roads is 
 incumbent upon the provincial committee, and with district roads to 
 the respective district road board or committee. The proceedings of 
 the latter however are supervised by the provincial committee. 
 
 The different communities are obliged to attend to the building and 
 the maintenance of the respective district roads under the supervision 
 of the board or committee for district roads. 
 
 If the ballast necessary tor the maintenance of the district roads can 
 not be obtained by way of public proposal, or only at a very high price, 
 the commmittee for district roads has the right to charge the communi- 
 ties with the furnishing of such ballast at a price to be fixed according^ 
 to circumstances. The costs for carting away the dirt removed from 
 the roads are paid by the district treasury ; the communities, however, 
 are obliged to furnish free of cost the dumping places and roads leading 
 thereto. These places must not be farther than 1 kilometre from the 
 respective parts of the road. 
 
 The removal of the snow from the roads has to be attended to by the_ 
 communities, the territory of which is not more than 8 kilometres dis- 
 tant from the road. For this work they receive a proportionate remu- 
 neration. 
 
 d. Costs. 
 
 All costs for the building and maintenance of provincial roads (in 
 Styria) of first-class district roads are paid from the provincial fund. 
 
 The costs for the district roads, in so far as they are not otherwise 
 covered, fall to the respective districts, which as a rule are identical 
 with the court districts. The raising of the necessary money is pre- 
 scribed to the different communities of the district in proportion to 
 their direct taxes (with exclusion of the extraordinary addition tax). 
 A levy of more than 10 per cent, and up to 15 per cent, of the total tax 
 amount requires the permission of the provincial committee, and such 
 of over 15 per cent, can only be imposed by way of legislation. Accord- 
 ing to circumstances subventions from the provincial fund may be 
 granted for the building, reconstruction, and even maintenance of dis- 
 trict roads. 
 
 The necessary means and work for community roads have to be fur- 
 nished by the respective communities. For important community 
 roads, however, subventions from the district road fund are permissible. 
 
 The construction of the roadway of a district road with 4.8 millimetres 
 ballasted surface, a stone foundation of 0.20 millimetre, and a bed of 
 ballast of 0.14 costs per kilometre about 3,800 florins, not including the 
 value of the ground and the ground work, nor the costs of supervision. 
 
 Buildings erected along provincial, district, and community roads 
 
EUROPE — AUSTRIA. 1 1 
 
 must stand at least 2 metres away from the outside border of tbe road 
 ditch in Upper Austria, Bohemia, and Oarniola; while in Moravia, 
 Silesia, and Lower Austria this distance must be 'at least 4.7 metres. 
 
 For public houses (inns) this distance must be 4 metres in Upper 
 Austria. 
 
 STREETS. 
 
 The essential rules for the construction of streets in cities and towns 
 are contained in the different building regulations (Bauordnungeu ; 
 B. O.). 
 
 Lower Austria, B. O. for Lower Austria and for the city of Vienna 
 (laws of January 17, 1883, L. G. Bl. 12). 
 
 Upper Austria, building laws of March 13, 1875 (L. G-. Bl, 7, 8). 
 
 Salzburg, B. O. for the city of Salzburg of January 28, 1873 (L. G. 
 Bl. 9). 
 
 For the province of Salzburg, excluding the capital, B. O. of July 7, 
 1879 (L. Q. Bl. 10). 
 
 Styria, B. O. for Styria, exclusive of the city of Graz, of February 9, 
 1857 (L. G. Bl. 5) ; alterations of thislaw, of August 31, 1864 (L. G. Bl. 
 2) ; B. O. for Graz of September 7, 1881 (L. G. Bl. 14, etc.). 
 
 A. Construction of city streets and regulations relating thereto. 
 
 New streets, if they are principal streets, must be at least 15 metres 
 wide (Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Styria, Carinthia., Moravia, etc.) ; 
 side streets and lanes must be at least 11 metres wide in Lower and 
 Upper Austria, and at least 12 metres in Prague. 
 
 Besides a roadway sufBciently wide to permit the easy turning around 
 of wagons, new streets must be provided on either side with a sidewalk, 
 including which their entire breadth must be at least 15 metres (Graz). 
 
 In Vorarlberg the streets in cities and towns must be at least 12 
 metres wide, in country communities at least 9.5 meters, and lanes at 
 leasts metres. 
 
 In Linz, Wels, Steyer the streets to be considered as principal must 
 be at least 16.20 metres wide, less frequented streets at least 14 metres, 
 and side or cross streets or lanes at least 12 metres. 
 
 a. STREETS OP VIENNA. 
 
 The total square surface of all streets, lanes, and squares (including 
 the sidewalks, walks, and riding paths) maintained by the imperial city 
 of Vienna at the end of the year 1888 amounted to 5,075,596 square 
 metres. Of these the roadways, squares, crossings, etc., occupy 
 3,663,740 square metres, or 72.2 per cent., and the sidewalks, walks, 
 and riding paths 1,411,850 square metres, or 27.8 per cent. 
 
 Of the entire street surface 3,131,294 square metres, or 61.5 per cent., 
 are paved. 'Of this paved surface 2,055,181 square metres, or 65.8 
 per cent., belong to the roadways, squares, crossings, etc, and 1,060,113 
 square metres, or 34.2 per cent., to the paved sidewalks. 
 
12 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Comparing with the measurement at the end of the year 1887 the 
 paved surface at the end of the year 1888 showed an increase of 55,018 
 square metres, or 1.81 per cent. 
 
 At the end of 1888 the different kinds of pavement in use were in the 
 following proportions : 
 
 Roadways, squares, etc. Square metres. 
 
 Granite .1 1,827,276 
 
 Asphalt 49,027- 
 
 Wood pavement 11,030 
 
 Gutters and street crossings, granite : 167,848 
 
 Sidewalks and walks : 
 
 Granite 1,033.275 
 
 Asphalt 28,703 
 
 Clinker 4,135 
 
 Total surface paved 3,121,294 
 
 Consequently the entire pavement was composed of: 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Granite 97.03 
 
 Asphalt 2.48 
 
 Clinker , 0.13 
 
 Wood 0.36 
 
 Of the unpaved surface of 1,964,302 square metres, which are partly 
 macadamized, partly only covered with ballast, 1,608,559 square metres, 
 or 82 per cent., belong to roadways, squares, etc., and 345,743 square 
 metres, or 18 per cent., to walks and riding paths. 
 
 Besides the paved surface enumerated there are still of streets, 
 lanes, and squares within the territory of Vienna, 
 
 Maintained by- 
 
 Unpaved. 
 
 The governmoTit 
 
 Tlie provincial fund. 
 Private persona 
 
 So. metres. 
 49, «6 
 72, 747 
 3,200 
 
 Sg. metres. 
 21, 372 
 3(i, 3G1 
 lUl, 21G 
 
 Including the above figures the total surface of streets, squares, etc., 
 of Vienna at the end of the year 1888 consequently was: Paved, 
 3,240,687 square metres, and 2,170,251 square metres unpaved. This 
 total service comprises 1,008 streets, lanes, and squares. 
 
 The granite cubes employed for paving the Vienna streets, as a rule, 
 have a length of side of 18.4 centimetres. For the diagonal paving of 
 the roadways there are besides required stones of 13.2 and 23.7 centime- 
 tres. Finally, there are also smaller cubes of but 15.8 centimetres side ; 
 these, however, are used only in small quantities. 
 
 The paving is generally carried out diagonally, and only for streets 
 with a very steep gradient parallel rows are employed. 
 
 For the paving of the sidewalks mostly granite plates of 31.6 centi- 
 metres and 47.4 centimetres squares are employed. 
 
EUROPE — AUSTRIA. 
 
 13 
 
 The greatest part of the granite for paving the streets of Vienna is 
 taken from the quarries at Mauthausen, in Upper Austria. For paving 
 those streets, hawever, which have an exceptionally great traffic, the 
 hard granite of Wilshofen, in Bavaria, as well as that from Schiirding 
 and Dornach, in Upper Austria, ai-e employed. 
 
 The clinker pavement, formerly employed by way of experiment on 
 the roadways, has been removed again on account of its inferior dura- 
 bility. 
 
 For the asphalt pavement (of natural asphalt) the roadways are cov- 
 ered with pressed asphalt, while on the sidewalks the asphalt is poured 
 over a layer of sand. 
 
 By way of experiment the so-called metallic pavement has been tried 
 upon a larger surface.. For this purpose a bed of concrete of 10 centi- 
 metres is employed, upon which is spread the " metallic " composition 6 
 centimetres thick for the roadway. 
 
 The metallic pavement (furnished by the firm 0. Schlimp & E. Schef- 
 tel) is a kind of concrete, and consists of broken blast-turnace slag, 
 cinders, and Portland cement; to the water required for mixing this 
 concrete carbonate of soda, carbonate of ammonia, or crude potash is 
 added. 
 
 The metallic pavement, the same as asphalt and wood pavement, is 
 
 noiseless. 
 
 B. Maintenance oif City Streets. 
 
 As most worthy of interest, the facts furnished by the city of Vienna 
 regarding the maintenance of streets will here be given. 
 
 The work of maintenance of the Vienna streets as a rule consists in 
 their being repaved, which is done by tearing up the pavement to be 
 repaired and by freshly paving those parts of the street, making use, 
 however, of part of the old material. 
 
 The following dates will show the extent of repaving in Vienna : 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Koadway. 
 
 Sidewalks. 
 
 Total. 
 
 18S4 
 
 1885 
 
 1886 
 
 1888 
 
 PlTe years' average 
 
 Sq. metres. 
 64, 689 
 57,165 
 37, 103 
 38, 755 
 
 Sq. metres. 
 
 16, 659 
 
 10, 393 
 
 8,454 
 
 7,100 
 
 48, 827 
 
 Sq. metres. 
 81. 318 
 67, 558 
 5S, 557 
 45, 955 
 
 10, 661 
 
 59, 378 
 
 The -ballast used for the maintenance of the respective streets and 
 squares was as follows, in cubic metres, per year: 
 
 
 Kinds of ballast. 
 
 Time. 
 
 Mountain. 
 
 Ordinary 
 gravel. 
 
 Coarse 
 gravel. 
 
 Fine 
 gravel. 
 
 Vienna 
 river 
 sand 
 
 Sand. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Broken. 
 
 Gravel. 
 
 rive vears' average, 1884r-'88 
 
 In 1888 
 
 14. 952 
 13,216 
 
 8,156 
 8,223 
 
 5,612 
 7,897 
 
 1,122 
 977 
 
 625 
 
 594 
 
 1,505 
 1,456 
 
 2,044 
 3,236 
 
 34, 016 
 
 35, 598 
 
 
 
14 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 Leaving out the sand, the actual ballast used was 34,972 cubic metres 
 in the average and 32,302 in 1888. 
 
 Supposing this total amount of ballast equally divided upon the sur- 
 face of unpaved roadways, squares, etc., the annual consumption of 
 ballast per square metre of street surface amounts to 0.03 cubic metre. 
 
 C. Costs of Constructiox akd Maintesanie op Citt Streets. 
 
 The following were the average costs, per square meter, for new pav- 
 ing in the year 1888 : 
 
 Florins. 
 
 With Vilshofen granite stones 7.70 
 
 With Mauthausen granite stones 7. 02 
 
 With old granite stones 1.06 
 
 With common stones 2. 81 
 
 With asphalt 6.08 
 
 With wood 7.44 
 
 For the repaving of a surface of 38,755 square metres of roadway and 
 of 7,100 square metres of sidewalks 41,563 florins 78 kreutzers were ex- 
 pended in the year 1888, which is equivalent to an average of 0.91 florin 
 per square metre. 
 
 The total expenditure of the city of Vienna for building and main- 
 taining the streets amounted to the following : 
 
 
 Ifew coustmctioD. 
 
 Mainteoance. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Paved 
 streets. 
 
 Unpaved 
 streets. 
 
 Paved 
 
 streets. 
 
 XTnpaved 
 streets. 
 
 Igg7 
 
 Florins. 
 409,710 
 408, 801 
 392, 2^7 
 
 FUHns. 
 
 282 
 
 3,760 
 
 26, 079 
 
 Florins. 
 272,438 
 133, 769 
 255, 170 
 
 Florins. 
 119, 738 
 
 
 130, 349 
 
 
 118, 566 
 
 
 
 The cleaning and sprinkling of the streets in the year 1888 cost for 
 the first district (the central part of the city) 375,928 florins, and for 
 the entire territory of Vienna 908,008 florins. 
 
 The total surface of the streets, lanes, and squares kept by the city 
 of Vienna amounting to 5,075,596 square metres, the cleaning and 
 sprinkling of one square metre per year costs 17.9 kreutzer. 
 
 D. — Public Parks and Gardens of Vienna. 
 
 The following table shows the number, extent, and cost of mainte- 
 nance of the public parks and gardens of Vienna : 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Nnm- 
 ber. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 Cost of 
 mamtenance. 
 
 1887. 
 1888. 
 
 Square metres. 
 381, 473 
 387, 383 
 
 Florins. 
 Ill, 148 
 123.951 
 
EUROPE— AUSTRIA. 15 
 
 These public gardeas (in 1888) aiuoiinted to 0.7 per cetit., aud if the 
 woods are included to 16.7 per cout. of the entire precinct of Vienna, 
 which is 5,540 hectares. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 Public streets and roads are universally acknowledged as the prime 
 means of culture, and it is a fact proved by history that the grade of 
 civilization of a nation may in a great measure be judged by the state 
 of its public roads. There is no doubt that the land value is in every 
 country considerably improved by well kept and frequented public 
 roads. It is, however, impossible to express in figures or fix the ex- 
 tent of improvement in value of land intersected by public roads, as 
 this is most everywhere depending on local conditions and circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Julius Goldschmidt, 
 
 Consul- General, 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Vienna, April 1, 1891. 
 
 TRIESTE. 
 
 RUrOJtT BY CONSUL HABTIGAlf. 
 
 The streets of Trieste, excej)t a few macadamized ones, are paved 
 with sandstone obtained from the neighboring mountains (Karst). 
 This sandstone costs the corporation 2.70 florins per square metre ($1.13 
 per square yard). The averiige price of macadamizing stone is L45 
 florins per cubic metre, or 61 cents per cubic yard. 
 
 Tiie expense of laying the sandstone, not including its cost, sand, or 
 cartage, is 1 florin per square metre (43 cents a square yard). The 
 labor for macadamized streets costs 80 kreutzers a square metre, or 34 
 cents a square .yard, except the gutter flagging, which costs in addition, 
 3.25 florins per linear metre, ($1.37 per linear yard). 
 
 The maintaining of macadamized roads costs very little. Their 
 
 average depth is 6 to lU inches, and the nature of the soil is such that 
 
 . it requires little preparation for a foundation. The maintaining of the 
 
 paved streets is according to the traflio ; the average price, including 
 
 labor and material, is 50 cents a square yard. 
 
 In laying new pavements the old one is placed underneath with a 
 layer of sand intervening, the entire cost of which is 5 florins per 
 square metre ($2.10 per square yard). New streets without this under 
 pavement cost 4 florins per square metce, or $1.78 per square yard, in- 
 cluding stone, sand, cartage, etc. 
 
 Formerly the streets were laid concave inclining to the middle, along 
 which under the surface canals or sewers extended, with gratings at in- 
 tervals for surface drainage. It was found, however, from experience 
 
16 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 that this plan was not durable for heavy traffic. Accordingly, when 
 ne\f pavements are now found necessary the convex method is adopted. 
 The water from the gutter is conducted by branches to the middle ca- 
 nals or sewers. These latter are also receptacles for overflow pipes 
 from the fecal vaults of the various houses, there being no other sewer- 
 age system in the city. The contents are finally emptied along the river 
 or quays of the town. 
 
 The streets in general are intended for heavy traffic. The sidewalks 
 are of the same stone, the flags being about 1 to 4 inches thick and 2 to 
 4 feet square. Their construction and maintenance are borue by the 
 property owners, as well as the stone pillars which line and separate 
 them from the street. 
 
 The Trieste sandstone is resisting and desirable material for street 
 paving; the pieces are from 2 to 5 feet long, 1 to 1^ feet wide, and 6 
 to 10 inches thick. 
 
 The roads outside the city are macadamize d of the same average 
 depth, and have a stone foundation with open drains on either side. 
 
 James F. Haetigan, 
 
 Consul, 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Trieste, January 30, 1891. 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 PROVINCE OF ANTWERP. 
 
 REPORT BY GONSVL STEUART. 
 
 I have the honor to oifer the following report upon the mannet of 
 constructing and maintaining the roads and streets in this province and 
 city of Antwerp, and as the said roads and streets are well made and 
 well kept, it would be gratifying if a consideration of the careful man- 
 ner in which the work is contracted for, executed, and kept in repair 
 should prove of service to those interestel in bringing about an improve- 
 ment in the manner and expense of doing these things in our own 
 country. 
 
 The thoroughfares in the Kiugdom of Belgium are: The routes run- 
 ning from one part of the Kingdom to another controlled and managed 
 by the state authorities; the provincial chauss^es, or roads, between' 
 two points within a province, constructed and controlled by the provin- 
 cial authorities ; these are paved in the center, a dirt road on each side, 
 and are bordered with trees ; the streets constructed and controlled 
 by the municipal authorities. 
 
 The provincial council of the province of Antwerp is composed of 
 some sixty members elected from different parts of the province. They 
 
EUEOPE — BELGIUM. 17 
 
 hold one session each year, in the month of tTuly, presided over by the 
 governor of the province, for the purpose "of passing the budget, vot- 
 ing subsidies, ordering and approving the construction of roads, canals, 
 etc., and such other matters as may come before them. During the 
 remainder of the year when they are not in session, a committee of 
 their body, consisting of five members, called the " Deputation Per- 
 manente," is always in organization, clothed with full powers and pre- 
 pared to carry into execution the orders and instructions passed by the 
 council, a report being made by them at the next meeting of the coun- 
 cil for approval and ratification. Their duties and powers are referred 
 to in the body of the contracts given further on. 
 
 Under the rules of the technical service of the province of Antwerp, 
 the service of roadways is intrusted to a body of provincial agents, 
 composed of one engineer-in-chief, three district engineers, and inspect- 
 ors of roads to a number not exceediug CO. 
 
 These agents are charged (in the limits presented by the present rules 
 and in accord with the authorities designated in the legal rules upon the 
 matter) with the service of the district roads, of the works of hygiene, 
 and of the water courses not navigable. 
 
 The rules and regulations governing this body of agents are full and 
 elaborate, much too numerous to be translated and embodied in this 
 report, so they are sent in pamphlet form under separate cover. 
 
 The streets in the city are all built of the same material and without 
 reference to the traffic that passes over them, whether light or heavy. 
 An idea of their cost can be had from the estimate of expenses making 
 part of the contract for building a street as given below. 
 
 As regards the assessment for first cost and maintenance, I can only 
 refer to my dispatch No. 255, dated June 28, 1887, forwarding a full re- 
 port upon taxation, national andlocal,inthis district, iii which occurs the 
 following remarks upon the municipal tax upon sewers and pavements : 
 
 The payment of this tax is required but ohoe, and not yearly, even not again when 
 repairs become necessary and are made. , 
 
 In 1852 the rate was fixed at 12 francs per running metre for all expenses connected 
 with the building of a sewer, and was collected upon the buildings immediately, while 
 owners of unimproved property paid only when they erected buildings thereon ; also 
 a tax of 8 francs per metre was collected from buildings upon new pavements, or 5 
 francs upon old ones, owners of unimproved property paying 2fraucs at the time, and 
 the balance when buildings were erected. This law is still in force regarding the 
 property covered by it at that time. 
 
 In 1874 the law was changed as follows: For the expense of sewers 12 francs per 
 running metre is collected from the proprietors of improved, and unimproved prop- 
 erty and for pavements 10 francs is collected upon the same measurement. 
 
 lu the laying out of new streets the owners of the property fronting on said streets 
 will be required to bear all the expenses, each in proportion to the number of running 
 metres along the front of his property. 
 
 The amount due per metre is found in dividing the cost of the work by double the 
 length of the street, thus covering both sides. 
 
 -Every six months a map is drawn up for the purpose of showing what new build- 
 ings have been erected since the last verification. 
 33a 2 
 
18 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Under separate cover and forming part of this report I forward for 
 reference the following documents,* viz : 
 
 No. 1. Rales governiug the technical service of tbe province of Antwerp, November 
 12, 1886. 
 
 No. 2. Contract and conditions for the maintenance in good order for a period of 
 five years of the provincial roads of the province of Antwerp. 
 
 No. 3. Contract and conditions for the maintenance in good order, for a term of 
 3 years, of the routes of the state passing through the province of Antwerp. 
 
 No. 4. General statement of the conditions governiug the work and furnishing of 
 material under the service of the municipal authorities of the city of Antwerp. 
 
 No. 5. Contract and couditious for the construction of a chauss^e in the district of 
 "Waerloos" in the province of Antwerp. 
 
 No. 6. Contract and conditions for the paving and sewerage of the "Rue du Dau- 
 phin," in the city of Antwerp. 
 
 The two last-named documents have been translated and given below; 
 tbey furnish the details of the system followed and an estimate of the 
 expenses attendant thereupon. 
 
 John H. Stetjarx, 
 
 Gonsitl. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Antwerp, February 2, 1891. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 Municipal Woeks as Aktwerp. 
 
 [Inclosure 1 in Consul Steuart*8 report. ] 
 
 Estimates and conditions for the execution of the street works in the Rue du, Dauphin (east- 
 ern district), Antwerj). 
 
 Article 1. 
 
 The object of the present undertaking is the execution by contract of the sewers 
 and pavement of the above-mentioned street, also a water connection with the canal 
 Herenthals. 
 
 The work in general shall be executed in accordance with the indications of the 
 plan annexed to the present conditions and with the instructions contained therein. 
 The contractor, in addition, will, in the execution of the works, be held to follow the 
 instructions of the directors. 
 
 All the terms aud conditions of the general statenieut of conditions, registered and 
 filed in the fourth bureau, at the City Hall, are deemed to be textually given here, in 
 60 far aa they are not modified by the following articles : 
 
 Article 2. 
 
 The works to be executed consist of: 
 
 1. The execution of the works of digging oat and filling in, also the leveling, com- 
 prising the furnishing of the earth and the work that may be required to brrng same 
 to the prescribed height, and to form the side banks, destined to strengthen the side- 
 walks; tke demolition of the sewers indicated on the plan. 
 
 *Not published. 
 
EUROPE — BELGIUM. 19 
 
 2. The constrnctioQ of an ovoid sewer of 14 water pipes witli collars for outlets of 14 
 cast-iron gratinga, with ventilators, of the required model and of 11 masoned means 
 of access with cast-iron brinks, comprising the iixtures necessary for draining. 
 
 3. Tlie construction of two sections of sewer, paved with flags, in the " lougue and 
 courte rue de I'Autel." 
 
 4. The work of paving -with new stones and the employment in the part of the 
 street destined to vehicles, of new extra large stones (coulaujis) near the curbs. 
 
 5. The -work of paving with new stones and the employment for the sidewalks of 
 new borders of out stone, comprising the joining of the paving in the street and ou 
 the sidewalks. 
 
 6. The construction of a water connection with the canal Herenthals. 
 
 Articlb 3. 
 
 The guiding mark for the leveling forms the tablet of the bridge of the " rue du 
 Canal." This point is situated at a slope of 5.95 metres. 
 
 Article 4. 
 
 The side banks, which shall strengthen the sidewalks, will be executed along the 
 entire length of the street to be paved, conform to the conditions prescribed, and at 
 the expense of the contractor. This work shall be executed with the earth excavated 
 from other places. These banks will be turfed to a width of 25 centimetreSj conform 
 to the instructions of the directors. 
 
 Article 5. 
 
 The sewer, the stone water pipes, the means of access, and the water connection 
 shall be executed according to the indications of the plan hereto annexed, the pre- 
 scriptions of the conditions, and the special indications of the directors of the work. 
 
 Article 6. 
 
 The sewer to be constructed shall have an interior height of 1.30 metres and a width 
 of at most 80 centimetres. Its length shall be 385.70 metres and its frame shall be 
 established at the sides, as shown in the plan. 
 
 Article 7. 
 
 The concave and convex parts of the sewer shall be formed by two rolls of one-half 
 brick" klampsteen " (ordinary brick) of the kind known by the denomination of 
 " klinksert." 
 
 The sewer shall be rough-cast in the interior, up to the commencement of the supe- 
 rior arch, with hydraulic mortar, and the dome of the arch, with the addition of two 
 parts cement. 
 
 The centerings shall bo properly constructed and strengthened with planks of 2 
 centimetres thickness ; the entire convex surface shall be established in a manner to 
 present a regular curve. 
 
 The supports of the centerings shall bo placed at a distance of 70 centimetres from 
 axis to axis. 
 
 The extrados of the superior arch shall be covered withl centimetre's thickness of 
 hydraulic or common mortar. 
 
 Article 8. 
 
 In the arch shall be established eleven openings, each surmounted by a means of 
 access, having walls of 19 centimetres thickness and an interior diameter of 80 and 
 70 centimetres. The means of access shall be crowned with a cast-iron brink to con- 
 form to the model deposited at the storehouse Leguit. 
 
20 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOBEIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 The contractor shall furnish and place ninety-two collars of cut stone for the out- 
 lets of public and private water pipes. 
 
 The junction of the sewer to be constructed to that of the Rue du Dragon shall 
 be established in conformance with indications from the directors. 
 
 Article 9. 
 
 The masonry shall be executed with hydraulic or common mortar. The mortar 
 shall be made under the supervision of an agent of the administration and in a cov- 
 ered place. The mixture of raw materials shall be made in a dry state, then pnt into 
 a crusher, with the addition of the necessary water. 
 
 The directors reserve the right to prescribe the time at which the mixture shall be 
 worked in the crusher. 
 
 Article 10. 
 
 The contractor shall transport to the storehouse in the Rue St. Gom maire the stones 
 or flags accruing from the demolition of the sewers referred to. 
 
 Article 11. 
 
 The curbstones, as also the crest of the pavement of the part of the street destined 
 to vehicles, shall be established at the level designated in the plan. 
 
 Article 12. 
 
 The new sidewalks shall be 2.04 metres wide and the carriage route 7.92 metres. 
 The slope of the sidewalks shall be 8 centimetres. 
 
 Article 13. 
 
 The paving stones for the street and the stones used for the curbs shall be procured 
 from oue of the quarries enumerated under the first category in the conditions. They 
 shall be strictly refused by the administration in case the cutting of the tops is not 
 perfect or does not couform to the prescriptions of the last paragraph of article 28 
 of the conditions. 
 
 The paving stone of the 4th sample shall solely be admitted for the vehicle route, 
 excluding all others. The curbstones shall be procured at the quarries of Quenastor 
 those of Sweden. 
 
 Paving stones 6 by 4 (boutisses) shall be placed alternately at the end of the lines- 
 
 The paving stones for the sidewalks shall be procured from the quarries of Dinant^ 
 of Yvoir, or from the Ourthe, excepting, however, those of Marche and Gernelle; 
 they shall be taken from the best beds and shall be of a uniform blue gray. The di- 
 mensions of these stones shall be 14 by 14 centimetres at the top and 10 to 12 centi- 
 metres at the bottom, and the height 8 to 11 centimetres. The stones shall have flat 
 tops, even and perfectly smooth, the sides well squared and edged. The paving 
 stones are generally chosen at the expense of the city. 
 
 Article 14. 
 
 The straight new curbstones shall have a width of 17 centimetres and a height of 
 30 centimetres ; they shall be placed according to the profile indicated in the plaUj 
 and each stone must have a length of at least 1^ nietres. They shall be procured 
 from the quarries of Ecaussiues, Soiguies, or F^ler. 
 
 The curved borders to be furnished and placed number three, of 2 metres and three of 
 4 metres, radius. The first meutioned shall be composed each of two pieces, 1.20 metres 
 in length, and the others of seven pieces of 1.25 metres in length. 
 
EUROPE — BELGIUM. 21 
 
 The curved borders shall be 30 centimetres high and 17 centimotres wide at the 
 junctions, and shall have the same profile as the straight borders. 
 The curved borders shall consist of Swedish or Quenast porphyry. 
 The joints of the borders, in general, shall be strengthened with mortar. 
 
 Akticle 15. 
 
 In the water way shall be established fourteen sewer gratings, with oast-iron venti- 
 lator, similar to the model deposited at the storehouse Leguit. 
 
 Article 16. 
 
 The contractor shall take the measures necessary in order to preserve all the pipes 
 serving for the distribution of water and other purposes. In case of an accident, lie 
 shall advise the grantee society, who will repair the damage done. The expense aris- 
 ing therefrom will be paid by the city and deducted from the amount retained as 
 guaranty from the contractor. 
 
 Article 17. 
 The work must be entirely completed within a period of 2i months. 
 
 Article 18. 
 The expenses of the undertaking shall be met in three payments. 
 
 Article 19. 
 
 The amount of the guaranty to be deposited with the municipal collector is fixed 
 at 2,000 francs. 
 
 Article 20. 
 
 *. 
 The expenses for stamps and registering must be paid into the 4th bureau of the 
 city hall of Antwerp within 8 days after the acceptance of the offer. 
 
 Article 21. 
 
 The contractor shall include in the price of his offer a sum of 2,085 francs to cover 
 expenses for watching, plans, and others, which will be deducted from the amount of 
 his offer. 
 
 Article 22. 
 
 The envelope containing the offer should bear, under fhe address of the burgomas- 
 ter, the words: "Offer for the execution of street works in the rue du Dauphin." 
 Prepared by the undersigned, engineer of municipal works. 
 Antwerp, 18 — . 
 
 (Signed) 
 
 Seen and presented, Antwerp, , 18 — . 
 
 Engineer and chief director of municipal works: 
 
 (Signed) 
 
 Approved by the "Coll&ge des Bourgmestre et Echevins" of the city of Antwerp, 
 
 in their sitting of , 18 — . 
 
 The burgomaster: 
 
 (Signed) 
 
 The secretary: 
 
 (Signed:) 
 
22 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTKIES. 
 
 Detailed estimate. 
 
 Description of worts. 
 
 Quan- 
 tity. 
 
 Price 
 per niiit. 
 
 Total 
 anioiinr. 
 
 Excavation, shoving up of eartli accruing therefrom, eventual drain- 
 ing, reemployment of the earth for filling in and damming, compris- 
 ing the demolition of the sewers designated in the plan, cu. metres- - 
 
 Furnishing and wotliing of the earth in order to bring the street to 
 the required height, comprising leveling and damming.. cu. metres.. 
 
 Sewer, 1.30 by 0.80 metres metres.. 
 
 Sewer, 0.70 hy 0.50 metre do ... 
 
 Means of access .- cubic metres. - 
 
 Furnishing and placing of trap doors kilos. . 
 
 ^tone water pipes of 20 centimetres interior diameter metres . . 
 
 Sewer gratings with cast-iron ventilator 
 
 Eough casting with cement mortar of the interior of sewer to 1 centi- 
 metre thickness 
 
 Cut stono for outlets of public and private branchings oii ; 92 x 0.45 x. 
 0.45 X 6.30 cubic metres .i 
 
 New straight curb stones metres.. 
 
 New curved curb stones do ... 
 
 Pavement with now stone 8 by 4 for sides square metres.. 
 
 Pavement with new stone for street do 
 
 Pavement with new stone for sidewalk., do — 
 
 Old curbstones, taking up and placing metres. - 
 
 Pavement with used stones for sides square metres.. 
 
 PaA'ement with used stones for side walks do 
 
 P.iveuient with used stones for streets do 
 
 Transportation of flagstones to storehouse of the city 
 
 Establishment of the water connection with the canal Herenthals : 
 
 Foundations in rough masonry cubic metres.. 
 
 Masonry do 
 
 Furnisliing and placing of cut stone do ... 
 
 Wrought iron for grating of tlie 2 mouths of the water connection 
 comprising sealing with lead kilometres.. 
 
 Cast'iron trap doors of 80 by 80 centimetres do 
 
 Expenses for guards, plans, etc 
 
 Expenses for stamps and registering 
 
 1,104 
 
 3,533 
 
 385. 70 
 
 20 
 
 5.500 
 
 2,100 
 
 63 
 
 14 
 
 826 
 
 5.576 
 550 
 27.10 
 92. 32 
 2,431 
 1,079 
 10 
 
 1.00 
 20 
 150 
 
 Francs. 
 
 1.10 
 
 .30 
 15.00 
 12.00 
 22.00 
 
 .16 
 6.00 
 75.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 120. 00 
 
 COO 
 
 13.00 
 
 13.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 .30 
 
 .80 
 
 .80 
 
 .35 
 
 1.050 
 
 13 
 
 2.027 
 
 40 
 450 
 
 12.00 
 22.00 
 120. 00 
 
 .40 
 .16 
 
 Francs.^ 
 
 1, 644. 40 
 
 1,059.00 
 
 5, 783. 50 
 
 240.00 
 
 121.00 
 
 330, on 
 
 315.00 
 1, 050. 00 
 
 820. 00 
 
 C69. 00 
 
 3, 300. 00 
 
 352. 30 
 
 1, 200. 16 
 
 17, 017. 00 
 
 6, 474. 00 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.28 
 
 16.50 
 
 52.00 
 
 75.00 
 
 19. 80 
 286. 00 
 243. 24 
 
 16.00 
 
 72.00 
 
 2, 085. 00 
 
 24.02 
 
 XotM- 
 
 43, 185. 00 
 
 Drawn up, witlian estimateof the sum of 43,185 fraucB, by the undersigued engineer 
 of the municipal works. 
 
 Antwerp, , 18 — . 
 
 (Signed,) . 
 
 Seen and approved, Antwerp, , 18 — . 
 
 Principal engineer, director of municipal worlis: 
 (Signed,) 
 
 MODEL OE OFFER. 
 
 I, the undersigned (full name), contractor of public works, residing at , 
 
 street , No. , bind myself by the present, upon guaranty of my personal and 
 
 real property, to execute under the terms and provisions of the contract and special 
 conditions, according to the prescriptions specified and conforming to the plan, of 
 which I declare to have a perfect knowledge, in consideration of the sum of (to be 
 written out in letters), the street works in the Eue du Dauphin. 
 
 Done at , the day of , 18 — . 
 
EUROPE — BELGIUM. 23 
 
 COUNTRY ROADS OR HIGHWAYS, 
 llnclosure 2 in Consul Stoaarl's report.] 
 
 Pkovin'Cial Goveunmbnt of Antwerp. — Technicai, Service. 
 
 Statement of the stipulations and conditions upon which will ie awarded the constrnclion 
 of a ehausade or wide carriage road following .the route No. 3 at Waerloos. 
 
 description op the work. 
 Article 1. 
 
 The nntlertaking comprises: 
 
 1. The execution of the earthworks. 
 
 2. The construe tion of the " ouvrages cVart " and the furnishing of the necessary- 
 material. 
 
 3. The paving. 
 
 i. The niaiuteuance in good order for 1 year of the chausade and its dependencies. 
 
 Article 2. 
 
 The road to be constructed shall ho laid out according to the trace in red upon the 
 plan annexed to the present contract and conditions; it will commence at a given 
 point in the village of Waerloos ; will extend along the road No. 3 to join the direct 
 chaussiSe from Waerloos to Duffel near the limits of the latter village. The total 
 length of the ohanss^e is to be 1,917.,'jO metres. 
 
 Article 3. 
 
 The red line running lengthwise aloug the plan of the ohaussde shows the height 
 at which will be established the crest of the paving. 
 
 The system of slopes and borders shall be made conformably to the indications of 
 the profile lengthways. 
 
 The slopes and borders shall be joined to each other in the vertical sense by regular 
 curves of which the development will be indicated by the provincial engineer. 
 
 The route shall have 6 metres of width between the outside crusts of the sideways ; 
 the paved part will occupy the middle part of the route and will have 2.50 metres of 
 width. 
 
 The convexity of the paving shall be 97 centimeters, and the transverse inclination 
 of the sideways shall be .04 centimetre per metre. 
 
 The route shall be bordered with ditches having 1 metre width at the top and 40 
 centimetres depth. These dimensions may be modified according to the requirements 
 of the ground. 
 
 The crests of the sideways shall be marked by level borders of grass of 25 centi- 
 meties width with 8 to 10 centimetres thickness. 
 
 Article 4. 
 
 The plan of the work shall be executed by the contractor or his agents under his 
 responsibility. The work, however, can not be commenced until after the plan has 
 been verified by the provincial engineer. 
 
 All the tools, utensils, engines, wheelbarrows, carts, etc., in fact all the material 
 necessary for the carrying on of the work, without any exception whatever, must be 
 provided by the contractor. 
 
 The works will be commenced at the points designated by the provincial engineer. 
 
24 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Articlk 5. 
 
 The earth coming from the excavation and that necessary for the embankments 
 shall he employed to form the profiles of the roads following the sides; the same earth 
 shall serve to unite roads, avenues to farms, or entrances to fields with the sideways 
 of the route. 
 
 The earth removed, with the exception of mud, roots, and grass shall he employed 
 in the work of filling up and embanking. 
 
 If the ground coming from the excavations is not sufficient to meet the requirements 
 of the embankments the contractor must provide the quantity needed. 
 
 Akticlk 6. 
 
 After .all the preliminary earthworks have been finished a coffer shall be opened at a 
 depth of 25 centimeters, preserving at the bottom a slope or convexity equal to that 
 of the paving. The bottom as well as the sideways shall be made thoroughly strong. 
 
 The bed of sand will have a thickness of 25 centimetres, measuring from the top of 
 the pavement. 
 
 Article 7. 
 
 Paring. 
 
 The borders shall be placed along the line following the slopes, declivities, and levels 
 as indicated. They shall be joined and made firm at the outside with sand well 
 driven in. 
 
 The space between the two border lines shall be filled with paving stoues forming 
 a regular connection, placed in such a manner as to touch each other on all sides, the 
 joints well filled with sand and made firm under the weight of a hammer of at least 
 6 kilogrammes. 
 
 The stones shall he successively driven firm with a paving beetle weighing at least 
 16 to 18 kilogrammes. 
 
 The hammering shall commence at the borders of the chanss^e and be continued 
 towards the axis, taking care to preserve the slopes and convexity indicated upon the 
 plan. 
 
 The hammering shall be done regularly by two workmen, commencing one from 
 each side of the route and advancing towards the axis, hammering the same line of 
 stone. 
 
 All the stones which maybe broken under the weight of the beetle, or which may 
 be driven below the surface line, shall be removed and replaced by others having 
 the proper dimensions to be fitted to those already placed. 
 
 When the supervisor of the works shall be satisfied that the paving has been well 
 done, there shall be spread upon it abed of sand 3 centimeters deep. 
 
 Article 8. 
 
 The operations of the plan and the verification of the work shall be at the charge 
 of the contractor, who will furnish for this purpose the workmen and the instruments 
 necessary, such as squares, levels, chains, lines, stakes, etc. 
 
 Article 9. 
 Travaure d'Art. 
 
 The framework of the " Travaure d'Art " shall be made firm to the sides of the level 
 marked in the special plans. 
 
 These works of art shall be constructed under the best conditions conformably to 
 the plans, and after the indications of the provincial engineer. 
 
EUKOPB— BELGIUM. 25 
 
 These works are : 
 
 Oue aqueduct with 80 oeutimetreffopenicg, square seotiou, and covered with flag- 
 stones. 
 
 Three aqueducts of 30 to 35 centimetres opening, section rectangular, aud covered 
 with flagstones. 
 
 Article 10. 
 
 The compensation due to third parties for the taking of sand, earth, depots of 
 materials, shops, service roads, etc., will be at the charge of the contractor. 
 
 In no case will a depot of materials be allowed upon the ground reserved for the 
 bed of the route or its dependencies. 
 
 Article 11. 
 
 Materials. 
 
 The paving stones shall be in porphyry or sandstone. 
 
 The contractors must inJicate in their offer the kind (porphyry or sandstone) and 
 the place of production of the paving stoues that they agree to place in the work. 
 
 The administration reserves the right to choose, as best suits them, among the 
 different offers. 
 
 The paving stones shall have the following dimensions: Length, 14 to 16 centi- 
 metres; width, 14 centimetres; height, 14 centimetres at the least. 
 
 The borders of the chauss^es shall be iu ordinary limestone granite. They shall 
 . have the following dimensions: Length, 26 to 36 centimetres; width, 14 centimetres; 
 height, 25 centimetres. 
 
 Sand : The sand shall be pure, dry, gritty, free from stones aud clay. 
 
 Lime: The lime shall be of the best quality, and shall be furnished " quick" at 
 the foot of the work. 
 
 Bricks: The bricks shall be of the kind called " Klampsteen." They must be well 
 formed, well burnt, hard, and sonorous. The bricks for the facing shall be chosen 
 from among the best looking and the best burnt. They shall be of uniform color. 
 
 Bluestone : The blnostone shall be of the ordinary limestone granite. It shall be 
 taken from the largest and hardest quarries. It shall have neither flaws, thin places, 
 broken corners, or defective veins. 
 
 The facings shall be finely cut. The tablets shall be proviaed with drains. 
 
 Magstones: The flagstones shall be of stone from "Tournai." They shall be of 
 ■best quality and have a uniform thickness. 
 
 Mortar : The mortar of the ordinary masonry shall be composed of two parts of 
 , slack lime, one part of ashes, and one part of sand. 
 
 That for the rough casting of the " Ouvrages d'Art" shall contain three parts of 
 lime and two parts of " trass," which is a rough cement. 
 
 Article 12. 
 Nature and reception of material. 
 
 All of the material, each of its kind, shall be of the best quality; it must be deliv- 
 ered at the works, but can be employed only after having been accepted by the 
 administration. It must be placed in such a manner that its verification may be as 
 easy as possible. 
 
 The contractor must furnish the workmen necessary for the reception of the 
 material. 
 
 The material rejected must be immediately removed from the works and replaced 
 by others, and that before the resumption of work. 
 
26 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Article 13. 
 Genm'al conditions. 
 
 The present enterprise constitutes an absolute contract, consequently tlie con- 
 tractor shall be held for in consideration of the price of adjudication, to execute, at 
 his expense, risk, and peril, and to deliver, at the expiration of the contract time, all 
 the works which make the subject of this contract and which are mentioned or 
 described in the present conditions or appear upon the plans hereto annexed, in fur- 
 nishing and putting upon the work all the materials necessary to this eflect and in 
 conformity with all the clauses and provisos stipulated in the said conditions. 
 
 The contractor shall be considered to have established the sum total of his offer 
 after his proper calculations and estimates ; he will not be permitted to raise any 
 claim by reason of errors or omissions which might appear in the measurement and 
 detailed estimates, which are joined to the conditions only as simple suggestions, and 
 of which the quantities are not guarantied. 
 
 The administration formally reserves to itself the right to prescribe to the con- 
 tractor, in the execution of the work, such modification as they may judge proper to 
 make in the work as provided for, whether in regard to the form, the dimensions, or 
 the method of construction, or in regard to the nature of the material to bo used in the 
 work, or in any other manner, and this without the contractor being able, by virtue 
 of this matter, to raise any complaint or claim whatsoever. 
 
 Should the case occur, the administration will prepare a statement in which the 
 works, as provided for, that the contractor will 1)0 relieved from executing and those 
 that he must execute, not previously provided for, will be valued at a price greater 
 or less, as may be, pro rata of the difference between the total amount of the detailed 
 estimates and that of the adjudication. 
 
 The contractor will be held to accept the statement which will have been prepared 
 by the Direction, unless objections and claims on his part may be considered as well 
 founded, whether in regard to the price at which the work is valued or in regard to 
 the quantity of the work which has been carried into the statement, iu which case a 
 new statement will be prepared, giving right, if necessary to his claims, and that the 
 contractor can no longer refuse to accept. 
 
 Articlk 14. 
 
 No work not provided for, either on the plan or in the present contract and condi- 
 tions, shall be allowed to the contractor, if the execution has not been previously 
 authorized by the administration. 
 
 The work will be considered to have been done in the interest of the contractor 
 and will remain at his expense. 
 
 Article 1.5. 
 
 The contractors .are not allowed, except in cases of necessity and pressure, to make 
 the workmen work on Sundays or legal holidays, or to admit upon the works chil- 
 dren under the age of 13 years. 
 
 The infraction of these rules will be ascertained by the provincial engineer or his 
 subordinates charged with the supervision of the works, by the communal adminis- 
 tration, and by the agents of the local police. 
 
 The contractor will be liable to a penalty of 5 francs per day, to be retained from 
 the amount of the adjudication, for each workman who will have worked on Sunday 
 or a legal holiday and for each child under 13 years admitted upon the works.^ 
 
 In case of dispute as to the real infraction or as to the amount of penalties applied 
 the contractor will be allowed to appeal to the deputation permauente and he must 
 submit to their decision. 
 
EtrROPE — BELGIUM 27 
 
 The amount of penalties imposefl shall be gi an ted by tlie diSputation permanente 
 to the bnreau of charity of the oonimuue where the iufraotion occurred or to a hos- 
 pital if one exists in the locality. 
 
 Artici.e 16. 
 
 Commencement and completion of the work. 
 
 The contractor shall con;menco the work within 10 days of the order that he shall 
 receive from the administration ; the work must be entirely finished the 1st of No- 
 vember, 1890, period at which it will be submitted to a provisory reception. 
 
 The reception shall be in the presance of the commission and shall be verified by 
 a regular official report. 
 
 Article 17. 
 
 In the case where the contractor, by carelessness, ill-will, or lack of means shall 
 refuse to comply within 10 days to the orders which may be given to him by the 
 provincial engineer, the work will be proceeded with and the expenses resulting 
 therefrom shall be deducted from the payment of the last quarter of the enterprise. 
 
 Article 18. 
 
 Fines and forfeits. 
 
 For each day of delay beyond the time established the contractor shall be liable to 
 a penalty of 20 franco per day ; if this delay reaches 30 days, on the Slst day the con- 
 tractor shall forfeit all his right to the undertaking and all expenses resulting there- 
 from shall be at his charge. 
 
 Article 19. 
 Delay. 
 
 The deputation permanente alone accords an extension or delay in the finishing 
 of the work. It alone also inflicts the penalties after having heard the province and 
 the contractor interested. 
 
 The penalties that the contractor will have incurred shall be turned into the pro- 
 vincial treasury. 
 
 Article 20. 
 
 The contractor will be held to guaranty his work for the term of 1 year from 
 the time of the legal provisory reception ; he will keep it jn perfect order during that 
 lapse of time. 
 
 At the expiration of this time and before the route be recovered with a bod of sand 
 2 centimetres in thickness, the final reception shall take place. 
 
 Works left in suspense shall be executed officially and their cost be withheld from 
 the amount of the 5 per cent, held for guaranty. 
 
 The final reception will take place in the presence of the commission and will be 
 verified by a regular and detailed legal report. 
 
 Article 21. 
 
 The contractor can not, in any case, give over his undertaking to any one whatso- 
 ever, without the consent of the administration ; the subcontractors that he may asso- 
 ciate with himself will not be recognized by the administration. 
 
28 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Ar.TiCLK 22. 
 
 All infriugements of the stipulations containedin the preseDt oonditions will be 
 verified by the provincial engineer ; the legal documents will be prepared in dupli- 
 cate, of which one will be delivered at the real or chosen residence of the contractor 
 against a receipt signed by him. 
 
 The same mode of delivery will apply to other acts of which the notification must 
 be verified in an official manner. In case of the absence of the contractor or his 
 proxy, or upon the refusal to deliver the receipt, the delivery can be made at the 
 residence, either by a registered letter through the post, at the expense of the con- 
 tractor, or by the declaraxion of an agent of the direction establlahiag the delivery of 
 the documents at the residence of the contractor. 
 
 Article 23. 
 
 All differences arising between the province, the provincial engineer, and the con- 
 tractor shall be submitted to the commission, reserving appeal to the deputation 
 permanente, to whose decision the contractor must submit without further recourse. 
 
 Article 24. 
 
 Payments. 
 
 The payments will be made quarterly, in proportion to the advancement of the 
 work, reserving the amount of 5 per cent, to serve as guaranty and which will be 
 paid at the final reception of the work, di duction having been made for the amounts 
 officially expended, of which mention has been made in Article 17. 
 
 The payments will be made in cash upon the certificates delivered by the provin- 
 cial engineer verifying the portion to which the contractor is entitled. All pay- 
 ments made within 8 days following the delivery of each certificate will be consid- 
 ered as cash. 
 
 Fifteen days before the estimated time of the delivery of each certificate the pro- 
 vincial engineer of the roads shall inform the commission of the delivery of thispiece 
 to the contractor. 
 
 In case of delay in payment, there shall be 5 per cent, interest due to date from 
 the eighth day after the emission of the certificate of reception, of which the con- 
 tractor shall receive an ofScial notice for his guidance. 
 
 Article 25. 
 
 Indemnities. 
 
 No indemnity shall be allowed to the contractor on account of losses, injuries, 
 damages caused by negligence, want of means, or bad workmanship, unless it can he 
 established that the injuries or delays came from a superior power and were inde- 
 pendent of his will. 
 
 The contractor will be allowed to plead the superior power, whether for a claim of 
 indemnity of any kind whatever, or to justify the uonexecution of any part of the 
 work, or to obtain a remission of all or part of the penalties that he had incurredj 
 only in case that, within 10 days of the circumstances or events from which may 
 have resulted the obstacles or damages, he will have made known the sitviation to 
 the administration. 
 
 Article 26. 
 
 The contractor shall comprise in his offer — • 
 
 1. A sum of l,134Vyif francs for works unforeseen. 
 
 2. The expenses of printing, of advertising, of posters, of stamp and registering the 
 conditions and legal contract of adjudication, valued at 20U francs. 
 
EUROPE — BELGIUM. 29 
 
 The payment of these expenses shall he made within 8 days following the approval 
 of the legal contract. 
 
 '^. Three per cent, upon the total of the amount of adjudicatioa to the profit of the 
 proviuce. 
 
 Article 27, 
 
 Security. 
 
 In order to take part in the adjudication the compotitwrs must deposit in the 
 national bauk the sum of 4,000 francs either in cash or national bonds. 
 
 The receipt for the deposit must be annexed to the offer. Any offer to which this 
 receipt is not annexed will not be considered. 
 
 The restitution of the deposits to the unsuccessful competitors will be made, with 
 the authority, of the governor of the province, immediately after the approval of the 
 adjudication. 
 
 The amount deposited by the one obtaining the contract will remain in the national 
 bank as security until the temporary reception of the work. 
 
 Article 28. 
 
 Method of adjudication. 
 
 The assignment will be made upon the offers addressed to the grefiBer (notary) of 
 the province of Antwerp, by registered letters placed in the post at least 1 day be- 
 fore the date fixed for the adjudication. 
 
 The greflBer, assisted by the delegates of the communal administration and chief 
 engineer, will proceed to the opening of the offers in public session. 
 
 The offers, which shall contain stipulations other than those provided for in the 
 given conditions, will not be considered. 
 
 The offers and the legal copy of adjudication will be submitted to the approval of 
 the common council, and if necessary to that of the deputation permaneute. 
 
 Prepared by provincial engineer. 
 
 Antwerp, April 16, 1890. 
 
 (Signed.) . 
 
 Seen and presented chief engineer, director. 
 Antwerp, April 17, 1890. 
 
 (Signature.) . 
 
 FOKM OF OFFER. 
 
 I, the undersigned (full name), contractor of public works, living at street, 
 
 , No. , do engage by this offer, under guaranty of all my property, real and 
 
 personal, to undertake, upon the terms and provisions of the contract and conditions, 
 all the work for the construction of a chaussi5e following the route No. 3 at Waerloos, 
 in consideration of a sum of (indicate the amount in writing and in letters), putting 
 on the work paving of the fourth sample (indicate the kind and origin of the paving 
 stone). 
 
 Made at , the day of , 18—. 
 
 (Signed.) • 
 
30 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 DISTRICT OF WAERLOOS. 
 
 Estini,ated expense of ■works to be executed ia the construction of a carriage road 
 following the route No. 3: 
 
 Description. 
 
 Dimensions. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 g 
 
 ■s 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Width. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Earth works : 
 
 Excavation, filling in, and trans- 
 port of earth. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Sectos. 
 
 Dekas. 
 
 1,917. 50 meters. 
 
 3,446.00 meters . 
 861.50 square 
 
 meters. 
 1,198.44 cubic 
 
 meters. 
 1, 917. 50 meters. 
 
 1,917.50 meters. 
 
 4,793.75 meters 
 
 75. 00 meters. 
 
 Fn. 
 0.60 
 
 O.l.S 
 0.20 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.55 
 
 0.10 
 
 6.70 
 0.10 
 
 JVancs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Turttng the ridge of the sideways . 
 
 Dieiging the coffer and furnish- 
 ing the sand. 
 
 "Working up the profile of the 
 sideways. 
 
 3,446.00 
 1, 917. 50 
 
 0.25 
 2.50 
 
 
 172 30 
 
 0.25 
 
 " 898. S2 
 
 
 
 
 191. 75 
 
 Paying: 
 
 Pavings of 0.14 by 0.16 (porphyry 
 or sU)ne) and borders, 4-inch 
 sample, common limestoue 
 granite. 
 
 1,917.50 
 
 2.50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4, 868. 76 meters 
 4, 868. 75 meters. 
 
 32, 620. 63 
 
 Travanx d'art : 
 
 Aqueduct, 0.80 by 0.80 meter sec- 
 tion. 
 
 Aqueduct, 0.30 by 0.35 meter sec- 
 tion. 
 
 
 
 
 543 96 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 pieces 
 
 1.50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 37,865.69 
 
 Expenses of registering, printing, 
 adjudication, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200. 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 39, 200. 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40,376.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 The present estimate amounts to the sum of 40,376 francs. 
 Prepared by provincial engineer : 
 
 (Signature.) 
 Antwerp (Date). 
 Engineer-in-chief, director. 
 
 (Signature.) 
 Antwerp (date). 
 
 HIGHWAYS IN BELGIUM AND IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 SDPOIiT J?r CONSUL TANNEB, 01 LEIQE. 
 [From Consular Heports Xo. 24.) 
 
 While the Department of State is making such laudable efforts for the extension, 
 of our commerce and industry it behooves us not to lose .sight of matters at home 
 equally conducive to our prosperity. 
 
 In order to lay clearly and concisely my subject before the Department I will do 
 so by presenting two pictures. 
 
EUEOPE — BELGIUM, 31 
 
 PUBLIC HIGHWAYS IN BELGIUM. 
 
 Americana who find themselves in Europe are struck with iistouishinent at the 
 " enormous loads drawn by horses and dogs here. One glance of the eye from the bulk 
 just mentioned to the roads and half the wonder would be accounted for, because 
 the roads have almost everything to do with it. We are too apt to ignore that which 
 we trample under foot. The ancients knew and appreciated more the importance of 
 good public roads than we do to-day, though at the present time in Europe this is a 
 subject of first importance. 
 
 Many of the roads built by the ancient Eomans and traveled by the proud Boman 
 conquerors remain to this day. This is particularly the case in Turkey, where they 
 have, ever since the Roman era, been in use with little or no repair. Of the numer- 
 ous evidences left by them of their greatness and civilization I deem these roads the 
 seal and stamp. 
 
 Belgium is divided into nine provinces, and each province is the seat of a well- 
 organized State government, presided over by a governor. Each of the nine prov- 
 inces, at each seat of government, has a bureau for roads and bridges whose chief 
 gives his undivided attention to these things. 
 
 The roads are most carefully engineered iu the first place, heavy grades, even in 
 mountainous localities, being carefully avoided. The roads are built in an oval 
 form, and in most cases are paved with stones; in others gravel forms the road bed, 
 and still in others gravel covers the stone, which, soon becoming hard and smooth, 
 makes the best road bed of all others, because the jolts and noise of a paved road, 
 which are both tiresome and disagreeable, are avoided, and then the wear and tear 
 are nob so great on the running gear, and this kind of road is decidedly more agree- 
 able to pedestrians and possesses, in addition to other advantages enumerated, the 
 advantage that if the gravel washes away the stones remain and a good road is al- 
 wajs assured. 
 
 The stones composing the roads are of a blunt wedge shape, 4 or 5 inches square, 
 and are quickly laid and quickly taken up if necessary. These stones are uaiform 
 and regular in size, and, when placed, dirt is placed over the new pavement and then 
 a large roller, drawn by four horses, is passed and repassed over it until the stones 
 are well settled in their places and the crevices filled with earth. In constructing 
 roads here regard is always paid to locality aud liability to wash. Where tliere is 
 no danger of washes stones are dispensed with altogether and an oval-shaped gravel 
 road substituted at less cost, but in all cases the sides of the road receiving the drain- 
 age and where it is apt to show first symptoms of yielding to bad weather are care- 
 fully paved so that washes and gullies can not commence in that quarter. 
 
 These roads are flanked on either side by two, and sometimes four, rows of shade 
 trees, which add much beauty to the country through which they ruu, and from a 
 distance are particularly picturesque where several roads intersect. One can mark 
 the roads in their windings sometimes as far as the eye can reach by these fresh 
 green shade trees, which, with the various teams of horse aud dog laden witli the 
 products of farms, mines, and shop, conspire to make a very pretty scene. I never 
 look at these roads but what I think of the enormous blessing and luxury they 
 would be in certain sections of our country. 
 
 The public roads of Belgium enter into successful competition with the railroads, 
 so much so that a man who has his team does not by any means consider himself 
 forced to send his products by rail. It is one of the commonest of sights here in 
 Liege to see wagons laden with merchandise from Brussels, which is (JO, or from Ant- 
 werp, which is 72, miles from this place; this fact does not possess anything aston- 
 ishing until the enormous loads pulled that distance by one horse is considered, and 
 there is nothing that eo astonishes the American as this. Sometimes the wagon 
 itself looks like a sufiicient charge for two horses, while wagon, load, and all are 
 drawn by one with the greatest case. Those horses are of a larger aud stronger 
 l)uild than our horses, and from their size and strength are called in England " En- 
 
32 STKEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 glisb drafts.'' Place the same load ou almost any of our roads in the UuHed States, 
 and at least two more, if not three more, " English drafts" would be required to pull 
 it the same distance'. Dog carts come to this market, laden with beef and other 
 products of the farm, a distance of 12 and 15 miles, drawn by one dog. TWo grown, 
 persons return in the wagon. 
 
 AMERICAN HIGHWAYS. 
 
 In presenting the other side of the picture the task is not an agreeable one because 
 I will have to write some very disagreeable things. Can it be §aid that we have any 
 public roads in the United States f I have only made the acquaintance of the public 
 roads in the Western and Southern States, and there is only one within my knowl- 
 edge that can make pretentions to being called a road in the Belgian sense, and that 
 is in the Valley of Virginia. Most of the others that have come under my notice are 
 little short of bogs, swamps, and marshes, and the bridges mantraps. These roads 
 are utterly at the mercy of the weather, and are passable or impassable according to 
 it, and are entirely out of keeping with the enlightened and intelligent people who, 
 through apathy, patiently endure such a state of affairs. 
 
 I have been in certain sections of the South, in the fall and winter months, when the 
 farmer had gathered his crop, and when the business season ■would.paturally be good, 
 when the farmer would go to market, make his sales, and return with merchandise and 
 heard the most dismal complainings of dull business and " hard times." This is the 
 case simply because in most cases the roads are utterly impassable, the distribution of 
 products is at a standstill, and of course dull business follows. There are few outside 
 of these sections that know the real condition of these roads. The emigrants, how- 
 ever, know more on the subject than many Americans, as I will show further on. I 
 have been on the roads and seen a poor old Eosinante tugging away at a wagon stuck 
 in the mud almost out of sight ; -when released from his gear he could hardly pull him- 
 telf out of the mire. Some of these roads are marked with skeletons of horses that 
 have been beaten to death or drowned in the mud or some bridgeless stream, and 
 wrecks of wagons and other vehicles mark the place of an accident to some one who 
 had courage enough to venture out on the road. I was in oneof the most beautiful of 
 our Southern cities last winter, audwhile there read a glowing account in one of the 
 newspapers of the place of a horse having been smothered in the mud, and this on 
 one of the principal streets of the city. When poor roads prevail in a section, every- 
 thing else is very apt to be poor — the horse, the farmer, and the merchant, and the 
 church. 
 
 Where good roads prevail you find a community that would be loth to give them up. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that in spite of the strenuous efforts made in some sections of 
 our couutry to induce emigrants to settle among them, very few accept the invitation. 
 I am in a position here to know something of the emigrant. He generally posts him- 
 self pretty thoroughly about a section before he goes to it. This is made easy by the 
 numerous emigrants who have preceded him, and he is sure to have acquaintances in 
 several sectious who give him informaliou. I have invariably been informed by them 
 that they would not go to a section where the roads were impassable. This is their 
 only objection. They inform me that they would gladly go to such sections, but that 
 they do not wish to be mud-bound or mud-blockaded for six months in the year. I 
 can say to such sections that they must make good public roads before they can in- 
 duce emigrants to come among them. If it is economy that restrains, it is a false 
 economy ; every day that they allow their public roads to remain in an impassable, 
 condition, their streams to remain without bridges, they deal a direct and severe blow 
 at their own interests ; the country will remain undeveloped, its hidden treasures 
 jocked up. These roads, if improved at once, newly engineered, and iriade good 
 roads, with permanent bridges that could not be swept away with every rise in the 
 stream, would give some sign of permanence of settlement, and of contentment with 
 the section; the burden of the tax would soon be shared by so many that the roads 
 
EUROPE — BELGIUM. 33 
 
 would not only be self-sustaining, but would be a source of revenue to the State. 
 The taxes would return in the improved condition of stock and running gear, and of 
 the increased loads that could be sent to mari^t in wagons. Circulation, which is 
 the baclibone of business, would be facilitated ; where now it is a hazard and a task 
 to venture on the public highways it would become a pleasure. In short, there are 
 few blessings that any community can know equal to that of having first-class roads. 
 But unless roads are made first-class, to commence with, you will never have them, 
 and you throw away the money you invest in them. 
 
 Geo. C. Tanner, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consui-atb, 
 
 Liege and Verviers, August 1, 1882. 
 
 BRUSSELS DISTRICT. 
 
 BHPOBT BY CONSUL BOOSETBLI. 
 
 STREETS. 
 
 Owing to the iiumeroua quarries existing in B elgiuin, very little else 
 than stone is employed in paving the streets and highways, in and 
 around Brussels. A few streets in the center of the city, as well as 
 the sidewalks of the railway stations, are paved with condensed asphalt, 
 coming from Val de Travers. On account of the peculiar situation of 
 the city, the majority of the streets are of too precipitous an incline to 
 permit the successful condensation of asphalt. Wood paving is em- 
 ployed on some of the boulevards. 
 
 Asphalt paving. — 'Streets destined to receive asphalt are constructed 
 in the following manner : The soil is removed to a depth of 6 inches, 
 the ground then leveled into shape, preparatory to receiving a deposit 
 of concrete, composed of Portland cement and gravel, upon which the 
 asphalt is applied to a depth of 2 inches. The method of laying wood 
 pavement is similar to that employed iu the United States. 
 
 Stone paving. — Primary preparation of streets to be paved with stone 
 is identically the same as when asphalt is employed. A deep bed of 
 sand is, however, deposited instead of concrete, upon which paving 
 stones, known as Belgian blocks, are placed in transverse rows, and 
 firmly fixed in a smooth and comparatively compact mass, by use of a 
 heavy paving ram worked by hand, a slight sprinkling of sand is ap- 
 plied and the street declared ready for traffic. 
 
 BOULEVARDS. 
 
 The boulevards of Brussels, forming a continuous and beautiful cir- 
 cuit around the city, are abundantly planted in fine, large elms, maples, 
 sycamore, and chestnut trees, affording delightful promenades to pedes- 
 trians and equestrians, as well as fine carriage drives. 
 
 The boulevards vary in width according to section of city which they 
 traverse. They are divided into roadways for tramcars and heavy 
 33a 3 
 
34 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 traffic, walks for pedestrians, and roads for carriages and equestrians. 
 The walks devoted to pedestrians are constructed from pulverized 
 granite covered with a sufficiently deep layer of sand rolled hard and 
 smooth, and afford ^agreeable promenades even in wet weather. The 
 roads are built on similar principles as ordinary roads, that is, the 
 ground is excavated to an agreed depth, say from 10 to 16 inches, and 
 filled in with the paving material. The roads devoted to equestrians 
 are filled in to a depth of 16 inches with broken brick, which after being 
 leveled into shape is covered with a thick bed of sea sand. The carriage 
 roads are paved in part with asphalt, wood, and also broken and pul- 
 verized granite, the latter producing a fine macadamized roadway. 
 
 The pavements and paving stones, their origin, duration, and cost 
 are as follows: Porphyry, from quarries at Quenast and Lessines, esti- 
 mated duration 75 years ; sandstone from quarries at Ecoussines, esti- 
 mated duration 60 years. No. 4 from the vicinity of the rivers Ourthe 
 and Meuse, estimated duration 40 years; limestone, no longer accepted 
 by the city government, estimated duration 25 years. 
 
 Porphyry, per square yard, 9.50 francs ($1.83); sandstone, per square 
 yard, 8.50 to 9.50 francs ($1.64 to f 1.83) ; asphalt from Yal de Travers, 
 per square yard, 17 francs ($3 .27) ; wood on concrete foundation, per 
 square yard, 11 francs ($2.12) ; the two last named pavements are 
 highly esteemed and m uch employed on the boulevards. 
 
 HIGHWAYS. 
 
 Roads in Belgium are divided into three categories and distributed 
 under the following administrations : 
 
 1. Government roads under the administration of bridges and road- 
 ways (civil engineering). 
 
 2. Provincial roads, controlled by the provincial government, 
 
 3. Communal roads, controlled by the communal authorities. 
 Dimensions. — Government roads : Width of roadway, 5 yards 20 
 
 inches; width of sidewalk, 2 yards 8 inches; width of ditch, three- 
 fourths yard. 
 
 Provincial roads : Width of roadway, 5 yards 20 inches ; width of - 
 sidewalks, 2 yards 27 inches ; width of ditch, three-fourths yard. 
 
 Communal roads : Width of roadway, 4 yards 16 inches ; width of 
 sidewalk and ditch, 1 yard 24 inches. 
 
 Materials. — These roads are paved with native porphyry and sand- 
 stone of following dimensions : 7 by 6^ inches, 6J by 5J inches, 5^ by 4| 
 inches, 4| by 3J by 8J by 7 inches, 4a by 3^ by 7 by 5^ inches. Curb- 
 stone, 30 by 15 inches each side of road. 
 
EUROPE — BELGIUM. 35 
 
 Cost of oonslruction of road destined for frequent and heavy trafjlo, per square yard. 
 
 Preparing bed 12 iuclies deep |0. 03 
 
 Ashes 09 
 
 Paving stones 6i by Scinches ' 1.31 
 
 Labor , , 04 
 
 Total 1.47 
 
 Ashes per cubic yard 30 to 40 cents ; saad per cubic yard, 48 to 58 
 
 cents. 
 
 With rough or iroken stone. 
 
 Preparing bed 12 inches deep |0. 03 
 
 Rough stone, 8 inches deep 16 
 
 Broken stone or pebbles, 3 to 4*inobe8 deep 11 
 
 Labor 04 
 
 Contractor 03^ 
 
 Total per square yard 37^ 
 
 Cost of maintenance. — Country roads, per running yard, 4 cents; 
 near industrial districts, 6 cents ; proximity to sugar factories, 6 to 10 
 cents. 
 
 Eoads are annually inspected and repaired as follows : 
 
 From 25 to 20 consecutive yards out of every 4,000 or 5,000 yards of 
 pavement are taken up and replaced by new material. On roads de- 
 voted to heavy traffic, paving stones 7 by 6J inches are employed, as 
 also on inclines averaging less than three-fourths of an inch per yard. 
 On inclines averaging more than three-fourths of an inch per yard, 
 stones &\ by 5J, or heavy oblong stones 4| by 3J by 8J by 7, are em- 
 ployed. Where the soil is very firm, sandstone blocks "7 by 6^ inches 
 are preferred, which, with heavy oblong stones, are also used on inclines 
 according to declivity. Satisfactory drainage is produced by deposit- 
 ing a deep bed of &-8hes prior to placing pavement. On roads of light 
 traffic blocks 4f by 4f inches are used on the level. While 4 J by 3 J 
 and 6^ by 5 inches are employed on inclines. 
 
 Contract for keeping roads in repair is by public bid, and is awarded 
 to lowest bidder for a term of three years, the average cost of repairs 
 to roadway 5 yards, 20 inches wide, as follows: Porphyry blocks, per 
 square yard, 6 cents ; sandi^tone per square yard, 5 cents. The value of 
 land lying near or adjacent to improved roads Is increased according 
 to proximity to some large city or industrial center. 
 
 Geo. W. Eoosbvelt, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Brussels, February 23, 1891. 
 
36 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 FLANDERS. 
 
 BE PORT BT CONSVL OSBORNE, OF GHENT. 
 I. CITY STREETS. 
 
 The material and its sources.— The exclusive paving material for all 
 the towns in the proviaces of East and West Flanders, indeed, prac- 
 tically of the entire kingdom, is Belgian blocks. These are of sand- 
 stone of different degrees of hardness. There are three recognized 
 varieties. First, those from Bcoussiaes, province of Hainaut, which 
 are of medium hardaess and smoothness. It is these quarries which 
 supply most of the paving material. The sam? locality also furnishes a 
 blue limestone, sometimes called Flemish granite, which is cut into 
 slabs and used for the curbstones. Second, those from Quenast, 
 province of Brabant, which are very hard and smooth. Lastly, those 
 from the neighborhood of the river Ourthe, province of Inege, which 
 are least hard and rather rough. Superior blocks for sidewalks are 
 obtained from Lessines, in Hainaut. 
 
 Methods of building and maintairiing. — ^The paving stones are gener- 
 ally in cubic form, but lately rectangular ones are preferred. There are 
 eight sizes used for paving, of which I give below the dimensions of the 
 five principal ones. Numbers 3 and 4 are those used in Belgium, espe- 
 cially the latter. The largest size is only used in large cities. 
 
 Dimensions. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 H^o.3. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 No. 5. ■' 
 
 Paving blocks : ^ ' 
 
 Inches. 
 7 to 7. 8 
 
 7 
 7 
 
 11.8 to 15.7 
 
 13-.7 
 
 Inches. 
 6 to 7 
 6 
 6 
 
 11 to 15 
 
 6 
 
 11.8 
 
 Inches. 
 5. 7 to G 
 6.7 
 5.7 
 
 10 to U 
 5.7 
 9.8 
 
 Inches. 
 4. 7 to 5. 7 
 
 Breadth - -- 
 
 4.7 
 
 
 4.7 
 
 Blocks for border : 
 
 9.4 to 13.-4 
 
 Breadth. 
 
 4.7 
 
 
 7.8 
 
 
 
 The process of laying the pavement is simple. First, the soil is re- 
 moved to a convenient depth and the "form" is prepared by leveling 
 the ground in the shape it will have when the pave is completed. A bed 
 of sand to a depth of half a foot is then deposited. On this the blocks 
 are laid in transverse rows conveniently close together, the joints 
 always coming to the middle of those of the contiguous rows. Next, 
 they employ an iron paving ram weighing about35 pounds, and worked, 
 by hand. With this they strike each stone, strengthening and smooth- 
 ing the whole. Lastly, a thin coating of fine sand is put on, which 
 gradually penetrates the crevices. The street is then ready for use. 
 
 The stones for the border are somewhat larger, as shown in the 
 above table, than the other blocks. Next to these come the curb-stones, 
 which are of varying dimensions and are placed upright, the top level 
 with the sidewalk. 
 
EUEOPE — BELGIUM. 37 
 
 The sidewalks are constructed similarly to the roadway, except that 
 the blocks are usually superior aud cemented together. 
 
 The pave is a durable one and few repairs are necessary even on a 
 street of heavy traflSc. However, when they are made it is a simple 
 matter, generally the re.idjustment or substitution of a few blocks. 
 
 The streets are kept scrupulously clean, usually by hand. In Ghent 
 sweeping machines traverse the principal streets at night. The city 
 government has charge of this work. 
 
38 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Cost of construction and repairing. — The cost of construction varies 
 from $1.04 to $1.21 per square yard for the ordinary size of block No. 4, 
 the materials being included. 
 
 The expense of repairs averages from 2 to 4 cents per square yard. 
 
 Both the building and repairing are at the expense of the city. No 
 special assessment is levied, but it is included with other public im- 
 provements. On the contrary the expense of the sidewalks is upon the 
 property-owners. 
 
 Character of the pavement. — As has been stated, it is a substantial 
 pavement. On the streets of heavy trafl&c the strain of ponderous Bel- 
 gian wagons and immense Flemish horses must be considerable. Con- 
 versely, its character and universality, for there is scarcely an unpaved 
 street in any town, necessitate strongly built carriages. Therefore an 
 American buggy would be unsuitable here. 
 
 There is a peculiar danger to the towns in the event of riots, as has 
 • been illustrated in the past. The paving stones, when once one is re- 
 moved, are easily detached and make convenient and formidable mis- 
 siles in the hands of a mob for the destruction of life and property. 
 
 II. COUNTRY KOADWAYS. 
 
 The number of roads in the country has been nearly doubled since 
 1830. There are four kinds to be considered, those made respectively by 
 the central government, the provincial government, communal author- 
 ity, and by private individuals. The roads all have the center paved 
 in the style of the streets. Except on the great highways, the width 
 of this paved portion rarely permits the passage of two teams upon it. 
 The following are the average dimensions of the great government 
 roads traversing the city of Ghent : 
 
 Width of 
 paving. 
 
 Antwerp to Lillo via Glient (Franco) 
 
 IJniaaels to Ostend via Ghent 
 
 Ghent to Valenciennes (France) 
 
 Ft. 
 
 15 
 16 
 13 
 
 The provincial roads connect less important places and have inferior 
 dimensions. The communal roads or chemins vicinaux comprise all the 
 small country roads. The last class, those made by individual enter- 
 prise, or Routes concSdees, are constructed with the permission of the 
 government entirely at the expense of the individuals, who also engage 
 to keep the road in repairs for a certain period", usually 99 years. In re. 
 turn they are allowed to charge toll for this period. At its expiration 
 the road becomes the absolute property of the Government. 
 
 Method of construction. — The manner of paving the central portion is 
 the same as that employed for the streets. The earth taken cutis 
 thrown on either side upon the unpaved strips. 
 
EUROPE — BELGIUM. 
 
 39 
 
 
40 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 lu the case of the large roads ditches are made on both sides beyond 
 the uupaved portions. A sectional view of a government road is ap- 
 pended. 
 
 Cost of building and repairing. — The cost of paving varies from $1.10 
 to $1.21 per square yard, the blocks and sand being included and size 
 No. 4 being used. The cost of making the unpaved portions is compara. 
 tiyely slight, the earth used being at hand. 
 
 The cost of repairs in the pave varies from 5 to 8 cents per square 
 yard, according to their nature. 
 
 The wages of road laborers are 6 and 7 cents per hour. 
 
 Maintenance. — The roads are kept in as good condition as can be ex- 
 pected. The unpaved portions easily become muddy, owing to frequent 
 rains and the character of the soil. An extraordinary precaution is 
 taken when it thaws, which is no less than a law regulating the weight 
 . of loads which may pass during the continuance of the thawing. At the 
 moment that it sets in, the governor of the province issues a proclama- 
 tion that " les barrieres sont fermees," this being an old expression signi- 
 fying that the road is closed, usually for an indefinite time. This is 
 published in the newspapers and in public places. The law provides 
 with exactness what are the maximum loads allowed under different 
 conditions. For instance, a one-horse cart with narrow tire can not 
 pass with a load of more than 880 pounds. But a broad-tired one may 
 weigh 1,540 pounds, and a broad-tired wagon is allowed to pass with a 
 ton. Exceptions are made in the case of the mail, coaches, carriages, 
 and army wagons, but the last must be furnished with a permit from 
 the governor showing the weight. Fines are established for a violation 
 of these provisions which apply only to the roads in the country. 
 
 John B. Osborne, Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Ohent, December, 16, 1890. 
 
 LIEGE DISTRICT. 
 
 MEPOJiT BY CONSUL DAXFORTM. 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 One can mount his wagon at the English Channel and drive through 
 the breadth of Europe (except in time of snow) or its length, without 
 sinking as deep as the fellies of his wheels in mud in any weather or 
 at any time of the year. The roads are so firm that rain does not soften 
 them ; they are so thick that frost does not break them up. There are 
 no sloughs to wade through, no periods when the factory and the farm 
 are cut oft" from the rest of the world by an impassable sea of mud. Two 
 horses start with a cart or wagon weighing a ton, having upon it a load 
 weighing two or more tons, and arrive with no breakage and at least 
 
EUROPE — BELGIUM. 41 
 
 friction to their destiaation. The loss in brealidowus of vehicles, of 
 breakage in harness, in time to labor, in increased food, shortened life, 
 and injuries to horses by our bad roads in the United States would 
 amount to an Immense sum of money if statistics could be gathered and 
 formulated. Without doubt the economy from this one source would 
 go far towards keeping a road in repair when once it was thoroughly 
 constructed where trafdc is considerable. 
 
 The economy of good country roads to those using food and fuel in . 
 our large but more especially our small cities is also to be emphasized. 
 Bailroads, also, are directly interested in good country roads. Whatever 
 Qpens up the remote farm lot for easy hauling to the railway station, 
 or brings an additional acre of arable land nearer to the city, cheapens 
 the market for the poorest and increases the volume of trade and com- 
 merce for all. The whole community shares in the benefit, and can 
 therefore afford to share in the expense of building and keeping such 
 roads. 
 
 PKESERYING THE LANDSCAPE. 
 
 The chief material for the construction of durable roads is rock of 
 some kind ; the harder the rock the better the economy, other things, 
 such as accessibility, vicinage, etc., being equal. A hard-rock country 
 usually possesses a beautiful or a sublime landscape. Nature has taken 
 thousands of years to construct that land scape. Prom the beautiful val- 
 ley of the Ourth, not far from Lifege, immense supplies of stone are taken 
 for city streets and country roads. Yet the great picturesque ledges of 
 rock repose untouched in the same sublime forms into which the ages and 
 the storms have fashioned them. Stone qu arries have been opened from 
 ridges behind the river fronts of the hill ranges, and by cars attached to 
 wire ropes the stone is passed down to the river and directly into the 
 boats and carts at less expense than it would have taken to work quarries 
 neartheriverbank. Gravity does most of the work. The full car from the 
 high hill lets itself down and pulls the empty one up. It is to be hoped 
 that improved roads will not result in damaged scenery. The two ad- 
 vantages of good roads and unmarred scenery are compatible where 
 the spirit of taste is blended wth the spirit of utility. When it is re- 
 membered that unblemished scenery has its market value, command- 
 ing a higher price, men may be induced to veil their assaults upon the 
 hills. 
 
 STREETS. 
 
 The extent to which squared hewn stone is employed for street and 
 sidewalk and scarcely anything else, creates an appalling monotony of 
 Belgian pavement in the cities of this consulate. The sidewalks re- 
 produce, in miniature cubes of 4J inches by 4J inches, the appearance 
 of the streets, which one could wish himself shod in iron to escape the 
 discomfort and pain caused by the inequality of these torturing cubes. 
 The stone slab and the asphaltum walk are luxuries belonging to other 
 
42 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 parts of our planet. Nor is there such traffic in our city streets, either 
 iu weight or amount, that compels resort to those expensive foundations 
 employed in the immense cities of London and Paris. 
 
 I give below the cost in construction and maintenance of this city 
 of liihge possessing 165,000 inhabitants. It is in the midst of a densely 
 populated industrial district and heavy loads of iron and coal are 
 trucked upon the streets. This street traffic is much heavier than in 
 most cities of a similar size in the United States. The square cubes of 
 stone are laid upon beds of broken stone or ashes in the more promi- 
 nent streets ; in other streets upon the natural beds of the earth with 
 a slight layer of sand as an absorbent, the curve being about 1 in 30. 
 Curbstones measure 7J inches in width, 3J to 6 feet in length, 1 to IJ 
 feet in depth, and are tougued and grooved at the ends to aboutlj inches. 
 The paving stones or blocks still used here have been rejected as too large 
 for the best results where the heavier traffic of larger cities is more ex- 
 acting. They wear round and knobby, become slippery, and are moved 
 to inferior streets, whence they are finally removed to be broken into 
 small stones for roadbeds and for park, boulevard, and country roads. 
 
 It is to be regretted that the natural twofold division of city streets 
 and country roads suggested by the department can not be strictly fol- 
 lowed in this report. The streets and roads of Belgium are peculiar. 
 They interblend. We have city streets partly constructed of paved 
 ways and partly of broken stone, while into the country extend the 
 paved crowns of square blocks of stone with broken stone roadways 
 upon each side. It may therefore be of interest, and not without profit, 
 if the classification observed in Belgium by the Government is outlined, 
 bearing in mind that some of the Belgian country roads resemble some 
 of our city streets lacking curbstones. 
 
 The streets and roadways of Belgium are built and maintained by 
 three different authorities — the state, the province, and the commune 
 (the city or the village). 
 
 But the supervision, in the last resort, belongs to the state, that 
 through its engineers and supervisors must approve of all that has been 
 planned or accomplished in the construction and repairing of roads, 
 or granting concessions for small rail or tram roads to use the common 
 roads. No material can be used in building or maintaining roads unless 
 the state approve of it. It is, however, generally admitted that the 
 material, that is the nearest, has to be considered in the first place ; 
 but where there is no kind of material near the place the very best is 
 to be procured. The material generally used is granite, grit, and lime- 
 stone. 
 
 The building as well as the maintenance of roads is done in three 
 ways : By sealed bids, in which case the lowest bid is considered if a 
 responsible person. He has to build or maintain according to the plans 
 previously published in conformity with detailed specifications. 
 
EUROPE — BELGIUM. 
 
 43 
 
 (2) The streets or roads are built or repaired and luaintained under 
 the supervision of the state,, the province, or the cOmmune. This way 
 is called by regie. 
 
 (3) Sometimes the two methods are combined. 
 Highroads are of three grades : 
 
 Jirst Grade. 
 
 g*«<<'^/^fi^ 
 
 :i«^ ii%Ftj 
 
 a^t 
 
 First grade, width within the borders 16Jfeet; sidewalks, 8 to 11 J 
 feet; ditch, 5 feet; depth, IJ feet to 1 foot 8 inches. 
 
 Second GreiSe. 
 
 Second grade, width within the borders, 11 J feet; sidewalks, 6 to 8 
 feet ; ditch, 3 to 4 feet. 
 Third grade, width within the borders 10 feet or even less. 
 New road destined to receive a small railway or tram. 
 
 Where the highroad is designed to receive a small railway a sideway 
 is constructed for the purpose, whose foundation is 1^ feet, with a width 
 of 10 feet. 
 
 PA.VED EOiDS. 
 
 The paving stones 6 to6| inches in width and6J to 7 inches in depth. 
 These 6J to 7 inches with the foundation form the roadway, which is 
 generally 12 inches. 
 
 The roadway is maintained by two sets of borders, having the same 
 width as the paving stones and 11 to 14 inches in length ; in height 
 they fill generally the whole depth of about 12 inches. Under the pav- 
 
44 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 ing stones is a layer of sand, gravel, or ashes from a zinc mill, of 8 
 inches; this is rammed to the prescribed curve of cross section, which 
 is one-fortieth of the width of the road. 
 
 The cost of these roads varies according to the material and the dis- 
 tance they are from the place where they are to be employed. 
 
 The average cost of construction is $1.13 a square yard. 
 
 MACADAMIZED EOADS. 
 
 Depth of the roadway 12 inches, limited by two ranges of borders ; 
 thefoundation consists of rough stones drawn closely together, vertically, 
 of about 7 to 8 inches height ; this stone bed is then covered with a 4 to 
 4J inch layer o^broken stones. 
 
 The curve of cross section is also one-fortieth of the width of the 
 road. 
 
 The cost of building varies as in the case of paved roads. The aver- 
 age cost is 40 cents a square yard. 
 
 MAINTENANCE OF EOADS. 
 
 The paved roads are kept in repair by the use of new stones where 
 needed ; the rejected stones are given to the property owners bordering 
 upon the main road if they wish to pave the sideroads, or are given to 
 the commune to pave ways connected with the highroads. In the con- 
 tract the quantity of old and new stones is mentioned, but all other 
 repairs, to whatever they amount, have to be done at a fixed price by 
 the contractor. 
 
 The average cost per yard is $0.01775. 
 
 However, in city streets, where only new stones are employed, the 
 average cost of maintenance is about $0.041945 per square yard 
 
 MAINTENANCE OF ROADS OF BROKEN STONES. 
 
 The maintenance of this kind of roads consists in renewing the sup- 
 ply of broken stones to keep the curve of the cross section at one- 
 fortieth of the width of the road. This is done by contract and the 
 contractor has to fulfill his engagement, whatever may be the amount 
 of work to be done. 
 
 The cost is about $0.0129 per yard. 
 
 Experience has shown thajt the value of the ground is in direct ratio 
 to the good condition of the streets and roads by which they are trav- 
 ersed. 
 
 " Indeed it depends on the state of the roads and ways to improve the 
 sbil to put to profit the forests, mines, and industrial plants," are the 
 words of the engineer of public roads and highways, with which I 
 close this report. 
 
 James R. Danfoeth, 
 
 United States Consulate, Consul. 
 
 LUge, February 24, 1891. 
 
EUROPE — DENMARK. 45 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 REPORT BY aONStJL BYDER OF OOPENHAaEN. 
 HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The construction and maintenance of the public roads in Denmark 
 are under the management and at the charge of the local municipal 
 boards, subject however to State supervisal, and these roads may be 
 divided into four classes, accordin g to the extent and nature of the 
 trafiflc. 
 
 In the first class are placed such roads as have a daily passage of at 
 least 100 vehicles, and which at the same time have a large traffic of 
 heavily laden wagons. Such description of traffic in this country may 
 now be confined to the limit of the nearest one-half Danish mile (1 Dan- 
 ish mile = 4f English) leading to the main entrance of the principal 
 provincial towns. The chief characteristic of this class is a strougly 
 built substructure capable of bearing the pressure of all heavy traffic 
 (however light the wear and tear superstructure might be) with a good 
 superstructure of broken stone of about 10 inches in thickness. 
 
 In the second class are reckoned such roads as are frequented daily 
 by 50 to 100 vehicles, with some but no considerable heavy goods trans- 
 port. Such description of traffic may be said to embrace all the more 
 important public roads beyoud the one-half mile limit leading from the 
 towns. The main feature of this class is a good foundation with a wear 
 and tear superstructure' of screened rubble or of small broken stones of 
 about 8 inches in depth. 
 
 To the third class belong all roads with slight carriage traffic, say 
 from 20 to 50 vehicles daily, and without any goods conveyance. This 
 class has a strongly constructed superstructure about 8 inches thick, 
 composed either of screened gravel or of broken stones, with a sub- 
 structure of unscreened rubble. 
 
 To the fourth class belong all roads with a daily passage of less than 
 20 vehicles. This class of roads has only a superstructure of 3 to 4 
 inches thick, composed either of screened or unscreened rubble. 
 
 In the substructure of these different classes of roads a greater ex- 
 cavated mass than of 10,000 cubic fathoms (about 66,700 cubic metres) 
 per Danish mile for the first class seldom occurs. In the second class 
 the excavated mass will seldom exceed 5,000 cubic fathoms per Danish 
 mile; and for the third and fourth classes, such excavation as a rule 
 will be under 15,000 cubic metres and not unfrequently even below 6,000 
 cubic metres per mile. The full breadth of the different classes of roads. 
 
46 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 with the de<1 actions for side paths, ditches, etc., and the breadth of the 
 carriage road are as follows, viz : 
 
 Description. 
 
 Full breadth 
 of Lighway. 
 
 Deductions 
 for sides. 
 
 Carriage 
 road. 
 
 For iirst-class road - . . 
 For second-class road 
 For third-class road . . 
 For fourth-class road . 
 
 Feet. 
 
 32 to 40 
 28 
 21 
 20 
 
 reet. 
 
 16 to 20 
 14 
 12 
 10 
 
 Feet. 
 16 to 20 
 14 
 12' 
 10 
 
 The drains beneath the roadways are as near as possible of similar 
 construction for the three first classes ; in most cases with granite side- 
 walks and pavement, the whole being covered with a thick layer of 
 clay. It is only an exception when the drains are of brickwork. In 
 the later years glazed drain pipes have, however, been often used for 
 drains of smaller dimensions. For the carriage ways, the dimensions 
 of which have been given, in the first-class roads the substructure as 
 a rule consists of irregularly broken stones 5 to 6 inches in diameter, 
 packed closely by hand ; or else of a layer of coarsely screened gravel . 
 containing stones up to 4 inches in diameter; which after the addition 
 of a thin layer of small hand-broken stone of 1 to 2 inches in diameter 
 is rolled until well bound together; whilst the wear and tear super- 
 structure will gen erally consist of small granite road metal of about IJ 
 inches in diameter. This layer is at times divided into two parts ; 
 namely, of a lower stone layer of If inches with an upper layer of 
 stones of 1^ inches in diameter; the whole being firmly bound together 
 with an addition of sand gravel strewed over the path after one or two 
 passages have been made by the rolling machine. 
 
 For the second-class roads will be used a similar wear and tear super- 
 structure of hand-broken road metal or else of screened gravel, the choice 
 depending in great measure on the diflerence in cost of the two materials 
 at the spot where the work is carried on. Where the traffic is of lighter 
 nature the screened gravel is found a very good material once the road 
 has become well consolidated. The difference in price is matter of 
 some importance, the cost of hand-broken stone varying from $8 to 
 $21 per cubic fathom, whilst the screened ^avel may be obtained for 
 $2.68 to $8. 
 
 On the third-class roads, the wear and tear superstructure as a rule 
 is simply laid on a foundation of 3 to 4-inch layer of coarse screened 
 gravel, and as soon as this is somewhat consolidated by traffic or roll- 
 ing a superstructure is laid, consisting either of hand-broken stones or 
 of screened gravel 2 inches in thickness. 
 
 The cost of construction of new roads is very difficult to give with 
 any certainty. It will depend not alone on the class of road, but also 
 on the nature of the ground, as well as the difficulty in obtaining the 
 mditerials, the extent of drain works, etc. ; but, speaking generally, it is 
 said that a first-class road, exclusive of expropriations, will cost from 
 
EUROPE — DENMARK. 47 
 
 80,000 to 100,000 kroners ($21,440 to $26,800) per Danish mile (4f 
 English miles) ; the second-class roada from 50,000 to 80,000 kroners 
 ($13,400 to $21,440), and the third-class from 30,000 to 50,000 kroners. 
 The minimum cost of the fourth-class byroads, with fairly regular 
 ground and good approaches, may be placed as low as 5,000 kroners 
 ($1,340) per Danish mile, although this may more often approach to the 
 sum of 10,000 kroners ($2,680). 
 
 The repairing of the roads. — Whenever the wear and tear superstruc- 
 ture, as on the flrst-class roads, is formed of a layer of hand-broken 
 stones of 1 to 2 inches in diameter, the relaying is made as follows : 
 Prgvious' to the relaying, the still remaining part of the worn super- 
 structure is scraped loose, after which the new material is laid down 
 and leveled, and then firmly compressed with heavy rollers. It is then 
 covered with sand gravel and again passed over some five or six times with 
 the roller, until the road has obtained a thorough compactness. The 
 relaying generally takes place in the autumn, in moist weather, and for 
 the proper distribution of the work a systematic plan is prepared, and 
 the repairs undertaken in a rotation of years on the different parts of 
 the road, according to the extent of wear and tear variously shown. The 
 annual supply of stone metal required for a fixed length of road will 
 differ greatly. In the Copenhagen district, where the trafiQc is large, 
 the annual consumption may amount to 123 cubic metres per 100 fathoms 
 of roadway, whilst in the neighborhood of the more important provincial 
 towns it will be about 80 cubic metres, and at a greater distance from 
 -the towns the consumption will fall as low as 40 cubic metres every 
 ^ixth or tenth year for every 100 fathoms of road. 
 
 The public roads in Denmark, as before said, are now managed by 
 and at the expense of the local municipal boards, subject to state su- 
 pervision, as follows: 
 
 1. The highways and larger public roads are managed by the county 
 council boards, but no works of extension or limitation can be pro- 
 ceeded with without the previous sanction of the home secretary. These 
 highways have also to be inspected every year by a state inspector, who 
 shall notify to the boards any existing wants, and should necessity arise 
 he may order such works to be made good at the expense of the default- 
 ing board. Each county board has also its own inspector, with assistant 
 inspectors and roadmen, the cost of new works and repairs being borne 
 by the county contributory fund, raised upon the taxed valuation of the 
 land in the districts concerned. With the highways are also connected 
 such main streets of the provincial towns as are a continuation of the 
 road leading into the town, and these are placed under the joint con- 
 trol of the county council and town council boards, the expenses being 
 defrayed by county as well as town councils, each with the half _part. 
 
 2. 7^e hy-roads. — These are managed by the parish boards of guard- 
 ians and town councils, each in its own sphere. All extensions or lim- 
 itations of the by-roads are made at the recommendation of the parish 
 
48 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 boards. and with the sanction of the high sheriff and county council, 
 and when works of more extensive nature are called for the county 
 council can contribute their pecuniary share, the work being then per- 
 formed under the direction of their own inspector. 
 
 In order that the home secretary may at all times be kept acquainted 
 with the financial position of all matters relating to the public roads, 
 the county council boards have to forward to the home department a 
 yearly account, drawn up in an approved formula, of all expenses in- 
 curred on the public roads in their district. The home secretary' has 
 also the deciding of all matters in dispute relating to the roads. For 
 this purpose the surveyor-general appointed by the state has to give his 
 opinion on all road questions, and furthermore has to inspect yearly a 
 certain quota part of the public highways (J-J in each district), and at 
 the close of every fifth year to' furnish the department with a general 
 report over the kingdom's highways and main streets for the previous 5 
 years' period, with statistical and financial returns appertaining thereto. 
 
 Expenses on road works. — The cost of yearly maintenance of the 
 highways and roads does not alone depend upon the.trafQc or number 
 of personal staff employed ; but also on the cost of materials in the dif- 
 ferent districts. The daily repairs are made by permanent road labor- 
 ers ; of which in the neighborhood of a town one is generally employed 
 to every one-half or three-fourths of a Danish mile, which proportion 
 will be changed as by degrees one withdraws more and more into the 
 country, when it may conclude with one road laborer to 1 Danish mile ; 
 and the daily attendance on the road may be reduced to an attendance 
 of three days in the week. The superintendence of this work is per- 
 formed by assistant inspectors to every 5 to 20 Danish miles, according 
 to the nature of the roads. The annual cost of maintenance varies very 
 much; for example, in the Copenhagen district, where the trafQc in 
 the immediate neighborhood of the city is exceedingly heavy, the cost 
 of repairs may be excessive, running up to 20,000 kroners ($5,360) per 
 Danish mile, when on the other hand iu the thinly populated country 
 districtsit may not exceed 500 kroners (S134) per Danish mile; and 
 perhaps the average annual cost of maintenance of these highways for 
 the kingdom at large may be fairly placed at 2,000 kroners ($636) per 
 Danish mile. 
 
 It can scarcely be said that the public roads in the present time have 
 any effect on the land values; such may be more justly due to the great 
 connecting railways, which have unquestionably exercised a favorable 
 influence, especially on the value of landed property contiguous to the 
 railway stations. The highways are no longer the great medium of con- 
 veyance for passengers and the great internal goods movements. This 
 work is now monopolized by the great railway network of the kingdom, 
 the highways being now more or less redaceil to the position of partial 
 feeders to this newer dominating medium of internal intercourse. 
 
EUROPE — DENMARK, 49 
 
 STREETS OF COPENHAGEN. 
 
 It will be sufficient to couflue my remarks to those of this capital. 
 From the latest official returas at the close of the year 1886, the area 
 comprising the public streets, boulevards, etc., of this city was at that 
 date about 20,100,000 square feet distributed in the following manner, 
 namely: 
 
 Sqnare feet. 
 
 Carriage-ways, gutters, etc 12, 000,000 
 
 Side foot-pavement 5,750,000 
 
 Planted avenues and boulevards 2,370,000 
 
 .Total 20,120,000 
 
 The breadth of the streets varies greatly. In the older parts of the 
 town very narrow streets are still to be found, whilst in the new quar- 
 ters of the city the minimam regulations under the present building 
 laws will be found to exist, namely, a breadth of 40 to 50 feet, and where 
 the streets have a more important carriage traffic a breadth of 60 to 80 
 feet. The streets as a rule consist of one roadway with two side foot- 
 pavements, and where no special conditions call for a deviation from 
 these rules each side foot path will have a breadth of one-fifth of the 
 entire street breadth. The roadway form is of the arch of a circle, the 
 road on the paved ways having a fall of 1 in 30 to 1, in 40 and on the 
 macadamized ways of 1 in 25 to 1 in 35. 
 
 The formation of the different classes of carriage-ways are as follows, 
 viz : 
 
 THE PAVED ROADS. 
 
 Materials. — For the paving stones granite is exclusively used, of which 
 the chief part comes from Sweden. The heads of these stones have a 
 rectangular form with a length of 7 inches to ^9 inches, breadth of 4 
 inches to 5 inches, and height of 7 inches to 8 inches. As between 
 the head and root a divergence is allowed up to 1 incli in the length 
 and breadth, and the cost of these stones per square fathom is $4.82 
 for first sort and $3.48 for second sort. For pavements requiring a 
 special foundation abetter class of stone is used, namely of the so-called 
 class "English hewing." The dimensions of these are 3 J inches to 
 4^ inches in breadth, 6 inches to 12 inches in length, and 6J inches to 
 7 inches in height. The severer conditions demanded for this class of 
 stones have naturally an influence at the same time upon the cost, the 
 price of this special class being from $5.90 to $6.70 per square fathom. 
 
 Carrying out of the worfo.— The pavement as a rule is laid upon a 
 sand layer 7 to 8 inches in depth ; the stones being placed thereon at 
 right angles to the direction of the street ; the whole being stamped 
 down with heavy butts worked by 4 men. 
 
 All work for laying of new pavements, as well as all relayings of any 
 importance, is always submitted to contract by public tender. 
 33A 4 
 
50 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 In individual cases of much frequented thoroughfares, it has been the 
 practice of late years to give a good foundation underneath the upper 
 paving. This foundation in some cases consists of 4:-inch to 6-inch thick 
 layers of Portland cement ; but more frequently of a bottom layer of 
 stone laid flat side down, the whole wedged together with smaller stones. 
 Upon this a layer of broken stones is spread, in such manner that after 
 a pressure with heavy iron rollers, this layer will remain with a thick- 
 ness of 3 inches at the sides, and of 5 inches in the center ; and on this 
 firmly rolled foundation, the paving stones are placed upon a 1-inch 
 thick layer of gravel. 
 
 THE MACADAMISED CAHKIAGE WAYS. 
 
 Materials. — For the foundation layers of granite or flint are employed, 
 and for layers of broken stone exclusively of granite ; the broken stones 
 to be clean, well-screened, and not over 1^ inches large. 
 
 Carrying out of the works. — The foundation stones and layers are laid 
 in exactly the same manner as the pavement ways in the greatly fre- 
 quented thoroughfares. The keeping in repair of this class of roads 
 is for the most part done by the corporation's own work people. 
 
 THE SIDE FOOTPATHS. 
 
 In all the main thoroughfares and principal streets ; these are paved 
 with small paving flags of about 4 inches square, costing $3.75 per square - 
 fathom ; whilst in the less frequented parts of the city a considerable 
 part of the footpaths are macadamized, having a 3 inch to 4 inch thick 
 layer of small-sized broken stone, covered over with earth gravel ; the 
 whole being well consolidated under passage of heavy iron rollers. This 
 footpath covering has, however, in the later years been more and more 
 displaced by tar-beton pavements. This consists of an undermost layer 
 of untarred small stones or broken brick ; thereupon of a IJ inches 
 thick layer of J inch tarred stones ; this again with a 1 inch thick layer 
 of i inch sized tarred stones, and over the whole of a layer of tarred 
 gravel ; each layer being separately rolled over with the heavy rollers. 
 The cost of such tar pavements when laid down may be reckoned at 5 
 to 6 cents per cubic foot. 
 
 The expenses entailed upon this city in laying out of new streets and 
 sewage works, as well as for keeping in repair of the street ways, as 
 also of closed and open drain passages, etc., in the year 1888 (the latest 
 printed returns) amounted altogether to 1,237,400 kroners ($331,623), 
 which was distributed in the following manner, viz : 
 
 Class A, cost of repairs of street ways, footpaths, drains, etc., water- 
 ing and cleaning streets, salaries and^wages, etc., $161,953. 
 
 Class B, cost of new street ways and sewerage works, $169,670. 
 
 The amount under Class A, constituting the running expenses, is in- 
 cluded with the other municipal outlays in the annual budget of the 
 
EUROPE — FEANCE. 51 
 
 city to be covered from the rates levied upon the inhabitants for these 
 purposes, whilst the amount under Class B for the undertaking of new 
 and extraordinary works is, on the other hand, met through the aid of 
 loans contracted by the corporation for such outlays, which loans, with 
 the high credit of the city, can be obtained at about par rate and at an 
 interest of 3J per cent, per annum. 
 
 Heney B. Eydbe, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consxtlatb, 
 
 Copenhagen, April 15, 1891. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 HEPOUT BY.aOilUEBOIAL AQENT LOOMIS, OF ST. ETIBNNE. 
 A OBNTXJEY OF SUOOESSFUL EOAD BUILDING. 
 
 The modern road system of France was inaugurated by the First 
 Napoleon and carried forward to its satisfactory and splendid conclu- 
 sion by the late Emperor, Napoleon the Third. 
 
 The roads of Prance are now practically all built, and they are sub- 
 stantial monuments to the Napoleonic foresight and shrewdness. The 
 work of the engineers in the department of public works in France to- 
 day is not to build new roads, except in rare instances, but to keep 
 those already constructed in a state of high efiSciency. There have been 
 no important new roads opened in France for a dozen years, and the 
 country is so traversed with excellent roadways that no more lines of 
 communication are likely to be exploited save in the case of military 
 necessity. The wagon roads of France, always passable and reaching 
 all centers of population, no matter how small, are the chief competitors 
 of the railways, as means of communication by water are not numerous. 
 
 VALUE OF FRENCH EOADS. 
 
 The road system of France has been of far greater value to the coun- 
 try as a means of raising the value of lands and of putting the small 
 peasant proprietors in easy communication with their markets, than 
 have the railways. It is the opinion of well-informed Frenchmen who 
 have made a practical study of economic problems, that the superb 
 roads of France have been one of the most steady and potent contribu- 
 tions to the material development and marvelous financial elasticity of 
 the country. The far-reaching and splendidly maintained road system 
 has distinctly favored the success of the small landed proprietors, and 
 in their prosperity, and the ensuing distribution of wealth, lies the key 
 to the secret of the wonderful financial vitality and solid prosperity of 
 the Freuch nation, 
 
52 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. ■ 
 
 TYPICAL ROADS. 
 
 The French roads have compelled the respect and admiration of for. 
 eigners for a centary, and of all the roads in the country those consid- 
 ered the most excellent, and at the same time most difficult of mainte- 
 nance, happen to lie in this consular district, which contains in the 
 Isere some of the most rugged of the French Alps, with their peaks 
 forever snow clad and rising to a height of 11,000 feet. 
 
 Another department, that of the Loire, is a great industrial center, 
 and its roads are subjected to the wear and weight of vehicles heavily 
 laden with iron, coal, castings, and blocks of stone. It is also a par- 
 tially mountainous region. 
 
 The French road engineers consider the roads in these two depart- 
 ments, the Loire and the Isere, as examples of the highest type of per- 
 fection to which modern road -making has reached in this country. 
 
 The roads in these departments are numerous, of easy grade, solidly 
 built, always open and always good, save when temporarily blocked 
 with snow. They are subjected to the most changeful and violent 
 forces of nature. Snow, frost, ice, and furious glacial torrents springing 
 suddenly into existence at unexpected points have sought for a decade 
 to destroy them, but in vain. 
 
 In the high, mountainous regions o f the Is^re I have seen, after vio- 
 lent summer rain of 36 hours' duration, 50 yards of national road, in- 
 cluding a small bridge, wa shed away by a fearful torrent rushing down 
 from a cloud-capped field of ice, with an al most vertical fall of 2,000 
 feet. In 3 hours, and in the midst of a severe storm, I have seen that 
 same road repaired temporarily and made passable by the road men in 
 this remote and little frequented region. 
 
 It is this never-failing watchfulness and promptness in repairing 
 roads, coupled with thorough and honest construction, which gives - 
 France a system of roads which is at once a source of national strength 
 and of national pride. 
 
 From the road records of tho departments of the Loire and the Isfere, 
 from recent observations and from the practical communications of the 
 working engineers, I have condensed some information covering the 
 principal points in the methods now employed in building and preserv- 
 ing French roads. 
 
 DIYISIONS AND CLASSIFICATION IN FRANCE. 
 
 In France the ways of communication are divided into three classes, 
 as follows : First, national or state roads constructed and maintained 
 by the state ; second, department roads entirely at the charge of the 
 departments, and, third, township roads which, though constructed by 
 the communes, receive in most cases support either from the state or 
 from the departments for their maintenance. 
 
 The Rational roads radiating from Paris communica,te with all th§ 
 
EUROPE — FRANCE. 53 
 
 important cities and the departments in the country. They are placed 
 under the jurisdiction of the ponts et chaussdes (department of bridges 
 and roads), which is attached to the bureau of the minister of public 
 works. The second and third class of roads form anetwork over th^ coun- 
 try and are under the supervision, in a general way, of the prefects 
 and mayors. However, in most departments these roads, too, are also 
 intrusted to the care of the ponts de chauss^es. 
 
 Further, there exists in towns of a certain importance a municipal 
 road service, the business of which is to construct and maintain streets 
 and roads within the limits of the city. 
 
 LE&AL PRELIMINARIES. 
 
 For the construction of. a road two principal operations are required, 
 viz : First, the formation of the bed of the road as well as the construc- 
 tion of the water ways and bridges when necessary ; second, the mak- 
 ing of the road with paving stones or by the method of Macadam in 
 order to render it fit for traffic. When the need for a new road felt in 
 a given district, an estimate with designs is drawn up and forwarded 
 to headquarters, together with evidence justifying the demand. When 
 this formality has been gone through, civil engineers go over the region, 
 examine the direction the road is to take, draw up an exact estimate of 
 the cost, make the specifications, and write out in detail for the bene- 
 fit of the contractors their observations on the manner in which the 
 road should be constructed. 
 
 The report of the engineers is 'sent to the proper authorities. 
 
 Before commencing the work the authorities proceed to acquire the 
 necessary lands through which the road is to run and the proprietors 
 are invited to sell the rights of way. 
 
 If a landowner demands a much higher price than the estimated 
 value, the Government appoints a special jury to appraise the land 
 and it is condemned on their valuation, from which there is no appeal. 
 This act is called in France ''AcU W expropriation," or dispossession. 
 
 The work is then placed in the hands of the contractors, who must 
 execute it under the supervision of the engineers and according to the 
 stipulations of the estimate, and if any difference arises between the 
 contractors and the engineers it is brought before the conseil de pre- 
 fecture, from the decision of which body, however, an appeal can be 
 made to the state council. 
 
 RUNNING THE LINE. 
 
 It is not necessary to go into the political, commercial, or industrial 
 considerations which induce the Government or local administration 
 to decide upon the creation of a road. It will be sufficient to imagine 
 two given points which it is desired to unite by means of a new road 
 and to mark out within these limits the best line, bearing in mind three 
 
54 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 cardinal points, economy in the working expenses, secnrity for the 
 traffic, and the cost of repairs, which should be reduced to the lowest 
 degree. 
 
 To trace a road a topographical chart is first studied in order to ob- 
 tain the exact positions of the extreme points and their relation to the 
 neighboring or intermediary points. The ground is then gone over in 
 order to complete the info rmation furnished by the chart and to dis- 
 cover other points if necessary which would be preferable in a tech- 
 nical or commercial point of view. These might be bridges, which 
 could be used with advantage and thus realizing a certain saving, or 
 in the case of a stream where the construction of a bridge presented 
 more facilities than at the points originally indicated, or, again, certain 
 depressions in the ground which would permit the road to pass over 
 a hill with a lower gradient, or, lastly, where populous centers require 
 that the proposed road should run through them. 
 
 A careful and well considered examination having been made on the 
 main points of the line, sections of more or less length are studied so 
 as to unite them all, finally, with more facility. 
 
 It is impossible to lay down a general and absolute rule, to obtain 
 the best tracing between any two points. The nature of the ground 
 and the intelligence and liability of the operator have a certain bearing 
 on the end in view. However, a good method of avoiding grave errors 
 and much trouble would be, trace at first upon the plan of the region 
 between the two points a straight line uniting them ; this line forms 
 the tracing of a vertical plan in which the axis of the projected road is 
 placed. 
 
 The next thing is to consider, first, if it would be possible to make 
 on this plan either a uniform incline or a series of inclines, not exceed- 
 ing the degree of inclination previously fixed and at an average cost; 
 second, if this plan did not encounter material obstacles, such as swamps, 
 mountains, or buildings, which could not be overcome without consid- 
 erable expense ; third, if by going to the right or left of the line it 
 would not be possible to obtain a more gentle incline or a decrease in 
 the expenses of the construction or both together. 
 
 It is only in very rare and exceptional cases that a road can be ad- 
 vantageously traced in a direct line between the two points, even when 
 they would be separated by a short distance. It is generally necessary 
 to deviate in order to avoid difficulties to give the road the best posi- 
 tion to escape heavy fillings or cuts. 
 
 EARLY DETAILS. 
 
 It is especially to mountainous districts that the foregoing considera- 
 tions apply in deciding on the tracing of the road. The difficulties to 
 be met with in those regions can hardly be explained in this report. 
 It will suffice to say that the intelligence of the engineer reduces those 
 difficulties as much as possible. The lowest points of the ridges are 
 chosen and when possible the lines of the valleys are followed. 
 
EUROPE FRANCE. 
 
 55 
 
 In general where the points intended to be united by a road are sit. 
 uated upon flat ground, the natural indication is the straight line, but 
 more frequently the ground is intersected by marshes, streams, or build- 
 ings, and in that case the traciug must be modified to suit economical 
 considerations, convenience, and solidity. 
 
 nemi. profile of a. pca>eA noaawcy. 
 
 —3.00 
 
 IncUne oTosstico' m. 
 
 -4.00 
 
 1 
 
 Drnntprofile ufO'TnucaaaiTtlzeS.Moaewcaf. 
 
 ., "s !« "S 
 S 's ■« S 
 S ^J t ^ 
 w >4 vi 's 
 * <h5{t'0;5O*<<y.S0><^ 
 
 ■ ^.se- 
 
 00 
 
 —3:00- 
 
 
 1 
 
 Scale '^/so opctmetre. 
 
 Where the ground is not very uneven the tracing can be made with- 
 out much difficulty, but it would be well here to remark that a curved 
 tracing lengthens but slightly a road and should be preferred to a zig- 
 zag line. 
 
66 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 THE ENGINEERS' WORK. 
 
 When the termini are separated by sinuosities the grades of which are 
 greater than those previously fixed, by valleys, ridges, or mountains, 
 the direction of the tracing is difBcult to determine: A simple bird's- 
 eye view is not sufQcient ; the difficulties increase with the degree of the 
 roughness of the country. If the road has to cross a chain of mount- 
 ains, the lowest point must be determined at the outset in order to 
 diminish as much as possible the expenses of the cuttings. To effect 
 this object the following points will be found useful as hints in order 
 to avoid long and tedious leveling : 
 
 PKACTICAi, HINTS. 
 
 1. The ridge of a chain of mountains, without having anything geo- 
 metrical about it, either in the horizontal or vertical sense, is, however, 
 looking at it in the ensemble, nearly straight. It inclines always in the 
 same sense as the valleys. 
 
 2. When a ridge meets at -the same point two or more secondary 
 ridges this point should be raised to the maximum level. 
 
 3. When a ridge meets two thalwegs (or valleys) situated on either 
 side, the point of meeting should be a relative minimum. 
 
 4. When a ridge is met by a secondary ridge and a thalweg, it pre- 
 sents a horizontal inflexion at the point of encounter without present- 
 ing anything particular in the vertical sense. 
 
 5. When two thalwegs after having been parallel diverge in opposite 
 directions, the point where they meet the ridge is necessarily a min- 
 imum. 
 
 6. When two thalwegs observe paralleled courses for a certain 
 extent, but running in opposite directions, the ridge ought to present 
 a minimum point in the interval which separates the two thalwegs. If 
 the points chosen are situated in the same valley, the water courses must 
 be taken into consideration. 
 
 The question of choosing the site of bridges is very important; so im- 
 portant, that if the river to be crossed is considerable the direction of 
 the road must be rendered subordinate to the site of the bridges. If 
 there exist several practicable points of passage, they must be compared 
 carefully in order to select the one most suitable and conforming to the 
 following conditions: Good nature of the ground for a firm foundation, 
 normal direction of the current, stability of the bed of the river, and 
 concentration of the waters in the same bed. If one terminus be situ- 
 ated in a valley and the other on the slope of a hill, the solution will 
 depend in a great part on the average slope of the ground between the 
 terminal points. If this slope conforms in general to that already fixed 
 the tracing is made in a straight line. 
 
EUROPE — FRANCE. 57 
 
 THE OLD WAY. 
 
 In short, if the average incline is inferior to the limit fixed several 
 solutions are possible. 
 
 The straight line might be taken, but this tracing is not much ob- 
 served today, for it happens more frequently thab the points to be 
 joined are separated by secondary valleys which would have to be 
 crossed with a great deal of difficulty and inconvenience. Many of the 
 old roads were constructed on this system. They were projected over 
 mountains and valleys regardless of the natural obstacles of the route 
 or the interest of the population, and as they were pushed on boldly, 
 they were constructed at the expense of enormous trouble and never 
 were they satisfactory. The aim supposed to be in view, the shorten- 
 ing of the distance, was far from being attained, as the delays arising 
 from the up and down hill nature of the road lengthened in reality the 
 distance much more than the curves of a level road. 
 
 Another system consists in following in a horizontal line as much as 
 possible the ridge in its length, and descending to the second point by 
 a gradual incline. This method was much employed formerly, and had 
 the advantage of crossing the streams almost at their source, necessi- 
 tating consequently but comparatively unimportant outlays for the 
 crossing. But ridges which are generally sinuous require a very undu- 
 lating tracing, and being but sparsely inhabited, the road loses much 
 of its importance. 
 
 A third solution, and the one generally employed to-day, consists in 
 following the valleys as much as possible, and rising afterwards by 
 gentle grades. This tracing traverses the cultivated lauds, regions 
 studded with farm-houses and factories. The value of such a line of 
 communication is much more considerable than that of a route by the 
 ridges. The water courses which flow down to the principal thalwegs 
 are, it is true, crossed where they are largest, and require works of large 
 dimensions, but also they are fewer in number. 
 
 MOUNTAIN KOADS. 
 
 The terminal points may be situated on the slopes rising from the 
 same valley, and then the shortest route would be to go down directly 
 from one side, cross over, and ascend the other. This direction, how- 
 ever, is often impossible on account of the inclines being too great on 
 either side, and would necessitate the filling up of the valley, causing 
 thus great trouble and expense. It is much preferable to run along the 
 side of the hill, observing a gradient and to go up on the other side in a 
 similar manner. The valley can be crossed then without requiring a 
 heavy embankment. But of course the length of the road is thereby 
 much increased as well the expense of the construction. 
 
 Whenever it is necessary to unite two given points situated in differ- 
 ent valleys separated by several small ridges the diflflculties are very 
 
58 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 great, and increase with the importance of the uneven nature of the 
 ground. The points of passage over the ridges are first determined, 
 always bearing in mind the probable cost, which should be as low as 
 possible. When they are fixed upon, the outline is subdivided into dif- 
 ferent lengths and examined apart. It can be easily inferred then that 
 the chief difficulty lies in choosing these points of passage over the 
 ridges. Moreover, before fixing on the points of passage, it is necessary 
 to be assured that they can be reached, for sometimes this is impossible 
 as the hillsides are too steep. 
 
 CONSTBTJCTION OP THE ROAD. 
 
 When the outline of the road is fixed upon, the profile of the length is 
 exactly marked out as well as that of the breadth, so as to evaluate the 
 earthworks and the works of art. The transverse profile of a road af- 
 fects generally the following form : 
 
 It is composed of, first, a roadway varying according to the impor- 
 tance of the road from 3 to 6J yards in width, and even more in some 
 cases, where the circulation requires it; second, the sides are also of 
 variable width, and the ditch destined to receive the water coming from 
 springs or rain. Sometimes a part of the sides is higher than the road- 
 way (Fig. 2), and in that case it takes the name of footpath, and is 
 
 generally seen in towns, or in their neighborhood, to facilitate the cir- 
 culation of the foot passengers. But in such instances it is necessary 
 to establish a gutter to receive the waters of the street. The roadway 
 is barrel-shaped, and the sides are sloped transversely in the proportion 
 of one inch to the metre, to facilitate draining, the width of the ditches 
 or gutters being in proportion to the amount of water to be received. 
 The slopes or embankments are pitched at an angle of 45 degrees in 
 the case of excavation. In mountainous regions a rectilinear profile is 
 given to the road, which is inclined towards the side of the mountain 
 especially in the curves, the convexity being on the side of the valley. 
 
EUROPE — FRANCE. 
 
 59 
 
 A wall confines the road on the side of the precipice, and a ditch runs 
 along by the hill. In the case of large cuttings, the sides of the road 
 are sometimes suppressed in order to diminish" the cube of excavation. 
 
 It is not, however, always possible to construct a road on the above 
 plan, for it often happens that the sloping of the ground is such that it 
 would require a very large and steep embankment to cross the ravines. 
 
 In such cases the embankment is replaced by sustaining walls on 
 either side, as shown in Fig. 3. 
 
 X 
 
 Fi^. 3. 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 The foundation must be well laid, and the thickness sufQcient to 
 resist the weight of the soil. These walls are built wherever they cost 
 less than the embanking process, and when the security of the traffic 
 requires it. 
 
 The construction of a road brings often to light springs which appear 
 at first sight harmless, but little by little they saturate the soil and end 
 by washing it away. In such cases drainage must be rigorously applied 
 so as to prevent inevitable consequences. 
 
 MODE OF CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 The greater part of the roads in France are macadamized ; it is only 
 in towns that paving stones are used. The layer of broken stones com- 
 
60 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 posing the rop/d is from 12 to 25 centimetres thick. This layer is p.aced 
 directly on the beaten ground. In exceptional cases a layer of sand 
 intervenes, or even stones of a certain m guitude, in order to facilitate 
 the drainage. Sometimes the stones are undressed cobbles, such as are 
 found in the beds of rivers or on the seashore, but this kind of pavement 
 is seldom used now. The paving most generally used is made of bard 
 granite, and laid at right angles to the axis of the road- The cuniform 
 paving stones vary from 10 to 20 centimetres in depth; much larger 
 ones are sometimes employed in the principal streets, however. 
 
 A good pavement should meet the following conditions: First, it must 
 furnish a gopd foothold for horses drawing heavy loads ; second, the 
 stones should be so placed that the wheels shall not run between the 
 interstices for any distance; third, one part of the pavement should not 
 be more resisting than another. 
 
 The construction of a pavement consists at first in hollowing out the 
 bed for the stones and in placing a layer of sand of from 15 to 25 centi- 
 metres in thickness. The stones are then placed side by side, and the 
 interstices filled up with sand. The operation is completed by an in- 
 strument called a demoiselle, which drives home the pavement and makes 
 it regular. This demoiselle is a heavy rammer made of wood, and bound 
 at the bottom, which is the larger end, with a strong iron hoop, and on 
 each side a handle. 
 
 REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS. 
 
 When a road is finished and opened to traffic it is not left to itself, 
 for otherwise it would soon deteriorate and become bad. To keep it in 
 proper repair two operations are necessary, that of removing the waste, 
 such as mud and dust, and that of supplying new material to replace 
 the loss by wear and weather. To the removal of mud and dust the 
 French give great attention. 
 
 When a road is run over freely by vehicles for several days and the 
 weather is dry a slight layer of dust is formed. This dust annoys the 
 passengers and the horses and renders the road heavy for traflSc. If 
 rain falls the dust is converted into mud, producing ruts and faults of 
 every sort, consequently the dust must be removed, and the instrument 
 used is the broom. A well-swept road leaves no mud after rain, at least 
 not for several days. However, if the humidity continues the road be- 
 comes at first sticky and finally is covered with mud, which should be 
 promptly removed, as the mud makes the tracks of the wheels appar- 
 ent, and as those tracks constitute a smoother surface for running on 
 than the rest of the route other vehicles follow in them, and after awhile 
 regular ruts are formed, which injure greatly the road. All the while, 
 moreover, the wear and tear continues, although slowly, and conse- 
 quently at certain periods the road must be repaired. As a rule wet 
 weather is chosen for this operation, and the principle which ought to 
 guide the roadman in his work is the avoiding of creating a special 
 
EUROPE — FKANCE. 61 
 
 track in the road for traffic. The vehicles should run over any part of 
 the surface to prevent the depressions alluded to, 
 
 THE USB OP ROLLBBS. 
 
 Formerly a road was opened to traffic immediately after construction 
 while the stones were yet loose, but the inconvenience of this method 
 has disappeared since use has been made of heavy rollers, which com- 
 press the material. A roller, or compressor as it is called here, consists 
 of one or two heavy cylinders drawn by horses or propelled by steam. 
 The cylinders weigh 4 tons, but this weight is subsequently increased 
 by filling the large box over the cylinders with large stones. The roll- 
 ing machine is first passed over the road with only its own weight, 
 that is to say empty, and gradually stones are added. In order to effect 
 properly the operation the road is previously well watered. Constant 
 repairing is required, especially after heavy rains, but the material being 
 always at hand, the work is promptly executed by the roadman. 
 
 BASALT VBESTJS GRANITE. 
 
 Since 1846 the French engineers have generally used basalt instead 
 of crushed granite on the roadways which are built for heavy traffic. 
 This basaltic rock is found in great quantities in the adjoining depart- 
 ment of the Haute-Loire. The basalt costs $2.50 per cubic metre, and 
 300 cubic metres are used for each kilometre, or sixth-tenths of a mile. 
 It is not onlj far better, but about 30 per cent, cheaper, than the crushed 
 granite, formerly so much used. 
 
 The cost of constructing a paved roadway is $2.35 per square metre 
 and the cost of keeping it in repair is 8 cents per square metre per 
 annum, while that of a macadamized road is from 5 to 10 cents. 
 
 THE ROAD SERVICE. 
 
 The road and bridge service of France is a strong and effective or- 
 ganization. Eesponsible men are employed in it, thoroughly trained, 
 and their work is subjected to close inspection by government engi- 
 neers. No part of the road system is neglected ; the routes are divided 
 into sections of half a mile to 3 miles in length, according to the 
 importance of the road, each of which is colifided to a man or number 
 of men, so that every foot of the roadway is inspected daily and is kept 
 in thorough repair. 
 
 Coat of good roads in France. 
 
 Average cost of building a road per kilometre $6,600.00 
 
 Cost of a road in the valleys per kilometre 4,000.00 
 
 a road in a mountainous region per kilometre 9, 000. 00 
 
 keeping in repair per kilometre and per annum ^ 440.00 
 
 embanking per cubic metre -- .18 
 
 paving streets per square metre .., 2. ilS 
 
62 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTKIES. 
 
 Cost of a road in the valleys per kilometre— Continue*. 
 
 paving stones (per 1,000 stones) $48.26 
 
 ordinary workman per day -58 
 
 man and horse hire per day . — 1-55 
 
 foreman per month 20. GO 
 
 supervisor of roads per annum 600. 00 
 
 engineer of roads per annum li 000. 00 
 
 head engineer 2, 000. 00 
 
 BRIDGES. 
 
 One striking and satisfactory feature of the French road system is 
 that furnished by the substantial and often beautiful bridges which are 
 seen in every place where the slightest need for them exists. These 
 bridges are generally of stone, except in some cases where large streams 
 are to be crossed, and then the suspension system is most frequently 
 employed with satisfactory results. However in the case of road bridges 
 where the span exceeds a certain limit iron is supplanting stone con- 
 siderably in their construction. 
 
 The French bridges, like most of the streams which they cross, " go 
 on forever," and 1 have thought it well to submit some information con- 
 cerning their cost. The subjoined estimates refer to small bridges 
 only less than a hundred feet in length. 
 
 Cost of hridges of various sizes. 
 
 Nature of ■work. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 .60 
 
 12 
 
 .60 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 H 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 li 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Aqueduct, roofed with flags 
 
 Aqueduct, roofed with cut stone 
 
 Small bridge, arched 
 
 Do 
 
 Bridge, arched 
 
 Do!""";;;;!!!"'"!!!!!!!! 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 $117.00 
 
 270. 00 
 
 618. 00 
 
 618. 00 
 
 600.00 
 
 1, 000. 00 
 
 1, 200. 00 
 
 1, 660. 00 
 
 5, 800. 00 
 
 4, 900. 00 
 
 The foregoing figures were extracted from the official record, and show 
 the cost of bridges of a given class now actually in use. 
 
 Fkanois B. Loomis, 
 
 Commercial Agent. 
 St. Etienne, France, A;pril 23, 1891. 
 
EUROPE — FRANCE. 63 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 hbportby ooifsuL knowles, of bobdeaux. 
 ROADS AND ROAD MAKING IN FRANCE. 
 
 Xo greater builders of roads have left their mark upon the annals of 
 time ; none have regarded them of more vital import for the mainte- 
 nance and strengthening of an empire; no more forcible examples of 
 topographical engineering have been so indelibly presented to modern 
 generations as the great highways of the Romans. 
 
 The finest roadways existing to-day in France, the greater arteries 
 of inland trafflc, were built by the same hands that constructed the 
 Appian Way. 
 
 If, as some philosopher has wisely observed, roads form in the mate- 
 rial advancement of a nation a cardinal element, being in no unimpor- 
 tant degree essential to its development and natural resources, then we 
 may attribute to these mighty thoroughfares of France greater distinc- 
 tion than has ever yet been given them. 
 
 But France, like Carthage, has suffered by her greatness. 
 
 When the Prussian forces crossed the frontier in 1870, the fine mili- 
 tary roads {les routes nationales) were found more advantageous to the 
 invaders than the invaded. The enemy profited by the master work of 
 their aggressive neighbors. The roads afforded not only direct, but 
 excellent routes to the French capital. 
 
 The highways of France are remarkable for their durability, even- 
 ness, and cleanliness. They are swept and watered every day, and 
 kept in scrupulous order. No rugged eminences or depressions jar the 
 nerves of the traveler riding over them. Neither dirt, decay, nor rub- 
 bish is about to suggest neglect or ill care. They are immense garden 
 paths, amid a marvellous landscape of verdure and cultivation. 
 
 The process of road making in France is very simple, and their ex- 
 cellence is without doubt due to the simplicity of construction as well 
 as to the superior quality of the material used. 
 
 The method is briefly thus : The materials destined for the making of 
 roads are brought from the nearest quarries and placed at either side 
 of the route surveyed. In order that the full amount contracted for 
 may be delivered, the stone must be heaped in angular piles of pris- 
 matic shape and fixed dimensions. These heaps, placed at a given dis- 
 tance from one another, are afterward inspected by an ofBcial inspector, 
 and must in all instances fit exactly beneath a skeleton frame carried 
 by him. The stone is usually marble, flint stone, or gravel. The ma- 
 terial must be of the best quality and cleansed from all foreign sub- 
 stances. 
 
 The stone must be broken so that each piece may pass through a 
 ring, 2i inches in diameter. It is then spread evenly over the road; 
 
64 STKEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 the interstices being carefully filled in with smaller pieces and particles, 
 so that the whole is smooth and free from abrupt eminences or depres- 
 sions. A steam roller then crushes and further evens the whole, after 
 which a superficial layer of clay and earth completes the work. 
 
 According to a mandate issued by the prefect of the department of 
 the Giroude, France, the 29th of December, 1871, and approved by the 
 minister of the interior on the 1st of January, 1872, the folio win g'resolu- 
 tion as to the maintenance of country and crossroads was taken. 
 
 The cost of maintaining and keeping in order of roads shall be borne 
 by the inhabitants living in the section or district through which said 
 country and crossroads are laid. Each taxpayer is obliged to work 3 
 days each year for the maintenance of the road, or has the option to 
 pay an amount of money sufficient for or equivalent to the compensa- 
 tion of a laborer for a period of 3 days. 
 
 To insure faithful fulfillment of such services there is prepared in 
 the bureau of the comptroller of taxes a schedule of taxpayers who 
 fall under the obligations of 3 days' labor. The schedule is submit- 
 ted to the director of "Direct Contributions," who, in turn, notifies 
 each person of the 3 days he is obliged to work. The schedule sets 
 forth, 1st: The number of members and servants in the family, the 
 number of beasts of burden, and those used under the saddle or har- 
 ness, the same being taken as a basis fortheamount of assessment. 
 Each taxpayer is notified by the director of assessors of the number 
 of days he is obliged to serve, or of its equivalent in money. The 
 schedules are further posted in public places for the inspection of tax- 
 payers, who may address any objections or complaints directly to the 
 prefect. 
 
 The value of a single day's jvork is estimated as follows : Man, 2 
 francs ; horse, 2 francs ; ass, 75 centimes ; cart, 1 franc ; ox, 2 francs. 
 
 The services of those taxpayers who desire to fulfill their obligations 
 in actual labor must be rendered between the first day of February 
 and the first day of July, or between the first day of August aud the 
 thirtieth day of November. The length of labor is fixed at ten hours a 
 day per man, and eight hours a day for beasts of burden. The tax- 
 payer, fi^^e days before his services are required, receives orders, signed 
 by the mayor, to present himself on such a day, at a certain place, pro- 
 vided with certain implements and prepared to perform certain work. 
 If a taxpayer be prevented by illness from attending to these duties 
 he can send a substitute to replace him, beiug at the same time respon- 
 sible for his work. 
 
 In regard to reparations of roadways in France, the chief road in- 
 spector every year must furnish to the prefect of the department a list 
 of the materials necessary for the making and reparation of the various 
 highways and crossroads in the districts. The prefect gives the same 
 to the contractor, who can not extract any materials from or open quar- 
 ries except such as are officially indicated to him, 
 
EUROPE FRANCE. 65 
 
 Every man who receives or makes a contract for road building or 
 repairing must give good security, furnish certificates of capacity, and 
 live close to the work in question. Of the moneys appropriated for the 
 various contracts, 1 per cent, is retained by the prefect as a fund for the 
 relief of the widows and orphans of any who may have been fatally in- 
 jured in working upon the roadways. 
 
 The material used in the making and repairing of roads in France is 
 usiially the fliutstoue, marble, or ophite, quarried in Brittany or from 
 the Pyrenees Mountains. The cost of this material can scarcely be 
 estimated. In regions contiguous to the quarries roadmaking is nat- 
 uraWy cheap. The greater the transportation, the higher the price of 
 material carried and delivered at the proper place. 
 
 The following formula may be employed in determining the price of 
 material : 
 
 ^ IT^^O— +^ 
 
 X represents the price to be determined ; P, the price of cartage and 
 labor ; D, the distance of transportation ; d, loading and unloading ; L, 
 trajeetof cart in continual motion ; 0, cubic measurement of the land; 
 and T, the corresponding price of labor in loading and unloading. 
 
 The streets in the larger cities of France are, as a rule, paved with the 
 ordinary cobble- stones, resting on a 6-inch deep bed of sand and earth. 
 The stones are quarried principally in Belgium, and vary in size from 5 
 by 3J inches .in length and bre adth and 4J in depth to 7^ by 4J in 
 length and breadth and 6 in depth. 
 
 The maintaining of the city streets and of the routes' nationales of 
 France is distinctly different than the maintenance of the roads, such 
 as I have just described. The roiites nationales, the principal road- 
 ways between the more important cities, are repaired and kept in order 
 by the state; the expense of the same being defrayed, not by special 
 taxation, but from the general funds. The same applies to local muni- 
 cipal governments regarding city streets. 
 
 I find difficulty in obtaining definite informatioh regarding the pro- 
 portionate increase in land values after the cutting through of new 
 roads in France. That there is an increase is beyond all doubt. Exactly 
 what it is, however, I can not determine. 
 
 Comparatively few new roads are .made in the vicinity of Bordeaux, 
 and many of the older ones date from liefore the Christian era. The 
 routes of inland communication are already quite sufficient, and as the _ 
 population of the French Republic is on the decrease, geographical con- 
 tour remains almost unchanged. 
 
 Horace G. Knowt.es, 
 
 ikusul. 
 
 tr. S. CONStiLA'i'i;, Bordeaux, January 2'J, IS'Jl. 
 33a 5 
 
66 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 ARRONDISSEMENT OF HAVRE. 
 
 REPORT BY COSSUL WILLIAMS. 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 I have the honor to state that my reply to the State Department 
 circular of November 8, 1890, entitled " Street and roadway circular," 
 has been purposely delayed in order that I might make full personal 
 inspection, thus making my reply as valuable as possible to whom it 
 may concern. 
 
 In passing, and perhaps to emphasize the attention paid by me to the 
 circular mentioned, it may be here stated that for years I have been 
 connected with the m ovement in the State of New York and with its 
 legislature to secure State action regarding the improvement of country 
 highways in that Commonwealth as well as to an extent with like 
 efforts in the city of Rochester. 
 
 In order to reply properly I have inspected road construction and 
 repair in Havre and other cities of my consular district, and have 
 journeyed into the country in company with Engineer M. Vacossin, who 
 is trustee in charge of 435 miles of public roads of various makes and 
 classes in the arrondissement of Havre, and thus inspected in several 
 localities and under a variety of conditions both repair and road 
 making. 
 
 I prepared a list of forty questions to which Engineer Vacossin made 
 written answer, the manuscript and translation inclosed herewith; 
 parenthetically I have a^ded notes to the translation and reductions 
 of metric units for the reader's benefit. Certain conclusions from my 
 inspection here, and as modified by my experience, are subjoined. 
 
 FRENCH vs. AMERICAN ROADS. 
 
 New roads here are, if of block stone, made substantially- the same as 
 in the American cities and as outlined in my inclosures; if of broken 
 stone, are made by first grading and draining, then spreading on a 
 7-inch coating of broken stone, rolling with heavy rollers, and, finally, 
 sprinkling thickly a binding of sand, clay, or soil, which, rolled down 
 and somewhat rolled in, forms the bearing surface; but such a coating 
 would neither withstand the shafp pressure of loaded wagons having 
 narrow tires nor the upheaval of the usual frosts of the Northern Amer- 
 ican winter. 
 
 The American pavements are very much better constructed than are 
 those of France, all classes being considered. They, however, become 
 , destroyed in a short time, while those of France increase in excellence 
 w^th age, until the difference is very marked. These differences arise 
 from neglect with our authorities to promptly and properly repair and 
 from the constant damage inflicted by the narrow tires of freighting 
 Tebicles. 
 
EUROPE — FRANCE. 67 
 
 In France all roads have perpetual attention. If, from weight of load, 
 from rain, or other cause, a hollow, rut, or sink is formed, it at once re- 
 ceives attention, its surface usually roughened by picking, so that new 
 material will adhere, and then the depression filled slightly, rounding 
 with broken stone or stone chips. If the space repaired be of limited 
 area, the rolling of the new coating is left to the wide tires of the heavy 
 carts, but, with extended areas, a steam-roller is brought for use. 
 
 If a broad economy should be followed with the objective to make 
 the highways of the United States like those of France, the first labor 
 should be given to establish easy grades by cutting hills and filling 
 valleys. This once done is forever done, and no road should be made 
 until a grade not greater than 1 in 20 should be made, for to change the 
 grade of an improved road makes waste of all the expense before in- 
 curred in its making. Thus grading is economy's first law, and is here 
 the engineer's primary act. 
 
 The next step is to reduce the water evil to a minimum by either cen- 
 ter blind ditch or side open ditches, or both, both especially in low sec- 
 tions and in springy soiTs, with capacious bridges and culverts of most 
 durable material. 
 
 Then, having proper grade on a line free from water, less material and 
 that of a less expensive kind can be properly used, and gravel rolled 
 by wagon tires regulated as to width will do much to make a road. 
 
 Every freighting and market cart here is a road-maker. Its tire is 
 from 3 to 10 inches in width, usually from 4 to 6, and so rolls the road. 
 
 With the few four-wheeled freight vehicles used the tires are rarely 
 less than 6 inches, and the rear axle is about 14 inches longer than the 
 fore, so that the rear or hind wheels ran in a line about an inch outside 
 of the line rolled by the fore- wheels; thus with a 6-inch tire 2 feet of 
 road width is well rolled by every passing wagon. 
 
 The varied gauge is also usually observed with cabs, hacks, and other 
 four-wheeled vehicles, so that they become road-makers instead of rut- 
 makers, as in our country. 
 
 The narrow-tired wagon rides more smoothly over a bad road because 
 its narrower pressure levels obstacles rather than surmounts them, 
 while the wide tire, having less proportional leveling force, surmounts 
 and creates the jolt; but just in the proportion that obstacles become 
 leveled and road smoothed, as by the roller service of wide tires, the 
 jolt disappears, and with such wheels on even an uncoated country 
 road its bed, if kept rounded, soon becomes a watershed not likely to 
 be materially softened by surface waters, while if to the surface a coat- 
 ing of gravel or stone chips be added and rolled the water is excluded, 
 so that damage by winter's frosts becomes minimized and on firm soils 
 even neutralized^ 
 
 The cost of prepared material and of all labor, both for making and 
 maintaining a road, in the United States is considerably more than 
 doable the like cost in France, but labor here is less active and efiflcient. 
 
68 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Then a road made as a pavement of broken stone, to withstand the 
 frosts prevalent in all the Uiiiled States north of about the latitude of 
 Baltimore, must be at least twice the depth and constructed with twice 
 the quantity of material as here, with proportionate outlay for labor; 
 hence, allowing three elements of increase of costin our Northern States 
 above cost in France, of, first, doable cost of labor ; second, double 
 cost of material delivered ready for use, and third, double depth or 
 strength of road in order to resist frost and to resist the almost wedge- 
 like tires of American wagons, and you have a fairly accurate estimate 
 that a road after the French fashion, and made in our country so as to 
 serve as durably there as roads serve here, will cost 2 by 2 by 2, or 8 
 times the cost here. 
 
 1 am aware that such a report has little in it to encourage our mak- 
 ing of good roads, but Europe has been centuries making hers, and in 
 France frosts are trifling when contrasted with those which heave and 
 destroy our roads every winter and spring ; and the excellence of Eu- 
 rope's roads, as I learn, ranks in a graded scale from the frost latitudes 
 south waids, those of Britain, Sweden, and Kussia bearing no favorable 
 comparison with those further south. 
 
 Then again the dense and old settlement of Europe, whereby farm 
 ponds are so located as to catch surface water, ditches made and gut- 
 ters paved to prevent damage by floods, and every spring confined and 
 utilized, vastly tends to prevent the destruction of roads, for in the 
 main water is the sole destroyer of American highways, and the owners 
 of abutting lands instead of confining all water for farm and other uses, 
 turn it, if possible, into the highway, where it flows unrestrained and by 
 permeation softens every roadway, and often by its violence undermines 
 and sweeps away portions of the roadbed. 
 
 Inclosures A and B are questions propounded by me and answered 
 by Engineer Vacossin, of this arrondissement, while inclosures C D and 
 E are digests of my own observations on roads andjoadways. 
 
 Oscar P. Williams, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Havre, May 29, 1891. 
 
 ROAD MAKING IN THE ARRONDISSEMENT OF HAVRE. 
 
 [Fi7e incloanres in Consnl Williams' report, A, B,C,D, and E, viz: A, general questions and answers 
 as to roads ; B, preparation of road before placini; tbereou any paving materials ; C, considerations 
 in road making ; X>, considerations in road keeping ; E, general considerations of roadsrj 
 
 A. — General Questions and Answers. 
 
 (1) Do the frosts of -winter heave up and destroy your roads f — Answer. Rarely; 
 however, every winter the frost does some damage on roads to a depth of ahout 15 
 teiiiiiiieties (5.9 jiicbes), especially iu Ibe jiarts where the subsoil is of a clayey- 
 nature. 
 
EUROPE — FRANCE. 
 
 69 
 
 ^^^^'^~^ "^*1i 
 
 WA'/'U^ -^«'?- 
 
70 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEiaN COUNTRIES. 
 
 (2) What are the legal requirements, if any, as to width of tires? — Answer. Since 
 1853 such regulation has been set aside. 
 
 (3) Does the weight of cart, truck, or load change the requirement as to width of 
 tire f — Answer. Such regulations were set aside in 1853. 
 
 (4) Is there a tax upon narrow tires or a bounty given for use of wide ones T — 
 Answer. No tax ; no bounty. 
 
 ^5) Are all people and occupations permitted use of all roads for loads of every 
 weight at all times and without tax? If not, indicate exceptions, restrictions, and 
 tax. — Answer. Restrictions can be made to regulate the use of roads having great 
 declivity or imperfect lines; for extraordinary damage a fine or tax is collected 
 which goes toward the expense of repair. (Art. 14th, law of Slst May, 1886.) 
 
 (6) Are owners of abutting lands taxed for road building and repairs ? — Answer. 
 No. 
 
 (9) Are country roads swept of dust and mud or is the dust removed by winds and 
 rains ? — Answer. The road men are obliged to take away the dust and mud. 
 
 (10) At what distances apart are heaps of broken stone deposited for use in re- 
 pairs ? — Answer. The materials are laid according to necessity per lots, 1 cubit metre 
 (1,308 cubic yards) alternately from right to left at a distance of 50 metres (9,942 
 rods), and outside of the lines of the road. 
 
 (11) Will you supply me a profile of a road? — Answer. A type profile of a road is 
 hereto annexed. (An inclosure.) 
 
 (12) Supply me, if convenient, with brief general directions such as furnished to 
 your under-directors as guides in making and repairing roads, as well as for the 
 preparation of the materials therefor. — (Not answered except as within.) 
 
 (13) After a new road is completed is it ever again entirely made new, or is it per- . 
 petually maintained by repair of its surface ? — Answer. The surface of the road is 
 constantly kept in repair. 
 
 (14) For what average time in years have the principal roads of this portion of 
 .France been kept up by means of scientific state supervision ? — Answer. Since 1836; 
 application of the law of May 21, 1836. 
 
 B. — Pkbparatiox of link of road before placing thereon ant paving ma- 
 terials, ETC. 
 
 (A) Is it center-drained ? — Answer. No. 
 
 (B) Is it drained other than by side ditches ?— Answer. Yes, for departmental 
 roads ; the communal roads have no ditch. 
 
 (C) Is the center arched, and if so, to what height above the gutter ? — Answer. No. 
 
 (D) What is the usual width between gutters ? — Answer. Six metres (19.68 feet) for 
 the departmental roads. The communal roads are of variable width, from 4 to 6 
 metres (13.12 to 19.68 feet) exclusive of ditches. 
 
 (E) What incline is allowable ? — Answer. The profile in length presents no decliv- 
 ity above 5 centimetres per metre (equals 1 foot in 20 feet) ; the width profile having 
 the form of au arc of a circle given a convexity of 13 centimetres at the axle, so 1 in 
 31 of the width. 
 
 (F) Is more than one sort of paving material used; how combined or placed? — 
 Answer. Generally the paving stones used come from the quarries of May St. Valeny 
 en Caux or Cherbourg; the paving stones are laid close to each other on a layer of 
 sand 15 to 20 centimetres (5.904 to 7.872 inches) in thickness. 
 
 (G) What is the thickness of the paving coating, and how is it compressed and to 
 what weight per square centimetreof contact with roller or compress? — ^Answer. The 
 paving stones have generally the foUo wingdimensions, viz : Length 24 centimetres (9.45 
 inches), width 17 centimetres (6.69 inches), depth 18 centimetres (7.08 inches) ; or,length 
 20 centimetres (7.87 inches), width 13 centimetres (5.12 inches), depth 18 centimetres 
 (7.08 inches )^. The pavement is leveled with a beetle, the weight of which is 30 kilo- 
 grams (66 pounds) and which firmly imbeds every stone. 
 
EUROPE — FRANCE. 71 
 
 (B.) What is the cost per oubio metre (1.308 oubio yards) of excavating soil for new 
 roads f— Answer. For digging, shoveling out, and loading the average is 50 oeutimes 
 (10 cents) per oabio metre (1.308 cubic yards). The transport expenses are cal- 
 culated by the following formulse : 
 
 Wheelbarrow: X=^'' Cartload: x =^^g4j±-^ 
 
 Wheelbarrow : P = price of a day's work ; d = transport distance ; C = cubical load 
 (A cubic metre) ; D = distance to run with wheelbarrow loaded half way and empty 
 half way. Cartload : P ' = hire of cart and driver ; d = transport distance ; I =z 
 distance 600 to 800 metres (119.304 to 157.072 rods), according to time lost in loading 
 and unloading; C =cubicalload .7 to .8 cubic metre (.9156 to 1.0464 oubicyards)for 
 one horse, according to the nature of the material; P' = distance to run with the 
 cart during one day and when loaded halfway and unloaded half way. 
 
 (I) What is the cost per cubic metre (1.308 oubio yards) of breaking stone to suit- 
 able size? — Answer. 1.75 francs (34 cents). 
 
 (J) What is the cost of the broken stone per cubic metre (1.308 cubic yards) placed 
 on the new road? — Answer. 20 centimes (4 cents) for placing in the prepared lorm 
 without roller. (Note. — Question evidently not fully understood.) 
 
 (K) What is the variety of stone so used f — Answer. Country flint, or the sand- 
 stone of May or Cherbourg. 
 
 (L) To what size is it broken ? If more sizes than one are used, give extreme 
 sizes and proportions of each as used. — Answer. Uniform size, the minimum 4 Centi- 
 metres ; the maximum 7 centimetres (that is about 1^ inches and 2f inches). 
 
 (M) What material is used to bind the broken stone, and in what manner and 
 when is such binding material supplied ?— Answer. Clay, sand, or earth from the ex- 
 cavation when such is suitable. These materials are put on after the steam-roller has 
 been once over the road and then continued until complete aggregation. 
 
 (N) What wages are paid per day to common laborers employed in road making, 
 and how many hours constitute a day's work ? — Answer. Three and a half francs (68 
 cents) for 10 hours' labor. 
 
 (O) What is the total cost per kilometre (198.84 rods) of a section of new country 
 
 ' roadt — Answer. Twelve thousand francs (per kilometre) for all sorts of work which 
 
 concern the establishing of a road like the type profile hereunto annexed. (Note. — 
 
 This equals 70i rents per lineal foot ; |11.64 per lineal rod; $3,725.64 per lineal mile.) 
 
 (P) What is the average total cost of such a completed new road per square metre 
 (1.196 square yards) ? — Answer. The above price is to a minimum of 8,000 metres 
 (square per kilometre of road distance; and gives 1.50 francs (39 cents) per square 
 metre. (Notb. — This equals $7.32 per square rod.) 
 
 (§) Management of road, when completed, eto. 
 
 (a) For what length of time after completion is such new road permitted to be 
 used without repair t — Answer. The roads are immediately put under constant super- 
 vision. 
 
 (6) In what manner is its cost paid ; by whom ? — Answer. The cost of the depart- 
 mental roads is paid with part of the communal budget united with the departmental 
 subsidy (approved budget by the general council). 
 
 The communal roads are paid for from an appropriation from taxes collected in 
 the locality. (Approved budget by the municipal council.) 
 
 (o) In what manner are repairs paid; by whom? — Answer. The same answer as 
 paragraph (J). 
 
 (d) What is the average annual cost for repairs of such a road per square metre ? — 
 Answer. Departmental roads, in country, 10 centimes (2 cents) ; in town, 17 centimes 
 (3|- cents); communal roads, 6 centimes (1^ cents). These prices include sweeping, 
 removing mud, watering materials, and the maintenance of all works. (NoTK. — Aver- 
 
72 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 age J early expense of repair equals departmental roads. In conntry, $248.48. In 
 town, §422.41. Commnnal roads, $149.09 per mile of road the wldtL as considered. ) 
 
 (e) What length of such road can one man keep in repair throughout the entire 
 year? — Answer. Departmental roads, 4,000 metres (2.485 miles). Commnnal roads, 
 8,000 metres (4.97 miles). 
 
 (/) What yearly wages does such a man receive, he boarding himself? — Answer. 
 The road men are employed 10 months per year, at an annual salary of 650 franca 
 ($125.45). 
 
 (g) How many hours per day does he work ? — Answer. Ten hours' labor. 
 
 (ft) How many days of the year does he actually work on the road ? — ^Answer. Two 
 hundred and fifty days of labor (two mouths' leave of absence during harvest time). 
 
 (i) In what manner are the road engineers, su perintendents, assistants, and work- 
 men chosen? — Answer. The engineers, agents, clerks, etc., are chosen by compe- 
 tition. The road men and superintendents are generally chosen from among conntry- 
 men who know all about this kind of work. 
 
 (J) How much are they severally paid, how long do they serye, and by whom are 
 they paid ? — Answer. The service organization. One chief trustee of roads to the chief 
 town of the department ; one trustee of roads to the chief town of the neighborhood; 
 one trustee of roads to the principal district of the neighborhood ; one brigadier per 
 brigade of ten roadmen to superintend 40 kilometres (24.8548 miles) of road. This 
 gang has to do all that is required for the communal roads. The employed are paid 
 from funds explained above. Salaries are as follows, viz: Chief trustee of roads, yearly 
 salary is 10,000 francs ($1,930) ; trustees of roads, neighborhood, salary 5,000 francs 
 ($965) per year ; trustee of roads of district, 2,000 to 3,200 francs ($386 to $617.60) per 
 year ; employes, agents, 1,200 to 1,800 francs ($i31.60 to $347.40) per year ; chief road 
 men, 900 francs (§173.70) per year. Indemnity of residence and ofBce expenses are 
 paid according to the importance of the locality. The employed have a pension after 
 30 years of service. 
 
 C— Considerations in road making. 
 
 (1) The perpetual advantage of an easy grade should be secured at the beginning. 
 
 (2) Straight lines are best and on like grades are cheapest ; it is economy, however, to 
 secure easy grades at the expense of straight lines where such grade is otherwise un- 
 obtainable, because the perpetual advantage to all users of the road more than off- 
 sets the disadvantage to the land owner from iU-shapen fields. 
 
 (cv) Capacious middle blind drains in all roads will dry the soil in summer and 
 minimize the damage by frost in winter. 
 
 (4) Side drains should never be omitted. 
 
 (5) If natural soil of road be arched at center its drainage will be easier. 
 
 (6) All stones liable to disintegrate the road surface should be rejected. 
 
 (7) Comparatively large cost is unavoidable ; cheaply made roads will prove the 
 most expensive roads. 
 
 (8) Material should be carefully selected, durability and cheapness when prepared 
 being first considered; then by using local stone local labor may be employed, and so 
 by outlay for stone and labor each locality will to an extent be benefited directly by 
 the distribution of the money cost of the road iu such locality. 
 
 (9) The common field bowlder, more or less a nuisance on American farms, is of a 
 strength and durability equal to the average quarry stone; both its purchase and 
 removal would benefit the farmer and its preparation would benefit the local laborer, 
 and thus go far to reconcile both to the expense of the improved road. 
 
 (10) Every county should own and operate at least one steam road-roller. 
 
 (11) Road sweepings, except manure, and common sand and clay make snitable 
 binding material over broken stone. 
 
 (13) In making a new road wetting down or sprinkling has been proven injnrioos; 
 such practice is wise in repair, as then the binding material is solidified while the 
 water does not penetrate the surface coating to soften or weaken it. 
 
EUEOPE — FRANCE. 73 
 
 D. — CONSIDEHATIONS I>f ROAD KEKPING. 
 
 (1) Repair should never bo deliiyed. 
 
 (2) Scieutific supervisipa is essential. 
 
 (3) Wetting down aids repair by helping the new added material to adhere to the 
 old. 
 
 (4) For repair, especially of large areas, as well as for construction, a steam roller 
 effects great economy. 
 
 (5) The use of wide tires should be encoui'aged'either by bounty on such or by .tax 
 on narrow ones. 
 
 (6) Four-wheeled freighting vehicles should not track ; the hind wheels should roll 
 outside the track of the fore wheels. 
 
 (7) Local tax for maintenance tends to prevent local misuse, promotes local super- 
 vision, and prompts repair. 
 
 (8) Our people may, in order to equitably adjust cost of road, fix a tax upon their 
 use so that he who drives much and owns little assessed property may pay a just share 
 for the road he uses. 
 
 E. — General considerations of roads. 
 
 (1) Increase of railroad mileage seems to lessen local interest in highways, but it 
 should not be forgotten that nearly all railroad freight has been previously carted 
 over highways. 
 
 (2) As steam road engines become more in vogue, roads and bridges should be 
 strengthened accordingly. 
 
 (3) As bicycles and other " wheels" become used by business men, roads should be 
 fitted therefor to every reasonable extent. 
 
 (4) The use of springs on freight wagons greatly diminishes the jolt or falling force 
 inroad depressions, prevents ruts, and preserves roads. 
 
 (5) The effects of wheels of large diameter and width of tire is to greatly diminish 
 spot pressure, and the breaking of the road surface is thus obviated. 
 
 (6) The reduction of cost of transit of persons and freight by lower prices for liv- 
 eries and for hauling would be beneficial, and as transportation is a large element of 
 cost to every one not a producer, good roads would much cheapen living. 
 
 (7) The cost of transporting products or of hauling to marJcet is by tenfold the high- 
 est tax now paid by our farmers and hucksters. 
 
 (8) The cost of highway transportation over the properly built roads of France 
 does not exceed one-third the like expense in the United States, it being common 
 in the rural districts of France to haul 3 tons, and in the cities from 3 to 5 tons, net 
 freight, with one horse. 
 
 (9) In this way the good road saves the farmer each year mucti more than its cost, 
 and we may ignore the increased pleasure in its use. 
 
 (10) If 2 horses haul the load of 4, 1 wagon of 2, 1 set of harness of 2, 1 driver serve for 
 2, and if 6 miles instead of 3 be passed per hour, the aggregate saving would double 
 the net income of the average huckster or farmer. 
 
 (11) Land values are increased by improved roads. This effects Ist, increased as- 
 sessment and taxes on lands abutting because most benefited. 2d. This increased 
 assessment reduces per cent, of tax and tax on lands not abutting, and which are 
 hence less benefited. 
 
74 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 bouches-du-rh6ne. 
 
 BEPORT BT CONSUL TRAIL, OF MARSEILLES. 
 HISTORY OP FRENCH PUBLIC ROADS. 
 
 The history of public roads in Prance dates bacli toi the-Eoman occu- 
 pation. So solidly did the Eomans construct them that parts of a few 
 of them are still to be found in a good state of preservation. They 
 were made by the Eoman generals to facilitate the rapid movement of 
 their large armies. Thus the first roads made in France were for mili- 
 tary purposes solely, and this object has never been lost sight of; so 
 that, although in modern times their use as the means of communica- 
 tion for the people accounts for their great and increasing number, it 
 is largely owing to their military character that the French Govern- 
 ment expends the enormous sums it does yearly on the national roads. 
 
 After the Eomans were driven out of France there is nothing to note 
 on the subject of roads until the time of Louis XIV. This monarch 
 had several fine roads made in the environs of Paris for his personal 
 use and pleasure. They were very wide, probably so laid out from sim- 
 ple ostentation, and paved only in the center for the royal coaches. 
 Shortly after the construction of these royal roads the nation began to 
 appreciate the advantage of paved ways, as the use of vehicles was 
 becoming more general, and the commencement was then begun by the 
 French people of the magnificent network of public roads now to be 
 seen covering the whole of France, and not equaled by any other coun- 
 try in the world. The roads of Louis XIV were made for the king by 
 means of the corv6es exacted from the peasants. At the present time 
 they are for the peasants by means of subsidies and heavy taxes exacted 
 from the government and the public. The corvee has degenerated into 
 the three days of prestation. At the present time the public-road sys- 
 tem in France is a luxury which the people can ill afford; but the peas- 
 ant who derives the greatest benefit from it uses his political influence 
 not only to see.that the roads already made are maintained, but to cause 
 the construction of new ones that are little needed. 
 
 There are five classes of French public roads : (1) The national high- 
 ways; (2) the departmental highways; (3) the chemins vicinaux (coun- 
 try roads) de graude communication, maintained by the department 
 under the direction of the conseil-g6n6ral ; (4) the chemins vicinaux 
 jd'interSt commun, maintained by the group of communes interested, 
 and (5) the chemins vicinaux ordinaires, at the charge of each com- 
 mune. 
 
 The highways are under the general control of the department of 
 public works, which has an agent voyer in each department (state) to 
 superintend all that concerns roads and bridges. 
 
 The five classes of roads finished in 1867 had a length of 323,400 kilo- 
 metres, and of unfinished roads there were 281,100 kilometres. 
 
EUROPE — FRANCE. 75 
 
 The average outlay or first cost per kilometre for these roads was : 
 for those of the first class, 20,000 francs ; second class, 15,000 francs; 
 third class, 10,000 francs ; 4th class, 5,500 francs ; fifth class, 4,000 
 francs ; and the average cost of maintenance per annum per kilometre 
 for the five classes was, for the first class, 600 francs ; second class, 
 450francs; third class, 306 francs ; fourth class, 190 francs; fifth class, 
 140 francs. 
 
 So much for France at large. Three notes are added concerning the 
 subject in the department des Bouehes-du-Ehdne, and three sectional 
 drawings of roads in different parts of France. 
 
 DEPARTMENT DES BONCHFS-DU-Rn6NE. 
 
 The Department des Bouches-duRhdne is about the size of the State 
 of Delaware, with a population of' 604,857. More than half this num- 
 ber, 376,143, are in the city of Marseilles. The population of Delaware 
 is about 168,000, and of this number 43,000 are in Wilmington. The 
 density of population for the Bouches-du-Rh6ne is 119 to the square 
 kilometre, while that of Delaware is 32 to the square kilometre. 
 
 The annual expenditure for maintaining the highways and country 
 roads in the Department is $456,000. This does not include the streets 
 of Marseilles. It would be interesting to know the annual expenditure 
 of Delaware on roads. 
 
 According to Adolphe Joanne there were in 1886 in the Department 
 4,329 kilometres as means of communication, to wit : 
 
 Kilometrea. 
 
 17 lines of railway .* 413 
 
 5 national highways 284 
 
 20 departmental highways 410 
 
 Country roads : 
 
 Chemins vicinaux degrande communication 87&} 
 
 Chemins d'lnt^rfet oomraun 850 
 
 Chemins vicinaux ordinaires 1,352^ 
 
 1 navigable river (Rhdne) 85 
 
 3 canals for navigation 56 
 
 COUNTRY ROADS.* 
 
 In the Bouches-duEhdne, as in all the departments of France, there 
 are, besides the national and department highways, country or village 
 roads, divided into three classes according to their importance : (1) Les 
 chemins de grande communication; (2) les chemins d'int^rfit commun; 
 (3) les chemins vicinaux ordinaires on de petite communication. 
 
 All these roads are made with layers of stone broken very small after 
 the formula of MacAdam, and maintained by the application of new 
 beds of broken limestone. The level of the roadbed is kept up by the 
 constant use of the same material in filling in the unevennesses or 
 irregularities that occur. 
 
 * The information in regard to country roads was kindly given to me by the prefect 
 of this department. — C. B. T. 
 
76 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. - 
 
 The road superintendents make the necessary repairs and look after 
 the materials to be employed. The section of road that each one has 
 under his charge varies in length according to the importance of the 
 road from 5 to 10 kilometres (or from nearly 3 miles to 6| miles). 
 
 Generally speaking the roads are made and maintained with the ma- 
 terials nearest at hand, and of these limestone is preferred. 
 
 The cost of road making in the Eouchesdu-Rh6ne is on the average 
 per linear yard, for les chemins de grande communication, 10 francs; 
 les chemins d'in^trfet commun, 8 francs ; les chemins de petite com- 
 munication, 6 francs, 50 centimes. 
 
 The chemins de grande communication have a total length of 1,108 
 kilometres 140 metres (.or about 700 miles), of which 999 kilometres 977 
 metres are in a perfect condition, and 108 kilometres 163 metres open 
 for travel, but work on them not completed. They necessitate an 
 annual outlay of 578,000 francs ($115,600), or 52 centimes (10 cents) per 
 linear metre. 
 
 The chemins d'int^ret commun have a total length of 944 kilometres 
 468 metres, of which 756 kilometres 259 metres are in perfect condition, 
 and 188 kilometres 209 metres open for travel, but work on them not 
 completed. Their maintenance causes an annual expenditure of 256;5O0 
 francs, or 27 centimes (5 cents) per linear metre. 
 
 The chemins de petite communication have a total length of 1,012 
 kilometres 413 metres, of which 342 kilometres 443 metres are in per- 
 fect condition, and 669 kilometres 971 metres open for travel, but not 
 completed. On these the sum of 351,80 francs is annually expended, 
 or 34 centimes (7 cents) per linear metre. The commune of Marseilles 
 alone expends on the chemins de petite communication 250,000 francs 
 per annum. 
 
 It is certain that the effect of improved public roads has been to 
 increase land values ; but from the lack of statistics on this subject, 
 there is no way of estimating just what this increased value may be. 
 
 The chemins vicinaux de grande communication and those of intdrfet 
 commun are made with the communal funds and the department sub- 
 sidies, and in certain cases the national government also subsidizes 
 these roads. The making of the chemins de petite communication is 
 left to the charge of the communes, which are authorized to impose an 
 extra tax of 3 centimes for this purpose to the principal of the four 
 direct taxes.* The government and department also subsidize these 
 roads. 
 
 As for their maintenance, this is provided for with special funds 
 voted by the communes and the department. The department imposes 
 an extra tax of 7 centimes to the four direct taxes, and the communes 
 
 "The four direct taxes : Les quatre contributioos directes, savoir; la contribution 
 foncifere; la contribution des porteset feuStres; la contribution personuelle-mobili&re ; 
 et la contribution des J)atent68. 
 
f EUEOPE — FEANCE, 77 
 
 5 centimes and 3 days of prestation.* The maintenance of the che- 
 mins de grande communication et d'int6ret commune absorbs the 7 cen- 
 times from the department, two-thirds of the 5 centimes from the com- 
 mune, and 2 days of prestation. This leaves for the chemins de petite 
 communication one-third of the 5 centimes from the commune and 1 
 day of prestation. 
 
 HIGHWAYS.t 
 
 In the Bouches-du-Ehdne the highways are paved or macadamized. 
 Paving is used only where the traffic is very heavy or where the mac- 
 adam would be difficult to keep in good- condition and, consequently, too 
 onerous. In some sections where the winds are very violent, the mac- 
 adam has been found to be very objectionable on account of the dust 
 and its wearing away rapidly when subjected to violent winds that 
 blow continually for a certain length of time. 
 
 The paving is maintained in one of two ways. When the defect is 
 only a slight one it is remedied by simply picking out a few blocks, re- 
 leveling the bed, and resetting the same blocks ; but when the damage 
 is considerable and the road has been worn into ruts from rough and 
 heavy use, the entire defective section is taken up and repaved with 
 the same care given the original paving. 
 
 The macadam is maintained by constantly filling up any slight de- 
 pression with the small broken stone in order to keep the level and to 
 favor the regular use of the road. When the road is worn down quite 
 thin an entirely hew bed of stone is spread over it and pressed down 
 and worked in by means of heavy rollers. 
 
 In the Bouches-du-Eh6ne the national highways have a length of 
 283 kilometres 848 metres. Over these pass daily, on an average, 
 688 horses. The annual expense for their maintenance amounts to 
 702,120 francs. The department highways are 413 kilometres 174 
 metres in length, and the dailj- travel on them amounts to 232 horses, 
 and for their maintenance 391,470 francs are expended annually. 
 
 These highways are kept up by means of funds provided for in the 
 budgets of the national government and the department. There is no 
 prestation for these highways as there is for the country roads. 
 
 STREETS OP MABSEILLES.f 
 
 in Marseilles the streets in which the trafifto is heavy are paved with 
 porphyry from the quarries of St. Raphael, situated about a hundred miles 
 to the east of Marseilles. This stone forms a' very hard pavement that 
 resists wear very well, but it lias the inconvenience of becoming very 
 
 * Prestation : The 3 days of work on the roads that every proprietor, farmer, etc., 
 is required to give free. — C. B. T. 
 
 tFrom information kindly supplied by the prefect of the Department of Bouches- 
 ' du-Eh6ne.— C. B. T. 
 
 t From information kindly supplied by the mayor of Marseilles.— C. B. T. 
 
78 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, 
 
 smooth and slippery with coustaut use, and this can only be obviated 
 to a small extent by using small stones, i. e., cutting the squares down 
 to small dimensions, in order to have numerous joints. 
 
 The streets in which trafQc is light are paved with a stone called 
 " Gr^s de la Ciotat," a hard kind of sandstone from the quarries of La 
 Ciotat, situated about 30 miles to the east of Marseilles. This stone re- 
 sists wear in lesser degree than porphyry (proportion 1 to 3.30), but 
 not becoming smooth and slippery so easily, is used also wherever a 
 steep incline in the street occurs. 
 
 Where an incline exceeds 7 per cent, the streets are macadamized. 
 Side streets, where trafi&c is very light, and cross streets, are also mac- 
 adamized. 
 
 The macadam is composed of a layer of about 25 centimetres thick 
 (8.J-inches) of calcareous stones, broken to 2 to G centimetres, from the 
 quarries around Marseilles, and a thin layer of light quarry waste as 
 surface binding material, the whole firmly compressed by steam rollers. 
 
 The cost of a street paved with porphyry amounts to 16 to 18 
 francs per square metre (say 83 to $3.50 per square yard), according to 
 the size of the paving stones, including cost of all materials andlabor. 
 The cost of a street paved with La Ciotat sandstone amounts to 13 francs 
 (say $2.50) per square yard, including materials and labor. The cost 
 of maintaining paved streets averages 63 centimes per square metre 
 X)er annum (say 13 cents per square yard per annum), but reaches 2.50 
 francs (50 cents) in streets where traffic is the heaviest. 
 
 The cost of St. Eaphael porphyry stone delivered in the city of Mar- 
 seilles is, crude (rough hewn), 11 francs ($2.16), and cut to proper dimen- 
 sions 13.20 francs ($2.55) per square yard; that of La Ciotat sand- 
 stone, crude, 6.60 francs ($1.28), and cut, 7.92 francs ($1.55) per square 
 yard. 
 
 The cost of macadamized roads is as follows: The calcareous stones, 
 broken and ready for use, cost 6 francs ($1.16) per cubic metre, and the 
 cost of a road made of such stones, including layer of light stones, 
 rolling, and all labor, amounts to 2.58 francs (52 cents) per square yard. 
 But as the macadamized streets of Marseilles are generally bordered 
 on each side with paving stones of La Ciotat sandstone, forming a 
 shallow gutter about 2 feet 6 inches broad, in order that running water 
 should not wash the sides away, the cost of such a macadamized street 
 of 20 feet breadth, exclusive of sidewalks, amounts to 5.09 francs ($1) 
 per square yard. The cost of maintaining a macadamized street aver- 
 ages 19 centimes for the materials and 14 centimes for labor, say 33 
 centimes in all, per square metre per annum (6J cents per square yard 
 per annum), but reaches 1.65 francs (33 cents) for streets that are very 
 frequented. 
 
 The city streets are maintained exclusively by the city funds (the city 
 budget), and no special tax is levied for them, unlike village and coun- 
 try roads (chemins vicinaux), for which au additional tax is collected. 
 
EUEOPE — PRANCE. 
 
 /y 
 
 The foregoing estimates of cost do not include the .value of the land 
 occupied by the public streets, as same is too varied to be given accu- 
 rately. 
 
 The following notes are sectional drawings of a national highway, a 
 departmental highway, and a country road, 
 
 C. B. Trail, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Marseilles, March 4, 1891. 
 
 <0| 1^1 1^1 «S| 
 
 . 'jiS4&75\$46j 3, S0_ 
 
 3.45 !_ 3.45 1 
 
 'Oi Ci, oil Oil o, 
 
 s; ' Si M, si 
 3.50 0MiK73^Mi 
 
 Section Route Rationale. No. 138. Department of Eure. (Measures and heights given in metres.) 
 
 Section, Route I)6partementale, No. 18, Basses-Pyr6nees. (Measures given in metres.) 
 
 ^2J0p_i\__2.pg_i^ 
 
 _2.00 ^ I _ 2.00 _ ^ 'f.?!pj>'^-^ . 
 
 Section of Cbemin Vicinal, Seineet-Olso. (Measures given in metres.) 
 
80 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 COGNAC. 
 
 REPORT OF CONSUL PliESTON. 
 
 In France there are three kinds of public roads : (1) The grand roads 
 of the state, which are maintained at the cost of the state by a special 
 tax; (2) the departmental roads, or roads of the departments leading 
 from one principal town to another, are maintained at the expense of 
 the departments, also provided for by a special tax ; (3) the commu- 
 nal roads and streets of the communes, or cities and villages, are also 
 provided for by a special tax on the inhabitants. Some of the city 
 streets are paved with Belgian pavement, square blocks of stone ; oth- 
 ers are macadamized simply by covering with broken stone, which is 
 soon worn down smooth by passing carriages, making a very perfect 
 roadway. 
 
 In the country it is permitted to the inhabitants to make these 
 roads themselves instead of paying a tax. In this district there is 
 plenty of soft stone found along the roads, which, being broken up and 
 spread over the roads once a year, generally in the fall, keep the roads 
 in perfect order. I Lave never seen better country roads anywhere. 
 The expense is trifling, the stone being found on the spot, and the day 
 laborers' wages being small, say 2 to 2.50 francs per day. 
 
 The effect of good public roads upon land values is of course to in- 
 crease the value of such lands, to what extent I am unable to say, as 
 the roads all over the country, as far as my experience goes, are in per- 
 fect condition. 
 
 The country being so thickly settled, good roads are indispensable. 
 I regret that I am unable to give any more particular information. 
 
 Wm. S. Pkeston, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Cognac, December 17, 1890. 
 
 DEPARTMENT DU NORD. 
 
 BEPOBT BT CONSUL ATWELL, OF ROVBAIX. 
 
 countey roads. 
 
 In France roads may be classed in the order of their importance, as 
 follows : 
 
 1. National roads . — These are the great arteries of the system, and 
 connect the most distant points of the country. They are the property 
 of the government, by which they are constructed and maintained,. 
 
 2. Department roads. — These connect different poiuis of the same 
 department or of two adjoining departments. These roads belong to 
 thede|)nrtment through which they iati,iui(l are constructed and main- 
 tained by funds appropriated by the department. 
 
EUROPE — FEANCE. 81 
 
 3. Eighways.—JUghweiys, belong to the township or commune which 
 they traverse. In theory these roads are built b-y the commune, but in 
 13oint of fact they are made and repaired by the department from taxes 
 levied on the commune, supplemented by a department subsidy. In 
 the department du Nord tbis subsidy amounts to two-thirds of the cost 
 of the maintenance of the road. 
 
 4. Public roads, the property of the commune through which they 
 run, are made and repaired by the dcpaitmeut in which the commune 
 is situated from assessments on the commune and by a department sub- 
 sidy. In the department du Nord the commune bears only one-half 
 the cost of repairs. The com mon council establishes the rate and dis- 
 tribution of assessments for the purpose of building new roads. 
 
 5. Crossroads. — These are maintained by sums derived from the ordi- 
 nary revenuesof the commune, and when necessary by additional tax- 
 ation authorized by law. In special cases the department makes a 
 grant from funds appropriated for the maintenance of crossroads. The 
 cost of building these roads is divided between the department and the 
 commune, the department assuming four-flfths of the indebtedness, the 
 remaining fifth being a charge against the commune. 
 
 6. Country roads. — These are kept in condition by the commune. 
 When they are impaired by unusual traffic the town administration 
 may claim an indemnity, which, in case of disagreement, is established 
 by a commission named by the department. 
 
 Construction. — These roads are inalienable and imprescriptible. Pub- 
 lic roads in general have a central roadway, the minimum width of 
 which must be 3 metres or 3 yards 9 inches, bordered when necessary 
 by lateral ditches. They are either of broken stone or of paving 
 blocks. Wherever traffic is heavy blocks are employed ; they rest upon 
 a foundation of gravel, broken brick and glass, slag and sharp sand, 
 the depth of which depends upon the nature of the soil upon which it 
 is superposed. In a soil of sandy clay, like that of lioubaix, the foun- 
 dation is from 10 to 12 inches in depth. The paving iu use in this 
 department is usually Belgian porpLyry-grauite from the Vosges and 
 Brittany, and the different stones from^the north, east, and northeast 
 of France. The price per surface yard varies with the material em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Macadam roads, built wherever travel is light or wherever the cost of 
 transporting the material would increase the cost of the road to too 
 great an extent, consist of a layer of crushed material from 1^ to 2^ 
 inches in depth, resting upon a foundation like that already described. 
 This is packed down by steam rollers weighing from 10 to 15 tons. 
 Under favorable conditions this road is rapidly made, is durable, and 
 costs little for repairs, 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 These are classified and private ; the former belong to the city and 
 are constructed and maintained by the city; the second are the prop- 
 33A 6 
 
82 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 erty of private individuals, who are compelled by law to keep them in 
 good couditioD. 
 
 In the town of Eoubaix macadam is employed for light travel and 
 paving blocks for heavy traffic. The sidewalks are of sandstone and 
 granite blocks or of cement or asphalt blocks. 
 
 The broken stone or macadam roads have a foundation of furnace 
 refuse or broken brick from 10 to 12 inches in depth. Upon this is a 
 layer of silicious gravel from St. Omer, or, better still, broken porphyry 
 from the Belgian quarries, worth $2.56 the cubic metre. The average 
 price of macadam roads maybe estimated at $1 the surface metre. The 
 work of repairing is met by a general assessment and is relatively high 
 in Eoubaix on account of the defective manner of construction owing 
 to the employment of rollers of too little power. 
 
 Paved streets are upon a foundation like the above, about 10 inches 
 in depth and worth 38 cents, American value, the cubic metre; this 
 foundation is covered by a layer of sand 4 inches deep, at $1.14 the 
 cubic metre ;' paving blocks are then pounded into position by a paving 
 beetle weighing 10 kilograms. The material in use in Eoubaix comes 
 from the granite quarries, situated in Pas-de-Oalais, Ardennes, and in 
 the neighbor hood of the Oise and Vosges. The price per surface metre 
 may be estimated at about $2.09. 
 
 These paved streets are kept in condition by taking them up in part 
 or whole. As a rule, the blocks keep their place well and where there 
 is a slight depression workmen are employed to raise the block and put 
 sand underneath ; when the depression is general, the street is torn up 
 and remade upon a new foundation. In the first instance, the work- 
 man receives a trifle less than 3 cents, American value, the square yard; 
 in the second, he is paid 9 cents per square yard. The materials are 
 estimated apart and paid by the cubic metre. 
 
 For the above information I am indebted to the supervisor of streets 
 
 and engineer of roads and bridges. 
 
 W. P. Atvpell, 
 
 Commercial Agent, 
 United States Commercial agency, 
 
 Eoubaix, February 2, 1891, 
 
 NANTES DISTRICT. 
 
 REPORT BT AOIINO OOXSVL BENNETT. 
 COUNTRY ROADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The routes, country roads, or highways of this consular district are 
 most excellent and well worthy of study and imitation. They are made 
 for heavy or light trafBc, are as smooth as asphalt, and nearly as solid 
 and durable as granite, It has evidently required many years of toU 
 
EUROPE — FRANCE. 
 
 83 
 
 and experience to arrive at the state of semiperfection in which we find 
 the roads at present, but notwithstanding the time required and labor 
 expended the results are most satisfactory. 
 
 Bach state or department has charge of its own highways, the con- 
 struction and maintenance of which is confided to a chief surveyor of 
 the highways, who is uader the direct authority of the prefect of the 
 department. There are two or three classes of roads, the making of 
 each being essentially the same, varying only as to width and as to 
 details of maintenance. For the practical purposes of this study we 
 will class them as two ouly, the large national or departmental routes, 
 and the vicinal or rural roads connecting village with village, or mak- 
 ing connection with the large national thoroughfares. The depart- 
 mental routes are 8 metres in width, the rural roads 6 onlyj the mak- 
 ing of the two roads is the same, but the maintenance of the national 
 roads is often the more carefully attended to. 
 
 The methods adopted in this consular district for the making of roads 
 are briefly as follows : After the survey and tracing of the line, the 
 ground is carefully leveled and graded as much as is possible to avoid 
 too abrupt ascents and descents. If a wide road of 8 metres is being 
 made, a trench 4 metres in width and 7 or 8 inches deep will be exca- 
 vated in the middle, leaving for walks a space of 2 metres on each 
 side ; this trench is filled with broken stone^stone broken to about 
 the size of 1 J inches square. This mass of broken stone is then solidly 
 forced into position by the use of heavy iron cylinders, which are rolled 
 backwards and fowards over these stones until they become settled into 
 one solid mass, smooth and durable. 
 
 These iron cylinders when empty weigh from 2,800 to 3,000 kilo- 
 grams (6,150 to 6,600 pounds), and are sufficiently large to admit of an 
 equal weight of stone being packed in the interior, which makes, when 
 ready for use, a weight of from 12,000 to 13,000 pounds. 
 
 A transversal diagram of a road as made here would be something 
 like the following : 
 
 Fig. 1 representing the roadbed of broken stone, slightly rounded ; 
 figs. 2, the walks on each side usually shaded with trees ; tigs. 3, a 
 ditch and hedge or stone wall, as the case may be. 
 
 The first cost of making a road of this class is from $1.25 to $1.75 
 per square metre, the price varying according to the amount of grad- 
 ing required and to the facilities of procuring the proper kind of brokea 
 Stone, for it seems that some kinda of stone give better results tbau 
 
84 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 others. A species of quartz gives the best results as to uniformity and 
 durability. Within IJ miles from Nantes is found an immense granite 
 quarry, which furnishes excellent blocks for monuments, building pur- 
 poses, etc., also small blocks for city street paving, where it resists in 
 a manner perfectly satisfactory ; but this same granite, broken small 
 and pressed into a roadbed, is soon reduced to powder under heavy 
 trafiic and is often in need of repair, while quartz resists satisfactorily 
 for a number of years. 
 
 The system employed in this district for maintaining the roads in 
 good condition is very simple and inexpensive. The roadbed is allowed 
 to wear away some 2 or 3 inches, when a new layer of broken stone is 
 broughtinto requisition in the same manner as at first, they being pressed 
 into uniform smoothness by the use of the heavy iron roller. This 
 repairing is more successful when performed during the rainy months 
 of the winter season. 
 
 The cost of repairs is about 5 cents per square metre. 
 
 H, D. Bennett, 
 
 United States Consulate, Acting Consul. 
 
 Nantes, February, 1891. 
 
 PARIS. 
 
 REPOBT BY OONSUL-QENEBAL KWO. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average price per 
 
 
 Surface, 
 
 Kind and thick- 
 
 Kind and thickness of materials 
 
 square metre. 
 
 Kind of 
 
 
 Annnal 
 expenses, 
 intiluding 
 
 general 
 
 pavoQjeut. 
 
 Jan. 1, 1890. 
 
 ness of foundation. 
 
 forming revetment. 
 
 First estab- 
 lishment. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 repairs. 
 
 
 Sq. metres. 
 
 (1) Sand 20 to 301 
 centimetres 
 in thickness. 
 
 Paving stones of hard sand- 
 stone, of " arkose " of granite. 
 
 Francs. 
 f 20. 00 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 Francs. 
 
 
 
 (2) Concrete of 
 
 and of porphyry, as follows : 
 
 24.00 
 
 
 
 
 lime, 15 cen- 
 
 Large: Length, 23 centime- 
 
 
 
 
 
 timetres i n 
 
 tres ; width, 16 to 23 centime- 
 
 
 
 
 
 thickness. 
 
 tres; height, 23 centimetres 
 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 6, 336, 900 
 
 ■ (3) Concrete of 
 Portland ce- 
 ment, 15 cen- 
 timetres. 
 
 Medium : Length, 16 to 20 
 centimetres ; width, 14 to 18 
 centimetres ; height, 16 to 20 
 centimetres. Small: Length, 
 
 24.50 
 
 0.74 
 
 
 
 (4) Ballast, 
 
 16 to 20 centimetres ; width, 
 
 24 00 
 
 
 
 
 rolled, 15 cen- 
 
 12 to 14 centimetres; height. 
 
 
 
 
 
 - timetres af- 
 
 12 to 18 centimetres. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ter rolling. . 
 
 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 484, 900 
 
 Concrete of Port- 
 land cement, 15 
 centimetres in 
 thickness. 
 
 Blocks of wood : Len^h, 17 to 
 27 centimetres ; width, 8 cen- 
 timetres; height, 15 centi- 
 metres. 
 
 20.50 
 
 2,60 
 
 Asphalt ... 
 
 301,400 
 
 Concrete of Port- 
 
 5 or 6 centimetres after being 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 2.00 
 
 
 
 land cement, 15 
 
 rolled. 
 
 5 centime- 
 
 
 
 
 centimetres in 
 
 
 tres, "20.50 
 
 
 
 
 thickness. 
 
 
 f r a ncs; 
 thickness 
 of 6 ceuti- 
 ra e tres, 
 21.50francs. 
 
 
 
 
 'This pavement, 
 
 
 Porphyry, 
 
 j 3.70 
 
 
 
 or Toa d w ay 
 
 
 8.30 francs. 
 
 Gravel 
 
 1,510,200 
 
 J restsdireotlyon 
 y the soil inwliich 
 the gravel pack- 
 , ing IS placed. 
 
 Porphyry, millstone, pebble, 25 
 to 30 centimetres in thickness. 
 
 Mill-stone, 
 6.65 francs. 
 
 1 2.47 
 
 
 
 
 Pebble, 4.65 
 . francs. 
 
 i 1.30 
 
EUEOPE — FRANCE. 85 
 
 Stone. — The cost of stone pavement on sand foundation varies from 
 16.60 to 24.80 francs. The extremes of these prices correspond to speci- 
 mens of paving stones which are now only exceptionally employed. 
 The same holds good for the three other kinds of pavement for which 
 the average prices only differ from the figure of 20 francs by reason of 
 the supplementary cost for the foundation. The pavements on concrete 
 or on rolled gravel (the latter are rarely adopted) have been made only 
 a few years ago, and form but a relatively small surface. The trials had 
 with these revetments up to the present time are not yet conclusive 
 enough to allow a possibility of pronouncing definitely on the advan- 
 tages and inconveniences they present. However, the results obtained 
 up to date seem to indicate that recourse should be had to solid foun- 
 dations only in the three cases following: (1) When the soil is clayey 
 or insufficiently resistant ; (2) when there are lines of tramways; (3) 
 when the circulation or traffic is very intense and at a rapid pace. It 
 is now considered as indispensable to interpose between the foundation 
 and the pavement a layer of sand of 5 to 10 centimetres in thickness. 
 
 Wood. — The extremes of the prices paid to the lessees who have 
 constructed these pavements under contract, , and who keep them in 
 repair under the same conditions, are 2.08 and 2.95 francs for each 
 of the 18 annuities, comprising, moreover, not only the ordinary keep- 
 ing up, but also the repairs throughout the duration of the contract. 
 The new wooden pavements are now constructed and kept up, with 
 very rare exceptions, exclusively under the self-management {"regie") 
 of the city of Paris, which realizes by this combination an economy 
 of about 15 per cent, on the average price of 20.50 francs indicated 
 under this heading. The paving blocks rest always directly on the 
 foundation, which is covered over with a smooth plastering. 
 
 Asphalt. — The asphalt pavement is kept in repair by the contractors. 
 
 Oravel. — Porphyry and millstone do not always form the total thick- 
 ness of the road. This is generally composed of a first layer of crude 
 pebble 15 to 20 centimetres thick laid on the soil, and of a second 
 layer about 15 centimetres thick, eithfer of porphyry, millstone, or 
 pebble. It is the second layer that gives its name to the revetment. 
 
 Adam King, 
 Consul- General. 
 
 United States Consulate-General, 
 
 Paris, January 11, 1891. 
 
 RHEIMS. 
 
 SEPOBT BY aONSTTL ANQIBB. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 Generally in the cities and towns of this consular district the streets 
 are substantially and beautifully paved with granite "Belgian blocks" 
 from the famous quarries of " Vosges," a department of France in this 
 
86 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 consular district bordering Alsace, the granite being of excellent 
 quality and lasting a long time. 
 
 The manner of constructing these streets is as follows : First an ex- 
 cavation is made to the depth of about 16 inches from the proposed 
 surface of the street when finished ; a sand foundation or bed is then 
 thrown in to a depth of 8 inches (the soil here is of chalky formation, 
 well disposed to hold the sand well, without any primary layer of tar 
 and gravel) and then the Belgian blocks are carefully laid on the sand. 
 These Belgian blocks are 8 inches in depth, 6 inches in breadth, and 6J 
 inches in thickness. A heavy granite curbing, a little raised from the 
 street, is the dividing line between the street and the "sidewalk." The 
 " sidewalks," by the way, are paved much in the same manner as the 
 streets. After the Belgian blocks have been laid in the streets, sand 
 is thrown on to the depth of about J an inch, which is swept and re- 
 swept, back and forth, with heavy brush brooms, until every crevicti 
 and interstice between the blocks is filled. In a few months after- 
 wards sand is again thrown on and the sweeping process renewed until 
 the whole is very compact. 
 
 A street made in this manner will last from 30 to 40 years, very little 
 repairs needed, and costs $3.17 per square metre (a square metre is 
 10.7642 square feet), the cost divided as follows : 
 
 31 Belgian blocks ?2.52 
 
 Sand 4-2 
 
 Labor 23 
 
 Total 3.17 
 
 The land owners are not required to pay any proportion of the cost 
 for making, paving, and maintaining the streets, but are required to pay 
 one-half of the expense for making and paving the sidewalks. 
 
 COUNTRY ROADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 In the open country the main highways used to be paved, as are the 
 streets now in the cities, but this was abandoned years ago, and the 
 roads are now made simply of crushed stones of an average size of 4 
 inches, and then the heavy "steam roller-crusher" is run over it, back 
 and forth, several times. Sometimes when the natural soil is not com- 
 pact or solid enough, a good foundation is made for these crushed stones, 
 but this does not occur often in this section. This foundation, when 
 needed, may be quite a pavement of rough stones, or sometimes only a 
 bed of sand or gravel is used for a foundation in places where it is 
 sought to preserve the underground from the frost. 
 
 The main highways are Government roads, and were constructed and 
 are maintained by the departments of France in which they are located 
 and through which they run, and cost in this department (Marne) an 
 average of about $9,300 per mile for their first establishment or con- 
 struction. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 87 
 
 The smaller roads are maintained by "la commune" (the people) 
 through whose lands the roads run, and cost about $3,200 per mile for 
 their primary establishment and construction. 
 
 The maintaining of the. Government highways in good condition 
 requires about 850 cubic feet of broken stones per mile per annum. The 
 broken stones (or ballast) used for this purpose are obtained either from 
 the flint stone quarries in the mountains near Eheims, or from quartz 
 brought from the department of Ardennes. 
 
 The statements made in this report and the figures given may be 
 relied on as quite acurate, nearly all of my data of information having 
 been obtained from the Government engineer of bridges, roads, streets, 
 and canals, having charge and control of all the bridges, roads, streets, 
 and canals in a part of this consular district. 
 
 Though I have tried to get the information on which to base a report 
 as to "the effect of improved public roads on land values," I can not 
 make any report on that point. I am writing of roads located in and 
 running through a country that, it is said, was overrun by the soldiers 
 of Julius Gsesar, 50 years before Ohrjst, and a later effort of the same 
 sort, it is also said, was attempted in the fifth century by the Huns, 
 from the shores of the Caspian Sea, under the leadership of Attila, 
 and these roads have been maintained in their present good condition 
 for so long a time it is difficult to approximate their effect upon land 
 values. 
 
 Alton Angler, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate. 
 
 Bheims, December 22, 1890. 
 
 GEEMANT. 
 AIX LA CHAPELLE. 
 
 BEPOBT BY CONSVL ZEIQLEB. 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 They are built of hard sandstone, where level or nearly so, but for 
 heavy grades of somewhat softer quality. They are built and kept in 
 repair by the city, and a general tax is levied for that purpose. 
 
 The stone used have a surface of 4 by 6| inches by 7 inches deep, 
 and about 45 are laid to the square yard, in courses across the street. 
 
 The foundation is of sand, about 8 inches deep. 
 
 The stone is hauled 6 miles by team, is cut by hand to the proper 
 size, and costs the city, delivered, $1.82 per square surface yard. 
 
 The laying of stone and sand furnished is usually done by contract, 
 at a cost of 42 cents per yard, making total cost $2.25. 
 
88 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 All new^treets are built alike, whetlier for light or heavy traffic. 
 
 The sidewalks vary from 2 to 12 inches above street, with curb-stone 
 7 inches wide and of various depths, and foundation consists of cement 
 4 inches thick or deep, covered with sandstone 4§ inches square by 3J 
 inches deep. 
 
 This is a very ancient city, and many of the old streets and sidewalks 
 are made entirely different from the foregoing. 
 
 It is impossible to obtain figures as to cost of repairs. 
 
 As a rule, but very little is required for many years after a street is 
 newly built, no matter hovr heavy the traflic, as they are well made, 
 and I am informed that in many cases where streets were built over 50 
 years ago but few repairs have been needed. 
 
 The tires used on wagons for heavy traffic are usually about 5 inches 
 wide, which may, to some extent, account for the durability of the stone 
 on the street bed. 
 
 The city pays its laborers who repair streets from 60 cents to $1 per 
 day of 9 hours. 
 
 COUNTY EOADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 There are eight main roads leading out from this city, but no one 
 living here now can remember of either one of them being built. 
 
 They are hundreds of years old, built by the Government, and kept 
 in repair by it. 
 
 Four of them are constructed, quite a distance, the same as the city 
 streets or nearly so, and cost of same would be, say, $2.25 per square 
 yard. 
 
 The others are macadamized about 7 inches deep, with small, hard 
 sandstone, and present cost to construct or build would be 45 cents per 
 square yard. 
 
 They are kept in repair by supervisors, appointed by the Government, 
 for the various road districts, with but little expense. 
 
 It would be impossible to give any data or figures as to effect of im- 
 proved roads upon real estate or the surroundings, all having been 
 built so long ago. 
 
 S. B. Zeiglee, 
 
 United States Consulate, Consul. 
 
 Aix la Ghapelle, December 30, 1890. 
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 BEPOBT BY CONSUL BLACK, OF NtrBEMBEBO. 
 STREETS OF NUREMBERG. 
 
 The streets of the city of Nuremberg which are located within the 
 old walls are all paved ; those outside are only paved where the traffic 
 on them is extraordinarily heavy. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 89 
 
 The entire paved area is 583,875 square yards. Granite and sand- 
 stone (quartzlte) are the materials which have been mostly used, for 
 the last 15 years the former has been exclusively used. It is brought 
 from the Bavarian Mountains. 
 
 The granite paving stones are of a shape resembling a parallelepiped, 
 with sharp corners, having a length of from 6 to 8 inches, a width of from 
 5J to 6^ inches, and a height of from 5J to 6 inches. The tops and sides 
 have a smooth finish, the bottoms are more roughly cut ; they must be 
 flat, however, and never more than IJ inches smaller than the tops. 
 
 These stones are of the hardest blue granite, and cost $1.57 per 1,550 
 square inches free Nuremberg. All the material used in paving the 
 streets is supplied by the city ; in fact, it does all the work with the 
 exception of the actual laying of the stones, which is given out to con- 
 tractors. 
 
 The paving sand is a clayey kind of arenaceous quartz peculiar to 
 the Pegnitz Valley, and the place from which it is obtained is the 
 property of the city. The sand under the stones is loosely spread, at a 
 thickness of from 6 to 8 inches. 
 
 The cost of paving with granite block of a street already opened, 
 including all work and material, is $1.98 per 1,550 square inches. In 
 the year 1889 there was expended for p as'ing streets not previously paved 
 the sum of $38,841.60, and during the same period, for repairing, the sum 
 of $17,136 was expended. 
 
 There are macadamized streets in the new portion of the city to the 
 extent of 503,516 square yards. These streets have been opened from 
 time to time a^.the growth of the city demanded. The owners of the 
 land through which they run are not only compelled to cede the bed, 
 but are also required to bear the expense of making the street. The 
 amount assessed to each property-holder is reckoned according to the 
 size of his holdings ; the amount charged per yard varies according to 
 the size of the street. Contractors desiring to have a street opened in 
 order to erect houses thereon must deposit with the authorities a sum 
 equal to the whole cost of making the street, and until this condition 
 is complied with the building permit is not granted. 
 
 The foundation of such streets consists of a layer of 6 to 8 inches of 
 quartzite, a sandstone which is quarried at Wendelstein, near Nurem- 
 berg, and upon this a layer of Jura limestone 6 to 7 inches' thick is 
 placed. The whole is then thoroughly rolled with a large cylinder 
 (pulled by horses) weighing 14,330 pounds. The cost of such a roller 
 is $500. 
 
 The curbing used is hard granite. Th^ gutters are 19J inches in 
 width and are paved with granite stones. 
 
 The foundation stones cost 71 cents per 1,308 cubic yards, the small 
 broken Jura limestones $1.43 per 1,308 cubic yards, and the curbstones 
 $1.04 per 3.28 feet, all free Nuremberg. 
 
90 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 These streets vary in their width from 18.04 feet to 64 feet, and cost 
 from $7.10 to $10.90 per width of 3,28 feet running across the whole 
 street. 
 
 Repairs of macadamized streets are never made with Jura limestone, 
 basalt always being used for that purpose. 
 
 The cleaning of paved streets up to 26.25 feet from the footway falls 
 upon the ownei's of the adjoining property; any over that is done by 
 the city. A few streets where the traffic is very heavy are cleaned 
 entirely at the ex pense of the property-owners. 
 
 Macadamized streets are cleaned at the expense of the city. For this 
 purpose the city is divided into fifteen districts, each district having 
 an overseer. 
 
 In autumn and spring he has two assistants. The removal of the dust 
 and dirt from these streets is done by contractors. The city pays for 
 the same according to the distance hauled and the size of the carts. 
 
 No special mechanical methods are used. In the year 1889 the cost 
 of cleaning macadamized streets was $7,473. 
 
 Footways. — Footways vary from 3.28 feet to 16.4 feet in width, ac- 
 cording to the width of the street. Curbstones are laid at once upon 
 the opening of a street, but the paving of footways is only required 
 when the city deems there' is a* need for it, and that work is done at 
 the expense of the owner of the adjoining property. 
 
 In the old streets where new curbstones are required the expensps 
 for the same fall half upon the city and half upon the owner of the 
 property, while the cost of the pavement is entirely upon the i^roperty- 
 owner. • • 
 
 The footways when paved are done with cement and clay plates ; 
 when not paVed they are generally made of clinkers. No asphalt is 
 used excepting upon some iron bridges. 
 
 As a rule, proprietors of adjoining land pay for the cleaning of all 
 sidewalks. 
 
 HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The highways within the limits of this consulate are of a width of 
 from 13.12 feet to 23 feet, according to the trafiQc passing over them, and 
 have upon either side footways of from 3.28 feet to 5 feet in width. 
 
 The foundation of these roads consists of hard stones which are never 
 affected by the weather. They are separately set one by one, points up- 
 wards, and are of a length of 7.87 inches. Upon this is placed a layer 
 of small pieces of basalt or Jura limestone of a thickness of from 3.93 
 inches to 5.91 inches, the former stones being used for highways upon 
 which there is a heavy traflc, the latter upon those where the trafBc is 
 light. 
 
 Basalt is broken by special machines into pieces varying in size from 
 1.18 inches to 1.77 inches in diameter. That used here is broken by the 
 Basalt Company, Limited, located at Steinmuehle, near Bayreuth, in 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 
 
 91 
 
 Bavaria. The cost at the factory is $1.70 per 1.308 cubic yards; the 
 cost iucludingthatof delivering at the place where they are to beused 
 is from $2.45 to $3.18 per 1.308 cubic yards. 
 
 Jura limestone is delivered in larger pieces than basalt and is broken 
 into small pieces by means of steel hammers at the place of delivery. 
 The cost of same is from $1.43 to $2.14 per 1.308 cubic yards, according 
 to the distance of the quarries from the place of destination. 
 
 Small piles of these stones for repairing purposes are constantly kept 
 upon the sides of the highways. The work is usually done in the spring 
 or autumn , when the ground is soft and moist. The roads are thoroughly 
 scraped and swept before the stones are spread, which is usually of a 
 thickness of from 1.18 inches to 2.36 inches. They are loosely but evenly 
 thrown on and the traffic is depended upon to work them into the 
 ground. If this be heavy, the road is made smooth in two or three days, 
 but if light, two or three weeks are liable to be consumed in getting the ' 
 material well worked in. The roadway is constantly dressed in this 
 manner uutil it becomes perfectly level. Should it happen, however, 
 during this time before the stones are well set that frost or dry weather 
 should render the ground impervious, all the loose new material is re- 
 moved and not again spread until the weather becomes wet and tlie 
 ground soft. 
 
 The roadway is bordered on either side by what are called " frame 
 stones." They are very hard and are not influenced by the atmosphere. 
 The depth at which they are planted is 11.81 inches; their width is 
 3.93 inches. The footways of 39 .37 inches in width have au incline of 
 1.97 inches. 
 
 I give you herewith a rough sketch of a highway which will elucidate 
 more fully what 1 have written. 
 
 These methods apply only to the main highways, which are kept up 
 at the expense of the state. In the hands of an experienced staff the 
 best results are obtained. Practice, however, is necessary, in order to 
 become acquainted with the best time and manner in which to spread 
 the stones. 
 
 Cross-roads are, as a rule, not macadamized, and are kept up by and 
 at the expense of the respective communities. 
 
 t^fCA 
 
 jyameatane. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Nuremberg, March 10, 1891. 
 
 lycanestane. 
 
 Wm, J. Black, 
 
 Consul. 
 
92 STREETS AlfD HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 BERLIN. 
 REPORT BY CONSUL-GENEBAL EDWARDS. 
 
 The laying out and building of new streets within the city limits is a 
 public interest only so far as the existing streets no longer suffice for the 
 requirements of traffic and intercourse. 
 
 Nevertheless the street commission of the city of Berlin has been for 
 many y ears extending the paving in a large circuit where it was not a 
 public interest. 
 
 So long as the proprietors of land situated on proposed streets repre- 
 sented on the building chart of the city could build houses without con- 
 sidering if the streets were paved, if they were drained, if they were 
 connected with an actual street, conditions were bound to arise which 
 were very inconvenient for the inhabitants of such houses. 
 
 They regarded it as an injustice that they should not enjoy the same 
 privileges as other citizens, and by their petitions exerted such a moral 
 pressure on the communal authorities that their demands were granted. 
 
 A change could first be made after the passage of the law of July 2, 
 1875, concerning the building and alteration of streets and squares in 
 towns and country places, and of the local statute of October 8-No- 
 vember 19, 1875, and after the issuance of the police regulation of 
 September 12, 1879. 
 
 While under the cabinet order of December 31, 1838, proprietors of 
 land bordering on newly paved streets were responsible only for the 
 expenses incurred by the community in building such streets, they are 
 now legally held for almost the entire sum expended by the town in 
 finishing the street, and especially for the costs arising from the pur- 
 chase of the street surface. As furthermore the building of dwelling 
 houses is permitted only in such streets as are entirely paved and suit- 
 ably drained, it is in the interest of the land owners, if they wish to use 
 their property iu this way, not to wait until by chance the streets on 
 which their property lies are paved by the municipal street commission, 
 but to have this work done themselves. 
 
 That the effect of this law upon the extension of municipal and pri- 
 vate streets has been gradual is due to the fact that there was a con- 
 siderable number of streets in which dwelling houses had been built 
 prior to the passage of this law still to be p ut in order, and, on the 
 other side, that it required a number of years before land owners real- 
 ized that in consequence of the new law it was in their interest of their 
 own accord and without municipal assistance to build the streets on 
 which their property was situated. 
 
EUEOPE^GEEMANY. 
 
 93 
 
 How important, however, with time the effect has been can be seen 
 from the following table, which exhibits construction and expense from 
 1882 to 1889, inclusive : 
 
 
 Tor account of — 
 
 Total. 
 
 Amonntof 
 
 Tear. 
 
 The city. 
 
 Private per- 
 sons, street- 
 car com- 
 panies, etc. 
 
 incnrred by 
 
 tUe city 
 
 for paving 
 
 streets. 
 
 1882-'83 
 
 Sq. metres. 
 34, 233 
 32, 158. 
 13, 939 
 14,700 
 *42, 980 
 26, 200 
 33, 350 
 
 Sq. metres. 
 11,949 
 0,291 
 12, 781 
 17, 019 
 34, 849 
 26, 666 
 69, 686 
 
 Sq. metrcB. 
 46, 182 
 38, 452 
 26, 7:0 
 32, 628 
 t77, 829 
 52, 916 
 93, 036 
 
 Marks. 
 469, 561 
 
 1883-'84 
 
 474, 181 
 
 1884 '85 
 
 236, 264 
 
 1885 '86 
 
 282, 625 
 
 188()-'87 . 
 
 925, 863 
 
 1887 '88 
 
 449, 053 
 
 1888 '89 
 
 J575, 953 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 197, 629 
 
 170, 134 
 
 367, 763 
 
 ' 3,413,500 
 
 
 
 * While heretofore private streets were often constructed by the municipal street commission at the 
 expense of the private parties concerned, in later years this custom has been abandoned. Only pav- 
 ings which are to be made simultaneously by street car companies and by the city are laid by the 
 latter at the expense of the former. From other parties constructing streets, for superintendence of 
 the work by the city street commission, a charge of 20 pfennige per square metre of paving is col- 
 lected. 
 
 tin this sum is included the paving of York street, which alone represented an area of 23,452sqnare 
 metres. Of this, 16,929 was constructed by the city at its own cost, and 6,523 square metres at the 
 cost of the "Great Berlin Street-Car Company." 
 
 tThe amount expended by the city in tlie year 1888-'89 for paving can not yet be stated exactly. 
 From the fiscal balance, however, it may be estimated at about 576,000 marks. 
 
 If the subject of private paving is considered, it will be found from 
 the above table and from the table already published for the years 
 1877 to 1881, that there has been considerable fluctuation. While the 
 years 1877 to 1880 showed unusual activity on the part of private per- 
 sons in this direction, in these 4 years 127,346 square metres of paving 
 were laid at the expense of private parties, making an annual average 
 of 31,836 square metres. In 1881 the amount fell off to 3,900 square 
 metres, and from this time on it has risen to 60,000 square metres in 
 1888-'89. 
 
 This rising tendency, moreover, at present seems to continue, as is 
 shown by the applications already received by the municipal street com- 
 mission. 
 
 The number of streets proposed in the first three quarters of the 
 year 1889 for paving in this manner was 21. Their total length amounts 
 to 6 * kilometres, and their total area to about 69,000 square metres. 
 
 Nevertheless the expenses incurred by the city for new pavings 
 amounted in the 7 years covered by the above table to about 3,410,000 
 marks, or an average of 487,000 marks per annum. 
 
 These expenses naturally are really only outlays, as proprietors of 
 land bordering on such streets upon building on their property must 
 
 * The completion of these streets by private speculators would add 12 kilometres 
 to the street frouts of the cit}', while the streets iJuished by the city and by private 
 perso/.a between 18H2-'83and 1 8rt8-'8D have a length of 40 kilometres or about 6 Germ- 
 xuau miles (over 2o English miles). 
 
94 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 pay the expenses already incurred by the community in constructing 
 the street. 
 
 The following table shows the amount paid into the city treasury 
 under the statute of March 7, 1877, by land owners for the opening of 
 new streets, as well as under cabinet order of December 31, 1838: 
 
 Tear. 
 
 In accortlaoce with— 
 
 Statute of March 
 7-9, 1877. 
 
 Cahiuet orOer of 
 December 31, 1838. 
 
 1882-'83 
 1883-'84 
 lS8i-'!i5 
 18S5-'86 
 1886-'87 
 1887-'88 
 1888-'89 
 
 Marks. 
 
 95, 930 
 100, 674 
 
 80, 523 
 100, 258 
 211,388 
 227, 840 
 416, 092 
 
 109, 493 
 67,383 
 50, 395 
 14, 609 
 13, 827 
 17, 966 
 16, 742 
 
 If the figures of column two of the above table are compared with those 
 of the last column in the preceding table, it will be seen that in no year 
 has the amount paid into the city treasury under the statute of March 
 7, 1877, equaled the amount expended by the city in paving streets. In 
 making this comparison it must be remembered that in accordance with 
 the provisions of the statute, when streets are more than 26 metres 
 broad, the area beyond this breadth must be paved solely at -the ex- 
 pense of the community. Also with such parts of streets as border on 
 tracts which by law or nature are not capable of being built upon, open 
 squares, promenades, parks, railway stations, water courses, etc., no 
 claim can be made by the city for recompensation beyond this limit. 
 
 The sums given in column two of the above table represent not only 
 the amounts repaid to the city for expenses incurred in the purchase of 
 the land on which the streets are constructed, but also construction and 
 first paving costs. Tet the latter are not fixed for persons buildiog on 
 the street exactly in accordance with the amounts in the bills, but at a 
 price per square metre which is fixed every year by communal order. 
 This price differs for principal and side streets, and it can not exceed 
 the cost of the lowest quality of paving permissible for such streets. 
 
 At first the price unit per square metre of paving was fixed at 11.50 
 marks in side streets and 13 marks in principal streets.* 
 
 These prices were originally adopted because it was thought that they 
 would approximate but never exceed the actual cost price. Ten years' 
 experience has, however, shown that these price units fall considerably 
 behind the real cost. Accordingly, the prices have been raised to 13 
 marks in side streets and 14 marks in principal streets. 
 
 In similar manner payment of the costs of drainage is regulated 
 where such in new streets is obtained through connection with the gen- 
 
 * These are such iu which the paving rests upon a rolled suhstructnre, such as is 
 used for public highways^ while in the side streets the substructure is merely a gravely 
 bed. 
 
EUROPE — GEKMANY. . 95 
 
 eral municipal canalization. The land owners in new streets could not 
 well be asked to pay the costs of an entire radial system which, per- 
 haps, had come to be a necessity, without regard to the new streets. 
 In like manner the amount actually expended in this way could not be 
 charged to the persons having property bordering on such streets, be- 
 cause the land owners on the streets near the pumping stations would 
 be burdened with the cost of the expensive masonry canals,- while per- 
 sons having property in the upper part of the radial system would have 
 to pay only for the construction of the much cheaper earthenware tube 
 drains, although these would be useless without the costly canals. 
 
 It had been learned from the canalization commission that in radial 
 system III — which is relatively the cheapest of the systems— exclusive 
 of the cost of the pump station and the fo"cing-pipe connections, the 
 cost of the drains was 4,154,073.44 marks. As the street front in this 
 radial system amounted to 78,443 metreS, the cost per metre was 52.96 
 marks. Hence it was decided on February 29, 1884, whenever, upon 
 building, the repayment of these costs becomes due, in such streets in 
 which drains are laid simultaneously with or soon after the paving, 
 the sum to be paid is 50 marks per metre of street front. 
 
 If the foregoing tables show that the activity of the municipal com- 
 mission in laying new pavings has, since the second half of the decade 
 beginning with 1870, materially deceased, yet since the same period iu 
 the matter of repaving there has been an enormous increase. 
 
 With the transfer of the streets to the municipality in 1876, on ac- 
 count of the increased traffic and the growing demand of the public, it 
 became necessary to begin replacing with good suitable paving the old 
 paving, which was almost all very bad, most of it having been laid dur- 
 ing the first half of the century. 
 
 In the years 1877-'81 the average annual amount of bad pavement 
 replaced by good was 55,200 square metres. In the period 1882-'89 
 this annual average has increased to 133,630 square metres. 
 
 The following table shows for the separate years the area repaved, and 
 the amount paid out by the city for the purpose on its own account and 
 for the account of street-car companies, the latter being responsible for 
 the costs of paving between and near the rails in those streets in which, 
 simultaneously with the repaving, the laying of the tracks takes place : 
 
96 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IJs FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Eepavea 
 in 
 
 For account of city. 
 
 For account of streets 
 car companies. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Cost of repaying for account 
 of city. 
 
 the year. 
 
 Asphalt. 
 
 ■Wood.* 
 
 Stone. 
 
 Asphalt. 
 
 Wood.* 
 
 Stone. 
 
 "Wages. 
 
 Stone. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1882-'83... 
 1883-84.. . 
 1884^'S5... 
 1885-'86... 
 1886-'87... 
 1887-'B8... 
 1888-'89-.. 
 
 Sq. met. 
 55, 44S 
 63,764 
 71,071 
 36, 913 
 50, 041 
 71,400 
 77, 402 
 
 So. met 
 7,306 
 11, 837 
 3,028 
 1,319 
 3,945 
 1,631 
 1,757 
 
 Sq. met. 
 27, 238 
 43, 649 
 46, 725 
 41, 083 
 91, 689 
 46, 479 
 52, 960 
 
 Sq. me(. 
 7,669 
 1,570 
 1,838 
 496 
 4,655 
 17 
 5,324 
 
 Sq. met. 
 
 888 
 
 4,361 
 
 3,197 
 
 380 
 
 8,647 
 
 65 
 
 Sq. met. 
 
 11,121 
 8,627 
 5,313 
 
 31, 057 
 
 19,379 
 3,210 
 
 10, 232 
 
 Sq. met. 
 109, 667 
 133, 708 
 132, 072 
 111, 278 
 178. 256 
 122, 792 
 147, 665 
 
 Marks. 
 
 9.58, 531 
 1, 815, 271 
 1, 353, 766 
 1, 261, 535 
 1, 266, 478 
 1, 698, 801 
 1, 785, 140 
 
 Marks. 
 639,913 
 597, 750 
 818, 892 
 944, 924 
 1, 146, 900 
 740, 031 
 927, 631 
 
 Marks. 
 1,598,444 
 2, 413, 021. 
 2, 172, 658 
 2,206,459 
 2, 413, 378 
 2, 438, 832 
 2, 712, 771 
 
 Total.. 
 
 426, 966 
 
 30, 823 
 
 349, 813 
 
 21, 469 
 
 17, 528 
 
 88, 839 
 
 935,438 
 
 10, 139, 622 
 
 5, 816, 041 
 
 15, 955, 563 
 
 * Under the date of April 17, 1891, Consul-G-eneral Edwards sent the following, translated from a 
 Berlin joamal : It is reported that the wood pavement, which was laid in many streets of Berlin, has 
 worn 80 badly that the municipal street commission has decided to entirely stop usingthis material for 
 paving purposes. Every sort of wood which has yet been tried has rotted in a comparatively short 
 time, and its upper surface has become so much injured that repairs are hardly possible. Also, the 
 horses fall upon it much more easily than upon asphalt pavement. 
 
 For this reason, "The Great Berlin Horse Car Stocli Compau.y's" petition that the space between 
 the rails of its tracks on Spandailer and Konig .streets be repaired this time with asphalt has been 
 granted, and this work will be finished during the coming summer. 
 
 Large as is the sum thus used, nevertheless, in view of the immense 
 old tracks to be repaved, the fraction repaved each year is small. Hence, 
 the deciding* each year which streets are to be repaved in the following 
 year is very difficult, and the solution of the difficulty is not rendered 
 more easy by the fact that, year in, year out, countless petitions are 
 received, in which ofBcials, societies, real-estate owners, and residents 
 declare that exactly that street in which they live or carry on business 
 is one of the very worst in the city, and that they must consider it an 
 unfair distinction in favor of other taxpayers if their application does 
 not receive immediate attention. 
 
 From the foregoing table it will be seen that of the materials used in 
 repaving, the principal was asphalt, although the excess of this mate- 
 rial over stone was small. In the years lS82-'89 over 448,000 square 
 metres of asphalt paving were laid, while over 438,000 square metres 
 of stone paving were laid iu the same period. The victory of asphalt 
 is due to the silence which prevails in the streets which are paved with 
 it, to its comparative cheapness as compared with stone paving, and 
 most of all to its great popularity with the public. 
 
 Asphalt pavements. — On account of the great importance which this 
 sort of paving has won in Berlin, the following remarks in regard to 
 Its technical preparation may be found of interest : 
 
 In laying asphalt pavings in Berlin the heated asphalt powder is 
 poured over the previously prepared concrete sub-bedding, and by beat- 
 ing or rolling is reduced to a surface unbroken by seams. Since the 
 year 1887 this work was done by four contractors only, who used asphalt 
 stone from Bal de Travers in Switzerland, Pyrimont-Seyssel in France, 
 and Eagusa in Sicily, and, as their bids were the same, the areas to be 
 
 * This decision was formerly made by tbo street commission, bat for several years 
 it has been made by the city council. 
 
EUROPE — GEEMANY. 97 
 
 paved were given out in equal parts. To these contractors — of whom 
 the one who used stone from Pyrimont-Seyssel has entirely given up 
 street work — recently three new ones have been added, one of which — 
 an English stock company — uses limestone from the quarries of St. Jean 
 Marm6jols, Department Gard, France, while the other two, local man- 
 ufacturers, use asphalt, manufactured the one from Sicilian stone and 
 the other from stone found near Ancona in Italy. As the new contract- 
 ors have made decidedly lower offers for the sample pavings under- 
 taken by them than the prices of the older contractors, it is to be hoped 
 that in future the municipal street commission will succeed in having 
 all its asphalt paving done at reduced rates, and in this way, without 
 increasing expenses, be able to have considerably larger area of bad 
 paving replaced each year. 
 
 As the places where natural asphalt stone, which, when in pulverized 
 form, heated and stamped, reassumes a solid form, is found on our globe 
 seem to be very few, human ing< nuity has been exercised by artificial 
 means to increase the supply ; and here in Germany, as well as else- 
 where, such attempts have been made. In reply to frequent applica- 
 tions for permission to test such artificial asphalts in Berlin, the inunici- 
 pal commission, recognizing its importance not only in a technical and 
 economic way but also in its effects on -home industry, has offered some 
 of the public streets of Berlin for such experiments, but naturally at 
 the risk and expense of the parties directly interested. 
 
 None of these attempts, though, have produced satisfactory results. 
 
 An American company, according to municipal reports, laid a paving 
 in the Landsberger street, which before the end of a year had to be 
 removed and replaced with natural asphalt paving. Also the paving 
 in Koenig street, with artificial stamped asphalt, which was laid in the 
 year 1883 by a German contractor, did not stand the wear nearly so 
 well as natural asphalt pavements, and has already been many times 
 entirely renewed. How satisfactory such paving materials may prove 
 to be in streets where traffic is light has not yet been determined. 
 
 Greater durability seems to be possessed by an asphalt pavement re- 
 cently laid by a German company in Wall street, near its junction with 
 Spittelmarkt. A final j udgment, however, can not as yet be given in re- 
 gard to this any more than in regard to the so-called " caoutchouc- 
 stamped asphalt pavement" tested on the Luetzorr Ufer. 
 
 Wood pavements. — If asphalt, however — so far as natural asphalt is 
 concerned — has shown a satisfactory degree of durability as compared 
 with stone, the same can not be said of wood. 
 
 In the municipal reports for the years 1877 to 1881 information was 
 given in regard to wooden block pavements laid in the years 1879 and 
 1881. In the following years until 1883 other trials were made with this 
 material, especially in the squares before the Armory Museum and the 
 Eoyal Opera House. For the former American cypress wood was used, 
 and for the latter Swedish pine. 
 33A 7 
 
98 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Id the year 1884-'85 the area of such wooden pavements in the city 
 of Berlin was about 42,480 square metres. Already in 1883 the wooden 
 pavement laid in 1879 in Oberwall street had become so much damaged 
 that half of it had to be relaid, the other half being renewed in the 
 following year. The wooden pavement laid in the same year (1879) in 
 the street east of the Eoyal Opera House was in such a rotten condition 
 in 1884 that the street commission was compelled to remove the com- 
 pletely rotted and useless wooden blocks and to replace it with stamped 
 asphalt. In the same way the pavement on Friedrich's bridge, and on 
 Friedrich street between lot 103 and Behren street, after respectively 
 7 and 6 years' use, had to be completely renewed. 
 
 This experience shows why the municipal commission, while not ex- 
 actly hostile to the extension of wooden pavements, still prefers to wait. 
 It has, however, permitted the Great Berlin Street Car Company, which 
 desired it in the interest of its horses, in streets which are otherwise 
 paved with asphalt, to pave the area within and between the rails with 
 wood. Here also results have been unsatisfactory, and, instead of wood 
 of the pine family, impregnated beech wood has been tried. The first 
 experiments of this kind were in the year 1886-'87 at the Milellen Uamm, 
 in Louisen and New William streets. Under these circumstances the 
 area of wood pavements has not materially increased since 1884. On 
 April 1, 1889, as above shown, it amounted to 62,336 square metres. 
 For keeping nearly half of this area in repair the Great Berlin Horse 
 Car Company is responsible. 
 
 The experiments in the use of beech wood are as yet incomplete, though 
 it appears that in frosty and snowy weather such pavements are more 
 slippery than any other. 
 
 Iron pavements. — The iron paving, which was laid in the year 1877 
 for a short distance on " Unter den Linden " by the King's and Laura 
 smelting houses, wgs removed at the request of the experimenters very 
 recently. lu continuance of their experiment, however, they were per- 
 mitted in 1887, at their own risk and cost, to lay a steel pavement on Lange 
 street where it crosses the Wood Market and Marcus street. This steel 
 pavemeut is composed of wooden impregnated blocks, in the form of pav- 
 ing stones, which, on their upper surface, are capped with steel. These 
 blocks are laid upon a concrete under-bedding, and the seams are filled 
 with a bituminous mass. This pavement, however, has not yet gotten 
 beyond the experimental stage. 
 
 Area and cost of pavements. —Concerning the street areas, which at 
 the close of the period covered by this report (April 1, 1889), were 
 paved with asphalt, with wood, and with stone of diiierent sorts, as well 
 as concerning the areas to be kept in repair fty the city, by street-car 
 companies (in consequence of contracts to that effect), and by contract- 
 ors (in consequence of the guaranty required of them — for stone pave- 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 
 
 99 
 
 ments 3 years, for asphalt pavements 4 years), the following table gives 
 information. On the first of April, 1889, there were in existence : 
 
 Description, 
 
 Kei 
 
 ;?4'^ 
 
 Kept by 
 contractors, 
 
 street car 
 companies, 
 and private 
 
 persons. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Good pavement: 
 
 Asphalt 
 
 Wood 
 
 Stone: 
 
 Class I, on broken stone snb-bedding 
 Classes 11 and 111 : 
 
 Broken stone sub-bedding 
 
 Gravel sub-bedding 
 
 Total area good pavement 
 
 Bad pavement : 
 
 Class IV 
 
 Class V ...... . 
 
 Classes vf and VII .'." .' 
 
 Classes Vlll and IX 
 
 Total area bad pavement 
 
 Total area of pavement 
 
 Sq. metres. 
 
 260, 000 
 32, 761 
 
 193, 844 
 
 258, 103 
 562, 694 
 
 Sq. metres. 
 
 313, 919 
 
 30, 575 
 
 106,273 
 
 139, 920 
 184, 513 
 
 1, 307, 402 
 
 176, 639 
 
 357, 865 
 
 1, 209, 491 
 
 660, 116 
 
 2, 404, 111 
 
 3, 711, 513 
 
 Sq. metres. 
 
 573, 919 
 63, 336 
 
 300, 117 
 
 398, 033 
 747, 207 
 
 30, 547 
 95, 641 
 71, 292 
 17,343 
 
 214, 823 
 
 990, 023 
 
 2, 082, 602 
 
 207, 186 
 
 453, 506 
 
 1, 280, 783 
 
 677, 459 
 
 2, 618, 034 
 
 4, 701, 536 
 
 From this table it appears that of the pavings kept by the city 
 1,307,000 square metres, or about 35 per cent., are of good quality, while 
 2,404,000, or about 65 per cent., are of more or less bad stone. It is 
 therefore apparent that the latter, which, with small exception, is at 
 least 15 years old — a larger part beiug very much older — every year 
 requires more and more repair and renovation. Even, therefore, if only 
 the absolutely necessary repairs are made, the longer its replacement 
 with good paving is deferred, so much the higher from year to year will 
 the necessary outlay for repairs be. To what extent such repairs have 
 been made in the separate years covered by this report, and what ex- 
 pense has thereby accrued to the city, is shown by the following table: 
 
 
 Street pavement. 
 
 Eepairs. 
 
 Improve- 
 ment. 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 In general. 
 
 To be kept 
 by city. 
 
 So. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Wages, 
 
 gravel, 
 
 sand, etc. 
 
 ObtaiDing 
 new stones. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 1882-'83... . 
 1883- '84.... 
 1884-'85.... 
 ]885-'66.... 
 ]886^'87..-. 
 1887-'88.... 
 1888-'89.... 
 
 iSff. met. 
 4, 158, 000 
 4, 294, 000 
 4, 366, 300 
 4, 396, 800 
 4,448,000 
 4, 529, 000 
 4, 599, 600 
 
 Sq. met. 
 3, 600, 900 
 3,548,400 
 3, 56.i, 500 
 ■ 3,545,600 
 3,728,900 
 3, 623, 700 
 3,608,400 
 
 3,528 
 2,385 
 2,162 
 1,805 
 2,007 
 2,107 
 2,388. 
 
 Sq. met. 
 
 " 616,200 
 526, 000 
 414, 800 
 389,800 
 386, 100 
 418, 700 
 409, 600 
 
 Per cent. 
 14.3 
 14.8 
 11.6 
 11.0 
 10.4 
 11.9 
 11.4 
 
 Marks. 
 386, 104 
 398, 690 
 392,519 
 384,'415 
 400, 305 
 439, 072 
 500, 010 
 
 Marks. 
 253, 092 
 208,468 
 178,888 
 194, 061 
 232, 104 
 129, 298 
 236, 714 
 
 Marks^ 
 639, 198 
 607, 158 
 571,407 
 678, 476 
 632, 409 
 568, 370 
 736, 724 
 
 As the outlay represented in the next to the last column was only 
 for new stones in order to obtain the actual money value of repairs in 
 the period 1882-'89, to the sum 4,333,740 marks must be added the value 
 
100 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 of old stones used again, 850,616 marks, which gives a total of 5,184,356 
 marks.* 
 
 The cost of repairs per square metre was therefore 1.416 marks ex- 
 clusive of the value of old stones, and 1.694 marks inclusive of such 
 value. The average cost of repairs on the entire street area was, ex- 
 clusive of the value of old stones, 17.2 pfennigs, and inclusive of such 
 value 20.7 pfennigs per square metre. 
 
 The labor and cost represented by the above table were expended 
 in the interest of street intercourse owing to damages to the paving 
 from traffic and atmospheric influences. But the streets of a modern 
 city serve other public purposes than those of intercourse. Under the 
 streets are the gas-pipe, canalization, pneumatic-tube, telegraph, tele- 
 phone, electric-light and water-pipe systems. The laying and repair- 
 ing of these subterranean systems render a frequent breaking of the 
 street pavement necessary.t 
 
 Especially upon the better ptivements, however, such breaking open 
 has a bad effect, because they affect not only the street surface, but also 
 the sub-bedding of the street. 
 
 Every effort has been made to bring the pipe and cable systems away 
 from the streets and under the sidewalks. Yet at every street crossing 
 the paving must be broken, and in most cases the municipal water 
 pipes can not be laid under the sidewalks as they are not permitted to 
 come within 5 metresj of the ho uses and a very large proportion of 
 sidewalks are 4 metres, or less, wide.§ 
 
 
 Work on water'eys- 
 tem in streets. 
 
 Amount of 
 water pipes 
 
 
 ■Unimpor- 
 tant. 
 
 Impor- 
 tant. 
 
 laid or re- 
 laid. 
 
 1878-'81 
 
 Jfo. 
 3,862 
 2,931 
 
 No. 
 15,i46 
 20, 619 
 
 Metres. 
 22, 702 
 
 1882-'89 
 
 27 269 
 
 
 
 * The city has a gmall income which somewhat reduces -this amount. Persons who 
 open public streets at their own cost are by statute required, during the first 4 years, 
 for the purpose of keeping up repairs, to pay to the city an annual sum of 20 pfennigs 
 per square metre. In the period from 1882-'89 the city's income from this source 
 amounted to 48,447 marks. 
 
 t This applies chiefly to such systems as, for unanticipated causes, require exten- 
 sion. This does not apply to the municipal canalization, as the size of this is not in- 
 fluenced by the demands of the public, but by the amount of rainfall to be carried off. 
 Furthermore the laying of this system nearly always precedes the laying of the bet- 
 ter street pavement. 
 
 The renewal of the pavement broken open for such purposes is naturally not a 
 municipal expense, but such repairs are made by the street commission at the ex- 
 pense of the department for which the work is done. 
 
 t This regulation was adopted to protect from the water, in case of broken pipes, 
 the cellars and foundations of neighboring houses. 
 
 5 The following table shows how important were the operations of the water com- 
 mission, on an average, for each year of the periods considered; 
 
EUKOPE' — GEEMANY. 
 
 101 
 
 In addition to the paving expenses already alluded to, there are others 
 in the city of Berlin which are as large as the entire outlays of many 
 large towns for paving purposes. These expenses arise from widening 
 old streets, the laying of special crossings on principal streets, laying 
 of temporary pavements in the outer zones of the city, etc. Another 
 expense is consequent upon the doing away with deep gutter stones, 
 which is rendered possible by the extension of the general subterranean 
 drainage system. At the beginning of the canalization work the length 
 of these deep gutters in the districts of radial systems I to VII was 
 490,360 metres. 
 
 Of this before the beginning of the period covered by this report, i. e., 
 before April 1, 1882, 185,680 metres was changed to flat curbs. 
 
 In the years 1882-'83 to 1888-'89 there was removed— 
 
 Deep gutter 
 Btones. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Value of 
 
 old stoues 
 
 used. 
 
 Total 
 value of 
 the work. 
 
 Wages, etc. 
 
 New atone. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Metres. 
 274, 877 
 
 Marks. 
 503, 132 
 
 Marks. 
 208, 114 
 
 Marks. 
 801, 246 
 
 Marks. 
 139, 333 
 
 Marks. 
 940, .579 
 
 Altogether, therefore, 460,557 metres of old gutter stones have been 
 removed.* Hence it appears that the old Berlin gutters have almost 
 entirely disappeared. 
 
 Stone pavements : In spite of the growing use of asphalt in recent years, 
 of the entire street area only 12,2 per cent, is asphalt paving, while 86.5 
 per cent, is stone. Even when only the better paved streets are taken 
 into consideration the ratio remains 27.5 to 69.5. 
 
 The experience of former years taught that it was in every way more 
 advantageous not to buy stones for special cases, but to have a large 
 supply on hand. This, however, necessitates large storing places as 
 well as numerous trained employes. 
 
 Of such storing places at the end of the period under report three 
 were in use with a total area of 102,000 square metres. To these places, 
 in accordance with the terms of delivery, the ordered stones are brought 
 by the contractors, and, after unsatisfactory stones are refused, are un- 
 loaded by employes of the street commission and the amounts entered 
 in the depot stock books. The entire depot business is under the 
 charge of one of the six building inspectors of the street commission. 
 The jcompensation of the depot bookkeeper, overseer, and workmen — 
 the director is a life-long official, while the others are employed by the 
 day— amounts to about 16,000 marks per annum. The building in- 
 spector has the assistance of three members of the street commission, 
 department II, as curators. 
 
 * The report of the municipal street-oleauing commission shows that in conaequence 
 of the removal of such gutters the amount of water used for cleansing the same has 
 fallen from 512,397 cal>io metres to 133,273 cuhic metres. 
 
102 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 In regard to the total amount of stone delivered during the period 
 under report, the quantities of different sorts of stone, and the total 
 cost, the following table gives information : 
 
 Years. 
 
 1882-'83 
 
 1883-'84 
 
 1884-'85 
 
 1885-'b6 
 
 1886-'87 
 
 l«87-'88 
 
 18S8-'89 
 
 Total in 7 years 
 
 Broken 
 
 stones, 
 
 classes 1 
 
 to m.* 
 
 Sq. met. 
 57,033 
 89, 029 
 89,833 
 110, 220 
 136, 045 
 92, 572 
 114, 038 
 
 694, 776 
 
 Broken and granite 
 stones. 
 
 Classes IV 
 and V. 
 
 Sq. me<. 
 
 16, 221 
 27, 533 
 16, 145 
 
 17, 458 
 8,243 
 
 22, 746 
 11, 622 
 
 Class VT. 
 
 Cub. met. 
 9,351 
 6,994 
 5,429 
 5,039 
 581 
 2,000 
 4,442 
 
 119,968 1 33, 836 
 
 255,312 sq. met. 
 
 Sill stones 
 
 for 
 bordering 
 track rails. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 39, 316 
 
 3,951 
 
 3,238 
 
 1,805 
 
 27,378 
 
 17, 713 
 
 17, 406 
 
 110,807 
 
 Total cost. 
 
 Marki. 
 . 1,358,287 
 1, 651, 360 
 1, B65, 529 
 1, 964, 2!i6 
 
 2, 105, 9;;u 
 
 2, 107, 695 
 1, 669, 707 
 
 12, 422, 804 
 
 * The stones designated as classes I , II, and III are broken stones worked on all their sides into 
 cubic or prismatic forms. Only these are used for distinct paving or repaving. The stones of classes 
 IV and V are en-atio blocks with worked square tops, while class VI represents stones broken in 
 polygonal form. These last three sorts are used only for repairing old pavings made of similar stones. 
 
 t It is calculated that with every cubic metre of stone of class VI 4 square meters of pa^dng can be 
 laid. 
 
 From the above figures it appears that, leaving out of consideration 
 the stone sills which are used for bordering street car track rails in 
 asphalt streets, 73 per cent, of the stones obtained were for the best 
 class of paving, classes I to III ; while the rest, 27 per cent., were for 
 repairing old pavings so far as the old stones could not be reused. It 
 is the desire of the street commission to restrict as far as possible the 
 purchase of these inferior stones (classes IV to VI) and to purchase the 
 better sorts with the money thus saved. 
 
 The following table shows the origin of these stones. The stones 
 from Norway and Sweden are exclusively granite, while the Belgian 
 stones come from the porphyry quarries of Quenast, near Brussels. 
 The Bavarian and Silesian stones are granite, while those from Saxony 
 are porphyry, greenstone, and granite. The stones from Mark Branden- 
 burg (classes V and VI) are exclusively produced from so called 
 granite erratic blocks. 
 
 
 From— 
 
 
 rear. 
 
 Sweden 
 and 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Bavaria. 
 
 Saxony 
 
 and 
 Silesia. 
 
 Mark 
 
 Brauden- 
 
 burg. 
 
 Other 
 countries.* 
 
 Total. 
 
 1882-'83 
 
 'Sq. met. 
 44, 994 
 83, 862 
 67, 927 
 75, 367 
 71, 404 
 81, 500 
 80,485 
 
 Sq. me«. 
 9,453 
 11, 797 
 26, 219 
 41, 360 
 52, 674 
 536 
 32, 177 
 
 Sq. met. 
 982 
 
 Sq. met. 
 13, 132 
 8,706 
 7,717 
 9,839 
 13,499 
 14,475 
 1,136 
 
 Sq. met. _ 
 42,097 
 39, 573 
 25, 731 
 27, 243 
 7,096 
 25, 713 
 24, 912 
 
 Sq. met. 
 
 Sq. met. 
 110, e-.2 
 141, 3i;8 
 127, 604 
 153, S17 
 140,612 
 123, 318 
 144, 328 
 
 1883-'84 
 
 365 
 
 1884-'85 
 
 
 1885-'86 
 
 
 67 
 476 
 
 1886-'87 
 
 1,464 
 
 1,004 
 
 618 
 
 ie87-'88 
 
 1888-'89 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage of the total 
 sum, not including 
 Brandenburg stone. . . 
 
 505, 624 
 66.67 
 
 174, 216 
 22.90 
 
 4,068 
 0.63 
 
 78, 603 
 9.69 
 
 192, 364 
 
 908 
 0.12 
 
 950, 629 
 758,265 
 
 
 
 * Bohemia and tlio Khine proviuce. 
 
EUEOPE — GERMANY. 
 
 103 
 
 The foregoing table shows that the vast majority of the stones come 
 from abroad. Many futile attempts have been made to secure the 
 stones in Germany, but so far the foreign competition has been irre- 
 sistible. These attempts, however, have assisted the city treasury, as 
 they have caused a fall of prices, as is shown in the following table; 
 
 Price per 1,000 with cubes, per 
 sqaare metre with prisma — 
 
 Sort of atone. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Form. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Before the year 
 1885. 
 
 Up to April 
 
 1, 1889. 
 
 I .. 
 
 II . 
 
 ni 
 
 Cubes . 
 Friama 
 ...do... 
 Cnbea . 
 ...do... 
 Prisms 
 ...do... 
 Cubes . 
 Prisms 
 ...do... 
 
 Oentmietres. 
 19 to 20 
 10 to 20 
 15 to 16 
 19 to 20 
 15 to IG 
 19 to 20 
 15 to 16 
 19 to 20 
 19 to 20 
 15 to 16 
 
 Mark/. 
 
 795 
 
 18.76 
 
 17. 75 t» 16.0 
 
 493 
 
 370 
 
 13.10 
 
 14. 60 to 12. 75 
 
 478 to 450 
 
 12.85 
 
 13. 80 to 13. 30 
 
 Mark). 
 
 700 
 
 17 
 
 13.74 
 
 480 
 
 11.74 
 10.64 
 451 
 10.74 
 10.00 
 
 The total amount of good stones taken from old pavements during 
 the period under report was 270,676 cubic metres. Of this amount 
 75,091 cubic metres were used again. The remainder was broken up 
 and used as sub-bedding for stone pavements of classes I to III, and for 
 other purposes. A part was sold to neighboring rural communities. As 
 the demand therefor has been lively, the prices per cubic metre have 
 risen from 4 marks to 7 marks and upwards.* The amount of stones 
 thus sold was 49,761 cubic metres, and the receipts from this source 
 were 253,793 marks. 
 
 Highroads. — In addition to the streets to which up to this point this 
 report has been confined, there are also within a small part of the city 
 limits highroads ; and in addition to these, the city is also responsible 
 for certain country roads built by it beyond the city limits. The reports 
 for the years 1877-'81 show the length of such highroads to have been 
 70,600 metres. At the close of the period now under report, it had 
 been reduced to 68,150 metres. This reduction is mainly due to the 
 extension of paved streets. As rapid as possible reduction of this 
 amount is desirable, as in warm weather such highroads are exceed- 
 ingly dusty, and in wet weather they become dirty and slippery ; and, 
 furthermore, they are exceedingly expensive to keep in order.t 
 
 •In the year 1889 as much as 9.5 marks per cuhio metre was offered and paid. 
 
 t While, as has already been shown, this cost for paved streets Is 17.2 or 22.7 
 pfennige per square metre per annum, 10 years' observation has shown that the min- 
 imum average annual cost for keeping in order such chaussees was 22 pfennige. This 
 cost (22 pfeuuige) was for the comparatively little used ohaussfie connecting the 
 Chaiiottenburg road with the royal porcelain factory. 
 
104 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Cost per square metre per year, 
 from 1877 to 1888. . 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 for 10 years. 
 
 Gliaiis86es in the Thiergarten Park: 
 
 Gharlottenbnrg chauss6e8 
 
 Lennfi street 
 
 Thiergarten street 
 
 Spree way 
 
 Sieges all6e 
 
 Bellevne all6e 
 
 G-roBser way 
 
 Ghanss^es connecting the city with snbnrhs 
 
 Preulauer all^e 
 
 Landaberger allee 
 
 !Frankfurter all^e 
 
 Keinickendoyer chanss6e , 
 
 Schonhauser alUe 
 
 Ma/rki. 
 
 L72 
 ,4.67 
 2.25 
 3.04 
 1.77 
 2.68 
 2.59 
 
 1.76 
 3.40 
 1.65 
 1.27 
 1.22 
 
 Maria. 
 
 .22 
 .67 
 
 .50 
 
 .05 
 .pl 
 
 .36 
 .23 
 .24 
 .27 
 
 Marhi. 
 
 1.23 
 1.72 
 
 i;o9 
 
 1.82 
 .77 
 .96 
 .66 
 
 .97 
 .71 
 .67 
 
 A further reduction of tlie extent of such chauss6es, for whose pres- 
 ervation the city is responsible, will shortly result from an agreement 
 made with the municipality of Oharlottenburg. By this agreement 
 Charlottenburg assumes proprietorship and charge of the chauss^es on 
 Salzufer and Charlottenburger Ufer, on condition of the city of Berlin 
 paying to it the sum of 9,400 marks per annum. By this agreement is 
 removed a disagreeable condition of affairs under which one city owned 
 and was responsible for a street within the limits of another city. 
 
 Sidewalks. — So far this report has been confined to the streets of 
 Berlin. In conclusion it may be of interest to say a few words in 
 regard to sidewalks. 
 
 Long before the repaving of the streets began, the movement to re- 
 place the old sidewalks was inaugurated. This work was begun soon 
 after the year 1830 by laying granite slabs in the middle of the side- 
 walks. The next improvement was the covering of those parts of the 
 pavement on both sides of the granite slabs with mosaic-stone plates. 
 Later on, house-owners were permitted to pave their entire sidewalks 
 with asphalt. 
 
 A regulation on this subject was issued in 1873 which also gave 
 assistance to land-owners from the city treasury. If one observes, 
 everywhere where sidewalks border on impervious street surfaces, be- 
 tween the granite slabs or asphalt pavement and the curbstone, some- 
 times a half, sometimes a whole metre of mosaic strips, the reason there- 
 for lies in this regulation. They have a double purpose : First, because 
 if both street surface and sidewalk are impervious the danger arises 
 that gas or water escaping from pipes under the streets, unable to escape 
 upwards, must force its way sidewards into the cellars or under the 
 foundations of neighboring houses. Second, because where it is in- 
 tended to plant trees on the sidewalks their growth would be impossi- 
 ble with an unbroken street surface. 
 
 In accordance with the provisions of the order of the royal police 
 presidency of January 17, 1883, and of the magistracy of February 6, 
 1874, during the period under report private land-owners laid 186,800 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY., 105 
 
 square metres of good sidewalk, and the assistance rendered in this di- 
 rection by the city treasury amounted to 471,415 marlis. 
 
 In addition to this, sidewalks were laid by the city in public squares, 
 parks, and along water courses, to an extent of 126,357 square metres, 
 at a cost of 513,722 marks. 
 
 W. H. Edwards, 
 
 Consul- Oeneral, 
 United States Consulate-General, 
 
 Berlin, March 4, 1891. 
 
 FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN. 
 
 MEPOXT SY CONSUL-GENERAL MASON. 
 
 The subject embraced by the inquiry prescribed in the Department 
 circular of November 8 divides itself naturally, here as elsewhere, into 
 two distinct topics, viz, paved streets in cities and towns, in which 
 various systems of stone, wood, and asphalt pavements have been used 
 with greater or less success; and (2) country highways, which in Ger- 
 many are uniformly macadamized roads of varying width according to 
 location and the quantity of travel and traffic to be accommodated. 
 
 MUNICIPAL street CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 In respect to sewerage, gas and water service and street pavements, 
 Frankfort presents a complete and interesting example of a well-built 
 and carefully kept modern municipality grafted on the somewhat rude 
 and irregular stock of a mediaeval walled city, laid out and constructed 
 upon the ancient model, under which the principal consideration was 
 the accommodation of the largest population within the limited space 
 inclosed by its defensive walls. Down to the beginning of the present 
 century Frankfort was a labyrinth of narrow, tortuous streets, opening 
 at their intersections into small open spaces of irregular form and 
 flanked by buildings five or six stories in height, which for greater econ- 
 omy of space often overhung by several feet the narrow pavement 
 below. These streets were paved with small, round cobblestones, laid ■ 
 upon the natural but well-trodden gravel, and with such profile as to 
 form open gutters at the sides of the wider streets or along the middle 
 of the narrower ones. From 1801 to 1806 the outer walls were removed, 
 the moat filled up, and the space thus acquired was converted into 
 parks, which with the adjacent boulevards encircle three sides of the 
 old town (the fourth being flanked by the river Main) and which now 
 form one of the most attractive features of the city. From that period 
 down to 1867 the pavements were exposed to all the exigencies of sewer- 
 building, gas and water pipe laying, and made therefore little or no 
 progress in quality or change in character. 
 
106 STKEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 lu 1867 tbe principal commercial thoroughfares had been provided 
 with gas, water, and sewerage and the construction of solid, well-laid 
 pavements of dressed stone blocts began, subject to the further dis- 
 turbance which came with the introduction of the first street railway 
 in 1869. Frankfort stands on a level sandy river plain which has a 
 substratum of loose gravel that absorbs water with great facility, and 
 although favorable from a sanitary standpoint, forms an uncertain and 
 treacherous foundation for pavements especially when the original 
 earth has been previously disturbed by the laying of sewers or water- 
 mains. It cost the Frankforters years of experience to learn the all- 
 important lesson that in order to meet the constantly increasing require- 
 ments of modern city traffic the essential requisite of a successful pave- 
 ment is a solid, deep laid, water-tight foundation, and that without this 
 any pavement, however cheap in original cost and fair on the surface, 
 is certain to prove extravagant and disappointing. So well is this prin- 
 ciple now established that it is the custom to first grade and lay new 
 streets with a temporary pavement of stone blocks set on the plain 
 gravel and then after some years of use have thoroughly settled and 
 solidified the ground to take up the temporary pavement, excavate to 
 the required depth and lay in a permanent cement and rubble founda- 
 tion, upon which the original stone blocks, from which soft or imperfect 
 ones are carefully excluded, are then relaid. Frankfort has made care- 
 ful experiments with macadamized streets and with permanent pave- 
 ments of three materials, viz : cut stone, asphalt, and wood, and the 
 costs and results in each case will now be separately considered. 
 
 Stone pavements. — Stone pavements are usually made of four-sided, 
 wedge-shaped blocks of gray granite, which are obtained at various 
 points, notably from Alsace, from quarries along the Ehine between 
 Mayence and Goblenz, from Passau on the Danube, and from the moun- - 
 tains of the Odeuwald. Black porphyry from the Bavarian Pfalz and 
 basalt from the Vogelsberg near Hanan are used in slabs or large, broad 
 blocks for paving narrow streets, but on account of their irregular 
 hardness these slabs soon become rough and unsatisfactory, so that 
 granite is now the standard material for roadways and straight curb- 
 stones. The method of construction for the best class of granite pave- 
 ments in old and im portant streets is as follows : 
 
 The old or temporary pavement is first removed and the earth exca- 
 vated to a depth of 16 inches. The bottom is then covered with a 
 2 inch layer of broken stone, over which a steam roller is passed to 
 firmly embed this rubble foundation in the earth. If the bottom is of 
 particularly loose and unstable material, or if veins of water render it 
 soft, small, flat stones are selected, set on edge, and hammered firmly 
 into place. Upon this substratum is then laid a bed from 6 to 8 inches 
 deep of concrete made of best Portland cement mixed with sharp, 
 coarse sand. When this has firmly " set " it is covered with an inch ot 
 clean, flue sand, which forms an elastic cushion between the solid con- 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 
 
 107 
 
 Crete foundation and tbe pavement. Upon this are then set the granite 
 blocks, 7 inches square at the top, 8 inches in depth, and tapering 
 slightly from top to bottom to form the arch of the street surface. The 
 seams between the blocks are calked with coarse gravel and melted 
 coal tar, which not only helps to render the pavement impervious and 
 thus protect it against the action of frost, but holds the blocks in place 
 and prevents lateral motion. Such a pavement costs from 15 to 16 
 marks ($3.57 to $3.80) per square metre, a high figure, but the expense 
 of keeping it in repair is next to nothing, and as it lasts indefinitely, it 
 proves, like all good, genuine work, cheapest in the end. 
 
 Next in order come the ordinary stone pavements made of granite 
 blocks similar to the preceding, but laid on the natural gravel or sand, 
 which has been previously graded and rolled as hard as possible with 
 a steam roller. For suburban streets or where traffic is light these com- 
 mon pavements serve reasonably well for a series of years, but they 
 invariably become rough, expensive to clean and maintain, and in the 
 end unsatisfactory. The comparative cost of the two foregoing classes 
 of cntstone pavements — that is, the best and the ordinary grade — with 
 their respective expense of maintenance during the first 5 years, are 
 shown by the following table, in which the calculation is made per run- 
 ning metre for half the width of the street between curbstones : 
 
 Coat of front metre for half of street width. 
 
 Ordinary block etone pavement laid in sand. 
 
 Granite block, cement and rubble 
 foundation. 
 
 Width of street. 
 
 Construc- 
 tion. 
 
 Mainte- 
 nance 
 5 years. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Equivalent 
 
 per square 
 
 metre. 
 
 Construc- 
 tion. 
 
 Mainte- 
 nance 
 5 years. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Equivalent 
 
 per square 
 
 metre. 
 
 35 feet 
 
 $10.68 
 12.86 
 14.28 
 19.14 
 
 $1.19 
 1.52 
 1.69 
 2.38 
 
 $11.77 
 14.38 
 15.97 
 21.52 
 
 $2.11 
 2.03 
 2.00 
 1.91 
 
 $18. 91 
 22.61 
 24.99 
 34.03 
 
 $1.19 
 1.50 
 1.06 
 2.38 
 
 $20. 10 
 24.11 
 26,65 
 36.41 
 
 $3.78 
 
 45icet 
 
 3.47 
 
 50 feet 
 
 3.51 
 
 
 3.40 
 
 
 
 
 
 These statistics are somewhat complicated, and from an American 
 standpoint may seem awkward, but they show the German method of 
 keeping accounts for street construction and maintenance. It will be 
 noted that the cost of keeping the two kinds of pavement in repair does 
 not differ much during the first five years, but after that period the 
 superior economy of the better grade becomes more and more manifest. 
 
 Of the macadamized streets in Frankfort there is not much to be said. 
 This system was used extensively some years ago, particularly on the 
 broad highways leading into the city, as well as on the circular boule- 
 vard which was constructed when the enciente was removed in 180G. 
 There is found in this region a dark-colored slaty kind of limestone, 
 which breaks easily and packs firmly on roads of this character. Mac- 
 adamizing costs when well done about $2 per square meter, but it is 
 the most expensive of all pavements to keep clean and in repair, requir- 
 ing constant patching and filling to maintain a good surface. It is also 
 
108 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 more or less pasty in wet weather, and loses rapidly from the process 
 of street cleaning ; it is dusty in dry weather unless constantly watered, 
 and is, on the whole, better suited to country or suburban roads than 
 city streets. 
 
 Asphalt pavements. — Of asphalt pavements it can be said that except 
 for sidewalks they have been used only experimentally in Frankfort. 
 The first pavement of this kind was laid down in 1880. Although such 
 as have been laid have stood the test of use reasonably well, tliey have 
 been subject to the usual objection of being dangerously slippery in 
 muddy weather. Here, as else where, it has been found especially requi- 
 site that asphalt pavements should be kept clean, and this is possible 
 without great expense only where the same kind of pavement is laid 
 continuously over large street areas and the margins where asphalt pave- 
 ments are entered upon from macadamized or gravel roads kept free 
 from mud by constant cleaning. Otherwise country wagons soon cover 
 them with dirt which in wet weather makes the asphalt a slippery and 
 treacherous footing. Experiments were made some years ago with a 
 native asphalt from Sisal in Hanover, but it was of inferior quality, and 
 has been replaced by the French material from Val-de-Travers and by 
 asphalt from Sicily. Good asphalt pavement requires a firm rubble and 
 cement foundation, and when well and thoroughly done after the process 
 which has been so long and successfully used at Paris, costs in Frank- 
 fort from $3.30 to $3.50 per square metre, or nearly as much as the best 
 kind of stone pavement, to which it is inferior in point of durability 
 and expense of maintenance. 
 
 Wood pavements. — The experiments with wood pavements began at 
 Frankfort in 1885, when a part of the " Zeil" — the principal business 
 thorDughfare of the city — was paved with that material. Subsequently, 
 a part of a much traveled street called the "Steinweg" was set apart for 
 further experiment. Contracts were given to five different iirms, who 
 laid down their special varieties of wood pavement, in which were used 
 German beech and pine, Swedish pine, American cypress and yellow 
 pine, part of which were impregnated by different methods and part not 
 impregnated at all. All these several wood pavements were laid in the 
 most careful and thorough manner upon impermeable cement and rubble 
 foundations, similar to those employed with the best class of granite 
 pavements, and they are all in good condition to-day after more than 
 5years of severe and constant use. As to which of the five varieties has 
 proved superior, I can give only the opinion of Mr. W. H. Lindley, 
 chief engineer of this city, who declares in favor of the Kerr system, 
 an English method which has been employed on a large scale during 
 recent years at London and Paris. The Kerr pavements laid down in 
 Frankfort are made of blocks of Swedish pine 4 inches in depth, not 
 impregnated, but set in a salve of melted coal-tar upon the orthodox 
 cement foundation 8 inches thick, and which rests on 2 inches of 
 broken stone. It is well known that the municipality of Paris has 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 109 
 
 adopted the Kerr wood pavement for some of its most important streets 
 and avenues, under an arrangement by which the patentee lays down 
 the pavements at his own expense and keeps them in good repair for a 
 yearly rental of 2.50 francs ,{47 J cents) per square metre, a rate that 
 would be considered extravagant in most European municipalities. 
 
 There appears, so far as can be ascertained, nothing mysterious or 
 extraordinary in any of the wooden pavements which have been tried 
 with such uniform success in Frankfort. The important fact is that 
 they are all well and honestly constructed. Whether impregnation of 
 the blocks is of any important advantage in this climate is an open 
 question, but the three essential requisites are carefully observed, viz : 
 1, a solid, impervious, concrete foundation ; 2, blocks of sound, well 
 seasoned wood, carefully selected, and free from spougy, sap-rotted, or 
 otherwise imperfect pieces; 3, each block firmly set in hot pitch, and 
 the interstices poured full of the same material. There is no laying of 
 wood pavements here upon pine boards resting on sand or gravel, with 
 the frost lifting them out of place each winter and the water oozing up 
 through them from every surface vein or leaking water main. Such 
 experiments have been left exclusively to the more courageous munici- 
 palities of newer and less conservative countries. 
 
 ;8'idewa2fcs.— Sidewalks were made in early times of cobblestones set in 
 sand, then small squared granite blocks were used ; next asphalt was ex- 
 tensively employed, but since 1876 the principal sidewalks in Fraukfort 
 have been built of concrete in the following manner : When the grad- 
 ing is finished and rolled to uniform hardness and solidity there is laid 
 down abed 5 inches thick of concrete, composed of one part of Portland 
 cement and seven parts of coarse gravel. Upon this is then spread a 
 surface coat 1 inch thick of concrete, containing equal parts of cement 
 and fine clean sand. While the surface is still smooth and soft it is 
 cross-hatched with shallow lines into rectangular or diamond-shaped 
 squares, which give a finished appearance and offer a more secure foot- 
 ing in wet or wintry weather. Curbstones are of granite, with syenite 
 blocks for curves and street corners. 
 
 COST OP THE VARIOUS PEOCBSSBS. 
 
 From the last report of the city engineer of Frankford there is here- 
 with translated the average cost per square metre of each process in- 
 volved in constructing the various kinds of pavements and sidewalks, 
 viz: 
 
 1. Smoothiag and preparing surface, grading not included $0.05 to $0. 16 
 
 Sidewalks : 
 
 2. "Steinheim granite blocks m rows 1.19 
 
 3. Pfalz granite blocks in rows 1.55 
 
 4. Steinheim granite slabs 1.66 
 
 5. Concrete, per process above described .95 
 
 6. Of molten asphalt spread over broken stone 1. 15 
 
 7. Asphalt slabs from Val de Travers 1.90 
 
 8. Macadamized .71 
 
110 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Street roadway : 
 
 9. Of cobble stone, top dressed, on sand bed i. $1.75 
 
 10. Square blocks Pfalz porphyry on sand bed 2.24 
 
 11. Square blocks hard basalt on sand bed 2.85 
 
 12. Square blocks Alsatian granite on concrete foundation |3.90 to 4.40 
 
 13. Square blocks Vilshofen granite on concrete fonndation , -4.65 
 
 14. Molten asphalt on concrete foundation 3.70 
 
 15. Natural French asphalt on concrete foundation 4. 66 
 
 16. Wood pavement, beech or pine 4.15 4.85 
 
 17. Curbstones of syenite, including setting on cement foundation, per 
 
 linear metre: 
 
 Straight 1.90 
 
 Curved 2.00 
 
 In the above items, from No. 12 to 16, inelasive, there is included 85 
 cents per square metre as the cost of the concrete and the rubble foun- 
 dation, which, as already explained, is an essential part of all high-class 
 roadway pavements in this city. 
 
 The expense of pavement construction is provided as follows : For 
 repaving old streets within the city the whole cost is paid by the mu- 
 nicipal treasury from the public fund. New streets in the suburbs are 
 first paved at public expense, but when the adjacent property is after, 
 wards built upon the city assesses upon the owners of such buildings 
 the full cost of the paving in front of their land up to half the width of 
 a street not more than 26 metres wide, the excess above that width re- 
 mains to be borne by the public treasury. Finally, and this is a point 
 which American municipalities should not lose sight of, permission is 
 never given to private parties to cut the pavement through a street for 
 any purpose. When such work is required the party desiring it ap- 
 plies to the proper bureau, the work is done carefully and thoroughly 
 by the city authorities, and the party who has made the petition pays 
 for it. 
 
 COUNTEY EOADS. 
 
 The excellent roads of Germany are mainly a heritage from the cen- 
 tury which immediately preceded the introduction of railroads. In 
 those days the mails and the few travelers who journeyed by public 
 conveyance were carried by post chaises ; freight was transported by 
 great lumbering wagons, each drawn by six horses, and what was re- 
 garded as not less important in that period of prolonged and incessant 
 warfare, broad, smooth roads were necessary for the rapid movement, 
 of the kiug's armies with their supply trains and artillery. Accord- 
 ingly the construction and maintenance of public highways was then 
 au important function of the national government, administered by a 
 vast bureau or department similar to the department of Pouts et 
 Ghauss6es now maintained in France. It required many years after 
 the introduction of railroads to persuade the conservative oiiicials oif 
 the Prussian Government that the period of freight wagons and post 
 chaises was forever past, and that thenceforth their splendid system of 
 
EUEOPE-^GERMANY. Ill 
 
 macadamized and graded highways must play a secondary rdle. The 
 lesson was finally learned, however, and on the organization of the 
 empire in 1870, or soon thereafter, the state assumed control of the 
 principal railways and turned the public roads back to the care of the 
 provinces. The consequence is that Baden, Wurtemburg, Bavaria, 
 Westphalia, and the other provinces of Germany have each their sepa- 
 rate system of administration for the construction and maintenence of 
 public roads. This administrative machinery is based upon apolitical 
 system so different from our own as to nearly or quite deprive it of all 
 practical interest in this connection ; but in respect to methods of con- 
 struction the r«3SultB of German experience may furnish some timely 
 suggestions. 
 
 As a result of the circumstances already noticed very few new roads 
 are now constructed in this part of Germany. The great national 
 roads which were built before the railway period are adequate for all 
 military purposes. The principal work of later years has been to 
 improve suburban highways and secure easy communication at all sea- 
 sons between important railway stations and the surrounding districts. 
 For this purpose narrower and cheaper roads than those formerly built 
 are frequently adequate, so that it may be said in general that the 
 standard of road building has deteriorated during the last 20 years in 
 all parts of Germany, except Baden, where the highest grade of excel- 
 lence is still maintained. In respect to construction, the German proc- 
 ess is identical with that of France and Switzerland. Every impor- 
 tant road is a graded, macadamized turnpike, with culverts of massive 
 stone, ditches on either side (which are paved wherever there is danger 
 of washing) and generally lined with trees (either poplar, sycamore, or 
 linden). All slopes and counterscarps are secured by grass, planted 
 from seed when the soil is sufficiently fertile to receive it, otherwise by 
 turfing. Where the slope is necessarily steep and unstable, it is faced 
 like the retaining walls of embankments, with solid masonry. 
 
 The profile and alignment of each road is a skillful compromise be- 
 tween directness of route and an easy gradient. Wherever practicable, 
 the road is a straight line between the points connected ; when the ex- 
 igencies of surface forbid this, the best skill of the engineer is employed 
 to circumvent the obstacle by the most direct route compatible with a 
 practicable grade. Bridges were formerly exclusively of masonry, but 
 of late years iron and steel structures of various patterns similar to 
 those used in the United States for railway and road bridges have been 
 introduced. Wherever a German road is flanked by a slope or precipice 
 which presents the slightest danger, the exposed side is guarded by a 
 line of heavy stone posts, connected wherever necessary by railings of 
 iron or wood, and in many places these pillars are of white basalt, which 
 renders them moreeasilydistinguishable at night. There is, apparently, 
 no rigidly prescribed limit to the gradient of German roads. They are 
 classed according to width, which vaiies from 7 to 8J metres — that is 
 
112 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 from 22.9 to 26.47 feet. The line and gradients having been established 
 by survey, bridges and culverts constructed, and the whole surface of 
 the roadway graded to a flat uniform surface of the required width, and 
 all filled portions rolled and thoroughly settled, the wagon track, which 
 is from 4 to 5 metres wide, is first spread with a 2-incli layer of broken 
 stone which is crushed by heavy rollers into a firm and even foundation. 
 If the ground should prove treacherous by reason of springs or quick- 
 sand, larger stones are cbosen, set upon edge and crammed into place 
 until a secure foundation is obtained. Upon this layers of broken stone 
 are added, rammed and rolled to a depth of 21 centimetres (8^ inches). 
 The wear of daily travel and tra fflc does the rest. 
 
 The cost of such a road depends naturally upon several conditions 
 more or less variable, such as the nature of the ground and consequent 
 expense of grading, the distances to which stone, earth, etc., must be 
 transported, and other circumstances. The only method of reaching 
 an approximate estimate is therefore to analyze the construction ac- 
 count of certain roads which have been built in Germany during the 
 past 30 years. 
 
 For this purpose we select as an example of a first-class highway of 
 the broadest type, one which was built about 10 years ago over a level 
 expanse between the villages of Langenfeld and Burgwald. The road 
 in question is 2,100 metres (2,324 yards) long and 26 J feet in width, the 
 macadamized wagon track being 13J feet wide and 8J inches thick. 
 With labor estimated throughout at 36 cents per day, except for stone 
 masonry which costs in country districts from 60 to 75 cents per day, 
 the construction account of the Langenfeld and Burgwald Chauss^e 
 foots up as follows : 
 
 Grading roadway |707.61 
 
 Planting and turfing slopes 89.96 
 
 Bridges and culverts 154.70 
 
 Macadamizing 3,647. 35 
 
 Markstones, numbers, etc 11. 38 
 
 Tools ., 75.68 
 
 Damage to adjacent property during work 155.65 
 
 Tree planting 61.88 
 
 Superintendence of construction 369.85 
 
 Incidentals 49.98 
 
 Total for 2,100 metres 5,324.24 
 
 This is equivalent to about $3,646 per mUe. 
 
 The above exhibit represents the average cost of converting an ordi- 
 nary dirt road in a country district into a macadamized chauss^e of 
 maximum width and standard quality. From a report published at 
 Guben in 1883, by State Engineer Schultze, the following statistics are 
 copied which show the net cost per running metre of several important ■ 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 
 
 113 
 
 roads whicli were built uuder supervision of the author during the 
 period from 1871 to 1882 : 
 
 Designation. 
 
 Length, 
 
 "Width. 
 
 Whole 
 road. 
 
 Carriage 
 ■way. 
 
 Ccst. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per 
 running 
 
 Equivalent 
 In dollars 
 per mile. 
 
 BeesUow Lieberose 
 
 liUbben Lieberose 
 
 FrieiUand Weicbensdorf. 
 Ziebingen rursteuberg . . 
 
 Zweinert Goetz 
 
 Liebroae Peitz , 
 
 Metr)'e. 
 20, 036 
 33, 500 
 
 6,546 
 13, 633 
 17, 680 
 
 6,177 
 
 Metree, 
 8.79 
 8.79 
 9.00 
 8.50 
 8.50 
 8.79 
 
 Metres. 
 4.39 
 4.39 
 3.76 
 4.00 
 4.00 
 3.75 
 
 Maris. 
 138, 833 
 275, 646 
 
 48, 727 
 115, -m 
 126, 113 
 
 59, 668 
 
 Mks.pfs. 
 
 6 93 
 
 8 48 
 
 7 47 
 
 9 67 
 7 13 
 9 66 
 
 $2, 630 
 3,234 
 2,838 
 
 - 3, 689 
 2,710 
 
 In respect to the expense of maintaining well-built roads in this 
 country it is difllcult to obtain statistics which prove any definite re- 
 sult. Once built, the cost of keeping a chauss6e in repair is in propor- 
 tion to the weight of traffic which it carries, modified somewhat by the 
 varying quantity of heavy, washing rains which fall and in some cases, 
 notwithstanding all precautions, choke culverts and overflow and dam- 
 ago the roadways. But these accidents are rare and generally trivial, 
 so that the work of keeping a German road in repair consists mainly 
 in replacing with broken stone the material which is ground up by 
 travel and washed off as mud, or blown away as dust. 
 
 PfeANK H. Mason, 
 
 Consul- General. 
 United States Oonsulate-GtEnebal, 
 Frankfort-on-the-Mqin, February 13, 1891. 
 
 HAMBURG. 
 
 The streets of Hamburg are at present in such a wretched condition 
 that I would not like to recommend any system they use here for any 
 city in the United States. 
 
 The press of this city are full of complaints about the paving of 
 streets and the bad condition of the highways. A movement is, how- 
 ever, on foot to secure better streets for the city, and I shall report upon 
 any progress made here in this direction. 
 
 Chas. F. Johnson, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Hamhurg, December 31, 1890. 
 33a 8 
 
114 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 MAGDEBURG. 
 
 BEFOBT BT OOMMBBOIAL AQBIfT WASHBUBN, OF MAQDBBUBO. 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 Magdeburg has a population of 180,000. Its streets— city proper and 
 suburbs — are uniformly paved with stone. The particular grade is a 
 kind of porphyry, which is unusually hard and has the advantage of 
 being quarried in the immediate vicinity. In the work of paving two 
 classifications are made: 
 
 The first is known as the reihen pflaster (pavement in rows). The 
 stones used for this purpose are required to be of uniform size and of 
 the following dimensions : 7J inches long, 5J inches broad, and 7 inches 
 deep. The spaces between the stones are filled with sand. This is the 
 usual pavement in flie principal streets. The cost is estimated at 
 $3,425 per square yard. 
 
 In those streets where the traffic is exceptionally heavy the founda- 
 tion is a mixture of gravel, cement, and chalk. Tar is used to fill up 
 the spaces between the stones. Further, the pavement is donbled. 
 This has been found to be especially advisable in the narrow streets, 
 where the wear and tear are necessarily greater. 
 
 Streets of the second class are paved with kopfstein pflaster (head- 
 stone pavement). The stones called for are of various sizes and dimen- 
 sions, as broken in the quarry. The method of paving is the same as 
 in the first class. The less important streets are paved in this manner, . 
 though it occasionionally happens that some of the principal streets are 
 so paved temporarily. The cost of this construction is about $2.40 per 
 square yard.' 
 
 All work is done by contract. The original pavements of both classes 
 are always torn up at the end of 2 or 3 years and repaved permanently. 
 This is to correct the unevenness due to settling. The same materials 
 are used and the cost is slight. Experience has shown that, with occa- 
 sional repairs, streets so relaid last a quarter of a century or more. 
 
 COUNTRY ROADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The country roads in this vicinity are always more or less elevated. 
 They are constructed of such material as is nearest at hand and most 
 available. A slight excavation is made where the road is to be built. 
 This cut is filled with gravel, and water sprinkled upon the - gravel. 
 Then follows a layer of small pieces of broken stone and gravel and 
 water. This is made compact by repeated rolling. Generally there is 
 a second layer. These roads have all the smoothness and hardness 
 characteristic of the continental highways. It is impossible to give any 
 constant estimate of their cost, for the reason that this largely depends 
 upon the cost of transportation of the material. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 115 
 
 Country roads are built or repaired by order of the kreisdirection — a 
 local assembly whose members are elected for definite terms. The offi- 
 cial immediately in charge of the roads is the kreisbaumeister. This 
 officer is selected only after special training for the work, and is ap- 
 pointed for life. He generally has several assistants. Eeports on the 
 condition of the roads are made from time to time,- and the recommen- 
 dations they contain are usually followed by the local board. It fre- 
 quently happens that large property owners desiring a road through or 
 near their possessions are called upon to defray the expenses of con- 
 struction by a special tax. In some of the more sparsely settled dis- 
 tricts the roads are built directly by the general government. 
 
 Albert H. Washburn, 
 
 Oommercial Agent. 
 
 United States Commercial Agency, 
 
 Magdeburg, January 16, 1890. 
 
 PLAUEN, SAXONY. 
 
 EEPOBT BY COMMERCIAL AQENT PETERS. 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 In the construction of the streets and roads of Plauen, Saxony, one 
 will note two modes, namely, the temporarily constructed streets — 
 streets made for the time being, and the finally constructed streets — 
 streets constructed with a view to leaving them as first put down. 
 
 Of late the temporarily made streets are laid at such a depth that 
 they form a foundation for the finally made streets, so that the latter, 
 whether macadamized or paved, may be erected on this foundation. 
 
 By the various ways and systems of making roads the lowest section 
 always consists of 10 centimetres of coarse gravel or small broken 
 stone and 15 centimetres of gravel packing. 
 
 Construction. — For the foundation of the roads small broken stone 
 and gravel-packing (bottoming) is being used, which is found in the 
 quarries surrounding Plauen. 
 
 Macadamizing is done for light traffic with lydian stone (siliceous 
 schist) or foundation stone (grundsteinklarschlag) found in the neigh- 
 boring quarries, and for heavy traffic with basalt from Waldsassen. 
 
 The paving of the finally built roads is done with split granite or 
 syenite, which is furnished by the quarries of Grimma, Schneeberg, and 
 Kirchberg, all three towns of Saxony, as also of Schonbrunn, in Bava- 
 ria. The sidewalks, which are temporarily built, are made of gravel and 
 are framed with herborized (slate-clay) slabs, which latter come from 
 Theuma near Plauen. The final building of the sidewalks is done with 
 cement granite or burnt clay slabs, manufactured in the establishments 
 of Fickentzscher of Zwickau, Saxony, and of Meisel of Muldenstein, 
 near Bitterfeld. 
 
 The granite slabs for framing these sidewalks are purchased in Kirch- 
 enlamitz, Bavaria. 
 
116 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Cost of construction per square metre. — Temporary macadamization 
 with lydian stone including the foundation, but exclusive of earthwork, 
 as digging, etc., 2.50 to 2.80 marks ; final macadamization with lydian 
 stone including the foundation, but exclusive of earthwork, as digging 
 etc., 3.20 to 3.60 marks; final macadamization with basalt 4.20 marks; 
 paving with finished blocks, including foundation, 12.50 marks; gravel 
 sidewalks, 0.50 marks, and footpaths with granite slabs, 7.50 marks. 
 
 Oost of maintenance per square metre. — The macadamized streets of 
 the city (for one year) for light traffic, 0.50 to 0.60 marks ; for medium 
 traffic, 0.80 to 1.20 marks ; for heavy traffic, 1.20 to 2.30 marks. Of the 
 so-called communication ways (macadamized); for light traffic and 
 with exposure to the sun, .05 to .08 pfennig; for light traffic without 
 exposure to the sun, .07 tx) 11 pfennig ; for heavy traffic without ex- 
 posure to the sun, 15 to 20 pfennig. 
 
 In stating above costs of maintaining the roads, the expenses in- 
 curred by the planting of the trees and the cost of plain footpaths or 
 ditches are not included. 
 
 An actual count of road traffic has never taken place here- 
 
 The cost of materials delivered at the place where the material is 
 needed is a s foUows, per cubic metre : Lydian stone (kieselschiefeiklar- 
 schlag), 7.35 to 7.50 marks; basalt (basaltklarschlag), 12.7 marks; 
 finished paving stones, 7.50 marks ; bricks for paving (kliakerplatten), 
 4.50 marks ; granite slabs for framing per running metre, 6.50 marks ; 
 slate-clay slabs (fruchtschieferplatten), per running metre, 0.50 marks ; 
 gravel packing, 2.50 marks ; broken stones, 1.80 marks ; gravel, 1.50 
 to 3.40 marks; according to the distance between the gravel mine and 
 the place where the material is used. 
 
 No information can be had here as regards the price of the material 
 before it is made ready for use. 
 
 The Government has no especial control over the streets of towns, 
 nor does the Government pay anything towards maintaining them. 
 
 OOUNTET ROADS. 
 
 Eoads and streets beyond the town limits are partly Government 
 roads (Staats-Strassen) partly country roads (Land-Strassen) ; the 
 former are built by the state, the latter by the villages deriving the 
 benefit of said country roads. 
 
 The cost of building the new streets is borne almost entirely by the 
 parties owning and improving the surrounding property ; naturally 
 the value of the property affected is increased, but varies according to 
 location. 
 
 In many instances property has increased ten and fifteen fold within 
 a few years. 
 
 Thomas W. Peters, 
 
 Oommerdal Agent. 
 United States Commercial Agency, 
 
 Flauen, January 29, 1891. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 117 
 
 SAXONY. 
 
 REPORT BT CONSUL MERRITT, OUEMNITZ. 
 OONTEOLLING SAXON ROADS. 
 
 Preliminary, and inasmuch as the subject is one controlled entirely 
 by the " executive " branch of government, it may be deemed advisable 
 to describe the manner of controlling Saxon roads. 
 
 The king possesses sole executive power in Saxony. Saxony is a 
 limited monarchy, with an area of 5,776 square miles. Its population 
 is 3,270,579, which shows that, witff the exception of Belgium, Saxony 
 is the most densely populated state in the world. 
 
 There are four principal divisions or departments of the kingdon. 
 These are called " kreishauptmannschaften," with headquarters as fol- 
 lows : Dresden, Leipzig, Zwickau, and Bautzen. At each city named 
 is an officer called a "kreishauptmaun." He is the representative of 
 the king and the department of the interior , He is the chief executive 
 and ministerial officer of his district or department. His powers in 
 some respects are superior to those of a governor of a State in the 
 United States, but his duties are not altogether similar, or, indeed, de- 
 finable in such a report as this. 
 
 Subordinate to the four chief executive representatives of the king, 
 as above related, are twenty-seven important executive officers dis- 
 tributed throughout the kingdom in subdistricts called " Amtshaupt- 
 mannschaften. Such an officer is called an "Amtshauptmann," and 
 his functions are like those of a "kreishauptmaun," but limited to his 
 own district. 
 
 Tbe skill, energy, and thorough education, as well as qualification 
 and executive ability of these 27 men is the cause of the splendid gov- 
 ernment and fine condition of the road system of Saxony. It is with- 
 out doubt the finest system of roads in the world and is the jresalt of 
 patient toil, extensive experiment, and disciplined attention. Very 
 early in the history of Saxony it appears that the rulers were actively 
 alive to the principles embodied in the next following remarks which 
 constitute this report : 
 
 HISTORICAL ROAD NOTES. 
 
 A road system is one of the means of facilitating trade and inter- 
 course. The creation of the fol-mer is therefore intimately connected 
 with the development of the latter, while the importance and expan- 
 sion of trade and intercourse are again directly proportionate to the 
 degree of civilization that has been attained. A national or interna- 
 tional division of labor would indeed not be possible if existing means 
 of communication did not insure the greatest freedom for the exchange 
 of merchandise and produce, as well as the movement from place to 
 place of individuals. 
 
118 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 A systematic and efficient development of the means of intercourse 
 can, of course, be expected only in countries where the chief executive 
 authorities are invested with all the powers necessary for the attain- 
 ment of this end. 
 
 In Germany the beginning of the establishment of a methodical road 
 system is coeval with the development of the principle of recognized 
 sovereignty. During the middle ages effectual progress was much 
 retarded, partly by the lack of unity among the then numerous German 
 States, partly on account of the imperfections of the methods of road- 
 building then in vogue. 
 
 The building of turnpikes began to assume great proportions with 
 the beginning of the present century, the first half of which may be 
 justly termed the classic age of the construction of state roads. Gov- 
 ernment roads were built to connect the various sections of the country 
 with each other and with the a^acent localities of neighboring 
 countries. 
 
 Since the introduction and development of railways, the latter have 
 assumed to a greater and greater degree the functions of the road sys- 
 tem, as also of the system of canals and other navigable ways. The 
 road system, however, still serves the very important purpose of effect- 
 ing local intercourse, and of connecting the local freight and passenger 
 traffic with the railway service. 
 
 As regards Saxony, the oldest records pertaining to roads deal ex- 
 clusively with the use and keeping up of certain roads on the part of 
 those interested in commerce and trade, and with prohibiting the use of 
 other roads. 
 
 The roads were only occasionally repaired, and then only when their 
 defective condition threatened injury to the interests of the State, or 
 when the complaints as to the impassableness of the road on the part 
 of the traveling public, which was restricted to the use of certain roads, 
 became so emphatic that the equity and necessity became apparent of 
 providing for the people's safety and convenience in return for the tolls 
 they were obliged to pay. The general principle which obtained was 
 that the obligation of keeping up the roads depended on the levying of 
 toll and safeguard * duty on the same, and for that reason the expense 
 of repairing the roads was met principally with the proceeds of the 
 safeguard duty ; the cooperation of the cities, the nobles, the parishes, 
 and the owners of realty in keeping up the roads seems always to have 
 been required. , 
 
 The Saxon princes regarded it as not only their duty to provide for 
 the security of roads on which the safeguard system was not applied, 
 
 * This species of toll was so called because in former times travelers passing over 
 insecure roads leading through forests or thinly settled districts, were escorted by 
 armed knights who levied this safeguard duty in return for their services. How- 
 ever, the duty continued to be collected long after a personal escort had fallen into 
 disuse. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 119 
 
 and to superintend those parties on whom by custom or special provi- 
 sion of law the duty of keeping up said roads was incumbent, but also 
 as their prerogative to set aside certain roads for commercial purposes, 
 to levy a duty on the merchandise thereon transported, and, in order 
 to facilitate the collection of this duty, to forbid the trade from making 
 use of any other roads. 
 
 The repairing of roads, the keeping up of which was by custom the 
 duty of the State, was done in part by the state roads employes, in 
 part left to those to whom the collection of safeguard duty was farmed 
 out. The necessary timber was taken from the state forests, the haul- 
 ing and manual labor were performed by the subjects, the necessary 
 money was obtained by the safeguard receipts, or jjrovided by the local 
 state authorities. 
 
 However, the condition of the roads, especially during and after the 
 thirty years' war, was far from being satisfactory, and was the subject 
 of repeated popular complaints to the " Landtag" (state legislature). 
 
 The orders and instructions issued by the Saxon princes during the 
 seventeenth century first established the rule that the obligation to 
 keep up the roads rested on those who collected safeguard duties 
 thereon, or who were by custom bound to repair. Furthermore, cities 
 were held to keep up the roads within their territory, parishes within 
 their local limits, and where the obligation could be fixed on no other 
 party the repairs were made by the state. 
 
 The act of road building was then yet quite simple, and nothing 
 more was aimed at than the construction of a road that would be mod- 
 erately passable. The obligation of the subjects extended no farther 
 than to the digging of the ditches or gutters, the picking up of fallen 
 timber, the cleaning of the water courses, and the removal of snow 
 from sunken roads. 
 
 An order issued about the beginning of the eighteenth century first 
 established the division of roads into main roads and common roads 
 and ways, and provided that the former were to be kept up at the ex- 
 pense of the state ; the latter by him on whom the duty devolved by 
 custom. 
 
 The width and general nature of the roads were regulated by special 
 provisions; overseers were appointed for the main roads, and commis- 
 sioners were created with supervisory powers subject to detailed 
 instructions. 
 
 It was at this time that gravel, sand, and rock were first substituted 
 for the wood which, in the same manner as American "corduroy" 
 roads, had hitherto been employed in road building, and that orders 
 were given to replace wooden mileposts by substantial milestones, on 
 which the directions and distances of the villages, and especially of the 
 cities, were to be noted. The expenses were to be borne by the respec- 
 tive parishes and by the state for such roads as traversed public lands. 
 
 Complaints regarding the defective state of the roads repeated them- 
 
120 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 selves with as equally great frequency as did the severe instructions 
 issued to the nobility, the city councils, the parishes, at d the subjects, 
 ou whom devolved the duty of repairing the roads, to keep their roads 
 and ways in better condition, to clear the ditches, and remove all 
 obstructions, under pain of military execution. During the 7 years' 
 war the roads fell into complete decay, and unusual orders and meas- 
 ures were necessary for the re-establishment of orderly conditions. 
 Thus, for example, to promote and facilitate road building, it was per- 
 mitted to call out the militia, paying the soldiers a moderate sum, not, 
 however, amounting to the usual day wages. 
 
 Road Law of Apkil 28, 1781. 
 
 The promulgation of the road law of April 28, 1781, constitutes an 
 important event in the history of road-building in Saxony. The first 
 part of this law treats of the removal of obstructions to road-building; 
 the second, of the ways of carrying on the work of construction ; and 
 the third, of the preservation of the roads and of the tools and imple- 
 ments thereunto belonging. 
 
 The roads themselves were classed by this law as : 
 
 (1) unitary staple and state roads, or such as had been confirmed by 
 former ordinances and led from one frontier to another, passing through 
 the staple and trading town of Leipzig ; 
 
 (2) Interior trade roads, leading from one trading or market town to 
 another, and serving for lighter freight traffic and for the postal service ; 
 and 
 
 (3) Country, town, and local roads, which served for bringing the 
 products of nature into the cities, and aided in the carrying on of agri- 
 cultural pursuits. 
 
 This law did not affect the obligations of construction and repair 
 heretofore existing. Cities and country parishes continued to be liable 
 for the keeping up of the roads within their respective jurisdictions, 
 outside of which the charge for keeping up the military and state roads 
 devolved either on the state or on him who collected safeguard duties, 
 bridge, and other tolls thereon. The preservation of local and country 
 roads remained the duty of the respective interested parishes. 
 
 The direct assistance of the local subjects in repairing such roads as 
 were kept up at state expense was no longer required, Boad-building 
 was regarded as a proper concern of the state government, and the 
 principle was established that those on whom the obligation to con- 
 struct roads was fixed by law were bound to compensate all private 
 land-owners whose land was taken for public road purposes, to the 
 extent of the actual productive value of the land so taken. The pro- 
 viso was, however, added, that the owner of land adjoining a road must 
 cede the space required for the projected road or the widening of an 
 existing road, without claiming compensation, when the total area thus 
 ceded is less than a certain extent — so much as could be seeded with 
 two peck? of Dresden measure. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 121 
 
 The state parliaments annually voted considerable sums for the con- 
 struction of convenient and durable roads, declaring them to be an es- 
 sential condition of securing easy intercourse among the people, of 
 facilitating the conveyance of the necessaries of life, of promoting the 
 prosperity of the industries, of trade, and of transportation. It was 
 ordained that the interested parishes should contribute to a reasonable 
 extent not only in the construction of less important roads, but also in 
 that of the main trade roads. 
 
 During the course of time the Saxon Government has not only 
 contantly kept its state roads abreast of the latest attainments of 
 engineering art, but has also constructed new roads wherever their 
 need became evident, and where the parishes on account of their finan- 
 cial situation, or for other reasons, could not well be expected to build 
 new roads or ways of such a character as would meet the actual wants 
 of trade. 
 
 Present Classification os' Roads and Wats. 
 
 The old classification of roads into military, staple, and state roads, 
 interior trade roads, and country, town, and local roads gradually lost 
 its significance as the conditions of trade became altered. 
 
 The classification which obtains at present is essentially based on 
 the obligation of keeping in repair, and is as follows: (1) State roads 
 (turnpikes) ; (2) country roads, connecting two or more towns or vil- 
 lages; (3) streets for the accommodation of the interior traffic of cities 
 and towns; (4) private ways. 
 
 (1) State roads. — All roads that have heretofore been kept up by the 
 state, as well as such roads as have been built by the state either on 
 its own initiative or on the propositio n of the interested localities, and 
 which are likewise kept up by the state, are regarded as state roads. 
 
 At every session of the "landtag" petitions are received from nu- 
 merous localities asking for the construction of new roads at state 
 expense. During the last 10 years the rule has gradually been adopted 
 to leave the construction of new roads to the interested localities. As 
 an utmost concession, roads which are to serve primarily for through- 
 trade may be built at state expense, if the parishes benefited thereby 
 furnish the right of way, and, in some instances, obligate themselves 
 to bear a portion of the cost. When finished,, the keeping up of these 
 roads becomes a charge on the interested parishes. However, to enable 
 the construction of country road s where greater difficulties have to be 
 overcome than is usually the case with the class of roads kept up at 
 the expense of the parishes and the manors, a certain sum — at present 
 300,000 marks per annum — voted by the "landtag" for the financial 
 encouragement of road-building is annually distributed by the depart- 
 ment of the interior in accordance with the estimates submitted by the 
 proper district authorities. 
 
 Some parishes engaged themselves in former times to make regular 
 contributions of money or material on condition of the state's building 
 
122 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 a new road, or taking in its charge an existing road, and this obligation 
 remains as about the only case in which parishes are still compelled to 
 contribute to the keeping in repair of state roads. However, a general 
 provision of law requires those parishes that adjoin state roads to fur- 
 nish the necessary hands for shoveling the snow off the roads and for 
 hauling it away. The state makes a certain allowance for this, which, 
 however, is usually insufficient, so that the parishes must make good 
 the difference out of their own treasuries. 
 
 The right of way for new state roads may be condemned by the state 
 on fully indemnifying the respective land-owners. In like manner the 
 owners of land adjacent to proposed roads are obliged to permit the 
 authorities to make use of all such road-building material as may be 
 found on their land, a suitable indemnity being allowed. 
 
 Where state roads lead through towns, the state does not undertake 
 the construction of sidewalks, drains, curbstones, and the like, rendered 
 necessary by local conditions. 
 
 However, the paving and keeping in repair of the pavement of such 
 portions of the road are at the expense of the state. 
 
 The tolls which were formerly collected on the state roads and bridges 
 have been abolished since 1884, partly in view of the satisfactory finan- 
 cial situation of Saxony, partly because of the many inconveniences 
 caused the traveling public, partly also on account of the great expense 
 incident to their collection. 
 
 The general supervision and management of the construction of state 
 roads is intrusted to a state road commissioner, the technical direction 
 of the works being in charge of a special officer termed a road director. 
 The local supervision is exercised within the limits of their respective 
 districts by the " Amtshauptmannschaft," which, as before stated, is 
 the chief executive and ministerial office of the district. The direct 
 technical control of the operations, the making of plans and estimates, 
 and the actual construction of roads, are in the hands of " inspectors 
 of roads and navigable ways," whose offices are usually at the seat of 
 the "Amtshauptmannschaft." Every road inspector must' have suc- 
 cessfully passed the examination for state engineer. When the amount 
 involved does not exceed 600 marks the road inspector may make the 
 estimates, conduct the repairs, or let the contracts himself. For the 
 execution of larger works he must obtain the approval and cooperation 
 of the Amtshauptmannschaft. Eoad inspectors are aided in their work 
 by assistant road inspectors — usually trained builders — and by a num- 
 ber of state roadmasters. The latter need pass no special examination, 
 and may prove their fitness for the place in some other manner. 
 
 The roadmasters are to assist in the preparatory work and in the 
 construction of state roads. They are charged with the immediate 
 direction of the work of keeping the roads of their road district in re- 
 pair ; this not only with reference to the state roads, but also to the 
 country roads, the keeping up of which is at the expense of the vari- 
 
EUROPE — GEKMANY. 123 
 
 ous localities. When new roads of the latter class are to be built the 
 roadmasters are also charged with the direction of the work. They 
 are assisted by roadguards and by hired day laborers, and ara charged 
 with directing and overlooking the work of all persons employed on the 
 roads of their district. They are to give careful attention to maintain- 
 ing a sufficient number of laborers who are qualified and equipped for 
 road work, and especially to the training of suitable parties for the 
 position]of roadgaards. Furthermore, they are to exercise due care to 
 insure a strict observance of the road laws on the part of the public, 
 and to keep a watchful eye on their employes in order that the latter 
 may in no wise annoy the public, as for examples by frightening 
 horses. 
 
 (2) Country roads (Gommunicationswege). — Public roads not state 
 roads are generally termed " connecting" roads in so far as they serve 
 to connect two or more towns. 
 
 The road law of January 12, 1870, makes the construction and repair 
 of these roads and of appurtenances such as bridges, ditches, drains, 
 guideposts, etc., the obligation of the parishes through whose territory 
 they lead. In this respect the royal castles, state forests, manors, and 
 other estates not entering into the parish organization are classed as 
 parishes and likewise bound to keep up the roads within their territo- 
 rial limits, and to construct such new roads as the volume and nature of 
 traffic render necessary. 
 
 Passage ways leading from a public road to adjoining parcels of land 
 must be built and kept up by the owners of that land. If, however, the 
 location of a road is changed or a new road established, necessitating a 
 change in the location of the passage way or the construction of anew 
 one, this work thus incidentally occasioned by the parish is to be done 
 by the parish. 
 
 When additions are made to the territory of towns or cities, necessi- 
 tating the construction of new roads, the expense thereof must be borne 
 by the owners of the land forming said additions, the community merely 
 charging itself with the subsequent repairs. The same rule obtains 
 when a change in location of an existing road is rendered necessary by 
 the construction of a railway, the establishment of artificial or the cor- 
 rection of natural water-ways. 
 
 Exceptions to the rule that every parish must build and care for the 
 roads within its limits have been generally abolished. They still ex- 
 ist only when founded on special contract, or when coupled with 
 advantages to the obligor, and can be terminated on notice given by 
 either party, full indemnification being made either by the payment of 
 a single lump sum or of a fixed annuity. This applies particularly to 
 the so-called "communities" (Altgemeinden), the original members of 
 which generaly agreed to hold the land in common, dividing the profits 
 among themselves, but undertaking, on the other hand, to keep up the 
 roads of the community without the cooperation of the later arrivals. 
 
124 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POEEIGN C0UNTEIE8. 
 
 When the boundary line between the parishes passes along on a road- 
 each parish keeps up that portion falling within its limits ; in case of 
 doubt the expenses of repairing is equally divided. If, however, the 
 boundary merely runs along the side of the road, the duty of keeping 
 in repair devolves wholly on the parish having territorial jurisdiction. 
 
 Propositions looking to the construction of new roads, or the chang, 
 ing of the location of existing roads, are to emanate from the interested 
 parishes and manors, who likewise are charged with the management 
 of roads and with the immediate direction of the work of construction 
 and repair. 
 
 Supervisory powers are exercised by the " Amtshauptmannschaft," 
 which is charged with the infliction of penalties in case the parishes 
 should prove unfaithful to their trust. But, as a rule, the '' Amts- 
 hauptmannschaft," after a consideration of the complaints that have 
 been lodged, merely ordains the construction of the necessary new 
 roads, or the thorough overhauling of such as are in defective condi- 
 tion. It is also customary for the "Amtshauptmannschaft" to specify 
 every year the road work that appears to be most urgent. 
 
 The jurisdiction of every Saxon " Amtshauptmannschaft" is coexten- 
 sive with the limits of a kind of district formed by a union of parishes 
 and for certain purposes. The district owns some district property, 
 manages such affairs as concern several parishes at once, and provides 
 for matters of a common interest for which the resources of the individual 
 parishes are not sufiBcient. The district board is charged with the super- 
 vision and encouragement of country roads, and usually strives to attain 
 the desired results by assisting the poorer parishes in defraying the ex- 
 penses of construction and repair with the accumulated increment of 
 the district's property, also by undertaking to keep up certain roads 
 which accommodate the through trade as districi roads at the expense of 
 the district ; in some cases also by employing a salaried district road- 
 master to assist the " amtshauptmannschaft " in the control and super- 
 vision of country roads, and to perform, with reference to these, duties 
 similar to those devolving on the state roadmasters with reference to 
 the state roads. 
 
 When it is the desire of a parish to discontinue a certain road, that 
 is to withdraw it from public use, the " Amtshauptmannschaft " must 
 be notified and makes public announcement of the intended discontinu- 
 ance, summoning all ijarties who might have objections thereto to make 
 them known within a fixed time. At the expiration of this term the 
 " Amtshauptmannschaft," in conjunction with a committee composed 
 of city and parish delegates and the highest tax-payers of the district, 
 decides whether the proposed discontinuance is to be approved as in 
 the interests of the public or whether it is to be rejected. 
 
 If a dispute arises as to whether a road is public or private, the ques- 
 tion is decided, after due examination, by the "amtshauptmannschaft" 
 and the district committee. A road is considered as public when it 
 
EUROPE — GEEMANT, 125 
 
 has been in unobstructed public use for at least 30 years. It is pre- 
 sumed to be public when returned by the state land survey as exempt 
 of taxation and entered as a public road on the parish record. 
 
 Cart-roads and foot-paths differ primarily in the use to which they 
 are put. As to the width and nature of these species of highways the 
 law provides that cart-roads must have a width of not less than 7 metres 
 in towns, and 5 metres in the open country, clear of ditches, if any, and 
 that foot-paths are to have a width of 1 metre. 
 
 Every parish is left free to determine itself the manner of raising the 
 means for defraying that part of the expense of construction and repair 
 of roads and ways which is not provided for by the stale or the district. 
 Some parishes have been authorized by the state or the district to levy 
 tolls on certain roads serving principally for through transit, in order 
 thus to meet part of the expense. These tolls are still collected, though 
 they have been abolished on the state roads. 
 
 Owners of forests, rock quarries, factories, mills, and the like, who 
 use roads on which toll is not permitted to be levied, for the carrying 
 on of their business to such an extent as to cause a material part of Ihe 
 wear and tear, or to make necessary more frequent and more thorough 
 repairs than would otherwise be required, can be held to the payment 
 of a special sum, in proportion to the expense thus occasioned to the 
 parish. In case of dispute, the amount of this special contribution is 
 fixed by the "amtshauptmannschaften" in accordance with the judg- 
 ment of experts. 
 
 (3) Streets. — Most of the provisions applicable to country roads apply 
 also to village streets. As a rule the construction and repair of the 
 streets are to be borne by the parish. However, when additions are 
 made to a town necessitating the construction of new streets to connect 
 the new addition with the older portion of the town, or to connect the 
 different parts of the new addition with each other, the parish in au- 
 thorizing the admission of the new territory may require the owners of 
 the land embraced therein to furnish the necessary rights of way free 
 of charge, or even to construct the new roads themselves, the parish 
 merely assuming the subsequent repairs. Nowadays the latter mode 
 has been generally adopted by cities and populous parishes ; the rule 
 is that whoever seeks to convert acre property into building lots must 
 construct the necessary streets, bridges, culverts, etc., and transfer them 
 to the city gratuitously, together with the title to the soil. These roads, 
 etc., must extend the full width which the lots on which it is intended 
 to build front on the projected roads, counting not only the width of 
 the house, but also the gardens, courtyards, etc., and are to be carried 
 to their junction with other projected or existing roads. 
 
 If the land composing the addition is the property of different own- 
 ers, the one building first must construct the necessary roads, but as 
 soon as the others begin to build they must pay the former or his heirs 
 or successors a pro rata sum, depending on the width of their lots 
 which front on the new roads. 
 
126 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 It is usually provided in the city building ordinances that when the 
 public interests require the continuation, widening, or correction of 
 streets, ways, or public squares, or the construction of new ones, or the 
 building or widening of bridges, levees or dikes, or the construction of 
 culverts or drains, the owners of the land adjoining the proposed works 
 are required to allow the authorities to make all proper use of their 
 land — even though it be covered with buildings — and to cede to the 
 city such portions as are needed, in consideration of a reasonable in- 
 demnification. 
 
 Before, however, private property can be taken for public purposes 
 in this manner, the department of the interior must have declared it 
 to be in the interests of the public and must have authorized the nec- 
 essary condemnations. 
 
 (4) Private ways. — Private ways, built by land-owners on their own 
 land in order to facilitate the cultivation and use thereof, are not sub- 
 ject to any ministerial regulations, being properly objects of private 
 law. Only in so far as they may give rise to considerations of a gen- 
 eral police nature, would it become the right and duty of the authori- 
 ties to occupy themselves therewith and to issue instructions relating 
 thereto. 
 
 As a principle of common law the rule obtains that the owner of a 
 tract of land may require his neighbors to permit him to pass over their 
 land, granting him a so-called " way of necessity " when without such 
 way of necessity the cultivation of his land would be impossible, or 
 when the establishment of a different way than the one he asks for, or 
 the use of another existing way, would be attended by difQcnlties out 
 of all proportion to the profits yielded by the land. Eeasonable com- 
 pensation must be made for the use of such a way. 
 
 An arbitrary change in the manner of using the land, or the mere 
 personal convenience of its owner, do not entitle the latter to demand 
 a way of necessity. Such easements are to be limited to the actual 
 necessity, and their location and direction are to be determined in order 
 that, on the one hand, the servient tenement may suffer the least pos- 
 sible damage, and that, on the other, the expense to the owner of the 
 dominant tenement may not become unreasonably great. 
 
 CONSTEUCTION AND REPAIR OF STATE ROADS. 
 
 No new instructions have been recently issued regarding the rules to 
 be observed in the construction of new state roads. There is no neces- 
 sity for general instructions on this subject, as such roads are always 
 built in accordance with plans prepared by the state engineers, based on a 
 due consideration of the local needs and of the available funds ; and as a 
 these plans must first be examined and approved by the highest road 
 authorities, the latter always have the opportunity of prescribing such 
 special directions as former experience and the latest developments in 
 the act of road-building seem to render advisable. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 127 
 
 A circular instruction issued by the department of the interior sev- 
 eral years ago, and addressed to the parishes, though dealing prima- 
 rily with the country roads — which are not state roads — serves to give 
 an approximate idea as to what, in the eyes of the state, are the essen- 
 tial elements of a satisfactory and methodical road system. 
 
 According to this circular, every road is te consist of a rock sub- 
 * structure and of a rock superstructure. The former supports the latter 
 and prevents its sinking into the ground. 
 
 The superstructure constitutes the wearing surface of the road ; it 
 protects the substructure against wear as well as against the penetra- 
 tion of dampness with its injurious effects. The material employed 
 should always be the best that can be obtained in the respective local- 
 ities, the best varieties of rock being basalt, porphyry, finely-grained 
 granite, and clear quartz. 
 
 The rock substructure — foundation — is to consist of broken stone, 
 carefully placed by hand on the smoothed and graded roadbed, and to 
 have a height of 12 centimetres if the rock is hard, and- of 15 centi- 
 metres if it is soft. The pieces of broken stone are to be as nearly 
 as possible of equal size, and are to be placed tightly against each 
 other, each one with its largest plain surface downwards to prevent 
 its working loose. The intervening spaces are filled up with small frag- 
 ments, carefully wedged in and rammed down. 
 
 On this foundation is placed a superstructure consisting of a layer of 
 8 to 10 centimetres depth of small broken stone, the pieces as nearly as 
 may be of equal size, or of gravel. In order to obtain a surface as smooth 
 as possible the broken stone composing the superstructure should ap- 
 proach a cubical form as nearly as may be, and should be of the size of 
 a hen's egg or a walnut, depending on the quality of the material. The 
 road is next thoroughly soaked with water, and passed over several 
 times with a heavy roller. It then receives a covering of fine gravel or 
 pebbles, and is solidified by careful rolling. 
 
 In order to secure a rapid drainage of the road and to keep the road- 
 bed dry, the surface must be convex — a central elevation of one-six- 
 teenth to one-eighteenth of the half width of the road being sufQcient — 
 and the road must be provided with ditches on both sides, having a 
 depth of not less than 0.3 metres and a width at the bottom of 0.3 
 metres. In level country the grade of the road should never exceed 
 one-fourth inch, and in mountains one-twelfth inch. At heavy curves 
 the road should be as level as possible, and its width should be in- 
 creased by one-fourth to one-half. 
 
 The rules to be observed in keeping the public roads in repair have 
 been quite fully set forth, partly in the form of general instructions, 
 partly as specific regulations issued to the road employes, 
 
 A distinction is made between general repairs, undertaken to make 
 good the deterioration of the entire roadbed by the action of the weather 
 and traffic, and local repairs, which are continually necessary to correct 
 
128 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 the partial wearing out of the surface by mechanical action, as evi- 
 denced in the form of ruts and depressions. 
 
 General repairs consist in covering the entire surface of the road 
 with a massive layer of broken stone, which is thoroughly rolled down 
 so as to fill out all depressions. When a considerable portion of a 
 road is to be covered wiih new material, the work is to be performed in 
 short sections if the street is narrow ; if wide, the material is to be 
 spread in narrow longitudinal strips, so that not more than one-half 
 the width of the road is being worked at the same time, and only when 
 the first half is completed is the second to be begun. The road, when 
 thus covered with new material, is to receive a suitable covering, which 
 however, is not to be applied until the mass of rock has been suflBciently 
 rolled to acquire a certain degree of solidity and to cause the interven- 
 ing spaces to disappear. - 
 
 As has been stated, a street-roller is employed for compressing the 
 mass of broken rock. The rolling is done longitudinally, moving grad- 
 ually from the edges toward the center, and, when practicable, is to be 
 kept up until the mass of new matter is thoroughly fixed. The mass 
 is to be moistened by continued sprinkling, in order to insure its more 
 perfect solidification. It has been found that the seasons best adapted 
 for making general repairs are the spring months until the middle or 
 end of June, and the months of September and October. The winter 
 mouths are not advantageous, even though the weather be mild, for it 
 has been found to be an essential condition of durability that the new 
 material be thoroughly dried and hardened before it is subjected to the 
 action of the frost. 
 
 The frequency with which general repairs need be made is variable, 
 but averages for the state roads from 11 to 12 years. 
 
 In order to insure the greatest possible durability of the road surface, 
 care should be taken that the covering of new material be not too thin 
 at places. The old road surface should therefore be specially prepared 
 for the reception of the new covering by paring down the protuber- 
 ances and carefully reestablishing the profile. 
 
 When general repairs have been made, the surface of the road usually 
 remains quite smooth for years if the traffic is but moderate. However, 
 more or less unevenness develops in the course of time, and to coun- 
 teract the formation and enlarging of rough spots as much as possible 
 is the chief object of the continuous local repairs. 
 
 Finely-broken rock, either specially prepared or obtained by sifting 
 the coarser material intended for road covering, is employed for making 
 the local repairs. Depressions in the road are filled up not only to pre- 
 serve the smoothness, but also because vehicles avoid such defective 
 spots and thus wear out the rest of the surface all the quicker. For 
 this reason the places to be repaired are to be selected in such a manner 
 as will tend to a uniform wearing of the whole road surface. As a fur- 
 ther means of obtaining the latter result, the track to be followed by 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 129 
 
 vehicles may be fixed by placing obstructing stones * on the road, which, 
 however, must be removed at night. This is to be done only in damp 
 weather, on roads used for heavy hauling, and then only to a limited 
 extent at a time. * 
 
 When defects can be remedied with a small quantity of new matter 
 it is sometimes advantageous to loosen the edges with a pick, in order 
 to obtain a thorough union with the old and new material. The loose 
 matter should be moistened and carefully rammed down and covered 
 over. This method is, however, employed to a limited extent only, as 
 it is rather' expensive. Local repairs should always be carefully con- 
 ducted in order that the solidification may take place as speedily as 
 practicable. They should for the same reason never be undertaken 
 for a large stretch of road at a time, so that, if dry weather should set 
 in, delaying the process of consolidation, the traffic may not be un- 
 duly interfered with. 
 
 Not until the mass of material spread at the last general overhaul- 
 ing has practically disappeared are general repairs again necessary. 
 As the surface does not wear oif uniformly, the smoothness of the road 
 has usually suffered material diminution before a new overhauling is 
 , undertaken. In some instances the system of repair here outlined 
 proves insufficient, even though the road be otherwise strong enough. 
 Thus, in villages where the road is well built up the street crossings 
 are used by large numbers of pedestrians, who, as a rule, are more 
 exacting as to the condition of roads, especially in wet weather, than 
 the drivers of vehicles. In such cases a stone pavement or some other 
 substantial substitute for the macadamized surface becomes necessary. 
 
 If, however, the road itself is lacking in power of resistance, it is 
 necessary to strengthen the roadbed and at the same time take meas- 
 ures looking to a uniform wearing off of the entire road surface. 
 
 Where the traffic is neither large nor heavy, and the defects of the 
 roads are unimportant, the movement of vehicles will not be apt to 
 suffer in case of bad weather, and even if affected, it will be for 
 a short time only. In such cases it will be sufficient to aim at main- 
 taining the status quo by providing somewhat more new material than 
 will equal the amount worn oft', thus counteracting the deterioration 
 of the roadbed resulting from the occasional interruption of the con- 
 tinuity of repairs. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the vehicles passing are both heavy and nu- 
 merous, and the defects of the road more serious, interruptions of com- 
 munications are to be looked for more frequently and are apt to be 
 of longer duration and greater importance. In such cases it is plainly 
 imperative to try to restore normal conditions as speedily as may 
 
 * The dimensions of these obstriiotiiig stones should be one-third metre. To make 
 them easily visible, they are to be painted white. They are to be placed ou the 
 road in such a manner as to keep the traffic off that portion of Che road which it is 
 the desire to withdraw from public use. 
 
 33a 9 
 
130 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 be. This applies especially to roads whose defective portions are of 
 but small extent, and to sach as suddenly become quite or wholly 
 impassable. Oases falling between the two extremes cited must be 
 met according to circumstances. It may be advisable at times to 
 refrain from any attempt looking to a complete restoration, merely 
 striving to limit the extent of the defects. 
 
 As to the manner of procedure to give the roadbed greater power 
 of resistance, it has been found that increasing the thickness of the 
 sui)erstructure, or merely renewing it with greater frequency, is the 
 simplest method and accomplished with the least interruptions of trafJfic. 
 In so far as new material is used merelj' to increase the thickness of the 
 superstructure without being exposed to surface wear, a substance of 
 moderate quality will answer, the better and more expensive material 
 being reserved for the surface covering. 
 
 Where, however, the roadb ed contains springs the method above 
 set forth is not always effective ; it is generally necessary to secure 
 better drainage by widening and deepening the ditches, and digging 
 new ones, if there are not already enough. Underground drainage is 
 now being introduced for such cases, a trench of 0.4 to 0.6 metre in 
 width being run longitudinally under the center of the road, and filled 
 up with loose stone and rough gravel to the rock superstructure of the 
 road. Tranverse trenches from 0.3 to 0.4 metre in width serve to con- 
 duct the water out of the roadbed. 
 
 Even in this way a complete success has not always been attained. 
 Some kinds of soil are not sufficiently porous to admit of thorough 
 drainage in this manner. In many cases, too, the deficient depth of the 
 ditches renders it diificult to locate the drains at a sufficient depth and 
 at the same time permit the water to flow out into the ditches. Ac- 
 cordingly, when a system of underground drainage promises but in- 
 complete success it will be well to combine with it a reeuforcement of 
 the superstructure of the road, in some cases even to construct a new 
 roadbed suj>plied with extra thickness of rock layers. 
 
 If, however, as happens in the most difficult cases, the'level of the 
 roads makes satisfactory drainage impossible, a complete success can 
 not be achieved without changing the level, or, what amounts to the 
 same, entirely rebuilding that section of the road. 
 
 When it is the intention to pave certain portions of a road, care must 
 be taken to give the substructure the necessary strength and solidity. 
 
 The detailed instructions issued for the guidance of the roads em- 
 ployes are in accordance with the general rules as above set forth. 
 
 It is the duty of the roadguards to carefully ram down all newly 
 spread material that has not yet been thoroughly fixed. If in places 
 the material was not sufficient, and ruts again make their appearance, 
 the guard is likewise to apply new matter with proper care. He is to 
 pare down all ridges and projections, and work the loose matter into 
 the depressions, in order that the road may be smooth and retain its 
 
EUEOPE — GERMANY. 131 
 
 original convexity, and if necessary he is to put on enough new mate- 
 rial to attain this end. The mud gathering on the road is to be care- 
 fully scraped off, especially when a spell of wet weather sets in. The 
 dust that accumulates in dry weather is likewise to be removed, care 
 being taken to pick out the loose stones. The guard is furthermoie to 
 stop up all holes in the body of the road or the sides of the ditches, 
 using for this purpose the mud that has been scraped oft' the road, to 
 clean the ditches, destroy the weeds that make their appearance on the 
 roadside, keep the bridges and culverts unobstructed and in good con- 
 dition, open the drains and put them into repair. 
 
 When snow has fallea heavily or is drifting, the roadguard must 
 shovel it off the road so as to keep a track open. If he is unable to do 
 this with the assistance of hired day laborers, he must make requisition 
 on the parish authorities for the necessary help. If, on account of con- 
 tinued drifting, the road can not be kept open, the travel is to be tem- 
 porarily led over the adjoining iields, care being taken to mark the 
 location of the temporary road by poles and wisps of straw. When the 
 weather permits sleighing for some time, loose stones and gravel liable 
 to cause accidents are to be removed, and bare spots are to be covered 
 with snow. 
 
 When thaw sets in, all snow and ice on the roads must be speedily 
 removed. 
 
 A.nother though comparatively subordinate charge on the road au- 
 thorities is the planting of trees along the road and taking care of 
 them. As a general rule, trees must be planted along every road. 
 
 This is done partly to render the direction and the limits of the road 
 more plainly visible in the dark and when the snow is drifting, partly 
 to delight the traveling public. In the choice of trees to be planted 
 climatic conditions merit first consideratiou, attention being, however, 
 also given toward securing the greatest possible returns from the trees. 
 For this reason fruit trees are preferred wherever practicable, other- 
 wise those forest trees whose wood has the greatest commercial value. 
 
 In so far as professional knowledge is not required, the roadguards 
 are also charged with the pruning, removal of insects, clearing of tree 
 frames, watering those newly set out, and replacing those that fail to 
 take root. 
 
 CONSTBUCTION AND REPAIR OP COUNTRY ROADS. 
 
 The rules governing parishes in the construction of country roads 
 have been stated in the course of the remarks on state roads, to which 
 reference is therefore made. 
 
 The circular to which reference has already been made also states 
 the general rules to be observed in the repair of country roads in terms 
 analogous to those concerning the repair of state roads. However, it 
 does not contain fixed instructions which must be obeyed under all 
 circumstances, but is rather a statement of facts and principles for the 
 information of all concerned. 
 
132 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTKIKS. 
 
 Specific instructions are issued by the '-Amtshauptmaunschaft" to 
 meet the particular requirements of the individual cases of " country 
 road " construction and repair. The only general provisions have been 
 already set forth and concern the width of the street, the planting of 
 trees wherever practicable, and in the default thereof the marking of 
 the limits of the roads in some other permanent manner which may be 
 eflicient, especially in time of snow. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION AND EEPAIE OF STREETS. 
 
 It is left to the individual parishes to regulate the construction and 
 repair of their respective town and village streets. Of course the 
 necessity of establishing special ordinances regarding streets exists 
 only in the cities and populous parishes that have an extensive local 
 traffic, and the nature of these ordinances varies with the varying local 
 conditions. A general provision, however, requires streets to be com- 
 posed of a substantial rock substructure and superstructure and of a 
 suitable covering, the latter to consist of large flat rocks for the side- 
 walks. It hardly could be of interest to enter into the details of these 
 ordinances. For those parts of city streets where wagons pass, the 
 varied materials such as Belgian blocks, cobblestones, Xicholson pave- 
 ment, asphalt, pressed slag, etc., are used for surface as they are in the 
 United States. The manner of putting the materials used in the con- 
 struction of citj' streets does not differ from that of our American 
 cities. • 
 
 Water and gas pipes are laid, and sewers, catch-basins, fireplugs, 
 and manholes are constructed and placed similarly to the manner 
 adopted in the United States. An extended report on city streets will 
 be furnished at a later i^eriod if desired. 
 
 CULTIVATION OF TREES ON ROADS IN SAXONY. 
 
 The system of tree culture along the roads of Saxony is the admira- 
 tion of every American who observes it. The beauty and picturesque 
 appearance of long avenues of finely-selected and well-kept trees, stretch- 
 ing away for miles in various directions, gladdens the heart of every 
 admirer of natural beauty. It is, as has been stated, a consideration of 
 less importance than the building of the roads, but the following figures 
 will show the value of a well governed and faithfully managed system 
 of tree culture on the public highways. 
 
 In the year 1890 the uotewortliy sum of 150,623.55 marks was obtained 
 for the fruit grown along the state roads of Saxony. The district which 
 collected the largest amount was the "Amtshauptmaunschaft" Dobeln, 
 which turned into the treasury 27,534.50 marks, while the mountain dis- 
 trict, Annaberg, supplied the least, or only 15.50 marks. 
 
EUROPE — GEEMANY. 133 
 
 •j 
 
 The revenues from the fruit trees of the other districts was as follows : 
 
 Marka. 
 
 Pima, land II 21,713.90 
 
 Grimma 18,077.65 
 
 Leipzig 17,216.00 
 
 Bautzen 15,733.50 
 
 Dresden, I and II 15,638.50 
 
 Meissen, I and II 11,536.95 
 
 Marka. 
 
 Zittau 8,853.50 
 
 Zwlokan 6,538.20 
 
 Chemnitz 5,178.50 
 
 Freiberg 1,046.50 
 
 Plaueu 970.30 
 
 Schwarzenberg 570. 00 
 
 These figures refer to the state roads only. The income from trees 
 along country roads is greater. 
 
 At the risk of repeating a few ideas which have been previously ex- 
 pressed in more general terms, I submit the following: 
 
 Object of planting trees. — Trees along the public road's make the 
 border of the road discernible at night, as well as after snowdrifts, 
 thereby warning the public against embankments and other danger 
 along the sides of the road. Trees also afford pleasure and comfort to 
 those who use the roads, and area source of considerable revenue when 
 properly cared for, as shown above. 
 
 In this connection care must be taken to secure the highest possible 
 profit out of such trees in the interest of the road administration and 
 the tax-paying public generally. '^ 
 
 Selection of trees. — (1) In general such kinds of irees should be selected 
 for road .purposes, which, as far as the climate and condition of the 
 soil permit, promise a good and speedy growth ; that are not too sen- 
 sitive to climatic and other influences and can soon stand without a. 
 prop, and that especially promise a remunerative return in proportion 
 to the cost of their raising and nursing. 
 
 (2) In parts of the country where fruit trees grow, and where the crop 
 is not in danger, of damage by late spring frosts, such trees should by 
 all means be cultivated. Forest trees are preferable where fruit trees 
 can not be grown successfully, especially at high altitudes, and in 
 forests, and also where wanton damage and considerable plundering of 
 fruit may be apprehended, this being sometimes the case within and 
 around thickly populated districts and near villages. 
 
 (3) In damp localities trees with broad thick foliage, and on narrow 
 roads short-stemmed trees with wide extending branches should not 
 be planted. 
 
 (4) It is also advisable. If possible, to avoid the planting of such kinds 
 of trees as would prove to be directly injurious to the adjoining prop- 
 erty. 
 
 (5) With special reference to fruit trees, the planting of such trees is 
 recommended as bloom and ripen late, and the fruits of which will 
 stand a long journey and will keep' comparatively a long time without 
 spoiling. In order to facilitate the leasing of such fruit trees it is rec- 
 ommended to cultivate the same kind of fruit on rather long stretches 
 of road. In case special local conditions do not make this appear profit- 
 able, such varieties of fruit should be planted as will at least ripen at 
 
134 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 the same time aud always in such number that a proper and reasonable 
 use may be made of the crop and a favorable leasing rendered practi- 
 cable. Avoid, if possible, the planting of timber trees in between fruit 
 trees. 
 
 (6) If apple trees are planted varieties having long stems and lofty 
 tops should be used, if possible. It is not recommended to plant trees 
 in deep or narrow valleys. 
 
 (7) For timber trees such kinds should be given preference as can be 
 profitably used for choice woods for special purposes. In Saxony the 
 planting of ash and maple trees, and, in considerable distance from vil- 
 lages, wild cherry trees is specially noticeable. Where the soil is un- 
 favorable, especially in mountainous districts where other kinds of 
 trees do not grow as well, mountain ash trees may be recommended. 
 
 (8) Generally speaking, particular attention should be given to young 
 strong, and well nursed fruit trees of such pedigree as are best adapted 
 to a given part of the country. 
 
 (9) If trees have been cultivated which do not correspond with the 
 principles laid down in Xos. 1 to 7, endeavor by degrees to substitute a 
 more preferable system of transplanting. 
 
 (10) For such renewal of trees a systematic plan must be adopted and 
 followed with all the supplements rendered necessary in Part Vof these 
 instructions. 
 
 (11) A change in the system of planting is not objectionable in cases 
 where existing fruit trees can be expected to yield a larger crop by re- 
 moving timber trees growing between the fruit trees and also barren 
 fruit trees. 
 
 (12) When it is ascertained that a change in the kind of trees will 
 cause a more remunerative crop, which will outweigh the costs and 
 damages of the change, the same can be brought about little by little 
 annually on stretches from 5 to 10 kilometers of road. A radical change 
 should always be justified by circumstances, as such a course is un- 
 usual, and the same should be explained by a detailed statement made 
 to the chief supervisors of the roads in the district. 
 
 Rules of tree cultivation. — The distance between the trees should be 
 based upon the purposes mentioned in Part I. It should, however, not 
 be too small in order not to injure the growth of the trees. When the 
 security of the traffic does not demand a closer planting, apple, pear, 
 and sweet cherry trees should stand 30 to 40 yards apart ; sour cherry 
 trees and plums 7 to 9 yards. 
 
 Local conditions govern the planting of trees along certain parts of 
 the roads where tree planting appears impracticable, because of the 
 roadsides being abrupt aud rocky, or when trees or houses stand in im- 
 mediate vicinity of the road. 
 
 When trees are set out hollow places should be left at their bases for 
 irrigating and other purposes, which should not be too small. Where 
 trees already stand and these "hollows" are wanting, they should be 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 1 S5 
 
 gradually formed by suspending the periodical trimming of the edge 
 of the road or by banking up a basin-like substitute therefor. 
 
 The holes for planting the trees should not be too small, especially 
 when the road lies in a cut or when the planting is to be done on spots 
 where other trees have stood formerly- The holes should be, for fruit 
 trees, from 3 to 4| feet wide when the soil is rich, and 5 feet when the 
 soil is inferior. The depth should be according to the good or inferior 
 soil : 2 to 3 feet, less than IJ feet only being practicable for plum trees. 
 Where these holes can not be dug in the prescribed dimensions, then 
 they should be dug out in shape of a ditch, so that the roots of the 
 tree can at least find loose soil in two directions. These holes should 
 be filled with earth mixed with compost. 
 
 Should a renewal in the planting on long distances be found neces- 
 sary, the new trees should be planted between the spots where the old 
 trees stood, and eventually the kind of tree changed. 
 
 The poles destined to prop up the young trees should be polished and 
 blunted on the upper end, in order to prevent them from rubbing 
 against the trees. These poles should be fixed ou the side which is 
 mostly exposed to strong winds; it must, however, also be borne in 
 mind that these poles protect the trees from damage from the road. 
 The bands should always be attached in the shape of an 8, and, when 
 fastened, special care should be taken to prevent the pole from rubbing 
 on the tree. 
 
 When grafted fruit trees are to be used care should be taken that 
 the desired species be obtained under guaranty. In cases of extensive 
 plantings, when the desired species cannot be obtained with certainty, 
 it is recommended to plant wild trees that can be properly grafted when 
 the time comes. 
 
 The trees should neither be planted in damp nor cold weather, but in 
 weather when the soil that has been prepared crumbles easily, and 
 therefore can be easily placed between the roots. Apples and pears can 
 be planted in spring as well as in autumn ; for cherries and plums, 
 spring is preferable. The latter only require alluvial " mud dressing." 
 When setting out trees the sinking of the soil must be taken into con- 
 sideration if the same is specially heavy. The tree must not be put as 
 deep in the earth as it grew originally, so that the proper depth of 
 planting is not surpassed by the gradual sinking of the soil around the 
 roots. -When the new trees are tied to posts, care must be taken that 
 they are not prevented from settling themselves firmly in the soil. The 
 final fastening to props can only be done when the earth surrounding 
 the roots has settled down. 
 
 Nursing and keeping trees. — When dry weather prevails the tree 
 " hollows '' should be covered with moss, inverted sod, or similar sub- 
 stances. Newly transplanted and young trees should be provided with 
 the necessary moisture by flooding water into the " hollows," if this 
 does not cause a too heavy expenditure. Where the tree " hollows" 
 
136 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COTJNTEIES. 
 
 are very small or are completely wanting, two or three holes should be 
 dug around the tree and filled with water. These holes must be kept 
 open with drainage tubes. 
 
 To protect young trees against rabbits and hares in winter, or other 
 damages, the stems should be tied up with thorns, straw, or reeds. 
 Wire should be used for this purpose. To protect the trees against 
 insects and to prevent the bursting of the bark in winter, the stems of 
 the fruit trees should in the fall of the year be whitewashed, or cov- 
 ered with a mixture of lime and ox blood, compost, clay, or similar 
 substance. A straw or moss covering is considered a good protection 
 against the drying out of young trees thatare especially exposed to the 
 sun and wind. 
 
 The earth in tree " hollows," especially those of younger fruit trees, 
 should be frequently loosened. 
 
 The so-called " suckers" should be cut off at all times, if they are not 
 required to fill out the tree top or for substitution in places of old 
 boughs. In the latter case they should be nursed with special care. 
 In order to cause a good growth of the fruit-bearing top of fruit trees, 
 careful pruning is necessary at certain periods, as well as a clearing t)f 
 old trees from useless or too numerous branches. 
 
 In general, the nursing of trees along state roads should not suffer 
 by comparison with trees along the roads kept up by communities or 
 private individuals. 
 
 The cutting of the young fi'uit trees should only be done by specially 
 skillful persons. Such employes as have been educated for such pur- 
 poses are to be preferred. 
 
 The jiruning of fruit-bearing trees may be done by inexperienced em- 
 ployes when such work is superintended by experts. 
 
 Cutting down of trees. — The cutting down of either fruit or forest 
 trees on roads is permitted only when such a proceeding promises to 
 be profitable, with reference to a subsequent increase in the value of 
 the timber trees to be substituted for those removed, or in the value of 
 future fruit crops. The costs of replacing and cultivating young trees 
 must be carefully considered. 
 
 The ornamental point of view should not be overlooked, especially on 
 avenues of trees that beautify that part of the country where they exist. 
 Such trees should not be cut down without the knowledge and the con- 
 sent of the county commissioners. 
 
 Dead or badly damaged trees which destroy the beauty of the 
 avenue and which, being liable to break down in storms, threaten to 
 interfere with the proper use of the road, should be removed without 
 delay. 
 
 The trees should be cut down in a season in which the wood can be 
 most profitably used. 
 
 Wherever trees insure the safety of the roads a renewal of removed 
 or dead trees should take place without delay. If replanting, is not 
 
EUROPE— GERMANY. 137 
 
 practicable, on account of the season, poles should temporarily replace 
 the trees. 
 
 General instructions. — Special care must be taken to secure in time 
 the necessary quantity of trees to be used each season. 
 
 Eoad employes should not be permitted to lease fruit trees or t» buy 
 the wood, except in cases where other parties fail to make bids which 
 are satisfactory. 
 
 State-road fruit trees are leased to the highest bidders and the 
 money received is covered into the state treasury. Wood from road 
 trees is sold at auction and the money returned to the public treasury. 
 Nothing is lost or wasted, and those who lease fruit trees are held to a 
 strict account for any damage done the trees. Ladders must be used 
 to gather the fruit, and any battering of the trees with clubs or poles 
 to get fruit is sharply punished. 
 
 GENERALIZATIONS. 
 
 In conclusion, it will not be inappropriate to mention some general 
 facts of more or less importance which have been omitted from the 
 foregoing, and to review briefly some provisions of the laws by which, 
 in the interests of the general public, the executive governing powers 
 seek to prevent certain of the damages which might otherwise ensue. 
 
 There are no statistics which show the total length of the combined 
 roads and streets of the Kingdom of Saxony. 
 
 Of state roads there are 37,032 kilometres. The average cost per 
 annum of keeping the state roads in the splendid condition which al- 
 ways exists is 650 marks per kilometre, while the beautiful macada- 
 mized country roads require an average annual expenditure of 400 
 marks per kilometre to maintain their never-failing excellence. 
 
 These figures do not include the salaries of the employes who protect 
 and tend the roads. The following salaries are paid to road employes: 
 
 Marks. 
 
 Road inspectors 3,300 to 4, 800 
 
 Road masters 1,500 to 1,800 
 
 Road guards 6G0 to 720 
 
 Laborers receive about 75 cents per day. Road masters and guards 
 are gratuitously uniformed and are allowed 80 to 90 marks per annum 
 with which to keep their uniforms in repair. They present a neat ap- 
 pearance, and are careful in the discharge of their duties. 
 
 The rollers or surface crushers in use are for both horse and steam 
 power. The hor^se-power rollers weigh from 12,000 to 35,000 pounds 
 'and cost from $350 to $400. Gruson steel tires cost f 100 extra. The 
 steam rollers are built after the system of Arding & Porter, of Roches- 
 ter, and weigh 22,000 pounds. They cost $3,000. Heavier rollers are 
 not practicable because of the hilly condition of the country. 
 
 Kone of the roads in Saxony are fenced. They are so clearly defined 
 by the trees which grow along their sides, and by other boundaries, 
 
138 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 that fencing is unnoessary. In this connection I will report that, with 
 the exception of a few picketed inclosures, there are no fenced grounds 
 in all Saxony. 
 
 The charming appearance of this Kingdom owes much of its beauty 
 to tbe fact that its wide, well-tilled valleys, its rolling hills crested with 
 .dark pine forests, andats fruitful plains are not disfigured by fences of 
 any kind. 
 
 If the same economy were practiced in the United States our people 
 wonld be much richer, for it is a fact that the farm fences (road and line) 
 cost more than all the farm buildings in our land. 
 
 Even the railways in Saxony are unfenced. Crossings on the level 
 are guarded by descending barriers, even in the places remote from 
 towns and villages. Only on such railways as are narrow gauge and 
 called " secundar" railroads, it is possible to find level crossings which 
 are unguarded by employes hired and paid by the railroads. In such 
 places warning signs and the locomotive bell guard the traveler on the 
 turnpike. 
 
 On all wagon roads where steep, abrupt embankments endanger 
 passengers or teams of horses, a barricade is usually built of stone 
 posts connected with heavy angle-iron bolted firmly into place. 
 
 Square cut stones show distances in kilometres and fractions thereof. 
 These posts are painted white, and the figures on them are carved 
 deeply. 
 
 At crossing or diverging ways substantial iron direction plates tell 
 the distances to various towns or hamlets. In the highlands and 
 mountainous parts a society, called the Austro-German Tourists' Club, 
 has erected hundreds of guideboards for the use of its members and 
 others who are making tours afoot through the enticing and pictur- 
 esque parts of the country. 
 
 There are no special rules giving to pedestrians' rights of way over 
 conveyances of any kind. Drivers must, however, keep oif that part 
 of the road which is reserved for and made use of by foot passengers. 
 Horses must be turned to the right when meeting, and several penal 
 regulations prohibit fast driving or any reckless behavior on the 
 roads. 
 
 Not only the Royal Government, but all local police authorities hold 
 a firm check ou any disregard of general rights which the public en- 
 joy in the use of the Saxon roads. 
 
 All wagons must carry a lighted lantern at night, and keep to the 
 right hand side of the road. All wagons used for heavy teaming are 
 required to be conspicuously and plainly marked in large and durable 
 letters, with the name and residence of the owner. Horses must be 
 driven under control of " crossed reins" as in America, and only when 
 engaged in field work are they not subject to this regulation. 
 
 Wheelmen are not granted any special rights on roads. On the con- 
 trary, they are required to ride with the utmost caution and care. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 139 
 
 In detail, according to differing local conditions the instructions to 
 wheelmen differ as far as police regulations apply. But, in general, 
 wheelmen are subject to the same rules as apply to drivers of horses. 
 They must provide lamps for their wheels ; keep to the right ; carry a 
 metal shield on the front of the wheel with name and address engraved 
 on it; keep off the footpaths; ring a bell when approaching any one, 
 and in some cases abstain from riding side by side. When riding in 
 files a given distance must intervene between them and those who pre- 
 cede them. Wheelmen, as such, pay no taxes. 
 
 Pines collected for the violation of road laws go into the treasury of 
 the authority which imposes the flues. On state roads the money 
 would go .to the uses of the " Amtshauptmannschaften," and on country 
 roads to the local police fund. 
 
 On some state roads heavily-laden vehicles are required to have a 
 certain minimum width of tire, while wagons having boltheads or 
 screws protruding from the tire, or having tires with a rounded surface, 
 are not permitted to enter the road at all. Drivers of heavily loaded 
 wagons pursuing a track already well worn must drive on a different 
 part of the road when so directed by any of the road employes. 
 
 It is further prohibited to drive in or across ditches or on the foot- 
 paths, or to ride, or to drive cattle at these places, as also to drag on 
 the road timber, farm implements, or other articles that damage the 
 surface of the road, or to do any other act injurious to a public road or 
 its appurtenances. A fixed width of tire to correspond to the weight 
 of the load is also sometimes required by local police regulations. 
 
 While a violation of the above regulations constitutes merely an 
 offense cognizable by a police court, the willful destruction or injury of 
 roads, or of the trees thereunto belonging, is regarded as a misde- 
 meanor punishable by the proper court. 
 
 H. F. Mereitt, 
 
 Consul, 
 
 United States Consulate. 
 
 Gliemnitu, April 10, 1891. 
 
 SAXONY. 
 
 BEFORT BY OONSJJL PALMER, OF DRESDEN. 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The division of the public roads in the kingdom of Saxony into city 
 streets and country roads is rendered necessary not only by the fact 
 that their construction and method of maintenance are entirely differ- 
 ent, but also because they are under the control of two administrations 
 that are strictly independent of each other. 
 
140 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 It will be siifflcieiit to furiiisli a detailed report on streets in larger 
 cities (in this case Dresden being selected), for the reason that, usually, 
 the streets in smaller towns and villages are built on the same princi- 
 ple as the less important streets in large cities, and further because the 
 same administrative laws and regulations prevail in larger cities as in 
 smaller towns. 
 
 The roads in the open country are divided into two classes : (1) State 
 or governmont roads. (2) Country or communication roads (connect- 
 ing two or more towns or villages). The former are maintained at the 
 cost of the state, by a special department, which also supervises the 
 navigable ways. The latter are built and maintained by the city and 
 country communities, and by the owners of independent estates whose 
 lands they cross; in some cases, also, by all parishes within one "amt- 
 shauptmannschaft" (district commission) voluntarily united for that 
 purpose. 
 
 The " communication" roads are, ordinarily, used for smaller traffic 
 and serve mostly for agricultural purposes. Their system of construc- 
 tion and repair is in no way different from that of state roads and they 
 maj' safely be classed with inferior state roads. For this reason no- 
 special description will be given of these roads, but, as far as it will 
 appear necessary, they may be referred to occasionally. 
 
 In the entire kingdom of Saxony no distinction is made between 
 roads for light and such for heavy vehicles. The jiublic roads are, in 
 general, open to tr'aflac of every description, and therefore they should 
 be built and maintained in accordance with such requirements. In the 
 city of Dresden the transportation of heavy loads that can not be sep- 
 arated is only permitted uuder the condition that such vehicle be tested 
 by officials in reference to its loading capacity, and that the condition 
 of the foundation, sewerage, etc., of the streets through which such 
 heavy loads are destined to pass be thoroughly examined. 
 
 Similar regulations exist in reference to state roads and for crossing 
 over bridges. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The primary difference between city streets and country roads con- 
 sists in their different manner of drainage. The latter are drained 
 by means of longitudinal ditches on each side of the road, the former 
 only by underground sewers located in most cases in the middle of 
 the street. These sewers not only serve to drain all waste water from 
 the houses without detriment to the inhabitants, but also make it 
 possible to provide the street with elevated sidewalks. 
 
 Beyond this the constant trafiBc in cities, and care for the health 
 of the inhabitants requires a far greater durability and solidity of 
 construction of city streets and sidewalks, and more care must be 
 bestowed on their maintenance than is the case on country roads. 
 Almost all city streets in Saxony are paved. 
 
EUROPE — GEKMAN Y. 141 
 
 Eecently, beateu asphalt is being used in the busiest streets of 
 larger cities instead of stone pavement. "Wood pavement was also 
 tried, but did not fully meet the expectations, and after several trials 
 this system was altogether abandoned, the wood was removed and 
 replaced by asphalt. 
 
 In parts of cities where there are only detached residences (villas) 
 macadamized roads are preferred. 
 
 Cost of materials. — The cost of materials for street and road 
 building, exclusive of all costs of transportation from the different 
 quarries may be averaged as follows : 
 
 Eough paving stones from the quarries of PlaneuscheGrund, from 
 Peunrich, and Prabschlltz, 2.70 marks per square metre equal to 2.25 
 marks per square yard. 
 
 Bough paving stones from the quarries near Meissen, from Schon- 
 born and Demitz, 2.15 marks per square metre equal to 1.80 marks per 
 square yard. 
 
 Dressed paving stone from the quarries of Luptitz and Grimma, 
 Dornreicheubach and Haida : first class, 6.75 marks per square metre, 
 equal to 5.65 marks per square yard ; second class, 6.35 marks per square 
 metre, equal to 5.30 marks per square yard ; third class, 5.45 marks per 
 square metre, equal to 4.55 marks per square yard. 
 
 Dressed paving stones of all three classes from quarries Bullevitz 
 
 and Niederiocesa, 8.60 marks per square metre, equal to 7.20 marks per 
 
 square yard. 
 Cast slag p aving stones, 3.80 marks per square metre, equal to 3.15 
 
 marks per square yard. 
 
 Gravel from the river Elbe, 1.50 marks per cubic metre, equal to 1.15 
 marks per cubic yard. 
 
 Pit gravel (mine gravel), 1.50 marks per cubic metre, equal to 1.15 ' 
 marks per cubic yard. 
 
 Sand, 0.80 mark per cubic metre, equal to 0.61 mark per cubic yard. 
 
 Extra solid and weatherproof coarse quarry stones used for "pack- 
 ing layer," 1.50 marks per cubic metre, equal to 1.15 marks per cubic 
 yard. 
 
 Coarse broken stones (same quality as above), not exceeding 8 cen- 
 timetres in size, 2.00 marks per cubic metre, equal to 1.53 marks i)er 
 cubic yard. 
 
 Small broken stones (same stone as above), not exceeding 5 centi- 
 metres in size, 3 marks per cubic metre, equal to 2.30 marks per cubic 
 yard. 
 
 Small broken basalt stones (not exceeding 4 centimetres in size), from 
 Tischlowitz quarries, 3.50 marks p er cubic metre, equal to 2,65 marks 
 per cubic yard. 
 
 Small broken basalt stones (not exceeding 4 centimeters in size), from 
 Praskowitz quarries, 4.15 marks per cubic metre, equal to 3,17 maiks per 
 cubic yard. 
 
142 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Small broken pieces of porphyry^ 1.60 marks per cubic metre, equal to 
 1.22 marks per cubic yard. 
 
 Small broken pieces of " griinstein" (greenstone), 3.00 marks per cubic 
 metre, equal to 2.30 marks per cubic yard. 
 
 Finely broken " greenstone," 3.50 marks per cubic metre, equal to 2.65 
 marks per cubic yard. 
 
 Asphalt powder, 7.70 marks per 100 kilograms. 
 
 Dressed paving stones from the quartz porphyry quarries nearBrus 
 sels, Belgium, measure being taken upon the completed pavement, free 
 delivery to the place of construction. First class, 4.50 marks per 
 square metre, equal to 3.75 marks per square yard ; second class, 3.50 
 marks per square metre, equal to 2.92 marks per square yard. 
 
 MATEKIAL USED FOR ROAD BUILDING AND STREET PAVING. 
 
 The kinds of stones universally used for building roads and paving 
 streets are the following: Dressed paving stones of "griinstein" 
 (greenstone), specific weight, 3.2; quartz-porphyry, syenite, granite, 
 specific weight 2.8 ; rough irregular paving stones of granite and sye- 
 nite, shaped at the quarries before they are made use of; artificial pav- 
 ing stones cast from copper slags; small, broken pieces of basalt, of 
 sj euite, and of " greenstone ;" beaten asphalt is obtained from Val de 
 France, Seysel, and Sicily. It is delivered pulverized and ready for use. 
 
 The dressed paving stones are divided according to their size into 
 three classes. 
 
 Of first-class'stones about 27 will form 1 square yard (32 to 1 square 
 metre). They must measure 0.185 to 0.21 yard (17 to 19 ceutimetres) 
 in height, and 0.155 to 0.185 yard (14 to 17 centimetres) in width. 
 
 i)£ second-class stones about 33 will form 1 square yard (39 to 1 
 square metre). Height required, 0.165 to 0.185 yard (15 to 17 centi- 
 metres) ; width required, 0.130 to 0.165 yard (12 to 15 centimetres). 
 
 Of third-class stones about 42 will form 1 square yard (50 to 1 square 
 metre). Height required, 0.14 to 0.165 yard (13 to 15 centimetres) ; 
 width required, 0.11 to 0.14 yard (10 to 13 Centimetres). 
 
 The length of the stones of all three classes is proportionate to their 
 width as 5 to 3. 
 
 The top of the stone must be even and have sharp, regular edges. 
 Their shape must be like a truncated pyramid, and should resemble as 
 much as possible a prism. The incline of the sides must not exceed 
 one-tenth of the height. 
 
 Katural stones hewn into exact cubic shape are not used, this process 
 being too expensive ; but paving stones cast from copper slags are 
 delivered and used in that shape. 
 
 During the year 1890 the demand for good paving stones was so 
 great that they had to be purchased in large quantities from the quartz 
 porphyry quarries near Brussels, in Belgium. The stones purchased 
 from these quarries are of two (first and second) classes, and prices 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 
 
 143 
 
 have been stated above. Experience will show whether it be profitable 
 to use these stones for other purposes or not. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION AND EEPAIR Olf 8TBBETS. 
 
 Macadamized streets. — Every macadamized street must, according to 
 the law, consist of a rock substructure and a rock superstructure. The 
 substructure supports the superstructure and prevents it from sinking 
 into the ground. The superstructure forms the wearing snrface of the 
 street and protects the roadbed against dampness with its injurious 
 effects. Whenever a street or carriage road is constructed, the soil on 
 which the rock substructure is to be placed is, after necessary drainage, 
 thoroughly soaked with water and then rolled tight with a street-roller, 
 which is either drawn by horses or propelled by steam power, until the 
 surface becomes completely smooth. 
 
 The substructure consists either of a layer of coarse broken stone 
 (the single stone not exceeding 0.09 yard [=S centimetres] in size), see 
 Fig. 1, or of a row of large stones, so-called " packing layer," see Fig. 2. 
 
 Ftff.l. 
 
 lOMSyd^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Small tfroken- stones. 
 \o.Z20yc^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Coarse iroJcen stones. 
 
 (o.055yd, 
 W.185ySi 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 SoJiU. 
 
 aU T/roJien stones. 
 
 FajiHing Tcofer. 
 
 The substructure of coarse broken stone is used in such cases when the 
 soil or foundation is found to be soft and not resistant. This layer must 
 be at least 20 centimetres thick and is but slightly rolled before placing 
 on the superstructure. (Fig. 1.) 
 
 If the natural foundation is solid the substructure generally consists 
 of large quarry stones, not exceeding 0.19 yard (17 centimetres in 
 height. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 These stones form the so-called " packing layer," and are carefully 
 placed by hand on the smoothed and graded roadbed in close rows with 
 their broadest side downwards and their points turned upwards to pre- 
 vent their working loose. The spaces between these stones are filled 
 out with smaller stones and the projecting tops, if any, knocked off. 
 (Fig. 2.) 
 
 In both cases a layer of small broken stone is spread on the sub- 
 structure, thus forming the superstructure. 
 
144 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 With reference to Fig. 1 this superstructure must be at least 0.16 
 yard (15 centimetres) thick to Fig. 2 at least 0.2 yard (18 centime- 
 tres) thick. 
 
 Before spreading, these small stones must be passed through a screen, 
 so as to free them from all dust and earth ; their size must not exceed 
 0.055 yard (5 centimetres) and not be smaller than 0.044 yard (4 cen- 
 timetres), according to the firmness of the rock used. 
 
 It must not be omitted to state that this superstructure of small 
 broken stone consists of two separate layers, each layer being sepa- 
 rately rolled tight, while soaked with water, thus increasing its firm- 
 ness. When the desired road ijrofile is obtained and the stones lie 
 closely and firmly together, the dust, earth, and gravel left from the 
 screening of the stones is spread over the surface. 
 
 The roller is then again passed over, and the road is completed with 
 a layer (about 0.055 yards thick) of moist, binding gravel sand. 
 
 It may be well to add here that the rollers used for crushing the sur- 
 face of the roads or streets, called "compression rollers," are either 
 drawn by horses and weigh about 6,000 kilograms, or propelled by 
 steam power and weigh from 10,000 to 15,000 kilograms. 
 
 The former can compact 52 cubic yards (40 cubic metres) per day, 
 and the latter from SO to 100 cubic yards (GO to 80 cubic meters) per 
 day. 
 
 The figures showing the thickness of the ditterent stone layers that ■ 
 compose the substructure and superstructure of a macadamized street, 
 as indicated in red ink on the above diagrams, are understood when the 
 street or road is comijleted and ready for ijublic use; if, however, such 
 measurements were taken before the street bedding has been com- 
 pacted, the quantity of material required would be from one -fifth to one- 
 eighth larger. 
 
 Every street or road must be arched, the highest elevation thus ob- 
 tained measuring one-sixtieth of the width (exclusive of sidewalks) 
 for macadamaized streets, one-eightieth for paved streets, and one oue- 
 hundred-and-twentieth for asphalt streets. (Figs. 1, 2, 3.) 
 
 The curbstones of the sidewalks are located from 0.11 to 0.13 yards 
 (10 to 12 centimetres), above the street surface; the sectional inclina- 
 tion of the sidewalks being fixed at one-thirty -third, their width being 
 under normal conditions one-fifth of the entire width of the street, 
 three-fifths, therefore, remaining for the carriage road. (See Figs. 1, 2, 
 and 3). 
 
 City streets are generally wider than country roads. 
 
 The width of state roads varies between 6.6 and 10.9 yards (6 and 
 10 metres), and the width of country (" communication'') roads must 
 be at least 5.5 yards (5 metres) in open country and 7.7 yards (7 metres) 
 within villages or towns. In Dresden all new streets must measure at 
 least 14.2 yards (13 metres), increased to 34.9 yards (32 metres) and 
 more, if necessary. It may be stated that the average width is figured 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 
 
 145 
 
 at 21.8 yards (20 metres). Based upon the above-mentioned widths, 
 the proportion of the sidewalks to the main carriage road of one-fifth 
 to three-fifths is maintained. 
 
 1:33 
 
 Norntdl Frofile of a MdcadiamxzeSL Street. 
 Fitch ^/ao ■ %a. 
 
 1:33 
 
 Fig.2. 
 NoTmdl ProfUe of a Puved Street. 
 
 Pitch VmVs-b. 
 
 .i* , 
 
 NormcCL Froftte of cm Asphalt Street. 
 
 Pitchyizo-^h. 
 
 Fig. 3, 
 
 Should any division different from the above be decided upon it is 
 always in favor of the sidewalks, according to the local requirements. 
 It occurs, for instance, that very broad streets are provided with a cen- 
 tral elevated promenade reserved for pedestrians only. 
 
 In order to prevent the rain-water from stagnating on the side of the 
 street and to conduct it into the sewer openings the street must have 
 below the curbstones a longitudinal incline of at least 1 to 250 alter- 
 nately in both directions ; the minimum for this incline is 1 to 300. 
 
 PAVED STKEETS. 
 
 As above mentioned almost all city streets in Saxony are paved. 
 The bedding on which the paving stones are placed consists in all cases 
 of gravel sand, called paving sand (from the Elbe). This bedding of 
 paving sand is placed immediately on the natural soil when the latter 
 offers a good and solid foundation (Fig. A). If, however, the street 
 bed is artificial, therefore less resistant, the foundation is strengthened 
 by a layer of coarse quarry stone, upon which the paving sand is then 
 spread (Fig. B). Streets are frequently temporarily paved with 
 coarse quarry stones, which, however, must be cut to fit without leav- 
 ing too large cracks. These stones are cut into paving stones averag- 
 ing from 0.18 by 0.2 yards ri6 by 19 centimetres) in size. Their broad- 
 33a 10 
 
146 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 est surface must be plaiu, but their shape need not be regular ; their 
 width should be about 0.13 by 0.19 yards (12 by 17 centimetres), the in- 
 cline of their sides not exceeding 1 to 5. 
 
 The paving stones, when set in the sand layer,* must project about 
 00.44 yards (4 centimetres) over the intended street surface ; they are 
 then beaten down with hand rams of cast iron, weighing 50 kilograms, 
 or partly rolled tight with a steam roller and then rammed. Before 
 this process the cracks between the paving stones must be carefully 
 stopped up with sand and sprinkled with water. 
 
 While setting the paving stones a wooden pattern is continually 
 passed over the surface, serving to maintain the exact arched profile 
 of the street. 
 
 In order to secure a uniform wear and long resistance of the pave- 
 ment, as well as a good appearance of the same, care must be taken 
 that all stones used be intact at their edges and corners. Special care 
 is therefore recommended when loading and unloading such stones. It 
 is further recommended that on one tract of pavement the stones should 
 be of equal size and come from the same quarry. If these rules are 
 strictly followed, an unequal wear of the surface of the pavement is 
 almost entirely prevented. 
 
 The sand bedding below the completed pavement must be about 
 0.175 yard (16 centimetres) thick when rough paving stones or third- 
 class stones are used; for a second-class pavement and slag-stone 
 pavement the sand layer must be 0.153 yard (14 centimetres) thick; 
 for a first-class pavement, 0.13 yard (12 centimetres) thick. 
 
 fo.lS-0.20j/dsl 
 
 ~ PCTX>t7i<7 stones oflifClaat. 
 
 " \o.iB-o.i3-uss:t''':--jt'\''^!'\':H<fy<f'^^^^^^^ 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^^^&yaturdl soil. 
 
 Fig.A. 
 
 \ 0.15 -0.20yd. 
 0.44ySi 0.105-0.055 yd 
 \o.l85-yd,. 
 
 Paving stones ofl^& 3^Class. 
 
 %GraveZ sand 
 \Pcu:7ang layer. 
 Natural soU. 
 
 First-class paving stones are only used in the most fashionable parts 
 of the city, or for such streets on which the traflic is very heavy; 
 third-class stones, for less important streets and centers of squares; 
 second-class stones, for all other streets and for pavement between 
 street-car- rails. 
 
 Streets which are newly laid out are at first macadamized, and only 
 provided with a regular stone pavement after houses have been erected 
 on the same. For this reason th e original macadamized surface is laid 
 out at a height to serve as foundation to the projected pavement. 
 
 * This layer is 0.22 by 0.26 yards (20 by 24 centimetres) thick, 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 
 
 147 
 
 A new kind of paving material — cast slag stones — has been invented 
 during the last 10 years. These slag paving stones are exact cubes, 
 measuring 0.175 yard (16 centimetres) in diameter, and are very solid. 
 Such a pavement is claimed to have an extraordinary resisting capacity 
 and is regular and smooth. Hardly any noise is caused by carriages, 
 etc., on streets paved with slag stones, audit is very easy to keep them 
 clean ; slag stones are, therefore, frequently used for sidewalk crossings, 
 and for gutters on macadamized streets. 
 
 There are, up to the present date, but few streets paved with slag 
 stones in Dresden, because its durability has as yet not been sufiSciently 
 tested. 
 
 Slag Stone Pavement. 
 
 0.175 yA 
 0.155 yd. i 
 
 ^ Slaff atones, 
 Crravel sanS- 
 
 The principal disadvantage of slag-stone pavement is that in course 
 of time it becomes very slippery and offers little hold to horses' hoofs. 
 
 Asphalt pavement. — Asphalt is used most extensively for paving 
 streets. The quality used is almost exclusively compressed asphalt. 
 The layer on which the asphalt is spread is prepared as follows: The 
 ground is at first carefully rolled, its level being held at 0.27 yards (2.5 
 centimetres) below the projected street surface. On this is spread out a 
 layer of cement concrete, composed of one part of Portland cement, four 
 parts of gravel from the Elbe, and six parts of small broken stones. 
 This layer, when fresh, must be 0.27 yards (25 centimetres) thick; it is 
 then compressed to 0.216 (20 centimetres). 
 
 The cement layer must be given sufficient time to thoroughly harden. 
 The hot asphalt is then spread over the cement ; the asphalt layer, being 
 at first 0.076 yards (7 centimetres) thick, is rolled down to 0.055 yards 
 (5 centimetres). 
 
 The kind of asphalt in principal use comes from Val de France, or 
 Seyssel, and is mixed with Sicilian asphalt in the proportion of 1 to 3. 
 
 A-SphaTi PaveTnent. 
 
 0.055 y a. 
 ff.27 ycL. 
 
 mjisphdlt. 
 Concrete, 
 
 'Wood pavement. — In the year 1877 several streets were pa\ed with 
 wood. This wood pavement consisted of paving blocks of pine wood 
 0.11 yard (10 centimetres) in size. The foundation must be a layer of 
 
148 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 concrete 0.216 yard (20 centimetres) thick. The cost of such pave- 
 ment proved to be 13.80 marks per square yard (17 marks per square 
 metre).* The wood, however, did not offer sufacieut resistance, and 
 was replaced by asphalt 6 years later. 
 
 In 1887 another attempt was made with oak paving blocks set on a 
 layer of concrete of 0.216 yard (20 centimetres), but the cost of such 
 pavement amounting to 17.14 marks per square yard (20.50 marks per 
 square metre)* — the very cheapes t oak costing 15 marks per square 
 yard (18 marks per square metre) — this system was abandoned. 
 
 Very recently extensive attempts have been made with beech wood. 
 
 The single blocks were fastened together with wire, thus forming 
 larger blocks, and were used for paving a temporary street-car line run- 
 ning through the promenades of a projected "ringst vasse" (circular 
 street around the city). Considering the temporary character of this 
 construction, a gravel bedding only was placed below the pavement, a 
 mixture of tar and pitch being poured over the former to protect the 
 pavement against the penetration of dampness. The paving blocks 
 were then set and the cracks filled out with the same mixture of tar 
 and pitch. It has, as yet, been impossible to form an opinion of th« 
 durability of this kind of pavement, as it has only been in use for a 
 year. 
 
 COST OF STREET CONSTBTJCTION. 
 
 The cost of constructing the different kinds of streets, as described 
 above, exclusive of the costs of transportation of building material to 
 Dresden, but inclusive of the expenditures for short local transporta- 
 tion within the city were figured during the past year as follows : 
 
 Macadamized street having one layer of small broken stone, O.lGl 
 yard thick, and one layer of coarse broken stone 0.219 yard thick, 
 when using finely broiien syenite, 3.30 marks per square metre (2.75 
 marks per square yard) ; when using Tischlowitz basalt, 3.40 marks per 
 square metre (2.84 marks per square yard) ; when using Praskowitz 
 basalt, 3.45 marks per square metre (2.88 marks per square yard) ; when 
 using porphyry, 3.05 marks per square metre (2.55 marks per square 
 yard) ; when using greenstone, 3.40 marks per square metre (2.84 marks 
 per sq uare yard). 
 
 Macadamized street, having one layer of small broken stone, 0.196 
 yard thick, and one layer of large quarry stones (packing layer) 0.187 
 yard thick, when using finely broken syenite, 3.15 marks per square 
 metre (2.63 marks per square yard) ; when using Tischlowitz basalt, 3.30 
 marks per square metre (2.76 marks per square yard) ; when using 
 Praskowitz basalt, 3.45 marks per square metre (2.88 marks per square 
 yard) ; when usiug porphyry, 2.95 marks per square metre (3.30 marks 
 per square yard) ; when using greenstone, 3.40 marks per square metre 
 (2.84 marks per square yard). 
 
 * The prices for the different liinds of wood pavement include wages, material, etc. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 149 
 
 Rough pavement on layer of gravel, 4.80 marks per square metre 
 (4.40 marks per square yard). 
 
 Dressed (regular) pavement on layer of gravel, using first-class 
 stones, porphyry, granite, and syenite, 9.60 marks per square metre 
 (8 marks per square yard) ; greenstone, 10.80 marks per square metre 
 (9 marks per square yard). Using second-class stones, porphyry, 
 granite, and syenite, 9.20 marks per square metre (7.70 marks per square 
 yard) ; greenstone, 10.80 marks per square metre (9 marks per square 
 yard). Using third-class stones, porphyry, granite, and syenite, 8.20 
 marks per square metre (6.85 marks per square yard) ; greenstonej'lO.SO 
 marks per square metre (9 marks per square yard). 
 
 Slag stone pavement on layer of gravel, 6.40 marks per square metre 
 (5.35 marks per square yard). 
 
 Dressed (regular) pavement on layer of large quarry stones (packing 
 layer). Using first-class stones, porphyry, granite, and syenite, 10.60 
 marks per square metre (8.87 marks per square yard) ; greenstone,"11.80 
 marks per square metre (9.87 marks per square yard). Using second- 
 class stones, porphyry, granite, and syenite, 10.15 marks per square 
 metre (8.50 marks persquare yard) ; greenstone, 11.80 marks per square 
 metre (9.87 marks per sqaareyard). Using third-class stones, porphyry, 
 granite, and syenite, 9.20 marks per square metre (7.68 marks per square 
 yard) ; greenstone, 11.80 marks per square metre{9.87marksper square 
 yard). 
 
 Slag stone pavement on layer of coarse quarry stones (" packing 
 layer"), 7 marks per square metre (5.85 marks per square yard). 
 
 Asphalt pavement, composed of 0.220 yard (20 centimetres) of con- 
 crete, 3.60 marks per square yard (4 30 marks per square metr<5) ; 0.053 
 yard (5 centimetres) of asphalt, 10.60 marks per square yard (12.65 
 marks per square metre) ; giving a total of 14.20 marks per square yard 
 (16.95 marks per square metre). 
 
 These prices for asphalt pavement were paid to private building 
 companies, who undertook the first construction of asphalt streets in 
 Dresden, giving guaranty for 5 years. 
 
 All asphalt pavement is now executed by the government building 
 department and not by private contractors, naturally without guar- 
 anty. The costs therefor being reduced by 3.50 marks per square yard 
 (4.20 marks per square metre), thereby giving a total cost of 10.70 
 marks per square yard (12.75 marks per square metre) for asphalt 
 pavement as above described. It must be further understood that the 
 quotations given for asphalt pavement include all costs of transporta- 
 tion, as it has been impossible to ascertain such costs, delivery being 
 free Dresden. 
 
 The preparation and profiling of the natural foundation (substruc- 
 ture) of all street constructions amounts to 0.84 mark per square yard 
 (1 mark per square metre) in average, and is not included in any of the 
 foregoing figures. 
 
150 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 In the city of Leipzig, where the paving of the streets is mostly in- 
 trusted to private contractors, the costs for the different kinds of pave- 
 ment during the past year were figured as follows : 
 
 Slag stone pavement, 6.20 marks per square yard (7.40 marks per 
 square metre). 
 
 Dressed (regular) pavement, first-class stones, 9.13 marks per square 
 yard (10.90 marks per square metre) ; second-class stones, 8.48 marks 
 per square yard (10.15 marks per square metre); third-class stones, 8.23 
 marks per square yard (9.85 marks per square metre). 
 
 Asphalt pavement, thickness of layers as described above, 13.88 
 marks per square yard (1G.60 marks per square metre). 
 
 It will be noted that the costs for paving in Leipzig do not differ 
 very much from those in Dresden. Only slag stone pavement is much 
 less expensive, because the rates for transportation are much lower to 
 Leipzig than to Dresden. 
 
 During the year 1889 the "Tieflauamt" (board of substructures) of 
 Dresden showed the following figures : 
 
 Macadamized streets 
 
 Dressed (regalar) paveraeut. 
 Kough (irregular) pavement. 
 Asphalt pavement 
 
 Square 
 yards. 
 
 6,600 
 62, 500 
 32, 400 
 
 7,500 
 
 Square 
 metres. 
 
 5,500 
 52, 300 
 27, 000 
 
 6,300 
 
 Seven thousand four hundred and eighty yards (6,850 metres) of 
 sewer, of a medium oval-shaped section measuring 60 centimetres in 
 height and 40 centimetres in width, and 45,600 square yards (38,200 
 square metres) of sidewalks, constructed partly for public and partly 
 for private use. The total expenditure incurred by the Tief bauamt 
 during the year 1889 for the above constructions amounted in a round 
 sum to 1,115,000 marks. Since the close of 1889 the cost of material 
 and for wages has considerably increased. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OP SIDEWALKS. 
 
 Most of the sidewalks are covered with granite slabs 0.164 yard (15 
 centimetres) thick, and cost, according to the quality of the stone, from 
 9.20 marks per square yard (11 marks per square metre) to 10.86 marks 
 per square yard (13 marks per square metre). The cost of laying the 
 slabs, inclusive of expenses for sand and cement (used to fillout the 
 space between each slab) are figured at 92 pfennings per square yard 
 1.10 marks per square metre). Exceptionally wide sidewalks are paved 
 with a single line of granite slabs, and on each side a " mosaic" pave- 
 ment composed of small stones is laid. 
 
 These "mosaic" stones consist of limestone or of porphyry; they are 
 cubic-shaped, and do not exceed 9 centimetres in size. This pavement 
 costs 3.90 marks per square yards (4.68 marks per square metre). 
 
EUROPE — GEEMANY. 
 
 151 
 
 It is less frequent that the described portious of wide sidewalks are 
 covered witli a layer of cement. In sucU cases the cement layer must 
 be 0.022 yard (2 centimetres^ thick and rests on a foundation of concrete 
 0.145 yard (13 centimetres) thick. Cement slabs 0.065 yard (6 centi- 
 metres) thick and 0.38 yards in diameter, resting on a foundation of 
 mortar 0.022 yards (2 centimetres) thick, are also used for sidewalks. 
 Both systems of construction cost 3.90 marks per square yard (4.68 
 marks per square metre). 
 
 An altogether exceptional mode of paving sidewalks consists in the 
 use of ribbed square plates of "Dutch tile" from Meissen, 0.065 yard 
 thick by 0.38 yard in diameter. The Ibundatiou co nsists of a layer of 
 cement, mortar or concrete 0.153 yard thick. The average cost is 6.10 
 marks per square yard (7.32 marks per square metre.) 
 
 The curbstones for sidewalks are mostly of dressed granite.- The 
 cost for curbstones, including laying, wages, etc., are: When 0.44 yard 
 wide and 0.32 yard high, 7.90 marks per yard (8.60 marks per metre); 
 when 0.22 yard high and wide, 5.30 marks per yard (5.80 marks per 
 metre). 
 
 Slag curbstones are also, but not frequently, used, and cost when 
 0.165 yard wide and 0.22 yard high, 1.38 marks per yard (1.50 marks 
 per metre). 
 
 riHWBKS. 
 
 Every city street must be provided with a means of sewerage and 
 drainage; new streets, when constructed, and before houses are built 
 on the same, must be provided in the same way. These drainages con- 
 sist of a main sewer located in the center of the street. 
 
 Side sewers, 0.165 to 0.22 yard (15 to 20 centimetres) in diameter, 
 serve to conduct the water from the street into the main sewer. These 
 side sewers are made of earthen pipes, and are located 32.7 yards (33 
 metres) from each other. The sewer openings, serving to lead oif the 
 rain water from the surface of the street, are located in the street gutter 
 or form part of the granite curbstone. When located in the street 
 gutter these apertures consist of square iron boxes. 
 
 To prevent the mud and dirt from obstructing or stopping up the 
 '.WaXh,. 
 
 sewer pipes, a "mud-catcher" of brickwork, or of iron, is fixed below 
 each aperture, and is 1.10 yards deep by 0.44 yard wide. 
 
152 
 
 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Side sewer pipes of same size as above also serve to conduct the rain 
 water from the roofs, as well as the waste water from the hcfuses into 
 the main sewer. 
 
 In narrow streets the central sewers are in most cases too small to 
 permit men to pass through for cleaning and repairing purposes. Such 
 sewers are then provided with round A-ertical manholes, located at an 
 average distance of 32.7 yards from each other, and serve for cleaning 
 as well as draining purposes. These manholes are covered with iron 
 lids, which are coated with asphalt or plated with oak, on asphalt 
 streets, to prevent noise. 
 
 Formerly the sewers were constructed of sandstone masonry, cemented 
 with mortar; smaller sewers were constructed of sandstone blocks 
 hollowed out in shape of gutters, and either covered with stone slabs 
 (Fig. 1) or arched (Fig. 2). 
 
 Fig.l. 
 
 Fiff.2. 
 
 At present sewers are universally constructed of cement, mortar, and 
 concrete ; sewers of smaller diameter (varying from 0.49 yard in height 
 and 0.33 yard [0.3 metre] in width, to 1.04 yard [1.5 metres] in height, 
 and 1.1 yards [1 metre] in width ) are furnished ready for use in one or 
 two pieces of 1 metre (1.1 yards) in length. 
 
 Larger sewers of a profile, as 
 shown on the annexed diagram, 
 have a gutter for waste water, and 
 are constructed of stamped con- 
 crete, some parts of the foundation 
 blocks (as a, 6, and c) being fur- 
 nished ready shaped for use. 
 
 The manholes, as above des- 
 cribed, are at present also con- 
 structed of stamped concrete, and 
 not of brickwork as heretofore. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 153 
 
 The width of the sewers is based upon the following calculation : 
 
 V = F'\ 
 
 F 
 
 0.00015 + 
 
 00000045.8 
 P 
 
 V = The quantity of water in cubic meters required to 
 
 be drained per second. 
 F = The cross section of the sewer in square metres. 
 S = The interior circumference of the sewer in metres. 
 
 ^=The relative (actual) incline of the sewer. 
 
 The quantity of water to be drained per second from 1 hectare (10936 
 square yards of area) is assumed to be as per following table : 
 
 Description. 
 
 Densely built 
 
 Less densely built 
 
 Single houses (residences) 
 
 Kain 
 water. 
 
 Oub.met. 
 0.05 
 .01 
 .03 
 
 Waste 
 water. 
 
 Cub met. 
 
 0. 0034 
 
 .0023 
 
 .0004 
 
 Total. 
 
 Cub. met. 
 
 0. 0634 
 
 .0423 
 
 .0304 
 
 The above figures refer to the minimum proiile or section of a sewer. 
 All calculations are strictly based upon these figures, even if circum- 
 stances rendered a smaller sewer practicable. A rainfall as heavy as 
 0.02 yard (18 millimetres) per hour, is provided for in the above calcu- 
 Lttions. 
 
 The cost of sewers at a depth of 2 metres, during the past year, was 
 as follows : 
 
 Size of 
 
 aewer. 
 
 Cost Df 
 
 con- 
 struct- 
 ing the 
 
 Dig- 
 ging 
 and fill. 
 
 
 Per 1. 1 yard. 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 in 
 
 marks. 
 
 1 metre for 
 
 increased 
 
 depth of 
 
 sewer. 
 
 
 
 Height. 
 
 Width. 
 
 channel 
 
 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Tards. 
 
 21. pf. 
 
 M.pf. 
 
 M.pf. 
 
 M. pf. 
 
 0.491 
 
 0.327 
 
 7 40 
 
 8 41 
 
 15 81 
 
 2 05 
 
 0.573 
 
 0.382 
 
 9 23 
 
 8 88 
 
 18 11 
 
 2 83 
 
 0.664 
 
 0.436 
 
 11 40 
 
 9 30 
 
 20 70 
 
 3 10 
 
 0.817 
 
 0.645 
 
 14 40 
 
 10 30 
 
 24 70 
 
 3 33 
 
 0.982 
 
 0.654 
 
 21 15 
 
 U 70 
 
 32 85 
 
 3 61 
 
 1.146 
 
 0.764 
 
 27 65 
 
 14 25 
 
 41 90 
 
 4 47 
 
 1.314 
 
 0.872 
 
 33 90 
 
 15 40 
 
 49 30 
 
 4 75 
 
 1.635 
 
 1.09 
 
 43 75 
 
 18 23 
 
 62 00 
 
 5 40 
 
 The cost of a manhole connecting a sewer with the street surface, 
 when the sewer is located at a depth of 2.5 metres, is 105 marks ; adding 
 8 marks for extra work and 37 marks for iron lid, gives a total of 150 
 marks, in a round sum. Bach metre of increased depth 37 marks more. 
 An oak plated lid costs 53 marks instead of 37 marks. The side sewer 
 pipes, when 0.165 to 0.22 yard in diameter, cost, ready-made, including 
 laying and fastening, from 3.10 to 4.02 marks per yard. 
 
154 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Brick mud- catchers provided with iron apertures cost 32.30 marks 
 apiece; solid stone mud-catchers, 35.30 marks apiece, inclusive of all 
 work connected ; granite apertures with stone lid cost 44 marks. 
 
 APPOItTIONMENT OF COSTS— STREET C0N8TKUCTI0N AND REPAIR. 
 
 All expenses caused by a reconstruction or total repair of an existing 
 street are paid by the city treasury. New streets, however, are laid 
 out at the cost of the proprietors of the adjacent grounds or houses. 
 To cover the expenses for sewerage such proprietors are required to 
 pay 21 marks per yard (23 marks per metre) of front extension of their 
 premises. For corner grounds the actual length of premises must be 
 increased by the average width of the two adjacent streets. 
 
 The costs of primary construction of streets, such as earthworks 
 sewerage, macadamizing, gravel footpaths, in some cases rough pave- 
 ment, must be borne by the proprietors of adjacent houses or grounds 
 in proportion to the extension of their premises. Street crossings are 
 constructed at the cost of the proprietors of the four corner buildings, 
 These expenses are eventually advanced by the contractors to the 
 landed proprietors, who, temporarily, may not be desirous to pay their 
 share at once, under the condition, however, that such outlays of money 
 be refunded by the proprietors when houses are erected on their 
 premises. 
 
 In case such primary construction of a street proves to be a public 
 necessity, therefore, not originating from an application of private per- 
 sons, the costs must be borne by the city treasury. The money thus 
 expended can, however, later on, be claimedfrom the landed proprietors," 
 as soon as they begin to build on such streets. 
 
 The construction of streets (called "blind alleys") without any com- 
 munication with other streets is prohibited. 
 
 The construction of new streets is only permitted upon submission of 
 plans that must be approved of by the "tiefbauamt" (board of sub- 
 structures), which then undertakes the building. 
 
 It was formerly the duty of the house proprietors to clean street and 
 sidewalk ; this is now all done by the city, but to defray the expenses 
 the sum of 2.00 marks per square metre (1.67 marks per square yard) is 
 collected from the house proprietors wheu the area is ceded to the 
 city for street construction purposes. 
 
 The street-car companies are at the present time required to pay the 
 city for cleaning the pavement between their rails, as well as 0.65 yard = 
 0.6 metre width of pavement outside the rails, at the rate of 8.4 pfennigs 
 peryard (10 pfennigs per metre.) For squares and streets with only one 
 row of houses, as for instance along the river, the proportionate division 
 of the sums collected from the house proprietors to cover the expense 
 of construction and sewerage varies, according to local regulations, be- 
 tween the above mentioned figures and twice as much. 
 
 The decision of the " Eath" (city council) is required whenever it ap- 
 pears urgent to pave a macadamized street. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 155 
 
 The first pavemeut, if rough, is also executed at the cost of the adja- 
 cent proprietors, and this according to the regulations above men- 
 tioned. 
 
 If the first pavement consists of dressed, regular, paving stones in- 
 stead of rough, the surplus expenses as well as all further costs for 
 repair and maintaining, must be borne by the city treasury. 
 
 It is considered exceptional when the adjacents desire a superior pave- 
 ment on their street than the city authorities deem necessary for the 
 local requirements. If such applications are approved of the applicants 
 are held to bear the surplus costs, or to pay a certain sum upon other 
 mutual agreement. 
 
 All repairs of streets, when completed, must be undertaken by the 
 city. 
 
 Macadamized streets are usually transferred 3 months after they have 
 been opened to the public, for maintenance to the city, so that the par- 
 ties that originally built the streets are compelled to bear the expense 
 of maintenance during fully 3 months. The reason for this is that a 
 new macadamized street requires unusual attention and care during the 
 first period of its existence. The street-car companies are also held to 
 bear part of the costs for constructing and keeping the streets. The 
 portion of the street constructed and maintained at the cost of these 
 companies consists of the substructure below the rails and the portion 
 between the rails extending to 0,65 yard (0.6 metre) beyond both out- 
 side rails. 
 
 All sums expended by the city treasury for repair and construction 
 of streets must be approved of by both the " Rath" and the " Stadt ver- 
 ordneten "; on the whole the construction of streets is undertaken upon 
 the petition of those held by law to bear the expenses, the estimated 
 cost being paid by these parties to the city treasury. 
 
 The costs for new sidewalks, or for alterations of the same (that may 
 appear necessary through the erection of new buildings) must be borne 
 by the adjacents. 
 
 Should the costs for sidewalks exceed the standard estimates the sur- 
 plus expenditure is borne by the city. 
 
 Costs resulting from maintenance or reconstruction of a sidewalk, 
 occurring in case of an alteration in the direction of the street and ex- 
 penses for widening the same by reason of an increase of traffic, are 
 paid by the city treasury. 
 
 Towards the end of the year 1889 the city of Dresden, counting 
 276,000 inhabitants, possessed within its limits 1,160,000 square yards 
 (970,000 square metres) of paved streets, of which 620,000 square yards 
 (434,000 square metres) were paved with dressed stones, the remaining 
 with rough stones; further, 840,000 square yards (700,000 square 
 metres) of macadamized streets. The maintenance ai!d repair of paved 
 streets caused an expenditure of 46,000 marks during the year 1889, or 
 4 pfennig per square yard (4.74 pfennigs per square metre). The main- 
 
156 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 tenance of the macadamized streets cost in 1889 150,000 marlts, or 17.9 
 pfennig per sqnare yard (21.4: pfennig per square metre). 
 
 It should be stated that the above figure for maintaining the macad- 
 amized streets includes the maiutaining of the gravel sidewalks. An 
 approximate calculation shows that the maintaining of that part of a 
 macadamized street used only by carriages would average 15 pfennig 
 per square yard (18 pfennig per square metre). 
 
 Excluded from the above figures is that portion of the streets con- 
 etructed and maintained by the street-car companies, covering an area 
 of 820,000 square metres (985,000 square yards) of paved surface, and 
 100,000 square metres (120,000 square yards) of macadamized surface. 
 
 The maintenance of the asphalt streets covering an area of 19,000 
 square metres (22,700 square yards) did not cause any notable expense 
 for the reason that the first asphalt streets had not been constructed by 
 the city, but had been executed by private contractors the latter still 
 having charge of their maintenance. 
 
 In addition to this the repair of the sewers in the city of Dresden 
 cost daring the year 1889 12,000 marks ; their cleaning 25,000 marks ; 
 the maintenance of sidewalks and footpaths 3,000 marks; the mainte- 
 nance of the " Bauhof " (large storage grounds for street material) 2,000 
 marks, and the repair and renewal of apparatus and tools for street 
 construction purposes 38,000 marks. 
 
 At the close of the year 1886 the city of Leipzig, counting 170,000 
 inhabitants had 486,000 square yards (106,000 square metres) of dressed 
 pavement, 00,000 square yards (50,000 square metres) elag pavement, 
 360,000 square yards (301,000 square metres) rough pavement, and 
 14,400 square yards (12,000 square metres) asphalt pavement. The 
 cost of repair and maintenance for these streets was figured during 
 1886 at 2 pfennig per square yard (2.4 pfennig per square metre) for 
 dressed pavement and 3 pfennig per square yard (3.6 pfennig per square 
 metre) for rough pavement. 
 
 In 1883 the expenditure for maintenance amounted to 6.3 pfennig per 
 square metre (5.3 pfennig per square yard), no distinction being ob- 
 served between dressed and rough pavement. It maj"^ therefore be 
 stated that the average expenditure in Leipzig was equal to that in 
 Dresden. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF STREETS. 
 
 The administration aud gen eral managementof all matters concerning 
 the construction, repair, and maintenance of city streets in Dresden is in- 
 trusted to the "Stadt bauamt (city building board), and " Tief bauamt" 
 (board for substructures). The "Baupolizeiamt" (building police 
 board) has charge of the preparation and drawing of the plans and dia- 
 grams, and also of the general regulations for construction with the 
 cooperation of th^" Tief bauamt;" it is further the duty of the "Bau- 
 polizeiamt" to grant permits for building and to superintend the erec 
 tion of private houses. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY, 157 
 
 The duties of the " Stadtbauamt " are the folIowiDg: 
 
 (1) To regulate and settle all legal and financial matters arising with 
 the construction of new streets and their ajlterations (to an extent not 
 to interfere with the duties of the '■ Baupolizeiamt"), until the actual 
 construction of the street is undertaken by the " Tiefbauamt," inclusive 
 of the expropriation. (2) To collect the shares of payment from the 
 adjacents for street and sewer construction according to the local laws. 
 (3) To secure guaranties for such payments, and to settle all claims that 
 eventually may arise. (4) To direct and superintend the street police 
 force, partly. (5) To settle all legal matters involved in the public 
 navigable ways within the limits of Dresden, excluding, however, such 
 that refer to the traffic on the river Elbe. (6) To keep the cash account 
 for the city street construction. (7) To control the treasury for city 
 street construction (separate treasury department). (8) To submit 
 opinions upon legal inquiries made by the "Hochbauamt" (board for 
 superstructure), and by the "Tiefbauamt." (9) To submit opinions 
 upon inquiries relating to the publicity of a road or street. (10) To 
 superintend and sell city property, and, on the other hand, to purchase 
 private grounds. 
 
 The "Hochbauamt" has nothing to do with the construction of 
 streets. 
 
 The duties of the " Tiefbauamt " are the following : (1) To plan and 
 ■construct streets, sewers, and bridges in cities and towns, including 
 the miscellaneous work, as: 
 
 (a) Drawing up the documents serving to raise the necessary fund ; 
 (b) projecting and preparing plans ; (c) purchase of material ; (d) .in- 
 surance against sickness and accidents ; (e) the mediation of all busi- 
 ness transactions between private contractors with the city authorities, 
 or submitting statements of construction and estimates of funds re- 
 quired for the same to the city authorities. (2) To maintain and repair 
 the city streets, sewers, and bridges to the same extent as referred to 
 sub No. 1, and a to e. (3) To offer technical assistance to the Stadt- 
 bauamt and to other administrative departments of the " Stadtrath" 
 (city council), by submitting suggestions, estimates, preparation of 
 plans, etc. 
 
 Other works that are executed in the streets, such as the laying of 
 gas and water pipes, and of underground telegraph wires, practically 
 belong to the respective executive departments of the "rath" or to the 
 post-ofice department, but in all such cases the work and repair of the 
 street is undertaken by the " Tiefbauamt." 
 
 ' The directors of the "Stadtbauamt," the " Baupolizeiamt" and the 
 "Hochbauamt" and "Tiefbauamt" are salaried members of the " Stadt- 
 rath " (city council). 
 
 These men are academically educated as 2 lawyers, 1 architect, and 
 
 1 engineer. 
 The division of the " Tiefbauamt " may be of interest, as the board is 
 
158 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 exclusively intrusted with the technical supervision of the entire street 
 construction system. 
 
 The Tief banamt is, if not distinctly, practically divided into two de- 
 partments, one for the interior and the other for the exterior service — 
 preparation and execution of constructions. The first department 
 employs, besides the ofiSce clerks, 6 technical men, among whom are 
 3 studied engineers. 
 
 The work in the second department is performed, according to the 
 division of the city district, into, 3 inspections for substructures by 3 in- 
 spectors with 3 assistants, 3 substructure surveyors, and 3 substructure 
 guards. 
 
 For maintenance of macadamized streets an extra number of 30 road- 
 guards are employed. 
 
 The superintending force of the Bauhof (storage ground for materials 
 and tools) with 4 oflScials forms a separate department, but also 
 stands under the Tiefbauamt. 
 
 The Bauhof serves to store away all materials for road and street 
 construction that are not transported for immediate use direct to where 
 the street is being built, such as sand and gravel ; some stone is partly 
 prepared for use within the Bauhof. The machines, implements, and 
 tools are also stored there, and, when necessary, repaired. The Bau- 
 hof also serves to store away old used building material, provided the 
 same be in good condition, until further use can be made of it. 
 
 The administration of the Tiefbauamt in the city of Leipzig is organ- 
 ized in a similar way, with the exception that the head engineer is not 
 a member of the " Eath." The other men employed are, 3 studied en- 
 gineers and 6 technical employes, 1 street master, 1 surveyor, and 6 
 guards, the latter three being employed fiuring the construction of 
 works. 
 
 In Leipzig the duties of the administrative force are more extended, 
 inasmuch as the "Tiefbauamt" has charge of the city survey (this be- 
 ing in Dresden the duty of the "Baupolizeiamt") and is required to 
 superintend the laying of gas and waterpipes, as well as the mainte- 
 nance and regulation of the water-ways, the latter being very extended. 
 
 The repair of the macadamized streets, on the contrary, belongs to 
 an entirely different branch of the city administration.* 
 
 The annual expenditure for salaries and stationery amounts to 25,000 
 marks for the Stadtbauamt and 71,500 marks for the Tiefbauamt, 14,000 
 marks Deing used for the offices, 48,000 marks for the three substructure 
 inspections, and 9,500 marks for the Bauhof (storage grounds). 
 
 * Attention is hereby called to a publication obtainable at all booksellers, entitled : 
 "Organisation der Behurden fUr die innere Verwaltung" (Organization of the An- 
 tliorities for the Interior Administration) and to " Die revidirte Stiidteordnung vorn 
 24. April 1873 (Revised city Regalations of April 24, 1873). These two books con- 
 lain all desirable information abont the organization of the city admiaistration and 
 its divisions. 
 
/ EUROPE — GERMANY. 159 
 
 INrLUENCE OF IMPROVED STBEKTS ON PKOI'BRTY VALUES. 
 
 What influence the constractiou of a street has on the laud value 
 may be best judged from the time when new streets are laid out for the 
 purposes of erecting houses along them. 
 
 The ground and the productiveness of the soil increase, under such 
 circumstances, far over ten times in value when compared with the 
 value of an ordinary field or meadow. 
 
 Agricultural land becomes practically city lots as soon as the decision 
 of the city authorities to construct a street through it is known, but 
 building can only be begun when the street is completed. The trafile 
 with the center of a city is greatly facilitated when the means of com- 
 munication consist of solidly built and well kept streets 5 therefore the 
 land values and the wages for labor increase. 
 
 Good roads, as well as railroads and water-ways, form a quick and 
 cheap means of transportation of the necessaries of life from the coun- 
 try to the cities, and therefore may be considered as one of the most 
 important conditions for their prosperity. 
 
 It is far easier to keep good streets clean than bad ones. 
 
 Therefore, the sanitary condition in medium sized and large cities is 
 greatly dependent upon the system observed in constructing and keep- 
 ing the streets. 
 
 STATE AND COUNTRY ROADS. 
 
 In Saxony the highways — state roads as well as country roads — are 
 mostly macadamized. 
 
 The surface of the more important and more used roads is strength- 
 ened with small broken stones tightly wedged in and rammed down, 
 under which there is a layer of coarse broken stone. 
 
 The surface of less important roads is only composed of a layer of 
 small broken stone on gravel or sand ; in some cases gravel only is used. 
 
 The stones used for the construction and repair of the roads are gen- 
 erally obtained in the closest vicinity, and in this case the best of what 
 can be had is chosen. For some state roads, especially those that are 
 subject to frequent and heavy traffic, the road-buildiug material, which 
 must then be of superior quality, is in part brought from distant quar- 
 ries ; for instance, basalt is brought from Bohemia. 
 
 Water-ways (in this case the river Elbe) are, wlierever practicable, 
 chosen for the transportation of such material, thereby greatly reduc- 
 ing its cost. 
 
 The stone from Bohemia is even transported as far as Leipzig. The 
 kinds of stone principally used for the construction and repair of roads 
 are the following: Syenite (for paving), coarsely grained granite (for 
 paving), finely grained grauite(preferred for paving), quartz-slate (used 
 for repair, excellent material but rare), quartz (use very limited), sand- 
 stone (use very limited), greenstone (excellent material), porphyry (most 
 universally used in Saxony), basalt (is considered the best stone), coarse 
 gravel (screened), pit (mine) gravel, and river sand, 
 
160 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The coarse gravel, cleaned and passed tbrough a screen and broken 
 to an egg size, is used on state roads on wliicli the traffic is light and 
 less frequent, and also to a great extent on country (communication) 
 roads in flat country, when a more adaptable stone material can not be 
 found in the neighborhood. 
 
 Pit gravel and river sand are used for covering the road surface, and 
 serve as a joining material when the smaller broken stone layer is rolled 
 tight. Where sand is not obtainable finely pulverized stones, slags, 
 and sandy loam may be used for this purpose. 
 
 All the stone materials as enumerated above are obtained by the 
 Government board for road construction partly from the Government 
 quarries, the latter being leased to private contractors for the purpose 
 of breaking and transporting the stone, and partly from quarries owned 
 by other parties against payment of interest. 
 
 In frequent cases contracts are made by the board of road construc- 
 tion with these owners of quarries or with other private contractors to 
 deliver the coarse broken stone and the small broken stone ready for 
 use to the place of construction or, at least, to the nearest railroad 
 station. (This refers to Bohemian basalt transported to Dresden or 
 Leipzig.) The price of such material varies according to its value, to 
 the greater or smaller difficulties encountered in the quarry where ob- 
 tained, and to the distance of transportation. 
 
 The price for coarse stones from the quarry vary from 2.30 to 9.20 
 marks per 1 cubic yard (3 to 12 marks per cubic metre) and for small 
 broken stone from 3.80 to 13.80 per cubic yard (5 to 18 marks per cubic 
 metre), including the costs of transportation to the place where the ma- 
 terial is used. 
 
 The average price may be fixed : For coarse broken stone and small 
 broken stone at 4.60 to 6.10 murks per cnbic yard (6 to 8 marks per 
 cubic metre).* Coarse gravel costs about 2.30 marks per cubic yard (3 
 marks per cubic metre). 
 
 The rock substructure foundation or packing layer, on which is spread- 
 the layer of small broken stone, may consist of softer stone, but in all 
 cases it must resist the effects of frost. 
 
 A still softer stone is used, and its price amounts to 3.80 marks per 
 cubic yard (5 marks per cubic metre). The costs for road construction 
 vary according to whether high-priced or low priced material is used, 
 further to the general local conditions, and to whether the road be in- 
 tended for heaA'y or light traffic, and finally to the width of the road 
 surface. The costs of maintenance and repair are greatly influenced 
 by the frequency and the weight of traffic. 
 
 The width of the state roads varies between 7.7 and 11 yards (7 and 
 10 metres), giving an average of 9 yards (8.2 metres). The follow- 
 ing two diagrams illustrate the heaviest and lightest system of road 
 
 * These stones are only broken by hand with iron hammers; stone-breaking ma- 
 chines have been tried, but without satisfactory result. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 
 
 161 
 
 building all constructions showing different figures are classed between 
 these two. 
 
 The costs for the heavier construction, which, however, is less fre- 
 quent, as illustrated in diagram ¥o. 1, are calculated at 27.43 marks 
 
 per yard, medium width. 
 The cost for the lighter coDstructiou, as shown in diagram No. 2, is 
 
 6^m. — 
 
 
 
 m m 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 20.07 marks per yard, medium width. 
 The above two figures may be specified as follows : 
 
 Marka. 
 
 1 cubic metre of coarse stone, for delivery from quarry, to be broken up 6.00 
 
 Piling up in regular heaps along the side of road 0.30 
 
 Breaking stone 2.20 
 
 Spreading stone and covering with sand 0.60 
 
 Sprinkling with water and rolling tight 1.30 
 
 Total cost for 1 cubic metre r 10.40 
 
 N ow 1 square metre of road surface requires 0.22 cubic metres of 
 small broken stone, 0.22 cubic metres of coarse broken stone (for pack- 
 ing layer), and 0.08 cubic metres of sand. Whereas: 
 
 Marts. 
 0.22 cubic metre of small broken stoues delivered and ready for use at 10.40 
 
 marks 2.29 
 
 0.22 cubic metre of coarse quarry stones (packing layer), delivery and meas- 
 uring, at 5.30 marks 1. 17 
 
 For grading 1 square metre of surface and setting the coarse orpacking stones. 0. 44 
 
 For delivering and measuring 0.08 cubic metre of sand 0. 26 
 
 For supervision of construction, wages, insurance, etc 0. 84 
 
 Total cost for 1 square metre of road 5. 00 
 
 One square yard of road, heavy construction, would therefore cost 
 4.18 marks. 
 
 33a 11 
 
162 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The lighter system of construction would require per square metre 
 0.18 cubic metre of small broken stone and 0.16 cubic metre of coarse 
 stones (packing layer) and 0.26 cubic metre of sand, the total cost 
 thereby being 3.34 marks per square yard (4 marks per square metre), 
 based upon the same calculation. 
 
 These prices, as above referred to, include costs of transportation. 
 The average distance of transportation of the materials to the places of 
 construction m ay be figured forroadsin Saxony atabout 12 kilometres= 
 13,000 yards, and the costs for such distance, when transportation is 
 operated by teams (which is mostly the case), would average at 4 marks 
 per cubic meter (3 marks per cubic yard), inclusive of loading and un- 
 .loading. The sand for covering the stone layers is brought from the 
 nearest vicinity as possible — average distance being 3 kilometres (3,300 
 yards), and costing 1.50 per cubic metre (1.15 marks per cubic yard), 
 including loading and unloading. 
 
 After deducting such expenses for transportation of material and 
 sand the total cost for construction of roads would be : For stronger 
 construction, 19 marks per yard, and for lighter construction 13.30 
 marks per- yard. 
 
 COiSSTKUCTION OF STATE ROADS (LIGHT AND HEAVY SYSTEM). 
 
 With reference to the above figures state roads are constructed as 
 per the following details : 
 
 As soon as the road body has been drained, prepared, and profiled, 
 carefully smoothened and graded according to the desired level and 
 width, the large stones for the " packing layer" and the small broken 
 stones are brought to the place of construction. 
 
 These stones are piled up on both sides of the road in such quantities 
 as may seem sufficient for the thickness of the different layers ; the 
 small stones are then broken into pieces of as near cubic size as possi- 
 ble, measuring 0.066 yard (6 centimetres), the other materials, as sand, 
 gravel, and slag, are in the meantime carried to the place for use. The 
 road bed, which, as above stated, has been carefully graded and 
 smoothened, is rolled tight and rammed, and then the coarse packing 
 stones are set in the same manner as described in the beginning of this 
 report. (See Macadamized city streets.) The completed "packing 
 layer" must form a solid and resisting stone body, equally thick and 
 perfectly smo:>th on its surface. 
 
 To secure quicker drainage of the road bed in cases when the soil 
 below the " packing layer " does not permit the water to soak in, trans- 
 verse trenches 20 centimetres wide and 15 centimetres deep are dug 
 beneath the packing layer at intervals of 11 yards (10 metres) and are 
 filled up with loose stone and gravel. These trenches conduct the 
 water out of the road bed into the side ditches. 
 
 A good drainage of a road and its substructure is the principal con- 
 dition for an effective and cheap maintenance of a macadamized road. 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 163 
 
 Wherever practicable all roads should be higher than the level 
 ground, and the side ditches should be at least 0.65 yard deep by 0.44 
 yard ground width. 
 
 Old state roads, in regions where stone is scarce, are often not pro- 
 vided with a packing layer, the layer of small broken stone having 
 been simply spread over the old gravel surface. Such roads, when 
 carefully and continually repaired, may stand the heavy traffic in dry 
 weather, especially in winter, but in spring they become very soft, and, 
 when drainage is unsatisfactory, they often turn into swamps and are 
 altogether impassable. - 
 
 The packing layer being completed, a layer of small broken stones 
 that have been passed through a screen, is spread over the former, 
 thus forming the superstructure. The whole is then again rolled tight 
 with steam or horse rollers, without the use of water. 
 
 The last covering consists of sand and gravel, which, while continu- 
 ally soaked with water, is again compacted with the rollers. The road 
 is then complete and its surface must be entirely smooth and solid, so 
 that not one stone can easily be torn out or displaced. 
 
 New macadamized roads are always a little soft until they have had 
 time to dry out completely ; therefore, in the beginning, after they have 
 been opened to public use, the road surveyors must carefully watch that 
 all formations of ruts be prevented. 
 
 The quantity of water required to soak the road surface during the 
 process of rolling varies greatly according to dry or wet weather, to 
 the condition of the ground foundation, the thickness of the stone 
 layers, and the quality of stone and of covering material used. A steam 
 roller weighing 10,000 kilograms can compact 40 to 60 cubic metres of 
 small broken stone in about 10 hours, two watering carts, each drawn 
 by two horses, being constantly at work. 
 
 While constructing and rolling new roads the engineers must see 
 ' that the original arched profile of the road surface be maintained, its 
 highest elevation being from one-sixtieth to one-fortieth of the widtii of 
 the road. 
 
 Eoads on very flat country, constructed with inferior material and 
 not kept very carefully, this referring especially to country (communi- 
 cation) roads, must be more arched than state roads. 
 
 Country roads subject to heavy traffic should have a stone bedding 
 (packing layer and macadamized surface) 0.29 yard (26 centimetres) 
 thick, when the stone used is soft, and 0.22 yard (20 centimetres) thick 
 when the material is hard, whereas on country roads with but little 
 traffic the layer need only be from 0.22 to 0.17 yard (20 to 15 centi- 
 metres) thick. 
 
 On roads with light traffic a layer of coarse broken stone can replace 
 the packing layer, these stones being cubic shaped not exceeding 0.08 
 yards in size. The small broken stones are then placed on tliis layer. 
 The incline of important roads on level country must not exceed 1 in 
 
164 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 40, in mountaiaous regions not 1 in 12 to 1 in 15 ; ou the other hand, it 
 is not advisable to construct entirely horizontal roads on account of 
 their drainage. 
 
 The carriage road being completed, both the sides, of which one serves 
 as footpath, the other being reserved for the storage of repairing mate- 
 rials, are covered with a gravel layer from 1.1 to 1.6 j'ards (1 to 1.5 
 metres) in width, and 0.055 yard (5 centimetres) thick, and rolled 
 tight. The costs for this work are averaged at about 36 pfennigs per 
 square yard (40 pfennigs per square metre). 
 
 ROAD TREES. 
 
 In order to mark out the border of the roads and make it discernible 
 at night, also after snowdrifts to warn the public against the embank- 
 ments or other danger, trees are planted along all public roads. This 
 is a prescription of the law and must be strictly adhered to.* 
 
 Fruit trees such as apple, cherry, pear, and plum trees are preferred 
 and are planted in flat as well as in hilly country, wherever the climate 
 and local conditions permit such trees to grow. The trees are planted 
 at a distance of 6.6 to 11 yards (6 to 10 metres) from each other. The 
 keeping and nursing of road trees is intrusted to the road surveyors. 
 These fruit trees are leased, and at times yield a crop worth 100,000 
 marks and more per annum. The costs for planting a road with grafted 
 fruit trees averages, at 0.76 mark per yard 0.80 mark per metre ; with 
 wild trees, 46 pfennigs per yard (50 pfennigs per metre). 
 
 As an addition to the foregoing paragraph on ''costs for road con- 
 struction, " it may be well to state that it is impossible to give the 
 exact cost of the preparation of the road body, as this depends entirely 
 upon the local conditions ; but in flat country, where the principal work 
 consists in digging the side ditches and strengthening the slope of the 
 ditches and the border of the road by sowing or patching with grass, 
 the average cost for such works would be figured at 1.65 marks per ^ 
 square yard of road (1.80 marks per metre). 
 
 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR OP STATE AND COUNTKT ROADS. 
 
 The maintenance and repair of state and country roads consists prin- 
 cipally in the renewal of the surface (superstructure) that has been 
 deteriorated and worn off by the action of the weather and the trafiSc. 
 
 For this purpose the roads are, at certain intervals from 3 to 15 
 years, according to the frequency of traffic, local conditions and climate, 
 covered with a massive layer of small broken stone which is thoroughly 
 rolled with steam-rollers, as already described. This layer of small 
 broken stone must be 0.16 yards (15 centimetres) thick, and the stone 
 used must not exceed 0.05 yards in size, thus being smaller than for 
 new roads. The total length of all state roads in Saxon is figured at 
 
 * There are bat few fences or hedges along the roads or dividing fields, in Saxony, 
 
' EUKOPE-j— 'GERMANY. 165 
 
 4,050,000 yards (3,703 kilometres), of whicli 31,000 yards (28 kilometres) 
 are paved, the rest macadamized. Only about oueeighth of this entire 
 length is covered with a fresh layer of stone material during the course 
 of a year. On all other roads very little repairing is required. Per 
 1,000 yards of all macadamized roads, 43 cubic metres of small broken 
 stoue and 13 cubic metres of covering material (sand, gravel) are used, 
 in average, per annum. 
 
 The quantity of such material used on single tracts of road, however, 
 is very irregular, and varies, according to the wear and tear, from 18 
 to 170 cubic metres per 1,000 yards. Besides the regularly repeated 
 general repairs by covering the entire surface of the road with a mas- 
 sive layer of broken stone, local repairs are continually necessary, as 
 filling out ruts and depressions with small broken stones, which serves 
 to keep the road surface comparatively even until the time for the gen- 
 eral repair. 
 
 Such local repairs are made mostly during the rainy season, when the 
 ruts and depressions fill up with water and interfere with the traffic. 
 The stones used are small, about 0.03 yard (0.04 centimetres) in size, 
 and after spreading they are covered with sand and gravel and rolled 
 tight. 
 
 The further consolidation of such repaired spots is then left to the 
 traffic, teams and vehicles being, on such repaired tracts of roads, 
 ordered to pass over that portion of the road. 
 
 It is the duty of the road surveyors, together with the road laborers, 
 to keep the surface of the road scrupulously clean. The dust and mud 
 is swept and scraped off the road surface by means of hand-scrapers, 
 brooms, etc., and deposited in piles along the side of the road, aiid then 
 collected in carts and carried away. 
 
 Larger apparatus for cleaning purposes (revolving cylindrical street 
 sweepers), drawn by horses, are only used in the vicinity of cities. 
 
 The guards and road laborers, above referred to, must also keep the 
 ditches in good operating condition ; they must further take good care 
 of the road trees. 
 
 In winter they must shovel the snow off the road, so as to keep a 
 track open for traffic. The roadguards are permitted to exercise, to a 
 certain extent, the duties of the road police service, in order to facilitate 
 the traffic and protect the roads, as prescribed by the regulations refer- 
 ring thereto. 
 
 It will not be necessary to refer in detail to the paved tracts of state 
 roads, as this would only be a repetition of what has been said about 
 paved city streets. 
 
 MAINTENANCE OF STATE ROADS. 
 
 The costs for maintaining the entire length of state roads in the King- 
 dom of Saxony, viz, 4,050,000 yards, averaged during the years l.'^SO to 
 1885 52 pfennigs per yard of road per annum, of which 48 pfeuiiij^a 
 
166 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS" IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 ■was for the maintenance of the entire road surface (including foot- 
 paths) ; .015 pfennig for repair of structures ; .02 pfennig for the 
 nursing of the road trees, and .005 .pfennig for miscellaneous expenses. 
 
 These costs have, since 1885, increased to .55 pfennig per yard. 
 
 The expenditure for salaries and clothing of the road guards was 
 figured during the said years at .145 pfennig per yard, and 3 pfennigs 
 per yard for official roadmasters and surveyors. 
 
 The building of state roads, as well as the construction of navigable 
 ways and the building of houses and railroads, are under the super- 
 vision of the third department of the " Royal flnanz ministeriiim" (treas- 
 ury department). A special technical director for road-building is 
 attached to this department. 
 
 There are in Saxony 17 districts for the supervision of roads and 
 waterways, embracing usually two "amtshauptmanuschaften" each. 
 The duties of the directors of these districts are to draw up the plans 
 for and supervise the construction of the state roads and of the navi- 
 gable ways, and also to attend to all technical matters connected there- 
 with. They are supplied, as the case may require, with a number of 
 engineers and government architects. 
 
 Saxony is further divided into 76 road-master districts, so that from 
 4 to 5 road masters stand under each district surveying director. These 
 road officials must survey and conduct the works for road repair, and 
 are intrusted with the control of all the road guards, 811 in number, 
 throughout the entire Kingdom of Saxony. 
 
 The road guards have from 3,000 to 7,000 yards of road (in average 
 about 6,000 yards) each to repair, clean, and survey ; in case of necessity 
 one or two day laborers are placed at their disposal lor assistance. 
 
 "When a general repair of a road is undertaken, with the use of a 
 steam roller, fifteen to twenty extra men are required for such work, so 
 that the repair be comi)leted within the shortest possible time. In such 
 cases several divisions of road laborers and road guards are temporarily 
 called together and are superintended by a road master. 
 
 In case of construction of a new road the road guards and road 
 masters must promptly report when called upon. 
 
 All treasury matters are handled by the department, which is en- 
 tirely separate from the technical department. This department, called 
 "bauverwaltereieu," whose directors recently are mostly custom offi- 
 cials, handles also the treasury matters for public buildings and water 
 constructions. 
 
 The police service on the roads is executed by the amtshaupt- 
 manuschaften, the latter forming part of the department of the interior. 
 They superintend the entire rural police force, and are consequently 
 the superior authority to the road masters and road guards, who, with 
 the assistance of the other police officials, perform the duties of the 
 road police service. 
 
 Considering that the duties of the different administrative depart- 
 
EUROPE — GEEMANY. 167 
 
 ments are so closely connected with eacli other, it is not possible to 
 state the exact sum expended for the supervision of state roads sep- 
 arately, therefore only the following figures can be given: 
 
 The present annual sum expended for the use of the"flnanz minis- 
 terium" (ministery of finances), including ofiices, stationery, main cash 
 and paying office, bookkeeping, accounts and calculations, may be 
 stated as being 2,000,000 marks in a round sum, and the average an- 
 nual expense for the use of the administration of road and waterway 
 construction, 4,814,000 marks in a round sum. The latter sum em- 
 braces all costs for maintenance of roads, bridges, and other structures, 
 expense incurred by regulating the river Elbe,, and also the following 
 detailed expenses : 
 
 Salaries : Marks. 
 
 Academically studied officials : 
 
 2 technical "Bauriitho" (members of the board forpublio con- 
 struction) at 6,600 marks each per annum 13,200.00 
 
 19 inspectors for roads and navigable ways at 3,300 to 4,800 
 marks; 19 government architects and assistant architects, at 
 
 2,100 to 3,000 marks 122,200.00 
 
 Inferior officials: 
 
 76 roadmaeters (for building and maintenance), at 1,500 to 1,800 
 
 marks 151,900.00 
 
 811 road guards at 660 to 720 marks 546,400.00 
 
 Technical assistants : 
 
 Assistants for technical works and roadmaster candidates 19, 000. 00 
 
 852, 700. 00 
 Special compensations ; 
 
 For clothing the inferior officials 62, 300. 00 
 
 Miscellaneous extra expenses 9, 100. 00 
 
 Gratifications 8,400.00 
 
 Contribution to protection fund 103, 700. 00 
 
 Other assistance 49,000.00 
 
 Hospital taxes, insurance against accidents and old age - . 16,000.00 
 
 Expenses for service, day wages, and traveling expenses 122, 000. 00 
 
 Miscellaneous petty expenses 20,000.00 
 
 Eemovingof snow 170,000.00 
 
 Correction and new constr uctions of roads and bridges 805, 000. 00 
 
 Total 2,218,200.00 
 
 Costs for maintenance of roads and planting of trees amounted to 
 2,210,200 marks. 
 
 Sum paid to the bauverwaltereien (offices in the departments), 91,500 
 marks. 
 
 All country roads, as prescribed by the law of January 12, 1870, must 
 have a width of 5.5 yards (5 metres) in open country, and of 7.6 yards 
 (7 metres) within villages and small towns. The width of the macad- 
 amized portions of country roads if, as g-bove stated, their total width 
 is 5.5 yards, would be about 4 yards, or 3.6 metres. 
 
 The costs of construction of country roads having a stone bedding as 
 
1()8 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 above described, would average both for light and heavy traflBc from 
 10 to 7 marks per running yard. All roads within villages and smaller 
 towns are under the supervision of the magistrate and common day 
 laborers are employed for their maintenance. The average wages of a 
 road laborer may be figured at 2.50 to 4 marks per day within Dresden 
 and other large cities. In the country, where living expenses are 
 lower, the laborers do not get more than 2 to 3 marks per day. 
 
 In some cases the supervision of country roads within villages and 
 their repair is transferred, against extra remuneration, to the road 
 masters of the respective districts. Such road masters must be offi- 
 cially authorized for this purpose. 
 
 In second instance the country roads are surveyed by the amtshaupt- 
 mannschaften, that is to say, by their police forces and road masters. 
 In single cases, however, the parish es of an amtshauptmannschaft 
 [i. e. Dippoldiswalda) will unite to one corporation for the purpose of 
 mutually maintaining their roads. Such work of repair, etc., is done 
 by special road guards, and also in part by day laborers. The costs 
 therefor are borne by the parishes. All the state roads, however, are 
 maintained at the cost of the general government. 
 
 The toll on state roads was suspended 4 years ago, as the revenue 
 did not represent one-tenth of the funds required. A very few par. 
 ishes contribute small sums of money or provide road-building material, 
 this being in single cases prescribed by an old law. 
 
 There are no special taxes for road building and repairing ; the funds 
 required are taken from the total revenue of the state. 
 
 A special provision of the law prescribes that the parishes must sup- 
 ply the necessary laborers for removing the snow from state as well as 
 country roads on their entire width if practicable. The country roads 
 are maintained at the cost of the town and village parishes and of the 
 independent manor holders. 
 
 In small villages it occurs quite frequently that the costs of repair 
 are borne entirely by the " altgemeinden " (old communities). These 
 altgemeindeu were composed of a number of owners of old farms that 
 had existed before the building of the village, while all later farm own- 
 ers and tenants are exempt from such duties. 
 
 Persons that make an exceptionally frequent use of a public road, 
 such as owners of quarries, ciines, and brick factories, using their own 
 teams for transportation purposes, can be held by the law to bear the 
 expense of maintenance and keeping of such portion of road. 
 
 Poor communities, which, according to local circumstances (such as 
 communication to railroads) are subject to considerable costs of main- 
 tenance of their roads, are supported with funds by the amtshaupt- 
 mannschaft or by the state's treasury. 
 
 In such cases also the costs of communication roads that are being 
 newly built or improved by reason of an increase of trafiQc, are partly 
 or wholly borne by the state's treasury. The communities are gener- 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 169 
 
 ally held to deliver building material and the necessary land without 
 compensation. Such roads when completed are turned over to the com- 
 munities (parishes) for maintenance. 
 
 The principal advantage that is offered by a good and well built road 
 consists in the possibility of transporting considerable loads at a com- 
 l^arative moderate expense. This fact naturally extends the market 
 and increases the prices of all agricultural and mining products, such 
 as stone, coal, brick, etc. 
 
 It must be admitted, however, that on one hand the importance of the 
 principal roads, serving for through traflic, has 1 een seriously if not 
 entirely destroyed by the railroads ; yet, on the other hand, because of 
 the rapid increase of population, the ttafQc on the roads that connect 
 one or more small villages or towns shows a decided increase. 
 
 Even at present most of the agricultural products are transported by 
 teams over distances exceeding 20,000 yards without the use of the rail- 
 roads. 
 
 Further, all country roads serving as communication to the railroad 
 stations are of great importance, because the transportation of freight 
 by rail is more or less dependent on the road traffic. Higher prices of 
 all products naturally cause an increase of the land value, which, how- 
 ever, in the country is not as apparent as in cities. 
 
 The country roads, as well as other means of transportation and com- 
 munication, represent an important part of the foundation for the wel- 
 fare and civilization of a nation. 
 
 A comparison between the costs of city streets and country roads can 
 only be made in reference to macadamized roads. -The costs of con- 
 struction of both do not differ very much. 
 
 A macadamized city street costs on an average about 3.76 per square 
 yards, whereas the two kinds of macadamized country roads average 
 3.26 marks. 
 
 The difference is not great, and is explained by the fact that the 
 wages within a citj' are considerably higher than in the country. It is 
 different, however, with the costs of maintenance. In Dresden the 
 average annual cost for maintenance of one square yard of street 
 amounts to 15 pfennigs. On government roads, however, the costs of 
 maintenance of one running yard, inclusive of wages of road guards of 
 62.5 pfennigs on 6,546 yards width of road, amount to 9.56 pfennigs per 
 square yard. 
 
 This great difference of costs may be explained, firstly, by the fact 
 that the traffic on country roads is by far inferior to that in the cities. 
 Secondly, besides the above-mentioned difference of wages on country 
 roads and in city streets, it may be stated that the materials for main- 
 taining and repairing the country roads are by degrees during the 
 winter stored along the side of the rojids, and prepared for use (break- 
 ing and screening). Under such circumstances laborers and drivers 
 can be obtained at much cheaper wages. Thirdly, the material for re- 
 
170 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 pair is, for country roads, taken from the nearest neighborhood, while 
 in cities it is stored away in the storage grounds, to which it must be 
 transported from considerable distance. The three points as enumer- 
 ated give, undoubtedly, sufficient explanation for the large difference 
 in the costs between maintenance of country roads and of city streets. 
 
 Eegarding the use of the roads it has already been said in the begin- 
 ning of this report that the roads are open to traffic of every descrip- 
 tion. This practically is the case, but there are a few restrictions to 
 this general rule, which it may be well to mention. 
 
 Powder and other explosive materials can only be transported under 
 special instructions and in special wagons, and such transports must be 
 escorted by police officials. (Acts of the Department of the Interior 
 dated November 3, 1879, November 22, 1884, and December 23, 1885.) 
 
 The transportation of road locomotives, steam rollers, etc., is also 
 subject to special regulations (acts of June 9, 1860, and September 26, 
 1883). For such transportation a permission from the police authori- 
 ties must be obtaiued, and an escort of road guards is required. For 
 transportation of long logs of wood or planks, the act of July 9, 1872, 
 prescribes that, besides the driver, such team be accompanied by a 
 second individual, who must properly guide the rear truck. 
 
 The act of April 16, 1840, prescribes that teams for heavy loads, such 
 as coal, bricks, earth and stones, must have a width of tire of at least 
 lOJ centimeters (.115 yard). The same act provides that all. vehicles 
 must have a flat and not rounded surface of tire. Wagons with nails 
 or other fastening parts protuding from their tires are not allowed to 
 enter the road at all. 
 
 The same law provides that all light vehicles (transportation of per- 
 sons) must have a width of tire of at least .073 (6.5 centimeters) yard. 
 The greatest pressure of the wheel on the road surface must not exceed, 
 for heavy wagons, 2,500 kilograms in summer and 3,000 kilograms in 
 winter, excepting for transportation of loads that can not be divided 
 (like steam boilers, trunks of trees, etc.). 
 
 The stadtratbe (town councillors) and the amtshauptmannschaften 
 have the right, accordiug to the law of July 9, 1872, referring to traffic 
 on public roads, to issue special rules on certain roads in certain dis- 
 tricts for the protection of the traffic; they can also direct certain 
 vehicles to pass on certain roads. Very little use is made of this law. 
 
 Wagons that exceed 8,500 kilograms, inclusive of weight of the 
 wagon itself, are not permitted to pass over older wooden bridges. 
 
 The same law provides that the width of a loaded wagon must not 
 exceed 2.8 metres, that is to say the load must not extend beyond such 
 width. In exceptional cases a special permission from the police au- 
 thorities is necessary. 
 
 In conclusion, attention is called to the following books issued by the 
 Government, and published in Leipzig, and obtainable at the Eossber- 
 ger-'sche Verlagsbuchhandluug : 
 
EUROPE — GERMANY. 171 
 
 " Die Gesetzgebung liber Wegebau und Expropriation im KoDigreicli 
 SaoBsen " (the legislation concerning road building and expropriation 
 in the kingdom of Saxony), by Ludwig Wolf. This book contains all 
 the rules and regulations regarding the traiflc on roads and the manner 
 of the execution of such laws. 
 
 Uebersicht der im Kouigreich Sachsen zur Chauss^e TJnterhaltung 
 verwendeten Gesteinsarten, Dresden, 1869. (Tabular statement of all 
 the species of stones used for maintenance of roads in the kingdom of 
 Saxony.) This book contains exact information regarding the origin 
 and qualities of road-building material used in Saxony. 
 
 Die Organisation der Behorden fiir die innere Verwaltung vom 21. 
 April 1873 (the organization of the authorities for the interior admin- 
 istration), and, "Eevidirte StJidteordnung, bez. Eevidirte Landgemein- 
 deordnung " (revised city regulations and revised regulations for country 
 parishes^ containing all laws and regulations regarding the adminis- 
 tration of country roads. The latter two books have been referred to 
 in a previous part of this report. 
 
 Atjlick Palmer, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Dresden, June 29, 1891. 
 
 STETTIN DISTRICT. 
 
 ItEPORT BT OOUfSUL KELLOaO. 
 STREETS OF STETTIN. 
 
 ■ The streets of Stettin (116,000 inhabitants) up to some years ago 
 were mostly paved with common paving stones obtained from erratic 
 bowlders irregularly cut with a flat head, the price of which when set 
 was about 14 to 15 marks per square metre. 
 
 In the last five years Stettin, following the wake of Berlin, and the 
 other large cities, has commenced to paveher streets with better 
 material, introducing straight rows of stones instead of curved and 
 broken ones of former years. The city authorities intend, as far as the 
 budget will allow, to have at no distant date ihe side as well as the 
 main streets well paved with the best material. 
 
 The inland quarries not being able to compete with those of Sweden, 
 the best paving stones are hence imported from that country, and espe- 
 cially from the quarries at Oarlskaona, Carlshanon, Westerwyk, and 
 Warboy. The Swedish granite is very solid and of fine grain. 
 
 The prices of the above stones delivered on the wharfs of Stettin 
 range from 8.50 to 9 marks per square metre. 
 
 The granite plates for sidewalks are imported from Christiania and 
 Draunuen, in Norway, The Norwegian granite is of rougher grain, 
 
172 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 hard, but splitting easy and well adapted for sidewalk plates. The 
 border and gutter stones are also worked from this variety of granite. 
 Delivered on the wharfs of the town of Stettin the prices for these 
 materials are as follows : 
 
 Marks. 
 
 One square metre of granite plates for sidewalks 9.00 
 
 One metre in length of granite border stones for sidewalks .'.. 4.00 
 
 One metre in length of granite gutter stones for sidewalks 2. 25 
 
 The streets of Stettin, paved with stone blocks as they are, are well 
 adapted for light and heavy trafiflc. In streets with a declivity of J. in 
 100 and less experiments have been made with asphalt pavement 0.05 
 metre thick, being laid on a granite Beton 0.30 metre thick, under which 
 is a gravel bed 0.20 metre thick. The asphalt paving, including a guar- 
 anty of 20 years, costs 14 to 16 marks per square metre. 
 
 Best block pavement costs 11 marks per square metre; ordinary 
 block pavement costs 5 marks per square metre ; sidewalk pavement 
 (granite plates) 11 to 12 marks per square metre. The cost of keeping 
 the streets in good condition depends upon the amount of traflBc. 
 
 Formerly the sidewalks consisted of only one line of granite plates 
 about 1 metre wide, and many such walks are still to be found, especially 
 in the older parts of the town ; where, however, the streets are well 
 paved with the above-described material the walks are laid out entirely 
 with granite plates. 
 
 The edges of the sidewalks were formerly provided with granite 
 gutter stones having in profile the following appearance: 
 
 They are now replaced by square granite stones with flat tops laid 
 against the granite border stones at the side of the granite sidewalk 
 plates. 
 
 As a foundation for the best paving stones a composite of gravel 
 0.30 metres thick is employed; for the sidewalk plates a layer of sand 
 is used. After the plates are laid the edges and fissures are cemented 
 with Portland cement. 
 
 For keeping the streets in good repair 1 metre quadrannually is reck- 
 oned for each square metre of pavement to be provided for from the 
 budget of the city government, whilst property owners are charged an 
 extra amount to keep the sidewalks in good condition or to alter them 
 into the new system. 
 
 The expense of cleaning the streets, carrying off dirt, etc., is paid 
 out of a special tax fund, 15 pfennigs per square metre yearly. 
 
EUEOPE — GERMANY. 
 
 173 
 
 Every property holder is compelled to have his sidewalks swept every 
 morning ; in the hot summer months they must be sprinkled several 
 times a day, and in the winter season the snow must be swept from the 
 walks, the property holders also having to sweep the snow from the 
 middle of the streets to the sides, and in piles, which must then be 
 carted away. This expense is borne by the property holders. The ex- 
 pense of carting snow away from public places is borne by the people 
 in general, the city authorities generally giving the contract to the 
 lowest bidder. 
 
 LONOITUBINAL CuT 
 
 OF A Street etc. 
 
 Few streets are laid out at the expense of the- property holders whose 
 property touches the projected street, who are required to keep them 
 in good condition for four years. After this period the city takes the 
 responsibility of keeping them. 
 
 Old streets are preserved and kept in repair by the city alone. 
 
 COUNTRY KOADS. 
 
 To promote the laying out of high roads and country roads, and keep 
 them in good condition and repair, the budget of the difierent provinces 
 of Prussia grants a certain sum every year, amounting in the province 
 of Pomerania, of which Stettin is the chief town, to about 400,000 
 marks ($100,000). 
 
 Those counties (kreise) undertaking to construct roads obtain, when 
 the proposed roads are considered a necessity, an allowance of 33^ per 
 cent, of the cost of " k fond perdu," 1C§ to 25 per cent, of the cost to be 
 collected by the county itself, but the remaining 50 to 411 has to be paid 
 by the adjacent property holders, who, however, are reimbursed partly 
 for this by being paid for the assistance they lend in constructing the 
 roads, such as carting sand, gravel, stones, and other material. The 
 adjacents — such as large or small farmers, country towns, or manufac- 
 turers, etc. — have to contribute in proportion to the benefits accruing 
 thereby. 
 
174 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 If a coanty has very heavy expenses to meet, such as those accruing 
 from the construction of public works, as high roads and local railroads, 
 etc., it is entitled to issue bonds at a fixed rate of interest, all these 
 bonds to be called in in about 25 years. Each year a certain number 
 of them are canceled, which have been drawn by lot. 
 
 The immediate counties of the consular district of Stettin (the coun- 
 ties of Stettin and Randor) have as yet not issued any bonds, but they 
 will soon be compelled to do so as a new local railroad has just been 
 projected. 
 
 All high roads and country roads are constructed either with block 
 stones or macadam, the latter being consolidated on top with pounded 
 stone or gravel. The construction of roads is left to the coanty and 
 district communities, but rarely to a single community or estate. 
 
 The system of construction to be followed depends upon the exist- 
 ence of the material, such as stpne, gravel, sand, and upon the condi- 
 tion of the soil over which the road is to be built. As there are no 
 quarries in this consular district, the stone has to be dug out and gath- 
 ered from the fields or procured from other places by water. 
 
 The administration of the roads and their preservation falls upon 
 the authorities of the different counties, the president of their boards 
 being the county counsellor (landrath), who, as regards the road, is 
 assisted by the county architect, the inspector of highways, and the 
 guards of the high roads, who are paid by the county. The expense 
 of laying oat new roads, paved with block stone, which is partly borne 
 by the provincial government, which also surveys the whole road, varies 
 from 8 to 20 marks per running metre. 
 
 The construction of new roads has always been followed by increased 
 benefits to the farmer as well as to the manufacturer, for it gives them 
 increased facilities for bringing their products and wares to market. 
 
 In 1875 the administration and preservation of the roads were handed 
 over to the provincial board, but it has since been transferred to the 
 county board of administrators. 
 
 From the accompanying cuts one will see that the roads are built 
 with two objects in view, viz, for heavy and light trafiflc, and teams 
 accordingly choose that part of the road over which, according to the 
 loads they carry, they must drive. 
 
 The foundation beds of these roads consist of unhewn stones 0.20 
 metre thick, covered with granite pieces 0.25 metre in thickness. The 
 upper part of this covering, 0.05 metre, is composed of small pounded 
 stone covered with a layer of gravel 0.03 metre thick. 
 
 The whole is rolled several times with heavy steam-rollers. 
 
 James Kellogg, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Oonsulatb, 
 
 Stettin, January 22, 1891, 
 
EUROPE — ITALY. 175 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 ItEPOBT BT CONSUL JONES, OF MESSINA. 
 COUNTEY KOADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 la Italy the minister of public works sees to the laying out. making, 
 repairing, and police supervision of the national, provincial, commu- 
 nal, and vicerial highways. 
 
 Carriageable roads are divided into national, provincial, communal, 
 and vicerial roads. 
 
 If ational roads. — Those which connect the chief cities of the kingdom 
 with each other and with the seaports ; the magnificent roads across 
 the Alps and Apennines ; and military roads, solely for strategic use. 
 When two cities become united by a railway their national road be- 
 comes a provincial road. 
 
 Provincial roads.— Those which connect the capitals of different prov- 
 inces ; those which connect the capitals of the respective provinces with 
 the seats of the several districts into which the provinces may be 
 divided ; and those which connect the capitals of the provinces and the 
 seats of the several districts with the nearest ports. 
 
 Communal roads. — Those which connect the county seats with the 
 other towns in their districts ; those which run through villages ; and 
 those which run from the county seats to the parish churches, ceme- 
 teries, railroads. All other public roads are vicerial roads, and are kept 
 up by the communal authorities. 
 
 Ownership. — The land used for national roads is government property; 
 the provincial roads belong to the provinces ; communal roads to the 
 communes. The public squares in cities and villages form part of the 
 communal highways. National and provincial roads within the limits 
 of a city or village belong to the communal highways. 
 
 Oonstruction. — The government builds and keeps up the national 
 highways. Tolls on these roads have been abolished, except on ferries 
 and floating bridges. The cost of building and keeping up provincial 
 highways devolves upon the provinces, which may levy tolls by royal 
 decree. Provinces may also levy a per capita road tax. In the prov- 
 ince of Messina this tax is 4 francs, or 80 cents, or 3 days' work on the 
 roads, per annum and per head. The cost of building and keeping up 
 communal highways devolves upon the respective communes; these 
 expenses are paid out of the communal revenues or by a special tax 
 levied by the communes. The communes have the right to establish 
 tolls, which, however, must be abolished as soon as they shall have 
 realized the cost of the road. The keeping up of such portions of 
 national and provincial roads as pass through a city or village falls 
 upon the commune, the gpvernment or province- paying over annually 
 to said commune a sum equal to the cost of keeping in repair a stretch 
 of road of equal length near the city or village. National, provincial, 
 
176 
 
 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTEIES, 
 
 and communal roads are invariably macadamized. A roadbed 20 cen- 
 timetres (nearly 8 inches) deep is dug ont and filled in with broken 
 stones, which, after being well watered, are packed down by means of 
 a heavy roller ; a layer of earth of sandy or calcareous character is then 
 added, and when thoroughly rolled is well watered and again rolled 
 until the surface becomes firm and smooth. 
 
 The width of national and provincial roads is 8 metres (say 26 feet); 
 the average cost per kilometre 30,000 francs or $6,000. The width of the 
 communal road in 5 metres ; average cost per kilometre, 20,000 francs 
 or $4,000, The soil in this district is mostly clay, and a deep founda- 
 tion is not necessary for a good roadbed. 
 
 Wallace S. Jones, 
 
 United States Consulate, Consul. 
 
 Messina^ January 26, 1891. 
 
 BOLOGNA. 
 
 EEFOEI BY OOXSVLAB AGENT GARVINI. 
 
 The prevailing method employed in making city streets, at Bologna, 
 and other towns, is the uuion of flint stones on a bed of sand or on a 
 foundation of sifted gravel. 
 
 In many of the principal streets of Bologna, at each side, are placed 
 two bands of granite 0.60 metre of breadth, and 0.20 metre of depth, 
 at the distance of 0.60 metre, in order to facilitate the transit of vehi- 
 cles. 
 
 Flint stones are of elyssoldal form ; their thickness varies from 0.09 
 metre to 0.12 metre ; most of them come from the river Eeno, and a 
 part from the river Adige ; the sand is all taken from the Eeno. 
 
 The pavement made with flint stones of the Reno, on a bed of sand, 
 including the necessary digging, at the depth of 0.15 metre, costs 1.30 
 lira per square metre. 
 
 The same jjavement on a bed of 0.15 metre of sifted gravel, includ- 
 ing the necessary digging, at the depth of 0.30 metre, costs 2 lire per 
 square metre. 
 
 The cost of a pavement made with granite, flint stones of the Adige, 
 on a bed of sand and of sifted gravel, depth 0.15 metre, including the 
 digging at 0.30 metre is 3.80 lire per square metre. 
 
 When a paved street, according to the last method, is also furnished 
 Avith two bands of granite of only one line, each square metre costs a^ 
 follows : 
 
 Breadth of street. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Breadth of street. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Metres. 
 6 
 
 Lii-e. 
 10.55 
 9 Oj 
 
 Metres. 
 10 
 
 Lire. 
 7.90 
 7.55 
 7.25 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 8. 90. i 
 8.40 
 
 i 
 
 I'j 
 
 9 
 
 
 
EUROPE — ITALY. 
 
 177 
 
 If the line of granite is double, the prices per square metre are the 
 following : 
 
 Breadtli of stroot. 
 
 Coat. 
 
 Breadtli of street. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Metres. 
 6 
 
 Lire. 
 17.30 
 15.50 
 14.20 
 13.00 
 
 Metres. 
 10 
 
 Lire. 
 12.10 
 11.20 
 10.65 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 At Bologna there are also a few streets paved with square stones, 0.15 
 metre in size, of granite, coming from San Fedelino (province of Biella) ; 
 these square stones are placed on a bed of cement of the thickness of 
 0.15 metre; its cost per square metre is 30 lire. 
 
 The annual expense for maintaining the city streets paved by the 
 aforesaid methods is about 0.12 lira per square metre. 
 
 Carlo Gardini, 
 
 Consular Agent. 
 United States Consular Agency, 
 
 Bologna, January 17, 1801. 
 
 PROVINCE OF CATANIA. 
 
 KBPOBT BY OONSTTL HEATH. 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The principal streets in Catania are very good, and the process of 
 making is well worth imitating by cities in the United States. The 
 foundation is of broken lava, 2^ inches and less in diameter, firmly 
 cemented together with burnt clay and lime to .the depth of about 8 
 inches; this is properly crowned and the stones pounded securely into 
 place, presenting an even surface for the pavement. 
 
 The pavement in the best streets are of No. 1 hard lava; it is quar- 
 ried very rough in blocks about 16 by 20 inches and 8 inches thick, 
 and worked upon the spot at time of making the street. 
 
 These blocks are laid in cement, the edges being fitted with great 
 nicety. 
 
 Driving on such a street is very comfortable. The comparatively 
 smooth surface and large size of pavements give none of those disa- 
 greeable jilting sensations such as are common on our own paved 
 streets. The paved streets are much preferred for driving to the coun- 
 try roads by the driving population. 
 
 These streets present several ideas which seem to me to be an im- 
 provement on our own methods. 
 
 First, the large paving blocks used, giving a superior surface for 
 driving or teaming. 
 33a 12 
 
178 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Second, the comparatiTOly smooth surface, with uo open joints to hold 
 dirt, making it an easy matter to sweep up all surface accumulations. 
 
 Third, the substantial foundation of cement and stone, absolutely pre- 
 venting any dirt from working up from the ground. 
 
 I inclose a small plan of a street as described. 
 
 Surface-. 
 
 S 
 
 Stre 
 
 et. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■■ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 Lava tTocks —8 inches Tiigh. 
 
 COTJNTRY ROADS. 
 
 Country roads in the province of Catania are generally poor, and 
 there is uo regular process of making them. Only the principal cues 
 can be driven over with a carriage. 
 
 Once a year the principal ones are repaired. This repairing is done 
 in the winter or rainy season, and consists of crowning up the center 
 of the road with a thin layer of broken lava, 2J inches and less in 
 diameter, of the poorest quality. On top lumps of clay are thrown, 
 and frequent rains and constant traffic do the rest. 
 
EUROPE — ITALY. 179 
 
 The poor quality lava gradually crumbles under wheels and hoofs, is 
 finally mixed with the clay through the same agency, and, strange to 
 say, after a few months makes a fairly good road. 
 
 This process, however, has no merits excepting economy, and I hope 
 none of my countrymen will try road making on this plan. 
 
 Chables Heath, 
 
 Consul, 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Catania, January 24, 1891. 
 
 PROVINCE OF GENOA. 
 
 BEPOBT BY OONSVL FLETOBEB. 
 
 More than 1,000 years before Columbus discovered the New World this 
 province of Genoa, in which the great navigator was born, and this city, 
 in which he passed his childhood and youth and was contemptuously 
 called the " mad boy," boasted of fine roads and streets. To keep them 
 iu good condition at the present day the following methods are em- 
 ployed : 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 A bed of sand 5% inches deep ; upon this bed cut or worked parallel- 
 epiped siliceous stones are laid ; they are placed so as to slope gently 
 from center of street to sidewalks. Each block of stone is about llf 
 inches wide, 7| inches thick, and 2 feet 3J inches in length. The face 
 of each is notched or grooved, so as to afford a sure foothold for horses. 
 
 Sidewalks are constructed from similar material as above noted, but 
 the stones are only 3| Inches thick, and rest upon a bed of sand 3f 
 inches in depth. The curbstones are also from same material. Each 
 stone is 2 feet 9J inches long, 1% inches in thickness, and 9§ inches 
 wide. All rest- on a diminutive wall composed of ordinary stone 
 cemented with hydraulic lime. The above for comparatively level 
 streets. 
 
 Streets of considerable declivity (Genoa has hundreds of them) on 
 which vehicles run are constructed of smaller faced stones, the average 
 measurement of each being about 6f inches wide, 7| inches in thick- 
 ness, and 2 feet 5 inches long. Between each line or row of stone is 
 placed a course of hard brick, called here da carroggio, set on edge. This 
 is to give horses a sure foothold. Both stone and brick rest on a stratum 
 of sand 5g inches in depth. 
 
 Experiments have been made recently with small round blocks of 
 oak^n wood placed on a sand bed 5| inches deep, but so recent have 
 these experiments been made that the durability of this style of street 
 pavement is not yet ascertained, 
 
180 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 There are fully 1,000 streets in Genoa too narrow to admit of carts 
 or carriages. These streets are constructed of round or oblong flint 
 stones set on a bed of sand 3f inches deep. Some of those narrow 
 thoroughfares are so exceedingly steep that a pathway about 3.3 feet 
 wide made of brick runs through the center. This style of work is 
 called here pagliola. The brick affords a sure footing for pedestrians 
 in rainy weather. 
 
 Certain other streets, such as those around the drive known as the Cir- 
 convallazioneaMonte (circle of the mountain), and those in the suburbs 
 of the city, broken flint stones 9f inches in depth are placed upon the 
 road-bed ; over this mass is drawn by steam-power a great roller weigh- 
 ing 10 tons. When the stones are crushed into a fairly smooth bed or 
 surface, water and gravel are sprinkled and scattered thereon, after 
 which the roller is again called into play, and soon thereafter the street 
 is ready for public use. Such thoroughfares are called macadamized 
 roads. The sidewalks on these streets are made in a similar manner to 
 those already described, and vary in width from 6 feet 5 inches to 9 feet 
 S inches. 
 
 STREET EXPENSES. 
 
 Exjjenses incurred in maHng streets, sidewalks, and roads, wholly completed, per square 
 
 foot. 
 
 Streets, as per first condition $1.05.9 
 
 Sidewallis, as per first condition 0. 55. 7 
 
 Curbstones, as per first condition 0.26.3 
 
 Streets : 
 
 Flint stone, second condition 0. 09. 5 
 
 Brick (Pagliolo), second condition 0. 31. 9 
 
 Broken flint stone (macadam) 0. 14. 5 
 
 If the cost of making streets, sidewalks, etc., as above quoted, seem 
 very low, it should be taken into consideration that all the materials 
 used in their construction can be found close at hand and in great 
 abundance. 
 
 COUNTRY ROADS. 
 
 Country roads or highways are kept in order on the macadam plan, 
 except that in many places the roller is not used. 
 
 A book — paper covers — containing 164 pages, is mailed with this re- 
 port. It is entitled : " City of Genoa — Office of the Public Works. 
 Special conditions for contract for the ordinary preservation of the 
 streets, conduits, and accessory works." This work is published by 
 the municipal government of the city of Genoa. 
 
 James Fletcher, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Genoa, Italy, February 12, 1891. 
 
EUROPE — ITALY. 181 
 
 LOMBARDY. 
 
 REPOBT BY OONSVL PEPPER, OF MILAS. 
 
 Italian legislation as to roads is to be considered distinctively under 
 four heads : National, provincial, communal, and viccinale or neighbor- 
 hood roads. There are subordinate roads of a private character of 
 which the legislature takes no interest in or supervision of. These are 
 under the control of local landholders who have small properties, and who 
 build these roads for their own accommodation. The mode of building 
 and the expense of the roads in Lombardy is uniform, the essential 
 difference being the reasons existing upon the special locality-in which 
 the roads are running, namely, in a mountainous region the expense 
 would be greater than in a plain open country. 
 
 In general roads in villages or near cities are paved with gravel 
 taken from the beds of rivers which traverse the country. In the 
 cities and in the large towns the ground is also paved. Nearly always 
 the sidewalks are paved with these pebbles for the use of pedestrians, 
 both sides of streets contiguous to which carriages and teams pass are 
 similarly paved. Eoadsfor vehicles are usually from 50 to 75 centimetres 
 in width. The pavements are likewise of the same material, arranged 
 on each side of the streets. Frequently instead of one row of these 
 stones, two or more often come in contact, thereby connecting these 
 streets together. The double roads are usually of stone varying 
 from 50 to 70 centimetres in width, and the sidewalks are of the same 
 width and of the same material. The sidewalks of towns aud cities are 
 widened in accordance with the taste and wealth of the proprietors. 
 In the construction of these roads heavy pebbles are placed upon the 
 earth, which contributes solidity and permanency, also contributing to 
 the dryness and to the freedom from the effects of rain. This bed of 
 heavy pebbles furnishes a strong superficiality, which helps the character 
 of the pavement. The expense of the pavement is calculated at IJ francs 
 per cubic surface. Those of the pa.vements denominated grades for 
 trams cost 20 francs per cubic surface. 
 
 It is understood that roads in Lombardy are everywhere provided 
 lengthways with a channel into which the water runs. This is said in 
 regard to the leading roads. Those in the open country are constructed 
 in the same way, the water running on both sides for the mountainous 
 localities. There is no gravel ; the lack is supplied by stones or frag- 
 ments obtained from rocks. There is the only difference in these roads 
 in width. The national roads are usually from 8 to 9 metres in width, 
 the provincial roads 6, the communal 5. Nevertheless, in the moun- 
 tainous regions a similar width is tolerated, as also in the commune, 
 the construction of which is obligatory in accordance with the law of 
 1868. However, this law is not generally obeyed in Lombardy, because 
 the street system has existed for many years, and has reached a splen- 
 did development. The triple distinction of roads between national, 
 Ijrovincial, and communal has reference solely to the construction and 
 
182 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 maintenance by the national government. The provincial roads are 
 built and sustained by the provinces ; the communal by the communes ; 
 the national by the government. In general, all these roads may serve 
 for purposes of great traffic. This advantage arises from the uniformity 
 with which they are built. The communal roads being the principal 
 ones, it follows that the traflic is the greatest. 
 
 It is impossible to furnish the exact cost of roads built in the open 
 country, as it is termed by the Italians, because of the variety of the 
 land, as it is more or less mountainous. In Lombardy, especially, where 
 the great abundance of canals exist and the consequent need of roads 
 to cross them, the building of palisades and walls make it very difficult 
 to get at the expense. About one-half the country is included in what we 
 have seen and the other half in the mountainous zone. Difficulties in- 
 crease and the expense becomes greater where rocks are to be blasted. 
 In the completion of these roads it is calculated that the expense of 
 roads in Lombardy vary from 2 to 5 francs, and in someinstances much 
 more, per metre. This does not include the expense of the ground. It 
 follows, from the data which I have gathered, that the provincial 
 roads built in the last 30 years in Lombardy cost 35,000 francs a kilo- 
 metre ; that the communal average 7,000. Eegardiug the support of 
 these roads, 1 am assured that for the communal, 60 to 80 cubic sur- 
 face gravel per year for each kilometre. The provincial and national 
 being wider and the traffic greater, there is from 100 to 400 cubic sur- 
 face each year per kilometre. In fine the expense of maintenance varies 
 from the minimum of 250 to 300 francs, and frequently increases to 
 1,000 francs per kilometre. The condition of roads of all descriptions 
 in Lombardy is far superior to that of any other part of Italy. In a 
 word, the area of this district, Lombardy, is 23,600 kilometres cubic 
 surface, counting 20,000 kilometres for ordinary roads, national, pro- 
 vincial, communal, that is 20,000 kilometres of roads. Lombardy has 1 
 kilometre of roads for every superficial kilometre. Three-fourths of 
 these roads, 15,000 kilometres, belong to the communal category, the 
 balance, nearly 5,000, are provincial, while the national are only about 
 500 kilometres. 
 
 Geo. W. Pepper, 
 
 United States Consulate, Consul. 
 
 Milan, Italy, January 24, 1891. 
 
 MESSINA, 
 
 EH FORI BY aOWSUL JONES. 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The municipality of Messina, upon the advice of the city surveyor, 
 draws up a schedule of prices, with the maximum wages for day labor- 
 ers, hire of teams, prices of lime, stone, etc. Sealed bids, based upon 
 
EDEOPE — ITALY. 183 
 
 a reduction of so much per cent, on the aforesaid schedule of prices, are 
 handed in and the contract for paving the streets is given to the lowest 
 bidder. 
 
 There are four kinds of pavements in use : (a) Pavement made of 
 paving stones, different sizes; (&) pavement made of cobblestones; 
 (c) pavement made of pebbles or chippings; {d) pavement made with 
 longitudinal and transverse lines of paving stones, the intervening 
 spaces being filled in with cobblestones. 
 
 The streets are divided into three classes : (1) Streets with a horizon- 
 tal, flat surface; (2) streets with a convex surface; (3) streets with a 
 concave surface. 
 
 Three sizes of paving stones are used : (1) Dressed paving stones 
 must be not less than 20 centimetres thick or deep and the sides from 
 20 to 50 centimetres long ; square blocks of stone (lava) are generally 
 used. The length of a block must at all events never be more than 
 twice the width of the block. (2) The thickness of the paving stones, 
 when dressed, must not be less than 15 centimetres and the sides not 
 less than 20 centimetres nor more than 40. (3) The thickness mnst not 
 be less than 12 centimetres and the sides not less than 20 nor more than 
 35 centimetres. 
 
 Curbstones must not be less than 70 centimetres long. 
 
 The sides of the paving stones must be at right angles with each 
 other. The' four sides of the first size paving stones must be worked 
 smooth for a depth of 10 centimetres so that the adjacent blocks may- 
 fit closely together. The sides of the second and third sizes of paving 
 stones must be worked smooth for a depth of 7 and 6 centimetres, 
 respectively. 
 
 The excavation made prior to laying the pavement must be deep 
 enough to contain the paving stones and allow for the bed on which they 
 rest. The bottom of the excavation must be well rammed down with 
 a heavy maul, and, if the ground should be soft and dry, it should be 
 well saturated with water and rammed down whilst wet. The four kinds 
 of pavements in use are : (1) Dry paving (lastricato a secco). The 
 bed is formed of a layer of sand at least 20 centimetres deep, into which 
 — having been well watered — the closely fitting paving stones are 
 placed side by side. The joints, free from sand, are filled up with mor- 
 tar made of pulverized hydraulic lime. (2) Paving with mortar (las- 
 tricato in malta). The paving stones are placed on a bed of mortar, the 
 joints being filled up as above. (3) Paving with mortar on a bed of 
 concrete. A layer of concrete (made of cement and small pebbles) not 
 less than 20 centimetres deep is spread over the bottom of the exca- 
 vation, and on this concrete the mortar and paving stones are embedded 
 as in No. 2. The joints between the stones must not exceed 2 milli- 
 metres and should always be filled in with mortar. (4) Paving with 
 cobblestones. The cobblestones (of granite or quartz) are oblong and 
 so chiijped with the hammer as to fit closely one with the other. The 
 
184 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 length of these cobblestones is never less than 15 centimetres. The 
 ground being prepared as for paving stones, the cobblestones are set 
 In a bed of sand at least 10 centimetres deep and then covered over 
 with sand, and having been thoroughly saturated with mortar, are 
 well rammed down. Sometimes cobblestones instead of being set in a 
 bed of sand are set in a bed of mortar. 
 
 The Messina municipality's latest price list for wages, paving mate- 
 rials, etc., is as follows : 
 
 Workman (stonecutter) per day.. $0.60 
 
 Day laborer do 40 
 
 Boy do 24 
 
 Women do 20 
 
 Wheelbarrow (liire of) do 01 
 
 One horse, cart, and driver do 1. 20 
 
 Two-wheel OS-cart, one yoke oxen, and driver do l.(iO 
 
 Four-wheel ox- wagon, one yoke oxen, and driver - do 1.80 
 
 Pack donkey and driver - do 30 
 
 Pack horse and driver do 60 
 
 Broken stones per cubic metre.. 1.00 
 
 Pebbles • do .70 
 
 Dressed paving stones jier square metre. . 2. 00 
 
 Curbstone 75 centimetres long by 40 by 20 ^ per linear metre.. 1.00 
 
 Rock lime ^ ^ 22 pounds.. .05 
 
 Ground lime.... per cubic metre.. 2.00 
 
 Hydraulic lime per ton.. 4.40 
 
 Sand per cnbic metre.. .60 
 
 Digging earth and throwing it an arm's length, when soil is light .do 06 
 
 When clay do.... .11 
 
 Cutting through soft rock - , do 23 
 
 Cutting through hard rock do 50 
 
 Rolling (including watering) done by rollers drawu by oxen ..per sc^uare metre.. . 02 
 Chipping pavement do 06 
 
 In Messiui the streets are paved with lava from Mount Etna, which 
 is hard, durable, and not slippery when dressed. The cost of paving 
 the main thoroughfares — Oorso Yittorio Emmauuele, Oorso Oavour— 
 over which the heaviest hauling is done, is 12 francs, or $2.40 per square 
 metre; side streets, 8.50 francs, or $1.75 per square metre. 
 
 Wallace S. Jones. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Messinc, January 26, 1891. 
 
 TUSCANY. 
 
 BBPOBT HT CONSUL DILLER, OF FLORENOM. 
 STE35BTS OF FLORENCE. 
 
 The streets of Florence are divided into three longitudinal zones, of 
 which one, the central, is for wheels and the two lateral for sidewalks. 
 The central part reserved to wheels is made in a convex form, with a 
 
EUEOPE — ITALY. 185 
 
 center corresponding to about one forty-flfth of the chord. The material 
 used for paving consists of first quality hard stone, in rectangular 
 pieces, and costs 12.50 lire per square metre, including the rubble 
 work underneath, set in ordinary lime and fluting the surface of the 
 stone. 
 
 The two zones for sidewalks are paved with hard gray stone, con- 
 sisting of one or two pieces with raised heading, 0.12 metres high, fluted 
 at the surface, with a decline of 0.04 metre to each square metre. Said 
 stones fixed in their place cost 7.80 lire per square metre. 
 
 The breadth of the zones is established in proportion to the breadth 
 of the street and generally three-flfths for wheels and two fifths for 
 sidewalks. 
 
 The maintenance of a street, made as above, costs 0.26 lire per year 
 for each square metre. 
 
 COTJNTRY ROADWAYS. 
 
 Country roads in Tuscany are divided into national, provincial, com- 
 munal, and parish roads, each supported respectively by said organiza- 
 tions. Sometimes adjoining provinces or communes contribute to the 
 making and maintenance of the same road. The Italian law, dated 
 March 20, 1865, provides for the manner of constructing and Kjare of 
 the different classes of roads. 
 
 The breadth varies from 5 to 10 metres, according to the importance 
 of the road and the localities placed in communication thereby. That 
 portion reserved for vehicles is usually three-flfths of the width of the 
 road, the remaining one-fifth on each side, when practicable, being 
 reserved for pedestrians. JFor the protection of traflic as well as of 
 foot passengers, stone pillars, round, square, or rectangular, from 2 to 
 3 feet in height are placed about 4 or 5 feet apart, and where the road-' 
 way is dangerous these pillars are connected by a heavy piece of timber 
 passing through them near the top. 
 
 Eoadways paved with hard stone or granite, broken small, including 
 digging, cost about $2.30 per square metre, if made with the common 
 stone of the locality in the same manner, about $1.30 per square meter, 
 and the ordinary country roads not so much used, made with stone and 
 sand with a surface of gravel, cost about 4.0 cents per square metre. 
 It is proper to mention here that in many cases the roads follow the 
 course of the streams, especially in the mountain districts, and such 
 materials as river stone, gravel, and sand are plentiful, hence the cost 
 is small for material. 
 
 The yearly maintenance of highways average about 4 or 5 cents per 
 square metre. When side walls are necessary to protect the road in 
 case of precipices or river banks, they are built of the stone found in 
 the locality, well cemented with lime and river sand, as are also the 
 gutters to carry off the water. 
 
 The prevailing system for the maintenance of parish roads is of an- 
 
186 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 cient date, viz, the compulsory attendance of all males over 15 years of 
 age to perforin free labor for a few days whenever the condition of the 
 road renders such service necessary. The same rule holds good when- 
 ever the parish authorities agree to open a new road. 
 
 Isaac E. Diller, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Florence, January 30, 1891. 
 
 SICILY. 
 
 SEPOBT ET CONSUL FUGS, OF PALERMO. 
 
 There are perhaps fewcountries where a description of their road con- 
 struction would be attended with the same unsatisfactory and unprofit- 
 able results as iu Sicily. It is true that both city streets and country 
 roads are constructed in accordance with national regulations, but the 
 manner of building and appliances used are of such primitive character 
 as to make a detailed account not only uninteresting but of no practical 
 benefit, as the cost of street and road construction in Sicily would con- 
 vey but meager idea of the cost of like construction iu the iTnited States, 
 both on account of the abundance of materials and cheapness of labor. 
 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 Sicily is so distinctively an island of rock as to make the construc- 
 tion of streets and roads of any other material than stone, even were it 
 to be had, absolutely out of the question. 
 
 The rock of Sicily is of two principal species, one a limestone abound- 
 ing in such high percentage of lime as that the numerous crevices and 
 caves in the mountains, made perhaps by volcanic action, are filled 
 with nearly pure powdered lime, which taken from such receptacles 
 constitutes a large, important, and inexpensive factor in road construc- 
 tion when mixed with the rock itself, which is easily broken; the other, 
 a soft porous rock of coral and shell formation, so soft in fact as to be 
 susceptible of being cut from the quarries with ordinary axes. This 
 latter, while resembling the softest and most porous sandstone, also pos- 
 sesses lime in such considerable quantities that the cuttings and easily 
 crushed smaller pieces form another important element iu the construc- 
 tion of the less important city streets, that, like country roads, are built 
 of broken limestone with the cuttings from this soft stone spread over 
 to obtain a smooth surface. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 On account of the abundance of limestone, as well as cheapness of 
 labor in prejjariug it, the principal streets of cities are paved with 
 solid blocks of this stone, from 18 inches to 2 feet square by 8 to 10 
 
EUROPE — ITALY. 187 
 
 inches in tliicknesa, placed on a concrete bed of broken stone, lime, 
 and sand, the blocks being laid in mortar for the purpose of properly 
 imbedding the stone and leveling the surface. The durability of streets 
 thus constructed is so apparent that comment is unnecessary. 
 
 The cost of paving a street with the black stone as above mentioned 
 is 15 lire or $3 per square metre. (A metre is 3 feet 4 inches.) The 
 wages paid for labor is as follows : To the stonecutters, who shape and 
 fit the blocks, per day of 11 hours, 60 cents ; to ordinary laborers, same 
 hours, 40 cents ; to boys, who beside their other work, cut large por- 
 tions of the stone, 30 cents. 
 
 OOUNTEY ROADS. 
 
 Country roads are constructed wholly of broken stone, the crude 
 lime above mentioned and sand, compressed with heavy cylindrical 
 stone rollers, this admixture with the first rainfall forming a solid con- 
 crete mass. 
 
 The construction of roads in this manner is simplified and materially 
 aided here by the fact that the substructure is solid rock, the thin 
 stratum of soil varying only with the unevenness of the underlying 
 rock. 
 
 With the exception of carting the larger stone, all the material used 
 in the construction of both streets and roads is moved by hand. The 
 broken stone and sand is carried in baskets, the soil carried from 
 place to place in the same manner in leveling the grade, and a great 
 portion of this is done by boys from 13 to 18 years of age. 
 
 The cost of the less important city streets and country roads paved 
 with broken stone, spread superficially with lime, sand, and rolled as 
 above described, is 76 cents per square metre ; country roads, without 
 the sand, 60 cents ; while the wages paid per day of 11 hours is as fol- 
 lows : To the master workmen who have charge of grading, leveling, 
 etc., 60 cents ; to common laborers, 40 cents ; to boys working at either, 
 24 cents; to horse and cart for transportation of unbroken rock and 
 sand, together with the owner who must load and discharge same, 
 $1.20. 
 
 PAYMENT FOB STREET AND ROAD OONSTEUCTION. 
 
 For the purpose of showing the sources from whence the expense of 
 street and road construction is derived, a translation of those portions 
 of the Italian laws bearing upon the subject are here given : 
 
 DESCRIPTION OP STREETS. 
 
 Article IX. Common streets of public use are classified into national, provincial, 
 municipal and vicinal streets. 
 
 National streets. 
 
 Article X. National streets are< 
 
 (a) The long lines of roads whioli in their course join directly several of tlie prin- 
 cipal cities of tbo kingrlom or the latter with the nearer first-class commercial porta. 
 
188 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 (6) Those joining the foregoing with the long commercial lines of neighhoring 
 states. 
 
 (c) Those having exclusively a military scope. 
 
 Article XI. There can not be a national road between two points of territory 
 joiued by a railroad. When railroads are opened up to public use, running in the 
 same direction as existing national roads, the latter shall pass to the class of provin- 
 cial roids at the beginning of the immediately subsquent solar year, should the 
 opening happen within the first half of the year, and at the beginning of the follow- 
 ing second year when it happens in the second half of the year. * * • 
 
 Provincial streets. 
 
 Article XIII. Provincial streets are : 
 
 (a) The streets which serve for the more direct comm n n i cation between the chief 
 place of a proviuce and those of neighboring provinces. 
 
 (ft) Those which lead from the chief town of a province to the chief places of thfe 
 districts into vfhich it is divided. 
 
 (c) Those joining the chief towns of a province or district with adjacent most im- 
 portant maritime ports. 
 
 (d) Those which are known to be of great importance to the industrial, commer- 
 cial, and agricultural relations of the province. 
 
 Municipal and incinal streets. 
 
 Article XVI. Municipal streets are : 
 
 {Or) Those necessary to put in commauication the greatest number of inhabitants 
 of a community with the chief places of the respective districts and. those of the 
 neighboring towns. Communities separated each from the other by an elevated 
 chain of mountain are not considered as being contiguous. 
 
 (6) Tho-e which are in the interior of inhabited places. 
 
 (c) Those which lead from the most numerously inhabited places of a community 
 to the respective parish churches and cemeteries. * * • 
 
 (fZ) Those serving to unite together the most important parts of a community. * 
 
 Article XIX. All other streets not described in the foregoing category or subject 
 to public use are vicinal, » * « and are liable to the vigilance of the municipal 
 authorities. 
 
 Article XXII. The land of the national streets is the property of the govern- 
 ment; that of provincial streets belongs to the provinces, and that of muuicipal 
 streets appertain to the municipalities. The following are considered as parts 
 attached to the streets. » » * The lateral ditches which solely and principally 
 serve for the drainage of the streets, the causeways, the elevated footpaths, and the 
 art works of any kind established along the sides, sheltering houses and those of 
 street guardians. * * » 
 
 In the interior of cities it is considered as constituting parts of the municipal 
 streets the squares, spaces and narrow streets contiguous thereto, and on the public 
 lands, the habits, existing conventions, and private rights remaining in full force. 
 
 The branches of national and provincial streets within the limits of a city or 
 town constitute part of the municipal streets, save the aid by the government or 
 province in the expenses of preservation and betterment as per article XLi and fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 Article XXX. National streets and all structures alongside of the same to give 
 passage to natural water flows, are constructed, adapted, and maintained at the 
 expense of the government. * » » 
 
 Article XXXVII. The construction, systemizatrion, and maintenance of provincial 
 streets and the works embellishing them are made at the expense of the province in 
 
EUEOPE — HOLLAND, 189 
 
 whicli tlioy are located, or of two or more provinces joiued in copartnership, volnutary 
 or obligatory, in virtue of law when snch streets extend into more than one province. 
 AliTici.K XXXIX. For the construction, systemization, and maintenance of mu- 
 jiioipal streets, the respective municipalities provide either separately or in copart- 
 nership with other muuicipalities, they concurring together in the expenses accord- 
 ing to the degree of interest of each. » * » 
 
 Article XLI. The systemization and maintenance of branches of municipal and 
 provincial streets comprised within populous towns or cities, are to be supported by 
 the respective municipalities under the teohuioal surveillance of government or pro- 
 vincial engineers. In respect to the maintenance thereof the government or the 
 province gives the municipality an annual indemnity equal to the expense of main- 
 tenance of a contiguous branch of street of like length in the identical condition 
 outside the populous places. • » • 
 
 Articlts XLIL When the government or provincial administration thinks the total 
 renewal necessary of a branch of national or provincial street comprised within a 
 populous place, it, as far as the normal width of the street, supports the relative ex- 
 pense. * * *• 
 
 (a) Entirely in towns having less than 1,000 inhabitants. 
 
 (6) One-half in towns having less than 4,000 inhabitants. 
 
 (c) One-fourth in towns having 4,000 inhabitants and upward. 
 
 Article LI. The reparation and maintenance of vicinal streets are supported by 
 those who make use of them in going to their properties either if the latter are or are 
 not contiguous to the same streets, when by right or custom such a support may not 
 be against determinate properties or persons. The municipalities could also be held 
 to a concurrent share in the repairing expenses of the more important vicinal streets. 
 
 COST OF MUNICIPAL STREETS. 
 
 The average cost of each kilometre of municipal street is as follows : 
 
 In plain land '. $400 
 
 InhiUyland 800 
 
 In mountainous land 1, GOO 
 
 The depth of the pavement of country roads varies from simply 
 smoothing the surface of rock over which the roadway passes to a pave- 
 ment of broken stone 6 inches in depth, and the effect of such road 
 making upon contiguous land can not be estimated, as there is neither 
 a market for nor sale of farming lands in Sicily. 
 
 HOEACB 0. PUGH, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Palermo, Italy. 
 
 HOLLAND. 
 
 ROTTERDAM AND SCHIEDAM. 
 
 BEPOKT BY CONSVL OABDNJEB. 
 ROTTERDAM. 
 
 The materials employed for street paving in Rotterdam are bricks of 
 clay, bricks of scoria or slag, and blocks of limestone and porphyry. 
 The clay brijcks ar.3 manufactured iu the Netherlands, along the river 
 
190 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 (le Waal; the scoria bricks by tbe Tees Scoria Brick Company, of Mid-. 
 dleborough-on-Tees (England); while the limestone and porphyry come 
 from Belgium, and are cut in blocks at the quarries. 
 
 The uniform and only paving foundation in Rotterdam is a bed of 
 sand, carefully packed ; and the thickness or depth of pavement upon 
 this bed is as follows: Clay bricks, 4J inches; scoria bricks, 5 inches; 
 limestone and porphyry, 6 inches. " The underlying soil there, as in 
 other Netherlands cities," says the adjunct director of public works in 
 Eotterdam, "presents great difficulties in the way of a level pavement 
 surface, being for the most part formed of sand and turf unevenly com- 
 pressed, and affording but indifferent subfoundation for heavy traflQo." 
 ^Nevertheless, the pavements in Eotterdam are, despite the diflBculty 
 here cited, remarkably well maintained. 
 
 The average cost to the city for its clay-brick pavemei»t is 62J cents 
 (American) per square yard ; for limestone, 62J to $1.25 per square 
 yard ; for porphyry $1.56 and for scoria brick $1.25 per square yard — 
 all put down. The original work of paving, and the work of main- 
 taining pavements, is at the expense of the municipality, and is done 
 by workmen in the city's employ. The original cost of streets is at the 
 charge of private owners only when at their option streets are opened 
 through their own property with the view to increase valuations. In 
 such case, the streets being properly made, are accepted by the city, 
 and thereafter maintained at the city expense. 
 
 As to the average duration of the different varieties of pavement 
 employed, the city officers of Eotterdam are unable to give authoritative 
 information, and are also unable to state with accuracy the total mileage 
 of paved streets or the propoition of each pavement in use. 
 
 The present average cost to Rotterdam (population, 310,000) for main- 
 taining and extending its paved thoroughfares is $40,000 per year. 
 Ten years ago the average annual cost was $32,000. 
 
 Asked, " which pavement, in view of the experience of Rotterdam, 
 does the public works department deem to be the best and most eco- 
 nomical for light traf&c and heavy traflic, respectively ?" the adjunct 
 director replied, " for light traffic, our JSTetherlands brick ; for medium 
 traffic. Scoria bricks and the best kinds of limestone ; for heavy traffic, 
 paving blocks of porphyry." 
 
 Rotterdam streets, it is to be added, are built for heavy teaming; 
 there is almost no driving for pleasure. The din of traffic over the un- 
 yielding stones is ceaseless and distracting. Rotterdam pavements 
 are possibly the best for the needs of this always busy, always toiling 
 city. But, on the whole, even in the judgment of many of the good 
 people of Rotterdam, their street-pavement system is, for other cities, 
 a very good system to avoid. 
 
EUROPE — HOLLAND. 191 
 
 SCHIEDAM. 
 
 This city (population 26,000) employs iu its street making, river sand, 
 clay brick, and granite. The brick are of Netherlands manufacture; 
 the granite comes (cut in blocks) from Belgian quarries. No artificial 
 stone is used. 
 
 Upon its sand foundation the brick pavement of Schiedam is 4^ 
 inches depth ; the granite, 5^^ inches. The former costs, put down, 
 on the average, 58 cents (American), and the latter $1.50 per square 
 yard. Only small side streets and the sidewalks of principal streets are 
 brick-paved, granite being used for the roadways of all njain streets. 
 
 All original work and all work of maintaining the streets is done 
 under the authority and at the expense of the city, by city employes. 
 The present average annual cost of street maintenance in Schiedam is 
 $5,200. 
 
 Walter E. Gaedner, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Eotterdam, Netherlands, January 27, 1891. 
 
 NETHERLANDS PUBLIC ROADWAYS. 
 
 [Translation of notes relating to Netherlands public roadways, furnished by the 
 honorable secretary-general of the Netherlands department of public works.] 
 
 [Inclosure in Consul G-ardner's Eeport.] 
 
 The general system of dikes in the Netherlands is not created and maintained at 
 the expense of the national treasury. There are, however, some dikes thus maintained, 
 in pursuance of early conditions, or agreements entered into ^yith a view to the gen- 
 eral interest, or because of the utter inability of persons or communities to protect 
 themselves. The general rule of the Netherlands is that dikes are at the expense of 
 those whose property is protected by the dikes.. 
 
 The public roadways over the dikes are usually at the expense of the several 
 provinces, communities, or " polders " (drained lakes) benefited. Only in certain cases 
 are some parts of these roadways at the expense of the General Government, for the 
 same reason as is given above for the Government maintenance of certain portions of 
 the dikes. By royal decree, however, a network of roads is assigned to be main- 
 tained by the Government, being so arranged that unhindered communication be- 
 tween the different parts of the country and with adjacent countries is secured. 
 
 The materials of which these roadways in the Netherlands are constructed are: 
 (J.) natural stone; (2) bricks; (3) gravel, or broken bricks; the material employed 
 differing according as the ordinary traffic is heavy or light. The natural stone is 
 used and recommended for the heaviest traffic, the bricks and gravel for lighter 
 weights. 
 
 Including a sand bed of 0.20 to 0.30 metre deep, in which the bricks or natural 
 stones are put down, the cost per square metre for road making is as follows : Natural 
 stonq, 8 to 6 florins ($1.20 to $2.40); bricks, 1.50 to 1.75 florins (60 to 70 cents); 
 gravel, 1 to. 1.50 florins (40 to 60 cents). 
 
 The price greatly depends upon the cost of transportation of the material used ; 
 the natural stone, for example, all being brought from foreign countries, at heavy 
 outlay for freight. The prices above quoted do not incluile the expense of making 
 the sub or earthen roadway. The average depth of the road pavements, including 
 
192 
 
 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 the roadbed, is : For natural stone roads, 0.40 to 0.50 metre ; for brick roads, 0.30 to 
 0.40 metre ; for gravel roads (withont sand bed), 0.20 to 0.25 metre. In mauy parts 
 of tlie Netherlands a sand ground is found, and in such localities no special sand bed 
 is required; but in all other cases (gravel roads excepted) the sand bed is uniformly 
 made. 
 
 It is provided in the constitutional law that the King [the Qaeen regent] shall have 
 supervision of all matters relating to " waterstaat," thus also including the dike 
 roadways; vrhile the law also provides that the provincial states respectively are to 
 be charged with the adequate supervision of all public roadways within their own 
 limits. 
 
 The artificial roadways over the Netherlands dikes are for the most part gravel 
 roads, the cost of constrnction of which has been already stated. The total length of 
 roadwaysin this country maintained by the Government is 1,983.696 kilometres. This 
 figure does not inclnde roads running alongside of canals or over Government dikes. 
 As to the expense for yearly maintenance see Exhibit A hereto attached, stating the 
 cost for the last 8 years. The cost of maintenance of each kind of roadway can not 
 be given, as such cost is not separately specified in the contracts, which are usually 
 made for 3 years. 
 
 The influence of the steady improvement of roadways in the Netherlands upon the 
 valne of real property is not easily stated in figures, as there are many other modify- 
 ing conditions. In general and naturally it can be said such influence is very im- 
 portant. 
 
 Finally it is to be mentioned that several principal roadways have been and still 
 are made and maintained by the various provinces with subsidies from the Govern- 
 ment of the Netherlands, and by various towns with subsidies granted by the prov- 
 inces. 
 
 Exhibit A. 
 
 Cost of maintenance and improvements of the great Governmemt roadways in the Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 
 [One flonn. 
 
 40.2 cents, American.] 
 
 
 
 
 Province. 
 
 Ordinary inaintenanco. 
 
 1882. 
 
 1883. 
 
 188t. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1886. 
 
 1887. 
 
 1888. 
 
 1889. 
 
 
 Florins. 
 60. 211 
 
 155.907 
 «!5, 872 
 62. 547 
 25. 767 
 61.071 
 54,230 
 88,246 
 36, 577 
 18, 98] 
 43, 585 
 
 Florins. 
 58,883 
 156. 7S0 
 103. 859 
 60, 286 
 23, 329 
 70, 342 
 54, 041 
 87. 962 
 29. 776 
 19, 939 
 43, 585 
 
 Florins^ 
 59,023 
 151,795 
 108. 000 
 59.456 
 23.554 
 68. 101 
 51, 969 
 87, 552 
 33, 977 
 18, 997 
 43, 685 
 
 Florins. 
 59. 013 
 146. 600 
 95. 761 
 53, 760 
 23. 568 
 6J.848 
 52. 250 
 94. 009 
 47. 247 
 20. 570 
 43, 5S5 
 
 Florins. 
 63, 520 
 
 147, 814 
 89, 750 
 54.351 
 20. 905 
 63, 800 
 46, 002 
 94, 009 
 31, 776 
 20, 570 
 44, S86 
 
 Florins. 
 59. 152 
 
 147, 577 
 90,154 
 53, 923 
 21, 897 
 54,928 
 42, 706 
 94, 009 
 29, 196 
 21, 900 
 44, 386 
 
 Florins. 
 67, 636 
 
 124, 130 
 86. 955 
 84,434 
 30,859 
 54,554 
 45, 160 
 98, 696 
 16,071 
 21,939 
 44,386 
 
 Florins. 
 64,285 
 125, 093 
 83,340 
 18, 971 
 20,654 
 53, 951 
 44,359 
 88, 2;,8 
 15, 587 
 18, 1^67 
 43,272 
 
 
 
 Noord Holland 
 
 UtVL'cht 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Province. 
 
 Improvements. 
 
 1882. 
 
 1883. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1886. 
 
 1887. 
 
 1888. 
 
 1889. 
 
 
 Florins. 
 
 45, 057 
 
 24,911 
 
 20, 808 
 
 870 
 
 Florins. 
 35, 050 
 21, 027 
 16, 993 
 
 Florins. 
 32, 828 
 21, 748 
 13,547 
 
 Florins. 
 21, 725 
 11,891 
 
 Florins. 
 16, 814 
 3,821 
 
 Florins. 
 
 19, 935 
 
 814 
 
 8,860 
 
 Florins. 
 18,117 
 11, 617 
 
 Florins. 
 1,456 
 4,601 
 
 Gelderland 
 
 Zuid Holland 
 
 Noord Holland 
 
 
 
 
 4,422 
 
 Zietland 
 
 650 
 
 416 
 
 553 
 
 624 
 
 161 
 
 
 "Dfrecbt 
 
 
 
 
 Friesland.. 
 
 13, 112 
 15, 647 
 31, 778 
 .302 
 4,187 
 
 548 
 
 30, 667 
 
 29, 799 
 
 1.995 
 
 9,376 
 
 6,126 
 29. S74 
 17, 776 
 3,763 
 8,635 
 
 4,581 
 18, 624 
 13,619 
 
 5,770 
 20,216 
 13, 252 
 
 "■•""73i" 
 23,086 
 6,550 
 
 - 
 
 1 0''2 
 
 
 16, 033 
 1,29J 
 
 27, 167 
 82 
 
 
 
 Lira burg 
 
 10, 949 
 
 10,398 
 
 14,454 
 
 i2, 047 
 
 7,538 
 
EUROPE — RUSSIA. 193 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 SEFOBT BT OONSTTL-GBNEMAL ORAWFORD. OF ST. PETEMSBJJBO. 
 
 The streets and roadways of Russia are in a very primitive condition, 
 and every year some new method is introduced from abroad looking 
 toward the betterment of streets and highways. 
 
 It is difficult to say anything definite about the price of repairing the 
 streets in the city, because this is done at the expense of proprietors, 
 under private contracts, which show a great variation iu prices and in 
 methods. 
 
 The roads in Eussia can be divided into three distinct categories, as 
 follows : First, the highways ; second, the roads in the suburbs of the 
 city ; third, the streets in the city itself. 
 
 HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The highways are the work of the ministry of ways and communica- 
 tions, and are made and maintained at the expense of the Government, 
 no special tax being levied for this purpose. Toll-bars exist only on 
 the eastern Siberian highway, or Sibirsky Tract, by which most of the 
 tea is imported from China into Liussia, coming through the Irkoutsk 
 custom-house. There the peasants, who make a regular business of 
 carrying these goods to and from Russia, pay a certain tax per horse 
 or wagon, and although this toll is very small it is more than sufEicient 
 to maintain the road in good order and the surplus goes towards mak- 
 ing new roads in Siberia. 
 
 Bach province iu Russia has its own management or zemstro, which 
 receives taxes, expends such sums of money as have been allowed, and 
 renders full statement of the general affairs to the different ministries. 
 
 In this manner, when there is a surplus in any province it is not 
 turned over to the Government, but is used for the public improvement 
 of the province. Thus these provinces levy no tax for the roads, and 
 it follows that the Government grants them certain monetary benefits. 
 
 In some parts of the Empire, in the Crimea for instance, the roads 
 are naturally very good, but this can not be said of all the provinces, 
 for in the provinces of Tamboff, Saratoff, Kharkow, Riaxau, ^ovgarod, 
 the roads are very bad, and apart from putting wooden bridges where ab- 
 solutely necessary, and posts in the ground every 10 or 15 yards to indi- 
 cate that it is the highway, nothing is done for their maintenance. 
 Horses run in 1 foot of dust in dry weather, and are up to their knees 
 in mud during wet weather, while all communication ceases in autumn 
 and spring, and this is the reason why all trafQc or business in Russia 
 is done iu winter with sleighs. 
 
 During summer all the principal cities which have railroad commu- 
 nication make their supplies, and can only get rid of them in winter, 
 and even then nature must provide them with plenty of snow and frost, 
 33a 13 
 
194 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 otherwise the country is in distress. Such are the circumstances which 
 attend highways. It can therefore be said that only such highways 
 exist in Russia which have been built by the ministry of ways and 
 communications and which are under its supervision, and I do not 
 know of any besides the Siberian tract and the highway, built a few 
 years ago, from the Yalta to Symferopol, along the littoral of the Black 
 Sea, in the province of Tauride, known as the Crimea. 
 
 SUBURBAN ROADS. 
 
 The roads in the environs of a city are maintained entirely at the 
 expense of the town. Their maintenance is given out under contracts, 
 a definite sum being allowed per verst, and no tax is levied for this 
 purpose. The roads are made of crushed cobblestones, which are 
 placed about 1 foot deep along the road and beaten into a solid mass 
 with sand-earth by the use of a heavy roller moved by horse power. 
 Some other roads in the suburbs are made in the same manner as those 
 in the city, namely, of cobblestones, hammered into the ground, as near 
 to each other as possible, the spaces left open by the shape of the stone 
 is filled up with sand and little bits of stone, which are brushed over, 
 and the whole is beaten down by the aid of hand-rammers. This pave- 
 ment costs about $2 per square fathom. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The third category comprises the streets and roads within the city 
 boundary. These are maintained in good condition by the house pro- 
 prietors. There are four methods employed, the most common being 
 the use of cobblestones as above described. Then comes the wooden 
 pavement, which is made as follows : The ground or basis is well beaten 
 in and when level two side planks are firmly fixed in the space which is 
 to be paved and are maintained upright by the interception of boards 
 which are put down on the ground as a floor. This floor is well tarred, 
 and then the wooden cubes are placed in, pinned together with nails or 
 wooden pegs. 
 
 This system costs $3.50 per square fathom. This includes both ma- 
 terial and hand labor. 
 
 This system has been tested in a new form as a trial. The wooden 
 blocks were in the shape of bricks, and had been left to moisten in a 
 certain chemical preparation, which prevents the wood from rotting ; 
 the bricks, instead of being pinned one to the other, are aflflxed with 
 cement. This means was introduced for the first time last year by some 
 French engineers, and it is said that such a street will last 3 years ; al- 
 though somewhat more expensive than the ordinary pavement, still, if 
 it should prove to endure the rigorous winter frost it will be largely 
 adopted in Russia, where the roads have to be repaired each summer. 
 
 I might say here that when Alexander Dumas, the French author, 
 returned from Russia, which he had been visiting, he was asked how 
 
EUEOPE — SPAIN. 195 
 
 he had found the streets aud roads, to which he answered that he had 
 scarcely seen any, inasmuch as during the winter season they were cov- 
 ered with snow, and during the summer they were in process of 
 repair. 
 
 Although the above may seem an anecdote, yet it re[)resents a truth 5 
 for as soon as spring sets in all the principal streets are put under re-' 
 pairs, while the less important are repaired later in the season. 
 
 Asphalt is very little used for street pavement. Only two streets of 
 little thoroughfare are paved with asphalt, and it has proved a failure, 
 for the contractors. 
 
 Two long streets of this capital were paved two years ago with blocks 
 of hard stone, such as the streets of Paris and London, and although 
 this process turned out very expensive, it is hoped to be cheaper in the 
 end, especially so if it does not require to be repaired this year. 
 
 In some of the principal streets the wooden pavement is made obliga- 
 tory,and any proprietor who refuses to concede to therulingisi)romptly 
 fined, and the work done by the municipal authorities at his expense. 
 
 J. M. Oeawfoed, 
 
 Consul- General. 
 
 United States Consulate-General, 
 
 St. Petersburg, March 21, 1891. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 BEPOET BT CONSVL lUBNEB, OF OADIZ. 
 ROMAN ROADS IN SPAIN. 
 
 Since mankind constructed society and became distributed over 
 countries roads have been necessary. From the time of Moses there 
 have been royal roads. First the Egyptians, afterwards the Israelites, 
 and then the Greeks called their lines of travel that were not used for 
 special purposes royal roads, or the king's highways. In Greece the 
 royal roads were inspected and cared for by the Senate at Athens. In 
 Lacedemonia, Thebes, and other states they were under the supervision 
 of the most eminent men. Their roads, however, were not the best of 
 the ancients. It was reserved for a commercial city, Carthage, to build 
 the first paved roads. 
 
 The Eomans followed the example of the Carthaginians, and their 
 great highways, which connected Eome with its provinces were the 
 most renowned and durable ever constructed. All over Europe, Asia, 
 and Africa, wherever their emperors ruled, they built roads that have 
 been supposed, by the vulgar of different ages, to have been of super- 
 natural origin. This is attested by the names applied to them in Italy, 
 England, France, and Spain. In the last mentioned they have been 
 known by such appellations as Calzada del diablo (road of the devil), 
 Oalzada de las gigantes (road of the giants), etc. 
 
 According to St. Isidoro, the first paved roads of Spain were built by 
 
196 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 the Carthaginians, and the same aathority states that the Phceniciana 
 opened (and left to their successors) a road across the Pyrenees and 
 the Alps many centuries before the Christain era. 
 
 The most ancient Roman road outside of Italy was in Spain, and led 
 from Cartagena to the Pyrenees, where it connected with others that 
 led across the Alps to Rome. This road was traveled by the legions of 
 Scipio the Less. The reign of Augustus is renowned for the roads then 
 comijleted. This emperor made the system of communication so com- 
 plete that little else was left for his saccessors to do than to care for 
 the roads already constructed. Of his successors Trajanus was the 
 most zealous, as is shown by various inscriptions found in Spain, in pre- 
 serving the public highways and in constructing others. His example 
 was followed by Adrian, Lucius, and others, but afterwards the author- 
 ity of the emperors decayed and little care was given to distant public 
 worUs. The removal of the court to Byzantine by Constantine com- 
 pleted the abandonment of road building, and was the beginning of the 
 ruin of that magnificent system of highways that laced Rome to its 
 most distant provinces. The Romans divided their roads into military 
 highwaj's, called also consular or pretorian thoroughfares, and local vias. 
 The first were built to facilitate the marching of armies and to connect 
 the capital with the principal cities and strategic points. They were 
 constructed and kept in repair by the imperial government. The sec- 
 ond were the routes of commerce and connected towns and trade cen- 
 ters, and were constructed to facilitate the relations and intercourse of 
 traffic. They were built and maintained by municipal governments. 
 
 These highways were pavements firmly and simply leveled, and of 
 such solidity that remnants of those of the first class are still found in 
 a state of fair preservation in various countries. They were generally 
 narrow, being from 4 to 6 meters in width, and constructed as follows: 
 
 The road-bed was excavated, and in it was first placed a layer of 
 stones. The stones of this bottom layer were sometimes united with 
 mortar. Over it was placed a strata of plaster made of stone or brick 
 pounded with mortar. This was followed by another of sand and lime 
 or sand and earthenware clay, which, like its predecessors, was pounded 
 and leveled with great force. The top was made of irregular stones 
 united with cement. The road formed a pronounced curve between 
 strongly made curbs, which at regular distances were elevated to serve 
 as stiles for the mounting and dismounting of horses. All roads were 
 supplied with mile-posts, the Roman mile being approximately equal 
 to IJ kilometers. 
 
 At a distance of about 30 miles apart on the principal routes the Ro- 
 mans established a series of stations called mansiones. Each of these 
 mansiones was supplied with 40 horses and carts, oxen and pack-mules 
 necessary for the tra nsportation of baggage and other effects. Mid 
 way between the mansiones were smaller stations called mutationes, 
 where only 20 horses, etc., were kept. An ancient document, said to 
 bei the Itinerary of Antoninus Augustus Caracalla, shows the total 
 
EUROPE — SPAIN. 
 
 197 
 
 number of imperial or military highways to be 372, of which only 34 
 belonged to the province of Hispania, which is to-day known as Spain 
 and Portugal. The total mileage of these 34 roads was 6,926. Accord- 
 ing to Ooello, who collected data relating to the Eoman roads of Spain, 
 there were 20,000 miles constructed. He, of course, includes commercial 
 routes, of which the itinerary referred to makes no mention. These 
 roads were undoubtedly numerous. They are often referred to in the 
 writings of Pliny and other historians. 
 
 Although the Itinerary of Antoninus Augustus Caracalla can not be 
 accepted as a complete plan of the military roads of Eome, it is certain 
 that it includes the most important, and is very useful in the study of 
 Eoman highways. For that reason I herewith present that part of it 
 which refers to the Eoman roads of Spain. 
 
 It shows the Eoman names of the mansiones and the modern names 
 by which their ancient sites are known to-day. The mileage is also 
 shown. 
 
 Soman roads of Spain acoo) ding to the itinerary of Antonino Augusta Caracalla. 
 1. EGAD FBOM ITALY TO SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 Ancient name of mansions. 
 
 Present name of ancient sites of mansions. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 
 Coll de Pertus 
 
 
 
 
 Ifl 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hostalrich ..... ...,- 
 
 
 
 LlinAs 
 
 
 
 La Eooa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Barcelona 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tarragona 
 
 Yilavert 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 Haesca 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 Junto h. Agoncillo ., 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 Xritio 
 
 Rodilla 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 is 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Tritium ...... 
 
 Rodilla , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 Despoblado de Pozauovu 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 Cerro de Lancia 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
198 STREETS AND HIGHWATa IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Roman roads of Spain according to the itinerary of Antoiiino Auguato Caracalla — Cont'd, 
 2, EOAB from: ITALY TO SPAIN AND POETUGAL VIA NAKBOKA/ 
 
 Ancient name of mansions. 
 
 Present name of ancient sites of mansions. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Tairacona 
 
 Oleaatruru 
 
 Sabaalter 
 
 Tria capita 
 
 Dertosa 
 
 Intibili , 
 
 Ildam ., 
 
 Ad nonlas 
 
 Sebelaci 
 
 Sa^ntenm 
 
 Valentia 
 
 Sacronem , 
 
 Sactabi 
 
 Ad statuas 
 
 Ad turrea 
 
 Adello ■. 
 
 Aspi 
 
 Ilici 
 
 Thiar : 
 
 Carthagiae Spartaria 
 
 Eliocroca 
 
 Ad moram 
 
 Basti 
 
 Acci 
 
 Acatucci 
 
 Yiniolis . „ 
 
 Mentesa Castla 
 
 Castnlone 
 
 Tarragona 
 
 Cerca de Hospitalet . 
 
 Coll de Balagiier 
 
 PorceI16 
 
 Tortosa 
 
 Cerca de la Jana 
 
 Cabanes 
 
 Onda 
 
 Becbi 
 
 Sagunto 
 
 Valencia 
 
 Alcira 
 
 Jatiba 
 
 Parluta del Toy 
 
 Mo.jente 
 
 Villena 
 
 Elche 
 
 Zeneta 
 
 Cartagena 
 
 Lorca 
 
 Navaa de San Juan 
 
 Baza 
 
 Guadix 
 
 Cerca de Iznalloz 
 
 Cortijada de los Albnnicles. 
 
 La Guardia 
 
 Cazlona 
 
 3. EGAD FROM CORDOBA TO CASTULO. 
 
 Corduba 
 
 Cfilpnrniaiia 
 
 Urgaone 
 
 llituiKis .... 
 Castulone... 
 
 Cordoba , 
 
 Canete de las Torres. , 
 
 Arjona 
 
 Caen as de Litnergo. . 
 Cazlona 
 
 4. ANOTHER ROAD FROM CORDOBA TO CASTULO. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Epora 
 
 Moutoro ,, 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 
 5. ROAD FROM CASTULO TO MALAGA. 
 
 Castnlone . 
 
 Tuiria 
 
 Trasinum . 
 
 Acci 
 
 Alba 
 
 Hactara ... 
 
 Virgo 
 
 Tnraniana 
 
 Mnrgi 
 
 Rasefanuni 
 Caviclum .. 
 
 Menova 
 
 Malaca 
 
 Cozlona 
 
 Despoblado do Toya 
 
 Near ro Hinojares 
 
 Gnadix 
 
 Deapoblado de Albizu 
 
 Hufehares 
 
 Cainpo de Dallas 
 
 Turon 
 
 Near to Polapos 
 
 Puerto de Almunecar 
 
 Ct-rc;a de la Torre de Calatnrcos . 
 
 Hizmiliana 
 
 Malaga 
 
 * Tlie same road as No. 1 as far as Tarragona.. 
 
EUROPE — SPAIN. 19 9 
 
 Boman roads of Spain according to the itinerari/ of Antonio Angus to CaracaUa—£oTiVd. 
 6. EoId "FEOM M^ILAGA TO CADIZ. 
 
 Ancient name of mansiona. 
 
 Present name of ancient sites of mansions. 
 
 Milea, 
 
 Malaca 
 
 Suel 
 
 ■Cilmana ......... 
 
 Barbariana 
 
 Galpe cartiam... 
 Portu AJbo ..... 
 
 Mellaria 
 
 Bellone claudia 
 
 Besippone 
 
 Mergablo 
 
 Adherculem 
 
 Gades 
 
 Malao^a 
 
 Valdeauel 
 
 Torre de las Btivedag ... 
 
 Veil ta do ffuadiaro 
 
 Torre de Cartagena 
 
 Algeciraa 
 
 Near to Tarifa 
 
 Despoblado de Bolonia. . 
 
 Corca do Barbate 
 
 Conil 
 
 Castillo de Sanoti Petri - 
 Cadiz 
 
 24 
 34 
 30 
 
 6 
 12 
 
 6 
 12 
 IG 
 12 
 12 
 
 7. ROAD FEOM CADIZ TO COKDOBA. 
 
 Gades 
 
 Adponteca 
 Adpovtuin 
 
 Asta 
 
 tTgia 
 
 Orippo 
 
 Hispali ... 
 Basilippo- 
 Carula .... 
 
 Ilipa 
 
 Ostippo ... 
 
 Bavba 
 
 Anticaria . 
 Angellaa.. 
 Ipaero .... 
 
 Ulia 
 
 Corduba .. 
 
 Cadi^ , 
 
 Puentode l^uazo , 
 
 Puerto de Santa Maria 
 
 Despoblado de Mesa de Aata . 
 
 Cabezas de San Juan 
 
 Torre de los Herberos , 
 
 Sevilla i 
 
 Cerro del Cincho 
 
 Pnebla de Cazalla 
 
 Cerro de Repla 
 
 Despoblado de Tebala Viceja. 
 
 Cetca de la Pizarra ;.. 
 
 Antegucra i 
 
 CastilAzul ..si... 
 
 Debesa de losMoriles i, 
 
 Montermayor 
 
 Cordoba 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 16 
 27 
 24 
 9 
 21 
 24 
 18 
 14 
 20 
 
 24 
 20 
 10 
 18 
 
 8. EOAD EEOM SEVILLA TO CORDOBA. 
 
 Hispali . 
 Carmone 
 Obucnia. 
 Astigi .. 
 Addras.. 
 Corduba 
 
 Sevilla 
 
 Carraona 
 
 La Moncloa 
 
 Ecja 
 
 Venta de Slste Torres . 
 Cordoba 
 
 42 
 16 
 12 
 24 
 
 9. ROAD FROM SEVILLA TO SANTA PONCE. 
 
 Hiapali-. 
 Italica . 
 
 Sevilla 
 
 Santa Ponce . 
 
 10. ROAD FROM SEVILLA TO MlSRIDA.^ 
 
 Celti... 
 Reg rina 
 Perciana 
 Emerita, 
 
 
 Alflea delas Navaa ] 27 
 
 Rp^na 44 
 
 Villa Franca de los Barros 4i 
 
 Merida | 27 
 
 11. ROAD FROM CORDOBA TO EMERITA. 
 
 Corduba 
 
 McMaria .. 
 
 Artigi 
 
 Mottelliuuru 
 Etnerita 
 
 C'ordnba 
 
 Cerro del CnatellT 
 
 Despoldndo do Argallen 
 
 i\l(Ml6lliu. 
 
 Moiida 
 
 27 
 52 
 
 32 
 24 
 
 *It is tbe same road as No. 8 as far as Astigi. 
 
200 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Boman roads of Spain according to the itinerary of Antonino Augusta Garacalla — Cont'd. 
 12. KOAD FEOM OBISPO TO EMEEITA. 
 
 Ancient name of mansions. 
 
 Present name of ancient sites of mansions- 
 
 Miles. 
 
 
 Lisboa 
 
 
 Squabona 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 Setiibal 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 !ETandriana 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 13. ROAD FEOM SALA.CIA TO OSSOKOBA. 
 
 Salcia . . . 
 Aranni . . 
 Ossonoba 
 
 Alcacer-do-Sal 
 
 Between A]justrel and Castrorerde . 
 Faro 
 
 14. KOAD FROM OLTSIPO TO EMERITA.* 
 
 Olisipone 
 
 Aritio Praetorio 
 
 Abeltiero 
 
 Malnsaro 
 
 Ad Septem Aras 
 
 Badua 
 
 Plapiaria 
 
 Emerita 
 
 Lisboa 
 
 Oerca de Salvatierra 
 
 To the eaatof Almeyrim... 
 
 Ponte de Sor 
 
 Near Albuquerque 
 
 Nuestra Senora de Botoa . . 
 Dispoblado de laMatauza . 
 Merida 
 
 15. ANOTHER ROAD FROM OLISIPO TO EMERITA. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Soalabin .... 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 Plageraria 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10. EOAD FEOM OLISIPO TO BEA.CAEA. AUGUSTA. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 Sellium 
 
 
 
 Conembriga 
 
 CoudeiiaVelha 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 ]0 
 
 Talabriga 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17. ROAD FROM BRACARA TO ASTURICA. 
 
 Br.icara 
 
 Salacia 
 
 Praesidio 
 
 Caladuno — 
 
 Ad Aqnas 
 
 Pinetum 
 
 Koboretum . . . 
 
 Complentica.. 
 
 Veuiatla 
 
 Petavoniam . . 
 Argentiolum . 
 Asturica 
 
 Braga ... 
 
 AseJla . . . 
 G-ralhas . 
 
 Chaves , 
 
 Pentes , 
 
 Ruinas de Valdotelelhas . 
 
 Cafttrelo , 
 
 Vime , 
 
 Despoblado de Sansueua, 
 
 Near Distriana 
 
 Astorga , 
 
 * Dierent from No. 12. 
 
EUROPE — SPAIN. 201 
 
 Boman roads of Spain according to ilie itinerary of Antonio Augnsio CaracaUar-Vonfd, 
 ]8. ANOTHER ROAD FROM BRACAEA TO ASTURICA. 
 
 Anoiont name of manaions. 
 
 Prosont name of ancient sites of mansions. 
 
 Bracara 
 
 Salamaua 
 
 Aquis Origiuis 
 
 Aquis Querquennis 
 
 Geninas...-t. 
 
 Salentibus 
 
 Praesidio 
 
 Nenuto briga 
 
 "Foro 
 
 Geneatario 
 
 Bergido 
 
 Intesamnio Flavis . 
 Astunca 
 
 Braga 
 
 Tiavassos 
 
 Rio Caldo 
 
 Baftos dti Bande 
 
 Castillo do Saudias . 
 
 Tidira 
 
 Castro Oaldeilas 
 
 Puente Navrea 
 
 Close to Riia 
 
 Near Gestoso 
 
 Ruinas del Biargo .. 
 
 Onaraiol .' 
 
 Astorga 
 
 19. ANOTHER ROAD FROM BRACARA TO ASTURIOA. 
 
 Bracara 
 
 Liniia 
 
 Tiule.... 
 
 Burbida 
 
 Turogua 
 
 Aquis celoais . 
 
 Tria 
 
 Asseconia 
 
 Brevis 
 
 Martaie 
 
 Lnco Augnsti. 
 
 Timalino 
 
 Ponte Neviae . 
 
 TJltaris 
 
 Bergido 
 
 Xuteratnuco... 
 Asturica 
 
 Braga 
 
 Puente del Limia , 
 
 Tuy 
 
 Borbeu 
 
 Ruinas close to Turon. 
 
 Caamilia 
 
 Santa Maria de Tria 
 
 Quion 
 
 Mellid 
 
 Paente de Meryaboy . . 
 
 Lugo , 
 
 To the east of Baralla . . 
 
 Ndpgalea , 
 
 Ruinas del Bierzo 
 
 Onanial.. 
 Astorga . 
 
 20. ROAD BY THE COAST OF BRACARA. TO ASTURICA. 
 
 Bracara 
 
 Aqnis celenis ., 
 Vice Spacorum 
 Adduos pontes 
 Grandiroiro — 
 
 Triguudo 
 
 Brigantium 
 
 Caranico 
 
 Lnco August!. 
 
 Braga 
 
 Caldas de Roses . 
 
 Yigo 
 
 Pontevedra 
 
 Dimo 
 
 Puente Sigusiro . 
 
 Betanzas 
 
 La Grana 
 
 Lugo 
 
 21. ROAD FROM ESCERI TO PAX TULTA. 
 
 Esnri 
 
 Balsa 
 
 Ossanoba t 
 
 Serpa 
 
 Fines 
 
 Arucfii — 
 Pace iulia. 
 
 Castromarin.. 
 Near Tavira.. 
 
 Faro 
 
 Serpa 
 
 Near Pamogo . 
 
 Aroche 
 
 Beja 
 
 * Stadia. 
 
 f From here continues the road No. 13 as far as Salacia, and according to the road No, 12 to Ebora. 
 
202 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN F0KEI6N COUNTRIES. 
 
 Roman roadt of Spain according to the itinerary of Antonino Aiigvsto Caracalla — Cont'd. 
 
 22. EOAD FEOM ESUEI TO CASTEOMAEIN. 
 
 Ancient name of mansions. 
 
 Present names of ancient sites of mansions. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 MTrtili 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 Beja 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 23. ROAD PPvOM OSTIA PLUMINIS ANiE ATAMONTB. 
 
 Prsesidio 
 
 Ad nibras 
 
 Onoba 
 
 Ilipla 
 
 Tucci 
 
 Italica 
 
 Monte Mariorum 
 
 Curiga 
 
 Contributa 
 
 Perceiana 
 
 Emerita 
 
 Yillanueva de los CastillejoB 
 
 Cabezas rabias 
 
 Hnelva 
 
 Niebla 
 
 Kninas de Tejada 
 
 Santiponce 
 
 Puerto Moral 
 
 To the south of Monasterio 
 
 JJetween Medina de Jaa Torres and Calzadilla 
 
 Yillafranca de los Barros 
 
 Merida 
 
 24. ROAD FROM EMERITA TO C^SAR AUGUSTA. 
 
 Emerita 
 
 Ad sorores 
 
 Castriscsecili 
 
 Turmulos 
 
 RuBticiana 
 
 Capara 
 
 Cascilio Vico 
 
 Ad lippos 
 
 Sentice 
 
 Salmantice 
 
 Sabariam 
 
 OceloDurf 
 
 Albouela 
 
 Amallobriga 
 
 Septimanea . 
 
 Nivaria 
 
 Caaca... 
 
 Segovia 
 
 Miacum 
 
 Titulciam 
 
 Complutum 
 
 Arriaca 
 
 Caesada 
 
 JSegoiitia 
 
 Arcobriga 
 
 AquEB Bilbitanorum 
 
 Bilbili 
 
 Nertobriga 
 
 Segontia 
 
 CEBsar Augnsta 
 
 Merida 
 
 Baldio de Santiago - . . 
 
 Caceres 
 
 Ventas de Alconetar 
 
 Near Riobolos 
 
 Venta de Caparra 
 
 Puerto Bejar 
 
 Near Valdelascasas 
 
 trades 
 
 Salamanca 
 
 Torre del Sabre 
 
 Zamora 
 
 Toro* , 
 
 Deapoblado de Aronillas 
 
 Simancas 
 
 Deapoblado de Cardiel 
 
 Cuca 
 
 Segovia 
 
 Despoblado de los Meagnes 
 
 Bayonade Titulcia , 
 
 San Juan del Viso, near Alcalade Henares.. 
 
 G uadalDJara 
 
 Despabl ado de Monte 
 
 S igiienza , 
 
 Arcos de Medinaceli 
 
 Alhama de Aragon , 
 
 Caliitayua 
 
 Ualatoraa 
 
 Near Peraman , 
 
 Zaragoza , 
 
 25. ANOTHER ROAD FROM EMERITA TO C^aESAR AUGUSTA. 
 
 Emerita 
 
 Lacipea 
 
 Lenciuna 
 
 Angastobriga., 
 
 Toietum 
 
 Titulciam* 
 
 Merida , 
 
 Villavieja 
 
 Valdecaballeros. 
 
 Toledo , 
 
 Bavuna de Titulcia . 
 
 26. ROAD FROM ASTURICA TO CiESAR AUGUSTA. 
 
 Asturica 
 
 Bedunia 
 
 Brigeco 
 
 Vico Affuario 
 Ocelo duri — 
 
 Astorga 
 
 San M artin de Torres 
 
 Villabrazaro 
 
 Despoblado de Castro-Torafe . 
 Zamora 
 
 * From bore the road No. 24 continues to Caesar Augusta. 
 
EUROPE — SPAIN. 203 
 
 Soman roads of Spain according to the itinerary of Antonio Augusta Caracalla — Cont'd. 
 27. ANOTHER EOAD FROM ASTUEICA TO CJJSAE ATJGITSTA. 
 
 Ancient name of manslODs. 
 
 Present name of ancient sites of mansiona. 
 
 MUes. 
 
 Aaturioa. 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 Intercantia . .. 
 
 
 20 
 
 Tela 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 PiDtian 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 Koa 
 
 40 
 
 Cluniam - , 
 
 
 26 
 
 Uxamam 
 
 
 24 
 
 Volace 
 
 
 25 
 
 Nnmantia .. ., 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 Turiasone 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 Caesar Angasta.. . . .. ._ .. 
 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 28. EOAD FROM TUEIASO TO C^SAR AUGUSTA. 
 
 Turiasone 
 
 Tarazona 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 29. KOAD OF EMERITA TO U^SAK AUGUSTA BT LUSITAITIA. 
 
 Emerita 
 
 Metellinum 
 
 Contosolia , 
 
 Mirobriga 
 
 Sisapone , 
 
 Curcuvjum . . . . , 
 
 Orelura 
 
 Ad Turres 
 
 Mariana 
 
 Kaminl 
 
 Alces 
 
 Vice Cuminario 
 Titalciam 
 
 .Merida... 
 Med ellin . , 
 
 Capilla 
 
 Almaden 
 
 Caracuel 
 
 Nuostra Sefiora de Oreto 
 
 Nuestra Sefiora de las Virtudes, 
 
 Nuestra SbSora de Marieua 
 
 Cerro de la Mesa .l....... 
 
 Near Miguel Eateban 
 
 Despablado de Dancos 
 
 Bayona de Titnlcia 
 
 30. ROAB FROM LAMIKIUM: TO T0LBTT7M. 
 
 Laminio . 
 Murom .. 
 CoTisabro 
 Tele turn . 
 
 Cerra de la Mesa 
 
 Despablado, two leagues from Villaharta. 
 
 Conauegra 
 
 Toledo -. 
 
 31. EOAD FROM LAMINIUM TO C^SAE AUGUSTA. 
 
 liSTOinio 
 
 Caput fluminis anie 
 
 Labiaosia 
 
 Parietinis 
 
 Saltici 
 
 Ad putea or Ad puUem 
 
 Yalebonga 
 
 Urbiaca 
 
 Albonica 
 
 Agiria 
 
 Carte 
 
 Sermone 
 
 Bilbilia -- 
 
 Cerro de la Mesa 
 
 Nacimiento del Guadiana.. 
 
 Lezuza 
 
 Pairazos Viejos 
 
 Chinchilla 
 
 Niipstra SefiorA de Belen . . , 
 
 Valbona , 
 
 (Jonoud 
 
 Despoblado de Gallel , 
 
 Near VUlafraD ca 
 
 Yillacadima 
 
 Luco 
 
 Calatayud 
 
 32. ROAD FROM ASTURICA TO TARRACO. 
 
 Asturica... 
 
 Yallata 
 
 Interamnio 
 
 Palantia . . . 
 
 Astorga 
 
 Valladaugos .-. 
 Near Antimio. . 
 Near Reliegos . 
 
204 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN F0EEI6N COUNTRIES. 
 
 Roman roads of Spain according to the itinerary of Antonino Jugtisto Caracalla — Cont'd. 
 33. EOAD FEOM CaiSAH AUGTTSTA TO BENEAENEEM. 
 
 Ancient name of mansions. 
 
 Present name of ancient sites of mansions. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Caesar Augusta... 
 
 Foro gallorum 
 
 Ebellino 
 
 Tacca...^ 
 
 Sammo Pyreneo. 
 
 Zaragoza 
 
 Guixea del Gallego . . . 
 Llind's del Marcuello . 
 
 Taoa 
 
 Puerto de Canfran 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 24 
 
 34. EOAD EEOM HISPANIA TO AGHITANIA. 
 
 Tindeleia 
 
 Deobriga 
 
 Jicleia 
 
 Suissatio 
 
 TuUonio , 
 
 Alba 
 
 Araceli 
 
 Alantone 
 
 I'onipelouo 
 
 Torisa 
 
 Summo Pyreneo. 
 
 Santa Maria de Bivarredonda. 
 
 Puentelari'A 
 
 Kear Estavillo 
 
 Zuazo 
 
 Towards Ascarza 
 
 Salvatierra 
 
 Arbize6 
 
 Pamplona 
 
 Towards Espinal 
 
 Puerto de Eoncesvalles . 
 
 12 
 14 
 15 
 13 
 
 7 
 12 
 21 
 Id 
 
 8 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 EOAD MAKING IN SPAIN. 
 
 General jplan. — Beads are of three classes. Those of the first being 
 8 ; those of the second 7, and those of the third 6 metres in width. 
 
 Eoads of the first order are the most useful and important. They are 
 generally the thoroughfares that connect Madrid with the capitals of 
 the provinces, the departments of the navy, and the principal ports of 
 the kingdom ; the branches that lead to some of these points from a 
 railroad or a highway of the first order, those which join two or more 
 railroads passing by a city of not less than 15,000 inhabitants, and those 
 which unite two or more highways of the first order, passing by some 
 capital or center of population or traffic, either of the interior or coast, 
 provided it exceeds 20,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Roads of the second order are those which place two provincial 
 capitals in communication, those which connect a railroad with, a high- 
 way of the first order, those which starting from a railroad or a high: 
 way of the first class terminates in a head town (a town that is not 
 under the jurisdiction of another) or one that has a population of more 
 than 10,000 and those which in the Balearic Islands put the capital iu 
 communication with other seaport towns or unite points of production 
 and exportation. 
 
 Eoads of the third order are those which do not come under any of 
 the foregoing definitions. Eoads of the third order are generally use- 
 ful to one or two towns only. 
 
 Plans and specifications of a road determine its route, longitudinal 
 and transversal outlines, cubical movement of earth, etc., gives a 
 
EUROPE — SPAIN. 205 
 
 description of the work and estimate of its cost, and states whether it 
 is to be built of the ground and material adjacent to the road or of ma- 
 terial to be brought from a distance. 
 
 Direction or route of a highway or the points it is to serve are always 
 based upon political commercial or strategic considerations and reduces 
 the problem to a search for the most available route between the deter- 
 mined points. If there be no impediment it is clearly understood that 
 the most direct should be selected, but sometimes on account of the 
 ownership of certain lands being vested in influential parties, ecclesias- 
 tical or civil corporations, and for many other reasons arising from the 
 topography of the country between the given points it has been found 
 convenient in Spain to make indirect and curved roads. It has also 
 been customary to follow the bed of streams, such routes offering the 
 lines of least resistance. 
 
 Grades, etc. The upward slope of a Spanish road must not exceed 5 
 centimetres to the metre. The water shed or transversal slopes must not 
 rise to exceed 2 centimetres to the metre. At the sHes of each road are 
 paths that are used by the road overseers for places to deposit material 
 for repairs. These paths are also used by footmen and as places for the 
 erection of posts, etc. The outside margins of these T)aths terminate in 
 gutters, into which the lateral slopes of the road are expected to precipi^ 
 tate dust and rain. Suburban roads are sometimes paved with granite 
 blocks and asphalt, or with a concrete of broken stones, lime, sand, 
 gravel, and clay, but it is seldom that a country road is constructed of 
 any other material than that of the adjoining land. 
 
 HISTORY or UOAD BUILDING. 
 
 Highways, such as are known to the present age, did not exist in 
 Spain before the middle of the eighteenth century. Before this date 
 Spanish roads were sirnply paths. Eeforms were inaugurated, but in 
 almost every case by private individuals, who, encountering more or 
 less difficulty, built bridges across the principal rivers. The foregoing 
 does not mean that there were no roads in Spain during the middle 
 age, for there are documents which show that some attention was paid 
 to road building, but it is impossible to unite such documents and 
 ascertain clearly the extent of such undertakings, neither can they be 
 compared with what has since been done. 
 
 In 1749 Fernando VI constructed the highway from Eeinoso to San- 
 tander, and some pieces of the Guadarrama, employing soldiers for the 
 work. To this and to the building of some roads in the Vascongada 
 and Navarra provinces is limited all that was done in 12 years in this 
 branch of public work. 
 
 In 1761 the government first commenced to fix its attention upon the 
 subject and to dictate regulations for the classification, construction, 
 and conservation of general highways, paying particular attention to 
 the roads from Madrid to the royal resorts, and from Madrid to Barce- 
 lona, 
 
206 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The dispositions of 1761 and tbe modiflcatious of 1778 were unsuc- 
 cessfal, and no real advancement was made. 
 
 In 179J: the supervision and building of public roads was delegated 
 to a special bureau of the government. But this, too, proved unsatis- 
 factory on account of a lack of road-building intelligence in the per- 
 sonnel of the bureau. The only good roads of that time were built 
 under the direction of foreign engineers, or of the Spanish militarj- 
 engineers, whose knowledge of such undertakings was vastly superior 
 to that of the bureau that the state intrusted with the work. 
 
 Up to this time, right ideas as to permanent estimates of expendi- 
 tures for preserving and constructing roads, and as to material, etc., 
 were not dominant. This will be readily understood when it is known 
 that at the end of the past century there were in Spain only 2,000 
 kilometres of road, in a fearful state of conservation, and 605 bridges 
 to show as the results of over 50 years of endeavor. 
 
 Nothing better can be said of the present century until the year 1834. 
 But it is just to say that now progress of a substantial character is 
 being made. The wars that have received the energies and treasureof 
 the country explain the fact that up to the year above cited the sum 
 total of highways had reached but 4,700 kilometres, and they were in 
 a wretched state of preservation. 
 
 lu 1833 a bureau of roads, highways and canals was created, and a 
 special school established for the education of civil engineers. This 
 school graduated its first corps of engineers in 1839. At the end of the 
 first Carlist war, attention was again aroused upon the bettering and 
 repairing of public highways, and some repairing was done, and a few 
 new roads commenced from Madrid to the coasts and frontier. Devel- 
 opment was, however, very slow, because even though the state had 
 good plans and intentions, they could not be executed because of the 
 bad state of the treasury. The bureau struggled against these difiScul- 
 ties, and at the opportune moment was able to dictate amendments to 
 the existing law. Thus in 1842 a law was adopted which brought into 
 existence a national corps of roadbuilders. They are called peones 
 camineros, and are classified and uniformed, and are employed by the 
 state in building and repairing roads. They constitute a distinct branch 
 of the public service. This change was important, and soon placed 
 experienced workmen under intelligent direction. 
 
 From 1834 to 1856 4,800 kilometres of road were completed, and 3,000 
 more projected. 
 
 At the present time, according to the latest data (1888), the length of 
 the completed public roads of Spain is as follows : 
 
 Kilometres. 
 
 First order 6,873 
 
 Second order 8,338 
 
 Third order 11,097 
 
 Total 26,308 
 
EUEOPE — SPAIN, 207 
 
 The kilometre equals 0.621376 of a mile. 
 
 In addition to the above amount there are 31,000 kilometres pro- 
 jected. I mean by this that no work has been done on the 31,000 kilo- 
 metres, but that part of the legal preliminary steps have been taken 
 to establish additional roads aggregating that length. 
 
 GENEKAL KOAD SYSTEM. 
 
 Koads of the first, second, and third order form what is called the 
 general system. 
 
 Modifications of the general system, — To iutroduce a road into this sys- 
 tem it is necessary to draft a memorial outlining the proposed route. 
 This is submitted to the city councils along the proposed line, to the 
 provincial assembly, to the council of agricultural industry and com- 
 merce, to the chief engineer of the province, and to the civil governor 
 of the province, who forwards it to the miuistro de fomento, who con- 
 sults with the council of roads, canals, and ports and determines 
 whether the proposition to include the road in the general system shall 
 be submitted to the Cortes. This minister determines whether the road 
 shall be assigned to the first, second, or third order. 
 
 The above is also the mode of procedure when it is desired to vacate 
 some road or part of a road included in the general system. 
 
 Formation of plans, — It is the duty of the ministro do fomento to pro- 
 pose plans within the legislative credits provided for making roads, 
 always confining such propositions to highways of the general system. 
 The approbation of all plans for highways belongs to this oflficer, who, 
 upon information derived from the chief engineer of the province and 
 the council of roads, canals, and ports, drafts the royal order of ap- 
 proval. After the approval of a plan it can only be modified by going 
 through anew the process of formation. 
 
 Construction and repairing. — No road can be constructed until it has 
 been classified and its plan approved by the ministro de fomento. 
 
 Bach year the amount to be spent upon public roads is fixed and a 
 specified sum designated for each class. In this way a harmonious de- 
 velopment of the system is intended. In arranging expenditures pref- 
 erence is given to roads that have been left in an unfinished state. 
 
 The building of roads is let by contract to private corporations or 
 individuals, or performed under the direction of the engineer corps of 
 the council of roads, canals, and ports. If let to contractors the inter- 
 ests of the Government are guarded by a commission selected by this 
 council! 
 
 The Government can impose separate taxes and tolls on roads for re- 
 pairs and construction. 
 
 PKOVINCIAL KOADS. 
 
 The provinces also have their system of roads. The board of public 
 works of each province forms and presents to the diputaoion (provin- 
 cial assembly) a plan which includes all the highways that are of in- 
 
208 STREKTS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 terest to the province and determines the order of construction and 
 improvement. This plan is placed before the public from 30 to 60 days, 
 with all its details, for examination. During this time it is examined 
 and discussed by the city councils of the province and by interested 
 citizens. At the end of the time specified the diputacion examines the 
 observations of the board of public works, of those of the provincial 
 council of agriculture, industry, and commerce, and to those of the 
 chief engineer of the province, aud decides what shall be included in 
 the system of public roads that shall be requested of the department 
 of fomento. When this is done the civil governor of the province 
 forwards the plan of the diputacion, with a proper memorial, to the 
 ministro de fomento, who, after consulting the council of roads, canals, 
 and ports, decides definitely what shall be granted. If he is favorable 
 to the plan admitted, it is immediately announced by royal decree. 
 
 The same procedure is followed in adding to a system of provincial 
 roads or in vacating them in whole or in part. If the plans do not 
 affect the public domain, the approval of the diputacion is sufficient, 
 otherwise they must also be approved by the civil governor. In either 
 case the chief engineer of the province^is consulted, and if there should 
 be a disagreement it is adjusted by the ministro de fomento. 
 
 Building and repairing. — Work on a road can not be commenced until 
 the estimated cost is provided for in the provincial budget. Eepairing 
 x){ roads must be paid from special funds collected for such purpose. 
 If a road is to be paid for from the general funds of the province the 
 submitted plans must so state. • 
 
 The same rules, as to contractors, prevail in the province as in the 
 state, inspection, etc., being delegated to the chief engineer of the prov- 
 ince and officers of the board of public works. 
 
 The ministro de fomento can also inspect the building of such roads, 
 and if not satisfied must communicate at once with the diputacion of 
 the province, which must take immediate steps to remedy the defects 
 cited. If the diputacion refuses to act, then the civil engineer of the 
 province, in conjunction with the civil governor, must see that the work 
 conforms to the requirements of the departmento de fomento. When 
 a road is completed it must be accepted by the chief engineer of the 
 province before it is used by the public. This is indispensable, and if 
 any dispute arises regarding the acceptance it is taken first before the 
 civil governor, whose decision can be reviewed and set aside by the 
 ministro de fomento. 
 
 The provincial diputacion may levy tolls and taxes on the roads of 
 the province to create a fund for building and repairing. It is neces- 
 sary, however, to first secure the consent of the ministro de fomento to 
 such levies. 
 
 KOADS AFJi'EClING TWO PROVINCES. 
 
 In such cases each province prepares a plan aud sends it to the 
 ministro de fomento, and if he should not approve either plan he is 
 authorized to decide what shall be done without more ado. 
 
EUROPE — SPAIN. 209 
 
 BIGHWAYS SUPPORTED BY MIXED FUNDS. 
 
 These are roads that for various reasons are built and supported 
 jointly by the state and a province. The chief reason for these mixed 
 funds is the necessity of the road tor the welfare of the province and 
 of its financial inability to build it without aid from the general gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 RURAL ROADS. 
 
 By royal decree of April 7, 1848, the law of May 28, 1849, and that 
 of May 4, 1877, all roads of interest to particular towns, cities, or local- 
 ities were called caminos vecinales. They are not included in the 
 system of national or provincial highways. They are aJso known as - 
 caminos rurales, i. e., rural roads. 
 
 The construction and conservation of these roads have at times been 
 under the control of the general government, and at other times munic- 
 ipalities have supervised and built them. Tliis responsibility has been 
 from the beginning of the present century in harmony with the ten- 
 dencies of different governments towards centralization or local self- 
 government. 
 
 The law of July 22, 1859, scheduled these roads as highways of the 
 third class and placed them under the control of the general government. 
 The law of November 14, 1868, placed them again under the control of 
 city governments, and the laws of December 29, 1876, May 4, 1877, and 
 regulations of August 10, originated the present mixed system. By 
 this system city councils must provide for the roads under their juris- 
 diction which are those that have been constructed to satisfy the needs 
 of their locality and are not therefor a part of the national system. 
 
 In order to secure a new road of this class its plans must be drafted 
 by the engineer of public works under the authorization of the city 
 council. This draft is submitted to the inspection of the public and 
 any citizen can file objections to it. In the course of time the council 
 considers the plan together with any objections that may have been 
 filed, after which it is sent to the civil governor of the province, accom- 
 panied by an appropriate memorial. The governor then submits the 
 plans, etc., to the civil engineer and to the provincial assembly (dipu- 
 tacion), after which it is returned to him with their findings for his 
 disposition. Should the plan not meet with his approval he must re- 
 turn it to the city council with his objections. If the council refuse to 
 accept his conclusions the whole matter is by appeal brought before 
 the miiiistro de fomeuto at Madrid for final solution. Two or more 
 towns or cities may be interested in the construction and maintenance 
 of a road and there may be questions as at what point the responsi- 
 bility of one ends and another commences. One may desire the build- 
 ing of a new road and another be unwilling to share the expense, etc. 
 In all such cases the line of procedure is the same. The city councils 
 .send plans and memorials to the civil governor who confers with the 
 33A 14 
 
210 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 civil engineer and with the dipatacion of the province before rendering 
 his decision, which can be received and set aside by the ministro de 
 fomento. Cities of less than 2,000 inhabitants can not submit plans, 
 neither can those that are without resources to execute them. Cities 
 that are satisfied with the facilities offered them by the system of na- 
 tional and provincial roads can not be compelled to assist in construct- 
 ing rural or local ones. 
 
 The execution of the work of building a road can be let by contract, 
 which is sold to the lowest responsible bidder. The bids are sealed, 
 etc. Or it can be perfor med under the direction of a civil engineer se- 
 lected by the city council from among persons of known professional 
 rank and aptitudes. 
 
 As soon as plans have been approved the council must take imme- 
 diate steps to complete the work. 
 
 The city council can, by securing the consent of the ministro de haci- 
 enda, impose and collect tolls for the use of the roads under their con- 
 trol. Application is made for this privilege to the ministro de hacienda 
 through the department of the ministro de fomeuto. 
 
 PKIVATE ROADS. 
 
 These include all roads for the use of mines and other industrial 
 works and roads of private estates. Such roads can be opened by first 
 obtaining the consent of the civil governor of the province. If it 
 becomes necessary for an individual to open a private road through the 
 estate of a neighbor, the consent of the civil governor, who condemus 
 the property of the route selected aud assesses all damages, must be 
 obtained. All expenses of procedure, condemnation, and damage must 
 be paid by the party who petitions for the road. 
 
 If, iu the course of time, a private road becomes desirable to the pub. 
 lie, it is condemned as a private road and purchased for public use. 
 
 CKITICISM. 
 
 The defects of the foregoing laws and regulations of Spanish road 
 building are plain. The activity of diputacion of the province and of 
 city councils in constructing roads is dampened by the most absurd 
 centralization of power in the ministro de fomento. The general gov- 
 ernment puts its hand upon or intervenes in the construction of tiio 
 most insignificant local road, and by a complex system for a simple 
 branch of public work uselessly consumes the energies of local assem- 
 blies of cities and provinces in addition to killing by slow degrees the 
 spiritof local enterprise, which, if left to itself, wo uld carry out the proj-. 
 ects it initiates. 
 
 COST OF EOADS. 
 
 The original cost of roads depends upon the topography of the coun- 
 try. The material used is generally the adjacent soil. 
 
 I have not been able to secure information as to the first cost of 
 roads, but 1 hazard the opinion that road-building in Spain is exi^enslve, 
 
, EUROPE SPAIN. 211 
 
 for, although labor is cheap, it is a primitive kind, and in the end is 
 more expensive than so-called high-priced labor of modern methods 
 and implements. For instance, grading and leveling are done •with 
 material that are carried to position in small baskets balanced on the 
 heads of laborers, who walk leisurely back and forth between the road- 
 bed and the situation of the material. Each basket holds about three 
 shovelfuls. Such a workman earns from 40 to 60 cents per day, but 
 it should be remembered that the ro ad-builder who uses modern meth- 
 ods and earns from $2.50 to $3 per day c an easily do in from 8 to 10 hours 
 ten times as much as the lirst- mentioned can in his working day of 10 
 or 12 hours. In extensive works the patient and slow-going donkey is 
 substituted for the man with the basket. Each donkey is equipped 
 with large saddle-bags made of Spanish grass, a kind of hemp. The 
 pockets of these bags, one of which hangs on each side, are loaded 
 with material. Forty or fifty of these animals and their attendants 
 constitute a gang, and pass to and from the place of loading to the 
 roadbed, sometimes with and at others without drivers. A gang or 
 herd of donkeys and the men who load and unload them can not accom- 
 plish more in a day than could be done by a team of good horses, a 
 revolving scraper, and 2 men. 
 
 STREET-B UILDING. 
 
 All these methods of road-building are true of street-making also. 
 Instead of steam rollers a nd crushers, men level the streets with huge 
 mauls. The annual cost of preserving the roads of Spain is about 600 
 pesetas per kilometre. In the province of Cadiz there are 375 kilo- 
 metres, the care of which for 1890 cost 307,500 pesetas, or 820 pesetas 
 per kilometre. In addition, the engineers and other road officials re- 
 ceived about 37,000 pes etas in salaries and office rent. 
 
 In some of the provin ces the cost of caring for the roads is as high 
 as 1,400 pesetas, and in others as low as 400 pesetas per, kilometre. 
 
 Of street-making I can say nothi ng that would be of interest. The 
 cities of this part of Spain are of Moorish pattern and the streets are 
 narrow and crooked. The systems of paving, etc., are like the sewer 
 systems, obsolete. 
 
 Streets are named by city councils and change with the governments, 
 as each city council desires to do honor to celebrated men by naming 
 the streets of the city for them. Thus there are in almost every city of 
 Spain streets called Galle Oastelar, Calle Isaac Peral, Galle Sagasta, 
 
 etc. 
 
 The houses are numbered, the odd nu mbers on one side the even on 
 the other. The system goes no further, and streets are never num- 
 bered. 
 
 E. W. TUKNEE, 
 
 Consul, 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 (Jadis, Spain, February 4, 1891. 
 
212 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 SEPOBT BY CONSUL BOWEN. OF BARCELONA. 
 COUNTRY ROADS OR HIGHWAYS IN SPAIN. 
 
 In Spain country roads or highways are either national or provincial. 
 Those that are national are paid for by the nation, and those that are 
 provincial are constructed under the management of provincial com- 
 mittees who spend not any fixed sum, during any term of years, but 
 Such sums as from time to time their work requires. Each province 
 has a provincial committee. The national roads are equally cared for 
 throughout Spain, and are declared, officially, to be equally good. The 
 provincial roads, on the contrary, vary ; those in the wealthier and 
 more public-spirited provinces are equal to the national roads, while 
 those in the poorer and more lethargic provinces are hardly worthy of 
 comparison with anything except, perhaps, with one another. The 
 material used is principally small, compact, hard stone, sometimes 
 granite, sometimes limestone, and sometimes sandstone, according to 
 the locality ; and the system of construction is always that that was 
 conceived by Macadam. The cost of construction depends on the kind 
 of stone used, and in the distance it is drawn, but it never rises higher 
 than 32 cents nor lower than 21 cents the square metre for an average 
 thickness of 20 centimetres. The annual expenditure for repairs 
 amounts to 3f cents the square metre. It is the opinion of all the bi- 
 cyclists with whom I have talked in Spain that the roads in northern 
 Spain are fairly good, while the roads in southern Spain are execrable. 
 The president of one of the three bicycle clubs in this city of Barcelona 
 assured me that Spanish roads are not to be compared with those of 
 France or England, but that he hopes, now that the Spanish Govern- 
 ment has a bicycle branch in its post-office department, that the roads 
 of Spain will be made equal to any in the world ; and he believes that 
 no opposition will be made by the tax-payers, nor by those that will 
 have to pay assessments, as the past has proven conclusively that im- 
 proved roads improve the value of adjacent land, and I have no doubt 
 that he also believes that they improve the owners by bringing them 
 into easier and, therefore, closer communication with one another and 
 with the rest of the world. 
 
 Herbert W. Bowen, 
 
 Consul. 
 Barcelona, Spain, December IS, 1890. 
 
EUROPE — SPAIN. 213 
 
 BARCELONA. 
 
 JtUPOBT BT CONSUL BOWEN. 
 CITY STREETS OF BAEOBLONA. 
 
 The corporation of the city of Barcelona is charged with the con. 
 struction and x^reservation of the pavements of the streets, and conse- 
 quently pays the costs of new as well as of the maintenance of old 
 streets. As a rule the owners of contiguous realty are not required to 
 bear directly any part of the cost, but in special cases, as for instance 
 when a new road is made for the benefit of the proprietor of a Iqrge 
 building, or of a block of houses, the first cost is borne by individuals, 
 but only the first cost. 
 
 The city of Barcelona is divided into two parts, of which one is the 
 old city and the other is the new city, or "ensanche." The greater num- 
 ber of the streets in the old city are paved with stone, while only a few 
 are paved with wood, asphalt, cement, cylindrical pegs, and with flags. 
 Of the stone pavements a part were laid over 15 years ago, and consist 
 of sandstone procured from quarries near to the city, and collocated or 
 laid on a foundation or bed of sand from 12 to 14 centimetres deep. 
 
 They are placed at a distance of a centimetre from one another, and 
 the intervening space is not filled with mortar or any other prepara- 
 tion, but with coarse sand. The pavements of stone laid since 15 years 
 ago consist of harder stone, more or less silicious, brought from quarries 
 distant from Barcelona and laid on a well-moistened foundation of sand 
 12 centimetres deep. The stones of this pavement are from 9 to 10 
 centimetres wide, 18 to 20 centimetres long, and 16 to 18 centimetres 
 high. The old stone pavements cost from 15 to 16 pesetas per surface 
 metre, while those laid during the last 15 years cost from 22 to 23 
 pesetas ; but the difference is to be accounted for principally by the 
 difference in the charges of transportation from the neighboring and 
 from the distant quarries. 
 
 In the construction of wooden pavements in the old city, a plaster 
 foundation was first laid, 15 centimetres deep, upon which were then 
 placed blocks of the red pine of northern Europe or of the Swedish fir, 
 8 centimetres wide, from 18 to 20 long, and 15 high. These blocks 
 were then cemented together with a mixture of Portland cement, fine 
 sand, and water. To prevent the putrefaction of the blocks they were 
 subjected to a bath of creosote and sulphate of iron. The pavements 
 recently laid were constructed by contract with the conditions prece- 
 dent that 20 years' time be given in which to pay for them, and that 
 the cost per surface metre be from 25 to 26 pesetas, including the cost 
 of maintenance during the 20 years. 
 
 The asphalt pavements that have been laid in the old city cost from 
 10 to 14 pesetas the metre, but they have proven unsatisfactory, as they 
 were not laid with due respect to the terms of the contract. 
 
 Flag pavements have also been laid at a cost of 16 pesetas, and 
 
214 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COttNTRIfig. 
 
 although they have proven satisfactory for the use of carriages, they 
 have not acquired general popularity. 
 
 At present several new kinds of pavement are being laid and tested. 
 One kind is an artificial cement pavement, which consists of a hydraulic 
 plaster from 10 to 12 centimetres thick, on which is laid a cover of Port- 
 land cement from 4 to 5 centimetres deep, mixed with coarse sand, and 
 then rigidly rolled and compressed. The durability of this pavement 
 is said to be great, and it is well adapted for the use of carriages and 
 bicycles. Another kind consists of pegs that are made from the 
 branches or trunks of the oak tree, and that are 10 centimetres long, 
 and from 3 to 6 centimetres in diameter. These pegs are laid verti- 
 cally over a layer of stone broken in pieces from 4 to 5 centimetres in 
 size, and rigidly rolled and compressed, and covered with a coating of 
 coarse sand from 5 to 6 centimetres thick. The spaces between 
 the pegs are filled with sand. The cost of this kind of pavement is 
 about 11 pesetas the surface meter. 
 
 In the new city, or " ensanche," the streets are of great length and of 
 a width that is never less thau 20 metres and that attains sometimes 
 30, 50, and even 60 metres. In fact they compare favorably with the 
 very finest streets in the world. The pavements laid there are, for 
 reaosns of economy, made from stone brought from the neighboring 
 quarries of Montjuich. The system employed is that of macadam. 
 As all the finest residences of Barcelona are in the "ensanche," and as 
 it is growing rapidly in extent and beauty, doubtless the finest modern 
 pavements will soon be demanded by the people there and substituted 
 for the macadam pavements, which are not altogether satisfactory to 
 those who cultivate nerves and aspire to repose of manner and speech. 
 As a rule the streets of the entire city of Barcelona compare favorably 
 with those of the other large cities of Spain. One million three hundred 
 thousand pesetas are expended annually in the maintenance of old pave- 
 ments, and 600,000 pesetas in the construction of new pavements, and 
 yet the authorities are not satisfied with the work done. They recog- 
 nize the fact that a civilized people should be satisfied with only the 
 perfection of pavement. 
 
 Herbert W. Bowen, 
 
 United States Consulate, Consul, 
 
 Barcelona, January 10, 1891. 
 
 CARTHAGENA. 
 
 REPORT BY CONSUL ilOLlNA. 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 Carthagena and Murcia are the only towns in this province and dis- 
 trict in which any care is taken to improve the street pavements. It is 
 only 16 years ago that the municipalities began paving the principal 
 streets without any difference as to those of light and heavy trafi&c. 
 
EUROPE — SPAIN. 215 
 
 The streets in this town and in Murcia are laid witli pavement blocks 
 of gritty stone of an. excellent quality from quarries near Valencia. 
 The blocks measure 13J inches in length by 6| inches in width by 6 to 
 to 6^ inches in depth. They are badly cut, having an exaggerated 
 wedge form, the bottom face looking very reduced, and for tbis reason 
 they can not be laid on sand as are the well cut stone blocks in the 
 streets of Madrid and other places. Here they are laid in mortar, i. e,, 
 a mixture of clay and sand with which the joints are also filled up. 
 
 There is no sort of foundation used but the natural substratum, 
 which is previously leveled and rammed, it being so soft that the heavy 
 traffic streets are full of hollows shortly after they are paved. 
 
 The cost of the aforesaid blocks free and ready in Carthagena per 
 square meter (equal to 10.76 square feet) is from $1.40 to $1.80, the cost 
 of the labor and other materials being from 30 cents to 50 cents per 
 square meter. 
 
 The Carthagena town corporation is, however, actually using as a trial 
 in some of the heavy traffic streets paving stone blocks of other sorts 
 and sizes, some imported from Belgium and made out of smelted slag 
 from blasting furnaces, etc., and also blocks cut from limestone quarries 
 in Mazarron, 16 miles to the west of this port. 
 
 The Belgian blocks measure 10.76 square feet for every 52 blocks, 
 and they cost at this port $3.05. 
 
 These are laid, after the substratum is iiroperly rammed, on sand 
 covered with a very light mixture of oue-fourth sand and remainder 
 Portland cement. 
 
 Full cost of square metre, including labor, sand, and cement, is $4. 
 
 The footpaths or sidewalks are now built, in general, with bands or 
 edges of square stones, and the remainder made as follows: First, a 
 base, 2J inches thick, of small gravel; second, on this IJ iuches of a 
 mixture of mortar and gravel ; and third and last, a finish of mortar, 
 i. e., mixture of Portland cement and sand of one-half to 2 inches thick- 
 ness, which, in the shape of ilag spotted stones, makes the pavement 
 proper. 
 
 This pavement costs from 50 to 70 cents per square metre and is giv- 
 ing excellent results. 
 
 The maintenance, however, of the streets is very much neglected, 
 although great sums of money are spent thereon. 
 
 HIGHWAYS. 
 
 As it happens that the principal highways are constructed and main- 
 tained by the Government and the secondary ones by the provincial 
 deputations, the municipalities therefore only takes care of the country 
 road's, which, as a rule, are nearly neglected to the extent that transit 
 is almost impossible in many of them, especially in winter. Most of the 
 country roads are made only of natural trampling, whilst in others, near 
 the towns, the rubbish is used, and in some small stones (if they are 
 found near the place) are thrown over the surface in both cases. 
 
216 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POKEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 With regard to the highways constructed by the Grovernment, the 
 substratum is composed of, lirst, 4 to 6 inches of lime or silicious stones, 
 although sometimes all stones of sufBcient hardness, broken over the 
 very spots on which they have to be laid, to a depth of not over 2| 
 inches; second, another layer of stone of 2 to 4 inches in thickness on the 
 sides by 4 to 6 inches thickness on the center of the roads. These are 
 broken outside until the largest of the stones reaches a dimension not 
 exceeding about If to 2 inches, and afterwards laid on the first layer ; 
 third, land mixed with very small gravel to level the roads and fill up 
 hollows is laid over all. The whole is then compressed by rollers. This 
 operation is aided also, when practicable, by water. 
 
 The cost is very variable, according to the quality of the stone and 
 the distances at which they are found ; but the average price can be 
 calculated thus : Collecting 1 cubic metre of stone found loose on the 
 "ramblas" (dry riverbeds) or about the fields, from 10 to 15 cents; 
 stones cut from quarries, 25 to 30 cents per cubic metre; cartage, 1 
 cubic metre of stone about 3 miles, 8 to 10 cents; breaking 1 cubic 
 metre of stone for the first layer, 20 cents ; breaking 1 cubic metre of 
 stone for the second layer, from 25 to 35 cents. 
 
 OiRiLO Molina y Cmo, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Carthagena, January 10, 1891. 
 
 DENIA. 
 
 REPORT BY COXSUL 3IALMR0S. 
 
 STREETS. 
 
 The streets of Denia and other towns in this consular district are 
 common mud streets, unprovided with pavements, gutters, drainage 
 canals or substructures of any kind, except such as unassisted nature 
 has furnished. The only attempt made to improve the streets consists 
 in occasionally dumping into them some cartloads of rocks of all sizes, 
 from that of a human head to that of a walnut. The condition of the 
 streets consequent upon this treatment is such that this kind of im- 
 provement, if such it may be called, can not be recommended as an 
 example to be followed elsewhere. 
 
 IMPROYED COUNTRY ROADS. 
 
 A macadamized road leads from Deniato the town of Ondara, whence 
 it branches off into three different directions. This road is 5 metres 
 wide, with a sidewalk on each side of 1 metre wide, flanked by ditches 
 of 0.90 metre in width. 
 
EUROPE — SPAIN. 
 
 217 
 
 The following plan of a cross-sectioD of the road shows its construe- 
 tioii and the dimensions of its several parts. It is taken from a portion 
 of the road 1 liilometre in length, of almost perfectly level surface and 
 possessing no features entailing extra expenses,. as, for example, for 
 bridges. 
 
 tcoar 
 
 Plan of a crosa-section of the road from Denia to Ondara. 
 
 After the excavation for the road has been made, as above indicated, 
 and the ground beeu firmly beaten down, the first layer of stones is 
 put on consisting of irregularly broken-up stones of from about 5 to 7 
 centimetres on the longest side. The second layer consists of the same 
 kind of stones, but of smaller size, being from 3 to 5 centimetres long on 
 the side of their greatest dimensions. These two layers are each 5 metres 
 wide, while the third or top layer, extending as it does over the sidewalks, 
 as well as over the road proper, is 7 metres wide. This last layer is com- 
 posed of, as nearly as may be, equal parts of coarse, sandy gravel and 
 of clayey soil. The quantity of stone and gravel required for the con- 
 struction of the above-mentioned 1 kilometre of road is, from the 
 dimensions given in the " plan," a matter of easy calculation for those 
 interested in the subject. The stones and gravel of which this portion 
 of the road is constructed had to be brought from an average distance 
 of 3 kilometres. The cost of transportation of these stones and of the 
 gravel has amounted to 1.25 pesetas per cubic metre, for each kilometre 
 of carriage. The cost of the stone, unbroken, has likewise been 1.25 
 pesetas per cubic metre._ The expense of breaking the stones is men- 
 tioned below in the list of wages paid. The cost of the gravel has 
 been .37J pesetas per cubic metre. The number of laborers employed in 
 the building of said 1 kilometre of road has been different at dijierent 
 times, but the expense on account of the aggregate days' wages paid to 
 each class of workmen has been as follows : 
 
 Pesetas. 
 
 1,927 days' wages to common laborers, at 1.75 pesetas 3, 372. 25 
 
 675 days' wages to boys, at 1 peseta 675.00 
 
 1,399 days' wages to stone-breakers, at 2.25 pesetas 3, 147. 75 
 
 135 days' wages to heads of gangs of 10 or 12 laborers, at 2 pesetas 270. 00 
 
 214 days' wages to'heads of gangs of 10 or 12 laborers, more experienced, 
 
 at 2.50 pesetas 535.00 
 
 117 days' wages to chaiubearers and flagmen, at 3.50 pesetas 409.50 
 
 25 days' hire of roller, at 12.50 pesetas 312.50 
 
 484 days' carts' (2 horses) hire, at 8 pesetas 3,872.90 
 
 12,594.00 
 
218 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The 12.50 pesetas for hire of roller above mentioned is, more prop- 
 erly speaking, paid for the 3 or 4 horses and for the men working the 
 roller, for the latter belongs to the Government and has been lent free 
 of charge. 
 
 All of the above-named different classes of laborers work, according 
 to the custom of the country, from sunrise to sunset, having an hour's 
 rest in the morning for breakfast, and during the long days, *. e., from 
 May 3 to September 15, 2 hours' rest for dinner ; also, in the afternoon 
 one-half hour for luncheon. During the remaining part of the year 
 there is only 1 hour's rest for breakfast and 1 hour's rest for dinner, 
 and none in the afternoon for luncheon. 
 
 Experience in this and adjoining provinces has shown that one 
 laborer for each 2 kilometers of macadamized road is sufficient to keep 
 it in perfect repair. This laborer receives a small cottage on the road 
 in which to live, free of charges of every description, and a common 
 laborer's wages during the days he works on the road. He has to work 
 on all days not legal holidays whenever the weather permits work to 
 be done in the open air. The 7 kilometers of road between Denia and 
 Ondara, however, have to be kept in repair by a single laborer, and the 
 consequence is that this road is in a by far worse condition than any 
 macadamized road I have ever come across, and I have seen snch roads 
 in every European country except Portugal. 
 
 One cubic meter of broken stone is here considered all that is re- 
 quired to keep in good repair during the year a decametre of a road on 
 which an average traffic is carried on. On roads of unusually heavy 
 traffic 1^ cubic metres of stone might be required. The stone used here 
 for macadamized roads is a fairly hard limestone. If hard granite or 
 some other rock harder than limestone were employed the quantity 
 necessary for repairs would of course be less. As bearing upon the 
 question of repairs, I may mention that the wheels of the carts in which 
 freight is transported are here considerable broader than the wheels of 
 wagons used for such purposes in the United States, and therefore do 
 not cut up the ground to the same extent. 
 
 The construction of macadamized roads in this part of Spain has 
 greatly benefited commerce, but its principal effect has no doubt been 
 the increased value of land in the farming districts through which the 
 roads ran. 1 have been assured by persons of undoubted competency 
 that farms adjoining such roads have in consequence of their construc- 
 tion risen from 20 to 45 per cent, in market value. 
 
 OscAE Malmros, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Denia, June 23, 1891. 
 
EtftOtE— SfAlSf. 219 
 
 GRAO OF VALENCIA. 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The streets are paved wltli hewn stones (psamita micacea) 34 centi- 
 metres long, 17 centimetres broad, and 15 centimetres high, which are 
 brought from the mountains about 15 kilometres distant from this city; 
 the post of these stones to hew, bring and locate them results at pesetas 
 9 (about $1.50) per square metre. 
 
 The soil of this city is mostly soft earth ; in building the street, the 
 soil is simply excavated to 20 centimetres depth and the stones placed 
 directly on this ground, allowing 1 per cent, curve on the width of 
 its superficies for the water to run off; the result of this system 
 with a considerable traffic of carts and carriages on them is pronounced 
 satisfactory and the cost of maintaining is 10 centimes (about 2 cents) 
 per square metre. 
 
 COTJNTEY ROADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 These are generally built in this province after the Macadam method. 
 There are roads of first and second order connecting large cities of 
 the country and constructed by the government ; roads of second and 
 third order connecting the villages with the capital at the expense of 
 the province, and lastly suburban roads of the fourth order built by the 
 municipality. 
 
 The stones used for the two latter kinds of roads here are mostly lime- 
 stones brought from a distance of about 4 kilometres, and cost for 
 bringing, cutting, and locating 1.50 pesetas (about 30 cents) per square 
 metre. 
 
 These broken up stones are placed 25 centimetres high on the road 
 and pressed down by steam rollers. 
 
 The cost of maintaining varies according to the distance or proxim- 
 ity of the road to the city and the greater or lesser traffic in these dif- 
 ferent places ; but, in general, the soft character of the limestone and 
 the soft subsoil on the one side as well as the enormous traffic on the 
 other side, this method has given little satisfaction, and new systems 
 are constantly studied. 
 
 STEEL RAIL ROADWAY. 
 
 Mention might be made of a trial of laying a kind of flat rails, which, 
 after a practice of 1^ years on a short distance of the road leading from 
 the city to the port, have given excellent results, and the city has now 
 decided to build a double track on the entire road of 3.50 kilometres, 
 considering the uninterrupted traffic of heavily laden freight carts be- 
 tween the port and the city. /r^^ 
 
 This track is made of ordinary steel flat-top rails of this // \\ shape, 
 and placed without further foundation, always two together, in the 
 soil, united with screws. j ....o.w.... )■ 
 
220 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 They have 22 centimetres superfloie on a level with the road, but an 
 indent of about 3 millimetres is allowed where the two rails join, for 
 keeping the cart wheels easier on the track. The distance between the 
 two iron tracks is 1.24 metres, roadway between which can be paved 
 with flint stone at regular intervals. A plain steel used as cross-bar 
 keeps the rails in their proper distance from each other. The road is 
 3.50 kilometres long and 12 metres wide ; it will have on one side an up 
 and on the other side a down track. 
 
 The cost of this track of imported steel rails is calculated at 50 
 pesetas (about $10) per running metre located and finished for use. So 
 far the trial piece has been in use for IJ years without any further ex- 
 pense for maintenance. 
 
 Theodor Mertbns, 
 
 Consular Agent. 
 
 United States Consular Agency, 
 Grao of Valencia, December 22, 1890. 
 
 MALAGA. 
 
 liEPOET BY COX.SUL NEWSON. 
 
 In this section of Spain but little attention is paid to streets. Some 
 in this city are macadamized, some are paved with syenitic blocks, a 
 species of granite, and one street has the Nicholson pavement. The 
 roads in the country are generally narrow, traveled mostly by donkeys, 
 and but little cared for. The most popular mode is macadamizing. 
 Some of these roads are very good, especially that leading to the light- 
 house. 
 
 T. M. Newson, 
 
 Go7isul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Malaga, Spain, Febntary 6, 1891. 
 
 GIBRALTAR. 
 
 REPOBI BY COXSTTL SPRAOUE. 
 
 There are no country roads in Gibraltar; the Rock is only 3 miles in 
 length, its greatest breadth three-quarters of a mile, and its circumfer- 
 ence about 7 miles. 
 
 Its acreage (including the north front, which is chiefly used for a 
 parade ground) is about 1,266 acres, of which about 22 acres (public 
 property) are reserved as garden ground. 
 
 By this it will be clearly seen that very little information can be 
 obtained here likely to prove of any utility for the purposes required 
 by the circular in question. 
 
.■- EUBOPE — SWITZERLAND. 221 
 
 The streets, public thoroughfares, arid walks in this British fortress, 
 and what relates to their repairs, besides keeping them in order for 
 general tralfic, are entirely governed by the local government, who 
 from time to time appoint sanitary commissioners to act as such, being 
 composed of a few British officers and several members of the civil 
 community of Gibraltar. 
 
 Bat few public buildings exist in Gibraltar, except military quar- 
 ters and barracks, which are under the immediate supervision of the 
 royal engineer department. 
 
 The streets and roads are somewhat inconveniently narrow and are 
 chiefly made from limestone, which is obtained from the quarries on the 
 north side of the rock, where the stones are broken and prepared for 
 use as shingle before being brought into the town for macadamizing 
 most of the roads and gome of the streets, by being mixed with 
 cement, gravel, and sand previous to being laid down, adding on some 
 occasions, as required, granite shingle imported directly from Scot- 
 land, thereby forming with water a species of very solid concrete. 
 
 They prove to be the most handy, economical, and durable kinds of 
 pavement for this climate, though requiring constant irrigation to lay , 
 the dust during dry weather. 
 
 Three of the principal streets, however, are paved with wooden 
 blocks and cement, greatly facilitating general traffic, but its excessive 
 cost prevents its more extensive adoption. 
 
 Heavy traffic is conducted by wagons and truck carts drawn by 
 mules, and the light traffic by cabs and by means of small hand carts. 
 
 The cost of building road and street pavements is as follows : 
 
 For heavy traffic. — Wood blocks on a base of cement concrete, $5 per 
 superficial yard ; cement concrete in granite shingle, 6 inches thick 
 on a bed of lime concrete and limestone shingle 9 inches thick, $2 per 
 superficial yard ; metaling in granite shingle (upper portion), $1 per 
 superficial yard. 
 
 For light traffic. — Metaling in limestone shingle, 60 cents per super- 
 ficial yard ; pathways in cement concrete with fine, limestone shingle, 
 $1 per superficial yard. 
 
 HOKATIO I. SPKAGXJB, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Gibraltar, December 11, 1889. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 BEPOZT BY aONSUL OATLIN, OF ZUIilOS, 
 
 It may with safety be stated that in no country in the world is the 
 construction of roadways carried out with more scientific skill and 
 thoroughness than in Switzerland. The mountainous nature of the 
 
222 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 country, the consequent difiBculty of providing means of easy communi- 
 cation between points located in comparative proximity to each other, 
 and the severe tests to which roads, even when once constructed, are 
 subjected by the violence of storms and the sudden swelling of water 
 courses, have from the earliest period rendered the subject of road build- 
 ing one of primary importance to the dwellers in the Alps. It is a cu- 
 rious tribute to the skill and intelligence of the Eomans that, in locating 
 their Alpine roads, they followed precisely the methods recognized as 
 best by road builders of the present time. They seldom, and then only 
 in case of need, built a road far down on a mountain side ; they fol- 
 lowed the sunny side of the mountains, accommodated themselves to the 
 lay of the land, and avoided great valley crossings, thus greatly dimin- 
 ishing the cost of the roads, and, what was to them of the greatest im- 
 portance, remarkably facilitating their maintenance. Upon this plan 
 they constructed the St. Bernhard, Simplon, Luckmanier, Bernardin, 
 fipluegen, Septimer, and Julier roads, all of them well-known routes at 
 the present day. 
 
 Nor were the Eoman valley roads through Switzerland less judici- 
 ously laid out or less thoroughly constructed, for they coincide in the 
 main with the leading railway or post routes of the present time. The 
 principal ones were (1) Vevey to Solothurn to Basel; (2) Yevey to 
 Geneva; (Gex to Payerne to Avenches, with six branches ; (4) Basel to 
 Windisch (Vindonissa) to Baden to Winterthur to Arbon (Lake of Oon- 
 stanz) to Bregenz ; (5) Windisch to Zurzach ; (6) Windisch to Solo- 
 thurn, (7) Chur to Maienfeld to Vaduz to Feldkirch to Bregenz; (8) 
 Eagaz to St. Margrethen ; (9) Zurich (along the Lake of Zurich and 
 the Wellenses) to Eagaz and over the Kunkel Pass to Eeichenau. 
 
 For nearly 2,000 years these roads served as the means of interna- 
 tional communication between France and Germany on the one hand and 
 Italy on the other, inasmuch as up to the eighteenth century, no great 
 changes in or additions to them had been made. During the Middle 
 Ages the Graubuenden passes, and preferably among them the road over 
 the Septimer, were used. The St. Gotthard Pass is first mentioned in 
 the fourteenth century. Up to the end of the seventeenth century not 
 one of the roads leading over the Swiss Alps was in condition to be 
 ridden over in an unbroken journey for its entire length. In 1696 an 
 important era in Swiss road building was ushered in by the first use of 
 blasting powder on the roadway over the Albula Pass, but it was not 
 until the middle of the eighteenth century that a systematic effort was 
 begun to put the Alpine roads once more in an adequate state of repair. 
 The rivalry of the newly developed roadway over the Mont Oenis con- 
 duced somewhat to its activity. Toward the end of the same century 
 France turned its attention more closely to the Simplon route as well. 
 The latter roadway was a great saving of time and distance, for it had 
 already happened that merchandise from St. Gallen, destined for Turin, 
 had to be sent by the long roundabout way of Geneva and Mont Oenis. 
 
EUROPE — SWITZERLAND. 223 
 
 From the middle of the eighteenth century on there is also noticeable 
 a revived interest in road building in the interior of Switzerland. In 1740 
 Berne inaugurated a series of fine roadways, varying from 10 to 12 me- 
 tres in breadth, viz : (1) Berne to Zurich ; (2) the Kystenstrasse via 
 Burgdorf; (3) Berne to Solothurn; (4) Berne to Basel; (5) Berne to 
 Thun ; (6) the Aargauerstalden, and (7) the Muristalden. Up to the 
 end of the last century Zurich could only point to four turnpikes worthy 
 of the name, viz : Those leading to Schafifhausen, to Baden, to 8t. Gal- 
 lon (via Winterthur), and to Frauenfeld. Between 1774 and 1778, Can- 
 ton St. Gallen constructed her first great roadway, leading from Staad 
 on Lake Constance, through the town of St. Gallen, to Wyl ; this she 
 followed up somewhat later by constructing the Toggenburger pike. 
 Canton Thurgau constructed between 1776 and 1781 the first roadway 
 from Frauenfeld (its capital) to Mazzingen, from Mazzingen to Wyl and 
 Elgg, and from Islikon, through Frauenfeld, to Constance. Canton 
 Basel, to which broad pikes from Germany and- France gave access, 
 continued the same onward into the interior of Switzerland in four lines, 
 viz: (1) Along the Birs to Neufchatel; (2) over the Boetzburg to Brugg; 
 (3) by way of Olten to Lucerne, and (4) to Solothurn and Berne. These 
 thoroughfares were practically the only means of inteniommunication 
 in Switzerland during the better part of the last century. If they seem 
 sparse and inadequate, it may on the other hand be stated that Switzer- 
 land was in this respect no worse off than the other European countries 
 of that day, England not even excepted. The slowness of Europe's 
 reawakening from the long night of the Dark Ages is perhaps nowhere 
 more noticeable than in this regard. 
 
 But from the commencement of the present century, Switzerland has 
 been making up for lost time. According to the estimate of Mr. S. 
 Bavier, Swiss minister to Italy, who, in 1878, published a most inter- 
 esting work entitled " Die Strassen der Schweiz," and from which the 
 historical facts herewith given are derived, there were at that time 
 13,500 kilometers (8,388 miles) of turnpike roads iu the country, or 
 about 3 miles of road to every thousand of population. With justice, 
 Mr. Bavier observes that Switzerland's network of highroads extend- 
 ing even to her remotest valleys, constitutes the pride and glory of the 
 land. 
 
 The canton of Zurich is no exception to this rule. Her public high- 
 ways are models in every respect, as every stranger, who has ever passed 
 over them, whether on foot, on bicycle, or in vehicle, will readily testify. 
 The cantonal law pertaining to the construction and maintenance of 
 these highways gives such a clear insight into the subject that I have 
 deemed it best to translate the greater part of it and to incorporate it 
 herewith, viz : 
 
224 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Law of January 1, 1871, Conckkning Highroads, 
 i.— classification of roads. 
 
 (1) The public roads of the canton of Zurich shall be divided into three classes : 
 To the first class (turnpikes) belong those roads which serve as means of commu- 
 nication between the larger sections of the canton, embracing several townships, or 
 connecting with similar roads in adjoining cantons. 
 
 To the second class (connecting roads) belong those roads which serve to connect 
 the chief sections of a single township with each other, or with first-class roads, or 
 with railway and steamboat stations. 
 
 To the third class (side roads) belong all those roads not embraced in the first and 
 second classes, as well as all public footpaths. 
 
 (2) The following authorities are competent to take action with regard to classifi- 
 cation, construction, and repairs of roads (with reserve as to Sections 5 and 6 of Art. 
 31 of the constitution (viz: For first class roads, the cantonal council; for second 
 class roads, the district council, subject to the cantonal council's approval; for third 
 class roads, the township. 
 
 Where several townships are concerned in the case of a third-class road, and no 
 understanding can be reached, or when the minority in any township feels that its 
 rights are infringed upon, the decision of the point in dispute rests, in the first in- 
 stance, with the district council. 
 
 No decision shall be made except after a technical examination of the project, and, 
 in the case of first and second-class roads, the wishes and views of the interested 
 townships shall be heard. 
 
 (3) The classification of roads shall be subject to revision every 10 years. 
 
 II. — OBLIGATIONS CONCERNING THE CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF ROADS. 
 
 (4) The construction and maintenance of first-class roads pertain to the canton, 
 excepting the transportation of the materials (earth not included) necessary thereto, 
 the removal of rubbiah, the clearing away of snow, the employment of assistant 
 workmen, and the putting up of guide-posts and snow-marks, aU of which services 
 pertain to the townships. 
 
 (5) The construction and maintenance of second and third class roads pertain to 
 the townships through whose jurisdiction they pass. 
 
 (6) The canton, however, in the case of second-class roads, undertakes, at its own 
 expense, the preliminary technical work and superintendence of construction, and 
 pays, in addition, a contribution to the cost of the same. This contribution (with 
 reserve as to the exception mentioned in paragraph 8) may vary from one-sixth to 
 one-third of the cost, and shall Be fixed by the government council according to the ■ 
 importance of the road and the financial capacity of the townships ooDcerned. 
 
 The canton shares in the cost of maintaining second-class roads by paying for the 
 requisite road-keepers. 
 
 Where a township is either not traversed at all by a. contemplated second-class 
 road, or is only traversed by it to a slight extent, and yet it is to derive au actual 
 benefit from the said road, it may be held responsible by the district council for a 
 proportional share of the cost of its establishment in a neighboring township, with 
 the right to appeal to the government council. 
 
 (7) The canton shall pay proportional damages to the townships in which secoud 
 and third class roads are to any extent injured by the hauling of wood from the cau- 
 tonel forests, or by the working of cantonel mines. 
 
 (8) In the case of first and secoud class roads laid out with sidewalks, pavements, 
 gutters, etc., the excess of cost for construction and maintenance falls to the expense 
 of the townships concerned. 
 
 (9) When the leg.al requirements upon any township prove, in consequence of 
 special conditions, exceedingly burdensome, they are to be proportionally lighteued. 
 by the canton. 
 
EUROPE — SWITZERLAND. ' 225 
 
 (10) Private obligations hitherto in force with regard to the construction and main- 
 tenance of roads and bridges shall remain so, but may be commuted on demand of 
 the parties concerned. 
 
 HI.— DIRECTIONS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF ROADS. 
 
 (11) The width of driveway, with footway, shall be, for first-class roads, not less 
 than 18 feet (5.4 metres) ; for second-class roads, not less than 15 feet (4.5 metres) ; 
 for third-class roads, not less than 12 feet (3.6 metres). In each individual instance 
 the width of a road shall be fixe d accordingly to the requirements of the case by the 
 competent authorities. 
 
 The area of the roadway shall, in addition to the road itself, inclnde a width for 
 slope, ditch, or border on each side as follows : For first-class roads, not less than 3 
 feet (0.9 metre) ; for second-class roads, not less than 2.5 feet (0.75 metre) ; for third- 
 class roads, not less than 2 feet (0.6 metres). Exceptions to these rules may be made 
 in the case of first and second class roads by the government council, and in the case of 
 third-class roads by the district council. 
 
 (12) On straight or slightly-curved stretches of road the surface is rounded; on 
 heavy curves there is an Inward slope of at least one one-hundredth of the width. 
 
 (13) The actual roadway must, for first-class roads, be at least 15 feet (4.5 meters), 
 and for second-class roads at least 12 feet (3.6 meters) wide, and must consist of a 
 thick layer of stone at least 1 foot in depth. The upper stratum of this layer must 
 be at least 3 inches (0.09 meters) deep, and shall contain no stones of over an inch 
 and a half (0.045 meters) in diameter. Fine gravel shall be used for the footpaths 
 on each side of the roadway. 
 
 (14) When the adjoining land does not lie at least 1 foot (0.3 meter) below the 
 level of the border of the road, side ditches or paved borders are to be placed. 
 
 (15) Earthen slopes, at embankments, or cuts must be at least 1 foot in measure- 
 ment (with an inclination of not over 45 degrees). 
 
 (IC) At dangerous points the roads must be provided with fences. 
 
 (17) The boundary of the roadway must be marked oat. Each two opposite stones 
 determine its width, inclusive of ditch or border. The boundary marks are to be 
 placed along the roads at regular distances of not over 200 feet (60 meters). 
 
 (18) Guideposts shall be erected where two or more roads unite, and when a neces- 
 sity therefor exists. 
 
 (19) In order that roads may be kept in a normal condition, they shall be, whenever 
 necessary, covered with properly prepared gravel, a sufficient supply of which shall 
 always be kept on hand. When tracks or ruts of any kind occur they shall at once 
 be properly leveled off. For this purpose the necessary number of gravel-boxes shall 
 be placed along all first and second class roads, but, as far as is possible, not in the 
 interior of towns. 
 
 (20) Dust and mud are to be collected into heaps as it becomes necessary, especl- 
 allly before gravel is laid on, and are to be removed within eight days. 
 
 (21) With a view to the proper drainage of water, the sideditohes and culverts 
 shall always be kept open and clean. 
 
 (22) For the insurance and maintenance of traffic the roads shall be provided with 
 timely snow-marks, and, after a heavy snowfall, at once cleared. 
 
 (23) Paragraphs 11 to 14, 17, 20, 21, and 22 do not apply to public footpaths. 
 
 POLICE DIRECTIONS. 
 
 (a) Relative to territory bordering upon roads. 
 
 (24) No permanent stream of water shall, without previous permission, be conducted 
 to a roadway from any adjoining laud, building, spring, etc. The drainage, or flow 
 of suds into road ditches or borders, or the drainage of water upon the road itself, 
 as well as any pollution of the sstme by rubbish, stones, and sweepage from houses or 
 stables, etc., is prohibite4t 
 
 S3A- — 15 
 
226 "streets and highways in foreign countries. 
 
 (25) Live hedges shall not be planted nearer to the street boundary than one-half 
 thei r height, and in no case nearer than two feet (0.6 metre), and shall not be allowed 
 to overgrow said boundway. Other (so-called "dead") fencings may be placed 
 directly outside the road boundway. In case, however, they are closed, as for in- 
 stance board fences, walls, etc., and are over 4 feet (1.2 meters) higher than the road- 
 way, they are to be set back from the boundary line the distance by which their 
 height exceeds such measurement. 
 
 (26) Forest trees shall be placed not nearer than 12 feet (3.6 metres) nor fruit trees 
 nearer than 8 feet (2.4 metres) to first or second class roads, and no tree whatever 
 shall be placed nearer than 5 feet (1.5 metres) to a third class road. Along all roads 
 the truulis of trees are to be kept free from overhanging branolres to the height of 
 15 feet (4.5 metres). The regulation relative to live hedges applies to bushes and 
 ornaiiiental shrubbery, to which latter class also belong clipped dwarf fruit-trees. 
 
 (27) New buildings and fountains must be placed at least 8 feet (2.4 metres) back 
 from first class, and at least 5 feet (1.5 metres) back from second and third class roads, 
 and no portion of any building shall project over the road. The law relative to the 
 cession of private rights may be applied for removing existing buildings and foun- 
 tains to the distance stated. 
 
 (28) Open water-conduits, reservoirs, and manure heaps in the vicinity of road- 
 ways shall bo properly covered or inclosed, and must not be placed nearer than 4 
 feet (1.2 metres) to the road; likewise the unloading of manure, straw, wood, etc., 
 within a less distance tbau 2 feet (0.6 metre) of the roadway is prohibited. 
 
 (29) In special cases, and particularly in those concerning the erection of rows of 
 buildings, placing fountains, planting trees, etc., exceptions may be made by the 
 direction of public works as for first-class roads, by the sheriff's office as for second 
 class, and by the town council as for third class roads. 
 
 (6) Belalive to road limUs, and their use. 
 
 (30) A permit is required for any alteration in road limits, for filling in or covering 
 of ditches for crossings, for placing culverts, borders, and conduit-pipes, and for the 
 construction of the same. Such permits shall be granted by the direction of public 
 works for first class, and by the town council for second and third class roads. A fee, 
 to be fixed by resolution of the government council, may be charged for conducting 
 water from private property across a road, said fee being payable to the cantonal 
 treasury in the case of first class, and to the town treasury in the case of second and 
 third class roads. 
 
 (31) The storing of materials of any kind on the public roads is forbidden. "When 
 the unloading of wood, stone, etc., on the road is unavoidable it must be done .oo as 
 not to interfere with traffic, and the articles themselves, as well as the wagon, must 
 be removed before nightfall. In extraordinary cases the unloading of building ma- 
 terials may be allowed by the town council for a period not to exceed fourteen days, 
 subject to the regulations pertaining to the protection of traffic. 
 
 (32) Any act or contrivance jeopardizing road traffic is prohibited. The holding 
 of markets within the road limits is only allowed in so far as it does not interfere 
 with other traffic. 
 
 The local police is charged with the proper cleaning of the road, and with the 
 repair of any damages thereto immediately after the close of the market. 
 
 (33) Riding and driving on the sidewalks adjoining the roadway (unless so ordered 
 by requisite instructions to tnrn out), the driving of untied large cattle, the pastur- 
 ing of stock along the borders of the road, the driving with fixed wheels ■without 
 any wheel-shoe, the dragging of wood or stone, the use of plows too near to the" 
 side ditches or slopes, the damaging of boundary marks, railings, guide-posts, orna- 
 mental trees, etc., are prohibited. Furthermore, the leading or cleaning of plowg 
 pn first or second class roads can not be permitted. 
 
EUEOPE^-SWITZEELAND. 227 
 
 (34) ITo driver shall leave his draft animals untied, and none shall sit upon the 
 ■wagon without having a sure rein upon them. On roads of less than 18 feet (5.4 
 metres) in width not more than two draft animals shall be harnessed ahreast; in no 
 case is it permissible to harness more than three abreast, or to attach two wagons 
 together, excepting such as serve for agricultural work. 
 
 (35) Every vehicle shall turn out to the right for any other vehicle either approach- 
 ing it from the opposite direction or driving up to it at a more rapid rate from be- 
 hind. The driving of two vehicles abreast for any longer time than is required for 
 one to pass is not admissible. Hand wagons are also subject to this regulation. 
 
 (36) At uight'every vehicle must he provided with a bell on the harness, or with a 
 light; in the case of sleighs the former must also not be omitted in the daytime. 
 
 (37) Any vehicle or stock temporarily halted along the road shall be kept on one 
 side 80 as to leave sufficient room for driving by. 
 
 (38) The width of empty wagons shall not exceed 7 fhet (2.1 metres), and loads ex- 
 ceeding 9 feet (2.7 metres) in width can only be allowed in the case of materials the 
 loading of which within a less breadth of space would be attended with unusual dif- 
 ficulty. 
 
 (39) Rapid riding or driving over bridges through narrow passages, at curves, and 
 through inhabited towns, as well as the marching in step of a great number of per- 
 sons over bridges, are prohibited. 
 
 (40) Wagons must be provided with wheels having tires of a width proportional 
 to the largest loads admissible ; two (or more; horse wagons shall not be loaded with 
 more than 30 centners (1,500 kilograms) to each draft animal, and shall not have a 
 less width of tire than 1 inch (0.03 metre) to each draft animal. The following are 
 exceptions to the above rule, viz : 
 
 (o) Farm wagons used for carrying of goods or for harvesting crops. 
 
 (b) Vehicles for personal transportation or military purposes. 
 
 (c) Vehicles for the transportation of heavy objects which can not be taken apart, 
 such as tree-trunks, stone blocks, pieces of iron, machinery, etc. Such vehicles must 
 nevertheless have a width of tire of not less than 6 inches (0.18 metres). 
 
 (c) Concerning pvilic foot-paths. 
 
 (41) The provisions of sectioBS 24, 28, 30, 31, and 32 apply also to public foot-paths ; 
 On the other hand, sections 25, 26, and 27 may only be applied to the latter by special 
 resolution of the competent authorities. 
 
 (42) Riding and driving on public foot-paths, as well as the driving of cattle on 
 the same, in so far as it is not rendered necessary by unusual circumstances, are pro- 
 hibited. 
 
 (d) Penalties. 
 
 (43) Disregard of the instructions contained in section iv will be regarded as tres- 
 pass, and subject to a penalty of from 2 to 50 francs. 
 
 C44) Any one damaging a road is obliged to repair the damage or make compensa- 
 tion therefor. 
 
 (45) Owners of vehicles or driver of cattle are responsible for trespasses or damages 
 caused by persons in their employ. 
 
 v.— SUPKRINTENDBNCE AND MNFOIiCEMENT. 
 
 (46) The chief superintendence of all matters pertaining to. roads is vested in the 
 government council, and under it, in the direction of public works to whom, outside 
 of the district and the township authorities, the cantonal surveyor, the circuit sur- 
 veyors, the overseer, and the road keepers are subject for the oarryiug out of the law. 
 The government council shall, by promulgating the proper instructions, deline more 
 clearly the functions of the aforesaid officials and employiSs. 
 
 (47) The sheriffs offices have a general superintendence over all matters pertaining 
 to roads, they watch over the fulfillment of obligations by the townships jn regar4 
 thereto, and are in general ojjarged with the euforoemout of the law. 
 
228 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 (48) Town councils are charged with the duty of looking after all matters pertain- 
 ing to roads in their respective townships, as well as with the maintenance of the 
 provisions for the policing of roads, and with the oversight of road-keepers on third- 
 class roads. In cases where the town councU does not possess adequate jurisdiction, 
 it shall apply to the sheriff's office. 
 
 (49) When townships or private individuals fail to comply with any demand made 
 upon them under the provisions of the present law, execution may be decreed at cost 
 of the delinquent. 
 
 (50) Road keepers for first-class roads should be chosen by the direction of public 
 works ; those for second-class roads by the sberifFs offices, subject to approval by 
 the direction of public works, and those for third-class roads by the town councils. 
 The number and compensation of the same for lirst and second class roads shall ne 
 determined by the government council, and for third-class roads by the town 
 councils. 
 
 (51) Town councils shall keep lists of all the public roads and footpaths within 
 their respective townships. 
 
 VI. — IN RELATION TO CITIES. 
 
 (52) The cities of Zurich and Winterthur are charged with the laying out, repairi 
 and maintenance of all streets within their respective limits. The canton contrib- 
 utes an amount not to exceed one-third toward the original construction or repair of 
 such streets as are intended for through traffic, such amount to be proportioned 
 according to the general importance of the street. But in estimating such cost of 
 original construction, except in unusual cases, neither the expenses of expropriation 
 or buildings, nor those outlays necessitated especially for city purposes, such as 
 street pavements, sidewalks, drainage-sewers, etc., are to be taken into account. 
 
 (57) This law shall take effect May 1, 1871. 
 
 (58) The government council is charged with the execution of this law. 
 Zurich, Dec. 21, 1870. 
 
 In the name of the cantonal council. 
 
 R. Zanggbe, 
 
 President. 
 
 BOSSHARD, 
 
 Second Secretary.- 
 
 Under the provisions of the foregoing law, a careful study of which 
 in all its various details is commended to those interested in road build- 
 ing, the canton of Zurich last year operated 622.36 kilometres (386 
 miles) of first-class, and 744.21 kilometres (462 miles) of second-class 
 roads, employing for the former 173, and for the latter ISO road keepers- 
 
 COST PJSll MILE PER ANNUM. 
 
 Now, taking for instance the first-class roads, it is of interest to as- 
 certain what their maintenance cost per mile in dollars and cents fof 
 one year. 
 
EUROPE — SWITZERLAND. 229 
 
 The outlays were : 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Purchase of gravel bed 3,133.55 
 
 Uncovering and cleaning gravel 23,205.74 
 
 Bridges, sewers, and walls 18,137.48 
 
 Marks, signals, superintendence 9,803.55 
 
 Compensation paid to townships 18,633.20 
 
 Salaries and awards to road-keepers 79, 378. 80 
 
 Gross outlay 1.52,282.32 
 
 From which deduct for receipts 7,670.40 
 
 Leaving a net ontlay of 144,611.92 
 
 For maintenance of 622.36 kilometres, i. e., an outlay of 232.36 francs 
 per kilometre, which is equivalent to 373.99 francs, or $72.18. This, of 
 course, would be somewhat higher, however, than the average, as it 
 includes the purchase of a gravel bed, the cost of which should, instead 
 of being reckoned in any single year, be distributed over a number of 
 years. 
 
 STREETS OP ZURICH. 
 
 It may be safely stated that in no city of the world are the streets 
 more substantially constructed, more thoroughly and at the same time 
 economically maintained, or more cleanly kept than in Zurich. Their 
 neatness and cleanliness invariably excite the remark and elicit the 
 admiration of the observant stranger. In order to give a general idea 
 of the method of construction, materials used, etc., in the different 
 kinds of streets, I have obtained from the city surveyor's office, and 
 forward "with this report, profiles of (1) an ordinary street in Zurich, 
 (2) the Limmat Quay, and (3) the principal boulevard, the Bahnhof- 
 strasse, universally admitted to be the finest street in any Swiss city. 
 These profiles give in themselves a full and detailed description as to 
 grades, measurements, materials, etc., and will be found of especial 
 value to those technically interested in this subject. With a view to 
 ascertaining further particulars relative to the cost of constructing and 
 maintaining the streets of Zurich, I addressed a series of questions to 
 the city surveyor covering the points stated in the Department's circu- 
 lar of inquiry, and have received very full replies thereto, which, with 
 the questions, I append herewith. 
 
 According to article 53 of the cantonal law, said law, so far as con- 
 cerns sections i to v, has no application to the cities of Zurich and 
 Winterthur. The limit of public ground occupied by the streets coin- 
 cides with the street borders, that is to say the street lines; embank- 
 ments, in case there are such, lie on private ground. The building 
 lines coincide, as a rule, with the street lines. In individual cases they 
 lie further back, so that gardens may be placed before the houses. In 
 the older quarters of the city the width of the streets has been handed 
 down from former times. Newly laid out streets have a minimum 
 
230 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAVS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 width of 12 metres, and, accordiug to their importauco, a width of 
 15 metres and upward. All streets have raised sidewalks with granite 
 curbs. The center of the driveway is of the height of the curb, and 
 slopes off, so that the surface lies 10 or 12 centimetres lower than the 
 latter. The sidewalks have an inward slope (toward the street) of 5 
 per cent. The street is graded according to the laud and to its own im- 
 portance as a highway. 
 
 The street driveways are either (1) laid in concrete, (2) paved with 
 stone, (3) or provided with pressed asphalt or (4) with wooden blocks. 
 The sidewalks are of concrete, with either stone pavement, or with 
 melted or pressed asphalt covering. 
 
 The cost of first construction is as follows : 
 
 Description. 
 
 Driroway 
 
 (pel' square 
 
 yard). 
 
 Sidewalk 
 
 (per square 
 
 yard). 
 
 
 Francs. 
 3.34 
 7.52 
 
 Francs. 
 2.09 
 
 
 7.52 
 
 
 9.20 
 
 
 12.87 
 12.29 
 
 9.36 
 
 
 
 
 
 The cost of annual maintenance is as follows: Concrete, 0.92 to 0.42 
 francs; stone pavement, 0.50 to 0,17 francs; melted asphalt, 0.42 francs. 
 
 It is to be assumed that the stone pavements of driveways must be 
 renewed every 17 years, and the melted asphalt on the sidewalks every 
 10 years. 
 
 The street commission has thus far had no experience as regards the 
 maintenance of pressed asphalt or wooden blocks, inasmuch as these 
 latter have only been introduced of late years. 
 
 Formerly this work was charged to a special account, redeemable in 
 30 years, but now it is paid from the direct revenues of the city, con- 
 sisting in the funds derived from real estate, capital, fees, and taxes. 
 
 Formerly all the streets in the interior of the city were provided 
 with pavements of an inferior quality, which, however, about the year 
 1865, were replaced by new stone pavements, which still p artially exist 
 The newly constructed streets of the last thirty years or so, especially 
 those in quarters of the city not so closely built up, are all provided 
 with concrete driveways, and with paved crossings for pedestrians at 
 the most frequented points. Pressed asphalt and wood blocks are put 
 down in streets in which it is important to prevent noise and dust. 
 
 All sidewalks in the interior of the city are either paved or laid with 
 melted asphalt; in the outer quarters they are mostly of concrete 
 only. Pressed asphalt is only used on the sidewalks of the two prin- 
 cipal streets of the inuer city, namely, the Bahnhofstrasse and the 
 Limmat Quay. 
 
EUROPE — SWITZERLAND. 231 
 
 Intbe cboice of either oue or the other kiud of construction for a street, 
 reference is had more particularly to. the amount of disposable funds 
 rather than to the question of heavy or light trafSc thereon. 
 
 Unquestionably the condition of a street affects the adjacent prop- 
 erty, and a good pavement certainly contributes more to values than 
 where the street is merely laid in concrete. To what extent this exists 
 it would, however, be difficult to give in figures; nothing has as yet 
 been done here in such direction. It may only be mentioned that in 
 laying down a raised sidewalk half the expense as well as half the cost 
 of repairs must be paid by the owners of the property fronting thereon. 
 This ordinance is embraced in the law of June 30, 1863, relative to the 
 cities of Zurich and Winterthur. In the laying down of the newly 
 widened Limmat Quay the property owners fronting thereon pay the 
 difference between the wooden block pavement actually used and the 
 stone pavement previously contemplated. 
 
 George L. Oatlin, 
 
 United States Consulate, Consul. 
 
 Zurich, January 20, 1891. 
 
232 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 CROSS PROFILE, 1:100. 
 Street and Sidewalk Causewayed. 
 
 CROSS PROFILE OF THE LIMMAT QUAY, 1:100. 
 Street, Wooden Pavement. 
 
 CROSS PROFILE OF BRAHNHOF STREET, 1:100. 
 
 SIDEWALH-ASPHALT, 
 MADE FIRM BY 
 POUNDING. 
 
 Street Paved. 
 
EUROPE — SWITZERLAND. 233 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 REPORT BT CONSUL ADASrS, OF nOKOF.N. 
 KOADWAYS OF SWITZERLAND. 
 
 In any country tbe oldest artificial roadways are more recent tb an 
 tbe original routes of migration, travel, and commerce. There is evi- 
 dence of active intercourse along such natural routes between the 
 primitive communities of Switzerland, Italy, and France for many cen- 
 turies before the Christian era. What is now Lombardy was connected 
 with eastern Switzerland by the Julier, Septimer, Spliigen, and Ber- 
 nadino passes. Piedmont with western SVitzeriaud by the Grand St. 
 Bernard, and the lake of Geneva with the Phoenician colony of Mar- 
 seilles by a route following the Eh^ne Valley. This last line and the 
 Grand St. Bernard were joined by another running from the neighbor- 
 hood of Lyons over tbe Little St. Bernard to Aosta. All these routes 
 differed from tbe local pathways leading from one camping ground or 
 hamlet to another only as they were more frequented and therefore 
 better trodden. The modern roadways of Switzerland, and of Europe 
 generally, originated with tbe Roman engineers in tbe last century be- 
 fore Christ. Constructed in tbe first instance for the march of armies 
 and the postal service of the empire, they were promptly occupied by 
 the tributary commerce which poured into Italy with augmented vol- 
 ume as the dimensions of the empire increased. When tbe northern 
 frontier was finally established along the line of the Danube and the 
 Ehine, the Swiss roads acquired at once tbe character of transcon- 
 tinental and international routes which they have retained ever since. 
 Before the end of the third century two great systems of elaborately 
 constructed highways connected northern Italy, across Swiss territory, 
 with Gaul and Germany. In tbe west the Grand St. Bernard led from 
 Aosta to Martigny, on tbe upper Eb6ne, where it was joined by the' 
 Sim plon coming from Lago Maggiore ; from Martigny the route was 
 prolonged to Vevey, Soleure, and Angst, near Bale, whence it descended 
 the Ehine north wards-into Germany. This great line sent off two lateral 
 spurs into Gaul, one by Geneva and the lower Ehdne Valley, the other 
 by Poutarlier to Besacnon. In the east parallel routes led from the 
 Italian lakes and Milan overtbe Spliigen, Septimer, and Julier to Chur 
 and the lake of Constance. The two systems were connected in the 
 north by running from the upper Rhine and Lake Constance to Soleure 
 and Bale. These main lines threw out local branches to all the impor- 
 tant towns and military stations of the country. 
 
 In the breaking up of society which followed the invasion of the 
 barbarians and the fall of tbe Empire, the Roman roads, although in 
 continued use, fell out of repair and finally into ruin ; nor was any seri- 
 ous attempt made to restore or replace them until tbe modern communi- 
 ties of Europe were definitely constituted and brought into sustained 
 
234 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 intercourse with oue auother. As the geographical center of the con- 
 tinent, Switzerland was oue of the first countries to profit by the revival 
 of the European movement. A new route was carried over the St. 
 Gotthard in the twelfth century ; the other passes into Italy, especially 
 those diverging from Chur, on the headwaters of theEhine, recovered 
 something of their ancient importance; and the Julier in particular 
 was improved to accommodate the oriental traffic which flowed through 
 Venice until the discovery of the ocean passage by the Cape of Good 
 Hope; much, too, was done to facilitate local communications between 
 different parts of the country. But with all this activity and improve- 
 ment the Swiss roadways remained everywhere in bad condition down 
 to the end of the last century. Partly from faults of construction, 
 partly from subsequent neglect, most of them were footpaths for pedes- 
 trians and pack-horses, andtbebest only admitted the passage of small 
 vehicles solidly built and lightly loaded. To this are to be added the 
 burdensome tolls and taxes in great vai'iety exacted by the local com- 
 munities, the last of which were suppressed by the federal government 
 in 1848. Ill singular contrast with the immeuse development of archi- 
 tectural engineering throughout Europe during and since the Middle 
 Ages, the Swiss roads are practically the creation of the nineteenth cen. 
 tury. 
 
 The first great construction of the new era was the Simplon, begun in 
 1800 by the Emperor Napoleon and finished in 1804. The Simplon was 
 followed by the Bernadino (1818-1821), the Splugen (1818-1823), the 
 Julier (1820-1826), the Maloja (1837-1828), the St. Gotthard (1820-1830), 
 the Furka, Oberalp, Albula, Fliiela, Bernina, Offenberg, Lukmauier 
 (finished 1876), and the Briinig. These great mountain roads, with the 
 highways following the water-courses or traversing the lowlands, form 
 the skelton of the system to which all the lesser local roads are attached. 
 The system reached its full development between 1870 and 1880 ; for 
 the last 20 years the energies of the country have gone mostly to the 
 extension of railways. I subjoin a table giving the general statistics of 
 the principal roadways for 1877, since when no important additions 
 have been made to the literature of the subject. (Annex i.) 
 
 The Swiss roadways are almost entirely in the control of the several 
 canton, and, under the caution, of the several districts and townships. 
 The federal government has declared all roads free for public use. It 
 exercises a general supervision over post-roads, and, I believe, grants 
 subsidies for the maintenance of such roads as have the character of 
 international routes. But the building, the repair, and the police regu- 
 lation of roads are in general left exclusively to the cantonal and local 
 authorities. Yet the system is practically uniform throughout Switzer- 
 land, notwithstanding extraordinary differences in race, language, 
 character, and usages between different parts of the population. This 
 concordant action where great variety might be looked for, and long 
 existed, is due to a fact without which this historical recapitulation 
 
6TJE0PE — SWlTilEELAiSriJ. ^§5 
 
 would lose much of its pertinence. The Swiss roadways of the niue- 
 teeuth century are really a revival of Boman engineering; after cen- 
 turies of mistakeu experiments, a return by common consent to the 
 Eoman method of construction and the Eoman selection of routes. 
 
 The Eoman roadway, wherever necessary, had a carefully laid foun- 
 dation of undressed stones, which was slightly convex or vaulted, and 
 held by longitudinal borders of square stones, the whole forming a 
 coherent and solid structure. The size of the stones so emproyed varied 
 greatly in different localities according to the material available. In 
 the great roadway of the western system traversing the lowlands be- 
 tween Avenches and Solothern, the foundation consisted of rolled and 
 rounded stones, averaging 10.15 centimetres in diameter (see Annex ii). 
 On the south slope of the Septimer in the high Alps, the foundation 
 was a compact masonry of angular stones from 0.60 to 1.50 metres in 
 longitudinal diameter, carefully fitted together and held firmly by the 
 pressure of the border blocks (see profile and ground-plan Annex in). 
 On the stone foundation was spread a layer of gravel, usually mixed 
 with argillacious sand as a binding material, and thoroughly stamped 
 down as in our macadamized roads. This furnished a firm and smooth 
 surface which shed the water and kept the whole structure dry (see 
 profile Annex ii). In lighter roads the gravel sometimes lay between 
 two layers of common earth (profile Annex iv). In the Swiss roadways 
 the depth of the structure varied from 0.70 to 1.30 metres; the surface 
 width from 2 to 3.50 metres. The surface was sufficiently elevated to 
 shed water, and even along mountain slopes the road-bed was let into 
 the soil only on the upper side and only to the depth required by the 
 conformation of the ground. The route kept, when possible, to the 
 sunny sides of mountains, adapted itself closely to the natural curves 
 of the surface, and avoided all avoidable cuttings, causeways, and 
 bridging of gorges. It is upon these principles that routes, both of 
 roads and railways, are laid out to day. 
 
 The identity of structure in the Eoman and the modern Swiss road- 
 ways may be seen at a glance by comparing the Eoman profiles with 
 two others subjoined, taken from roads of the second and third classes in 
 the canton of Bern (Annexes V, vi). The modern roadway is less solidly 
 built, has a greater breadth (varying liom 7.50 metres or more in roads 
 of the first class to 4 metres or less in roads of the third class, and pays 
 more attention to the lateral accessories for consolidating the adjacent 
 soil and carrying oft" water. But the internal system of construction is 
 the same in both. 
 
 Now the characteristic and essential feature of this system is the sub- 
 structure of stone. It is never omitted in either the ancient or the 
 modern roads, except where the natural foundation of the bed offers a 
 sufficient substitute, as when the roadway is excavated in solid rock. 
 Ohne unterbau keine strasse (without an adequate foundation there is no 
 durable road). IJfo matter on what system or with what care and ex- 
 
236 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 pense the surface is treated, the result will be swift ruin unless the 
 superstructure is properly supported from beneath. On the other 
 hand, given the foundation, the surface may be treated effectively 
 almost anywhere and adapted to any use ; it may be formed of com- 
 mon soil if nothing better is available, or of gravel, or of both; it 
 may be macademized or covered with any variety of pavement. The 
 worst surface with a good foundation affords a better road than the 
 costliest surface without a foundation. This is probably the most im- 
 portant lesson to be got from European experience in road-building. 
 
 It follows that in all mountain regions and in all lowlands which 
 have been supplied by glacial action or the flow of water courses, with 
 stones in abundance, good roadways are merely a question of time, 
 money, and intelligence; any community may have them to the extent 
 required if willing to pay for them. But for alluvial or deluvial soils, 
 destitute of stones and gravel, as on the western prairies and in the 
 valley of the Mississippi, the case is different, and little is to be learned 
 from European methods of road building. The problem is surrounded 
 by local difficulties which can only be solved on the spot, if at all. 
 
 To cover the inquiry submitted by the Department's circular of No- 
 vember 8, 1 will add, in conclusion, that in Switzerland city and subur- 
 ban streets are only local adaptations of the ordinary roadway. Pro- 
 vision is made beneath the roadbed for drainage and the distribution 
 of water and gas, and the surface, including the trottoir, is macadamized 
 or paved in a variety of ways ; but these are all external to the central 
 structure, which is unchanged. For further details I refer to the re- 
 port of the agent at Lucerne, with accompanying sections of streets 
 and quays of the city. 
 
 Lyell T. Adams, 
 
 ^ Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Morgen, January 27, 1891. 
 
 Length and coat of the principal roadways of Switzerland in 1877. 
 
 Superficial area of Switzerland so. kilometres.. 41 390 
 
 Population in 1370 2 669 147 
 
 Length of roads : 
 
 Class 1 6,54B 
 
 Classes ii and iii o gna 
 
 13, 354 
 
 Length of roads of all classes per sq. kilometre of area., sq. kilometres. ^ 
 
 Length of roads of all classes per 1,000 inhabitants do. c 
 
 Cost of construction of roads, Class l francs 173 400' Ann 
 
 Cost of construction of roads. Class i, per sq. kilometre do . . . ' a' ion 
 
 Cost of construction of roads, Class i, per 1,000 inhabitants do fi-'nnn 
 
 Average cost of roads, Class i, per kilometre do nr' xon 
 
 " " ■* -^u, 480 
 
EUROPE — SWITZEELAND. 
 
 237 
 
 This tables iucludes only roads whose widths is not less than 4.20 metres. The in- 
 crease of roadways since 1877 has probably kept pace with the increase in population 
 (estimated in 1888 at 2,934,000), so that the proportions remain about the same. 
 Statistics of the cost of roads of Classes il and iii for the most part built by the 
 townships, are incomplete. 
 
 Roman road below Kallnacli, between IrrencheB and Soleure. 
 
 -S.70 »( 
 
 'Early gravel TieA. --j^ 
 
 Later gravel bevt. ^ 
 
 Eoman road on the Septimer. 
 
 Cross Section. 
 
 Ground. Flatv. 
 
 Eoman road above Mett in the Jura. 
 
 ^^ — 2,ro 
 
238 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 a 
 
 
EUKOPE — SWITZERLAND. 239 
 
 CANTON OF BASLE. 
 
 HEPOBT BT CONSUL QIFFOBD. 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The streets of the canton of Basle City were for the most part built 
 ill the last century, "but have been several times improved in recent 
 years. There is no division of these streets into classes, and the city, 
 which embraces substantially the whole canton, builds and mairjtains 
 the same at its own cost, with the exception of a few field roads. The 
 length of the streets is 102 kilometres and the steepest grade admitted 
 is 5.40 degrees. 
 
 The following information relates to streets built in late years : 
 
 Material and cos*.— For the paved streets three different materials 
 are used, viz, stone from the Ithine — so-called Ehine pebbles — quarry 
 stone from Alsace, and wood. The cost of the Ehine pebbles is from 
 $2 to $2.30 per cubic yards, that of the quarry stone, 3 cents for 
 each block ; the dimensions of which are 5 by 7 by 6^ inches. The wood 
 for pavement of that material costs from $7 to $8 per cubic yard. 
 
 The stone pavement is from 4^ to 5^ inches thick, laid on a sand 
 foundation 2J inches deep. When constructed of Ehine pebbles it costs 
 65 cents per square yard ; when of quarry stone, f 1.60 per square yard 
 
 The wood i^avement is 4 inches thick on a beton foundation from 6 
 to 8 inches in depth. The cost is $2.50 per square yard. 
 
 Macadamized streets are laid on a limestone foundation 6 inches 
 deep over which is a layer of broken stone rolled down with cement. 
 A square yard of finished street costs from 45 to 50 cents. Along the 
 sidewalks is constructed a paved gutter 3 feet wide, at an expense of 
 65 cents per square yard. 
 
 Sidewalks have a border, composed of strips of granite, 10 by 12 
 inches in size, costing $1.50 per linear yard. In the interior of the city 
 these sidewalks are of Travers asphalt, four-fifths of an inch deep, laid 
 on 4 inches of beton. In the suburbs the material used is gravel and 
 sand. The cost of the former is $1.25; of the latter, 6J cents per square 
 yard. 
 
 The breadth of the streets is 10, 13, 16, and 20 yards, the sidewalks 
 constituting one-fifth of the width in each case. 
 
 Maintenance. — The maintenance of the paved steeets is reduced to 
 raising the sunken portions as required and the renewal of the pave- 
 ment after the lapse of 15 or 20 years. 
 
 Each year the macadamized steeets are ballasted according to the 
 wear to which they have been subjected. The material used for this 
 purpose is for the most part broken stone ; less frequently, round peb- 
 bles of the proper size. In both cases the stone is dumped in the street 
 and left to be crushed by the passing teams. 
 
 The yearly expense of keeping a maci^idtvmized street in repair is 
 |310 a mile. 
 
240 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The details of this very considerable expenditure are for tbe 102 kilo- 
 metres of macadamized street in. this canton as follows : 
 
 FraDCB. 
 
 19 street surveyors 25, 100. 40 
 
 61 workiugmeu 32,732.30 
 
 7,017 cubic metres material 16,543.83 
 
 Cartage 17,483,40 
 
 Labor at gravel pits 2, 337. 80 
 
 Wateriug, etc 9,253.09 
 
 Total 103,650.82 
 
 Street Department. — The building and maintenance of tbe streets is 
 intrusted to the building department of the cantonal government, the 
 chief of which is a member of the executive council. The other officers 
 of the department are the secretary, treasurer, a cantonal engineer, as- 
 sistant engineer, and a road surveyor. The city is divided into nineteen 
 districts, each of which is cared for by an assistant surveyor and 2 or 
 3 laborers. The cost of this department is $5,900 a year, exclusive of 
 the salary of the chief and the wages of laborers. 
 
 George Gifforb^ 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Basle, January 20, 1891. 
 
 GENEVA. 
 
 The roads in my consular district having been laid out by the ancient 
 Helvetians many hundred years ago, are kept in order now simply by 
 the addition of broken stone occasionally. Great age with the assist- 
 ance of the broken stone have made the roads about as perfect as can 
 be desired. The streets recently put down in the city of Geneva, were 
 given out by contract to Americans "who put down the modern block 
 so well known at home, 
 
 EOLAND J. HeMMIOK, 
 
 Consul, 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Geneva, December 23, 1890. 
 
 LUCERNE. 
 
 REPORT BY CONSULAR A&ENT WILLIAMS. 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The city of Lucerne being very ancient, the streets are, as a rule, 
 very uarfow, but if they can not be imj)rove4 so fay as wWtU i§ COW- 
 
JIUROPE — SWITZERLAND. 
 
 241 
 
 cerned, they are kept in very good order. lu the old part of the city 
 the streets are paved with squared river stones of about 6 inches on 
 each side. These are laid in regular courses, running across the road- 
 way, and breaking joint with each other. The carriage way has a 
 slight rise or convexity in the middle in order that water may run off it 
 towards the sides. This convexity is from 2| to 3 per cent. The foot- 
 ways are nearly level with the highest part or crown of the carriage way, 
 and have a slope of 2 per cent, towards the carriage way. The curb- 
 stones are of granite, and now all the footways in Lucerne are finished 
 with asphalt. The way of constructing these asphalt footways is as 
 follows : 
 
 The ground is excavated to a sufficient dejith, and then a foundation 
 of stones, 6 inches high, is carefully laid by hand, and then covered 
 with a layer 2 inches thick of concrete composed of cement, hydraulic 
 lime, gravel, and sand. The concrete is properly smoothed and leveled 
 and left some time to harden, after which it is covered with a layer 
 of asphalt averaging three-fourth inch in thickness. Under the center of 
 the carriage way, and at a depth of from 6 to 8 feet, runs the sewer or 
 drainpipe, into which the water runs through the "gully holes," which 
 are situated on each side of the roadway at distances of from 100 to 
 200 feet from each other, according to the gradient of the street. In 
 order to prevent the escape of foul air through them, they are provided 
 with siphon traps. The following section of a street shows the mode 
 of construction. 
 
 Formerly the footways were paved with small square paving stones, 
 and there are still a few in the city, constructed in that way, but this 
 system is now abandoned, as asphalt is found better in every way. A 
 leaved footway lasts about 15 years but it often requires to be relev- 
 eled. An asphalt footway lasts about 20 years and if well made in 
 the first instance requires little or no repairs. 
 
 COST OF PAVED STREETS. 
 
 (1) Cost of paving with well-cut river stones, including labor, per 
 square metre, $1.16. 
 33a 16 
 
242 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN P0EEI6N COUNTRIES. 
 
 (2) During the last 20 years the streets of Lucerue have so often 
 becTi cut np for the purpose of laying drains, water pipes, gas pipes, 
 electric-light wires, etc., that it is impossible to give the cost of repairs. 
 
 ^ (3) Granite curbstones for 
 
 ^ — r — I — I footways : Straight per metre, 
 
 — P-__^ ^<<^MwM^ \\ I — $1.06: curved, per metre, $i.26; 
 
 -J I p ^^ laying curbstones, per metre, 20 
 
 — ^^^^^^^^^^^ cents. 
 
 (4) Paving footways with small squared stones laid in sand, per 
 metre, $1.16. 
 
 ASPHiLT FOOTWAYS. 
 
 Stone foundation, 15 centimetres high, covered with concrete, made 
 of cement and hydraulic lime, 5 centimetres thick, per square metre, 
 48 cents. Asphalt, 2 centimetres thick, per square metre, 97 cents. 
 
 HIGHWAYS. 
 
 In the old diligence days the postal roads of Switzerland were cele- 
 brated, and although, since the introduction of railroads the same 
 amount of care has not been given to the maintenance of highways, still I 
 think that the Swiss postal roads would compare favorably with the roads 
 of almost any other nation. I do not know if the system of construction 
 is the same all over Switzerland, but probably it is so. In the canton 
 of Lucerne highways are constructed in the following manner : 
 
 (1) If the road is in level ground, or nearly so, ditches are cut on 
 each side, for draining. The carriage way, which is 9 metres, or 
 thereabout, say 30 feet, wide, is not excavated, but leveled, some of the 
 earth taken from the ditches being used to fill np the hollows. On this 
 bed a foundation of stones 8 or 9 inches high is built, and on this a layer 
 of large gravel, generally river gravel, is laid to fill up the interstices 
 between the foundation stones ; the size of the gravel used is about 2 
 inches. On this a little earth or sand is spread, and above it a thick 
 layer of coarse gravel is laid. After this has become consolidated by 
 the traffic, the road is kept in order by successive layers of gravel as 
 required. In places where it is difficult to obtain river gravel, hard 
 broken stones are used instead, something after the system of Mr. Mac- 
 adam, except that a stone foundation is always used, which Mr. Mac- 
 adam never made use of. When broken stones are employed it is 
 necessary to loosen the surface of the road with a pick before the addi- 
 tion of each layer of material. 
 
 (2) When the road is made on a slope, a shallow ditch is cut on the 
 upper side. The water runs in gully holes, and is carried under the 
 road to the lower side by cement pipes, with an internal diameter of 
 from 8 inches to 24 inches, according to the volume of water to be car- 
 ried away. When the roads are made on mountain sides, where streams • 
 of water or small torrents come down from the heights, instead of pipes 
 
EUROPE — SWITZj: ELAND. 243 
 
 a culvert is built of a size suitable to the requirement. In that case, 
 the lower side of the road, instead of being an earthen embankment, 
 generally consists of a retaining wall, well pierced with draining holes. 
 
 (3) All the roads have a convexity of about 4^ or 5 per cent, to enable 
 the raiu water to run off to the sides. 
 
 These high roads are very hard, and are soon dry after rain. 
 
 I inclose herewith four tracings of sections of roads in or near Lu- 
 cerne, kindly supplied to me by the director of constructions of the city 
 of Lucerne, which show clearly the method of road building. 
 
 COST OF HIGHWAYS. 
 
 (1) Stone foundation of rubble or river stones, not less than 8 inches 
 high, per square metre, 39 cents ; river gravel, from 2 to 2^ inches, per 
 square metre, 5 cents ; broken stone, 6 to 7 cents. 
 
 The price of maintenance varies, as is shown by the following figures : 
 1875 (great activity in construction) cost, per square metre, 4 to 5 
 cents; 1881 (works suspended) cost, per square metre, 2 to 3 cents; 
 1890 (great activity) cost, per square metre, 3 to 4 cents ; broken stones 
 delivered on road cost, per cubic metre, $1,31. Elver gravel delivered 
 on road cost, per cubic metre, $1.04. 
 
 EFFECTS OF IMPKOVED HIGHWAYS. 
 
 With regard to the effect of improved public roads upon land values 
 in the country, I am unable to speak, but in the neighborhood of the 
 city it is estimated that an improved carriage way augments the value 
 of lands through or near which it passes from 6 to 12 per cent. When 
 an improved road near the city is required it is customary for the pro- 
 prfetors, through or near whose land the road is to pass, to petition the 
 city council. If it is decided that the road be made, the municipality 
 undertakes to get the plans made by its own engineers, and to have 
 the road constructed. It also pays one-third of the cost of construction. 
 The remaining two-thirds are paid by the ]3roprietors, in proportion to 
 the extent of their land and its nearness to the road. The proprietors 
 have also to pay to the municipality a yearly tax for the maintenance 
 of the road, but they have the option of redeeming it by one payment. 
 The roads being maintained by the municipality are always kept in good 
 order. 
 
 Ebjvest Williams, 
 
 Consular Agent. 
 
 United States Consular Agency, 
 
 Lucerne, January 5, 1891. 
 
244 
 
 STKEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
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246 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 CANTON OF ST. GALL. 
 
 REPORT BT CONSUL ROBERTSON. 
 STREETS. 
 
 The streets of the city of St. Gall are surprisingly bad, when it is 
 considered how constantly they are being worked upon, cleaned, re- 
 paired, etc. With this, however, the large falls of snow and rain and 
 the general climate here have much to do. 
 
 The laws governing the building inspection and repair of the streets 
 are strict and strictly enforced. 
 
 The making of the streets is given out by the municipality either to 
 regular employes, and under municipal direction and supervision or to 
 outsiders under contract according to regular specification, general 
 rales, and estimates. The latter plan is generally preferred. The streets 
 are either macadamized or paved, and the sidewalks macadamized, 
 paved, asphalted, cemented, or tiled. 
 
 One kilometer of macadamized street, 12 metres wide, with two gut- 
 ters, and sewers underneath these gutters, will cost 22,000 to 55,000 
 francs, and the sidewalks per square metre as follows : 
 
 Francs. 
 
 (o) Macadamized witb stone bed and covered with gravel 3 to 5 
 
 (6) Snjooth paved 10 to 25 
 
 (c) Asphalted 20 to 30 
 
 (d) Cemented 18 to 32 
 
 (e) Tiled (plates of Siuzinger material) 18 to 32 
 
 The building of streets with sidewalks, gutters, sewers, etc., raises 
 the values of the adjoining properties from 3 to 10 times over original 
 ones, and in somes places even as much as 30 times. 
 
 Streets of the so-called first class which are used by heavy teams re- 
 ceive a quarry stone bed from 15 to 30 centimetres thick, and a covering 
 of river gravel from 10 to 15 centimetres thick. Those of the so-called 
 second and third classes which are used for light teaming receive a 
 stone bed of quarry stone from 10 to 18 centimetres thick, and a cover- 
 ing of river gravel from 6 to 10 centimetres thick. For the stone bed 
 is used only very hard sandstone (gray-blue sandstone). Gravel is 
 sometimes used as a concrete. For covering streets there is generally 
 used river gravel mixed with some sand. Sometimes, to save expense, 
 quarry gravel is used. 
 
 The sidewalks are built in the same way as the streets, only that the 
 concrete will be but from 6 to 8 centimetres thick, and the covering 
 of very fine gravel, from 3 to 4 centimetres thick. 
 
 A square metre of street stone bed, 30 centimetres thick, purchase, 
 hauling, and laying included, will cost, according to the country from 
 which the material is brought, from 2.80 to 3.20 francs, and the same 
 for sidewalks from 0.80 to 1.10 francs. For covering the building de- 
 partment pays per metre from 5.80 to 7 francs. 
 
EUROPE SWITZERLAND. 247 
 
 The paving of streets is made as follows : 
 
 (a) Streets of first class. — The stones are cut out of sound quarry stones, 
 the upper part being made very smooth, and the dimensions are either 
 15 by 15 centimetres or 12 by 15 centimetres. The height is from 16 to 
 18 centimetres, and the stones ought to be cut as sharp as possible. 
 Under the pavestones is laid a sand bed 18 centimetres thick. The 
 joints of the stones when lard should not be more than 1 centimetre 
 apart. 
 
 (6) Streets of the second and third classes. — The pavestones are cut 
 from the same material as in the case of streets of the first class, only 
 they are smaller at the top. The height is the same, as well as the 
 bed. 
 
 (e) Sidetvallcs. — For these, small pavestones are used, and they may be 
 of different colors. Underneath is a sand-bed from 12 to 15 centimetres 
 thick. 
 
 The cost of building streets in the city of St. Gallon varies according 
 as to whether the latter are made on level ground or on hillsides. 
 
 For instance, taking six of the town streets here, 7 metres wide, mac- 
 adamized, the cost of a running metre, with sidewalk, gutters, sewers, 
 expropriation of the land, etc, is respectively: 
 
 Francs 
 
 Dufonr street, with roadway of 5 metres and sidewalk of 2 metres 98. 80 
 
 PwiDgli street, with roadway of 5 metres aud sidewalk of 2 metres 8o. 50 
 
 Winkelried street, with roadway of 5 metres and sidewalk of 2 metres. 114. 00 
 
 Vamhiihl street, with road way of 4.5 metres and sidewalk of 2.5 metres 111.00 
 
 Wildegg street, with roadway of 5 metres and sidewalk of 2 metres 101. 50 
 
 Trenacker street, with roadw ay of 5 metres and sidewalk of 2 metres 86. 70 
 
 A square metre of a paved street costs from 100 to 130 francs. The 
 cost of building the streets and of expropriation of the necessary land 
 are paid by the city, but the adjoining property-holders having houses 
 built along the streets pay upon the total cost sometimes as high as 
 60 per cent. 
 
 The cost of repairing the streets is paid by the city, and amounts, per 
 year per square metre, for macadamized street, to from 0.80 to 1.10 
 francs; for paved street, to from 0.50 to 10 francs. In the case of paved 
 streets, the cost of repair for the first few years is very small, but when 
 the stones begin to settle or to wear out the cost of repair increases 
 very much. 
 
 Experience has shown that it costs much less for the repair of streets 
 paved with small stones as compared with that of those in which large 
 stones are used. 
 
 HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The country roads of this portion of Switzerland are especially good, 
 and receive constant attention. 
 
 The expenses of building and repairing the post or state roads are 
 paid by the national government. Those for the cantonal roads are 
 paid by the canton. 
 
248 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 In building a country road, a stone bed from 20 to 25 centimetres 
 thick is made with a covering of gravel from 10 to 15 centimetres 
 thick. 
 
 The cost of 1 kilometre of road, purchase of ground included, is, at 
 the minimum, 15,000 francs, and in some localities as high as 100,000 
 francs. 
 
 The use of material depends largely on the location or nature of the 
 country through which the road is to run. For the stone bed, river 
 stones are generally preferred, and for the covering river gravel, but 
 where these can not be had quarry stone and quarry gravel are substi- 
 tuted. 
 
 The cost of keeping the road in good order will be, per year, from 
 300 to 2,500 francs per kilometre, according to the use of the road and 
 the price and quality of the material used for repairing it. 
 
 I received last year a letter from A. L. Bancroft, dated San Francisco, 
 June 25, 1890, which, with my reply to the same, will prove interesting 
 in this connection. Our correspondence was as below given : 
 
 San Feamcisco, June 25, 1890. 
 Dbak Sir: A movement is inaugurated in one of our counties to name and measure 
 the roads, number the country houses, and place guideboards at the crossings and 
 junctions. As interest is already manifest in other directions, and the movement is 
 likely to spread, I would be thankful to know something of these features in the 
 country whore you represent our Government. 
 
 Are the country roads named? Are the country houses numbered? If they are 
 numbered, is it done upon any such plan as the " ten-block system "? Are there any 
 celebrated roads, ancient or modern, like Via Appia and Strada della Cornice, of 
 Italy, Watling Street, of England, and the National Road fromWashington to Cincin- 
 nati in the United States ? Will you kindly give the names and descriptions of some 
 of tbe noted roads in your country ? 
 I will probably make use of the information asked for in a paper for publication. 
 By complying with this request I will esteem it a particular favor. 
 Very truly, 
 
 A. L. Bancroft. 
 Mr. W. Hbnrt Robertson, 
 
 United States Consul, St. Gall, Switzerland. 
 
 To Mr. Bancroft's letter I replied as follows: 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 St. Gall, Switzerland, July 19, 1890. 
 Sir : As an answer to your letter of the 25th ulfc., I do not think I can do better 
 than to send you the enclosed copy of a reply from the honorable secretary of the 
 interior, of the canton of St. Gallen, to an inquiry of my own based upon the subject 
 of your communication, above referred to. The honorable secretary has very courte- 
 ously, promptly, and, I think , very clearly, covered the points to which you referred. 
 I take pleasure in serving you in this matter. 
 Respectfully, 
 
 W. Henry Robertson, 
 
 Consul. 
 A. L. Bancroft, Esq., 
 
 13;i Post Street, San Francisco. 
 
EUROPE — ^SWITZERLAND. 249 
 
 llnclosnre.] 
 
 St, Gall, July 18, 1890. 
 To the Honorable W. Hfnry Eobtcrtson, 
 
 United States Consul, St. Gall : 
 I hasten to answer your very esteemed letter of to-day with the following notes: 
 
 (1) Are the country roads named? — Answer. They generaily bear the names of the 
 principal places they connect. So have we, for instance, the St. Oallen, the Zurich 
 road, the Rorschach road, the Thurgan road, etc. 
 
 (2) Are the country houses numhered? — Answer. Yes; hut the houses hear only a 
 number indicatiug the fire insurance, and are of no use in guiding tlie public. The 
 nnrabers do not follow each other regularly. A new-built house often gets the next 
 highest running number. But every isolated farm has its own name. The same is 
 the case with every IrttJe hamlet. The country people are well acquainted with these 
 names, which very often date hundreds of years ago. If a letter to a countryman 
 must be addressed, it will bear the name of the house or hamlet, never the number of 
 the house. 
 
 (3) Are there any celebrated roads like the Via Appia or the National Road from 
 Washington to Cincinnati ? — Answer. Yes. The Alpine passes, for instance, the 
 Gotthardroad, the Simplon road, the passes of Furca, Oberalp, Albula, Tulier, Splii- 
 gen, Bernina. In the level country there are no roads with well-known historical 
 names. The country roads are divided by kilometre stones. At every distance of 1 
 kilometre there is a small stone, and every .5 kilometres ia put a large one. At junc- 
 tions and crossings are high iron or wooden posts, which guide the public and note 
 the distances to the nearest villages and cities. The system of dividing the streets 
 (roads) in imaginary blocks could In our mountainous and hilly country scarcely be 
 adopted. In our cities this system is in use also, but in the country, where very few 
 new houses are built, it would not apply. There in the United States most houses 
 are situated alongside public roads, while in many parts of Switzerland the houses 
 are scattered and sown all over the hills and valleys, and only by narrow footpaths 
 connected with the main roads. 
 
 I shall be very glad, Mr. Consul, if I can serve in this matter or in any other way, 
 and I only beg to excuse my English. 
 
 With highest esteem, I am, sir, your obedient servant, 
 
 W. KtjNZLE, 
 
 Secretary. 
 
 In thus concluding, I beg to acknowledge the very valuable assistance 
 rendered me by the building department of the canton of St. Gall in the 
 preparation of this report. 
 
 W. Henry Eobeetson, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 m. Gall, March 7, 1891. 
 
250 STKEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN CQUNTRIES. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 BRITISH HIGHWAYS. 
 ItEPOXT BY CONSUL JASUETT, OF SIRMINQHAM. 
 
 It is impossible in a report like this to present a survey of the high- 
 ways of Great Britain, or to give a detailed statement of the method of 
 their constrnction. 
 
 Construction. — Many of them were designed and built by the Eomans, 
 and as far as I can discover, nearly all of the existing national roads 
 were designed and constructed before the commencement of the present 
 century. 
 
 The systems on which these roads were constructed all involved the 
 preparation of the ground, according to the character of the soil on 
 which the road was built. Pounding the soil to make it firm, driving 
 in piles, or laying on planks or logs crosswise if the soil was boggy, or 
 sometimes placing large rocks, were the usual way of preparing the 
 substratum. This being done, a bed of concrete from 6 to 10 inches 
 thick, or large blocks of stone were carefully and compactly laid to 
 form what was called the subroad, over which was placed the road 
 proper, which was composed of either prepared slabs or blocks of stone, 
 broken stone, or gravel and sand. 
 
 About a century ago John Loudan Macadam inaugurated a new 
 system of road making and repairing, to explain which I can do no 
 better here than insert an article clipped from the Southern Planter, 
 of November last, which I find is taken Irom the evidence of Macadam 
 taken before a Parliamentary committee in 1889: 
 
 Macadam's plan of road making'differed as mucli from the old way wLich he found 
 in operation as a bridge does from a ford. Instead of going deep for a "bottoming," 
 he worked solely on the top. Instead of producing a peaked, roof-like mass of 
 rough, soft rubbish, he got a flat, smooth, and solid surface. In lieu of a road 4^ 
 feet through, he made one of at most 10 inches in thickness; and for rocks and 
 bowlders he substituted stone broken small. His leading principle was that a road 
 ought to be considered as an artificial flooring, so strong and even as to let the 
 heaviest vehicle pass over it without impediment. Then people began to hear with 
 wonder of roads 30 and 40 feet wide rising only 3 inches in the center, and he 
 propounded the extraordinary heresy that a better and more lasting road could 
 be made over the naked surface of a morass than over solid rook. Another of his 
 easy first iirinciples was that the native soil was more resistant when dry than when 
 wet and that, as in reality it had to carry not alone the traffic but the road also, it 
 ought to be kept in a condition of the greatest resistance; that the best way of keep- 
 ing it dry was to put over it a covering impervious to rain — the road, in fact; and 
 that the thickness of this covering was to be regulated solely in its relation to its 
 imperviousneas, and not at all as to its bearing of weights, to which the native soil 
 was quite equal. Instead of digging a trench, therefore, to do away with the sur- 
 face of the native soil, he carefully respected it, and raised the road sutHciently above 
 it to let the water run off. Impermeability he obtained by the practical discovery 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 251 
 
 that stones broken smalf and shaken and pressed together, as by the traffic on a 
 road, rapidly settled down face to face and angle with angle, and made as close a 
 mass as a wall. Mankind now believe that this last is all that Macadam invented ; 
 the rest la forgotten. That important fraction of his discoveries is -what has given 
 to us the vert) to macadamize (" to pave a road with small broken stones." — Skeat). 
 
 Surprise followed surprise. Roads which were mere layers of broken stone, 6, 4, 
 and even as little as 3 inches in thickness, passed through the worst winters without 
 breaking up, while, as the coachman used to say, they " ran true ; the wheel ran hard 
 upon them; it ran upon the nail." Commissioners could not believe their eyes when 
 they saw new roads made for much less than it had cost them yearly to repair the old 
 ones. When an old road was given into Macadam's charge, he often made a new one 
 of it for £88 ($440) a mile, while around London the cost of annual repairs had been 
 £470 ($2,350) a mile. For he knew that the roads — such had been the ignorant 
 waste — generally contained materials enough for their use for several years if properly 
 applied. Unless the road was hopeless^ he went to work in a practical, cheap way ; 
 first cutting oif the "gridiron " of ruts in the center " to a level with the bottom of 
 the 'furrows,' " then " picking" the road up to a depth of 4 inches, removing all the 
 chalk, clay, or mud, breaking the largest stones small, and simply putting them back 
 again, and one of his directions to his workmen was that "nothing is to be laid on 
 the clean stone on pretense of binding.'' But too often the road was so bad, as at 
 Egham, that it had to be removed to its foundations. 
 
 For the repairs of his roads, when ouce made, he always chose wet weather, and 
 "loosened the hardened surface with a pick'' before putting on the first broken 
 stone ; things familiar enough to us now, but paradoxes then to all thg confraterni- 
 ties of the roads. In this way he had the greatest success with the freestone near 
 Bath, and on a road out of Bristol toward Old Down, where everybody had always 
 said a good road never would be made with the material available. This impossible 
 road of 11 miles, which the postmaster-general, as a last resource, was about to in- 
 dict, he perfected in 2 months, in 1816, for £55 (|275) a mile. Indeed, as tp materi- 
 als, they were to soine extent a matter of indifference to him, provided they were 
 stones and stones only. 
 
 Even in the breaking of the stones Macadam made a revolution. He saw that 
 able-bodied men standing up with hammers wasted the greater portion of their 
 strength. He made his stonebreakers sit, so that all the force of the blows took 
 direct effect on the stone ; and the result was that he found small hammers did the 
 work perfectly well, and thus was able to confine it to old men past hard labor, wo- 
 men and boys, which reduced the cost of the broken stone by one-half. The size to 
 which the stone should be broken he determined in a practical way by the area of 
 contact of an ordin ary wheel with a smooth road. This he found to be about an inch 
 lengthwise, and therefore he laid it down that "a stone which exceeds an inch in 
 any of its dimensions is mischievous," that is to say, that the wheel in pressing on 
 one end of it tends to lift the other end out of the road. In practice lie found it sim- 
 plest to fix a weight of 6 ounces, and his surveyors carried about scales to test the 
 largest stones in each heap. He would allow no large stones even for the fonnda- 
 tion'of his roads, for he found that they constantly worked upward by the pressure 
 and vibration of the traffic. The whole road was small broken stone, even over 
 swampy ground. — St. James Gazette. 
 
 From practical experience extending over many years as a member of a highway 
 board having charge of about 25 miles of heavily trafiioked road, we are able to say 
 that the application of the principles of road making and repairing laid down in the 
 above article will secure a perfect highway. We worked upon the system invented 
 by Mr. Macadam, using both hand broken and machine-broken stones, and either a 
 heavy horse roller or a steam roller, and made and maintained roads over which upon 
 steep grades one horse could hanla ton iu a cart weighing from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds 
 with ease. The state of the roads made in the manner advised, may be judged from 
 
252 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 the fact recorded a few days ago in Eagland, tbat at the recent contest for the cham- 
 pionship of the world on a bicycle on the highway, the winner rode in a direct line 
 336 miles in 2i consecutive hours. — Ed. 
 
 In constructing a new road, Macadam usually did it in what he termed 
 " three times." He first placed a layer of broken stone 4 inches thick, 
 which was worked until it was set, when another layer of about 4 inches 
 of broken stone was added, which in turn was worked until it was set, 
 when the last layer of broken stone was added. 
 
 As to the kind of stone used, the whinstone seems to have been Mac; 
 adams' favorite, followed by flint, limestone, and pebbles. Burgoyne, 
 in his " Construction of roads," published in 1860, says : 
 
 The most important quality in atone for road making is toughness ; mere hard- 
 ness without toughness is of no use, as such stone becomes rapidly reduced to powder 
 by the action of the wheels. Those stones which have been found to answer this 
 purpose best are the whinstones., basalts, granites, and beach pebbles. The softer 
 descriptions of stone, such as the sandstones, are not fltted for this purpose, being far 
 too weak to resist the crushing action of the wheels. The harder and more compact 
 limestones may be employed ; but generally speaking, the limestones are to be avoided 
 in consequence of their great affinity for water, which causes them, in frosty weather, 
 which has been preceded by wet, to split up into a pulverulent state, and destroys 
 the solidity of the road. 
 
 It is extremely diflEicult to arrive at the first cost of construction or 
 that of repairing and keeping in good order the roads of this country, 
 as I fail to discover any reliable data on the subject. The labor em- 
 ployed at this class of work is, and has been of the cheapest kind. 
 Criminals have also been largely employed for this purpose. At stone 
 breaking, women and children are still employed. During times of 
 depression, workmen out of work are often employed for as low as 3C 
 cents and 61 cents per day, at stone breaking and road repairing. The 
 men employed at this work regularly are paid from 61 cents to 73 cents 
 per day. 
 
 An approximate estimate of the cost of keeping in repair country 
 roads would be from 3 cents to 5 cents per superficial yard. The prob- 
 able cost of construction of new roads, irrespective of the value of the 
 land, would be from 49 cents to 73 cents per superficial yard. 
 
 Tailgates. — The roads in England were until recently under the con- 
 trol and management of certain bodies called turnpike trusts or trus- 
 tees, who were usually appointed by acts of Parliament applying to 
 separate and distinct districts. Under these acts the turnpike trustees 
 were authorized to collect from the drivers of all vehicles or from per- 
 sons traveling on horseback,, small sums which were called tolls. 
 These tolls were collected in the highroads at various points at a toll- 
 house, being a small two-roomed cottage erected close up to the road, 
 where a tollgate was fixed. This gate was a five-barred gate which 
 was kept locked, and opened for each passenger on payment of the 
 toll. 
 
 These tollhouses would in some districts be from 4 to 5 miles apart, 
 and in others would be within much shorter distances, as the traveler 
 
EUKOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 253 
 
 happened to get on the roads governed by dififerent trustees. These tolls 
 were for a two-wheeled vehicle generally about 6 cents each, and for a 
 horseman 2 cents or 3 cents. Bach person paying the toll received a 
 small ticket marking the toll, and the toll paid in some instances free- 
 ing the passenger for a gate further on the road. In some districts 
 tolls were very much higher than in others. 
 
 A friend tells me that he remembers once driving through Wales in 
 a two-wheeled vehicle, perhaps about 25 years ago, when he was sur- 
 prised to find all the roads in splendid condition, but the tollgates were 
 very numerous, being met with in every mile or so, and rates ranging 
 from 14 cents to 30 cents each toll. 
 
 These tollhouses had their bright side. They were usually pleasant 
 breaks on a long journey, and many has been the agreeable chat with 
 the old toll-keeper, who could usually spin a good yarn, and the fact of 
 the tollhouse being there was often a protectioq to travelers on a long 
 journey. 
 
 In Dick Turpin's (a famous highwayman) historical ride trom London 
 to York, about 200 miles, he may be remembered as having cleared a 
 good many of the tollgates "without stopping to pay the toll. As to 
 these tolls there were certain persons who were exempt from payment 
 of them, viz : Horses or carriages attending or going to attend queen or 
 sovereign ; horses employed in husbandry ; vehicles conveying materials 
 for mending the road ; persons going to or returning from church or a 
 funeral within the parish ; ministers attending service ; ofiicers with 
 prisoners. Also no toll to be taken for simply crossing the road or 
 going 100 yards upon it. Also cattle, etc., going or returning from 
 pasture. 
 
 These turnpike trusts were done away with by act of Parliament 
 passed in 1878, known as the highways amendment act (41 and 42 Vict, 
 c. 77) after which in the course of a very short space of time the old 
 tollhouses gradually disappeared. 
 
 Under the act of 1878 and subsequent acts of Parliament it is pro- 
 vided : 
 
 First, the duty, maintenance, etc., of the highways is cast upon the 
 ratepayers of the parish and managed by their highway surveyor. 
 
 Second, parishes are united into districts for the common object, un- 
 der the supervision of the highway boards. 
 
 Third, municipal boroughs and towns have powers conferred, upon 
 them to perform the duties of highway surveyors within their bounda- 
 ries. 
 
 Lastly, the central authority, the local government board, London, is 
 intrusted with a general superintendence of the several systems for the 
 benefit of the nation at large. 
 
 In order to raise the necessary funds for the maintenance of the high- 
 ways the rateable property value in each parish is ascertained, accord- 
 ing to the valuation list in such parish, or if no valuation list be in force, 
 
254 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 by the jastices of the peace, subject to appeal at the quarter, sessions. 
 
 The surveyor is empowered to inspect any of the rates towards the 
 relief of the poor, or the books of the assessment, aud is allowed to make 
 copies and extracts. The surveyor is to levy a rate upon all property 
 rated, to the relief of the poor, and he has the same powers lis tne over- 
 seers of the poor for the recovery of the rate, and if it is not paid he can 
 issue a summons for its recovery before the magistrates of the district. 
 
 No highway rate by any parish at any one time is to exceed lOd. (20 
 cents) in the £1 ($4.86), and the highway rates required to be paid in 
 any one year are not to exceed 2s. dd (61 cents) in the £1 ($4.86), excejit 
 with the consent of four-fifths of the ratepayers of the district, procured 
 at a meeting specially called. Property is assessed in England accord- 
 ing to the rental value, and not oq its full value, as in the United States. 
 
 RIGHTS OP BICYCLISTS. 
 
 (Suggested by the by-laws of the highways act, 1878, 41 and 42, Vict. 
 O. 77, for the use of county commissioners of highways.) 
 
 In these by-laws the expression "bicyclist" means a person riding 
 or otherwise using a bicycle on any highway. 
 
 A bicyclist shall not ride his bicycle upon any footway, pavement, or 
 causeway set apart for the use of foot passengers. 
 
 Every bicylist who rides a bicycle during the time between one hour 
 after sunset and one hour before sunrise shall have attached to his 
 bicycle a lamp, so placed as to afford adequate means of indicating the 
 approach of such bicycle. 
 
 Every bicyclist who overtakes any wagon, cart, or other carriage, or 
 any horse, or any foot passenger proceeding along the carriage way, 
 shall, when within a reasonable distance before passing such, by sound- 
 ing a horn, bell, or whistle, give audible warning of the approach of 
 his bicycle. 
 
 Every bicyclist who overtakes and passes any wagon, cart, or other 
 carriage, or any horse, shall keep his bicycle to the right or off-side of 
 the road. 
 
 In every case where a bicyclist meets or overtakes any horse which 
 may become restive, such bicyclist shall take every reasonable precau- 
 tion, to the best of his judgment, by dismounting or otherwise, so as 
 to avoid danger. 
 
 Any person who breaks any of the foregoing by-laws shall be liable 
 for any one offense to a fine of not exceeding two pounds ($9.73). 
 
 VALUE OF HIGHWAYS. * 
 
 I have been unable to obtain any data showing "the effect of im- 
 proved public highways upon land values and other economic condi- 
 tions," for Great Britain. It is however safe to say that laud values are 
 imjjroved, and that every branch of agriculture, commercial, and man- 
 ufacturing industries is materially benefited through the operaiions of 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 255 
 
 good public roads in this coantry, Tlierecan be no question but that 
 the great industries owe much of their development and prosperity to 
 the excellent public roads. Horse po wer is vastly utilized by them, and 
 the general comfort of the individual is increased. In short the public 
 and private advantages resulting from the good roads are incalculable. 
 Much may be said in favor of the old mode of maintaining the roads by 
 means of the tolls, as the expense fell upon the persons using the roads, 
 but it will be clearly seen that as this country (England) is small and 
 thickly populated with large towns in close proximity to each other that 
 the system now in force of having the rate payers of each parish bear 
 this expense, is by far the most expedient and preferable. This system, 
 however, in my opinion would have to be very much modified in its 
 application to the coustriictiou and maintenance of public roads in the 
 United States. 
 
 John Jakbbtt, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Birmingham, Feb. 13, 1891. 
 
 ENGLISH STREETS AND HIGHWAYS. 
 
 EEPOEX BY CONSUL WIGFALL OF LEEDS. 
 
 mSOBLLANEOUS STATISTICS. 
 
 An abstract of returns of turnpike trusts round about London for the 
 year 1818 shows a length of road 210 miles 489 yards, under twelve dis- 
 tinct organizations, under acts of Parliament of various dates from the 
 seventh to the fifty-eighth years of the reign of George III. The amount 
 of tolls during the year named was £97,482.18.9 ($474,400.72) ; the 
 amount of expenses, £98,856.0.6 ($481,082.85) ; and the outstanding 
 debt, £62,658.7.0 ($304,926.86) ; or, per mile, tolls, £464.4.0 ($2,259.03) ; 
 expenses, £470.14.0 ($2,290.66); debt, £298.7.0 ($1,451.92). 
 
 Such a statement is perhaps its own sufficient comment. 
 
 From a condition like that presented by these figures it is not far or 
 difficult to conclude a course of administration the reverse of satisfactory. 
 And that indeed was the fact. Too minute a subdivision of interest 
 with its accompanying irresponsibility of control had wrought some- 
 thing closely approaching to ruin in the English system of public 
 roads. 
 
 The elder McAdam, in his remarks (edition of 1822), refers to the 
 amendment of a large proportion of the turnpike roads and some im- 
 provement of the parish roads as having occurred since the publication 
 of the early editions of his essay. The fact that the reformation had 
 not been more extensive and successful was, in his opinion, attributable 
 
256 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN PaREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 to the 6rror still persisted in by trustees of continuing the services of 
 persons as road surveyors who, he says, are not only altogether ignorant 
 of the business they profess, but full of prejudices in favor of their own 
 erroneous practice. 
 
 Six years' experience the author says has served to confirm his be- 
 lief that the supervision of commissioners over surveyers is altogether 
 ineffectual ; whether for direction in their active duties or for protect- 
 ing the funds of trusts (as the turnpike organizations were designated) 
 from waste and peculation. The commissioners were unpaid and irre- 
 sponsible, and the work done under their nominal authority and direc- 
 tion was correspondingly defective. England alone was parceled out 
 "into 955 little trusts," which by dint of their numerous smallness had 
 sunk into very low credit. The debt was at that writing seven millions 
 sterling and promising to increase. 
 
 The modest of making aud repairing roads were various in the different 
 portions of the kingdom, being to a certain degree affected by the vary- 
 ing supply of materials. Gravel in the London neighborhood; flint in 
 Essex and Sussex; in the west, limestone; in the north and in Scotland, 
 whinstone, and in Shropshire and Staffordshire, pebbles mixed with 
 sand. Excellent roads, Mr. McAdam states, may be made of any of 
 these materials. 
 
 The London gravel mixed with clay and lacking angular points of 
 contact whereby broken stone unites and forms a solid body, was found 
 the least desirable. With proper treatment, however, even this would 
 make good roads. Flint is called an excellent medium if due attention 
 is given to the size. Limestone makes a smooth and solid road, con- 
 solidating sooner than any other material, but is not the most lasting. 
 Whinstone is the most durable of all, and makes roads comparatively 
 good aud cheap. The pebbles of Shropshire are hard and do well for 
 roads. The Scottish ro ads, though made of the best materials, were 
 termed the most loose, rough, and expensive roads iu the United King- 
 dom. 
 
 The form of road is objected to by the author, particularly the roads 
 about London, high in the center of the way and making a dangerous 
 slope except just in the middle of the road. Loose gravel was deposited 
 in the center and left to work its way outward. 
 
 A road well made, it is said, will be easily repaired. Hence the ne- 
 cessity of intelligent supervision in the outset. Mr. McAdam con- 
 tinues : 
 
 Will it be deemed presumptnous to propose that some regulations may be adopted 
 for encouriigiug and promotiDg a better system of making roads, by eliciting the ex- 
 cretion and by creating a set of officers of skill and reputation to superintend this 
 most essential branch of domestic economy ? 
 
 The duties »f an active executive officer are reckoned to include di- 
 rection of repairs and alterations, control of contracts, and general 
 superintendauce of employes, and supervision of the accounts. A stint 
 
EUEOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 257 
 
 of, say, 150 miles, it was thought, would give such an officer full occupa- 
 tion. He adds : 
 
 Skill and executive labor must be adequately paid for, if expected to be conatantly 
 and usefully exerted ; and if so exerted the price is no consideration when compared 
 with the advantage to the public. 
 
 He is explicit in condemnation of statute labor for the maintenance of 
 roads. He says it was decreed when no better means could be devised, 
 at a time when a circulating medium was deficient and labor in many 
 parts was hard to get for money. " Personal labor for a public service 
 can never be made profitable or fairly productive." A commutation of 
 statute labor for a moderate assessment in money was accordingly com- 
 mended, and had then been effected in Scotland in most if not all of 
 the turnpike acts by the local powers. 
 
 The insufficiency or improvident expenditure of the funds provided 
 for by Parliament was proven by the numerous applications for exten- 
 sion of powers and incre.ase of tolls. In the session of 1815 thirty-lour 
 such petitions, and in 18 LG thirty-two, were presented and passed as a 
 matter of course. 
 
 Mr. Macadam goes on to say : 
 
 The defective state of the roads, independent of the unnecessary expense, is oppres- 
 sive on aggricnltnre, commerce, and manufactures by the increase of the price of 
 transport by waste of the labor of cattle and wear of carriages, as well as by causing 
 much delay of time. 
 
 The author says he has abstained from any notice of the parish roads, 
 although their condition and the state of their funds are more deplor- 
 able than that of the turnpike roads. He adds that the legislation oa 
 their behalf is so inadequate that they may be considered as being 
 placed almost out of the protection of the law. They should be aggre- 
 gated with the turnpikes and placed altogether under proper scientific 
 and expert management. 
 
 An interesting extract from a Parliamentary report in 1811 contains 
 the following statement : 
 
 The many important advantages to be derived from amending the highways and 
 turnpike roads of the Kingdom need hardly be dwelt upon. Every individual in it 
 would thereby find his oomfo rts materially increased and his interest greatly pro- 
 moted. By the improvement of our roads every branch of our agricultaral, com- 
 mercial, and manufacturing in dustry would be materially benefited. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Telford, before a committee of Parliament in 1819, said 
 that the roads in England and Wales were in general very defective, 
 both as to their directions and inclinations, being often carried over 
 hills which might be avoided by passing along the adjacent valleys ; 
 that the inclinations were inconveniently steep and long continued, and 
 specifies some previously existing- conditions of grade as one in six, 
 seven, eight, nine, and ten, with a width of 12 feet, without protection 
 on the lower side, and the roadway itself improperly constructed. 
 3:hese had been corrected, and at the tinje the sharpest grade on the 
 33a 17 
 
258 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 road referred to was 1 in 17 for about 200 yards ; another was 1 iii 22 
 for a considerable distance, unavoidable from the lay of the ground; 
 but the general grades on this road after the improvement were less 
 than 1 in 30, with 32 feet breadth of roadway on level ground, 28 where 
 side cutting did not exceed 3 feet, and along steep and precipitous 
 parts 22 feet, all within the fences. 
 
 Between Shrewsbury and London this road still made its way over 
 many hills. Another instance cited was between Shrewsbury and 
 Worcester, which consisted of nearly a succession of very high and in- 
 conveniently steep hills, although very easy inclinations might be ob- 
 tained by passing along the side of the river Severn. 
 
 These roads were cited by Mr. Telford as typical of many other roads 
 in the Kingdom, not having been selected as more particularly defect- 
 ive than others. He adds that the shape or cross-section and drain- 
 age are quite as defective as the general direction and inclinations. No 
 attention to constructing the foundations ; materials seldom suf&ciently 
 selected and arranged ; promiscously scattered on the road, impeding 
 the travel and lending aid to destruction ; the roadway hollow in the 
 middle ; the sides incumbered with mud in banks 6 and 8 feet high. 
 Such are the attributes of the British highways at the time. Since 
 then but fifty years have passed, and mighty has been the change. 
 The description which we have just been traversing has many features 
 which might suit an essay on the facilities existing at the present mo- 
 ment in a large number of the United States. The heedless manner in 
 which so frequently the routes are selected ; the utter disregard of 
 grade ; the boundary of a cornfield given prelerence for location of the 
 line of road to the plainest topographical necessity ; the wretched pre- 
 tense of drainage which only works the ruin of the roadbed. These, 
 and a multitude of similar reiiectious, may find analogy in the spirited 
 complaint put forth fifty years ago in England. 
 
 The most important element in the problem seems to be the one 
 which in the discussions of that and later periods has been so urgently 
 insisted on in England, viz, the employment of competent expert 
 capacity to personally and immediately supervise the designing, locat- 
 ing, constructing, and maintaining of the highways of the various 
 country-sides. In even the remotest districts, destitute of facilities for 
 exterior supply of road-making material, and where the natural re- 
 sources of the country do not furnish it, there is still, and here even 
 more perhaps than in more favored regions, the necesssity for skill and 
 trained capacity in road building. A well-planned, scientifically exe- 
 cuted line of highway, judiciously graded, sufficiently drained, properly 
 protected from rain and flood, and systematically supervised and kept 
 in repair, might well ofler facilities; even with a roadbed of the native 
 soil unmetaled, superior for trafdo to the heaviest accretion of stone, 
 unskillfully disposed and left by neglect to decay. It is prominently 
 apparent in any fair coiisideratiou of the subject that competent special 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 259 
 
 ability in the selection of the route, in the mauagemeut of levels, in the 
 apijlication of material, and in the uninterinittiug care of the roadway 
 after it is built, is the essential and indispensable requirement for the 
 proper development of our road system. No natural advantages can 
 take the place of intelligent use of the means actually in hand. 
 
 The same irresponsibility, the same lack of individual personal in- 
 terest and trained capacity on the part of those charged with the man- 
 agement of the English road systems in former times is now working 
 its evil effects in our own States. Organization, liberal and coincidently 
 judicious outlay of money, and expert supervision are vital needs in this 
 connection. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Codrington, general superintendent of county roads for 
 South Wales, a recognized authority, in his " Maintenance of Macada- 
 mized Roads," edition 1879, begins his preface by a statement that his 
 subject is one upon which the published information in England is re- 
 markably scanty. He speaks of the engineers of the Fonts et Chaus- 
 s6es in Prance as having been foremost in inquiries of this sort, and 
 adds that the results of their labors are fortunately for the most part 
 as applicable in England as in their own country. The lack of knowl- 
 edge in England as to systematic road maintenance he considers will 
 become more apparent in consequence of the then recent legislation by 
 which half the cost of repairing the main roads had been made to fall 
 upon the county rate, with the inferable consequence of supervision by 
 the county authorities. 
 
 Application of new materials, prevention of avoidable wear by keep- 
 ing the surface and the body of the road in good condition, removal of 
 detritus as it forms, care of the surface and attention to drainage, are 
 the ijoints suggested as important. Four horses doing the work of five 
 or three the work of four are results to be attained by proper manage- 
 ment of the roadways, accompanied by saving of wear and tear of 
 harness and vehicles. But actual economy in cost of maintenance gen- 
 erally he thinks follows as well. A good road is cheaper as well as better 
 than a bad one. He speaks- of upwards of £i,000,000 ($19,466,000) 
 being spent annually on the roads of England and Wales, this expend- 
 iture being nearly all on macadamized ways. It is also exclusive of the 
 London district, where macadamized roads are debited with £280,000 
 ($1,362,620) annual outlay. A large saving is reckoned possible on 
 this, given more system and skill in administration j while tbe indirect 
 economy in cost of drought and wear and tear is reckoned would 
 probably far exceed the direct, considerable as the latter might be ; 
 so essential does this judicious writer deem the employment of expert 
 superintendence. And the same text which Telford and Macadam ex- 
 pounded sixty years before has kept its vitality to this later day. 
 
 Telford and Macadam, while coincident in their aims, seem somewhat 
 divergent as to method. The prominent point of difierence in their 
 'theories would §eem to have consisted in their requirements as to the 
 
260 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 shape and size of the metal constituents used in the roadbed. The 
 one held favorably the use of a bottoming of more or less symmetric- 
 ally shaped stones of appreciable size set in careful order and forming 
 a substantial foundation wherever was to be arranged the mass of 
 smaller stones to make the surface of the way. The other assumed an 
 antipodal position, and held that no foundation was so good as the na- 
 tive soil, handled, and shaped, and drained, where possible, but pre- 
 served from auy sort of contact with stoues of individual importance, 
 size, and weight. These he deemed to be absolutely mischievous to 
 cause injury to the stability of the working stratum of the road. This 
 plan was uniformity of size (6 ounces in weight was his standard), 
 and the stone distributed without mixture of earth, clay, chalk, or auy 
 matter which will imbibe water and be affected by frost; nothing to be 
 applied for " binding." Broken stone, he says, will combine by its 
 own angles into a smooth surface beyond the attack either of weather 
 or wheels. Placing stone uuder the road to make it artificially strong 
 enough to bear heavy carriages, though the subsoil is wet, and to try 
 thus to avoid harm of water penetrating the soil, he says, has led to 
 most of the defects of British roads. Strata of stone of various sizes 
 will cause constaut working up of the largest stones — uniform size from 
 the bottom he holds to be the only remedy. He goes so far as to say 
 that a road over a morass lasts much louger than when made over rock, 
 citing in this connection the road between Bristol and Bridgewater, as 
 showing a comparison of five to seven in favor of the wearing on the 
 morass where the road was laid upon the naked soil against a part of 
 the same road made over rocky ground. The thickness of the road he 
 deems immaterial so far as regards its strength for carrying weight. 
 The subsoil, which is kept dry by the road acting as a roof, bears the 
 load as well as the road. He insists upon dryness to facilitate this 
 effect. The morass of his illustration would seem, therefore, to have 
 been a sort of dry morass. 
 
 Mr. Codrington thinks that this difference between the two engineers 
 has been more dwelt on than the similarity of their systems on many 
 other points in which they varied so widely from the practice of their pre- 
 decessors. Both, for example, insisted on the necessity for the thorough 
 drainage of the seat of the road (previously quite neglected) and both 
 made use of materials broken to gauge to form a solid hard surface of 
 a uniform cross-section and of curvature just sufBcient to throw the 
 rain-water freely to the sides. Telford's description is quoted : 
 
 This foundation is a regular close pavement of stones carefully set by hand, and 
 varying in height from 8 to 6 inches, to suit the curvature of the road. These stones 
 are all set on edge, but with the flat oue lowest, so that each sball rest perfectly firm. 
 The interstices are then pinned -with small stones, and care is taken that no stone 
 shall be broader than 4 or 5 inches, as the upper stratum does not bind upon them so 
 well when they much exceed that breadth. The pavement thus constructed is quite 
 firm and immovable, and forms a complete separation between the top stratum -of 
 broken stoues and the reteulivo soil below. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 2C1 
 
 The French engiDeer, Tresaguet's, mode described by himself in 1764, 
 and adopted generally in France in 1775, is cited for comparison, and 
 , shows great similarity. 
 
 Mr. Codrington, iu this connection, distinguishes between "a firm 
 and regular bottoming" to separate the road metaling from the subsoil 
 and "a pavement." In order to secure a dry bottom, and to avoid suf- 
 fering the workable materials coming into contact with clay, Telford 
 was willing to get the effect by almost any means available ; and sug- 
 gested gravel, sand, vegetable soil, or chalk as alternatives to bottom- 
 ing stones ; a requisite, whatever the medium, was that " this bottoming 
 should be made perfectly firm and regular, so as to receive the, top 
 ■workable metal of equal thickness." Thus it is said, although he 
 always advised a paved bottom when it could be laid, many pieces of 
 road were made under Telford's direction without the paved bottom, 
 •with which his name has been associated. 
 
 Mr. Codrington is of opinion that where the bottom is soft and wet 
 and the subsoil can not be laid dry by drainage, a bottoming of some 
 sort is very desirable, and that stone will be often found the most eco- 
 nomical as well as the most convenient medium if considerable strength 
 is required. Three or 4 inches of broken stone laid on 6 inches of 
 pitching consolidates, he says, much more quickly under ordinary traffic 
 than the 9 or 10 inches of broken stone alone. Stone for bottoming 
 may be of a quality unfit for metaling or building. Macadam's objec- 
 tion that large stones would work up, Mr. Codrington limits to those 
 thrown down anyhow on to an undraiued subsoil, as per the older 
 roadmakers, but denies that it applies to a carfully pitched foundation, 
 a bottoming of stones on edge. The plea that the metaling is "ground 
 to powder" between the wheel and the underlying pavement has been 
 made, but sufficient thickness of metal is thought to obviate this danger. 
 On a soft subsoil, wbere a pitched bottoming is most useful, experience 
 is said to prove that the broken stone may be reduced by wear to 1 J or 
 2 inches in thickness without such action. 
 
 Mr. Codrington attributes a good deal of exaggeration to many of 
 Macadam's statements. He deems it quite contrary to other experience 
 that materials should last longer on a soft bottom, and says the morass 
 road may have worn well in spite of its foundation and not because of 
 it; and, he adds, that the saving in wear of materials on what he terms 
 "a flexible road" could only have been obtained at the expense of 
 increased draft of vehicle. He also takes exception to the theory of 
 satisfaction from imperviousness to water alone, without retereuce to 
 weight- carrying power advanced by Macadam. He goes so far as to 
 say that while a water-tight covering, as in limestone roads, is desir- 
 able, roads of silicious material, though always more or less permeable, 
 may be also very good. Modern practice, he says, varies from Mac- 
 adam's precepts in other points; bnt the principle of broken stone 
 laid directly on the natural soil has guided the construction of, by far, 
 
2G2 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 the largest proportioa of the roads of the present clay, both in England 
 and abroad. He gives Macadam the credit of first calling attention to 
 the proper preparation of materials and the possibility of a road surface 
 nearly impenetrable to water, though flat enough for vehicles over the 
 whole area. To him also, he concedes, is largely due the establishment 
 of a regular system of road maintenance under properly qualified sur- 
 veyors. This alone would seem to ecftitle Macadam's name to high 
 consideration in the country which has so benefited by his service. 
 
 KOAD CONSTRTJCTION. 
 
 Eegarding the construction of roads Mr. Codrington summarizes the 
 subject under the following heads : 
 
 1. Drainage. 
 
 2. Cross section. 
 
 3. Road with a pitelied foundation. 
 
 4. Concrete foundations. 
 .5. Brolcen-.sitone road. 
 
 6. Breadth. 
 
 7. Water tables or side chaanola. 
 
 8. Outlets. 
 
 9. Foot path. 
 
 10. Fences. 
 
 11. Stone depots. 
 
 12. Rolling. 
 
 13. Use of a binding material. 
 
 14. Cost of macadamized roads. 
 1."). Reforming an old road, and 
 16. Lifting a road. 
 
 (1) Drainage. — This is essential whether a paved bottom is laid or 
 not. Ditches on each side of the road 2 or 3 feet deep are usually suffi- 
 cient. They may be on either the field or the road side of the fence; 
 better the latter if other things agree. They are easier of access and 
 being nearer give more complete drainage. Whei-ethe road is below the 
 level of the land the drains are often covered in. They should be under 
 the side channel, 1 foot or so deep below the formation surface, and filled 
 in with rubblestone to join with the road materials. Surface water 
 should be otherwise provided for by open drains. If side ditches and 
 drains are not enough miter drains must be added. These are drains 
 meeting in a V in the center of the road and running to the side drains 
 in the direction in which the road falls. One in 100 is sufficient incli- 
 nation. They are cut in the formation surface 6 inches deep and 12 
 inches wide, filled in with broken stone. Drain pipes or box drains with 
 side walls of dry stone and flat bottom and cover stone may be used. 
 The latter have the advantage that they can be opened and cleaned. 
 Care must be taken to tap and lead away springs rising under theroad. 
 Both the general highway and the turnpike acts give power to make 
 drains througli lands adjoining a road, with satisfaction for the dam- 
 age. Draining is economy. A wet road is always troublesome. Ex- 
 
tetEOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 263 
 
 pense in drainage is well expended. Culverts are required for surface 
 water passing the road. Slight fall in these is best. 
 
 (2) Gross section._ — T?ain must be shed. A moderate inclination from 
 the center to the sides will be enough, and best. Too great convexity 
 throws traffic to the middle of the road. A ilatter section distributes 
 it. Fair surface makes water flow freely better than steepness. New 
 roads more convex since the middle consolidates more by traffic, which 
 is to be allowed for. Telford's section was a tlat elliptical curve, differ- 
 ing slightly from an arc of a circle, by being more convex in the mid- 
 dle than at the sides. Walker recommended two straight lines follow- 
 ing about 1 in 24 toward the sides and joined in the middle of the 
 jSection by a curve'; A common form is a elliptical curve, flatter in the 
 middle than at the sides, which is apt to be too flat, though it makes 
 good side channels. Either a flat ellipse like Pelford's or an arc of a cir- 
 cle is perhaps on the whole preferable. But regularity and evenness 
 are more important than these slight differences. Six inches' fall from 
 center to sides is enough for a 30-foot road and the fall should never go 
 beyond 9 inches ; for 18 or 20 feet breadth 3 or 4 inches is called enough. 
 On a level road a rather rounder section is called for than on one with 
 moderate gradients. On hills the side fall should lead the water off 
 and prevent its following the surface along the lengths of the road. 
 Water carried off a road by going down the wheel tracks is drainage 
 misapplied. The side channels may be shaped to suit the bulk of water 
 coming on them ; but their tendency in being cleaned is to get deeper 
 unless they are pitched. 
 
 The convexity of surface may be made either in the foundation or 
 the road coating. Telford's practice was a level roadbed and convexity 
 obtained by thinning both the pitching and metaling at the sides. On 
 some parts of the Holyhead road the paved bottom on a level bed di- 
 minished from 7 inches at the center to 3 inches at the sides of a 30-foot 
 road, then giving 4 inches fall in 15 feet on which broken stone was laid 
 6 inches in thickness for a breadth of 18 feet in the middle and thinning 
 out from 6 inches to 4 inches in the 6 feet of width remaining on each 
 side with IJ inches of gravel over all, so that the finished road had a total 
 convexity of 6 inches. On other parts of this road the paved bottom 
 was laid over only 18 feet of the middle of a 30-foot road, diminishing 
 from 7 to 5 inches in thickness with a layer of broken metal 6 inches 
 thick OTer. On the portions without paved bottom the convexity was 
 given partly in the gravel bottoming, 7 inches in the center and 2 inchejs 
 at the sides of a 30foot road, and partly in the top metaling of broken 
 flint and large gravel which varied from 8 inches in depth in the middle 
 to 4 inches at the sides with IJ inch of binding gravel over all; thus 
 giving 9 inches of convexity in the 30-foot width. Making the sides 
 weaker than the middle is called, however, of doubtful utility in roads of 
 ordinary dimensions. The sides are subject to heavy strains and need 
 to be strong. An ordinary new road should have the roadbed shaped 
 
264 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 to obtain the desired surface and at the same time to admit a uniform 
 thickness of metaling, or only slightly thicker in the middle to allow 
 for consolidation. This is thought advantageous also for dryness. The 
 original surface should be undisturbed as far as possible, hollows being 
 filled up from the adjacent ground rather than the elevations cut dowu. 
 This particularly as to a clay subsoil. After getting into shape roller 
 should be applied. Surface for metaling should be set out and shoul- 
 dering to confine road materials be formed either in the solid or by sods 
 backed up with earth. Outlets through the shouldering should be left 
 for water from the road. 
 
 (3) Boad with a pitched foundation. — Stones must be set by hand in 
 close order broadest edge down and across the direction of the road. 
 Laying flat gives a tendency to unsteadiness and the metaling does not 
 bind so well. Upper edges should not exceed 4 inches in breadth. In- 
 equalities should be hammered off and small stoues packed in the inter- 
 stices. Carts should keep off till the pavement has a coating of broken 
 stone. This sho uld be 3 or 4 inches deep for the first coat, and raked 
 in the ruts while consolidating under traffic; and the remainder should 
 be put on when the first is nearly set. With ordinary traffic 4 inches 
 of broken stone over a pitched foiindation should consolidate in about 
 3 months. Four inches of pitching and 4 of metaling are inside limits 
 for thickness ; 7 inches for pitching, and 6 for metaling mark the other 
 extreme. In a level street a lutched foundation must fall near the gul- 
 lies, or else the metaling will have to be too thin at the side. 
 
 (4) Concrete foundations. — Eoman concrete 6 inches thick. Broken 
 stone thereon 6 inches more. Upper surface of concrete indented to 
 hold stone and drain off water. Annual wear of this reported J inch. 
 Common lime concrete also used, 6 inches thick; two layers of stone, 
 3 and 3 inches ; the first laid before the concrete had set, which took 
 in this stone, the upper layer after the first was partly consolidated 
 by the traffic. Lias lime concrete also employed on Victoria and Chelsea 
 embankments, 12 inches thick on slightly convex formation of surface 
 stretching under the curbs of the footways. Six inches of granite in 
 two courses, each rolled, was added after the concrete had thoroughly 
 set ; on a clay sabsoil small gravel or sand 2 or 3 inches deep before 
 the metaling is applied will cut off the clay. Chalk has also been 
 used, but is called dangerous through effects of frost. 
 
 (5) Broken-stone road.' — If a road is entirely of broken stone a layer 3 
 to G inches should be laid first and in dry weather. After consolidation 
 begins add more, and so on till completed. Euts require raking as 
 soon as they appear. The layers after the first want wet weather. Too 
 thick at first makes waste ; but heavy traffic requires, especially with a 
 soft bottom, a good thickness in the first layer. A new road needs 
 rarely less than 6 inches for first layer. This on a good well drained 
 road will serve a considerable country traffic. Jlacadam considered 10 
 inches of well consolidated material enough for any traffic on any sub- 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 265 
 
 stratum. Experience has proved this true in well drained and well kept 
 roads even in London. Eight or 9 inches is usually enough; and 
 gradually to apply by successive coats is better than putting on all at 
 once. 
 
 (6) Breadth.— This should be enough to accommodate the traffic : 12 
 to 15 feet in country ; 30 to 50 feet near towns. Fifteen feet permits 
 two vehicles to pass. A few feet extra gives much relief. Hills render 
 extra breadth desirable. Uniform breadth and well defined side channels 
 are " neat and useful." 
 
 (7) Water tables or side channels. — Where the road abuts against banks 
 or walls the slope near the meeting makes the water table or side chan- 
 nel. Usually, however, space exists on either side the metaled surface, 
 and a sod or curbing should define the roacf and form the water table. 
 Sods about 12 inches wide and 4 or 5 thick, 2 high, backed with 
 earth, make a bank for a footpath or place for road scrapings, and is 
 reckoned to cost 1^. to l^d. (2 to 3 cents) per linear yard. Plat stones 
 may be used for the water table, or asphalt made of gas tar, gravel, and 
 road scrapings or other methods as to local circumstances. 
 
 Limestone curbs 1 foot deep and 4 inches wide are quoted 2s. dd. (01 
 cents) to 3s. 6d. (85 cents) per linear yard. Granite curbs 12 inches wide 
 and 9 inches deep, suitable for towns, cost 6s. 6d. ($1.58) to 7s. ($1.70) 
 per linear yard. 
 
 In villages or where the road is bordered with houses a shallow gut- 
 ter is more suitable ; a slope to the road meeting the metaling in the 
 line of the water table, which latter may be pitched or channeled. At 
 junctions the channels require special attention, and cross drains may 
 be used. 
 
 (8) Outlets. — Numerous outlets for water are necessary. It should 
 not be allowed to stand. On hills outlets are specially required. 
 
 (9) Footpath. — If made it should be 9 or 10 inches above the water 
 table and have a slope towards the road of about 1 in 30. 
 
 (10) Fences. — A post and rail fence is best because it does not shade 
 the road. A bank and hedge are cheaper. 
 
 (11) IStone depots. — These are recesses to contain material for repairs. 
 They should be near enough together to allow the roadmen to wheel out 
 the materials to any part of the road. 
 
 (12) Boiling. — A new road should always be finished by rolling. The 
 metaling is thus consolidated without the grinding and crushing by 
 wheels of vehicles. Horse rollers are 3 to 4J feet or more in diameter 
 and 4 to 5 feet long, or of two or more cylinders side, by side, weight (not 
 loaded) 2 to 3 tons. By loading a box or filling cylinder with water, 
 weight may be increased for subsequent heavier work as the road con- 
 solidates.^. Pressure is desired to the extent of a ton to a ton and a half 
 per foot width of roller, a 4-foot roller, 6 tons, requiring 6 horses. 
 Horses feet tear the road if materials are loose and draft heavy. Por 
 superior work and economy steam rollers are preferred. A sieaui roller 
 
266 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS TN FOREIGN- COUNTRIES. 
 
 welgbing 15 tons, 7 feet wide, 2 tons per foot, compresses far more rapidly 
 than a horse roller. It can do thoroughly 1,000 to 2,000 square yards 
 of newly laid stones per day ; 4 to 5 inches of stone may be rolled at 
 once ; thicker is better twice separately, in different coats. Any large 
 stones or surface should be broken. Horse rollers go over several times 
 unloaded, and hollows are filled with small materials. When the road 
 begins to set the roller is partly loaded, and finally fully and until 
 the stones are quite steady in jjlace. A steam roller has all the weight 
 at first. Artificial watering is necessary unless the weather is wet ; 4 
 or 5 iacbes generally consolidate better than either thicker or thinner. 
 Commence at the sides, and work to the middle. When the stones are 
 thoroughly wedged together, but not before, binding must be added. 
 This may be fine gravel, road scrapings, or sand. Chalky or clayey 
 binding should be avoided. Limestone detritus is best with silicious 
 materials and sand may be used with limestone road. Binding should be 
 spread dry with a shovel, and uniformly, and worked in gradually with 
 the help of watering and sweeping in addition to the rolling. As little 
 as possible for effecting the purpose is best to use. The object is to 
 consolidate the road, and the coalescing of the material of which its 
 bulk is composed is to be sought for. The binding is only by way of 
 supplement, and too much hurts the dnrabilitj' of the road. One quar- 
 ter the bulk of the stones is sometimes used in France aud one-sixth is 
 the official proportion at Mandover. 
 
 (13) Use of a binding material. — Macadam and others have discoun- 
 tenanced the use of binding, but Mr. Codington thinks the proper use of 
 it on a new road is founded on reason. It should be applied after the 
 stone is laid, not mixed with it. 
 
 ( 14) Cost of macadamized roads. — This varies greatly. With materials 
 close at hand a good road may be formed and coated for Is. or Is. '6d. 
 (24 to 30 cents) per square yard, and a London street constructed in the 
 best manner, with 9 inches of Guernsey granite, may cost as much as 6s. 
 or 7s. ($1.44 or $1.68) per square yard. 
 
 The following particulars of the construction of roads near London 
 are given from Sir James Macadam ; time apparently about 1850 : 
 
 For a road of the first-class, siifficieut for a street with the heaviest traffic, 4 inches 
 of gravel, riddled and brolsen so that no piece exceeded 3 ounces, was laid on a well- 
 drainedandprepared surface having a fall of an inch in ayardfrom the centertowards 
 the sides. When partly consolidated by traffic or by a roller, 2 or 3 inches more was 
 laid, and over this, when sufficiently consolidated, 3 inches of granite or other hard 
 stone. The furrows were kept raked, and the cross section maintained in true form 
 until the whole was consolidated, but no binding was used. The second-class roads 
 required 4 inches of gravel and 3 inches of hard stone or granite ; and the third-class 
 3 inches of gravel and 2 inches of granite or hard stone. Taking the gravel at 5s. 
 ($1.20) per cubic yard, the drainage and preparatiou of the surface and spreading and 
 raking, each at 2d. (4 cents) per square yard, a first-class road was estimated to cost 
 2s. 6d. (60 cents) per square yard. Granite is now (1879) 16s. to 18s. (g3.84 to $4.32) a 
 cubic yard, and other prices are higher. In London streets, instead of the gravel, 
 hard core, clinker, brick, or stone rubbish is now often used for the bottom 9 or 12 
 
EUROPK — UNITKD KINGDOM. 267 
 
 inches, over which 3 inches of Thames ballast is laid, anrl then the granite or hard 
 stone, which is often thicker than '3 inches. The bottoming, the ballast, and the top 
 metalling are generally now rolled separately, and the cost may be, as above stated, 
 6s. or 78. ($1.44 or l{il.6S) per square yard. 
 
 (15) Reforming an old road. — The general objects should be the same 
 as ill making a new one. Drainage of foundation and surface, good 
 and regular cross section, and sufficient strength, are the leading 
 ideas. 
 
 Present condition is tested by sounding or digging small holes in 
 the surface. Fresh material is to be added to a thin road, giving proper 
 form, digging out and putting in, breaking unduly large stones, and 
 "side channels regulated. Mud and detritus must be sufficiently re- 
 moved, and hollows filled up. Gradual improvement without unneces- 
 sary pulling to pieces should be the rule. 
 
 (16) Lifting a road.— A. road sometimes contains enough or nearly 
 enough material for its own reconstruction. The whole body is loosened 
 with the pick. All stones over 6 ounces in weight, or which will not 
 pass through a 2J-inch ring, are raked aside and broken to that gauge. 
 After removing the large stones what are left are put in shape and the 
 large ones broken up and spread on the surfaiie. The surface may 
 properly be lifted to 4 inches depth rather than altogether, as the 
 bottom may be poor. Quarry rubbish or other dry material may be 
 spread on the foundation before the stone taken out is replaced and 
 fresh materials may be added. Two or three yards at one time is enough 
 to lift. Macadam estimated lifting a rough road 4 inches, breaking 
 stones, reforming surface, and cleaning water courses to cost from Id. 
 to 'id. (2 to 4 cents) per square yard lifted. A condition of road where 
 there is plenty of stone, imperfectly broken, badly arranged and mixed 
 with the soil, is one where lifting may be desirable. In many cases it 
 
 ■ would be uuadvisable. 
 
 STREETS OF LEEDS. 
 
 The new streets in the town of Leeds are understood to be normally 
 12 yards wide. This is subject to numerous exceptions in the older 
 parts of the borough, where width and directions are very irregular. 
 The cost of paving is borne by the owners of property binding on the 
 area paved. The average cost price of paving per lineal yard of boun- 
 dary line, by which the assessment is laid, is reckoned to be something 
 like about 25.s. 4rf. (see annexed schedules) ($6.08). The liability of the 
 owner extends over half the area of his front, which is a street of nor- 
 mal width as above of 12 yards, would cover 6 yards to the front, mak- 
 ing the lineal yard represent 6 superficial yards, and the corresponding 
 cost per superficial yard on that average 4,9. 2d. ($1.01). 
 
 As preliminary to making a new street, notico is posted of intended 
 paving. This stands three wefeks. This is understood to be warning 
 
268 STREETS AND HIGUWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 to the owner to begin and pare the street at his own cost and charges. 
 The owner, however, sedulously omits compliance, and allows time to 
 lapse. When five months have passed the corporation comes upon the 
 field, and, having let a contract, proceeds to have the work completed; 
 and having done so, and the job having undergone the necessary proof 
 of fulfillment of the terms of the contract, the owner is amerced in the 
 amount of the cost, each one proportionally to the length of his front 
 boundary line. Details of contract are annexed in printed form, as also 
 tsio pro forma tenders, giving approximate 'prices for the various items 
 thereon set forth. One of these is for ordinary paving in accordance 
 with the printed specification therefor above referred to, and the other^ 
 is for macadamizing with specification pertaining thereto, also attached 
 in- writing. 
 
 There is another statement annexed to which special attention is in- 
 vited, the estimate of 251 ($6.08), per lineal yard of a 12-yard street is 
 a very general sort of average, and more accuracy can perhaps be ob- 
 tained by collocation of the figures given on the ^ro/orma tenders and 
 Mr. Prince's statement, which is here referred to. 
 
 My hearty thanks are due to Mr, Prince, who is the highways sur- 
 veyor of the borough of Leeds, for his interesting information, 
 
 LEEDS IMPUOVBJIENT ACTS. 
 
 Tender for paving, flagging, and, leveling. 
 
 To the Mayor, Aldermen, axd Burgesses op the Boi?ough of Leeds: 
 
 the undersigned residing at do hereby offer to execute 
 
 the various works required to be done in paving, flagging, and leveling , in 
 
 the borough of Leeds, at the pri ces affixed to each item in the schedule hereunto writ 
 ten ; to find and provide all materials necessary thereto, and all labor requisite for 
 completing and finishing the same in the most perfect manner, to the entire satisfac- 
 tion of Mr. Thomas Hewson, the engineer and surveyor appointed by the council of 
 the said borough of Leeds, on or before the time mentioned in the specification, and 
 according to the forms and dimensions, and upon the terms and conditions detailed 
 and set forth in the drawing and specification deposited at the office of the said Mr. 
 T. Howson. 
 
 In case this tender shall be accepted do hereby agree to abide by and fulfill 
 
 all the terms and conditions above mentioned, and to execute a contract in accord- 
 ance therewith, and hereby propose Mr. of as surety for the due 
 
 performance thereof. 
 
EUEOPE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 269 
 
 Schedule above referred to. 
 
 The following prices include all materials, labor, all excavation or filling, and 
 everything connected with and required for the completion of the various works 
 hereinafter mentioned : 
 
 Description. 
 
 New fagging, 3 inches thick, of the best Riven Bradford or Idle stono, 
 knotted on tace, well sqnared through, and laid down in mortal-, on a heil 
 of ashes 4 inches in tbickness, properly rammed and prepared for tlio 
 same, inolading rising in brickwork set in mortar, window areas, coal 
 places, and all other openings where the height is less thao 6 inches, per 
 superficial yard ^ 
 
 Old flagging :' Taking up, removing, resquaring, and relayin g in mortar, on a 
 bed of ashes 4 inches iu thickness, iiiclnding rising in brickwork set in 
 mortar, window areas, coal places, and all other openings whore tho 
 height is less than 6 inches, per superficial yard 
 
 New straiglit curbs, 12 inches deep, 7 inches widej in length of not less than 
 
 3 feet, of the best Bradford or Idle stone, in eluding chamfered edge, per 
 lineal yard 
 
 New circular curbs, 12 inches deep and 7 inches wide, in lengths of not less 
 than 2 feet, of the best Bradford or Idle stone, including chamfered edge, 
 per lineal yard 
 
 Old curbs taking up, rejointing, and refitting, including chamfered edge, 
 per lineal yard 
 
 New sets, from Bradford or Bingley quarries, 8i inches deep, well squared 
 through and laid in asphalt, on a bed properly rammed and prepared for 
 the same, per superficial yard 
 
 Old sets, taking up, redressing, removing, and relaying in asphalt, on a 
 proper bed, per superficial yard 
 
 New paving stones in cubes not less than 6 inches each way, from Bradford, 
 Bolton Wood, or Bingley, laid in asphalt, on a bed of ashes 4 inches in 
 thickness, including road forming, excavating, and leveling, per super- 
 ficial yard 
 
 Old paving : Taking up, redressing, and relaying in asphalt, on a bed of ashes 
 
 4 inches in thickness, including road forming and leveling, per super- 
 ficial yard 
 
 Brickwork, set in mortar, to area grates, coal places, and all other open- 
 ings, where tho height is above 6 inches and 10 inches thick, per square 
 
 yard 
 
 Cutting hole in landing and rebating to receive coal plate, each , 
 
 Eebating and fixing flap door and a.sh-pit plates, each 
 
 Kebating in window grates, with load run in, complete, each 
 
 rixing area grates (new pattern), each , 
 
 Ke working old landings, per superficial foot , 
 
 Reworking old steps, per foot run of step 
 
 Fixing steps, each , 
 
 New thresholds, steps, or trapdoor frames, wrought, per cubic foot , 
 
 Six-inch landmga for cellar tops, etc., complete, per superficial foot , 
 
 Fixing old landings and making water-tight with cement, per superficial 
 foot 
 
 Prices. 
 
 English 
 currency. 
 
 7 
 
 n 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 X 
 
 (1 
 
 2 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 (1 
 
 
 
 ;h 
 
 
 
 ;i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 a 
 
 Equivalent 
 
 in United 
 States cur- 
 rency. 
 
 $1.01 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 .24 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 .43 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 1.58 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 .10 
 
 
 
 
 
 1.58 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 .49 
 
 l.Ol 
 
 1.7.1 
 .6.') 
 .7:i 
 .61 
 .24 
 .Oil 
 .OlJ 
 .21 
 .1)7 
 .(il 
 
 .00 
 
 ■188-. 
 
 Dated this day of- 
 
 (Signed) . 
 
 Note. — No claim under the contract will be allowed which is not made in writing 
 and within one mouth from the final measurement. 
 
 Directions.— No tender will he received except iu this form. 
 
 The blanks must be iilled ud and the tender must he signed and inclosed in an 
 envelope, indorsed "Tender for paving, etc.,'' and must be addressed to "The streets 
 and sewerage committee, town clerk's office, Leeds." 
 
 LBED.S IMPROVEMENT ACTS. 
 
 Specification of certain works that shall be doue in paving, flagging, and leveling 
 , in the township of , in the borough of Leeds, for the corporation 
 
 of the said borough, 
 
270 STKEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOKEIGN COUNTfilES. 
 
 The works embraced under this specification are as follows, and shall he executed 
 according to the drawings and instructions, and in every respect to the complete sat- 
 isfaction of Mr. Thomas Hewson, the engineer and surveyor of the borough of Leeds. 
 
 Exewoating and leveling. — The carriage ways and footways shall be carefully exca- 
 vated, leveled, and formed to such level as shall be deemed by the borough engineer 
 most convenient for the tenements abutting upon the street. The bed of the car- 
 riageway shall be made with a rise from the channels to the center of I in 30, 
 and shall be cut out to a, depth to allow a, bed of 4 inches of clean, dry ashes, 
 which shall be laid down to form the bed of the paving stones. The bed of the 
 causeway shall be formed with a rise of 1 in 30, and shall be cut out to a depth 
 that shall allow a bed of 4 inches of clean, dry ashes, which shall be laid down to 
 form the bed of the flags. The superfluous earth or rubbish (if any) shall be led 
 away immediately after completion of work. Should any hollow place require flll- 
 ing up, the same shall be done with dry and sound materials, well rammed. The 
 price for doing all this work shall be included in the scheduled prices for paving 
 flagging, and curbing. 
 
 Paving. — The carriage way shall be formed of paving stones of the hardest stone, 
 from the best beds in Bradford, Bolton "Wood, or Bingley quarries, or of equal qual- 
 ity; entirely free from beds or flaws; in cubes not less than 6 inches each way, of 
 uniform size, very neatly squared, and laid in regular courses from side to side, with 
 fine cross joints, which must be kept perfecMy clear to receive asphalt and coal tar- 
 boiling hot ; each stone must be laid with its natural bed in a vertical position ; no 
 stone will be allowed to be laid with its natural bed in a horizontal position on any 
 account. The stones shall be well rammed, and all the joints shall be completely 
 filled with a mixture of asphalt and coal tar, in approved proportions, run in boil- 
 ing hot. 
 
 Curbstones. — The curbstones shall be of the hardest Nell stone, eutirely free from 
 beds and flaws, from the bottom beds in Bradford, Bolton AVood, or Bingley quar- 
 ries, or of equal quality; they shall be 12 inches deep by 7 inches wide and not less 
 than 3 feet long, and shall be firmly set on a solid bed in mortar. At the corners of 
 the streets the flagging and curbstones shall describe a curve with a radius equal to 
 the width of the footway. No circular curbstone shall be less than '2 feet long. 
 The ends, tops, and sides of every stone shall be properly dressed and neatly boasted. 
 When set the outer edge shall be neatly chamfered ofl:' for a width of an inch. 
 
 Channels. — The channels shall drop 4^ iuches below the top edges of the curb- 
 stone, when the surface of the road has a natural fall to the gully grates; otherwise 
 the channel must be constructed with a regular fall to take ofl' the surface water 
 iwhich fall must be approved of before the channel is laid. 
 
 Flagging.-^The flags of the footway shall be not less than 3 iuches thick, of the 
 best and hardest riveu flags, knotted on face, from Bradford or Idle, or of equal 
 quality, no dimension to be less than 18 inches. When the width of the cause- 
 way shall be 4 feet or less, every alternate course of flags shall go through the 
 whole width. When the said, width shall be more than 4 and up to 6 feet, not more 
 than two flags shall be laid to every course ; and where above 6 feet, they may 
 be coursed two and three alternately. The joints shall be well broken in every 
 case. Ail the flags shall be well squared, and the edges shall be properly squared 
 through and dressed ; they shall be laid in mortar on a solid bed of clean ashes 4 
 inches thick. No beddy flags shall be used. 
 
 Landings. — The landings shall be not less than 6 inches in thickness, of the best 
 and hardest stone from Bradford or Idle, or of equal quality. When the width of 
 the causeway shall be 5 feet or less, the lauding shall go through the whole width, 
 and it more than 5 feet, the landings shall be 3 feet square, if for a coal shoot, but if 
 for cover to a cellar it must be the full width of the causeway. Each landing shall 
 be properly squared, dressed, fixed, a'nd made water-tight with cement. 
 
 Croasiugs. — The crossings shall be single sets of the hardest stone, entirely free from 
 
EUEOPE — UNITED KIKGUOM. 271 
 
 beds and flaws, from the best beds of Bradford, Boltou Wood, or Bingley quarries, or 
 of equal quality ; laid down of widths corresponding to the footways. The sets 
 shall be well squared and neatly drossed, not less than 8^ inches deep and 6 inches 
 thick, laid in asphalt and tar, on a well-rammed, solid bed. The joints of the stones 
 must be kept perfectly clear to receive asphalt and coal tar, boiling hot; each stone 
 must be laid with its natural bed in a vertical position; no stone will be allowed to 
 be laid with its natural bed in a horizontal position on any account. Two courses of 
 inclined sets shall be laid parallel to the circular curb, so as to prevent any step in 
 the causeway, and the crossing shall be so laid as to meet the level of the paved car- 
 riageway without break. 
 
 Briolcwork. — The bricks to be machine made, of good quality, sound, well burnt, 
 and sharp in the arrisses. 
 
 Mortar. — The mortar used throughout the work shall be composed of one part of 
 the best Garforth quicklime to two parts of clean, sharp river sand, well mixed. 
 
 Asphalt. — The asphalt and tar shall be mixed in such proportions that the mixture 
 shall, when cold, be tough and not brittle in any way, and shall be poured in boiling 
 hot until the joints are well filled. 
 
 General conditions. 
 
 The contractor shall provide all implements and all materials (except only cast-iron 
 work), and all labor of every kind necessary for the perfect completion of the works, 
 and shall make good all damage done to water or gas pipes or other property in the 
 execution of the works. 
 
 The contractor shall remove and cart away all the old paving, flagging, and other 
 materials that shall not be allowed by the borough engineer to be relaid, or that shall 
 not be claimed by the owners of property in the street. 
 
 The contractor shall remove all grates, taps, gutters, and other fittings at present 
 existing in the street, and shall replace such of them as shall be suitable, and shall 
 fix such new ones as shall be pointed out by the borough engineer. The iron work 
 not retixed shall belong to the owners of property. 
 
 A rebate must be cut in the stonework to receive the front of all grates. The lugs 
 to be let into stone-work and fastened with melted lead run in. 
 
 The contractor shall either always attend himself or shall employ a foreman, who 
 shall be always upon the spot to direct the workmen ; and the borough engineer 
 shall have full power to discharge such foreman or any workmen should he or they 
 disobey the orders of the borough engineer or conduct themselves in an improper 
 manner. 
 
 The contractor shall provide a watchman and keep fires burning during the night 
 in the said street, suflicient to protect the public eflfeotually ; and the said contractor 
 shall be responsible for all accidents or damage which may occur at any time, either 
 to person or property, in any way caused by any operations carried on in pursuance 
 of his contract. 
 
 Wherever old paving, flagging, or curbing shall be found in the street that, in the 
 opinion of the borough engineer, will suffice if relaid, the contractor shall redress 
 and relay the same, as nearly as may be, in the same place. 
 
 The contractor shall distinctly understand that the works shall be throughout of 
 the best materials and of the full sizes and thicknesses specified ; and that the work- 
 manship shall be first class. 
 
 The contractor shall give assistance in measuring up work, and net measurement 
 only shall be taken, notwithstanding any local or other custom to the contrary. 
 
 No allowance will be made for rising window areas, coal places, and all other 
 X)pening8 in the street where the height is less than 6 inches. The contractor must 
 therefore carefully consider the nature of the work from inspecting the ground, and 
 the plans and sections deposited at this office, before sending in his tender. 
 
272 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The contractor shall sendin his tender upon the printed form supplied for this pur- 
 pose by the borough engineer, as no other will be accepted. 
 
 Unskillful wark or had maierials to ie taken up and replaced. — If, at any period during 
 the execution of the works, or within 6 months after their completion, it shall 
 appear to the borough engineer that any work has been executed with unsound 
 materials, or imperfect or unskillful workmanship, or if any repairs sha.U be con- 
 sidered necessary by the borough engineer during such period, arising from any sunk 
 or damaged paving, flaggin g, curbs, or other works, that may occur from any cause 
 whatever, whether arising from his own act, or the work of other parties, or of the 
 workmen employed by the corporation, the contractor shall forthwith rectify, reform, 
 and repair the same, in whole or in part, as the case may require, at his own proper 
 cost and charge; and in the event of his refusing to do so, or to take back and remove 
 any materials or articles which are cousidered by the borough engineer unsound, of 
 bad quality, or not agreeable to the terms of the contiact, and to provide imme- 
 diately suitable materials in lieu of those condemned, within a period to be specified 
 by the borough engineer, then the borough engineer shall have full power and 
 authority forthwith to cause such imperfect work to be taken up and destroyed, and 
 to employ other persons to alter or repair the same, and to supply the necessary 
 materials thereto; and any expense thereby incurred shall be defrayed by the con- 
 tractor, and may be deducted out of any moneys which may be due to him from the 
 corporation, or may be recovered from him and his surety by the corporation (in the 
 event of its exceeding the amount of moneys so due) as and for liquidated damages. 
 
 Bankruptcy of contractor. — That it shall be lawful for the corporation, in case the 
 contractor shall fail in the due performance of any part of his undertaking, or shall 
 become bankrupt or insolvent, or shall compound with his creditors, or propose any 
 composition to his creditors for the settlement of his debts, or shall caiTy on or pro- 
 pose to carry on his business under inspectors on behalf of his creditors, or shall com- 
 mit any act of bankruptcy, or shall not, according to the judgment of the borough 
 engineer, exercise such due diligence and make such due progress as would enable 
 the works to be completed within the time hereinafter mentioned, to determine the 
 contract as far as respects its performance by the contractor, by a notice to that 
 effect, in writing, but without thereby affecting the obligations and liabilities of the 
 contractor, the whole of which shall continue in force as fully as if the contract had 
 not been so determined, and as if the works subsequently executed had been executed 
 by or on behalf of the contractor, and also without thereby creating any trust in his 
 favor, and may enter upon and take possession of the works, and of all the plant, 
 tools, and materials of the contractor, and use and sell the same as the absolute prop- 
 erty of the corporation, and may proceed to complete the works, either by contract 
 or otherwise, by engaging workmen and providing materials and implements, and 
 may deduct the cost thereof from any sum or sums of money due or to become due to 
 the contractor iu respect of the contract, or recover the same by action at law or 
 otherwise, as the corporation may be advised. 
 
 Disputes. — Any disputes which may arise during the progress of the works or at or 
 after their completion, whether as to the meaning of the specification, or the ma- 
 terials, workmanship, or any other matters whatsoever relating to this contract, shall 
 be referred to the borough engineer, whose decision shall be final, conclusive, and 
 binding both on the corporation and the contractor. 
 
 Payments shall be made to the contractor by installments, as follows: When work 
 to the value of £100 has been completed, 90 per cent, of the amount shall be paid 
 within 1 week after the borough engineer shall have certified to that eftect to the 
 streets and sewerage committee of the council of the borough of Leeds; and so on by 
 installments of not less amount until the whole be completed. The remaining 10 per 
 cent, shall be paid after 6 months from the date of the last cerlificate, provided the 
 borough engineer shall certify to the next ensuing meeting of the streets and sewer- 
 age committee aforesaid that the works are then iu complete repair to his satisfaction, 
 but not otherwise. The borough engineer shall have the power to refuse to grant a 
 
EUKOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 273 
 
 curtificate at any time, if the works are not progressing, being executed, or being 
 ■ put in repair, to his satisfaction. 
 
 Tivie. — Tlie works sliall be commenced as soon after the contractor's tender is ac- 
 cepted as the borougli engineer shall order and, shall be completed witliiu weeks 
 
 after the said order has been given. 
 
 Penalty. — The penalty for noucompletion within the specified time sliall be at the 
 rate of £5 sterling for every weekj or part of a week, that the specified period shall be 
 exceeded. 
 
 Tno.MAS IIbwson, 
 
 Borough Engineer. 
 Leeds, , 188 — . 
 
 LEEDS IMPUOVKJIENT ACTS. 
 
 Tender for paving, flagging, and leveling. 
 
 To the MA.YOR, ALDEUMEN, AND BURGESSES OF THE BOROUGH OF LEEDS: 
 
 , the undersigned, , residing at , do hereby offer to execute the 
 
 various works required to be done in paving, flagging, and leveling in the 
 
 borough of Leeds, at the prices alifixed to each item in the schedule hereunto written ; 
 to find and provide all materials necessary thereto, and all labor requisite for com- 
 pleting and finishing the same in the most perfect manner, to the entire satisfaction 
 of Mr. Thomas Hewsou, the engineer and surveyor appointed by the council of the 
 said borough of Leeds, on or before the time mentioned in the specification, and 
 according to the forms and dimensions, and upon the terms and conditions detailed 
 and set forth in the drawing and specification deposited at the office of the said Mr. 
 T. Hewson. 
 
 In case this tender shall be accepted do hereby agree to abide by and fulfill 
 
 all the terms and conditions above mentioned, and to execute a contract in accord- 
 ance therewith, and hereby propose Mr. , of , as surety for the due 
 
 performance thereof. 
 33a 18 
 
274 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, 
 
 Schedule above referred to. 
 
 The following prices include all materials, labor, all excavation or filling, and 
 everything connected with and required for the completion of tlie various works 
 hereinafter mentioned : - 
 
 Prices. 
 
 Eoglish 
 currency. 
 
 Equivalent 
 in U. S. 
 cuiTency. 
 
 New flagging, 3 inches tbick, oftlie best riven Bradford or Idle stone, knotted 
 ofl fact\ well squared tlirough, and laid down in mortar, ou a bed of ashes 
 4 inches in thickness, properly rauimcd and prepared for the same, in- 
 cluding rising in bricUwork si^t in mortar, window areas, coal places, and 
 all other openings where the height is less than 6 inches per soperficial 
 yard - 
 
 Old flagging, taking up, removing, resquarinji, and relaying: in mortar, on a 
 bed of ashes 4 inches in thickness, including rising in brickwork set iu 
 mortar, window areas, coal places, -and all other openings where the height 
 is less than 6 inches, per sujierficial yard 
 
 New straight curbs, 12 inches deep, 7 inches wide, in length of not less than 
 3 feet, of the best Bradford or Idle stone, including chamfered edge, per 
 lineal yard 
 
 New circular curbs, 12 inches deep and 7 inches wide, in lengths of not less 
 than 2 feet, of the best i3radford or Idle stone, including chamfered edge, 
 per lineal yard 
 
 Old curbs, taking up, rejuinting, andreflxing, including chamfered edge, per 
 lineal yard 
 
 New seta from Bradford or Brsgley quarries, Sji inches deep, well squared 
 through aud laid in asphalt, on a bed properly rammed and prepared for 
 the same, per superficial yard 
 
 Old sets, taking up, redressing, removing, and relaying in asphalt, on a 
 proper bed, per superfitiiil yard 
 
 Macadam, per super licial yard 
 
 New paving stones iu cubes not less thao 6 inches each way, fi'om liradford, 
 Bolton "VVood, or IJingley. laid in aephtdt, on a bed of ashes 4 inches in 
 thickness, including road forminii:, excavating, and leveling, per super- 
 ficial yard 
 
 Old paving, taking up, redressing, and relaying in asphalt, ou a bed of 
 ashes 4 inches in thickness, intludmg road forming and leveling, per 
 superficial yard 
 
 Brickw-ork, set in mortar, to area grates, coal places, and all other openings, 
 where the height is above G inches and 10 inches thick, per square yard . .. 
 
 Cutting hole in laudin;:, and rebating to receive coal plate, each 
 
 Bebating and fixing flap door and ash-pit plates, each 
 
 Kebating in window grates, with lead run in, complete, each. 
 
 Fixing area giatos (new pattern), each 
 
 Keworkingold landings, per superficial foot 
 
 Keworking old steps, per foot run of stop 
 
 Ilxtng steps, each 
 
 New thresholds, steps, or trapdoor frames, wrought, per cnbic foot 
 
 Six-inch laudiugs for cellar tops, etc., complete, per superficial foot 
 
 Fixing old landings, and making water-tight with cement, per superficial 
 foot 
 
 4 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 
 8 
 
 $1.01 
 
 .24 
 
 .45 
 
 1.58 
 .10 
 
 .49 
 .65 
 
 .43 
 
 1.70 
 .55 
 .7:1 
 .61 
 .24 
 .06 
 .05 
 .24 
 .97 
 .61 
 
 .06 
 
 Dated this day of , 188 — . 
 
 (Signed) . 
 
 Note. — No claim under the contract will be allowed which is not made in writing 
 aud within one month from the final measurement. 
 
 Directions. — No tender will be received except in this form. 
 
 The blanks must be filled up, and the tender must be signed, and inclosed in an 
 envelope, indorsed "Tender for paving, etc.," and must be addressed to ''The streets 
 aud sewerage committee, town clerk's office, Leeds." 
 
 SPECIFICATION FOR MACADAMIZING. 
 
 Form a ballast foundation, clean hard rubble pitching from approved, Potternew- 
 tou or Woodhouse q^uarries, 12 inches thick in center and 9 inches thick at sides of 
 road. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 275 
 
 The pitching niuBt be hand-packed on edge, the thiokest and broadest end of 
 stone laid downwards. 
 
 On this foundation form a layer of hard, clean broken stone, 3 inches thick above 
 the general level of ballast. The stones to be broken to pass a 2|-inoh gauge ; care- 
 fully rolluutil firm, then lay top cover of beat Threlkeld or other approved granite, 6 
 Inches thick in the center of the road and 4 inches at the sides, Avell and evenly 
 broken to pass a 2-inch ring, neatly formed to curve of road ; the whole must then be 
 thoroughly rolled with a steam roller. (The highways committee will grant the use 
 of their roller, which must be paid for by the contractor at the usual rate.) 
 
 The rolling must begin at the sides and gradually proceed to the middle of the road. 
 It must be accompanied by a water cart and all hollows that may appear on the sur- 
 face as the rolling proceeds must be.filled in with smallstoues, and the surface loosened 
 for this if necessary. 
 
 When the stone is firmly wedged together, fine, clean, dry gravel, or dry macadam 
 road sweepings must be spread with a shovel uniformly over the surface in small 
 quantities, and must be thoroughly rolled into the road with the aiJof watering and 
 sweeping, fresh binding being added as that first applied works in or is louud nec- 
 cessary. 
 
 The crown of the road when finished must be not less than 3 inches above the curb 
 level. 
 
 Form the channel 18 inches wide of courses of best Bradford or Bolton sets, 8 inches 
 deep, laid and set on a bed of screened engine ashes, 6 inches thick, the whole to be 
 well squared, and neatly dressed and run with boiling asphalt until the joiuts are 
 entirely filled. 
 
 The following is the statement previously referred to as received from 
 Mr. T. A. Prince, highways surveyor, borough of Leeds: 
 
 INTOEMATION AS TO KOADS AND STREETS IN THE BOROUGH 01' LEEDS. 
 
 Materials used for paved streets of heavy traffic : Granite sets 6 inches deep, 7 to 
 8 inches long, 3 inches wide. These sets are in every case laid on a bed of cement 
 concrete 9 inches deep. Cost, complete, of concrete paving and granite sets, about 
 14s. per superficial yard ($3.41). 
 
 Materials used for paved streets of light traffic: Gritstoue pavora obtained from 
 quarries in" Yorkshire. Size, 6-inch cubes laid on a bed of ashes only. Cost of pav- 
 ing complete, about 4s. per superficial yard (97 cents). 
 
 Cost of making macadam roads for heavy traffic, with granite broken to a 2i-inch 
 gauge purchased by the corporation from the various granite companies in England 
 and delivered by the said companies at the various railway stations as required, and 
 afterwards carted by the corporation from the said stations to wherever required 
 throughout the borough, is about 28. lid. per superficial yard (71 cents). 
 
 Cost of making macadam roads for light traffic with limestone or dross broken to 
 a 2i-inoh gauge is about 2s. per superficial yard (49 cents). 
 
 Entirely new streets are sewered, paved, and flagged at the cost of the owners of 
 property on each side of the road and afterwards declared public highways and main- 
 tained by the corporation forever out of a uniform highway rate assessed throughout 
 the borough. 
 
 In a majority of cases throughout the borough flagged footways are laid on each 
 side of the road. The total width of these footways is one-third of the full width of 
 the road, i. e. a 36-foot road equals two 6-foot causeways and 24 feet of roadway. 
 
 Cost ot curbing per lineal yard, about 3s. 2d. (77 cents). 
 
 Cost of flagging per superficial yard, about 4s. '.id. (11.03). 
 
 In making an entirely new macadam road we pitch the foundation to a thickneas 
 of 8 or 10 inches and afterwards put on a covering of metal about 7 iuchos thick. 
 
 Supervhion. — In Leeds there are close upon :!00 miles of paved and macadam high- 
 ways, the management of which is under one central department. 
 
276 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOKEIGN COU^'TEIES. 
 
 "We have eight oatdoor inspectors who have uuder their charge a staff of men 
 numbering from 20 to 30. These inspectors overlook nearly 40 miles of highways, 
 and their duties comprise the looking after the men, the putting on of materials, and 
 the rolling of the same. 
 
 Experience has proved that in numerous cases within the borough of Leeds when- 
 ever a new road has been made or an existing road widened and improved the value 
 of the land adjoining the same has wonderfully increased. 
 
 With regard to the country roads within the borough of Leeds there are very few 
 which have not the footways properly formed with curbstones and channel. 
 
 F. H. WiGFALL," 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Leeds, Becember 10, 1890. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM. 
 
 EEFORT BY COXSUL JABBETI. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 In the city of Birmingfham there is somethiDg over 200 miles of pub- 
 lic streets, of ■nhich 7 miles have the carriageways paved with wood, 
 about 24 miles with granite, and the remainder are macadamized. 
 
 For the wood-paved street.s 3-iuch by 6-inch creosoted yellow deal 
 blocks are used, being laid on a 6-inch bed of Portland cement concrete. 
 In the construction of these roads care is taten to have the ground dry 
 and firm before the concrete is laid on. A very thin coat of cement or 
 a mixture of cement and clear sand is placed over the concrete so as to 
 have the surface perfectly even, which is lett to stand for several hours 
 and when dry the blocks of wood are finally laid on, over which heated 
 pitch or a mixture of heated pitch and tar is thrown so as to fill up all 
 the crevices between the blocks. 
 
 The first cost of these at present is about $2.68 per square yard. The 
 Improved Wood Pavement rouipany (a London corporation construct- 
 ing this kind of road throuuhoiit Great Britain) maintain these roads 
 whereon there are not any tramways (street rail.vays) for 1 year free 
 of charge and for 20 years thereafter at prices varying with their situa- 
 tion from 15 cents to 18 cents per square yard per annum. On tramway 
 routes the company is paid at a rate of 24 cents per square yard per 
 annum for maintenance between and for 21 inches on either side of the 
 metals, the first cost remaining the same. 
 
 For granite-paved streets, Leicestershire or Carnarvonshire sets 3 
 inches in width by 6 inches in depth are generally used, being placed on 
 6 inches of Portland cement concrete. In the construction of these 
 roads great care is taken to have the foundation good and firm. The 
 first cost of these is about 82.92 per square yard. The repairs for the 
 first 7 jcars are practically nil, lor the next 7 years from C cents to 14 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 277 
 
 cents per square yard per annum. In the heaviest traffic streets the 
 paving would probably then require relaying at a cost of about 73 cents 
 per square yard, when it would last under similar conditions another 
 period of 14 years, and the best of the stone might be then redressed 
 and used in second or third class streets, and the remainder be broken 
 up and used for macadamizing purposes. 
 
 It will be observed that the first cost of construction is very large 
 wheu compared with the cost of relaying with new blocks. This is due 
 to the great care taken in preparing the roadbed for the blocks in the 
 first case. Such a roadbed may last, if properly constructed, for a very 
 long period. I have very carefully investigated the matter but have ■ 
 not yet found a single case la wuich granite blocks are placed on a bed 
 of loose sand or gravel, which is so commonly done in the United States. 
 First cost may be heavy in this country but cost of maintenance, it will 
 be observed, is comparatively very light. 
 
 Then there is the advantage of good, even roadways, over which the 
 heaviest loads are easily and conveniently conveyed. I have seen 
 breakdowns on the streets of this city through overloading or defective 
 axles, but so far have not seen wheels of wagons stick in a hole be- 
 tween granite blocks or between blocks and the metals of the street 
 railways. 
 
 For newly made macadamized streets, assuming that the ground 
 has been roughly formed, about 9 inches of ashes are required over 
 which 8 inches of either gravel or broken slag, is placed and over this 
 again is placed 6 inches of broken rowley rag stone which is obtained 
 about 7 miles outside the city. Large heavy iron rollers are then passed 
 over the stone surface. During this process water is applied, and about 
 an inch of clean gravel is worked into the surface. 
 
 The first cost of such roads may be taken at ab out 73 cents per square 
 yard. The maintenance thereof varies very much according to the 
 traffic, and it is found economical to substitute pavement for macadam 
 if two coatings of stone are required annually. 
 
 John Jakebtt, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Birmingham, February 13, 1891. 
 
 HULL. 
 
 BEPOltT BT CONSUL DANIELS. 
 GEANITB PAVEMENTS. 
 
 Granite and wood pavements and macadamized roads are used in this 
 city and district. The work is done by contract under the direction of 
 the borough engineer. 
 
 In granite pavements the surface for the foundation is formed parallel 
 with the finished surface of the road and at the required depth below 
 
278 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 the same. The foundation of the carriageway extends under the curbs 
 and channels and consists of a layer 7 inches in thickness of cement 
 concrete, composed of clean broken brick, stone, or coarse gravel, of 
 such size as will pass in any direction through a ring 2J inches in diame- 
 ter, together with such quantity of other suitable tine material as will 
 make up the interstices, and Portland cement in the proportions of one 
 of cement to eight of the other materials. The whole to be well and 
 carefully mixed with the proper quantity of water, the materials being 
 hacked gradually down and watered on a platform, and being turned 
 over at least three times in such jjrocess. 
 
 Existing foundations are utilized when suitable, all loose material 
 being removed from the surface when necessary by the addition of fresh 
 concrete. The whole surface of the foundation is covered to a depth of 
 from 1 to 2J inches as required to level the surface, with fine concrete 
 as a bed for receiving the sets, which are laid while the concrete is soft, 
 and must be well bedded therein, and no greater area is covered at one 
 time than can be easily paved before the same has set. 
 
 The sets are carefully sorted out and selected as nearly as possible of 
 equal depth, so as to run in parallel courses, the entire width of the 
 roadway and the courses are arranged throughout so that the sets in 
 each course will break joint well and evenly with those in the adjoin- 
 ing courses, and the sets are placed close end to end ; the closing as 
 well as the commencing stones adjoining the channels and tramways, if 
 any, being alternatelj' long and short. The courses are laid as close as 
 possible together, the joints at no point exceeding J inch in width. 
 
 Great care must be taken to adhere to the camber, and all necessary 
 templates must be used to secure this. The rammer must be used as 
 little as possible, and any set above or below the required level must 
 be taken up and reset. When the fine concrete has set hard, the inter- 
 stices in the paving must be well raked in full to the top with small, 
 clean shingle of good quality, free from sand and perfectly dry, and as 
 soon as possible after the joints have been filled with shingle, they must 
 be run up full to the top, while dry, with asphalt, which is composed 
 hereof coal-tar pitch and thick boiled coal-tar, from which the spirit 
 has been extracted, in proper proportions, the whole boiled together 
 for such a period as may be necessar.y to cause the mixture to set hard 
 and stiff when cold, without being brittle, and to be whilst hot, sufS- 
 ciently fluid to fill all the interstices in the shingle. No joints are run 
 with asphalt until the laying of the pavement has been approved by 
 engineers. As soon as the asphalting of the joints is completed, the 
 whole surface of the pavement must be covered evenly and uniformly 
 with approved dry gravel, which must be laid on before the asphalt is 
 quite set, so as to become partially bedded therein. The crossings are 
 paved in a similar manner with sets provided for the purpose. 
 
EUROPE — -UNITED KINGDOM. 279 
 
 WOOD PAVEMENT. 
 
 In wood pavement, which gives much satisfaction in this country, a 
 foundation of ce ment concrete is formed, 7 inches in thickness, com- 
 posed as described in granite pavements. 
 
 Its surface is faced with half an inch of cement, mixed in the propor- 
 tion of one measure of cement to three of sand, formed to the proper 
 camber and inclinati ons, and smoothed so as to form an accurate bed 
 for the wood blociis. 
 
 The blociis of wood. are sawed die-square from redwood, 9 inches by 
 3 inches by 5 inches, the grain of the wood running with the 5-inch 
 measurement, and equal to the samples deposited for inspection. After 
 the blocks are cut up, the contractor must give notice to the engineer 
 in order that he may inspect them, and when the engineer has approved 
 them, they must be creosoted with 12 pounds best creosote to the cubic 
 foot. 
 
 Two courses of wood blocks are laid parallel to and adjoining each 
 curb, and the remainder in courses running transversely to the street, 
 and the blocks ia the courses are placed close end to end, those ad- 
 joining the channel being long and short in alternate courses. 
 
 The courses themselves are three- eighths of an inch apart, the proper 
 distance being maintained by laths laid on the cement. The joints are 
 filled up with shingle to a level of 1 inch below the surface, and ran up 
 with asphalt, as for set pavement, to such level, care being taken to 
 allow no asphalt to run over the surface of the blocks. 
 
 The remaining inch of the joints is run up with cement-grout mixed 
 in the proportions of one of cement to two of sand, and the whole sur- 
 face is then covered with fine gravel. 
 
 MACADAMIZED EOADWAY. 
 
 The surface for receiving the foundation material for macadamized 
 roads is formed parallel with the finished surface of the road and at the 
 required depth below the same. 
 
 Where the existing surface is raised the material must, if required 
 by the engineer, be watered and rolled or rammed. 
 
 The foundation of the carriage way consists of a layer of hard chalk- 
 stone or other material accepted by the engineer, 8 inches in thickness, 
 broken into sizes not exceeding that of a 4-iuch cube, and into smaller 
 pieces on the surface as required to fill the interstices, and properly 
 rolled, and such layer is to extend under the channels and curbs. The 
 next coating consists of a layer of granite, or other suitable material, 
 broken to pass in any direction through a 2^-iuch ring, of a thickness 
 before being consolidated of 2^ inches, and such coating tobererolled 
 until set. The coating is to be formed to a proper camber, making the 
 crown, in the case of a roadway 24 feet wide, 1 inch above the curbs. 
 
 The surface covering consists of a further coating of whinstone, 
 
280 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POKEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 broken to pass in any direction through a 2J-inch ring, of a thickness 
 before being consolidated of 2J inches, such coating being covered with 
 gravel and rolled in a similar manner to the previous one. 
 
 As to maintenance, a paved road is repaired in a similar manner to 
 that in which it is first made. 
 
 A macadamized road in town is hacked over, spread with a suflScient 
 quantity of broken whinstooe to raise it to its proper level and camber, 
 and rolled with a steam roller, just sufficient binding material being 
 used to fill the interstices in the larger material. The binding material 
 generally used is a somewhat loamy gravel. 
 
 On country roads the old surface is not hacked over, nor is the new 
 material rolled, but is left to be consolidated by traffic. 
 
 SYSTEMS AND COST OF EOAD MAKING-. 
 
 The roads are under the control of the city or borough engineers. As 
 the same staff also deal with drainage and architectural work, I found 
 it impossible to separate the ofi5ce expenses chargeable to highways. 
 
 PUBLIC EFFECTS OF IMPROVED EOADWATS. 
 
 I have not been able to get sufficient information which would enable 
 me to give a satisfactory reply to this query. 
 
 Byron G-. Daniels, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Hull, December 30, 1890. 
 
 LONDON. 
 
 REPORT BY OONSULOENEItAL NEW. 
 
 As directed in Department's circular, dated November 8, 1890, T have 
 the honor to submit herewith a report upon the subject of the streets 
 and highways, and of their construction and maintenance in this con- 
 sular district. 
 
 I am fortunate to be able to obtain aud inclose herewith the reports 
 of William Haywood, esq., engineer and surveyor, to the honorable com- 
 missioners of sewers of the city of London, for the years 1873, 1874, 
 1877, aud 1882, upon the condition of the streets and pavements of the 
 city of London. 
 
 The streets and pavements of the city of Ijondon are under the con- 
 trol of the commissioners of sewers, and Mr. Haywood has been their 
 engineer and surveyor in charge for many years. 
 
 I was also fortunately able, through the great kindness of William 
 Weaver, esq., engineer and surveyor to the vestry of the parish of St. 
 Mary Abbotts, Kensington, to obtain from him a most able and full and 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 281 
 
 elaborate commuiiicatioTi upon the merit of tbe various kinds of streets 
 and pavements under the charge of that vestry, which includes that part 
 of the metropolitan London called Kensington ; and 1 wish to acknowl- 
 edge to that vestry their very great kindness, and to Mr. Weaver my 
 sincere thanks for his most valuable communication. 
 
 I also inclose herewith the thirty-second and thirty-fourth reports to 
 the vestry of St. Mary Abbotts, which include much information upon 
 the subject in hand. 
 
 I also inclose a valuable communication from James E. Heward, esq., 
 surveyor, etc., to the board of works of the Greenwich district of the 
 city of London, upon the subject, together with printed copies of the 
 specifications for making the various kinds of streets, pavements, and 
 roads in that district. 
 
 From these reports and communications may be learned the original 
 cost of the various kinds of pavements used in London, as also the 
 annual cost, through a series of years, of the maintenance of the several 
 kinds, and another valuable report on the accidents to horses and ve- 
 hicles upon each kind of street in thevarying conditions of the weather. 
 
 These reports, being authentic and official, and made as those are by 
 these eminent engineers of so many years' practical experience and ob- 
 servation, are vastly more valuable and reliable than would be a report 
 made by a non-expert in such matters, and, I believe, fully answer the 
 inquiries of the circular so far as my immediate consular district is con- 
 cerned. 
 
 I desire to express herein my thanks to these several gentlemen for 
 their great kindness in providing these reports and communications. 
 
 Jno. G. New, 
 
 Consul- General. 
 
 United States Oonstjlate-Gbneral, 
 
 London, January 3, 1891. 
 
 THE STREETS OF LONDON. 
 Mr. Weaver, chief engineer and nurveyor, to Consul-General New. 
 
 Town Hall, Kensington, December 15, 1890. 
 
 Sik: The Kensington vestry at its uieeting on the 10th instant considered your 
 letter asking for certain information on the subject of roads, and issued a general 
 instrnotiou to their vestry clerk and surveyor (myself) to furnish you with informa- 
 tion on the subject. 
 
 In obedience to the instructions above referred to, I hasten to discharge ray part 
 of the reference. 
 
 Your letter to me of the 5th instant speciiiod four heads of information, and I pro- 
 ceed hereunder to deal with them in the order of your enumeration, prefacing my. 
 remarks by pointing out that the information hereinafter set forth is of a general char- 
 acter, susceptible of detailed treatment to an almost unlimited extent, but involving 
 in such elaborated treatment an amount of labor impossible of bestowal within the 
 limits of the vestry's instruction. 
 
282 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 I now proceed to deal with the several heads of information. 
 
 (1) The methods employed in making and maintaining pnblic roads ia Kensington. 
 
 There are about 84 miles of roads in Kensington paved with wood, asphalt, pitch- 
 ing, broken granite (macadam), flints, and gravel. All the main roads are paved 
 with wood except about 1,000 square yards of asphalt. The whole of the wood pav- 
 ing is laid on a foundation 6 inches thick of concrete composed of Thames ballast 
 and Portland cement mixed 6 to 1. This foundation is sufficient, provided there is a 
 good solid snhslratum beneath ; where such solidity does not exist extra concrete 
 should be provided. The concrete is worked to a perfectly smooth face, and when 
 hard set the wood blocks are laid thereon in transverse rows. Over 200,000 square 
 yards of wood have been laid in Kensington, and I have tried various kinds of wood, 
 including the ordinary fir deals, b eech, vale, and jarrah, cut to depths varying from 
 3 to 6 inches, and have laid the blocks in a variety of ways close together, with open 
 joints grouted with diflferent materials, with felt joints laid on asphalt and on felt, 
 plain deal blocks, creosoted blocks, naphthalized blocks, etc., etc. 
 
 The figures and details appertaining to the various experiments in this one descrip- 
 tion of road work would make a good-sized pamphlet, but the result to the present 
 time in Kensington is that we are laying down creosoted deal blocks 9 inches by 
 3 inches by 5 inches deep (on concrete as aforesaid) generally with open joint three- 
 eighths inch wide, filled with asphalt to a depth of one-fourth or one-half inch, and 
 remainder of joint grouted in with Portland cement grout. Sometimes the wood is 
 laid close without any joint, and if the weather (dry) permits this to be done the re- 
 sult is good. The success of creosoted wood depends upon the qnality of the creo- 
 sote and the thoroughness of the creosoting. By the method I employ this is assured. 
 My table of results shows about lOJ pounds of creosote forced into each cubic foot of 
 wood laid. 
 
 Herewith I have forwarded copies of my two last annual reports, and you will see 
 therein (amongst other information which may be of service) that the greater part of 
 the wood laid is 6 inches deep. 
 
 Of late years, however, 5-inch blocks have been used and in one thoroughfare, Syd- 
 ney place and Onslow square, 4-inch blocks have been laid down, and it is very likely 
 that a few years hence blocks deeper than 4 inches will not be used. The object of 
 reducing the depth is to save the great waste of wood when the road is repaved. With 
 6-inch blocks there is about 3 inches of wood wasted consequent on the necessity of 
 repaviug, when 3 inches of the contour of the road has been worn away, as the side 
 channels, unaffected by traffic, retain their original levels. 
 
 A road wood-paved with 5-inoh creosoted deal blocks will last 10 years, and at 
 present prices will cost Is. 6(J. per square yard per annum for first cost and reparation 
 throughout that period ; the concrete included in the first cost will remain as an 
 unencumbered asset to be taken over for the next term. The first cost of excavating 
 for and providing concrete foundation may be taken at 3s. per square yard. 
 
 Scavenging is not included in foregoing cost of maiutenauoe. 
 
 In my opinion wood paving is at present the best paving for the main roads of a 
 district such as Kensington. In a nonresidential commercial district, such as the 
 city of Londou, I should give the preference to asphalt, which can be laid at a first 
 cost of about lis. per yard, or laid and maintained for 15 years at an annual cost of 
 about Is. 6d. per yard, but the price would vary according to traffic. 
 
 The essential requirements of wood and asphalt paving is cleanliuess — thorough 
 cleansing. Washing and sweeping every night, if necessary, and the prompt removal 
 or picking up of horse droppings during the day. One of the great difficulties is the 
 removal of the sludge formed on wet days. This I effect by wide india-rubber 
 squeegees, the slush being forced into large iron gully pits under channels and 
 cleaned out and carted away during the night. In Appendix A you will find this iron 
 gully (whichi designed) described, and I may add that since the date of that report 
 the said gully has proved so successful that 1 have extended their use considerably. 
 
EUROPE— UNITED KINGDOM. 283 
 
 With reference to pitolaecl roads in Kensingtou, this paving is almost exclusively 
 confined to mews, stfible yards, and tram lines. Mews are generally paved with 4-inch 
 by ^-inoh cubes ou 6 inches of concrete ; tram lines with 6-inch by 3-inch pitchers on 
 concrete, and pitched roads for heavy traffic with 9-inch by 3-lnch pitchers on concrete- 
 The greater dimensions of the pitchers represent the depth of the stone. 
 
 Without doubt the most durable road is one formed of granite pitchers. The great 
 objection to their use is the noise. For heavy traiBc roads, with steep gradients, 
 pitching is the best and most eco nomical road paving, especially if granite tram- 
 wheel tracks are provided. 
 
 With regard to roads made and repaired with broken granite, flints, and gravel, it 
 is essential in the first place to provide a good foundation. My specifications always 
 provide for a consolidated foundation 18 inches thick of good brick robbish or hard 
 core, and spread thereon a consolidated coat 9 inches thick of Kentish flints or gravel 
 (as the case may be) or of broken granite. With the last-mentioned material a con- 
 solidated coating 4 inches thick will generally suffice. The consdlidation is effected 
 by steam rolling. I use broken granite of various descriptions, broken to various 
 gauges, li inches to 2^ inches, using the smaller gange in light carriage roads and 
 the larger in roads traversed by omnibuses. In my opinion, the most pleasant road 
 to travel upon and easiest to maintain is a well-formed gravel road ; but, of course, 
 this kind of road is ont of the question beyond a certain traffic point. 
 
 (2) The details of the systems followed and expenses incurred respecting same. 
 
 I take it that a great deal of the information embodied in the answer to question 
 No. 1 will also apply to this question. In addition I may add that the work of mak- 
 ing new roads (of all kinds) and the supply of all materials for the reparation of 
 existing roads, is executed and carried out, under specifioatlons prepared by me. 
 Tenders are invited by advertisem ent for the new work as it arises, and for the supply 
 of materials, annually. The maintenance, scavenging and watering, is executed by 
 the vestry's own staff, consisting of about 450 men, 100 horses, and about l.'iO carts 
 and wagons. All the carts, etc., are made in our own workshops, blacksmiths' and 
 harness work is also performed by vestry's own men. The foregoing staff also per- 
 forms the work of house refuse collection and removal. The house refnse (dust, 
 ashes, etc.), and street refnse (mud and sweepings), amounts to about 100,000 tons 
 annually. It is collected by the carts and deposited in barges on the river and Grand 
 Junction Canal. In relation to this refnse the scheme of the vestry is to utilize it 
 for agricultural purposes, and with this object, land at Purfleet (17 acres) has been 
 acquired, but as this scheme is only just being entered upon, it is too early to form 
 an opinion relative thereto, based on facts. I may add, however, that my views on 
 this subject are not in accord with those of the majority of the vestry, and are set 
 forth in the series of reports hereto attached in Appendix No. 2. 
 
 (3) The effect of improved public roads upon land values and other economic con- 
 ditions. 
 
 This is a very wide question upon which I could write a very long essay, but speak- 
 ing generally, it is beyond question that the foriuation and maintenance of good 
 roads increases the value of land in a district and adds to the rental value of the 
 houses. If the governing authorities of a town or district, by good management, 
 make such district a nice comfortable place to live in, people will flock to it in 
 added numbers, convert agricultural land into building laud and increase the trade. 
 
 In 1856 the roads in Kensington maintained by the vestry, were 23i miles in. length. 
 
 The greater portion of the district was market-garden ground, now covered with 
 mansions and houses from £100 to £1,000 a year rental valne. 
 
 At the present time in Kensington there are about 84 miles of road maintained by 
 the vestry ; the population is 179,720, and the gross rateable value of the parish is 
 £2,390,728 (net, £1,999,682). 
 
 Shops in the High street, then letting at £80 and £100 per annum, now command 
 £500 a year, with heavy premiums. 
 
284 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 This change has not, of course, all heen bronglit about by parochial management. 
 Proximity to the parks, etc., has had a good deal to do with the change, but the 
 parks, etc., existed, I may say, for centuries prior to the change, and I am certain 
 of this, that wealthy people will not continue to reside in a district where sanitary 
 requirements are neglected, refuse allowed to collect in houses, bad roads provided 
 for traveling, and neglected lightiug, watering, and scavenging allowed to prevail. 
 
 (4) Such other information as may be germane to the general subject of improved 
 public roads. 
 
 Under this head may properly be considered the questions of subsoil, and the rights 
 of companies and others to lay mains, pipe.s, electric and telephone wires, etc. 
 
 The functions of the vestry in relation to road making commence as soon as vacant 
 land is proposed to be laid out for building. 
 
 Formatimu of roads. (25 and 26.Vic., C. 102, S. S. 98 and 99 ; 45 Vic. C. 14, S. S. 7, 8, 
 9). — The first step in the transformation is to submit duplicate plans to the London 
 county council, showing the road proposed to be formed or laid out and sotting forth 
 the widths and levels of same. One of the said duplicate plans is forwarded to the 
 vestry for their opinion, which guides in a great measure the decision of the London 
 county council. Under the 98th and 99th sections, 25 and 26 Victoria, Cap. 102, and 
 the 7th, 8th, and Qthsections, 45 Victoria, Cap. 14, very full powers are conferred upon 
 the Metropolitan board of works (now London county council) enabling them to cou- 
 trol this initial stage of the development. 
 
 The council can refuse to sanction a street with a less width than 40 feet, or with 
 less than two outlets ; aud by the increased powers given under the last-mentioned 
 act, they can require the roads to be formed in such directions as to secure conven- 
 ient intercommunication with adjoining roads. This power, although guarded by a 
 proviso giving a right of appeal to a police magistrate, in order to check unduly arbi- 
 trary treatment by the council is an extremely salutary one, as it tends to prevent 
 the isolation and locking in of estates to the detriment of the public convenience. 
 Although in certain circumstances the council's powers may conflict with the 
 right of the freeholder to do what he likes with his own laud, still it is only just 
 that the owner, in increasing some forty fold the value of his ground, should in some 
 degree have to study the interests of the public, to whom the land owes its incre- 
 ment of value. Had this act been in force years back it would have prevented 
 estates being laid out to the detriment of public intercommunication. 
 
 The plan of the proposed roads having been approved, the formal consent of the 
 council is given, with the condition attached that no bars or obstacles to the free 
 use of the roads by the public are at any time to be erected. This condition has only 
 of late years been appended ; but it is a most wise one, as it prevents the existing 
 nuisance of gate-barred streets. A bill, seeking powers to abolish barriers now in 
 existence, is before Parliament, and if enacted will confer great benefit, but doubt- 
 less will entail considerable public expense. Had the law, as it now stands, been the 
 same in tlie past, this compensation for removal would not have to be paid. 
 
 The owner having obtained the approval of the council, who, at the same time, 
 name the street, may proceed with its foundation, aud now the anxieties of the sur- 
 veyor to the local authority commence. If zealous in the discharge of his duties, he 
 is desirous that the road shall be formed in such a manner as to be a safe and conven- 
 ient highway for public traffic, aud that it shall contain nothing concealed below 
 the surface likely to jeopardize the health or safety of the future abutting residents, 
 or the public passing thereover. He has in the first place to see that the full width 
 is set out, and then that the proper level is observed. Very little difliculty arises on 
 the first point, and the second question of level should have received full thought 
 when the plan was before his vestry for consideration, as it is essential that new 
 roads on one estate should be laid out at such level and incline as conveniently to 
 intersect and join with other roads formed, or to be formed, on adjoining estates. 
 Tho proper le>'e]s having been detcimiued after due consideration, it only remains to 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 285 
 
 enforce them, and althongh the heights of all iutorseoting streets are set out by the 
 vestry's surveyors, and the value of such heights 'above orduance datum furnished 
 to the builders, yet it is no unusual thing, upon the vestry proceeding to make up 
 the street some year or two afterwards, to flud the houses erected at different heights 
 with an utrter disregard of the intersecting levels furnished as aforesaid, leaving to 
 the surveyor the interesting problem of how to adjust the paving and road levels to 
 the varying heights of the areas and steps with the minimum of injury and disfig- 
 urement to the property. In clay lands I find the tendency is to make the roads too 
 high ; and in sand and gravel soils, too low. In the former the surplus clay has to be 
 carted away at considerable expense, while in the latter every load of sand and 
 gravel excavated means increased profit. 
 
 By the sixth section of the metropolis management act, 1890, the abstraction of 
 subsoil is prohibited from the site of anyroad formed or proposed to be laid out, and 
 no road is to be formed upon made ground, except under conditions to be imposed by 
 the local authority, subject to appeal to the London county council. This new law 
 will add materially to the stability of future roads, and to the safety of pipes, mains, 
 drains, etc., laid in them. 
 
 Gas mains, electric light and telephone wires, I am of opinion should belaid in sub- 
 ways. In old streets, the initial outlay is the great hindrance to their adoption, but 
 in forming new streets this difBculty to a great extent does not exist. By forming a 
 subway over the sewer when it is being built the only extra cost is the brickwork ; 
 all the excavation is necessitated by the sewer, and by laying side pipes iu the drain 
 trenches nearly all the expense of the side connections is saved. 
 
 The water mains I should lay in footways. As the sewers are rebuilt, I should add 
 the subways, and thus, at any rate within a 100 years, subways would be universal. 
 If this process of gradual provision were deemed too slow or tedious, it might well be 
 considered whether it would not be well to raise a " subway loan " to provide the 
 capital expenditure. Taking sue h a loan at 3 per cent, for 50 years and the cost of 
 subway at £10,000 a mile, I think it would be practicable to charge such a rent for 
 its use as the companies would be glad to pay and such rent would repay the capital 
 expenditure within the life of the subway. The public authorities would thus save 
 the loss caused by the incessant disturbance of the highways, and the public them- 
 selves would be saved the inconvenience attaching to'such incessant disturbance. 
 With regard to above estimate of £10,000 a mile, the cost would be about half this 
 amount if the subway was formed with the sewer. 
 
 Referring generally as to question No. 4, I would advise that the roads of a district 
 should be made in, relation to the traffic upon them, and paved with the most suit- 
 able material, having due regard to all the circumstances attaching to such road. In 
 Kensington before any road is made up or converted, I submit a report and estimate 
 which generally guides the vestry in its action. 
 
 With regard to your inquiry as to books of reference, I am sorry I can not help you 
 in that respect. I have never studied books. I have gone about a good deal, and my 
 
286 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOKEItxN COUNTKIES. 
 
 views, as hereinbefore set forth, are the outcome of 31 years practical experience, 
 and if the iuformation I have roughly tried to convey in a concise form does not 
 prove too prolix for your patience, and does prove of some service to your department, 
 I shall be well satisfied. 
 If you would lilcB to see jue, or desire further information, pray command 
 Yours faithfully, 
 
 William Weaver, C. E., 
 Surveyor, Town Sail, Kensington, 
 General J. C. New, 
 
 Consul-General of the United States of America, 
 
 12 St. Helens Place, Bisliopsgate Street, E. C. 
 
 STEEET AND HOUSE REFUSE. 
 
 LAppendix to ilr. Weaver's report.] 
 
 paeish oe st. mary abbotts, kensington'. 
 
 Vestky Hall, Kensington, 
 Surueyor's Department, March, 1880. 
 To the Wharves and Plant Committee oe the Vestry of Kensington : 
 
 Gentlemen: In accordance with the directions of the vestry, instructing me to 
 report on the slopping work of the parish of Kensington, I have prepared and beg 
 to submit the following remarks. For reasons which will be obvious after a consid- 
 eration of the following pages, I have found it necessary and advisable to deal con- 
 junctively with the subject of dust collection. 
 
 The committee will recollect that prior to the vestry undertaking the execution of 
 the parish work, in 1877, the cost of slopping and dusting hadbeen increasing annu- 
 ally, and when in February, 1877, the tenders for these works were opened, such 
 largely increased amounts were demanded that the vestry resolved at once to take 
 the work iuto their own hands. 
 
 Acting energetically upon the foregoing resolution the vestry, on the basis of a re- 
 port and estimate which I had tbe honor of submitting, obtained the necessary plant 
 and premises, aud from that period have carried on the work until the present time, 
 in a much more satisfactory manner than under the old contract system, and at the 
 same time at less cost. Owing, however, to causes hereinafter referred to, the work 
 each succeeding year becomes mOre costly and difficult of execution, and unless 
 prompt and effective measures are adopted, the time, in my judgment, is not far dis- 
 tant when the vestry will find itself in serious difficulties, with the present available 
 means of escape therefrom then closed or only to be acquired at vastly increased cost. 
 
 With a firm conviction that a large amount of the present cost of work may be 
 saved, and with the future difficulties of the work plainly apparent, I beg to submit 
 and place on record the views I entertain with respect to the subject on which I am 
 directed to report. 
 
 The accounts of the vestry for the past 3 years, during which the work has been 
 performed by the vestry's own staff and plant, furnish only the total expenditure for 
 the entire work theretofore executed under contracts aud do not give the separate 
 cost of any one particular braneh thereof. It thus being impossible to ascertain the 
 valne per day of a horse and cart engaged on any one particular work, I have, in the 
 subjoined statements, taken the value of the horse labor herein referred to ; the totals 
 given as the cost of the work must, therefore, be taken as comparative estimated 
 amounts and not as actual totals of expenditure. The deductions and inferences, 
 however, drawn from the rates and amounts tabulated, would be but very slightly 
 altered by a reduction or increase of a shilling in the assumed rates per day. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 287 
 
 Statement I.—Boad sweepings.— Number of loads removed, amount of labor employed 
 in removal, and estimated coat of same. 
 
 During the year ending Lady Day, 1879 : 
 
 Number of loads removed US, 706 
 
 Horse, cart, and mau, at 13s., uiuu bur of days 6,981 
 
 Totalcostofoollectiou and shoots £5,290 19s. ed. 
 
 Amount paid for shoots £753 (is. (id. 
 
 Net cost per load i'or collection and shoots 3s. 3d. 
 
 Average number of loads per day per horse and c art 4 J 
 
 During 9 months ending Christmas, 1879 : 
 
 Number of loads removed 20,252 
 
 Horse, cart, and man, at 13s., nnmber of days 5,096 
 
 Total cost of collectiou and shoots £3,467 9s. 9d. 
 
 Amount paid for shoots £1,')5 Is. 9rf. 
 
 Net cost per load for collectiou and shoots 38. 5d. 
 
 A verage uum ber of loads per day per horse aud cart 4 
 
 Statement II. — Dust and ashes. — Number of loads, labor, and cost of collection. 
 
 During the year ending Lady Day, 1879 : 
 
 Number of loads collected 25^ 567 
 
 Dust, cart, and dustman, number of day8,at 14s. Ocii* '10, 180 
 
 Gross cost of collection £7,507 15s. Od. 
 
 Amount received for dustt £3,837 Ifis. Od. 
 
 Net cost of collection £3,669 19s. Od. 
 
 Net cost of collection per load 2s. W^d. 
 
 Average number of loads per day per cart 2^ 
 
 During 9 months ending Christmas, 1879: 
 
 Numher of loads collected 19,914 
 
 Dust, cart, and dustman, number of day8,at 148. 9d* 7, 352 
 
 Gross cost of collection £5,422 2s. Od. 
 
 Amount received for dustt £497 15s. Od. 
 
 Net cost of collectiou £4,924 78. Od. 
 
 Net cost of collection per load 4s. ll^d. 
 
 Average number of loads per day, per cart 2(^ 
 
 As the committee have decided that the collection of dust can be performed more 
 economically by liaving one dustman to two dust carts, rather than by haviijg a dust- 
 man with each cart, in addition to the cartman, it assumed in the preceding state- 
 ment that the whole of the carts have been worked on the preferential plan. 
 
 It will be seen on reference to the two statements, that nearly 60,000 loads of ref- 
 use have annually to be collected in the parish and carted away, a work of great 
 magnitude, involving a heavy expenditure. 
 
 The cost of the work depends, in a great measure, on the distance to wliich the 
 refuse has to be carted ; for instance, if during the 12 mouths ending Lady Day, 1879> 
 the slop carts had been enabled to deliver, on an average, 6 loads each per day, in- 
 stead of 4J (Statement I), a saving in that work alone would have been eftected, 
 amounting to £1,758, assuming that the shoot was the property of the parish, and 
 the committee will perceive from the same statement that the net cost per load was 
 2d. less during this period, compared with the following 9 months, although the 
 shoots were costing nearly four times more in the former than in the latter period. 
 
 Daring the same year (12 months ending Lady Day, 1879 (Statement 11), the dust 
 realized a largo sum of money, an amount which it is not likely to produce in the 
 
 •HorsH and cart, ladders, baskets, tools, etc., 9s.; Carter, 4s.; Moiety of dustman's 
 wages. Is. 9d.; total per day, 14s. 9d. 
 tXhe dust delivered under agreement of sale is taken as all being paid for. 
 
288 STKEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 future. Leaving out, therefore, that exceptional time from this calculation, and tak- 
 ing the return for the 9 months ending Christmas, 1879, we have a total of 19,914 
 loads delivered, giving an average of 2i\ loads each cart per day. If nearer shoots 
 had been provided, enabling the carts to deliver 4 loads each per day, a saving of 
 £1,252 wonld have accrned npon the net cost, and calculating the saving during the 
 remaining 3 mouths of the year at the same ratio, the total saviug in the 12 mouths 
 would he £1,670. This amount added to the reduction in slopping (£1,748), above 
 referred to, gives £3,418 as the total amount which might be fairly expected to be 
 saved in 1 year by the acquisition of handy shoots. Such saving, however, could 
 only be effected on this important condition, viz, that the refuse, when once deposited, 
 should not involve any further net expense to the vestry, but should, after its recep- 
 tion, be made at least to pay for itself. 
 
 This condition, which I believe can be more than fulfilled, necessarily leads up to 
 the subject of the best means of disposing of and utilizing the refuse, in order that it 
 may be made at least to pay for itself, and thus fulfill the condition referred to. 
 
 In the first place, a large amount of material has to be dealt with, viz, 60,000 loads 
 per annum, which may be taken as over 90,000 cubic yards. The question, then, for 
 consideration is the best method of dealing with 58,000 cubic yards of slop and road 
 sweepings, and 40,000 cubic yards of dust and house refuse. 
 
 The road refuse consists of sweepings from — 
 
 First, macadamized roads ; second, flint and gravel roads ; and third, wood-paved 
 roads. 
 
 The first mentioned is composed of particles of granite, more or less small, horse 
 droppings, water, and litter. The particles of granite and horse droppings could be 
 eliminated by screening the slop mixed with added water; the fineparticles of gran- 
 ite-like sand would settle, and the water, almost clear, could then be drawn oft' for 
 reuse. The first screenings, i. c, granite and horse droppiugs, would be dried in an 
 oven attached to furnace, hereinafter referred to, and the horse droppiugs separated 
 therefrom. This latter material, would, I am of oijinion, find a sale as a dressing for 
 grass lands, but if not sold it could be burnt. 
 
 The flint and gravel road sweepings are composed of small particles of flint, with 
 horse droppings mixed with water, and could, with added water, be passed through 
 a screen of a mesh gauged to pass the .flint grit and retain the horse droppings. 
 After drawing ofl:" the water the flint settlings would remain and be very valuable 
 for consolidating the macadam roads under the steam roller. AVith this binding 
 material a road is better made than if sand is used, and does not give oflf so much 
 slop. Every yard of this material used would represent a saving of 4s. Sd., and if 
 such material was rewashed and passed through a finer screen the pure grit would 
 fetch 10s. a yard. 
 
 The sweepings from wood-paved roads consist almost entirely of horse droppings, 
 which could be sold as manure. The sweepings from Brompton Road, the committee 
 are aware, now fetch £.j per barge load. 
 
 In the street refuse, the committee will therefore perceive that they possess valu- 
 able useful materials which they are now paying to get rid of, owing to want of 
 storage space. Samples of all the component parts of the street refuse, as herein 
 referred to, are herewith submitted. 
 
 The dust and house refuse is composed of breeze, dust, hard and soft core, and pick- 
 ings, all possessing a market value, except the soft core, which would be burnt — a 
 portion of the breeze forming the fuel. 
 
 The market for Kensington dust without doubt has, in the past, been spoiled by 
 the inability of the vestry to hold over their stock, aud the price for the same would 
 go up on its being stored, and sold at such a rate as to make its own market. True 
 it is that dust will be wanted as long as bricks are being made in the neighborhood, 
 but so long as the vestry is without storage accommodation, the committee is at the 
 mercy of the brickraakers, who have only to combine to dictatj their owu terms • 
 but given the storage space, with the meaus of buiuiug the soft core, etc., and tUo 
 
EUKOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 289 
 
 positions are reversed, with the additional advantage of saving the labor now ex- 
 pended in carting the material long distances, a large part of it being not only of no 
 use when it reaches its destination, bnt the cause of nuisances, which at any moment 
 may place the vestry in the dilemma of having to collect the dust without having any 
 place to shoot it. 
 
 The committee will perceive that the foregoing remarks all point to the desirabil- 
 ity of the vestry acquiring depots within the parish for the receipt of the street and 
 house refuse, and in addition to the direct saving resulting therefrom, as hereinbe- 
 fore alluded to, I would point out other attendant advantages. 
 
 1st. The horses and men could be better supervised then when going to distant 
 shoots, such as Acton, Fulham, etc., and the strictness of the supervision is inversely 
 proportionate to the area of the worls. There can be little doubt that a large pro- 
 portion of the sickness and mortality amongst the vestry's horses is attributed to the 
 distant shoots. 
 
 2d. A stock work would be provided for otherwise idle horses and men, whose un- 
 earned wages liave now to be paid. 
 
 3d. The present shoots, costing a large sum for attendant men, chain horses, and 
 road making, are only temporary ; they are situated^ almost entirely in Fallam and 
 Hammersmith, the board of works for which districts are just commencing the exe- 
 cution of their own work, and it is extremely unlikely that Kensington will be able, 
 in the face of the extra carting involved, to offer better terms than Fulham for shoots 
 within its own district, but outside ours. 
 
 4th. I would ask the committee to consider the equity of the question, whether it 
 is fair for Kensington to send its offensive refuse into other districts, the authorities 
 of which object to its presence, but perhaps are unwilling to take legal measures to 
 stop its delivery. Acton, however, it will be remembered, did stop the delivery of 
 our dust last summer. 
 
 5th. The neighborhoods now receiving the parish refuse are rapidly being built 
 over, and in a short time will cease to afford shoots. 
 
 6th. The present distant shoots involve a large increase in the number of horses 
 and carts, and proportionate increase in risks of working and increased cost of super- 
 vision. By having the shoots near the work a much smaller plant would do more 
 work with greater efficiency, with the risks attendant upon bad roads, public water 
 troughs, and unsupervised carmen, reduced to a minimum. Recently as many as 50 
 horses out of a stock of 84 have been employed in dusting alone, and that at a time 
 when the slopping required extra strength, the lack of which entailed loss to the 
 parish. 
 
 7th. The proximity of the depots would enable the horses to change carts quickly, 
 a matter of m uch importance in the watering season, when through change of weather 
 the horses have to be transfered from slop carts to water vans as expeditiously as 
 possible. By the courtesy of the guardians of the poor we are allowed at present to 
 stand carts, etc., at the stoneyard, potteries, a convenience liable, however, to be 
 withdrawn at any time. 
 
 8th. By withdrawing a large number of carts, vans, etc., from the Pembroke Road 
 depot, storage space would be given there, now much needed. At the present time, 
 for want of room, I am often compelled to send material (othei than street sweepings) 
 to the shoot, which, if stored at the depot, could hereafter be used with economical 
 results. 
 
 Each of the foregoing considerations are submitted in a condensed form only, but 
 ' they are capable of being enlarged upon to a very considerable extent. 
 
 I beg, therefore, to strongly recommend that two depots be obtained ; one in the 
 north, and the other in the south part of the parish. In the northern depot pits could 
 be excavated for the receipt of all refuse not sold, burnt, or utilized ; the excavated 
 clay being burnt into ballast worth 2s. Gd. per yard in the depot. Such material will 
 be largely required in the north district during the next 10 years, and its value will 
 increase beyond the price named, prp|)ortioaq,tely to the difficulty in obtaining it. 
 33A 19 
 
290 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 In the south district the depot would yield sand and gravel, worth respectively, at 
 present 2s. 6d. and 2«. per yard on the ground, bat these prices are going up every 
 year. 
 
 As before mentioned, the only portion of the street refuse for which, at the present 
 time, I am unable to show a profitable use, is the fine mud of the granite slope, re- 
 maining after the granite and horse droppings are removed. This mad, although 
 consisting of minute particles of granite, would, as far as I am able to see at pres- 
 ent, have to be buried ; dealing with it, however, in this way, the ground excavated 
 for its reception wonld if sand more than pay for the labor involved, and nearly so 
 in the case of clay having to be got oat, such material being converted into burnt 
 ballast as aforesaid. 
 
 A furnace would have to be erected at each depot, with sifting and screening ap- 
 paratus, and the ground, if sufficiently spacious, could be so laid out in inclines as 
 to make a good deal of labor self-performed by gravitation. Disinfecting chambers 
 might be economically erected in conjunction with the furnace, and the money now 
 paid by the vestry for the disinfection of clothing, bedding, etc., saved. 
 
 I would here remark that several large towns — Manchester, Birmingham, Warring- 
 ton, Blackburn, Derby, Leeds, Nottingham, and Rochdale amongst others — have ac- 
 quired depots and erected furnaces for dealing with and burning their refuse, and it 
 is well worthy of the vestry whether a small committee might not be appointed with 
 advantage to this parish to inspect the operations as carried out in the towns re- 
 ferred to. 
 
 If the committee and vestry agree with me as to the advisability of acciniring 
 depotfl as herein suggested, I would recommend that no time be lost, as land is daily 
 increasing in value and becoming more difficult to obtain. In addition, I would ad- 
 vise that ample space be provided, as the work is increasing every year, and would, 
 even at the outset, require a large area for sorting and turning over the refuse, and 
 the excavations as filled in as before mentioned would not renew their virgin soil. 
 
 In the foregoing report I have endeavored not to exaggerate the expected future 
 results, but rather to take the worst view of the question, for I am firmly of opinion 
 that the committee would find, after a year's experience in dealing with the refuse of 
 the parish, that a great deal of so-called refuse, now costing a large sum annually to 
 get rid of, would, under skillful management, prove a large item of revenue. 
 
 According to the less sanguine view of the subject, the vestry can afford to spend 
 £60,000 on the acquisition of suitable land for depots, and the erection of buUdings, 
 machinery, etc., and still save on the present annual expenditure ; bat looking to the 
 future, with the increasing difficulties of the work, I should be afraid to state the sum 
 which the vestry might, in my judgment, spend with advantage for this purpose. 
 
 In the foregoing paragraph £60,000 is mentioned as the sum which might be ex- 
 pended without increasing the current expenditure, but it is not intended to convey 
 to the committee that that amount of outlay is needed — £35,000 would, I am of opin- 
 ion, cover the entire expense. 
 
 I trust I am not out of order in stating that should the vestry deem me over confident 
 as to the profits likely to accrue from dealiug with the refuse in the manner herein 
 suggested, I believe private individuals ore ready to come forward and enter into 
 arrangements with the vestry, whereby yoa might be relived of all trouble with re- 
 gard to such refuse when once deposited. 
 
 In conclusion, I would remark that in the foregoing report I have confined myself 
 to the scope of the vestry's reference, but should it be deemed desirable, I could now, 
 with the experience of the past 3 years' execution of the parish work, fonnded upon 
 my report of 1876, offer some suggsstions relative thereto, which, I believe, would 
 prove of value to the vestry ; but inasmuch as such reports involve considerable time 
 and labor, I have thought it right not to withdraw the necessary time from my other 
 duties without the vestry directing me to do so. 
 
 I have the honor to remain, gentlemen, your obedient servant, 
 
 Wm. Wbavbr, C.E., 
 
 Surveyor, 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 291 
 
 STREETS OF LONDON. 
 
 Mr. Seward, surveyor, to Consul-General Kew. 
 
 BoAKD OP Works for the Greenwich District, 
 141 Greemvieh Boad, Greenwioli, S. E., January 1, 1891. 
 Sir: In answer to yours of the 8th ultimo respecting the cost of making and main- 
 taining public roads in London, I take pleasure in sending the following answers to 
 your questions, obtained from practical results extending over a period of nearly 
 half a century : 
 
 (1) The methods employed under my superintendence are: (a) Land value on 
 flint roads ; (5) Macadamized or broken-granite roads ; (c) granite-cube or [set pav- 
 ing ; {d) wood-cube paving ; (e) asphalt. 
 
 I attach a specification, marked A, giving details for forming and making up new 
 roads or streets, on which system land values or macadamized roads are constructed 
 in my district, also a specification, marked U, giving details of forming granite-cube 
 and wood-cube paving. Asphalt, although the more costly material at first cost, is 
 the most cleanly and durable of any, but is not easily repaired after trenches made 
 by gas, water, electric, and other companies, and is very treacherous under certain 
 conditions of atmospheric changes for horse traffic. The foundation for an asphalt 
 is made as for a paved road, with a 3-inch coating of asphalt in lieu of the granite 
 cubes. 
 
 (2) Systems followed in repairing roads (a and 6) by picking up the crust or sur- 
 face to a depth of about 3 inches and coating same with material to a depth of about 
 2 to 3 inches, and the whole rolled solid, cost (o) about Is. per yard superficial; (6) 
 from 2fi. to 3«. per yard superficial. The life of these roads depends entirely upon traf- 
 fic and weather, but an average of 2 years might betaken. 
 
 The life of a granite-cube paved road is about 21 years, with an average expense 
 for repairs of M. per yard superficial per annum. 
 
 The life of wood-cube paving is from 4 to 5 years, and the average expense per 
 annum would not exceed 6^. per yard superficial. 
 
 Asphalt will stand from 15 to 20 years if left undisturbed. 
 
 (3)Tlieeffectof improvedpublic roads upon land values depends entirely upon situ- 
 ation and traffic. Where heavy traffic has to be carried, and in large towns and 
 cities, improved paving is found more economical and cleanly, but land values or 
 macadamized roads are less costly and preferable in country or park roads, where 
 traffic is of a lighter nature. 
 
 I trust this information is what you seek, but shall be pleased to answer any fur- 
 ther questions you may wish, upon your application. 
 
 I have a book, "System of Road-Making," by John Loudon MaoAdam, 1827, which 
 I should be pleased to lend for your perusal. I can not part with same, as it was 
 given to me by my tutor. Sir James MacAdam. 
 Yours, respectfully, 
 
 James R. Heward, 
 Bond Swveyor to the Greenwich District Board of Works. 
 
 John C. New, Esq., 
 
 Consulate-General of the United States of America, London, E. 0, 
 
 A. 
 
 BOARD OF WORKS FOR THE GREENWICH DISTRICT. 
 
 Specification for forming and making up the roadway and paving, curbing, chan- 
 neling, and making up the footpaths of the street called America, in the parish of 
 , in the Greenwich district. 
 
292 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The contractor is to remove all slop, mud, clay, and soft material in proper slop 
 carts when and as required by the road surveyor to the board of works for the Green- 
 wich district for the time being, and to remove and cart away all superfluous earth 
 and regulate the finished level of the roadway by the general level of the adjoining 
 premises, as determined by the said surveyor. 
 
 The surface of the roadway to be properly formed by the contractor previously to 
 the whole width of such roadway being covered by him with a good 9-inch dressing 
 of hard pottery or brick waste, to be evenly spread and well rolled by him, after 
 which he is to lay on such road a good 6-inch coating of Guernsey granite in two 
 3-inch dressings, and to well and evenly break, spread, water, and roll in the same 
 with 10 tons. 
 
 The footpaths on both sides of the above road are to be paved with best 3-inch 
 tooled York stone. (The width of footways can be stated.) 
 
 The contractor is to provide and fix on edge, on both sides of the above-mentioned 
 road, a good 7 by 12 inch granite curb, squared at both ends, with close-butting joints, 
 well jointed and parallel on the top, with circular and return curfc for all the corners, 
 gateways, and approaches, where required by the said surveyor, and to pave the chan- 
 nels with 5-inch by 6-inoh and 6 inches deep approved granite cubes on both sides of 
 the said street, to be set ou best concrete 6 inches deep, three stones wide, and to pave 
 the same to a proper gradient for the guUeys, to well grout the same with hot lime 
 and sand, and well ram down the same. 
 
 The crossings, to be of best dressed granite, are to be paved by the contractor with 
 7-inch by 4-inch and 7 inches deep, to be laid on concrete 6 inches thick, to be well 
 and properly rammed and grouted in with Shay sand and hot lime. 
 
 Any private gateways are to be paved by the contractor with 3- inch by 6-inch and 
 6 inches deep dressed granite cubes set on 4-inoh concrete, to be well grouted in with 
 hot lime and properly rammed. 
 
 The contractor is to shift and remove such of the present gullies as the said sur- 
 veyor may direct, so as to range with the paved channels. 
 
 The contractor shall construct gullies, in such places as may be pointed out by 
 
 the road surveyor, with No. 1 best wire-cut Gait bricks, well bonded, 9 incnes in thick- 
 ness, in Portland cement, with invert bottom, the whole surrounded with Portland 
 cement concrete 6 inches in thickness, the entire inner faces of the gullies to be 
 rendered with Portland cement three-fourths of an inch in thickness, to connect the 
 said gullies with the sewers, with best 6-inch (in the bore) glazed stoneware pipes 
 jointed with clay ; also to provide and fix a "cast-iron grating and frame and cast- 
 iron siphon trap (as per plan) to each gully, sample to be seen at the office of the 
 board. The contractor must, previous to the commeucement of the construction of 
 any gully, give two days' notice to Mr. J. Nidd Smith, the district board's engineer, 
 under whom and to whose entire satisfaction the work is to be performed. 
 
 All watching, lighting, fencing, and notices for gas and water companies and 
 others which may be necessary shall be provided and given by the contractor, who 
 will be held responsible for any accident or damage of whasoever description that 
 may happen or occur during the progress or execution of or in completing the works 
 referred to in this specification. 
 
 If, under the direction in writing of the said surveyor, the contractor omits to do 
 any of the before-mentioned works, or to supply any of the before-mentioned mate- 
 rials, or does any additional work, or supplies any additional materials, then such 
 omissions or additions shall be valued by the said surveyor, and the amount of said 
 valuation deducted from or added to (as the case may be) the sum at which the con- 
 tractor shall tender to execute the said works. 
 
 All the said works are to be executed and completed under the direction of the 
 said surveyor, and to his entire satisfaction ; and if any question should arise as to 
 the labor or material, the levels, or the mode of executing the said works, or other- 
 wise in reference to this specification, or with regard to any extras or omissions (if 
 any), all such c^uestions sball be finally determined by the said surveyor. 
 
EUROPE UNITED KINGDOM. 293 
 
 Advances of money at the rate of 75 per cent, on the value of the work executed, 
 as certified by the said surveyor, will be made to tlie contractor as the works proceed 
 nntil the whole of the works are completed, but such advances shall in no case he 
 made at more frequent intervals than monthly, or nntil work of the value of £100, 
 certified as aforesaid, shall have been completed, and such certificate shall be final 
 and binding for the purpose of determining the anionnt of the advances to be from 
 time to time made under this clause, but shall not affect the right of the board against 
 the contractor, or be considered or be held at all conclusive as to the sufficiency of 
 any work or materials ; and such advances shall in no way affect any question in the 
 ultimate settlement of the accounts, or be considered as proof or admission of any 
 particular work, or amount of work, having been completed ; and the balance shall 
 be paid at the expiration of 3 months from the time when the wotk shall have been 
 completed in accordance with the contract, and the said surveyor shall have certified 
 in writing to the board that the works have been so completed to his satisfaction. 
 
 The commencement of the works referred to in this specification is to be postponed 
 until the time for commencing the same shall be specified in a written notice, given 
 to the contractor by the said surveyor, and the contractor shall commence the same 
 at the time specified in such notice, and must execute and complete the whole of the 
 said works within 3 calendar months after the time so specified for commencing them, 
 and if the said works are not completed within the said period of 3 calendar months, 
 the contractor shall pay to the said board the sum of 20s. for every day until the 
 works are completed to the satisfaction of the said surveyor ; and all such sums pay- 
 able under this clause, and any expense which may be incurred by the board by rea- 
 son of delay on the part of the contractor, shall be deducted from the amount pay- 
 able to him under this contract, or paid by him to the board on demand. 
 
 The contractor must execute, when required, a written contract in due form, to 
 perform, fulfill, and complete the works mentioned and referred to in the above 
 specification, and in all respects according to the terms thereof. 
 
 J. E. H., 
 Boad Surveyor to the Greenwich District Board of Worlct, 
 
 parish of greenwich— new granite and wood paving works. 
 
 Board of Works for the Greenwich District, 
 
 June US, 1886. 
 Specification to pave the unpaved portions of the Greenwich road, from Wellington 
 Grove to London street, of Lpndon street, from Greenwich road to Royal Hill, of Kom- 
 ney road, of Trafalgar road, and of the lower Woolwich road (except in front of 
 C hrist Church and the Wesleyan Chapel) from Trafalgar road to Marsh Lane, in the 
 parish of Greenwich, with 7-inch by 3-inch, or 7-inch by 4-inch granite cubes, and 
 to perform other works in connection therewith ; and to pave the unpaved portions 
 of London street from Royal Hill to Stockwell street ; of Church street, from Stock- 
 well street to Nelson street, and of Nelson street, and in front of Christ Church, and 
 the Wesleyan Chapel in the lower Woolwich road, in the parish of Greenwich, with 
 6-inch by 3 inch wooden blocks, and to perform other works in connection there- 
 with. 
 
 1. The contractor shall remove all the macadam or paving belonging to the hoard, 
 forming the surface of the road between the cnrb and existing granite paving out- 
 side the tram rails to a formation level, and cart the macadam, paving, cubes, curb, 
 or other stone to the board's wharf, or any other depot at a distance of not exceeding 
 2 miles from any part of the works. 
 
294 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 2. The coQtraotor sliall dress the surface level at the fonmiation to the same profile 
 as the paved surface will have when c ompleted, and provide and lay thereupou aud 
 over the entire area thereof, a bed of concrete, 6 inches in depth. 
 
 3. The concrete for the granite paving is to be formed of the best fresh burnt ground 
 blue Rugby, blue lias, or other approved hydraulic lime, clean sharp Thames or 
 approved ballast, in the proportion, by measure ment, of one part lime to four of 
 ballast, to be laid in place and fretted to the required level at once, and, if required, 
 to be well panned with iron rammers, and left undisturbed until the same is set and 
 the granite sets are laid upon it. 
 
 4. The concrete for the wood paving is to be composed of best Portland cement, 
 weighing not less than 116 pounds to the strike bushel, and is to bear a breaking 
 weight of 410 pounds to the square inch, is to be mixed with clean sharp Thames or 
 approved ballast, in the proportion, by measurement, of one part cement to four of 
 ballast, to be laid in place, and fretted to the required level at once, and, if required, 
 is to be floated to an even surface, and left undisturbed, until it is set and the wood 
 blocks are laid upon it. 
 
 5. The contractor is to provide, deliver, and lay on a bed of clean sharp gravel 
 mixed with blue Rugby, blue lias or other approved lime in the proportion of one of 
 lime to £ )ar of gravel, on the concrete bed and parallel to the lines of curb, two 
 courses of approved granite sets, 7 inches in depth and 4 inches in width, or 7 Inches 
 in depth and 3 inches in width, as may be directed, to form a channel where directed. 
 
 6. The contractor is to provide, deliver, and lay on a bed of clean, sharp gravel, 
 mixed with blue Rugby, blue lias, dry, or other appro ved lime in the proportion of 
 one of lime to four of gravel on the concrete bed, aud between the existing paving 
 outside the tram rails and the channel stones by the curb hereinafter described, ap- 
 proved granite sets 7 inches in depth and 4 inches in width, or 7 inches in depth and 
 3 inches in width, as may be directed, such sets to be properly bonded in with such 
 existing paving. 
 
 7. The pitohings or sets are to be of the best and hardest description, each stone is 
 to be 7 inches deep, aud 3 or 4 inches in width, as may be directed, to be perfectly 
 square on all sides, the bottom full and equal to the top, and before being used shall 
 have the special approval of the surveyor. The top and bottom are to be roughed 
 not hogbacked, aud the stones are to be laid in regular courses, straight, parallel, 
 and of an equal width aud (except the channel courses specified above) at right an- 
 gles with the curb, unless otherwise directed, and to be rammed and back rammed 
 after the grouting as often as may be required by the said surveyor. 
 
 8. The wood paving to be of the best sound and approved pitch pine blocks, free 
 from sap or knot, 6 inches deep, 3 inches in width by 9 inches, set as directed on 
 a bed of clean sharp sand, mixed with Portland cement in proportion by measures of 
 one of cement to four of sharp sand set at right angles with the curb, unless other- 
 wise directed, and to be rammed and back rammed after the gronting as often as 
 may be required by the said surveyor. 
 
 9. The grout to be formed of the best burnt ground blue Rugby, blue lias, or other 
 approved hydraulic lime, and best clean sharp Thames or other approved sand of an 
 equal quality in proportion by admeasarement of one of lime to three of sand; it is 
 to be well worked up and amalgamated and spread upon the paved roadway and well 
 worked into the joints and interstices with scrapers and brooms so as to ruu into" 
 and through aud fill up all the joints and interstices, and afterwards is to be dressed 
 over with washed and screened granite or gravel as often as may be considered 
 necessary by the surveyor for 14 days after the road is open for traffic. 
 
 10. The contractor is to keep aud maintain at his own cost and charges, in good 
 and substantial repair, free from looseness, sinkings, holes, indents, wide joints, and 
 ail other imperfections, the whole of the works herein specified for one year after the 
 date of the said surveyor's certificate that the whole of the works have been com- 
 pleted to his satisfaction. 
 
EUKOPE — UNITED KINGDOM, 295 
 
 11. In case any company or person sliall at any time (luring the said twelve months 
 open the roads or any part thereof, the work of relaying the granite and reinstating 
 or rep,airing the road so broken up, shall be executed by the contractor, and' the 
 amount received by the board from such company or person for restoring the road 
 shall be paid to the contractor. 
 
 12. Prom the date of the contract until the completion of the works, the board will 
 water, scrape, sweep, and cart away the road scrapings and sweepings of such part 
 of the roads as sh all be open for the public traflSc, in such manner as the board may 
 think fit. 
 
 13. The contractor shall commence the works within three weeks after he shall 
 have received a written order to do so from the surveyor, and complete the works and 
 deliver up the same to the said board, within 16 weeks after the receipt of the said 
 order, under a penalty of £25 sterling per day, for each and every day that the same 
 shall remain incomplete after the expiration of the said 16 weeks, and in case of such 
 default, the amount of any penalty or penalties so incurred is to be deducted from 
 auy moneys due to the contractor, or recovered from him as liquidated damages. 
 
 14. The contractor shall not have or put forward any claim for any sum or balance 
 of money whatsoever, as due to him from the board, except on the certificate of the 
 surveyor. 
 
 15. That payment shall be made to the contrac tor for the works herein specified in 
 manner following: 75 per cent, of the estimated value of the works execnted on the 
 certificates of the surveyor, such certificates to be granted at the expiration of every 
 4 weeks after the commencement of the works. Such further sum as shall make the 
 total payments amount to 90 per cent, of the contract sum, with the amount of extra 
 works (if auy) added thereto, or if omissions, deducted therefrom, within 28 days 
 after the date of the certificate of completion of the whole of the works to the sat- 
 isfaction of the surveyor. A further payment of 5 per cent, thereon within 3 months 
 after the said completion, and the balance within 12 months after the completion. 
 
 16. Should the works, in the opinion of the Surveyor, not be carried on with suf- 
 ficient despatch, or should the contractor neglect or refuse to amend any works or 
 materials objected to by the surveyor, then it shall be competent for him, the said 
 surveyor, after giving to the contractor 48 hours' notice of his intentions so to do, to 
 employ other persons, or procure other materials, so as to perform and amend the 
 said works, and all costs so incurred are to be deducted out of any moneys that may 
 be due to the contractor in respect of the contract or extras thereon, or may be re- 
 covered as a debt, at the option of the board. 
 
 17. If any dispute shall arise between the contractor and the board, or between 
 the contractor aud the surveyor, as to'meaniug or intentions of this specification and 
 tender, such matter shall be referred to and explained by the surveyor, whose expla- 
 nation and award shall be final and binding upon the contractor and the board. 
 
 18. The contractor shall not be entitled to make any claim against the board for 
 any works whatever, in addition to those herein tendered for, except such additional 
 works shall have been performed, executed, and completed upon a written order, 
 signed by the surveyor. 
 
 19. If the contractor should from bankruptcy, insolvency, or any other cause what- 
 ever be prevented or delayed in proceeding with the work, or be unable to proceed 
 with the work, according to the contract, or shall not proceed therein to the entire 
 satisfaction of the surveyor, it shall be lawful for the board, after seven days' previ- 
 ous notice to the contractor herein stated, of their intention so to do, to enter upon 
 the works, and take possession of them, and of all materials and plant that may be 
 on the works, and to employ other persons to complete the works, and at the option 
 of the board the contract shall, at the expiration of the said notice, become void to 
 the contractor, but without prejudice to any right of action the board may have. 
 The contractor in such case shall have no further claim for such works, materials, 
 or plant, but such payment as may have been previously made shall be considered 
 aud taken as payment iu full for all such materials or plant, or work done. 
 
 20. In case of the death of the contractor before the works hereby undertaken by 
 
296 STREETS Altt) HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 him sball have been executed, performed, or completed, his executors or administra- 
 tors shall execute, peiforna, and complete the same. 
 
 21. The contractor shall not underlet or make a subcontract for the execution of 
 any portions of the works, nor assign or otherwise dispose of, or part with his interest 
 in the contract, or any part thereof, without the previous consent in writing of the 
 board. 
 
 22. The contractor or contractors shall securely and properly fence off and light the 
 works during the progress thereof in such places and at such times as may be neces- 
 sary for the safety of the public, or as the surveyor may direct, and whether the 
 surveyor shall give directions or not the contractor is to be held responsible for any 
 accident that may occur through noncompliance with or neglect of this clause. 
 The contractor is to be held responsible for and to make good any damage to gas or 
 water pipes, drains, fences, or other works or property damaged by him during the 
 progress of the works, or which may occur in consequence of the works within 4 
 months fter the completion, and in case of default on the part of the contractor the 
 damage will be made good by the surveyor, and the amount thereof deducted from 
 any money due, or which may become due to the contractor, or may be recovered 
 from the contractor in an action. 
 
 23. The contractor shall include in his estimate the sum of 2 pounds 10 shillings 
 per week to be paid by the board to their clerk of the works for superintending the 
 works herein specified during the period of their execution, and the sum so paid to 
 such clerk of the works shall be deducted from the amount of the contract after its 
 final completion. 
 
 24. All the materials and workmanship of their several kinds are to be of the best 
 description, and are to be approved by the surveyor. 
 
 25. In this tender and contract the word " contractor " shall include his heirs, ex- 
 ecutors, or administrators." "The board" shall mean the board of works for the 
 Greenwich district. The " surveyor" shall mean the road surveyor of the board for 
 the time being, or any other surveyor from time to time appointed by the board in 
 respect of this contract. 
 
 26. Every notice sball be deemed to be served upon the contractor which shall have 
 been put into the post addressed to the contractor at his address hereunder stated, 
 or to any other address which he may furnish in writing to the clerk of the board. 
 
 Board op Works for the Greenwich District, 
 Parish of Greemmch : 
 
 hereby tender to and agree to perform and keep in repair for 12 calendar 
 
 months, all the works in the foregoing specification, and to perform all the conditions 
 thereof at the price hereunder stated per superficial yard of road surface, broken up 
 and paved with new granite or wood cubes in manner hereinbefore mentioned. 
 Price per yard superficial if the paving is executed in — s. d. 
 
 7x3 Mount Sorrel granite 15 o 
 
 7x4 Mount Sorrel granite 13 o 
 
 7. X 3 Guernsey granite 15 o 
 
 7x4 Guernsey granite., 14 o 
 
 7x3 Aberdeen granite 14 o 
 
 7 X 4 Aberdeen granite 13 o 
 
 Price per yard superficial for wood paving 6x3x9 pitch pine 10 6 
 
 And further agree to relay the existing paving outside the tram lines where 
 
 required by the surveyor to do so, at the price of per superficial yard. 
 
 And agree to execute a contract for the performance of the works, as afore- 
 said, upon being requested to do so. 
 
 (N'ame of person tendering :) , 
 
 {Address :) . 
 
 Tenders must be delivered at the board's ofJBce, 141, Greenwich road, not later than 
 4 o'clock on Wednesday, 23d June, 1886. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 297 
 
 Scliediile of Prices. 
 
 Parties tendering are required also to fill in prices for additional -works as per fol- 
 lowing schedule : 
 
 8. d. 
 
 To supply and fix new 12 X 7 Aberdeen edge curbs, at per foot run extra 1 10 
 
 To supply aud fix new 12 X 6 Aberdeen edge curbs, at per foot run extra 1 8 
 
 To supply and fix new 12 X 8 Guernsey channel curbs, at per footrun extra. 2 2 
 
 To take up existing curbs and reset same, at per yard run 2 
 
 To take up, redressing, and resetting curbs, at per yard run 6 
 
 To supply and lay complete best 3-inoh Yorkshire flaggings, at per foot su- 
 perficial 10 J 
 
 To supply and lay complete best 2i-iDoh Yorkshire flaggings, at per foot su- 
 perficial 9j 
 
 To remove and relay old York, to square and relay same at per 100 feet.... . 10 6 
 To relay old channel, carriageway cubes aud grout same complete, at per 
 
 yard superficial 1 2 
 
 To supply aud lay down on a bed of Portland cement concrete, 6 inches in 
 thickness, the concrete to be coiiposed of one part Portland cement to fonr 
 of clean Thames ballast, approved pitch pine blocks, 6 by 3 by 9 inch, of 
 
 the best quality, free from sap or knots, at per yard superficial 
 
 To supply and lay down on a bed of Portland cement concrete, 7 inches deep 
 
 and 3 inches in width, at per yard superficial 
 
 To take up, redress if necessary, and relay on any portion of the works, any 
 
 old cubing as directed, at per yard superficial 
 
 To supply and lay concrete as described in clause 3 of specification at per 
 yard cube 
 
 All digging and carting in any way connected with, preparing for, or in the ex- 
 ecution of the works herein referred to, shall be included in the above prices. 
 
 EEPOETS OF ME. HAYWOOD. 
 
 UUner various CUUUILIUUO UX WcxaiUAiciL, «»uu ouvvtau^ ui±\j ^.^^vjuub^^w — , 
 
 each circumstance and condition ; also taking note of any other particular he may 
 think desirable, with a view to elicit the greatest possible amount of information 
 respecting the various pavements." 
 
 After considering the means to betaken for obtaining the desired information with 
 the least delay and expense, I came to the conclusion that the police could be usefully 
 employed for the purpose ; accordingly I applied to Colonel Eraser, who expressed his 
 
298 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 willingness to assist the commission by allowing a certain portion of the police forca 
 to take the daily observations, and arrangements were nltimately made with him to 
 this end. 
 
 Books were then prepared by me in such manner as appeared best suited to insure 
 accuracy in recording the traffic and accidents, as well as to reduce the labor of the 
 work. These books when filled up by the police, were placed iu the hands of my 
 assistants, who checked the casts, and arranged the figures so as to enable me to 
 prepare the summaries and tables which are herewith submitted. 
 
 Forty-three men were employed altogether in taking the observations of traffic and 
 accidents, 38 of whom were constables. The constables acted under the inspection of 4 
 sergeants, and their duty was so arranged that inspection was never taken off them. 
 The whole service was directed and superintended by the chief inspector of police. 
 
 The observations taken were : 
 
 Firstly, of the traffic : The number of horses and vehicles which passed through 
 the selected streets. 
 
 Secondly, of the accidents which occurred to the horses. 
 
 I. Traffic, — For ascertaining the traffic 2 men were stationed at each point of ob- 
 servation, and on opposite sides of the way, each man taking the traffic on the side 
 of the road which was nearer to him, and passing in one direction only. The men 
 were employed for 3 hours at a time, and were then relieved by others for 3 hours; 
 and there were, therefore, altogether 4 men employed during the day at each point of 
 observation. Each man was on duty for 6 hours daily. The observations were 
 taken from 8 a. m. to 8 p. m , a period of 12 consecutive hours. 
 
 Observations of the main streams of traffic were taken at each selected spot for 2 
 consecutive days in a week; and were followed by 2 other days' observations in 
 the week after, but on different days to those of the preceding week. They were 
 carried on in such order until 6 days' observations, including every day in the week 
 (Sundays excepted) had been taken at each point. Observations of cross or collat- 
 eral traffic were also taken sufficiently to enable the effect on the general stream of 
 traffic to be ascertained. 
 
 Whilst the traffic was being taken none of the streets in the vicinity of the main 
 thoroughfares under observation were materia Uy obstructed for paving or other works 
 and the traffic was therefore iu its normal state. 
 
 II. Accidents. — The number of men employed in taking account of the accidents 
 was 30, 15 being on at a time. The relief took place every 3 hours, and the men were 
 subject to the same supervision by the inspectors and chief superintendent as those 
 taking the traffic. 
 
 The observers were stationed at such points as enabled each man to see easily the 
 area assigned to him without moving far from a central position. These points had 
 been fixed after careful observation by myself, so as to ascertain the area which con Id 
 be properly watched. Each man recorded all the accidents which occurred on his 
 assigned area. 
 
 Owing to differences in the extent and nature of the traffic, the width of streets, 
 and other conditions, the length of thoroughfare assigned to the men varied from 239 
 feet to 636 feet, and the areas from 640 to 2,071 yards superficial; the mean of the 
 whole being one man to every 333 feet lineal and 1,226 yards superficial of carriage- 
 way pavement. These lengths and areas are shown on the plan accompanying this 
 report, and also in Table A in the appendix. 
 
 The observations of accidents were commenced on the 10th Search last, and contin- 
 ued until the 5th April, during which time the weather was generally fine. As there 
 was no appearance of change in the weather, and it being in the highest degree de- 
 sirable to have observations during all kinds of weather, they were then discontin- 
 ued. On the 9th May, as raiuy weather appeared likely to ensue, they were resumed, 
 and continued until the 7th June. The weather, however, became again fine, and 
 continued for the most part so until the observations were completed. They were 
 discontinued because police arrangements did not admit of their being prolonged. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 299 
 
 As the horse traffic ia the city is much less on Sundays, being in fact in the main 
 streets only from 20 to 30 per cent, of that which passes on other days in the week, 
 the observations were confined to working days alone. 
 
 By omitting Snudays there were 50 working days on which observations of the 
 accidents were made. 
 
 As the expense would have been largely increased by taking observations diiring 
 the night ; as owing to the darkness they would have been less reliable ; and as the 
 great bulk of the traffic passes through the city thoroughfares between 8 a. m. and 8 
 p. m., observations of accidents were made only during those 12 hours of day. 
 
 During the first three weeks the accidents were recorded without explanation of 
 their nature; but as a large proportion of the horses were observed to fall only on 
 their knees, the accidents on the remaining 32 days were classified under the heads 
 of " falls on knees," " falls on haunches," and " complete falls." No notice was taken 
 of the mere slipping of a horse. 
 
 The weather during the observations will now be generally described, for, what- 
 ever be its character, weather affects the surface of all pavements and largely influ- 
 ences the conditions under which slipperiness varies. 
 
 The direction of the wind varied during the 50 days, but was principally eitlier 
 from the north, east, or northeast. The prevailing direction was northeast. 
 
 The mean temperature of the 24 hours, as taken from the registrar-general's re- 
 turns during the period, varied from 34.5° to 60.9°. The observations of temperature 
 taken in Guildhall yard by me daily, at 9 a. m. and 3 p. m., show a variation of from 
 35.7° to 64.8°. The mean daily temperature was for the most part somewhat below 
 the average. 
 
 Out of the 50 days there were but 17 days on which rain fell. On the average 
 there are 150 days annually in London in which rain falls at some period during the 
 24 hours; therefore, during the 50 days' observations there was proportionately less 
 than the usual number. I find also there was a less number of rainy days than the 
 average during those particular months, and that the quantity of rain was far loss 
 than usual. This is a fact much to be regretted, inasmuch as the slipperiness of all 
 pavements is very much affected by moisture, although in different manners and in 
 different degrees. The character of the weather will be further dealt with in another 
 portion of the report. 
 
 The reference to me being to take observations of the accidents befalling horses on 
 asphalt, granite, and wood, and there being a variety of each of these classes of pave- 
 ment on each of which the slipperiness varies. It became necessary in the first place 
 to determine which to select, and I ultimately chose one of the compressed asphalt of 
 the Val de Travers Company, and one formed of 3-inch Aberdeen granite cnbes, 
 these two kinds being the best known and the most extensively used in London of 
 their several classes. I also selected the improved wood pavement, this being the 
 only one of which there was any large quantity laid down in the city, and a speci- 
 men of theligno-mlneral pavement which lay adjacent to it. 
 
 It would have been desirable to have had observations taken in streets of similar 
 width and gradient, of which the pavements were in equally good condition of repair, 
 and the traffic passing over them as nearly as possible the same in character and 
 extent, as comparisons would then have been more easily made, and discrepancies 
 more readily accounted for. This similarity in conditions was unattainable; and 
 after giving the subject much cpnsideration, I selected Cheapside and the Poultry, 
 King William street, part of Gracechurch street, and the eastern portion of Cannon 
 street, of which the surface conditions generally were : 
 
 Asphalt. — Cheapside and the Poultry were paved with the compressed asphalt of 
 the Val de Travers Company, laid 2i inches thick, on a bed of concrete 9 inches 
 thick. The surface of this pavement was in good condition. 
 
 The total length of these two thoroughfares was 2,033 feet, and the area of the 
 carriageway 6,914 yards superficial. The worst gradient was on a length of 48 feet 
 
300 STREETS AND "HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 next to St. Paul's chnrchyard, which was 1 in 58. The other gradients varied from 
 1 in 66 to 1 in 550, nearly the whole length of the two thoroughfares being less 
 steep than 1 in 70. 
 
 The tiaffic in Cheapside and the Poultry was of a mixed character, including a 
 considerable unmber of omnibuses. It was for the most part slow, especially in the 
 Poultry. 
 
 Granite. — King William street from Cannon street to Lombard street, and Cannon 
 street from King William street to Walbrook, were paved with Aberdeen granite. 
 The stones were 3 inches wide, 9 inches deep, and from 9 to 15 inches long, laid so as 
 to touch each other, the joints being filled in with stone lime gront. The pave- 
 ment of Cannon street was a little out of repair ; that of King William street in a 
 bad state of repair. The latter was under order to be replaced by a new pavement, 
 which has since been laid. 
 
 The pavement in King William street was 675 feet long, and had an area of 2,379 
 yards. A length of 138 feet at its northern end had a gradient of 1 in 54 ; the remain- 
 der was from 1 in 68 to 1 in 1,000. 
 
 The traffic in this part of King William street Was much the same in character as 
 that in Cheapside and the Poultry, but on the average it passed through it at a 
 greater speed than in the other thoroughfares under observation. 
 
 The portion of Cannon street under observation was 807 feet long, and its carriage- 
 way had an area of 2,752 yards. A length of 326 feet at the western end had gra- 
 dients of 1 in 30 and 1 in 31. The remainder varied from 1 in 61 to 1 iu 841. 
 
 The traffic in Cannon street was generally slow, a large number of one-horse vehi- 
 cles passing through it, and only a few omnibuses. Carts stopped for loading and 
 uuloadiDg in front of the premises on the southern side of the street during the larg- 
 est portion of the day. 
 
 Wood.—1\i^ wood pavements under observation were two in number; that of the 
 Improved Wood Paving Company, and that of the Ligno-Mineral Paving Company 
 Trenaunay's patent). 
 
 King William street from London Bridge to the Statue, and a small portion of 
 Gracechnrch street, were paved with the improved wood pavement, which is formed 
 of fir blocks 3 inches wide, 5 inches deep, and 9 inches long. The blocks are laid 
 touching each other at their ends, but crosswise of the street, the joints are three- 
 quarters inch wide, filled iu with fine clean gravel, and then grouted with a bitumin- 
 ous composition. The total length of this pavement was 1,394 feet, its area 5 937 
 yards. Its surface was in excellent condition. 
 
 A length of 130 feet of this pavement near to Crooked Lane had a gradient of 1 in 
 30. Near to Eastcheap was a length of 83 feet with a gradient of 1 in 34. The re- 
 mainder varied from 1 in 37 to 1 in 260. Near to the statue of King William IV the 
 pavement had also in several places a steep transverse slope. 
 
 The pavement in Gracechurch street of the Ligno-Mineral Pavino- Company con 
 sisted of beech blocks, 3J inches wide, 6 inches long, and 4i inches''deep, laid with 
 longitudinal and transverse joints one-quarter inch wide. The wood was mineral- 
 ized, and the joints were filled in with cement or lime grout. It was laid on a b 1 f 
 concrete 5 inches thick. The surface was in good condition. 
 
 The length of the ligno-mineral pavement was 87 feet, the area 410 yards and tJ,„ 
 gradient 1 in 49. ' ° 
 
 The traffic over the wood pavements in King William street and Gracechurch street 
 comprised vehicles of all descnptions, and in King William street incladed verv 
 much of that which passed through the other thoroughfares under observation The 
 traffic passed generally at a slow rate, but from Arthur street to Loudon Brida« / 
 ing two or three hours of the day it was less slow in the center of the street ' 
 
 It is necessary to make some further remarks in reference to these wood na'vem f 
 When I included for observation the two kinds described, I did so because > 
 desirable to observe considerable lengths of street. The pavements were adjac ^T 
 
EUEOPK — UNITED KINGDOM. 301 
 
 each other, and could be conveniently watched from one station. It did not then 
 occur tj) me that there was any material difference between the two in respect of 
 safety ; but as investigation into the causes of the accidents advanced and the 
 various abstracts and tables were made up a very remarltable difference became ap- 
 paient. I do not feel justified in leaving out the observations taken on the ligno- 
 mineral pavemeut,and the accidents which occurred on it are accordingly included with 
 those ^hich occurred on the improved wood pavement, and they are given together 
 in the totals and general results. If there had been no more than a, trMing differ- 
 ence between them in the proportion of accidents I should take no notice of this dif- 
 ference, for looking at the mixed causes which lead to accidents it might not have 
 been practicable to do so usefully ; but the excess of falls on the ligno-mineral 
 is so great as materially to alter the relative position of the wood to the other pave- 
 ments 3,s regards safety. Although, therefore, as before said, the general tables in- 
 clude the accidents on both, it has been necessary to separate them iu various parte 
 of the report to prevent erroneous conclusions being drawn. 
 
 The lengths and areas of the thorouglifares under observation will be found in 
 Table B in the appendix. 
 
 All the pavements during the period of observation were cleansed every morning and 
 were also cleansed constantly during the busiest hours of the day by street orderlies. 
 The asphalt was occasionally, but not frequently, washed in the morning; and all the 
 pavements were, therefore, as clean as the nature of their respective surfaces admitted 
 with the amount of labor and expense which was ordinarily bestowed on them. No 
 measures were taken to keep them cleaner than the other main thoroughfares in the 
 city. 
 
 It was frequently noticed that aooi dents occurred on the asphalt when it was dry, 
 owing to the horses putting their feet on fresh droppings; bnt scarcely any appear 
 to have taken place from this cause either on the granite or the wood. 
 
 During the period of observation the asphalt was not watered to lay the dust, it 
 not being customary to water that material, but the granite and wood were watered 
 tiie same as other thoroughfares of the city. 
 
 Some of the accidents on the wood were undoubtedly attributable to the moisture 
 caused by this surface watering, but accidents attributable to a similar cause do not 
 appear to have taken place on the granite pavement. 
 
 The asphalt, when the surface was damp or slippery, was occasionally strewn 
 with fine sand by the street orderlies, but this sand was usea sparingly, and owing 
 to the state of the weather the necessity for using it was small. 
 
 The improved wood pavement was on four occasions during the observations 
 slightly strewn with fine gravel. This was done by the contractors to indurate the 
 surface in the way customary with wood pavements. On only one of the four occa- 
 sions was the pavement in such a state that strewing gravel was likely to be usefnl 
 to prevent accidents. 
 
 Nothing was strewn either by the contractors or by the commission on the ligno- 
 mineral pavement during the time it was under observation. 
 
 In the calculations, which are based on the extent of traffic, the mean traffic arrived 
 at by observation has been taken to apply to the whole time during which the obser- 
 vations of accidents were made. It would, of course, have been more strictly correct 
 to have made daily observations of the traffic throughout the whole period simul- 
 taneously with those made of the accidents ; bnt to have made them would have 
 largely increased the expense, and experience has shown that it is unnecessary to 
 prolong such observations for the purpose of obtaining averages. 
 
 It is assumed in this report that each horse traversed the entire line under obser- 
 vation. Each line was carefully defined, measured, and separately calculated. For 
 example, at the western end of Cheapside there were three streams of traffic, each 
 stream having a different length of journey. On each of these the number of horses 
 and the accidents occurring to them were separately recorded and the mileage trav- 
 
302 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 eled by the horses ascertained. The same was the case near the statue in King Wil- 
 liam street, where there were various lines of traffic, all of which were dealt with in 
 a similar manner. The collateral traffic was not taken for any length of time — to 
 have done so would have much increased the expense — but it was taken at every cross 
 street, so as to learn how the average number of horses passing through the main 
 line was affected by it, and the variation in numbers was found to be, generally 
 speaking, as much on the one side as on the other. As the observations on tbe main 
 lines were all taken from points selected, so. as to include the collateral traffic as 
 far as practicable, it is believed that a very correct average of the whole has been 
 obtained. 
 
 It has now to be stated that although the scope of the reference is wide, yet in 
 writing this report I have thought it desirable to keep closely to the manifest object 
 of the reference, which is, as I understand it, to ascertain ti/ direct oiservation the rela- 
 tive safety of the three classes of pavement. I have therefore not referred to state- 
 ments made from time to time to the commission, either by the owners or drivers of 
 horses, the proprietors of pavements, the police, or the public as to the safety of 
 particular pavements. Nor have I referred to previous observations or to other in- 
 formation already before the commissiou on the subject, but have dealt simply with 
 the results of the observations specially made for this report. 
 
 I have also avoided entering on the advantages and disadvantages generally of 
 the different kinds of pavements.* To have done so would have made this report an 
 essay on pavements rather than a report on the accidents occurring on them. I have 
 avoided as far as possible giving opinions of my own on the matter, though it has 
 been essential to draw attention to those conditions under which the pavements dif- 
 fer from each other, aud for which difference due allowance will have to bo made 
 i'j judging the results. Had I not done so the general results given in some of the 
 tables might have been taken as applicable to similar pavements under all condi- 
 tions and seasons, which would have been erroneous. 
 
 A plan is appended showing the pavements which were under observation, their 
 nature and gradients, with the horse traffic which passed at certain places, and it 
 contains other information explanatory of the report. ^ 
 
 The most important of the abstracts by which the tables and summaries are 
 arrived at, and from which the conclusions set forth in the report are drawn, are also 
 appended. By reference to these abstracts the details of the observations will be 
 seen. These abstracts are : 
 
 (A) Table showing length and superficial area of carriageway pavement observed 
 from each station. 
 
 (B) Table sbowing the length and superficial areas of the thoroughfares in which 
 the observations of traffic and accidents were taken. 
 
 (C) Table showing the number of horses aud vehicles passing through various thor- 
 oughfares during 12 hours, from 8 a. m. to 8 p. m. 
 
 (D) Table showing the mean numbers of vehicles drawn by 1 horse, 2, and 3 or 
 more horses that passed over the various pavements in 12 hours, from 8 a. m. to 8 
 p. m. 
 
 (E) Table showing the number of horses that fell on the various pavements be- 
 tween 8 a. m. and 8 p. m., the state of the weather, the direction of the wind, and 
 other information during certain days in March, April, May, and June, 1873. 
 
 (F) Table sbowing the traffic, number of horses that fell, and the distance traveled 
 before a horse fell on each of the various pavements. 
 
 (G) Table showing the proportions of horses that fell on knees, on haunches, and 
 completely on the various pavements during 32 days' observations. 
 
 (H) Table showing the number of horses that fell in vehicles drawn by 1 horse, 2, 
 and 3 or more horses. 
 
 'These will be dealt with in a report upon the relative advantages of wood and 
 asphalt, which I shall shortly commence. — W. H. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 303 
 
 (I) Table allowing the total number of horses that fell in yehioles drawn by 1 horse, 
 2, and 3 or more horses over the three descriptions of pavement. 
 
 (K) Table showing the distance traveled by horses in vehicles drawn by 1 horse, 2, 
 and 3 or more horses, respectively, before a horse fell. 
 
 (L) Table showing the order of slipperiness as compared with the gradients upon 
 each class of pavement. 
 
 Throughout the report the pavements are referred to in alphabetical order : As- 
 phalt, granite, wood ; this being a convenient mode to adopt for general reference, as 
 well as for other reasons. They are transposed in some of the tables incorporated in 
 the body of the report, where they have been arranged so as to show more clearly theii 
 relative safety. 
 
 Having now laid before the commission a general account of the nature of the ob- 
 servations taken and the manner in which they have been used, I proceed to state 
 the general results. 
 
 The horse traffic daily between 8 a. m. and 8 p. m. on the working days in the 
 months of March and April, 1873, during which the observations were taken, are 
 given in table C iu the appendix ; the mean traffic at the most important points on 
 the lines was : 
 
 Number 
 of horses 
 
 from 8 a. 
 
 m. to 8 
 
 p. m. 
 
 Aspbalt : 
 
 Cheapside, east of Milk street 
 
 Poultry, by Grocers' Hall court 
 
 6ranit« : 
 
 E.ing William etreet, by Abchurch lane 
 
 Cannon street, by Busb lane 
 
 Wood: 
 
 King "William street, nortbof Arthur street 
 Gracechurch street, by Talbot court 
 
 13, 366 
 10, 920 
 
 8,555 
 5,350 
 
 21, 162 
 11,484 
 
 The vehicular traffic was separated in the observations underthe heads of one, two 
 and three or more horse vehicles. Tlie details of these observations are given in 
 Table D in the appendix, but the mean nnmber which passed at the most important 
 points on the line is given in the following table: 
 
 Table showing the mean number of one, two, and three or more horse vehicles, respectively, 
 passing through the streets under observation in March and April, 1873. 
 
 Mean number of vehi- 
 cles passing from 8 
 a. m. to 8 p. m. 
 
 One 
 horse. 
 
 Two 
 horses. 
 
 Three 
 or more 
 horses 
 
 Total. 
 
 Asphalt : 
 
 Cheapside, east of Milk street 
 
 Poaltry, by Grocers' Hall court 
 
 Granite: 
 
 King William Street, by Abchurch lane 
 
 Cannon street, by Bush lane 
 
 Wood : 
 
 King William street, north of Arthur street 
 Gracechnrch street, by Talbot court 
 
 6,533 
 5,472 
 
 4,276 
 4,090 
 
 10, 273 
 5,817 
 
 :, 825 
 2,637 
 
 2,006 
 583 
 
 4,831 
 2,469 
 
 409 
 243 
 
 9,419 
 8,167 
 
 6,371 
 4,705 
 
 15,513 
 8,529 
 
304 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 The proportions of the whole are aa follows; 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Vehicles drawn by one horse 71.42 
 
 Vehicles drawn by two horses 26.95 
 
 Vehicles drawn by three horses 1.63 
 
 Some general idea of the character of the vehicles which passed along these thor- 
 onghfares, together with the proportion which the several classes bear to each other, 
 are now given. The observations were not taken on the same day as those on which 
 the observations of traffic and accidents were recorded. Nevertheless they fairly 
 represent the proportion of the several classes of vehicles. 
 
 Table showing the proportions of the different classes of vehicles passing through the 
 various thoroughfares during 12 hours, from 8 a. m. to 8 p. m,, on certain days in 
 November, 1873. 
 
 Street. 
 
 Percentage to total traiEc. 
 
 Cabs. 
 
 Omni- 
 bases. 
 
 Eailway 
 vans. 
 
 Trades- 
 men's 
 carts. 
 
 All other 
 vehicles. 
 
 All 
 vehicles. 
 
 Gheapside 
 
 Ponltrv 
 
 King William street, by Abchnrch Lane. 
 
 Cannon street, by Bush Lane 
 
 King William street, north of Arthnr 
 street 
 
 Gracechuroh street, by Talbot court . . . 
 
 20 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 100 
 100 
 
 ACCIDENTS TO HORSES.* 
 
 The number of accidents and the average distance traveled before an accident occurred. 
 
 The number of horses that fell during the whole period of 50 days, together with 
 the places at which the accidents occurred, and other partionlars relating thereto, 
 are given in Table E in the appendix, and may Be identified on the plan attached. 
 The general results are : 
 
 Asphalt : 
 
 Gheapside 9.32 
 
 Poultry 134 
 
 Total on asphalt 1,066 
 
 Granite : 
 
 King William street 429 
 
 Cannon street 290 
 
 Total on granite ; 719 
 
 Wood : 
 
 King William street and Gracechuroh street, improved wood pavement... 380 
 Gracechurch street, ligno-mineral pavemen t 162 
 
 Total on wood > 542 
 
 Total on all pavements 2,327 
 
 which gives a daily mean over the various pavements during the 50 days of— 
 
 Asphalt : 
 
 Gheapside 18.64 
 
 Poultry. 2.86 
 
 Total on asphalt 21.32 
 
 *See £ote by Department on page 297. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 305 
 
 Granite : 
 
 King William street 8.58 
 
 Cannon street.. 5.80 
 
 Total on granite 14.38 
 
 Wood: 
 
 King William street and Graoeohuroh street — improved wood pavement ... 7. 60 
 Gracechurch street — ^ligno-mineral pavement 3. 24 
 
 Total on wood 10.84 
 
 No opinion of value as to the relative safety of the different classes of pavement 
 can, however, he formed by simply comparing the number of horses which fell in any 
 one thoroughfare with the number which passed through it — or by comparing the 
 falls with those which tools place in another thoroughfare, inasmuch as the risk of 
 falling which a horse incurs on a pavement necessarily depends on the length of the 
 pavement traversed. With the view, therefore, of arriving at a correct conclusion, 
 the various streams of traffic, as well as the distances traveled, were taken sepa- 
 rately, and thus the exact distance which was passed over before an accident oc- 
 curred was ascertained. These lengths are given with much other detail in Table F 
 in the appendix, but the totals in each street are given the following table: 
 
 Taile showing the iotal distance traveled iy horses over the different pavements, and the 
 total nuniber of accidents during the 50 days' otservations. 
 
 Description and BitnaUon of pavement. 
 
 No. of ac- 
 cidents. 
 
 Distance 
 traveled. 
 
 Aspbalt: 
 
 Gheapside 
 
 Poultry 
 
 Granite : 
 
 King "William street 
 
 Cannon street ^ 
 
 "Wood: 
 
 King "William street and Gracenhnrcli street, improved wood pavement. 
 
 Gracecliuicli street, ligno-mineral pavement 
 
 -429 
 290 
 
 380 
 162 
 
 Mileg. 
 172, 783 
 31, 022 
 
 54, 6R3 
 40,884 
 
 2,327 
 
 478, 523 
 
 The aggregate distance traveled by the horses included in the 50 days' observa- 
 tion was, therefore, 478,523 miles. The general result was that a horse might during 
 that time have been expected to travel along the three pavements — in the propor- 
 tions due to their lengths — a distance of 205 miles before an accident occurred. The 
 distances, however, differed materially on the various pavements, examination show- 
 ing that a horse might have been expected to travel on the — 
 
 Miles. 
 Asphalt : 
 
 In Cheapside 185 
 
 In Poultry 231 
 
 Mean of the asphalt 191 
 
 Granite : 
 
 In King William street 127 
 
 In Cannon street 140 
 
 Mean of the granite 132 
 
 Wood: 
 
 In King William street and Gracechurch street, improved wood pavement. 446 
 In Gracechurch street, ligno-mineral pavement 58 
 
 Mean of the wood 330 
 
 33a 20 
 
306 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The order of slipperinesa during the 50 days was, therefore, ascertained to be ; 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1. Granite 132 
 
 2. Asphalt 191 
 
 3. Wood 330 
 
 The ohservations therefore show that a horse might have been expected to travel 
 before it met with an accident the least distance on the granite, a greater distancie 
 on the asphalt, and the greatest distance on the wood. 
 
 These figures are correct as far as they go ; but to adopt them as determining the 
 relative slipperiness of the various pavements, without considerable limitation and 
 correction, would be unsafe. To arrive at a correct opinion it is necessary to make 
 further investigation, in order to see whether any portion of the accidents was due 
 to conditions in which one pavement was more favorably circumstanced than others, 
 apart from the difference resulting from the material of which the pavement was 
 composed. Above all it is necessary to ascertain whether the general results would 
 have been changed if the observations had been extended over a much longer period 
 of time, including other seasons of the year, and every description of weather. 
 With that object the accidents are no w investigated and considered under the follow- 
 ing sections : 
 
 (1) Nature of the accidents to horses. 
 
 (2) Effect of harnessing. 
 
 (3) Effect of rate of travel. 
 
 (4) Effect of gradient. 
 
 (5) Effect of condition of surface repair. 
 
 (6) Effect of surface cleanliness. 
 
 (7) Effect of weather on toe surface. 
 
 Before proceeding, however, to these separate considerations, some further infor- 
 mation derived from the observations may be usefully giveu. 
 
 It might have been expected that a large proportion of accidents would have oc- 
 curred at or near to the point of junction of one pavement with another of different 
 character. The observations show that such was not the case to any material ex- 
 tent, excepting in King William street, atthe junction of the asphalt with the granite. 
 Even in this case investigation assigns other conditions as in some degree accounting 
 for the large proportion of falls which occurred at that spot. 
 
 It might also have been anticipated that many accidents would have occurred at 
 points where the collateral traffic either joins or leaves the main stream ; for at those 
 points a horse has not only a direct draft, but has to exert force laterally, and 
 withstand the drag of the vehicle in turning, which in the city streets usually causes 
 the wheels to grind against the curbstones. The returns show that although near to 
 the junction of Bow lane. Bread street, and Gutter lane a somewhat large number of 
 accidents took place, yet at Wood street, Poster lane, and Friday street, where 
 there was a larger collateral traffic, no such excess occurred. Indeed, looking at the 
 returns it would seem that the collateral traffic led to accidents to the horses moving 
 on the main line, by causing them to be pulled up suddenly, rather than itself suffer- 
 ing accidents from turning into or out of the main line. It is probable that the 
 superior safety on the asphalt in the Poultry, to that in Cheapaide, is attributable 
 in some degree to the absence of much collateral traffic, although the slower rate of 
 travel in the Poultry was the most important element in causing that result. 
 
 NATURE OF THE ACCIDENTS TO HORSES. 
 
 It has already been stated that the accidents were at first recorded without expla. 
 nation'of their character, but that for 32 days they were taken under the respective 
 heads of "falls on knees," falls on " haunches," and "complete falls." 
 
 The inconvenience caused to the general traffic of a street by an accident to a horse 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 307 
 
 dijBfers materially. A horse whloh falls on the knees generally recovers itself speed- 
 ily, and creates but little obstruction. One which falls on the haunches, and espe- 
 cially on a pavement with little joint or foothold, recovers itself with more difficulty, 
 and is longer in doing so than if it falls on the knees ; whilst if it falls on the side'it 
 has more frequently than otherwise to be unharnessed before it can regain a stand- 
 ing position, and, therefore, causes more obstruction than either of the other classes 
 of accident. 
 
 It is probable that the injury to horses is greater when they fall on the haunches 
 than when they fall on the knees, owing to the strain to which they subject them- 
 selves when attemptiug to rise. This is especially the case whea they are in single 
 harness drawing heavily-laden two- wheeled vehicles andfall on a pavement without 
 joints. Complete falls,, if sudden and sharp, are probably still more injurious when 
 the pavement on which the accident takes place is a very hard one. Facts on these 
 points are difficult to obtain, but the matter is worthy of serious consideration. 
 
 Details of the accidents are given in Table G in the appendix, but the following 
 table gives the general results : 
 
 Tahie showing the numbers of falls on Tcnees, on liaunoTies, and complete falls on the three 
 pavements during 32 days' observation. 
 
 Description of pavement. 
 
 On knees. 
 
 On 
 
 haunchet!. 
 
 Complete. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 UO 
 135 
 277 
 
 107 
 22 
 10 
 
 190 
 
 134 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 291 
 
 Wood 
 
 326 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 552 
 
 139 
 
 363 
 
 
 
 
 Which gives the following general proportions, viz : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Falls on knees 52.37 
 
 Falls on haunches .- 13.19 
 
 Complete falls 34.44 
 
 And separating the accidents as they occurred-cfn the different pavements, the pro- 
 portions are : 
 
 Description and locality of pavement. 
 
 Accidents during 32 days' 
 observations. 
 
 On 
 
 knees. 
 
 On 
 Haunches. 
 
 Complett*. 
 
 Asphalt: 
 
 Cheapslde '- ? 
 
 Poultry i 
 
 Granite : 
 
 King "William street and Gannon street 
 
 Wood: 
 
 King William street and GracecbuTch street 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 32.01 
 
 46.39 
 84.97 
 
 Fer cent. 
 
 24.48 
 
 7.56 
 3.07 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 43.48 
 
 46.05 
 11.96 
 
 This table shows that of falls on knees, the wood had by far the greatest propor- 
 tion, more than five-sixths of the accidents being of this class, and that asphalt had 
 the fewest falls on knees. 
 
 Of falls on haunches, the asphalt had the largest proportion, and was very largely 
 in excess of those on either of the other pavements, and that the wood had the small- 
 est proportion of this class of accidents. 
 
 Of complete falls, there were fewest on the wood and most on the granite, but the 
 difference between the asphalt and granite was in this respect small, and on both 
 
308 
 
 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 aspbalt and granite there was something like four times the porportion of complete 
 falls that there were on the wood. 
 
 Separating the accidents which occurred respectively on the two wood pavements 
 which wore under observation, the following are the results: 
 
 Accidents occuring dnriog 32 
 days' observations. 
 
 On 
 
 knees. 
 
 hanS?hes. Complete. 
 
 Improved wood pavement. 
 Ligno-niineral pavement . . 
 
 Per cent. 
 84.00 
 88.16 
 
 Per cent 
 3.60 
 1.31 
 
 Per cent. 
 12.40 
 10.53 
 
 Thus it appears, generally, that horses traveling on the wood pavement were on 
 the whole subjected to falls of a character less inconvenient to the general traffic of 
 the street, and also less likely to be injurious to the horses, than those traveling on 
 the other two pavements, and that in this respect the ligno-mineral was superior to 
 the improved wood pavement. 
 
 It was noticed also, that whatever was the nature of the accident, the horses recov- 
 ered their feet more easily on wood than they did either on asphalt or granite. 
 
 EFFECT OF HARNESSING. 
 
 Althongh it but little affects the end for which this report was prepared, it maybe 
 interesting to show how the horses to which the accidents occurred were harnessed. 
 
 The observations were taken under the heads of one horse, two, and three or more 
 horse vehicles, and are shown by Tables H and I in the appendix. The general result 
 on all the pavements during the 50 days' observation gives : 
 
 No. of 
 faUs. 
 
 Percent- 
 age of 
 ■whole. 
 
 Falls to liorses in one-liorse vehicles 
 
 Falls to horses in two-horse vehicles 
 
 Falls to horses in three or more horse vehicles 
 
 1,279 
 927 
 121 
 
 2.327 
 
 54.96 
 
 39.84 
 
 5.20 
 
 100. 00 
 
 Assigning these to the various pavements on which the falls took place, the results 
 were: 
 
 Asphalt : 
 
 Cheapsie and Poulry : Per cent 
 
 Falls in one-horse vehicles 55.81 
 
 Falls in two-horse vehicles 41.56 
 
 Falls in three or more horse vehicels 2. 63 
 
 Granite : 
 
 King William street and Cannon street : 
 
 Falls in one-horse vehicles 58.83 
 
 Falls in two-horse vehicles , ^ 36.58 
 
 Falls in three or more horse vehicles 4. 59 
 
 Wood : 
 
 King William street and Graeeohurch street : 
 
 Falls in one-horse vehicles 48. 16 
 
 Falls in two-horse vehicles 40.77 
 
 Falls in three or more horse vehicles 11.07 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 309 
 
 Thus, on all classes of pavement the largest percentage of accidents occurred to 
 horses drawing one-horse vehicles. It has already been shown that vehicles drawn 
 by one horse form the largest proportion of the traffic, being, in fact, 71.42 per cent. 
 of the whole, whereas those drawn by three horses or more are but 1,63 per cent, of 
 the whole ; and, therefore, as in previous calculations, it is necessary to ascertain the 
 distance traveled by the various classes of vehicles in order to see what was the 
 actual risk incurred under the different modes of harnessing. These distances are 
 shown in detail in Table K, but the general results are that, during the 50 days' ob- 
 servations, a horse might be expected to travel the following distances before it met 
 with an accident : 
 
 Tdbh allowing the average distance traveled tefore a hone fell, in vehicles drawn iy one 
 horse, two, three, or more horses respectively. 
 
 Asphalt : 
 
 Cheapside and Poultry. 
 
 Milea. 
 
 A horse in a one-horse veh icle 179 
 
 A horse in a two-horse vehicle 211 
 
 A horse in a three or more horse vehicle 116 
 
 Granite : 
 
 King William Street and Cannon Street. 
 
 A horse in a one-horse vehicle 138 
 
 A horse in a two-horse vehicle 131 
 
 A horse in a three or more horse vehicle 72 
 
 Wood: 
 
 King William Street and Graceohurch street. 
 
 Ahorse in a one-horse vehicle 352 
 
 A horse in a two-horse vehicle .- 349 
 
 A horse in a three or more horse vehicle 165 
 
 The resnlt of the 50 days' observations therefore was : 
 
 That on all three classes of pavement the greatest risk of accident was to horses in 
 vehicles drawn by three or more horses. 
 
 That on asphalt there was more risk of a horse falling in a one-horse than in a 
 two-horse vehicle, but that on granite and wood the risk was very nearly the same, 
 ■whether the vehicle was drawn by one or two horses. 
 
 It may be observed that in the three-horse vehicles the horses were nearly always 
 in single file, and that in the two-horse vehicles the animals were almost invariably 
 abreast, the exception being principally brewers' drays and market gardeners' carts 
 and wagons. 
 
 EFFECT OF RATE OF TRAVEL. 
 
 Fast traveling is the cause of accidents in thoroughfares of much traffic, such as 
 those of the city of London, inasmuch as it frequently involves either sudden reduc- 
 tion of speed or actual stoppage of the horse, which is more or less difficult accord- 
 ing to the degree of foothold that the navement affords. It is more difficult to stop 
 a horse on asphalt than on granite or on wood. 
 
 Of the streets under observation, that in which the traffic usually moved with the 
 greatest speed was King William street from Common street to Lombard street. The 
 carts which loaded and unloaded there were few. 
 
 Cheapside at certain hours of the day and on a portion of its length only had a 
 somewhat quick traffic along its center, but not so quick as the traffic over the nar- 
 row part of King William street. In the Poultry the traffic was uniformly slow ; 
 ■which fact in some degree may explain the other fact observed — that a horse saw 
 
310 STREETS AKD HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 shown to travel there before au aooident oooarred a greater distance than in Cheap- 
 side. Both pavements were of the same material and in the same condition of 
 repair. 
 
 In King William street and Gracechnrch street, where they were paved witt wood, 
 the traffic during-the twelve hours in which observations were taken was, northwards 
 of Arthur street, for the most part slow, and southwards of that street perhaps a little 
 quicker in the center during some hours of the day, but not materially so. 
 
 The granite was, therefore, on the whole, more disadvantageously placed in respect 
 of speed of travel than either the asphalt or the wood ; but a careful examination 
 of the accidents does not enable me to state what proportion of these was attributa- 
 ble to this cause, although there is little doubt that in King William street (granite) 
 some accidents were due to speed, especially as the surface of that pavement was in 
 bad condition. 
 
 EFFECT OF GRADIENT. 
 
 The power required to draw a load increases directly a level surface is departed 
 from, but the difference is not appreciable when the gradient is slight. The power 
 varies according to the nature of the road surface, the state of repair, the way horses 
 are laden and harnessed, and other conditions. Speaking generally and in round num- 
 bers, it h.as been demonstrated that a horse can, with the exertion of the same force, 
 draw up a gradient of 1 iu 100 about nine-tenths of the load which it can draw on a 
 level surface, and about eight-tenths of the same load if the gradient be 1 in 50. 
 After that the tractive power needed increases more rapidly, for on a gradient of 1 in 
 30 a horse can draw little more than six-tenths of the same load that it can on a level 
 surface. For practical purposes a rod, ever if it be paved with .isphalt, may be con- 
 sidered to have a safe and convenient inclination at 1 in 60 ; but under all conditions 
 of surface and gradient the extent to which a horse is laden is a material considera- 
 tion. The chance of an accident to a horse is greater when it is heavily laden than 
 when lightly laden. It its necessary therefore to inquire further into the nature of 
 the gradients of the various thoroughfares under observation in order to see if one 
 street was more favorable than another. 
 
 Asphalt.— The gradients of the asphalt in Cheapside and the Poultry were excellent; 
 there being but a very short length at the westeru end of Cheapside which was as 
 steep as 1 in 58. 
 
 Granite. — The gradients in King William street were for the most part excellent. 
 In Cannon street there were 326 feet lineal, or about 40 per cent, of its length, of 
 which the gradients varied from 1 in 30 to 1 iu 31. Taking both granite pavements, 
 this indifferent gradient was 22 per cent, of their entire length. 
 
 Wood. — On the wood pavements the gradients south of Arthur street were excellent. 
 In the vicinity of King William statue there were various lengths, amounting to 12 
 per cent, of the total length of the wood, which had gradients of from 1 in 30 to 1 in 
 37. Moreover, in the vicinity of the statue, where the direct gradients were the worst, 
 the pavement at several places had transverse slopes, varying from 1 in 20 to 1 in 38. 
 Nearly the entire surface between Eastcheap and a short distance south of the statue 
 had objectionable cross gradients. 
 
 From what has been stated as to the effect of gradient, it was not to be expected 
 that accidents would be traceable to gradients less steep than 1 in 60. The observa- 
 tions do not show that accidents increased in regular proportion as the gradients be- 
 came sharp, whether above or below 1 in 60 ; but they indicate that when the gra- 
 dients were from 1 in 30 to 1 in 50 a largerproportionof accidents occurred both upon 
 the granite and wood than elsewhere on the same lines where the gradients were 
 better. 
 
 Tflnsthe mean of the 50 days' observations showed that a horse might be expected 
 to travel 103 miles before falling on the western end of Cannon street, where the gra- 
 dients were 1 in 30 and 1 in 31, assuming it to have traveled both uphill and down- 
 
EUEOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 311 
 
 hill ; whilst eastward in the same street, where the gradients varied from 1 in 61 to 
 1 in 841, it might be expected to travel 187 miles before it fell. The mean of all the 
 granite pavements gave a distance of 132 miles before an accident happened to a 
 horse. 
 
 It was shown that in Cannon street accidents on the inferior gradients oftener oc- 
 curred to horses going uphill than to those going downhill. 
 
 The observations, it is true, show an excess of accidents on the granite at some parts 
 where the gradients were better than those just referred to ; as, for example, at the 
 western end of King William street, by the church of St. Mary Woolnoth, which had 
 a gradient of 1 in 54 ; but there the excess was probably attributable to the state of 
 repair of the surface, in conjunction with the speed of travel in that thoroughfare, 
 and also to its immediate proximity to the asphalt. 
 
 On the wood pavement in the vicinity of the statue, where the gradients were 1 
 in 30 and I in 37, and where the objectionable cross gradients existed, the records are 
 mixed with those referring to adjoining lengths of roadway having gradients of from 
 1 in 30 to 1 in 260 ; but the average of the whole shows that a horse might be expeotied 
 to travel in that neighborhood 244 miles before it fell, whereas on that part of the 
 pavement which lies between the statue and London bridge, on which the worst 
 gradient was 1 in 56, the distance which a horse might be expected to travel was 784 
 miles. 
 
 The accidents on the Ligno-Mineral pavement in Gracechurch street were at the 
 rate of 1 in 58 miles. There the gradient was 1 in 49. If any accidents may have 
 been attributable to this gradient, It can not alone account for the large number oc- 
 curring at this spot. 
 
 The asphalt pavement was, therefore, as regards gradients, more favored than the 
 others. The next in order was the granite. The wood pavement was, on the whole, 
 the least favored. 
 
 BFirECT OV CONDITION OF SURFACE REPAIIS. 
 
 The state of repair of the surface of a pavement affects its safety. For instance, 
 more horses may be expected to fall on a granite pavement that has many sunken 
 places, and the general surface of which is worn smooth, which is the condition of 
 nearly all granite pavements when they need relaying, than on one which has an 
 even surface and is somewhat rough to- the foot, which is the condition of a new 
 granite pavement. 
 
 It has already been stated that the surfaces of both the asphalt and the wood were 
 In excellent condition, and that those of the granite were not. Cannon street was 
 not, however, in such a state as to lead to the belief that the accidents taking place 
 in it were materially attributable to,the state of repair ; but the pavement in King 
 William street being under order to be renewed, was undoubtedlj' in such a state as 
 may have caused some, for neither the traffic nor the gradient can have caused the 
 excess of accidents that occurred in that portion of the street where the pavement 
 was in the worst condition. 
 
 Had the wood pavements been in an indifferent condition of surface repair more 
 accidents would probably have taken place on them than actually occurred during 
 the 50 days' observations. 
 
 As regards asphalt the case is somewhat different. Asphalt is not likely at any 
 time so to vary in condition as to increase materially the number of accidents taking 
 place on it. If holes show themselves of any size or depth in this material, and they 
 be not speedily repaired, they are quickly enlarged by the traffic, and the destruc- 
 tion of the pavement at those spots soon follows. It will be absolutely necessary to 
 keep at all times the surface of the asphalt comparatively smooth, and therefore the 
 number of accidents taking place on it is not likely to be increased by condition of 
 surface repair. 
 
312 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, 
 
 lu comparing the results of the observations for general application, it must then 
 be borne in mind that in respect of surface repair the asphalt and the wood were 
 more advantageously placed than the granite. 
 
 EFFECT OF SURFACE CLEASLINE88. 
 
 The thoroughfares of the city of London are now, speaking generally, perhaps as 
 clean as streets of so much traffic can be liept, except by washing them daily. Clean- 
 liness has a very important influence on the slipperiness of all pavements. Its effect, 
 however, differs materially, in some cases being favorable, in other cases unfavorable 
 to foothold, this quality depending largely on the moisture of the surface. A de- 
 scription of the way in which the streets were cleansed during the observations has 
 been given in a previous part of the report. 
 
 As an example: For safety asphalt generally can not be too clean, but a granite 
 pavement when very clean may, under certain atmospheric conditions, be much more 
 slippery than when dirty. If clean there are occasions when the iron from the 
 horses' shoes and from the tires of the wheels is caiight by the surface of the stones, 
 which then acquires a metallic appearance; the pavement is then most slippery. If 
 it be not clean the dust or dirt interposes as a medium between the surface and the 
 horses' feet, and the slipperiness is in a certain degree prevented. 
 
 A similar metallic appearance may be noticed on asphalt in very dry and cold 
 weatiier if the roadway be kept clean, and It is observable especially at night. Bat 
 this condition does not appear materially to affect the slipperiness of the asphalt, or 
 certainly not nearly in the same degree that it does granite. 
 
 On the other hand, if granite be dirty and the dirt be slightly damp, it is more slip- 
 pery than when clean and slightly damp. Asphalt is similarly affected, but in a very 
 much worse degree. 
 
 The safety of wood is little affected, whether it be clean or not, so long as the sur- 
 face is dry, If dirty, wood becomes just after rain much more slippery than at any 
 other time, which is not the case if it be perfectly clean. 
 
 These remarks on surface cleanliness are made because many of the accidents oc- 
 curring on the granite pavement during the 50 days' observations would certainly 
 not have taken place had the pavement not been kept so clean. Similar cleanliness 
 was beneficial to the other pavements. On the whole, the cleanliness under the cir- 
 cumstances to be narrated in the section which treats of the effect of weather on 
 the surface, will be seen to have placed the graRite at a disadvantage compared with 
 the other pavements. 
 
 THE EFFECT OF WEATHER ON THE SUKPACB. 
 
 The surfaces of all pavements are largely affected by the weather. A cold dry 
 wind, a hot sun, a heavy or alight rain, athictfog, or even a very moist atmosphere, 
 causes them to be more or less slippery, according to the character of the pavement, 
 and other conditions. Moisture plays a very important part in the safety of traveling. 
 For example : During a continuation of a cold, dry wind, with a somewhat hot sun 
 (an atmospheric condition prevailing largely in the spring), neither asphalt nor wood 
 is slippery, whilst granite, if it be worn smooth, which is its ordinary condition in 
 London, and if it be clean, is in its very worst state of slipperiness. If light rains 
 ensue the slipperiness of the granite is much reduced ; the wood will then enter into 
 its most slippery state, but tor a short time only; as the mud soon begins to peel 
 from the surface, whilst the asphalt becomes for a time almost as slippery as a pave- 
 ment can be, times of frost or snow excepted, and continues so until the mud be- 
 comes nearly liquid. If the rain falls heavily the granite becomes in its safest con- 
 dition; the asphalt much safer than when merely damp ; and the wood approaches 
 in safety its condition when actually dry. 
 
 Again, as soon as fine weather comes after much rain, the street dirt clings to the 
 surface of the wood on account of that material retaining moisture; but the wood 
 
EtTROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 313 
 
 does not always become slippery whilst this process is going on. The mud in the 
 joints of the granite retains its moisture for a long time if the atmosphere be damp, 
 and causes that pavement for a certain time to be more slippery than when wet. 
 Asphalt, which from its impermeability soon dries, enters again quickly into its 
 safest state, but not until it has passed through an intermediate stage between wet- 
 ness and dryness, during which it is quite as slippery as when rain first falls ou it 
 after drought ; unless, indeed, the rain has fallen heavily and washed it perfectly 
 clean. 
 
 It must therefore be understood that these conditions of slipperiness are subjected 
 to manifold changes, according to the condition of the weather and the state of 
 cleanliness of the surface of the pavement. 
 
 With a view of ascertaining how the n umber of accidents was affected by the 
 moisture on the surface, observations on that head were recorded throughout the 
 day and also each time an accident occurred. Owing to the many gradations be- 
 tween positive dryness and positive wetness, and the condition of each surface vary- 
 ing many times during the day, uniformity of description was not obtained in the 
 records. Nevertheless the records admit of the accidents being arranged generally 
 under certain classes of surface mo isture, and of some general approximate results 
 being arrived at. 
 
 It is then of importance in judging of the relative safety of the different pavements 
 to give consideration to the state of the weather whilst the observations were in 
 hand, in order to see whether it was such as was liliely to bo more favorable to one 
 pavement than another. Indeed, without full consideration of tllis point all conclu- 
 sions as to the relative safety of the pavements would be fallacious ; the subject of 
 the weather will, therefore, be treated more fully than it has yet been. 
 
 As regards wind, its direction frequently shifts for short periods during the 24 
 hours; and there are, therefore, various directions recorded during one day. This 
 was the case during the period of the observations of accidents, as will be seen by 
 Table E. Examination shows that the wind was either from the east, northeast, or 
 southeast during a large proportiou of the time ; being iu fact in those directions on 39 
 days ont of 50, or 76 per cent, of the whole. 
 
 During the 50 days' observations there was, according to the registrar-general's 
 returns, about 18 per cent, less than tlie usual proportion of rainy days, taking the 
 average of the year, and about 14 per cent, less than the average during the same 
 months. The police returns of the number of wet days is still less, inasmuch as they 
 only recorded the rain when it fell during the 12 hours' observations, but what is 
 even more important is that the quantity of rain was very noticeably less, inasmnch 
 as it was but about 53 per cent,, or little more than one-half of that which usually 
 falls in the same time at that season of the year. Moreover, a, considerable portion 
 of it fell during the night when the observations of accidents were discontinued. It 
 must above all be noticed that there was an almost entire absence of days in which 
 rain fell at intervals in small quantities, or drizzling, although such days are very 
 frequent in London during the year. 
 
 As regards temperature, it was a trifle lower than the averstiS^e of years, and the 
 atmosphere was on but few occasions much charged with moisture. The weather 
 was in fact, iu its main features, quantity of rain excepted, that which usually occurs 
 in London in the spring, when dry winds are accompanied by a warm sun, owing 
 to which moisture soon passes away from street surfaces. 
 
 The weather, therefore, on the whole was very favorable to asphalt, there having 
 been a great absence of that weather which creates a damp surface and causes that 
 material to be in its most slippery state, and was very unfavorable to granite, inas, 
 much as that material, if clean, during dry, cold winds is in its most slippery condi- 
 tion. As regards wood, the absence of rain was decidedly favorable to it, although 
 moisture does not appear to render that material relatively so slippery or to play so 
 important a part as regards safety as it does with asphalt and granite. 
 
 Table E in the appendix shows the accidents which took place under different 
 conditions of surface moisture. The general results are ; 
 
314 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Mean of the 50 days^ o'bservations, including all those Gonditiona of xoeaiher and surface 
 moisture wMch occurred during that time. 
 
 Sitaation. 
 
 Distance 
 
 traveled 
 "before a 
 horse fell. 
 
 Granite— King William street and Cannon street 
 
 Asphalt— Cheapside and Poultry 
 
 "Wood — King William street and Gracechurch street 
 
 Miles. 
 
 132 
 191 
 330 
 
 These results have been given before, but are repeated here for facility of refer- 
 ence. 
 
 Separating the accidents under three heads, namely, those which occurred when 
 the pavements were dry, those which occurred when they were merely damp, as 
 during very slight rain and after rain had ceased, and after the streets had been 
 watered, and those which took place either when rain was falling or whilst the sar- 
 faces were wet, the following results were obtained : 
 
 Tahle showing the comparative sUpperiness of the various pavements under three differ- 
 ent conditions of surface moisture. 
 
 Situation. 
 
 Description of 
 pavement- 
 
 Distance 
 
 traveled 
 
 before a 
 
 horse fell. 
 
 Days when surface of pavements was generally dry ; 
 
 King William street and Cannon street 
 
 Cheapside and Poultry 
 
 King William street and Gracechurch street 
 
 Days when the surface of the pavements was damp in diflFerent degrees 
 
 Cheapside and Poultry 
 
 King William street and Cannon street 
 
 King William street and Gracechurch street 
 
 Days when the surface of pavements was wet: 
 
 Cheapside and Poultry 
 
 King William street and Gracechurch street 
 
 King William street and Cannon street 
 
 Granite. 
 Asphalt 
 Wood .. 
 
 Asphalt 
 Granite. 
 Wood .. 
 
 Asphalt 
 Wood ,. 
 Granite. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 78 
 223 
 646 
 
 125 
 
 168 
 193 
 
 102 
 
 433 
 537 
 
 The following table groups the results in a different order : 
 
 Tahle shoioing the degree of sUpperiness of each pavement under three conditions of sur- 
 face moisture, beginning in each case loith that condition under tvhich the pavement 
 was the most slippery. 
 
 rails. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Asphalt: 
 
 Ist. When pavement was damp in different degroes- 
 
 2d. When pavement was wet 
 
 Bd. When pavement was dry 
 
 Granite : 
 
 1st. w^hen pavement was dry 
 
 2d. When pavement was damp in different degrees . 
 
 3d. When pavement was wet 
 
 Wood: 
 
 Ist. When pavement was damp in different degrees. 
 
 2d. When pavement was wet 
 
 3d. When pavement was dry 
 
 
 12.3 
 
 
 193 
 
 
 223 
 
 
 78 
 
 
 103 
 
 
 537 
 
 
 193 
 
 
 432 
 
 
 G46 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 315 
 
 The following table groups the results in another order: 
 
 Table showing the slipperiness of all the pavements under various conditions of surface 
 moisture which occurred during the 50 days' ohservaiions, beginning ivilh the most 
 slippery. 
 
 Situation 
 
 Description 
 of pave- 
 inen£ 
 
 Distance 
 traveled 
 be'ore a 
 horse fell. 
 
 Condition of sur- 
 face as regards 
 moisture. 
 
 King William street and Cannon street 
 
 Clieapslde and Poultry 
 
 King 'William street and Cannon street , 
 
 Cheapaide and Poultry 
 
 King William street and Gracechurch street, 
 
 Cheapside and Poultry 
 
 King William street and Gracechurch street 
 
 King William street and Cannon street 
 
 King William street and Gracechurch street 
 
 Granite 
 
 Asphalt 
 
 Grauite 
 
 Asphalt 
 
 Wood 
 
 Asphalt 
 
 Wood. 
 
 Granite 
 
 Wood 
 
 Mile/. 
 78 
 125 
 168 
 192 
 193 
 223 
 432 
 637 
 616 
 
 Pavement dry. 
 Pavement damp. 
 
 Do. 
 Pavement wet. 
 Pavement damp. 
 Pavement dry. 
 Pavement wet. 
 
 Do. 
 Pavement dry. 
 
 From the foregoing summaries it appears — 
 
 That asphalt was moat slippery when merely damp, and safest when perfectly dry ; 
 that a horse might he expected to travel on the asphalt without an accident nearly 
 twice the distance when the pavement was dry that it could do when damp, and that 
 the diiference between the safety of asphalt when wet and dry was not considerable. 
 
 That granite was most slippery when dry, and safest when wet ; that a horse 
 might be expected to travel on granite without accident nearly seven times the dis- 
 tance when the pavement was wet than when dry, and that the granite was about 
 twice as safe when merely damp as when dry. 
 
 That wood was most slippery when damp, and safest when dry ; that a horse might 
 be expected to travel on the wood more than three times the distance when th'6 pave- 
 ment was dry than when damp, and that the wood was more than twice as safe when 
 wet as when damp. 
 
 Here it will be convenient to show the difference between the slipperiness of the 
 two wood pavements under observation 
 
 About 1,394 feet lineal, or 9^ per cent, of the entire length of the wood, was that of 
 the improved wood pavement. The remaining 87 feet lineal, or 6 per cent, of the 
 ■whole, was the ligno-mineral pavement. 
 
 It will be seen that altogether 380 horses fell on the improved wood pavement, and 
 162 on the ligno-mineral pavement. Dealing with these figures In the same manner 
 as before, we find that a horse might be expected to travel before it met with an ac- 
 cident 446 miles on the improved wood pavement, and 58 miles on the ligno-mineral 
 pavement. In other words, the improved wood was nearly eight times safer than 
 the ligno-miueral under such conditions of weather and trafflc as took place during 
 the 50 days' observations. 
 
 The ligno-mineral pavement had a gradient of 1 in 49, which was certainly not so 
 good as a considerable length of the other pavement, but the improved wood had 267 
 feet in length with gradients varying from 1 in 30 to 1 in 37, which are very much 
 worse for traction than 1 in 49. In addition to this, it had the disadvantage of the 
 bad cross gradients, and it is evident, therefore, that gradient can not account for 
 the large proportion of falls which occurred on the ligno-mineral pavement. 
 
 The traffic on both of the pavements was much the same in character, and passed 
 at about the same speed ; and as the surfaces of both were in very nearly equally 
 good repair,^ one was not more disadvantageonsly iilaced than the other in these 
 respects. 
 
 Many omnibuses turn round on the ligno-mineral pavement to take up their station 
 on the eastern side of Gracechurch street, and it was at first imagined that accidents 
 might have been attributable to that cause. On looking into the matter, it was 
 found that the omnibuses were for the most part empty, or nearly so, and that they 
 
316 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 turned round slowly, so that accidents did not occur to their horses in any larger pro- 
 portion than to the other trafiSc. Even if some accidents were caused by this, they 
 would not account for the excess. 
 
 It is important to separate these accidents. If those which occurred on the ligno- 
 mineral are eliminated, and those which occurred on the improved wood are alone ' 
 used for comparison with the' asphalt and granite, it will be seen (as shown in Table 
 F in the appendix) that a horse might have been expected to travel during the 50 
 days' observations 446 miles on the improved wood pavement before it met with an 
 accident, instead of 330 miles as shown by the summaries, in which both woods are 
 talsen together, and that the order of slipperiness would therefore be — 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1. Granite l'?2 
 
 2. Asphalt 191 
 
 3. Wood 446 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
 
 A consideration of those sections of the report in which the pavements are referred 
 to under the various conditions that affect their slipperiness shows how wrong it 
 would be to take the first broad results of the observations as an exact measure of 
 the relative safety of the pavements at all times and seasons. It would not, how- 
 ever, be possible to substiDute for the results now placed before the commission any- 
 thing in a similarly exact shape, unless observations were taken over the three classes 
 of pavements in other seasons of the year. All that now can be done is to take the 
 figures given by the 50 days' observations, and after studying them by the side of 
 those modifying circumstances which have been set forth in the various sections of 
 the report, to draw such general conclusions as may seem to be warranted. 
 
 The first thing, therefore, is to consider the effect of those conditions in which one 
 pavement was more favorably placed than the others. Conclusions on these points 
 have been given in the sections in which they have been separately treated of, and 
 taking them in the order of the report their general results are as follows : 
 
 As regards tlie effect of the speed of traffic, the wood and asphalt were as nearly as 
 possible under similar conditions. The granite, having at one place a higher speed, 
 and the pavement there not being in so good condition as the others, was placed in 
 less favorable circumstances. 
 
 As regards gradient, the asphalt was the most favorably placed, the granite the 
 next so, and the wood the least. 
 
 As regards surface repair, the asphalt and the wood were in equally good condi- 
 tion, while the granite was in a very inferior condition. 
 
 As regards cleanliness of surface, all three pavements were equal so far as the mate- 
 rials of which they were composed enabled them to be. 
 
 As regards weather, it was very much in favor of the asphalt, was generally favor- 
 able to the wood, and was very unfavorable to the granite. 
 
 Taking the whole group of conditions into account, the asphalt was the most ad- 
 vantageously placed, the wood was the next so, and the granite was the worst placed. 
 
 On the average of the whole 50 days' observations the granite was found to be the 
 most slippery, the asphalt the next so, and the wood the least. 
 
 Separating the accidents under three conditions of surface as regards moisture, it 
 appears : 
 
 That asphalt was most slippery when merely damp and safest whea dry. 
 
 That granite was most slippery when dry and safest when wet. 
 
 That wood was most slippery when damp and safest when dry. 
 
 That when the surface of the pavements was generally dry granite was the most 
 slippery and wood the least slippery. 
 
 That when the surface of the pavements was damp in different degrees asphalt 
 ■was the most slippery and wood the least slippery. 
 
EUEOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 317 
 
 That when the surface of the pavements was wet asphalt was the most slippery 
 and granite the least slippery. 
 
 That on the whole wood was less slippery than either asphalt or granite. 
 
 That if the observations on the ligno-miueral paving be eliminated, and the im- 
 proved wood pavement alone taken for comparison, wood was on the wrhole less slip- 
 pery than either asphalt or granite in a marlied degree, it only being inferior to 
 granite when the pavements were wet, and the difference then between the wood 
 and the granite being inconsiderable. 
 
 That of those accidents which are most obstructive to the traffic as well as most 
 injurious to the horses, asphalt had the greatest proportion, granite the next, and 
 wood the least. 
 
 That the greatest proportion of accidents ou all the pavements was to horses in 
 vehicles drawn by three or more horses. 
 
 That had the grauite bf>en under as favorable conditions as the asphalt and the 
 wood the results would have been more in favor of the granite, although to what 
 extent can not be stated. 
 
 Finally, I beg to state that It would be desirable to make observations at a differ- 
 ent season of the year to that in which those herein secorded were taken. 
 I have the honor to remain, gentlemen, your most obedient servant, 
 
 William Haywood, 
 Engineer and, Surveyor. 
 
 ASPHALT PAVEMENTS IN LONDON. 
 
 Sewer Office, 
 Guildhall, April 18, 1873. 
 To the streets committee of the honorable the commissioners of sewers of the city of London : 
 
 Gbntlemex : In pursuance of your instructions I have carefully inspected the 
 whole of the asphalt pavements, which have been laid within the city of London, and 
 beg to lay before you my report upon their present condition. 
 
 I have put my report In the shape of a table, which gives the dates when the pave- 
 ments were laid, their area, first cost, the trafi&o which passes over them, and other 
 particulars which may be found useful in considering questions relating to asphalt 
 pavings generally. 
 
 Portions of some of the pavements have been cut out under my direction, in order 
 to ascertain whether they had lost materially in thickness. In nearly all cases a 
 slight diminution in thickness was found to have taken place, and in one instance to 
 such an extent as to lead to the inference that it could not have been properly com- 
 pressed when laid, or that it was not laid of the depth intended ; in one or two in- 
 stances, on the contrary, the thickness was found to be the same or even greater than 
 that at which they were nominally laid. Taking, however, into account the position 
 in which the various openings were made for examination, and the circumstances 
 which affect the consideration, there is no doubt that the asphalts have somewhat 
 diminished in thickness under the wear of the traffic, but owing to inequalities when 
 they were first laid, and to the compression which takes place in all those laid in the 
 shape of heated powder, it would be difficult to ascertain the exact loss without mak- 
 ing a very large number of openings. 
 
 The asphalt companies upon application to them have given some account of the 
 repairs done since the pavements were laid, but not in such a shape as it would be 
 desirable to have it ; it is, however, I have reason to believe, the best account that 
 they can give. 
 
 Eeports from the inspectors of pavements have also been made to me, an abstract 
 of which report is given in the table, those officers having long since been directed 
 by me to notice carefully the repairs which were made to the pavements; but the 
 
318 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTKIES. 
 
 companies being bonnd to maintain the pavements for a giv3u number of years, can 
 repair tliem whenever they think needful, without consulting me, provided they do 
 not interfere with the traffic in their operations, and as repairs are generally per- 
 formed at night, or very early in the morning, it is possible that many may have 
 escaped the notice of the inspectors. 
 
 lu considering the table, the following explanations should be held in view : 
 
 Where a pavement is stated to he in a generally good con dition, no account is 
 taken of the transverse depressions in the compressed asphalts or of the lines of joint 
 in the other asphalts consequent upon the mode of laying or forming the pavements. 
 
 In compressed asphalts repairs after a time are not readily noticeable, whilst those 
 in mastic asphalts are more easily seen. 
 
 Where "holes" or "short holes" are mentioned, it must be understood that the 
 asphalts are not worn down to the concrete foundation. 
 
 Minute holes are noticeable in co npressed asphalts shortly after they are laid, 
 which holes after a time seem to close up or disappear, whilst others open ; the cause 
 of this (which is probably due to foreign substances) has never been satisfactorily 
 explained, but no account is taken of these small holes in my report as to condition. 
 
 The larger holes upon compres^d asphalts are in most cases depressions caused .by 
 the traffic, and do not necessarily indicate surface wear; in the mastic asphalts, on 
 the contrary, they are for the most part the result of disintegration and wear of the 
 surface. 
 
 There are now altogether twenty-five streets or portions of streets in the city of 
 which the carriageways have been paved with asphalt ; one of the pavements had 
 been down 3 years and 9 months, two for 2 years and 2 months, eighteen nnder 2 
 years, four nnder 1 year, and 5 under 6 mouths, at the time of my inspection. 
 I have the honor to remain, gentlemen, your most obedient servant, 
 
 William Hatwood, 
 Engineer ani Surveyor. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINWDOM. 
 
 319 
 
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320 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 o 
 
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 S 
 
 
 Engineer's report as to present condi- 
 tionand general results of examination 
 into loss of thickness by wear and 
 compression. 
 
 In good condition. 
 
 Its nominal thickness, when flrat laid, 
 was 2i in. The sample cut out aver- 
 ages li in. thick, and weighs 10 lbs. 1 
 oz. to the square foot, or 149 lbs. 10 oz. 
 per superficial yard. The surface is 
 somewhat worn at the northern end, 
 but in fair condition generally. The 
 southern end has been cut aiiout and 
 damaged by alterations of gullies and 
 pavements opnsequent upon widening 
 the street. 
 
 Surface generally in good condition. 
 [There are numerous small holes at the 
 southern end, especially near to Fen- 
 church street; numerous depijessiong 
 toward the northern end near to Corn- 
 hill, where the street is narrow. The 
 surtace generally is in good condition, 
 but is not so even or good as acme 
 other of the pavements of this oom- 
 l pany. 
 
 There are small holes over the surface of 
 this pavement, but it is generally in 
 good condition. 
 
 The nominal thickness when laid was 2 
 in. The sample out out averages li3 
 in. thick, and weighs 21 lbs. OJ oz. per 
 square foot, or 189 lbs. ii oz. per super- 
 ficial yard. There are but few small 
 holes in this pavement, and the surface 
 is in a very good condition. 
 
 There is wear in the channels through- 
 put the street, and a few small holes, 
 but It IS otherwise in good condition. 
 
 Inspector's re- 
 ports as to re- 
 pairs since pave- 
 ment was laid. 
 
 Repaired in one 
 or two places 
 during year. 
 
 None of any 
 consequence. 
 
 None 
 
 Frequently 
 repaired at 
 south end. 
 
 Trifling repairs. 
 
 i i 
 
 ® s 
 
 Ketums sup- 
 plied by com- 
 panies as to re- 
 pairs done since 
 pavement was 
 laid. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 i 
 
 r Total cost of 
 repairs 
 over whole 
 
 J surface, 
 2id. per 
 square 
 vard in 
 
 [ 1872. 
 
 1 
 
 Time 
 down, to 
 March 1, 
 
 1873. 
 
 
 il 
 
 br2 
 a a 
 
 %a 
 
 ^8 
 
 Mar. 22, 1871 
 Apr. 27, 1871 
 
 May 2, 1871 
 
 July 22, 1871 
 
 Aug. 18, 1871 
 iln 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 First cost 
 of pave- 
 ment in- 
 cluding 
 founda- 
 tion, per 
 yard su- 
 perficial. 
 
 «. d. 
 lU 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 
 Sup. yds. 
 80 
 
 799 
 
 402 
 
 2659 
 
 3861 
 1028 
 
 1492 
 
 Total 
 
 car- 
 riage 
 traffic 
 from 8 
 a.m. to 
 8 p.m. 
 
 97 
 2292 
 
 2903 
 
 4824) 
 4050J 
 
 5361 
 COOO 
 
 980 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 April 1,1873 
 Feb. 7,1872 
 
 Feb. 6,1872 
 
 Apr. 3,1873 
 — do 
 
 Mar. 3,1873 
 
 3 
 
 ■4 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 ValdeTravers asphalt (com- 
 yrfssed)— Continued. 
 
 Russia row 
 
 
 > 
 
 a 
 
 ' O 
 
 Gracechurch street: 
 
 By St. Peter's alley 
 
 By Ship Tavern passage. 
 
 Finsbury pavement and 
 Moorgate. 
 
 Moorgate street 
 
 £ 
 
 C 
 
 
EUBOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 321 
 
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 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POEEIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
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326 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 WOOD AND ASPHALT PAVEMENTS IN LONDON. 
 
 Sbweks Office, 
 Giiildhall, March 17, 1874. 
 To the Honorable the Commissioners op Sewers of the City of London. 
 
 Gentlemen : The reference to me npon this subject is as follows : 
 
 " To report fully as to the relative advantages of wood and asphalt for paving pur- 
 poses, together with the probable expense and durability of each." 
 
 I beg in the first place to lay before the commission some information respecting 
 the wood and asphalt carriage-way pavements laid up to the present time in the city. 
 
 Wood. — The first wood pavement was laid in the Old Bailey in 1839, and was quickly 
 followed by many others ; they were of considerable variety, some being simple in 
 structure, others very complicated, and none of them lasted more than 7 years. The 
 streets were then not cleansed as well as they now are, which was disadvantageous 
 to the wood, nor was the mode of preserving the surface of the wood well understood. 
 Experience in the cost of pavements was almost entirely confined to those formed of 
 granite, of a superior quality to that which now comes to London, and of stones more 
 than double the size of those now generally used ; and as the duration of some of the 
 wood pavements was so small, and their cost much larger than granite, a prejudice 
 appears to have arisen against wood, and the pavements as they wore out were for 
 the most part replaced with granite. 
 
 Wood was, however, retained in Mincing Lane, Gracecburcb street, Cornhill, Lom- 
 bard street, Bartholomew Lane, Lothbury, and in part of the Old Bailey, until within 
 the last 3 years, when, with the exception of that in Bartholomew Lane, it was re- 
 placed with asphalt. 
 
 The wood pavements more recently laid, and existing in the city thoroughfares at 
 the end of 1873, with other information respecting them, are shown by the following 
 table : 
 
 Table No. 1. — Table showing the lengths and areas of the different wood pavements in 
 the city of London OH December 31, 1873. 
 
 Pavement. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Super- 
 ficial 
 
 area. 
 
 
 Tards. 
 
 134 
 
 701 
 
 27 
 
 171 
 
 26 
 
 Yards. 
 946 
 
 
 9 545 
 
 
 410 
 
 
 1,053 
 284 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,059 
 
 12,238 
 
 
 Asphalt. — The first pavement was laid in Threadneedle street in May, 1869, and 
 was formed of the compressed asphalt of the Val de Travers company. Cheapside and 
 the Poultry were laid with similar asphalt in the autumn of 1870, and many thor- 
 oughfares have since been paved with it and asphalts of other kinds. Those in the 
 city thoroughfares at the end of 1873, with other information respecting them, are 
 shown by the following table : 
 
EUKOPE — UNITED KINGDOM, 
 
 327 
 
 TABi,vit^o.2.— Table sliowing tlielengtlis and areas of the different asplialt earriage-way 
 pavements in the city of London on December 31, 1873. 
 
 Pavement. 
 
 Sai>er- 
 fcial 
 area. 
 
 Val de Travers (compressed) . , 
 
 Val de Travers (maatio) 
 
 Limmer (mastic) 
 
 Barnett's (mastic) 
 
 Soci6t6 Fran9aiso (compressed) 
 Moutrotier (compressed) 
 
 Total „. 
 
 Tardg. 
 
 34, 876 
 
 232 
 
 8,477 
 
 16, 544 
 
 337 
 
 346 
 
 80, 802 
 
 No two pavements, whether of asphalt or wood, are exactly similar in their quali- 
 ties, nor will they be of the same durability or eosfc. It may be necessary specially 
 to refer to some, although for the most part the remarks in this report will be appli- 
 cable to asphalt and wood generally. Nevertheless, as it is needful to make direct 
 comparison upon some points, I select for that purpose the compressed asphalt pave- 
 ment of the "Val de Travers Company, and the improved wood pavement, as being 
 the best examples of their several kinds, and of which there are the largest quanti- 
 ties now laid in the city, and elsewhere in the metropolis. The following is a brief 
 description of them : 
 
 The compressed asphalt pavement of the Val de Travers Company is formed of a 
 natural material, procured from a mine in Switzerland ; it is laid upon a bed of ce- 
 ment concrete, in a state of heated powder, and so as to be, when compressed, from 2 
 to U\ inches in thickness, according to the traffic of the street. 
 
 Tbe improved wood pavement is formed of fir blocks, 3^ inches wide, 10 inches long, 
 and 6 inches deep, laid upon a foundation of two thicknesses of fir planks, well 
 pitched and nailed together ; the blocks are placed close together at their short ends, 
 but on their longer sides are joints, running from side to side of the street, three- 
 fourths of an inch wide, the lines of joint being kept by fillets nailed to the planks ; 
 the joints are filled up with clean small pebbles, rammed in, and then run with a com- 
 position formed of pitch, tar, or other bituminous substances. 
 
 It may be observed with regard to asphalt, that although there is much larger ex- 
 perience in its use than there was in 1871, when I reported upon the comparative 
 merits of asphalt and granite pavements, I see no reason upon most points materi- 
 ally to alter the views and opinions therein expressed, and much then said will be 
 repeated in the present report. 
 
 I take up the consideration under the same heads adopted in the report of 1871 upon 
 granite aud asphalt, varying only slightly their order, which will here be : (1) Con- 
 venience; (2) Cleansing; (3) Construction and Kepair; (4) Safety; (5) Durability 
 and Cost. 
 
 CONVBNIBNCE. 
 
 The principal, if not the sole object in London of employing either asphalt or wood 
 for carriage-way pavements is to diminish the noise of the traffic. 
 
 Asphalt is less noisy than granite, for, being smooth and without joints, the 
 wheels of vehicles run almost as easily over it as they do on a street tramway, and 
 what noise is caused by the traffic comes almost entirely from the clatter of the 
 horses' feet upon the asphalt. 
 
 Wood is less noisy than asphalt, the horses' feet making no clatter upon it; in 
 fact, wood makes the most quiet of all known pavements. 
 
 Asphalt can not be suffered to get materially out of repair, for if it does it is speedily 
 knocked to pieces, therefore, the quietness and the comfort it afibrds will be at all 
 times nearly the same. 
 
328 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 Wood pavements being composed of blocks of diflfersiit sizes and jointed in differ- 
 ent manners, are in the course of time worn into inequalities of surface, and when' in 
 that condition carriages are more jolted aud there is more noise than when the pave- 
 ments are new, but this is principally experienced by those inside the carriages. 
 
 The extent to which this irregularity of surface takes place depends much upon 
 the care taken in its maintenance, but also upon the nature of the pavements ; those 
 formed of large blocks with wide joints wear more unevenly than those of small 
 blocks with close joints. The owners contend that their improved wood pavement, 
 having no short joints, and the blocks reposing upon a slightly elastic foundation, will 
 not wear unevenly, and probably it will wear more evenly and last longer than any 
 other wood pavement yet laid, but it certainly will wear somewhat round in the 
 direction of the traflic. 
 
 There is a rumbling noise noticeable when inside a carriage driven quickly over 
 this pavement which I never observed upon others, and is thought by some to be dis- 
 agreeable. Tbe cause is probably owing to the compactness of its structure, its ex- 
 treme regularity of surface, and tho"elasticity of the foundation. Should the extreme 
 regularity of surface disappear the noise will, I think, diminish. This noise, how- 
 ever, only affects those inside vehicles; in other respects it is as quiet as other wood 
 pavements. 
 
 Pedestraius, where the carriage traffic admits of it, walk largely upon asphalt, 
 owing to its emoothnoss, cleanliness, and dryness. As far as I have observed, they 
 do not walk so much upon the wood. 
 
 Asphalt being impervious to moisture, water runs off it quickly or is soon evapo- 
 rated. Dirt lingers in the joints of wood pavements aud is worked out by the traffic, 
 making the surface dirty for some time after rain. Where carriageways are dry and 
 clean the footways are usually clean, for in narrow streets of much trafiSc most of the 
 dirt npou the footways comes from the carriageways. Tbe relative advantages of 
 the two pavements in this respect depend, however, largely upon the care taken in 
 cleaning. 
 
 Wood absorbs moisture and is frequently damp when asphalt is dry; but if it be 
 reasonably clean, the dampness does not affec^t the safety or comfort of the traffic. 
 When dry weather ensues after rain, dirt clings to the wood, and there is no dust for 
 some time. 
 
 It has been said that wood pavements at times smell offensively, and may be un- 
 healthy ; but although some city streets have been paved with wood for 30 years, no 
 complaints that I am aware of have been made to the commision on this head, and 
 the inhabitants at all times have not only expressed great anxiety lest the wood should 
 be replaced by other material, but have subscribed toward the cost of its renewal. 
 In the northern townsof Europe wood pavement is much used. In America and 
 Canada many of the largest cities are paved almost entirely with wood, and it is not 
 there believed to be unhealthy. I have at times noticed offensive emanations from it 
 near cab stands, but am unable to find other evidence of its unhealthiness. These 
 remarks must be held to apply only to public streets open to sun, air, and traffic; in 
 confined places, and under some conditions, wood might be objectionable. I have 
 seen it decaying in confined places without traffic. 
 
 It may be desirable to refer to the question whether wood pavements are likely to 
 be the means of spreading a conflagration. It was found by experiments made by me 
 for the commission, in conjunction with Captain Shaw, chief officer of the fire bri- 
 gade, that asphalt, subject to a more severe test than it would be in the case of an or- 
 diriary fire, would not aid in spreading a conflagration, and there is no reason to sup- 
 pose that wood would be more likely to do so, laid, as it is, under conditions render- 
 ing surface ignition improbable. At Chicago the foot pavements were, in many cases, 
 formed of planks laid on wooden joists, tbe whole structure being 1 or 2 feet above 
 the carriageway, and subject to the aotiou of the fire on both sides, but it is doubt- 
 ful whether the fire was materially, if at all, increased by those footway pavements. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 329 
 
 Asphalt and ■wood have therefore each in some respects advantages which the 
 other does not possess in an equal degree. On the average of its life asphalt is the 
 smoothest, the dryest, the cleanest, the most pleasing to the eye, and on the whole 
 the most pleasant to travel over (apart from the question of safety), but in respect 
 of quietness to the inhabitants and street traffic wood is superior to asphalt, 
 
 CLEANING. 
 
 Both asphalt and wood should be kept very clean for safety, but great cleanliness 
 is more important to asphalt than it is to wood. 
 
 Asphalt can be kept cleaner than any other pavement, for, being nonabsorbent 
 and without joints, the broom, the aoraper, the shovel, or water can be applied to it 
 most effectively. Wood pavements are most difficult to clean on account of the joints 
 and the absorbent nature of the material. The Improved Wood Pavement Company 
 has recently kept the carriageways of King William street and Ludgate Hill (tem- 
 porarily committed to their charge) in a state of cleanliness never before attained 
 on wood. The cost of this work I am unable to state. 
 
 Experiments made under my direction in 1867 and in -1873 in washing granite and 
 asphalt with jet and hose showed that asphalt cost slightly less than granite, but 
 that a higher state of cleanliness can be obtained on it. It is probable that the cost 
 of washing wood would also be more than that of asphalt. Washing is the best way 
 of cleansing all pavements, and it is desirable that an experiment be made on wood 
 at an early opportunity. 
 
 The moisture left on the surface of asphalt by washing makes it slippery, the dura- 
 tion of the slipperiness depending upon the care taken in drying it and on atmos- 
 pheric conditions. Moisture does not leave wood slippery if it be clean. Moisture, 
 although visible, is frequently rather in the wood than on its surface, a fact to be 
 held in mind when considering this point. 
 
 Watering to lay the dust on asphalt is not done in the city, much care being taken 
 to keep the pavements clean by constant removals of the refuse. Statements have 
 been made that a fine dust arises from it which is obnoxious to traders having fine 
 goods, but some dust is unavoidable in streets of great commerce and traffic, what- 
 ever may be the pavement or the mode of cleansing adopted. Watering asphalt is 
 objectionable on account of the temporary slipperiness it creates, and as the surface 
 soon dries at the season of the year when there is the most dust, watering, to be 
 useful, should be almost continuous. 
 
 Wood pavements as at present cleansed require watering, for dirt clings to them 
 more than to the asphalt. If washed daily and the street-orderly system be em- 
 ployed during the day, it is just possible watering might be dispensed with, but I 
 am by no means sure of that. 
 
 Asphalt, when laid or repaired, is fit for the traffic a few hours afterward ; it is 
 left clean and causes no inconvenience from dirt or dust; 
 
 Wood, when newly laid or when repaired, is covered with fine gravel or grit of 
 some sort, which should he upon it some days. This grit being pressed into it by 
 the traffic, indurates and preserves the surface. For the same reason it ia desirable 
 several times a year to strew the surface for a day or two in a similar manner, and 
 at those times the pavement ia dirty. It is not, as a rule, necessary to strew wood 
 with'gravel to prevent slipperiness, although there are occasions when it is useful to 
 do so. With present experience it is necessary to strew asphalt with sand when the 
 surface is slightly damp a id there is much traffic in the street. 
 
 Upon the whole I ci nsl ler that wood may be kept cleaner than it hitherto has 
 been, but that whatever be the process adopted it will be more difficult and ex- 
 pensive to keep clean than asphalt that the moisture from watering, which leaves 
 asphalt slippery, affects wood less objectionably (as will be seen when the question 
 of safety is dealt with) ; that there is necessity upon occasions for strewing the sur- 
 faces both of asphalt and wood with sand or gravel ; that the sanding of asphalt 
 
330 STKEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 must be more frequent than the graveling of wood; that the graveling of wood for 
 the time renders the streets more dirty than the sanding of asphalt does, but that 
 the degree of inconvenience from both these operations depends upon the care with 
 which they are performed. 
 
 CO>fSTRUCTION AND REPAIR. 
 
 Cheapside and the Poultry were laid with compressed asphalt, together with the 
 concrete foundation, at the rate of 129 yards per day; Ludgate Hill was laid with 
 the imprbved wood pavement, including the removal of earth for the plauk founda- 
 tion, at the rate of 125 yards per day ; other wood and asphalt pavements can be laid 
 as expeditiously. These remarks apply to fine weather. In wet weather neither the 
 concrete foundation nor the asphalt can be laid. Wood blocks, if not requiring a 
 concrete foundation, can be laid in most weathers, but the grouting of the joints, 
 whether with lime or asphalt, can not be properly doue unless the weather be reason- 
 ably dry. The same remarks apply to i epairs both to asphalt and wood in respect 
 to weather. 
 
 Very small surface repairs can be made with facility in all asphalts. In com- 
 pressed asphalt they can be made so neatly as not to be noticeable after a short time 
 but in tlie mastic asphalts the joints remain visible. 
 
 The ease with which repairs can be made to a wood pavement depends upon it, 
 character. Ordinarily they can be done with the same facility, and are executed in 
 much the same manner as to granite. Repairs to the improved wood pavement are 
 differently performed and require some descr iption. The plank foundation is cu 
 through, the line of cut in the two layers being at dififerent places; a third board is 
 then first laid beneath the lowest planking so as to break the joint ; the two layers of 
 plai^king are then relaid and spiked together, the fillets and blocks being replaced 
 and grouted in the usual manner. Although the continuity of the original planks is 
 thus destroyed the repair seems to be done with ease, and as far as experience goes 
 is sufiicient for all practical purposes ; but I think the repairs take a somewhat longer 
 time than the ordinary wood jjavements. 
 
 Repairs have been made over pipe trenches in King William "street, Great Tower 
 street, and Bartholomew lane, the surface in all cases has been well restored, and the 
 work was done quickly. This pavement is referred to at some length, it being in 
 structure different from any others yet laid in the city, and, therefore, needing expla- 
 nation. 
 
 Taking seasons and weather generally into account, asphalt and wood can be laid 
 and repaired with equal expedition, but repairs to wood pavements generally are not 
 so permanent as those to asphalts, usually also it is necessary to take up a much 
 larger surface in wood to make a good repair thau it is in asphalt, which can bo cut out 
 to the exact size needed. In this respect asphalt has a decided superiority over wood 
 
 The safety of a pavement is a matter of importance everywhere, but especially so 
 in narrow thoroughfares of great traffic, where accidents also cause inconvenience 
 to the general traffic. 
 
 Observations made at Paris some years ago in two streets, one paved with the hard 
 sandstone, much used in that capital, and the other with asphalt, showed that in the 
 street paved with stone one out of every 1,308 horses fell, and in that paved with 
 asphalt one out of every 1,409 horses fell. 
 
 The city police in 1871 made observations, from which it was found that about six 
 horses fell daily in the length of Cheapside and the Poultry, or at the rate of one out 
 of every 2,323 passing along those thoroughfares. The same year I made inquiries 
 into the slipper! ness of asphalt, and took the opinions of various persons who from 
 their occupations had special opportunities for forming correct judgment npon the 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 331 
 
 point, and on consideration of the information then obtained there appeared to be 
 good reason for believing that on the average of the year asphalt was not more 
 slippery than granite. 
 
 There were, however, at that time but two or three streets paved with asphalt, and 
 alternate routes paved with other material were open to the traffic, t'omplaiuts of 
 the slipperiuesa of asphalt have increased since its use has been extended, and al- 
 though allowance must be made for the prejudice which generally exists against any 
 new class of pavement (there was a time when loud complaints were made of wood 
 being much more slippery and dangerous than granite), some of the statements 
 made to the commission are entitled to consideration. 
 
 Among them was a petition presented in July last signed by twenty-four horse 
 owners, including the London General Omnibus Company, two of the largest English 
 carriers, the managers of three railways, and cab and omnibus proprietors. Sixteen 
 of the petitioners stated that they owned amongst them 13,448 horses, of which the 
 London General Omnibus Company owned 8,000 ; the remaini ng fifteen owned 5,448, 
 or an average of 363 horses each. The petitioners, after stating that in their opinion 
 asphalt pavement was objectionable as compared with granite, and that horses were 
 quickly deteriorated by traveling over it, prayed the commission " that no more of 
 such paving shall be laid down in the principal thoroughfares," and further, "that 
 eflfeotive measures should be taken to render the asphalt pavement now existing less 
 dangerous to horses iu damp weather.'' 
 
 To obtain exact information on the point the co mmission in the spring of last year 
 directed observations to be made of the accidents occurring upon asphalt, granite, 
 and wood pavements, These observations (the most extensive, I believe, ever made) 
 were taken by the city police and reported on by me on the 16th December last ; to 
 that report it will be now necessary to refer. 
 
 The streets selected for observation were: Cheapside and the Poultry, paved with 
 compressed asphalt of the Val de Travers Company ; part of King William street 
 and Gracechurch street, paved with the improved wood pavement and the ligno- 
 mineral pavement, and parts of King William street and Cannon street, paved with 
 3 inch. Aberdeen granite. All the streets had a large [and varied traffic. The ob- 
 servations were continu ed for 50 days of 12 hours daily, and represented an aggre- 
 gate distance traveled by the horses of 478,523 miles. 
 
 The observations on asphalt and wood are alone dealt with here. Both pavements 
 were in excellent surface condition ; ou both the gradients were for the most part 
 good, those of the wood being the wo rst ; both were cleansed every morning and 
 also throughout the day by street orderlies. The asphalt was occasionally washed, 
 and when damp strewed with sand. The wood pavement was four times slightly 
 strewed with fine gravel. The asphalt was not watered to lay the dust ; the wood 
 was. The aggregate distance traveled by the horses during the observations was, 
 on the aspha It 203,805 miles, and on the wood 179,151 miles, making together 382,956 
 miles. 
 
 During the 50 days' observations the weather was for the most part dry and cold. 
 There was an absence of that weather which, creating a damp surface, causes as- 
 phalt to be in its most slippery state. The weather was also decidedly favorable to 
 wood. On the whole it ma/y be said that the two pavements were under conditions 
 as nearly similar as are likely to be obtained unless a street be specially selected and 
 paved for the purpose of observations. 
 
 A short length of the wood was the ligno-mi neral pavement, formed of beech, miner- 
 alized, the blocks being of small size, with chamfered edges. The accidents upon 
 this pavement were very much greater proportionally than those on the other wood* 
 a circumstance probably due mainly to the description of the wood, and to its chem- 
 ical treatment. Fir is almost exclusively used in the formation of wood pavements, 
 but the accidents which took place on the ligno-mineral are included in all the aver- 
 ages given of accidents and mileage. 
 
332 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Oil the average of the 50 days' observations it was shown that a horse might he ex- 
 pected to travel before it fell — 
 
 Milea. 
 
 On the asphalt 191 
 
 On the wood 330 
 
 The accidents were afterwards separated under three heads, namely, those which 
 occurred when the pavements were dry, those which occurred when they were damp, 
 as during or after a slight rain and after the streets had been watered, and those 
 which tools place whilst rain was falling, or whilst the surfaces were quite wet, and 
 the following results were shown : 
 
 Days when surface of pavement was generally dry : Miles. 
 
 Asphalt 223 
 
 Wood 646 
 
 Days when surface of pavement was damp in different degrees, including that aris- 
 ing from surface watering : 
 
 Asphalt , 125 
 
 Wood 193 
 
 Days when surface of pavement was wet : Milea. 
 
 Asphalt 192 
 
 Wood 432 
 
 Thus, under every condition of surface moisture, and including nearly every con- 
 dition of weather, frost excepted, the wood was less slippery than the asphalt. 
 
 For 32 days the accidents were reoordad under the respective heads of falls on knees, 
 falls on haunches, and complete falls, with the following results: 
 
 Table No. 3. 
 
 Accidents da ring 32 days' observa- 
 tiona. 
 
 On knees. 
 
 On 
 haunches. 
 
 Complete. 
 
 A-sphalt . 
 Wood ... 
 
 Per cent 
 32.04 
 84.97 
 
 Per ceTit. 
 24.48 
 3.07 
 
 Per cent 
 43.48 
 11.96 
 
 Accidents which are the least inconvenient to the traffic and the least injurious to 
 horses are falls on knees, the next in order are falls on haunches, complete falls are 
 the worst of all ; aud the table shows therefore that in this respect wood was supe- 
 rior to asphalt, the largest proportion of falls on it being on knees. 
 
 It is by some considered that the only accidents of importance, or that need be re- 
 ferred to when the safety of a pavement is under consideration, are complete falls. 
 Adopting for the time this view, dismissing the other classes of ficcidents, and mak- 
 ing the calculations in reference to complete falls only, the results of the 32 days' 
 observations were that a horse might be expected to travel before it fell down on its 
 side — 
 
 Miles. 
 On the asphalt ggg 
 
 On the wood 2 931) 
 
 Extending tlie comparison by distributing complete falls only to the miles trav- 
 eled, under different conditions of surface as regards moisture, the results were : 
 Days when the surface of pavement was generally dry : Miles. 
 
 Asphalt 1_10I 
 
 Wood ...- 4^X80 
 
EDEOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 333 
 
 Days wlien surface of pavement was damp in different degrees, including that 
 arising from surface watering : Miles. 
 
 Asphalt , 335 
 
 Wood 1,592 
 
 Days when the surface of pavement was wet : 
 
 Asphalt 568 
 
 Wood 3,583 
 
 Thus, the obervations show oonclu sively the wood to be safer than asphalt, and 
 the accidents on it to be of a less objectionable character. 
 
 Mastic and compound asphalts are somewhat less slippery to the human foot than 
 compressed asphalts. How far the difference is perceptible to horses, shod as they 
 are, I can not say, but that which causes this Superiority in respect of slipperiuess 
 leads to their being more speedily worn out under heavy traffic. There are wood 
 pavements more slippery than the improved wood pavement, which is, perhaps, the 
 least slippery of its class ; and had it been out of repair, more accidents, proportion- 
 ately, would have occurred upon it thau actually took place, and all wood pav^ents 
 get out of repair in time. But whatever asphalt or wood (tir being only meant) had 
 been selected for comparison, there is no reason to believe that the relative values of 
 the two materials, as regards safety, would have been reversed, and for comparison it 
 was, of course, necessary to take the two which are the best representatives of their 
 classes for the general purposes of street trafiSo. , 
 
 Slight rain makes both asphalt and wood more slippery than it is at other times. 
 On asphalt the slipperiuess begins almost immediately the rain commences ; wood 
 requires more rain before its worst condition ensues. The slipperiuess lasts longer 
 upon the wood, on account of its absorbent nature, than it does upon the asphalt 
 when dry weather ensues after the rain. 
 
 When asphalt is in its most slippery state the horses at times fall on it very sud- 
 denly; on wood their efforts to save themselves are more effectual. Wood also is 
 frequently in that peculiar condition of surface in which horses slip or glide along it 
 without falling. A small quantity of dirt on asphalt makes it very slippery ; wood 
 requires a large quantity. These are general statements, subject to modifications, 
 according to the nature of the wood or asphalt, their condition of repair, and clean- 
 liness. 
 
 Slipperiuess can be temporarily cured on both pavements, on the asphalt by sprin- 
 kling it with sand, on the wood by sprinkling it with gravel. The result in both 
 cases is dirt. The difSculty of cleaning wood as compared wiih asphalt has already 
 been referred to. The sand thrown on asphalt helps to wear it out ; the grave- 
 thrown on wood tends to preserve it. Watering or washing asphalt to prevent slips 
 periness has been tried, and no doubt for the time cures it, but sloppy streets are a 
 great nuisance, and not likely to be submitted to. Sand must, with present experi- 
 ence, be the remedy, and when applied is certainly effectual. Sanding is the remedy 
 applied at Paris. 
 
 When a horse falls upon asphalt, it has diflSculty in getting up. On wood it rises 
 more easily. The difficulty in rising from asphalt can, however, be largely remedied 
 by throwing down a little sand, or a horse-cloth, a care which does not often seem to 
 be bestowed by the drivers. 
 
 The effect of frost must be referred to. In times of snow there is but little, if 
 any, difference between the safety of asphalt and wood. In times of sharp frost 
 asphalt is usually dry and safe ; wood retaining moisture is very slippery. The 
 effects of frost on pavements in the heart of London should not, however, have 
 undue weight in these considerations, two or three winters sometimes passing with- 
 out snow lying for an entire day in the city streets, or frost rendering the surface of 
 any pavement slippery for more than a few hours at a time. The cure for slipperi- 
 uess in all cases is sanding or graveling. 
 
334 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 As regards speed of travel. — 'When asphalt is dry and the road nnimpeded, vehicles 
 oau be driven over it as quickly and as safely as on other pavements, but in streets 
 of much trafQc it is not wise to drive quickly because of the difficulty of stopping a 
 horse ; on wood it is ea-iier to stop a horse, times of frost excepted. 
 
 As to gradient. — A short length of asphalt in the city has a gradient of 1 in 46, 
 another 1 in 57 ; nearly the whole length has much better gradients. The commis- 
 sion in 1871 determined not to lay asphalt upon a steeper gradient than 1 in 60, and it 
 is a safe gradient at which to draw the line. 
 
 The two wood pavements in Bartholomew lane (Carey's, and the improved wood) 
 have gradients of 1 in 34 ; in King William street there are gradients of from 1 in 30 
 to 1 in 37, with cross gradients at the same spots of from 1 in 20 to 1 in 38 ; part of 
 Ludgate Hill has a gradient of 1 in 26, and all these are safe. Wood, therefore, xau 
 be laid with safety at a far steeper gradient than asphalt. 
 
 Generally, therefore, whether the question of safety be considered in reference to 
 the distance which a horse may travel before it meets with an accident, or the nature 
 of the accidents which occur, the facility with which a horse can recover itself when 
 it falls', the speedat which itis safe to travel, or the gradient at which the material 
 can be laid, wood is superior to asphalt. 
 
 DURABILITY AND COST. 
 
 Durabilibyis an elemeutiu the cost of all pavements, and it is desirable therefore in 
 the first place to see what has hi therto been the life of asphalt and wood in carriage 
 ways. 
 
 Asphalt. — Experience in London in the use of asphalt for carriageway pavements 
 dates from May, 1869 ; at the end of 1870 there were but 3 streets paved with it in the 
 city, the great bulk of the work having been done in the last 3 years. During that 
 time eleven different sorts have been tried, five of which have failed, and there are 
 others in an unsatisfactory condition, some showing unmistakable signs of decay, and 
 the necessity for a not far distant renewal or extensive reparation. Compressed 
 asphalts have hitherto proved themselves the most durable ; those which had been 
 the longest down were examined carefully last year, and the loss on them by wear 
 found to be small, and they were generally in good surface condition. 
 
 At Paris it has been used longer and more extensively than in any other city, the 
 first street having been laid with it in 1854. In most of the streets so paved the traffic 
 is small, but there are some, such as the Rue de Richelieu and the Rue Neuve St. 
 Augustin, in which it is considerable. I have been unable to ascertain the actual 
 life of the pavements at Paris, for the system adopted is to repair them immediately 
 they need it, and as each repair is so much new material laid, the whole surface is 
 really renewed in the course of years. The same system is and must be adopted in 
 London. Statements given to me by the companies of the extent of repair done to 
 the various pavements since they were laid do not well agree with my own observa- 
 tions, and the payments agreed to be made for maintaining the pavements must be 
 based upon the assumption of considerable renewal of surface being ueeded. After 
 full consideration of all circumstances, I think that without much repair none of the 
 asphalts would last more than from 4 to 6 years, and that in the course of from 6 to 
 10 years the entire surface of all will have been renewed. 
 
 There not being, however, sufficient experience to determine the durability of 
 asphalt in this city, all that can be done is to take the contracts entered into for 
 maintaining the pavements as giving both the measure of their life and their cost. 
 This mode was taken in the comparison between the cost of asphalt and granite in 
 my report of 1871. The following table gives the agreed costs of asphalt in some 
 leading thoroughfares : 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 335 
 
 Table No. 4. — Asphalt pavements. — Table showing the agreed cost per annum of certain 
 asphalt carriage-way pavements in the city of London. 
 
 Situation. 
 
 Description of 
 aspnaLt. 
 
 Yeaia 
 to be 
 main- 
 tained 
 l>y con- 
 tract- 
 ors. 
 
 First 
 cost per 
 square 
 
 yard. 
 
 Agreed cost of mainto- 
 
 nancp per square yard for 
 
 the contract term. 
 
 Total 
 cost of 
 pavo- ' 
 mcnts 
 durine 
 contract 
 term per 
 square 
 yard. 
 
 Aver- 
 age cost 
 
 per 
 
 square 
 
 yard 
 
 per 
 
 annum. 
 
 Clieapside and 
 
 Poultry. 
 Graoecliuroli street 
 
 Finabury pavement 
 
 Moorgate street 
 
 Do 
 
 Lombard street. 
 
 Cornhill 
 
 Mincing lane .-- 
 
 Val de Travers 
 
 (compressed). 
 do 
 
 ...do 
 
 ..-do , 
 
 Limmer (mabtio) . 
 
 ...do 
 
 ...do 
 
 .--.do 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 2 years free ; 15 years at 
 
 Is. Sd. = £12s.ed. 
 2 years free ; 15 years at 
 
 1«. Od.=15s. Od. 
 .2 years free ; 15 years at 
 
 9d.=ll», 3d. 
 2 years free ; 15 years at 
 
 9d.=lls. 3(J. 
 2 years free , 15 years at 
 
 9ii.=lls. 3d. 
 2 years free ; 15 years at 
 
 9(J.=11«. 3d. 
 2 years free: 15 years at 
 
 9d.=ll!. 3d. 
 2 vears free; 15 years at 
 
 9(J.=11«. 3d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 2 6 
 
 1 12 
 
 17 3 
 
 17 3 
 
 17 3 
 
 17 3 
 
 16 3 
 
 13 3 
 
 8. d. 
 
 2 4i 
 
 1 lOi 
 
 1 7i 
 
 1 7i 
 
 1 7J 
 
 1 71 
 
 1 6i 
 
 1 4i 
 
 Foundations are included in these estimates, bat no exoavation. The pavements are to be left as 
 good as new at the expiration of the contracts. 
 
 Wood. — Coanting size of block as constituting a difference, there must have been 
 more than two dozen different Mnds of wood pavements tried in the city. They 
 have been laid in streets both of large and small traffic, and subjected to almost 
 every condition which destroys a pavement. The commission has, therefore, experi- 
 ence of its own both in the durability and the cost of wood. 
 
 Last year a report was obtained by the commission from New York respecting the 
 wood pavements in that city, from which it appeared that its average duration did 
 not exceed 5 years. The information is not, however, of that precise character which 
 would make it of use for comparison here ; and the climatic conditions at New York 
 are so different to those in London that it might be but of little use even if the infor- 
 mation were fuller, for climate affects the safety, durability, and other conditions 
 of both asphalt and wood, and as there is large experience in wood pavement in this 
 metropolis I confine myself to that experience. 
 
 The table appended shows the duration and cost of wood pavements in six city 
 thoroughfares, all the pavements having been replaced by asphalt except one. 
 
 TablJ! No. 5. — Wood pavements — Table showing the actual duration and cost of certain 
 wood pavements in the oity of London. 
 
 Situation. 
 
 Date when 
 laid new. 
 
 Life. 
 
 First cost 
 
 per,flqnare 
 
 yard. 
 
 Total cost of 
 repairs per 
 
 square yard 
 during life. 
 
 Average cost 
 
 per square 
 
 yard per 
 
 annum. 
 
 
 Trs. 
 
 m. 
 
 e. d. 
 
 * «. d. 
 
 «. d. 
 
 May, 1855 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 12 2 
 
 17 41 
 
 2 11 
 
 July, 1865 
 
 « 
 
 8 
 
 11 6 
 
 9 9J 
 
 3 Oi 
 
 Nov., 1853 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 12 8 
 
 17 IJ 
 
 2 6} 
 
 .June, 1865 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 11 6 
 
 6 11 
 
 3 Oi 
 
 May, 1851 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 9 6 
 
 6 
 
 1 7i 
 
 Sept., 1860 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 9 2 
 
 10 2 
 
 2 9 
 
 May, 1854 
 
 12 
 
 ■i 
 
 12 6 
 
 1 8 4} 
 
 3 4 
 
 Aug., 1866 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 12 6 
 
 3 6J 
 
 2 74 
 
 July, 1841 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 U 4 
 
 13 4 
 
 
 Aug., 1860 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 9 2 
 
 1 2 6i 
 
 2 5i 
 
 May, 1854 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 12 6 
 
 17 5} 
 
 2 5i 
 
 Aug., 1866 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 12 6 
 
 3 Hi 
 
 3 Oi 
 
 C!omhill 
 
 Gracechurch street 
 
 Lombard street 
 
 Lothbnry 
 
 Mincing lane 
 
 Bartholomew lane. - 
 
 Foundations are included, bat no excavation. 
 The average life of the pavements in the three streets with the largest traffic was 
 about 9 years, that of the three streets with the least traffic about llj years. 
 
336 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Nearly all before they were removed had been relaid over their entire surface and 
 some new wood introduced from time to time in lieu of that found too defective to 
 relay. 
 
 It will be observed that the wood pavements last removed had a shorter life than 
 the previous paveraeats. There is more than one reason for this, but it should be 
 stated that nearly all would, by relay and the Introduction of some new wood, have 
 endured a few years longer. It was, however, thought by the commission expedient 
 to replace them with asphalt, with the exception of that in Bartholomew lane. 
 
 The mean of the three streets of largest traffic gives a cost of 2s. l^d. per square 
 yard per annum ; the mean of the streets of little traffic a cost of 2g. iid. per square 
 yard per annum. The cost "of the wood pavements which have been removed has, 
 therefore, been higher than the cost of asphalt will be under the existiiig contracts. 
 
 In a previous report I have stated tjiat much of the expense of granite pavements 
 in the city is attributable to their being too much patched and not being relaid over 
 their whole surface at sufficiently early periods. (There were reasons given why this 
 is the case.) The same remarks, in a degree, apply to wood, the blocks of which are 
 not so convertible, nor as a refuse material so valuable as old granite. If they were 
 relaid when it was best for the pavement and most economical to do so, their dura- 
 tion would be increased and their cost diminished. 
 
 Under present contracts both the wood and asphalt contractors must be permit- 
 ted to relay and repair the pavements when it will be best to do such work, and for 
 comparison it is therefore better to take the tendered prices for the wood pavements 
 recently laid as the measure of their life and cost, contrasting them with the tendered 
 prices for maintaining the asphalt. The comparison is not expensive, the commis- 
 sion having in some cases accepted tenders involving the maintenance of wood pave- 
 ments for short terms only. 
 
 Table No. 6. — Wood pavements — Taile ahowing first cost and tendered cost per annum for 
 maintaining certain toood carriageway pavements in thedti/ of London. 
 
 Situation. 
 
 Date when 
 laid. 
 
 Name of con- 
 tractor. 
 
 Tears 
 to be 
 main- 
 tained 
 by con- 
 tractor. 
 
 First 
 cost 
 per 
 square 
 yard. 
 
 Agreed cost of 
 
 maintenance per 
 
 square yard for 
 
 contract term. 
 
 Total 
 cost dur- 
 ing con- 
 tract 
 term, per 
 square 
 yard. 
 
 Aver- 
 age cost 
 
 per 
 square 
 yard 
 per an- 
 num. 
 
 King William 
 street. 
 
 LndgateHill 
 
 Feb., 1873 
 Nov., 1873 
 Sept., 1873 
 
 Jan., 1872 
 Deo., 18''1 
 
 May, 1873 
 (§) 
 
 ...do 
 
 Impr oved 
 Wood Pav- 
 ing Co. 
 do 
 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 
 t3 
 
 t:5 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 s. d. 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 12 6 
 
 16 
 
 15 3 
 
 17 
 
 13 6 
 
 1 year free: 15 
 
 Tears, at U.Cd. = 
 
 £12s.M. 
 1 year free ; 15 
 
 vears, atU.6d.= 
 
 £.1 2«. ad. 
 1 year free; 15 
 
 year,^, rttls.3d.~ 
 
 18*. 9d. 
 
 £ s d. 
 2 6 
 
 2 6 
 
 1 14 9 
 
 s. d. 
 2 6i 
 
 2 6i 
 
 2 2 
 
 do 
 
 Tower street 
 and Seething 
 Lane. 
 
 
 lane. 
 Do 
 
 Im proved 
 Wood Pav- 
 ing Co. 
 
 Mowlem&Co. 
 
 --..do 
 
 3 years free 
 
 2 years free; 3 
 
 years, .at ls = ds. 
 2 ' yeai-s free ; 5 
 
 years, at 9d.= 
 
 3s. 9d. 
 2 years free ; 5 
 
 years, at Is. — 5s. 
 
 16 
 
 
 Duke street 
 
 
 Houndsditcli 
 
 
 
 Do 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * N"o agreement. 
 
 t These pavements will no doubt last some years longer than the contract term of maintenance. 
 
 jThe LignoMineral Paving Company and the Improved "Wood Paviup; Gompaiiy offered to main- 
 tain their pavements, if laid, for terms of 10 years and 14 years, respectively ; their tenders were not 
 accepted. 
 
 §Not yet laid. 
 
 In the wood pavements the cost of the foundation is included, but not excavation. 
 
 The pavements at the end of each financial year are to bo in a good sound condition. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 
 The following table is drawn up from tables Nos. 4 and 6 : 
 
 337 
 
 Table No. 7. — Table showing the duration andoostof certain asphalt and loood oarriageway 
 ^pavements, acoording to tenders made iy the respective contractors. 
 
 Situation. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Tears to 
 be main- 
 tained by 
 contractor. 
 
 Average 
 coat per 
 
 square 
 yard per 
 
 annum. 
 
 Asphalt : 
 
 Cheapside and Poultry 
 
 G-racecburch street 
 
 Finsbury pavement 
 
 Lombard street 
 
 CornMU '.;.. 
 
 Wood : 
 
 King William street 
 
 Ludgate Hill 
 
 Portion of Sreat Tower street and Seeth- 
 ing lane. 
 
 Tal de Trarers (compressed), 
 
 do 
 
 .--.do 
 
 Limmer (mastic) 
 
 do 
 
 Improved wood - 
 
 — do 
 
 ...do 
 
 <. d. 
 2 4i 
 1 lOJ 
 
 Pavements cost more or less acoording to the width and traffic of the streets; exact 
 comparison is, therefore, unattainable, but from tables Nos. 4, 6, and 7 it appears 
 generally that the improved wood pavement will be dearer than compressed asphalt, 
 and still dearer if contrasted with limmer. There are other asphalt and wood pave- 
 ments nominally cheaper, but it is expedient to keep to the best of the two classes 
 for comparison. 
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 My general conclusions upon the subject matter of the report are : 
 
 Firstly, as regards convenience ; That asphalt is the smoothest, driest, cleanest, 
 most pleasing to the eye, and most agreeable pavement for general purposes, but wood 
 the most qniet. 
 
 Secondly, as regards cleansing : That wood may be kept cleaner than it hitherto 
 has been, but will be more difficult and expensive to cleanse effectually than asphalt; 
 that as both pavements require occasionally strewing either with sand or gravel, 
 there is not much difference between them in that respect. 
 
 Thirdly, as regards construction and repair : That asphalt and wood, taking all 
 seasons and weathers into account, can be laid and repaired with about equal facil- 
 ity, but that the smallest, neatest, cleanest, and most durable repairs can be made in 
 
 I^ourthly, as regards safety : That whether considered in reference to the distance 
 which a horse may travel before It meets with an accident, oi the nature of the acci- 
 dent, or the facility with which a horse can recover its footing, or the speed at which 
 it is safe to travel, or the gradient at which the material can be laid, wood is superior 
 to asphalt. 
 
 Fifthly, as regards durability and cost : That wood pavements, with repairs, have 
 in this city had a life varying from 6 to 19 years, and that with repairs an average 
 life of about 10 years may be obtained ; that the durability of the asphalts is not 
 known, but that under the system of maintenance adopted they may last as long as 
 wood ; that contrasting the tenders for laying and maintaining for a term of years 
 the two best pavements of their kinds, wood will be the dearest. 
 
 To avoid misapprehension it may be well again to state that these remarks apply, 
 in most oases, to asphalt and wood pavements generally, but are more strictly appli- 
 cable to the compressed asphalt of the Val de Travers Company and to the improved 
 wood pavement. Also that they apply to streets of much traffic and in London, for 
 where the climate and other conditions are widely different, different results, as re- 
 gards safety and cost, etc., may be expected. 
 
 • I have the honor to remain, gentlemen, your most obedient servant, 
 
 WiLLtAM Haywood, 
 33a ^22 Engineer and Surveyor. 
 
338 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Table No. 8. — Wood pavements, — Table showing the sittiation, description, area^ andt date 
 of completion of the wood pavements in the city of London. 
 
 Situation. 
 
 Name of pavement. 
 
 Length 
 
 Super 
 licial 
 area. 
 
 When com- 
 pleted. 
 
 Description of pavements 
 
 Bartholomew lane- Carey'.s wood pave 
 ment. 
 
 Bif chin lane 
 
 Jewry street . . . 
 Little George street 
 Bartholomew lane . 
 
 Great Tower street 
 and Seething 
 lane. 
 
 King "William 
 street, fro m 
 Gracecliurcli 
 street and Can- 
 non street to Ar- 
 thur street. 
 
 King "William 
 street (south of 
 Arthur street) 
 and Adelaide 
 place. 
 
 LudgateHill 
 
 Gracechurch street. 
 
 Gannon street . 
 
 Balsastreet, Smith- 
 field. 
 
 King "William 
 street (north of 
 Cannon street). 
 
 ...do 
 
 .. do 
 
 ...do 
 
 Improved wood 
 
 pavement. 
 
 ...do. 
 
 Yards. 
 40 
 
 .do . 
 
 ....do. 
 
 .do. 
 
 Ligno-mineral 
 pavement. 
 
 Mowlem's wood 
 
 pavement. 
 
 „..do. 
 
 Stone's patent 
 WQod pavement. 
 
 266 
 
 37 
 
 Yards. 
 468 
 
 2,620 
 
 2,639 
 
 210 
 
 377 
 
 Jan., 
 
 1872 
 
 Juno, 1866 
 
 253 Feb., 1872 
 
 148 ..-.do 
 
 392 1 Dec. 1871 
 
 Aug. 4,1873 
 
 Aug. 13, 1872 
 
 Jan. 25,1873 
 
 Nov. 8,1873 
 
 Aug., 1872 
 
 Sept 5,1873 
 
 June 7,1873 
 July 15,1873 
 
 Fine ballast foundation ; pav- - 
 ing blocks varying in width 
 from 6i in. to 7i in., and in 
 length from 13 in. toi,15;jii.j^ 
 6 in. deep; §-in, longitjidi-' 
 nal and |'in. transverse 
 joints,, grouted with lime 
 and sand. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Plank foundation; blocks 3 
 in. by 9 in., 5 in, deen^|-ln.' 
 transverse joints.', fillea in 
 with pebbles and tar or other 
 bituminons substances. "■ 
 
 Plank foundation ; blocks 3 
 in. hy 9 in., 6 in..deepf.|-Jn. 
 transverse jointis . ^U^d. in 
 with pebbles* and tSrbr o^oet 
 bituminous sn.bsta9c^,M.[rf;' 
 
 Plank foundation; blocks, 3^ 
 in. by 10 in., 6 in. deen;'^in. 
 transverse jotntq,.^ll^j5, in 
 with pebbles and tar or biheii 
 bituminoas fiuhsl^cesi ' t(^^' 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Concrete foundation; blocks 
 
 3i in. by C in., 4J in.de&p^; 
 
 ends cut obliquely; j-in. 
 
 joints, grouted with Port-- 
 
 land cement. 
 Concrete foundation; blocks 
 
 3 in. by 9 'in., 7 in:' deep; 
 
 i-iu. joints, grouted with lias 
 
 lime and washed sand. ' 
 Do. 
 
 Concrete foundation, with 
 grooves in surfece lAio- (by ; 
 4-in., 3 in. apart; blocks.. 4- 
 in. by 6 in., 4 in. dee'p;' the' 
 bottoms shaped .to; fit,.^ , 
 grooves; 4-in. transverse 
 joints, 'filled in with' tar 
 compositioij. . 
 
 Makch 17, 1874. 
 
 Wm. Haywood. 
 
EUEOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 339, 
 
 Tablb; No. 9,-77-4*8 W* .i?fltJe»ii,e»<*.:— ^T(^J7e showmg -the-,, eitmUon, description, area, and 
 dateofcompUtionofMasphaUpaveme'iiisintheeHiiofLonda'n. 
 
 Situation. 
 
 Name of pavement. 
 
 Length. 
 
 SupoT-, 
 Spial 
 area. 
 
 When ' 
 completed. 
 
 Description of pavement. 
 
 Bow Lane, from 
 
 Cannon street to 
 
 Cheapside. 
 Cheapside fti^d 
 
 iPoiittry. 
 Finsbiiry paye^. 
 
 ment and Moor; 
 
 gate. 
 Gttorge yarcl, Lorn- 
 
 b^^ stj-eet. 
 
 Va,l de Travel's 
 asphalt. 
 
 ....do., 
 
 ....(to 
 
 ....do 
 
 .do 
 
 625 
 600 
 
 69 
 
 272 
 135 
 400 
 
 .131. 
 
 74, 
 
 ''I 
 
 99 
 
 68 
 485 
 
 108 
 
 33 
 
 68 
 47 
 
 113 
 43. 
 300 
 
 170 
 
 163 
 
 .129 
 331 
 
 87 
 
 278 
 
 197 
 
 105 
 
 156 
 
 409 
 
 153 
 
 463 
 
 483 
 
 103 
 
 , 02 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 61 
 
 Xards. 
 425 
 
 7,938 
 3,861 
 
 232 
 2,659 
 1,439 
 3,164 
 
 .731 
 3,043 
 
 297 
 
 1,027 
 
 402 
 3,671 
 
 799.. 
 
 80 
 
 452 
 485 
 
 438 
 
 150 
 
 1, 492 
 
 671 
 
 567 
 
 , 443, 
 3,333 
 
 227 
 1,163 
 
 955 
 1,038 
 
 76r 
 , *' ^^? 
 
 757 
 
 3,869 
 4,189 
 2,384 
 1,0?7 
 
 337 
 
 346 
 
 ,281 
 
 Sept. .22, 1873 
 
 Deo. 9(1870 
 Aug. 18, 1871 
 
 Apr. 1,1871 
 July 22, 1871 
 Nov. '12, 1873 
 Oct. 18,1871 
 
 ,00*;', 22, mi 
 Jupe21,187^ 
 
 Mar. 22, 1871 
 
 Aug. 18, 1871 
 
 May 2,1871 
 Mar. 25, 1871 
 
 Apr. 27, 1871 
 
 Mar. 22, 1871 
 
 Oct. 18,1879 
 June 5,1869 
 
 Dec. 22, 1871 
 Mar. 30, 1871 
 Sept. 7,1871 
 
 Sept. 13, 1873 
 
 - 'J, 
 Nov. 7,1873 
 
 Oct. 23,1873 
 Mar. 6,1872 
 
 S6ptj23,1873 
 
 May 18, 1871 
 
 Aug. 23, 1873 
 
 Sept. 8,1871 
 
 Oct. 18,1873 
 
 Dec. 21, 1872 
 
 Sept. 7,1872 
 
 June 11, 1873 
 Apr. 11,1873 
 Oct. 10,1872 
 Oct, 14,1871 
 
 July 18, 1872 
 
 Aug. 14, 1872 
 
 Jan. 2p, 1872 
 
 Concrete founrlation 6 in. 
 
 thl,cl^: compressed asphalt 
 
 2 jn. thick: 
 Concrete loundation 9 in., 
 
 asphalt 2J in. 
 Concrete foundation 6 in., 
 
 asphalt 2 in. 
 
 Concrete foand.a,t.ion 6 In., 
 
 mastic aQplialt li in.' 
 Concrete foundation 9 in., 
 
 King William 
 
 street (weetend). 
 
 . do 
 
 compressed asphalt 2^ in. 
 Concrete foundation 6 in., 
 
 do 
 
 compressed asplialt 2 in. 
 Do. 
 
 Moorgate to 0^d. 
 , Broad street. , 
 Mansell street . . . . , 
 
 ....do 
 
 do 
 
 ■ Do. ,..,; ... 
 
 Cojic^ete foundation , @ in.. 
 
 street. 
 Milkslreet 
 
 Moorgate street 
 
 (north end). 
 01d,BaHci)r..i-.i... 
 Old and New Broad 
 
 streets. 
 Queen street 
 
 ....do ,.. 
 
 |; R -:'.!• '.•■■■hi 
 
 ...do ...'. 
 
 compressed asphalt 2 in- 
 Con,ci:e,te foundation in., 
 ' compressed asphalt 2 in. 
 Do. 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 .do 
 
 Do. . -,. ' ' , . 
 
 ....do 
 
 . do 
 
 Concrete foundation 9 in., com- 
 pressed asphalt 2i in. 
 Concrete foundation Oiu , com- 
 
 St. Ann's lane 
 
 Threadneedle street 
 (west end). 
 
 Threadneedle street 
 
 (east end). 
 .Throgmortop 
 
 street. 
 "\5r00d street, from 
 
 London Wall to 
 
 Grresham street: ' 
 Wood street, fiom 
 
 Oresham street 
 
 to Cheapside. 
 Castle street, Hol- 
 
 born. 
 Clement's lane 
 
 ... do ....I... 
 
 . , pM^^^jl asphalt 2 in. 
 
 . do 
 
 Concrete foundation 8 in., com- 
 
 ....do ,... 
 
 ■•••■dq-- 
 
 ..:.do 
 
 pressed asphalt 2 in.; on 
 mastic^ in. 
 
 Concretefoundation9in., com- 
 pressed asphalt 2 in. 
 
 Gunorete ^oiindatipn & in.^ com-i 
 pressed asphalt 2 in. 
 
 ■■ Do.'' ' "-■.^'" '-'-^'i' 
 
 . do 
 
 Do. t^ ;, 
 
 Limmer asphalt . ■ 
 
 ...do 
 
 ....do 
 
 Concrete foundatioji 6in,, i^oaB- 
 
 tic asphalt 2 in. 
 Do. 
 Concrete foundation 6in., mas- 
 
 
 ;'...'do 
 
 tic asphalt 2 in. 
 
 
 ...do 
 
 tic asphalt 2 in. . 
 Concrete foundation 9in., ipfbs- 
 
 tic asphalt 2 in. ' 
 Coji Crete foundation 6 In. ..mas- 
 
 
 ...do ..r 
 
 Moorgate street 
 
 (cenJirM)- 
 CilA .Tfiwpv 
 
 do ■. 
 
 tic asphalt 2 in. 
 Concretfe foundation 9 in., niaa- 
 
 do 
 
 tic asphalt 2 in, . ,■ r • 
 Concrete foundation 6in.', mas- 
 
 Bishopsgate street 
 
 Carter lane, from 
 Creed lane to 
 Paul's Chain. 
 
 Fenchurcli street.. 
 
 Leadenhall street. . 
 
 Baiuett> aspji^lt . 
 ....do..., 
 
 do 
 
 tic' aaphalt 2 in. .. J' ■ 
 Concrete friundationQin., mas- 
 tic asphalt ^ in. '^' 
 Do. - . 
 
 Do. 
 
 ..do 
 
 Do. 
 
 ... do 
 
 Do. 
 
 l|oorgate^,,, street, 
 
 (south end). 
 P*ilQoes*r86t...... 
 
 ' Db...^. ..;'..... 
 
 •r,H<10 ,.-f — 
 
 Soci6t6 Francaise 
 des Asphaltes. 
 
 Montrotier as- 
 phalt. 
 
 Map^t, asphalt ... 
 
 Concrete foundation 9in., com- 
 
 . pressed asphalt 2§ in. ■ , 
 Concrete foundation 12 in., 
 
 Threadneedle 
 street.* 
 
 1 compressed asphalt 2 in.""' 
 Coiicrete^fouudatiup 9 in., asi- 
 phaltSln.' 
 
 *!Eenloved Janiiary ^6, 1872, and Val de Travera compressed asphalt laid in its place. 
 
340 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Table No. 9. — Asphalt pavements. — Tahle shoinng the situation, description, area, and 
 date of completion of the asphalt pavements in the city of London — Continued. 
 
 Situation. 
 
 If ameof pavement. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Super- 
 ficial 
 area. 
 
 When com. 
 pleted. 
 
 Description of pavement. 
 
 Princes street* 
 
 Do.t 
 
 Trinidad asphalt.. 
 
 Patent British as- 
 phalt. 
 
 Stone's slipless 
 asphalt. 
 
 Foothold metallic 
 asphalt. 
 
 Yards. 
 29 
 
 39 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 Yards. 
 340 
 
 371 
 
 358 
 
 299 
 
 June 19, 1872 
 Jnly 6,1872 
 Jal.v 28, 1873 
 
 Oct. 27,1873 
 
 Concrete foundation 9 in., as- 
 phalt 2 in. 
 
 King 'William 
 street. J 
 
 Do.S 
 
 Concrete foundation BiD.thick, 
 asphalt 2^ in. thick, com- 
 posed of tar, cement, sand, 
 and lead ore, compressed hy 
 machinery. 
 
 
 asphalt 4 in. thick, viz, 3 
 in. of English npon 1 in. of 
 foreign manufacture, fused 
 together. 
 
 * Removed November 16, 1872, and Val de Travers compressed asphalt laid in its plaee. 
 1 Removed December 22, 1872, and Val de Travers compressed asphalt laid in its place. 
 T Removed September 12, 1873, and Val de Travers compressed asphalt laid in its place. 
 ^ Removed February 21, 1874, and Val de Travers compressed asphalt laid in its place. 
 
 The statements as to the composition of some of the factitious asphalts are as given 
 by the patentees or proprietors. 
 
 Wm. Haywood. 
 March 17, 1874. 
 
 COST OF MAINTAINING LONDON PAVEMENTS. 
 
 Engineer and Surveyor's Department, 
 
 Sewers Office, Guildhall, January 24, 1882. 
 To the honorable the Commissioners op Sewers of the City of London : 
 
 Gentlemen : In pursuance of your reference I beg to lay before you a table giving 
 the annual cost of maintaining in good condition certain of the principal asphalt, 
 wood, and granite carriage-way pavements in the city of London. 
 
 The following information is given to enable their relative costs to be properly 
 considered : 
 
 asphalt pavements. 
 
 Asphalt pavements are as a rule maintained by the contractors, subject to the 
 following conditions : 
 
 The contracts are for a term of 17 years. 
 
 For the first 2 years the pavements are maintained at the cost of the contractors, 
 and for the remainiug 15 at the cost of the commission at contract prices per square 
 yard per annum, measured over the whole surface of the pavements, for which the 
 contractors are bound to keep the pavements in a good state of repair. At the ter- 
 mination of the contracts the pavements are to be left in a good condition to the 
 satisfaction of the engineer, and so that a square yard of the asphalt is not to weigh 
 less than a specified weight. 
 
 wood pavements. 
 
 The contracts for maintaining these are also for 17 years, for the first 2 of which 
 they are maintained at the cost of the contractor, and subsequently, as in the case 
 of the asphalt, at the cost of the commission at a tendered price per square yard per 
 annum, measured over the whole surface, the pavements at the expiration of the 
 term to be in good condition and to the satisfaction of the engineer. 
 
 There are a few exceptions, however, both in asphalt and wood, to the mode of 
 contracting for maintenance. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 341 
 
 GRANITE PAVEMENTS. 
 
 The commission has never oontraotod for maintaining granite pavements npon the 
 same basis as they have those of wood and asphalt, but the necessary work to the 
 granite has been executed when needed, and paid for according to a schedule of 
 prices contracted for. As far as practicable all the work is measured up. 
 
 As almost every main thoroughfare in the city has now for years been paved with 
 wood or asphalt, the best thing is to lay before the commission the estimates of the 
 cost of certain main thoroughfares which were made when they were paved with 
 granite, and just before wood and asphalt were introduced. 
 
 The mode of maintaining the granite pavements must also be explained. 
 
 It was the custom to lay new granite almost exclusively in main thoroughfares, 
 and when a pavement was so worn as to need a general relay, to remove it altogether 
 and lay a new one in its place. The pavements in main thoroughfares were, there- 
 fore, nearly always removed long before they were worn out ; this was done so that 
 those streets where the traffic was the greatest might have the best pavements, as 
 well as for other reasons. 
 
 The old stones were removed to the stone yard, mixed with the general stock, re- 
 dressed, sorted into sizes, and then laid in secondary or third-class streets. 
 
 Thus it most frequently happened that granite paving stones, first laid in a main 
 thoroughfare, passed, when redressed, into a second-class thoroughfare, and ulti- 
 mately into one of but little traffic ; owing to this system, although the cost of the 
 small repairs of a granite pavement made yearly could readily be arrived at, the total 
 cost of the maintenance over long periods could only be estimated. 
 
 I have the honor to remain, gentlemen, your moat obedient servant, 
 
 W. Haywood, 
 Engineer aad Surveyor. 
 
 Return ahomng the annual cost of maintaining the carriage-way paoemente in some of the 
 principal thoroughfares of the city of London, 
 
 ASPHALT PAVEMENTS. 
 
 Name of thoroughfare. 
 
 Description of pavemeiit. 
 
 Annual 
 cost of 
 mainten- 
 ance per 
 yard super- 
 ficial. 
 
 Bishops^ate street within 
 
 Cheapside and Poultry 
 
 Fencburch street, between Gracechurch street and 
 Railway place. 
 
 Finsbury pavement andMoorgate 
 
 Gracechurch street : 
 
 Gresbam street 
 
 King "William street, narrow portion 
 
 London wall 
 
 Moorgate street, between Coleman street buildings and 
 London wall. 
 
 Moorgate street, between Lothbnry and Telegraph 
 street. 
 
 Few Broad street and Old Broad street 
 
 Paternoster row 
 
 Queen street, between Cheapside and Pancras lane 
 
 Queen street, between Pancras lane and Queen Vic- 
 toria street. 
 
 Tbreadneedle street 
 
 Queen Victoria street, from Mansion House to Cannon 
 street. 
 
 Aldgate 
 
 Combill 
 
 Lombard street 
 
 Mark lane 
 
 Mincing laue 
 
 Moorgate street, from Telegraph street to Coleman 
 street buildings. 
 
 Newgate street 
 
 Val de Travers asphalt. 
 
 ...do 
 
 ...do 
 
 -do. 
 -do. 
 -do- 
 .do. 
 .do. 
 -do . 
 
 ....do. 
 
 .do. 
 .do. 
 .do. 
 .do. 
 
 ...do. 
 ...do. 
 
 Limmer asphalt, 
 do 
 
 .do. 
 .do. 
 do. 
 .do. 
 
 .do. 
 
 8. d. 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 6 
 
342 
 
 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEtGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 Return showing the annual cost of maintaining tlie oarriage-icaij pavements, etc. — Cont'd. 
 ■ "ASPHAM PAVEMENTS— ContUmed. 
 
 Kame of thoronghfare. 
 
 Deecription of pavements. 
 
 Annual 
 , cost of 
 mainteb- 
 . anoe per 
 yard super- 
 ficial. 
 
 Fenchurch street (eastern end). 
 
 King street, Cheapside '. 
 
 Princes street (part of) 
 
 Philpotlane 
 
 Milton street : !.. 
 
 ^oci6t6 Francaise des asphaltes. 
 
 do --.... '.. 
 
 — do i.,.^ - ti 
 
 ...do 
 
 !. d. 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 1 3 
 6 
 6 
 
 WOOD PAVEMENTS. 
 
 Aldgate Higb street 
 
 Blshopsgate street without 
 
 Barbican 
 
 Holbom — 
 
 Jewin street 
 
 Xing 'WilliaJm street and Adelaide place ,i.; 
 
 New Bridge street 
 
 St. PaiiVs chtitchyard (westetn end) 
 
 St.lJary Aie.u v ..., 
 
 , "WalbrooK , 
 
 Wormwood street 
 
 Fleet street (west end) '.... 
 
 Leadenball street (east end) 
 
 Minories .' t '.-..1.. 
 
 Fleet stree^ (easte^ half) ' 
 
 Queen street, between Gannon street and Upper 
 Tbames street. 
 
 Cannon street --...... 
 
 St Paul's cburcbyard (soutb and east sides) 
 
 Improved wood . . 
 ... do 
 
 ...do.... 
 
 ...ilo... ^, 
 
 ...do .., 
 
 ...do ;,.»', 
 
 .-.do ,.„. 
 
 :...do .... 
 
 ...do. ...v.. 
 
 Mowlem'a wood . 
 
 ...do , 
 
 Henson's wood. .. 
 
 ...do 
 
 ...dt). ........... 
 
 Asphaltic wood.. 
 ...do 
 
 Carey's wood .. 
 Gabriel's wood. 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 10 
 
 GEANITE PAVEMENTS. 
 
 Cheapside 
 
 Poultry — 
 
 Old Broad street 
 Moorgate street ., 
 Lombai'd street... 
 
 Abei^deen" granite 3 by 9 inches. 
 
 ...do .V 
 
 ...do 
 
 ...do 
 
 ...do 
 
 6i 
 
 9i 
 
 3 
 
 35 
 
 3i 
 
 These are the sums actually paid for johbing, repairs, and- maintaining the pave- 
 ments generally in a good condition nntil a relay of the entire surface was needed, 
 ■when, as stated in the report, pa,ge 6, the pavements were replaced h.y new. 
 
 In 1871 1 estimated the total cost per square yard of granite paveipents in these 
 thoroughfares, assuming that the granite had remained in them until thoroughly worn 
 out, and distributing "the first cost of the pavements oiver their duration, was as 
 follows : 
 
 Situation, 
 
 Averageebst 
 per square 
 yard per an- 
 num; imSlnd- 
 iag first cost 
 find hiainte.- 
 nance; 
 
 
 ... ft; i. 
 1 7* 
 3 9i 
 1 04 
 1 4* 
 
 1 ul 
 
 Poultry 
 
 Old Broad street 
 
 Moorgate street 
 
 
 
 W. Haywood, 
 Engineer and Surveyor. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 343 
 
 LIVERPOOL DISTRICT. 
 
 BEPOBT BY CONSUL SHERMAM. 
 STREETS. 
 
 For particulars of the best class of city street pavement I refer to 
 the report published in Consular Reports No. 117. [Inserted herein]. 
 
 A more common metho,d where the traffic is heavy is as follows : On 
 a bed of ashes or broken stone, rolled and consolidated^ is placed a 
 layer of 1 inch i o 1| inches of sand, and on this Welsh granite sets from 
 8 to 12 inches long by 6 inches deep and 3 inches wide are laid and the 
 joints run with asphalt. Where the traffic is lighter gfit-6tone sets 8 
 to 12 inches long, 8 inches deep, and 6 inches wide are used. These 
 are laid as above, but the joints are simply filled with sand or gravel. 
 
 STREETS AND SEWERS OF LIVERPOOL." 
 
 STREET PAVEMENTS. 
 
 After many years of experiment and the expendittire of vast sums of money in 
 pavements tlie corporation of Liverpool now points with jaatiflable pride to its 250 
 miles of tlie best paved streets in the world. 
 
 The policy adopted by this corporation in the execution of public works in the 
 best possible manner, and generally by their own workmen, has proved -sucoe^ssful 
 in every way ; and, by a judicious capital expenditure, the coat of maintenance of 
 the roads, sewers, and other public works is reduced to a minimum, and the greatest 
 economy is thereby attained. 
 
 The laying of the impervious pavement which was adopted in 1873 for the car- 
 riage-ways of the city has beea ooutinned up to date without intermission, and is 
 still iu progress, resulting iu nearly 1,750,000 yards superficial of impervious carriage- 
 way pavements and a saving by the exeoutiou of this class of work unprecedented 
 in municipal experience. 
 
 The financial result can best be shown by the following : Dealing with the year 
 1879, under the present city engineer (Mr. Clement Dunscom\)e, M. A., M. Inst. C. E. ), 
 the estimated expenditure for the general i-epairs to the roads in this city Was 
 £28,000 ($136,080), the mileage of adopted roads at that time being 226 miles. Con- 
 currently with the extension of the impervious carriage-way pavements, the expend- 
 iture under this head has been reduced year by year till the estimated cost for the 
 current year (1889) is only £8,400 ($40,824), with a street mileage under repair of 254 
 miles. This reduction has not been effected, as might at first sight be sttpposedj by 
 an increased rate under this head, due to an augmented capital expenditure requir- 
 ing the provision of additional interest and'sinking fund to redeem the original debt 
 for paving and like works within 23 years (from 1870, when the loan was effected; to 
 1893, when it will be paid), as the amount raised on paving rate account in the 
 year 1879 was, approximately, £17,000 (l$8-2,620) more than in the year 1889, al- 
 though the interest and sinking fund on the debt had increased from about £13,000 
 (163,180) per annum in the year 1879 to about £47,000 (.$228,420) per annum in the 
 year 18S9. 
 
 Appended hereto are the specifications for paving first, second, and third class 
 ■ streets. 
 
 Pavement designated as fltst class is usually laid down in the main streets of 
 heaVy traflSc in the central parts of the city. 
 
 * From Consular Reports, No. llr, fur Jane, 1890. 
 
344 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Permission is never given to private companies or persons to cut tlirongh tlie 
 pavement in any street for any purpose. Wlien such work is necessary, the corpora- 
 tion will do it in its own thorough way, and the interested parties must pay the en- 
 t ire cost — a regulation worth noting. 
 
 PAVING SPECIFICATIONS. 
 
 First-class streets. — Excavate or fill in the gronnd, as the case may he, to the requi- 
 site level, and remove all surplus material. Properly, form and trim off the surface 
 and thoroughly consolidate the same, and then lay a foundation of not less than 6 
 inches of Portland cement concrete, corporation standard. The paving shall consist 
 of granite or syenite sets, 3J inches wide by 6J inches deep, from North Wales or 
 other approved qnarries, laid in regular, straight, and properly bonded courses, 
 with close joints, and to be evenly bedded on a layer of fine gravel half an inch in 
 thickness. After the paving is laid the joints shall be filled with hard, clean, dry 
 shingle; the sets shall then be thoroughly rammed and additional shingle added 
 until the joints are perfectly full. The joints shall then be carefully grouted until 
 completely filled with hot asphalt, composed of coal pitch and creosote oil, and finally 
 the paving is to be covered with half an inch of shiirp gravel. 
 
 The crossings shall consist of three rows of 16 by 8 inch granite crossing stones, and 
 the remaining space shall be paved on each side of the crossing stones to the full 
 width of the footway, in a similar manner to the carriage way. The crossing stones 
 shall be of granite of a quality to be approved by the engineer, dressed perfectly 
 true, and out of winding on the face ; the sides and joints to be perfectly square and 
 accurately dressed throughout their entire depth ; the stones to be bedded on cement 
 concrete, the joints to be filled with shingle and grouted with hot asphalt. A tri- 
 angular groove an inch wide by three-fourths of an inch deep to be run along the 
 upper surface of each stone. No stone to be less than 3 feet in length. 
 
 The footways shall be paved with Yorkshire or Lancashire flags of the best qual- 
 ity, not less than 3 inches thick. No flag to measure less than 2 feet in width or to 
 be of less area than 6 feet; to be solid, free from laminations, the upper surface to be 
 true and free from windings or hollows ; the joints to be squared the whole thickness. 
 The flags to be laid on a bed of fine gravel, with close, neat joints Unshed in mortar, 
 and in uniform courses breaking bond. The joints to be dressed after laying, where 
 necessary. 
 
 The channel stones to be of granite or syenite, of a quality to be approved by the 
 engineer, and to be not less than 3 feet in length. The upper surface, if not self-faced 
 and perfectly true, must be accurately worked out of winding, the bed even and 
 parallel to the face, the sides and ends truly square ; the stones to be bedded on 
 cement concrete, and the joints to be filled with clean shingle and gronted with hot 
 asphalt. 
 
 The curbstones to be granite or syenite, straight or circular as required, 6 inches 
 thick at top, 7 inches thick at 5 inches below, and not less than that thickness for the 
 remainder of the depth ; to be not less than 12 inches deep nor less than 3 feet in 
 length ; to be carefully dressed on top, 8 inches down the face, and 3 inches down the 
 back; the remainder of each stone to be hammer dressed; the heading joints to be 
 neatly and accurately squared throughout the entire depth. 
 
 Second-class streets. — Excavate or fill in the ground, as the case may be, to the requi- 
 site level, and remove all surplus material; properly form and trim off the surface; 
 and thoroughly consolidate the same, and then lay a foundation of (o) not less than 
 6 inches of Portlaud cement concrete, corporation standard, or (i) not less than 6 
 inches of bituminous concrete, consisting of clean and angular broken stone, grouted 
 with hot asphalt composed of coal pitch and creosote oil, covered with chippings, 
 and thoroughly consolidated by rolling with a roller of sutBcient weight. The pav- 
 ing shall consist of granite or syenite sets 3 inches wide by 5 inches deep, or of granite 
 or syenite 4 by 4 inch cubes from North Wales or other approved quarries, laid in 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 345 
 
 regular, straiglit, and properly bonded courses, with close joints, and to be evenly 
 bedded on a layer of fine gravel half an inch in thickness. After the paving is laid 
 the joints shall be filled with clean, hard, dry abingle ; the sets shall then be thor- 
 oughly rammed, and additional shingle added until the joints are perfectly full. The 
 joints shall then be carefully grouted until completely filled with hot asphalt com- 
 posed of coal pitch and creosote oil, and, finally, the paving shall be covered with 
 half an inch of sharp gravel. 
 
 The crossings, footways, channels, and curbs shall be the same as specified for first- 
 class streets. 
 
 Third-olass streets. — Excavate or fill in the ground, as the case may be, to the requi- 
 site level, and remove all surplus material ; properly form and trim off the surface 
 and thoroughly consolidate the same, and then lay a foundation of hand-pitched rock 
 6 inches in depth, set on edge in the manner of a rough pavement. Over this a coat- 
 ing of gravel is to be laid of sufiSoient thickness to fill in the interstices and to form 
 a smooth surface to the foundation, which must be thoroughly consolidated by rolling 
 with a steam roller before the paving is laid. The paving shall consist of 4 by 4 inch 
 granite or syenite cubes from North Wales or other approved quarries, laid in regular, 
 straight, and properly bonded courses, with close joints, and to be evenly bedded on 
 a layer of fine gravel half an inch in thickness. After the paving is laid the joints 
 shall be filled with clean, hard, dry shingle; the sets shall then be thoroughly rammed 
 and additional shingle added until the joints are perfectly full. The joints shall 
 then be carefully grouted, until completely filled up, with hot asphalt composed of 
 coal pitch and creosote oil, and, finally, the paving shall be covered with half an inch 
 of sharp gravel. 
 
 The crossings, footways, channels, and curbs shall be the same as specified for first- 
 class streets. 
 
 Street Kailways. 
 
 All the street railway tracks (tramways) are laid and owned and kept in condition 
 by the corporation, and the company leasing them for traffic pays an annual rental 
 of 10 per cent, on their cost. 
 
 The superb manner in which these rails are placed is fully shown in an illustrated 
 report of the city engineer, from which Iqugte : 
 
 " The Liverpool city lines as now laid * * « are conclusive proof that when 
 tramways are well designed and properly constructed they do not form the slightest 
 impediment even to the narrowest wheeled vehicles." 
 
 Sewers. 
 
 During the past 17 years the corporation has expended for sewerage works approx- 
 imately £350,000 ($1,703,000), and this outlay has been thoroughly reproductive from 
 a sanitary point of view in a lessened mortality rate. Interesting details on this sub- 
 ject are given in the illustrated report of the city engineer which is inclosed here- 
 with. 
 
 SEWERS OF LIVERPOOL. 
 
 [Extracts from the annual report of the city engineer, Mr. Dunscombe.] 
 
 Ventilation of sewers. 
 
 Prior to 1871 there we re noventilators fixed upon the main sewers in the city. At 
 that date 1,046 Archimedean screw ventilators, G inches in diameter, were connected 
 with the branch sewers from courts, the 6-inch pipe being attached to the side of one 
 of the court houses wherever permission could be obtained. Of this number there 
 are at the present time 976 remaining, which includes a few shaft ventilators added 
 since 1871, mainly in confined situations where open grid ventilation was found to be 
 
346 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN CODNTEIES. 
 
 objectionable, the demolition of insanitary court houses and of property for railway 
 and other improvements having reduced the number that" were origiuiilly fixed.* 
 
 The cost of these ventilators, inclrtding fixing, is stated to be £10 each, and the 
 annual dost of maintenance about 5s. each. 
 
 Ventilating grids or ventilating manhole covers, as the case may be, the clear open- 
 ing in each being not less than 63 square inches, have been fixed along the inain sewers 
 at a distance apart of 80 yards approximately. 
 
 Drawing No. 1, figtire 1, shows the arrangement adopted where the ventilating 
 grating is fixed over a chamber constracted at the side of a nuinhole. 
 
 Drawing No. 1, ■figure 2, shows a manhole cover and ventilator combined. 
 
 Where the distance between the manholes is more than thespecified distance apart 
 of 80 yards, ventilating grids, as shown in drawing No. 1, Fi^.'4, have been fixed 
 on special shafts over the sewer, sb that this uniform distance is maintained through- 
 out. 
 
 Prior to 1876 detail records do not seem to have been kept in the engineer's depart- 
 ment of the rate of progress of this work, but it appears that up to that year 28 miles 
 of main sewers had been ventilated. . 
 
 With the exception of those sewers into which hot water is discharged or steam 
 injected, and which are few in number, the ventilation of the whole of the Liverpool 
 main sewers was completed in ISS'i, embracing the following mileage, viz: 
 
 Miles 
 
 Up to 1876 28 
 
 1876 16 
 
 1877 ^... 18 
 
 1878 : 12 
 
 1879 41 
 
 1880 35 
 
 1881 25 
 
 1882 o 
 
 Length of sewers ventilated to year 1882 177 
 
 New sewers constructed and old sewers reconstrncted from 1876 to 1885 inclusive. 72 
 
 Total mileage of brick and pipe sewers ventilated to year 1885 249 
 
 All new sewers are now ventilated in a similar manner, as their construction pro-, 
 ceeds. 
 The total cost of ventilation has been £12,000, or 7d. per yard ran of sewer. 
 
 Bcconstrtiction and alteration of gullies. 
 
 The records of the progress of this work up to 1880 appear to be incomplete. Since 
 that year all defective gullies have been altered, improved, or reconstructed practi- 
 cally in accordance with drawing No. 1, Fig. 3, and aUnew gullies have been built in 
 accordance with this drawing. 
 
 This form of gully combines the essentials requisite to reduce to a minimum the 
 quantity of detritus entering the sewers. 
 
 Up to date 5,219 gullies have been constructed or reconstructed. 
 
 Cleansing of sewers. 
 
 No systematic cleansing of the sewers appears to have obtained prior to 1871 but 
 from that year systematic cleansing of the main sewers in the lower districts of the 
 city and tide-locked sewers has been carried out, in addition to the cleansing which 
 takes place previous to the execution of repairs. 
 
 * As regatds the Archimedeau screw ventilators, Drs. Parkes and .Sanderson state 
 in their report as their opinion that, notwithstanding the mechanical efficiency of 
 the Archimedean screw ventilators, they exercise no practical influence in preveutin"- 
 the escape of sewer air into the streets and houtscs. 
 
■'"'■' EUROPE— -UNITED KINGDOM. 347 
 
 The necessity for cleansing the sewers which have been repaired and the gullies 
 emptying into same rebuilt has been in a great measure obviated owing to — 
 
 (1) The improved construction of the gullies, by which less detritus enters the 
 sewers, the extension of impervious pavements of slow- wearing material, and the re- 
 duction in the area of macadamized roads. 
 
 (2) The generally self-cleansing condition of the sewers as repaired, and their Sys- 
 tematic flushing. 
 
 The cost of this work for the parish is £1,302 per annum, and for the out town- 
 ships £1,736 per annum. 
 
 • Eepairs on rates account. 
 
 . Preparatory to executing any. repairs in a sewer it is thoroughly cleansed, and then 
 inspected to ascertain what repairs are necessary, in order to put it in-to perfect con- 
 dition and ma.ke it, in the future, as far as possible self-cleansing.. ; 
 
 The repairs executed to the sewers are: (1) Eepaiis dependent upon the defective 
 junction of branch sewers with main sewers, either in plan or section; (2) repairs 
 required conseqiient upon the natural decay orwcaring away of the materials fprm- 
 ing the sewer. 
 
 (1) Defective junction of 'branch sewers ioith, main sewers. — Where a branch sewer 
 meets a main briclc sewer at the same invert level, this has been altered, wherever the 
 gradient would admit of it, by raising the invert level so that it outlets into the 
 main at its proper relative level and running the gradient out to meet the ordinary 
 gradient of the. branch sewer— the work being executed in Portland cement concrete. 
 Where a branch meets the main sewer at right angles, the junction is alteredto a 
 curve of moderate radius. 
 
 (2) Sewers decayed and worn. — In the case of repairs consequent upon the natural 
 decay of wearing away of the materials forming the sewer, the mode of procedure is 
 as follows: . . 
 
 (a) Pointing.— After olea,u,sing and examination the. class of repairs required is de- 
 cided upon. In some cases the raking out of the joints of the brickwork, washing it, 
 and repointing in Portland cement mortar nuxed in the proportions of 1 of cement.tp 
 1 of sand will meet the case. ,i . . , . u 
 
 (6) Pointing and reinserting. — In some instances the invert of the sewpr is, found to 
 be worn away, or constructed so unevenly as to assist the formation of deposit. In 
 this case, in addition to the. pointing g,lready described, the invert of the sewer i^ im- 
 proved in cross-section and gradient, the jppde of procedure being as fbllows :. 
 
 The sewer being cleansed, thajoinjB are raked put, as before stated, au<l the sew,er 
 is reinverted with Portland cement concrete averaging '.i parts pf.riyer. gravel to 1 
 part of cement, the, surface being finished in the proportion of 1 part of cement to 1 
 
 part of gravel. .,4 - , i.- ,.,>,. . , • -., 
 
 This mode of treatment constitutes the work executed in. the majority of thp old 
 sewers dealt with in the parish of Liverpool. , ;, .,,;.,):.',; 
 
 Owing to the large dimensions of the main sewers, the whole of the operations in 
 connection with their repair are conducted without in any way disturbing the pave- 
 ments; the work is executed between manhole and manhole, the sewage in the 
 sewer operated upon being dammed back at the point under repair and provision 
 made for the discharge of the sewage through pip6s W open troughs suspended from 
 the portion of sewer undergoing repairs. After the lapse of about 4 days from com- 
 pletion of the respective repairs the sewage is again allowed to flow through the 
 sewer. 
 
 Beconsiruction on capital account. 
 
 (1) Defective construction or workmanship. — (a) These consist generally of sewers 
 driven in headings prepared for 9-inoh work. The sewers have only been executed 
 in 4i-inch work, except at the termination of each center length, the space between 
 
348 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 tho brick arcli and the rock roof, including the space for the 4i-inch ring of brick- 
 work omitted, not being filled in with any material. 
 
 (6) Sewers for which the headings have been taken out considerably larger than 
 actually required for tbe size of the sewer and thickness of brickwork, and this ex- 
 tra apace in the heading above the 9-inch brickwork has not been filled in. 
 
 These sewers are practically the same as shown in drawing No. 4, Figs. 1 and 2, 
 with the exception that the thickness of the brickwork of the arch is 9 inches 
 throughout. 
 
 In heavy storms they will probably run full and under considerable pressure, and 
 when these defects exist the crown of the sewer is lifted and the arch fractured. 
 Their reconstruction consists in re-arching and filling in the headings solid. The in- 
 verts of many of these sewers are, in addition, found to have worn away considera- 
 bly, and advantage is taken, when executing the work of re-arching, to reline the in- 
 vert with radiating blue bricks. 
 
 Examples of defects a and & have occurred as follows, viz : Bankhall relieving 
 sewer, from Stanley road to the canal, is a type of the class a ; in 18d3 the arch of 
 this sewer was reconstructed and the invert lined with blue bricks. Sandhills lane 
 outfall sewer, which is 6 feet by 4 feet, is an example of 6 as described ; the portion 
 passing under Great Homer street and Smith street has already been completed, and 
 the length passing under Lambeth road and Sandhills lane has been recently com- 
 menced. 
 
 (2) Sewers driven in the sandstone rock. — The next description of sewers which re- 
 quire reconstruction are those which are found on examination to be simply headings 
 driven through the sandstone rock neither in line nor level. New brick sewers were 
 constructed within these headings in proper direction and level, the remaining por- 
 tion of the heading being carefully filled in. Types of sewers which have been re- 
 cently dealt with were situated in Catharine street. Canning street, Percy street, 
 Huskisson street, etc. 
 
 (3) Bride sewers past repair. — Sewers past repair, owing to natural decay of the 
 materials of which they are formed, and therefore require to be constructed anew. 
 When these sewers are reconstructed advantage is taken, wherever possible, to im- 
 prove their level, gradient, and cross-section. Types of sewers recently dealt with 
 were Waterloo road, Bath street, Grundy street, Errington street, Haigh street, and 
 Dingle outfall sewers. 
 
 (4) Pipe-passage sewers. — These sewers, when found to be defective, are recon- 
 structed. Generally, those dealt with have been laid for many years, and the de- 
 fects in them consist principally in the quality of the pipes and mode of jointing. In 
 many cases, owing to the ground being fllled-in ground, its subsequent settlement 
 has caused inequalities in the line of sewer and breakages of the pipes, resulting in 
 stoppages and rendering anything short of reconstruction unsatisfactory. Such 
 sewers have generally been found in the older residential parts of the city. 
 
 Since 1879, 14 miles of main sewers, mostly of large capacity, have been recon- 
 structed at a cost of £51,739. 
 
 Neto hriok sewers. 
 
 All new brick sewers are generally constructed in accordance with drawing No. 4, 
 Fig. 4, with bricks molded to the respective radii, and in certain oases the invert is 
 lined with best radiating blue bricks. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 349 
 
 Progress of repairs. 
 The following table shows the areas dealt with from 1873 to 1885, inclusive : 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Miles of 
 sewers 
 repaired. 
 
 1873 75 ". 
 
 206 
 781 
 657 
 
 13 
 
 1876-'79 
 
 28 
 
 1880 '85 
 
 37i 
 
 
 The results from these repairs have heen most satisfactory, both on sanitary and 
 economical grounds. 
 
 (1) Freedom from deposits in the sewers and a quicker discharge of the sewage to 
 the respective outfalls, and consequent lessened impurity of the sewer air, which can 
 thus be more readily rendered perfectly innocuous by dilution with fresh air through 
 the open gratings fixed over the sewers. When the main causes of the impurity of 
 the sewer air, viz, deposits in the sewers, are removed, open grid ventilation, as 
 adopted in Liverpool, by which means the sewer air is diluted, is an effective system 
 which can be carried out at a moderate cost. 
 
 (2) On economical grounds the repairs have been satisfactory, by diminished cleans- 
 ing of the sewers repaired, and preventing the necessity of reconstructing the sewers 
 so dealt with at some future time at considerable cost. 
 
 When large volumes of hot water discharge into a sewer and can not be prevented, 
 and where wastes from chemical or other works empty into it, special means of ven- 
 tilation other than by open grids is necessary, and in certain cases it may be prefera- 
 ble to construct a special drain for these discharges. 
 
 Permanency of repairs. 
 
 In order to ascertain the permanency of repairs executed as already described, the 
 engineer has caused a careful examination to be made of eighty of the sewers, selected 
 at random, which were repaired between 1873 and the present time. 
 
 The selected sewers in which repairs have been executed during the years 1873'-75, 
 and which may be taken as representative ones for those years, have evidently had 
 little done to them, the principal work being cementing the invert and rough point- 
 ing. Some of these sewers may probably require to be again repaired within a 
 period of from 10 to 15 years. The amount expended in these sewers has evidently 
 been small, and consequently the repairs in them can not be expected to last so long 
 as those done at subsequent periods. The expenditure, however, has been more than 
 recouped by the saving effected in cleansing them and their increased efficiency. 
 From 1876 to 1878 the repairs executed have been of a far more substantial character, 
 and may reasonably be expected to last many years. From 1879 to date, the repairs 
 have been executed strictly in accordance with the methods previously described, 
 and the quality of the work can not well be improved ; the sewers as now repaired 
 are practically equal to new ones. 
 
 The superiority of the work in recent years is readily accounted for— all the men 
 now engaged upon the work are well trained in the various classes of repairs requi- 
 site. Skilled bricklayers are employed to execute the work, which, in addition, is 
 carefully supervised. Portland cement concrete or mortar only is used. 
 
 Souse- drainage regulations. 
 
 In 1882 the engineer prepared draft by-laws with respect to the drainage of build- 
 ings. They were duly approved by the health committee, and were subsequently 
 confirmed by the local government board in November, 1883. From this date all new 
 buildings erected in the city have been drained in conformity with these regulations, 
 which are found to work satisfactorily. 
 
350 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Except in tlie center of the pa^'iah of Liverpoo], the houses are drained on what 
 may be termed the " back drainage " system, the drains discharging into the passing 
 sewer at the rear of the premises, avoiding the necessity of any of tbem passing 
 under the buildings, and admitting of the houses being drained on the best sanitary 
 principles, and affording easy means for their periodical inspection. 
 
 The estimated cost of executing the drainage of a ccittage house in Liverpool under 
 these regulations, inclusive of closet-pan and siphon, siphon-trap and waste„ from 
 sink, also bath waste, is, in the case of a cottage house with an external water-closet, 
 £3 10s., and, with an internal water-closet in addition, £4 5s. 
 
 With such additional appliances and fittings as may be requisite the system of 
 drainage adopted for the cottage house is equally applicable in degree to the largest 
 houses ill the city The: highest sanitary standard of honset drainage is extremely 
 simple in arrangement and need not necessarily be expensive, bu% on the other hand, 
 can in ordinary cases be carried oat at such a moderate expenditure as should encour- 
 age owners of house property to reconstruct the drainage of same where it is not in 
 accordance with the most modern practice as defined by these drainage regulations. 
 
 Flushing of sewers and private d/rains. 
 
 All main sewers that are not self- cleansing are periodically flushed by large mova- 
 ble tanks placed over a mauhole on the sewer. These tanks contain 1,800 gallons of 
 water, and discharge their contents into the sewer through a valve at the bottom of 
 the tank in 28 seconds. The cost of this work is abput £i,'.2O0 per annum. All pas- 
 sage sewers are flushed four times annually by special gangs, either from chambers 
 at the head of each sewer or by hose connected with hydrants fixed in convenient 
 positions, and, in addition, they are indirectly flushed twice annually by the private 
 drains flushing gang. The cost of this work is about £1,100 per ajinun^. , 
 
 In December, 1880, on the recommendation of the engineer, the health committee 
 resolved to flush all private drains twice annually, free of cost to the occupiers, and 
 oftener ou payment of a small fee, regulated according to the ratable value of the 
 premises, and this work has since been regularly carried out. It is so arranged that 
 a flushing gang visits each house in the city once every six months. 
 
 The staff for this work comprises one flushing inspector, one foreman, and sixteen 
 gangs of ihree men each. 
 
 The drains, water-closets, and soil-pipes within the curtilage of all premises are 
 flushed by hose attached to hydrants flxed at convenient distances in thb passages or 
 adjacent streets. ■ , 
 
 The occupiers of the houses willingly cooperate and afford every facility for exe- 
 (jutingthis important sanitary work, aud although 107,000 houses, exclusiveof ware- 
 houses, stores, offices, etc., are visited twice annually, few complaints reach the 
 department relative to the manner in which any of the operations are conducted. 
 
 The cost of this work is £5,000 per annum, or under 6(?. per house for each fluish-' 
 ing. In all cases the water is supplied free of cost by the water committee of the 
 corporation. 
 
 Inspection of main seicers by special gangs. 
 
 This work has only been carried out systematically since October, 1885. Previous 
 to that d,ate, however, all sewers were examined wherever connections were ma,do 
 with them for the drainage of property, also prior to cleansing or executing repairs 
 or other work, aud reports made as to their con<litiou either by the sewer inspectors 
 or workmen engaged, so that practically the inspectors and workmen were con- 
 versant generally with the condition of the sewers. The periodical iaspection of all 
 the sewers is, however, preferable. 
 
 So far as the inspection has gone, which in the future will be a continuous one, it 
 has been ascertained that the remaining sewers in Liverpool will in every case 
 require to be dealt with as already described. 
 
EUKOrE— -UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 351 
 
 Expenditure. 
 ■ I ,' 
 From the table annexed it vwill be seen that the majority of the repairs up to the 
 present date have been carried oat within the pariah. The enginfeer estimates that 
 the corporation has expendedj from 1873 {o date, the following sums in repairs and 
 cleansing consequent on repairs : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Parish of 
 ■Liverpool. 
 
 Townsbip 
 of Kirk- 
 dale. 
 
 -4 ^ 
 
 Township 
 of EvertoD. 
 
 Township 
 of West 
 Derby. 
 
 Township 
 
 of Toxtelh 
 
 Park. 
 
 1873 '70 
 
 £19, 620 
 ■ 59, 486 
 
 
 £600 
 3,795 
 
 ^i -£'200 
 4,269 
 
 £1, 270 
 
 1880-'85 „ 
 
 £1,955 
 
 3,650 
 
 
 
 Total -' 
 
 79, 006 
 
 1,955 
 
 4,395 
 
 4,469 
 
 4, 920 
 
 
 During this period 7rtJ miles of main sowers have been repaired at a. total'cost of 
 £94,74.5. Of this mileage-C2f miles are in the parish. 
 
 Ti^. 1. Fi0. 2. 
 
 Section of Manhole 
 
 SHOWING 
 
 Solid Coveu and Venti latino Chamber. 
 
 Section of Manhole 
 
 WITH 
 VCNTILATINB Co^fED. 
 
 Fig, 3. 
 
 Section of Water-trappeo Bully. 
 
 iMCHEA le e 
 
 assssBz 
 
 Scale. 
 
 S 3 4- 
 
 3 FEET. 
 
 Dbawimq No, 1. 
 
352 
 
 STREETS ANU HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Drawing No. 2. — Cross-aection ahowing Portland cement concrete invert. 
 
EUEOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 353 
 
 33a- 
 
 -33 
 
354 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS TN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 355 
 
 Drawing No. 
 LB sewers. 
 
 -Plan showing method of dealing with old rock headings which have been used 
 
356 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 HIGHWAYS. 
 
 I am informed that some of the country roads in this vicinity have 
 only the natural foundation, which means no foundation at all, are 
 poorly drained, and have been much neglected, but are now being more 
 carefully treated. Such roads, however, are rarely seen, and in the 
 main the roads are thoroughly made and maintained in good condition. 
 There is but little of the common " dirt road," and this is made here 
 as everywhere else of the material nearest at hand, the expense being 
 entirely for labor. In the vicinity of works and mines where the traf- 
 fic is heavy more care is taken, and granite is brought by rail for re- 
 pairing. Where the traffic is lighter the local stone, whatever it may 
 be, is used. In some localities slag and other refuse from works and 
 mines are largely used for country roads and for streets in towns. Such 
 cheap roads being the exception, it is difficult here, where macadam is 
 almost universally adopted, to draw the line between city streets and 
 country roads. Hence what follows in many cases necessarily relates 
 to both. 
 
 In a residential district in Cheshire where the traffic is comparatively 
 light all the roads except along the route of the tramway are macad- 
 amized. The macadam is 6 inches thick upon a foundation of pitching 
 or rough blocks of sandstone 8 inches thick. The macadam is rolled 
 with a steam roller 10 tons in weight until thoroughly consolidated, a 
 very small quantity of selected road detritus being used with plenty of 
 water during the final operations on the roller. 
 
 The surface of the road then receives a liberal sprinkling of granite 
 chippings and the roller again passes over it several times. The mac- 
 adam is of granite from Peumaenmawr, or from Port Nant, in North 
 Wales, about 100 miles distant, and the rock pitching is obtained from 
 local quarries. A channel at each side of the carriageway is formed 
 of grit channel stones 10 inches wide by 5 inches deep, laid upon a 
 foundation similar to that for the macadam, except in main thorough- 
 fares, where 6 inches of concrete is used instead. The channels are in 
 all cases backed up by the curb, which is laid at an average height of 
 4 inches above the channel. The cost of the macadam delivered on to 
 the works averages about 9s. ($2.19) per ton, and the pitching about 
 3s. ($0.73) per ton, and the channel stones about 2s. (48 cents) per yard. 
 The cost of constructing such a road with only the ordinary amount of 
 excavation is about 5s. ($1 21) per square yard, and the average cost of 
 maintaining it in this district is at the rate of about 6rf. (12 cents) per 
 square yard per annum (including scavenging and watering). 
 
 The local board of Great Crosby, near Liverpool, generally specifies 
 for 10 inches of hard rock to be properly set on edge, the stones not to 
 exceed 4 inches in breadth, and the interstices closely packed by hand. 
 The average cost of laying the foundation is 40 cents per square yard. 
 The macadam, cubically hand broken to pass through a 2-inch ring, 
 costs $2.30 per ton delivered, and is laid on in two coats properly watered 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 337 
 
 and rolled with a steam roller, and flnished off to a smooth surface by 
 adding flue chippings. This class of roadway costs about 65 cents per 
 square yard, exclusive of foundation. For roads of tar macadam the 
 same quantity ot macadam is used and' mixed with due proportions of 
 pitch and tar, forming one homogeneous mass. This is rolled with the 
 steam roller, and flriished off with fine chippings, no water bein^ used. 
 Average cost 90 cents per square yard,, exclusive of foundation. The 
 tar macadam is found to be well adapted to a sandy district, owing to 
 the liability of drift sand to disintegrate an ordinary macadamized road- 
 way. It makes a capital roadway, causes a minimum of dust, and is 
 most rapidly scavenged, but it is very slippery in frosty weather. 
 
 In Carnarvonshire, Wales, the best roads have a handset pavement 
 for a foundation (the ground first of all being well drained), covered 
 with about 6 inches of metaling broken to a 2-inch gauge, costing 
 $1.50 per ton at the quarry and about $2.25 per ton on the road. The 
 cost of constructing such a road is about $1 per square yard. 
 
 In the Wavertree district, near Liverpool, macadamized roads are 
 preferred and the first cost is estimated at about $1.50 per superficial 
 yard, exclusive of sewering. (See specification herewith.) 
 
 WAVERTREE DISTRICT. 
 
 Specification of worts required to be performed and materials to bo used in the con- 
 struction of roads situate in the local government district of Wavertree. 
 
 Id this specification the following words shall have the meanings hereinafter set 
 forth, namely : 
 
 " The contractor " shall mean and include the person or persons agreeing to execute 
 the works described in this specification, and shall also mean and include the execu- 
 tors and administrators of snch person or persons and the words in singular number 
 shall include the plural. 
 
 "The local board" shall mean the local board of health for the local government 
 district of Wavertree. 
 
 "The surveyor" shall mean the surveyor for the time being, of the local board, or 
 other person or persons for the time being, appointed by the said local board, to super- 
 intend the execution of the said works. 
 
 " The works" shall mean the several works, matters, and things, comprised or re- 
 ferred to in and by this specification, or intended so to be, and by the contractor to 
 be executed and performed. 
 
 Excavation. — Excavate or fill in the carriage way to a depth of 16 inches below the 
 finished cross-sectional line of street, which will be calculated at the rate of five- 
 eighth inches to every foot of half the width of the carriage way. 
 
 Gullies. — The gullies for the surface drainage to be placed as shown on plan, and 
 encased with 4^ inch brickwork built in cement to the height required, and covered 
 with existing cast-iron gratings, and the connections to gully drains to be made good 
 with Portland cement. 
 
 Pitching. — The carriage way to be pitched with 9-iuch hard rock pitching or other 
 approved material, set on edge with the widest edge downwards, all projecting edges 
 to be broken off and the interstices to be filled in with stones of equal quality to 
 form a smooth surface, which must be thoroughly consolidated. 
 
358 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Macadam. — The whole of the carriage way to be covered with 7 inches of consoli- 
 dated Penmaenmanr or Port Nant macadam in two coverings, broken so that the 
 largest dimensions of any piece shall not exceed 2 inches. The first coat to be uni- 
 formly spread, immediately after the pitching is pronounced to be satisfactory by the 
 surveyor, and to be well rolled with a steam roller. The second coat to be nniformly 
 applied and well rolled with a steam roller without any blinding, so as to fix each 
 stone in its place, after which the whole surface to be very lightly blinded with mac- 
 adam chippings and well watered anjj rolled. 
 
 Channels. — ^To be hard, gray, best quality Haslingdeu stone from the lower beds 15 
 inches by 7 inches thick and not less than 3 feet in length, and to be firmly and sol- 
 idly bedded on gravel or cinders laid on rock pitching, the upper surface if not self 
 faced and perfectly true, must be accurately worked out of winding, the bed even 
 and parallel to the face, one side and ends truly jointed and the macadam side pitched 
 off to line and the joints racked with pea gravel and boiling asphalt, all turns to 
 have granite channels 15 inches by 7 inches worked to the required radii. 
 
 Passage crossings. — All crossings to have four courses of hard, gray, best quality 
 Haslingdeu stone 12 inches by 7 inches thick, truly faced, and square jointed through 
 ends and sides, and in not less than 2 feet 6 inch lengths. Pave between the courses 
 with single runs of Glee Hill sets, and make out the fnll width of crossing with sim- 
 ilar paving, and rack the joints with cleau pea gravel and Portland cement. 
 
 Curbstones. — To be best quality hard, gray, Haslingdeu stone 12 inches by 6 inches 
 dressed on top splazed face and 3 inches down the back, the remainder to be hammer 
 dressed, the joints to be neatly and accurately squared throughout the entire depth, 
 and no stone to be less than 3 feet in length. All turns to be granite 12 by 6 from 
 approved quarries and to the required radii. 
 
 Foundation of footways.* — The footways to be carefully leveled and formed by ex- 
 cavating or filling in the ground for the site (care being taken to reserve the old wood 
 fence on west side for re-erection) in accordance with the drawings, and a foundation 
 formed of a bed of cinders or gravel 3 inches deep, well pommed. 
 
 Flagging. — The footpaths to be laid with 3-inch hard, gray, best quality Haslingden 
 flags, taken out of winding. No flag to be less than 4 feet superficial, and not less 
 than 1 foot 9 inches wide. The joints to be well squared (not pitched ofi^, and jointed 
 with hydraulic lime mortar in the proportions of one of lime to two of clean, sharp 
 sand, and to be well bedded and driven close to joint,_and when necessary the flags 
 shall be cut to the steps or other projections and all holes cut for pins, gas columns 
 and water boxes. The. flagging when complete shall have a faU towards the chan- 
 nel of i inch to the foot. 
 
 Lamp columns. — Provide and fix where shown on plan extra lamp columns and 
 heads equal to sample, and allow £15 Os. Od. for gas company's charges. 
 
 ISA.4.C Dixon, 
 
 Surveyor. 
 
 July, 1890. 
 
 In the Garston local district, adjoining Liverpool, macadamized and 
 "bituminous concrete " carriageways are favorites. Official specifica- 
 tions for each are annexed, 
 
 * Street crossings. To have three courses of granite 16 inches by 8 inches grooved, 
 truly faced and square jointed through ends and sides, and in not less than 3 feet 
 lengths and paved to full width of adjoining footpath with granite sets racked with 
 pea gravel and boiling asphalt. Street curbstones: To be hard, gray, Haslingden 
 stone 12 inches by K by 5 and all turns to bo granite 12 by 6 by 5 from approved quar- 
 ries and to the required radii. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 35$ 
 
 DISTRICT OF GARSTON. 
 Description of Works (No. 1). 
 
 Excavaiion. — The contractor shall carry out all the excavations required, and 
 sball excavate the trenches to such lengths, breadths, and depths as the engineer may 
 direct, and shall form the bottoms of the same as hereinafter specified. In no case 
 shall the trench be less than 12 inches wider than the external diameter of the 
 sewer to be laid therein. The contractor mast be careful in opening the trenches not 
 to remove more of the road surface than, in the opinion of the engineer, is necessary 
 for the proper execution of the work, aud must not resort to blasting without the 
 permission of the engineer. 
 
 BefilUng. — The contractor shall, after the sewers have been laid in the manner here- 
 inafter described, fill in the earth in 6-inoh layers, and well water and pun the same 
 until thoroughly consolidated. 
 
 Beinstaiement. — The contractor shall in all cases reinstate and make good the roads, 
 footpaths, and other surfaces affected by his operations. 
 
 Surplus earth. — All surplus earth and superfluous rubbish shall be removed and 
 carted away by and at the expense of the contractor, who shall find a place of deposit 
 for the same. 
 
 Pipe sewers. — The contractor shall provide and lay in the respective positions shown 
 on plan, and at the respective depths shown on sections, the requisite lengths of pipe 
 sewers of the following sizes : 
 
 Fifteen inches diameter at least li inches thick. 
 
 Twelve inches diameter at least liV inches thick. 
 
 Nine inches diameter at least seven-eighths inch thick. 
 
 Six inches diameter at least three-fourths inch thick. 
 
 Mode of laying sewers. — In all cases where practicable the sewers shall be laid in 
 open trenches, and no heading or tunnel will be permitted except with the written 
 sanction of the engineer, and where such permission is given, the heading or tunnel 
 shall be open from end to end before any portion of the sewer is laid. The pipes 
 shall be laid singly, and joint holes to receive the sockets must in all cases be made 
 in the bottom of the trench, so that the full length of each pipe between joint and 
 joint may have a bearing on the solid ground. 
 
 Mode of jointing pipes. — All pipes shall be jointed with tarred yarn, calked into 
 the sockets, and flushed up with well puddled clay. 
 
 Junctions. — The contractor shall provide and fix in the positions shown on the plan 
 or where required, properly formed V junction pipes as underj for connecting gullies 
 and private drains with the main sewers. 
 
 Number , 15 inches diameter. 
 
 Number , 12 inches diameter. 
 
 Number , 9 inches diameter. 
 
 Number , 6 inches diameter. 
 
 It is to be particularly noted that in no case will right-angle junctions be allowed, 
 and that no connection will be permitted to be made by cutting into the pipes. 
 
 Stoneware disksi — The contractor shall provide and fix stoneware disks, as under : 
 
 Number , 12 inches diameter. 
 
 Number , 9 inches diameter. 
 
 Number , 6 inches diameter. 
 
 The disks must be carefully fitted and securely clayed into the branches of the junc- 
 tion pipes. 
 
 Galvanized iron indicators. — The contractor shall provide number galvanized 
 
 iron indicators, of form and dimensions shown on drawing for pointing out the posi- 
 
360 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 tioDS of tlie juuctions, and sliall fis them as directed by the engineer, eitlier for the 
 ■walls, fences, or to stakes 3 iuohes by 2 inches, driven 2 feet into the ground. 
 
 Manholes. — The contractor shall build manholes in the situations shown on plan, 
 in 9-inch brickwork set in Portland cement to top of pipe sewer, and best lias lime 
 mortar the remainder, and of the respective forms and dimensions shown on sections 
 and detail drawings. 
 
 Manhole covers. — The contractor shall provide and fix on the tops of the manhole?, 
 cast-iron covers of form, size, and weight, and similar in every respect to the covers 
 used by the Garston local board. 
 
 ffoot irons. — The contractor shall provide and fix the requisite number of foot irons 
 of galvanized wrought-ironbar of the form, size, and similarin everyrespect to those 
 used by the local board. They are to be placed four courses of brickwork apart, 
 vertically, flattened through the thickness of the walls, and the ends turned up IJ 
 inches. 
 
 GulKes. — The contractor shall provide and fix in the position shown on plan, or 
 where required, 9-inch brick gullies, built in Portland cement, of the form and dimen 
 sions shown on detail drawing. Each gully shall have the brickwork carried to the 
 top for the reception of iron gratings, and be connected to the sewers by 6-inch diam- 
 eter glazed stoneware socket pipes, with syphon blocks laid at one inclination 
 throughout. 
 
 GiiUi) gratings. — The contractor shall provide and fix on the top of each gully a 
 cast-iron grating of form, size, and weight and iu every respect similar to those used 
 by the local board. Each grating must be firmly bedded on the brickwork in best 
 blue lias lime mortar. 
 
 Surface excavation. — The contractor shall remove all obstructions and shall exca- 
 vate the carriageway to a line 18 inches below the sectional line on drawing No. . 
 
 Filling. — The contractor shall fill in the ground where required to the level pre- 
 scribed in the preceding clause (No. 48) with approved material. 
 
 Foundation of carriageways . — The contractor shall properly form, roll with horse 
 roller, and water the surfaces for the reception of the road material, and shall hand 
 pitch the whole area of the intended carriageway to a depth of 10 inches with hard 
 rock pitching to the satisfaction of the engineer, the interstices to be well racked up 
 with rock broken small and well rolled with the steam roller. 
 
 Superstructure of carriageivays.— The contractor shall provide and lay two coats of 
 macadam over the whole area of the carriageway of a total thickness of 6 inches. 
 The first layer, 3 inches thick, shall be composed of good, hard rock stone, broken 
 by hand, small enough to pass through a 2J-inch ring in every direction, blinded with 
 one-half inch of gravel sand of quality specified, and rolled with the local board 
 steam roller until, in the opinion of the engiueer, it is sufficiently consolidated to 
 receive the second layer. The contractor shall, on receipt of notice in writing from 
 the engiueer, spread a second layer 3 inches thick composed of Penmaenmawr stone, 
 broken by hand, small enough to pass through a If-inch ring in every direction ; 
 blind the same throughout with 1 inch of gravel sand of quality specified, and roll 
 the whole area with the steam roller, and water and sweep the same until it is, iu 
 the opinion of the engineer, thoroughly consolidated. 
 
 Boilers. — The local board steam roller may be hired from the works committee at 
 a charge of 30s. per day (including fuel and water), and the horse roller at a charge 
 of 5s. per day (excluding horses). 
 
 Channels. — The channels shall consist of hard-tooled York stone channel blocks 12 
 by 6 inches, each stone to be at least 2 feet long, laid to the inclinations longitudinal 
 
 and transverse, shown on drawing No. . They shall be bedded on 2 inches of 
 
 gravel sand on a hard rook foundation 3 inches deep, and well cramped and bedded 
 solid. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 361 
 
 CurMng.— The contractor shall provide and fix the recinisite lengths of straight, 
 hard York stone-tooled curbing, 5 inches thick and 12 inches deep. The curbing 
 throughout to be in not less than 3 feet lengths, to be well bedded on 2 inches of 
 gravel sand on a hard rock foundation 3 inches deep, and truly laid and close-jointed. 
 The radiated corners to consist of granite curbs, 5 inches thick and 12 inches deep, 
 laid in the same manner as the York curbs. 
 
 Street o'ossinga, — The contractor shall provide and lay crossings where shown on 
 drawing, formed of three rows of hard machine-faced squared York stone crossing 
 blocks, 16 by 7 inches, with V grooves 1 inch wide by three-quarters inch deep in 
 center, and nine rows of Glee Hill sets 7 by 6 by 3 inches, the blocks and sets to be 
 laid on beds of good lias lime and rock concrete Cinches deep, in 2 inches of good 
 gravel sand, and all the joints to be racked with asphalt, coal pitch, and creosote 
 oil, to be used while hot, and limestone clippings. 
 
 Footways. — The contractor shall excavate or till up the ground as maybe required 
 
 to a line 6 inches below the sectional line on drawing No. , and shall form the 
 
 ground with good hard material to the profile shown on cross-sections, and consoli- 
 date the same by horse rolling, watering, or otherwise, as may be required. The 
 footways throughout shall be paved with patent Victoria stone on beds of engine 
 ashes 3 inches deep, and good mortar beds close-jointed with good fine mortar of the 
 requisite fluidity, the radiated corners to be worked according to details, all the 
 stones to be well and solidly bedded. 
 
 Old materiaU. — The contractor must value the old materials (if any) at present on 
 the ground, and must state in his tender the amount he will allow for the same. 
 
 QUALITY OF MATERIALS. 
 
 Stoneivare drain pipes. — The whole of the pipes shall be approved salt-glazed stone- 
 ware socket pipes of the best manufacture, sound and thoroughly burnt throughout 
 their whole substance, and the internal aud external surfaces smooth and well-glazed. 
 They shall be cylindrical in bore, and internally of the full specified diameter, and 
 shall have whole socket-joints forming a component part of the pipe. The thickness 
 shall be uniform throughout the entire body of the pipe. 
 
 No square junctions shall be used. 
 
 All pipes shall be made to fit without being chipped. 
 
 Lime — The lime shall be blue lias or other approved hydraulic lime, fresh burnt, 
 and until used in mortar, shall be protected from wet, and as much as possible from 
 the atmosphere. 
 
 Portland cement. — The cement used in the works of this contract shall be fresh-burnt 
 Portland cement (obtained from the Rugby Portland Cement Company), of such fine- 
 ness that samples sifted through a No. 50 gauge wire sieve shall not leave a residue of 
 more than 10 per cent., and of such quality and strength that samples of pure cement, 
 when gauged neat in the ordinary brass moulds shall not become firm in less than 3 
 hours, and shall, after 7 days' immersion in water, be capable of bearing a tensile 
 strain of 400 pounds on the sectional area of 1 square inch. 
 
 Sand.— The sand for mortar shall be clean and sharp, free from all foreign matter, 
 ,ind screened if required by the engineer. 
 
 The sand for blinding macadam shall be beach-gravel sand, of quality approved 
 by the engineer, a sample of which may be seen at his office. 
 
 Lime mortar. — The lime mortar shall be composed of two parts of best building sand, 
 of approved quality, to one part of lime. 
 
 Portland cement mortar. — Portland cement mortar shall be composed of two parts of 
 best building sand, of approved quality, to one part of Portland cement. 
 
 Brickworlc. — The whole of the brickwork shall be built in Old English bond, unless 
 otherwise directed, lineable, plumb, and solid throughout, carried up uniformly with 
 the facework, and closely bedded in mortar, so that in no case shall four courses, when 
 built, exceed in height four like courses set dry, by more than l^- inches, aud in ordei 
 
362 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 that every joiut may be filled, the brickwork must be completely flushed with mor- 
 tar of the requisite fluidity. No broken bricks will be allowed except for closers. 
 
 The whole of the bricks, except where otherwise specified, shall be best common 
 bricks, hard, sound, and woU burnt, of approved quality. 
 
 Henry T. Wakelam, 
 Assoc. M. Inst., C. E., Engineer and Surveyor. 
 
 Description of Works (No. 2). 
 
 Excavation. — The contractor shall carry out all the excavations required, and shall 
 excavate the trenches to such lengths, breadths, and depths as the engineer may 
 direct, and shall form the bottoms of the same as hereinafter specified. In no case 
 shall the trench be less than Vi inches wider than the external diameter of the sewer 
 to be laid therein. The contractor must be careful in opening the trenches not to 
 remove more of the road surface than in the opinion of the engineer is necessary for 
 the proper execution of the work, and must not resort to blasting without the per- 
 nvission of the engineer. 
 
 Refilling. — The contractor shall, after the sewers have been laid in the mauer here- 
 inafter described, fill in the earth in 6-inch layers, and well water and pound the same 
 until thoroughly consolidated. 
 
 Reinstatement of streets, footpaths, etc. — The contractor shall in all cases reinstate 
 and make good the roads, footpaths, and other surfaces aflected by his operations. 
 
 Surplus earth. — All surplus earth and superfluous rubbish shall be removed and carted 
 away by and at the expense of the contractor, who sball find a place of deposit for 
 the same. 
 
 Fipe sewers. — The contractor shall provide and lay in the respective positions 
 shown on plan, and at the respective depths shown on sections, the requisite lengths 
 of pipe sewers, of the following sizes: 
 
 Fifteen inches diameter at least IJ inches thick. 
 
 Twelve inches diameter at least 1^ inches thick. 
 
 Nine inches diameter at least i inch thick. 
 
 Six inches diameter at least f inch thick. 
 
 Mode of laying sewers. — In all cases where practicable the sewers shall be laid in 
 open trenches, and no heading or tunnel will be permitted except with the written 
 sanction of the engineer, and where such permission is given the heading or tunnel 
 shall be open from end to end before any portion of the sewer is laid. The pipes 
 shall be laid singly, and joiut holes to receive the sockets must in all cases be made 
 in the bottom of the trench, so that the full length of each pipe between joint and 
 joint may have a bearing on the solid ground. 
 
 Mode of jointing pipes.— All pipes shall be jointed with tarred yarn, calked into 
 the sockets, and ilushed up with well puddled clay. 
 
 Junctions. — The contractor shall provide and fix iu the positions shown on the plan 
 or where required, properly formed V junction pipes as under, for connecting gullies 
 and private drains with the main sewers. 
 
 Number , 15 inches diameter. 
 
 Number , 12 inches diameter. 
 
 Number , 9 inches diameter. 
 
 Number , 6 inches diameter. 
 
 It is to be particularly noted that in no case will right angle junctions be allowed, 
 and that no connection will be permitted to be made by cutting into the pipes. 
 
 Stoneware disks.— The cpntractor shall provide and fix stoneware disks, as under— 
 
 Number , 12 inches diameter. 
 
EUEOPE-^UNITED KINGDOM. 368 
 
 Number , 9 inches diameter. 
 
 Number , 6 inches diameter. 
 
 The dists must be carefully fitted and securely clayed into the branches of the 
 junction pipes. 
 
 Galvanized iron indicators. — The contractor shall provide number galvanized 
 
 iron indicators of form and dimensions shown on drawing for pointing ont the posi- 
 tions of the junctions, and shall fix them as directed by the engineer either to. the 
 ■walls, fences, or to stakes 3 inches by 2 inches, driven 2 feet into the ground. 
 
 Manholes. — The contractor shall build manholes in the situations shown on plan in 
 9-inch brickwork set in Portland cement to top of pipe sewer, and best lias lime mor- 
 tar the remainder, and of the respective forms and dimensions shown on sections and 
 detail drawing^. 
 
 Manhole covers. — The contractor shall provide and fix on the tops of the manholes 
 cast-iron covers of form, size, and weight, and similar in every respect to the covers 
 used by the Garston local board. 
 
 Foot irons. — The contractor shall provide and fix the requisite number of foot-irons, 
 of galvanized wrought-iron bar, of the form, size, and similar in every respect to 
 those used by the local board. They are to be placed four courses of brick apart 
 vertically, flattened through the thickness of the walls, and the ends turned up 1^ 
 inches. 
 
 Gullies. — The contractor shall provide and fix in the position shown on plan, or 
 where required, 9-inch brick gullies, built in Portland cement, of the form and di- 
 mensions shown on detail drawing. Each gully shall have the brickwork carried to 
 the top for the reception of iron gratings, and be connected to the sewers by 6- inch 
 diameter glazed stoneware socket pipes, with syphon blocks laid at one Inclination 
 throughout. 
 
 Gully gratings. — The contractor shall provide and fix on the top of each gully a 
 cast-iron grating, of form, size, and weight and in every respect similar to those used 
 by the local board. Each grating must be firmly bedded on the brickwork in the 
 best blue lias lime mortar. 
 
 Surface exoaratioji. — The contractor shall remove all obstructions, and shall exca- 
 vate the carriageway to a line 18 inches below the sectional line on drawing No. . 
 
 Filling. — The contractor shall fill in the ground, where required, to the level pre- 
 scribed in the preceding clause (No. 48) with approved material. 
 
 Foundation of carriageways. — The contractor shall properly form, roll with horse 
 roller, and water the surface for the] reception of the road material, and shall hand 
 pitch the whole area of the intended carriageway to a depth of 10 inches with hard 
 rock pitching to the satisfaction of the engineer, the interstices to be well racked up 
 with rock broken small, and well rolled with the steam roller. 
 
 Superstructure of carriageways. — The contractor shall provide and lay two coats of 
 macadam over the whole of the carriageway to a total thickness of 6 inches. The 
 first layer, 3 inches thick, shall be composed of good hard rook stone, broken by hand 
 small enough to pass through a 2i-inch ring in every direction, blinded with J an 
 inch of gravel sand of quality specified, and rolled with the local board steam roller 
 until, in the opinion of the engineer, it is sufficiently consolidated to receive the 
 second layer. The contractor shall, on receipt of notice in writing from the engi- 
 neer, spread the second layer 3 inches thick, composed of Peumaenmawr stone, 
 broken by hand small enough to pass through a If-inch ring in every direction ; the 
 stone to be first well and thoroughly mixed with hot boiled tar and pitch, and then 
 evenly spread and rolled with the steam roller, and then blind the same with an 
 inch of limestone chippings, to pass through a J-inch riddle, and not smaller than 
 will pass through a J-inch riddle, well and thoroughly mixed with hot boiled pitch 
 and tar, evenly spread, and afterward blinded with a coating of fine dry chippings 
 
364 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 and rolled with the steam roller until it is, in the opinion of the engineer, thorooghly 
 coii9oli;1ated. 
 
 Rollers. — The local board steam roller may he hired from the works committee at 
 at a charge of SOg. per day (excluding fael and water), and the horse roller at a 
 charge of os. per day (excluding horses). 
 
 Channels. — The channels shall consist of hard-tooled York stone channel blocks 12 
 by6 inches, each stoneto be at least 2 foetlong,laid to the inclinations longitudinal 
 
 and transverse shown on drawing No. . They shall he bedded on 2 inches of 
 
 gravel sand, on a hard rock foundation 3 inches deep, and well cramped and bedded 
 solid. 
 
 Curbing. — The contractor shall provide and fix the requisite lengths of straight 
 hard York stone tooled curbing, 5 inches thick and 12 inches deep. The curbing 
 throughout to be in not less than 3-feet lengths, to be well bedded on 2 inches of 
 gravel sand on a hard rock foundation 3 inches deep, and truly laid and close-joiuted. 
 The radiated corners to consist of granite curbs 5 inches thick and 12 inches deep, 
 laid in the same manner as the York curbs. 
 
 Street crossings. — ^The contractor shall provide .and lay crossings where shown on 
 drawing, formed of three rows of hard niachiue-faoed squared York stoue crossing 
 blocks, 16 inches by 7 inches, with V grooves 1 inch wide by J inch deep in center, 
 and nine rows of Clee Hill sets 7 inches by 6 inches by 3 inches, the blocks and sets 
 to be laid on beds of good lias lime and rock concrete 6 inches deep in 2 inches of good 
 gravel sand, and all the joints to be racked with asphalt, coal pitch, and creosote oil, 
 to be used whilst hot, and limestone chippings. 
 
 Footways.'— The contractor shall excavate or fill up the ground as may be required 
 
 to a line 6 Inches below the sectional line on drawing No. , and shall form the 
 
 ground with good hard material to the profile shown on cross-sections, and consoli- 
 date the same by horse rolling, watering, or otherwise, as may be required. The foot- 
 ways throughout shall be paved with patent Victoria stone on beds of engine ashes 
 3 inches deep, and good mortar beds close-jointed with good fine mortar of the requi- 
 site fluidity, the radiated corners to be worked according to details, all the stones to 
 be well and solidly bedded. 
 
 Old materials. — The contractor must value the old materials (if any) at present ou 
 the ground, and must state in his tender the amount he will allow for the same. 
 
 QUALITY OF MATERIALS. 
 
 Stoneware drain pipes. — The whole of the pipes shall be approved salt-glazed stone- 
 ware socket pipes of the best manufacture, sound, and thoroughly burnt throughout 
 their whole substance, and the internal and external surfaces smooth and well glazed. 
 They shall be cylindrical in bore, and internally of the full specified diameter, and 
 shall have whole socket joints forming a component part of the pipe. The thickne.S8 
 shall be uniform throughout the entire body of the pipe. 
 
 No square junctions shall be used. 
 
 All pipes shall be made to fit without being chipped. 
 
 Lime. — The lime shall be blue lias or other approved hydraulic lime, fresh burnt, 
 and until used in mortar, shall be protected from wet, and as much as possible from 
 the atmosphere. 
 
 Portland cement. — The cement used in the works of this contract shall be fresh-burnt 
 Portland cement (obtained from the Rugby Portland Cement Company), of such fine- 
 ness that samples sifted through a No. 50 gauge wire sieve, shall not leave a residue 
 of more than 10 per cent., and of such quality and strength that samples of pare 
 cement, when gauged neat in the ordinary brass molds, shall not become firm in 
 less than 3 hours, and shall, after 7 days' immersion in water, be capable of bearino- 
 a tensile strain of 400 pounds on the sectional area of 1 square inch. . 
 
 Sand. — The aand for mortar shall be cleau and sharp, free from all foreign matter 
 and screened, if required, by the engineer. 
 
EUROPj: — UNITED KINGDOM. 365 
 
 The Hand for blinding macadam, shall be beach-gravel sand, of quality approved 
 by the engineer, a sample of which may be seen at his office. 
 
 Lime mortar. — The lime mortar shall be composed of two parts of best building 
 sand of approved quality to one part of lime. 
 
 Portland cement mortar. — Portland cement mortar shall be composed of two parts of 
 best building sand of approved quality to one part of Portland cement. 
 
 Brichioork. — The whole of the brickwork shall be built iu old English bond, unless 
 otherwise directed, lineable, plumb, and solid throughout, carried up uniformly with 
 the faoework, and closely bedded in mortar, so that in no case shall four courses, when 
 built, exceed in height four like courses set dry, by more than li inches, and in order 
 that every joint may be filled, the brickwork must be completely flushed with mortar 
 of the requisite fluidity. No broken bricks will be allowed except for closers. 
 
 The whole of the bricks, except where otherwise specified, shall be best common 
 bricks, hard, sound, aud well burnt, of approved quality. 
 
 Henry T. Wakelam, 
 Assoc. M. Inst. C. E., Engineer and' Surveyor, 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF WORKS (NO. 3). 
 
 Excavation. — The contractor shall carry out all the excavations required, aud shall 
 excavate the trenches to such lengths, breadths, and depths as the engineer may 
 direct, and shall form the bottoms of the same as hereinafter specified. In no case 
 shall the trench be less than 12 inches wider than the external diameter of the sewer 
 to be laid therein. The contractor must be careful in opening the trenches not to 
 remove more of the road surface than in the opinion of the engineer is necessary lor 
 the proper execution of the work, and must not resort to blasting without the per- 
 mission of the engineer. 
 
 Befilling. — ^The contractor shall, after the sewers have been laid in the manner 
 hereinafter described, fill in the earth in 6-inch layers, aud well water and pound the 
 same until thoroughly consolidated. 
 
 Reinstatement. — The contractor shall in all cases reinstate and make good the roads, 
 footpaths, and other surfaces affected by his operations. 
 
 Surplus earth. — All surplus earth aud superfluous rubbish shall be removed and 
 carted away by and at the expense of the contractor, who shall find a place of deposit 
 for the same. 
 
 Pipe sewers. — The contractor shall provide and lay in the respective positions shown 
 on plan, aud at the respective depths shown on sections, the requisite lengths of 
 pipe sewers of the following sizes : 
 
 15 inches diameter at least IJ inches thick. 
 
 12 inches diameter at least l^ inches thick. 
 
 9 inches diameter at least f inch thick. 
 
 6 inches diameter at least f inch thick. 
 
 Mode of laying sewers.— la all cases where practicable the sewers shall bo laid in 
 open trenches, and no heading or tunnel will be permitted except with the written 
 sanction of the engineer, and where such permission is given the heading or tunnel 
 shall be open from end to end before any portion of the sewer is laid. The pipes 
 shall be laid singly, and joint holes to receive the sockets must in all cases be made 
 in the bottom of the trench, so that the full length of each pipe between joint and 
 joint may have a bearing on the solid ground. 
 
 Mode of jointing pipes. — All pipes shall be jointed with tarred yarn, caulked into 
 the sockets, and flushed up with well puddled clay. 
 
366 STREETS AMU HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUJSTTRIES. 
 
 Junctions. — The contractor shall provide and fix in the positions shown on the plan 
 or where required, properly formed V junction pipes as under, for connecting gullies 
 and private drains with the main sewers. 
 
 Number 15 inches diameter. 
 
 Number 12 inches diameter. 
 
 Number 9 inches diameter. 
 
 Number — — 6 inches diameter. 
 
 It ia to be particularly noted that in no case will right angle junctions be allowed, 
 and that no connection will be permitted to be made by cutting into the pipes. 
 
 Stoneware dislis. — The contractor shall provide and fix stoneware disks, as under: 
 
 Number 12 inches diameter. 
 
 Number 9 inches diameter. 
 
 Number 6 inches diameter. 
 
 The disks must be carefully fitted and secnrely clayedlnto thcbranches of the junc- 
 tion pipes. 
 
 Galvanized iron indicators. — The contractor shall provide number galvanized 
 
 iron indicators, of form and dimensions shown on drawing for pointing out the posi- 
 tions of the junctions, and shall fix them as directed by the engineer, either to the 
 walls, fences, or to stakes 3 inches by 2 inches, driven 2 feet into the ground. 
 
 Manholes. — The contractor shall build manholes in the situations shown on plan, 
 iu 9-inch brickwork, set in Portland cement to top of pipe sewer, and best lias lime 
 mortar the remainder, and of the respective forms and dimensions shown on sections 
 and detail drawings. 
 
 Manhole covers. — The contractor shall provide and fix on the tops of the manholes 
 cast-iron covers of form, size, and weight, and similar in every respect to the covers 
 used by the Garston local board. 
 
 Foot irons. — The contractor shall provide and fix the requisite number of foot irons, 
 of galvanized wrought-irbn bar, of the form, size, and similar in every respect to 
 those used by the local board. They are to be placed four courses of brickwork apart 
 vertically, flattened through the thickness of the walls, and the ends turned up IJ 
 inches. 
 
 Gullies. — The contractor shall provide and fix in the position shown on plan, or 
 where required, 9-inch brick gullies, built in Portland cement, of the form and di- 
 mensions shown on detail drawing. Each gully shall have the brickwork carried to 
 the top for the reception of iron gratings, and be connected to the sewers by 6-inch 
 diameter glazed stoneware socket pipes, with siphon blocks laid at one inclination 
 throughout. 
 
 Gully gratings. — The contractor shall provide and fix on the top of each gully a 
 cast-iron graling, of form, size, and weight, and in every respect similar to those 
 used by the local board. Each grating must be firmly bedded on the brickwork in 
 best bine lias lime mortar. 
 
 ROADS. 
 
 Surface excavation. — The contractor shall remove all obstructions, and shall exca- 
 vate the carriageway to a line 12 inches below the sectional line on drawing No. 
 
 Filling. — The contractor shall fill in the ground where required to the level pre- 
 scribed in the preceding clause (No. 48) with approved material. 
 
 Construction. — The contractor shall provide and lay over the whole of the carriage- 
 way good concrete, spread to a depth of 6 inches, laid to the curvature of road • the 
 concrete to be composed of two parts of good hard rock, or other approved stone 
 broken to pass a 2-inch ring, two parts good clean gravel sand and one part good 
 Portland cement, and shall afterwards provide and lay over the whole surface 4 
 inches by 4 inches by 4 inches Clce Hill sets (second quality), laid in a bed of gravel 
 sand 2 inches deep ; all the joints to be racked with coal pitch, creosote oil, and boiled 
 coal tar asphalt used whilst hot, and limestone chippings ; and the whole surface 
 of the carriageway shall afterwards be covered with a layer of asphalt at least one- 
 quarter of an inch in thickness composed as above. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 367 
 
 Channels. — The channels shall consist of hard-tooled York stone channel blocks 12 
 by 6 inches,- each stone to be at least 2 feet long, laid to the inclinations longitudinal 
 and transverse, shown on drawings. They shall be bedded on 2 inches of gravel 
 sand on a hard rock foundation 3 inches deep and well cramped and bedded solid. 
 
 Curbing. — The contractor shall provide and fix the requisite lengths of straight 
 hard York stone-tooled curbing, 5 Inches thick and 12 inches deep. The curbing 
 throughout to be in not less than 3 feet lengths, to be well bedded on 2 inches of 
 gravel sand on a hard-rock foundation 3 inches deep, and truly laid and close jointed. 
 The radiated corners to consist of granite curbs, 5 inches thick and 12 inches deep, 
 laid in the same manner as the York curbs. 
 
 Street crossings. — ^The contractor shall provide and lay crossings where shown on 
 drawing, formed of three rows of hard machine-faced squared York stone crossing 
 blocks, 16 inches by 7 inches, with V grooves 1 inch wide, by three-fourths of an inch 
 deep in center, and nine rows of Glee Hill sets 7 inches by 6 inches by 3 inches, the, 
 blocks and sets to be laid on beds of good lias lime and rook concrete to 6 inches deep 
 in 2 inches of good gravel sand, and all the joints to be racked with asphalt, coal 
 pitch, and creosote oil, to be used "while hot, and limestone chippings. 
 
 Footways. — The contractor shall excavate or fill up the ground as may be required 
 
 to a line 6 inches below the sectional line on drawing No. , and shall form the 
 
 ground with good hard material to the profile shown on cross sections, and consoli- 
 date the same by horse rolling, watering, or otherwise, as may be required. The 
 footways throughout shall be paved with patent Victoria stone, on beds of engine 
 ashes 3 inches deep, and good mortar beds close jointed with good fine mortar of the 
 requisite fluidity, the radiated corners to be worked according to details, all the stones 
 to be well and solidly bedded. 
 
 Old materials. — The contractor must value the old materials (if any) at present on 
 the ground, and mnst state in his tender the amount he will allow for the same, 
 
 QUALITY OF MATERIAI.S. 
 
 Sioneivare drain pipes. — The whole of the pipes shall be approved salt-glazed stone- 
 ware socket pipes of the best manufacture, sound, and thoroughly burnt throughout 
 their whole substance, a nd the internal and external surfaces smooth and well glazed. 
 They shall be cylindrical in bore, and internally of the full specified diameter, and 
 shall have whole socket j oints forming a component part of the pipe. The thickness 
 shall be uniform throughout the entire body of the pipe. 
 
 No square junctions shall be used. 
 
 All pipes shall be made to fi(^without being chipped. 
 
 Lime. — The lime shall be blue lias or other approved hydraulic lime, fresh burnt, 
 and until used in mortar, shall be protected from wet, and as much as possible from 
 the atmosphere. 
 
 Portland cement. — The cement used in the works of this contract shall be fresh-burnt 
 Portland cement (obtained from the Rugby Portland Cement Co.); of such fine- 
 ness that samples sifted through a No. 50 gauge wire sieve shall not leave a residue 
 of more than 10 per cent., and of such quality and strength that samples of pure 
 cement, when gauged neat in the ordinary brass molds, shall not become firm iu less 
 than 3 hours, and shall, after 7 days' immersion in water, be capable of bearing 
 a tensile strain of 400 pounds on the sectional area of I square inch. 
 
 Sand. — The sand for mortar shall be clean and sharp, free from all foreign matter, 
 and screened if required by the engineer. 
 
 The sand for blinding macadam shall be beach-gravel sand, of quality approved 
 by the engineer, a sample of which may be seen at his oflBce. 
 
 Lime mortar. — The lime mortar shall be composed of two parts of best building 
 sand, of approved quality, to one part of lime. 
 
 Portland cement mortar. — Portland cement mortar shall be composed of two parts of 
 best building sand, of approved quality, to one part of Portland cement. 
 
368 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Briekworh. — The whole of the brickwork shall be bnilt in old English bond, nnless 
 otherwise directed, lineable, plumb, and solid thronghont, carried up uniformly with 
 the facework, and closely bedded in mortar, so that in no case shall four courses, 
 when built, exceed in height four like courses set dry, by more than IJ inches, ami 
 in order that every joint may be filled, the brickwork must be completely flushed 
 with mortar of the requisite fluidity. N o broken bricks will be allowed except for 
 closers. 
 
 The whole of the bricks, except where otherwise specified, shall be best common 
 bricks, hard, sound, and well burnt, of approved quality. 
 
 Henry T. Wakelam, 
 Assoc. M. Inst., C. E., Engineer and Surveyor. 
 
 It is evident that in this region macadamized roads are believed to 
 be the best and most economical. I can not therefore do better than 
 annex hereto a paper on " The maintenance of macadamized roads " 
 by W. Hewitt, read at the ordinary general meeting of the Surveyors 
 Institution, November 26, 1888. 
 
 I also inclose an ofiQcial report by Thomas Codrington, 0. E., etc., on 
 road maintenance. 
 
 Land values undoubtedly are enhanced by good roads, but it is quite 
 impossible to estimate to what extent in this densely populated district. 
 
 Thos. H. Sheeman, 
 
 Constil. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Idver^ool, March 14, 1891. 
 
 macadamized roads.* 
 
 By W. Hewitt. 
 
 [Inclosure in Consul Sherman's report.] 
 
 Road maintenance is a subject to which comparatively little attention has been 
 given in this country, although it is one of great importance, involving, as it does, 
 inclusive of tlis metropolitan macadamized roads, an aonnal expenditure of nearly 
 £4,500,000. In the early part of" the last century the roads were little more than 
 cart tracks, on which, when they got in a very bad condition, a quantity of stone of 
 various sizes were placed indiscriminately and left to work in. Of course a road 
 maintained in such a way as this was always in a bad condition, except when the 
 stone was newly put on, and then it was too rough and uneven for the traffic to pass 
 easily over it. In soae districts where stone was scarce the road would be mended 
 in the autumn with brushwood, mud, etc., with a layer of stone on the top; but in 
 a short time this road, especially in wet weather, became in a much worse state than 
 before. The method of making a new road was to dig a trench of the required 
 width and deposit a layer of large stones in it and another of small on the top of them. 
 This was left to itself and allowed to consolidate in the best way it could. The 
 thickness of these layers varied according to the idea of the surveyor, and, as he was 
 generally a man possessing no experience of road making or maintaining, it was 
 not to be expected that he would know anything about the work he had to superin- 
 tend. Things wenton in this way until the establishment bylaw of turnpike trusts. 
 
 » Read at the ordinary general meeting of the Surveyors' Institution, November 
 36, 1888. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 369 
 
 But it appears this did not do much good. The trusts were in short lengths, some- 
 times not more than 20 miles, and the surveyors were no better than before, as they 
 were more frequently appointed by favor than for any qualiiioations which they 
 possessed for the office. 
 
 This state of things continued until the time of Macadam and Telford (about the 
 commencement of the present century), when great improvements wore made ; the 
 stone was broken to a more uniform size, and greater attention was paid to drainage. 
 Macadam's principle was "to put broken stone upon a road which shall unite by its 
 own angles so as to form a solid, hard surface," and this by universal experience since 
 has been allowed to be correct. He also contended that no greater convexity should 
 be given to the cross-section of a road than was necessary to carry off the surface 
 water into the water-tables. He did not agree with Telford in one important par- 
 ticular, namely, that a road should have some sort of hard foundation, either a rough 
 hand-set pavement, or a layer of rough stone or gravel for the broken stone to be 
 placed on, preferring to lay the metalling on the formation surface. Experience, 
 however, has since shown that Telford's method was the right one. A great deal has 
 been said about the disagreement between these two eminent men on this particular 
 subject, but it is very evident that they agreed in a great deal more than they differed ; 
 and it is by a combination of their methods, united with recent improvements, that 
 the best roads are now made and maintained. In laying out a new road the general 
 lines must always be controlled, more or less,,by the surface formation of the locaiity. 
 Cuttings and embankments should be avoided as much as possible, owing to their 
 great expense, and when unavoidable the work should be so arranged, as far as pos- 
 sible, that the soil removed in cutting can be used for the embankment. It is essen- 
 tial that the formation of a road should be thoroughly drained, whether it has a paved 
 bottom or not. This is usually done by ditches on each side of the road. They should 
 be from 2 feet to 3 feet below the level of the surface of the road. They are sometimes on 
 the land side of the fence, and sometimes on the road side ; but it is preferable to have 
 them on the latter, as the roadmen can more easily get at them to clean them out, and 
 it also gives a greater width between the fences, which is a great aid an drying the 
 road, as the air has freer access to it. When the ditches are on the land side of the 
 fence, in most cases they belong to the owners of the property, and the occupiers are 
 supposed to clean and scour them, which there is sometimes great difficulty in getting 
 them to do, When they are on the road side there should be, unless there are foot- 
 paths, and when the width will allow, sod borders between the metalled portion of 
 the road and the side ditches, with outlet cuts at short intervals to lead the water 
 away from the surface of the road. In some parts of the country great objection has 
 been made by some members of highway boards to their formation, and they assert 
 that sod borders cause greater expense in the maintenance of the road. This, how- 
 ever, is an error ; they may be formed and maintained very inexpensively, and it does 
 not cost nearly so much for trimming the edges and cleaning the outlets as it does to 
 clean the sides of a road by stocking up the weeds and grass. These always accumu- 
 late where, as on most country roads, the whole width is not used, and where there 
 is no sod border there is always great expense caused by these operations, which in- 
 jure the road by admitting the wet, besides being very unsightly ; whereas the sod 
 border, when properly kept and trimmed, adds to the appearance of the road and 
 facilitates the flowing away of the surface water. It should be from 4 to 6 inches 
 high, as this would not be high enough to endanger vehicles, and yet high enough to 
 keep anyone from driving into the ditches in the dark. 
 
 Where there are many houses on the sides of the road itbecomes necessary to have 
 a. footpath, and this should be formed over the side ditch, as it is always better 
 ito hav« a, drain under the footpath than under the road. In such a case it is al- 
 way« best to ia/^emme kind of curbing and channeling at the side of the road, the 
 inatuie of which .mus(t it(e determined by the locality, as when once down it costs less 
 in such a situation to ke«{p («^an than anything else would. Small drains communi- 
 
 33A 2i 
 
370 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POKEIGN COUNTKIES. 
 
 eating with the underdraina should be carried under the footpath at intervals, so as 
 to carry off the surface water. All side ditches, outlets, borders, etc., should be thor- 
 oughly cleaned out and trimmed in the autumn, and gone over again where necessary 
 in the spring. If this work is done in the summer it causes a great deal of useless 
 trouble and expense, as the grass and weeds then grow so rapidly, necessitating the 
 doing of the work over again. In addition to the side drains cross drains are neces- 
 sary in most cases so as to thoroughly drain the center of the foundation of the road. 
 These are usually pipe-drains and should communicate directly with the side drains, 
 the fall from the center to the sides being from 1 in 80 to 1 in 100. In districts where 
 stone is plentiful box drains are generally used, as being much cheaper. They are of 
 square section, and are formed with flat stones for the top and bottom, and stone 
 sides. The great advantage of these drains is that they can be so readily opened for 
 cleaning by taking off the top stones. Sometimes it is advantageous to construct 
 miter or V drains. They are formed as ordinary drains, but in the shape of a flat V, 
 with the center uphill. In many instances a cheap and effective drain may be 
 formed by cutting a trench about a foot square in the formation surface and filling it 
 with large rough stones. The intervals at which these drains should be placed 
 must depend on the nature of the subsoil and the quantity of water in it. With a 
 clay subsoil they must be at shorter intervals than in gravel or sandy soil. Where 
 there are footpaths, catch-pits or gullies may be used for the surface water, and 
 should be connected directly with the cross drains. Any springs that may make 
 their appearance must be immediately tapped and led away to the side ditches. 
 
 With a good system of cross-drainage there is no advantage in constructing longi- 
 tudinal drains immediately under the water-tables in addition to the side drains. On 
 roads which are formed on sidelong ground and benched into the hillside, it is nearly 
 always necessary to have a drain in the side of the hill above the road to keep the 
 land water from the road ; but the form of this must be determined by local circum- 
 stances. A very common and inexpensive way is by cutting a deep trench and filliug 
 it with large stones. Whatever system may be adopted in such cases, the drains 
 should be connected, at intervals, directly with culverts, so as to convey the water 
 under the road and away from the upper side as quickly as possible. In many in- 
 stances, particularly in hilly districts, no outlet can be found for the water on one 
 side of the road. In such cases provision must be made for conveying it under the 
 road at intervals by means of large drains or culverts. These are usually pipes of 
 large diameter, or may be large box-drains, with the walls either built dry or with 
 mortar ; the larger ones being generally built with brick or stone walls, and with a 
 turned arch similar to a bridge. In all cases au invert should be formed, either by 
 an inverted arch or a flat pitched invert, or the walls would be rapidly undermined 
 by the water. Barrel culverts, of circular section and built of bricks, are now rarely 
 used. It will sometimes be found necessary to go to considerable expense, to thor- 
 oughly drain a road, but in the end it will always be found to be most economical to 
 do so, as a wet, undraiued road is always most expensive to keep in good order. All 
 underdrains and culverts, unless of very large size, should have an iron grating at the 
 entrance, tu prevent their getting choked with the rubbish which is always brought 
 down at the commencement of a storm. It is essential that the cross-section of a road, 
 when completed, shall be such as will allow the water to flow freely off it; yet care 
 must be taken that it is not too round, or else the traffic will always keep to the cen- 
 ter and form ruts, which will retain the water and thus cause great damage to the 
 road by soaking into and thereby weakening it. 
 
 The best form for general purposes, I believe, for the cross-section is an arch of a 
 circle, having a fall of 1 in 30 from the center to the sides of the road. A road should 
 never be quite level longitudinally, or the water will stand in the gutters instead of 
 flowing away freely ; so that, even in quite level ground, it is better to go to a slight 
 expense to obtain such a fall as will enable the water to get away easily. Steep, 
 gradients eUould be avoided where possible. No road should ever be made with ^ 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 371 
 
 gradient steeper than 1 in 30, but 1 in 50 is much better for general purposes, espec- 
 ially when practicable without much greater cost, for the after expense of mainten- 
 ance win be much less. Great damage is caused to a Toad by the feet of the horses 
 when drawing heavy loads uphill, and also by the drags on vehicles descending, by 
 causing a disintegration of the surface. Much injury is frequently caused by water 
 scouring the surface of a hilly road, sometimes the whole coat of surface metalling 
 being swept away. When a road is formed by being benched iuto the hillside a re- 
 taining wall is frequently needed to prevent the earth falling on to it. When the 
 cross-section of the road is formed partly by cutting into the hillside and partly by 
 au embankment, a retaining wall will generally be needed on the other side also, 
 and below the road. The section and strength of these walls must always vary very 
 much, and must altogether depend on local surroundings and requirements. The 
 ■width of a country road should never be less than 16 feet of metalled surface. On a 
 road where there is great traffic the width should be such as will readily accomiuo- 
 date it, and, within certain limits, the wid.er a road is in proportion to the traffic the 
 less it will cdst to keep in good order. The formation surface of a road, when the 
 drainage is completed, should be well rolled, so as to consolidate it, before the found- 
 ation is laid on it ; the foundation is usually, in the case of streets or roads with 
 heavy traffic, a pavement of rough flat stone set on edge and formed to the same 
 cross-section as the road will have when finished, the interstices being filled with 
 small pieces hand-set with a hammer. Sometimes it is of concrete formed to a simi- 
 lar cross-section. 
 
 Cinders and slag fbrm a very good foundation when obtainable, as does coarse 
 gravel. In some districts, where stone is scarce, burnt clay is used; but for ordinary 
 roads the foundation is most generally formed of rough stone, often of spalls from the 
 nearest quarry. Whatever the foundation is it should be well rolled before the sur- 
 face metalling is laid. Oftentimes the metalling is laid direct on the formation sur- 
 face. The generality of existing roads are formed in this way, but it is not well to 
 do so if i^ can be avoided, and the practice is much to be condemned. In some cases, 
 when a road is laid on wet, boggy ground, a layer of fascines is laid fir^ to form a firm 
 foundation, and then the road is formed on it ; but unless the nature of the ground 
 is such as will always insure the fascines being kept in a wet or damp state they will 
 soon rot and the road will go to pieces. Therefore they should never be used unless 
 under unavoidable circumstances. In some districts the foundation is formed of 
 chalk, but this should not be used unless it can be thoroughly protected from the 
 action of wet and frost, owing to its power of absorbing water, which cauees it to 
 turn iuto mud in wet weather and to blow up in frost. Stiff clay is a bad foundation 
 owing to its great contraction in dry weather and expansion in wet. When the 
 foundation is laid, whatever course may be adopted, the metalling, if more than 4 
 inches or 5 inches in thickness, should be laid in two layers, each rolled separately, 
 if rolled, as is frequently the case, with a heavy roller only. When two rollers can 
 be used, one light and one heavy, the better course will be to roll it all in one layer, 
 passing the light roller over first and finishing with the heavy one. The top layer, 
 when partly consolidated by rolling, should have a binding material laid over the 
 surface and rolled in with the metaling to form a compact mass, and while this is 
 being rolled it should be well watered. It is better in making a new road to roll the 
 Surface, although the metaling is left in many places to consolidate by the traffic ; 
 but in such a case a great deal of material is wasted by grinding and crushing, besides 
 causing great inconvenience to the traffic, and the metaling also wears round and 
 takes a long time to set. Rolling is only necessary in the case of new roads, or when 
 a thick coat of metalling is laid. When a thin coat is rolled the roller generally 
 smashes a great deal of the stone, which would not be the case if it were consolidated 
 by the traffic. Steam rolling is better and more economical than horse-rolliug, as it 
 more thoroughly and quickly consolidates the metaling. With a heavily weighted 
 horseroller the stones are much displaced by the horses' feet, in consequence of the 
 great exertion necessary to draw ic. Horse rollers are very unwieldy in use and are 
 
372 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN TOEEIGN CODNTEIES. 
 
 now seldom used anj where. When rolling is resorted to ia repairing a road it is 
 sometin^Bs necessary to stock the surface of it. This should not be more than half an 
 inch deep, as deeper than that displaces the old nietaliug and increases the cost, with 
 no corresponding advantage. 
 
 The metaling should be carefully spread and of a uniform thickness and the bind- 
 ing material applied when about half rolled. The binding is very often applied too 
 soon and in too great a quantity, the consequence being that the road is soft and 
 muddy and does uot get firm until the superfluous small stuff is squeezed out and 
 removed in the form of mud or dust by continued scraping and sweeping. The proper 
 quantity of binding material which it is necessary to use is, in my opinion, as little 
 as possible. Clean sharp sand or tine gravel is generally used as a binding mate- 
 rial, but, as nearly all stone where rolling is resorted to is broken by machinery, I 
 think the screenings from that are much the best material for such a purpose, and, 
 being of the same nature as the metaling, will unite with it and form a hard, close 
 surface, much better than with sand or gravel, which are of a foreign nature and, not 
 being angular, like the screenings, will not set so readily. With a silicious material 
 limestone screenings will cause it to set better than anything else. In all cases the 
 screenings should be of the same material as the road metal. When using a binding 
 material the fact is too often lost sight of that it is only intended to fill up the inter- 
 stices between the larger stones, and when more than sufficient for this purpose is 
 used the bad effects before mentioned always eusue. There is no economy in repair- 
 ing a road with thick coats, and rolling, unless the traffic is very considera.ble, 
 although there is a great deal more comfort to the public, owing to the easier 
 draft ; there will, moreover, be much less wear and tear of vehicles. A weak road 
 should not be rolled, as although the weight of a 15-ton steam roller is very evenly 
 distributed over the surface and the weight is not great per inch of width, it would 
 be likely to be very inj urious to the road, owing to causes which will be mentioned 
 further on. When once a road is coated and rolled it is too often the case that it is 
 left to take care of itself, except for scraping and sweeping, until it requires coating 
 again. For some time before this is done the surface is covered with depressions, 
 which are frequently of such a depth as to be dangerous. The coating would gen- 
 erally last much longer if, as soon as any hollow made its appearance, it were filled 
 np with small-sized metaling. A proper system of repairing by small patches will in 
 all cases result in a great saving. 
 
 One of the great causes of slacks or hollows appearing in the surface of a newly- 
 rolled roa,d is that the metalling has not been uniformly spread. When they appear 
 during rolling they should be filled with metalling broken to a rather smaller gauge 
 than the rest. The road should be carefully watched after the rolling is completed, 
 and, if any hollows should appear then, they should be immediately covered with 
 small patches of stone. Stone for patching should always be broken to a rather 
 smaller gauge than for coating. Too great stress can hardly be laid on repairs by 
 patching — a matter very imperfectly understood by a great many highway surveyors 
 and iu some towns never practised at all. Eoads and streets have come under my 
 notice where little or nothing is done to them until they require coating, and so coat 
 after coat has been laid until the top mftalling is 1'2 to 15 inches thick on roads with 
 only light traffic. By this means the roads have been so raised that they are in the 
 centre considerably above the level of the sidewalks and have a sharp and frequently 
 dangerous fall toward the sides. The materials used for road metaling must of 
 necessity vary very much according to locality. Owing to the cost of haulage local 
 stone must generally be used, especially if the traffic be only moderate. If, however, 
 the traffic is heavy, it will sometimes be found better and more economical to obtain 
 a superior material, even at a higher cost; and, in cases where the traffic is very 
 great, the best -material that can be obtained is the most economical. In some cases 
 the better material may be used ou those parts of the road where the traffic is great- 
 est, and, in other cases, in the centre of the road only. A good road metal should be 
 hard and tough, and if it has a certain amount of binding nature in it so much the 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 373 
 
 better. It should also be able to withstand the influeaoes of tlie weather. These 
 qualities are seldom found together, as igneous and sllioioiis rooks, although fre- 
 quently hard and tough, do not consolidate so well nor so quickly as limestone, ow- 
 ing to the sandy detritus formed by the two first having no cohesion, whilst the 
 limestone has a detril;u8 which acts like raortar in binding the stones together. 
 
 A stone of a good binding nature will frequently wear miich better than one with- 
 out, although it is not so hard. A limestone road of good cross-section will be more im- 
 pervious to wet than any other, owing to this cause, and will not disintegrate so soon 
 in dry weather, owing partly to this and partly to the well-known quality which 
 all limestone has of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. The limestones are 
 generally not hard enough for roads with very heavy traffic, where hardness and tough- 
 ness are of more consequence than any other properties. For snch roads the best ma- 
 terials are some of the granites, such as Guernsey, PenmiEnraawr, and Cornish; 
 Glee Hill stones, traps, basalts, whinstones, and some of the silicioas rooks. For 
 roads of moderate traffic the best are the harder limestones and a hard sandstone 
 sometimes found in the coal measures. Iron and copper slag are sometimes used, but, 
 although very hard and tough, have no binding property at all, and the edges of the 
 pieces when broken are so sharp as to cut horses' feet very badly. In some parts 
 gravel is used very largely for road metal. It should be well sifted from small ma- 
 terial and the large stones broken down to the proper gauge. Field stone and river 
 stone are much used in some districts, bui generally make a rough road, as they are 
 composed of the hardest parts of those stones which have resisted the action of the 
 weather, and- are, though frequently very hard, of unequal hardness, so that they 
 wear very irregularly. Mere hardness without toughness is not of much use, as a 
 stone may be very hard but so brittle as to be crushed to powder under a heavy load, 
 when a stone not so hard, but having a greater degree of toughness, will be unin- 
 jured. The size to which surface metaling is generally broken is such that a stone 
 in its largest dimensions will pass easily through a ring, either of 2^ or yj inches di- 
 ameter. For roads where the traffic is light it may advantageously be broken smaller, 
 as it will then cover a larger space, consolidate much more quickly, and make a 
 smoother surface. When the material is rolled It need not be broken quite so small, 
 as when it is set at once by rolling it is an advantage to have a rather larger stone, 
 as it makes a stronger road. 
 
 Great care should be taken in the preparation of the material, so that the stones 
 shall not be long, flat, or flaky ; the small stuff should not be screened from it when 
 hand-broken, -as there is generally no more than what is useful. AU clay and dirt 
 should be separated from it, except in the case of gravel, when a certain proportion 
 is necessary, for if gravel is too clean it will not set for along time, owing to there 
 being so many round stones in it. The stones should, within certain limits, be kept 
 as nearly as possible of a uniform size and a cubical form, as they then make a better 
 and more even road. Stone broken by hand is preferable to that broken by machin- 
 ery, as machine-broken stone is not so durable as hand-broken. When broken by a 
 machine it is always crushed to a certain extent by the jaws, and therefore does not 
 wear so well, especially under heavy traffic ; but when a machine can be kept in 
 constant use it is often cheaper, especially if the stone is very hard ; with some hard 
 stone the cost will often be found to be only about half that of hand-breaking. A 
 hard stone which is not tough and some of the softer stones will be crushed to powder 
 by a machine. Machine-broken stone is also frequently very flaky, which is a great 
 disadvantage in setting. In stone broken to a gauge of 2J inches the proportion of 
 solid is 55 per cent, to 45 per cent, of void ; therefore, taking the average weight of 
 a cubic foot of solid limestone to be 170 pounds, the weight of a cubic yard of broken 
 metaling would be 1 ton 2 hundredweight 2 quarters 4 pounds. This, when con- 
 solidated, would weigh nearly as heavy as the solid stone ; in fact, a cubic foot of 
 consolidated road metal weighs on an average of from 93 to 95 per cent, of an equal 
 bulk of solid stone ; therefore, it takes 1i of broken material to form 1 of road, or, in 
 other words, when the metaling is consolidated it occupies two-thirds of the space 
 
374 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 it did before. The interstices in the road coating are filled with small stones and 
 mud ; these form a great portion of all roads. In a consolidated road the amount of 
 metaling over seveu-eighths of an inch varies from 20 to 55 per cent., and the mud 
 from 20 to 25 per cent. ; the remainder consists of small stone which is very useful in 
 the road. In a road freshly coated, of course the proportion of large stone would be 
 greater. 
 
 Generally speaking, the road which contains the greatest quantity of large stone 
 will be the best ; but sometimes snch a road, from having an ill-drained foundation, 
 will be very weak, and large quantities of stone may be put down without materially 
 strengthening it, and the stones will always work about in wet weather. An excess 
 of mnd should not be allowed to accumnlate, as few things tend to weaken a road so 
 much; any road containing more than is absolutely needful should be constantly 
 scraped until it is reduced to the proper quantity. The chief causes of wear on 
 roads are the action of the traffic and the action of the weather. The relative wear 
 of each can not be accurately told, as the one helps the other so much, and they vary 
 according to local circumstances. Ou a atroug consolidated road the greatest wear 
 arises from the action of the horses' feet and the wheels of vehicles, and the smoother 
 the road is the less the wear will be, as in a rough road, in addition to the downward 
 pressure, there will be that pressure on every projecting stone which will tend to 
 push it forward, and so cause a grinding movement between the stones. This pressure 
 is greater in proportion as the diameter of the wheel is smaller, and is much more 
 destructive than the vertical pressure. When the material is not thoroughly set this 
 grinding movement is still more destructive and causes great wear and waste of 
 material. On weak or ill-drained roads groat wear is caused by bending and croas- 
 brealiing. When this takes place there is a yielding of the subsoil, as well as of the 
 road coating ; the road bulges and cracks under the weight of the load, the metaling 
 is driven into the subsoil at the point of contact with the wheel, and that surround- 
 ing it rises above the level of the road ; the surface water finds its way in through the 
 cracks and weakens the road still more, and in frosty weather the frost gets in, and 
 when the thaw comes the road is blown up in a great many places, and wet boggy 
 places are formed which are very dangerous. Besides this the draft is very much 
 increased on such a road, owing to the surface bulging before the wheels, and a horse 
 is therefore, on a level road, continually pulling the road uphill. Along the sides of 
 the ruts may be seen cracks, which lead directly to the subsoil. The wear caused by 
 the wheels of vehicles is influenced very much both by their diameter and width. It 
 has been said by some that the resistance to traction on a road is in inverse propor- 
 tion to the square root of the diameter of the wheel. Others say it varies inversely 
 as the diameter. 
 
 From experiments made with Eastou and Anderson's horse dynamometer at the 
 Royal Agricultural Show, 1874, a slightly greater ratio than inversely as the diame- 
 ter was given, and I am inclined to think that inversely as the diameter is the more 
 correct view of the two. There can, however, be no possible doubt but that large 
 wheels are much more favorable both to draft and wear of the road than small 
 ones. The draft is always much less on a smooth, hard, unyielding road; a flexi- 
 ble, yielding road, although it may be elastic, will not give back the force expended 
 in the pressure of a wheel on it, and this force must naturally be more on a yielding 
 than on a hard road. Of the width of a wheel, it may be said that up to a certain 
 limit a broad wheel with the same load is less destructive to a road than a narrow 
 one in about the following proportion — not, I believe, as is generally thought, in the 
 direct ratio of its width. In practice, I think, a wheel 2 inches wide will be found to 
 be nearly one and a half times as favorable to the road as «■ wheel 1 inch wide, a 
 wheel 3 inches wide nearly twice as favorable, and a wheel 4 inches wide two to two 
 and a half times as favorable. This will vary more or less under different circum- 
 stances, but will be found, I believe to be about the correct proportions. My reasons 
 for so thinking will be found in the theory explained in the next paragraph. Prac- 
 tically, no advantage is gained by having wheels more than 4i inches wide. Sir J. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 375 
 
 Macadam said that the maximum load which should be allowed on any vehicle should 
 be 9 hundredweight per inch of width of tire ; Telford and Sir J. Maoneil contended 
 that 5 hundredweight was the greatest load that should be allowed, and I think their 
 view is the more correct one, as few roads, except iu large towns, are strong enough 
 to bear such heavy loads as 9 hundredweight per inch coutinually passing over them. 
 Broad wheels loaded in the same proportion as narrow ones are much more destruc- 
 tive than narrow ones. A road which will bear a considerable load on narrow tires 
 will sometimes break down under the weight of a traction engine, although the 
 pressure per inch of width of tire may be much less. I think the explanation of 
 this may be found in the following theory: If we take a wheel 1 inch wide, and 
 suppose that at the point of contact with the road surface (which we will suppose 
 for the sake of illustration consists of spheres 1 inch in diameter) it presses on a 
 sphere and that sphere on four others, and so on in a pyramidal form, it will be 
 found that the weight is distributed over a much larger area of the subsoil than the 
 surface it comes iu contact with. Now take a wheel 4 inches in-width, and suppose 
 it rests on four spheres placed iu a row, each 1 inch in diameter, it will be evident 
 that each sphere can not rest on four independent spheres, and each pyramid will, 
 therefore, be composed of parts of other pyramids, which intersect each other. 
 With a 1-inch wheel, the sphere would rest on four others immediately supporting 
 it, and the four spheres in a row under the 4-inch wheel would rest on ten; at 
 the same depth four separate 1-inch wheels would rest on sixteen spheres, as 
 against the ten supporting the one 4-iuch wheel, and the lower we go the greater 
 becomes the proportion in favor of the 1-inch wheels. Therefore, the greater the 
 width of the wheel, loaded in the same proportion, the greater will be the pres- 
 sure on the subsoil immediately under it, as the load is always borne by the subsoil 
 and not by the road coating, which is merely a hard surface formed to protect the 
 subsoil from the immediate eflfects of the traffic. Of course, this will be greatly 
 modified in practice, owing to the different sizes and shapes and natureof the actual 
 road coating. 
 
 It may, therefore, I think, be laid down that broad wheels with the same load are 
 much less destructive than narrow ones, but broad wheels loaded in the same propor- 
 tion per inch of width as narrow ones are much more destructive. The best shape 
 for a wheel is cylindrical ; dished wheels should never be used, as, owing to their 
 shape, their line of direction is not the same as the line of draft. Consequently a lat- 
 eral motion is caused, which is a source of great injury to the surface of the road, 
 especially in dry weather, and they also increase the draft. Wheels with tires the sec- 
 tion of which is the segment of a circle are also to be condemned. In fact, all wheels 
 which are not cylindrical have disadvantages for which they have no proportionate 
 compensation. The effect of springs is more noticeable with vehicles going at a high 
 rate of speed than when at a walking pace — in fact, when walking, the draft is very 
 little less than without springs; at higher rates of speed the draft is much less. This 
 applies to a smooth, hard road ; on a soft, yielding surface the good effect of springs 
 is considerably lessened. The weather has a considerable effect on the wear of roads, 
 not so much directly as indirectly, by increasing the wear caused' by the traffic. Ex- 
 cessive wet causes great wear by softening the binding in the road coating, which 
 destroys the solidity of it and causes great wear by the material rubbing together, 
 and makes it less able to support the traffic. Frost after wet causes great injury. 
 The water in tbe road, and sometimes in the material itself, when frozen, bursts the 
 road coating, especially if the foundation is wet, and when a thaw comes the road 
 becomes rotten, and much damage is sometimes caused by heavy traffic coming on a 
 road at such a time. Rain after a thaw also causes great injury, and when alterna- 
 tions of frost and thaw occur the road is tried very much: indeed, a good road will 
 sometimes break up under such conditions. If the foundation is wet, and the frost 
 reaches through to it, the road will be blown up from the bottom. Excessively dry 
 weather causes great wear, especially with a siliceous road material, by the small 
 stuff and mud beiug loosened ; but this can always be counteracted by watering. 
 
376 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Dry weather Las less eifect on limestone than on any other road material. Trees and 
 higli hedges are also a great cause of wear by keeping the sun away, the road remain- 
 ing wet where otherwise it would be dry. Wear is less, genei'ally, in proportion as a 
 road is smooth, strong, and well drained, and of a sufficient width to accommodate 
 the traffic freely. 
 
 Many experiments have been made to measure the wear on roads; but this can 
 only approximately be done, unless the area and quantity of material periodically 
 laid are known. Some say that the wear increases in direct proportion to the traf6c, 
 others that it increases in a greater ratio ; but from personal observation I think that, 
 on a road where the traffic is very heavy, the latter idea is frequently correct. The 
 amount of material expended annually in this country on main roads varies from 
 about 40 cubic yards per mile in remote country districts to 1,000, and sometimes 
 1,500 cubic yards in the vicinity of large towns ; but I think the general average 
 would be from 70 to 80 cubic yards per mile. On district and parish roads it is fre^ 
 quently as low as 10 cubic yards per mile. A great mistake is often made in country 
 districts where there is little traffic in procuring a very hard stone from a distance, 
 ■when a moderately hard one can be obtained in the injmediate neighborhood, and at 
 a very much less cost. The hardest stone is not always the best for a road ; it is only 
 the best when the traffic is great. On a road where there is only light traffic a softer 
 stone is much to be preferred, because the hard stones do not consolidate under the 
 traffic, and the road is always rough and uneven. I have seen this in many cases, to 
 make thematter worse, where a quantity of road scrapings was put on in the spring 
 to make the stones set. When the wet weather came this was all squeezed out as 
 mud and had to be scraped off again, causing great inconvenience to the traffic and 
 costing altogether about twice as much as the local stone would have done. Where 
 roads are repaired by thin coats without rolling, as all country roads must be, on 
 account of the small quantity of stone used per mile, great care is necessary that 
 none of the material is wasted. When the material is laid in the proper season — viz, 
 in the late autumn or early winter, it soon consolidates under the traffic and forms a 
 smooth surface. All the stone should be laid before Christmas except a small quan- 
 tity which should be kept for the necessary patching in the spring. The coat should 
 never be more than one stone thick ; if it is necessary to put a greater thickness one 
 coat should be laid and, when nearly consolidated, another should be laid on the top ; 
 by this means a much iirmer and harder road is formed, and with less waste of ma- 
 terial; but, when it can be avoided, a road should never be left to get so much out 
 of shape as to require a greater thickness of metalling than one stone thick. 
 
 Before coating a road is commenced in the autumn all the small hollows should be 
 patched, which will prevent them wearing larger ; then those portions of the road 
 which require coating should be done. It is always best to lay the coatings in short 
 pieces, as if a long length is laid the traffic goes to the side of the road to escape the 
 stones, and frequently cuts it up very much, whereas when laid in short lengths it is 
 not worth while to go to the side to do so, as they are so soon passed over ; if a long 
 length of road requires coating it should be done in that way, and when the short 
 coatings are worn in, which will not take long in the winter, intermediate coats may 
 be laid. When the metalling is laid it should be constantly attended to, and raked 
 so as to prevent the formation of ruts. Generally speaking, there is no advantage in 
 stocking a road when repaired in this way ; it may sometimes be necessary to do so 
 slightly when the metalling is laid in a dry season, but this will always depend on 
 circumstances. Ruts are best repaired by filling in the wheel tracks first, and when 
 the material is partly set the center rut should be attended to ; this is better than 
 doing all three at once, or the center and one side first, as in the former instance in- 
 termediate ruts are soon formed by the traffic avoiding the loose stones, and in the 
 latter the traffic all goes to one side, whereas if the two outside ruts are fiJled iu first, 
 the traffic keeps to the usual line on account of having the horse pad clear, and when 
 it is time to repair this rut the traBSc soon wears the single line of stones in. If it 
 should be necessary to lay a large coating on a street or road with heavy traffic, a 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 377 
 
 binding material may be advantageously nsed, but, as a rule, a firmer road is formed 
 witlioutit. It is essential that tbe superfluous mud be removed from a road. Tbis 
 may be done by sweeping or scraping where it is in the form of either mud or dust. 
 When dust is regularly removed from a road it does not require nearly so much 
 watering in dry weather as it otherwise would ; care must be taken, however, in a 
 road composed of silicious materials that the road is not damaged by too much sweep- 
 ing, as it will tend to disintegrate the surface, and a great deal of useful material is 
 liable to be swept away. Tlie best time for sweeping Is early in the morning befoye 
 the dew has dried, and there is ranch less inconvenience to the traffic at that time. 
 Machines drawn by horses are sometimes used to swgep up mud or dust. The most 
 commou form is a circular revolving brush, mounted obliquely, which sweeps the 
 mud or dust in a line on the one side, to be afterwards gathered up. Another ma- 
 chine often used is a scraping machine, constructed in an oblique manner also, and 
 which acts in a similar fashion. ' This is very useful when the mud is partly dry. 
 The most useful maohiue that 1 have seen is Warren's. In this machine a series of 
 brushes attached to an endless chain revolves as it is drawn along, and sweeps the 
 mud np an inclined plane into a mud cart, to which it is attached. When this cart is 
 full it can be removed and hauled away, and an empty cart attached, so that the 
 machine is kept constantly at work. 
 
 Some surveyors object to this machine on the ground that it removes too much of 
 the useful small material, about the size of small shot, from the road. It does do so 
 to a certain extent, but this can be reduced "to a minimum by adjusting the pressure 
 of the brushes, -which is easily done by simply turning a small wheel; but the amount 
 of small stuff that this machine removes is so little more than the ordinary kinds do, 
 that it is much more than compensated for by the great saving in time and labor, 
 besides more effectually cleansing the road. The great advantage of this machine is 
 that it removes the mud quickly and at once from the road, and does not interfere 
 with the traffic while doing so. These machines can only be advantageously used iu 
 or near towns, and where there is great traffic. In the country, hand scrapers and 
 brooms are mostly used, but a small scraping machine which can be used by one man 
 is of great advantage. The best way to use it is from side to side, as this tends to 
 preserve the cross-sectiou of the road. A man can scrape a great deal more in a day 
 ■with one of these machines than with a hand scraper, and do the work mnoh better. 
 It is said by some to be very injurious to remove mud from a road when it is at all 
 dry, but iu most cases it is better for the road that it should be removed. A road 
 should never be watered unless it really needs it, as too much water is very injurious 
 and it increases the wear from traffic. To insure the constant attention that a road 
 always requires, it should be divided into lengths, each under the charge of a con- 
 stant laborer. As much should be given to each man as will keep him constantly 
 employed during the summer, and ho will be able to do all the necessary work at 
 other times with the assistance of casual laborers. The length of road apportioned to 
 each man will, of course, vary much according to circumstances ; on main roads from 
 1 to 2 miles on a road with heavy traffic, to 6 and in some case 8 or 9 miles on roads 
 with light traffic. On parish roads these lengths may in some oases be longer. The 
 constant laborer should be on his road at all times, wet or dry, arid it is of great im- 
 portance that he should be there during heavy rain and storms so as to see that all 
 drains and water courses are clear, as great damage is frequently done to a road by 
 their being choked, particularly in hilly districts, where a great amount of rubbish is 
 usually brought down at the commencement of a storm. The constant laborer should 
 have entire charge of his length, under the surveyor. He should not have his work 
 set by the piece, as piecework is seldom so well done as daywork, and he should not 
 be moved from his length to another without good cause, as nothing causes a man to 
 lose interest in his work so much as removing him when he has succeeded in getting 
 his length into fair order. Some men can never be made goodroadmeu, while others 
 acquire the necessary knowledge and skill very quickly, and will do more work and 
 
378 STREETS AND HiaHWAYS IN FOREiaN COUNTRIES. 
 
 make the material go farther than others who have been at similar worL for many- 
 years. 
 
 It is generally much ijetter to employ such men as these, even if paid a little more 
 money, as it will be far more economical than employing the first m{in who applies 
 for the work, as is very frequently done, because he will work for less money. This 
 system of employing constant laborers has been in use on the Sonth Wales County 
 roads for the past 40 years and has been found to work very effectually ; it has also 
 been adopted in several parts of England during the past few years. I think it is a 
 great mistake to let road repairs by conlract; the work is never so efficiently done 
 as it would be by day work, with men in charge of a skilled laborer, and when under 
 tjie supervision of a surveyor. The only thing which can be advantageously Irit by 
 contract is the supply of road materials, which may be supplied, ready broken, in 
 heaps on the side of the road, or, better still, in stone depots recessed in the hedge or 
 bank. It is better to have the material in small heaps, at short intervals, so that it 
 can be wheeled out with a wheelbarrow, rather than have large heaps at long inter- 
 vals and have to cart it where it is wanted ; the men can usually make the material 
 go farther in repairing and patching if accessible with wheelbarrows. It is best to 
 have it supplied by the cubic yard rather than by the ton, and it should not be mea.s- 
 ured nntil broken and stacked. It should always be delivered by the end of the 
 summer, as the road is less injured by the carting at that time, and the longer the 
 stone is exposed to the action of the weather the better it is. If the repairs should 
 be let by contract the term should not be for less than 3 years, as, if let for a shorter 
 period than this, one man may keep the road in good repair for 1 year, and use a 
 proper quantity of material and labor on it ; the next year another man may get the 
 contract, and do as little as he possibly can to it, just keeping it of good appearance 
 until hia contract expires, and then, as soon as wet weather comes, the road shows 
 great signs of weakness and req uires a great deal of material and labor expended on 
 it to bring it into good order again. 
 
 I have not gone into the cost of labor or material in anything referred to in this 
 paper, as they vary so much, even within a small radius, that such detailswould be of 
 little practical value. The length of road which a surveyor can well superintend 
 must depend to a great extent on the nature of the roads and the situation of them. 
 It will be found more economical in all ways to have districts of such a size that a 
 sufficient snm may be paid to a surveyor as will enable the authority to obtain a com- 
 petent man and allow him to keep a horse. In this case he could look after a much 
 greater length of roads if he had twoor three assistants and a uniform system of main- 
 tenance over a larger area is much to be preferred to small divisions. Extraordinary 
 traffic, as defined by the highways and locomotives (amendment) act, 1878, has caused 
 a great deal of trouble and annoyance. It is frequently very difficult to tell what 
 extraordinary traffic is, and when it commences. It is much to be wished that some 
 clearer definition of what constitutes extraordinary traffic had been given in the act 
 and that due notice of such traffic had been made compulsory, unless the traffic should 
 be thrown on the road unexpectedly through an emergency. Such notice can not be 
 reasonably expected until extraordinary traffic is more clearly defined. Extraordi- 
 nary traffic thrown suddenly on a road, which is amply strong enough for the 
 ordinary traffic of the district, will frequently destroy the surface of the road, often 
 plowing down into the subsoil and cutting the road completely to pieces. In many 
 cases, if due notice had been given of the intended increase in the traffic the road 
 might have been strengthened so as to have borne it with little or no injury, and at 
 a very much less cost than the after repairs which were required to bring it into good 
 order. I think the abolition of turnpike trusts in England and North Wales was a 
 great mistake, until some better method had been found to obtain funds for road 
 maintenance. Then everyone who used the road had to pay for it, but now the bur- 
 den falls almost altogether upon one class, viz, the farmers, especially in agricultural 
 districts. From inquiries which 1 have made in South Wales (where turnpikes still 
 
EUEOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 379 
 
 exiat) at gates close to large towns, eleven-twelfths of the traffic which passes 
 through them comes from the towns, and even at country gates, 6 or 8 miles from 
 any town, three-fourths come from the towns. 
 
 It is manifestly unfair, theUj that the county ratepayers should have to pay the 
 whole amount for the maintenance of roads which are much more used by the towns- 
 people than by themselves, and to this cause, Ithinls, may be attributed the dissatis- 
 faction which exists in the country as to the highways and locomotives (amend- 
 ment) act, 1878. These remarlis are intended to apply to main roads only, and not to 
 district or parish roads. The inferior state of a great part of tlio main roads may 
 also, I believe, be traced to the same cause. The greater part of most highway dis- 
 trict boards is generally composed of farmers, and they naturally try to reduce the 
 expenditure on the roads to as little as possible, and in many cases have done so to 
 too great an extent, aud the roads have suifered in oonsequeuee. The tendency is 
 also to divide the present highway districts, which in many cases are already too 
 small, and place each division in charge of a man who knows nothing whatever about 
 road work, the salary offered being so small that no competent man could accept the 
 appointment, a. great many highway surveyors at present having had no previous 
 training in road work whatever. I think this is a great argument iu favor of the 
 county government of roads. The districts should be of a large size, and the sur- 
 veyors should be appointed by the county authority, aud be required to devote the 
 whole of their time to their duties. District boards would be required to regulate 
 the expenditure, and I think it advisable that all main roads should be either under 
 separate management, as in South Wales, or be inspected by an officer appointed by 
 the county authority ; or several authorities might combine to pay an inspector, and 
 he should deliver an annual report on the state of 'the roads, and superintend the 
 prQparation of the estimates. Under the South Wales turnpike act, the main roads 
 of each county are governed by a county roads board, with, in some counties, dis- 
 trict roads boards, as distinct from highway district boards, to regnlate the expendi- 
 ture. The surveyors have charge of the main roads only. The highway district sur- 
 veyors are also appointed by the county roads boards, although not paid by them, 
 and they tiave charge of the district and parish roads. Until recently, themain roads 
 were annually inspected by a general superintendent of roads for South Wales, ap- 
 pointed and paid by the local government board. This office has recently been abol- 
 ished, as the loans advanced by government to the respective county roads boards 
 when the act was passed, have been repaid. 
 
 In many of the English counties the main roads are inspected ; but in many cases 
 it is either by magistrates, county surveyors (who are "usually architects), or police 
 superintendents, etc. These may know very well when a road is in good or bad con- 
 dition ; but they can not know, unless they have had special training, what is the 
 most economical and best wayof repairing a good road aud maintaining its efficiency, 
 or of repairing and making good a bad one. A great deal has been said lately as to 
 how funds. should be obtained for the maintenance of roads if the present system of 
 rating should be abolished. In my opinion, the fairest way would be by the appro- 
 priation of the carriage tax, and if that did not prove sufficient, by the reimposition 
 of the horse-tax. All vehicles and horses, whatever they may be kept and used for, 
 should be taxed. In the case of vehicles, the tax should be adjusted on the basis of 
 the tolls which were levied under the turnpike act, due regard being paid to the size 
 and shape of the wheels. It may be said that in this case the townspeople would 
 have to pay towards maintaining the country roads, whilst the country people would 
 not pay anything towards the maintenance of thetown roads and streets ; butlthink 
 this objection may be met by providing that the tax should be divided proportion- 
 ately and applied to both purposes, certain of the streets for this purpose being clas- 
 sified as main roads. Since the preceding paper was written, now nearly 5 years 
 since, the local government act, IS-iS, has been passed, and in clause 20 it provides 
 that all local taxation licenses, as specified in the first schedule to the act, are to be 
 paid into the Bank of England to an account called the local taxation account, after 
 
380 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 ■nhich, when the respective amonnt collected in each county has been ascertained 
 and certified by the commissioners of inland re van ne, it is to be paid, under the direc- 
 tion of the local government board, out of the local taxation account, to the county 
 counsel of each county. 
 
 This schedule, in addition to others, includes licenses for carriages, trade carts, 
 locomotives, horses and mules, and horse-dealers ; and in section 121 a temporary 
 provision is made by which, in addition to part of the probate duties, all duties on 
 thtjse licenses under any act of the present session are to be applied as a grant, to be 
 distributed as follows : " In paying -to every county, highway, and other local author- 
 ity, who have heretofore received out of moneys provided by parliament a contribu- 
 tion to the cost of roads, or to the successors of such authority, sums calculated in 
 like manner and according to the like scale and regulations as in the financial year 
 ending on the 31st day of March, 1888." A great outcry has been made against the 
 projected wheel-tax (withdrawn since this paper was read) ; but it was only to be 
 expected, as people who have previously benefited by the taxation of others do not 
 care to have the burden thrown directly on their own shonlders. The usual argu- 
 ment against it is that the roads are for the indirect benefit of all. This is quite true; 
 and, therefore, all the more reason why some more equitable mode of obtaining funds 
 should be provided than at present exists, by which the whole cost of maintaining 
 the county main roads is thrown chiefly on the agricultural classes. I strongly hold 
 that those who obtain a direct beuefit from the use of the roads should pay directly 
 towards the cost of their maintenance. At present it is difficult to judge how the 
 act will work in relation to main roads. In South Wales, all tolls will be abolished 
 from the date it comes into operation, and funds for their maintenance will be ob- 
 tained in a similar manner as in England and North Wales. The general opinion in 
 South Wales is that under section 11, clause 2, the various urban authorities will take 
 possession of the various lengths of road within their districts, thus leaving many 
 short isolated lengths, which will be transferred by the county councils to the vari- 
 ous highway districts under clause 4 of the same section. The proper maintenance 
 of all these roads will be supervised by the road surveyors of the councils of the dif- 
 ferent counties, and all payments to the bodies who have taken over these roads will 
 be made on their certificates. It seems probable that the district roads there, which 
 stand on a somewhat similar footing to the main roads in England, and receive a con- 
 tribution from the common fund of the county, will all be declared main roads under 
 the act. No special provision has been made to meet this as far as I can see, but it 
 seems to be the evident intQution of the act. In England a similar course seems 
 likely to be taken as regards the absorption by urban aothorities of main roads in 
 their districts. The proper supervision of the main roads seems well provided for by 
 the act, as by clause 5, section 11, no county couucil has power to make any payment 
 to a district council in respect of the maintenance, repair, or improvement of any 
 road by an urban authority until the county council is satisfied by the report of their 
 surveyor or such other person as they may appoint for the purpose. While the more 
 efficient control and maintenance of the main roads appear to be well provided for, 
 the importance of the proper maintenance of district and parish roads should not be 
 lost sight of. 
 
EUEOPE— UNITED KINGDOM. 381 
 
 MANCHESTER DISTRICT. 
 
 BLACKBURN, BOLTON, SALFORD, AND STRETFORD. 
 
 BEPOBT i?r CONSUL ORINNELL, OF MANGRESIMB. 
 
 I inclose herewith three interesting reports received from the borough 
 surveyors of Blackburn, Bolton, and Salford, in this consular district, 
 in reply to my inquiries as to the making and maintenance of city streets 
 within their municipalities. I would draw especial attention to the ex- 
 cellent report, with inclosures, furnished me by Mr. J. B. McOallum, the 
 borough and water engineer of Blackburn. I also inclose a report re- 
 ceived from the surveyor to the Stretford local board, 
 
 I have delayed the sending forward of these reports in the hope of 
 being able to obtain similar information from the borough surveyors of 
 Manchester, Oldham, and Lancaster, but I regret to say that these gen- 
 tlemen have not seen fit to reply to my letters of inquiry. 
 
 William F, GtRinnbll, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Manchester, June 18, 1891. 
 
 BLACKBURN. 
 
 Borough and Water Engineer McCaUum to Consul Grinnell. 
 
 Borough and Water Engineer's Department, 
 
 Municipal Offices, Blackburn. 
 William F. Grinnell, Esq., 
 
 United States Consul, Manchester : 
 
 Sir : In reply to your letter, I beg to hand you the following information which I 
 trust may be of some use : 
 
 (1) The methods employed in making and maintaining the city streets. 
 
 After due notice has been given owners of property (see copy, inclosure No. 1), new 
 streets are made by the corporation and the cost charged to owners of the property 
 abutting on same, according to length of frontage. Materials are purchased by the 
 corporation under annual contracts, and labor is done by contract, prices being ar- 
 ranged for each street separately. When completed, the streets are maintained by 
 and at the expense of the corporation, both under annual contracts and by day labor. 
 
 (2'i The details of the systems followed and expenses incurred by that branch of 
 the city governmeot having in charge the city streets. 
 
 Granite sets, 5 inches deep,, with tar joints on a bed of cement concrete 6 Inches 
 thick, costing 11». M. per square yard. 
 
 Granite sets, 5 inches deep, with tar joints, on hand-pitched under-bedding stone, 
 12 inches thick after being rolled with a 15-ton steam roller, costing 88. per square 
 yard. 
 
 Local stone sets, 6 inches deep, with tar joints, on hand-pitched under bedding 
 stone, 12 inches thick after being rolled with a 15-tou steam roller, costing 68. per 
 square yard. 
 
 Local stone sets (seconds), with tar joints on 10 inches of clinkers and mill ashes, 
 costing 58. 6(?. per square yard. 
 
382 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Granite hand broken to pass a 2-inch ring, on hand-pitched underbedding stone, 
 12 inches thick after being rolled with a 13-ton steam roller, costing 4«. per square • 
 yard. 
 
 Limestone, ditto, costing 3s. per square yard. 
 
 Footways : Granite curbs, 12 inches wide and 7 inches deep, with local flags 3 inches 
 thick, mortar joints, and gravel underbedding 3. inches thick, costing 7s. 3d. per 
 square yard. 
 
 Local stone curbs, ditto, costing 5s. 9rf. per square yard. 
 
 (Specifications for materials and labor incloeed. Inclosure No. 2, Forms Nos. 1, 2, 
 3,5,6,7,8,29,33, and 34.) 
 
 (3) The materials used for streets of heavy and light traffic, respectively. 
 
 Heavy traffic streets : Granite sets on cement concrete. Granite sets on hand- 
 pitched underbedding. 
 
 Light traffic streets : Local stone sets on hand-pitched underbedding. 
 
 Back streets: Local stone sets (seconds) on clinkers and mill ashes, run in with tar. 
 
 Macadamized roads : Granite or limestone, hand broken, on hand-pitched under- 
 bedding. 
 
 (4) The source and treatment of such materials, and the first and final cost. 
 
 Granite sets, costing 22s. dd. per ton, _and curbs, costing 4s. per lineal yard, are ob- 
 tained from Dalbeattie, Scotland, or Newry, Ireland. (See inclosure No. 3, giving 
 the results of experiments to ascertain the resistance to thrusting stress and the po- 
 rosity of Dalbeattie gray granite.) 
 
 Granite macadam from Penmaen-Mawr, Wales, at lis. 3d. per ton ; local stone sets 
 at lis. per ton ; curbs at 2«. 6d. per lineal yard ; flags at 38. 4d. per square yard, 
 and underbedding stone at Is. 8d. per ton, are obtained from the Rossendale Valley, 
 Hasliugden, Darwen, Blackburn, etc. About 6d. per ton and3(i. per yard is added 
 to the above prices in order to cover office and stoneyard expenses. (See inclosure 
 No. 4 for description of Penmaen-Mawr stone.) 
 
 (5) The cost of building and maintaining such streets, and the assessment of such 
 first cost and maintenance. 
 
 Cost of making, 6s. 6d. td 12s. per square yard. Cost of maintaining, 8d. to Is. 3d. 
 per square yard. 
 
 Assessmenis. — First cost is paid by property owners. Streets are maintained by and 
 at the expense of the corporation. An annual sum, amounting to about £7,000 is 
 set apart for repairing streets, etc., and £4,500 for repairing macadam roads. 
 Very faithfully yours, 
 
 J. B. McCallum, 
 M. Inst. C. E., Borough and Water Engineer, Blaolcburn. 
 
 THE BLACKBURN IMPROVEMENT ACT, 1882. 
 [Inclosure No. 1, in letter of the borough flarveyor of Blackburn.] 
 
 Whereas, The street called Henry street, from James street to Regent street, within 
 the borough of Blackburn, not being a highway reparable by the inhabitants at 
 large, is not sufficiently sewered, drained, leveled, flagged, paved, channeled, metaled, 
 made good to the satisfaction of the corporation of Blackburn, 
 
 The corporation do therefore hereby give yon notice to sewer, drain, level, pave, 
 flag, channel, metal, and make good in the manner specified in the specification, here- 
 unto annexed, so much of the said street, as the premises belonging to you and each 
 of you severally and respectively front, adjoin, or abut upon, within 60 days from 
 the service hereof: 
 
 And further, that a plan and section showing the particulars of the said works are 
 deposited at the office of the borough surveyor, within the municipal offices, in the 
 said borough, for inspection ; and the same can be inspected between the hours of 9 
 
EUKOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. . 383 
 
 o'olocjiin the morning and 1 o'clock in tlie afternoon on Saturdays, and between the 
 hours of 9 o'clock in the morning and 6 o'clock in the evening on any other day, ex- 
 cepting Sunday ; and the borough surveyor, upon application, will give such further 
 information as may be needed, or you may require : 
 
 And further, that the highway and general drainage committee of the oorporatiou 
 will meet at the committee room in the town hall, in the said borough, on Monday, 
 the 16th day of February, 1891, at 3 o'clock in the afternoon, for the purpose of con- 
 sidering any objections which may be made against the proposed level of the said 
 street, when and where all persons interested therein or likely to be agrieved thereby 
 may attend : 
 
 And further, that in case of your default in the premises, the corporation will, 
 without further notice, execute the said works (except any which, at such meeting, 
 may be ordered to be abandoned, and with such alterations, if any, as at such meet- 
 ing may be ordered to be made) and charge you with the expenses thereof. 
 
 Dated this 15th day of January, 1891. 
 
 J. B. McCallum, 
 Borough Surveyor, 
 
 To the Blackburn school board, and William Ditchfield, clerk ; to the North Britons' 
 Friendly Society, and John Sefton Scott, their secretary ; and to Thomas Brindle 
 and Charles Augustus Sanderson, Thomas Howson, and William James Waugh, 
 the executors of the late Thomas Ainsworth ; or others, the owners or occupiers 
 respectively of the lands abutting upon Henry street aforesaid. 
 
 Speoificatlon referred to in the foregoing notice. 
 
 To excavate the ground and form and lay a sewer or sewers along the above-men- 
 tioned street of glazed earthenware socket-jointed pipes, of the sizes and to the in- 
 clinations, depth, and length as shown on the plan and section, and connect the 
 same to the nearest main setrer. Manholes and ventilating shafts to be constructed 
 where shown of 9-inch brickwork in cement, with step irons built in at intervals of 1 
 foot ; the bottoms being formed of blue radiated bricks floated in cement, and the tops 
 arched over and covered with 6-iuch landings and cast-iron lids of approved pattern. 
 
 Branch drains to be laid for all existing or future recLuirements as the borough 
 surveyor may direct. Each pipe must be boned to an uniform inclination, and the 
 joints made water tight with clay puddle or cement. 
 
 Earthenware or cast-iron gullies and grates to be fixed in the position shown on 
 plan and connected to the sewer by 6-inch earthenware pipes. The gullies to be of 
 the form and dimensions of the sample gullies and grates lying for inspection at the 
 Btoreyard of the corporation at Islington. 
 
 The down-spouts to be connected to the sewer with 4-inch pipes ; such down-spouts 
 as require it to be lengthened for this purpose. 
 
 The carriageway of the before-mentioned street must be excavated to the depth 
 and extent shown upon the plan and section, and a formation or undorhed composed 
 of broken stones, hard bricks, or other clean and approved material, must be broken 
 to the satisfaction of the borough surveyor or his inspector. The underbed to be laid 
 in the manner shown upon the section, and to be of such depth that it shall average 
 12 inches in thickness after being consolidated by a steam roller. The undeibed to 
 be then covered with a layer of clean, sharp, screened gravel, 2 inches in thickness, 
 and properly prepared for the paving. 
 
 The flags, curbstones, and sets must be of good quality, and such as shall be ap- 
 proved by the borough auTveyoi. 
 
 The flags must each contain an area of not less than 5 square feet, and be at 
 least 3 inches in thickness, well squared through, laid with close joints, in good lime 
 mortar, on a bed of gravel not less than 3 inches in thickness. 
 
 The curbstones must be in lengths of not less than 2 feet 6 inches each, 7 to 8 
 inches deep, and 12 inches broad, well dressed, squared and jointed, and properly 
 lajij to thejpclination shown on this sect^jon, 
 
384 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 The carriageway of the street must be paved with what are known as 6-inch sets, 
 squared and laid in courses of equal breadth, well ajid firmly bedded in the gravel. 
 The joints between the courses not to exceed half an inch, to be well filled with 
 clean ohittiogs screaned, when required, to free them from dirt or sand. The paving 
 to be well rammed with proper beaters and the joints run with impervious material. 
 
 By permission of the borough surveyor, a mixture of sharp sand and clean mill 
 ashes may be used instead of gravel when the state of the weather or the nature of 
 the ground seems, in his opinion, to require such ; and when this mixture is used it 
 must be prepared by thoroughly blending equal parts of sand and ashes. 
 
 DALBEATTIE GRANITE. 
 
 Dalbeattie, Scotland, February 11, 1891. 
 I. B. McCallum, Esq., C. E., 
 
 Borough Engineer, Municipal Offices, Blackburn : 
 
 Sir : We regret we have kept you waiting so long for the information required, 
 but our friend was late in replying, and, after all, his reply was not satisfactory. 
 
 We take the following extract from "Granites and our Granite Industries," by 
 Geo. V. Harris, T. G. S., published by Crosby, Lockwood & Co., London, in 1888 : 
 
 " Dalbeattie quarries. — The light-gray stone obtained from these quarries is fine- 
 grained, some kinds approaching medium. The quartz is white, clear, and trans- 
 parent. The feldspar Ls mostly white also, but here and there assumes a light-brown 
 tint. None of the crystals are well defined, and they are much interlocked with the 
 quartz. There is a fair proportion of black mica present, and another black mineral, 
 which occurs in long needle-like crystals, denotes the presence, perhaps, of schorl. 
 This last mineral is not abundant. The stone appears to be very hard, compact, 
 and takes a beautiful polish, being highly suitable for ornamental decorations and 
 the like." 
 
 Perhaps this, together with a copy of the crushing and porosity tests made by 
 Kirkcaldy & Son, of London, which we inclose herein, may answer your purpose; 
 but if not, please inform us and we will do what we can to procure further informa- 
 tion. 
 
 Yours respectfully, 
 
 P. Pro., D. H. & J. Newall, 
 
 H. GiLLISPIE. 
 
 Besulis of experiments to awertain the resistance to thrusting stress of four i-inch cubes oj 
 graitile received from Messrs. D. H. ^ J. Keioall. 
 
 
 N'ame of qnarry and 
 marked. 
 
 Dimensions. 
 
 Base 
 area. 
 
 Cracked slightly. 
 
 Crushed, steel yard 
 dropped. 
 
 1 
 
 Stress. 
 
 9 
 
 r 
 
 Stress. 
 
 p 
 
 i 
 
 Y. 
 
 891 
 
 889 
 888 
 890 
 
 Dalbeattie gray 
 granite. 
 
 V/^Ao'"'".'.'.'.'.'.'.'".'. 
 
 Inches. 
 4. 00X4. 00X4. 00 
 
 3.96 4.00X4.00 
 4.00 4.00X3.97 
 
 3.97 3.98X3.98 
 
 Sq. in. 
 16.00 
 
 16.00 
 15.88 
 15.84 
 
 Pounds. 
 176, 500 
 
 174, 800 
 168, 20O 
 161, 900 
 
 Pounds. 
 il, 031 
 
 10,925 
 10, 591 
 10, 410 
 
 Tons. 
 709.3 
 
 702. 5 
 681.0 
 669.4 
 
 Pounds. 
 241, 870 
 
 240, 180 
 212,640 
 202,230 
 
 Pounds 
 15, 116 
 
 15.011 
 13, 390 
 12, 767 
 
 Ions. 
 972.0 
 
 965.3 
 861.0 
 821.0 
 
 
 
 692.5 
 
 224. 230 
 
 14,071 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bedded between pieces of pine f-inch thick. 
 
 99 Southwark street, Loudon, S. E., March 25, 1886. 
 Messrs. D. H. &. J. Newall, 
 
 Dalbeattie Granite Works, Dalbeattie, Scotland. 
 
 David Kirkcaldt & Son, 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 385 
 
 ExperimenU to asoertain the porosity of two pieces of atone from quarry, as under. 
 (Weighed when thoroughly dry and weighed again after 10 days' immersion in water tank.] 
 
 Eoceived from — 
 
 Name of qnarr^ and 
 marked. 
 
 Test 
 No. 
 
 Porosity percentage of original weights. 
 
 
 V. 
 
 Before. 
 
 After. 
 
 Diff. 
 
 Porosity. 
 
 Messrs. D. H. & J. Newall . - 
 
 Balheattie gray granite . . 
 
 892 
 893 
 
 Potmds. 
 23. U 
 23.76 
 
 Pounds. 
 23.15 
 23,77 
 
 Pounds. 
 0.01 
 0.01 
 
 ■00 
 ■00 
 
 For 'results of experiments under Thrashing Stress. (See report of March 25, 1886.) 
 99 Southwark street, London, S. E., March 8, 1888. 
 
 David Kikkcaldy & Son. 
 Messrs. D. H. i& J. Newall, 
 
 Dalbeattie Granite Works, Dalbeattie, Scotland, 
 
 PENMAENMAWR (WALBS) STONE. 
 
 The Penmaenmawr stone possesses very slight porosity, the absorption' being less 
 than 0.03 per cent, of its weight, an important characteristic as regards disintegration 
 by atmospheric influences, or by chemical action consequent upon contact with ani- 
 mal droppings or other street refuse, or by the action of frost, stones of slight porosity 
 being best able to withstand such actions. 
 
 From Messrs. Brundritt Sf Co.'s quarries, 
 
 Silicia 56.25 
 
 Alumina 18.02 
 
 Peroxide of iron 3.81 
 
 ProtoxidH of iron 3.70 
 
 Oxide of manganese ..'. Trace. 
 
 Lime 6.90 
 
 Magnesia ,. 5.04 
 
 Potash 2.76 
 
 Soda 1.90 
 
 Carbonic acid 0. 50 
 
 Sulphuric acid 0.03 
 
 Combined water .1.09 
 
 100. 00 
 
 Specific gravity 2.76 
 
 The crushing strength is placed at '26,837 pounds per square inch. 
 
 BOLTON. 
 
 Borough Surveyor Broolcbanlc to Consul Chinnell, 
 
 Borough Surveyok's Officm, Bolton. 
 Sir: In reply to your letter as to street building and road mailing, I have pleasure 
 in forwarding the following particulars referring to our own town : 
 The owner of any land desiring to open out the same for building purposes is re- 
 33a 25 
 
386 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 qiiiired to provide front streets of not less than 13 yards wide and back streets of not 
 less than 6 yards wide, which are sewered, formed, paved, flagged, etc., at the ex- 
 pense of the owners of the property abutting on same. In forming the roadway is 
 excavated to a depth of 2 feet in front streets and filled in with 14 inches of ballast, 
 back streets being excavated to a depth of 18 inches and filled in with 8 inches of 
 ballast, and both back and front streets are paved with local grit sets of 8 inches 
 deep. The footpaths are excavated to a depth of 6 inches and filled in with 3 inches 
 of cinders or gravel and flagged with flags of not less than 3 inches thick in both 
 front and back streets, the edgings and curbs being 8 inches deep and 12 inches wide 
 in front streets and 12 inches deep and 6 inches wide in back streets. 
 
 The cost of excavating, forming, paving, etc., is as follows : Excavating, Is. 6a. per 
 cubic yard ; 14 inch ballasting, 8d. per superficial yard ; 8 inch ballasting, 6S. per su- 
 superficial yard; paving, 3s. 2(?. per superficial yard ; flagging (front streets), 48. 5d. 
 per superficial yard ; flagging (back streets), 3s. 9ii. per superficial yard ; edgings (front 
 streets), 2«. lid. per superficial yard ; edgings (back streets), 2s. 3d. per superficial yard; 
 curbs (front streets), 3s. 2d. per superficial yard ; curbs (back streets), 2s. 6d. per super- 
 ficial yard. 
 
 Public streets reparable at the expense of the corporation where there is heavy 
 traffic are mostly paved with grauite sets, and, unless the foundation is good, on a 
 concrete bed of 6 inches deep. These sets are obtained principally from Wales and 
 are 6 inches deep and 3 inches wide, their average life being about 30 years and the 
 cost as follows: Concreting, paving, and asphalting lis. 8d. per superficial yard, and 
 will require repaving once during the time stated, at a cost of 3s. 6d. per superficial 
 yard, making an average cost for the 30 years of Gd. per superficial yard per yard; 
 paving and asphalting, 98. per superficial yard, and require repaving twice at a 
 cost of 3s. Gd. per superficial yard each time, thus giving an average for the 30 years 
 (without concrete) of 6id. per yard per year. 
 
 Leicester Mill sets of 8 inches deep are obtained in Lancashire and will last 8 
 years where the traflic is heavy, the cost of concreting, paving, and asphalting being 
 9s. '2d. per superficial yard ; they require repaving once at a cost of 28. 3d. per super- 
 ficial yard, making an average for the 8 years of is. 5d. per superficial yard per 
 year. Paving and asphalting without concrete will cost 6s. 6d. per superficial yard, 
 repaving once at a cost of 2s. 3ri. per superficial yard, thus showing an average for 
 the 8 years of is. Id. per superficial yard per year. 
 
 Local grit sets of 8 inches deep, obtained from local quarries, will last 4 years with 
 
 heavy traffic, and concreting, paving, and asphalting will cost 7s. 2(i. per superficial, 
 
 yard per year ; without concrete the cost will bo 4s Gd. per superficial yard, or an 
 
 average of Is. IJrf. per superficial yard per y-ear. 
 
 Yours faithfully, 
 
 W. H. Brockbank, 
 
 Borough Surveyor. 
 William F. Grinnell, Esq., 
 
 United Stales Consul, Manchester. 
 
 SALFORD. 
 
 Borough Engineer Jacob to Consul Grinnell. 
 
 Borough Engineer's Office, 
 
 Town Hall, Sal/ord. 
 Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your communication, and below 
 I give you the information you require. 
 
 The " methods employed in making and maintaining the city streets," do not differ 
 in any essential respect from the instructions contained in any of the ordinary text 
 books on road making, but it is needless to state that the making of a street and its 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 387 
 
 mainteaanoe,'are two wholly different and distinct matters. The preparation of the 
 fouadatioD of a now street, to be constructed on new ground, consists of forming the 
 ground to the same contour as that of the street when finished, and the writer can 
 not do better than inclose one of the standard drawings which he has designed for 
 use in his office at the Salford town hall. This section is for a new paved road, the 
 only variation being that in localities where the traffic is very heavy, paving sets of 
 Welsh, or other good granite are employed for thesnrface of the carriageway, whilst 
 the carriageways for streets to carry lighter traffic the surface is paved with sets of 
 somewhat larger size, of the millstone grit, which are prodnced principally from 
 north Lancashire, near Stacksteads or Darweu. The life of millstone-grit sets under 
 a fair average traffic, does not generally exceed fifteen years, whilst the paving stones 
 of Welsh granite may be expected to stand on a good solid foundation for 25 or even 
 30 years. It is therefore needless to say that a high rate of carriage upon the material 
 ■will be warranted where snch a durable material as granite is employed. 
 
 It is of the first importance that the foundation of a street should be disturbed as 
 little as possible either by main drainage, cross-drainage, or the laying of gas and 
 ■water pipes, for foundations that have been much disturbed are pretty sure to settle 
 more or less in process of time, causing dislocation of the sets or other surface mate- 
 rials, and a bad surface for traffic. The writer is of the opinion that in North Amer- 
 ica or Canada where the climate is excessive, it is desirable that all roadways should 
 have a solid foundation of not less than 10 or 12 inches of cement concrete, laid 
 beneath the paving sets, for even in the Manchester and Salfoi'd streets, the sets of 
 which are laid on a layer of cinders, it is no uncommon thing to observe that during 
 a severe frost the whole surface of a street will rise from the foundation and become 
 detached on account of the frosts penetrating to the damp cinders under the sets and 
 lifting them up bodily out of their place. * 
 
 It would be extremely difficult to supply a reliable estimate of the cost of street- 
 making, even in England, unless the nature of the material to be employed were spe- 
 cifically defined, and the locality from which it is to be obtained. The distancefrom 
 vfhich materials are procured forms an important factor in framing the estimate of 
 cost, and a small increase in the distance from which materials have to be brongbt 
 ■will sometimes double the cost of the work, but it may be some guide to say that 1 
 ton of Welsh granite se ts will cover about 3J square yards of surface, whilst 1 ton 
 of grit sets will cover an area of 4 square yards of carriageway. In almost every 
 locality in or uear Manchester, the footways are flagged with the best self-faced — 
 that is, natural faced — flags of millstone grit, truly squared and laid in courses across 
 the footway, no flag to be less in area than 3 squarefeet, andnonemorethan 12 square 
 feet in area. The curbing for the footways is of millstone grit, laid in lengths of from 
 2 feet H inches to 3 feet. The stones are 10 inches wide by 7 inches deep, laid flat. 
 Yours obediently, 
 
 Arthur Jacob, B. A., M. I., C. E., 
 
 Borough Engineer. 
 
 William P. Gbinnbll, Esq., 
 
 United States Consul, Manchester. 
 
 STRETFORD. 
 
 ENGINEER BOYLE TO CONSUL OBINNELL. 
 
 . Sir : In answer to your inquiries respecting road-making in this district I have 
 much pleasure in contributing the following information : 
 
 (1) The methods employed in making and maintaining the public roads. 
 
 In this local government district of Stretford which is situated on the southwest 
 side of the city of Manchester, we have two main thoroughfares which converge at a 
 
388 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 -P. 
 
 ■fe ■%» 
 
 point lialf a mile from the city boundary, throngh which a, very 
 large and heavy traffic of agricnltural produce finds its way into 
 the Manchester marltets, as well as other general and through 
 traffic of building material, etc., and during portions of the year 
 the traffic continues through the night. This road is the old 
 Roman road from London and Chester to the north. The length 
 of this main road is 4 miles, and with the exception of half a mile 
 the center portion, 16 feet wide, is paved with granite setts, which 
 form the road way on which the tramcars run, the sides thereof 
 being a macadam surface. The original way of making this road 
 was that known asMaoAdam's system, viz, by simply tipping and 
 spreading broken stone on a moderately level surface and 
 thus forming the roadway, the thickness of broken stone or 
 metal varying from 3 to 6 inches. We have no broken stone 
 roadways made on the Telford system, but I have some made by 
 first excavating the carriageway 18 inches in depth below the 
 side curbs. The foundation is then formed with 10 inches of 
 cinders or furnace slag, on which is placed 4 inches of rongh 
 gravel, and the final or finished surface with 4 inches of hard 
 stone (trap rock), broken to a 2J-inch gauge, the steam roller 
 having been used during the making and up to the final com- 
 pletion. A roadway made up in this manner gives every satis- 
 faction. 
 
 (2) The details of the systems followed and expenses incurred 
 by that branch of the local government having in charge the 
 public roads. 
 
 In the maintenance of MacAdam or broken-stone roads the 
 method adopted is to use the hardest and most durable stone 
 obtainable, and before laying on the stone the surface is hacked 
 up with picks in cross courses about 4 inches apart in order to 
 burst up the old material, then one, two or three stones in thick- 
 ness of broken stone is laid on evenly, the steamroller being used 
 before the gravel is put on for a. binding material. The road is 
 then watered as required and finally consolidated with the roller 
 until completed. Two men are required to constantly brush in and 
 spread the binding material and distribute the water until the 
 surface is thoroughly creamed up. The rolling should be done 
 slowly, as nothing is gained by a rapid motion, the fuel con- 
 sumption being considerably increased without any advantage to 
 the work. 
 
 Macadam or broken-stone roadways in Stretford are very expen- 
 sive to maintain, in consequence of their close proximity to Man- 
 chester, and the average cost per mile for watering, scavenging, 
 and repairing is about £360, notwithstanding the central por- 
 tion, which is paved with granite, being maintained by the Man- 
 chester Carriage and Tramways Company. 
 
 The material put on the roads is froai the quarries at Pen- 
 maenmawr, iu North Wales, and is of the igneous or trap rock 
 formation. It is very hard and durable, there being no better 
 stone for the purpose. It is broken to a gnage of 2^ inches (if 
 the roller is not used it should be broken to a 2-inch gauge), and 
 the cost per tou when broken and on the wharf is 10s. 3d. 
 
 (3) The effect of improved public roads upon land values and 
 other economic conditions. 
 
 I can not give you any information in regard to this question, 
 
 Transverse section 
 ot street in Salford. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 889 
 
 except that there can be no doubt that good roads increase the value of laud through 
 ■which they pass for many purposes besides those for building-, just in the same 
 manner as main outfall sewers improve land for building purposes and the develop- 
 ment of estates. 
 
 Yours, respectfully, 
 
 H. ROYLB, 
 
 Assoc. M. Inst. C. E. 
 William F. Grinnell, Esq., 
 
 United States Consulate, Manchester. 
 
 TUNSTALL. 
 
 BEFOBT BY CONSUL BVBQBSS. 
 HIGHWAYS. 
 
 As we look into the subject of roads and road-making in this consu- 
 lar district we find a wide and interesting field for study. Looked at 
 from an historic standpoint, the subject at once brings us to the time 
 of the Komans — the world's great highway builders — at the time of 
 the conquest by them of the islands of Britain towards the end of 
 the first century. One at least of these old roads runs through this 
 district. 
 
 It is not, however, from this point of view, extremely interesting 
 though it be, that I propose to report my investigations of the very 
 practical and important question of how roads are made and maintained 
 within my circle of observation. The subject naturally divides itself 
 into two heads, viz, the country roads and the city or town streets. 
 These again subdivide themselves in the highways and country lanes ; 
 and the main roads and bye-streets. 
 
 The beautiful country roads now in use, for which these middle coun- 
 ties of England are so worthily famous, were, with the exception of the 
 few roads built since 1878, made by the turnpike trusts nnder special 
 acts of Parliament, the first of which was passed in 1762. The different! 
 districts of the country, having been divided into sections or divisions, 
 each several section was placed in the hands of trustees, separate and 
 distinct acts of Parliament being required for each of said sections. 
 These trustees levied tolls on all traffic passing over the roads under 
 their control ; the amount of toll demanded, per horse, cart, wagon, etc., 
 varied from time to time, according to the distance traveled between 
 the toll gates and the amount expended in building and maintaining 
 the roads. In some instances the trustees, finding the revenue from 
 their roads inadequate to meet the outlay, delegated, or contracted out, 
 to private individuals, the collection of the tolls. These individuals, 
 having guarantied the necessary amount to the trustees and depending 
 for their reimbursement on the tolls, looked very sharply after the just 
 and full collection of the same. 
 
390 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Under these trusts many of the old lanes and wagon tracks, by the 
 proper use and periodic application of hard broken stones (obtained 
 from the adjoining counties;) to the ruts and holes caused by continued 
 travel, have attained a condition equal to the highways running through 
 the country. To the good judgment and judicious care of these trusts 
 is due the present almost perfect condition of the main or country roads 
 of England. Many years, however, of untiring labor have been re- 
 quired to accomplish such results. 
 
 These trusts, however, were abolished in this district about the year 
 1878. From that date to the year 1888 the roads were under the con- 
 trol of, and maintenance of tiie same devolved upon, the local authori- 
 ties. 
 
 At the present time the county council, who occupy in general the 
 position of our county boards of chosen freeholders, or county commis- 
 sioners, have the entire oversight and control both of the building and 
 maintenance of the country roads. A county surveyor is appointed by 
 them, who is a paid officer, devoting his entire time and attention to the 
 one subject of roads, laying out and constructing new ones and keeping 
 in repair the old, and buying all the materials necessary thereto. 
 
 The county is divided into districts and the detail of the road work is 
 looked after by assistant surveyors. 
 
 The money required for the proper maintenance of the highways, out- 
 side tlie town limits, is derived by a precept issued periodically by the 
 county commissioners to the various town authorities, demanding the 
 amount which has been expended on the roads in their locality. This 
 amount is collected by the town authorities in the general town rates, 
 or taxes, the rate for this purpose now being 3 farthings on the pound, 
 or about -^^-g of 1 per cent., and are levied on the estimated rental value 
 of the property and paid by the occupier, be he the owner or only a 
 leaseholder. 
 
 The cost of keeping these country roads or highways in proper order 
 necessarily varies greatly according to the locality aud according to the 
 amount of traffic passing over them. The Stafibrd County council es- 
 timate the annual cost to be from $150 to $500 per mile. The road-beds 
 are not only kept in order, but the road-sides are kept clean and free 
 from grass and weeds. The loose stones are gathered and the mud aud 
 dust is more tenderly cared for than is the case in many of our larger 
 towns. 
 
 STREETS. 
 
 The term main roads in this district indicates the chief streets or 
 thoroughfares within the town limits. 
 
 The local governing bodies, be they the town council of an incorpo- 
 rated borough or the local governing board of an unincorporated place, 
 have the power granted to them to maintain and repair the main roads 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 391 
 
 within their boundaries. The county surveyor, however, has an over- 
 sight of all this work, and if he certifies that the roads have been kept 
 in proper repair the county council annually reimburse the local bodies 
 for the expenditure they have made. 
 
 The kind of roadbed in general use in this district is that so well 
 known by name in the United States, as the " macadam road," and yet 
 so often disgracing the name on. account of the cheap aud incomplete 
 mauner of its construction. The construction of the roadbed here is 
 very thorough, the extent of the excavation depending upon the nature 
 of the soil. Two feet is the usual depth to which this excavation is 
 made, but should the soil prove loose or of a nature unsatisfactory for 
 a good foundation a still greater depth is reached. A layer of hard 
 broken bricks or the refuse from the many potteries of this neighbor- 
 hood, such as cinders, broken ware and saggars, or any other hard 
 refuse material is put down to the depth of aboujt 18 inches. The con- 
 tour or rounded shape of the road is roughly formed in this state, the 
 mass being consolidated by means of steam or heavy horse rollers. The 
 former are generally used and of course are much preferred on account 
 of their great weight, the standard weight being 12 tons. The next 3 
 or 4: inch layer consists of granite stone of the best and hardest quality 
 broken into pieces capable of passing through a 3-inch gauge. The 
 mass is again rolled. The finishing coating of about 3 inches is of the 
 same quality of stone, but broken to a 2-inch gauge and mixed with 
 half-inch cbippings of the same material. This being again well 
 watered and rolled many times, produces a wonderfully hard and even 
 surface. 
 
 The cost of this macadam stone varies according to the size to which 
 it is broken, but would average about $2.70 per ton, delivered in the 
 towns of this "district. 
 
 The approximate cost of building a main road on which the traffic is 
 very heavy, as is the case iu all the pottery towns, is estimated at about 
 $2.44 per superficial or square yard. The estimated annual cost for 
 maintenance and repairs, taking 6 yards as the average width of the 
 roadbed, is $1,296 per mile or 13 cents per superficial yard. 
 
 The by or side streets of the towns are made in much the same way 
 as the main roads, with the exception that, on account of the traflio 
 being much less, and so great a depth of foundation being unnecessary, 
 onlj' a 12-inch core of hard material is made, the final layer consisting 
 of broken limestone, about 3 or 4inches in thickness, rolled and watered 
 as before. 
 
 The cost of building these by streets including the cost of paving 
 and curbing with bricks made for the purpose is estimated at $1.80 per 
 superficial yard. There are many of these side streets which have been 
 laid out and built by the property owners, desirous of opening up their 
 property, and the streets not having been turned over to, nor accepted 
 by,^ the towns, their maintenance devolves upon the property owners. 
 
392 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Where such streets are used by the inhabitants at large, thus making 
 them public streets, and are found to be in bad condition, the property 
 owners are served with a notice to repair or make good the same; 
 should they fail to do so, the town authorities step in and do it them- 
 selves, apportioning the cost to the several property owners who are 
 compelled to pay. 
 
 The granite used in this district is obtained from the adjoining county 
 of Shropshire and from North Wales ; the limestone from Derbyshire. 
 
 The wood or Nicholson pavements have been used to a small extent 
 in some of the towns, but do not meet with much favor. It is not solid 
 and durable enough to suit the tastes of a people who glory in their 
 solidity and who, when they build even a house, expect it to stand for 
 generations. 
 
 One of the greatest charms of English scenery to the American vis- 
 itor is the beauty of its hedge-lined, stone-bedded roads. Much of 
 Englands scenery would .be nothing without them. Would they not 
 add as greatly to the natural beauties of our own country? The Eev. 
 Dr. Ouyler, of Brooklyn, on the subject of " How to make rural life 
 more attractive," writes as follows : 
 
 Take the single matter of roads, for example. Most country roads are aliominable 
 for at least half of every year. They make it very difficult for farmers to drag their 
 produce to the nearest railway or market ; they make all social intercourse and 
 travel wretchedly uncomfortable. If country people would open their eyes to this 
 fact and open their hands and pockets to improve their highways, they would find it 
 not only to their ))leasure and comfort, but also in the end to their pecuniary profit. 
 Good roads would be one of the first and most indispensable conditions of restoring 
 and reinvigorating the declining country districts. 
 
 Nothing can be truer than the above. The fact presents itself strongly 
 to me, as I see daily, the enormous loads of farm produce carted with 
 ease along these country roads by one horse, which at this season of the 
 year (March) in America, would require at least 4 horses, if indeed, it 
 would be possible at all to market the produce. 
 
 It is difficult to arrive at any facts in dollars and cents relative to the 
 effect of improved public roads upon the value of land or other economic 
 condition, but the effect of such roads now, and for so long in existence, 
 is seen on every hand and the influence felt in the English mode of life. 
 Englishmen, be they of the gentry or of those in the humbler walks of 
 life, seek their pleasure in and gladly betake themselves to their coun- 
 try homes. The one medium of this pleasure so natural to all men is 
 the solid roadbed over which one can walk, or ride, or drive with equal 
 comfort or pleasure in any day of the year. 
 
 Wm. Burgess, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Tunstall, March 28, 1891. 
 
ETJEOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 393 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 IRISH HIGHWAYS. 
 
 SEPOST Br OONSTTLAB AGENT MAQABAN, OF LVBOAN. 
 
 OONSTEUOTION AND MAINTENANCE. 
 
 In Ireland the construction and maintenance of the public highways 
 throughout suburban and rural districts in each county are regulated 
 by means of the grand-jury presentment system. 
 
 Every county is divided into baronies, and in each barony a present- 
 ment sessions court is held twice a year, the persons composing the court 
 being the magistrates residing in or having property and jurisdiction in 
 the barony, and a number of the resident rate-payers in the barony, 
 the latter being nominated by the grand jury of the county at the pre- 
 vious county assizes. 
 
 Previous to each presentment sessions all applications for the con- 
 struction of new bridges and roads or the maintenance of existing roads 
 and bridges within the barony are lodged with the secretary of the 
 grand jury, who classifies the applications and attends with them at the 
 court, where they are examined and approved of or rejected. 
 
 Advertisements inviting tenders for all such works as have been ap- 
 proved of are then issued and a day for the consideration of the tenders 
 is fixed (this being called the " adjourned road sessions"). The county 
 surveyor, who is the engineer in charge of all the highways, bridges, 
 and other public works in the county, prepares the necessary plans 
 and specifications, and when, after an interval of 3 or 4 weeks, the 
 court — ^' the adjourned road sessions" — ^reassembles, all tenders sent 
 in are examined and the several contractors declared, each contractor 
 having to enter into a bond, with sureties, for the due execution of the 
 work. 
 
 A list of the contracts thus (provisionally) entered into, giving con- 
 tractor's name and a brief description of the work, as to length, width, 
 material, and contract price, is then printed for the information of the 
 grand jury at the following assizes, when, if approved of, they are laid 
 before the judge and " flated" or finally confirmed. 
 
 The grant warrant of each assizes (of which I herewith send a copy) 
 contains full particulars as to each contract, together with details as to 
 the amount of tax (" county cess ") to be levied on each barony for all 
 pur5)oses connected with roads, bridges, public buildings, salaries of 
 officials, etc. 
 
 The grand-jury cess ranges from 8d to 2{id per pound valuation 
 of the lands and buildings in baronial subdivisions of the county. In 
 
394 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 this way every barony supports its own roads and bridges, except mail- 
 post roads, whicli are charged half on the barony and half on the county 
 at large. 
 
 The county surveyor is assisted by six or more deputies, in proportion 
 to the area of the county. Appeal on the part of rate-payers against 
 the county surveyor's certificate for payment to any contractor may be 
 made to the grand jury at the assizes, when all grounds of complaint 
 would be inquired into, and, if necessary, to the judge. 
 
 EXPENDITURE. 
 
 The annual expenditure on the public roads and bridges in the 
 county of Armagh (a small county) is about £22,000 per annum. The 
 expenses are : 
 
 One county surveyor $2, 300 
 
 Four assistant surveyors, each having his own district 1,600 
 
 Secretary to the grand jury 925 
 
 County treasurer 1, 600 
 
 Collector of tax (county cess), i]robubIy 5,000 
 
 The duties oi the secretary of the grand jury and of the county treas- 
 urer extend over other departments of the grand-jury system, such as 
 asylums, jails, court-houses, coroners' inquests, etc. 
 
 As the county of Armagh is fairly provided with roads, it is not easy 
 to say what is the actual amount- of depreciation in the value of land 
 where the lauds are inconveniently situated with regard to the roads. 
 It is easy to calculate such case by comparing the actual amount of 
 cartage to and from land per annum, compared with what the cartage 
 would be were the land conveniently situated with respect to a good 
 road. 
 
 ROAD MATERIALS. 
 
 The materials employed for the construction and maiptenauce of 
 roads in this country are broken stones and gravel — chiefly depending 
 upon whether the roads are in a stone or a gravel district. For roads 
 subject to heavy traffic broken stone "metaling" is essential, laid on 
 a pavement of stones set on edge closely together, the top interstices 
 being filled with " spawls," so as to provide a firm foundation for the 
 metaling. Eound stones, such as are found in coarse gravel, should not 
 be used, as they invariably yield to lateral pressure; therefore "bot- 
 toming " should be done with quarry stones or natural bowlders broken 
 to a suitable size, so that the natural rounded surfaces are not in con- 
 tact with the pavement. The strength of the road crust must be de- 
 termined by the engineer according to the nature and amount of the 
 traffic to be provided for. 
 
 In first-class roads the depth of the foundation pavement should be 
 12 inches and of the broken stones 8 inches. Second-class roads, founda- 
 tion pavement 6 to 8 inches, and metaling 6 inches deep. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 395 
 
 Stones for metaling should be broken sufficiently small to pass 
 •through a gauge ring 2 inches diameter. The full depth of the broken 
 stones should not be put on in one layer, but in two or three layers, 
 each to be fairly consolidated before the succeediug layer is laid on. 
 
 MAINTBNANCE. 
 
 The future maintenance of roads will be greatly increased if strict 
 attention is not paid to the following structural conditions : 
 
 (1) Perfect and permanent drainage of the site of the road, such as 
 will provide in future for drainage to a lower level than that of the road 
 foundation. Defective drainage will involve an extravagant expendi- 
 ture of material for*mainteuance in wet weather and will require increase 
 of power for the traction of loaded vehicles. 
 
 (2) Such fall from the center of the road to the sides, and laterally in 
 the water tables and outside chains as will prevent the water from 
 causing any degree of dampness to the road crust or the substratum 
 on which the foundation rests. With regard to permanent drainage 
 much will depend upon the selection of the line of the road as to lateral 
 gradients, and the question of the drainage of the district. 
 
 (3) The quality of the material emxjloyed. In many cases road ma- 
 terial (broken stone) is found to give way under the traffic in wet 
 weather, producing mud, which increases the cost of scavenging, and 
 renders the employment of such material ineffective, or nearly so. The 
 hardest material within reach should be employed, even at a consider- 
 able increase of cost. Stones broken by machinery are not nearly so 
 effective as those broken by hand, as the crushing power applied to 
 break them shatters the natural structure. 
 
 THE COST OP ORIGINAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 First-class. — The cost of earthworks, hedges, and fencing are so very 
 variable in amount that each particular case must be taken by itself, 
 and therefore I cau only speak of the cost of bottoming and metaling. 
 
 For foundation bottoming, as already specified, having the materials 
 within a distance of 2 miles from the work, per yard superficial, 18 cents; 
 broken stone metaling, 24 cents. 
 
 Second-class. — Foundation bottoming, per yard superficial, 10 cents; 
 broken stone metaling, 17 cents. 
 
 Extra lead beyond 2 miles would increase the foregoing items of Is. 
 lOd. and 1«. l^d. per square yard cost to the extent of lOd. and 6d. re- 
 spectively for each mile of lead beyond 2 miles. 
 
 COST OF MAINTENANCE. 
 
 The cost of maintenance is, in practice, very variable, principally de- 
 pendent upon the degree of perfection with which the road has been 
 
396 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 constructed, but largely influenced by the employment of a sufficient 
 number of surfacemen for maintaining the surface in proper condition 
 under skilled supervision. The following particulars are taken from 
 Sir John P. Burgoyne's treatise giving the cost of maintaining the road 
 from Tours to Caen (France), viz : 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Koad labor. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Koad labor. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1832 
 
 £872 
 
 £195 
 
 £1, 067 
 
 1837 
 
 £584 
 
 £504 
 
 £1,088 
 
 18U3 
 
 708 
 
 205 
 
 913 
 
 1838 
 
 445 
 
 466 
 
 901 
 
 1834 
 
 745 
 
 236 
 
 981 
 
 1839 
 
 412 
 
 420 
 
 832 
 
 1835 
 
 671 
 
 280 
 
 951 
 
 1840 
 
 271 
 
 392 
 
 663 
 
 1836 
 
 684 
 
 293 
 
 977 
 
 1841 
 
 163 
 
 445 
 
 608 
 
 The foregoing particulars show that by increasing'the skilled labor 
 and diminishing the consumption of material the cost of maintenance 
 is much reduced. This practice, however, has its limits. Care must 
 be taken that the crust of the road shall not be worn down below the 
 thickness as originally constructed. 
 
 In the county of Armagh the prices paid per mile per annum for the 
 maintenance of roads of the first-class are as follows : 
 
 Highest per mile per annum $320.00 
 
 Lowest per mile perauuum 80. GO 
 
 Average per mile per annum 110. 00 
 
 In a work on "The maintenance of macadamized roads," by Thomas 
 (Jodrington, chief engineer (to be had at 446 Broome street, New York), 
 the mean cost of the whole of the macadamized national roads of 
 France for 1876 is given as $165 per mile. In some departments the 
 average is given as low as $75 and $80 per mile. The same authority 
 states that the average cost per mile of turnpike roads in England and 
 Wales was in 1874 $155 and in 1875 $147. 
 
 The steam roller for the consolidation of the metaling of newly- 
 coated roads is a recent economic improvement. The road metaling is 
 consolidated at once, a smooth, firm surface is provided, and the 
 broken stones are pressed in their original angular condition. Where 
 the heavy roller is not used the broken stones are subject to great wear 
 by being in a continual state of disturbance, producing mud ; the 
 angles are worn round and such compact consolidation as is produced 
 by the roller becomes impossible, and the crust is weak and ill adapted 
 for heavy traffic. 
 
 FniSD. W. Magahan, 
 
 Consular Agent. 
 
 United States Oonstjlae Agency, 
 
 Jjurgan, February, 1891. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 397 
 
 BELFAST. 
 
 MBPOBT BY CONSUL RVBY. 
 
 There are two classes of streets in Belfast, those maintained by the 
 corporation out of the borough rates or taxes, and those maintained by 
 owners of the property. The latter class are very few in number. 
 
 The principal ofBcer in charge of the streets is the city surveyor, who 
 is appointed by the corporation under local act of Parliament. In towns 
 not having a local act he is appointed under the public health act, 
 which is a general one. His immediate duties are those of engineer and 
 surveyor to the corporation and the carrjing out of such acts of Parlia- 
 ment as are in force in the city relating to streets and buildings. 
 
 The salary and those of his staff are as follows, per annum: 
 
 Surveyor $3,645 
 
 Assistiiut .». 1,500 
 
 General assistants 2,732 
 
 Clerks 1,185 
 
 Apprentice clerks .. 219 
 
 Building inspector and two assistants 1,540 
 
 Outdoor superintendents 2,455 
 
 The workmen are employed by the outdoor superintendents, and the 
 wages paid are as follows, per hour : 
 
 Bricklayers: $0. 16 
 
 Stonecutters 14 
 
 Carpenters 15 
 
 Paviors .' 12 to . 16 
 
 The gangers have various rates from $6.30 to $6.54 per week. 
 
 There are about 150 miles of streets in Belfast, of which about 50 
 miles are macadamized, ten paved with sets and ninety with sea 
 pebbles. 
 
 The cost of repairs in 1890 was about £25,000 to the corporation. 
 
 The best paving sets come from Wales, and the present prices are as 
 follows : ¥o\i\ by 4 by 4 inches, $4.36 ; 4 by 4 by 6 inches, $4.48 on quay 
 in Belfast. Local granite costs about 48 cents per ton less. 
 
 The best paving is always executed by the corporation workmen 
 and not by contract, as is usual in the case of most new streets. It is 
 laid on a concrete bed composed of four parts clean broken stones, two 
 parts clean broken brick, two parts clean gravel, and one part best 
 Portland cement. This concrete is made 6, 9, or 12 inches thick, ac- 
 cording to the nature of the ground and trafilic. 
 
 Just before paving the concrete is covered with grout one-half inch 
 thick, composed of six parts screened gravel to one part cement, and 
 the sets are set in this. 
 
 The stones are paved close, just touching, and in perfectly straight 
 lines. 
 
 The joints are run in with grout of five parts clean gravel to one part 
 cement. 
 
398 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 The concreting and paving follow closely. Concrete put in on one 
 day is paved on ou the next. 
 
 The street is then fenced off from traffic until the whole is properly 
 set. Sometimes in bad weather 2 extra days are given, but as a rule 
 1 week suffices. 
 
 Asphalt is not now used for grouting. It is more costly in case of 
 repairs than cement. 
 
 Sets from the Welsh granite company's or Port Kent quarries are 
 always used for the best pavements. 
 
 Formerly the size was 3| inches to 4 inches wide by 7 inches deep, 
 but they have been found rather large to give good foothold. The sets 
 now used are chiefly .4 by 4 by 6 inches deep. This size looks very 
 well, and is very safe for traffic. 
 
 Granite sets and local whin stone are used here in small quantities, 
 but they are very costly when the wear is considered, although, being 
 cheaper at first, tbey tend to ke'ep down the price of the Welsh stones. 
 
 For macadamizing whiustone is principally used. It is obtained from 
 the surrounding farms, where itcrops up out of the ground. It is broken 
 up by the small farmers during their leisure hours or by the prisoners 
 in the jail and is very cheap. The foundation is made of larger stones 
 than those used on the surface and are firmly rammed in by a hand 
 rammer. Itisthencoatedfrom4to 6 inches deep with broken stones of a 
 finer class. It is then traversed by a heavy steam roller which crushes 
 the stones to a sufficient degree of fineness to make travel easy and 
 agreeable. It is necessary to put on a fresh coat of stones about 2 
 inches in thickness at periods varying from 1 to 6 months, depending 
 on the amount of travel ou the streets. 
 
 Wood is not used for paving in this country, as being very expen- 
 sive. 
 
 Where laying out streets in the first instance a plan and specification 
 are lodged with surveyor or corporation by the owner of the property 
 intending to make the street. The surveyor then approves or disap- 
 proves of the plan on account of, among other reasons, the lines, 
 levels, width, mode of drainage, or specification proposed, and no street 
 plan can be approved until the surveyor is satisfied. 
 
 The owner then makes the street in accordance with the documents 
 lodged, and if he does so the street is adopted and owner is liable to 
 keep it in repairs. 
 
 If the street laid out as above be not made by the owner when de- 
 manded by the corporation, the corporation makes an order at d llie 
 owners can be sued lor the cost, which is a charge against the property. 
 
 The entire cost of making streets is chargeable to the owners, but the 
 corporation may in special cases, if they see fit, bear a share of the cost 
 i. e., a street made for special purpose or of extra width. 
 
 Samuel G. Eubt, 
 
 United States Consulate, Consul. 
 
 Belfast, February 23, 1891, 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM, 399 
 
 DUBLIN. 
 BEFOBT BT OONSVL BEID. 
 CITY STKEBTS. 
 
 There are three classes of streets in Dublin, each class being con- 
 structed with reference to the principal uses to which it is likely to be 
 subjected. 
 
 (1) Stone pavements. — This class of streets is constructed with special 
 reference to heavy traffic and a great deal of driving. It includes, of 
 course, the principal thoroughfares of the city. The method of con- 
 struction is substantially as follows: The initial step is, of course, 
 to establish the desired level, which is done by excavating or filling, 
 as the case may be. A foundation for the pavement is then laid, con- 
 sisting of a bed of concrete 6 inches in thickness, one-eighth part of 
 which is Portland cement and seven eighths clean gravel and sand. 
 The surface is perfectly and uniformly even and the outline between 
 the curbs is slightly convex, the degree of convexity being 1 inch in 
 36, so as to throw the water caused by rainfalls into the gutters on 
 either side. Special pains are taken to secure a substantial and durable 
 foundation, as the soil of Dublin as a rule is very bad. The area cov- 
 ered by the newer portion of Dublin, being originally only slightly above 
 the surface of the Eiver Liffey, which divides the city into two nearly 
 equal parts, was very marshy, and now rests largely upon made ground. 
 It may be said in this connection that the street foundations are never 
 disturbed by frosts. The temperature is, of course, very mild. Only 
 a few times during the winter season is it sufficiently severe to freeze a 
 slight crust upon the earth's surface. A covering of 1 inch of fine gravel 
 is then spread over the surface of the concrete for the purpose of accom- 
 modating th^ slight inequalities of the paving blocks. 
 
 After the foundation is completed in the manner above described- 
 and is sufficiently seasoned the stone blocks or "sets" are laid down 
 in rows, crosswise, in the usual way, and are well rammed into place 
 with a heavy iron-shod mall. A mixture of hot pitch and creosote oil 
 is then poured into the interstices between the sets and the remaining 
 space is filled with fine gravel. The pavement is then com]3lete and 
 ready for uSe. 
 
 The material used for stone pavements in Dublin is taken from the 
 Wicklow quarries and consists of greenstone or trappean rock, a very 
 hard and durable material. In fact the objection is made sometimes 
 that it is too hard, as it becomes dangerously smooth in dry weather, 
 presenting an almost glassy surface. 
 
 The size of the blocks or sets is 7 inches long, 6J inches deep, and 
 3J inches wide. The cost of these sets delivered in Dublin is 24 shil- 
 lings and 6 pence ($5.96) per, ton. One ton of sets suffices to cover an 
 area of 3 to 3J square yards. The cost of this pavement, including 
 everything, varies from 13 shillings ($2.92) to 14 shillings ($3.40) pet 
 
400 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEiaN COUNTRIES. 
 
 square yard, according to the amount of work done at a time and the 
 facilities for getting rid of the excavated material. 
 
 The average durability of a pavement thus constructed and of the 
 materials mentioned is 25 years. Of course some repairs are neces- 
 sary during this period, but the extent depends largely upon how 
 much the street is broken in laying pipes, repairing and building 
 sewers, etc. The sets are not worn out even after being in constant 
 use during this long period. When replaced they are generally re- 
 dressed and utilized upon side streets. 
 
 The streets in Dublin thus paved are very line and are frequently 
 commented upon favorably, especially by American visitors. However, 
 they are said to be inferior to the pavements of most English cities. I am 
 informed that the character of the pavements here could be greatly im- 
 proved by a more perfect dressing of the sets. Under similar conditions 
 the sets used in many English cities cost 29s. ($7.06) per ton, the differ- 
 ence in price being made up In the more perfect dressing of the sets. 
 The advantages of more perfect dressing are that a more even and less 
 dangerous surface is secured, and a street over which rapidly moving 
 vehicles make less noise. 
 
 (2) Wood pavements. — This class of pavement nearly corresponds to 
 what is known as the Nicholson pavement in the United States. It is 
 laid upon some of the strictly commercial streets, where there is only a 
 limited amount of heavy traffic, and opposite churches, hospitals, and 
 other institutions, and in cases where a minimum amount of noise is 
 desirable. 
 
 The foundation for this pavement is constructed in exactly the 
 same way and with the same materials as above described in connec- 
 tion with the stone pavement, except that an even more perfect surface 
 is required upon which the wooden blocks or sets are immediately laid. 
 The blocks are laid in rows, crosswise, quite closely together. The spaces 
 between are partially filled, as before, with a mixture of hot pitch and 
 creosote oil. The remaining part of the space is filled with a mixture 
 of one part cement and six parts gravel, to further solidify the pave- 
 ment and to protect the deposit of pitch and creosote oil from the action 
 of the sun. This makes a very fine, noiseless, and fairly durable pave- 
 ment, the average life of which is about 10 years. 
 
 The materials used for this kind of pavement consist of beech or 
 Archangel deals (pine), the timber first being well seasoned. The size 
 of the blocks is 9 inches long, 5 inches deep, and 3 inches wide. 
 The cost, delivered, is £8 17s. 6d. ($43.18) per thousand blocks. About 
 50 blocks are required for each square yard. I should add that before 
 the blocks are placed they are thoroughly oreosoted under steam pres- 
 sure, 10 pounds of creosote being used for each cubic foot of timber. 
 
 The cost of a pavement of this description, including construction of 
 foundation, etc., is 14s. ($3.40) per square yard. 
 
 Macadamized streets. — This class of streets in the city, mainly to be 
 
EUEOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 401 
 
 found ia parts outside of thp center, over which there is a limited 
 amount of heavy traffic, is constructed in exactly the same way as the 
 country roads, which is described in detail in a subsequent part of this 
 report. 
 
 How paid for. — The disbursements occasioned by the construction of 
 all streets within the city limits by the municipal corporation are made 
 from the proceeds of a general tax upon all city property, E^o part of 
 the cost of the construction of any street specially falls upon abutting 
 property. 
 
 Population. — For the convenience of persons who may be interested 
 in the subject-matter of this report, in estimating the probable amount 
 of traffic and the extent to which the public thoroughfares are used, I 
 may add that the population of Dublin, according to the last census 
 (1881), is 249,602. 
 
 Vehicles. — Mne out of ten of the vehicles used for carrying goods 
 and conveying people are mounted upon two wheels. As a rule the 
 vehicles, heavy and light, are hauled by one horse only. Heavy loads, 
 however, are hauled in this way, large and powerful horses being used 
 for heavy traffic. 
 
 Method of doing the work. — All streets in Dublin are built by day 
 and piece labor, under the immediate supervision of experts employed 
 by the corp oration. The wages paid for labor are as follows : Ordinary 
 laborers 14s. ($3.40) to 18s. ($4.38) per week. Concrete men 22s. ($5.35) 
 per week. Eammer men 24s. ($5.83) per week. For laying blocks, or 
 sets, a rate of2^d. (5 cents) per square yard is paid. 
 
 For the da ta upon which the foregoing part of this report is based I 
 am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. L. J. Lawless, the assistant engineer 
 of the city of Dublin. 
 
 COUNTRY EOADS. 
 
 The country roads in Ireland have received and are receiving very 
 considerable attention. However, it is said that they suffer materially 
 from comparisons with the roads in England and Wales, but as com- 
 pared with the average country road in the United States they seem to 
 approximate closely to perfection, a condition which must not be con- 
 sidered marvelous or even surprising when the antiquity of the conn- 
 try and its settlement are taken into account. 
 
 The course described by the country roads in Ireland is most irregu- 
 lar and even tortuous, the apparent purpose being to avoid the points 
 of the compass. Although doubtless not so intended it may besaid, in 
 the respect mentioned, they serve to suggest the pecuhar individual 
 characteristics as well as the devious historical record of the masses of 
 the people who travel over them. However, as a rule it may be said, 
 at least in partial justification of the arrangement, that the main public 
 thoroughfares in Ireland connect centers of population or interest 
 But the geometrical proposition was unknown or unheeded when the 
 33a 26 
 
402 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 course of the roads was determined, viz, that a straight line describes 
 the shortest distance between two given points. But for all this I am 
 bound to say that the traveler who is not pressed for time, especially 
 if he is mounted upon other legs than his own, will find greater pleas- 
 ure in following the ever recurring and graceful curves of the Irish 
 country roads, than in moving in strait lines and turning repeatedly 
 at right angles. 
 
 But all this is scarcely even incidental to the immediate work inhand, 
 to which I now give attention. 
 
 (1) The methods employed in making and maintaining the public 
 roads : 
 
 When a uew road is constructed a grade is first established generally 
 corresponding (when the roadway is completed) with the contour of the 
 land upon either side. Trenches are sunk on either side to a depth of 
 about 3 feet. The excavated material is used to construct fences on 
 either side. Into the trenches the subsoil of the road is carefully 
 drained by means of narrow cuts, placed herring-bone fashion, filled 
 with field stone to prevent the washing of the surface and through 
 which the water percolates. The original surface of the roadway is then 
 removed to a depth of about 9 inches and an artificial surface of con- 
 verse section formed and the ground allowed to dry and harden for 
 some time. 
 
 The next operation is to make what is called a pitched pavement on 
 this surface, generally of corresponding sections, and about 9 inches 
 in depth, which consists of rubblestone placed on edge across the axis 
 of the roadway. The interstices are filled in with stone chipping, so 
 as to wedge in between the rubblestone forming the pavement. The 
 width of the roadway is never less than 16 feet, and is sometimes much 
 more, according as the local traffic may require."" On this foundation 
 is placed broken stone to a depth of 6 inches. These stone are of 
 uniform size, which is determined by causing them to pass through a 
 3-inch ring. The mass is then rolled three or four times with a roller 
 weighing about 1 ton. Next a coating of smaller broken stone of uni- 
 form size, which are passed through a 2-inch ring, is spread upon the 
 surface to a depth of 3 inches. The roller is then applied the same as 
 before. A coating of clean gravel 2 inches in depth is then spread 
 over the surface and the road is complete. The road surface curves 
 slightly from the center towards the sides, the fall being 1 inch in 36. 
 This degree of convexity has been found to be suitable to the require- 
 ments of traffic, and is sufficient for proper and thorough surface drain- 
 age. When opened for use it is necessary to keep the longitudinal 
 tracks formed by traffic raked in for some time until the mass becomes 
 consolidated. 
 
 Tlie cost of a road as above described . is 2s. and 6d. (60 cents) per 
 superficial yard, exclusive of the cost of preparing the surface, as' this 
 varies according to circumstances. 
 
EUEOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 403 
 
 The cost of maintaining this class of rood varies from 4 to Id. (8 to 
 14 cents) per square yard per annum. . 
 
 SecttoTv ofRoojcL far Ivaavy traffic-, 
 
 The road I have described above is designed for heavy traffic. The 
 ordinary country road is constructed iu a similar way, however, except 
 that the foundation is constructed of field or riprap stone to a depth of 
 about six inches. Upon this is placed a stratum of broken stone, uni- 
 form in size, to a depth of Cinches, and on this again a dressing of dean 
 gravel of 2 inches in depth. 
 
 Sectwn. afMoad-forti^Ttt traffic. 
 
 The cost of constructing a road as above described is 2s. (48 cents) 
 per square yard. The cost of maintenance is 1 to M. (2 to 6 cents) per 
 superficial yard per annum. 
 
 The broken stone used in road making is of the kind known as green- 
 stone. These are almost entirely broken by hand. For this class of 
 labor the contractors pay 3s. and 6^. (85 cents) per ton. The men cam 
 at this rate about 2s. and Qd. (60 cents) per day. 
 
 The soil of Ireland is poorly adapted to roadways, the frequent rain- 
 falls making it very spongy. The utmost care in drainage is, for this 
 reason, necessary. However, the roadways suffer but little from the 
 action of frost as it rarely ever penetrates more than two or three 
 inches. 
 
 I may add in this connection that nearly all of the bridges in Ireland, 
 large and small, and both in the cities and in the country, are con- 
 structed of stone, and are, therefore, very durable. There are numerous 
 bridges of this kind in and about Dublin, over which there is a heavy 
 traffic, that are over a century old, and which are still apparently as 
 substantial as when built. 
 
 I find that by consulting reliable statistical authority that there was 
 expended upon roads and bridges in Ireland, during the year 1888, 
 £638,041., a sum equivalent to $3,977,737. It must be borne in mind • 
 in this connection that, the country being very old, but comparatively 
 little absolutely new work is required. Hence, for the most part, this 
 sum is expended in repairs and maintenance. The sum named repre- 
 sents about the average annual expenditure, the year 1888 being the 
 leatst for which information under this head is attainable. 
 
404 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 It may not be out of place in this connection to state that the total 
 population of Ireland at the present time is estimated to be about 
 4,700,000, and that the total amount of land-rents for 1889 is £13,969,907. 
 
 (2) Details of the system followed : 
 
 For the purpose of coastructiug and maintainiog roads and bridges 
 throughout the island, each county is divided into baronies, comprising 
 a certain number of parishes and a certain proportion of town lands. 
 There are several of these baronies contained in every county. The 
 method of proceeding is peculiar, but has been found to be effective and 
 satisfactory. It is substantially as follows : When any new or recon- 
 structed work or repairs are wanted, any two rate or tax payers of a 
 barony make written application to this effect to the secretary of the 
 grand jury for the county comprising the barony, stating the extent of 
 the work wanted and the amount which it is desired to expend. The 
 secretary of the grand jury prepares a schedule of all such applications 
 and submits them to what is known as the presentment sessions of the 
 respective baronies. This is a body made up of the justices of the 
 peace resident of the barony and twelve representative rate or tax- 
 payers who are property-owners in the barony. The rate payers com- 
 posing in part the board are selected by the grand jury from one hun- 
 dred of their class whose names are sent in by the tax collector of the 
 barony, after the manner of drawing petit jurors in many of the States 
 of the United States. These men serve upon the board one year only 
 and are replaced from year to year by others of their class in the man- 
 ner already described. The body thus constituted, holding annual ses- 
 sions for this purpose, considers the applications presented by the secre- 
 tary of the grand jnty and determines, so far as it is empowered to do 
 so, what applications shall be approved and what shall be rejected, but 
 in no case can it extend or increase the applications. This body is 
 governed to a considerable extent in its conclusions by the recommenda- 
 tions of the district surveyor, who possesses , expert knowledge and 
 practical judgment of the matters under consideration. When the 
 work of this body is concluded the applications approved are placed in 
 the hands of the secretary of the grand jury, who has a printed sched- 
 ule thereof prepared. This schedule is laid before the grand jury of 
 the county, which, for this purpose, meets once a year, in the county of 
 Dublin, and in other counties twice a year, to consider presentments 
 which come to it from the several presentment sessions. The original 
 applications also accompany the presentments. The grand jury has the 
 authority to approve or reject any or all presentments, but it can not 
 . alter them. Such of the presentments as are approved are submitted 
 to a judge of the queen's bench, by whom they are flated if approved 
 by him. I should add here that any cess or tax payer can enter objec- 
 tions to any work at any stage of the proceedings before the barony 
 board, the grand jury, or the judge of the queen's bench. If his obj ec 
 tions are valid they will of course be duly considered. 
 
EUaOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 405 
 
 After the presentments are fiated by the judge they are returned to 
 the presentment sessions, which body proceeds to negotiate for con- 
 tracts for the work. Acting under its authority the secretary of the 
 grand jury advertises for tenders or proposals for each piece of work, 
 according to the terms of the particular presentment. A condition of 
 every proposal is that it must not exceed the amount stipulated by the 
 grand jury for the work. If no proposal is received, or should it ex- 
 ceed the amount previously fixed upon, the district surveyor may be 
 authorized by the presentment sessions to proceed with the work by 
 day labor, but this seldom happens. Every person to whom a contract 
 is awarded is required to furnish two satisfactory sureties. Should he 
 at any time fail to comply with conditions of his contract, the district 
 surveyor can, by giving him 10 days' notice, take charge of the work, 
 the contractor and sureties being held pecuniarily liable for his failure. 
 Nearly all country roads are constructed on the contract system. If 
 the work is limited the contract is usually taken by a local farmer. If 
 the work is extensive it is done by an experienced contractor. All 
 forms of contract are drawn by the surveyor. 
 
 I should say here that if from neglect or indifference" of local tax- 
 payers applications for needed work are not filed in the usual way, the 
 district surveyor is authorized to act in their stead. 
 
 Contracts for repairs or maintenance are made in the same way as 
 for new work, a specimen form being inclosed Jierewith. These con- 
 tracts are usually taken for 3 years at so mu6h a running perch, 
 according to the number of cubic yards of material required to be 
 placed and named in the specifications. When the district surveyor 
 directs the work of maintaining a road it is only for 1 year. 
 
 All new work and the placing of material for maintenance are re- 
 quired to be done during the months of June, July, and August. All 
 material required for maintenance or repair must be prepared and de- 
 livered at stated places on the first of September for use the year 
 following. 
 
 The board of works, a general body having jurisdiction over the 
 entire island, can at any time repair roads neglected by the local boards 
 over which her majesty's mails are carried, but the fund thus tempo- 
 rarily drawn upon must ultimately be recouped at the expense of the 
 barony in which the repairs are made. 
 
 In the case of a sudden damage to any public road two local justices 
 can direct repairs to the extent of £10 ($48.67) or in a similar emer- 
 gency they can order repairs to a bridge to the amount of £50 ($243.32.) 
 
 How paid for. — The disbursements made in the construction and 
 maintenance of public roads are from a fund derived mostly from a tax 
 levied upon the taxable property iu the barony where the work is done. 
 The money is received annually by the grand jury from the baronial 
 collectors. There are also some other sources of revenue derived from 
 probate duties, Government bounty in lieu of rates, etc., partitioned 
 
406 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 equally among the different baronies, and from local dog tax. The 
 taxes paid by each barony for road purposes are collected twice a year, 
 in June and December. 
 
 When a bridge is constructed involving a heavy outlay the expense 
 is usually borne by the county at large and not by the particular 
 barony in which it is located. 
 
 By virtue of a general law under which all roads are constrircted 
 none but a main thoroughfare, or one open at both ends, can be im- 
 proved at the public expense, even though any number of taxpayers 
 might lile an application therefor. This is an important safeguard 
 against injudicious expenditure. 
 
 As already intimated all financial transactions connected with the 
 building and maintaining of public roads are conducted by the grand 
 jury of each county. All payments are made to contractors quarterly 
 on the certificate of the district surveyor that he is entitled to a certain 
 amount for work performed. In Dublin County the details of this 
 work are performed by a committee of twelve, usually composed of 
 members of the grand jury. In all other counties the graud jury acts 
 for itself. All accounts connected with road building and maintenance 
 are audited once a year by a Government auditor. 
 
 (3) General effect of improved highways: 
 
 It has been impossible to get any definite statistics or information 
 upon this point. I can only add that the system in vogue has been 
 satisfactory and that the property interests pay the taxes necessary 
 to its support willingly. The opinion generally prevails that the traflic 
 of the country could not be successfully carried on with any less efli- 
 cient system of highways than that with which the country is provided, 
 and that full value is received for all expenditures made. 
 
 For a considerable part of the information necessary to this report, 
 as far as it pertains to country roads, I am indebted to the kindness 
 of E. T. Blackburne, secretary of the grand jury for the county of 
 Dublin, and to Richard A. Gray, surveyor of the county of Dublin. 
 
 For the further information of parties who may be interested, I trans- 
 mit herewith, under separate cover, a copy of the act of 1836, relating 
 to the presentment of public money in Ireland, which covers the ground 
 briefly traversed in the foregoing report. It differs only in some of the 
 details to the act which applies exclusively to the county of Dublin, I 
 also transmit herewith, under same cover, a volume containing present- 
 ments passed by the grand jury of the county of Dublin for the year 
 1890, which explains in detail the method of proceeding, 
 
 Alex. J. Reid, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Oonstjlate, 
 
 Dublin, January 12, 1891. 
 
EUEOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 407 
 
 SOUTH OF IRELAND. 
 
 BEPOBT BT CONSUL PIATT, OF OOBK. 
 
 There is no radical difference between the city streets and the coun- 
 try highways in the south of Ireland. They are both made of macad- 
 amized limestone and are repaired with the same material. The repair- 
 ing is generally done during wet weather, as the water in the ruts and 
 hollows shows where the surface of the road is uneven and in need of 
 repair. It also tends to keep the broken stones in place by softening 
 the ground and thus allowing them to partly sink into it. 
 
 The grand jury has the power to grant permission for the construc- 
 tion of roads. These roads are divided into two classes with regard to 
 the expense for construction and maintenance. That class called " mail 
 roads," from being used by the postal authorities as routes for the mail 
 cars, is built and maintained at the expense of the county at large in 
 which the roads lie. The expense for the other class, called "district 
 roads," is borne by the district in which the roads are situated. How- 
 ever, when a bridge or other work is to be made on a district road 
 which will cost more than the district can afford, the grand jury may 
 levy the expense incurred for the work in question on the rate-payers 
 of the county at large, and then the road will be regarded as one which 
 may be used as a mail route, though the district will otherwise pay for 
 the construction and maintenance. 
 
 The expense of keeping roads in good condition depends upon the 
 amount of trafiBc and upon their situation. The roads about Queens- 
 town, in length about 9 miles, cost for maintenance from £350 to £400 
 per annum. This is a little above the average, I am told. These are 
 the only details as to expense which I have been able to obtain. 
 
 As a general rule new roads enhance the value of the property in 
 their vicinity by affording more direct or better means of communica- 
 tion, and especially by increasing the facilities for the conveyance of 
 farm produce to and from the market towns and railway stations. 
 There are very few instances where the value of property depreciates 
 on account of the privacy of the place being destroyed. 
 
 John J. Piatt, 
 
 Consul, 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Cork, May 15, 1891. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 DUNFERMLINE. 
 BEPOBT ST OOMMEBOIAL AGENT REID. 
 
 The towns included in this consular district are small, and possess so 
 few of the elements of modern progress that they afford no adequate 
 illustration of any advanced knowledge in the science of street con- 
 
408 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 struction which concerns so deeply the prosperity and comfort of the 
 larger centers of population and commerce. There being, therefore, no 
 actual experience here in the matter of city streets which can have 
 any real value in the way of testimony to guide the public inquiry now 
 happily arisen in America, no response to this part of the circular of 
 the Department on "streets and roadways " will be attempted. But 
 on the subject of country roads, which interests all countries claiming 
 civilization, and is rapidly commanding supreme interest in America, 
 I have, with as much care as has seemed possible, collated all the data 
 which road-makers and engineers regard as of practical value. 
 
 Adam Smith, who was a citizen of this consular district, and whose 
 great work on the Wealth of Nations has perhaps more than any other 
 cause influenced commercial legislation both in this country and in other 
 lands, used no uncertain language on the value of public roads as one of 
 the primary necessities of civilized life and national prosperity. Splen- 
 did roads had been constructed centuries before his time. . Their con- 
 tinued existence fifteen hundred years after their construction proved 
 the skill and care of the master minds who planned and built them. 
 But they were constructed in the interest of war. Eoads had to be 
 built to move armies for conquest. Eoads then became essential to 
 hold the conquered countries. In these commerce had no element or 
 consideration. Indeed it is not difficult to see that public roadways 
 became thus the terror of nations. Even in this ocean-surrounded 
 island, far from imperial Rome, the roads of the Caesars entered and 
 so terrorized the public mind that it was not until long after the middle 
 of the eighteenth century that turnpikes were first authorized, and 
 were even then inaugurated against the vigorous protests and prejudices 
 of the common people. It seems strange also to know that to the 
 Carthagenians, a people living on the northern coast of "Darkest Af- 
 rica," must be given the credit of first inaugurating the public road 
 as the necessity of commerce. 
 
 THE ROMAN ROAD. 
 
 The first inquiry made of a modern educated engineer respecting 
 public roads leads inevitably to the reference to the methods pursued 
 by the engineers of the Eoman roads. Although constructed for the 
 purpose of invasion and subjugation they provide still most instructive 
 lessons in methods of construction. Adam Smith's assertion that " the 
 construction of roads is the greatest of all improvements," and the say- 
 ing of the Abbe Eeynal that " wherever we shall find no facility of 
 travel from a city to a town, or from a village to a hamlet, we may pro- 
 nounce the people to be barbarians," have long, especially in Europe, 
 been accepted by mankind. Eoads are the acknowledged civilizers of 
 the world. A road through " Darkest Africa " is fast ending human 
 slavery and introducing light. A good road through Bad Lands would 
 largely settle the question of Indian warfare. It is to methods of con- 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 409 
 
 struction to which public attention is now chiefly directed. The lloman 
 roads, the via Appia, the via Aurelia, the via Flaminia, the roads to 
 the Ehine and the Danube, and the 4,000 miles of road from the wall of 
 Antoninus, in Great Britain, through Eome to Jerusalem, still reveal 
 lessons of construction worthy of the study of the road builders of the 
 nineteenth century. 
 The historian Gibbon says of these roads : 
 
 They were accurately divided by milestones, and ran in a direct line from one city 
 to another with very little respect for the obstacles of nature or private property. 
 The middle part was raised into a terrace, and consisted of several strata of sand, 
 gravel, and cement, and was paved with large stones, which, near the capital, were 
 of granite. 
 
 The following description of the method of construction is given in 
 the French Oyclopsedia of 1836. 
 
 (1) A cement of chalk and sand 1 pouoe in thickness. 
 
 (2) On this cement for the first bed large stones 6 pouces thick were placed on one 
 another and compacted by hard mortar. 
 
 . (3) A second bed, 8 pouces thick, of small round stones, mingled with other broken 
 pieces of building material not so hard, and mixed with a binding cement. 
 (4) A third bed of 1 foot of cement made of rich earth mixed with chalk. 
 
 These beds formed a concrete of from 3 to 3J feet thick. The whole 
 surface was then spread with a gravel bound in cement mixed with 
 chalk. 
 
 These roads were 16 feet wide in the middte, with two side roads 8 
 feet wide. 
 
 They were built either on a level or on a uniform inclination at an 
 easy gradient. 
 
 Piles, stone arches, and protecting walls were used whenever the sub- 
 soil was not compact. 
 
 This road thus constructed has outlived fifteen centuries. 
 
 COUNTRY ROADS IN SCOTLAND. 
 
 Down to the middle of the eighteenth century the roads of Scotland 
 were of the poorest character. Goods conveyed, from place to place, 
 where the distances were not great, were corveyed on horseback. Oat- 
 meal, coals, turf, and even straw and hay were thus conveyed. That 
 was the era of " cadgers." They supplied the country with salt, fish, 
 eggs, and poultry. For longer routes carts were used. Through this 
 very region to go a distance of 38 miles and return required 14 days. 
 It took 14 days, in 1873, to go from here to Loudon. Cousideriug how 
 old is the supposed civilization of this great couutry, one is surprised 
 to read of one of its chief routes of travel as follows : 
 
 I know not how to describe this infernal road. Let me most seriously caution all 
 travelers who may accidentally propose to travel this terrible country to avoid it 
 as they would the devil. I passed 3 carts broken down inside of 18 miles of execrable 
 memory. 
 
 This is ST-ated to show that road-making even here is not an ancient 
 science. The first turnpike roads in Scotland were constructed in 1760, 
 
410 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 and against the violent resistance and prejudices of the people, who re- 
 garded roads as aids to plunder. Except only the remains of the 
 Komau road, the improved roads of this country are of comparatively 
 recent origin, but are now constructed with the utmost care and main- 
 tained with scrupulous fidelity. 
 
 ROADS IN AND BEYOND FIFE. 
 
 The earliest stone roads built through and northward of this district 
 were constructed by Abercromby, an engineer of some note, whose 
 chief formula consisted of the following rules : 
 
 (1) Never niake a road ascend a single foot unless absolutely una- 
 voidable. 
 
 (2) Economy in maintenance depends on an easy gradient. 
 
 (3) Hilly roads are full of danger, expensive to maintain, and de- 
 structive to horses. 
 
 The great Highland roads were constructed with great care and skill 
 Oiud were adapted to the country through which they passed. Although 
 traversing wild mountain ranges, easy gradients were everywhere se- 
 cured and are unexcelled. 
 
 THB MACADAM ROAD AND THE STEAM ROLLER. 
 
 Two men of quite recent date were largely instrumental in the in- 
 troductionof a general system, which is still maintained in its essential 
 features. In 1819 Macadam elaborated his plan of road making and 
 presented it to the British Parliament. Upon its general plan, a vast 
 extension of the macadam road immediately followed. 
 
 Perhaps the most important auxiliary to good road making, and by 
 many engineers deemed absolutely essential, was supplied by M. Po- 
 lonceau in 1834, by the introduction of the steam roller. Excepting a 
 very decided variance of opinion on the comparative advantages of 
 soft and hard foundations, the macadam road is the generally accepted 
 road of the country for country roads, and has stood the test of long 
 and varied experience. 
 
 RESISTANCE TO TRACTION^. 
 
 A few years ago road-making science expressed itself as follows as 
 to traction : 
 
 (1) Resistance is directly proportional to the load and inversely to the diameter of 
 the wheel. 
 
 (2) Upon a paved road the resistance is independent of the width of the tire when 
 it exceeds 3 to 4 inches. 
 
 (3) At a walking pace the resistance is the same to carriages with or without 
 springs, hut increases on macadam roads with the velocity, and less as the road is 
 smooth and the carriage less rigid. 
 
 (4) On soft roads or freshly graveled roads the resistance to traction is indepen- 
 dent of velocity. 
 
 (5) The destruction of roads increases with reduced wheel diameter and in carriages 
 without springs. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 411 
 
 GRADIENTS. 
 
 The steepest gradient, according to one authority, that can be properly 
 allowed on roads with a broken-stone covering is about 1 in 20, as this,, 
 from experience, according to the same authority, is found to be about 
 the angle of repose upon roads of this character in the state in which 
 they are usually kept. Engineers of eminence insist, however, and 
 with apparent justice, on a much lower gi'ade. Sir John Macneil as- 
 serts, as a fact not generally known, that "if a road has no greater in- 
 clinations than 1 in 40 there is 20 per cent, less cost for maintenance 
 than where the inclination of the road is 1 to 20. The additional cost 
 is due not only to the greater injury by the action of horses' feet on the 
 steeper gradient, but also to the greater fatigue of the road' by the 
 more frequent necessity for sledging or braking the wheels in descent." 
 
 The same authority adds : " Experience teaches that on broken-stone 
 roads in perfect condition the resistance to traction is of the gross 
 weight or 45 pounds per ton, for which the angle of repose is 50, The 
 traction force required is just double that which is required on a level," 
 
 FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 Mr, Macadam maintained that a soft and yielding foundation for a 
 road is better than one that is firm and unyielding. He argued that 3. 
 road on a soft foundation being more yielding and elastic the materials 
 of which the covering of the road was formed would be less likely to be 
 crushed and worn away by the passage of a heavy traffic than on a hard 
 solid. 
 
 This theory of road foundation is still held by some, but rejected by 
 the majority. Experience seems to have proved that there is no more 
 - general cause ot bad roads than soft foundations. A firm, solid, and dry 
 substratum is necessary for the road materials to rest upon. The outer 
 surface of the road, it is urged, should be regarded merely as a cover- 
 ing to protect the actual working road beneath, which should be suffi- 
 ciently firm and substantial to support the whole of the traffic to be 
 carried over it. The lower, or subroad, properly provided for, and the 
 upper covering renewed from time to time, should last forever. The 
 following are directions now generally in force. 
 
 Where the expenditure is limited and the traffic moderate every care 
 should be taken to make the roadbed as solid as possible. If the ground 
 is wet, deep ditches should be cut on each side, and cross underdrains 
 should be formed. 
 
 Where the ground is very soft a layer of faggots or brushwood from 
 4 to 6 inches thick should be laid over the surface of the ground to 
 receive the road materials. Where the ground has been recently depos- 
 ited the surface should be rolled or beaten to render as solid as possi- 
 ble. 
 
412 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IK FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 CONCHETE FOUNDATIOKS. 
 
 Macadam's theory of the advantage of soft foundations, especially 
 when made to apply to roads likely to bear a heavy trafiBc seem now 
 very geiierally discarded. In roads subject to heavy travel concrete 
 is insisted on and has shown proof of its value. From a leading au- 
 thority the following quotation is made : 
 
 The concrete used is similar to that used on the old Roman roada. It is a mixture 
 of gravel and lime. The lime is ground to a fine powder, water is added and every 
 particle of the lime slaked and saturated. 
 
 The bed of concrete having been spread to the depth of 6 inches the surface is then 
 covered over with 6 inches of good hard gravel or broken stone, and this depth is laid 
 on in two courses of 3 inches at a time, the first course to be laid on a few hours 
 after the concrete has been placed on the road. The covering of gravel is laid before 
 the concrete has become hard, to admit of more perfect junction between the two 
 beds. The lower stones thus united become a fixed matrix and not easily dis- 
 lodged. On some roads where the obstacles to sound foundation were great and ap- 
 parently insuperable, the use of cement or concrete foundation has been eminently 
 successful. 
 
 One of the principal advantages of using concrete is that a good and solid road can 
 bo made with material such as gravel, which is usually readily found, and which on 
 any other mode of application would be unsuited for the purpose. The gravel should 
 be clean and mixed with sand and then mixed with one part of lime to six of gravel. 
 On adding water the whole should be quickly and thoroughly mixed up, thfowninto 
 place, and the first layer of broken stone or screened gravel be placed j ust as the con- 
 crete is about to set. 
 
 THE MACADAM THEORY. 
 
 In 1816 James L. Macadam put in practice his system of roadmaking, 
 which is eminently worthy of restatement in this inquiry. His princi- 
 ple was " to put broken stone upon a road which shall unite by its own 
 angles so as to form a solid, hard surface. When this material is thus 
 laid upon the road it must remain in the situation in which it is placed 
 without ever being moved again, whereas gravel, before it becomes use- 
 ful, must move its situation and be in constant motion." The principle 
 was "to substitute small angular stones such as resulted from the 
 breakage of larger stones, for rounded stones, so as to form a sort of 
 mosaic or interlocking system." 
 
 This system, which experience has thoroughly tested and approved; 
 the provision of solid foundations, which seems to be proved of the first 
 importance; and the use of the steam roller in securing thorough im- 
 pact, are the three vital elements of the successful modern road. 
 
 On these three principles of road building the following roads have 
 been extended within a comparatively short period: 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Spain 
 
 LouKtli of 
 road. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 160, 000 
 
 100, 048 
 
 55, 818 
 
 10, 880 
 
 Area. 
 
 Sg. tnileit. 
 122, 519 
 210, 460 
 139, 675 
 198, 061 
 
 Population. 
 
 30,621,431 
 38, 192. 064 
 23,970,641 
 15, 673, 481 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 413 
 
 CONVEXITY OF ROADS. 
 
 Macadam gave the following testimony before a committee of the 
 House of Commons, and which is practically the judgment of the most 
 experienced road builders : 
 
 " I consider that a road should be as flat as possible with regard to 
 the water flowing off, because a carriage ought always to stand upright 
 I have generally made roads 3 inches higher in the center than at the 
 sides, and on this slope the water will easily escape. When the road 
 is made flat people will not follow the middle of it as they do when ex- 
 tremely convex. More water will stand on a very convex road than on a 
 flat, because all carriages seek an upright position in the center, and the 
 wear there will, of course, be greater. The most useful inclination is in 
 the direction of a road's length, and engineers give preference to a mod- 
 erately inclined road over one rigidly level. To secure an equal dis- 
 tribution of service every part of a road should be equally hard and 
 good to prevent unequal wear." 
 
 HIGHWAYS IN THE DUNFEKMLINE DISTRICT. 
 
 I am indebted for much of what follows to personal interviews with 
 and documents furnished to me by John Maclennan, esq., for some years 
 president of the association of road surveyors for Scotland. 
 
 (1) Road routes. — Other things being equal a road route should be 
 chosen having the freest exposure to sun and wind. 
 
 (2) GratZieMte.— Gradients should not exceed 1 in 40, Easy gradients 
 are preferable to dead levels, securing drier and more compact roads. 
 
 (3) Foundations. — All roads should have foundations to be determined 
 by- the character of the soil on which they are laid. On roads of 
 moderate travel, the soil light and the natural or unstoned road, well 
 compacted, unbroken and of easy gradient, the necessity for special 
 foundations is absent, and, according to Macadam, unnecessary. 
 Wherever, however, the surface is broken either to elevate or depress, 
 the ground should be well rolled or tamped. Where the soil is soft 
 and yielding or an active trafQc is likely, the foundations become impor- 
 tant. Stones laid on their flattest side and compacted with broken 
 metal, ashes, or the like, require to be carefully laid. Even cement, in 
 which gravel forms a useful constituent, becomes essential if the nature 
 of the soil is yielding and the traffic heavy. New macadam roads are 
 now generally made with a foundation from 6 to 12 inches of stone 
 shivers, slag, brick rubbish, or other inferior character, on which 6 
 inches of hard metal is laid. 
 
 (4) Brains. — In forming road foundations the proper provision of 
 drains is important. These, whether by side ditches or by lateral or 
 transverse carefully constructed drains, are essential to a good and 
 economical maintenance of a road under the best conditions. Existing 
 conditions will determine their character and mode of structure. 
 
414 
 
 STKEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 (5) Character of stone. — The stones employed on Scotch roads are of 
 the hardest and toughest attaioable. la these the granites are by far 
 the most serviceable, and that because of their unstratifled character. 
 Granite, named so from its coarse granular structure, has for its pre- 
 vailing elements a crystalline compound of three simple minerals — 
 feldspar, silica or quartz, and mica — silica varying in proportion from 
 65 to 80 per cent, and usually in an amorphous condition, cementing 
 the feldspar and mica. Granite is capable of absorbing 10 pounds of 
 water per cubic yard=1.450 of its weight. Perhaps the most valuable 
 •stone for macadamizing roads is the Welch stone, greywack(5 of P^n- 
 maeuaur, in Wales, which, while of the same weight as granite, is 
 much harder and is so highly esteemed that enormous quantities are 
 sent by ship and rail to the large towns in the north of England, Scot- 
 land, and Ireland. This shows the value of hardness in the metal for 
 public roads. The following table may be of interest : 
 
 stone. 
 
 Specific 
 gravity. 
 
 Crushing 
 resistaDce per 
 square inch. 
 
 Weight of 
 
 ■water absorbed in 
 
 48 hours. 
 
 Graywaclie 
 
 Granite, Scotch 
 
 Sandstone, English 
 
 2.75 
 2.67 
 2.41 
 
 7-64 
 5.74 
 4.38 
 
 I part in 1641. 
 1 part in 490. 
 1 part in 47. 
 
 Of Scotch granites Guernsey is the most durable. The most impor- 
 tant quality in stone for roadmakin g is toughness. Mere hardness 
 without toughness is of no use, as such stone becomes rapidly reduced 
 to powder by the action of wheels. The sandstones and the limestones 
 are to be avoided because of their afflaity for water, by which in frosty 
 weather, which has been preceded by wet, they are split up into powder 
 and the solidity of the road is destroyed. 
 
 (6) BreaMng the stone. — The quality of stone proper for the metaling 
 of the road is scarcely more important than its preparation. It should 
 be reduced to angular fragments of such a size that each piece will 
 pass freely through a ring of 2^ inches in diameter in every direction. 
 Broken stone is superior to gravel, and, wherever obtainable, should 
 always be employed. Pebbles, when cleaned, never bind until they 
 become ground and wornd own and are incapable of supporting the pres- 
 sure of heavy wheels. If gravel be employed, experience seems to 
 indicate that it is best to leave some binding material to adhere in or- 
 der to secure firmness and cohesion. 
 
 There has been introduced into the service of the roads in this dis- 
 trict a stone-breaking machine with good effect and economical results. 
 The comparative cost of breaking stone by machine and hand labor is 
 as Is. per ton for the former against 2s. 3d. per ton for hand labor. In a 
 trial of the two systems 3,325 cubic yards of stone broken by machine 
 cost £169 18s. Id. while the same quantity broken by hand cost £398 is- 
 
 (7) Metaling the road. — The foundation of the road having been care- 
 
EUROPE — XmiTED KINGDOM 415 
 
 fully provided, and which, as has been stated, can be done either, for 
 roads of moderate travel, by thoroughly drying and solidifying the 
 soil by tamping or rolling, or, as recommended by able engineers, for 
 roads of larger travel, of using soft stones or cinders, the stones being 
 " carefully set by hand, broad end down, in the form of a close, neat 
 pavement," there shall then be placed 6 inches of broken stone to such 
 width as may be desired, but so laid that the entire width shall form a 
 convex line or segment of a flat ellipsis the arch of which shall not 
 exceed 6 inches in 30 feet. This shape not only assists the water to 
 pass from the center toward the sides,' but contributes to the drying 
 of the road by allowing the action of the sun and air to produce a great 
 degree of evaporation. The use of the steam roller in at once compact- 
 ing and smoothing the road,-it is believed, is becoming more and more 
 acceptable, and producing, both in construction and repairs, very useful 
 results. 
 
 (8) Boad repair. — The following quotation from a report of Govern- 
 ment Surveyor Maclennan is pertinent and complete : 
 
 The chief end of road repair is a smooth, hard, and slightly elastic surface. To 
 secure this the metal should be of uniform size and quality. Small 2-inch whinstone 
 metal is, in my opinion, the best. Large metal, although ever so well blinded and 
 rolled, will in a very short time present an uneven surface, not having the same 
 capacity for forming into the concrete as when smaller. Hard and soft stones should 
 not be mixed. The soft stones are quickly ground into mud, while the hard pro- 
 trudes, rendering the surface rough and uneven. When the surface is very sorely 
 worn I apply a small sprinkling of clay to give a bed for the new material. Work of 
 this kiud requires experience and care. I believe in giving good couvexitiy to the 
 road. Water should run oif quickly to avoid great waste and damage. After dis- 
 tributing metal a stone roller of 1 ton weight is used to secure a fair surface. In the 
 matter of "blinding" lam convinced that where the subsoil is retentive and the 
 surrounding groiiud wet, spongy, and of a clay nature, the less blinding the better 
 for the road. A smooth and beautiful surface may be quickly secured, but the dete- 
 rioration is equally rapid. The men appointed for surface repair have much to do 
 with the road's success and should be selected with great care. 
 
 (9) Foot roads. — The provision of foot-paths is important, but seems 
 not generally provided for. When made the refuse of the road and 
 gravel are used. 
 
 (LOJ Depots. — On all important roads depots of stone occupying a 
 small space, more or less frequently, along the margin of the road are 
 provided, where the stone is broken, generally by hand, and kept ready 
 for use. 
 
 (11) Effect on property valuation. — To this inquiry the prompt reply 
 was: "Koads are the life and necessity and hope of all Scottish indus- 
 tries, and their value increases rather than diminishes with railroad 
 extension. Property would without them be comparatively valui4ess." 
 
 (12) Cost of maintenance. — The cost of maintaining the public roads 
 in this district averages £18 per mile, and is provided for by a tax 
 averaging Gd. on the pound of rentals, equal to about 2 per cent. They 
 are under the supervision of a surveyor appointed for each district, a 
 
416 STKEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 master of works for each town of importance, all other labor being 
 employed for brief periods or for special work. Wages of " surface 
 men," 18s. per week ($4.50). 
 
 (13) Cost of construction. — TUe cost of constrnction of an ordinary 
 public road eighteen feet wide would be, in Scotland, about £300 per 
 mile. Any increase in cost would depend on increased width of road, 
 distance of quarry, and method of foundation. As in many other things, 
 the cheaper the construction the more costly the maintenance. 
 
 Such is my response to the Department circular of November 8, 1890, 
 based on as complete information as is available to me; yet it is sent with 
 hesitation as being to some extent, perhaps, crude and incomplete. 
 
 James D. Reid, 
 Commercial Agent. 
 
 U.'S. OoMMERCiAi. Agency, 
 
 Dunfermline, January 1, 1891. 
 
 GLASGOW. 
 
 REPORT BY COKSTIL BROWN." 
 
 The streets of Glasgow are the best paved of any city with which I 
 am acquainted ; the roads of Scotland are certainly very superior, and 
 as far as 1 have been able to observe, better, as a whole, than those of 
 the other countries of the TTnited Kingdom. 
 
 SCOTCH HIGHWAYS. 
 
 Road system. — The country road system of Scotland may be regarded 
 as a growth to meet the wants of the public and as a result of experi- 
 ence in carefully providing for, by studying the best methods, the pub- 
 lic needs, its present state of excellence, approaching perfection, not 
 having always existed, though for scores of years Scotland, even in the 
 Highlands, has been famous for her good roads. 
 
 A hundred years ago the population in some districts was already 
 becoming quite dense, and the need of good roads and how to build 
 them naturally commanded the attention of the public and ofiScials. 
 Sixty years ago and before the country was interwoven with a net- 
 work of railways and when trafilc and travel were already considera- 
 ble on the great stage routes to London, as well as to other leading 
 centers, good roads were more than a luxury ; they became a necessity 
 and required to be perfected and kept up at any cost. What wonder, 
 then, that the roads now are in excellent condition everywhere. 
 
 * In connection with this report I am indebted to Dr. W. H. Hill for valuable doo- 
 umentB, and to John L. Imrie, esq., a farmer residing near Glasgow, for much prac- 
 tical information. 
 
 L. W. B. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 417 
 
 Comparatively few new roads are now being built, because not needed, 
 but the old ones are constantly being improved by cutting down high 
 grades, filling in the low places, renewing the top dressing, etc. 
 
 This cutting down and leveling of the roads, when done by contract, 
 costs 20 to 28 cents per cubic yard, which cost includes removal and 
 damping into the low places if the distance is not too great. 
 
 A considerable force of men is kept constantly employed improving 
 and repairing the roads, the counties or shires, for road purposes, be- 
 ing divided into divisions, these being subdivided into districts, the 
 latter embracing from 15 to 30 or more miles of road. The districts are in 
 turn subdivided into sections, upon which squads of men, from three to 
 six in number, according to the needs of the road, are kept constantly 
 at work the year round. 
 
 A heavy steam-roller, 10 to 15 tons, plays an important part in road 
 repairing as well as road making, and though of comparatively recent 
 introduction is now regarded as essential, the larger or 15-ton roller 
 being considered the better and more economical. One roller, with its 
 complement of men, does its part of the work upon several of the above- 
 described sections. Cost per diem of using these rollers will be con- 
 sidered hereafter. 
 
 OONSTEUOTING NEW ROADS. 
 
 The first step in constructing a new road is to lay tile on each side of 
 the roadbed, the tile as a rule being laid 3 feet below the surface and 
 ranging in size from 3 inches to 6 or more inches, the cost of laying, 
 exclusive of the tile, being for 3-inch tile (reducing to United States 
 currency) 3 cents, 6inch tile 4 cents, and 9-inch about 6 cents per yard. 
 The latter size is seldom used. 
 
 In preparing the roadbed the upper or surface soil to the depth of 8 
 to 12 inches is first removed ; upon this exposed surface or bed a 
 foundation is laid, called " bottoming," which consists of large cobble 
 or broken stone, carefully set, the stone foundation thus formed being 
 6 to 10 inches deep, according to size of stone used, the cost in a great 
 measure depending upon the accessibility of stone. Upon this rough 
 roadbed or foundation is scattered fine broken stone called metal, and 
 fine enough to pass through a 2-inch ring, to the depth of 4 inches, in 
 addition to filling up interstices of the bed-stone. This metal costs from 
 72 cents to $1.68 per cubic yard, according to quality, the latter price 
 being paid for a choice quality almost equal to granite in hardness and 
 durability. 
 
 The whole is made a compact mass by throwing on gravel, sand, or 
 the refuse of the broken stone heaps, and if these are not attainable in 
 suflScient quantity, sometimes soil nearest approaching sand is used ; 
 this is wet down, a large quantity of water being used, and rolled many 
 times over, until the whole becomes almost as firm as a stone pavement 
 suflftciently smooth for a delightful carriage road and nearly perfec- 
 tion for carting purposes. 
 33A 27 
 
418 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 This roadbed is built from 16 ' to 30 feet wide, according to volume 
 of travel expected, and in the case of the narrower width is about 7 
 laches higher in the middle than on the sides and in the broader width 
 about 1 foot higher in the middle. A sufiacient depression is made on 
 either side to carry off the surface water. 
 
 This, I am sure, will be accepted as pretty nearly a model country 
 road, but it is not all of the road for in addition there is built on one 
 or both sides of the road a footpath from 2^ to 4 feet wide, this being 
 a feature of all the newer roads and many of the old ones. This foot- 
 path or sidewalk is made by simply throwing up the soil a few inches 
 higher than the side of the road and covering it with coal ashes or 
 cinders, gravel, or like substance, and after being worn for a little 
 time is almost equal in dryness to the city sidewalk and is quite as 
 comfortable to walk upon. 
 
 Eoads thus built are durable iu character, yet do require repair, and 
 to keep them iu a high state of repair and excellence, as heretofore 
 stated, a considerable force of men is constantly employed. 
 
 REPAIRING OF ROADS. 
 
 Keeping the roads in proper repair consists in keeping them clean, 
 removing dirt, droppings, and rubbish of all kinds, and in filling up 
 depressions with fresh metal, rolling down, etc. In this connection it 
 may be well to state that the roller is employed upon all parts of the 
 road, even when new metal is not spread, it being considered very useful 
 in keeping the road solid and preventing depressions, which would 
 require filling up. The cost of these repairs is very considerable, as 
 will be seen from the following : 
 
 I take at random from the tables of estimated cost before me — the 
 sixth district of the county of Lanark. The district comprises 16^ 
 miles of road upon which there is a heavy trafiac. The estimated cost 
 of management and maintenance for the year 1891 is as follows : 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Metal (fine broken stone) 1627 5 9 
 
 Surface work , '. 539 9 g 
 
 Tools 15 7 4 
 
 Removing mad, etc I94 g q 
 
 Footpaths and borders 95 jg g 
 
 Drains, gratings, etc 349 7 9 
 
 Repairs on walls, fences, etc ]^05 13 2 
 
 Improvement on Carmunnock road gg5 g q 
 
 Cost of working steam road roller, including driver's wages, fuel, carting 
 
 water, etc 239 ^^ j^ 
 
 Sundries. 18 3 9 
 
 Total 3 890 4 8 
 
 Equal to $18,906.52 United States currency. 
 
 Prom this total there should be deducted the cost of the improve- 
 ment of Carmunnock road, which leaves a balance of £3,225 is. 8d. or, 
 in round numbers, $15,675, nearly $965 per mile of road. 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 419 
 
 Twelve men are employed upon the roads of this district. Of these 
 twelve men two receive $6.07 each per week, one $4.86, two $4.62 each, 
 six $4.38 each, and one $4.14 per week. 
 
 The following table shows the cost per diem of the roller wages, viz : 
 
 1 engine driver $1.04 
 
 1 assistant 68 
 
 1 watchman 64 
 
 1 man blinding metal 78 
 
 2 men for water, at 72 cents each : 1.44 
 
 2 men for sweeping, at 72 cents each 1.44 
 
 Foreman or surfaceman of the district, |1 (say half his time) 50 
 
 Cartage : 
 
 2 water carts, at $2. 16 each 4.32 
 
 1 cart for blinding, |2. 16 (but as this would, without the roller, be req[uired, 
 
 say to one-third the extent) 1.44 
 
 Materials : 
 
 Coal 30 
 
 Oil, packing, etc 16 
 
 Blooms 16 
 
 Interest and depreciation at 15 per cent, per annum on cost of roller, 
 $2,433, and for repairs and insurance, $364.50. Deduct from last item 
 52 Sundays and 42 days for frost, in all 94 days, the charge in respect 
 to above is per working day $1.30. 
 
 To the expense of management the following items should be charged, 
 being approximate cost of management for a county : 
 
 Salary of secretary and treasurer, £600 ; surveyor, £400 ; collectors 
 commission, 2J per cent. ; carriage hire and expenses of inspectors, say, 
 £100; printing, stationery, advertising, postage, etc. Total, say, 
 £1,500, nearly $7,500. 
 
 The official machinery made use of, construction of committees, of 
 county council, for road management, quite unlike our own, and as I 
 think rather cumbersome, is not considered essential to this report and 
 is therefore omitted. 
 
 It may be an interesting item to note the length of time some of the 
 men are employed. In the district of which I have given a detailed 
 report, one man, Andrew Hamilton, has been continuously in service 
 50 years. He is now 70 years old and receives $6.06 per week. An- 
 other man has worked 26 years, one 16 years, one 14, and the other 
 eight from 7 years down to 6 months. 
 
 TAXATION FOK BOAD PURPOSES. 
 
 The assessment is made upon the rental value of real estate, and at 
 the rate of 6d. to 8^. per pound sterling, paid in part by the owner and 
 part by the occupier, usually one half by each. Take the 8d. per pound 
 rate, allowing £2 ($9.73) as the minimum rental value of farming land, 
 and the valuation of our farm lands would surely average that much 
 or more, we have $25.60 annual tax upon a farm of 80 acres, for repair 
 
420 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 and maintenance, after first cost is paid. When our people are ready 
 to pay such a price, we can surely have first-class macadamized roads, 
 equal to those of Scotland. 
 
 As to the question of enhanced value of real estate on account of 
 improved roads, I can only conjecture. I am informed by intelligent 
 farmers that the rental value of farm lands is at least 5 per cent, 
 higher where the roads are such as I have been describing than where 
 the roads are but ordinary or poor. The land for the most part is 
 owned by landlords and seldom changes hands; but it is safe to assume 
 that the value is increased from 20 to 25 per cent, by good roads. 
 
 STREETS OF GLASGOW, 
 
 Pavements in use in Glasgow are of three kinds, viz, granite or whin- 
 stone, macadam, and wood. The latter, however, has not been exten- 
 sively used, hardly sufficient to be worth mentioning, is considered a 
 failure, and when worn out will doubtless be replaced by one of the oth- 
 ers. I think there is less than a mile of wood paving in the city, hence 
 its construction is not described. 
 
 A. B. McDonald, esq., city engineer, to whom I am indebted for in- 
 formation in relation to Glasgow street paving and other courtesies 
 as well, writes me that : 
 
 The whole of the streets within the city of Glasgow with the exception of the old 
 turnpike and Statute Harbor roads have in the first place been formed and paved by 
 the proprietors at their own expense, principally with flat topped rough whinsLones 
 called rubble whinstone causeway. Turnpike roads were originally formed and main- 
 tained out of funds raised by the levy of tolls, the description of paving used being 
 what is known as macadam. These streets when taken over by the city authorities to 
 be maiutained out of city rates have been gradually remade and repaved to suit the 
 altered requirements in regard to traffic, gradient, and nature of occupancy of abut- 
 ting buildings. 
 
 TRAFFIC. 
 
 Mr. McDonald further says : 
 
 In determining the most suitable material for paving, heavy and light traffic is 
 calculated on " actual teaming," not the weight of any load which may be expected 
 to pass over it, as all the roads paved with square dressed sets are expected to bear, 
 with safety, the passage of loads of from 60 to 80 tons carried on four-wheel bogies. 
 
 The heavy traffic is principally on the main thoroughfares and the streets in the 
 portion of the city occupied by warehouses, stores, and business premises. These as 
 a rule are paved with square dressed granite, exception being made in such portions 
 of streets as front law courts or infirmaries, where wood blocks or macadam are laid 
 for the prevention of noise. 
 
 The light traffic is of two classes, one a combination of goods and carriage traffic 
 and the other solely carriage traffic. The first embraces the streets partly occupied 
 for residential and business purposes, in which the paving material is whinstone, the 
 latter, for residential purposes alone, being paved partly with whinstone and partly 
 with macadam. 
 
 PAVING MATERIAL. 
 
 The granite used for paving sets in Glasgow is a close-grained porphyry from the 
 Scotch quarries, situated on Loch Flyne and Loch Etive, and has been proved to bfr 
 
EUEOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 421 
 
 the most durable material -for paving purposes to be found in the country, Under 
 heavy traffic it has been found to last for 30 years without requiring to be lifted, and 
 whea dressed aud relaid, is expected to last for another 25 years, before being broken 
 up for macadam, or laid iu streets subject to light traffic. The granite metal largely 
 nsed in macadamized roads is from the same quarries. 
 
 The granite used for water channels, not being subject to the same wear as the 
 street, is brought from the Dalbeattie and Ardshiel quarries ; it is larger in grain and 
 softer in quality, but of a lasting nature. 
 
 The whinstone, principally from quarries around the city, is heavy and close- 
 grained, and while not so lasting as granite, lasts as long under the lighter traffic to 
 which it is subjected in the minor thoroughfares where whin paving is adopted. It 
 is not BO slippery as granite, aud on this account is used in several of the heavy traffic 
 streets where the gradient is pretty heavy. Whin metal from the same quarries is 
 also largely nsed for macadamizing purposes. 
 
 The securing of a sure foothold for horses is an important factor in determining the 
 sizes of sets for paving purposes, and on this account no paving blocks now being 
 used exceed in breadth 4^ inches or in length more than 9 inches. In some cases they 
 are now laid as narrow as 3 inches; but with such a breadth there is the disadvantage 
 that when they become worn and require to be lifted they will not redress to advan- 
 tage, while a stone 4 to 4^ inches broad can be depended on to redress and relay well. 
 At street junctions where a foothold is required in all directions the sets are square 
 instead of oblong, not exceeding 4J inches on the top. The depth of the stone may 
 vary from 7 to 5 inches, and in the case of junctions where the form of the stone does 
 not admit of much depth they may be from 6 to 4 inches deep. The same remark 
 as to after facility for redressing and economy holds good in regard to depth. 
 
 Water channels are of dressed stone from 12 to 14 inches broad, 6 to 7 inches deep, 
 and of an average length of 3 feet. It should be borne in mind that these sizes of 
 sets, etc., are those now used. On many of the streets, the pavements having been 
 laid many years ago, the sizes are larger. 
 
 In all cases, whether as a paved or macadamized road, it is consid- 
 ered of the utmost importance to secure a properly consolidated foun- 
 dation. For this purpose the roadway is excavated to the required 
 depth and to the levels and curves of the intended surface, all soft 
 places being rammed solid, or, when necessary, such as over drains and 
 pipes recently laid, cut 6 inches deeper and filled up with concrete. 
 As I have watched the work going on no part of the work has so much 
 impressed me as the thoroughness with which the roadbed is prepared. 
 
 The specifications herewith sent, furnished me by Engineer McDon- 
 ald, fully describe the manner of carrying on the various works con- 
 nected with the paving of the streets, while the schedule attached gives 
 the prices paid under the present contract. 
 
 Attention is called to the use of both cement and asphalt for paving 
 purposes, the former being generally preferred for use in bottoming, 
 but for grouting paving sets the latter, because it sets in a .few hours 
 and allows the more rapid use of the street. For this reason in some 
 cases it is necessary to use asphalt for both bottoming and grouting 
 purposes. 
 
 MACADAMIZED STREETS. 
 
 For macadamized streets the same care is observed in excavating to 
 the required depth, which in this city varies from 18 to 20 inches below 
 the intended finished surface. In forming a first-class macadamized 
 
422 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 road Mr. McDonald says " a coatin g of engine ashes or some similar 
 substance 2 inches deep should be laid over the excavated surface 
 wherever the soil is of a non-porous nature; wliere of sand or gravel or 
 other absorbent material the ashes may be dispensed with." Hereto- 
 fore this has not always been done. Upon this is laid a bottoming ot 
 rough stones (sand stones if possible) 9 inches deep and not more than 
 4 inches broad on the head when laid, all carefully hand set and so lap- 
 ping in the joints as to present the appearance, when completed, of a 
 dry stone wall laid flat, the open joints being filled with the small chip- 
 pings and the surface even, no stone projecting beyond another. On 
 this is laid a coating of from 4 to 6 inches of 2J-inch metal, which, 
 after being blended with sand and watered, is gone over with a 15-ton 
 steam road roller to be consolidated ; a second coating of 2-inch metal 
 mixed with a proportion of small ground whin or granite, according to 
 the nature of the material with which the road is to be finished, is then 
 put on and again watered and rolled. 
 
 As the road consolidates under the rolling 12-inch metal is laid on 
 and rolled in until the necessary finished level has been attained. A 
 proportion of road scrapings is used where it can be got along with the 
 ground chips for the purpose of binding the metal. 
 
 It is found that granite metal makes a more perfect road and does not 
 require so much cleansing as the whin. 
 
 It is considered desirable in all macadamized roads that the sides 
 should be paved with square dressed sets with properly laid channel 
 stones. 
 
 The cost of forming a macadamized roadway as described, including 
 rolling complete, varies from 3s. Gd. to 4s. (84 cents to 96 cents) per 
 square yard. 
 
 Mr. McDonald says: " No street is considered as permanently paved" 
 until it is causewayed with square dressed sets. The money required 
 for this work is borrowed under parliamentary powers, the interest 
 upon same as well as the annual amount required as sinking fund being- 
 chargeable against the rate-payers. The rate of interest is partly 3J 
 and 3 J per cent. ; the sinking fund upon the amount of debt to be repaid, 
 as at the passing of the roads and bridges act, 1878, is 2J per cent., and 
 upon all sums borrowed since passing of said act 5 per cent. 
 
 The total amount expended in permanently paving the streets in 
 Glasgow from May 15, 1856, till May 31, 1890, has been £538,714 15s. id. 
 
 The net cost of repairing the streets in Glasgow during the year end- 
 ing 31st May, 1890, was £18,585 7s. Id. 
 
 The number of miles of streets maintained by the road authority in 
 Glasgow is 142, this being exclusive of suburbs, which would nearly 
 double the amount. 
 
 L. W. Beown, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Glasgow, March 2, 1891 
 
teUROPE — tJNITED KINGDOM, 
 
 423 
 
 StECil'ICATION FOR EXECUTING THE PAVINfi WOKK REQUIRED BY THE MAGISTRATES 
 AND COUNCIL OF GLASGOW (POLICE), INCLUDING THE SUPPLYING OF THE NEW 
 PAVING SETS, CHANNEL STONES OB WHEELERS, AND ALL THE MATERIALS AND 
 VOKKMANSHIP, FOR THE PERIOD OF THREl!, FIVE, OR SEVEN YEARS. 
 
 The paving operations to be commenced within 6 weeks from date of acceptance 
 of Off^, and the streets finished and open for traffic within such period as may bo 
 from time to time fixed by the statute labor committee. 
 
 Paving stonen. — Each set must be properly dressed, squared, and level on the tops 
 and beds, the sides and ends to be parallel and square. The sots must be of the sizes 
 as marked on the schedule, truly gauged, and approved of by the master of works. 
 No bulges or hollows will be allowed on any pretext whatever. 
 
 Channel stones or tvheelers. — To be neatly axed, perfectly straight and square on the 
 upper surface, the sides and ends perfectly straight, parallel and square off the sur- 
 face, and the bed parpend with the same. The stones to be 10, 12, 13, 14, and 15 
 inches broad, and 5, 6, and 7 inches deep. The average length to be 3 feet 6 inches, 
 and no stone to be less than 3 feet 6 inches long. 
 
 Crossings. — Paving sets for crossings to be axecl on the top, but in every other way 
 to be the same as those already described, and of the sizes as marked in the schedule. 
 
 (Note. — These are never required. The ordinary sets above specified are found 
 to do sufficiently well.) 
 
 Benwval of present paving stones or macadamizing. — The present pavingstones, which 
 remain the property of the magistrates and council, to be carted away in sections by 
 the contractor to ground or streets as directed by the statute labor committee. The 
 square sets intended to be relaid to be redressed to the sizes as specified in the 
 schedule of rates, and to the entire satisfaction of the master of works, the redress- 
 ing to be done at such place as the master of works may direct, the contractor being 
 bound to cart the stones to the street in which they are to be used after they have 
 been redressed. 
 
 • Excavation. — After the present paving sets have been removed, the street to be ex- 
 cavated to the depth of 12^, 13^, 14^, or 15^ inches (to suit the different depths of 
 stones) below the intended finished level ; the necessary transverse curve or rise from 
 the sides to the center being given to the bed. Where the streets are to be paved 
 with redressed stones, the street to be excavated to the depth of the sets in the same 
 proportion as above stated. 
 
 Where the streets are macadamized, the contractor to remove the macadamized 
 material and excavate the streets to the depths before stated. The macadamizing 
 maybe used for bottoming, so far as found suitable for that purpose, but it must be 
 thoroughly screeued in order to remove any sand or mud. 
 
 Bottoming. — After the ground has been carefully prepared to the required sections, 
 a bed of the best whinstone metal, 6 inches in depth, broken to pass through a 2-inch 
 ring, shall then be laid over the whole surface of the roadway, be thoroughly grouted 
 with a mixture of the best British bitumen and pitch oil, and thoroughly beaten with 
 a rammer while being grouted, the finished surface to be perfectly smooth. The whin- 
 stone metal must be thoroughly dry before being grouted with bitumen. 
 
 In the event of the board deciding that a concrete bottoming be substituted in place 
 of the foregoing, it shall be composed of 1 measure of the best Portland cemeut to 1 
 measure of clean sharp river sand and 3 measures of Whinstone Metal, broken to 
 pass through a 2-inch ring, all properly mixed previous to being laid on the roadway. 
 The surface of the compound, when placed in its position, must be perfectly smooth 
 and to the entire satisfaction of the master of works. The contractor to state whose 
 Portland cement is to be used. 
 
 Causewaying. — The whole prepared surface to be paved with square dressed sets, 
 assorted according to size, both as to width and depth, before being laid, and set on 
 a bed of sharp clean river sand, in no place less than H inches in depth. The sets 
 to be laid (close up, hard to hard on the sides and ends, and properly banded) in 
 
424 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 straight and regular courses across the street between the channel stones, and to 
 levels shown on the sections, proper molds, carefully set every shift, being used if 
 required for guiding the workmen, the whole to be afterwards well grouted with 
 
 Portland cement and bitumen, and beaten down with a beater not less than pounds 
 
 in weight, and regrouted, as also blinded with gravel, one-fourth inch in depth. If 
 considered necessary by the master of works, the contractor is bound to put on blind- 
 ing a second time. The master of works to gl?e instructions as to size of sets to be 
 used in every street. 
 
 Grouting. — Cement grouting to be composed of one measure of best Portland cement 
 to two measures of clean sharp river sand, all properly mixed. 
 
 For bitumen bottoming and grouting, the bitumen shall be manufactured from 
 pure coal-tar pitch from gas works, and the oil shall be of 1.000 to 1.10 specific gravity. 
 Sufficient oil shall be used to produce a plastic grout. The contractor shall also be 
 careful to see that the grout is boiling hot when used. The contractor to intimate 
 to the master of works the name of the parties from whom the bitumen is obtained. 
 
 When the master of works considers it necessary that chips of the same class of 
 material as the paving set should be used in the filling in of the joints, the chips 
 must first be passed through a half-inch riddle, then be thoroughly kiln dried, and 
 afterwards passed over a riddle of one-quarter-inoh mesh to remove all sand and dust, 
 and laid in the joints in two layers. Previous to the chips being put between the 
 joints, bitumen shall be run in to the depth of 1 inch, the first layer of chips shall then 
 be put in, and thoroughly grouted with the bitumen, the second layer of chips to fill 
 the joints level with the surface, and to be thoroughly grouted as directed. One ton 
 of chips shall not do more than 240 square yards. 
 
 Labor, carriage, etc. — The contractor to find all labor, tools, and plant, carriage, 
 sand, whinstone metal, gravel, bitumen, cement, paving sets, and all other materials 
 required for the execution and completion of the contract. 
 
 Watching and ligMing. — The contractor to be bound to provide a sufficient number 
 of watchmen and lights, and become responsible for any damage that may be done 
 to life or property in consequence of his operations, or from deficiency of watch-, 
 men or lights. 
 
 Maintenance. — The contractor to be bound to maintain the work for 6 months after 
 its completion, and to deliver the same over to the board in a proper state of repair 
 at the end of that period. 
 
 Materials and xvorTcmanship. — The materials to be of the best quality, from any 
 quarry or quarries that may be approved of by the committee. The workmanship to 
 be of the best description, and to the entire satisfaction of the master of works, or of 
 any person appointed by him to superintend the work, who shall have power to ex- 
 clude or reject any defective material or workmanship ; and, in the event of the con- 
 tractor delaying or refusing to replace the materials or renew the work, the committee 
 shall have power to do so at his expense. 
 
 The contractor to lodge specimens (carriage free) of all the different sizes of stones 
 specified, at the master of works' office, 6 days before offers are lodged. These stones 
 will become the property of the magistrates and council, and will be held as samples 
 of the dressing of the stones to be supplied under the contract. 
 
 Payment. — Payment to be made to the extent of 90 per pent, on the value of work 
 done monthly, the work to be measured when finished, and the balance to be paid 
 when the master of works shall have certified that the work has been done and main- 
 tained as before specified, and delivered over in terms of contract. Should anv re- 
 pairs be necessary at the end of the period fixed on for maintenance, the same shall 
 be made good by the contractor, and, in the event of his failing to do so, the commit- 
 tee shall have power to order the same to be done ; the expense so incurred to be 
 chargeable against contractor, and to be deducted from any balance which may 
 be due to the contractor at the time. One-half of measurer's fee to be paid by the 
 contractor. 
 
EUEOtE — UNITED KINGDOM. 425 
 
 Alterations. — The committee reserve power to make whatever alter- 
 ations, additions, or deductions they may consider necessary ; the price 
 of such alterations, additions, or deductions to be regulated by the rates 
 of prices contained in the contractor's tender. 
 
 Completion. — The contractor to proceed with the different portions of 
 the works as directed ; and should it appear to the master of works 
 that at any particular time the work is not being proceeded with in sucH 
 a manner as to secure its completion within the time specified, the com- 
 mittee shall have power to take the work out of the contractor's hands, 
 and complete the same at the contractor's expense. 
 
 Power of dismissal. — Should the master of works, or inspector ap- 
 pointed by him, be dissatisfied with the method of conducting the work, 
 or of the workmanship thereof, as conducted by any foreman or workman 
 employed by the contractor or contractors, they shall have the power 
 to order his or their instant dismissal. 
 
 Disputes, etc. — In the event of any difference of opinion or dispute 
 arising between the master of works, or his inspector, and the con- 
 tractor, the same shall be referred to , whose decision shall be 
 
 final and binding on both parties. 
 
 Contract.— rThe contractor or contractors will require to enter into a 
 deed of contract, based on the foregoing specification, and the accepted 
 tender, containing the above and the usual conditions, and to pay one- 
 half the expenses thereof. 
 
 Tenders to be lodged with Mr. Lang, clerk to the magistrates and 
 
 council (police), 74 Hutchinson street, on or before the , indorsed 
 
 " Tender for paving work." No tender will be received after 12 o'clock 
 of said date. 
 
 The magistrates and council do not bind themselves to accept the 
 lowest, or any tender. 
 
 Office of public works, 
 
 74 HutoMnson street, Glasgow, . 
 
 TENDEK. 
 
 , -, 18-. 
 
 To the MAGISTRATES AND COUNCIL OF GLASGOW (POLICE): 
 
 G-ENTLEMEN : do hereby offer and agree to execute the work 
 
 with connected the paving of streets in the different districts of the city, 
 as pointed out by the master of works, for the periods of three, five, or 
 seven years from the acceptance of this offer, with new granite, whin, or 
 old redressed stones, all in cpnformity with the specification thereof, 
 and at the following schedule rates. 
 Tour obedient servant, 
 
426 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IK FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 ScTiednle of rates for executing the paving toork required hy the magistrates and council of 
 Glasgojv (police), including Ike supplying of the new paving sets, channel stones, or 
 wheelers, and all the materials and workmanship, for the period of years. 
 
 BOTTOMING WHERE REQUIRED. 
 
 whinatone bottoming, 6 inches deep (including cntting), groated with bitumen 
 as described, including all materials and woikmanship (removal of present 
 causeway or macadam included in all paving work> per sq. yard.. 3 
 
 Concrete bottoming (including cutting), 6 inches deep, as desciibcd, including 
 all materials and workmanship (removal of present causeway or macadam in- 
 cluded in all paving work) per sq. yard.. 2 10 
 
 No. 
 
 Sizes. 
 
 Granite sets, as described 
 in speclflcatioD, per 
 square yard, grouted. 
 
 Whin sets, as described 
 in specification, per 
 square yard, grouted. 
 
 Redressing and relaying 
 old granite andwhin sets 
 (belonging to the mag- 
 istrates and council), as 
 described in speciflca- 
 tion, per square yard, 
 grouted. 
 
 
 Breadth. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 With bitumen. 
 
 With 
 
 cement 
 
 only. 
 
 With bitumen. 
 
 With 
 
 cement 
 
 only. 
 
 With bitumen. 
 
 
 
 With 
 chips in 
 joints. 
 
 With 
 
 bitnmin 
 
 only. 
 
 With 
 chips in 
 joints. 
 
 With 
 
 bitumen 
 
 only. 
 
 With 
 chips in 
 joints. 
 
 With 
 
 bitumen 
 
 only. 
 
 With 
 cement 
 only. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 
 in 
 
 Inches. 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 34 
 
 34 
 3 to 4 
 3to4 
 4 inch c 
 Any siz 
 
 Inches. 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 5 
 6 
 abes 
 
 ». d. 
 (*) 
 
 11 6 
 
 12 6 
 (♦) 
 (*) 
 
 11 6 
 
 12 6 
 (*) 
 
 10 3 
 10 10 
 
 9 4 
 
 s. d. 
 (*) 
 
 U 7 
 12 7 
 (*) 
 (*) 
 
 11 7 
 
 12 7 
 (*) 
 
 10 3 
 10 11 
 9 S 
 
 "io'ii" 
 
 12 
 
 "ioii' 
 
 12 
 
 10 3 
 8 10 
 
 «. d. 
 (*) 
 
 8 8 
 
 9 1 
 
 ?. 
 
 9 1 
 (*) 
 
 7 9 
 
 8 2 
 7 4 
 
 I. d. 
 
 n 
 
 8 9 
 
 9 2 
 (*) 
 (') 
 
 8 9 
 
 9 2 
 (*) 
 
 7 10 
 
 8 3 
 7 5 
 
 ». d. 
 
 "s'l 
 
 8 7 
 
 ....... 
 
 8 7 
 
 "'Y'i' 
 7 7 
 6 10 
 
 s, d. 
 2 3 
 2 4 
 2 5 
 2 6 
 2 3 
 2 4 
 2 5 
 2 6 
 2 4 
 2 4 
 2 4 
 tl 9 
 
 «. d. 
 2 4 
 2 6 
 2 6 
 2 7 
 2 4 
 2 5 
 2 
 2 7 
 2 5 
 2 5 
 2 5 
 tl 10 
 
 i.d. 
 1 9 
 1 9 
 
 1 11 
 
 2 
 1 9 
 1 ? 
 
 1 11 
 
 2 
 1 9 
 1 10 
 1 11 
 
 tl 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Not used at present. t "Witliout redresaing. 
 
 CHANNEL STONES OR WHEELERS, AS BESCRIBED IN SPECIFICATION. 
 
 »0. 
 
 
 Grouted with bitumen, 
 5 ty 7 inches deep. 
 
 Grouted with cement, 5 
 to 7 inches deep. 
 
 Granite. 
 
 Whin. 
 
 Granite. 
 
 Whin. 
 
 1 
 
 
 1. d. 
 
 «. d. 
 
 8. d. 
 Ill 
 
 1 84 
 
 1 104 
 
 t. d. 
 1 24 
 
 1 84 
 
 1104 
 
 ? 
 
 
 r) 
 
 
 1 7i 1 1 71, 
 
 4 
 
 14 inches broad, per lineal foot... 
 
 1 91 
 
 1114 
 
 1 94 
 
 1 114 
 
 li 
 
 
 
 
 Extra excavation over depths specified, 2 shillings per cnbic yard. 
 
 New granite referred to in above schedule of rates to be from 
 
 New whin referred to in above schedule of rates to be from 
 
 (Name of party tendering to be signed in full) . 
 
 (Address) . 
 
 DISTRICT OF LEITH AND EDINBURGH. 
 
 SEPOBT BT CONSUL WALLACE BBJJCE. 
 
 EtHnbnrgh and the adjoining seaport, Leith, have two distinct and 
 separate corporations, but, in appearance, they are one large city, 
 bound together and interlaced by their connecting lines of busy com- 
 
EUROPE UNITED KINGDOM. 427 
 
 munication which extend over a wide area. The population according 
 to latest official estimate is, respectively, Edinburgh, 275,436, and Leith, 
 80,736 ; total, 356,172. 
 
 The streets and roads within the municipal boundary of Edinburgh 
 are under the superintendence of the town council of said city, and 
 those within the Leith municipality are superintended by the corpora- 
 tion of Leith. 
 
 CITY STREETS AND ROADWAYS. 
 
 The following statement sets forth the materials used and the meth- 
 ods employed in making the streets and roadways of Edinburgh and 
 Leith, the cost of building and maintenance of same, and other ihforma 
 tion relative thereto : 
 
 (1.) HEAVT TRAFFIC STREETS. 
 
 Granite and wMnstone paving. — The ground forming the carriageway 
 in Edinburgh streets is excavated to the depth of about 15 inches 
 under the level of the proposed finished surface of the carriageway. A 
 foundation of cement concrete 6 inches thick is then laid down and beat 
 solid, and adjusted to the requisite levels. The concrete is usually 
 composed of small broken stones and cement in the proportions of five 
 measures stones, one measure cement, and two measures fine sand or 
 gravel, the stones being bedded or built on a cushion of sand 1 inch 
 deep, which is laid on the concrete. In Leith the concrete is sometimes 
 formed of broken whinstone, gravel, or ballast and lime, in the propor- 
 tions of one measure of slacked lime to one measure of broken stone and 
 one of gravel ; then over the concrete a layer of sand about 1^ to 2 
 inches thick is laid down, and upon this sand the paving stones or sets 
 are laid. The paving stones or sets are squared blocks of granite or 
 whinstone, 8 to 14 inches long, 7 inches deep, and generally 4 inches 
 thick. When the paving stones have been laid to the proper lines or 
 levels, and as the work proceeds, the whole surface is grouted, that is, 
 the joints are filled up with lime mortar, composed of one measure of 
 slacked lime to two parts of fine gravel. The whole of the sets are 
 then beaten down about a half inch or three-quarters of an inch with 
 heavy beaters and the Surface of the paving adjusted. The curvature 
 of such carriageway is three quarters of an inch or thereby on 3 feet 
 from channels to center. 
 
 The cost of streets paved in this way is, for granite, $2.43 to $2.92^ 
 and for whinstone, $1.70 to 1.94 per superficial square yard. Granite 
 paving sets cost at the quayside in Leith, including all dues, $5.60 to 
 $6.07 per ton of 2,240 pounds, and 1^ cents to 24 cents per ton will lay 
 them on the ground for the pavers. Whinstone sets delivered at 
 works cost, $3.16 per ton. 
 
 Wood paving. — In Princess street, Edinburgh, a leading thoroughfare 
 of that city, the carriage traffic is very great, and one section or side of 
 
428 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 it to the extent of 200 yards is laid with Scotch grown beech wood blocks 
 in place of the granite or whinstone already described, and, so far as 
 experience yet goes, it has given satisfaction during the 2 years it has 
 been in use. But about 16 years ago other streets of Edinburgh were 
 laid with pine or Baltic redwood blocks, and such paving has not 
 proved satisfactory. Some of the wood in those streets was removed 
 after 8 or 10 years' wear, and the streets were repaved with stone. 
 Wood paving is very favorably accepted by shopkeepers and residents, 
 where it is laid on account of the comparative noiselessness of the 
 traffic upon it, but it is not so durable and therefore not so economical 
 as stone. Wood also leads to much more expense in its maintenance. 
 The wood blocks used are of similar dimensions as the stone, namely, 
 about 9 inches long, 7 inches deep, and 3 to 4 inches thick. The man- 
 ner of laying the wood in Edinburgh streets is the same as that of lay- 
 ing the stone pavement. 
 
 The paving of two streets in Leith has been made of pitch pine and 
 redwood. The blocks used were 9 inches long, 6 inches deep, and 3 
 inches thick, laid upon a foundation of concrete, composed of one part 
 of Portland cement to four parts of ballast or gravel 6 Inches in thick- 
 ness. The wood blocks forming the pavement were placed about a 
 quarter of an inch apart from each other and the interstices filled with 
 liquid bitumen. These cost for pitch pine 9«. 6d. ($2.31) and for red- 
 wood 8s. 6d. ($2.07) per superficial square yard. 
 
 Val de Travers paving. — In one case a street in Leith was paved with 
 Val de Travers compressed rock asphalt 2J inches thick, laid upon a 
 foundation of Portland cement concrete 9 inches thick. This paving 
 has stood ail kinds of traffic for 18 years, and is, even now, in fair 
 condition, and has proved to be a very great sanitary improvement 
 in the locality. The cost of such paving was 15s. ($3.65) per superficial 
 square yard, including all excavations, concrete, and paving. It was 
 maintained by the contractors for 3 years after construction free of 
 charge. For 15 years the cost for maintenance was about 2^d. (5 
 cents) per superficial square yard over the whole area paved. This 
 system is, however, better for level streets than for any gradient, as it 
 is too smooth for horses to get sufficiently secure footing. 
 
 (2.) MEDIUM TBAFriC STREETS. 
 
 If the foundation or substratum of the carriageway be of a suitable 
 character, such as firm sand or gravel, the concrete is dispensed with, 
 in which case the cost of paving will be reduced by about 48 cents to 
 54 cents per superficial square yard, or the cost of the concrete and ex- 
 cavations. 
 
 (3.) LIGHT TRAFFIC STREETS. 
 
 Common whinstone paving. — The mode followed in paving streets 
 wherein there is light traffic in Edinburgh, is as follows (that in more 
 private parts of the city is generally causeway of a commoner class 
 
EUKOPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 429 
 
 of whinstone blocks, with less dressing upon them than on the blocks 
 where the traffic is heavy) : The ground having been carefully pre- 
 pared — but without any concrete foundation — such causeway is laid 
 upon it, the joints or interstices in some cases being filled with bitumen 
 or Portland cement grout. The cost of such work is about 97 cents to 
 $1.21 per superficial square yard. Other light traffic or private streets 
 and roads are " macadamized." 
 
 Macadamized roads. — Macadamization, or the process of covering 
 roads with broken stone, came into use in Scotland early in the present 
 century^ having been invented by John Loudon Macadam, a Scottish 
 surveyor, and his system was so designated after his name. His sys- 
 tem was made known in two works, entitled, respectively, A Practical 
 Essay on the Scientific Eepair and Preservation of Public Eoads and 
 Eemarks on the Present State of Eoad Making. According to Mac- 
 adam's invention excellent roads were formed by placing in a suit- 
 ably prepared road layers of broken granite or other hard stone, which 
 became hardened into a solid mass by the traffic passing over them. 
 For this invention he was, in the year 1827, granted a sum of £10,000 
 ($48,665) by the British Government. 
 
 Throughout Edinburgh the process adopted for macadamizing streets 
 or roads having light traffic is, in laying the foundation, to adjust, 
 equalize, and thoroughly beat down and otherwise prepare the bottom 
 ground to the same curvature as the intended finished surface, the rise 
 being from channels or sides to the center of the carriage way of 1 
 inch on 3 feet or thereby. Then broken whinstone or "road metal," 
 as it is termed, is laid down from 8 to 10 inches deep, the material being 
 blinded — that is, filled up and rolled — with road scrapings. Ordinary 
 scrapings of a macadamized road make the best blind, being of a ce- 
 menting or binding nature, and this is finished and left smooth for 
 traffic by the application of horse rollers. 
 
 The city of Edinburgh possesses a 20-ton steam roller which has been 
 used in preparing macadamized roadways for traffic, but it is found 
 unsuitable. Horse-rollers, varying from 2 to 3 tons, each drawn by 
 two horses, are found more suitable for the purpose. 
 
 In the suburban streets and roadways of Edinburgh where " road 
 metal " is used the cost of macadam izing is from 60 cents to 73 cents 
 per superficial square yard. 
 
 The first cost of building or constructing and paving those private 
 streets and roadways is assessed upon the proprietors on both sides of 
 the street or way, in proportion to the lineal frontage. 
 
 The ordinary public streets of Edinburgh extend 108 miles ; private 
 streets and suburban roadways about 20 miles. 
 
 Throughout Leith the method of constructing streets or roads for 
 light traffic on Macadam's principle is as follows : The carriageway is 
 excavated to the depth of about 10 inches under the intended surface 
 thereof, and when this has been done a stratum or layer of broken 
 
430 STREETS AKD HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 stones about the size of 4-incli cubes is laid down. Upon this is placed 
 a layer 4 inches deep of broken whinstone, or <' metal," as it is usually 
 termed, about 2-inch cubes. Upon this metal is laid a layer of finer 
 metal about the size of a walnut and 2 inches in thickness, and the 
 whole well blended with crushed gravel — a material which is obtained 
 from the stone-breaking machines when making metal. The whole is 
 then rolled and consolidated with a heavy roller. This costs in the 
 first construction about 73 cents per superficial square yard. The prin- 
 cipal part of constructing streets is, in the first instance, done by con- 
 tract. The rate of 73 cents per square yard superficial includes the 
 cost of the water channels and curbing at the sides of roads. The ex- 
 pense of engineering, preparation of plans, superintending, or measur- 
 ing work, is, however, not in any case included in the rates given, but 
 if such were allowed for, a sum equal to 5 per cent, at least on the cost 
 would require to be added. 
 
 (4) MAINTENANCE. 
 
 Granitepaved streets. — The cost of maintaining granite-paved streets 
 for the first 10 years after construction is very small, indeed almost nil. 
 and, from that time onwards to a period from 20 to 25 years after con- 
 struction, the annual cost per yard for maintenance will not exceed 4 
 cents, and at the end of that time the paving, as a rule, requires re- 
 newal, and the material taken from it may be used in paving quiet 
 streets. 
 
 WMnstone-jaaved streets.— The cost of maintaining whinstone-paved 
 streets for the first 5 years after construction is almost nil, but from 
 that time onwards till about 15 years after construction the mainte- 
 nance may be taken at 4 cents per yard per annum, and when repaved 
 the old material may be broken up and used for repairs of roads, the 
 making of concrete, etc. 
 
 Macadamized roads.— With respect to macadamized roads — being 
 those constructed for lighter traffic — the cost of maintenance may be 
 taken at 6 cents per superficial yard per annum, but this rate will no 
 doubt be varied according to circumstances, such as the state of the 
 weather and the amount of traffic. 
 
 There are not any of the roads in or immediately around Leith where 
 the traffic may be said to be really light in the sense that there are no 
 vehicles passing over them carrying goods or general merchandise of a 
 hieavy character, but, on the contrary, they are all liable to have any 
 kind of traffic, at times, carried over them. 
 
 (5) ASSESSMENT OF FIRST COST. 
 
 All the streets and roads within the boundary of the city of Edin- 
 burgh, both carriageways and footways, are maintained by the magis- 
 trates and council out of the municipal assessment of usually 5d. (10 
 cents) per pound ($4.8665) on the rental of the city. 
 
 In constructing public streets of any large extent the cost is gener- 
 
EUROPE UNITED KINGDOM. 431 
 
 ally defrayed by borrowing money on the security of the municipal rates 
 or assessment and repaying the loans in 20 years. In this way the 
 assessment is not so greatly increased and felt. The assessment for 
 maintaining the roads and streets of the town of Leith at present is 
 id. (8 cents) per pound ($4.8665) on the valued rental, exclusive of the 
 value of the Leith docks, which, by statute, are exempted from assess- 
 ment for roads and streets. 
 
 The cost of the first construction of roads or streets upon lands laid 
 out by the proprietors or owners of same for the erection of dwelling 
 houses or other buildings thereon is paid by such proprietors or own- 
 ers, or by their tenants or lessees who have acquired such lands, and, 
 if the work of construction be to the satisfaction of the corporation, the 
 maintenance of such roads or streets is thereafter assumed by the cor- 
 poration, and the expense is paid out of the general assessment for that 
 purpose. 
 
 The cost of land upon which the streets or roads above referred to 
 have been formed has in no instance been taken into account in the 
 prices stated for their construction and maintenance. 
 
 Subjoined is a statement kindly supplied to me by the city road sur- 
 veyor, showing the amounts estimated under the several headings for 
 wages, materials, etc., expended on the Edinburgh streets and roads 
 for the current year (from May 15, 1890, to May 15, 1891). 
 
 Wages : 
 
 Breaking stones > $1,581.61 
 
 Labor on macadamized roads 10, 462. 98 
 
 Labor on causewayed streets 19,320.00 
 
 Forming and repairing cesspools 2,043.93 
 
 Works on depots 2,919.90 
 
 Foot pavements and footpaths 851. 64 
 
 Public safety 97.33 
 
 Total wages 37,277.39 
 
 Materials, cartage, etc. : 
 
 Material, macadamized roads 12,166.25 
 
 Cartage, macadamized roads 4,379.85 
 
 Stone, causewayed streets 5,839.80 
 
 Sand and gravel, causewayed streets 4,379.85 
 
 Cartage, causewayed streets., - 6,569.78 
 
 Cesspools and channels , 2,919.90 
 
 Depots, repairs, and furnishings 486.65 
 
 Implements and repairs 2.189.92 
 
 Public streets, contract -work 29,199.00 
 
 Improvements 486. 65 
 
 Private streets 9,733.00 
 
 Foot pavements, contract work 26.765,75 
 
 Footpaths, gravel and cartage 973.30 
 
 Granolithic footpaths, public street 13,626.20 
 
 Public safety 973.30 
 
 Total materials, etc 120,689.20 
 
 Grand total 157,966.59 
 
432 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 COtTNTEY ROADS OK HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The materials used* and the methods employed ia making and main- 
 taining the country roads within this consular district and other in- 
 formation pertaining to same are as follows : 
 
 THE MIDLOTHIAN ROADS. 
 
 Edinburghshire, or, as otherwise named, the county of Midlothian, 
 occupies an area of 358 square miles or 229,120 acres. This area, in 
 the management of its roads, is divided into four districts, namely, the 
 Edinburgh suburban, the Lasswade, the Oalder, and the Galawater 
 district, each having its board of road trustees, under whose care the 
 roads in the respective districts are maintained and who control the 
 expenditure required upon them. 
 
 In this county there have been two methods used in making and 
 maintaining its roads or highways, viz, those of Telford and of Macadam. 
 Briefly stated, the Telford system consisted of a bottoming of large 
 wedge shaped stones set on end, sharp edge uppermost, with a cover- 
 ing of broken " metal " (stones) on the top. That of Macadam consists 
 of a bed of " metal " broken to a uniform size from top to bottom. 
 The latter system has been adopted throughout the county of Edin- 
 burgh for many years past, and on account of its giving a smoother 
 surface to the road is considered preferable to the Telford system. It 
 is preferred also as avoiding the risk of the large bottoming stones used 
 in the Telford system working up to the top, which, it is said, happens 
 in nearly all roads having pitched or paved foundations. The first cost 
 of macadamizing a road is usually from 60 cents to 70 cents per super- 
 ficial square yard. 
 
 The main lines of roadway throughout the county of Edinburgh are 
 from 25 to 30 feet wide from fence to fence, the greater width being 
 required for roads of much traffic or near the city ; and under the 
 " roads and bridges act " of the year 1878 it is ordained that no erection 
 shall be built more than 7 feet high within 25 feet of the center of the 
 roadway. The old parish roads in the county, however, are often not 
 more than 15 feet wide, but these are frequently being made wider 
 where greater traffic or other circumstances require the improvement. 
 The roadways are maintained with whinstorie procured in the neighbor- 
 hood, broken to a uniform size of 2| inches, and applied according to 
 the amount of traffic. 
 
 In the suburban district of the county of Edinburgh the cost of main- 
 tenance of macadamized roads, including the footpaths, varies with the 
 traffic upon them. For instance the cost per mile of roadways leading 
 from quarries is as high as $1,313.95 per mile, while the average of 
 other main lines leading from the city into the country is about $369.85 
 per mile. 
 
 The mode of constructing roads known in Great Britain as the Tel- 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 433 
 
 ford system above mentioned was invented by Thomas Telford, a cele- 
 brated Scottish civil engineer, who accomplished much of the improve- 
 ment in highway communication which was made throughout this island 
 in the beginning of the present century. 
 
 In connection with the above reference the following extract from 
 one of Telford's specifications of the manner of constructing a road 30 
 feet in width by his method may be deemed of value : 
 
 Upon the level bed prepared for the road materials a bottom course or layer of stones 
 is to be set by hand in form of a close, firm pavement. The stones set in the middle 
 of the road are to be 7 inches in depth ; at 9 feet from the center 5 inches ; and at 15 
 feet 3 inches. They are to be set on their broadest edges lengthwise across the road, 
 and the breadth of the upper edge is not to exceed 4 inches in any case. All the irreg- 
 ularities of the upper part of the said pavement are to be broken oflf by the hammer, 
 and all the interslices to be filled with stone chips firmly wedged or packed by hand 
 ■with a light hammer, so that when the whole pavement is finished there shall be a 
 , convexity of 4 inches in the breadth of 15 feet from the center. 
 
 The middle 18 feet of pavement is to be coated with hard stones to the depth of 6 
 inches. Four of these 6 inches to be first put on and worked in by carriages and 
 horses, care being taken to rake in the ruts until the surface becomes firm and consol- 
 idated, after which the remaining 2 inches are to be put on. 
 
 The whole of this stone is to be broken into pieces as nearly cubical as possible, 
 80 that the largest piece in its longest dimensions may pass through a ring of 2i 
 inches inside diameter. The paved spaces on each side of the 18 middle feet are to 
 be coated with broken stones or well-cleaned strong gravel up to the footpath or 
 other boundary of the road, so as to make the whole convexity of the road 6 inches 
 from the center to the sides of it, and the whole of the materials are to be covered 
 with a binding of 1^ inches in depth of good gravel free from clay or earth. 
 
 When stones are very hard they never make a very smooth surface. Limestone 
 will make a much smoother surface than whinstone and other harder stones, but they 
 should not for this reason be preferred to harder stones, for these will wear longest, 
 carriages will rnn lighter over them, and the expense for scraping and repairing 
 will be less. All the soft kinds of stones make heavy roads in wet weather, and in 
 dry weather there will be more friction upon ^pads made with them, because there 
 will be more dust on their surface. 
 
 The breadth of the road which has been described in the foregoing specification of 
 30 feet is recommended as fully sufficient for any road forming the approach to a 
 very populous city. The confining of a road to this breadth contributes very much 
 to preserve the whole surface of it from side to side in a good state, and to diminish 
 expense. For, when a road is of greater breadth, the scraping and repairing of the 
 excess beyond 30 feet costs annually a considerable sum. 
 
 With respect to the convexity of a road, it should be so arranged that it should be 
 slight in the middle. In giving a convexity of 6 inches to a road of 30 feet in breadth, 
 the convexity at 4 feet from the center should be half an inch, at 9 feet, 2 inches, and 
 at 15 feet, 6 inches. This will give the form of a flat ellipse. 
 
 Whenever the natural soil is clay, or retentive of water, the pavement acts as an 
 underdraiu to carry off any water that may pass through the surface of the road. 
 The component stones of the pavement having broader bases to stand upon than 
 those that are broken small, are not so liable to be pressed into the earth below, par- 
 ticularly where the soil is soft. 
 
 Notwithstanding the foregoing apparently plausible reasons in favor 
 
 of Mr. Telford's system of constructing roads, it has been discontinued 
 
 in thecounty of Midlothian for a considerable time, and that of Macadam 
 
 Is preferred. It might be well also to add that in a country of severe 
 
 33a 28 
 
434 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 frosts the Telford roadway might be more readily upheaved, from the 
 nature of its construction, than that of Macadam. 
 
 The process of macadamizing the county roads is very similar to the 
 process under that name described in the previous section of this report 
 with reference to city or suburban streets and roads. 
 
 A brief summary of those accounts of the Midlothian county roads, 
 estimated expenditure for maintenance for year ending May 15, 1891, 
 exhibits the following results : 
 
 Suiurian district of Edinburgh. 
 
 Material, estimated expenditure: Ninety-one roads, extending 108 miles 
 6 furlongs 9 yards, required 18,537 cubic yards of metal (broken ^hin- 
 Btone), which cost from $1.25 to $1.85 per cubic yard, amounting to ^25,920. 88 
 
 Material and labor, total estimated expenditure 43, 406. 70 
 
 Deduct amount to be contributed by the city of Edinburgh 9, 733. 00 
 
 33, 673. 70 
 Suburban district rental, £234,250 ($1,139,977.62) assessment 
 
 thereon at ^d. (13 cents) per £1 ($4.8665) yields $30,874.39 
 
 Allowance from British Government, say 3, 406. 55 
 
 34,280.94 
 
 Leaving for miscellaneous expenses 607.24, 
 
 Lasswade district. 
 
 Material, estimated expenditure : Eighty-one roads, extending 142 miles 
 6 furtougs 10 yanls, required 7,360 cubic yards of metal, which cost from 
 99 cents to $2.08 per cubic yard, amounting to 12,192.60 
 
 Material and labor total estimated expenditure 23, 746. 67 
 
 Lasswade district rental, £18-j,027 ($915,033.40), assessment 
 
 thereon at6d. (12cents) per £1 ($4.8665) yields $22,875.83 
 
 Expected allowance from Government 1,849.27 
 
 24,725.10 
 
 Leaving for miscellaneous expenses 978.43 
 
 Calder district. 
 
 Material, estimated expenditure : Eighty-three roads, extending 156 
 miles 5 furlougs 186 yards, required 7,705 cubic yards of metal, which 
 cost from 97 cents to $1.50 per cubic yard, amounting to 10, 429.21 
 
 Material and labor, total estimated expenditure 19 105.53 
 
 Calder district rental, £164,698 ($801,502.81),assessment there- 
 on at 5i(J. (11 cents) per £1 (.$4.8 i65) yields $18,367.77 
 
 Probable allowance from Government 1,459.95 
 
 19,827.72 
 
 Leaving for miscellaneous expenses 72:^. 19 
 
EUROPE — UNITED KINGDOM. 435 
 
 Gala Water district. 
 
 Material, estimated expenditure: Seventy-three roads, extending 150 
 miles 3 furlongs 131 yards, required metal which cost from $1.01 to $1.74 
 per cubic yard, amounting to $5,951.56 
 
 Material and labor, total estimated expenditure 10, 825. 33 
 
 Gala "Water district rental, £83,402 ($405,866.14), assessment 
 
 thereon at 6d. (12 cents) per £1 (4,8665) yields $10, 146. 89 
 
 Grant from Government, say 875.97 
 
 11,022.86 
 
 Leaving for miscellaneous expenses 197.53 
 
 Galashiels district. 
 
 In further illustration of the second section of my report, I beg to 
 submit the following account of the country roads and highways in 
 the neighborhood of Galashiels and other southern portions of this 
 consular district. 
 
 The borough of Galashiels has a population of 19,000. The munici- 
 pality of Galashiels have the management of their streets and roads 
 under a local act, in which it is provided that streets or roads which 
 are to be built upon on both sides must be 40 feet in width between 
 building and building, and those built upon one side only, 25 feet. 
 
 Original constrtiction of roads. — The municipal authorities, in terms 
 of the statute, fix the levels of all streets about to be formed with a 
 view to uniformity. The road or street is thereupon formed, and, on 
 the assumption that the total width is to be 40 feet, the road or high- 
 way is made 24 feet in width. The bed is excavated to the depth of 6 
 inches, and raised in the center to the extent of about 4 inches. " Metal " 
 composed of clean hard whinstone and broken so as to pass through a 
 Sj-inch ring, is laid upon the bed 6 inches deep, and finished in a neat 
 and uniform way. Sometimes the metal is blinded with earth so as to 
 facilitate its consolidation. The cost, including the provision of the 
 metal, may be stated at 60 cents per superficial square yard. 
 
 Maintenance of roads. — Once every 2 or 3 years a layer of " metal " 
 3 inches thick is put upon roads where traffic is somewhat heavy, which 
 is usually all that is required for their maintenance. This entails a cost 
 of about 16 cents per superficial yard. A road upon which the traffic 
 is ordinarily light can have 100 yards of its length maintained at a 
 cost of $2.43. 
 
 Curbs and sewers. — On each side of the road a curb and sewer are 
 formed for the purpose 6£ conveying rain and other water from the 
 streets. These occupy a space of about 2 feet in width. The curb is 
 composed of a block of clean hard whinstone or granite, measuring in 
 inches 16 by 10 by 5. The sewer is composed of three blocks of the 
 same material. Each block is 8 inches wide and 6 inches deep. The 
 curbstone is placed on its edge next to the footpath, and the sewer stone 
 next to it is laid with a slope of about 3 inches, its upper edge being 
 about 1 inch below the top of the curbstone, while the other two stones 
 
436 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 are laid with a slope to the center of the sewer, and in a line with the 
 proposed contour of the road. The various stones are set upon a bed 
 of clean sharp sand or ashes 4 inches deep. 
 
 The cost of the original construction may be stated at curbstone 32 
 cents and sewer 39 cents per lineal foot. 
 
 Maintenance of curbs and sewers. — These are maintained by therenewal 
 at the same cost of the parts in disrepair. They usually require no 
 repair for from 10 to 15 years after their construction. 
 
 Original construction of footpath. — The footpaths are constructed on 
 both sides of the street and are 6 feet in width and have a fall toward 
 the curb and sewer of three-eighths of an inch to the foot. 
 
 There are many methods and different kinds of material that may be 
 employed in the construction of footpaths, but two of these obtain in 
 and around Galashiels ; these are : 
 
 (1) Formed with concrete. — This is most decidedly the preferable 
 method, although the more expensive. The earth is excavated to the 
 depth of 12 inches below the upper edge of the curbstone. Eight aud 
 a half inches of this space is filled with rough gravel or clean stones 
 broken to go through a 3-inch ring, solidly beaten down and leveled ; 
 then follows a 2-inch layer of concrete composed of four parts of clean 
 washed gravel to one part of best Portland cement, well beaten down ; 
 and before it sets the top layer of 1 inch thick is laid. This top layer 
 of concrete is composed of two parts crushed granite to one part best 
 Portland cement, and is finished off straight and smooth. Thin slips 
 of wood are inserted across the footpath every 6 to 8 feet so as to pre- 
 vent the blocks of concrete being joined. The. cost is about $1.09 per 
 superficial yard. 
 
 (2) Causeway or method hnown as hornizing. — The bed is excavated as 
 before and the bottom filled with some approved material ; then follows 
 a layer 4 inches deep of clean sharp sand or hard ashes, upon which 
 the stones immediately after referred to are set. These stones are clean, 
 hard water or river stones and are placed upon their edges and pounded 
 down with heavy beaters so as to produce a level surface. These 
 stones measure from IJ to 2 inches thick, from 4 to 5 inches deep, and 
 from 5 to Siuches long. The cost may be stated at 48 cents per super- 
 ficial yard. This method is probably the more durable, as in mauy 
 cases it lasts for 25 years. 
 
 Maintenance of footpaths. — This depends upon the traflSc, but in ordi- 
 nary circumstances no repairs would be required for from 15 to 25 
 years. If any portion of a footpath requires repair it can be done by 
 renewing the only part in question, and, in the case of concrete, the 
 cost would be about 79 cents per superficial yard, as only the top layer 
 would require removal. In the case of the other method it would cost 
 the same as the original work. 
 
 Wallace Beuoe, 
 
 United States Consulate foe Leith, Consul. 
 
 Edinburgh, January 31, 1891. 
 
CONTINENT OF AMERICA. 
 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OP HIGHWAYS. 
 BEPOBT BT aONSJJIj TANNER, OF PIOTOV, NOYA SCOTIA. 
 
 It is my opinion that when all the inquiries of this circular have 
 been compiled it will be found that no known system of road or street 
 construction can be compared with that of the Romans. 
 
 These roads, many of which were constructed 300 years before 
 Christ, are good roads to this day. Roads may come and roads may 
 go, but the Eoman road endures forever. The prime object of the 
 Roman highways was to facilitate the movements of troops and army 
 transportation and the quick concentration of troops at a given point. 
 The soldier, his helmet and shield, spear, and accouterments have 
 passed away ; the republic itself, the result of their prowess and valor, 
 is a thing of the past, a dream ; but the highways remain a lasting 
 monument to their skill and civilization, and if modern times have im- 
 proved on the methods then practiced, but little if any improvement at 
 all can be traced. 
 
 Enough can be traced from ancient history to enable us to form a tol- 
 erably correct idea of the methods of road and street building adopted 
 by the Romans.- The first object sought was shortness between two 
 given points, the commencement and the terminus. A straight line 
 was drawn from point to point and the road was ordered built on this 
 line regardless of valleys, hills, mountains, or other natural obstruc- 
 tions, and that which engineers pronounced impractical, indeed impos- 
 sible, was accomplished because it was imperative. 
 
 This being determined, two ditches on either side of the road to mark 
 the width were dug, and the soil between removed until a solid founda- 
 tion was reached. This soil was replaced by more solid material well 
 packed and made thoroughly compact, and every precaution taken that 
 the body of the road should be hard and strong. 
 
 This strength was made perfect by four layers of material, the lower 
 
 layer consisting of large flat stones, if convenient; if not, other stones 
 
 were used, and these were laid in mortar. The next layer was of small 
 
 stones or coarse concrete ; the third of finer concrete, on which was laid 
 
 stones of several angles joined nicely and solidly together, which was 
 
 the fourth layer. These four layers constituted a thickness of from 3 
 
 to sometimes 7 feet. On a hard, rocky foundation the two under layers 
 
 were dispensed with. 
 
 437 
 
438 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 This pavement extended nearly the entire width of the roadway, 
 which varied from 13 feet to sometimes more than 20 feet in width, ac- 
 cording .to its importance. 
 
 This account is taken principally from a French work on the rains 
 of Pompeii in my possession. 
 
 These are the leading features in Eoman road and street paving con- 
 struction, for one, in my opinion, varies little from the other. A high- 
 way should be made as much for pedestrians as for horses and wagons, 
 and I shall treat this subject from this standpoint in my reply to this 
 circular. 
 
 REQUISITES OE A GOOD HIGHWAY. 
 
 It is shortness from point to point, a good smooth surface, capable of 
 sustaining great weight without becoming muddy, and over which man 
 and beast can pass with comfort and ease. I have given my opinion of 
 how such a roadway may be secured; any further details may be found 
 with minuteness in any flrst-class encyclopedia, stated with much more 
 clearness than I can state them. 
 
 I had the honor several years ago to report upon the subject of high- 
 ways to the Department (Consular Report No. 24, 1882, p. 488). 
 
 This report attracted considerable attention at home and was repro- 
 duced and commented upou by nearly all of our leading journals; and 
 some of our legislatures, notably those of Illinois, Georgia, and South 
 Carolina, took up the subject. 
 
 I firmly believe that the great hindrance to the prosperity of the 
 farmers of the United States today is the lack of good and substantial 
 national, State, and county farm roads. 
 
 I do not think that this proposition can be assailed unless it is to be 
 made stronger than my feeble powers can state it. 
 
 Wherever such roads have been constructed they have enhanced the 
 value of the farmer's land, and have given increased value to all the 
 products of his labor. 
 
 It is a common mistake that the farmer reaps all the benefits from 
 good roads. While it is unquestionably true that the farmer is bene- 
 fited in a hundred and fifty ways bj' good roads, in must be borne in 
 mind that anything which benefits the farmer benefits the entire com- 
 munity. 
 
 Our farmers have to compete with farmers who have the very best 
 facilities for hauling their product to the markets (at a minimum of labor 
 and cost) and to the railways. Highways in Europe enable the farmer 
 to carry immense loads to the markets with one horse which our farm- 
 ers can not do in some instances at all, because the road is simply im- 
 passable. Our farmers cau perceive the odds against them when a dog 
 in Europe can draw a load to the market which a horse can not do in 
 the United States. 
 
 This is a day of close competition in everything, and the farmers of 
 
'AMERICA — BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 439 
 
 our country are realizing this. They have an immense advantage over 
 the European farmers, and have reduced the latter to the practice of 
 the very strictest economy in order to live at all. With economy and 
 with the advantage of the excellent highways the European farmers 
 eke out an existence, but they have learned by stern necessity that 
 which our farmers must learn for protection. 
 
 If a highway can be provided by which a farmer can haul an in- 
 creased load to the market with one horse that at the present time 
 requires the services of two, with a larger and stronger wagon, and if 
 this can be done in 1 day instead of 3 or 4., it is as palpable as a prop- 
 osition can be that he is benefited just in that proportion. 
 
 How much this proportion is against our farmers will be seen when 
 I state that some of our farm roads are absolutely impassable at cer- 
 tain season's of the year, and four horses could not draw a load to our 
 markets that one could easily draw to any market in Europe. 
 
 The European highways are crowded with pedestrians and with 
 bicycles. This is true because the condition of the roads invite such 
 exercise. In the Yalley of Virginia we have an excellent road. During 
 our civil war army wagons, cannons, and the tramp of soldiers which 
 ground into slush a common road left this highway comparatively un- 
 injured. Farms along this road are worth and can readily sell for 100 
 per cent, more than farms on the ordinary country roads. The farmers 
 are in "better condition, and if you were to tell them that you meant to 
 deprive them of their road there would be consternation among them. 
 
 There is nothing more rational to my mind than the movement of the 
 farmers towards bettering the condition that environs them. But this 
 question of good highways that the Government will seemingly take up 
 for them, judging from this circular, is a towering mountain before 
 their very eyes, whose top is lost in the heavens compared with a 
 microscopic atom with anything else that affects them. If they are 
 given good roadways depend upon it half of what they complain of will 
 be removed. If railroads may be compared to the arteries of a living 
 body, then wagon roads are the veins, and each are equally necessary 
 in quickening and in communicating life to the parts to which they lead. 
 
 From this circular I believe our Government is sensible of this obli- 
 gation which we owe our farmers, and which our interest and civiliza- 
 tion imperatively demand that we should pay them. 
 
 More than three hundred years before Christ the Eomans recognized 
 the importance of good highways and they saw that this was a subject 
 of the very first importance to them. Historians have looked only to 
 battles and the clash of arms and the great and stirring events in the 
 epochs of nations, and have attributed this cause and that cause as 
 contributing to the national puissance; but, in my opinion, nothing was 
 more of a factor in Eoman conquests than the splendid roadways that 
 allowed her troops to be concentrated quickly and hurled with force 
 on the enemy. 
 
44,0 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 More than one hundred years ago English farmers arose and de- 
 manded good roads, and they coutinued to demand them until they 
 got them. 
 
 There is not a state in Europe but has had good roadways for at least 
 a hundred years. 
 
 We are then at least one hundred years behind Europe, and about 
 twenty-four hundred years behind Rome in this important matter. 
 
 There is not a question but that we must have good highways. 
 
 Our Government owes this to the people; and believing this as 
 firmly as I do, I have sketched out on a map,* which I have the honor 
 to forward in this report, seven different routes of national highways. 
 
 I have adopted the Eoman plan of drawing a straight line from 
 point to point; and this, in my opinion, should be strictly adhered to 
 in any system of highways we may build. Influence should not be 
 allowed to twist, turn, distort, and crook such highways. ' ' 
 
 The first grand route, as will be seen from the map, is a direct one 
 from Danforth, on the Maine frontier, to St. Louis, thence to San Fran- 
 cisco. This route should be the great national highway, .lud it should 
 be 50 feet wide, with a row of shade trees on either side and one in 
 the middle of the road, with watering places with fresh running water 
 every 5 miles along the route. 
 
 The next route in imiiortance on the map is that from Bangor, Me., 
 via Portland, Boston, Providence, Hartford, New York, Philadelphia, 
 Washington, Spartanburg, Atlanta, Montgomery, and B"ew Orleans. 
 
 The next in importance will be from New Tork or Philadelphia direct 
 to Gincmnati, Louisville, Memphis, Austin, and thence to the Mexican 
 frontier at Ivias. The next grand route will be seen to be from Chi- 
 cago direct to Salt Lake City, thence to San Francisco. 
 
 The next from Chicago to Cincinnati, thence to Wilmington. The 
 next from Dulutli to Helena, thence to Tacoma, thence to San Fran- 
 cisco, thence to Yumas. 
 
 The red lines indicate connecting routes of minor importance which 
 should be built by the States or Territories through which they run. 
 
 I will not go to the trouble of defending, advocating, or championing 
 this system. I will allow the plan as drawn to speak for itself. If we 
 want our country settled up we should offer facilities for people to get to 
 it in their wagons and on foot as well as by rail. Good roads is the best 
 invitation for people to settle a country, and our enlightenment and 
 civilization demand of us to furnish this means of communication, cir- 
 culation, and exchange of products. 
 
 Convicts and paupers could not be better employed than in building 
 and keeping up State highways, and this, it seems to me, would be the 
 best and most practical employment for them. 
 
 Lord Macaulay attributes the wretched condition of the English 
 highways at the beginning of the eighteenth century as " due to the 
 
 * Map not printed. 
 
AMERICA— DOMINION OF CANADA. 441 
 
 state of the law, which compelled each parish to maintain its own roads 
 with statute labor." As this is the system principally in vogue in the 
 United States, this may also be the reason of our bad roads. 
 
 The money expended on many of our good for nothing mud roads is 
 absolutely thrown away. If we want good roads we must go to work 
 and make them good, and then it is easy to keep them good; whereas 
 if they are bad to commence with all the money spent on them is just the 
 same as throwing it to the dogs. One hundred millions of dollars spent 
 in making a flrst-class road saves two hundred millions in dribbles on 
 roads that remain bad in spite of all amounts expended on them. 
 
 Geo. 0. Tanner, 
 
 United States Consulate, Consul. 
 
 Pictou, November 29, 1890. 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 BELLEVILLE. 
 
 REPORT BY CONSUL DENEEN. 
 
 I have the honor to make the following report concerning the streets 
 of Belleville and the roads of Hastings County, Ontario, Canada. 
 
 The ground on which the city of Belleville is built rests on a lime- 
 stone formation. In many places the stone crops out on the surface. 
 There are 38 miles of streets in Belleville. To make them limestone 
 broken by a crusher is employed. This stone costs $4.50 per cord at 
 the crusher. A cord contains 4 cubic yards and 20 cubic feet. The 
 cost per cubic yard therefore is 95 cents, and the cost of drawing and 
 spreading the broken stone on the streets is about 30 cents per yard. 
 Whole cost per cubic yard, $1.25. One cubic yard will suflBce for 4 
 square yards. The cost is therefore 31^ cents per square yard when 
 the stone is spread on the street. There is a small piece of square 
 stone pavement which cost $2.75 per square yard. 
 
 The sidewalks are made of pine planks, except a small piece of square 
 block Nicholson pavement. The plank sidewalks cost 25 cents per 
 square yard ; the block pavement $1.10 per square yard. The sum of 
 $9,000 is annually expended in building and repairing streets. It costs 
 $3,500 to build new and repair old sidewalks each year. The remainder, 
 $5,500, is devoted to building and repairing streets, culverts, and drains. 
 
 There are between 400 and 500 miles of macadamized roads in Has- 
 tings County. The stone of which they are made costs 45 cents a cubic 
 yard. This will sufQce for 4 square yards. 
 
 For these statistics I am indebted to James Taylor, supervisor of 
 
 streets. 
 
 S. H. Denben, 
 
 United States Consulate, Consul. 
 
 Belleville, December 4, 1890. 
 
442 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 B^RITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 REPORT ST CONSUL MYERS, OF YIOTORIA. 
 
 Considering the recent date of settlement, the rough and uneven 
 character of the surface of the couotry, and the limit«d finances at 
 command, this province is remarkable, in the older portious especially, 
 for its excellent roadways, and in all parts of it for the interest taken 
 in them and for the amount of money expended in their construction. 
 This has been brought about, first, by the necessity here for artificial 
 roadways ; second, by the abundance and variety of good material for 
 roadmaking ; third, by the good examples early set by the Hudson's 
 Bay Company; fourth, by the Scotch taste, energy, and skill that 
 dominate largely in governmental affairs in this province. 
 
 I have been unable to ascertain the exact per cent, of the total rev- 
 enues of the province put into roads each year, but it must be a very 
 high rate, and it has required courage to make such an expenditure of 
 money. The total receipts of the province are less than $1,000,000 per 
 annum, yet out of this meager resource and where the surface of the 
 country is broken everywhere with rocky hills and narrow valleys, 
 covered by a dense growth of Douglas and other firs, and further ob- 
 structed by-dense underbrush, etc.. fine roads wind everywhere, and in 
 the vicinity of Victoria and the chief towns of the mainland they are 
 the delight of tourists, and are among the ijrincipal agencies in opening 
 up otherwise inaccessible forests and mines. How has this been ac- 
 complished? 
 
 COITNTET ROADS. 
 
 In the first place and chiefly the provincial government has entire 
 charge of all road work. I emphasize this point because, in my judg- 
 ment, it is the key to the success of the system that prevails here. 
 Eoad work is not left to local caprice, nor is it placed in the hands of 
 incompetent or inexperienced persons. The department of lands and 
 works determines where a road is needed, and then it is laid out by a 
 competent engineer, and thus the roads of the entire province are re- 
 lated to one another. The government not only determines where the 
 road shall be, but how it is to be made, who is to make it and what the 
 cost shall be; and then it pays the bill out of the public treasury. 
 There is no special tax or special road approiiriation. The work of con- 
 struction is under the supervision of competent civil engineers and 
 foremen who have what may be regarded as liberal salaries. The lat- 
 ter receive from $100 to 8150 per month. All work is done thoroughly 
 and with great system, and the work of one year is the foundation for 
 the work of the following year, according to the general plan of im- 
 provements. 
 
AMERICA — DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 443 
 
 There are two methods of prosecuting these public works. One is 
 by contract, based on carefully prepared specifications. Eoads are gen- 
 erally constructed in this way. The other method is by day labor, un- 
 der the supervision of a government foreman, who is appointed by the 
 department of public works. 
 
 Eoads are divided into four classes, first, second, third, and fourth. 
 A flrst-class country road may be described as follows: In width it is 
 from 18 to 20 feet between ditches. In making it the trees and shrubs 
 are iirst cut away in a strip 30 to 40 feet wide. The ground is then 
 grubbed, and finally it is graded to a uniform surface, being crowned 
 in cross-Section 12 to 18 inches in the center. It is then paved with 
 suitable crushed stone to a depth of not less than 6 inches, and it may be 
 9 or 12 inches. The width of this macadam is 12 to 15 feet. Over the 
 top of this stone is spread a layer of good, coarse gravel to a depth of 
 6 to 12 inches. 
 
 Such a road costs from $3,000 to $5,000 per mile, owing to the size of 
 the trees to be removed, the amount of grading and blasting, and the 
 convenience of stone and gravel. The road from Victoria to Esquimalt 
 Harbor, which is a little over 3 miles long, was macadamized at a cost 
 of $4,000 per mile, but there was extra good work put upon it. In this 
 vicinity the ordinary cost of earth excavation is 30 cents per cubic 
 yard, and of rock excavation $2.75 per cubic yard. 
 
 Second-class roads are simply cleared of the trees, grubbed, and 
 graded, and are usually about 20 feet wide in the clearing and 10 to 12 
 in the grading. They are not regularly macademized or graveled, and. 
 the cost is from $500 to $1,000 per mile. 
 
 Third-class roads are forest cleared and stumps close chopped, with- 
 out further work. They cost from $200 to $500 per mile. 
 
 A trail is intended, for pack animals only. The principal work done 
 is to cut off trees and bushes a few feet in width through the forest, 
 and blast pathways along the sides of precipitous hills and mountains. 
 
 The Government makes all the principal trunk lines and nearly all of 
 the branches. It also owns and operates steam machinery, drills, and 
 rock-crushers. Where rock and gravel are not available, corduroy? 
 plank, etc., are employed. Eoads in use are kept in repair by annual 
 appropriations. 
 
 The following table will show the number of miles of each grade of 
 road in the diflerent districts : 
 
 District. 
 
 Victoria 
 
 lEsquimalt 
 
 . Cowichan 
 
 Nanaimo 
 
 New Westminster 
 
 Tale 
 
 Scillvoet 
 
 Cariboo 
 
 First 
 class. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 61 
 
 34 
 
 26 
 
 CO 
 
 228 
 
 4m 
 
 204 
 
 162 
 
 Second 
 class. 
 
 jnies. 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 49 
 
 5t 
 
 127 
 
 151 
 
 121 
 
 32 
 
 Third 
 class. 
 
 Miles, 
 15 
 12 
 27 
 44 
 50 
 61' 
 62 
 
 Trail. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 947 
 
444 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 No distinction is made as to roads for heavy or light traffic. All the 
 roads are used for all purposes required by the convenience of the peo- 
 ple. In building rock is usually abundant, often a part of the excava- 
 tion, and beds of gravel suitable abound in all parts of the province. 
 If wood is required, such as poles for corduroy, or even plank, the sup- 
 ply is almost limitless. 
 
 These artificial roads add greatly to the value of adjacent lands and 
 make settlements possible where without them men could not live. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The streets and sidewalks of all incorporated towns and cities are 
 constructed by the corporation, and are paid for by it, and the general 
 plan of work is the same as that oa first-class roads. The trees are 
 removed, the ground grabbed and graded. It is then macadamized to 
 a depth of 8 or 10 inches. Gravel is also used. The price of earth 
 and rock excavations is about the same as in country districts. The 
 cost of macadamizing 8 inches deep in Victoria is 65 cents per square 
 yard. There are about 60 miles of graded streets in Victoria, forty of 
 which are macadamized. 
 
 Levi W. Myers, 
 
 United States Consulate, . Consul. 
 
 Victoria, December 16, 1890. 
 
 CHATHAM. 
 REPOBT BT OOMMBBOIAL AGEJTT WEBSTEB. 
 
 The roads in Chatham are made of stone, cedar blocks, and brick. 
 The methods are as follows : Limestone set on a bed of sand 10 inches 
 in depth has been in constant use for 30 years, its cost $1.25 per square 
 yard for material and labor ; round cedar block pavement on a bed of 
 sand 7 inches in depth, cost 85 cents per square yard ; its durability is 
 6 years. Brick paving is a new branch here ; it is supposed to last 
 from 10 to 15 years ; it is made first as follows : A bed of fine gravel 7 
 inches thick rolled with a 6-ton roller, on which is laid one layer of 
 brick on the sides ; on them is spread 2 inches of sand, then one layer of 
 brick on edge, after which roll all with a 6-ton roller ; cost, $ 1 per square 
 yard. 
 
 The best brick is made from iron slack, and is equal to granite, but 
 most of the brick is made from ordinary top clay. I will add that this 
 town took this pavement from Alliance, Ohio, where it is giving good 
 satisfaction. 
 
 I am, sir, 
 
 W. H. H Webster, 
 
 Commercial Agent. 
 
 United States Commercial Agency, 
 
 Chatham, January 6, 1891. 
 
AMEKICA — DOMINION OF CANADA. 445 
 
 COATICOOK. 
 
 Owing to the primitive and ancient metliods of building and main- 
 taining roadways here there is positively nothing to learn. I have to 
 inform you, however, that since the recent introduction of American 
 road machines the public highways have been very much improved by 
 their use. 
 
 Alfred W. Street, 
 
 United States Consul. 
 United Staies Consulate, 
 
 Ooaticoolc, January 2, 1891. 
 
 MONCTON, 
 
 There is neither street-building nor road-making in any part of my 
 district ; simply ordinary country roads. 
 
 The city council at Moncton are now considering the advisability of 
 paving the main street, but it is impossible to say when such will be 
 carried into effect. 
 
 Jambs S. Benedict, 
 
 Commercial Agent. 
 United States Oommeecial Agency, 
 
 Moncton, New Brunswielc, December 11, 1890, 
 
 KINGSTON. 
 REPORT BY CONSUL TWIXOHELIj. 
 
 I have the honor to submit the following report. The report upon 
 city streets is almost entirely the work of George Osborne, esq., one of 
 the city aldermen, who is giving great attention to the improvement of 
 city streets. The information of the public highways was furnished 
 by Thomas Dawson, esq., for many years of the county council. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The streets within the limits of the city are supposed to be macadam. 
 Broken limestone forms the upper stratum of 8^ inches ; some kind of 
 rotten soft stone, here called binding, is then spread thinly over the 
 surface, then, the whole is rolled in with a heavy steam roller. When 
 finished and as long as the weather, is dry the streets are fairly good, 
 but on the approach of wet weather the lack of stability is evident, 
 and false economy is shown by the accumulation of mud formed on the 
 wearing surface. Then again the underlying stones sink into the 
 ground, causing holes to be formed ; these holes hold water, the result 
 being the road soon wears out and has to be constantly renewed. In 
 
446 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 the first place, according to tbe best authorities, limestone is unfit to use 
 on streets, because of its soft nature, but it is cheaper than any other 
 stone to crush, and is also cheaper to roll, but the cost of repairing is 
 frequent and great. The constant renewals and the abundant and ex- 
 cessive sprinkling, luade necessary on account of the dust, tax the purse 
 beyond endurance. Added to this the dust from the limestone streets is 
 most unhealthy, as we must to some extent take it into our lungs in 
 dry weather and we breathe its emanations in wet weather. During 
 this year small portions of the city streets have, as an experiment, had 
 a covering of granite chips spread over them about 4 or 5 inches deep 
 and rolled in. How this will last can not.be judged until next year. 
 
 The quantities needed for laying down limestone macadam and the ' 
 cost in this vicinity are as follows: 
 
 On a block 26J: feet long by 35 feet wide : 
 
 RoQgli stone, about 8J ificlies deep, 30 tons, at $4 §120.00 
 
 Gravel, .3 inches deep, 11 tons, at |6 ^ 66. 00 
 
 Binding (rotten soft stone), 7 tons, at 1?4 2i^. 00 
 
 Spreading stone 2.5.00 
 
 Rolling 25.00 
 
 Total ". 264.00 
 
 Or 24 cents per square rod. 
 
 The quantities needed for laying down granite macadam and cost of 
 doing same are as follows r 
 
 Rough limestone, 8i inches deep, 30 tons, at .$4 ^120. 00 
 
 Granite chips, 5 inches deep, 18 tons, at >}X~ 216. 00 
 
 Binding (rotten soft stone), 7 tons, at §4 28.00 
 
 Rolling and spreading 50. 00 
 
 Total 414.00 
 
 Or 39 cents per square yard. 
 
 The conclusion to be drawn from the above facts is that limestone for 
 streets is not good. The binding is worse than useless, as it all has to be 
 scraped off in wet weather or is left on the streets as mud. No opinion 
 can be expressed on the value of granite chips, as the experiment is 
 only in its initial stage. Street building and repairing is under the di- 
 rection of the city engineer, controlled by the city council. The expenses 
 are paid from the city treasury. 
 
 COUNTRY HIGHWAYS. 
 
 In the province of Ontario the government in surveying new town- 
 ships, establish the principal roads, known as concessions and base 
 lines, and subsequently open up and construct roads leading from the 
 older settlements, known as colonization roads. This work is provided for 
 from a fund known as a colonization fund, set aside by the provincial or 
 state government and drawn from the provincial exchequer. This fund 
 appears in the estimates of the annual budget. Such work is usually 
 performed under the supervision of overseers appointed by the depart- 
 
AMERICA — DOMINION OF CANADA. 447 
 
 ment, and is strictly a goveruinent work. Subsequently, as the town- 
 ship i)rogresses from a colonization state, the roads come under the 
 municipal control and are thenceforward opened up and kept in repair 
 by statute labor, being in proportion to the assessed value of property, 
 the number of days' labor according to assessed value, however, being 
 fixed by statute law, and is not less than 50 cents or more than $1 per 
 day, to be regulated by local municipalities. There is also what is known 
 as a poll tax, which is an imposition of two days' labor upon all males 
 between the ages of 21 and 60, respectively. This, however, is super- 
 seeded when a party becomes assessed. In many cases local munici- 
 palities have given to private companies the right to build macadamized 
 roads and draw tolls therefrom. This system is a relic of a bygone age 
 and is fast disappearing. Each local municipality strikes in their esti- 
 mates a certain sum for roads and bridges, to jirovide planking for 
 bridges, dig and construct particular culverts, or other extreme repairs 
 which may arise from time to time. 
 
 M. H. TWITCHELL, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Kingston, December 23, 1890. 
 
 MONTREAL. 
 
 BErORT BT CONSUL-GENEUATj KNAPP. 
 
 CARE AND MAINTENANCE. 
 
 The establishment, care, and maintenance of the streets of the city of 
 Montreal are under the supervision and control of the mayor and board 
 of aldermen of the city. 
 
 A subcommittee of the board numbering seven aldermen compose 
 what is termed the road committee. This committee has the special 
 supervision of the road department, at the head of which is the city 
 surveyor. But while the said committee has special supervision of 
 that department, still the mayor and board of aldermen have the gen- 
 eral supervision and control of that department and of all matters re- 
 lating to the establishment, care, and maintenance of the streets of the 
 city. 
 
 The city of Montreal has for 2 years last past spent and is still spend- 
 ing large sums of money in the improvement of her streets. 
 
 During the year 1890 nearly $400,000 was spent in repaving certain 
 streets, and for this purpose there was used four kinds of pavements, 
 namely: "The wood-block pavement," "the block-stone pavement, " 
 " the Trinidad asphalt pavement,'' and " the Sicilian rock asphalt pave- 
 ment." 
 
448 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The manner of laying each of the above kind of pavements and the 
 cost of the same were in detail as follows: 
 
 WOOD-BLOCK PAVEMENT. 
 
 The blocks used for this pavement were the Tamarac blocks, live 
 wood, sawed on all faces, made from 3-inch plank of the following di- 
 mensions, viz : 3 inches thick, 5 inches wide, and 6 inches deep. 
 
 The foundation for these blocks was made by excavating the subsoil 
 and other matter to a sufficient depth and making a solid foundation. 
 
 Upon this foundation there was laid Portland cement concrete 6 
 inches thick. 
 
 The concrete was of the following proportions : One measure of Port- 
 land cement, 3 measures of clean, sharp river sand, and 8 measures of 
 broken stone or macadam, which was new and broken to 2J-inch cubes, 
 and was made aud mixed as follows : One measure of cement and 3 of 
 sand, mixed dry, and then made into a mortar with 20 per cent, of 
 water ; 8 measures of new broken stone was then immediately incorpo- 
 rated with the mortar, aud rapidly mixed, and spread and thoroughly 
 compacted by ramming gently with a wooden rammer (about 9 inches 
 square), until free mortar appears upon the surface, which must be per- 
 fectly smooth and cambered to the same level as the finished road sur- 
 face. This was allowed to remain 7 days before the paving blocks were 
 placed upon it. 
 
 Upon this foundation the wood paving blocks, creosoted, were laid 
 close together and on the surface a coating of hot coal tar and pitch 
 was poured until the blocks would absorb no more ; over this a coating 
 of fine roofing gravel about I inch in thickness was spread. 
 
 There was during the year 1890 40,471J square yards of this pave- 
 ment laid in all, at a total cost of $120,486. Of this 26,243 square 
 yards was laid by contract work, at an aggragate cost of $80,512, or an 
 . average cost of about $3.0G|per square yard, and 14,228|^ square yards 
 by day work, at an aggregate cost of $39,974, or an average cost of 
 about $2.81 per square yard. 
 
 BLOCKnSTONE PAVEMENT. 
 
 The paving blocks used in this kind of pavement were of granite and 
 Belgium porphyry, in length from 8 to 14 inches, in width from 3 to 4J 
 inches, all being of a uniform depth of 6 inches. 
 
 The foundation for these blocks was made by excavating the soil for 
 a sufficient depth and making a solid foundation. 
 
 Upon that foundation was laid Portland cement concrete 6 inches 
 thick. The concrete was of the same preparation as that used for the 
 wood-block pavement above described. On this was laid a bed of clean, 
 sharp river sand 2 inches thick. Upon this foundation the stone 
 blocks were laid. Each row of block stone were of uniform width and 
 depth, and so laid that all longitudinal joints were broken by a lap of 
 
AMERICA — DOMINION OF CANADA. 449 
 
 at least 2 inches, and the joints not more than half an inch. The 
 blocks were then consolidated by ramming until they were in a firm, 
 unyielding bed, with uniform surface, and when thus laid the joints 
 were immediately filled with cement grout until the sand beneath the 
 blocks absorbed no more and the joints filled flush with the surface of 
 the pavement. The whole surface of the pavement was covered with 
 clean, sharp river sand to a depth of 1 inch. 
 
 There was laid during the year 1890 32831 square yards, or IJ miles, 
 of this pavement, at an aggregate cost of $133,722, or an average cost of 
 $4.07|- per square yard. 
 
 ROCK ASPHALT PAVEMENTS. 
 
 The foundations for these pavements was made of the same depth, 
 the same materials, and in the same way as the foundation for the wood- 
 block pavement above described, to which reference is hereby made. 
 Upon such foundation the paving asphalt was carefully spread in such 
 a manner as to give uniform and regular grade and thickness, the 
 wearing asphalt surface being 2J inches thick when compressed. 
 
 Of these pavements there was laid during the year 1890 30,619 
 square yards, viz : Of the Trinidad asphalt 8,147 square yards, or one- 
 third of a mile, at an aggregate cost of $27,954, or an average cost of 
 $3.43 per square yard; of the Sicilian rock asphalt 22,472 square yards. 
 Or 1 mile, at an aggregate cost of $89,213, or an average cost of $3.97 
 per square yard. 
 
 Of the above-mentioned pavements the block-stone pavement is con- 
 sidered best for heavy traffic, while the asphalt is considered best for 
 light traflfic. 
 
 The cost of paving the streets of Montreal is paid by the. city and not 
 assessed against the property on the streets. 
 
 The cost of the above described paving was paid by a loan negotiated 
 by the city, and no part of the same was levied against the property 
 adjacent to the streets so paved. 
 
 The cost of paving and maintaining the streets and roads of Montreal 
 during the year 1 890 was as follows : 
 
 Paving 1459,437 
 
 Cleaning 52,864 
 
 Kemoval of snow 17,557 
 
 Repairing 99,641 
 
 Watering 15,745 
 
 It may be proper to add that the city of Montreal is spending and 
 contemplates the further expenditure of large sums of money in widen- 
 ing, paving, and otherwise improving its streets and roads in a manner 
 most enterprising and creditable to the city. 
 
 Permit me to add that this report is confined to city streets, for the 
 reason that the country roads in the province of Quebec embrace 
 many road districts, each under local management. The maintenance 
 33a 29 
 
450 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 of these roads and the cost of the same depend upon the climate, the 
 soil, and the requirements of trafSe in each, and as 1 am informed that 
 the same circular of inquiry has been forwarded to the several consular 
 oflScers in the province, it is assumed that they will forward to the De- 
 partment full and complete reports, being in possession of more detailed 
 and accurate information as to the roads in their respective localities 
 than is this consulate-general. 
 All of which is respectfully submitted. 
 
 Ohas. L. Knapp, 
 
 Consul- General. 
 United States Consulate-General. 
 
 Montreal, March, 9, 1891. 
 
 MORRISBURG. 
 
 BBPOBT BT 0021MBROIAL A.6EN1 SOBOFIELB, 
 
 MACADAMIZED COUNTRY ROADS. 
 
 I have talked with a number of farmers from diiferent sections of my 
 consular district as to the best kind of roads for the country, the mode 
 of making them last longest, and the way they are kept in repair, etc., 
 and they all agree that macadamizing made as follows is the most suit- 
 able for this section of country : 
 
 First prepare the place where the road is to be made, say 12, 18, or 
 more feet wide, as may be required ; then put on 12 inches at least of 
 stone in the center of the road and 6 inches on the sides. The travel 
 ■will be in the center of the road. The stone to be made fine by a 
 crusher not larger than will pass through a 2-inch ring. Then cover with 
 fine gravel or coarse sand, if the same can be had. This will help to 
 cement the stones together and make them even, hard, and dry. Then 
 there must be good deep ditches on each side of the road, to let the 
 water pass off and keep the road dry. As the stone settles in the dirt 
 put on more stones to prevent holes in the road. 
 
 EXPENSE OP KOADMAKING. 
 
 The first cost is, say, from $6 to $8 per rod. Sometimes, in a bad 
 place, it will cost more. 
 
 Some of the roads are kept in repair by money from toll-gates, some 
 by the statute labor of the parties living along the road, some by a tax 
 on the county, some in one way and another as the different townships 
 may see fit. 
 
 GENERAL EFFECTS OP GOOD ROADWAYS. 
 
 Good roads are a great benefit to any country and enhance the value 
 of the land. They give the inhabitants at all seasons of the year the ben- 
 efit of going to market to sell their produce and get their supplies. In 
 
AMERICA — DOMINION OF CANADA. 451 
 
 good sections of tbe country villages are built up, manufactories in a 
 small way started, stores, post-offlces, schools, and other public build- 
 ings erected, and when they have a water-power mills are built. This 
 benefits the inhabitants, th-e country improves, travel is opened. All 
 this from good roads. Without them a country will not improve much. 
 
 TOWN AND VILLAGE STBEETS. 
 
 In towns and villages the public traveled roads are made as in the 
 country. The sidewalks are mostly built of wood, as follows : Prepare 
 the ground, say 4 to 12 feet wide, as may be required ; then lay some 
 stringers 12, 18, or more feet long, 4 to 8 or 10 inches square, to keep the 
 covering from the ground; then put on 2-inch deal plank and nail to the 
 striugers. In some places flag stones are used and in other places gravel, 
 but in this section of the country plank is mostly used. Good ditches 
 must be opened on the sides of the roads to let the water pass off so as 
 to keep the planks dry. Where it can be done deep underground sluices 
 are made to let the water off. These streets are properly made and kept 
 in repair by a tax laid on the inhabitants of the towns or villages. 
 
 W. A. SOHOFIELD, 
 
 Gommercial Agent. 
 United States Commercial Agency, 
 
 Marisburg, December 29, 1890. 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 BEPORT BT CONSVL-GENEBAL FBYB, OF HALIFAX. 
 
 Eeferring to the street and roadway circular of November 8 last, 
 from the Department of State, I have to say in reference to the roads 
 in Nova Scotia that for the most part they have been constructed in a 
 manner similar to that usually employed in the country towns of New 
 England, and are probably in about the same average condition. 
 Within a few years, however, the importance of the subject of building 
 and keeping them in repair has engaged public attention, and the road 
 system of Nova Scotia has materially improved. 
 
 streets. 
 
 The city of Halifax, with its population of 40,000, is the only city or 
 town within the province where the streets are constructed with engiueer- 
 ingskill. Generally itis builtupon and courses along a continuous range 
 of hillsidefor a distance of over 2 miles. The principal streets run nearly 
 parallel with its slope and the shore. The cross streets, laid off at right 
 angles to them, ascend with inclinations varying from 1 foot in 10 to 1 in 
 15. In the suburbs the gradients are much less, the ground in some 
 directions being nearly level. The cost of maintaining the streets where 
 
452 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, 
 
 the gradients are so steep is greatly increased. Tlie rainfalls wash 
 away the binding materials. The wear from horses, feet increases ac- 
 cording to the power required for hauling. Even when well constructed 
 such streets require to be often repaired. 
 
 The Macadam system of street making is that generally adopted. It 
 is partly founded on a clay-slate rock in situ, partly on a substratum of 
 brokenslate andin some instances the " Telford " bottoming pavement is 
 introduced. The Macadam system is considered the best for the steep 
 gradients, for although it is liable to be torn by the horses' feet, it at 
 the same time gives a more reliable foothold than a material likely to 
 wear to a more slippery surface. 
 
 For the streets where the surface is more nearly level and the traffic 
 greater the city contemplate the employment of paving. The city en- 
 gineer recommends porphyry and granite paving in the usual form of 
 dressed cubes, 8 inches by 4J inches by 6 inches, to be laid on a sub- 
 stratum of coiicrete. The material for part of these blocks has been 
 contracted for at the following prices : Belgium porphyry blocks, per 
 square yard, $2.08; Nova Scotia granite, from the Shelburn quarry, 
 $1.75. A quantity of each is to be employed to test the comparative 
 merits, and that giving the best satisfaction after trial will be adopted. 
 The ground work is to be prepared and the blocks set in place by " day's 
 work," under the supervision of the city engineer. 
 
 The material used for macadamizing consists of a tough quartzite or 
 whiustone, to be had within easy distance of the city at low cost. The 
 stone is broken principally by pauper or convict labor. The poor of the 
 city are thus furnished with employment by the "Poor Association" 
 during the winter when nothing better is offered. Able-bodied con- 
 victs in the city prison are also made to perform such work. The city 
 paysthe association 7 cents per bushel for the broken stone, and to the 
 city prison 3 cents per bushel. There are nearly 24 bushels in a cubic 
 yard of broken stone. The demand for this broken stone is becoming 
 greater than the supply, and a stone crusher is to be put in operation 
 forthwith. 
 
 Yery few new streets are being built in the city at the present time. 
 Eepairs are made by " day's work," The wages paid for such labor is 
 from $1 to $1.10 per day. 
 
 In the year 1887-'8S the sum expended on the streets of Halifax was 
 $19,230, and on street cleaning and watering, $12,923, In 1888-'89 the 
 street expenditure was $22,484, and for cleaning and watering, $14,750. 
 This does not include repairs to city property, from $1,500 to $1,700 
 more in each of those years. 
 
 For a great part of the information obtained for this report 1 am in- 
 debted to Martin Murphy, esq., provincial government engineer, an 
 intelligent and efficient officer, who has certain supervision over the 
 construction of roads and bridges in Nova Scotia. Having read some of 
 bis published papers on road and bridge building, I was the more de- 
 
AMERICA — DOMINION OP CANADA 453 
 
 sirous of consulting him, and applying to him for certain information 
 on the subject of this report he kindly furnished it in writing. To a 
 considerable extent I have adopted the language used in his written 
 answer to my inquiries. 
 
 PUBLIC ROADS. 
 
 Following is what he says on the subject of building public roads in 
 Nova Scotia : 
 
 Nova Scotia, with a present population of about 460,000, an extreme length of 350 
 miles, breadth, 120 miles, and an area of 20,907 square miles, is provided as follows: 
 The length of main roads in 1880 was 6,493, and of second-class roads 9,761 miles, 
 Present length of main roads, estimated, 6,800 miles, second-class roads, 10,000 miles. 
 Total, 16,800 miles. 
 
 The province is divided into eighteen counties having twenty-four municipalities, 
 six of the counties having two municipalities in each. 
 
 In 1879 an act of incorporation conferred on every ^county and sessional district all 
 the usual municipal governing powers, embracing laying out, construction, aud 
 maintenance of roads and bridges, the appropriating and apportioning of road and 
 bridge moneys, employment of statute labor, and the regulation of ferries and public 
 wharves. Since then the municipalities have received an annual appropriation from 
 the government of from $90,000 to $120,000 towards the maintenance of roads and 
 bridges. 
 
 In 1883 the old wooden bridges then existing had become so bad that an act author- 
 izing a provincial loan of |500,000 was passed for rebuilding them with more perma- 
 nent material, such as stone and iron. The reconstruction was carried out by the 
 provincial government. Encouraged by the successful operation and results of this 
 measure, the government provided two further grants of |250,000 each in the years 
 1885 and 1887, respectively, mailing an expenditure of $1,000,000 for the building of 
 these bridges in a more substantial form. 
 
 In 1889 the roads throughout the province, under the supervision of the municipal 
 councils, had become so bad that * * " it became necessary to make a special 
 appropriation of $300,000 for better construction and repairs. The government took 
 the work in hand, employed more skillful supervision, and effected such improvements 
 on the great roads that in the session of 1890 a further appropriation of $300,000 was 
 granted, to be expended in like manner. 
 
 The means available for the construction and maintenance of roads in Nova Scotia 
 are derivable from statute labor and from government appropriation. The former 
 source, although quite a factor if judiciously applied, is becoming almost useless in 
 the hands of municipal authorities. Owing to the limited means at the command of 
 the government for annual grants to roads the question of keeping them in good 
 order becomes one of " how, with limited means, the best and most pertn.iraeut results 
 can be obtained." With such results in view one must be guided by the locality, 
 the facility of obtaining suitable materials, and the trafHc which the road is intended 
 to accommodate. The nearest approach to the solution of this problem will be found 
 by the employment of skillful supervision. 
 
 In a published article written by Mr. Murphy not long ago on " Our 
 common roads," in referring to the transverse form of roads, he says : 
 
 Engineers differ as to the most advantageous form of cross sections, some recom- 
 mending a convex curve approaching to the segment of a circle or semi-elipse, whilst 
 others prefer two plains gently sloping towards the side gutters and meeting on the 
 middle of the road by a short connecting convex surface. There are objections to 
 both forms in certain situations. In the former, the convex road they are that the 
 
454 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 water will stand in the middle ; that carriages will keep in or near the middle and 
 cause undue or excessive wear along one line in order to run on the level and avoid 
 the tendency to overturn near the side ditches. In the latter that if carriages will 
 not run along the center there must he, owing to the transverse inclination or fall 
 from the apex or center towards the gutter, an undue tendency for the carriages or 
 vehicles to slide upon the road surface. Regularity of section and evenness of surface 
 is of much more consequence than the slight difference between curves and straight 
 lines. It is essential that the rain should flow freely off the surface for the proper 
 and economical maintenance of a road. Water standing in ruts or depressions must 
 be avoided; it greatly increases wear, deepens and enlarges hollows, and weakens 
 or destroys the whole crust of the road. Such a cross section should therefore be 
 given as will throw the rain water off quickly, and the necessary inclination to prac- 
 tically effect the purpose must vary with the different material of which the road is 
 composed. We can not have, as in Great Britain, one typical form of road, or method 
 of road-making, because we must adapt ourselves to the materials at hand or within 
 easy distance. 
 
 It is necessary to give a somewhat greater convexity to a new road than it is in- 
 tended to have eventually ; the middle consolidates more by the traffic and the sur- 
 face material is scattered towards the sides, so that however carefully it is rolled or 
 attended to the road will flatten as it consolidates. 
 
 Copies of drawings to show the forms of cross sections of roads as 
 proposed by the provincial engineer are herewith submitted. Fig. 1 
 represents a cross section of Telford pavement, which can be made 
 rapidly, and, with the drainage shown, forms a good road. Fig. 2 is a 
 cross section covered with gravel or broken stone. Fig. 3 is a clay 
 road with a 6-inch gr avel covering, 8 to 10 feet in width, with a cente 
 drain of stones. Fig. 4 is a clay road with a center drain of poles 
 where stone can not be had. Fig. 5 is a cross section of road over a 
 bog or marsh. 
 
 Eoads with a drain running along the center, with outlets to the side 
 ditches, have been tried on wet and soft ground, with favorable results 
 
 For general purposes, where the traffic is heavy, a well-drained road 
 with the Telford pavement and macadam covering is recommended. 
 
 Liberal sums have been expended in bridge building within a few 
 years. Iron bridges in many cases have taken the place of the old 
 wooden structures. Generally the superstructures have been built on 
 American plans, and in several cases American companies have built 
 them on contract. Concrete as a substitute for stone for bridge sup- 
 ports has been used to some extent, and with marked success. The 
 concrete hardens and improves with age, and it is believed that its use 
 will be extended as its merits become better known. 
 
 Wakefield G. Frte, 
 
 Consul- General. 
 United States Consulate-General, 
 
 Mali/aw, January 27, 1891. 
 
AMERICA — ^DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 455 
 
456 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, 
 
 PORT STANLEY AND ST. THOMAS. 
 
 SEPOBT BY CONSUL BUSHES. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The consular district of Port Stanley and St. Thomas is composed of 
 Elgin County, and portions of the adjoining counties, in the province of 
 Ontario. The county seat in Elgin County is St. Thomas, a city with 
 about 11,000 inhabitants. 
 
 In this city there are three classes of streets, viz, cedar-block pave- 
 ment, gravel, and graded earth. 
 
 The cedar-block pavement costs about 85 cents per square yard, and 
 its lifetime is about 12 years ; during that time very little repairs are 
 necessary. 
 
 The graveled streets cost about 50 cents per square yard, but the 
 cost of maintenance is very large. They are very objectionable on the 
 principal streets on sanitary grounds, as it is almost impossible to keep 
 a smooth surface and have the water run off. 
 
 Graded earth streets are only used for streets where there is but little 
 travel. 
 
 The whole system of road making is carried through on the frontage 
 system. A majority of the owners on the street has full power to de- 
 cide what kind of roadway shall be put down, and the cost is assessed 
 against the property fronting on the street in accordance with their 
 frontage measurement. 
 
 The cedar blocks used are 7 inches long, laid on 6 inches of coarse 
 sand or gravel, the surface being made the shape of the roadbed and 
 then rolled with heavy rollers. 
 
 The only village of any importance in the district is Aylmer, with a 
 population of about 1,100, In regard to the streets in this village, as 
 also in the other villages in the district, the manner of making them 
 and holding them in repair is the same as in St. Thomas. Outside of 
 Aylmer there are, however, so far as I know, no paved streets. 
 
 OOTJNTKY ROADS. 
 
 Very little is to be said in regard to the country roads and highways 
 in the consular district of Port Stanley and St. Thomas. The so-called 
 " gravel road " from Port Stanley to the north line of Elgin County, a 
 distance of about 13 miles, is leased out to an association which has to 
 keep the road in repair, and therefore collects toll. The same is the case 
 with the road between St. Thomas and Aylmer, a distance of about 12 
 miles. It has been tried to abolish the tolls on these two roads, but as 
 the association is unwilling to give up the lease, it can not be done be- 
 fore the lease expires. 
 
 The other roads are opened by the county, and consist mainly of 
 graded earth roads, in some places covered with gravel. The repairs 
 
AMEEICA — DOMINION OF CANADA. 457 
 
 are done by statutory work, viz, each farm is assessed a certain nuaibev 
 of days' work a year on the road. The work consists mainly in filling 
 up mudholes and smoothing the surface of the road. 
 
 F. A. HUSHBE, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Port Stanley and St. Thomas, December 22, 1890. 
 
 PORT HOPE. 
 
 BBFOnT BY OOMMEROIAL AGENT SHAFFEJl. 
 
 In the district immediately covered by this commercial agency the 
 streets in the towns are in some instances macadamized, but iu the ma- 
 jority of cases simply built up of gravel. These are generally scraped 
 with a road scraper in the spring and fall, and the result is that even 
 with a minimum amount of drainage facilities the roads are generally 
 good at all seasons of the year. 
 
 There are some block and asphalt pavements but not over large areas 
 and only iu the large cities of the province, and in these this class of 
 pavement is not considered a success by reason of the severity of the 
 winters. 
 
 In the rural districts the roads are built up of gravel put on from 
 year to year, and this generally forms a good road during ordinary aver- 
 age weather. In wet seasons, however, they suffer much from soakage ; 
 and as the construction is generally done by "statute labor" it is not 
 as a rule very thoroughly or efi'ectively done. Where the soil or ground 
 bed is either ^'ery light or of a clayey nature this class of road suffers 
 much in both the spring and fall; in many cases when the frostis going 
 out of the ground the roads are quite impassable. 
 
 It is almost impossible to ascertain the average cost of constructing 
 the roads built as they are in the way above indicated. 
 
 There are no cities within this commercial agency, except by courtesy. 
 
 L. M. Shappeb, 
 Commercial Agent. 
 United States Commeecial Ag-enct, 
 
 Port Hope, December 31, 1890. 
 
 PORT SARNIA. 
 
 BEFORT BY OONHVL PAOE. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 In reference to city streets nothing in the way of novelty can be 
 reported from this or other cities in western Ontario. We have here 
 the ordinary wooden pavement made by standing cedar blocks on end 
 
458 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 and iilliug the interstices with sand and gravel; formerly a coating of 
 hot tar was applied to the blocks before introducing the gravel ; now 
 the tar is generally omitted ; latterly in putting down these pavements 
 the excavation made to receive the blocks is iirst covered with white 
 pine boards, closely joined together. This plan is doubtless an im- 
 provement over the former method of placing the blocks upon sand 
 merely. The subject of street paving receives considerable attention 
 just now in this country, and different methods are being tested. An 
 experiment was tried in this town about a year ago in the endeavor to 
 introduce the "asphalt" pavement. This process consisted first in a 
 layer of broken stone or cobblestone, a coating of hot tar, then a coat- 
 ing of fine gravel, and finally a coating of a combination of "asphalt" 
 and sand, applied hot ; this last coating is heavily pressed by a large 
 heated iron roller. I witnessed the construction of one such pavement, 
 which has now been laid about 14 months, and its present condition 
 is not such as would impress one favorably with this method. The cob- 
 blestones remain almost entirely denuded of the coating of asphalt and 
 sand to which they were originally subjected. This pavement may 
 have been improperly constructed, or possibly the material forming the 
 combination of "asphalt" and sand may have been improperly mixed; 
 whatever may have been the cause, it is apparent the result in this 
 particular case is a failure. Oedar pavements in this climate when 
 properly laid endure about 10 years, yet many of the blocks require to 
 be replaced at the end of 7 or 8 yeai's; much of course depends 
 upon the quality of the cedar used, and great care should be observed 
 in selecting the lumber upon which the blocks ate made to rest. If 
 the material is sound and free from what is known as sap, a cedar pave- 
 ment, properly constructed, ought to last 10 years and even more. 
 
 COUNTRY ROADS. 
 
 The country roads of Ontario and especially in the older settled por- 
 tions of the province are really very excellent roads. Their manner of 
 construction is simple, although it differs somewhat in the different lo- 
 calities. In the vicinity of stone quarries broken stone or the refuse 
 from the quarry is used as the first layer in constructing a roadbed ; 
 this material is thoroughly pounded into the earth and coarse sand and 
 gravel are added, making a mass several inches in thickness. At first 
 the loose sand and gravel is almost impassable for loaded vehicles, but 
 the continued tramping of horses' feet and the frequent pressure which 
 it receives from passing wheels soon renders the roadbed smooth and 
 hard. In localities remote from stone quarries and where cobblestone 
 are not easily obtained, ordinary sand and gravel is the sole material 
 used in forming a road bed. Whatever may be the material used, 
 whether broken stone or cobblestone, with sand and gravel combined, 
 or sand and gravel without the foundation named, it is essential that 
 
AMERICA — DOMINION OF CANADA. 459 
 
 the roadway should be properly coastructed with reference to grading 
 and ditching or drainage. This is accomplished by excavating deep, 
 flaring ditches at each side of the roadway (where the road passes 
 through level or flat land), and the construction at intervals of wooden 
 or stone culverts or sluiceways, in order that the surplus water may 
 be turned- aside or conducted away from the roadbed. When broken 
 stone or cobblestone is used as a foundation an excavation is made in 
 the center of the roadway, between the two ditches, to the depth of 
 several inches and as wide as may be required to build the road ; this 
 ■ excavation is filled with broken stone or cobblestone, in the manner 
 before described, with the addition of sand and gravel, and when the 
 roadbed is completed it shows gradually sloping sides from the center 
 each way to the ditches on the margin of the road. 
 
 In many instances very durable and substantial roads are constructed 
 without the use of broken stone or cobblestone, and these roads are 
 built in the easiest and simplest manner possible. Ko excavation is 
 made in the center of the road to receive the material ; the sand and 
 gravel are applied to the surface of the road without preparation pre- 
 cisely as they leave the gravel pit; the gravel is strewn over the surface 
 to the depth of from 4 to 6 inches. The ditches and culverts and even 
 the grading should be as carefully constructed in this method as the 
 other; but it will be readily seen that this process of road building is 
 much cheaper, both in material and labor, than if cobblestone or broken 
 stone are used as a foundation. The loose sand and gravel thus spread 
 over the surface of the road soon becomes hardened and smooth by, 
 the tramp of horses' feet and the continued passing of vehicles; a new 
 coating of gravel is applied each year for a few years, and thus the 
 hollow places become filled and the roadbed itself becomes more solid- 
 ified. In fact, roads built after this method and properly cared for soon 
 become practically indestructible. During the first 2 or 3 years after 
 the gravel is applied hollow places will appear here and there, in the 
 roadway, occasioned perhaps by the more yielding quality of the earth 
 in some spots than in others. These hollow places are filled with a 
 fresh supply of gravel, perhaps once each year, until the whole road- 
 way assumes an unyielding surface, as firm and as smooth as the 
 neighboring rocks. Whilst driving over these magnificent country 
 roads, observing their solidity and comparative cheapness of construc- 
 tion, I have often thought our city street-pavers might learn useful 
 lessons in the art of road building from these unpretentious tillers of 
 the soil. 
 
 Sam'l D. Pace. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Port Sarnia, January 15, 1891. 
 
460 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 QUEBEC. 
 
 JtBPOBT BY CONSUL BTDEE. 
 
 OOTJNTET ROABS. 
 
 The ordinary country roads throughout the Province of Quebec are 
 not on such an improved scale as to invite favorable comparison with 
 any of our most unfrequented roadways in the United States. 
 
 Eoads over which there is travel to any great extent are usually 
 "turnpike," and these have been largely absorbed by a "turnpike 
 trust." The stock was eagerly subscribed to, as the investment was 
 considered a desirable one, but such a heavy debt was contracted at 
 the formation of the monopoly that it has been struggling under the 
 load ever since, and has been unable to pay dividends to any extent. 
 
 These companies have been, in many instances, subsidized by the 
 provincial government to a considerable amount. It was one of the 
 promises of the present administration, made during the recent cam- 
 paign, that, in the event of success at the polls, all turnpike roads and 
 toll bridges should be purchased by the Government and made free. 
 
 An exit can not be made out of this city without passing through one 
 or more toll gates controlled by this trust, where the fee charged varies 
 from 10 to 25 cents per vehicle for each gate. As a general rule these 
 turnpike roads are very good ; they are usually the original roadways 
 made by the Government, which have been acquired by a stock com- 
 pany under charter. 
 
 These roads are built much the same as an ordinary macadamized 
 road, being excavated to the depth of 2 feet, and then filled with large 
 stones for about 18 inches, the crevices being filled with smaller stones, 
 then broken stones about the size of walnuts are used to even the sur- 
 face, and the whole covered with a stone dressing and graded so as to 
 afford sufilcient drainage for all surface water to flow toward the ditches 
 on either side. This is thoroughly rolled with an ordinary horse road- 
 roller, weighing about 4,000 pounds. After properly constructing these 
 roads there is a very small outlay for repairs, as the travel is not of a 
 heavy class of teams, excepting during the harvest season. The cost of 
 building turnpike roads after this plan is about $1.25 per square yard. 
 
 CITY STEEETS. 
 
 The streets in this city are of two distinct classes, and may be styled 
 the " ancient" and the " modern." The former are located in the older 
 portion of the city, called the '-'lower town." These are planked with 
 3-inch pine deals laid lengthwise, and are very narrow, the entire width 
 (both for carriage and foot travel) being from 8 to 12 feet. Where there 
 is a footwalk it is made by placing 3 by 4 pieces, 3 feet long, and cov- 
 ering, with 3-inch pine planks, one side of street only. This style of 
 roadway was decided upon, as there was only surface drainage and 
 
AMERICA — DOMINION OF CANADA. 461 
 
 every refuse -wAs washed to the river over this planking. It is very 
 slippery, and no uncommon sight to see a horse slide on " all fours " for 
 a distance of 25 feet before being able to recover his footing. These 
 pavements are being slowly replaced by stone blocks, and are to be. 
 seen only in the most primitive portions of the city. • 
 
 The upper town is better provided with good roads. The system 
 which has been adopted is open to criticism from a sanitary point of 
 view, and involves much labor and expense. The city engineer has 
 made a special study of the matter of street-paving, and considers 
 this the best adapted to the needs of Quebec, the most durable and 
 also the least expensive. 
 
 The street is excavated to the depth of 2 feet, properly graded and 
 rolled with a horse road-roller ; then a foundation is made of wooden 
 flooring of IJinch boards laid longitudinally and crossed at right angles 
 by a second flooring of inch boards, so as to conform more readily to the 
 required crown of the roadway. These are laid with one-half or three- 
 fourth-inch spaces between, so that should any surface water penetrate 
 it will not remain and freeze, but run through and be absorbed by the 
 subsoil after passing through the layer of sand which is strewn over the 
 flooring to the depth of one-half an inch, which is to prevent the blocks 
 coming in contact with the flooring. This double flooring is the means of 
 distributing the weight of passing loads over an extended area, and also 
 prevents any local settlement of the surface. On the flooring is laid 
 blocks of red tamarack about 12 inches long, as sawn from the log, 
 about 10 to 15 inches in diameter, and placed on end. In the spaces 
 formed around the blocks small pieces of wood are forced, thus filling in 
 and tightening the mass. The interspaces remaining are then filled 
 with a grouting made of sand, cement, and tar, or a mixture of finely- 
 sifted coal ashes and cement. The surface is evenly rolled and covered 
 with sand, which is allowed to remain until every cavity is filled, when 
 the street is swept clean to the blocks. 
 
 These roads are very durable ; pavements laid 35 years ago were re- 
 cently taken up, and the tamarack blocks had not shown any signs of 
 decay, but had worn down to about one-half their original length. The 
 surface was as hard as stone. It is said that there is more resistance 
 to this surface (to traffic) than stone, because stone, under the influence 
 of water and the constant teaming, wears away like a grindstone j the 
 vertical pores of the wooden blocks fill with grit, and the fibers of the 
 wood, like the bristles of a brush, sway to and fro with the trafiic in 
 opposite directions without breaking. 
 
 The blocks are used in their green state, with bark on, which pre- 
 vents the wood from coming in contact with the filling, and the bark 
 lasts for many years. Great precaution is taken to cut down the tree 
 in proper season, after its sap has all been reduced to fiber and before 
 the spring sap begins its ascension through the pores of the wood. 
 
462 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The cost of this block pavement is from $1.50 to $1.75 per square 
 
 yard. 
 
 Fredekiok M. Etdee, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Quebec, Canada, December 22, 1890. 
 
 MEXICO. 
 NORTHERN MEXICO. 
 
 REPORT BY OONSUL-GBNEBAL SUTTON, OF NUETO LAREDO. 
 CITY STREETS OF MONTEREY. 
 
 The only city in this consular district which has paved streets is that 
 of Monterey, the capital of the State of Nnevo Leon. In that city are 
 some 13 miles of stone pavements. This paving is done by the city, 
 and as much of the work is by convict labor it is not possible to give 
 close approximate values of the cost. 
 
 In- the better class of this work the process of making is as follows: 
 The ground being leveled, with a slope to the center of the street, 
 coarse gravel is spread over it, and cobblestones averaging, say, 6 inches 
 in diameter are packed in, and more gravel with mortar packed in 
 around to hold them in place. In the center or on the side is a narrow 
 trench to carry off the water from showers. This is often made by lay- 
 ing a long flat stone underneath, with two others, one on each sid«, on 
 edge, setting up high enough to carry the current. The cobblestones 
 are held in place by setting thin slabs of limestone on edge, and then 
 running at an angle from the center down to the sidewalk. In the cli- 
 mate of Monterey this pavement, when well made, lasts a long time, 
 but from necessity is extremely rough. There is not a paved street in 
 the city of Monterey which is not so rough as to make carriage-riding 
 extremely uncomfortable. Enough of the black soil gets on the stones 
 to make them extremely slippery when wet. 
 
 The sidewalks are usually narrow and set 6 to 8 inches above the 
 level of the street. Limestone slabs are set on edge outside, while the 
 sidewalk itself is made of the same stone laid flat, or small cobble- 
 stones, or of a sort of mortar called here tepachil. The latter is the 
 most durable. It is also much better suited for walking. It is made 
 by preparing a sub-bed of 6 inches of good sized stones with gravel to 
 fill in the interstices ; above this a fine sand is laid on and pounded 
 down, and on this a sort of mortar made of flue saud and lime is spread 
 and pounded down. When this is nearly dry it is hand-rnbbed with a 
 piece of fine-grained stone until it is water proof and quite smooth. 
 
 Most of the houses in Monterey are only one story, and the ground 
 
AMERICA — MEXICO. 463 
 
 floor is made largely of this same tepaehil. I saw recently the floors of 
 one house which were laid of this material more than 30 years ago, had 
 been in use every day, on which no repairs had ever been made, and 
 which are apparently as good as when first made. Water can be freely 
 sprinkled on it, it will hold great weights, and is an admirable floor in 
 all respects, except that it is cold and in damp weather the dampness 
 which rises from it is a fruitful cause of rheumatism and similar dis- 
 eases. 
 
 Sidewalks made of cobblestones have a similar foundation, and the 
 small stones above are mixed and pounded in with mortar. I asted of 
 various persons the cost of sidewalks and floors, and found that the 
 price, always very low, varies from $1 to $3 per square meter, according 
 to the care taken in the work, depth of foundation, etc. In some houses 
 the dirt was removed to the depth of 6 feet, and large stones packed 
 in as closely as possible, and the interstices filled with gravel, and above 
 finely sifted sand. The mortar was more carefully made and pounded 
 and also given more time to dry. There is an abundance of limestone, 
 which splits in good shape for pavements, and labor is so cheap that the 
 prices for the work are very low. I noticed that one of the new smelt- 
 ers has on its main floor this tepachil and that it serves its purpose ad- 
 mirably. 
 
 There is a great need for smooth streets in Monterey, and the lime- 
 stone could be laid in small blocks in its native mortar so as to make 
 excellent streets. This tepachil floor is used in many portions of north- 
 ern Mexico. Formerly, flooring could not be obtained, and now it is so 
 expensive that its use is very much restricted. 
 
 In this city, Nuevo Laredo, all the paving done consists in leveling 
 the streets and spreading gravel on top. The sidewalks here are of 
 brick or flat stones, or tepachil. Each person makes his own sidewalk, 
 and there are no strict rules enforcing uniformity of height, width, or 
 material. Mostly they are very narrow, rough, and only better than 
 the mud or tine dust. 
 
 COUNTRY ROADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The highways of northern Mexico are in a very primitive condition. 
 Owing to the great geographical area and the sparseness of population 
 it has not been possible to expend much money in bridging streams or 
 improving the original condition of the first roads. In the time of the 
 Spanish dominion, considerable was done in making a few main high- 
 ways from one principal city to another. Until within a very few years 
 little attention has been paid by the Mexican authorities to this very 
 important matter. Streams have been forded and bad places in the 
 roads avoided by going different routes. During the last 6 or 8 years 
 the matter has received more attention, and several of the States in 
 Iforthern Mexico have made good beginnings on some roads which were 
 most needed. In this work, however, they have been greatly hampered 
 
464 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 by lack of funds, as all tlie available taxes are usually expended for 
 other purposes. 
 
 The Federal Government has taken measures to bring this subject 
 to the attention of the State authorities, and while very little has been 
 done, comparatively speaking, and the roads as a whole are in a lament- 
 able condition, yet the public and ofilcial mind is fairly awakened to 
 the need of improved roads, and if funds were available the work 
 would be promptly taken in hand. The railways have now reached so 
 many of the principal cities that side roads and roads from mines, ha- 
 ciendas, etc., to railway connections are of special importance. 
 
 Owing to the geographical and financial condition, Mexico has a much 
 more valid excuse for the neglect to improve the highways than has 
 the United States. In the latter, especially in the older States, there 
 has been for many years sufflcient money, but no educated public sen- 
 timent as to the great importance of the work. 
 
 Within the last few years several states in northern Mexico have ap- 
 propriated sums of money to build bridges and repair others and im- 
 prove portions of the highway. Some municipalities have also made a 
 beginning in this direction. So far, it can not be said that any well- 
 considered system has been adopted and continued in this work. 
 
 Waenbb p. Sutton, 
 
 Consul- General. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Nuevo Laredo, February 11, 1891. 
 
 NOGALES. 
 
 REPORT BY OONSVL SMITH. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The materials used for street construction in this place, are the ordi- 
 nary gravel, rock, and dirt, but no special effort is made to put and 
 keep the streets in repair. This system of construction prevails in all 
 the important towns of this consular district, and as there is but little 
 pleasure driving in these towns, there is but little use for better 
 streets. 
 
 COUNTET ROADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The country roads are all natural highways and for the most part 
 are very good, considering that but little work is done on them. There 
 are now and then bridges crossing streams, but generally the streams 
 are small and are forded. The natural roads of this country are quite 
 noted for their excellence, and for the most of the year are smooth and 
 hard. They usually follow the open canons and often in making a 
 journey of 20 miles, one encounters nearly every point of the compassj 
 
AMERICA MEXICO. 465 
 
 or in other words, the roads are tortuous, and frequently one travels 
 4 or 5 miles to make a distance of 2 in an air line. 
 
 Dblos H. Smith, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Nogales, Decemher 2, 1890. 
 
 PASO DEL NORTE. , 
 
 No macadamized or paved streets in this city. They are kept in re- 
 pair by prisoners under the direction of police ofl&cers. 
 No improved public roads in this consular district. 
 But little work of any kind done on them except by volunteer work, 
 as necessity requires, and by prisoners from the city jail. 
 
 A. J, Sampson, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Paso del Norte, December 3, 1890. 
 
 PIEDRAS NEGRAS. 
 
 BBPOIiT BY CONSUL FEOHI^T. 
 
 Within the limits of this consular district, excepting perhaps the 
 city of Parras, there is not a paved street or roadway. In Parras 
 cobblestones were used and at an early date, so that an estimate of 
 cost would be difficult to arrive at. The towns and villages of this dis- 
 trict have simple dirt roads, with a footpath at each side, generally 
 made of pack«d soil. These roads are very dusty or very muddy, ac- 
 cording to prevalence of drought or rain. ' 
 In the country no attempts are made at mad-making, save an occa- 
 sional bit of turnpike and ditch in low, undrained spots. 
 
 Generally it can be stated that, in this consular district, there are no 
 paved streets or maintained country roads, as in the United States, 
 and hence my inability to report anything of value to those desiring 
 information upon the streets and roadways of foreign countries. 
 
 Eugene O. Feoh:i&t, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Piedras Negras, December 23, 1890. 
 33a 30 
 
466 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 SONORA. 
 
 BEPOBTJBY CONSUL WILLABD, OF GUATMAS. 
 
 In this consular district (Sonora) there is but little to report as to the 
 construction of " citij' streets and country roads or highways which is 
 germane to the subject of improved roads." 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The streets of the cities and towns of Sonora can npt be said to be 
 expensive to construct or keep in repairs. The cities and town sites, 
 as a rule, are located on level or comparatively level ground, the 
 soil, according to the locality, being of rock, sand, gravel, and clay. In 
 the four important cities of Sonora (Hermosillo, Guaymas, TJres, and 
 Alamos), whose united population will not exceed 60,000 people, there 
 are but few improved streets, and they will not, in the aggregate, ex- 
 ceed 8 miles. The streets that are improved are paved with cobble- 
 stones, and flat stones laid in sand, and are not fitted or intended for 
 heavy trafQc. As a rule these paved streets are confined around the 
 public squares or parks (generally located in the center of the city) and 
 approaches to the same, suitable for light traffic only; when repairs 
 are needed the city authorities (city council or ayuntamiento) order it 
 done, authorizing the expenditures necessary for the purpose. 
 
 COUNTRY ROADS AND ROADWAYS. 
 
 The highways and roads throughout this consular district can be 
 classified as natural roads, and seldom laid out with engineering skill. 
 The bridlepath or trails made and used when the country was first 
 populated (or old Indian trails) from one small settlement to another 
 became (in the course of time as the population increased and wagons 
 ' were introduced, the trees and undergrowth of bushes were cut away 
 to widen the bridlepaths and trails) roads over which th^ cumbrous 
 ox carts and wagons which were first used could pass. The persons 
 who made most use of the roads, with their wagon trains, made the 
 necessary repairs to keep them transitable. As land was of little 
 value, and most of it (at one time) public land, there was no difficulty 
 or question as to the " right of way." The land not being fenced or in- 
 closed, excepting to small ".xtent near the settlements once established, 
 these bridlepaths and roads became highways for public traie. To day 
 in Sonora these roads between the villages, towns, and cities are kept 
 in repair principally by the owners of freight teams and stages. The 
 country not being fenced, if a portion of the road from excessive rains 
 or other causes becomes- impassable, a road is made around Ihe bad 
 places by cutting away the brush and trees and leveling the ground so 
 that wagons can pass. When streams of water are met (there are no 
 
AMERICA — MEXICO. 4'i7 
 
 large rivers in Sonora) they are forded at the shallow places. In 
 among the valley lands (which are the only lands cultivated) if the 
 land-owner wishes to utilize what has been used as a highway he must 
 provide a roadway for the public around the edge or border of the 
 land, or fence on either side of the road (before used). In some parts 
 of Sonora work has been done ott roads by the authorities of the district 
 calling on the owners of the land to assist in grading or straightening 
 the same. In other parts a road tax is levied on the landed proprietor 
 and is paid, either in money or work, for a few repairs indispensably 
 necessary. There are no macadamized roads or toll roads, or bridges 
 over which tolls are charged, in Sonora. There are bridges, but there 
 are none over one span, and these principally over irrigating ditches, 
 the said bridges erected by the owners of the ditches. 
 
 As this consular district is but sparsely populated, and the roads over 
 which the freight wagons and stages travel not being in mountainous 
 districts, no especial road laws are carried out systematically by the 
 State government. 
 
 A. WiLLARD, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Oonstjlatb, 
 
 Guaymas, December 1, 1890. 
 
 TAMPICO. 
 
 RSPOMT BY aONSVL LIEBEBKNEOKT. 
 
 There is not a street in this city fit for a carriage to drive over. The 
 streets are all paved with small cobblestones and set not over 6 inches 
 in the ground, without any kind of a foundation. 
 
 There are no country roads whatever in this section of country, nor 
 wagons or carriages. Everything is carried on horse or mule back, 
 and by water in canals; 
 
 Trails take the place of roads here. 
 
 A, LlEBBEKNEOHT, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Tampico, March 16, 1891. 
 
 TUXPAN. 
 
 The streets of this port are such crude affairs, being rocks of all 
 shapes and sizes simply laid in e9.rth, having no uniformity as to level, 
 and being left entirely to the property owner who is obligated to clean 
 and repair not only the sidewalks' but to the center of the street, 
 public roadways are not more than paths which, owing to the entire 
 
468 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 traffic being done by pack mules and Indian porters, are only kept 
 open by the people living on same who are required by law to work 3 
 days every year cleaning out weeds and overhanging boughs. 
 
 These roads are never graded, and no vehicle could or ever has 
 passed over them ; in fact, during the rainy season they are almost im- 
 passable by man or beast. 
 
 John Deatton, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 TuxPAN, December 6, 1S90. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 NICARAGUA. 
 
 BEPOJIT BY CONSVL NEWELL, OF MANAOXTA. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 After thorough inquiry and careful investigation I have to report that 
 the streets and roadways of Nicaragua are of the most primitive char- 
 acter. 
 
 The streets show that very little labor has been expended upon them. 
 The nature of the earth forming the streets is such — volcanic forma- 
 tion — that it makes a good hard street without the necessity of artificial 
 means being used to improve it. So hard and firm is this earth that, 
 notwithstanding the long rainy season of the country, it does not form 
 into mud ; the wa^er flows over it as if it were asphalt or macadam- 
 ized. 
 
 Tlie streets of nearly all the cities of Nicaragua are laid out and 
 made in the same way. They all have the peculiarity of running for a 
 short distance on a perfect le\'el, then rapidly rising by a steep incline 
 to a second level, and so on. This steep incline is paved with cobble 
 stones or broken pieces of rock, so as to enable teams and horsemen to 
 ascend or descend without danger. 
 
 In the city of Leon an attempt, in a small way, has been made to pave 
 some of the streets. Cobble stones, and square blocks of stones, some- 
 what similar to Belgian blocks, have been used, but the distance paved 
 would not exceed the length, on any one street, of 500 feet. 
 
 So little expense attends the building or maintenance of the streets 
 of Nicaragua that it is almost reduced to a cipher. 
 
 COUNTRY ROADS. 
 
 The country roads are made by cutting down the trees and the small 
 undergrowth, and removing from the way of the proposed road the large 
 rocks. Outside of this manner there is no other adopted in this coua- 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 469 
 
 try. The cost of bfiilding roadways in Nicaragua it is impossible to 
 arrive at, as there is no data kept of these matters. 
 
 William Kewbll 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Managua, March 5, 1891. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 BAHIA. 
 
 BEPOBT BY OONSVL BUBKE. 
 COUNTRY KOADS. 
 
 There are no country roads, and but very little can be said of " city 
 streets." 
 
 Communication between towns where there are no railways to the 
 interior is by water in small boats or canoes, or by bridle paths on don- 
 keys, mules, or horseback. To go in a carriage of any description 6, 
 10, 20, 40, or any number of miles, few or many, into the interior, is 
 a thing unheard of and unknown ; and this for two very good reasons, 
 viz: First, there are no roads for a carriage, and in the second place 
 there are no carriages, excepting those owned by livery-stable proprie- 
 tors, and these are rarely used except for funerals, weddings, and bap- 
 tisms. 
 
 In this city of 200,000 inhabitants, perhaps, there are not over five 
 families that have their own turnout. All the merchandise sent from 
 this city to the interior of the State must be taken to some seaport in 
 small craft and then sent by rail, by river, by donkey, mule, or horse to 
 its destination. Very little is sent by rail, as the number of miles of 
 railway in this State and Sergipe is very limited, so that nearly all the 
 merchandise imported, as well as the exported, products must be taken 
 by water up or down the river, and by donkey or mule, simply because 
 there are no roads. 
 
 From the city of Bahia to the southwestern part of the State it re- 
 quires at least 30 days to make the journey. The journey by rail is 450 
 kilometres,* thence by horse or muleback to the San Francisco Eiver, 
 up the river in a small boat, then again by mule, donkey, or horseback 
 till the town in the interior is reached. 
 
 Some idea of the difficulties and vexatious delays in traveling in this 
 country may be obtained when it is known that to cover a distance some 
 
 ' 1 kilometre = 0.62135 of a mile. 
 
470 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 200 miles less than from New York to Chicago (^4 hours), it takes 30 
 days iu this district — days of discomfort not only in the actual travel- 
 ing, but also in the eating, drinking, and sleeping. The people are very 
 hospitable, so it is not from this cause the discomfort in traveling 
 arises. It is simply because actual comfort in going from town to town, 
 such as one finds in the States, has never existed here; consequently 
 neither- the country nor the people can give what it has not. When one 
 leaves the rail or the boat he simply mounts his horse, mule, or donkey, 
 having provided a guide if not familiar with the country, and follows the 
 trail, for it is nothing more, till he reaches his destination. 
 
 Women who find it necessary to travel must adapt themselves to the 
 same conditions as the men. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 Of the streets of the city of Bahia, I can say that in general the 
 pavement is very bad and very rough. 
 
 The principal street in the lower and in the upper town is the best ' 
 paved in the city. Nearly all the other streets, with a very, very few 
 exceptions, are wretchedly paved and very badly kept. 
 
 About 20 years ago the principal street in the lower and upper city 
 was paved with stone, brought from Eio de Janeiro. It is, I should say, 
 the ordinary paving stone consisting of blocks from 8 to 12 inches in 
 length, from 3 to 6 wide, and from 4 to 6 deep. There was no attempt 
 at system in paving the other city streets evidently, as all sorts and all 
 sizes of stone are seen. One street called Ladeira da Barra was mac- 
 adamized recently, and a sidewalk of the same kind made and covered 
 with Portland cement, to give it a smooth surface. There is very little 
 teaming done in the city. Nearly all the merchandise in the lower city, 
 is moved on the heads of negroes, or on a four-wheeled vehicle, small 
 wheels, all of the same size. These wagons, if such they may be called, 
 are chiefly employed in removing merchandise from the custom-house 
 to the different stores or import houses. This wagon is drawn by negroes. 
 There is also in use a two-wheeled cart, called a carroca, drawn by a 
 mule, upon which may be placed 4 or 6 barrels of flour or its equivalent 
 in weight of some other article or product. This little four-wheeled 
 wagon and the carroca constitute the entire wagon traffic of the city, 
 so that a street well paved will last here for years without repair. 
 Whenever heretofore any street required paving the work was done 
 under contract from the municipal government. Eepairs whenever 
 made were under police authority, but now a company has been formed 
 under the name of "Companhia de Calceteiros," or paving company. 
 This company has received from the municipal government instructions 
 as to what shall be done in the line of paving the streets, where it shall 
 be done, what new streets shall be laid out, which ones shall be repaired, 
 prices paid for work, etc. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 471 
 
 The wages established by the day, a day of 10 hours, are as follows : 
 
 Milreis.* 
 
 Superintenrlent 3 
 
 Assistant 2J 
 
 Foreman 2 
 
 First-class pavers 2 
 
 Second-class pavers : If 
 
 Third-class pavers 1| 
 
 Attendants H 
 
 Payment to employes must be made weetly. If auy work should be 
 done under contract by this company the prices fixed are from 400 r6is 
 (21.8 cents) to 1,800 reis (98.3 cents) per square metre, depending upon 
 the size of the stone laid. If flagstones are laid for walks the price is 16 
 milreis per cubic meter. If the walk is of brick, the price is 22 milreis 
 per cubic metre. The price of the material depends on whether it is 
 imporor or not, it also depends upon where material is obtained; the 
 diflSculty and expense in getting it, the quality of the stone employed 
 in construction, and other things that have a tendency to raise or re- 
 duce the price. 
 
 Eent is naturally higher on the best streets of the city, where, as a 
 rule, the houses are in a much better condition than in the poorer city 
 streets. 
 
 David K Burke, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Bdhia, January 2Q, 1891. 
 
 PORTO ALEGRO.t 
 
 The street superintendent to the president of the municipal council, translated and trans- 
 mitted iy Consul Negley, of Rio Ch'ande do Sul. 
 
 In obedience to the official order of the 29th of January last, No. 22, hy which I am 
 directed to answer the questions asked by the citizen consul of the United States of 
 North America, I answer as to the first question, What material is used in the con- 
 struction Of the streets ? In order to give a, satisfactory answer to this question it 
 should be borne in mind that the city is built upon an eminence, which is divided 
 into three sections, a high' section in the center, a low section to the north, and a low 
 section to the south. In the high section the material employed is a mixture of two- 
 thirds sand and one-third clay for the construction of the bed, because the ground is 
 . gravelly and in part rocky, and on this bed are placed granite stones of irregular 
 sizes, from 15 to 20 centimetres in width and from 10 to 15 centimetres in depth, 
 placed well together one against the other and covered with a light layer of sand, in 
 order to fill up the small crevices occurring in the laying of the stones. As to the low 
 part of the city in the north, where the ground is composed of a filling of soil, the 
 work is the same, with the difference that in place of one-third clay for the construo- 
 
 *1 milreis = 54.5 cents. 
 
 t Porto Alegro, a city of 50,000 inhabitants, situated In the northern part of the 
 Stale of Eio Grande do Sul. 
 
472 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 tiou of the bed, it is entirely of sand. In the southern section, where the ground is 
 sandy, the stones are merely laid down in the same way as if the bed had been artifi- - 
 cially prepared, except that in the clayey places the same method of laying the 
 stones is followed as in the higher sections. 
 
 As to the second question, What does the material cost ? Stone, Es. 4^000 ($1.60, ex- 
 change at 40 cents to the milreis) per cubic metre ; clay Rs. .640 (25 cents) per cubic 
 metre ; manual labor 1$100 (44 cents) per square metre ; amounting to Rs. 1$600 (64 
 cents) per square metre for material and labor. 
 
 As to the third question. In what manner are the streets made ? This is answered by 
 the response to the first question, adding, however, that the new streets are made 
 17.60 metres in width. 
 
 As to the fourth question, Is there any difference between streets for light traffic and 
 for heavy traffic ? None, absolutely. There is, however, the inconvenience that the 
 streets for heavy traffic are soon worn out, when they are immediately reconstructed 
 de novo, always by the same system. 
 
 As to the fifth question. What is the depth and on what foundation are the streets 
 made ? In the high part of the city where the ground is gravelly or rocky, 30 centi- 
 metres, and in the low section on the north side, 50 centimetres depth of sand, and in 
 the low section on the south side from 15 to 20 centimetres in depth. 
 
 As to the sixth question, it is answered in the second. 
 
 As to the seventh question. What is the cost of repairing the streets ? Never less 
 than 1 milreis (40 cents) per square metre, by contract. 
 
 As to the eighth question, Is any assessment imposed upon the adjoining property to 
 make or to repair the streets ? None for the municipal coffers, but the State treasury 
 collects a tax of 10 per cent, on the assessed value of the property, not returning any- 
 thing to the municipal coffers. 
 
 Here is the information that I have been directed to give to you. 
 Health and fraternity, 
 
 The General Superintendent. 
 
 Porto Alegro, February 13, 1891. 
 
 RIO GRANDE DO SUL. 
 REPORT BY CONSUL NBOLET. 
 
 In response to the "street and roadway" circularlately received from 
 the Department. I beg to transmit herewith a report by the city engi- 
 neer of Pelotas in answer to some questions submitted by me to him on 
 this subject. His answers will cover the ground for the cities of Eio 
 Grande do Sal and Porto Alegre as well as for Pelotas, as the streets in 
 these, the three principal cities of this State, are all made in substan- 
 tially the same way and at no great difference in cost. The streets of 
 Pelotas are perhaps the best of the three, and are indeed better than in 
 a majority of the cities of the same size in the United States. I speak 
 of the paved streets. As for highways there is so little attempt at 
 improvement it is not worth while to mention them. 
 
 Charles Negley, 
 
 C<ynsul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Bio Grande do 8ul, February 4, 1891. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 473 
 
 THE STREETS OF PELOTAS. 
 [Inclosxire in Consul Nogloy's report. — Translation.] 
 
 Department op the Public Works of the City of Pelotas, 
 
 January 24, 1891. 
 
 In response to the questions formulated in the request of citizen consul of the 
 United States resilient in the city of Rio Grande, I have the honor of presenting the 
 following points : 
 
 (1) "What material is used in the construction of your streets ?— Answer. As to the 
 first question I answer granite, vegetable earth, and sand. 
 
 (2) What does the material cost? — Answer. As the second question, 15 kilos of 
 stone cost 65 reis (.02^ cent), 15 kilos of sand cost 20 reis (.008 cent) and 15 kilos of 
 vegetable earth cost 15 reis (.006 cent), (Exchange at 40 cents to the milreis). 
 
 (3) In what manner are the streets constructed ? — Answer. As to the third question, 
 by filling in earth or by paving. 
 
 (4) Is there any diiference between streets paved for light traffic and for heavy 
 traffic ? If so, what ? — Answey. As to the fourth question there is no difference ; tbey 
 are always made so as to give the resistance necessary for the pressure exerted by 
 vehicles for the transportation of freight. 
 
 (5) What is the depth and on what foundation are the streets made ? — Answer. As 
 to the fifth, the foundation is of plastic clay, impermeable, merely covered by one 
 light layer of vegetable earth, which varies from 20 centimetres to 50 centimetres at 
 the greatest. As to the method of proceeding : If it is only for filling in earth, there 
 is a mixture made of sand, vegetable earth, rubbish, and clay and given a convex 
 form, placing on the sides stone gutters or drains for carrying off the waters ; if for 
 paving an excavation is made of 50 or 60 centimetres, if such sliould be necessary, 
 and filled with vegetable earth well packed to 30 centimetres, and on the top of that > 
 a layer of sand as a foundation for the stones ; when the foundation is of clay, on the 
 other hand, there is placed sand and stone, rough hewn, of the following dimensions, 
 0.08 centimetre on the upper face and 0.12 centimetre in depth at the middle when 
 the stones are irregular. 
 
 (6) What does it cost to make the streets, per square metre in the first place ? — 
 Answer. As-to the sixth this is very variable, because in some streets there is a neces- 
 sity to fill up more or less, and in others to excivate more or less. It has been the 
 rule to pay for a cubic metre of filling or excavation 450 reis (18 cents) and as much 
 more for transportation. As for the cost of pavement the price at present for a 
 square metre is 1.750 milreis (70 cents), ready for use. ** 
 
 (7) What does it cost to keep the streets in repair ? — Answer. As to the seventh, 
 the cost of repairing the paved streets amounts on the average to 3,500 milreis ($1,400). 
 
 (8) Is there any assessment imposed, upon the adjoining property either to make or 
 repair the streets? — Answer. As to the eighth, yes. The owner of adjoining property 
 is obliged to furnish the stone necessary for the pavement in front of his property as 
 far as the middle of the street ; so also he is obliged to make or cause to be made at 
 his own expense the sidewalk along the boundary of his property of the height and 
 width designated by the city council, and if it should happen that he refuses or 
 neglects to furnish the stone necessary he will be punished by a fine of 1.600 milreis 
 (64 cents) for each square metre of pavement in front of his property, which amount 
 will be applied to the benefit of said pavement. 
 
 Health and fraternity, 
 
 KOMQALDO DE AjBREU E SiLVA. 
 
 Engineer. 
 
474 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COtJNTEIES. 
 
 COLOMBIA. 
 
 BARRANQUILLA. 
 
 There are no roadways in this consular district. Aside from river 
 and railway transportation every-thing is carried upon the backs of 
 mules. 
 
 The streets of the cities are entirely unimproved. From this view of 
 the subject in this consular district there is nothing upon which a report 
 can be based as requested in said circular. 
 
 Johnson Nickeus, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Barranquilla, February 23, 1891. 
 
 DUTCH GUIANA. 
 
 EEPORT Of OOXSUL VTlfBITAM. 
 
 The roads in this town are not made, but are the existing shell reef, 
 on either side of which the streets are constructed by houses being built, 
 and these roadways are only repaired by occasionally dumping extra 
 shells where the road is worn away too much. 
 
 The buildings on the roadside are not allowed to encroach on the 
 roads, which have to be kept open a certain fixed breadth. 
 
 In the districts no roads exist, communication being only by boat on 
 the rivers that intersect the colony and by creeks joining the rivers. 
 
 I fear it would be impossible to give any points on road-making from 
 this very primitive colony that would interest the mayor of Boston. 
 
 Wm. Wyndham, 
 
 Gmisul, 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Paramaribo, December 22, 1890. 
 
 VENEZUELA. 
 
 REPORTS BT COKSTJL BIRD, OF LA GUATRA. 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 It is assumed from some personal knowledge and from general infor- 
 mation that the streets of La Guayra and of Caracas, the capital of 
 Venezuela, are the best in the Republic. Most of these, except in the 
 center of the latter city, are very narrow, so much so that they barely 
 afford passage way for two coaches abreast. They are thus built in 
 order to avoid, in some measure, the tropical heat and glare of the 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 475 
 
 midday sun, and the overhanging balconies of the upper stories of the 
 houses also contribute to the same effect. Besides, it appears that the 
 currents of fresh air forced through these narrow streets and alleys are 
 much stronger than the feeble breezes that stir through the wider 
 thoroughfares. 
 
 In the matter of street paving the Venezuelans have adopted and 
 still maintain the methods of their ancestors, the Spaniards, who set- 
 tled the country over 300 years ago, and it may be added that these 
 methods have undergone no change, as is observed from much of the 
 6ld Spanish work still in existence on deserted roads and streets. It is 
 true that some asphalt block pavement has been recently put down in 
 front of the executive mansion in Caracas that presents a pleasing con- 
 trast to the old style of pavement, but the improvement seems to have 
 been confined to that particular locality, and there is no prospect of its 
 further extension, and it should be stated that the exorbitant freight 
 rates of the railway from La Guayra to Caracas, precludes the idea of 
 importing paving material. ITothing especially suitable for the purpose 
 is found? in the environs of Caracas, and, therefore, such poor mate- 
 rial as can be obtained must be made use of. There is an abundance 
 of good brick clay near by, but no facilities for vitrifying the brick, as 
 is practiced in the United States, and hence this material is unavail- 
 able. 
 
 The street, after being carefully graded, is laid out in long parallel 
 lines, 3 feet apart, into which cobblestones set on edge are planted. 
 Cross lines of stone are then set up at intervals of 3 feet, so that the 
 entire street is laid out in 3-feet squares. These squares are then filled 
 up with diagonal lines of cobblestone set on edge, and, when carefully 
 executed, the paving presents a rather pleasing effect. The plan thus 
 explained is illustrated as follows : 
 
 After this paving is completed the entire work is covered with a 
 heavy coating of sharp sand that fills the interstices of the stones and 
 makes the pavement more solid. 
 
 Owing, it is presumed to faulty preparation of the subsoil, to the 
 poor quality of stone used and to the careless manner in which it is set 
 up, this pavement can not resist the rolling and pounding of heavy 
 trafSc, and, therefore, the business streets of the city are being con- 
 stantly repaired. 
 
476 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNffRIES. 
 
 COTJNTBY EOADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The northern limit of Venezuela, traversed from east to west by the 
 Cordilleras and Parima mountain ranges, is very rugged and broken 
 for a distance of 70 miles south of the Caribbean seacoast, and hence 
 .the construction of highways over stupendous precipices, through 
 almost impassable gorges, and around lofty mountain summits is a 
 work that requires engineering skill and considerable outlay of capital. 
 These prerequisites have never been contributed by the Government of 
 Venezuela ; for, if we may except the short coach road from La Guayra 
 to Caracas and the few roads from Caracas to the outlying towns and 
 villages near by, there are no roads in this part of the country that can 
 be properly designated as such. Even the best of them are mere dirt 
 roads kept up in a primitive way ; and if, as in the United States, a 
 prolonged rainy season should occur, they would soon become impass- 
 able. The rfiad from La Guayra to Caracas above alluded to, although 
 well laid out over great natural obstructions, is very badly kept, and 
 transit over it becomes, at times, difficult and dangerous. The roads, 
 so called,- south of Caracas, leading into the interior of the country, are, 
 generally speaking, miserable bridle paths, over which long trains of 
 donkeys transport produce to and merchandise from the city of Cara- 
 cas. Indeed it may be confidently stated that there is not a 5-mile 
 stretch of third-grade roadway in this consular district. 
 
 The old Spanish road from La Guayra to Caracas, about 12 miles in 
 length, now long abandoned, is a curious and interesting relic of the 
 old colonial times, and suggests the idea that perhaps the aborigines - 
 of this country had in the Spaniards quite as severe taskmasters as 
 those that weighed the straw and taled the brick for the patient and 
 oppressed Hebrew. All of this wide highway, except some short 
 stretches of level land on the mountain top and along its side, has been 
 well paved in the style now used in the city of Caracas, and much of it, 
 so well and carefully done, is still in a good state. The scenery along 
 the line of this old way is exceptionally fine, and the Spanish cavalier 
 upon arriving at the top of the mountain, and viewing the beautiful 
 valley and city of Caracas at his feet, must have felt quite as contented 
 as the famous Hebrew that gazed westward across the Jordan upon the 
 country reserved for his people. 
 
 From the foregoing statement it must appear that none but the most 
 primitive methods are employed in making and maintaining public 
 roads. All the details of the work are of the simplest kind, and the ex- 
 ecution by common laborers poorly paid is very inexpensive. The 
 opening and improving of public roads and highways is under the direc- 
 tion of the General Government, but new roads are rarely or never 
 thought of, and others are only improved when they become impassable. 
 Such a system, it may well be imagined, contributes little or nothing 
 to the value of lands contiguous to these roads and constitutes a serious 
 
BRITISH WEST INDIES. 477 
 
 barrier to profitable commerce between. Caracas and the interior 
 country. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 La Ouayra, December 10, 1890, 
 
 WrNPIELD S. BlED, 
 
 Consul, 
 
 BRITISH WEST INDIES. 
 
 ANTIGUA, 
 
 BSPOBT BY OONSVL BBADFOBD. 
 
 There are at present, in Antigua, about 10 miles of streets and 140 
 of roadways, kept in thorough repair at an annual cost of about 
 $15,000, besides which there is an annual grant of $1,200 for mason 
 work and repairs to bridges. Construction and maintenance are both 
 carried on under the provisions of the road act of 1880,* which is 
 very comprehensive, and has, I am given to understand, worked to the 
 satisfaction of both the citizens and the government. 
 
 Under the act the highways are divided into five classes : Class i 
 embraces the 10 miles of streets ; Classes it, hi, iv, and v are all 
 country and suburban roads. The division was made (1) with reference 
 to greater or less dififlculty, in places, or obtaining suitable stone ; (2) 
 to the amount of traffic likely to pass over a road ; and (3) to the greater 
 or less liablity to drainage by heavy rains. It has been found to sim- 
 plify very much the system of construction and repair, and has worked 
 well during the past 10 years. 
 
 Convict labor is permitted, within a radius of 1 mile from St. John's, 
 on six of the most frequented roads and on that leading to the naval 
 station at English Harbor. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 Construction. — The streets of St. John's are constructed and kept in 
 repair by the superintendent of public works and the cost defrayed 
 out of the ordinary taxes, as in our own cities. The method of con- 
 struction is as follows : 
 
 The surface earth is carefully excavated to a depth of at least 12 
 inches and leveled. This street bed is then covered with 4 inches of 
 "grift or similar durable material, and with this layer the contour 
 of the road way is formed, as to the height of the crown of the street 
 and its slope and level. In this material no ^tone over IJ inches in di- 
 ameter is permitted. Over the grit an even stratum of broken stone 
 is laid to a depth of 8 inches. This is called '' metaling." The whole 
 is then covered with grit and sand, as a binding material, spread 
 
 • Legislative council, Leward Isles, No. 7, July, 1880, 
 t Stone broken or mashed very fine. 
 
478 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 to a depth of three-quarters of an inch. A curb, "composed of stone 
 blocks 10 by 14 inches in diameter and 8 inches thick, strongly cemented 
 together, separates this roadway from the sidewalk, and at its base a 
 wide gutter is formed. The curb is composed of the stone found on 
 the island — usually crystalline limestone — and the gutter is either of 
 the same stone, of brick, or of large square tiles. 
 The sidewalks of the city streets were intended to be of a width of 
 
 8 feet, but the citizens have in so many instances encroached upon 
 them by verandas, flights of steps, etc., that it may be said there are 
 no sidewalks in St. Jobn's. Some buildings project so far as to leave 
 barely 2 feet width between the curb and the front of the houses. It 
 is understood, however, that this will be corrected. What sidewalks 
 there are are not paved, -except in a few instances under the porticos 
 of prominent business houses where stone flags are laid. Drain pipes, 
 12 inches in diameter, and culverts are laid throughout the city, so 
 that the streets are rarely flooded, even in the heaviest rains. 
 
 The height of the crown of the causeway varies according to the 
 profile of the surface, in some streets being about 6 inches above the 
 gutter level and in others a foot, or even more. 
 
 When the construction of a street has been thus completed it requires 
 at first little attention beyond the smoothing down of wheel tracks and 
 the filling up, with broken stone, of rats or hollows caused by vehicles 
 constantly following each other in one track. This filling up is contin^ 
 ued until the roadway has become thoroughly consolidated, and it 
 must be remembered that this desirable consummation can be obtained 
 only through the travel over the street and this constant supervisioii, 
 for there are no steam-rollers and no hand-rollers of sufficient size in 
 the islands ; but once the roadway is finally completed its endurance 
 is very great. It will need absolutely no repairs for a very long time 
 and then but slight ones. 
 
 Such streets as I have just described can be constructed here for only 
 
 9 cents a square yard, and kept in repair with the insignificant outlay 
 of from $100 to $150 a linear mile. They are solid and firm — never 
 dusty in dry weather or muddy in wet — and are, except where out of 
 repair, so easy to the pedestrian that the reason for the neglect of the 
 sidewalks is at once apparent. 
 
 Repairs. — The maintenance of the street-ways in St. John's is part of 
 the duty of the superintendent of public works, who likewise designs, 
 constructs, and repairs all bridges, culverts, etc. Eepairs are made by 
 day labor, and consist of filling up holes, ruts, or other defective places 
 in the " macadam." This is done toy first breaking up the surface to a 
 sufficient depth over and for some distance around the site of the de- 
 fect, then removing this old surface and spreading over the place thus 
 uncovered a layer of broken stone, averaging about 2 inches in 
 diameter. This, again, is covered with coarse sand and grit as a bind^ 
 ing layer, and the street is thrown open to traflic. Where repairs are 
 
BRITISH WEST INDIES. 479. 
 
 required throughout the whole width of a street the metaling with 
 hard stone is done only in the middle — say to a distance of about 6 
 feet on each side of the crown — while at the sides and up to the edge 
 of the gutter only light material, broken up fine, is used, and for this 
 purpose the com.mon "mud stone" of the island is most in vogue, 
 covered with a thick layer of sand and grit. The reason of this is ob- 
 vious, the trafBc in the middle of the street being ten times as great 
 as that at the sides, which last is almost altogether pedestrian. 
 
 Where narrow streets or alleys are to be repaired it is usual to matel 
 them from gutter to gutter. 
 
 The street in front of this consulate has just been repaired in this 
 manner, and, although completed only a week ago, is now in excellent 
 condition for travel of all sorts. 
 
 The cost of these repairs is about from $100 to $150 per mile an- 
 nually. Taking it at the larger cost, it amounts to a little less than 3 
 cents per square yard. 
 
 COUNTEY ROADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 As mentioned in the introduction to this report, these roads are also 
 macadamized, with a few exceptions. The stones used in metaling 
 are such as are found in the vicinity of the road being constructed, and 
 are chiefly hard crystalline limestone, flint, and obsidian, to which may 
 be added, for volcanic districts, trap rock. The stone for the roadbed 
 is broken up very flue and mixed with grit. Flint, obsidian, or lime- 
 stone is broken to a size that will pass through a 2inch ring, but vol- 
 canic rock is crushed still smaller, say about an inch and a quarter. 
 
 Construction. — In construction the first thing after the location and 
 leveling- of the proposed road by the surveyor is to pare off all of the 
 surface mold. Then the roadbed must be made of mashed stone and 
 grit (or like enduring material), taking especial care to see that no stone 
 larger than 2 inches in diameter is found in this layer. The shape of 
 the road from crown to side trench (ditch) is formed with this layer of 
 grit and stone. Natural hollows, where not too large, are also filled 
 up with it to the required level of the road. After this is completed 
 the road is " metaled " to an uniform depth of at least 6 inches, and 
 this final stratum of stone is covered half an inch or more with grit 
 and, occasionally, sand and gravel as a binder. Side trenches or ditches 
 are dug, and, in particular cases, where heavy washings from the win- 
 ter rains may be anticipated, these ditches are faced with masonry. 
 The cost of the mason work is, however, as before mentioned, defrayed 
 from the special fund of $1,200 per annum allowed for masonry and 
 bridge repairs. The building of the walls, culverts, bridges, etc., is 
 done by the government and is not charged to the road fund. 
 
 Thus built, these roads cost, exclusive of bridges, etc., $1,260 to 
 $1,270 per linear mile. 
 
 The stone for the foundation and metaling can be carted from a 
 
480 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 reasonable distance, say from one-half to three-fonrths of a mile, broken 
 up and spread upon the road at a cost of from 8 cents to 12 cents a 
 barrel for limestone, and for from 12 to 16 cents for flints and harder 
 kinds of rock. These latter, especially volcanic stones, require to be 
 broken to a smaller size than the limestone, say IJ Inches in diameter 
 at most. The barrel used in measuring the broken stone is an ord- 
 inary flour barrel, without top or bottom, and contains about 4 bush- 
 els of stones or 5 cubic feet. 
 
 It is proposed now to use in future construction or repairs the petri- 
 fied mud, which is here called " mud stone," as a binding material for 
 roads where there is much traffic, and this proposition is meeting with 
 much favor, especially in localities where flints are used in metaling, and 
 will, in all probability, be adopted. The advantages of the mud stone 
 are that it forms with the hard stones a more even surface, being not 
 easily ground or pushed out from between the flints, and that it takes 
 less watching when newly laid, soon settling down with the hard 
 stones of the road into a smooth, compact, and consolidated mass. 
 
 Bepairs. — These are made by the government, except where the 
 roads pass through an estate or between two estates. In the latter 
 cases, by the road act of 1880, the repairs must be made by the pro- 
 prietor or occupant of the estate (see sec. 5 of the act) or abutting 
 estates, and for such repairs the government, on proper representa- 
 tion, remunerates the proprietor or occupant according to the schedule 
 of rates given below. 
 
 Should any proprietor or occupant neglect to repair the road where 
 it passes through his estate he is first notified officially and in'writing 
 of such neglect, and should he, after the formal service of such notice, 
 allow 10 legal days to pass without commencing such repairs, they 
 shall at once be effected by the superintendent of public worts, and 
 the cost, together with a fine of 40 shillings or $9.73, shall be charged 
 to the estate. This cost and fine are recoverable before a discrict magis- 
 trate like any other simple debt. Where the road is greatly damaged, 
 as by freshets or heavy rains, the proprietor is allowed 21 days to 
 complete the repairs, but he must, in the mean time, make it passa- 
 ble for vehicles. 
 
 Schedule of rates at which payments are made for repairs on country roads. 
 
 Class. 
 
 n. 
 m. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Bepairs. 
 
 Allotment per mile. 
 
 First 4 years 
 
 After4years 
 
 First 6 years 
 
 AfterCyears 
 
 First 8 years 
 
 After 8 years 
 
 No longevity allowance.. 
 
 Annnal 
 amount. 
 
 $121. 00 
 170. 31 
 77.86 
 97.33 
 68.40 
 67.07 
 29. 20, 
 
 • This is Class II of the general classification of the streets and roads of the island ; 
 and so with the other three. Class I, in the geaeral arrangement or division is 
 formed by city streets. 
 
BKITISH WEST INDIES. 481 
 
 There was formerly an extra allowance for metaling, but that repair 
 is now done by the superintendent of public works. It must be re- 
 marked, in this connection, that the roads under repair are rarely if 
 ever metaled to any considerable length unless there is great damage 
 by floods. As a rule all the repairs required besides trenching are the 
 filling" up of ruts and hollows as they appear. If proper attention is 
 paid to this the roads will rarely require extensive metaling. In re- 
 pairing precisely the same method of procedure is followed as in the 
 repairs of streets (see pp. 4-5), with the single exception that there is 
 not so much excavation, nor is it at all necessary. Euts or holes are 
 simply filled up with broken stone of from 1^ to 2 inches in diameter, 
 and a binder spread over all. In cases of severe washing it is usual to 
 take counsel as to the proper repairs with the superintendent of public 
 works. 
 
 General Eemarks on Roadways. — It is to be remembered in con- 
 sidering the depth of excavation and the material used in these mac- 
 adamized roads that the traffic over them is what would be generally 
 recognized as light, tbe heaviest weights which ordinarily pass over them 
 being " estate carts," drawn by two or four mules and loaded each with 
 1 or 2 hogsheads of sugar weighing a ton apiece. Yet heavy boilers 
 weighing from 8 to 10 tons and steam plows are occasionally carted 
 over them without doing any damage, especially if the roads are dry 
 and unwashed, 
 
 In considering also (2) the question of the low rate of cost in making 
 and maintaining these roads as compared with the cost of properly 
 macadamized roads in the United States it must be remembered that 
 the wages of the laborers in the Leeward Islands averages from 20 to 
 28 cents a day, as opposed to $1.50 with us. As an offset to this, how- 
 ever, the laborers in the West Indies do but a small day's work as com- 
 pared with that accomplished by a laborer in our own streets and high 
 ways, a fact which renders the contrast less striking. It may be safely 
 estimated that a day's labor in these islands is equal to about half a 
 day's labor in the temperate zone, so that taking into the account the 
 difference in cost of living, the actual wages of labor in making and 
 maintaining the road in the tropics would be about one-third of what 
 it should be in the United States or Canada. 
 
 GENERAL EFFECT OF IMPBOVED HIGHWAYS. 
 
 That easy and quick transportation of land products from the place 
 of production to the port of shipment reduces the cost of said products 
 delivered at the port goes without saying. What the actual amount of 
 saving in money values is I do not know and have no means of learn- 
 ing. The planters keep no record of such saving. The simple fact, 
 however, that whereas sugar in former years (previous to the adoption 
 of the act of 1880), was worth, delivered for shipment, $45 a hogshead 
 and is now delivered at $40 speaks for itself. Nor can the whole of 
 33a 31 
 
482 STREETS AVD HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 this reduction, nor even a large part of it, be traced to the abolition of 
 the export daty, which was only 97 cents a hogshead. That duty was 
 only abolished in 1888; and, besides, the sugar planters assert that 
 they never received any benefit whatever from the abolition of the duty, 
 the amount of the reduction having been absorbed by the " middle- 
 men." And it does not require a profound mathmetician to determine 
 the result in reduction of price arising from quick and easy transporta- 
 tion to market as compared with the loss of time and labor and the in- 
 jury to the stock and vehicles by bad, miry, and broken roads. 
 
 In conclusion I would say that, notwithstanding their small relative 
 cost, I have never seen better roads than those in this island, and sel- 
 dom as good. They are smooth and even; and although I write in the 
 middle of the rainy season, I have never seen enough mud on them to 
 impede in the slightest degree traffic either light or heavy. The lightest 
 and most delicately made sulkies and road wagons travel over them daily 
 without the slightest injury ; and (which is of greater importance to the 
 commerce of the island) the time occupied in transportation of sugar 
 and molasses during the rainy season to the port of shipment is dimin- 
 ished by at least one-half. 
 
 John S. Beadfoed, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Antigua, January 14, 1891. 
 
 REOAPITDLATION. 
 
 Miles of streets (approximate).. 10 
 
 Miles of roads 140 
 
 Annual cost of construction of streets : 
 
 Per linear mile $1,537,880 
 
 Per square yard |0. 093 
 
 Annual cost of repairs of streets : 
 
 Per linear mile (average) $150,000 
 
 Per square yard (average) $0,026 
 
 Annual cost of construction of roads: 
 
 Per linear mile $1,267,200 
 
 Per square yard $0,080 
 
 Annual cost of repairs of roads, variable according to class : 
 
 Per linear mile $29. 20 to $121. 000 
 
 Per square yard $0,005 to $0,020 
 
 Wagesof laborers per diem $0.20 to $0,280 
 
 Cost of material per cubic foot $0. 02 to $0. 03f 
 
 System of construction and repair, Macadam. 
 
 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON PUBLIC ROADS, ANTIGDA. 
 
 To his excellency Sir William Frederick Haynbs-Smith, K. C. M. G., Etc. : 
 
 (1) The commission appointed by your excellency to Inquire into the whole question 
 of the maintenance of the public roads in Antigua held its first meeting on the 
 20th January last. 
 
BRITISH "WEST INDIES. 48d 
 
 (2) With the object of gathering the views and wishes of as many as possible of 
 those specially interested in the question before the commission, the island was di- 
 vided into districts, and the leading planters, or their representatives, in each district 
 were invited to attend before the commission. ' 
 
 (3) Of the thirty so invited eleven were good enough to attend and to give the 
 commission the advantage of their cooperation and assistance. 
 
 (4) The information elicited from these gentlemen will be found in detail in the 
 minutes of the proceedings appended hereto. 
 
 (5) The labor of the commission was much facilitated by the unanimity of opinion 
 which prevailed among the witnesses with regard to the main principles of the pres- 
 ent road act, which was thought to have worked admirably, and to require but little 
 if any amendment. 
 
 (6) The system of paying the estates to keep the roads in repair was unanimously 
 approved, and it was the general opinion that no alteration in the rates of remunera- 
 tion was necessary, inasmuch as although the amount paid for repairs to one portion 
 of a road might not cover the cost of such repair, that paid for repairs to another 
 portion would be in excess of the cost, and that an average was thus arrived at which 
 enabled the estates, as a rule, to keep the roads in repair without either loss or 
 profit. 
 
 (7) A proposal for repairing all roads under a system of contracts met with no sup- 
 port, although it was thought that where the surveyor of works has roads to repair 
 tenders might with advantage be called for in the majority of cases, and in this lat- 
 ter suggestion the commission concurs. 
 
 (8) There was a diversity of opinion as to the amount of supervision that ought to 
 be given to the roads, and it was suggested that the island should be divided into 
 two or more districts with an overseer for each, but after carefully weighing the 
 whole of the evidence the commission is of opinion that the supervision now pro- 
 vided should be sufficient; that on the whole it has proved so, and that no immedi- 
 ate necessity exists for any increase of staff. 
 
 (9) The drains and gutters running across the roads were objected to as they are 
 now made, and it was the general opinion that strong culverts should be made where 
 possible, and where not possible simple and inexpensive bridges should be erected. 
 
 (10) The use of 12-iuch pipes was suggested and the commission consider that 
 much might be done to make the roads more level and easy to drive over if such 
 pipes were used, and if the estates were required by law to keep the culverts and 
 pipes free from obstruction and choking. 
 
 (11) It was also suggested that where estates required to make drains across roads 
 pipes for this purpose should be supplied at coat price by the government, and to this 
 the commission can see no objection. 
 
 (12) Paying the estates for keeping in repair the cross-gutters, culverts, bridges, 
 etc., adjoining their property on the same plan as payment is made for repairs to the 
 roads was suggested, and although the commission considers that the surveyor of 
 works should, subject to the approval of the governor in each case, be authorized to 
 make arrangements for doing this where practicable, it is unable to recommend the 
 suggestion for general adoption in the sense in which it was put forward in conse- 
 quence of the difficulty there would be experienced in arriving at a proper settle- 
 ment of the amounts payable. 
 
 (13) The making of mould traps too near the public roads was pointed out as not 
 only the case of much avoidable expense in keeping the side drains open, but as a 
 source of danger to persons riding or driving, and the commission suggests that the 
 making of mould traps anywhere within 10 feet of the trench ruiiuing along the pub- 
 lic road should be forbidden and made a punishable offense. 
 
 (14) With regard to the material to be used upon the roads for their repair, it was 
 pointed out that although provision is made in the road act (No. 7 of 1880) for the use 
 of metal no provision is made for the nse of other material, and although the com- 
 
484 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 mission considers tlie provision for metaling very necessary and one which should re- 
 main in force, it is of opinion that where the use of metal is not necessary the sur- 
 veyor of works should have power to order the use of some other suitable material. 
 
 (15) The word " metal" lias not been defined in the act, but has been taken to sig- 
 nify "broken stone." 
 
 (16) The stones put upon the roads were considered to be, in many cases, too big, 
 and the use of flint was taken exception to. As to the size of the stones this is a 
 matter which should, the commission thinks, be regulatid by the surveyor of works, 
 and with regard to flint the commission can see no objection to its use provided that 
 when used it is covered with some suitable binding material. The commission would 
 suggest that a provision to this effect be made. 
 
 (17) In many of the roads and side drains a rocky surface presents itself, and the 
 commission suggests that where practicable and desirable this surface should be 
 blasted or otherwise disposed of, and that when the roads so treated are repairable by 
 estates they should be put in order before being handed over again to the estate. 
 
 (18) A suggestion made by one of the members of the commissiofl (Mr. Oliver Nu- 
 gent) that a sj'stem of tramways should be arranged along the main roads of the 
 island appeared to meet with universal approbation, and the commission would sug- 
 gest that a few gentlemen of the island be selected to consider and report upon the 
 practicability and cost of carrying out such a scheme. 
 
 (19) The proposed abolition of fourth-class roadB was not generally approved, and 
 the commission is of opinion that as these roads are better than no roads they cer- 
 tainly should be retained on the schedule. 
 
 Their removal generally to the third-class could not be entertained on the score of 
 expense. 
 
 (20) There. was no general complaint as to the manner in which the roads had 
 been measured, and it was not ascertained that any required remeasurement. 
 
 (21) Some of the roads, it was thought, should be widened to the width required 
 by the act, and the commission considers this should be gradually effected along the 
 most frequented rontes. 
 
 (22) It was suggested that estates in receipt of grants for the maintenance of roads 
 should be compelled to keep and render accounts of their expenditure ; the commis- 
 sioners, however, do not see that these accounts could be properly audited, or that 
 in the absence of an audit any material advantage would be derived from an adop- 
 tion of the suggestion. 
 
 (23) The posts, defining the boundaries of the various estates, are looked upon as 
 of distinct advantage, and their upkeep and renewal where and when necessary is 
 recommended. 
 
 (24) The commission did not consider it came within its province to entertain ap- 
 plications for the removal of roads from one schedule to another, but rather that 
 such applications should follow the usual course and be dealt with, each upon its 
 own merits, as heretofore. The condition of the road from Elm's stream through 
 Gray's and Wickham's was however brought prominently to notice, and the commis- 
 sion recommends that, so far as this road runs through the swamp, it should be 
 remade and raised some feet above its present level by the Government, the estate 
 being required to keep-it in repair thereafter. 
 
 The road from Fry's to Bodkins should be a first-class road throughout; at 
 present part is second class and part first. The commission makes this recommen- 
 dation in consequence of the extraordinary cost required to maintain the road in a 
 proper state of repair. The Gilberts gap to Lyons road is recommended for removal 
 to the second class. 
 
 The commission would ask that attention maybe given at an early date to Delaps 
 and Bath Lodge streams, which might, it is thought, be dealt with under "The 
 water-course act of 1889." 
 
 (2.5) A proposal to create a special class for roads which required an extraordinary 
 
BRITISH WEST INDIES. 485 
 
 expenditure to maintain was not entertained by the commission, as it was thought 
 the creation of such a class would to some extent be prejudicial to the proper work- 
 ing of the existing road act under which losses on one part of a road are made up by 
 gains on another part, and. that it would be better to leave any case in which hard- 
 ship is shown to exist to be dealt with specially by the legislature. 
 
 (26) It was thought prior to the meeting of the commission that some amount of 
 dissatisfaction existed with regard to the working of the present road act, but this 
 has not been shown to be the case ; in fact, there would appear to be strong objection 
 to any alteration of its main provisions or principles. 
 
 Fked. Evans, Chairman. 
 
 Jas. Maginley. 
 
 J. Feeeland Foote. 
 
 Arthur W. Hoi-mes d. Court. 
 
 Oliver Nugent, Jr. 
 
 J. Sutherland. 
 
 V. GuFrKOY. 
 St. John's, Antigua, June 16, 1890. 
 
 BAHAMAS. 
 
 BEPOBT BY CONSUL M'LAIN, OF NASSAV. 
 
 I regret to say that the conditions existing here for the mating of 
 roads and streets are so essentially different from anything iu our own 
 country that, in my opinion, nothing that I could mention would be of 
 the slightest value to our street builders and road makers. 
 
 The Bahama Islands are composed of coralline limestone, and the 
 surface of this natural rock forms the street or roadway. There is no 
 depth of soil, the rock itself being often fully exposed to view. All that 
 is done to construct a street or roadway is to remove such sparse brush 
 or chaparal as may be growing thereon (the rock itself being so porous 
 and full of crevices and fertilizing elements as to sustain considerable 
 vegetable growth with little, if any, soil), smooth down any sharp pro- 
 jections of rock, and fill up depressions with small pieces of the broken 
 stone. As a result you have a reasonably smooth roadway of solid 
 stone, which will meet all the requirements of the people. 
 
 In the outlying islands of the colony there are comparatively few 
 roads, and such as exist are little more than pathways cut through the 
 bush, wide enough to permit the passage of a single two-wheeled farm 
 cart, which is about the only vehicle in use. The fact that the islands 
 are generally of considerable length and narrow width renders roadways 
 less necessary, the people owning their boats and passing easily from 
 point to point along the shore. 
 
 In the island of New Providence, whereon is situated the capital, the 
 city of Nassau, a town of about 12,000 inhabitants, more attention is 
 paid to streets and roadways, but here, as elsewhere, the solid rock 
 forms the street or road. 
 
 The original cost of the streets is not great as there are no difficult 
 
486 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COtTNTRlES. 
 
 problems of grade, sewerage, or engineering, and the cheapest and 
 rudest form of labor is used in their construction. There are few streams 
 or ravines requiring culverts or bridges. 
 
 The limestone rock is comparatively soft, and, in consequence thereof 
 frequent repairs of streets are needed in the city proper. These consist 
 of filling up holes and ruts, and renewing gutters which run along the 
 sides of the streets, emptying into lateral deep drains which, in turn, 
 are discharged into the harbor, a strong tide carrying everything out 
 to sea. In making repairs the material used is the same quality of 
 limestone, broken into small pieces, wetted, and packed smooth by 
 heavy iron rollers, when it rapidly becomes as solid as the best kind of 
 cement. The streets thus made are not particularly hard, but they an- 
 swer all demands, since nothing known as heavy trafftc ever passes 
 over them. The vehicles in use are light carriages, farm carts, and 
 common drays, seldom drawn by more than a single horse each. 
 
 The annual expenditure for keeping the streets and roadways of this 
 island in repair is not great, a yearly appropriation of about $7,000 
 being made for that purpose, by the legislature. There are no road or 
 street taxes collected, as such, in this colony; but all expenses are paid 
 from the general fund, and disbursed by the board of public works. 
 Some work is done upon the streets from time to time by prisoners 
 working in chain gangs, but the value thereof is not very great. 
 
 No obstruction to uninterrupted travel ever arises from the wet or 
 muddy condition of streets or roads in the Bahamas, since the soil, 
 where any exists, is too thin and sandy to retain water, and the bed- 
 rock is so porous as to absorb within a few hours the heaviest tropical 
 downpour of rain. 
 
 The extent of streets in IsTassau is about the same as is found in 
 towns of the same population in the CTnited States; whilst the total 
 length of the roadways, under public control, on the island of New 
 Providence, outside of this city and its immediate suburbs, I should 
 estimate as not to exceed 45 or 50 miles. 
 
 The island itself is about 20 miles in length, with an average width 
 of perhaps 5 miles. Two years ago there was less than one-third of 
 the island under cultivation and hence no great need for country roads; 
 but now large tracts are being planted m sisal, for the production of 
 fiber, and new roads are being projected and will shortly be built in all 
 parts of the interior. They will all be of the same general character 
 as those now in existence, and will be easily and cheaply made. 
 
 Thos. J. MoLain, Jr., 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Nassau, N. P. November 28, 1890. 
 
BRITISH WEST INDIES. 487 
 
 BERMUDA. 
 
 EEPOUT BT aONSVL BEOKWITH, OF BAMILTON. 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The streets and roads in Bermuda are made and maintained chiefly 
 from the native coral rock of which the islands are composed. The 
 method of making the streets is to cut through the solid rock forming 
 tlie hills or elevations, making the sides of the cuttings perfectly per- 
 pendicular^ and cutting down until a suitable grade is established, which 
 is generally made as near the sea level as practicable. This cutting is 
 done by means of large saws, similar to an American cross-cut saw, and 
 the rock being again sawfed into smaller blocks it is removed either by 
 blasting or by cutting out with a large iron chisel. This chisel has a 
 length of about 12 feet and a blade about 4 inches in width. These 
 chisels weigh from 12 to 15 pounds and their weight helps greatly in 
 cutting, as they are used after the manner of a " digger " for post holes. 
 The rock is very soft and porous, buthardens onexposure to the weather. 
 The rock removed from these cuts is used in filling in the depressions 
 and hollows until the road is brought up to grade. In certain parts of 
 the islands a sort of limestone exists of harder substance than coral. 
 This limestone the government causes to be collected, taken to the dif- 
 ferent jails, and there broken up by prisoners, both civil and military, 
 into small pieces about three-quarters of an inch to IJ inches in diam- 
 eter. These broken pieces are called "jail nuts." This broken stone 
 is now bought from the government by contractors and spread over 
 the graded road to a depth of 3 or 4 inches. Then a top dressing of 
 small coral rock is put on, which soon crumbles under wear and forms 
 with the limestone an excellent macadam, very smooth, very clean, and 
 very durable. It so readily absorbs the water that mud is unknown 
 here. To repair this kind of road it is only necessary to pick it over 
 to the depth of 2 or 3 inches and add a little broken limestone where 
 there is any great washout or sinking. 
 
 The above is the only system of road-making known here and the de- 
 tails of construction are in every case the same as above. The expense 
 of making and maintaining the city streets is borne by the corporation 
 of the town, which hires the necessary men, teams, and foremen or over- 
 seers. The expense of watering and sweeping the streets is also borne 
 by the corporation and performed in the same manner. 
 
 COFNTRT KOADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The method of making the country roads or highways is exactly the 
 same as that used for city streets, i. e., to cut through the rock forming 
 the hills and elevations with a saw, saw the coral into smaller blocks, 
 and remove the debris by blasting or use of the chisel. This loose rock 
 
4S^8 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COtTNTRIES. 
 
 is then spread over the hollows and depressions tiutil a suitable grade 
 is established, and a low grade is chiefly used. The same limestone 
 used on the streets is spread on these roads in the same way, and the 
 top dressing of coral on that. These roads are repaired the same as 
 the streets, i, e., by picking them over and adding broken limestone. 
 The expenses for all kinds of road building are chiefly for labor and 
 the cost of the broken stone. A laborer receives $1 per diem, a man 
 with horse and cart S2.50, and the limestone costs about from $1.25 to 
 $1.50 per ton delivered at jail. The expenses of building and main- 
 taining all country roads and public highways, except city streets, are 
 borne by the colonial government, and the work is let out to con- 
 tractors by bids. In many cases in this class of roads it is impossible 
 to cut directly through a hill or elevation, and the road is then carried 
 around it with the easiest grade practicable, cutting into the sides of 
 the hill where possible to shorten the curves. 
 
 The effect of good public roads has been here to greatly increase the 
 value of land, especially that designed for residences, and at present 
 two roads are in process of construction across a marsh hitherto un- 
 used, which will probably cause the marsh to be filled up and used as 
 farming land. There are also roads here called military roads, chiefly 
 lying about the British fortifications and camps or leading to them. 
 These roads are built and maintained by the military, the labor being 
 performed by the soldiers. These roads are marked by large mile-stones 
 set lip by government surveyors. There is a law in force here tha 
 " any road remaining open for 21 consecutive years becomes a public 
 road and passes under the control of the colony." Therefore to retain 
 the right to control these military roads the British government causes 
 them to be closed for one day in each and every year. This law does 
 not apply to the public highways or city streets. 
 
 Henry W. Beckwith, 
 
 Consul, 
 
 IInited States Consulate, 
 
 Ramilton, Bermuda, December 24, 1890. 
 
 JAMAICA. 
 
 RBFORT BY COXSXTL ESTES. 
 
 The Macadam system of road-building is used altogether on the 
 streets and " government roads," as the main highways are called, 
 and on the best of the byroads in the plains, but the mountain " paro- 
 chial roads," usually little better than mere trails or bridle paths, are 
 left to the tender mercies of heavy rains and unskilled labor to a great 
 extent and are far from worthy of any extended notice in this report. 
 
 The same system, however, that leads to cut-up and make dusty 
 
BRITISH WEST INDIES. 489 
 
 streets during the dry season and to flowing rivulets of mud and water 
 in the wet season, under the heavy hauling in some parts of Kingston, 
 yields most excellent driving roads in the outskirts of the city and main 
 highways, far above the average in the western hemisphere, in the 
 country. 
 
 The stage routes throughout Jamaica, though used by the peasantry 
 to an unusual degree, are in many places quite equal to many of 
 the trotting tracks of the United States in smoothness of surface and 
 elasticity. 
 
 The formation or basis of Jamaica is of igneous rocks, overlying 
 which are several distinct formations, principal among which are the 
 white and yellow limestone or " rotten marls," as they are sometimes 
 called here. These very brittle formations lend themselves readily to 
 road construction, and it is due to their presence near at hand through- 
 out most of the island, combined with the very low scale of wages, that 
 Jamaica is possessed of so excellent a highway. 
 
 All the stone used, which is broken to about the standard size of 
 "small stove" coal in the United States, is so reduced by women, who 
 break it piece by piece with a steel hammer, sitting with a pile of boul- 
 ders in front of them and often working for hours without moving 
 from one spot. For this severe labor they usually are paid, by task- 
 work schedule, about 18 to 24 cents per day. This material is then 
 taken, usually in trays carried on the heads of women and girls, to 
 the road and sprinkled on at such places as the road overseer points 
 out. Some of these women become quite expert and can be left for 
 several days to go on with this work undirected. Here also the same 
 small wages hold. 
 
 Steam rollers, road scrapers, road plows, and all other forms of road 
 machinery are unknown here, the shovel, common grubbing hoe, and 
 the machette or cutlass are the only implements used in the grading, 
 surfacing, and cleaning of the roads. 
 
 When the broken stone is put on the roads it is left in that condition, 
 the frequent and almost constant traffic over much of their extent sufiBc- 
 ing to soon bring the whole to an even surface of a hard but elastic and 
 fine consistency. 
 
 Water courses, where small, are for the most part conveyed beneath 
 the roadways in concrete pipes the sections of which are here made of 
 this same material mixed with Portland cement j this more skilled work, 
 usually done by men with women assistants, can be obtained for an 
 average of 50 cents per day. 
 
 In this very primitive fashion the inhabitants of Jamaica are enabled 
 to enjoy roads of over 500 miles in extent, circumscribing and intersect- 
 ing the island, which will compare favorably with the Pullman road of 
 Chicago and the system around the larger Eastern cities of the United 
 States. 
 
490 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 To the various parishes, corresponding closely to our counties in the 
 United States, is allotted the care of all such roads as are not of sufiBci- 
 ent importance to mate them subjects for the care of the colonial gov- 
 ernment ; the main highways, however, are now under the care of the 
 director of public works, who, with the assistance of five district engi- 
 neers, a government surveyor, and four superintendents of roads, is 
 directly responsible to the Government for their condition. 
 
 While the expenditures for main roads are borne on the annual esti- 
 mates, and are chargeable to the general revenues of the colony, still 
 there is a system of taxes which is ingenious and which contributes in 
 no small degree to swell these revenues. 
 
 This system consists of taxing all such articles or animals as in any 
 way contribute to the wear and tear of the roads. Some of these items 
 
 are as follows : 
 
 £ «. d. 
 
 Each head of horse kind used on roads 11 = ®'2. 67 
 
 Each head of ass kind used on roads 3 0= .73 
 
 Each horse, ass, or other stock not used on roads 10--= .24 
 
 Each wheel of a carriage 15 0= 3. 65 
 
 Each wheel of a cart 6 0= 1.46 
 
 Bach wheel of a hackney carriage 1 0= 4. 86 
 
 The report of the director of public works for 1876 to 1888, inclusive, 
 shows that the average annual expenditure for repairs and maintenance 
 was but $165 per mile. During that time the new works, consisting 
 mainly of new bridges and some entirely new roads, have been about 
 $230,000; this has been for a main road system extending throughout 
 a mountainous island, which is quite adequate to meet the needs of 
 about 800,000 inhabitants in an area of 4,193 square miles, of which only 
 646 square miles are flat or plain land. 
 
 When it is remembered that the extremes of heavy flood rains and of 
 hurricanes have to be contended with, it is generally considered that 
 this is a remarkable showing. 
 
 The dry, parched, and rocky bed of a strean on one day may be the 
 course of a roaring torrent, carrying everything before it, on the next 
 day ; the clean roadbed of one moment may be strewn with the d6bris 
 of the mountain hurricane but a few moments after. 
 
 While these are not frequent causes of extra outlay, they did call for 
 an increase of about 25 per cent, in expenditure in 1S80 and 1886. 
 
 W. E. ESTES, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Kingston, Jamaica, December 9, 1890. 
 
feRttTSH WEST INDtES. 
 
 491 
 
 TRINIDAD. 
 
 PRINTED REPORT TRANSMITTED BY CONSUL PIERCE FEBRUARY S, 1891. 
 
 Practical suggestions for road making by Mr. Devenish, toion superintend- 
 ent of port of Spain. 
 
 Before proceeding with the repairs of the roads, an important point 
 should be first determined, viz, the legal breadths of the roads ; such 
 breadths to be equally measured from the center of the roadway towards 
 the adjoining fields, except in cases where a road runs along precipices, 
 hills, cliffs, landslips, and river or sea side, etc. 
 
 For any road used for the cartage of produce, or first-class road, 40 
 feet should be allowed for the out-and-out width. Of these 40 feet, 30 
 to be between the inner sides of the trenches. 
 
 The width of the other roads of minor importance should be deter- 
 mined by the nature of the locality through which they may pass. 
 
 The proper width having been ascertained and determined, a space 
 of at least 4 feet on each side of the road should be kept free from plan- 
 tations, bush, or live fences, so as to allow to the road the full benefit 
 of wind and sunshine. 
 
 Previous to attempting any metaling, or, in fact, any general repairs 
 on a road, the greatest attention must be paid to its proper cross-sec- 
 tions and drainage. 
 
 The roadway should be carefully and evenly sloped from the center 
 to the trenches at an inclination of from 3 to 4 inches in every 10 feet, 
 as local circumstances may direct. 
 
 The general shape of the old roads which are to be brought to a true 
 cross-section is sis follows, viz : 
 
 Nb.l. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 The most economical, and, in fact, often the only, mode of correcting 
 the vicious shape of such roads when they have never been coated is — 
 
492 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 In No. 1 , by raising the lower side and forming the section with the 
 cuttings from the higher one, thus : 
 
 N^o.l. 
 
 And in Nos 2 and 3, by filling up and raising the center with the 
 earth taken from the sloping of the sides and digging out of the drains, 
 thus : 
 
 Wo. 2. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 The earth thus thrown on the road should never be allowed to lie in large clods, 
 but should be well broken and rammed down as much as possible. 
 
 It sometimes happens in case No. 1, when the road has been long metaled, that 
 there is on the higher side almost enough metal, if not to correct entirely the section, 
 at least to help much in doing so. 
 
 In no case, however, should a graveled road be thus brought to a true convexity 
 with mere earth thrown on the coated surface. 
 
 In graveling roads the proper shape must then be attained by throwing the cut- 
 tings off the road and by gradually raising the lower side by repeated layers of gravel 
 or metal. 
 
 In very low and soft places, when brush wood is at hand, the road is very advanta- 
 geously raised by laying fascines or even logs of wood transversely and covering the 
 same with at least 12 or 15 inches of earth. 
 
 The all-important operation of drainage requires next the greatest attention on the . 
 part of those in charge of the roads. 
 
 It must generally be carried on simultaneously with the forming of the road, as 
 the earth taken from the side channels is often the principal means of raising the bed 
 of the road and of shaping it. 
 
 From actual experience I am of opinion that the edge of the angle of the drains 
 with the roadway, owing to the very careless driving on our roads, should be sloped 
 off thus , so as not to be injured by the wheels of vehicles coming too near 
 
 the drains. 
 
 When this angle is not sloped off the inner side of the drains in most of our roads 
 is constantly destroyed, and the earth thereof tumbling into the trenches soon fills 
 them up. 
 
 On roads where I have thus sloped the drain-side nearly 5 years ago the trenches 
 and sides of the roads are still almost as perfectly shaped as when first made, and the 
 expense of cleaning the drains has been infinitely less than when the angle is re- 
 tained. 
 
BRITISH WEST INDIES. 493 
 
 The outer side of the trenohes should be carefully sloped according to the nature 
 of the soil. 
 
 In the clayey soil of the Naparimas the slope should never be under an angle of 45°, 
 that is, 1 foot horizontal to 1 foot perpendicular for cuttings under 3 or 3 feet, but 
 for a greater height, to prevent landslips, it should never be less than an angle of 
 30°, or If feet horizontal to 1 perpendicular. 
 
 In cuttings, such as in the light sandy Taoarigua soil, a far steeper slope will do, 
 such as one-half foot, and even one-fourth, to 1 foot. 
 
 The depths of the side channels must of course depend a good deal on local oondi- 
 lions, hut great attention should be paid not to make them unnecessarily deep, and 
 more particularly not to give them too great a longitudinal inclination. 
 
 This is a fault often committed in the side trenches of many of our roads, prin- 
 cipally along hill slopes, where, on the contrary, it should be most carefully avoided. 
 
 Too much inclination causes a strong current and a rush of water that soon under- 
 mines and destroys the sides of the drains and very materially damages the road. 
 
 On hilly roads, therefore, the drains ought to be dug deeper at the highest point 
 and their depths gradually lessened in going downward, so as to correct in some 
 measure the natural declivity of the ground. 
 
 When the road is very steep the channels are sometimes advantageously out like 
 steps at convenient distances in order to give them a more gentle inclination. But 
 vrhehever this is done stones must be carefully hand-laid on a few feet immediately 
 under the fall of the water to prevent it from digging and destroying the bottom of 
 the lower drain. 
 
 Whenever a road runs along the side of a hill the greatest care must be taken to 
 prevent the hilj water from overflowing the upper drain and running across the sur- 
 face of the road. 
 
 In such cases cross underdrains made of hard wood or masonry must be estab- 
 lished at conveniently short distances all along the hillside aud their lower end carried 
 always at least 5 ot 6 feet beyond the breadth of the road. 
 
 The inlet or upper ends of such cross drains should always be protected by either 
 hardwood posts and planks or by small wing walls, aud great care taken that they 
 are never choked with weeds, trash, or any rubbish carried by the water. 
 
 An inclination of 1 inch in 10 feet is enough for such cross drains. Their diameter 
 must be regulated by the locality, but in general drains 2 feet wide by 18 inches 
 deep will be found large enough. 
 
 In covered drains made of hardwood I have found It very advantageous to bore 
 one or two rows auger holes in the top planks and also along the sides, 8 or 9 inches 
 above the bottom. These holes help a good deal in drying up the subsoil all around 
 the cross drains. 
 
 Catchwater drains are also often indispensable on the upper side of the slope to 
 catch the hill- water and carry it into the inlets of the cross covered drains, thus 
 preventing too great a rush of water into the upper side channels. 
 
 Small but numerous outlets, and in low, level ground larger ones, or main side 
 drains to carry the water from the side channels to the adjoining fields, or into the 
 natural water-courses, when near enough, should be regularly established at moder- 
 ate distances along a line of road, and always kept ^eH clear and open. 
 
 In no case whatever should the proprietors or occupiers of land along the road be 
 allowed to drain their fields into the side channels of the roads. They should be 
 compelled by law to bring such water into a main drain parallel to the road, and 
 which would carry it to some lower points or to some natural water courses. 
 , Whenever springs are met with in a road the place should be dug right down to 
 the very spring, and a deep channel cut thence across the road and filled up with 
 either large broken stone, or logs of wood covered with a foot or 18 inches of earth 
 or road materials, as the case may be. 
 After a road shall have been well shaped and drained, and in no instance till then, 
 
494 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTKIES. 
 
 the surface of the roadway must (when practicable), be coated with the best suited 
 materials at band. 
 
 In tliis colony, where, owing the very small and inadequate amount of capital 
 available for making and repairing our roads, it is not probable that the most ap- 
 proved system of roaduiaking in the mother country can be carried out, at least for 
 many years to come, it behooves us to see in what mauner we can turn our resources 
 or means to the best possible advantage. 
 
 If the road to be graveled is an earth road Cthat is, never coated) or newly shaped 
 road, the surface must first be allowed to be sufficiently rammed down, either by the 
 traffic or with heavy "rammers," until it becomes consolidated enough to receive the 
 gravel or metal. 
 
 When this is done the gravel or metal must then be carefully spread on a width of 
 15 feet, at equal distances from the side channels, first in a layer 4 inches thick 
 throughout. 
 
 After this first layer shall have been sufficiently compressed and settled (which will 
 happen in very few days on a road with any traffic), then a second coat of 4 inches 
 again is to be laid over it, and also allowed to settle for a few days, when a third 
 and top course, also 4 inches thick, will be applied to complete the work, thus giving 
 a total depth of 12 inches to the crust of the road, or 55^, say 56, cubic yards, of 
 materials per every 100 feet of road in length. 
 
 Daring this process laborers should be employed to rake the several courses as 
 evenly as possible to prevent the formation of any ruts or holes and spreading of the 
 materials beyond the proper width. 
 
 The foregoing thickness is particularly recommended for gravel taken &om the 
 San Fernando pits, or from the beds of rivers and ravines, but for the metal from the 
 quarries about Port of Spain, St. Joseph, or Gleuroy a thickness of 8 or 10 inelies 
 laid in two or three courses will, I believe, be quite sufficient if carefully applied. 
 
 When round clear pebbles are used a small proportion of ckalk, marl, loam, or 
 fine gravel should be well mixed with the pebbles in order to bind them and to 
 prevent their constant fretting and rolling against each other. 
 
 Although the process recommended above of laying three different courses will, 
 likely, be very unpopular at first with contractors, yet I have no donbt that ere 
 long they will find how beneficial it is for themselves by making their work much 
 superior to that formerly done under the old system, almost without increase of ex- 
 penditure, and by doing away with the unpleasant squabbling and difficulties so 
 frequently arising before in consequence of bad work. 
 
 When broken stones are used care should be taken that their sizes never exceed 2^ 
 inches. This is easily obtained by passing the metal through sieves with bars 2^ 
 inches apart. The last or top course might be made of finer stones, but in no case 
 whatsoever should large stones be allowed to be placed on the road. 
 
 During the metaling of any portion of a road proper measures should he taken 
 to force the carts and carriages to pass, in turn, over every part thus newly metaled. 
 This may easily be effected by placing heaps of stones at convenient places. 
 
 Depots of gravel or metal of 25 cubic yards each should be established at every 
 one-fourth mile, and special laborers constantly employed in preventing the formation 
 of any holes, ruts, or inequalities, etc. 
 
 The best time of the year for repairing the roads is the latter end of both the dry 
 and rainy seasons. 
 
 At the end of the dry season the cross sections should be carefully corrected, the 
 surface scraped, regraveled, and put in thorough order, the side trenches, outlets, 
 main and c^tchwater drains properly cleansed, scraped, and reopened wherever 
 necessary ; the bridges* and cross-covered drains overhauled, cleared, and repaired- 
 the depots of metal well filled up ; the sides of the road cutlassed or better mowed 
 
 * All wooden bridges should be made of country hardwood, and white and pitch pine at once e 
 eluded from such works. 
 
BRITISH WEST INDIES. 495 
 
 und, in fact, the road must be made ready to stand the effects of the heavy rains 
 during the coming wet weather. 
 
 At the latter period the damage done daring the wet season must be repaired 
 •without delay, the bridges and orosfi-covered drains examined and put to rights, the 
 weak parts of the road reloaded with metal, aud tlio road, in a word, must be again 
 thoroughly overhauled aud prepared to stand the heavy cartage of the ensuing crop 
 season. 
 
 The sides of the roads should be regularly cutlassed or mowed four times a year, 
 so as to insure at the nearest possible period the growth and formation of a low and 
 thick green sward instead of the long grass and numerous weeds of all sorts that 
 are now spoiling the appearance of most of our roads. 
 
 As soon as the frequent use of the cutlass shall have destroyed the brush on the 
 sides of the roads the scythe must afterwards be exclusively used. 
 
 It does a much neater aud cheaper work than the cutlass, aud does not so much 
 tear up and disturb the roots of the grass. 
 All grass and brush cut on the roads should be carefully removed. 
 No mud bank, scrapings, or rubbish of any kind should be allowed to remain on the 
 sides of the roads. 
 
 The drains must, at all times of the year, be kept free from grass and rubbish, and 
 the parties in charge of the roads should pay great attention to prevent the constant 
 choking up of the channels with cane trash and plants, manure, etc., as is now 
 practiced along most of the roads running through sugar estates, particularly at the 
 junction of private roads or cane traces with the high road. 
 
 They should also take good care that the lopping of trees and clipping of live hedges 
 be regularly attended to as prescribed by the road ordinance. 
 
 Generally speaking, all repairs of any importance should be given out by contract, 
 and clauses entered in the deed of contract to provide for the faithful performance of 
 the work within a fixed period, under penalties to be guaranteed by sureties. 
 
 Perhaps the best way would be to have printed blank forms for the different sorts 
 of contracts generally to be entered into for the repairing and keeping of the roads. 
 
 Instead of relying entirely on tenders to know what repairs will cost, as is gener- 
 ally if not always the case now, the parties in charge of the roads should always, 
 previous to calling for tenders, make, or cause to be made, a careful and correct esti- 
 mate of what such repairs are worth, and being thus well acquainted with the value 
 of the work to be done should never allow themselves to be taken in by the low 
 figure of an ignorant contractor, but only accept of such contracts as are within a 
 fair range and likely to prove remunerative. 
 
 Syl. Devenish, Secretary. 
 
 asphalting of streets. 
 
 Town Superintendent's Office, 
 Port of Spain, Trinidad, June 24, 1890. 
 In regard to the results, etc., of the asphalting some of our streets I have the honor 
 to submit the following brief notes on the matter : 
 
 (1) I am of opinion that the laying of asphalt is an immense advantage over the 
 common macadamizing, and there is every reason to believe that it will last many 
 years at a small cost of keeping. The principal advantages are : 
 
 (a) To be almost noiseless and offer very little resistance to traction. 
 (6) To be free from mud in the rainy season and from dust in the dry season, 
 (c) To offer good sanitary conditions without emitting any perceptible unpleasant 
 smell. 
 
 (2) Hitherto we have used asphalt in its crude state, pulverized by hand with cast- 
 iron rammers aud applied cold on our already macadamized streets, on whioh it is 
 
496 STEEETS 4ND HIGIIWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 either rammed as al)Oveor rolled by steam, and I am convinced this is quite sufficient 
 and will answer well here, instead of having recourse to the complicated and expen- 
 sive system followed in America, where the asphalt is hoiled, etc., and laid at a cost 
 of about 14.50 per square yard. (See the interesting and exhaustive pamphlet " Gen- 
 uine Trinidad Asphalt," published in Washington by the Barber AsphaltPaving Com- 
 pany.) 
 
 (3) Of course our asphalt street work is as yet in its infancy and only an experi- 
 ment, in which we must necessarily gradually gain experience, and it remains to be 
 seen what will be the ultimate results. 
 
 (4) The principal cause of complaint against it, and I believe it to be the only one 
 (cost excepted), is its great slipperiness in streets in which, owing to the high level of 
 our tramways, a much over curved cross section has been unavoidable, but in other 
 streets this complaint has scarcely ground to go upon. 
 
 (5) The advantage we have here is that our streets, being almost all macadamized, 
 it only requires a scooping out of a few inches, and the ground below is generally 
 firm and hard enough from the lower remaining macadam to receive a mere top dress- 
 ing of about 2 to 3 inches of pulverized asphalt. 
 
 (6) The asphalting of our streets will, in future, be much improved from our past 
 experience, and I have no doubt that it will give universal satisfaction and will 
 prove a great boon to our town. ,. 
 
 (7) It is my intention to try, if allowed to do so, a small proportion of fine sand to 
 be mixed with the asphalt, so as to render the surface a little gritty, and do away 
 with the present sleekness to which, however, our horses are gradually getting accus- 
 tomed. 
 
 (8) The facility of procuring asphalt from our pitch lake at 10 a ton, delivered on 
 the wharf, is, it must be said, a great deal in our favor, whilst in Demerara the cost 
 will necessarily be much greater. 
 
 (9) On a rough calculation it takes us about 3J cart loads (of 12 cubic feet each) 
 of asphalt to the tou. 
 
 (10) One such load will cover about 50 square feet or 5.55 square yards from 2 to 
 2J inches thick. 
 
 (11) The average cost of working our steam-roller is about |5.35 per diem. 
 
 (12) Hitherto the steam-roEer has only been able to roll about 666 square yards 
 daily, but more will, no doubt, be got out of it in future. 
 
 (13) We calculate that it takes during 10 to 12 days ten or twelve laborers daily em- 
 ployed in digging, pulverizing, and laying for preparing sufficient pitch for 2 days 
 steady steam-rolling. 
 
 (14) One hundred square yards of asphalting has cost us in the southern division 
 of the town, where the traffic is very great and the streets consequently much worn 
 out, $37.58, whilst metal and sand would only cost about $20, or about 52 per cent, 
 less, but for work not to be compared with the new coating. 
 
 (15) In the northern division we have slightly asphalted, under much better con-- 
 ditions, 9,601.68 square yards of streets at an average cost of about 25 cents per 
 yard, but with the intended improvements I believe this may probably be increased 
 to 35 cents. 
 
 (16) The use of asphalt is particularly of the greatest advantage in protecting the 
 sides of the roadway and the corners of the streets, where the rush of storm water in 
 heavy rains constantly washes away the macadam and digs deep furrows and holes. 
 
 Syl. Devenish, 
 
 Town Supt. 
 
DANISH WEST INDIES. 497 
 
 DANISH WEST INDIES. 
 ST. THOMAS. 
 
 SEPOBI BY CONSVL BORNE. 
 CITY STEBETS. 
 
 The local government is unable to give me the estimated cost of 
 making or repairing the streets of this city, i. e., " Charlotte Amelia." 
 They were made, .of broken stone, upwards of a century ago, and are 
 kept in repair by using similar material, the stone being broken fine by 
 convict labor. The depth of the broken stone is about 20 inches. The 
 streets are slightly oval and smooth and of great solidity. As they 
 are not subject to either frost or heavy trafiSc, the annual expense 
 of keeping them in repair is very small. Convict labor is utilized' in 
 breaking stone and keeping in repair the city streets and such portion 
 of the country roads as are necessary for use. The streets are sub- 
 stantially bordered on either side by gutters made of irregularly-shaped 
 but nearly flat stone, which are laid in and evened up by a hard cement. 
 The sidewalks are mostly composed of material, similar to those em- 
 ployed in making the gutters. 
 
 COUNTET EOADS AND HIGHWAYS. 
 
 There is no " ordinance " governing the making or repairing roads 
 and highways in this island (Saint Thomas). The abandonment of the 
 estates, following soon after the emancipation of the slaves, has caused 
 the country roads to fall into disuse. Country traffic has practically 
 ceased and the roads are but little used. 
 
 I inclose herewith a copy of the " ordinance concerning public roads 
 
 in St. Croix." It contains all the information which Mr. Moore, the 
 
 consular agent there, has been able to obtain on the subject of streets 
 
 and highways. 
 
 Samuel B. Hoene, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 St. Thomas, January, 14, 1891. 
 
 ST. CROIX. 
 
 OFFICIAL ORDINANCE TRANSMITTED BT CONSTIL ROMNE, OF ST. THOMAS. 
 
 I. General Provisions. 
 
 J 1. The public roads in St. Croix are divided in two classes: (1) Main roads, the 
 width of which between the trenches shall as a rule not be less than 36 feet, with 
 graveled roadway not less than 14-18 feet in width ; and (2) by-roads, the width of 
 33a 32 
 
498 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 ■which between the trenches shall as a rule not be less than 24 feet, with roadway not 
 less than 10-14 feet in width. 
 
 § 2. A list of existing roads of both classes shall be issued by the superior author- 
 ity and published in " St. Croix Avis.'' 
 
 Upon agreement to that effect with the colonial council, government may include 
 new roads among the number of the existing public roads, or discontinue existing 
 public roads as such, which alteration shall be published in the same manner. 
 
 § 3. The superior authority is empowered to grant permission to lay down tram- 
 ways on the public roads, subject to such stipulations as are requisite to insure that 
 the general traffic be not hindered, and that the parties having to discharge the re- 
 pairs of the roads do not by such tramways get Increased -burden of road work. 
 
 § 4. Quarter lines as well as private roads of communication between estates shall 
 generally be 24 feet in width and shall be kept open and in good order to same ex- 
 tent as hitherto, 
 
 II. Control with the Roads. 
 
 § 5. The public control with the roads is exercised through a road commission, con- 
 sisting of a chairman, appointed by the superior authority, and eight members, half 
 of them elected by the superior authority, the other half by the colonial council, in 
 such wise that for each of the eight quarters of the island one member is chosen from 
 among the residents of the quarter, as a rule from among the proprietors of landed 
 estates. The election shall be for a term of 5 years, but ouly the half of the num- 
 ber of members shall retire at a time. Five members shall constitute a quorum. 
 The superior authority is empowered, whenever it be deemed necessary, to dissolve 
 the road commission and to cause new election to be held. 
 
 § 6. The control with the state of the roads in each quarter shall bp performed by 
 the member of the road commission appointed for the quarter, who has to make the 
 necessary reports to the chairman. To assist the members of the commission there 
 shall be appointed sueh a number of road inspectors as the superior authority upon 
 representation of the commission shall at any time find necessary. 
 
 5 7. Every owner, administrator, or manager of an estate who has not completed 
 his 60th year is obliged to accept election as member of the road commission or ap- 
 pointment as road inspector, unless the superior authority or the colonial council, if 
 he has been elected by this latter, on his application to that effect, sliould find cause 
 to exempt him. The road inspectors are appointed for a term of five years, at the 
 expiration of which they are during a term of the same length entitled to exemption 
 from such charge. 
 
 § 8. The chairman of the road commission is salaried with $300 p. a. The road in- 
 spectors shall receive a compensation of $32 p. a. each. 
 
 § 9. The duties of road officers are to be fixed and defined by instructions issued 
 by the superior authority ; which instructions shall also contain the necessary rules 
 for the business routine of the road commission, for the election of members of the 
 commission, etc. 
 
 III. The Road Work:. 
 
 4 10. The duty of teeping the roads in every quarter in good and serviceable^jondi- 
 tion is incumbent on the owners of landed properties, factories, and similar establish- 
 ments situated within the quarter. The works required for that purpose are effected 
 in such a manner as shall be prescibed in regulations issued by Government upon con- 
 ference with the colonial council. 
 
 § 11. By moans of assignment to be eftected every fifth year, every property is as- 
 signed the allotment of roads which is incumbent on the property to keep in repair. 
 
 The assignment in which should be considered the quality and location of each 
 allotment, if it is part of a main road or of a by-road, if it is particularly easy or 
 
DANISH WEST INDIES. 499 
 
 rJifQouJt to keep in repair, if it contains water courses or not, etc., is made in propor- 
 tion to tlie matrionlatecl acreage in cultivation of tbe respective properties in sncli 
 a manner that one acre of land in sngar cultivation is considered equal to 5 aiiros in 
 other cultivation, and that no land is exempted, except land from which no use or 
 benefit whatever is derived. The road work incumbent on factories and similar 
 establishments is fixed by the superior authority. 
 
 The maintenance of the pavement or the bridge of a water course, or other m6re 
 extensive works of repair, may be assigned to several estates jointly. Likewise any 
 work of repair may be assigned several estates jointly, provided these estates are so 
 small that it would be inexpedient to assign to each a separate work of repair. 
 
 § 12. For each quarter separately a draft of the assignment is drawn up by the re- 
 spective member of the road commission in coDJunotiou with the road-inspectors of 
 the quarter, and is transmitted before the 1st July in the year in question, to the road 
 commission, who, on the basis of the drafts, draws up a draft of assignment for the 
 whole island, which draft shall be transmitted in duplicate to the superior authority 
 before the 1st August,, and the said authority thereupon, by publication three times 
 repeated in the newspaper of the island, shall inform the parties concerned that 
 copies of the assignment have been [placed for inspection in the police offices, and 
 eventual objections to the assignment must he made within 14 days of the last pub- 
 lication. On the expiration of this term, the superior authority decides on the ob- 
 jections that have been sent in after having taken the opinion of the road commission 
 and confirms the assignment according to such decision, upon which one copy of the 
 assignment is transmitted to the road commission, who, through the members of the 
 i-oad commission and road inspectors, conveys information to all concerned of the 
 allotment of road assigned to each property. 
 
 The bounds of the different allotments shall be exactly indicated, before the 1st 
 October, by conspicuous posts bearing the mark of the property and planted by the 
 roadside. 
 
 J 13. The public roads, with bridges, courses, breastwalls, handrails, etc., thereon 
 found shall undergo general repairs every year, such repairs to commence the 1st 
 October and to be completed before the 31st December. 
 
 ^ 14. Every year in the course of the month of January a general inspection of the 
 road works takes place, to be hold for every quarter by two members of the road 
 commission and two road inspectors, all of whom are appointed for the purpose by 
 the chairman of the commission, and must be residents of another quarter. 
 
 The member of the commission for the quarter to be inspected shall however 
 receive notice to he present at the inspection ; he is entitled to point out defects, 
 but has no vote in the decision, 
 
 § 15. When defects in the road work are discovered by the inspection, there shall 
 be given the holder of the allotment, who is , moreover, liable to penalty under 5 24, 
 a suitable term, within which he is to have the defects remedied. Should he find 
 himself aggrieved by the decision of the inspectors, he may within 8 days demand a 
 reinspection, which is effected by the road commission, with exception of the two 
 members, who had taken part in the first inspection, and at which the party shall 
 eventually be given the further necessary term. The decision of the reinspection 
 settles the matter. 
 
 If the defects are not remedied at the expiration of the term, the road commission 
 shall, on the report from the inspectors in case no reinspection has been held, have 
 the work done at the expense of the concerned party. The expenses for the purpose 
 inclusive of such remuneration for the controlling member as may be fixed by the 
 superior authority on the representation of the commission, are to be enforced by 
 levy, unless the holder of the allotment alleges that the work is not incumbent on 
 him, that the above mentioned term had not been given him or he advances any 
 other similar objection, in which case the decision shall be given under a public 
 police suit instituted against him. 
 
500 STREETS ANB HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 § 16. Besides the yearly general repairs such repairs as shall beneedfiilfor keepingtlie 
 loads in a proper state— such as filling up of small holes, leveling the surface, repairs 
 of 8ide--n'alls, hridges, and the pavement of water courses — shall be effected at all times 
 of the year, when ordered hy the member of the road commission. The order so given, 
 and for the fulfillment of which a suitable term shall be allowed, is final when the 
 cost of the work does not exceed §5, otherwise the party concerned may within 4 days 
 demand that the case be submitted to two other members of the commission, chosen 
 by the chairman in conjunction with the first-named member ; their decision, whereby 
 eventually the necessary additional term is allowed, settles the matter. If the de- 
 fects are not remedied at the expiration of the term, the road commission shall, on 
 report to the same, have the work done at the expense of the concerned party. The 
 expenses for this purpose, inclusive of a remuneration to the controlling member fixed 
 in the same manner as prescribed above in $15, may be enforced in the manner pro- 
 scribed in J 15. 
 
 § 17. When bridges and considerable lengths of road, the maintenance of which 
 devolves upon any siugle party, are so extensively damaged by heavy rains that the 
 road commission finds it inconsistent with equity to charge him with the repairs, 
 huch repairs shall be distributed among the properties in the quarter in the same 
 proportion as the road allotments. Under extraordinary clrcnmstances the public 
 may, however, according to decision of the superior authority, assume the repairs 
 entirely or in part. 
 
 § 18. Whenever a work of repairing is incumbent on several properties jointly, the 
 work is under the direction of the member of the road commission or such person as 
 the chairmau of the road commission may depute. Otherwise, the allotment holders 
 are at liberty to consult their own convenience as to the most suitable manner of 
 promoting the work, which, notably, may be given in job, but such arrangement 
 does not affect the allotment holder's responsibility to the public. 
 
 5 19. Should any holder of a road allotment prefer that the repairing of the allot- 
 ment assigned to him be effected by public agency, and he addresses written appli- 
 cation to that effect to the road commission, the work in question wiU, by order of 
 the commission, be eflected by and under the direction of the road inspector of the 
 district, on condition that the applicant, when the work is completed and approved 
 by the inspection, pays the expense of the work, iuclnding a suitable remuneration to 
 the road inspector who has superintended the work. 
 
 The account of the expenses incurred is forwarded to the superior authority by the 
 road commission who at the same time makes proposal as to the remuneration which 
 should be allowed the road inspector. 
 
 Wheu subsequently, all the expenses have been approved, the superior authority 
 assigns the account for payment against the holder of the road allotment, who is 
 bound to pay the amount into the colonial treasury within 14 days. In regard to the 
 payment of the amount in queotion, the colonial treasury holds the same right of levy 
 and preference as it holds for taxes. 
 
 For temporarily defraying the amounts for these, as well as for the works mentioned 
 in H 15 and 16, the necessary advances maybe assigned to the road commission from 
 the colonial treasury. 
 
 § 20. The construction of new roads is effected and expenses delrayed by the pub- 
 lic. The maintenace of such a new road devolves upon the road allotments of the 
 quarter in proportion to be fixed by additional assignment. 
 
 5 21. The public is charged with making provision that the necessary gravel pits 
 are to be found as near as possible to the road. 
 
 In default of amicable arrangement with the owner regarding compensation for 
 the use of the ground at gravel pit, the area required for the site of the gravel pit 
 and needful access thereto, shall be expropriated and the value thereof fixed by two 
 experienced and impartial men appointed by the court, in such a manner that each 
 of the interested parties shall have access, before the legislation of the appraisement 
 
DANISH WEST INDIES. 501 
 
 to demand reappraisement by the double number of men. The expenses of the ap- 
 praisement are defrayed by the publicin such a manner, however, that the expenses of 
 a reappraisement demanded by the owner and the issue of which is against bim are 
 defrayed by the owner. 
 
 § 22. The same proceeding is applicable in the case of cession of ground for the con- 
 struction of new roads. 
 
 IV". Penalties, etc. 
 
 5 23. Neglect of duty and disciplinary offenses on the part of road officers are pun- 
 ished, in 80 far as they are not liable to more severe penalties, with fines of not less 
 than |5 and not exceeding $25, which accrue to the colonial treasury. The fines are 
 dictated by the superior authority. In regard to other offenses committed by road 
 functionaries or against such while on duty, the general enactments of law are appli- 
 cable. 
 
 § 24. Any holder of a road allotment who is fouud at the annual inspection in the 
 month of January to have omitten to complete the road work incumbent on him, or 
 to have performed it in an unsatisfactory manner, is liable to a fine not exceeding $50. 
 
 § 25. Any holder of a road allotment who fails to comply with an order from the 
 properly qualified officer or aulh rity, at any time soever in the year, concerning the 
 repairing of his road allotment or anything belonging thereto, is liable to a fine not 
 exceeding $25. The same fine shall be adjudged against any person omitting to plant 
 the bound posts mentioned in § 12. 
 
 5 26. Cases concerning the offenses mentioned in § § 24 and 25 are dealt with as 
 public police suits, at the instance of the road commission. The road commission, is 
 however, before the case is reported to the policemaster, authorized to accept the delin- 
 quent party's offer to settle the matter amicably by fine to be paid forthwith. Concern- 
 ing such settlements the road commission shall make report to the superior authority. 
 Fines adjudged or agreed to under the present section accrue to the colonial treasury. 
 
 J 27. If the holder of a road allotment is not residing in St. Croix citation in the 
 oases in question may be lawfully served on the person who administrates his prop- 
 erty here, with notice to be determined according to the residence of the person thus 
 empowered. 
 
 4 28. On every vehicle which when loaded weighs 3,000 pounds or upwards, the 
 felloes of the wheels shall be at least 3 inches broad. Transgressions of this provi- 
 sion shall be liable to penalty of a fine of not less than $2 and not exceeding $10. 
 Cases of non-compliance are dealt with as public police suits. 
 
 5 29. Upon conference with the colonial council, the superior authority issues regu- 
 lations containing provisions for the road police and for the maintenance of public 
 peace and security of and on the road, including the preservation of the trees grow- 
 ing along the roads, which trees must not be felled in a space 6 feet from the trenches. 
 Fruit of trees along the public roads belong to the owners of the adjoining proper- 
 ties. 
 
 $ 30. Traiisgressions from the regulations mentioned in § 29 are dealt with in public 
 police suits, and are punished with fines not exceeding $50, which accrue to the police 
 fund. In the case of children under 15 years the punishment of flogging with a rod 
 may be inflicted according to circumstances. 
 
502 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 DUTCH WEST INDIES. 
 CURA90A. 
 
 BEPOST BZ CONSUL SMITH. 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The island of Caragoa, being of coral formation, with very little soil, 
 makes the building of smooth and level streets easy, and when built 
 they can be maintained at a small expense. 
 
 In places where there is not a solid roadbed of stones, or the surface 
 is uneven, the way is laid out and covered with clay, and over this a 
 paving of coral stones is placed. The stones used for this purpose are 
 taken from the shores of the island, and will average about 6 inches in 
 diameter, and are round in shape. They are broken in suitable lengths, 
 placed on end and driven into the clay, made soft by water to receive 
 them. 
 
 These small paving stones are confined within the line of the street 
 by a-border of large square or flat stones, and when driven by wooden 
 drivers they are wedged together so that they can not be removed 
 easUy ; sand is then placed over the surface and sifted into the crevices. 
 
 This makes a fine street where there is no heavy traffic, but the coral 
 is too soft to be serviceable where there are heavy teams passing over it. 
 
 The cost of such paving here to the government is about $1 per square 
 metre. 
 
 COTTNTBY ROADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 All over the island are estates which are accessible by fine public 
 roads provided and maintained by the government, and under the sur- 
 veillance of an inspector appointed for that purpose. 
 
 The comparative level surface of the island is very favorable for the 
 construction of country roads, no bridging and very little cutting being 
 required. The surface of the road is covered with small broken stones or 
 gra^'el, and when this is made iine by travel and becomes wet by rains 
 it unites. The roads are made somewhat higher in the center, or turnpiked 
 so that water will not stand on them. There are no rivers or streams for 
 these roads to cross, so no bridges are required, but during very heavy 
 rains large streams of water cross the roads in many places, and water 
 ways are provided therefor. These are made of large, flat stones laid, not 
 like a bridge, but with a concave surface for the water to run over. 
 
 The annual expense to the government for the maintenance of these 
 
 roads is about $2,300, including the salary of an inspector. 
 
 L. B, Smith, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Curagoa, January 29, 1891. 
 
SPANISH WEST INDIES. 603 
 
 SPANISH WEST INDIES. 
 PORTO RICO. 
 
 BBPOMT BY CONSUL STEWART, OF SAW JUAN. 
 STREETS OF SAN JUAN. 
 
 The streets of this city are very narrow, and are paved with small, 
 round stones. The sewerage consists (with the exception of a portion 
 of two or three of the most principal streets having underground sew- 
 ers) of small gutters in the center of the streets, formed by a slight 
 downward slope from each sidewalk. With the exception of this slope 
 the sidewalks are on a level with the rest of the street. The crevices 
 between the round stones are not filled, therefore the streets are very 
 rough, and neither beasts nor vehicles are spared upon them for any 
 great length of time. 
 
 COXTNTEY EOADS. 
 
 In the entire island there are about 150 miles of excellent road, and 
 
 of this alone it is necessary to speak, since this is all that receives any 
 
 attention. In its construction a level foundation is sought, and upon 
 
 this is put a heavy layer of crushed rock and brick, which, after having 
 
 been well packed and rounded, is covered with a layer of earth. This 
 
 is then well packed also, and upon the whole is spread a layer of ground 
 
 limestone, which is pressed and rolled until it forms almost a glossy 
 
 surface. This makes an excellent road here, where the climate is such 
 
 that it does not aflect it, and where there is no heavy traffic ; but these 
 
 conditions being changed, the road, it is thought, would not stand so 
 
 well ; hence further particulars are deemed useless. 
 
 L. E. Stbwaet, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 San Juan, December 30, 1890. 
 
 SANTIAGO DE CUBA. 
 
 The only thing that saves this city and allows carriages and native 
 horses to pass the lanes and roads, by courtesy called streets, is the 
 composition of the soil, viz, decomposed coral rock, in which lime forms 
 a large percentage. The streets are in a deplorable condition; the city 
 being bankrupt, nothing is done to improve them. The country roads 
 are mere trails, impassable in the rainy season. 
 
 Otto E. Eeimer, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Santiago de Cuba, December 6, 1890, 
 
504 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOKEIGN COUNTKIES. 
 
 FRENCH WEST INDIES. 
 
 GUADELOUPE. 
 
 BBPORT BY OONBTTL BXBTLHTT. 
 
 The colonial or county roads are built and kept in repair at the ex- 
 pense of the Colonial Government. If a new road is to be built, all 
 the loose earth is removed until they reach a hard substantial surface, 
 then it is filled in with broken stone, about the size of eggs, and beat 
 down thoroughly with mauls, and then fine, dry earth is spread on same, 
 enough to cover them about a couple of inches, and again beat down 
 thoroughly. This is generally let out to contractors. 
 
 The pxpense for building new country roads is about 10,000 francs 
 per kilometre, and to keep the same in repair, it costs about 1,000 francs 
 per annum per kilometre. The center of the streets in the city is made 
 in the same way as the colonial roads, with the addition of 1 metre in 
 width, on each side of the streets running down to the gutters, which is 
 made with broken stones, laid in cement, at an additional cost of about 
 36 francs per cubic metre. The stone flagging for the sidewalks of the 
 streets, if in artificial stone, costs 16 francs per running metre. The 
 stone to be 35 centimetres wide and 15 deep ; if the flagging is of cal- 
 careous stone, which is easy to work, it costs 140 francs per cubic metre; 
 if composed of volcanic stone, which is very hard and very difScult to 
 work, 200 francs per cubic meter. The street once built, the expense 
 for keeping them in repair is about the same as colonial roads. 
 
 I will mention here that the expense of 10,000 francs per kilometre, 
 for new country roads, is exclusive of bridges and culverts. 
 
 The quay of the city of Pointe-^-Pitre, where the principal commer- 
 cial business is carried on, is paved with cobblestones of a volcanic 
 nature, gathered from Guadeloupe proper, at a cost of 4 francs per 
 square metre, and the expense for maintenance is about 2 francs per 
 annum per square metre. 
 
 Government or public roads going through properties naturally aug- 
 ment their value. 
 
 The principal government roads are very fine and are kept in good 
 repair ; but there are very few of them : There is one, extending 66 
 kilometres, from Pointe-^-Pitre Grande-Terre to Basse-Terre Guade- 
 loupe proper, by crossing the Eivifere-Sal^e in a ferry, passing through 
 Petit Bourg, Goyave, Sainte Marie, Oapesterre, Trois-Eiviferes and 
 Gourbeyre; another 120 kilometres long, after crossing the Eiviferre 
 Sal6e, goes by the northern part of Guadeloupe, to Basse-Terre, pass- 
 ing through Baie-Mahaulto, Lamentin, Sainte-Eose, Pointe-Koire, Des- 
 haies, Vieux- Habitants, Bouillante, and Baillif. There is a short pub- 
 lic road from Basse-Terre to Matouba, of about 10 kilometres, passing 
 through the Camp Jacob. There is another short one, recently con- 
 
FRENCH WEST INDIES. 505 ' '-* 
 
 structed by disciplined soldiers, from Gamp Jacob across to Gourbeyre 
 from 4 to 5 kilometres in length. 
 
 There is a Government or public road going from Pointe-^-Pitre to 
 the Moule, passing through Gosier, Sainte-Anne and Saint-Francois 
 of 50 kilometres, and another one going from Pointe-^-Pltre to the 
 Monle, passing through Abymes^ Morne-^-1'Eau or (iripon of 30 kilome- 
 tres and one from Gripon to Anse-Bertrand of 20 kilometres, passing 
 by Port Louis. 
 
 These are all the principal public roads existing in Guadeloupe 
 proper and Grande-Terre. 
 
 The planters, for their own convenience, make their own roads to their 
 different estates, and at their own expense. Generally these by-roads 
 are not kept in very good repair. 
 
 Chakles Bartlett, 
 
 Consul, 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 6uadelouj)e, July 7, 1891, 
 
CONTINENT OF ASIA. 
 BRITISH ASIA. 
 
 BOMBAY. 
 
 EEPORT OF TIOE-aONSTTL BODE. 
 
 I have the honor to send herewith a copy of a report from the execu- 
 tive engineer, Bombay municipality, on the subject of street building 
 and road making, as per circular, dated November 8, 1890. 
 
 A. E. Bode, 
 
 Yice-Oonsul. 
 United States Oonsxjlate, 
 
 Bombap, April 23, 1891. 
 
 MUNICIPALITY OP BOMBAY. 
 B. 
 
 Mr. Walton, eipgimeer, to Vice-Consul Bode. 
 
 Bombay, April 6, 1891. 
 H. A. AcwORTH, Esq., C. S., 
 
 Munieipal Commissioner. 
 
 KOADMAKING. 
 
 In making new roads the earthwork is first prepared with a surface fall of 1 in 40 
 from the center to the sides where the width of the road is 40 feet and under. Where 
 the width of the road is greater than 40 feet a fall of 1 in 50 is used. The surface is 
 consolidated with 4 or 5 ton huUock rollers, or with steam rollers, preferably with 
 the latter in the dry season. On this a layer of dry rubble packing of a thickness of 
 9 Inches to 12 inches in the case of the roads of the first two classes, and of 6 inches in 
 that of the others is hand packed solid. Over this are laid two layers of 2-inch road 
 metal in aggregate from 6 to. 12 inches in thickness, according to the traffic and im- 
 portance of the road. The first layer is thoroughly watered and rolled until it is par- 
 tially consolidated. The second layer is then spread and watered and rolled with 
 steam rollers until the whole is fairly consolidated. About half an inch of loose 
 sandstone * is then spread on the surface of the road and steam rolling is continued 
 and hard level surface is the result. On each side of the road, especially where there 
 are footpaths, bluestone, chisel dressed water table stones 4 inches thick and from 
 15 to 18 inches wide are laid to carry away the storm water into proper masonry gully- 
 traps. Eoads thus made wear under heavy traffic about six years without any ex- 
 tensive repair. 
 
 *A soft littoral concrete. 
 
 607 
 
508 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, 
 
 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR. 
 
 In order to prevent the metal of these roads becoming loose it is necessary during 
 the dry season to water the roads morning and evening, and to repair slight defects as 
 they appear in the surface promptly. New roads aie constructed, as a rule, by con- 
 tract. Repair works are carried out departmently by a staff engaged for the purpose. 
 
 When the road requires thorough repair the surface is picked up in contlnnoas con- 
 venient lengths to a depth of about 4 inches for one-half the width of the road at a 
 time in order that the traffic may not be stopped. On an average one native pick- 
 man, working 8 hours, picks 200 square feet of metalled road. The old metal if ser- 
 viceable is separated from the fine stuff (which is rejected) and spread over the 
 picked surface. New road metal is put over this to the required depth, giving the 
 proper slope to the surface. This is consolidated as described of new roads. 
 
 The total length of the street in the charge of the municipality is 138f miles and 
 the area of the metaled part of such roads is 3,110,605 square yards. Footpaths are 
 not included. The annual cost of maintenance of metaled part of roads is as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Knpees. 
 
 Cost of watering for the nine dry months in the year 93, 270 
 
 Cost of metal and other materials for street repair 162, 000 
 
 Cart hire in connection with street repair 92,000 
 
 Labor in connection with road repair 95,000 
 
 Steam roUers 16,000 
 
 Coals and stores ana tepairs 24,500 
 
 Total 482,770 
 
 Or 155 rupees per square yard. 
 
 The effect on the rate of land fronting a new road was recently well exemplified 
 in the construction of the Eipon road. While taking up land for this road an en- 
 deavor was made to purchase frontage lands along the line of this road. But on 
 account of the strenuous oppositions of the owners of the land to part with more 
 land than that required for the road, only a part of the frontages could be purchased. 
 The total area of land purchased was 68,750 square yards, from which, deducting 
 26,289 square yards required for the road, and 5,157 square yards for cross roads, 
 making a total deduction of 31,446 square yards, there remained a balance of 37,304 
 square yards available for resale. The cost of land, including compensation, amounted 
 to 163,633 rupees ; the cost of road construction and establishment amounted to 
 65,679 rupees ; sale charges amounted to 9,000 rupees, making a total of 236,312 rupees, 
 from which, deducting miscellaneous receipts, rent, sale of materials, amounting to 
 6,806 rupees, there remained 231,506 rupees as the actual cost of making Ripon road, 
 including also charges for land and compensation to private owners. The land was 
 bought at a price averaging 75 rupees per square yard. 
 
 The surplus area was sold by ptiblio auction at rates averaging 7,23 rupees per 
 square yard. 
 
 In addition to the direct profit made by constructing the Ripon road, revenue of 
 the municipality was increased by the buildings which were built fronting the road 
 after its construction. 
 
 The amount of such increase can not, however, be given, even approximately. 
 
 RiENZi Walton, 
 Executive Engineer, Municipality. 
 
 True copy. 
 
 W. Pearson, 
 Assistant to Commissioner, 
 
 E. M. S, 
 
 United States Consulate at Bombay. 
 
BKITISH ASIA — CEYLON. 509 
 
 CEYLON. 
 
 REPORT BY CONSUL MORBT. 
 
 Department of State instruction per circular of November 8, 1890, 
 was received here at a period when the furnishing of a truthful and 
 thoroughly reliable report on the roads of Oeylon was beyond my 
 capacity. 
 
 Mr. MacBride, the director of public works, had on his accession" to 
 oflftce in 1885 adopted a new system (or a modiflcation of his own of 
 the Macadam system, hitherto in vog'ue) and was working it with 
 great perseverance, despite an amount of public detraction that might 
 well have deterred a less able and determined man. 
 
 The fierce diatribes against him and his roads, constantly appearing 
 in the newspapers, if cut out and preserved, would form a large vol- 
 ume of the harshest criticism extant, and there was nothing to offset 
 them in the literary line except his own periodical reports to the Gov- 
 ernment, all of the facts in which were stoutly denied by the great army 
 of dissentients as soon as they appeared. 
 
 I myseJf at one period feared that Mr. MacBride had fallen upon a 
 wrong system, for the outcry against him was loud and fierce enough 
 to shake the confidence of almost anybody. I knew, however, that Sir 
 Arthur Gordon, the then governor of the colony, who had traveled 
 largely over these roads and was a very keen observer, thoroughly be- 
 lieved in the new system and meant to back Mr. MacBride up in it, 
 through " good and evil report," to the bitter end. 
 
 I was also in the way of hearing traveled countrymen of my own 
 express admiration of the excellent roads they found wherever they 
 went in Ceylon, and, as their opinions were bound to be dispassionate, 
 they counted heavily against the local uttefances, which after all 
 might be largely due to prejudice, predilection, or what is popularly called 
 conservatism. 
 
 On my return to the island from leave in 1890 I found the newspaper 
 war on the roads as fiercely conducted as ever, but there was neverthe- 
 less a faint murmur of approval getting into the air, and it gradually 
 got whispered about that Mr. MacBride and his highways had scored.. 
 
 It was about this period of growing reaction that my instruction to 
 report on roads arrived, and as it was MacBride roads that must form 
 the subject of my report, and said roads, after being decried for years, 
 were now just receiving some approval, I felt bound to await future 
 developments before reporting upon the system. 
 
 By the end of the year 1890 the denouement came. The roads were 
 unquestionably good, and they had been built and kept up at a dimin- 
 ished cost, as against the old system, of the large sum of 850,000 rupees 
 per annum. Detraction now ceased, newspapers withheld their philip- 
 pics, and in some cases even made the amend honorable to Mr. Mac- 
 Bride. 
 
510 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 Now was the time to make my report, but alas ! Mr. MacBride went 
 away on duty to India, and there remained as data for my guidance 
 only his reports, which the newspapers had contradicted ad, inifinitum, 
 and which being intended only to meet local requirements scarcely 
 afforded explicitly the information my Government desired. 
 
 I was obliged therefore to await Mr. MacBride's return, and on his 
 arrival I waited on him and requested the favor of such data as would 
 enable me to make an intelligent and truthful report. This he kindly 
 agreed to give as soon as he could spare time from his own pressing 
 duties to collect it, and the final result is, the annexed, able, and ex- 
 haustive exposition by his pen, which, as I could not add to it profitably 
 a single word of my own, he has courteously allowed me to forward in 
 its entirety. 
 
 I would merely add, in conclusion, that the roads in Ceylon attain an 
 altitude of over 6,000 feet above sea-level, and are subject to damage, 
 principally from rains and floods, the rainfall sometimes amounting to 
 260 inches per annum, and in certain localities 12 inches per diem, and 
 8 inches have been registered in two hours. 
 
 They are, however, exempt from the action of severe frost, for this 
 climate is highly tropical, Ceylon being situated only a few degrees 
 from the equator, say between 5° 56" and 9° north latitude. 
 
 W. MORET, 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Colombo, July 8, 1891. 
 
 Mr. MacBride to Consul Morey. 
 
 Colombo, Ceylon, July, 2, 1891. 
 W. Morey, Esq., . 
 
 Consul of the United States of America, Colornbo : 
 
 Sir: With reference to your visit of May last, and request that I shoald furnish 
 you with iuformation regarding the construction and maintenance of public roads in 
 Ceylon, and the cost thereof, I have the honor to forward herewith a paper on the 
 subject, which I trust will be found of practical interest to the Department of Stat© 
 concerned. 
 
 There is no greater boon to give to a populous country than roads; when we find 
 them outside our doors every day of our lives we look upon them as very ordinary 
 things, and think little of them, but go to any part of Ceylon or to any country 
 where there are no roads and you will find every able-bodied man, and woman too 
 turned into a beast of burden. I believe roads confer more good on a people than 
 anything that laws can cause or cure. 
 
 The direct revenue of. roads is that derived from tolls. In Ceylon it amounts to 
 about 450,000 rupees, but besides they give an impetus to trade and are instrumental 
 in developing the resources of the country. 
 
 The policy of the government of Ceylon in regard to its roads is one of efficiency 
 combined with economy, whereby all roads receive equal and adequate attention in 
 proportion to the traffic passing over them. 
 I am, sir, your most obedient servant, 
 
 E. K. MacBride, 
 Director of Public Works. 
 
BRITISH ASIA — CEYLON. 511 
 
 KOADS IN CEYLON. 
 lEeportby Mr. MaoBride, director of public works in Ceylon. 1 
 
 The roads of Ceylon are, as a rule, well aad solidly constructed, and maintained in 
 a thoroughly efficient state for the traffic they have to bear. 
 
 These results arc attained by the votes .given by the government for such services, 
 and by careful attention to every detail by the department of public works. 
 
 It is unnecessary in Ceylon to distinguish between "city stroots" and "country 
 roads or highways." The only city in Ceylon is Colombo, with a population of 
 120,000, scattered over an area of 10 sc[uare miles. The roads in Colombo are dealt 
 with in much the same way as those in the country, and cost but little more per 
 s(iuare yard for construction or maintenance. 
 
 TRACING KOADS. 
 
 The line of road to be opened in a new district is located by an experienced en- 
 gineering surveyor, with a due regard to the traffic to be served. Trial lines are usu- 
 ally run in the first instance with a simple instrument known as a "road tracer," 
 with which gradients can be readily located. The line is then -traversed with the 
 theodolite, the traverse connected with trigonometrical stations, and then a longitu- 
 dinal section and cross-sections every 100 feet are taken with the Dumpy level. 
 
 A gradient of 1 inch in 20 is considered the maximum that should be permitted in 
 a first-class road. 
 
 Zigzags are only permissible when the features of the country are so rugged and 
 precipitous that their adoption is obviously advantageous; but when adopted, their 
 construction for a radius of 50 from the turn on each side is level. This slightly 
 increases the gradient, but the traffic ascending or descending is steadied on a level 
 roadway at each turn, and the draft animals are thereby relieved of the heavy strain. 
 
 Owing to the extremely steep and broken nature of the hill country of Ceylon 
 the roads, as a rule, are in sidelong or double cutting ; in the low country, where, due 
 to the heavy rainfall, floods occur alinost annually, long embankments with numer- 
 ous waterways and double cuttings are frequent. 
 
 The road trace having been made and approved, and the estimate for its construc- 
 tion framed and passed by the government, the construction proceeds as follows : 
 
 Cooly lines or rude huts of wattle and daub walls and thatched roofs are erected 
 at convenient points on or near the line of roadway, attention being given to the 
 water supply and drainage, and gangs of Tamil laborers are employed to cut out the 
 earthwork, blast the rock, and remove bowlders until a roadway of 16 feet in the solid 
 to the gradient laid down on the plans is obtained. At the same time the building 
 of culverts in all ravines and of others to take the side drainage of the road, pro- 
 ceeds. These cross culverts have, as a rule, an opening of 3 feet in height, by 2 
 wide; they are of dry hammer-dressed rubble masonry. A rough floor, about a foot 
 in thickness, is laid, on which the side walls are built and then cover stones with 
 sufficient bearing are selected and the masonry is carried up to road level, and occasion- 
 ally finished off with a low parapet wall. The larger streams have two, three, or 
 more openings and of longer size and, if 12 feet or more waterway is required, arched 
 bridges of masonry or iron girder bridges with buckled-plated and concrete platforms 
 are used. Partially worn out rails from the government railway have also been ex- 
 tensively used for bridging these smaller streams. Timber, some years ago exten- 
 sively used for bridging, is now seldom adopted, owing to the extremely rapid decay, 
 of such material in the tropics, and the destruction by white ants to which it is 
 exposed. The larger streams and rivers are bridged, usually, with iron girders, of 
 which very numerous patterns have been adopted in different localities, some im- 
 ported from England and many made in the public works factory in Colombo. The 
 largest spans hitherto adopted are 150 feet. 
 
512 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 SURFACE TO CAKRT THE TRAFFIC. 
 
 The roadway being so far constructed a layer of foundation stone 6 inches to 9 
 inches deep is laid by hand to a width of 14 or 15 feet ; on this is spread a layer of 3 
 inches of broken metal, broken by hand, in cubes to pass through a ring of 2 inches 
 diameter, however held, and the surface being iinished with a very small quantity of 
 clean gravel is consolidated, with iron rollers weighing 35 cwts., drawn by native bul- 
 locks, and a liberal application of water, a side drain about 2 feet wide and 18 inches 
 deep is cut on the inside in side-long ground, or both sides in double cutting. 
 
 MATERIALS DSED IN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Abundance of good stone exists almost everywhere in Ceylon; it is gneiss, a meta- 
 morphic rock, in a few places so clearly stratified as to render it easy to wedge it off 
 from the quarry face in blocks suitable with but little dressing for the best masonry. 
 The same stone, which is indeed the predominant geological feature of Ceylon, is 
 used for the foundation and the metaling. Quartz gravel is common in certain parts 
 of Ceylon, and where it is not found a fairly good hard gravel, known locally as 
 cabook* gravel and abounding in clay iron stone, isfonnd. This is in the formation 
 known geologically as " laterite." Hardwood timber is scarce and difficult to obtain 
 in the Central Prov ince and other settled districts, and owing to the large consumption 
 of fuel on tea estates is becoming more so every year ; in the low country it is 
 abundant. 
 
 Lime in the form of bowlders of almost pure carbonate of lime is found all over 
 Ceylon, but the lime for mortar obtained from burning this stone is comparatively 
 poor in quality as a building material. The best lime obtainable in Ceylon is made 
 of coral, found everywhere along the seaboard, but rates of transport (Ceylon is not 
 a horse or draft cattle breeding country) make its use in the interior expensive. 
 
 Portland cement imported from England is largely used for work exposed to wet 
 and for concrete foundations, where such are necessary. 
 
 LABOR. 
 
 Th? labor employed on both the construction and maintenance of Ceylon roads is 
 chiefly Tamil, originally from southern India. Though not physically equal to Euro- 
 peans, Tamil coolies can do a good day's work and are housed and fed at a minimum 
 of trouble and expense. Their pay ranges from 32t cents of a rupee to 42J; cents for 
 ordinary coolies, 50§ cents to a rupee for artificers, miners, builders, and carpenters, 
 a rupee to two and a half rupees for highly trained artificers and foremen. 
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 The tools used in road construction and maintenance are much the same as are in 
 use in Europe, but the spade and shovel are almost unknown, their place being taken 
 by a tool called a mamoty, in shape like an adze,|| but with a broad flat blade. 
 ■Wheelbarrows are unknown, transport of material being chiefly performed by wicker- 
 work baskets carried on the head, or by iron carts dragged by hand. 
 
 Trained elephants are used on road construction, especially in remote districts 
 where machinery and appliances for lifting or moving heavy weights are not to be 
 had. The elephants drag stone on rough sledges formed of the fork of a small tree 
 to which they are attached with a rope collar and chain traces. They also can move 
 enormous weights with their heads, and will exercise great care and intelligence when 
 well directed in placing heavy stones in position on masonry works. Transport is 
 also carried on with bullocks working in two-wheeled carts. 
 
 •Laterite. tl2i cents. 1 15 cents. { 18 cents. II A clumsy hoe iron. 
 
BRITISH ASIA — CEYLON. 613 
 
 The average cost of first-class metaled and well-bridged roads in the hill country 
 of Ceylon is 20,000 rupees* per mile ; in the low country about 12,000 rupees-t 
 Graveled roads cost about 5,000 rupees less per mile in each case. 
 
 The rupee, at the present valueof silver, is worth about 1 shilling and 5 pence in 
 English nioney; thus 2.83 rupees represents the value of an American dollar. The 
 cost, therefore, of a first-class metaled road in the hiils would be in American money 
 about |7,067 per mile, and the cheapest road in the low country $2,473 per mile. 
 
 MAINTENANCE OF KOADS. 
 
 As before stated, the roads of Ceylon are maintained in a very efSoient state; the 
 surface and the drainage receive the most careful attention ; a skilled European 
 ofiScer of public works is in charge of each departmental district, having about 100 
 miles of principal roads. He is under the direction of the chief engineer of the 
 province and has under him a staff of native overseers and clerks. The system on 
 which the roads are now maintained, known locally as "the MaoBride system," was 
 introduced in the year 1884 by the writer, the present director of public works (Mr. 
 E. K. MacBride, C. M. G.), and was designed to introduce road reform, which was 
 greatly needed in the colony, and to render dishonesty and peculation among the 
 native overseers almost impossible. It has already saved the colony an expenditure 
 of 3,500,000 rupees. 
 
 The amount of broken metal required annually to keep up the surface of the road 
 and replace that worn away by the traffic has been learned by long experience with 
 considerable accuracy. The work of the year commences by breaking this metal in 
 the quarries adjoining the road, and either piling it continuously along the sides of 
 the road to be repaired or in convenient depots at short distances apart. As a rule no 
 metal is used until all is broken for the year, but a small reserve is always kept for 
 the patching of ruts which May develop before the time for full repairs comes. The 
 whole of the metal should be ready by May, when the southwest mousoon bursts and 
 heavy rains may be expected. About this time the first annual clearing of surface and 
 drains is undertaken. The scraping of grass or cutting away of jangle merely for ap- 
 pearance sake is strictly forbidden, but anything that impedes the free discharge of 
 rainwater from the road is removed and the side drains are cleared of silt and vege- 
 tation. The edges of the road throughout its length are kept down below the level 
 of the metaled surface, so that scupper drains, which are injurious, may be strictly 
 prohibited. The metal being all broken and the rains having set in the repairs 
 proceed at once. 
 
 If continuous ruts have developed, they are cut out to a width of 2 to 3 feet and a 
 depth of a few inches ; the old material so excavated is sifted and cleaned, the detri- 
 tus due to the complete disintegration of the metal is thrown away, but the finer 
 stone and unworn metal is retained as a blinding for the new material about to be 
 laid. The rut is then carefully filled with new material, the blinding of old worn 
 metal applied, and the consolidation by iron rollers of 35 cwts., drawn by one or more 
 pairs of bullocks, proceeds. If the rains are not sufflciently lasting, water is col- 
 lected in the side drains or led for long distances in the hill country and freely ap- 
 plied during the consolidating process. If the traffic has not developed continuous 
 ruts the places that require repair are cut out in rectangular shapes and the process 
 of repair is ais above described. In some cases, and especially in towns, the whole 
 surface is picked up annually and reformed and completed in a similar manner. A 
 portion of the metal is reserved for a second repair later in the year when the second 
 monsoon — that fl-om the northeast — sets in, about October or November, when the 
 rains receive their second clearing up. 
 
 * Practically $8,000. + Practically |4,800. 
 
 33a 33 
 
514 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Where this system is properly carried oat the result is a road surface hard as 
 adamant and smooth as a billiard table. The director of public works would be 
 very glad, in the event of his visiting America, to afford the Department of State 
 every information regarding the details of the road-maintenance system of Cey- 
 lon that bears his name. Tables are annexed showing the total number of miles 
 of road open in Ceylon, metaled, graveled, and natural, the latter being merely 
 tracks through the jungle, cleared of trees and I'oots but without culverts or bridges, 
 and only passable for wheeled traffic in dry weather. 
 
 Diagrams are also appended showing the total expenditure on construction and 
 upkeep for the past 6 years. 
 
 The_average cost of maintenance per mile of all roads in charge of the public 
 works department now is 314.80 rupees per mile per annum, or, in American money, 
 nil. 
 
 The highest rate of expenditure ou roads exposed to continuous and heavy traffic 
 is 1,146.51 rupees per mile=$403. The lowest 17C rupee8 = $60. 
 
 R. K. MacBride, 
 Director of Public Works. 
 
 Colombo, Ceylon, July 2, 1891. 
 
 Numlier of miles of road open in Ceylon. 
 
 Metaled roads .' 1,634.80 
 
 Graveled roads 965.44 
 
 Natural roads 541.90 
 
 Total 3,142.14 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 BEPOBT BT MINISTER DENBY. 
 
 Eoad mating is an art, which, among the Chinese, has never been 
 brought to any great perfection. It is remarkable that a people famil- 
 iar, as they have been for centuries, with the essential part which roads 
 play in commerce have never undertaken to improve the means of com- 
 munication by land with their distant frontiers or between their great 
 cities. 
 
 The explanation, probably, is that in the greater part of China proper 
 there are water ways, natural and artificial, crossing the plains as a netj 
 while human labor has always been found preferable to pack horses, or 
 other beasts of burden, over narrow and circuitous mountain passes. 
 
 In southern China, at the centers of the tea trade, the long strings of 
 coolies bearing down from the hills their fragrant burdens of tea leaves 
 in deep baskets slung on poles is a familiar sight. The transport of 
 brick- tea over the mountain roads of Szu-chuan into Thibet, a trade said 
 to amount to £200,000 annually, is also effected by coolies, who here 
 on account of the steepness of the defiles, do not use carrying poles, 
 but bear the tea on a wooden frame strapped to their shoulders. In 
 this way they make a 15 days' journey over mountain paths of great 
 diflQculty, bearing about 100 pounds of tea each, for which service they 
 receive the equivalent of from $3 to $4. 
 
ASIA, — CHINA. 515 
 
 The importance of military roads has never been thoroughly im- 
 pressed on the Chinese. The great campaigns of the Mongol and Man- 
 chu emperors were conducted with hordes of nomadio cavalry, whose 
 movements were independent of fixed routes. It was the terrible Mon- 
 gol horsemen who, in the thirteenth century, overran Asia, a resistless 
 wave of barbarism, threatening even the kingdoms of Christendom. In 
 tbe eighteenth century the Manchu conqueror's campaigns against the 
 Mohammedans of Shi and Kashgaria were also conducted chiefly by 
 mounted troops. In none of the wars of China has she yet faced the 
 problem of the transportation of heavy ordnance. 
 
 In northern China, where water ways are not so i. umerous as in the 
 south, intercommunication has always presented serious difficulties 
 which no attempt has been made to overcome. Bridges have been built 
 over some smaller streams, but are not kept in repair. The large rivers 
 are to be crossed by ferries only, the smaller to be forded. At the ferries 
 the ferry-boats are intentionally constructed with a high side-board so 
 that the carts cannot be driven on without unhitching. This gives em- 
 ployment to acrowd of hangers-on, in unhitching and lifting on and off 
 the carts, for a compensation. The other arrangements of the high- 
 ways seem dictated by a similar motive. At some places there are 
 bridges which are too narrow to be crossed by carts, where the mules 
 are taken out and led over singly while the carts are carried over on 
 men's shoulders. In time of flood there is frequently no way of crossing 
 at all. Where nature has afforded no convenient impediment, bad char- 
 acters sometimes dig holes in the road in order to obtain employment 
 in helping carts through. 
 
 The roads themselves, outside the cities, aremerely aline of ruts across 
 the fields. In winter when free from rain, as they are for nine months 
 in the year, they keep in very good condition. In summer they are a 
 fathomless impassable bog, and travel except on foot is suspended. In- 
 side the cities some of the most crowded thoroughfares are paved with 
 massive blocks of stone. Where kept in repair these stone roads are 
 serviceable, but they are so infrequent as only to accentuate the impassa- 
 bility of the others. 
 
 The importance of the rapid conveyance of intelligence to the center 
 of government from the outside provinces has always been felt. In the 
 days preceding the introduction of the telegraph this was accomplished 
 by an elaborate system of post stations. These were placed some 30 
 miles apart and relays of horses constantly kept in readiness for the im- 
 perial courier. By these means dispatches have been sent to distant 
 provincial capitals at the rate of 250 miles per day. This system was 
 brought to great perfection under the Mongol emperors, if we may trust 
 the description of Marco Polo. He states that Kublai Kahn had 300,000 
 horses, especially kept for the use of messengers, and more than 10,000 
 post stations. In connection with the mounted couriers an elaborate 
 system of foot messengers was also maintained. The stations for the 
 
516 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 runners were only 3 miles apart, and by them the Emperor is said to 
 have received news from places 10 day's distant in 1 day and 1 night, 
 or, if need be, news from 100 days off in 10 days and nights, " and that," 
 to use Marco Polo's own words, "is no small matter." 
 
 Fruit gathered in Peking in the morning was thus transmitted to the 
 summer palace, 10 days distant, arriving the evening of the next day. 
 
 A cruel custom prevails with reference to the official courier service 
 in Thibet. The express courier from Gartok to Lhara, a distance of 800 
 miles, travels night and day. He is not relieved en route. His clothes 
 are sealed onto him and can only be removed after the seal has been 
 broken by the proper official. These messengers are lifted at the post 
 stations from one horse to another and arrive at their destination with 
 cracked faces and eyes bloodshot and sunken. They sometimes die on 
 the way from exposure and fatigue. 
 
 The elaborate system of posts for imperial messages in China seems 
 never to have suggested the establishment of a government postal 
 service for the public at large. In spite of its autocratic and central- 
 ized character, the conveyance of the people's correspondence has never 
 been considered a proper function of the government. All private 
 correspondence is transmitted by private post-offices, or " hsin chii," 
 of which there are several rival establishments in each city. These 
 firms employ their own couriers, who travel by horseback or on foot or, 
 where possible, by steamer. Speed is not a conspicuous feature of the 
 system, though between cities where the business justifies a regular 
 mounted service, letters and small parcels are carried at the rate of 
 75 or 80 miles a day. The charges for small distances are not excessive, 
 a letter being sent from Peking to Tientsin for about 10 cents. For 
 long distances, however, the charges are disproportionately large. This 
 legation finds frequent occasion to use the private post for communi- 
 cating with missionaries in the interior, particularly in Shantung. 
 From Peking to Ohinanfu, the capital of Shantung, is about 225 miles, 
 and the usual charge for transmitting a letter thither is 40 cents. 
 
 One peculiarity about these postal establishments is their responsi- 
 bility for loss or failure to deliver. Competition forces them to be 
 thoroughly reliable and careful. At river ports at the hour of sailing 
 of a steamer, the competition between rival firms in soliciting patron- 
 age through their runners is said to be a familiar incident. 
 
 That these systems of government and private posts should exist 
 without leading to the construction of proper post roads and highways 
 is remarkable. Over some mountain roads, however, which would 
 otherwise be impassable, considerable work has been done and money 
 expended. In some places the paths over the passes have been simply 
 paved for foot travelers, but in others provision has been made for the 
 passage of carts. Most of these roads date from great antiquity, but 
 there are occasional instances of recent construction and repair. 
 
 The most important of recent improvements is the putting in order 
 
ASIA — CHINA. 517 
 
 of the road througli the Obii Yung Kuan north of Peking. This is the 
 pass leading into Mongolia from China, through the great wall, past 
 the cities of NankouandKalgan. It is familiar to all tourists to Peking 
 as the " Nankou Pass." Tiie work of repair here was undertaken by 
 the viceroy Li Kungchang some years ago, and in the Peking Gazette 
 of the 19th of May, appears a memorial from him announcing its com- 
 pletion. I inclose this memorial at length, to which I call attention, 
 not only for its reference to the subject of this dispatch, but as illus- 
 trating a peculiar feature of Chinese government. 
 
 The system of intrusting important public- works to the " gentry and 
 literati" is not new in this country. Private subscription to public 
 works such as road making, river embankment, public charities, etc., 
 form an important resource of the treasury. The proposed plan of 
 lending out the public funds to pawnbrokers is a thoroughly Chinese 
 proceeding. The deriving of Government income from money loaned 
 at interest to its subjects prevails extensively here, though the income 
 is always, as in this instance, devoted to a particular purpose. Gentry 
 who distinguish themselves by large subscriptions or by exertions in 
 the public service are rewarded by tablets and arches or by the bestowal 
 of honorary official titles. ■ 
 
 The road whose completion the Viceroy reports is said by recent trav- 
 ellers to be of the most creditable character. Drains have been made, 
 substantial bridges built, inequalities leveled and obstructing rock 
 hewn away. The new road will be of great benefit to local traffic but 
 particularly for the transport of the immense quantities of tea shipped 
 by Eussian merchants, on camels, from Tuugchou to Kiachta, via this 
 
 Charles Denby, 
 
 Minister. 
 United States Legation, 
 
 Peking, June 7, 1S91. 
 
 EOAD repairing IN CHITJA. 
 
 [Translated from the Poking Gazette of May 19, 1891, by Oh. Denby, jr., second secretary.] 
 
 Li Kuiig-chanff, earl of the first rank, grand secretary, Ticeroyof Chihli, presents 
 a memorial with reference to the completion of the workof repairing the road through 
 the Chii Yung Kuan, the important thoroughfare north of Peking ; he requests the 
 gracious granting of rewards to those gentry who have exerted their efforts in the 
 ■work. . A respectfnl memorial on which the sacred glance Is humbly entreated. Mem- 
 orialist represents that Chii Yung Kuan in Yen Ching Chou is the first of the nine im- 
 portant places in Tai-Laing. It is close to the capital. Such are its cliffs and abrupt 
 hills that a step can scarcely be taken without danger. Former dynasties looked 
 npon it as an important place for the protection of their frontiers. This dynasty, 
 however, has borders widely extended. Those without and those within the pass are 
 of one family. This road must bo used by the princes of the inner and the outer 
 Mongols bringing tribute in their journeys to and from Peking. It is used also for 
 
518 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 the transport of military supplies for the forts on the frontiers of the two ciionits of 
 the northwest. This pass has not been repaired to any extent for more than two 
 hundred and some score years. For 45 li the road pierces the hills and winds through 
 gorges, where in summer and autumn water and stones dash downward, so that 
 travelers go through with difficulty. In winter the streams in the gorges freeze to 
 solid ice and many men and animals fall. The merchants regarded the road as a 
 dangerous one. An urgent necessity existed to devise means for the repair of it for 
 the public good. The amount of work to be done, however, was excessive and the 
 funds required very large, and Chihli has long been a province deficient in revenue, 
 whose public treasury could make no appropriation for this purpose. 
 
 In the fourth moou of the thirteenth year of Kuanghsii (1897), Chang Hung-chiia 
 ^formerly prefect of Hstian Hua Fu, together with Chang Ch^ng-i, deputy magistrate 
 of Yen Ching Chou, and Ho,Ch€ng-hsii, district magistrate of the Huai-lai district, 
 made inquiries as to the opinion of the elders and gentry and the views of the people 
 in general, who all expressed themselves as of the opinion that a tax should be 
 levied on cattle and beasts of burden passing to and fro to raise funds to put the 
 road in order. In this arrangement the merchants at large rejoicingly acquiesced. 
 It was accordingly decided to place a public office in the Chii Yang Kuan and levy 
 from camels, mules, catties, horses, donkeys, pigs, and sheep a charge of from 10 cast 
 (2 cents) to 2 or 3 cast each, to be exacted of all alike whether coming into China or 
 going outward. 
 
 Thus, from an expense inconsiderable to the merchants and people at large, was 
 created a, revenue to be relied on forever by tlje locality. The affair was easily 
 started, 
 
 Those who bring down government horses and return empty handed, women rid- 
 ing, unaccompanied by goods, and agricnltnral laborers gathering fuel and grass to 
 be carried away on beasts of burden, are not required to pay anything, in order to 
 show that proper discretion is exercised. 
 
 Li Hou-chi and other upright men from the literati of the locality have been selected 
 and intrusted with the management of the work. They have agreed upon regula- 
 tions which were submitted by petition to memorialist who authorized their pro- 
 visional operation. 
 
 The magistrates of the several departments concerned repeatedly surveyed the said 
 pass. From the eastern postal station atChS-taotoLang Chf ao ( Wolf Bri dge) at Chang 
 Ping Chou, it measures in all 6,730 chang (about 4,200 rods). The estimated quan- 
 tity of earth and rock to be moved and the labor to be expended was very great. As 
 the funds were to be derived from animals coming by at intervals, it was impossible 
 to undertake the whole whole work at once. Hence the distance was divided into 
 eleven sections to be put in order in suooassion. Work was begun at Pa-ta-ling and 
 elsewhere which are the most dangerous localities. 
 
 At this time it happened that Hu Tung, a native of Yen Ching Chou, now an expec- 
 tant taotai in Hupei, had returned to his native place and memorialist, inasmuch as 
 he was thoroughly acquainted with the topography of the pass, ordered him to asso- 
 ciate with the magistrates of the departments concerned in their consultations and 
 nudertakings. 
 
 At present, the road through the pass having been leveled by degrees, the number 
 of carts passing through daily increases and memorialist, being petitioned, author- 
 ized the levy of a fee from them as from animals to be devoted likewise to the work 
 of repair. 
 
 The officials and gentry concerned in the work made a thorough examination of 
 the features of the locality and ascertained where dikes must be built, drains dug, 
 holes filled, elevations leveled, and where land should be bought from the people to 
 make a detour, and where the road should be carried along a hillside to make a 
 thoroughfare. The road has been made 4.5 chang (450 feet) to 1 chang (10 feet) or 2 
 chang (20 feet) broad, diflforing in different places. The sections of the road have 
 
ASIA — CHINA. 519 
 
 been successively repaired, diked, and leveled so that carts even now traverse it with- 
 out danger or obatruotion. 
 
 If it is intended that the work shall endure it can not be completed in one day. 
 "Whenever a heavy rain falls the water rushes down from the peaks with myriads of 
 stones, as if heaven were being dragged down and earth uplifted. If these stones 
 become jammed together the road overflows to great depth and there is no thorough- 
 fare through the gorges. The causes of these defects must be ascertained and reme- 
 dies sought therefor that control may be established. 
 
 During the summer of last year there suddenly came on a continuous rain which 
 lasted many days and was heavier than for scores of years. The part of the road 
 first repaired, that at Pa-ta-ling, which was called the Tien Ksien, though it encoun- 
 tered this terrible flood still remained unhurt. Other places were slightly damaged, 
 but were easily repaired. At Tan Chin Gorge and at the Buddha's Stone Shrine the 
 hills on both sides crowd together and leave no space to carry off the water. Here 
 the abutments of the road were half washed away. Man's strength is ihadequate, 
 in view of the circumstances, to avoid such mishaps. It was therefore decided to 
 change the road to the west side and make a circuit around these two places. The 
 main road will be reentered again at Liu Lang Ting. By avoiding watery places and 
 following mountain paths, by making earth roads and keeping out of the way of 
 rocks, it is hoped that future damage will be escaped. This suggestion being made 
 by those in charge of the work they were ordered to take action accordingly, and, 
 on the 18th day of the second moon of this year, they reported the completion of the 
 -work. 
 
 Orders were given to send Wang Shou-cheng, prefect of Hsiian Hna to inspect 
 the part of the road which has been leveled, and it is found that merchants going 
 north and south have been greatly benetited. There is, however, no work which 
 will not deteriorate with lapse of time. The road through the pass will be trampled 
 and worn by horses and carts and eroded by wind and rain. Unless means are de- 
 vised to provide funds for the important repairs it is to be feared that after some 
 years the labor and hardship which have been spent upon this work will be found to 
 have been in vain. 
 
 The total receipts from animals from the middle of 1987 to the beginning of 1891, 
 have been 29,160 strings of cash (about $25,000). The merchants of the vicinity sub- 
 scribed also 600 taels of silver. Over aud above what has been expended there re- 
 main only 3,500 strings of cast and 600 taels. This sum is insufficieut. The tax on 
 animals must be retained for several years, not only to defray the incidental repairs, 
 but to collect the sura of 10,000 taels, upon which the toll will cease. The income 
 from the cart tax commenced after the beginning of the work on the road, and when 
 the tax on animals is abolished the tax on large carts must be retained several years. 
 This also will stop when 5,000 taels have been raised. The two above sums will be 
 kept apart and loaned to merchants to produce interest. The interest from the tax 
 on animals will be used only for annual repairs ; that from the sum collected on caits 
 for the expenses of great repairs. Regulations will be enacted establishing a mutual 
 supervision between gentry and ofiBcials to prevent unlawful usurpation, waste, de- 
 ficit and misappropriation. 
 
 Progress will hereafter be made in the art of road repairing, and every day the road 
 will improve so that for scores of years it will cause no anxiety. All rejoice that a 
 dangerous way has been made smooth. 
 
 The gentry engaged in the affair have relied upon their own resources in effecting 
 the repairs, having made no perquisites whatever. Through 5 years they struggled 
 against hardships diligently, accomplishing a difScult task. Now it has been brought 
 about that a pass, in which a horse could scarcely place a foot, has been transformed 
 into a level road, over which loaded carts easily travel. This manifests the credit of 
 those intrusted with the work. They are really deserving of praise, and it is proper 
 to recommend the more meritorious for reward. 
 
520 STKEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES, 
 
 AMOY." 
 
 BEPOUT by EDWARD BJEDLOE. 
 
 INTEODUCTORT AND EXPLANATORY. 
 
 Eoad making as. an art involves at least five factors : First, the nature 
 of the materials employed or local lithology; second, the topography 
 of the country traversed ; third, the geology of the country traversed ; 
 fourth, the climatology of the country traversed ; and fifth, the system 
 employed by the roadmakers. 
 
 All of these vary from point to point, so that in no two places do the 
 same conditions prevail. It is well to bear this fact in mind, as one 
 accustomed to a kind of work perfectly suited to the locality to which 
 he belongs is very apt to misjudge work perfectly suited to another 
 locality with whose circumstances he is unfamiliar. The roads of Amoy 
 are very different in many respects from those which prevail over the 
 larger part of the United States, but they are admirably adapted to 
 the conditions imposed by the five factors enumerated. To understand 
 the first thoroughly it is necessary to understand the last. 
 
 On account of the facts hereinafter set forth there is no difference 
 between city streets and country roads in Amoy. All are made of the 
 same materi^s, in the same way, and under the same law. If streets 
 are to be taken as those complex institutions, so familiar to Americans, 
 which serve as thoroughfares, water conduits, sewer, water, gas, and 
 electrical ways, there are none such in Amoy. There is no difference 
 between the most crowded city district and the lonely cemetery in this 
 particular regard, exc epting that the roads are less worn in the latter 
 than the former neighborhood. 
 
 LITHOLOGY OE AMOY. 
 
 The only rock formation in Kulangsu and the chief one in Amoy is 
 granite. Where it has not been acted upon by the elements, it is a 
 hard, handsome stone resembling Quincy granite, but neither so strong 
 nor so durable. It is seldom quarried on Kulangsu, what cut stone is 
 used there being brought from other parts of Amoy. 
 
 The elements act upon the granite in different ways. The commonest 
 is where the rock has been corroded until it has become a nodidar hard- 
 pan. This represents two-thirds of the surface of Amoy. It is too 
 tough to be taken up with the spade or shovel, but offers practically no 
 resistance to the pick or crowbar. In this condition, as in fact in all 
 others, where it has been greatly weathered, it is very .porous, as is 
 shown at every rainfall when the water instead of collecting on the sur- 
 face, percolates downward many feet, if not yards. It has little fllter- 
 
 * Consul Bedloe acknawledges his obligations to the following gentlemen for assist- 
 ance rendered in the preparation of this report : Francis Cass, William S. Fales, 
 H. E. Howard, K. Ping, and John H. Coombs. 
 
ASIA — CHINA. . 521 
 
 ing power, less than sand, and much less than sandstone or magnesium 
 limestone. 
 
 At the United States consulate, a large amount of slaked lime was 
 used as a fertilizer upon the garden and grounds. The rain took up 
 considerable quantities of lime in both solution and suspension and car- 
 ried these downward at least 80 feet below the surface into the well on 
 the premises. The water of that well has been calciferous ever since. 
 
 At Dakin's pharmacy the well, though thoroughly cemented, shows 
 the permeability of the decayed granite in which it is sunk by a very 
 percept! ble osmosis of salt water from the bay whenever the dry season 
 sets in and the water in the well sinks below the level of the sea. 
 
 The well at the London missionary establishment shows traces of 
 drainage from the Chinese quarter in that neighborhood. 
 
 A well near the go-down of F. 0. Brown & Go. shows that it receives 
 an appreciable amount of petroleum compounds and lixiviation prod- 
 ucts from the go-downs and thoroughfares of that vicinity. 
 
 The water of the well below the cemetery at Lam-paw-do contains 
 lime from the white wash of the numberless graves there, and probably 
 small quantities of organic matter from the interred bodies. 
 
 The third stage of the decomposition of granite is marked by a coarse 
 gritty sand and by beds of clay. Of the former there is any amount, 
 and of the latter large quanties in the bed of the harbor, Anyone who 
 will take the trouble to examine the land between high and low water 
 mark will find it clearly divided into two belts. The upper, or one 
 nearer the shore, is granite sand, and the lower clayey mud. By dig- 
 ging through the former clay will be found at every point. The fact is 
 utilized at Chich-Boe where the Chinese use this clay to make fine tiles 
 and terra cotta. 
 
 The three stages described are general ; between them are any num- 
 ber of intermediate ones. In fact as an entire series from the virginal 
 rock, at one extreme, to the coarse sand and clay at the other may be 
 found at many places in Amoy. 
 
 There is no limestone in the immediate vicinity of Amoy. The lime 
 used in the various industries is made by burning oyster, clam, and other 
 moUnscan shells, or else imported from other districts. 
 
 Cement rock does not occur in Fuh-Kien so far as is known. What is 
 consumed is imported. Formerly nearly, if not quite all came from 
 Europe. In the past 20 years inexhaustible supplies of first-class qual- 
 ity have been found in the British, Dutch, and Spanish East Indies, 
 and these now control the market. 
 
 Besides the granite sand described, there is a fair grade of ordinary 
 sand along the beach, made out of the former by the triturating action 
 of the waves. 
 
 There is little or no gravel, shingle, or shards. 
 
 Of the artificial stones, those made from clay largely preponderate. 
 These are used in road makin g, as are also fragments of crockery, earthen- 
 ware, mortar, cement, and shells. 
 
522 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 TOPOGKAPHT. 
 
 The surface of Amoy, its adjacent islands, and the surrounding 
 country is very rocky and uneven. Summed up in a few words, it con- 
 sists of ranges of granite hills and mountains varying from 1,000 to 
 1,800 feet in height, with the intervening space filled in with snbhills, 
 huge bowlders, and small alluvial plains. A rough estimate would 
 divide the surface of the territory as follows : 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Mountains whose slope is more than 45° 20 
 
 Monntains whose slope is less than 45° 15 
 
 HiUs 30 
 
 Bowlders 5 
 
 Plains : 30 
 
 The mountain ranges are continuous, with irregular outlines rather 
 than saw-like, as with the Sierra Nevada of the North American conti- 
 nent. They are dotted and at places half covered with bowlders. 
 
 The roads follow the plains as far as possible, skirt the sides of the 
 hills and mountains, and in many cases go over the hills instead of 
 making a detour around them. This occasionally necessitates very 
 sharp gradients and renders the use of carts, wagons, and carriages 
 impracticable if not impossible. Even the employment of rickshows 
 (jin-rik-i-shas) is attended with danger. 
 
 The tides are very high (2 1 feet 6 inches in the spring), so much so 
 that although there is a very wide beach between low and high water 
 mark it can not be used for travel. At high water the sea reaches the 
 hillside, and at low water the beach is too soft and oozy for either 
 pedestrian or equestrian purposes. 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 The island of Amoy and its neighbors, including Kulangsu and Little 
 Quemoy, are portions of a rocky and uneven territory, containing few 
 small plane surfaces, which, prior to the glacial epoch must have ex- 
 tended from the foot walls of the mountain range (of which Lam-tai-bu, 
 1,180 feet altitude, is the leading peak) to Quemoy, and probably 
 reached further out into the Formosa channel. 
 
 The islets of Wu-seu and Quemoy-spit are undoubted relics of what 
 was once a much larger expanse of land. 
 
 Prior to the glacial period the country must have been more fertile 
 than it is to-day, owing to the possession of a larger amount of super- 
 jacent soil. Much of it was like the arable belt along the southwest 
 edge of Kulangsu. It supported a large vegetable life, as is evidenced 
 by traces of lignite and carbonaceous soil at every point where the 
 mountain slopes have prevented the erosion of the soil by the move- 
 ment of the glaciers in the far past. 
 
 Several excavations made for funeral and architectural purposes have 
 encountered thin beds of carbonaceous soil beneath the hard pan which 
 constitutes so large a portion of the present surface. 
 
ASIA — CHINA. 623 
 
 The fauna of that period were apparently more numerous than those 
 of to-day, and included deer, goats, pigs, buffaloes, tigers, leopards, 
 monkeys, cave-tigers, cave-bears, cave-wolves, jackals, wolves, and 
 bears. There seem to have been alligators, boa constrictors, and ele- 
 phants, but this is not yet certain. 
 
 There are evidences of prehistoric man in shell mounds, and in ashes 
 and bones, in caverns, and also in implements of stone. 
 
 The glacial epoch must have been of short duration, as there is an 
 absence of sand, shingle, and gravel, very remarkable. There is of 
 course a very large moraine beneath the Formosa channel, and small 
 ones near Ohiang-Ohiu, Ohloh-Jim, Lian-Ho, and other points. On the 
 other hand there was a large transportation of bowlders by the glaciers 
 fromPeh-phang-nia-teng, Him-sek-poa, and the mountainous districts of 
 the north and northwest, and their deposition at every point between the 
 mountains mentioned and the low-water mark beyond. The great 
 blocks of stoue are found on every mountain and below the surface of 
 the water to a depth of at least 10 fathoms. 
 
 Of the bowlders scattered over Kulangsu the majority are a granite, 
 resembling syenite, but numbers consists of gneissic granite, diorite, 
 delorite, graphic granite, auriferous quartz, and sometimes, though 
 rarely, of semi-micaceous schist, carboniferous limestone and sandstone. 
 
 The auriferous quartz indicates the presence of gold not more than 
 150 miles from Amoy, and the carbonife rous rocks of coal measures much 
 nearer the coast. 
 
 The lithologic variety shows that glaciers which found their em- 
 bonchement about Amoy must have reached ^t least 100 miles from the 
 coast up into the interior of Puh-Kien. The height of these glaciers, 
 or this glacier, for in all probability the land was covered by one un- 
 broken sheet of ice for leagues and leagues, is hard to determine. 
 
 Glacial scratchings are found at every point on Kulangsu and Amoy 
 and even on the summit of Lam-tai-bu. The glacier therefore which 
 once covered the district must have been over 1,180 feet thick. If we 
 are to judge by analogy and use Lyell's researches in Great Britain and 
 Tyndall's in the Alps as our guide in estimating its dimensions the 
 Amoy glacier was from half a mile to 1 mile thick, and in its full 
 career covered the Formosa Channel and all of the Island of Formosa 
 excepting a few high peaks. It reached far out into the Pacific Ocean, 
 extending in every probability beyond the axis of the Botel-Tobago 
 Archipelago. 
 
 The paucity of moraines and the wealth of bowlders indicate that the 
 glacial epoch terminated very suddenly so far as Amoy is concerned, 
 A glacier dies from one of two causes ; either there is an increase of 
 temperature too great for the continued existence of ice or there is a 
 large decrease in the supply of the water which in congealed form goes 
 to make it up. Sometimes the two causes combine and make one. 
 When the decrease of a glacier is slow there is a large deposition of 
 
524 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 
 
 gravel, sand, and earth along with bowlders. WTien it is rapid there 
 are bowlders and comparatively little gravel, sand, or earth. As there 
 are little soil, few moraines, and many bowlders on Knlangsa and Amoy 
 it is probable that both causes mentioned united in this instance and 
 that the great glacier retreated suddenly and rapidly from its maximum 
 development back to the mountain chains in the interior of Fah-Kien. 
 No other hypothesis can be framed which will satisfactorily explain 
 the present topographic and lithologic condition of the neighborhood 
 and its surrounding territory. 
 
 The rocks mentioned indicate that there has never been any volcano 
 nor volcanic action in the immediate neighborhood of Amoy. A few 
 diorite bowlders with lava-flUed veins prove that to the north or north- 
 west there is a district which at one time was the scene of tremendous 
 volcanic activity. 
 
 The absence of seams, faults, or crevasses is evidence that there have 
 never been any serious earthquakes in Amoy, except it may be the 
 dyiiig tremor of some seismic convulsion many miles away. We are 
 also led to the inference that there never will be a volcano or an earth- 
 quake near Amoy so long as the present coast line remains unchanged 
 in its general features. 
 
 This theoretic view is confirmed by the fact that all the Chinese ac- 
 counts and traditions of earthquakes locate them in the far south 
 towards the Malay peninsula, the far west in the district of Sz-Ohuen, 
 or the territory bordering on the mountains of Quin-Lun and the ex- 
 treme northeast, where, at some period not very distant, there was con- 
 siderable volcanic and seismic action. 
 
 The absence of all stratification, the weathering of the granite, and 
 the non-existence of fossils, Tertiary or Post- tertiary, in or upon the 
 rocks above a plane 10 feet above spring high- water mark show that 
 this part of the coast of China has been exempt from the processes of 
 submergence and upheaval which have been so common in the geologic 
 history of other lands. As Kulangsu looks to day it looked many 
 thousand years ago, except that it was greener and prettier then and 
 a trifle more picturesque. It was the same, but more rocky, ragged, 
 and forbidding when neither the Alps, Apennines, Himalayas, Rockies 
 or Andes had been born. It is as old as the Apalachian range of North 
 America and the Norwegian headlands, the two oldest monuments of 
 the slow development of the great globe we live upon. 
 
 The weathering of the granite of Amoy is something phenomenal. 
 At points the solid rock has been disintegrated 50 and 60 feet verti- 
 cally. The breaking down has been confined to the feldspar, although 
 both the mica and hornblende have been affected. Of the different 
 kinds of feldspar the orthoclase shows the greatestdecay, with the het- 
 eroclase a close second. Near the sea this disintegration has been of 
 no benefit to human or vegetable life. The potash, soda, and lime salts, 
 the clay and other valuable products of the decomposition of granite 
 have run into the sea and been lost. In the interior country the alka- 
 
ASIA — CHINA. 
 
 525 
 
 line salts named have been absorbed by the soil and are valued fertil- 
 izers. The clay accumulates, fprms beds, and is in the after years 
 utilized for bricks, tiles, chinaware, and terra cotta. The chief advan- 
 tages of disintegrated granite are that it malies good roads or country 
 pathways and excellent walks or paths in the garden. Mixed with 
 lime it makes a good mortar, and with cement a very good concrete. 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 Amoy lies in 24° 40' north latitude and is just outside of the tropics. 
 It has practically but two seasons, the wet and dry. The former begins 
 in February and closes in June and is about 4 months long ; the latter 
 constitutes the remainder of the year. 
 
 The annual rainfall is about 46 inches, which fall in 445 hours in 100 
 days. It descends in large quantities in a short time, and owing to the 
 topography exerts a powerful erosive action, producing gulleys in the 
 thoroughfares and deep channels at the foothills. 
 
 The temperature varies from a maximum of 95° F. in July to a min- 
 imum of 40° in March. Its annual mean is 70°.7 F., making the 
 isotherm of Amoy the same as that of the Pacific coast of the lower 
 part of California. 
 
 The barometer is subject to great fluctuations, especially during 
 typhoons. Its annual mean is 30.095, almost the isobare of Mobile, 
 Ala., and Jacksonville, Fla. 
 
 The hygrometer varies from 95 maximum to 10 minimum and has an 
 annual mean of 28, making it a very dry climate. 
 
 The atmosphere of Amoy is seldom without good winds. The north- 
 east monsoon blows almost continuously at the average rate of 10 
 miles per hour from September to April, and the southwest monsoon at 
 the average rate of 8 miles per hour from April to September, 
 
 Besides these there is a local west wind from the mountains from 
 about 4 a. m. to noon, attaining a maximum at 9 a. m., and ar local east 
 wind from the ocean from about 4 p. m. to 10 p. m., attaining a maxi- 
 mum at about 7:30 p. m. 
 
 A meteorological abstract for the year 1890 is as follows : 
 
 
 Barometer. 
 
 Thermometer. 
 
 
 Maxi- 
 mum. 
 
 Mini- 
 mum. 
 
 Mean 
 maxi- 
 mum. 
 
 Mean 
 mini- 
 mum. 
 
 Maxi. 
 mum. 
 
 Mini- 
 mum. 
 
 Mean 
 maxi- 
 mum. 
 
 Mean 
 mini- 
 mum. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 30.35 
 30.36 
 30.60 
 30.26 
 30.18 
 30.16 
 30.10 
 30.08 
 30.10 
 29.85 
 30.41 
 30,43 
 
 Inchest 
 30.02 
 29.80 
 30.01 
 30.01 
 29.86 
 29.90 
 29.58 
 29.75 
 29.76 
 30.29 
 30.09 
 30.02 
 
 Inches. 
 30.40 
 30.34 
 30.31 
 30.18 
 30.08 
 30.04 
 29.92 
 29.97 
 30.02 
 30.01 
 30.32 
 30.28 
 
 30.25 
 30.17 
 30.16 
 30.06 
 30.00 
 29.94 
 29.82 
 29.74 
 29.94 
 29 96 
 30.20 
 30.17 
 
 Inches. 
 70 
 75 
 75 
 82 
 82 
 87 
 94 
 83 
 90 
 89 
 75 
 73 
 
 Inches. 
 48 
 51 
 48 
 55 
 66 
 70 
 76 
 77 
 73 
 80 
 66 
 51 
 
 Inches. 
 62 
 64 
 60 
 71 
 77 
 82 
 86 
 86 
 85 
 80 
 74 
 68 
 
 54 
 
 
 57 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 55 
 65 
 
 
 71 
 
 
 78 
 
 July 
 
 81 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 78 
 
 October 
 
 66 
 
 
 58 
 
 
 61 
 
 
 
526 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POEEIGN COUNTRIES, 
 
 
 Solar radiation. 
 
 "Weather. 
 
 
 Maxi- 
 mnm. 
 
 Hini- 
 mnm. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Days 
 rainy. 
 
 Hours 
 of rain. 
 
 Bain in 
 inches. 
 
 Days 
 foggy. 
 
 
 132 
 152 
 141 
 148 
 154 
 154 
 ISG 
 157 
 155 
 148 
 133 
 156 
 
 65 
 
 76 
 
 57 
 
 69 
 
 92 
 
 91 
 
 130 
 
 141 
 
 92 
 
 126 
 
 113 
 
 65 
 
 110 
 120 
 100 
 125 
 131 
 136 
 149 
 160 
 144 
 137 
 132 
 110 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 20 
 
 4 
 11 
 17 
 10 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 74i 
 
 103i 
 27 
 66i 
 
 If 
 III 
 
 2.01 
 1.14 
 9.25 
 1.23 
 3.27 
 9.83 
 7.90 
 4.03 
 0.66 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 AprQ 
 
 11 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 July 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ii' 
 
 3i 
 36 
 
 4.27 
 2.01 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 99i 
 
 444i 
 
 45.60 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ROAD MAKING. 
 
 The roads in and around Amoy are admirable and are kept it splen- 
 did condition ; when the ground is hilly, they are cut from the hillside ; 
 when the ground is level they are built up. 
 
 They vary from 20 to 30 feet in width and rise in the center about a 
 foot above the level of the edges. Where the ground slopes, the rise 
 increases in proportion in order to prevent the rains washing away the 
 center of the roadway and the edges are guttered or ditched. 
 
 The main road of Amoy is 30 miles and the smaller roads and streets 
 aggregate 150 miles in length. 
 
 In making roads on level surfaces a foundation of broken granite is 
 loosely laid with a gentle slope upward toward the center; on this is 
 laid smaller pieces of granite, broken brick and earthenware, and some- 
 times shells ; on this in turn is put a mixture of granite-sand, clay, and 
 lime. The road is sometimes rolled, but usually is battered down with 
 hammers. The top mixture is applied wet and sets in 24 hours. Its 
 composition varies as will be seen by the following instances : 
 
 No. 
 
 Sand. 
 
 Clay. 
 
 Lime. 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 In making it the sand, lime, and a little clay are mixed with water 
 in a brown mortar and applied to the road ; after the application and 
 before it sets the remaining clay is thrown upon the surface and ham- 
 mered down. There seems no particular rule as to the amount of top 
 mixture to the square of road. It runs as low as 75 catties and as high 
 as 175 to the square yard (100 pounds to 233 pounds). 
 
 The second layer runs from 1 to 4 inches in thickness, and the lowest 
 from 6 inches to a foot. 
 
ASIA — CHINA. 527 
 
 The prices per diem paid for labor, etc., are as follows : 
 
 Quarry men |0. 25 
 
 Stone-breakers 15 
 
 Stone-helpers 10 
 
 Diggers 20 
 
 Carriers (who carry 75 pounds to aload) .' 20 
 
 Bammers 20 
 
 Foremen 30 
 
 The crude stone costs nothing, as farmers and others are only too 
 glad to have the rocks and bowlders taken away from their land. Clay 
 costs nothing when it is taken from the common land ; when bought 
 from private parties it costs from 1 to 5 cents a. picul (135 pounds). 
 
 Common lime (the cheapest and most impure is used for the purpose) 
 commands anywhere from 3 to 25 cents a picul. 
 
 The amount of labor performed by a Chinese coolie is much less than 
 that by a Caucasion, and is seldom more than one-half. He never gets 
 drunk, never strikes, and works on Sunday as on week days. 
 
 The cost of making a road is about $1 (Mexican), or 77 cents (Amer- 
 ican) per soLuare yard. 
 
 The Chinese law requires roads to be kept in good order. The re- 
 sponsibility is put upon the headman of a village, the owners of the ad- 
 jacent property, and the shopkeepers whose premises abut upon the 
 thoroughfares. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be stated that the roads and wacks of Amoy 
 are excellent and on a par with the best in the United States. 
 
 Edward Bbdloe, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 Unixed States Consulate, 
 
 Amoy, March 16, 1891. 
 
 FOOCHOW. 
 
 SMPOBT B¥ CONSUL QRAOEY. 
 
 There are no roads in this part of China. The streets of Foochow are 
 from 6 to 12 feet wide, many of them covered with stone slabs which 
 are filthy beyond description, and are perfectly execrable. 
 
 We have no wheeled vehicles, and, as a consequence merely foot- 
 paths all through the country. 
 
 Samuel L. Gkacet, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate. 
 
 Foochow, January 17, 189L 
 
628 STKEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 HONGKONG. 
 
 REPORX ^r CONSUL SIMONS. , 
 
 In reply to your circular of November 8, 1890, 1 hare instituted in- 
 quiries concerning street and roadway construction in Hongkong with 
 the result given below in a letter from the surveyor-general. 
 
 In reply to inquiries contained in your letter of the 12th instant I have the honor 
 to give helow a description and cost of the principal forms of road construction 
 adopted in the city of Victoria. As there is comparatively little carriage traffic, and 
 the main wear and tear are caused by the numerous jinrickshas, we are able to adopt 
 a much lighter form of construction than would be required if we had to provide for 
 the yassage of heavy vehicles. 
 
 1. Macadamized roadway, formed of 3 inches in thickness of granite, broken to 2\- 
 inch cubes, with a top dressing of granite broken to 1-inch cubes, blinding of de- 
 composed granite, costs per superficial yard 18 cents. 
 
 2. Concrete roadway formed of a layer of concrete 4 inches thick, composed as fol- 
 lows : 9 parts of granite broken to 1-inch cubes, 3 parts shell lime and 2 parts red 
 earth, costs 32 cents per superficial yard. 
 
 The macadain is adopted generally on the level roads and those of moderate 
 gradients. 
 
 The concreted roadway is found well suited to the very steep roads running at right 
 angles to the sea up the hillsides in the direction of the peak. 
 
 So far as technical knowledge of the subject is concerned I can add 
 nothing to the foregoing. N'otwithstanding the light character of the 
 traffic over streets and roads so constructed they require considerable 
 repairs, particularly during wet weather when the ground beneath 
 softened by water no longer affords a firm support to the macadam 
 which sinks in places forming depressions, these rapidly becoming 
 ruts unless repaired. 
 
 The " heaving" effect of frost would, I believe, prove disastrous to 
 streets so constructed while a loaded track would crush through the 
 crust once the ground underneath become saturated with water. The 
 streets and roads are considerably higher in the center than the gut- 
 ters, which are made of cut stone. 
 
 With few exceptions no sidewalks are provided, pedestrians taking 
 the middle of the street. Both streets and roads are kept in good re- 
 pair and always scrupulously clean— one of the first things to attract 
 the attention of visitors to Hong Kong. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Eong Kong, January 20, 1891. 
 
 O. H. Simons, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 NINGPO. 
 
 STREETS. 
 
 The streets in the cities of this district, like those in all the rest of 
 China, are poorly laid out, rarely exceeding 10 or 12 feet in width ; they 
 
ASIA— CHINA, 629 
 
 are most generally paved with large slabs of granite, about 2 feet wide 
 by 3 feet long and 4 inches thick ; under these are sometimes drains- 
 It is a diflScult matter for a stranger to walk on these stones on a rainy 
 day, as the constant friction from the straw and wooden shoes of the 
 natives has made them very slippery, while not wearing them smooth. 
 The streets are kept in repair by the subscriptions of the gentry. It 
 would be next to impossible for a handcart to pass through these 
 cities, on account of the narrowness and crookedness of the streets. 
 
 COUNTRY ROADS. 
 
 The roads in the country are mere paths, averaging 4 feet wide, and 
 are sometimes paved with round stones, at other times with slabs, by 
 simply laying them on the top of the earth ; at intervals a shed is built 
 over the path, whei'ein a traveler can rest sheltered from the rays of 
 the sun. These are called " rest houses." Now and then a square 
 stone about 4 feet high and perhaps a foot square is seen close to the 
 road ; the traveler weary with his load places his back to this stone 
 and lets his load down onto this stone and rests awhile, and when he is 
 ready to renew his journey he does not have to pick up his load from 
 the ground, but simply from this resting post. All roads, country and 
 city, are built and kept in repair by subscription. There are no laws or 
 regulations relating to roads, and the Government does not give a dol- 
 lar towards their maintenance. There is not a wheeled vehicle of any 
 kind in this vast district of nearly 40,000 square miles; everything is 
 either carried on the backs of men or in boats through the canals. The 
 roads in this district are the canals, which intersect every quarter, and 
 one can travel in almost every direction for hundreds of miles by 
 these canals. 
 
 John Fowler, 
 
 Gonsuh 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Mnffpo, February 3, 1891. 
 
 SHANGHAI. 
 
 REPORT BY OONSVL-QENMRAL LEONARD. 
 
 There are none but the most primitive and unimproved roads and 
 streets in China, except in the few foreign settlements at the treaty 
 ports, and there they are generally excellent, being constructed the 
 same as in England. 
 
 Nearly all the travel and trafilc of China is carried on by the rivers, 
 and the canals, which have been built only a few miles apart all over 
 the settled portions of the country. 
 
 The roads are but little used by travelers and wheeled vehicles as lit- 
 33a 34 
 
530 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 tie as possible, most of the land travel being in chairs carried by coo- 
 lies, or wheelbarrows, which are used both for goods and passengers. 
 
 J. A, Leonard, 
 
 Consul- Oeneral. 
 United States Consulate-General, 
 
 Shanghai, January 12, 1891. 
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 REPORT BY YIOECONSTIL-aENERAL SOIDMORE, OF KANAGAWA. 
 
 The subject of scientific road building in Japan is a matter that has 
 only of recent years received attention. 
 
 Previous to the opening of the country to foreign intercourse nearly 
 all of the inland travel and carrying was confined to the backs of coo- 
 lies and pack horses, and in spite of the introduction of railways and 
 jinrikishas such is, to a very great extent, still the case. 
 
 Macadamizing is followed in the streets of the larger cities, but the 
 work is generally of inferior quality. 
 
 In the country some of the main roads are fairly well kept, but the 
 general rule is to repair the highways with loose earth.' which natu- 
 rally renders them execrable in bad weather. 
 
 The maintenance of these roads is at the cost of the local village or 
 district authorities from taxes levied specially for the purpose. 
 
 G. W. SCIDMORB, 
 
 Vice-Consul- General. 
 United States Consulate-General, 
 
 Kanagawa, Japan, January 28, 1891. 
 
 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 
 
 REPORT BY CONSUL WEBB, OP MANILA. 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 There is little or nothing to be said of the streets and roadways of 
 the Philippine Islands that can possibly be of any practical value to 
 the people of the United States, except in so far as it may serve as an 
 illustration of the sad and demoralizing effects of neglect and indiffer- 
 ence. It has been said that the cities and towns of this archipelago 
 are at least a hundred years behind the rear guard in the procession 
 of progress, and one who travels over the streets and roads of the 
 country can hardly fail to become impressed with the truth of the 
 assertion. There is apparently no incentive to improvement and no 
 disposition to do anything more for the country than is absolutely 
 
ASIA — PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 531 
 
 necessary for the comfort and convenience of the foreign residents who 
 very rarely expect to remain here longer than 5 years. Probably it 
 is this transient, ever-changing character of the foreign colony that 
 may be taken to account for the fact that there is not a single drive- 
 way beyond the city limits of Manila, Iloilo, or Oebu, nor a roadway 
 which will allow the passage of a four-wheeled vehicle with any degree 
 of comfort to its passengers or of safety to its integrity. The Spanish 
 officials who come here rarely, if ever, remain longer than 3 years, and 
 the average term of service of the English and German merchant and 
 clerk is 5 years ; therefore the material development and permanent 
 improvement of the country is left to the natives, who fail to appreciate 
 the necessity of improved streets and roadways, and to the mestizos 
 who do not feel disposed to develop the islands, knowing, as they do, 
 that an advance in this regard must necessarily bo followed by an in- 
 crease of the already excessively burdensome taxes. 
 
 THE CITY STKEBTS. 
 
 The principal cities of the archipelago are Manila, Iloilo, and Cebu, 
 and these are the only ones that have any of their streets paved. The 
 principal business streets are paved with limestone blocks imported 
 from China and laid upon a bed of gravel and sand. In Manila there 
 is less than 2 miles of this pavement all told, and in Iloilo and Oebu 
 possibly half that amount. All the other streets are macadam with a 
 top dressing of sand and gravel, and ordinary dirt roads kept in com- 
 paratively good condition by throwing upon them dredgings from the 
 ditches on either side. 
 
 The government assumes the responsibility of keeping the streets and 
 roads in repair and fulfills the obligation by working upon them cer- 
 tain of the city prisoners who have been sentenced for slight offenses, 
 such as failure to procure a " cedula personal," or identification card, 
 or to have neglected to comply with some other civil regulation. The 
 duty of street inspection and of making minor repairs is left with the 
 native " bomberos," or firemen, but the wretched condition of most of 
 the streets outside the business quarters indicates that they are not over 
 zealous but are disposed to do barely more than enough to avoid cen- 
 sure from their superiors. There are half a dozen streets that are used 
 by the foreign residents for evening drives, and these are kept in rea- 
 sonably good condition through the efforts of the Spanish officials. 
 They are made with a foundation of broken rock, over which gravel 
 and sand from the river and estuaries are thrown. Buffalo carts are 
 almost constantly in use for the purpose of hauling gravel and sand to 
 these streets, and the unremitting repairs keep them in a state that 
 admits of fast driving and comfortable riding. 
 
 There are no heavy drays in use, the heaviest vehicles being the two- 
 wheeled buffalo carts and the pleasure carriages, which are mainly 
 light victorias, broughams, and barouches. 
 
532 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Outside of the business centers and the districts occupied by foreign 
 residents the streets are generally poorly kept dirt roads flanked by 
 muddy ditches which, during the major portion of the year, are filled 
 with stagnant, slime-covered water, which in any other country would 
 be considered as extremely dangerous to the public health. 
 
 COUNTRY ROADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The great majority of the country roads are almost impassable during 
 the rainy season, and are only traversed during the dry months by the 
 light two- wheeled "carronatas" of the country, which are generally 
 drawn by two horses. They are made by throwing up the dirt from 
 the ditches along their sides, and in many places are so rough and un- 
 even that riding in the carrouatas is anything but comfortable. The 
 passenger is jolted about in a most disagreeable manner and usually 
 arrives at his journey's end with every muscle in his body bruised and 
 aching as if he had been rolled down a rocky mountain side. In some 
 cases he is obliged to leave, the vehicle and walk half a mile or more 
 while the horses struggle along with it through the sink holes and over 
 the rocks and hummocks. At many points the road is merely a track 
 worn by the carronatas over a level plain witli no ditches at its sides 
 and without evidence of repairs of any kind. No attempt is ever made 
 to haul the produce of the provinces over these wretched roads and all 
 that reaches the cities comes by water in barges and sloops. 
 
 The authorities of the various towns and villages are supposed to 
 look after the repairing of the roads, but the condition of the latter is 
 striking evidence of the indifference and neglect manifested in every- 
 thing in the way of public improvements. In many of the provinces 
 there is but one of these dirt roads, the main one used by travelers 
 from town to town, but the country is traversed by numerous footpaths, 
 over which the natives carry produce on their shoulders or heads. 
 The major portion of the archipelago is practically an undeveloped 
 wilderness. 
 
 Alex. E. Webb, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Manila, Philippine Islands, January 8, 1891. 
 
ASIA — PALESTINE. 533 
 
 TURKEY IN ASIA. 
 
 PALESTINE. 
 
 EEFORT BT CONSUL OILLMAN, OF JERVSALEM. 
 STREETS. 
 
 The principal pavements made in Palestine are in the city of Jerusa- 
 lem, and it is only within recent years that they have been conslructed 
 in accordance with anything like modern requirements. The superior 
 and massive Roman pavements, over 2,000 years old, and still in fair 
 preservation, are not here taken into consideration. They are, indeed, 
 hidden from sight and use many feet beneatli the rubbish of the city. 
 
 The material used for streets is stone cut to about the shape and size 
 of ordinary brick, or a little larger; this is laid in sand, the long and 
 narrow side up. Ko teaming is allowed over such a street. In the few 
 streets where carriages are permitted to pass the center of the street is 
 macadamized, only the sides being paved. 
 
 The stone used is generally the harder kind of the so-called Jerusa- 
 lem marble, which is really only a species of limestone partially turned 
 to marble. Of this there is a great variety, differing inuch in quality. 
 
 For the fully paved street the cost varies from $1 to $2 per square 
 yard. The depth of the pavement rarely exceeds 6 inches. The foun- 
 dation is almost invariably the rubbish of the ancient city, which has ac- 
 cumulated during centuries, and through its frequent destruction in 
 sieges, etc. 
 
 Where streets ai'e paved in Jerusalem at the present time, well-con- 
 structed stone sewers are always made beneath them. These are at 
 various depths, according to the requirements of the case. 
 
 Many of the streets ascend steep hillsides. These are bnilt in ter- 
 races, with steps ; the rise of the steps or terrace being protected by a 
 broad flagstone, set on end, at the level of the pavements. Of course, 
 in such cases, teaming is out of the question, and they generally wear 
 well. 
 
 HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The roadways built within late years in Palestine, and those in 
 process of construction, are greatly superior to those formerly made un- 
 der the Ottoman Government. At present they resemble good macad- 
 amized highways, properly graded, and in many cases provided with 
 side drains. Where necessary, in crossing the more dangerous passes, 
 Btone parapets of mason work are built along the precipices. The ma- 
 terial used for the roadbed is the ordinary limestone of the country, 
 broken up into the usual cubes of the required size. This is covered 
 with earth or gravel, which is finally leveled and smoothed by heavy 
 stone rollers. The foundation varies, being commonly the stiff clay of 
 
534 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 the country, though sometimes it is of sand or rock. Where the grade 
 has to be considerably raised, large bowlders are rolled into pla<;e to 
 form the foundation of the roadbed. The cost of such a road is from 80 
 cents to $1.30 per square yard. 
 
 EEMAEKS. 
 
 The methods and peculiar system followed here are not favorable to 
 the best work, and can not be taken as a criterion for more civilized 
 countries. A large part of the work is done through the enforced labor 
 of the peasantry, which nominally costs nothing, and the materials lie 
 adjacent to the roadway in unlimited abundance. The chief expendi- 
 ture is for the superintendents, engineers, and overseers, of whom there 
 is always a superabundance, ludicrously out of proportion to the re- 
 quirements of the case. 
 
 As to the maintenance of streets and roadways, this is but seldom 
 attended to in this country. Where a good road is made it soon falls 
 into disrepair, through its being almost totally neglected. 
 
 The effect of improved roads upon land values and other economic 
 conditions is as not as pronounced as it is in other lands. The camel is 
 here the chief agent for transporting merchandise, and is largely used 
 in all traflSc. This does not necessitate a finished road. The introduc- 
 tion of carriages and wagons is comparatively a recent innovation, 
 caused by the large influx of travelers and the establishment of foreign 
 colonies. 
 
 Heney Gillman, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate. 
 
 Jerusalem, January 28, 1891. 
 
 SYRIA. 
 
 REPOET BY CONSVL SISSINQEB, BEIBVT. 
 THE BEIRUT -DA3IASGUS HIGHWAY. 
 
 It would hardly, perhaps, be expected that a report on " country 
 roads or highways" in this far-off eastern country could be of any pos- 
 sible value, and yet Syria maintains at least one highway that will com- 
 pare very favorably with any road in America or Europe, and a descrip- 
 tion of the same may therefore not be wholly without interest and 
 perhaps even of some slight practical value. It is the carriage road 
 from Beirut, on the Mediterranean, to Damascus, on the other side of 
 the Lebanon Mountains, a distance of 113 kilometres or about 70f miles, 
 completed 1860. 
 
ASIA — SYRIA. 535 
 
 CONSTEUCriON OP THIS UOAD, ETC. 
 
 According to the statement of the officers of the company — for the 
 highway is owned and operated by a private stock concern — the road- 
 bed is made of a layer of macadam 20 centimetres in thickness, repos- 
 ing upon a substructure of ordinary earthwork 
 
 This "macadam" is composed of a compact mass of calcareous peb- 
 bles of not more than 6 centimetres in diameter, spread over the sub- 
 structure of earthwork in such a manner as to have gentle slope from 
 the center of, say, 1:30; heavy metal rollers of about 5 metric tons, 
 drawn by twelve mules, pass over and crush the pebbles, this making a 
 smooth and even roadbed. 
 
 The cost of the material for metaling or ballasting is 1 franc 60 cen- 
 times (32 cents) the cubic metre, crushed, sift6d, and measured, exclu- 
 sive, however, of the cost of transportation, which is about 40 centimes 
 (8 cents) the cubic metre. 
 
 Along that part of the road which passes over Mount Lebanon this 
 material is extracted from quarries in close proximity to the road itself, 
 and the cost of transportation is therefore insignificant ; but in the plains 
 and the Anti-Lebanon the calcareous banks are more scattered and the 
 cost of transporting the material is considerably enhanced. 
 
 The roadbed is renewed on an average once in 3 years, and for this 
 purpose the road is divided into three sections, one of which is remet- 
 aled every year ; besides this, those parts of the road that are subject 
 to an extra amount of wear and tear, like the approaches to Beirut and 
 Damascus, are regularly watered during the dry season; that is to say, 
 between the months of May and November, while the excessive dust 
 that necessarily accumulates is removed from time to time with wooden 
 scrapers. Ditches are running along both sides of the road, which are 
 kept in good order to prevent the submersion of the roadbed, and when 
 snow obstructs the highest and most exposed parts of the road in the 
 Lebanon, it is cleared away by digging trenches to make a passageway 
 for trafflc. 
 
 COST AND MAINTENANCE OP THE ROAD, ETC. 
 
 The total cost of building this roadway, which has an average width 
 of 6 metres, and is 70| miles long, was 1,885,969.54 francs ($377,193.91), 
 or 16,690 francs ($3,338) per kilometre ; the land acquisitions amounted 
 to 110,652 francs ($22,130.40), or 989 francs ($197.80) per kilometre. 
 The company also expended 698,713 francs ($139,742.60), or 6,238.50 
 francs ($1,247.70) per kilometre for buildings, etc., so that the entire 
 cost foots up 3,000,000 francs ($600,000). 
 
 The company has a yearly average outlay of about 100,000 francs 
 ($20,000), or 893 francs ($178.60) per kilometre, for repairs, etc., to the 
 roadbed, etc., and its annual net revenue is between 450,000 and 500,000 
 francs ($90,000 to $100,000). 
 
536 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 TRAFFIC OVER THE KOAD, ETC. 
 
 The average amount of freight that passed over this road during 1885, 
 1886, and 1887 was 20,700 tons annually. It has, however, increased 
 since then, and in fact is constantlj* augmenting. The general charac- 
 ter of the merchandise transported includes the following imports; 
 Iron, all kinds of metals, leather, salt, rice, sugar, petroleum, manu- 
 factures, fruits, hardware, etc. The articles exported passing over the 
 road are, principally, flour, wheat, seeds, wool, licorice, textile fabrics, 
 bones, butter, oil, etc. 
 
 These goods are transported in covered wagons or carts, each being 
 3 J metres long, l-^\- metres wide, and -^g metre high, and weigh, when 
 empty, 700 kilograms; loaded, 1,500 kilograms. This wagon load 
 of only 800 kilograms may appear light, but it must be 'borne in 
 mind that the road traverses Mount Lebanon at an elevation of 4,630 
 feet, with some very steep grades. The number of these freight car- 
 riages that pass daily between Beirut and Damascus is 28, 14 each 
 way, each of them being drawn by 3 large mules. 
 
 Besides the freight traffic there is a " diligence," or omnibus, leaving 
 both Beirut and Damascus every morning, weighing 1,500 kilograms. 
 These " diligences '^ are capa ble of accommodating 16 persons in winter 
 and 18 in summer, allowing each passenger 12.820 kilograms of bag- 
 gage; they are drawn by 3 horses and as many mules. 
 
 There are also two "mail" omnibuses passing daily over the road, one 
 from Beirut, the other from Damascus ; their weight is 750 kilograms 
 each, and they carry 5 passengers, entitled to 6.410 kilograms of per- 
 sonal baggage ; 3 horses or 2 horses and 1 mule are sufftcient to draw 
 them. 
 
 EFFECT OF THE ROAD UPON LAND VALUES, ETC. 
 
 The effect of this highway upon land values has not been very marked, 
 owing to the arid nature of the land traversed and to the absence of 
 villages and scarcity of water along its line, though both the outskirts 
 of Beirut and Damascus are largely benefited. 
 
 But the result proved entirely different to commerce. The facilities 
 of communication and the reduction in the cost of transportation have 
 developed the traffic to five times its former proportions, and Beirut, 
 with a population of only 25,000 souls in 1860, now claims 120,000 in- 
 habitants. Damascus has remained nearly stationery in so far as its 
 population is concerned, but its traffic has greatly augmented. ' 
 
 STREETS IN SYRIAN CITIES. 
 
 The streets of the different cities of Syria are fully adapted to sur- 
 rounding conditions and circumstances, but they do not contain any 
 elements or features that would prove of value or even interest in this 
 report. 
 
 Eehaed Bissingee, 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Beirut, February 10, 1891. 
 
CONTINENT OF AFRICA. 
 EGYPT. 
 
 REPORT BY AOTINQ CONSUL-GENERAL OMANT, OF CAIRO. 
 STREETS OP CAIRO. 
 
 The new or improved city streets and avenues of Cairo are generally 
 roads bordered by sidewalks. In tbe country the sideways are simply 
 formed by earth thr own on each side of the road. The city roads are 
 construeted on the Macadam system. An experiment was made to 
 build a road with asphalt, melted and poured hot on a bed of broken 
 stones. The result was bad. 
 
 Another experiment was made with slabs made of a concrete com- 
 posed of broken stones m ixed with liquid natural asphalt. The result 
 was better than with the pre ceding methcd. 
 
 Finally, a wooden pavement, made of pine wood resting on a solid 
 area of concrete, has proved satisfactory for more than one year since it 
 was placed on one of the m ost frequented roads of Cairo, but it is ex- 
 pensive. 
 
 The macadamized roads are generally built of small stones, forming a 
 bed 0.25 metre thick. The agglomeration of the materials is produced 
 by means of a steam compressing roller on the Gellerat (Paris) system, 
 and weighing 18 tons. In few instances compressors drawn by animals 
 are used; but the work is not so well done. 
 
 The cost of building macadamiz ed roads is from about 59 to 74 cents 
 per square metre. 
 
 When small repairs are needed they are simply made by laborers, 
 but extensive repairs are made by laying over the surface of the road 
 the quantity of new materials necessary to restore it to its former -thick- 
 ness. 
 
 The expenses incurred on account of tbe ordinary and extraordinary 
 repairs of the macadamized roads of Cairo, including work and mate- 
 rials, amounted during tbe year 1889 to $82,548 for a surface of 952,500 
 squares metres, or 8f cents per square metre. 
 
 These expenses do not include the watering of the roads, which is 
 done twice a day during the summer and once a day during the winter. 
 
 The length of the macadamized roads of Cairo, not including public 
 squares, is 58 miles, while the other ordinary roads have a length of 132 
 
 miles. 
 
 537 
 
538 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 EFFECTS OF IMPROVED PUBLIC ROADS. 
 
 The value of lands throagh which the new roads have been laid has 
 considerably increased, and in the northern side of the city, at Zaher, 
 it is at least ten times greater. 
 
 Twenty years ago ground in the Ismailieh district was granted free 
 under condition that dwellings would be erected on it; but as at that 
 time there were no roads made in that part of the city, many of the 
 grantees did not care to spend money for building, and they let their 
 concessions lapse ; but as soon as roads were built there was a greater 
 demand for the land, and nowadays it is sold at $10 a square metre. 
 
 Eight or nine years ago some bankers bought land from the Govern- 
 ment in the Tewfikieh district at $1.88 per square metre, and now the 
 average price is about $7.40. 
 
 The above figures demonstrate the effect of created or improved pub- 
 lic roads upon land values. 
 
 Twenty-five years ago there were no hackney coaches at Cairo, on 
 account of the difficulty of circulation in the interior or exterior roads 
 of the city. Distances were traversed on horses, mnles, donkeys, or 
 camels. 
 
 The work of improvement of roads began in 1868, and in a space of 
 ten years the actual system of streets and roads was completed. Such 
 improvements have greatly facilitated commercial transactions and con- 
 siderably increased the value of estates bordering the great avenues 
 which have been opened in the old part of the city. 
 
 Public health has greatly improved in consequence of the creation of 
 new quarters in the western and northern parts of the city. • 
 
 These parts were formerly covered with huge heaps of rubbish, the 
 dust from which, raised by the least breath of wind, was blown all over 
 the city, causing diseases of the eyes, lungs, etc. The wide avenues 
 opened in the midst of narrow and tortuous streets have produced an 
 effective drainage conducive to the salubrity of these streets and lanes. 
 
 Thanks to the creation of new districl;s and to the opening of large 
 avenues in the old city, Cairo has become a city pleasant for everybody 
 in general to live in, and especially for foreigners. 
 
 HIGHWAYS. 
 
 In the several towns of Egypt, except Cairo and Alexandria, there 
 are very few metaled roads. The others are merely of beaten earth, 
 kept wet and smooth, and, considering the climate and the smallness 
 of the trafiic, they answer sufficiently well. 
 
 Until two years ago it may be said there were no country roads at 
 all, and it would have been impossible to convey agricultural produce 
 on a wheeled cart from one center of population to another. 
 
 A beginning has been made, however, first in Dakahlieh and Shar- 
 kieh and then throughout the other provinces, of constructing simple 
 
AFRICA — MOEOCCO — ST. HELENA. 639 
 
 unmetaled roads, 5 metres wide, with bridges over the canals, leading 
 generally to railway stations or sometimes to points on the river. 
 Their construction is being defrayed by a local tax not exceeding 20 or 
 25 cents per acre for 1 year only. They are maintained afterwards at 
 government expense. It is too soon to pronounce yet on the value of 
 these roads, but they are very popular among the people. 
 
 The information contained in this report was kindly given me by the 
 department of public works. 
 
 Louis B. Geant, 
 
 Acting Consul- General. 
 United States Consulate-General, 
 
 Cairo, April 9, 1891. 
 
 MOROCCO. 
 
 REPORT BT CONSTILOENERAL MATEEWS, OF TANGIER. 
 
 Morocco furnishes no material whatever for framing such a report 
 as desired through your Department. 
 
 There are no roads in this country, no railroads nor vehicles of any 
 sort. 
 
 The narrow and crooked streets of the cities and towns of Morocco 
 are partly paved with rough cob stones, which makes walking a diffi- 
 cult task. The roads are only trails made by the passing and repass- 
 ing of animals. In fact the Government discourage instead of encour- 
 aging the building of roads, and ever oppose the paving of the streets 
 of certain towns. 
 
 F. A. Mathews, 
 
 Consul General. 
 United States Consulate-General, 
 
 Tangier, January 22, 1891. 
 
 ST. HELENA. 
 
 REPORT BT CONSUL COFFIN. 
 
 The streets, of which there are but two on the island, one leading 
 from the seaside, a mile or more up the valley, to the head of the town, 
 the other, a short street of a few hundred yards, branching off the main 
 street and leading to the Longwood road. 
 
 They were built many years ago With slave labor by different govern- 
 ments and the old East India Company from material taken from the 
 side hills, consisting of stone or lava and clay or mud. 
 
 The hills are composed of alternate layers of the above material in 
 layers of from 2 to 10 feet or more in depth, of a volcanic formation. 
 
540 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The stoue is broken and put on the streets and covered with mud or 
 clay; they are repaired with the same material and in the same manner. 
 As it is not rolled down, in dry weather it is very dusty and in wet 
 weather very muddy. 
 
 The roads, of the same material as the streets, are built along the side 
 hills by leveling and building a stone' wall on the off side of the road 
 to prevent the carriages and travelers from going over, as the hills are 
 very steep, and they would, in many places, be thrown some hundreds 
 of feet to the bottom of the hill. These roads make sharp turus^in the 
 shape of a V in their zigzag routes to the top of the hills, and to go a 
 short distance you travel many miles ; by any road from Jamestown it is 
 laborious for man or beast, as it is a continual ascent for 2,000 feet; then 
 there is some level road interspersed with steep hills. Oarriages and 
 teams all use shoes for one of the hind wheels, and with a single carriage 
 a man leads the horse, as it is not safe to drive by reins, the hills are so 
 steep; double carriages are driven by a postillion who rides one of the 
 horses, with a boy following to put on the shoe when necessary. 
 
 The roads and streets are kept in order by the soldiers belonging to 
 the engineer corps ; as their number has been reduced, very little is done 
 on the roads or streets now. There are a great many miles of roads 
 around the island, which must have cost, even with slave labor, an enor- 
 mous amount of money to build, as many miles of blasting and wall- 
 building had to be done. The actuail cost of these roads can not be 
 ascertained, as they have been built by the different governments which 
 have had possession of the island. 
 
 There is no doubt that these roads when built increased the value of 
 property along their route, but in the present state of the island, which 
 is fast decaying, they have no effect, as the country seats along their 
 route are many of them vacant and in ruins, and the farming land 
 turned into pasture, and of little value. 
 
 The primitive manner of construction and the material used are such 
 that I should not think they would be of any interest or benefit to the 
 inhabitants of any part of the United States. 
 
 James B. Coffin, 
 
 Consul. 
 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 iSt. Helena, January 24, 1891. 
 
 SIERRA LEONE. 
 BEPOHT BY aONSXTL BOWSER. 
 
 The streets in this colony and city are all alike. There is an under- 
 lying bed of soft calcareous rock, with various depths of earth, from 3 
 to 5 feet. The roads are made by digging trenches on each side, and 
 throwing the dirt to the center and leveling, then a top dressing of 
 
AFRICA — SIEEEA LEONE. 541 
 
 broken stone completes the street or rOad. As there are but 2 horses 
 and 1 dogcart in the colony, the roads are. easily kept in repair when 
 only naked feet tread them. 
 
 The roads that lead far into the country are nothing more than nar- 
 row paths, as all travelers go 'single file. The cost of maintaining the 
 roads here are the filling up of some ruts that may be caused by wash- 
 outs during the rainy season. You will readily see that roads and 
 street making are of little expense in this country. 
 
 BoLDiNO- Bowser, 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate 
 
 Sierra Leone, December 29, 1890, 
 
AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES. 
 
 BSPOST ST CONSUL QBIFFIN. OF SYDNEY. 
 CITY STEEETS. 
 
 The streets and roads of New South Wales are partly made and 
 managed by the government and partly by the municipalities. The 
 number of miles of streets and roads owned by the municipalities at 
 the end of 1889, the latest statistics available, was 5,790. Of these 2,799 
 were regularly formed and metaled and 2,991 were not formed. The 
 cost of their construction, or their estimated value, is given by the gov- 
 ernment statistician at $17,959,455. The length of the streets and 
 roads in Sydney and the suburbs was 1,568 miles, 115 miles of which 
 are included within the boundaries of the city. The boundaries, how- 
 ever, do not include anything like the total area of the city. The esti- 
 mated population of the city and suburbs within a radius of 10 miles is 
 close on to 420,000, whilst the population of the municipality is only 
 about 230,000. Nearly all the streets and roads of the city are formed, 
 curbed, and bordered by pavement of asphalt, tarred stone, artificial 
 stone, etc. About 300,000 square yards of the city are paved with 
 wooden blocks, or about a twenty-second part of the entire area. These 
 blocks are laid wherever the traffic is heavy enough to require a supe- 
 rior pavement. The macadamized or metaled pavement, being less 
 expensive, seems to answer very well for the purpose of light traffic. 
 
 CONSTKUCTION AND MAINTENANCB. 
 
 Both the government and municipal authorities advertise for tenders 
 for the construction of streets and roads over which they have control, 
 and the contracts are given to the lowest and best bidders. Great care 
 is exercised in awarding these contracts. The specifications are very 
 full and the execution of the contracts must meet with the approval of 
 the authorities. 
 
 In Sydney, if at any time the work is not carried out in strict con- 
 formity with the contract, the city surveyor will interfere and inform 
 the contractors that if not remedied the municipality will take the work 
 out of their hands. 
 
 Parties tendering for contracts must deposit the sum of £20 ($97.35) 
 on or before the time specified for the reception of the tenders. The 
 deposit will be returned in all cases of nonacceptauce, and to the per- 
 
 543 
 
544 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 son whose tender has been accepted when he shall have completed his 
 work according to the requirements of the bond he is called upon to 
 give. 
 
 TARRED METALED PAVEMENT. 
 
 The material employed in the pavement of streets for light trafBc 
 consists principally of bluestone or metal, of which there is an in- 
 exhaustible supply in the colony. The foundation of the pavement 
 must be approved of by the city surveyor. Where rock exists too near 
 the surface to receive the ballast it is to be broken up and loosened 
 to a depth of at least 8 inches below the level of the underside of 
 the ballasting. The foundation is properly consolidated to a uniform 
 depth >of 9 inches, and a coating of new hammer-dressed rough pitch- 
 ers of the hardest description of sandstone laid lengthwise across the 
 road in close and regular rows, breaking joint. As rough pitchings are 
 well rammed, the breadth of the upper edge must not be more than 
 7 inches, with a length of from 12 to 15 inches. All the interstices 
 are filled in with stone chippings firmly wedged, well keyed in, and 
 blended with sand well shaken into joints by ramming. The stone 
 for the ballasfing is broken to a 2-inch gauge, 2 inches thick, and cov- 
 ered with a coating of tar. It is then rolled to a finished grade and 
 an additional layer of the same material, prepared in the same way, 
 is spread to a depth of 3 inches and again rolled. The whole is 
 cemented together in one unbroken mass by a covering of tarred 
 screening. The latter is made even in thickness and solid after which 
 a thickness of 1 inch tarred screening of the finest bluestone and dust 
 Irom the crushings is put in as a finishing coat. 
 
 WOOD PAVEMENTS. 
 
 The authorities of Sydney before entering upon the extensive con- 
 struction of the magnificent roadbeds of the city made the most careful 
 inquiries as to the various kinds of pavements in use in the principal 
 cities of the world, and a series of costly experiments were made 
 with the kinds generally regarded as the best in use. These included 
 granite-set pavements, monolithic, sheet asphalt, wood pavements, 
 etc. It was their desire to get a pavement with a due regard to econ- 
 omy or cheapness and afi'ord a good foothold, be impervious, durable, 
 noiseless, adapted to various grades, yield no detritus, and offer the least 
 resistance to traction. No particular kind of pavement complied with 
 all these conditions, but the one finally adopted for heavy traflBc 
 seemed to come nearer to them than any other. A committee was 
 appointed, composed of some of the ablest physicians and scientists in 
 the colony, to report on the sanitary conditions of the wood pavements 
 that had been in use in Sydney and other places, and although the 
 committee made a sweeping condemnation of all kinds of wood pave- 
 ments it was shown that the districts in which wood pavements had 
 
AUSTRALASIA — NEW SOUTH WALES. 545 
 
 been in use for a term of years in Sydney were healthier than those 
 without them. 
 The committee in concluding their report said : 
 
 We beg to express the opinion that wood is a matorial that can not be safely used 
 for paving unless it can be rendered abaolately impermeable, to moisture and so laid 
 that while the entrance of the water between the blocks is rendered impossible 
 the separation of the fibers at the surface by the concussion of the traffic is also effec- 
 tually prevented. These conditions have nowhere, to the knowledge of the board, 
 been fulfilled. In this city no attempt to fulfill them has been made and the analyses 
 show that the blocks in actual use here nave absorbed an amount of organic filth 
 which is large in comparison with the short time during which they have beeu laid, 
 and which is distributed throughout the blocks in such a manlier as to show that 
 their complete impreguation is only a matter of time. The foul and dangerous proc- 
 esses to which this impregnation of the wood gives rise when with it is combined 
 alternate wetting aud more or less thorough drying, by the sun and the construc- 
 tion which, while it does nothing to exclude the air entirely, of necessity interferes 
 with its free oicculation, are well shown by experiment, and it is perhaps well 
 to point out that the use of sea water to lay the dust is so far from tending to 
 prevent these processes that in addition to introducing the organisms proper to sea- 
 water where otherwise they would not be found it appears to have given rise to 
 certain forms of life which hitherto have not been recognized, and which flourish 
 in conjunction with the better known forms of both fresh and salt water. In offer- 
 
 ' ing this opinion your board has certain advantages which wood pavement offers in 
 comparison with other kinds in mind, and does not lose sight of the fact already here 
 recognized, that every pavement is a compromise. But before a given material or 
 mode of coustruotion can be scientifically admitted as an alternative to Other kinds 
 and to other modes, it must be shown that its admitted defects are remediable or that 
 they are of no greater consequence than the defects of every other available mate- 
 rial. Neither has been shown in the case of wood, so far as the careful researches of 
 your board go the porous absorbent and destructible nature of wood must in their 
 
 ■"opinion be declared to be Irremediable by any process at present known, nor, were 
 any such process discovered, would it be' effectual unless it were supplemented by 
 another which' should prevent fraying of the fiber. Still less can the defects of wood 
 be considered to be of less consequence than the defects of other kinds of material. 
 The covering of roadways to a vast extent of surface with decaying vegetable ma- 
 terial has been shown in the United States to be a cause of malarial fever, and an 
 aggravation to yellow fever, in a degree of probability which is very high; and 
 these results are^such as knowledge of the usual effects of decaying vegetable mat- - 
 ter under other but similar cironrastanoes would lead your board to anticipate. 
 Wood, then, should not be accepted as an alternative to other materials ; aud if in 
 other climates than that of the American cities referred to, and under other modes 
 of construction than are used in Sydney, the same effects are not known as yet to 
 have followed, it must not be forgotten either that wood paving has nowhere been 
 so largely used in proportion to other kinds as in America or that the disastrous aud 
 obvious effects noticed in that country are not the only serious effects which wood 
 may cause. In this city it may, perhaps, bo considered that an amount of wood has 
 has not yet been laid sufficient to affect the public health, whatever its condition 
 within reasonable limits may be ; and upon this ground your board does not recom- 
 mend that the present paving should be removed, but that the board of health should 
 be empowered to examine it, and to report upon it, from time to time, wi4;h a view of 
 ascertaining its behavior under longer exposure to weather and traffic than it has yet 
 had; and that it should be no longer watered but cleansed by sweeping at least 
 twice a day (the sweeping to be done at right angle to the direction of the street, or 
 parallel to the courses, so that the latter may be cleared out by the broom) in order 
 33A 35 
 
546 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 that destructive dampness and penetration of dissolved organic matter may be re- 
 duced as mucli as possible: But the presumption is, upon the evidence here adduced, 
 that in this climate the results alluded to would ensue if the extent of surface were 
 sufficiently enlarged or fouling and decay sufficiently extensive. Your board there- 
 fore recommends that the paving of the streets of this city with wood should be dis- 
 continued; and desires to add that this recommendation is intended to apply not to 
 the particular mode of construction here adopted alone, but to the material itself, 
 and to every known method of construction. 
 
 In spite of this opinion the authorities soon found that by keeping 
 the pavements clean and in good order all the objections urged were 
 overcome and a decided improvement was noticed in the health of the 
 city. The blocks- used for the pavements consists of various kinds of 
 Australian hard wood of the eucalyptus species such as red gum, tallow 
 wood, wooly butt, black butt, blue gum, etc. The wear and tear on 
 these blocks proved slight when compared with the blocks used in 
 the European cities. Blocks taken at random from the, center of one 
 of the.principal streets in Sydney subjected to very heavy trafflc had 
 worn only one-sixteenth of an inch in several years. Samples of the 
 Australian hard woods used for paving the streets were sent to ITew 
 York by Mr. E. W. Richards, city surveyor. Mr. Richards has for many 
 years been a strong advocate for the use of these woods and his expe- 
 rience and judgment have had great weight with the municipal authori- 
 ties. The blocks used are cut into cubes of 6 inches long, 3 inches thick, 
 and varying in width from 6 to 9 inches, which limits must not be de- 
 parted from, except in cases of chasms when smaller blocks may be 
 necessary. The blocks are to be laid on a foundation of concrete 6 
 inches in depth and composed of the following material, viz, the best 
 brands of cement mixed with either the following ingredients : 
 
 First. Gravel and coarse, clean, sharp river sand in suitable and ap- 
 proved proportions the gravel not to be larger than 2J inches gauge, 
 the cone rete to consist of 1 cask of cement to 24 cubic feet of gravel and 
 sand. 
 
 Second. The aggregate to be a compound of clean blue stone, mixed 
 with dust and screening obtained from crushing, in the following pro- 
 portions: 1 cask of cement to 20 cubic feet of blue stone broken from 
 1 inch to 2J inches gauge, and 15 cubic feet of fine blue stone screening 
 of not more than five-sixteenths of an inch gauge. 
 
 The concrete must be well worked and to a smooth surface, and re- 
 ceive a thin coating of two parts of clean river sand to one part of cement. 
 When the concrete is thoroughly dry the blocks are laid on it as fol- 
 lows : Three rows longitudinally along curbs throughout the whole 
 extent of the curbing ; the remainder of the blocks to be laid trans- 
 versely across the street to form any angle between 30 degrees and 45 
 degrees, or as the city surveyor may direct. The end of the blocks 
 butting against rows paiallel to curbs to be cat so as to form a close 
 and even point. The joints to be separated by not more than one-fourth 
 of an inch, and to be regular and uniform. The city surveyor noticed that 
 
AUSTRALASIA NEW SOUTH WALES. 547 
 
 when the joints were too far apart the noise of the traffic was increased, 
 and he directed that they be made narrower. At first they were 1 inch 
 in width and were reduced to three-eighths of an inch, and then to one- 
 fourth of an inch, as heretofore mentioned. In paving George street, 
 the principal thoroughfare of the city, four methods were adopted : 
 
 First. Joints of three-eighths of an inch coated with screenings and 
 tar. 
 
 Second. The blocks were laid with butt joints dipped in tar and ham- 
 mered up close and afterwards thoroughly grouted by sweeping boiling 
 tar and river sand. 
 
 Third. The blocks were laid on a roofing of tarred felt, jointed with 
 strips of the same material properly hammered up, to render close and 
 even joints. 
 
 Fourth. Three eigths joints grouted with pitch, river sand, and tar. 
 The street was opened for traffic in July, 1888, and it was noticed that 
 the noise had been minimized and the slipperyness of the pavement 
 overcome by sprinkling sand upon it. Mr. Richards, the city surveyor, 
 is of opinion that the method of laying the blocks without grouting is 
 by far the best. At first the blocks were painted on all surfaces with 
 hot tar, and stacked for at least i hours and then laid in the work, at 
 every twelfth row hammered up close, a plank 12 feet long, 6 inches 
 deep, and 2 inches thick being used as a beating surface. Upon com- 
 pletion of a length of 1 chain the surface was well swept with hot tar, 
 sprinkled with hot sand, and again with tar, sufficient quantity being 
 used to form a plastic paste with which the joint was afterward thor- 
 oughly flushed up. After 3 months' traffic upon this section the neces- 
 sity of an after treatment was apparent, as the joints were gaping, 
 and in some instances the blocks were loosened. The means taken as 
 a remedy were that the blocks were well watered and when fairly dry 
 again the joints swept in flush with sand and tar, as before described; 
 since which, the pavement has maintained a most satisfactory condi- 
 tion, notwithstanding that it has been subjected to the most variable 
 influences. The Oastlereagh street pavement, from Hunter to Liver- 
 pool street, a distance of 58 chains, afforded opportunity for further 
 experiment, and for a length of 8 chains the blocks were laid at an 
 angle of 45 degrees to the curb, by which a wheel in its revolutions is on 
 at least 2 rows of blocks, and the result showed that the noise occa- 
 sioned by the jarring over the joints was reduced to a minimum. In 
 the same work a butt-jointed pavement was laid for a length of 7 chains, 
 with a gradient of 1 in 65, and a convexity of 1 in 60. Mr. Eichards 
 states when the gradient does not exceed 1 in 40 the butt jointed can 
 be laid with advantage. 
 
 The convexity can in such cases be reduced to 1 in 80. In anticipa- 
 tion of expansion of the blocks, a seam of sand IJ inches wide was laid 
 on both sides of the roadway, between the curb and the blocks. This 
 section has been traveled upon for nearly 12 months and has not yet 
 
548 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 required attentiou. The woods used in these works were of the classes 
 respectively known as black butt, spotted gum, and tallow wood. Dur- 
 ing the last 2 years portions of the areas, wood-paved, with the wide 
 joint, have been renewed, with the narrower joint. The old blocks ob- 
 tained from these areas have been utilized in the paving of lanes and 
 narrow ways adjacent to wood-paved thoroughfares. The work was 
 done by days' labor, the foundation being prepared with the best ma- 
 terial obtained from the excavation of the former roadway, the blocks 
 bedded on a layer of sand 3 inches in thickness and the joints grouted 
 with sand and tar. 
 
 The steepest grade is 1 in 17.2 and is a length of 4 chains. The 
 greatest width of roadway is 275 feet (at George street south, near rail- 
 way- station), in portion of which there is also the greatest cross fall, viz, 
 1 in 17, which was necessitated to conform with the tramway construc- 
 tion. At first the intersections of the streets were paved with cube 
 settings, but Mr. Eichards recommended their removal and wood blocks 
 put in place of them. This plan he pressed continually upon the au- 
 thorities until it was finally adopted. A careful examination of the 
 work done on George street and on King street afforded an opportu- 
 nity for comparing the wear of bluestope cubes with that of wood 
 blocks. The bluestone cubes, after having been subjected to trafQc for 
 5 years and upwards, showed au average wear of 1 inch per annum, 
 whilst the wood blocks, which had been put down for a longer period, 
 subjected to an equally heavy trafflc, wore only at the rate of 1.26 of an 
 inch per annum. Blocks put down in 1888 under the present system 
 have also been examined and the wear was only at the rate of 1.50 of 
 an inch per annum. 
 
 From these results it is estimated that, after making full allowance 
 for depreciation and contingencies, the minimum life of wood pavement 
 is about 16 years, or from 3 to 4 times that of bluestone cube set pave- 
 ment. 
 
 SIDEWALKS. 
 
 The pavement of sidewalks or footpaths in Sydney consists of flagg- 
 ing, artificial stone, and tar paving, etc. These pavements appear to 
 give satisfaction. 
 
 Under the corporation act of 1879, it was provided that certain por- 
 tions of the footways should be paved with flagging and others with 
 flagging or tar pavement. The main thoroughfares were to be with 
 flagging and the residential streets with flagging or tar pavements. 
 
 At first the average cost of flagging was 14s. ($3.41) per square yard 
 and the tar pavements 2s. 6^, (60 cts.) per square yard. The property 
 owners were charged with the cost of the work, but those on the main 
 thoroughfares objected very seriously to be compelled to pay for fla"-- 
 ging whilst it was left to the option of the residential owners to have 
 
AU8TEALASIA — NEW SOUTH WALES. 549 
 
 either flagging or tar iiavements, and the act was finally amended so . 
 as to apply equally to both classes of owners. 
 
 The tar pavement was most generally in use. Mr. Eichards, however, 
 stated that the tar pavement is only desired when it is apt not to be 
 disturbed, and he finally succeeded in getting a medium between the 
 two adopted called artificial stone. The following is a .description of 
 the method of constructing the latter pavement : The ground being 
 excavated to a sound and approved foundation — an aggregate composed 
 of one measure of cement to two of clean coarse sharp sand thoroughly 
 mixed dry and made into a mortar, with the least possible amount of 
 water — broken sandstone not exceeding IJ inches in their largest dimen- 
 sions, thoroughly cleaned from dust and dirt, drenched with water, but 
 containing no loose water in the heap, to be immediately incorporated 
 with the mortar in such quantities as will give a surplus of mortar when 
 rammed. . When the proper proportion is ascertained, it is afterwards 
 regulated by measure. When spread it is thoroughly compacted by 
 ramming, until free mortar appears on the surface, which must be made 
 exactly parallel with the surface of the pavement to be laid. 
 
 Before this base is thoroughly set a wearing surface 1 inch thick is 
 laid (to a uniform and plane surface and properly smoothed), composed 
 of one part of Portland cement to one part of clean, coarse, sharp sand, 
 cut into diamond or rectangular slabs, in sizes not larger in area than 
 1 square yard. 
 
 In this pavement (from result) it seems advisable at every length of 
 12 feet to allow a groove 1 inch deep by 1 inch wide, so that the wear- 
 ing surface should set freely, after which the groove is filled in with 
 asphalt or other suitable material. The scoring is done with a trowel, 
 and cut not more than a quarter of an inch deep, and with a uniform 
 width of one-eighth of an inch. 
 
 The traflSc in George, Pitt, York, and Sussex streets is said to be as 
 heavy per square yard as in any other city in the world. The average 
 number of vehicles passing George street near the town hall per day 
 for 12 hours is 11,960. 
 
 GEAUITE PAVEMENTS. 
 
 The cubes of the granite pavements are very carefully laid on a con- 
 crete foundation of 6 inches in depth. In 1887 there were 600 square 
 yards of this pavement laid at a cost of 22s. Id. ($5.48) per square yard, 
 and 337 yards laid on sand at a cost of 15s. Z\d. ($3.71^) per square 
 yard. In 1888 about 2,000 square yards were laid on sand, varying in 
 cost from 6s. ($1.46) to 13s. IM. ($3.48) per square yard. In 1889 there 
 were 2,726 yards laid on sand at a cost of 5si Id.^ ($1.24) per square yard. 
 In 1890 there were 9,687 yards of wood paving laid at a cost varying 
 from^lSs. Id: ($3.30) to 19s. id. ($4.70) per square yard. The following 
 table shows in detail the cost per square yard of wood paving carried 
 
550 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 out during the years 1889 and 1890 ; also the cost of cube set paving for 
 1889 iu Sydney: 
 
 WOOD PAVING. 
 
 When 
 opened 
 to traffic. 
 
 Karae of 
 street 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Area 
 insq. 
 yards. 
 
 Cost 
 per sq. 
 yard. 
 
 Eemarks. 
 
 1889. 
 
 
 
 
 .. d. 
 
 
 Jannary 
 
 Pitt 
 
 At Spring and Bond 
 streets. 
 
 720 
 
 16 7i 
 
 Cube-set crossings removed 
 and wood blocks substituted. 
 
 Do 
 
 William 
 
 At Boomerang and 
 Turong streets. 
 
 82 
 
 19 3 
 
 Do. 
 
 May 
 
 George 
 
 At Gipps, Engine, 
 Hay, and Goulburn 
 
 streets. 
 
 2,980 
 
 .18 OJ 
 
 Do. 
 
 Jane 
 
 Elizabeth.... 
 
 Hunter to Liverpool 
 street. 
 
 11, 908 
 
 19 8 
 
 Hardwood blocks laid on 6-incli 
 concrete. 
 
 1890. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 January — 
 
 Kent 
 
 Argyle to Crescent 
 street. 
 
 6,510 
 
 19 10 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 
 
 April 
 
 Pitt 
 
 At Hunter street 
 
 562 
 
 15 
 
 Cnbe-set crossings removed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and wood blocks anbstitnied. 
 
 July 
 
 Bridge 
 
 Clarence 
 
 George 
 
 Pittstreet, Macquarie 
 
 place. 
 At Margaret street- .' 
 At Argyle, Bathurst, 
 Druilt, Hunter, 
 King, Liverpool, and 
 Margaret streets 
 
 1,775 
 
 19 8i 
 
 Hardwood blocks laid on 6-inch 
 concrete. 
 
 Juno to De- 
 
 
 and Queen's place. 
 
 7,270 
 
 13 7 
 
 5Cube-set crossings removed 
 \ and wood blocks substituted. 
 
 
 Pitt 
 
 At King, Market, and 
 
 
 York. 
 
 Park streets. 
 At Barrack, Druitt, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Erskine, King, Mar- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ket, and Wynyard 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 streets. 
 
 
 
 
 CUBE-SET PAVING. 
 
 Jnly. 
 May. 
 
 Septemljer.. 
 
 Alfter's road. 
 Stream 
 
 Harbor . 
 
 Myrtle street to 
 
 Paint's lane. 
 Pier to Liverpool 
 
 street. 
 
 625 
 249i 
 
 5 1 
 
 6 1 
 
 1,852 
 
 5 1 
 
 Old cubes laid on sand. 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 The cost of repairing wood paving in Sydney is less than that of any 
 other kind when the amount of traffic is taten into consideration. 
 
 The total expenditures for repairs to wood pavements is very small. 
 In 1890 considerable expenditures were made on account of the gas 
 company, sewage board, etc., but the general repairs amounted to only 
 £65 ($316.32) during the year. 
 
 The city surveyor states that the annual cost for repairs to wood 
 pavements is so small as to be hardly worth taken into consideration, 
 and that the chief outlay is in soundings. The whole expense, for 
 repairs, including the cost of watering the streets, is about one-six- 
 teenth part of a penny, say one eighth part of a cent per square yard 
 per annum. The annual cost of repairing the macadamized streets is 
 about ^\ cents per sq uare yard. Taking separate areas on streets simi- 
 larly constructed and over which continual traffic passes in the central 
 part of the city the cost is from 8d (16 cents) to lid. (22 cents) per 
 square yard. 
 
AUSTRALASIA — NEW SOUTH WALES. 651 
 
 SEWERAGE. 
 
 This report would be incomplete without some mention of the admira- 
 ble system of sewerage that has been so successfully carried out by 
 the authorities of Sydney and which has done more than anything 
 else to improve the. health of the city. 
 
 In 1875 the government appointed a board, called " the Sydney city 
 and suburban sewage and health board," for the purpose of inquir- 
 ing into and reporting upon the best means of disposing of the. sewage 
 of the city and suburbs, and also for the protection of the health of 
 the inhabitants. The board consisted of fifteen members, including the 
 surveyor-general, several of the professors of the Sydney University 
 and member^ of the board of health, the city surveyor, the engineer in 
 chief of the road bridges, the government analyst, etc. The board sub- 
 mitted twelve progress reports, all of which dealt with very important 
 questions and contained many valuable and practical suggestions. 
 
 In order to understand the system adopted it should be mentioned 
 that the city of Sydney is situated on the southern shore of Port Jack- 
 son, about 5 miles from the head or entrance to the harbor from the 
 South Pacific Ocean. Professor Warren, M. i. 0. e,, of the University of 
 Sydney, to whom I am indebted for much valuable material in the 
 preparation of this report, states — 
 
 That from a point on the ocean cliffs, about three-quarters of a mile south of the 
 South Head, and known as Ben Buckler Point, a high ridge extends in a westerly 
 and southwesterly direction, having a mean elevation above the sea level at its eastern 
 end of about 200 feet and declining thence to about 100 feet. The distance to the 
 north of this ridge, on which the principal portion of the city is situated, drains to 
 Sydney Harbor, and the southern slope drains to Botany Bay and Cook's River. 
 
 It was decided that the sewage of those portions of the city of Sydney 
 and its suburbs which naturally drain into Port Jackson should be 
 collected into an outfall sewer and led away by the most direct course 
 and at as low a level as practicable and discharged finally into the sea 
 near Ben Buckler Point, while the sewage of the southern district 
 should be collected into a separate system and taken to Botany and 
 there to be utilized as a sewage farm, there being an ample area of light 
 sandy soil at a convenient level for irrigation by gravitation available 
 for the purpose. 
 
 The area drained by the northern system is about 5,300 acres, and the 
 area drained by the southern system about 1,100 acres. The whole- of 
 the northern and southern outfall sewers have been completed and 
 much work done in extending the minor sewers in connection with the 
 system. Professor Warren states that the northern outfall sewer com- 
 mences near the intersection of the Newtown road and Parramatta and 
 discharges into the ocean near Ben Buckler Point, is 5J miles in length, 
 uniform in section, and varying in size from 4 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 6 
 inches at its upper end to 8 feet 6 inches by 7 feet 6 inches for a length 
 of 1 mile' at the outfall end, with a fall of 3 feet 6 inches a mile. At a 
 
552 STEEETS AND HIGH nr AYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 quarter of a mile from the head it is joined by " the Prince Alfred Hos 
 pital connecting sewer" and by the " Pyrmout branch sewer;" at the 
 corner of Oxford and Liverpool streets, IJ miles from the head, it is 
 joined by the King street and several other intercepting branches. 
 Besides collecting sewerage at these branches it intercepts a number 
 of old sewers at Eushcutters Bay. A storm water overflow is provided 
 along the entire length, and from this point an overflow sewer was 
 built to carry the storm water into the bay. It is one half a mile in 
 length, 4 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 6 inches in size, with a fall of 1 in 200, 
 and discharging above high-water level. A swamp of 1,000 feet in 
 length had to be crossed by this overflow sewer. This part of the work 
 is carried on arches of 25 feet span and 3 feet 6 inches rise. To form 
 the piers for the arches concrete cylinders of 10 feet external diameter 
 were sunk through the spongy ground until a stratum of clean sand 
 was reached. The cylinders were filled with concrete and the arches 
 turned. The thickness between the sofiQtt of the arch at the corner and 
 the invert of the sewer is 12 inches. The depth of the cylinders varies 
 from 1 feet to 33 feet. The whole of the work in the cylinders, arches, 
 and sewer is of concrete. 
 
 Provision is made at the other points for storm- water relief and diver- 
 sion of sewerage when necessary. The northern system comprises the 
 following new brick and concrete sewers : 
 
 Oatfall sewer, 5 miles 2,700 foet ; Prince Alfred Hospital intercepting sewer, 1 
 mile 1,400 fedt; Pyrmont branch, 1 mile 2,100 feet; Kent street intercepting sewer, 
 1 mile 3,900 feet ; Bridge street and Harrington street intercepting sewer, 1 mile 
 4,700 feet ; Riley street and Bourke street intercepting sewer, 2,000 feet ; Lacrozea 
 Creek branch, 1,500 feet ; Eushcutter's Bay overflow sewer, 2,500 feet ; proposed ex- 
 tensions to Glebe, Balmain, etc. (shown in dotted lines on sketch plan), 5 miles 2,000 
 feet ; total, 18 miles 680 feet. Some stoneware pipe sewers have also been laid up to 
 24 inches diameter, and a large amount of work remains to be done in laying pipe 
 sewers or submains. Concrete has been largely nsed in the construction of the 
 sewers, and all bricks used in the work are of very high quality. The concrete (ex- 
 cept that used for packing purposes) is composed of blue stone, broken to a 1 J-inch 
 gauge, sand and Portland cement in the following proportions : Four parts of stone, 
 two parts of sand, and one part of cement. The bricks were nearly all supplied from 
 two brickyards, and average samples taken from them were tested at the Sydney 
 University Engineering Laboratory with the following results: Average crushing 
 resistance per square inch, 2,782 pounds and 2,228 pounds. The crushing resistance 
 of English Stourbridge fire bricks is about 1,717 pounds per square inch, and of 
 London red brick about 808 pounds per square inch. The tunnels are lined through- 
 out, .the minimum thickness of lining adopted being 41 inches. In^'ock tunnels the 
 lower part of the sewer up to a height of 12 inches above the springing level is lined 
 with bluestone concrete, and the arch is closed with brickwork packed solid to the 
 rock with sandstone concrete. In very wet rock a riug of brickwork (4J inches) is 
 laid inside an outer lining of concrete and subducts, which were afterwards closed, 
 were used during construction in order to secure water-tight work. The outfall 
 sewer from Oxford street to the ocean, a length of 4i miles, is rendered to three- 
 fourths of its height, and the brick arch above that level is pointed. The remainder 
 of the outfall sewer and the branch sewers are rendered all round with cement mor- 
 tar, composed of one part Portland cement and two parts of sand. Every lot of 
 cement brought on the work is tested at the head office, where complete testing ap- 
 
AUSTRALASIA — NEW SOUTH WALES. 553 
 
 parafcns is provided, and all cement Aybioh does not fnlfill the speeiPed conditions, or 
 appears to be of inferior or doubtful finality, is rejected. Tbe sowers are constructed 
 chiefly' in tunnels, ahd a greatportion of the tunneling is in sandstone rock. Numer- 
 ous shafts were sunk for the driving of the tunnels, and to be used for ventilation af- 
 terwards, the deepest one being 240 feet. The rock tunnel excavation was done by 
 blasting and presented no difficulties. In some cases the drilling was done by per- 
 cussive rock drills worked by compressed air, and where compressed air was used for 
 this purpose it was also used to work the winding engines. - In other cases the drill- 
 ing was done by hand and ventilation was provided by Root's blowers. 
 
 Professor Warren states that the portions of the work which present 
 most interest from an engineering point of view are on the outlet end 
 of the outfall sewer. For 1 mile, commencing at the outlet, the sewer 
 is 8 feet 6 inches by 7 feet 6 inches, and for the remainder it is 8 feet 2 
 inches by 7 feet 2 inches. It is constructed in tunnel on sandstone rock 
 on this length for 3,960 feet, and in water-charged sand 1,643 feet, and 
 in open cutting in water-charged sand for 2,967. This part of the sewer 
 Professor Warren states is very interesting on account of the novelty 
 of the design, thei^ being nothing like it as far as he is aware hitherto 
 constructed. He says : 
 
 For draining the water charged sand nine centrifugal pumps were used with 6- 
 inch to 9-inch pipes. Pumping wells were sunk to one side of the sewer trench and 
 close timbered to the foundation level; the sumps below this level, a few feet in 
 depth, being steened with concrete to prevent any water entering except through a 
 pipe built in the concrete and connected with the subduct laid along the center of the 
 sewer trench and tunnels. The subduct consisted of 9-inch earthenware pipes laid 
 in hard wood boxes open at the top and packed with broken stone. These boxes 
 were made water-tight, and the sides were carried up about 2 inches above the foun- 
 datiion level so as to prevent any water entering from below that level, except at the 
 end of the duct, which was always kept some distance ahead of the concrete work. 
 During the construction of the sewer, openings through the concrete were left over 
 the subduct at intervals of 300 feet, and lines with rakes attached were passed 
 through from one to the other, and these lines were occasionally pulled backwards 
 and forwards to keep the pipes clear of silt or other obstruction. Two traveling 
 cranes with 30-feet jibs were used for raising the sand from the trenches, which were 
 sunk with a batter of one in eight and close timbered at the sides. 
 
 The main southern section of the sewer drains the southern slope of 
 the city, including several of the most important boroughs, the area 
 being over 1.100 acres. The cuttings in some places are 30 feet deep. 
 Professor Warren says that where the sewer passes over natural water 
 courses concrete culverts have been constructed through which the 
 streams are carried under the sewer, so that the land drainage and the 
 interest of market gardeners are not interfered with. The main sewer 
 is constructed of bluestone lined with brickwork and sandstone concrete. 
 For the lower portions, it is rendered on the inside with Portland cement 
 mortar half an inch thick in the proportion of one part of cement to 
 two of sharp, clean sand. 
 
 The sewer is provided throughout its length with ventilation man- 
 holes and with gas check valves to prevent the sewer gas rising to 
 the higher levels ; also with flushing and penstock chambers. Three 
 
554 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 million bricks and 35,000 casks of cenjenfc were nsed. In connection 
 with the system a sewage farm of about 300 acres of loose ground has 
 been secured for the purpose of filtering the 'sewerage. Suitable filter 
 beds have been made for the disposal of surplus water during heavy 
 rains. These beds are capable of filtering 400,000 gallons of sewage per 
 acre in 24 hours. They are used in rotation that the very best filtering 
 powers may be obtained. There are cultivated areas on the sloping 
 ground toward Cook's Elver formed in terraces on the ridge and fur- 
 row system connected with the main carrier by means of small wooden 
 distributors, with sluices, timber boxes, etc. The sanitary results are 
 shown by the purity of the effluent water. The terraces and banks of 
 the main carrier are planted with Meeembryanthemum tigrinum. The 
 prepared beds are planted with sorghum, barley, lucerne, etc. This 
 farm, together with many other valuable improvements, not usually 
 connected with sewage, has done much towards making this great work 
 almost unique as well as one of the most complete and satisfactory sys- 
 tems of drainage in the world. 
 
 HIGHWAYS. 
 
 The public roads in New South Wales, and, indeed,, in all the Austra- 
 lian colonies from the first settlement of the country, have been built 
 in the most substantial manner. At first they were constructed entirely 
 by prison labor. The New South Wales road department was organ- 
 ized in 1857, and Mr. T. A. Ooglan, the Government statistician, states 
 that although good service was done by the road pioneers before that' 
 date, the modern system of road making may be said to have begun 
 with the creation of the roads department. It was not known until 
 1867 that the whole of the roads received attention at the hands of the 
 state. The department of roads has also the control of the bridges, 
 ferries, punts, etc. Among the duties devolving upon the department 
 are the selection of the work and the disbursement of the funds noted 
 annually for the purpose. Prof. W. H. Wassen, m. i. c. e., professor 
 of mechanical and civil engineering in the University of Sydney, has 
 summarized the duties of the roads department as follows: 
 
 (1) The removal of all complete interruptions to traffic, more particularly to mail 
 transit, by bridging the rivers and creeks. 
 
 (2) The improvement of all the most difficult mountain passes and swamps. 
 
 (3) The final determination of the direction of the roads and the clearing of the 
 same, followed by drainage and culverting where most required. 
 
 (4) The forming and metaling of roads, excepting where municipalities exist. 
 
 It being almost impossible to insist on any one uniform mode of con- 
 structing the roads it was decided to adapt them as far as possible to 
 the conditions of the country through which they were to pass, with a 
 due regard to the requirements of the trafiSc and the quantity and 
 quality of the material available. 
 The following are the main roads in New South Wales: 
 Northern road— length, 405 miles, from Morpeth to Maryland, New 
 England. 
 
AUSTRALASIA — NEW SOUTH WALES. 555 
 
 Western road — length, 338 miles, from Sydney to Warren, through 
 Bathurst, Orange, and many other important townships; thence pro- 
 longed to the Darling, at Bourke, by a line 175 miles in length. 
 
 Southern road — length, 385 miles, from Sydney to Albury. This road 
 was, before the construction of the railway, the great highway between 
 Sydney and Melbourne. 
 
 South coast road — ^length, 250 miles. This road, after leaving Camp- 
 belltown, ascends the coast range, along the top of which it runs as far 
 as Coal Cliff. It then traverses the lUawarra district, parallel to the 
 coast, and passes through the rich lands watered by the Shoalhaven, 
 Clyde, and Moruya, as far as Eden, at the southern limit of the colony. 
 
 The public roads have nothing like the importance they formerly 
 possessed previous to their having been superseded for the most part 
 by the railways. The tendency now is to make the roads act as feeders 
 to the railways by conveying the traffic from outlying districts towards 
 the convenient stations along the railway line. The length of the 
 roads are estimated at about 30,000 miles ; of these 6,500 miles have 
 been formed, metaled and graveled, and 4,500 miles not metaled, but 
 drained, and upon which culverts have been built, and 7,600 miles of 
 road through the forests of the interior marked out by cart wheels, and 
 1,400 miles through mountain passes, some of which presented diffi- 
 culties almost immountable, and in their construction great engineering 
 skill was displayed. Of these roads much attention has been directed 
 to that at BuUi Pass. This great work was begun in 1867 for the pur- 
 pose of opening up communication with the northern part of the lUa- 
 warra district and the Great Southern Railway at Campbelltown. The 
 Illawarra district is regarded as the garden spot of the colony, and is 
 remarkable not only for its fertility but for the beauty and variety of 
 its scenery. In some places the grades are as steep as 1 In 8, but the 
 road is perfectly straight and smooth. Another magnificent road is that 
 around Mount George, in the Blue Mountains district, and connecting 
 with the main road leading to the Jenolan Oaves. The scenery along 
 the road is varied and picturesque in the extreme. Although ap- 
 proaching very near the edges of precipices several thousend feet in 
 depth, strong stone facings of sufficient height protect the traveler 
 from danger and keep the roads from falling away during heavy rains. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE. 
 
 The colony is divided into fifty-four road districts and four hundred 
 road trusts. The districts are managed by superintendents or engineers. 
 The trusts have the supervision of certain grants for the maintenance 
 of roads of minor importance. There are also a number of important 
 road trusts in the vicinity of Sidney all of which are well managed. 
 
 Annually votes are obtained from Parliament. First, for the main 
 roads referred to, and secondly, for such of the minor roads as may be 
 considered of sufficient importance to be specifically dealt with, in 
 
556 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN POEEIGN COUNTEIKS. 
 
 which case each road is described by Dame and placed upon a schedule 
 having a certain sum of money allotted to it according to importance. 
 In addition to these votes, a considerable sum is annually voted under 
 the head of unclassified roads. This amount is distributed by the 
 minister for public works for expenditure, upon representations made, 
 and after report of the officers referred to. 
 
 Special votes are made for the erection of bridges by Parliament, 
 and also for repairs to same. 
 
 Funds having been thus allotted, road superintendents submit pro- 
 posals for expenditure to the supervising engineer, who directs the 
 calling for tenders for the various works approved of by them. 
 
 Specifications and plans are exhibited at the court-houses nearest the 
 site of the work and advertisements inserted in the local newspapers 
 inviting persons to send in tenders by a stated date. 
 
 Tenders having been received by the local officer are submitted by 
 him with his recommendation to the assistant engineers, who have 
 jjower to accept tenders for any amount not exceeding £200. Tenders 
 above that amount are submitted to the minister for works for accept- 
 ance. The lowest tender is accepted in every case unless some special 
 reason exists for passing it over. A tender having been accepted, the 
 papers are returned to the road superintendent that he may obtain the 
 signature of the contractor to his contract. 
 
 There are two forms of contract agreement used — a memorandum of 
 task agreement for all sums under £200, and a penal bond for all sums 
 over that amount with sureties in 10 per cent, on the amount of the 
 contract. 
 
 The road superintendent prepares these agreements on printed forms, 
 and when signed the bond is sent with all papers to the head office of 
 the branch through the supervising engineers to be filed. 
 
 In case of task agreements the butt remains in his possession in the 
 task book, the duplicate coupon is sent on to the head office with pre- 
 vious papers to be filed, and the triplicate, signed by the superintend- 
 ent, handed to the contractor. (Sample copy attached.) 
 
 All contractors are bound by printed general conditions, which form 
 part of their contract papers, and are in all cases attached to the speci- 
 fications and signed by the contractor. 
 
 The contract having been signed, the road superintendent directs 
 the contractor to commence the work. 
 
 As the work proceeds progress payments are made from time to time 
 to the amount ot 80 per cent, upon the value of the work done, upon the 
 certificate of the superintendent, countersigned by the supervising en- 
 gineer, and the balance upon the completion of the contracts. 
 
 Each road superintendent has also a public bank account, into which 
 are placed moneys for payment to contractors and others as advised 
 from the engineer-in-chief's office. The road superintendents are also 
 held responsible for seeing that the votes of Parliament are not ex- 
 
AUSTRALASIA — NEW SOUTH WALES. 557 
 
 ceeded, and have to furuish, quarterlj'-, a return, showing the financial 
 position of the district, the balances to credit of votes, and the liabilities 
 incurred against each. 
 
 The same routine is carried out with regard to bridge contracts. On 
 all important bridges, the plans having been prepared by the engineer 
 for bridges, an oflflcer is stationed during the progress of the work, 
 whose duty it is to see that that work is faithfully carried out, and cer- 
 tify to pay vouchers. This ofi&cer Is responsible to and corresponds 
 with the supervising engineer. 
 
 In cases of smaller bridges of simple design the road superintendent 
 alone exercises supervision. 
 
 To the road superintendents, as stated before, is deputed the duty of 
 submitting proposals for works to be carried out each year, and they 
 prepare the necessary levels, sections, and working plans, for the ordi- 
 nary formation and grading, or it is done by qualified surveyors under 
 their direction, subject to the supervising engineer, to whom is submit- 
 ted all proposals with specifications for approval before further action 
 is taken. Wherever possible, levels are taken and sections prepared 
 for grading the roads where construction is to be carried out. Lately 
 a number of surveyors have been appointed for this purpose, as it has 
 been found to be too great a tax upon the road superiuteudents' time, 
 and took them away from their duties of supervision. 
 
 These surveyors-travel about from district to district for the purpose 
 of carrying on necessary surveys as may be required. 
 
 The very small Wooden culverts are now, in the districts within rea- 
 sonable reach of the railways, to a great extent abandoned in favor of 
 earthenware drain pipes, which are now largely used. The sizes of 
 these pipes are usually 12 inches, 18 inches, and 24 inches in diameter. 
 
 These are in 2-foot lengths, readily transported, quickly fixed, last an 
 indefinite time, and form an effective and inexpensive culvert. The 
 roads are usually formed 27 to 30 feet in width where the cross section 
 of the ground is moderately iiat and favorable, and where it is steep 
 or rocky, making formation expensive, such as in mountain country, 
 the width is reduced to 24 feet, 20 feet, and, in exceptionally bad coun- 
 try and where only small traffic may be expected, even 18 feet wide. 
 
 Metaling is usually 18 feet in width, the quantity of metal being from 
 1 cubic yard to the linear yard of road on all ordinary roads to 1| cubic 
 yards on roads where exceptionally heavy traffic exists or the soil is 
 bad and soft. 
 
 The size of metal used in construction is usually 3 inches gauge, and 
 it is usually laid on the earth formation without bottom ballast or pitch- 
 ing. 
 
 The metal is then blinded with gravel if procurable, or if not, with 
 the best gritty material procurable within reasonable distance. 
 
 In some instances in the black-soil country where the ground is flat 
 and water readily absorbed, so that a bad base for the roads exists, a 
 
558 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 foundation of brushwood is laid and covered with a layer of better 
 soil, such as shale, to a depth of 6 inches to receive the metal. This 
 practice is not, however, common. In districts where good gravel ex- 
 ists this is largely used in lieu of stone on the ground of economy. A 
 good, smooth road results, carrying light traific well. 
 
 Before the extension of the railways into the more remote parts of the 
 colony the three great trunk lines of road and their principal branches 
 carried the traffic into the interior. 
 
 These trunk lines were the Great Iforthern, the Great Western, and 
 the Great Southern roads and extending about 300 miles inland. 
 
 They have been each metaled from 200 to 300 miles. 
 
 The method employed to maintain was to place men, styled mainte- 
 nance men, along the roads, giving each a fixed length varying from 4 
 to 10 miles. Their duty was to keep the surface good by spreading 
 metal, raking in ruts as the surface became broken by traffic, attending 
 to repairs to culverts, etc. 
 
 The supply of metal for maintaining the road was provided by annual 
 contract, let at the beginning of each year, each contract extending 
 over a stated length of road, the metal being supplied in heaps in such 
 places as might be directed and there measured, the spreading being 
 sometimes part of the contract, at others it was spread by the mainte- 
 nance men. 
 
 The same system is, with modification, still in use ; but it has been 
 found that the trunk lines of road, being superseded by railways and 
 there not being so much traffic on the branch roads severally, the work 
 of maintaining the surface, on these branches is not so costly per mile 
 as upon the old trunk lines ; therefore the maintenance men are fre- 
 quently itinerant ; still the same general principle is adhered to. 
 
 The maintenance men are paid at a uniform rate of 7«. 3d. per day 
 which is to cover repairs to tools, supplied in the first instance by the 
 department. A code of rules and instructions for the maintenance men 
 is supplied to each ; to them they are required to adhere. (Copy at- 
 tached).. These men are directly subordinate to the road superintend- 
 ent and engaged or discharged by him. 
 
 During the last 16 years the government have constructed 55 miles of 
 earthernware culverts and 25 miles of lumber, brick, and concrete cul- 
 verts. The government now largely use iron culverts, with rolled gird- 
 ers and buckeled plates, from 4 to 35 feet span, the floor of the plates 
 being filled with concrete. Mr. P. Scarr, one of the assis tant engi- 
 neers, in a report bearing date 2l8t of December, 1890, reviews at length 
 the condition of the roads in the southwestern division. He states 
 that in the maintenance of existing roads there is great room for im- 
 provements. He directs especial attention to the condition of the 
 metaled roads, mountain cuttings, drains, water tables, culverts, etc. 
 as being badly in need of repair. The system adopted for maintaining 
 the main trunk lines of roads in years past, when the whole traflic of 
 
AUSTRALASIA — NEW SOUTH WALES. 
 
 55sr 
 
 the interior passed over them, is not suitable for the extensive ramifica- 
 tion of the minor roads which now carry the traffic to the railways and 
 principal centers. Except in very few places the traffic is nothing like 
 as heavy as that of the old trunk roads. The system in vogue then, of 
 placing solitary men upon definite lengths of road, is out of placenow. 
 He says : 
 
 Then, uuder the very heavy and constant traffic, these men were regularly and 
 continually employed in surface repairs, and were visited, if not at regular at least 
 at frequent intervals. The officers had as a primary duty the maintenance of the 
 main lines, so that they became so intimately acquainted with the lengths of road 
 that they could estimate accurately the quantity of metal required on each and the 
 nnmher of men for each length of road. So that this system of having solitary men 
 was perhaps the best that could be devised. 
 
 He says, further, that from the large extent of road comprised within 
 each road district it is not possible for the officers to see these men 
 often enough to enable them to judge whether they exert themselves 
 or not. Although an enormous sum is paid away annually iu mainte- 
 nance wages, the maintenance of the work is by no means such as it 
 should be. Value is not obtained for the money paid. Following upon 
 this state of things the metaled lengths are imperfectly maintained, 
 cuttings scoured by water, drains choked by vegetation, and culverts 
 out of repair. It is impossible to lay to the charge of the officers 
 these results. It would be going further Into the mire for them to put 
 on additional men to do the work. He proj)oses as a remedy the re- 
 duction of the number of the solitary men, and to form flying gangs who 
 shall travel throughout the districts, eacli to have in a regular way a 
 general circuit and perform all the necessary repairs periodically. He 
 recommends. that in forming these gangs the men at present employed 
 should be absorbed as far as practicable, and that those remaining 
 should act as watchmen over these gangs and receive a slight increase 
 of pay above the others, and make them responsible for the proper 
 working of the gang. By this means 50 per cent, more work, he says, 
 could be done for the money now expended. Mr. Scarr states that in 
 order to test this plan he placed a number of experienced officers in two 
 districts, who have been at work several months with such favorable 
 results that he decided to recommend its general adoption. Among the 
 improvements brought about in the southwestern division by Assistant 
 Engineer Scarr has been to make all parts of the road districts more ac- 
 cessible than formerly to headquarters, and at the same time keep In 
 view the relative importance of the several roads and the facility 
 afforded by the railway for getting at the points of destination. The 
 Gundagai district has been considerably reduged by cutting off from it 
 a number of roads lying to the east of it and throwing them into a new 
 district of Cootamundra. This reduction amounts to 147 miles of road 
 and an expenditure of $13,345 annually on scheduled roads. From 
 Tass has been taken 102 miles of road, with an expenditure of $5,285; 
 from Wagga district 56 miles, at ^n expenditure of $2,500. The Coota- 
 
-560 
 
 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 mundra district now embraces 425 miles of road at an expenditure of 
 $30,275. The result of this rearrangement is shown in the following 
 table : 
 
 District. 
 
 OflBcer. 
 
 Mileage. 
 
 Expendi- 
 ture. 
 
 G-onlbarn 
 
 Grookwell 
 
 Tass 
 
 Young 
 
 Gnndagai 
 
 TnmbeFumba . . . 
 Wagga Wagga . 
 
 Albury 
 
 Beniliqum 
 
 Hay 
 
 Cootamnndra... 
 
 Mr. Kuwan . . . 
 Mr. Bawdon . . . 
 Mr. Nielley — 
 Mr. Moriarty.. 
 Mr. Frazer — 
 Mr. Allman . .. 
 
 Mr. Taylor 
 
 Mr. Smyth 
 
 Mr. Bocre 
 
 Mr. Cbisholui . 
 Mr, Cox 
 
 466 
 312 
 149 
 198 
 335 
 281 
 369 
 616 
 973 
 646 
 425 
 
 $39, 215 
 33, 850 
 30, 500 
 
 35, OOO - 
 91,150 
 10, 250 
 2.5, 300 
 45, 300 
 13, 400 
 
 36, 900 
 30,525 
 
 Total. 
 
 5,431 
 
 Mr. Scarr says these tend to equalize both the mileage and the expend- 
 iture as much as possible, but it is to be remembered that the mere 
 statement of mileage and expenditure must not be taken as complete 
 evidence of the amount of work entailed upon each officer when com- 
 paring one district with another. Eegard must be had in doing this to 
 the nature of the country as to the facility of getting about, the impor- 
 tance of the roads and work to be supervised, and the relative position 
 of the rarious roads. With the exception of the Gundagai district 
 there is not any material diflTerence in the amount of- the expenditure. 
 In this case the disproportion to the amount to be disbursed in the 
 other districts is caused by the special grant of $60,000 for the road 
 from Tumut to Kiandra, now in course of expenditure. This will be 
 carried out during the present year, when the amount for that district 
 will again fall to its normal amount. In the Albury distribt, where the 
 works are important, the expenditure is slightly over the general aver- 
 age,»but here a senior and experienced officer with two assistants are 
 stationed. 
 
 EFFECT OF IMPROVED PUBLIC ROADS UPON LAND VALUES. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the improvement in the conditions of 
 the roads from time to time has exercised a material influence upon 
 the value of land throughout the country. In some districts as a 
 consequence of this improvement it is found that produce (grain, for 
 example) can be profitably carried considerable distances to market 
 or to railway stations on the way to market. 
 
 Ill some cases maize is carted 20 to 30 miles by a good road to a 
 railway and sent 250 miles to the metropolis, with a result remuner- 
 tive to the grower, wliitet in other districts where the soil is equally 
 rich, the same grain can only be carted at a loss a less distance to 
 a seaport 300 miles distant from the same market, in consequence 
 of the unimproved condition of the roads. 
 
 A consequence of this is that much land which would otherwise 
 
AUSTRALASIA — NEW SOUTH WALES. 561 
 
 remain in a primitive state now is brought under cultivation and sup- 
 ports population enjoying the privileges of advanced civilization. 
 
 In other industries, too, the effect of the better state of the roads 
 is felt. Mining, grazing, etc, are carried on to greater advantage and 
 the benefit of this condition is felt. 
 
 G. W. Griffin, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Sydney, March 12, 1891. 
 
 ROADS IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 
 
 [Inclosnre in Consul Griffin's, report.] 
 
 Under Secretary Barling to Consul Griffin. ' 
 
 Public Works Department, 
 
 Sydney, March 23, 189L 
 Sir : With r jforeuce to youv letter of the 26th ultimo, and to mine of the 6th 
 instant, I am directed by the secretary forpiiblic worlts to forward herewith, in com- 
 pliance with your request, a copy of the report of Mr. E. J. Statham, supervising 
 engineer. No. 1 Roads Division, which, it is hoped may prove of service for the pur- 
 poses you require. 
 
 I have the honor to be, sir, your obedient servant, 
 
 J. Barling, 
 
 Under Secretary, 
 Per D.A.W.T. 
 G. W. Griffin, Esq., 
 
 Consulate of the United Slates, Sydney. 
 
 General Report No. 1 Division. 
 
 To the COMMISSIONBR AND EnGINEER-IN-ChIBF FOR ROADS : 
 
 Sir : In submitting my general i-eport for the past half year I would explain in the 
 Jlrst instance that delay in furnishing that report is due to a number of circumstances 
 tending to bring about that result, principally the derangement of affairs consequent 
 upon removal to Sydney, the necessity to personally visit portions of the new dis- 
 trict with which I was uufamiliar, the disentanglement of business formerly in my 
 charge now transferred to another division, the continued attention to those matters 
 until such other division could be entirely taken up, the reorganization of my new 
 district, and more especially the press of current business which has constantly de- 
 manded more than the regular office hours. My former division extended along the 
 north coast from the Manning to the Queensland border, with Grafton as head- 
 quarters. It included the road districts of the Manning, Maoleay, Bellinger, Graf- 
 ton, Clarence, Lismore, Casino, and Tweed. A short, experience of the division as 
 thus arranged demonstrated the utter unworkableness of some of the districts, due 
 to extension and ramification of new roads and development of fresh centers for 
 settlement. In recognition of the necessity to meet the altered circumstances the 
 Manning and Maoleay have been relieved by the introduction of a new district, with 
 Port Macqnarie as its center. The Grafton district has been divided into two, desig- 
 nated Grafton and South Grafton ; and Lismore has also been divided by making 
 another, with Woodburn as headquarters. Under this new development Grafton, 
 33a 36 
 
562 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 never a convenient center, became more than ever nnsnitable as divisional head- 
 quarters; and notwithstanding every effort vexatious delays have resulted, no doubt 
 contributing to the discontent which has lately been the subject of inquiry. The 
 same causes operating more or less over the whole colony, a thorough reorganization 
 became a necessity, and under the new arrangement my division has been modified 
 by a curtailment of its length on the coast, and the additions of a portion of the table 
 land, briuging it in touch with the railway system and the principal postal routes, 
 resulting in a vast improvement as respect the rapidity with which the business can 
 be dispatched and any particular place visited. 
 
 As now constituted my division is designated No. 1, comprising the following dis- 
 tricts in order of their latitude north of Sydney : 
 
 1, Armidale ; a, Bellinger; 3, Inverell; 4, Glen Innes; 5, South Grafton; 6, Graf- 
 ton; 7, Maclean; 8, Woodburn ; 9, Tenterfield; 10, Casino; 11, Lismore; 12, Tweed. 
 
 Armidale. — This district comprises the greater part of the southeastern portion of 
 the table-land of New England, with a length of 607 miles of roads under immediate 
 charge of Mr. S. A. Donnelly ; in addition to the mileage mentioned the numerous 
 works and bridges provided for by special grants make up an amount of business 
 which characterizes this as one of the most important districts. The springing up 
 of a township at Hillgrove mines, with a population of over 2,000, gave rise to the 
 necessity for an entirely new road, on which heavy traffic had to be provided for and 
 demanded a large share of the superintendent's time and attention ; at the same 
 place a problem presented itself as to the best means to provide access to the various 
 workings down the Hillgrove gorge, which h.is a precipitous scarp extending to a 
 depth of 1,600 feet; this has been solved by the laying out of a zigzag tract some 2 
 miles in length, designed by Mr. Stilwell ; a teuder for its construction was accepted, 
 but the contractor failed to take it up and fresh tenders have been ordered. Heavy 
 traffic has also developed in connection with the railway stations at Uralla, Black 
 Mountain, and Guyra, from each of which centers new ro^ds radiate and are likely 
 to become of rapidly increasing importance with the settlement of population on 
 the rich basaltic country in the neighborhood of each of these stations. The road 
 from Guyra to Tingha is becoming one of sjieoial importance as a route to the tin 
 mines and has to carry very heavy traffic over a surface which presents long stretches 
 of black basaltic soil, and porphyritic slopes of specially treacherous nature apt to 
 become quagmire after any continuous wet weather, and only to be remedied by the 
 most thorough construction. A great deal of good work has already been done on 
 this road, but the expense of construction has necessarily been so heavy that the re- 
 quirements of traflSc are yet a long way from being provided for and occasional in- 
 terruptions are only to be expected. 
 
 Easterly from Guyra a road suddenly assumed importance as the route to the mines 
 at Kookrabooka and Bearhill. 
 
 Bellinger. — Here a set of conditions entirely different to the foregoing present them- 
 selves. The Belliager and Nambuooa rivers branching off near the coast, are crossed 
 by ferries, those at Raleigh, South Arm, and Nambucoa being of considerable width. 
 There are other ferries higher up the river, namely, at Fernmount on the main arm 
 of the Bellinger and at Cougarini on the Nambucca. All these ferries are provided 
 with large-sized punts worked by wire-rope gearing, which seem to thoroughly meet 
 the requirements. The various branches of these rivers extend into rich brush land 
 which has been brought under cultivation. The back country is ridgy and broken 
 but there are numerous pockets of brush land taken up for cultivation, and it has 
 been necessary to connect these with various centers by roads for the most part in 
 side cutting with numerous bridges and culverts. The grading aud sectioning of 
 these roads have taken up much time and called for the services of officers of special 
 training and experience. The most important work in hand lately has been the 
 ascent of the tableland known as the Dorrigo Road (this is a rise of some 2 000 feet) 
 by exceptionally heavy rock side cutting, the scarp being so precipitous in places 
 
AUSTRALASIA — NEW SOUTH WALES. 563 
 
 that cascades have threatened the stability of the roadway, and it has heen necessary 
 to control them by iuteroepting channels, leading into the more defined water courses 
 ■which are provided with culverts. The works on this road are well advanced. The 
 public are very impatient to have it opened, as it will give access to a large extent 
 of rich land only needing this road to induce a population to settle on it. 
 
 North from the Bellinger much work has been done in opening up the road to Coft's 
 Harbor, all through brush land, whi.ch has been taken up for settlement. 
 
 At CofFs Harbor the new jetty, now in course of construction, has given rise to the 
 necessity for a new road about 1^ miles in length, to connect it with the through road 
 between the Bellinger and the Clarence. This road is now well advanced, and will 
 be ready before the jetty is finished. Between Coft's Harbor and Corindi has hitherto 
 been iu the Bellinger district, and has demanded a large share of attention ; but this 
 together with the road from Moonee to Sharpe's lias now been transferred to the South 
 Grafton district. Another important work in hand is the opening up of the road 
 from Boat Harbor via Spickett's Creek to the Nambucca, which will greatly shorten 
 the mail route, and afford direct communication between principal centers of popula- 
 tion on the two rivers. There are heavy works on this road in crossing the moun- 
 tainous divide between the rivers; the connection will probably be available for 
 wheel traffic in a few months. Mr. Leith has pushed on these works energetically 
 since he toot charge. 
 
 Jnverell. — This district has been under the charge of Mr. C. W. Jenkins since 1.5th 
 October, between which time and the end of the year he reported seventeen contracts 
 completed, seventeen others put in hand. 
 
 An exceedingly heavy traffic has to be dealt with on the main road from Inverell to 
 Glen Iiines all the waj- through black basaltic soil, every yard of which has to be 
 metaled; the greater part of it has already been constructed, but being new work, 
 it was terribly cut up during the late wet season, and has required much attention 
 to put it iu order again. There is a great sameness as regards the roads in this dis- 
 trict, which are for the most part through rich basaltic soil, and consequently ex- 
 pensive to construct. 
 
 Glen Innes. — This district, in charge of Mr. Miller, is one iii which black soil pre- 
 dominates, and metal construction is much in demand. From Glen Innes toward 
 Grafton is one of the great mail routes of the colony, there being a daily mail be- 
 tween New England and the Clarence via the Newton Boyd road. Metaling is being 
 carried on to a large extent. A great deal of construction has also been carried out 
 on the road from Glen Innes to Eed Range and Kings gate, where an agricultural 
 population has settled; one of the principal works on this road is the bridge over 
 the Mann River now nearing completion. Since the opening of the railway the road 
 from Emmaville through Tent Hill to Deepwater has assumed great importance as 
 being the principal traffic route from the rail at Deepwater to the tin mines on Vege- 
 table Cjeek, and is one of the roads to be provided for from special general vote. 
 
 South Grafton. —Thh newly formed district was only taken up by Mr. Everett at 
 the end of the year, and he has hardly had time to make himself acquainted with it. 
 He has, however, found that the work before him is so ouerous that he is unable to 
 devote the necessary time to the exploration and grading for extension of roads in 
 the Upper Orara, which is of the most urgent importance, having been so long 
 awaiting the services of a competent man. 
 
 Mr. Everett's camp is now in that locality, and a surveyor has been sent to take 
 up the work. 
 
 Coff's Harbor will be the outlet for this country as soon as the jetty is completed, 
 aud it is very necessary that these roads should be opened up in time. 
 
 Grafton. — The Newton Boyd road remains iu Mr. Rauken's charge, and he has in 
 hand the road to the Chandlers Creek gold field, which is heavy mountain cutting. 
 Much the same description of work demands attention, .ind has been standing over 
 a considerable time for sonie one at liberty to devote their tio^e to it. The most 
 
564 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 important work in hand is the Aliimny Creek bridge, an iron structure with brick 
 abutments, the contract for which has been recently let. At Carr's Creek some fas- 
 cine work has been successfully carried out, where extensive slips have taken place. 
 Another similar work is in progress on the river bank at McLachlan's, near Ulmarra, 
 and is reported to be successful. 
 
 The steam ferry at Grafton and ferries at Ulmarra, Southampton, and Eatonswill 
 are attached to this road district. There has been a certain amount of loss of time 
 in transferring newly defined roads and works in hand to the lately formed South 
 Grafton district, but the reorganization is now fairly well established, and Grafton 
 requirements will receive the attention which their importance demands. 
 
 Maclean. — This district, which is in charge of Mr. F. G. Hurley, takes in the alluvial 
 delta of the Clarence, a portion of the road Lawrence to Tenterfield, and Harwood 
 to "Woodburn, also the steam ferry at Harwood and hand ferries at North Arm, South 
 Arm, Brnshgrovo, Bluflf Point, Maclean, and Oyster Channel. Many of the roads in 
 this district are over swamps and have consequently to be embanked. There are 
 numerous timber bridges which require constant attention on account of the ravages 
 of white ants. 
 
 Woodburn.^-ThiB district, lately cut ofif from Lismore, and now in charge of Mr. 
 Crummer takes in the lower Richmond, and a, strip along the coast as far as Byron 
 Bay ; here swamps have to be contended with on the low lands, and aU else is the 
 dense brush, which is rapidly disappearing with the advance of settlement. 
 
 There is an ever increasing demand for new roads, apd the local officer has no light 
 task in reporting on the various applications and setting out works in cases where 
 funds have been provided. The brush hook and the level have to precede expenditure 
 in nearly every instance, and the work of this district is consequently not to be 
 judged either by the mileage or the amount of grants; and, though lowest on the 
 list in both these respects, it is not by any means an unimportant one. 
 
 Tenlerfield. — This district is in Mr. Williamson's charge ; therearenot somany roads 
 as in some of the other large districts, but long distances have to be covered, and the 
 traveling is more than average. Some of the works as at Acacia Creek and River- 
 tree are at a considerable distance from headquarters. 
 
 One of the most important works carried out lately is the descent of the tableland, 
 between Undercliflfe and Rivertree, where a road has been constructed with easy grad- 
 ients, at an exceptionally small cost for such an undertaking. 
 
 The road from Tenterfield to Tabulam and Casino has assumed special importance 
 since the opening of the railway, as it is the mail route to the Richmond river district 
 and the Fairfield mines. There are a great many bridges in this district, many of 
 them rather old, and needing careful looking after. 
 
 Casino— la in Mr. Gracie's charge. It is one of the older districts, from which, in 
 succession, the Tweed, Lismore, and Woodburn, have been cut off. There are many 
 important works already carried out which have to be maintained, and lately there 
 has been a great extension of settlement due to the resumption of leasehold areas, 
 which will necessitate new roads, and the more thorough construction of these already 
 opened. The richness of the land and extent of settlement both necessitate and jus- 
 tify a large expenditure in road construction. 
 
 Since the opening of the railway to Tenterfield, the mails formerly sent by sea, 
 either by the direct boats, or those trading to the Clarence, are now forwarded by 
 rail and coach, via Tabulan and Casino. In anticipation of such change, a direct 
 road has been opened up, and a great deal of work has been done on it ; but it passes 
 over a considerable extent of black soil, and the construction is consequently ex- 
 pensive. Provision for this does not appear on the appended list, as the amount has 
 not yet been determined ; it however is noted as one of the roads to be supplemented 
 from the geiier.il vote. 
 
 Lismm'e district — Is in Mr. AUmau's charge. The town of Lismore is the shipping 
 port for a surrounding country, aU of which is of the richest and m.ost fertile descrip~ 
 
AUSTRALASIA — NEW SOUTH WALES. 
 
 565 
 
 tiou, and will for some time be the terminus of a new railway system. The develop- 
 ment of sugar growing and extension of the dairying industry have given rise to the 
 demand for a multiplicity of roads which might appear out of proportion to the size 
 of the district ; there can, however, be no question as to the necessity for their con- 
 struction or the expediency of incurring the expense of bo doing. There are numer- 
 ous and important bridges in this district ; some of these still in hand, or about to be 
 commenced. It would unduly prolong this report to allnde to these in detail. 
 
 The Tweed diatriot — Is now in Mr. Scott's charge, but till recently has been under 
 Mr. Morton, of whose services in connection with the district I can speak in the 
 highest terms. 
 
 The district includes the watersheds of the Tweed and Brunswick, with the net- 
 work of roads having their terminus at Byron Bay, where a jetty has been con- 
 structed and a shipping port established. The whole of this country is of exceptional 
 fertility,-- ud the difficulties of road construction are of no ordinary description. 
 
 To review the works already constructed, or to sketch those provided for, wonld 
 involve so much detail that it appears to me it would now be out of place. 
 
 Bridge repairs. — The abundance and excellence of the timbers in these districts 
 made timber bridge construction the rule, though some fine iron and composite 
 structures have been erected. The climate is, however, unfavorable to their lon- 
 gevity, dry rot and white ant being very destructive ; the white ant even attacks 
 the punts, which are saturated with tar and always in water. 
 
 Eepairing parties, under experienced, practical foremen, I find to be the most sat- 
 isfactory way of dealing with these repairs, all material being supplied by contract. 
 
 Eoad distriats and apprepriations, 1891, No. 1 dimsion. 
 
 Ofacer. 
 
 Mr. Donnelly . . . 
 
 Mf.Leitli 
 
 Mr. Jenkins 
 
 Mr. Miller 
 
 Mr. Everett 
 
 Mr. fianken 
 
 Mr. Hurley 
 
 Mr. Crammer... 
 Mr. "Williamson. 
 
 Mr. Gracie 
 
 Mr. Allman 
 
 Mr.Seott 
 
 Total . 
 
 District. 
 
 Annidale 
 
 Bellinger 
 
 Inverell 
 
 Glen Xnnes 
 
 South Grafton . 
 
 Grafton 
 
 Maclean 
 
 ■WoodbiiTn 
 
 Tenterfield 
 
 Casino 
 
 Lismore 
 
 Tweed 
 
 No. of 
 roads. 
 
 Mileage. 
 
 607 
 252 
 401 
 
 204 
 134 
 129 
 390 
 291 
 321 
 209 
 
 3,687 
 
 Amount. 
 
 11, 480 
 7,165 
 
 14, 442 
 8,790 
 9,807 
 7,485 
 4,980 
 5,235 
 8,870 
 9,125 
 
 12, 510 
 
 12, 970 
 
 112,805 
 
 NEWCASTLE. 
 
 BEPORT BY OOMMUBOIAL AQBNT BAQBS. 
 
 A report on the streets aad roadways of this immediate district — and 
 that is all the territory covered by this report — will hardly be instruct- 
 ive or of advantage, except comparatively. 
 
 The streets of the large towns and cities, ranging in population from 
 3,000 to 60,000 inhabitants, are invariably macadamized, as are also the 
 country roads wherever an effort has been made to improve their orig- 
 inal condition. 
 
 These city or town streets are formed by loosening the surface soil, 
 spreading on 4 inches of sandstone ballast, then 2^ inches of blue metal, 
 over which is spread a thin layer of sandy gravel. This is the ordinary 
 
566 STREETS AND HIGH W^ AYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 formation : but it makes a rough aud uneven surface and is quinkly cut 
 in holes. On the principal thoroughfares the layer of blue mefal is 
 dipped in pitch and a thin coating of pitch over the top of this. This 
 composition mates a good, smooth, hard road ; but it needs constant 
 repairing under heavy travel. 
 
 Owing to the want of courtesy shown by the Newcastle town clerk I 
 am unable to give the cost of the original formation or of the repair of 
 the city streets. 
 
 Owing, however, to the kindness of Mr. W. S. Wells, government 
 engineer in charge of the roads and bridges of this district, exclusive 
 of towns, I am enabled to furnish the following information : 
 
 The country roads in this (Newcastle) district (which extend^bout 50 
 miles to the south and about 10 miles to the north of this city along 
 the coast and from the coast line inland a maximum distance of 60 
 miles and an average distance of 35 miles), are partly under the control 
 of government engineers and partly under the control of road trusts. 
 These road trusts are appointed by the government to expend the 
 annual appropriations on the numerous byroads, which are only of 
 local importance to farmers and pastoralists. 
 
 I append a list of roads under both, which shows the number of miles 
 of different classes of roads cleared, formed, drained, and metaled up 
 to date, also number of bridges and culverts erected. 
 
 Road in charge of engineers niiles.. 157 
 
 Road In charge of trustees - do... 248 
 
 Road, metaled, graveled, and ballasted do 70 
 
 Road formed do... 96^ 
 
 Road cleared and partly drained do... 1U3 
 
 Mountain passes and cuttings do . . . 38 
 
 Bridges in district number.. 25 
 
 Culverts and pipe drains do . . . 238 
 
 The following are the average prices paid for different classes of work 
 in this district : 
 
 Clearing 66 feet wide, grubbed to 18 inches, at $3.90 per chain. 
 
 Ordinary formation, 30 feet widQ, at $4.87 per chain. 
 
 Two and one-half inches blue metal spread 18 feet wide, at $2.42 per 
 cubic yard. 
 
 Four inches sandstone ballast 18 feet wide, at $1.21 per cubic yard. 
 
 Side drains, average depth 2 feet in soil, at $2.42 per chain. 
 
 Mountain cuttings, 20 feet wide, from $15 to $100 per chain. 
 
 Owing to the fact that this country is as yet so thinly settled, the 
 science of road-building has not reached that degree of perfection 
 which would be of service to an older and more thickly populated com- 
 munity. 
 
 The greater portion of the roads are simply wagon tracks through 
 the bush, absolutely impassable in wet weather. Wherever the travel 
 warrants it, however, a good road is formed on the lines above laid 
 down. Between town and town the roads are superior to the majority 
 
AUSTRALASIA — FIJI. 567 
 
 of country roads in the United States, but ouce off the main road their 
 superiority vanishes. 
 
 Gboege T. Baggs, 
 
 Commercial Agent. 
 United States Oommbboial Agency, 
 
 Neiocastle^ New South Wales, May 20, 1891. 
 
 FIJI. 
 
 SEPOBT BT OOMMBROIAL AGENT ST. JOHN, OF LETUKA. 
 
 Practically speaking, there are no roads in this colony that deserve 
 the name. 
 
 Each magisterial district is at present making a dirt road by cutting 
 two parallel ditches and throwing the dirt from them between the two, 
 more to employ prison labor than to build roads that will be used for 
 traffic or pleasure. 
 
 The main streets of both Suva and Levuka are made by prison labor 
 of broken coral washed up by the sea, which is a very good material 
 for the purpose, but it is not very lasting. 
 
 The trafilc of the islands is all done by water; consequently roads are 
 not required. 
 
 From inquiry I learn that there is not 50 miles of road in this colony. 
 
 Carriages or wagons are not used, except by a very few, in the towns 
 of Suva and Levuka. 
 
 Andrews A. St. John, 
 
 Commercial Agent. 
 
 United States Oommbboial Agency, 
 
 Leoulca, February 16, 1891. 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 SHEFFIELD.* 
 
 BFPOR TBT CONSUL FOLSOM. 
 
 CITY STREETS. 
 
 The material used for streets where the traffic is very heavy is gran- 
 ite ; for medium traffic gritstoue sets and wood blocks ; and for very 
 light traffic "tar macadam," i.e., broken granite or limestone mixed 
 with boiling pitch and tar. 
 
 Qranite. — This is obtained from Leicestershire, Cumberland, and Dal- 
 beattie in Scotland, and costs from 20s. 6d. ($4.99) to 24s. 6d. ($5.96) per 
 ton. It is used in the form of sets, measuring 6 by 4, 6 by 3, 5 by 4, 
 5 by 3 inches and 4-inch cubes, the first two sizes being used for the 
 heaviest traffic. The sets are laid on a bed of concrete formed of broken 
 stone and sand, mixed either with Portland cement or hydraulic lias 
 lime, and laid from 6 to 9 inches thick, according to the nature of the 
 traffic. On the top of the concrete is spread a layer of fine shingle on 
 which the sets are bedded ; the joints are then partially filled with one- 
 fourth-inch shingle, and tilled up flush with hot asphalt (boiling pitch 
 and tar). Value when laid, including concrete foundation, 13s. 6d. 
 ($3.28) per superficial yard. 
 
 Uritstone sets. — These are obtained from quarries in the neighbor- 
 hood and district. They are 10 inches deep and vary from about 6 to 
 10 inches wide. They cost from 15s. ($3.65) to 16s. ($3.89) per ton. No 
 concrete foundation is used for this pavement, the ^ets being simply 
 bedded on a layer of shingle and well beaten into place with a heavy 
 "beetle." They are then grouted in the same way as the granite sets. 
 Value when laid about 10s. ($2.43) per superficial yard. 
 
 Wood j^aving. — This consists of blocks of red deal 6 inches deep, 3 
 inches wide, and 9 inches long. Most of the wood paving in Sheffield 
 has been put down in its natural state, but in the last lot the blocks 
 were creosoted. The price of the blocks is about l\d. (2J cents) each. 
 A concrete foundation is formed similar to that described for granite 
 paving, and over this a layer of sand is spread, on which the blocks are 
 bedded. The end joints butt up against each other, but the side joints 
 are kept the proper distance apart by means of three iron studs driven 
 
 * This report was received too late for insertion iu its proper place. 
 
 5G9 
 
5?0 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 into one of the sides of the block, making the Joint three-eighths of an 
 inch wide. The paving is then grouted up solid with boiling pitch 
 and tar, or with liquid cement and sand. The latter method is now 
 generally adopted. Value when laid, 12«. 6d, ($3.04) per superficial 
 yard, including concrete foundation. 
 
 Tar macadam. — Very little of this form of paving is used near the 
 center of the town. It consists of either furnace slag, limestone, or 
 granite broken to a If or 2 inch gauge and mixed with boiling pitch and 
 tar. It is laid on a foundation course of flat rubble stone set on edge. ' 
 This foundation is well rolled with a heavy steam roller (10 tons) and 
 the macadam is then spread over the pitching to such a thickness that 
 after being rolled with the steamrollerit will be 4 inches thick. A thin 
 coating of tarred shingle or granite chippings about one-half-inch gauge 
 is then spread on the surface which is again rolled. The rubble pitch- 
 ing costs from Is. (24 cents) to Is. 6d. (36 cents) per square yard. Slag 
 tar macadam costs 2s. 3d. (55 cents) per square yard ; limestone costs 
 2s. 6d. (61 cents) per square yard, and the granite costs 3s. (73 cents) 
 per square yard. 
 
 COUNTRY ROADS OR HIGHWAYS. 
 
 These are all macadamized. A foundation course is laid as described 
 for the tar macadam. The macadam consists chiefly of limestone which 
 is obtained from quarries in North Derbyshire and conveyed direct on to 
 the roads in carts. It costs about 7s. ($1.70) per cubic yard including 
 carting and breaking, equal to about 2s. 9d. (67 cents) per super- 
 ficial yard of finished roadway. Furnace slag is also used, and is 
 obtained from the iron works and blast furnaces in the neighborhood. 
 It is delivered at the railway stations at 3s. (73 cents) per ton, breaking 
 2s. Id. (51 cents) per ton extra, finished Is. 6d. (36 cents) per superficial 
 yard. Granite macadam is also used in suburban roads. It comes 
 chiefly from Leicestershire and costs, delivered at the stations, 9s. 9d. 
 ($2.37) to 10s. 6d. ($2.55) per ton broken. Finished roadway 2s. 3d. (55 
 cents) per superficial yard. 
 
 On a few crossroads and country lanes gannister is used, but only 
 where the trafOlc is exceedingly light. Costs about Is. (24 cents) per 
 superficial yards. 
 
 The macadam of whatever material it may be is spread over the 
 road to the proper contour and covered with a layer of small limestone 
 chips, or, in the more remote roads, with clean roads sweepings. It is 
 then watered and rolled either with the steam roller or a heavy two- 
 horse roller. 
 
 GENERAL. 
 
 The first cost of public roads, and also the cost of maintenance is 
 paid out of the public rates, the expense being thus borne by the whole 
 of the rate-payers. Where the road is a private one, having been laid 
 out and made by individual owners, then the expense of paving, etc., 
 
Supplement: SHEFPiELt*. 6?1 
 
 done by the corporation prior to taking it over as a public road, is 
 divided amongst ttie property owners on each side of the road in pro- 
 portion to the length of their respective frontages. 
 
 A well-made road undoubtedly enhances the value of the adjoining 
 land or property, although it is difttcult to say to what extent. In the 
 case of cottage property adjoining a private street the effect of making 
 good the street and " dedicating" it to the public frequently is to raise 
 the rentals. 
 
 I am indebted to Charles F. Wike, esq., borough surveyor, Sheffield, 
 for the foregoing facts in relation to the construction of pavements and 
 roadways in and about Sheffield. 
 
 The following paper by Mr. Edgar S. Saunders, 0. B., assistant bor- 
 ough surveyor, Sheffield, has been kindly furnished me by him, with 
 drawings illustrating the manner in which the best pavements and roads 
 are constructed : 
 
 PAVEMENTS AND ROADWAYS. 
 
 Before deciding of what material a roadway is to be made there must be conBidered 
 the class of trade of the town, whether a manufacturing, agricultural, or seaside 
 town, etc., and also (and more important than the foregoing), the gradient of the 
 road or street in question) A good roadway should be : 
 
 (1) Durable and requiring little repairing. 
 
 (2) Safe with a minimum of traction, and yet with sufiScient foothold for horses, 
 and with as little possible jolting to the traffic. 
 
 (3) Laid to such a cross-section as will throw off the rain water at once. 
 
 (4) Easy to cleanse, nonabsorbent of moisture, and make a minimum of mud and 
 
 dust. 
 
 (5) And it must, above all things, have a good and firm foundation ; for.it must 
 not be forgotteu that it is the foundation that carries the weight, and that the super- 
 incumbent pavement is really only the means of transferring the weight of the traf- 
 fic to these foundations, and that, however durable the pavement may be, it is bound 
 to require renewal, whereas the foundations should be permanent. 
 
 The wear of the surface of a road is generally estimated to be due to the action of 
 the horses' feet to the extent of two-thirds of the total wear, the remaining one-third 
 being due to atmospheric and other causes. 
 
 It is impossible to cleanse a roadway too much ; not only does it add to the life of 
 the sets (of whatever material they may be), but it is also a great boon to the ( 
 horses which have to traverse them, the difference in traction between a paved road- 
 way well swept and in good order, and one covered with mud, being sometimes as 
 much as 50 per cent. 
 
 Considering safety in traveling only, it is stated that a horse will travel the furthest 
 without falling, on gritstone sets, wood pavement ranking second, asphalt (natural) 
 third and granite last of all ; but it must not be therefore necessarily assumed that 
 ' gritstone has a superiority over wood or the latter over granite, since, as mentioned 
 at first there has to be considered the gradient of the street and therefore the foot- 
 hold required. 
 
 A most important consideration is to give a proper contour to the carriage way. 
 This is mainly dependent on the longitudinal gradient of the road, or street, in ques- 
 tion it being necessary that a more convex contour should be given to a level, or flat, 
 street than to one with a sharp incline. It is also dependent upon the material used 
 for paving, more camber being needed for gritstone than granite ; asphalt pavement 
 requires the least, as there is a minimum amount of friction ; then comes wood, next' 
 
572 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 granite, and lastly giitstoue sets. (See Appendices BCD and E.) It is therefore 
 impossible to give a tixed rule for this, bnt it may be safely assumed that the varia- 
 tion shonld extend from about 1 in 30 to about 1 in 40, according to the gradient of 
 the road and the material used. 
 
 It has been a considerably discussed question as to what should be the actual form 
 of the cross-section of the roadway, whether circular, parabolic, or two straight lines 
 connected tangentially by means of a central curve, and probably in the majority of 
 cases it will be found that the latter is the easiest for average traffic, but if adopted, 
 the t (vo side lines should not, in practice, be perfectly straight, but should have a 
 slight camber given to them, as otherwise there might be a tendency in the sides of 
 the carriage way to wear hollow. (See Appendices B, C, D, and E.) 
 
 The usual materials at the paver's disposal, are: (1) Granite, (2) wood, (3) as- 
 phalt, (4) gritstone. The last, though not in very frequent use, is, if of proper grit, a 
 valuable material, particularly in towns built in hilly countries where granite or 
 wood would be dangerous to traffic, and where the traffic is not too great. 
 
 It is now proposed to describe the manner of utilizing the foregoing materials as 
 pavements for the carriage ways of large towns. 
 
 Granite sets. — Granite sets well laid undoubtedly form the most durable of pave- 
 ments, being hard, cleanly, lasting, nonabsorbent, and making little dirt or duet, 
 their only objection being that they are somewhat noisy and (in certain conditions 
 of the atmosphere) slippery, although this depends to a great extent upon the kind 
 of granite used. Whatever the class of granite, it is essential that it be well squared 
 and dressed before it is laid. The sizes of the sets in most general use are : 7 by 4 
 inches, 7 by 3 inches, 6 by 4 inches, 6 by 3 inches, 5 by 3 inches, and 4-inoh cubes. 
 
 The 5 by 3 inch and the 4-inch cubes should not be used where the traffic is very 
 heavy, but are suitable for streets having a medium tounage passing over them. 
 They are, of course, lighter, and therefore easier to handle than the deeper and 
 broader sets, and so a pavement constructed with them is laid rather more rapidly, 
 which may be sometimes advantageous. The 6 by 4 inch and the 6 by 3 inch are 
 the sizes of sets most frequently employed. The former, however, should not be 
 used on a street having much incline, as being 1 inch wider than the 6 by 3 inch sets, 
 they do not afford so good a foothold for horses. The sets should be dressed truly 
 square, with the sides and ends perpendicular to the face and bed, so that the areas of 
 the two latter are equal. This is most important, as not only doea it insure stability 
 and firmness to the pavement, each set having its utmost area of base, bnt also, if 
 the pavement requires repairing and resetting in the course of time, it allows the 
 sets to be reversed, i. e., the bed may be turned uppermost so as to form the face, 
 which is an economical practice well worth consideration. 
 
 If the sides be not truly square to the face but incline inwards, then the base is 
 less in area than the face, and the condition of the set is one of perpetual unstable 
 equilibrium ; nor can the sets be used over again as suggested above, as the top 
 joints could not then be made good since they would be wider than the bottom ones ; 
 for this reason also the sets must not incline outwards from the face to the bed. 
 Care must also be taken to reject, or to have redressed, any sets with much belly 
 on their sides, that is to say, sets whose sides instead of being plane surfaces are 
 more or less spherical. It is sometimes impossible to altogether do away with this 
 objectionable feature on account of the difficulty of working some of the jgranites, 
 but, as far as possible, it ought not to exist, as it is impossible to grout satisfactorily 
 such a joint as will be found by the contact of one set with another one of which is 
 "bellied" on the side of contact; it also spoils the regularity of the lines of the 
 joint of the pavement, which should be exactly parallel to each other, and strictly at 
 right angles to the curb line of the road or street. 
 
 With regard to the face an exact uniformity of surface is not a necessity ; indeed it 
 is requisite that there should be a certain amount of roughness to obviate slipperiness 
 bnt large or unsightly excrescences should not be allowed. 
 
SUPPLEMENT: SHEFFIELD. , 573 
 
 In resetting a street already paved with granite the old sets must he talien up and 
 carefully squared and dressed in the manner above described, the sets being reversed, 
 i. e., the old bed made the new; face if the original quality of dressing will allow it ; 
 if not, a new face must be made which will, of course, reduce the depth. 
 
 The ends of the sets as before stated should always be dressed so as to be per- 
 pendicular to the face, and to be truly planed. 
 
 In taking out the excavation preparatory to paving a road with granite sets, and 
 which road— supposing, for an instance— has hitherto not been formed with this ma- 
 terial, the formation level should be made at a depth sufficient to receive the depth 
 of the sets proposed to be usedj together with about 1 inch for bedding material, 
 and about 9 inches for concrete, which latter thickness is, as a rule, the most useful 
 one for the foundation course. Thus, suppose the size of the sets to be used is 6 by 
 3 inches, then the depth of the excavation will be : 
 
 Inches. ' 
 Depth of sets > g 
 
 Bedding material 1 
 
 Concrete foundation 9 
 
 Total "is 
 
 If, however, the ground at this depth be found to be boggy, soft, or at all unreli- 
 able, then a further depth should be excavated, and additional concrete put ia ; and 
 conversely, if, as is sometimes the case, in old macadamized roads, which consist, by 
 means of numerous old coverings, of great thickness of metal, it be found that there 
 is agood foundation before getting to the depth of the 9 inches for concrete, then a 
 less thickness for the latter material will suffice, thereby efieoting economy with 
 equal strength. In any case the formation level should correspond in camber with 
 the proposed finished surface of the road, so as to insure uniformity of thickness of 
 foundation course. 
 
 The bindiug element of the concrete must be either hydraulic lias lime or Port- 
 land cement, the former being the most generally used, though in several towns the 
 latter material is almost exclusively used for this purpose. Given good materials, 
 the following are suitable proportions : 
 
 LIME CONCRETE. 
 
 Measares. 
 
 Broken stone 3^ 
 
 Clean sand 1^ 
 
 Hydraulic lias lime 1 
 
 CEMENT CONCRETE. 
 
 Broken stone 3i 
 
 Clean sand 2J 
 
 Portland cement 1 
 
 The stone should be clean, hard, and angular in shape, the latter qualification be- 
 ing very necessary, as stones having a rounded surface will not bond well together 
 so as to form a homogeneous mass ; care must also be taken to exclude all clay dirt 
 or other foreign material which would tend to prevent thorough cohesion. 
 
 The sand must be clean and sharp and, as a rule, good river sand is preferable to 
 all other ; it must also, similarly to broken stone, be free from all dirt of any kind. 
 In towns in which there are large iron works " slag " dust has been used for concrete 
 in place of sand, but though more economical in some cases (on account of being 
 local), and though it forms a good enough material for the purpose if clean, its use 
 can not be generally recommended on account of dirt being very frequently inter- 
 mixed. The lime should be hydraulic blue lias — lime from the hardest and lowest 
 beds of the lias formation. 
 
574 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Should cement be used it must be well burned Portland cemeut of the best qtiallty, 
 free from all dirt, or other foreign substance, and slow setting with a gray color 
 when ganged and air dried. It should be of not less than 114 pounds weight to the 
 bushel, and must be sufficiently fine so that a portion being sifted through a wire 
 sieve of 2,500 meshes to the square inch there must not be left a residue of more than 
 10 per cent, in weight. 
 
 Briquettes of neat cement should be made in the proportion of 7 ounces of water to 
 40 ounces of cement and should remain one day in the air, and then be placed for 6 
 days in water, after the expiration of which time they must be tested in a proper 
 cement testing machine, and should sustain a tensile strain of 350 pounds to the 
 square inch. 
 
 The concrete must be mixed upon a low movable platform capable of being shifted 
 along as the work proceeds. 
 
 The three materials, stone, sand, and lime, or cement, as the case may be, should 
 be measured separately, the stone then being placed by itself on the platform and 
 the sand and lime (or cement) thoroughly incorporated with each other. The two 
 latter must then be placed over the broken stone, and the whole mass must be com- 
 pletely turned over twice, so that the whole of the materials may be thoroughly 
 intermixed. Water should then be added from a watering can provided with a rose, 
 and the materials well turned over again for a third time ; the concrete must then be 
 immediately shoveled up into barrows, and wheeled away on to the formation sur- 
 face, giving by the action of loading the barrows another turn over. Too much 
 importance can not be attached to the necessity of thorough and complete incorpora- 
 tion of the materials, and as this can only be obtained by means of careful and 
 repeated turnings over it is necessary that this be done in a most careful and com- 
 plete manner. Concrete is, after all, but like masonry — stones and mortar — and just 
 as the blocks of stone of the latter should be surrounded on all their joints with the 
 mortar, so also the broken stone in concrete must, each individually, be surrounded 
 with a perfect coating o£ the lime, or cemeut and sand. Another point to carefully 
 note is the quantity of water used. The workman is sometimes to blame in this par- 
 ticular, as he often adds more water than is sufficient to release the chemical action 
 of the lime or cemeut, as the case may be. Too much water greatly weakens the 
 strength of the concrete and only so much should be used as will completely wet, 
 but not drench, the material on the platform. The acting of the turning over, load- 
 ing into the barrows, placing in situ, and ramming will, if properly done, completely 
 wet the whole of the material, though possibly it might seem too dry immediately 
 after the watering. * 
 
 Before the concrete is placed in position levels mast be fixed for it so as to insure 
 uniformity of thickness and camber. These levels should consist of iron pegs not 
 less than 16 inches long and placed longitudinally at short distances, the number 
 across the road depending on the width of the carriage way; the tops of these pegs 
 are to be carefully boned into the required gradient, and also to the proper camber 
 of the transverse section (it must not be forgotten that the formation surface should 
 have been first formed to the proper contour) ; 9 inches upwards from the ground 
 should then be marked on the pegs, if the concrete is to be of that thickness, and 
 either that portion or the remaining top inches is to be chalked or painted over so 
 that the finished surface *f the concrete may be clearly defined. This setting out 
 of the levels requires careful attention, and must be well looked after. The iron 
 pegs being properly fixed, and the concrete being thoroughly mixed, as before de- 
 scribed, and loaded into the barrows, it must be wheeled from the mixing platform, 
 deposited in position, and be well rammed with heavy wooden rammers, until its 
 thickness is uniform with the chalked pegs. Thorough ramming is very essential, 
 not only to consolidate the concrete but also to work up a smooth finished surface. 
 The concrete must then be allowed to thorougly set before any further steps are 
 taken, which length of time will depend somewhat upon the quality of the Jime and 
 cement. 
 
SUPPLEMENT: SHEFFIELD. 575 
 
 The next process is to cover the concrete with bedding material for the sets. This 
 may consist of either coarse sand or very fine gravel, aud in towns where there are 
 works, furnace ashes form a very suitable and economical material. Whatever is nsed 
 it should be spread over the concrete to a depth of about 1 iuoh, so that the more or 
 less irregular beds of the sets may have a firm seat over the whole of their area. The 
 sets are then to be laid in rows with their lengths at right angles to the direction 
 of the street. They must break joint properly, with as much overlap aspossible, and 
 must be well and solidly rammed. The channels, next to the curb, may be formed of 
 two or more rows of sets placed at right angles to the other sets, i. e., parallel in 
 their length to the direction of the street, but a better channel is made by using 
 slabs of granite 15 inches wide and of a depth equal to the sets used, the joints be- 
 ing truly square, and the surface dressed off to a plane surface. This latter plan 
 enables the rain water to flow much quicker to the gullies, particularly in a flat street, 
 there being less friction than if sets are used, being less joints, and a more even sur- 
 face. In any case the channels should be laid about 4 inches below the level of the 
 ciirb. and one-quarter inch below the sets. (See Appendix B.) 
 
 Should the gradient of the road be steep it is a good plan to lay a " wheeler" 
 course, that is to say, a row of granite slabs, similar to those forming the channels, 
 should be laid on the left-hand side of the road going up hill, and at a distance apart 
 from the channel, center to center, equal to the average gauge of the wheels of the 
 traffic which will most frequently use the road. These are of very great service to 
 heavy traffic on a steep gradient, acting, in fact, as tram lines, affording as they do 
 the minimum of traction to the wheels of the vehicles, while the sets between them 
 afford a good foothold for the horses. ' 
 
 The sets being laid they have now to be grouted. Clean gravel, small stones, or 
 fine slag (which forms a most suitable material if cheaply obtainable), not exceeding 
 a quarter-inch gauge, must be spread over the top of the sets and be repeatedly 
 swept over the surface until the joints are filled to rather more than half their depth, 
 and, if necessary, a "cramming" iron must be used to wedge the shingle firmly into 
 the joints, care being taken not to disturb their true line. The joints must then be 
 grouted, thoroughly flush, with boiling pitch and tar, and it must be understood that 
 this grouting should be really thorough and complete. 
 
 It is impossible to give the exact proportions for the mixing of the pitch and tar 
 necessary for the final grouting, as the latter varies so much in its consistency ; it is 
 generally obtained from the gas works of the town, and should be as pure as possible. 
 The pitch moat suitable for use is that known as ''medium hard," and should be of 
 such a nature as to be softened after being immersed 5 minutes in water heated to a 
 temperature of about 60° C. (140° F.). The two materials must be placed in a tar 
 pan and well boiled, one man being constantly employed in turning the mixture 
 over with a ladle, when the boiling point has been reached, and continuing to do so 
 until the contents begin to settle, when, as a rule, it is ready for use; this is neces- 
 sary to prevent boiling over which might result in the whole panfnll catching fire. 
 It must be boiled so that a cake of it when cool and set must be tough and not too 
 brittle, but with a slight and only slight amount of elasticity. If it be too brittle 
 when set the vibrations of the traffic may crack it and loosen it from the sets, which it 
 will not therefore properly cement together ; if it be too elastic it will in hot weather 
 work out of the joints and get soft, thereby not giving the necessary support to the 
 stones. Proper grouting is therefore a very important adjunct to good carriage-way 
 paving. 
 
 The last operation concludes the work of laying granite pavement, which pave- 
 ment is, on the whole, probably the most useful, durable, and, in the end, economical 
 pavement that can be adopted for the carriage ways of large cities or towns. 
 
 Appendix B at the end of this pamphlet shows a suggested cross section of a road- 
 way paved with granite sets. The footpaths have been added in this and the suc- 
 ceeding appendices, merely in order to complete the transverse section of the whole 
 road. The cross fall of the carriage way, shown iil the appendices, is of course not 
 
576 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 arbitrary, since, as before explained, this will vary in accordance with the gradient of 
 Ihe street. 
 
 Wood pavement. — The advantages of wood pavement are: (1) It is the quietest of all 
 pavements. (2) It gives a minimum of traction, excepting asphalt. (3) It is very 
 clean, as if properly formed it should make no dirt. (4) If a horse fall on it he can, 
 it is said, rise easier than on granite or asphalt. 
 
 The objections are: (1) It absorbs moisture to a somewhat great extent. (2) The 
 wood is liable to swell and sometimes forces up the curbs and footway. (3) It can 
 not well be used on a steeper gradient than 1 in 20 at the most. 
 
 It is not as durable as granite, and therefore, though not costing quite so much in 
 the first instance, it really is dearer than the latter, as it requires more frequent re- 
 newal. 
 
 The best wood to use for the purpose is Baltic red timber, or yellow deal ; and must 
 be thoroughly sound and well seasoned, especially free from sap, and also from all 
 shakes, knots, or other imperfections. The blocks, which must be cut so as to have 
 "the fiber upwards, should be 6 inches deep by 3 inches in width, and 9 inches in 
 length. The blocks are sometimes oreosoted, in which case 1 cubic foot of wood 
 should absorb about 8 to 9 pounds of creosote. If the wood used be of really good 
 quality, and be carefully laid with the fiber vertical on a good concrete foundation, 
 such as described for granite paving, and be thoroughly grouted, this class of pave- 
 ment will wear for a considerable time, its life with average traffic, and with, of 
 course, needful repairs, being about 9 or 10 years. It is especially useful when laid in 
 places where it is necessary to subdue the noise of the traffic; such as in front of a 
 hospital. 
 
 With regard to the method of laying it is unnecessary to mention again the concrete 
 foundation, as the method before described for granite pavement applies equally to 
 wood, whether in materials, manner of mixing, or mode of laying. The concrete 
 laid, and having become thoroughly set, a thin covering or bedding of sand should 
 be spread over the surface, and on this the wood blocks, carefully selected, should be 
 set with their lengths at right angles to the curb line, and having their ends in con- 
 tact. 
 
 The setting should not commence close to the channel, as in the case of granite 
 pavement, but about 7 to 9 inches from it, this space being filled up the last thing; 
 this allows for any swelling of the wood, and will help to counteract the pressure 
 againstthe channels and curbs, and lessenthe tendency to force them up. An "expan- 
 sion" joint is also sometimes left near the curb, but this is very unsightly and is of qnes- 
 tionable utility. The side joints, that is to say, the joints running across the street 
 and parallel to the length of the blocks, must be kept apart so as to afford a foothold 
 for the horses. The width of these joints should be about three-eighths of an inch, 
 and they may be obtained either by using la(,hs of this width placed between each 
 row and afterwards removed for the grouting, or, what is better, by means of three 
 iron studs, having square heads three-eighths of an inch thick, and driven home into 
 the sides of the blocks so as to form an equilateral triaugje. This latter method has 
 great advantages over the former and is the one most commonly adopted. When the 
 laths are removed for the grouting the blocks are very liable to be more or less 
 shifted from their position on account of the workmen walking over them, and other 
 causes, and always require some adjusting and putting into proper line before the 
 final grouting takes place, and even then it is very difficult to get a truly uniform 
 joint the whole width of the carriage way. By utilizing the iron studs, on the con- 
 trary, each block may be at once firmly placed against its longitudinal neighbor, 
 and there is no danger of any movement taking place prior to the grouting. Gravel 
 or shingle three-eighths inches gauge is then sometimes swept over the surface of the 
 pavement so as to partially fill up the joints (in a similar manner deseribed for gran- 
 ite paving), but it is a question whether this should be requisite when the iron studs 
 are used, as these should insure thorough stability and solidity to the block. When 
 
SUPPLEMENT : SHEFFIELD. 677 
 
 the laths are used it is of course necessary to have the shingle. The grout itself may 
 consist of either Portland cement and sand or pitch and tar, as specified for granite 
 pavement, or may be, and this is probably the best, a combination of both methods. 
 
 The pitch and tar, well and properly boiled and of good quality, as before described, 
 should be poured into the joints of the pavement until they are filled to about one- 
 third their depth ; this should be allowed to get cool and set, after which a grouting, 
 consisting of Portland cement and clean sharp sand, each of such quality as herein- 
 before detailed, and in the proportion of one part of cement to one and a half parts 
 of sand (or even only one part of sand if the cement be at all poor), must be poured 
 in so as to completely fill all the joints flush with the surface of the blocks. The 
 whole surface of the carriage way is then to receive a coating about half an inch 
 thick of fine gravel or small, clean chippings. 
 
 The channels should be formed by means of two rows of blocks set 'with their 
 lengths parallel to the direction of the street, and laid 4 inches below the curb and 
 flush with the main blocks. (See Appendix C.) 
 
 Asphalt pavement.— Asphalt pavements are not greatly in lise, and it is a material 
 which can not be generally advocated as useful for the pavements of carriage ways 
 of large cities, its great objection being its extreme slipperiness and also the great 
 difficulty of stopping or starting a horse drawing a burden on account of the almost 
 non-existence of a foothold. The chief points in its favor are that it is very noise- 
 less though not so much so as wood ; there is very little traction, no shaking or 
 vibration in driving over it ; it is very easily cleansed, and is quickly laid. It is, 
 however, impossible to use it where there is anything like a gradient, and also it can 
 not be laid in wet weather. 
 
 The asphalt itself consists of carbonate of lime and bitumen, chem ically combined 
 in somewhat varying proportions, and should have a fine and uniform grain when 
 broken. For laying carriage ways the limestone should contain about 10 per cent, 
 of bitumen. Asphalt pavement has one particularity peculiar to itself, and thereby 
 differing from all other pavements, and that is that owing to its elastic nature, 
 which is its great feature, and which lasts for a long time, it does not actually begin 
 to wear until it has been laid for a considerable period, although its actual thick- 
 ness will be reduced. 
 
 It is to be laid on a concrete foundation as previously described, and which must, 
 and this Is more Important in this than in all other kinds of superincumbent 
 pavement, be thoroughly set and perfectly dry, as otherwise the asphalt will be 
 liable to " blow." Cement concrete is better than lime concrete for the foundation 
 of this pavement. 
 
 The rock asphalt must be of the purest quality, and be of such cnemical analysis 
 as before mentioned ; after being broken to small-lumps it must be thoroughly pul- 
 verized in a proper disintegrator. It should then be heated on plates to such a tem- 
 perature as may be necessary to wholly get rid of all moisture, this temperature 
 varying according to the nature of the material, but generally about 220° to 270°. 
 It must be immediately and carefully carried to the road in covered vehicles of iron 
 so as to lose as little heat as possible, and to be spread over the surface of the con- 
 crete foundation to a depth of 3 inches, which will be reduced, after ramming, to 
 nearly 2 inches. It must then be carefully raked and spread, so as to ensure thor- 
 ough regularity of depth and evenness of surface, and be well rammed with heated, 
 to prevent sticking, iron, of about 10 pounds weight, the ramming being done lightly 
 at first and heavier afterwards. 
 
 When finished the pavement, if properly done, should present a perfectly uniform 
 and pleasing appearance. It must be allowed to cool and become thoroughly consoli- 
 dated before allowing ^traffic to pass over it. The slipperiness, its great drawback, 
 may be temporarily reinedied by strewing fine shingle or sand over the surface, but 
 this tends to wear it out, as it breaks the skin and lets in the moisture ; it also makes 
 the surface muddy and dirty. 
 33A 37 
 
 I 
 
578 STEEETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOEEIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 The channels should he formed of either granite sets laid in rows about four in 
 numher and parallel to the curb line, or with granite slabs 15 inches wide and 6 
 inches deep, as described hereinbefore. In any case the channels should be laid 
 about half an inch below the level of the asphalt and 4 inches below the curb. On 
 the whole this kind of pavement can not be generally recommended for the paving 
 of towns, being dangerous to traffic and not sufficiently lasting where the traffic is 
 heavy; its advantage being its quietude, easiness of traction, imperviousness to 
 moisture, and the ease with which it is cleansed. (See Appendix D.) 
 
 Gritstone sets. — Sets formed of gritstone are used to a large extent in those towns 
 or cities, near which there are suitable quarries. It is a material having many ad- 
 vantages for the pavement of carriage ways, but it can not be said to be durable 
 where there is great traffic, and this is its great drawback, as, of necessity, this 
 means frequent repairing and renewal, which eventually causes it to be classed as an 
 expensive pavement. For roads, where the traffic is moderate, or where the gradient 
 precludes wood and asphalt, and makes even granite dangerous, gritstone sets are 
 very useful and may be adopted with success. They are not slippery, do not present, 
 too much traction, afford good foothold to horses, and are speedily laid. This pave- 
 ment is not so noisy as granite, and is, in the first instance, considerably less ex- 
 pensive (always supposing that the requisite quarries are more or less in the local- 
 ity) but as a durable, useful, pavement it can not be compared with the latter, nor is 
 it, as stated above, cheaper in the end. 
 
 The stone should be from a good gritstone quarry and be composed of a hard, brown, 
 or yellowish brown, grit not too close. Very fine grits should be avoided, as these do 
 not possess the necessary wearing properties. 
 
 The sets must be cut so that the grain of the stone is parallel to the length of the 
 set, and at right angles to its width. This is of the utmost importance as sets with 
 their grain cut this way wiU wear much longer than with the grains parallel to the 
 width of the set, so that in case of two sets being placed side by side in the pave- 
 ment one cut correctly and the other incorrectly, it would follow that the wrongly 
 cut one would the soonest show wear, and there would be a " puddle hole" in the 
 street. The reason why the wrongly cut sets wear away the quickest is because the 
 grain being parallel to the width of the stone it is in the line of traffic, to which it - 
 therefore renders little resistance, and is soon overcome by it. The sets may vary 
 in depth from 8 to 10 inches; the latter being the most useful, and though costing 
 more at first are the most economical, as when they are worn down about 2 inches 
 and have thereby got irregular and into holes, (and it may here be remarked the worst 
 feature of this pavement Is that however uniform in quality all the sets may be, and 
 however uniformly and properly cut, it will always, unless the traffic be a very light, 
 wear irregularly which is probably due to the traffic more or less confined to certain 
 lines which will always soon tell on gritstone), the 10-inch sets may be taken up, 
 redressed and squared and then reset, whereas the 8-inoh sets are, as a rule, too much 
 worn and knocked about so that they are only worth using for bowlder pavement. 
 The 10-inch sets, being of course heavier than the 8-inoh, require more handling and 
 can not be set as quickly as the latter. 
 
 Whatever the depth, the width should not be less than .5 nor more than 7 inches 
 and the length should be from 7 to 10 inches. It is not necessary that the pajfement 
 of the street should consist of sets of one width, such as is adopted for granite sets 
 as a horse can obtain foothold on the stone itself, whereas in granite paving the foot 
 of the horse, if placed on the center of a set, almost invariably slips back until it 
 reaches the joint. For a steep gradient, however, the narrower gritstone sets shonid 
 be used, the broader ones being kept for flat streets. 
 
 The sets must be dressed truly square through their whole depth, so as to insure 
 an area of base equal to that of the face. No exoresences on the sides or end ioints 
 must be permitted, it being necessary that all the joints should be truly perpendicu- 
 lar to the face and parallel to each other. The face of the sets may be left somewhat 
 rough, as any undue roughness will soon be worn oflf by the traffic. 
 
SUPPLEMENT : SHEFFIELD. 579 
 
 This class of sets haviog — compared with granite or wood — a large area of hase, it 
 is not necessary to have a concrete foundation, provided .that the ground at the 
 formation level be found to be hard and solid, and provided, also, that the traffic to 
 pass over is not too heavy (and it must be remembered that this pavement is not 
 suitable where the traffic is great). If, however, the ground, or any part thereof, be 
 found to be soft or unreliable further excavation must be made and lias lime concrete 
 filled in, as specified before forthe granite paving. On the surface of the foundation, 
 whether natural or concrete, a layer of clean sand or, if cheaply procurable, furnace 
 ashes is to be spread about 1 inch thick, on which the sets are to be laid in lines, 
 with their length at right angles to the direction of tlie street, and properly coursed 
 in single courses. They must be set with an overlap of at least 3 inches at the joints 
 and, as before mentioned, so that the natural grain of the stone is parallel to its 
 length. Each stone when set should be weU and solidly rammed with a heavy 
 " beetle," care being taken to preserve the proper camber. 
 
 The sets must then be grouted in a manner similar to that described for granite 
 paving, i. e., one fourtlj inch gravel, or slag, must be swept over the surface, using a 
 "cramming iron" if necessary until the joints are about half full, after which they 
 must be flushed up solid with boiling pitch and tar as before detailed. Tlie chan- 
 nels may be formed either by simply the prolongation of the rows of sets up to the 
 curb or may consist of gritstone slabs, similar to the granite one mentioned for gran- 
 ite paving ; the latter method is probably the best as the slabs offer less resistance to 
 the surface water; they should measure 15 inches wide by 8 to 10 inches deep, and 
 must be set, as in the case of the other pavements, 4 inches below the curb and one- 
 fourth inch below the sets. 
 
 In many towns this class of pavement is successfully used, but too much must not 
 be expected from it; it has not the wear and solidity of granite, and can not be used 
 economically where the traffic is very heavy, but for streets with comparative steep 
 gradients and moderate traffic, gritstone sets form a most useful material. (Appen- 
 dix E shows this class of pavement.) 
 
 There has now been described in detail the four materials mentioned at the com- 
 mencement of this essay, viz, granite, wood, asphalt, and gritstone, but it should 
 be clearly understood that whatever material be adopted the success of a pavement 
 consists in the manner'in which the material is dressed, the way it is laid and grouted, 
 and in having a good firm foundation; in other words the points to be considered 
 are: (1) Suitable material of the best quality. (2) Material to be properly "got 
 up" and prepared. (3). The foundation must be thoroughly hard and firm. (4) 
 There must be skillful laying and perfect ramming. (5) The grouting must be of 
 good and suitable composition, and liberally filled into the joints. 
 
 The last stipulation does not, of course, apply to asphalt pavement. 
 
 The proper construction of crossings at the junction of new streets is of great im- 
 portance, and is not always an easy undertaking, great care being required to set out 
 the proper levels, which must be strictly adhered to in the laying. The center line 
 of each road must bone through, each central line coinciding in level at the point of 
 intersection, the camber of the main carriage way working flat as the center of the 
 crossroad is reached, so that at that point there will be no camber ; this is to be done 
 by keeping up the leVel of the line of the channels of the main road as the center of 
 the crossroad is approached, which will cause the center of the two roads to be the 
 highest point of the crossing, and also cause the two crossings at the ends of the sec- 
 ondary street to have a suitable camber, so that all the surface water will fall off 
 easily into the proper channels and there will be no jolting or hindrance to the traffic. 
 The crossings at each end of the side street should have a number of lines of granite 
 slabs, sometimes called "plodders," laid parallel to the direction of the main street, 
 and separated from each other by three or four rows of granite sets. The plodders 
 should be 12 inches wide and equal in depth to that of the sets used; they are a 
 great convenience to pedestrian traffic, as they are much easier and more pleasant to 
 walk upon than the sots. (See Appendices F and G). 
 
580 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The sets forming the large crossing may either be laid in the same manner and di- 
 rectioQ as they are iu the main carriageway, that is to say, in regular rows with their 
 lengths at right angles to the line of the street (see Appendix F), or, what is mnch 
 better, may be placed diagonally (see AppendixG). This lattersystem affords a good 
 foothold for horses in turning the corners and prevents the danger of slipping, which 
 is very liable to occur when a horse is pulling along the length of the sets. The ends 
 of the diagonal sets, where they abut upon the straight sets, at each of the four 
 sides of the crossing, must be properly out and leveled off so as to insure a good 
 joint, and where they meet each other at the two center lines they must form a true 
 " herring-bone " joint, which may be either single or double, the former being the 
 most generally adopted. (Appendix G shows the latter.) 
 
 The circular channels, connecting the channels of the two streets, are to be truly 
 cut to the proper radius, bone through, and be carefully laid. 
 
 The footpaths in Appendices F and G are shown merely to complete the plans of 
 the streets. 
 
 For the surface drainage of the carriage way, and also to receive the rain water off 
 the causeway, gullies must be provided. These should be of cast-iron, properly 
 trapped and connected to the sewer with 6-inch glazed stoneware socket pipes, hav- 
 ing their joints filled with puddled clay, and a puddle band 5 inches thick around 
 each socket joint. The distance apart of the gullies mey be somewhat greater on a 
 steep road than on a flat one, and if the longitudinal section of the carriage way be 
 a dead level it will be necessary to give an artifici al fall in the channel, that is to say, 
 the point in the channels half way between two gullies must be kept higher than the 
 level of the channels at the gullies; but this must be avoided as much as possible as 
 it breaks the uniformity of the cross fall of the road. In all cases, however, thor- 
 ough surface drainage is necessary, both to lengthen the life of the pavement and to 
 render the traffic, whether vehicular or pedestrian, safe and pleasant. As mentioned 
 at the commencement proper cleansing is also an important adjunct. 
 
 Great advances have been made during recent years in the quality and workman-" 
 ship of the carriage-way pavements of our large towns, and there is no doubt that as 
 " experientia dooet," there is to be still further imp ro vement made before the high- 
 est point of perfection is gained. 
 
 Prices have been purposely omitted iu this essay, as the cost of pavements depends 
 so much on the position of the towns, its proximity to granite, or other quarries, the 
 means of transport to it by rail, or canal, that it is impossible to give satisfactorily 
 an idea of its value. 
 
 Gh'anite pavement, — As a rule the most suitable granite for paving are syenites, or 
 syenitic granite. The syenite consists of quartz, feldspar, and hornblende, the latter 
 taking the place of mica in the ordinary granite; syenitic granite consists of all the 
 four constituents. They are generally obtained from quarries in Leicestershire, 
 Cumberland, Guernsey, and Jersey; the material from the latter two places is, how- 
 ever, apt to wear slippery. Penmaenmaur stone from North Wales, a kind of trap- 
 rock, is likewise used, and also different granites from Ireland and Scotland, such 
 as (from the last-named country) Aberdeen and Dalbeattie. 
 
 Wood pavement. — Beech wood has been employed for wood paving, but is dearer 
 than the red wood, or yellow deal, which should always be carefully cut from sound 
 specimens of the northern pine. 
 
 Asphalt pavement. — Instead of the rook asphalt being pulverized and heated, as 
 described in the foregoing paper, it is sometimes mixed with small hard grit and 
 melted down to a liquid state, a small amount of bitumen being added to assist the 
 process. It is then removed from the boiling pans in ladles and poured over the con- 
 crete foundations, brought up to a regular surface by rubbers and covered, while soft 
 with fine shingle. This method, however, is not so good as the compressed pave- 
 ment. 
 
 Gritstone sets. — A great quantity of the gritstone used for paving comes from York- 
 shire and Lancashire. 
 
SUPPLEMENT: SHEFFIELD. 681 
 
 Weights of materials for carriage-way pavements and the areas they will cover. 
 [A cubic foot of granite weighs 164 to 180 pounds.] 
 
 A, ton of granite sets — Sq. yards', 
 
 7 by 4 inches will cover about 3 
 
 6 by 4 inches will cover about 3J 
 
 6 by 3 inches will cover about 4 
 
 5 by 3 inches will cover about 4J 
 
 4 by 4 inches (cubes) will cover about 5 
 
 A cubic foot of red deal weighs about 43 pounds; 1,000 wood blocks 6 by 3 by 9 
 inches set with three-eighths of an inch cross joint will cover about 22f se^uare yards, 
 it taking about 44 blocks to 1 yard. 
 
 A cubic foot of asphalt weighs about 143| pounds. A ton of asphalt laid 3 inches 
 thick (before ramming) will cover nearly 7 square yards. 
 
 A cubic foot of gritstone weighs 155 to 170 pounds. A ton of gritstone sets, 10 
 inches-deep and about 6 inches wide will cover 2 square yards ; 8 inches deep will 
 cover about 2f square yards. 
 
 Benjamin Folsom, 
 
 Consul. 
 United States Consulate, 
 
 Sheffield, August 10, 1891. 
 
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INDEX* 
 
 1. HIGHWAYS. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE, MATERIAL, COST, ETC. 
 
 Africa — 
 
 Egypt, 538. 
 Morocco, 539. 
 St. Helena, 540. 
 Sierra Leone, 540. 
 America — 
 
 British North America: The importance of highways: Roman roads; National 
 
 highways fir the United States, 437-441. British Columhia, 442-444 ; King- 
 ston, 446; Morrishnrg, 450; Nova Scotia, 453-455: Port Stanley and St. 
 
 Thomas, 456; Port Hope, 457; Port Sarnia, 458; Queheo, 460. 
 Mexico — 
 
 Northern Mexico, 463; Nogales, 464; Paso del Norte and Piedras Negras, 465; 
 
 Sonora, 466 ; Tampico and Tuxp'an,467. 
 Central America : 
 
 Nicaragua, 468. 
 South America: 
 
 Brazil, Bahia district, 469. 
 
 Colomhia: Barranquilla, 474. 
 
 Dutch Guiana, 474. 
 
 Venezuela, 476. 
 West Indies : 
 
 British: Antigua, 479-485 ; Bahamas, 485; Bermuda, 487; Jamaica, 488-490; 
 Trinidad, 491-496. 
 
 Danish : St. Thomas, 497 ; St. Croix, 497-501. 
 
 Dutch : Curaooa, 50S. 
 
 French : Guadeloupe, 504.^ 
 
 Spanish: Porto Rico and Santiago de Cuba, 503. 
 
 Asia — 
 
 British: Bombay, 507, 508; Ceylon, new system of road making, 509-514. 
 
 China: Road making in China, 514-517 ; Road repairing in China (official paper), 
 617-519 ; Amory, lithology, 520, topography and geology, 522, climate, 
 525, road making, 526; Foochow, 527; Hong-Kong, 528; Ningpo and Shang- 
 hai, 529. 
 
 Japan, 530. 
 
 Philippine Islands, 530-532. 
 
 Turkey in Asia : Palestine, 533 ; Syria, the Beirnt-Damascus highway, 534-536. 
 Australasia — 
 
 New South Wales, statistics of roads and road building, 554-561; road building 
 
 in, official papers, 561-565. 
 
 Fiji, 567. 
 ^ 583 
 
584 INDEX. 
 
 Europe- 
 Austria, 2-11. 
 
 Belgium : Antwerp district, 16-18, 23-30, 30-33 ; Brussels district, 34 ; Flanders, 
 40, 41, 43, 44 ; Liege district, 47, 48. 
 
 Denmark, 45-48. 
 
 France : A century of successful road building; value of French roads, 51 ; typi- 
 cal roads ; divisions and classification, 52; legal preliminaries; running the 
 line, 53; early details, 54; engineers' work: practical hints, 56; the old 
 way ; mountain roads, 57; construction of road, 58 ; mode of construction, 
 59; repairs and alterations, 60; use of rollers; basalt i;«. granite ; road serv- 
 ice, 61 ; cost of good roads in France, 61, 62 ; bridges, 62 ; history of French 
 public roads, 74 ; French vs. American roads, 66 ; road making in Havre dis- 
 trict, 68-73; 75-77; 80,81; 82-84; 86,87. ' 
 
 Germany: Aix la Chapelle, 88; Bavaria, 90, 91; Frankfort-on-the-Main, 110-113; 
 Magdeburg, 114 ; Plauen, 116 ; Saxony — historical road notes, 117-120 ; road 
 laws, 120, 121 ; classification of roads and ways, 121-125 ; state roads, 126, - 
 131 ; country roads, 131 ; cultivation of trees along Saxon roads, 132-137, 
 164; generalization regarding Saxon roads, 137-139; 139,140; state and 
 country roads, 159-171 ; Stettin, 173, 174. 
 
 Italy, 175, 176; Catania, 178; Genoa, 180; Lombardy, 181, 182; Tuscany, 185; 
 Sicily, 186-189. 
 
 Holland : Netherlands public highways, translation of an official paper concern- 
 ing, 191, 192. 
 
 Eussia : Highways, 193 ; suburban roads, 194. 
 
 Spain: Roman roads of Spain, 195-204 ; road making in Spain, 204; history of 
 road building, 205 ; general road system, 207-211 ; country roads in Spain, 
 212; Carthagena district, 215 ; Denia, 216-218; Grao de Valencia, 219 ; Mal- 
 aga, 220. 
 
 Switzerland : Scientific road building in, 221-223 ; Swiss road building laws and 
 regulations, 224-229; roadways of Switzerland, 233-238; Lucerne highways, 
 242,243; St. Galle, 247-249. 
 
 United Kingdom — 
 
 England : British highways, 250-255 ; English streets and highways, 255-267. 
 Highways in Cheshire and Wales, 356; Highways in middle counties, 
 389; Sheffield, 570. 
 Ireland : Irish highways, 393-396, 401-406. 
 
 Scotland : Roman roads, 408 ; country roads of Aberdeen, 409-413 ; Dunferm- 
 line highways, 413-416 ; Scotch highways, 416-420. Midlothian roads, 
 432; Galashiels district, 435. 
 
 2. STREETS. 
 
 ;CONSTRU0TION, MAINTENANCE, MATERIAL, COSTS, ETC. 
 Africa — 
 
 Egypt : Streets of Cairo, 537. 
 Morocco, 539. 
 St. Helena, 539. 
 Sierra Leone, 540. 
 America — 
 
 British North America: Belleville, 441 ; British Columbia, 444 ; Chatham, 444; 
 Coaticook, Moncton, and Kingston, 445 ; Montreal, 447-450 ; Morrisburg, 451; 
 Nova Scotia (Halifax), 451-453; Port Stanley and St. Thomas, 456; Port 
 Hope and Port Sarnia, 457 ; Quebec, 460. 
 Mexico,: Monterey, 462; Nogales, 464; Paso del Norte and Piedras Negras, 465; 
 Sonora, 466; Tampico and Tuxpan, 467. 
 
INDEX, 585 
 
 America— Coiiliuued. 
 
 Central America : 
 Nicaragua, 468. 
 
 South America : 
 
 Brazil : Baliia, 470 ; Porto Alegro, 471 ; Pelotas, 473. 
 Colombia : 
 
 Barranquilla, 474. 
 Dutch Guiana, 474. 
 Venezuela, 474, 475. 
 West Indies — 
 
 British: Antigua, 477-479; Bahamas, 485 ; Bermuda, 487; Jamaicaj488; Trini- 
 dad, 485. 
 
 Danish ; St. Thomas and St. Croix, 497-501. 
 
 Dutch: Curafoa, 502. 
 
 French : Guadeloupe, 504. 
 
 Spanish : San Juan, Porto Eloo, and Santiago de Cuba, 503, 
 Asia — 
 
 British Asia : Bombay, 507, 508. 
 
 China : Foochow, 527 ; Hong-Kong, 528 ; Shanghai, 529, 
 
 Philippine Islands, 531. 
 
 Turkey in Asia : 
 
 Palestine, 533 ; Syria, 536. 
 
 Australasia : 
 
 New South Wales, 543-554, 565, 
 Fiji, 567. 
 Europe — 
 
 Austria: Trieste, 15. Vienna, 11-14. 
 
 Belgium : Antwerp, 18-22. Brussels, 33. Flanders, 36-38. Liege,.41, 
 
 Denmark: Copenhagen, 49-51. 
 
 France : Marseilles, 77-79. Paris, 84, 85. Eheims, 85, 86. Eoiibaix, 81, 82. 
 
 Germany: Aix la Chapelle, 87. Bavaria, streets of Nuremberg, 88, 89. Berlin, 
 92-105. Frankfort- on -the-Main, 105-110. Hamburg, 113. Magdeburg, 114. 
 Plauen, 115. Saxony, 125^132, 139-159. Stettin, 171-173. 
 
 Italy : Bologna, 176, 177. Catania, 177, 178. Genoa, 179, 180. Messina, 182-184. 
 Florence, 184, 185. Sicily, 186-l"89. 
 
 Holland : Eotterdam, 189-191. Schiedam, 191. 
 
 Russia : St. Petersburg, 194. 
 
 Spain: Street building in Spain, 211. Barcelona, 213. Carthagena, 214. Denia, 
 216. Grao de Valencia, 219. Steel-rail roadway, 219. Malaga, 220. Gi- 
 braltar, 220, 221. 
 
 Switzerland: Eoadlawsrelating to cities, 228. Basle, 239, 240. Geneva, 229-232. 
 Luoerne,240, 241, 244, 24,5. St. Galle, 246, 247. 
 United Kingdom — 
 
 England: Birmingham, 276, 277. Blackburn, 381, 385. Bolton, 385, 386. Hull, 
 granite pavements, 277, 278. Macadamized roadways, 279, 280. London, 
 streets of London, by Chief Engiueer Weaver, 281-286 ; street and house ref- 
 use, by Chief Engineer Weaver, 286-290 ; streets of London, by Surveyor 
 Howard, 291-297 ; accidents to horses on London pavements, by Mr. Haywood, 
 engineer to commissioners of sewers, 297-317 ; asphalt pavements in London, 
 by Mr. Haywood, 317, 325 ; wood and asphalt pavements in London, by Mr. 
 Haywood, 326-340 ; cost of maintaining London pavements, 340-342. Liver- 
 pool, streets and sewers of, 343-355 ; sewers, 359-368. Salford, 386, 387, Shef- 
 field, 569-581. Stratford, 387-389. Tuustall, 390-392. 
 
 Ireland : Belfast, 397, 398. Dublin, 399-401. 
 
 Scotland : Dunfermline, 407. Glasgow, 416, 420-422 ; specifications for paving, 
 etc., 423-426. Edinburgh, 427-431. 
 
586 INDEX. 
 
 3. PAVEMENTS. 
 
 Pavements — 
 
 Asphalt : Belgium, Brussels, 33. Canada, Montreal, 449. France, Paris, 84, 85. 
 
 England, London, 282-286, 317-340 ; Sheffield, 577, 580. Germany, Berlin, 
 
 96; Frankfort, 108; Saxony, 147, 149. Spain, Barcelona, 213. Switzerland, 
 
 Basle, 239 ; Zurich, 230. 
 
 Asphalt pavements, tests, experiments, durability, proper manner of lay ifig, etc.": 
 
 London, 317-340; asphalting of streets (Trinidad directions, 495). 
 Brick: 189,444. 
 Gravel : Paris, 84, 85. 
 
 Iron: Belgium, 98; Spain (steel-rail roadway). 
 Macadam : 
 
 Europe: Belgium, 44; France, 78; Germany, 115, 143, 149, 159, 162; Italy, 
 187 ; Spai d, 212, 216, 219 ; Switzerland, 239, 242. United Kingdom : Eng- 
 land, 350, 256-267, 276, 279, 282-286, 368-380, 391, 570; Ireland, 394, 398, 
 401, 403, 407 ; Scotland, 410-422, 429, 430, 432, 435. 
 America : Canada, 444, 445, 450, 452, 460 ; West Indies, 487, 488, 497, 502, 503, 
 
 504. 
 Asia, British, 507, 511-514, 526, 528, 530, 533, 534. 
 Africa : Egypt, 537, 540. 
 Australasia : New South Wales, 554, 565. 
 Macadamized roads. Parliamentary papers, essays, etc., on the proper manner of 
 roadmaking : England, 250-254, 256-266, 368-380 ; Scotland, 412, 422, 429 ; 
 * Nova Scotia, 453. 
 Lava, 177. 
 Stone : 
 
 Europe: Belgium, 33, 36, 43; France, 78,84, 85; Germany, 87, 89, 101, 106, 
 115, 145, 149, 171, 172; Italy, 176, 179, ]83, 185, 186; Russia, 195; Spain, 
 213, 1215, 219 ; Switzerland, 230, 2?9, 241, 246, 247. United Kingdom : 
 England, 27G, 279, 282-286,569, 572, 580; Ireland, 397, 399; Scotland, 
 420, 427, 430. 
 America : Canada, 448, 452; Mexico, 462; Venezuela, 475, 476. 
 Asia: China, 52^; Philippines, 531; Palestine, 533. 
 Australasia : New South Wales, 548-550. 
 Wood: 
 
 Europe : France, ■ 84, 85 ; Germany, 108, 147 ; Russia, 194 ; Spain, 213 ; 
 Switzerland, 230, 239, 240 ; United Kingdom : England, 276, 277, 282-286, 
 317, 340, 569, 576, 580; Ireland, 400; Scotland, 420. 
 America : Canada, 444, 448, 451, 461. 
 Australasia : New South Wales, 544-548. 
 Wood pavements, tests, experiments, durability, etc. : 
 London,' 326-340; Sydney, 545. 
 
 4. ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PROFILES OF SECTIONS, SHOWING MODES OF CONSTRUCTION, MA- 
 TERIAL, ETC. 
 Europe : 
 
 Austria-Hungarian state roads, 2, 3. 
 
 Belgium: A street in Ghent, 37; country road in Flanders, 39; highroads "in 
 
 Liege district, 43. 
 France: Paved or macadamized roadways, 55; public roads, 58, 59 ; roadmaking 
 in the arrondissement of Havre, 69 ; national, departmental, and country 
 highways, 79 ; road in the Nantes district, 82. 
 
INDEX. 687 
 
 Europe— Continued. 
 
 Germany: Bavarian highway, 91 ; macadamized streets in Magdeburg, 143; raao- 
 
 adamized, paved, and asphalt streets in Saxony, 145, 146, 147 ; sewers and 
 
 drainage, 151, 152, 153 ; state and country roads in Saxony, 161 ; granite gutter 
 
 stones, 172 ; streets in Stettin, 173. 
 Italy : Streets and country roads in Catania, lava blocks, 178. 
 Spain : Boad from Denia to Ondara, 217; steel-rail roadway in Grao de Valencia, 
 
 219. 
 Switzerland: Streets of Zurich, 232; Roman roads in Switzerland, 237 ; modern 
 
 roads, canton Bern, 238 ; streets of Lucerne, 241, 242, 244, 245. 
 United Kingdom : Sewers and water mains in London, 285; sewers of Liverpool, 
 
 351-355 ; Sheffield, see the page at close of book (supijlement) ; street in Stret- 
 
 ford, 388 ; roads in Ireland, 403. 
 America — 
 
 Nova Scotia : Proposed roads in, 455. 
 Venezuela : Street in Caracas, 475. 
 West Indies : Tnnidad, roads in, 491, 492. 
 
 5. CONTRIBUTORS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Adams, Lyell T,, consul, Horgeu; roadways of Switzerland 233-238 
 
 Angier, Alton, consul, Rheims ; streets and highways in the district of 
 
 Rheims 85-87 
 
 Atwell,W. P., commercial agent, Ronbaix ; highways and streets in Depart- 
 
 partmentdu Nord 80-82 
 
 Baggs, George T., commercial agent, Newcastle, N. S. W. ; streets and roads 
 
 of district j 56.'>,567 
 
 Bartlett, Charles, consul, Guadeloupe ; country roads of Guadeloupe 504 
 
 Beckwith, Henry W., consul, Bermuda; streets and roads of Bermuda 487,488 
 
 Bedloe, Edward, consul, Amoy; lithology (520), topography (522), geology 
 
 (522), climate (.525), and road making in Amoy district 520-527 
 
 Benedict, James S., commercial agent, Moncton ; streets of Moncton 445 
 
 Bennett, H. D. , consul, Nantes ; highways in the district of Nantes 82-84 
 
 Bird, Winfield S., consul. La Guayra; streets (474) and highways (476) of 
 
 Venezuela 474,477 
 
 Bissinger, Erhard, consul, Beirut, the Beirut-Damasi-us highways 534,536 
 
 Black, Wm. J., consul, Nuremburg; streets of Nuremburg and highways of, 
 
 Bavaria , 88-91 
 
 Bode, A. S., vice-consul, Bombay; streets and roads of Bombay 507 
 
 Bo wen, Henry W., consul, Barcelona ; highways in Spain. .^ 212 
 
 Bowen, Henry W., consul, Barcelona; streets of Barcelona 212-214 
 
 Bowser, Bolding, consul. Sierra Leone ; streets and roads in colony 540 
 
 Bradford, John S., consul, Antigua , streets (477) and highways (479) of 
 
 Antigua 477-482 
 
 Brockbank, W. H., burrough surveyor, Bolton; street making in Bolton 385 
 
 Brown, L.W. consul, Glasgow; Scotch highways (416), streets in Glasgow 
 
 (420), specification for street paving, official (423) 416-426 
 
 Bruce, Wallace, consul, Leith ; streets of Edinburgh (427), Midlothian high- 
 ways (432-436) 427-436 
 
 Burgess, Wm., consul, Tunstall; highways (389) in district and streets (390) 
 
 of Tunstall district 389-392 
 
 Burke, David N., consul, Bahia; streets and roadways in State of Bahia 469-471 
 
 Catliu, George L., consul, Zurich; roads (221-229) of Switzerland and streets 
 
 (229-232) ofZurieh 221,232 
 
 Coffin, James B., consul, St. Helena; roads in St. Helena 539 
 
588 INDEX. 
 
 Vage. 
 Crawford, J. M., consul-general, St. Petersburg, highwaysofRnssiaaudstreets 
 
 of St. Petersburg 133 19."> 
 
 Dauforth, James B., consul, Liege ; streets and higliways in the Liege district. 40-44 
 
 Daniels, Byron 6., consul, Hull; streets and roads of Hull 277-280 
 
 Diller, Isaac E., consul, Florence; streets of Florence and roads of Inscany. 184-186 
 
 Dixon, Isaac, surveyor, Waverlee district, Liverpool; specifications, etc 357 
 
 Darling, J. B., under secretary. New South Wales 561 
 
 Denby, Charles, minister, Peking; road building (514-517) and road repair- 
 ing in China (517-519) 514-519 
 
 Deneen, S. H., consul, Belleville; streets of Belleville and roads of Hastings 
 
 County 441 
 
 Devenish, Syl., town superintendent of Port of Spain; practical suggestions 
 
 for road making (491-495), asphalting of streets (495,496) 491-496 
 
 Drayton, John, consul, Tuxpan ; streets and roads of Tuxpan 467-468 
 
 Edwards, W. H., consul-general, Berlin; streets of Berlin and suburban high- 
 ways (103) 92-105 
 
 EsteSjW. E., consul, Kingston, Jamaica; road building in Jamaica 488-490 
 
 Evans, Fred., chairman of commission on public roads of Antigua, report of 
 
 commission 482-485 
 
 Fechet, Eugene O., consul, Piedras Negras ; roadways and streets of district. 465 
 
 Fletcher, James, consul, Genoa; streetsof Genoa and highways of province. 179-180 
 Folsom, Benjamin, consul, Sheffield, streets (569) and highways (570) of 
 
 Sheffield district 569-584 
 
 Fowler, John, consul, Ningpo ; streets in Ningpo and roads in country 528, 529 
 
 Frye, Wakefield G., consul-general, Halifax; streets of Halifax (451) and 
 
 roads of Nova Scotia (453) 451-455 
 
 Gardner, Walter E., consul, Rotterdam ; streets of Eotterdam (189) and 
 
 Schiedam (191), and public highways of Holland (191) 189-192 
 
 Gardini, Carlo, consular agent, Bologna; streetsof Bologna 176,177 
 
 Goldschmidt, consul-general, Vienna ; highways of Austria and streets of 
 
 Vienna 1-15 
 
 Gilman, Henry, consul, Jerusalem; streets and highways in Palestine 533,534 
 
 Grant, Ijouis B., acting consul-general, Cairo ; streets of Cairo (537) and high- 
 ways of Egypt (538) ,. 537-539 
 
 Gracey, Samuel L., consul, Foo-Chow ; streets of Foo-Chow and roads in dis- 
 trict 527 
 
 Gifford , George, consul, Basle ; streets of Basle 239, 240 
 
 GriffiUj G. W., consul, Sydney; streets (543-554) and highways (554-561) in 
 
 New South Wales 543-561 
 
 Grinnell, William F., consul, Manchester ; street making in Blackburn, Bol- 
 ton, Salford, and Stratford 381-389 
 
 Hartigan, James F., consul, Trieste; streets of Trieste 16 
 
 Haywood, William P., engineer and surveyor to the commissioners of sewers 
 of London; granite and wood pavings in Greenwich, specifications, etc., 
 (293-304), accidents to horses (304-317), asphalt pavements in London 
 (317-325), wood and asphalt pavements in London 326-340), cost of 
 
 maintaining London pavements (340-342) 293-342 
 
 Heath, Charles, consul, Catania ; streets and highways of Catania 177-179 
 
 Hemmick, Eoland, jr., consul, Geneva; streets and roads of Geneva 240 
 
 Howard, James R., road surveyor to the Greenwich district board of works- 
 
 streets of London, specifications, etc., (291) 291-293 
 
 Hewitt, W., surveyor, macadamized roads; paper read at a meeting of sur- 
 veyors (England) 368-380 
 
 Hewson, Thomas, borough engineer of Leeds ; tender for paving, flaggino- 
 
 and leveling (268-274) and specifications for macadamizing (274) 268-275 
 
INDEX. 589 
 
 Page. 
 Home, Samnel B., consul, St. Thomas; streets and roadways of St. Thomas.. 497 
 OfiScial ordinances relating to street and road making in St. Croix (offi- 
 cial) 497-501 
 
 Hnsher, P. A., consul, Port Stanley and St. Thomas ; streets and roadways of 
 
 Elgin County 456,457 
 
 Jarrett, John, consul, Birmingham; British highways , 250-255 
 
 streets of Birmingham 276 
 
 Johnson, Chas. F., consul, Hamburgh ; streets of Hamburgh 113 
 
 Jones, Wallace S., consul, Messina ; highways of Italy 175, 176 
 
 streets of Messina 182-184 
 
 Jacob, Arthur, borough engineer of Salford ; street making in Salford 386 
 
 Kellogg, James, consul, Stettin; streets of Stettiu and highways in district.. 171-174 
 
 King, Adam, consul-general, Paris; streets of Paris 84,85 
 
 Knapp, Chas. L., consul-general, Montreal; streets of Montreal 447-4.50 
 
 Knowles, Horace G., consul, Bordeaux ; roads and road making in France . . . 63-65 
 
 Leonard, J. A., consul-general, Shanghai; roads in China 529 
 
 Iiieberkneoht, A., consul, Tampico; streets and roads of Tampico 467 
 
 Loomis Francis B., consul, St. Etienne; road and bridge building in France.. 51-62 
 McBride, R. K., director of public works; highways of Ceylon (new system) . 510-514 
 McCallum, J. B., borough engineer, Blackburn ; street making and repair- 
 ing in Blackburn (381-382), Blackburn improvement act (382-384), Dal- 
 beattie granite (384), Penmaenmawor stone (385) 381-385 
 
 McLain, Thos. J., consul, Nassau; streets of Nassau and roads of the Ba- 
 hamas 485,486 
 
 Magahan, Fred. W., consular agent, Lurgan ; Irish highways 393-396 
 
 Mason, Frank H., consul-general, Frankfort ; streets of Frankfort (105), and 
 
 highways of Germany( 110) 105-113 
 
 Mathews, F. A., consul-general, Tangier ; streets and roads of Morocco 539 
 
 Merritt, H. F., consul, Chemnitz: roads and road making in Saxony 117-139 
 
 Mortens, Theodore, consular agent ; grao of Valencia, streets and highways 
 
 of Yalencia 219,220 
 
 Morey, W., consul, Colombo, Ceylon ; roads of Ceylon 509 
 
 Molina, Cirilo, consul, Carthagena, Spain ; streets of Denia and country 
 
 roads of district 216-218 
 
 Myers, Levy W., consul, Victoria ; country roads and streets of British Co- 
 lumbia ■ 442-444 
 
 Negloy, Charles, consnl, Eio Grande do Sul ; streets of Rio Grande do Sul, 
 
 ~Pelotas, and Porto Alegro 447-713 
 
 Newell, William, consul, Managua ; streets and country roads of Nicaragua. 468 
 
 New, John C, consul-general, London ; streets of London 280 
 
 Ne wsom, T. M. , consul, Malaga ; streets and roads of Malaga 220 
 
 Nickeus, Johnson, consul, Barranquilla ; streets and roads of Colombia 474 
 
 Osborne, John B., consul, Ghent ; streets and highways of Flanders 36-40 
 
 Pace, Samuel D., consul. Port Sarnia ; streets and roads of western Ontario. 457-459 
 Palmer, Anlick, consul, Dresden ; city streets (139-159) and state and coun- 
 try roads of Saxony (159-271) 139-171 
 
 Pepper, Geo. W., consul, Milan ; streets and roads of district 181, 182 
 
 Peters, Thomas W., commercial agent, Plauon ; streets of Plauen and high- 
 ways of Saxony 115,116 
 
 ■Piatt, John J., consul, Cork; highways and streets in the south of Ireland. 407 
 
 Pierce, Wm. P., consul, Trinidad ; road making in Trinidad 491 
 
 Preston, Wm. S., consul, Cognac ; roads in Cognac district 80 
 
 Prince,T. A., highways surveyor for the borough of Leeds; information as 
 
 to roads and streets in borough 275 
 
 Pugh, Horace C, consul, Palermo; streets and roads of Sicily 186-189 
 
590 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 Reid, Alex. J., consul, Dublin ; streets of Dublin (399) and country roads (401) 399-406 
 Eeid, James D., commercial agent, Dunfermline; Roman roads (408), country 
 
 roads of Scotland (409), and highways in Dunfermline districts (413) 407-416 
 
 Reimer, Otto E., consul, Santiago de Cuba; streets and couutry roads of San- 
 tiago 503 
 
 Royle, H. , engineer, Stretford ; street making in Stretford 387-389 
 
 Robertson, W. Henry, consul, St. Gall; streets (246) of St. Gall and highways 
 
 (247) of the district 246-249 
 
 Roosevelt, George W., consul, Brussels; streets and highways of Brussels dis- 
 trict 33-35 
 
 Ruby, Samuel G. , consul, Belfast ; streets of Belfast 397 
 
 Ryder, Frederick M., consul, Quebec; roads and streets of Quebec 460-462 
 
 Ryder, Henry B., consul, Copenhagen ; streets of Copenhagen and highways 
 
 of Denmark 45-51 
 
 • Sampson, A. J., consul, Paso del Norte; streets and roadways of Paso del . 
 
 Norte 465 
 
 St. John, Andrew A., commercial agent, Levuka ; streets and roads in Fiji. .. 567 
 
 Schofield, W. A. , commercial agent, Morrisburg; macadamized roads (450) and 
 
 town and village streets 450,451 
 
 Scidmore, C. W., vice consul-general, Kanagawa ; streets and roads in Japan. 530 
 
 Shaffer, L. M. , commercial agent. Port Hope ; country roads 457 
 
 Sherman, Thomas H., consul, Liverpool; streets and sewers of Liverpool 
 
 (34J-354) and highways of the district (356-368) 343-368 
 
 Simons, O. H., consul, Hong Kong; streets and roadways in Hong Kong 528 
 
 Smith, Delos H. , consul, Nogales ; streets and roads 415 
 
 Smith, L. B., consul, Curafoa; streets and highways in Curafoa 502 
 
 Spraguc, Horatio I., consul ; streets and roads of Gibraltar 220, 231 
 
 Steuart, John H., consul, Antwerp ; highways and streets of the province of 
 
 Antwerp 16-30 
 
 Stewart, L. B., consul, San Juan, Porto Rico ; streets of San Juan and roads 
 
 of Porto Rico 5O3 
 
 Strahan, E. J., supervising road engineer, Sydney; report on roads and road 
 
 making in New South Wales 561-565 
 
 Street, Alfred W., consul, Coaticook; roads in Coaticook 445 
 
 Sutton, Warner P., consul-general, Nuevo Laredo; streets of Monterey 
 
 (462) highways of northern Mexico (463) 462-464 
 
 Tanner, Geo. C, consul, Liege, highways in Belgium and the United States 30-33 
 Pictou; importance of highways (437), requisites for 
 a good highway and national highways for the 
 
 United States (438) 437-441 
 
 Trail, C. B., consul, Marseilles ; history of French road building and streets, 
 
 Marseilles 74-79 
 
 Turner, R. W., consul, Cadiz ; Roman roads (195-204) and road making in 
 
 Spain (204-211) and street making in Spain (211) 195-311 
 
 Twitchell, M. H., consul, Kingston, Ontario; streets of Kingston (445) and 
 
 highways of Ontario 445-447 
 
 Wakeham, Henry T., surveyor, Garston (Liverpool) ; sewers of Garston 359-368 
 
 Walton, Rienzi, executive engineer, Bombay ; street and road making in 
 
 Bombay district 507-508 
 
 Washburn, Albeft H., commercial agent, Magdeburg; streets of Magdeburg 
 
 and highways in the district 114-115 
 
 Weaver, William C. E., surveyor, town hall, Kensington ; steets of London 
 
 (281-286), street and house refuse (286-294) 281-290 
 
 Webb, Alex. E., consul, Manila; streets and roads in Philippine Islands 530-532 
 
 Webster, W. H. H., commercial agent, Chatham ; roads of Chatham 444 
 
INDEX. 591 
 
 Page. 
 Wigfall, F. H., consul, Leeds; Englisli highways (255-267) and streets of 
 
 ' Leeds (267-276) .~. 255-276 
 
 Wilke, Chas. F., assistant hurrongh surveyor; construction of pavements 
 
 and roadways in and about Sheffield 571-581 
 
 Willard, A. , consul, Guaymas ; streets and roads of Sonora 466 
 
 -Williams, Ernest, consular agent, Lucerne ; streets of Lucerne 240-245 
 
 Williams, Oscar F., consul, Havre; road making in the arrondisaement of 
 
 Havre ^ 66-73 
 
 Wyndham, Wm., consul, Paramaribo; roads in Dutch Guiana 474 
 
 Zeigler, S. B., consul, Aix la Chapelle ; streets and highways of Aix la Cha- 
 
 pelle district 87-88 
 
 6. MISCELLANEOUS REFERENCES. 
 
 Accidents to horses on London pavements 297-317 
 
 American vs. European highways 32 
 
 American vs. French roads 66 
 
 Basalt «8. granite 61 
 
 Boulevards of Brussels. 33 
 
 Bicyclists, rights of, on English road 254 
 
 Bridges in France 62 
 
 Cast slag stones as paving material 147 
 
 Codrington, Thomas, on macadamized road 259,260,267 
 
 History of French public road 74 
 
 Spanish public road ^ 205 
 
 Swiss public road 222,233 
 
 Saxon public roads 117 
 
 Geology of Amoy / 520 
 
 Improved public streets and roads, their general value, and their special value 
 to adjoining and intersected lands, etc. 
 Europe: Austria, 15; France, 51, 80, 87; Germany, 86, 116; Spain, 218; Switzer- 
 land, 231, 243; United Kingdom, England, 254, 392; Ireland, 406, 407. 
 America : British North America, 437 ; British West Indies 481, 488. 
 Asia: Palestine, 534; Syria, 536. 
 Australasia: New South Wales, 560. 
 Laws and regulations governing the construction and repair of streets and high- 
 ways. 
 Europe: Austria, 1,3,5,6,10,11; Belgium, 18,23; France, 53,61; Germany, 92, 
 104,111,117,120-126,131; Italy, 187; Netherlands 192; Russia, 193 ; Spain, 
 205, 206, 207,208,209, 210, 213, 215 ; S wi tzerland, 224-228, 229 ; United Kingdom, 
 England, 250, 253, 254, 257, 268-275, 284, 286, 291-296, 357, 359, 381, 385 ; Ireland, 
 393, 397, 404, 405 ; Scotland, 419, 423-426, 430, 435. 
 America: Canada, 447,453; Brazil, 473; West Indies, British, 477,482-485,490; 
 Danish West Indies, 497-501; Dutch West Indies, 502 ; French West Indies, 
 504. 
 Asia: Ceylon, 513; China, 517, 527 ; Philippine Islands, 531; Syria, 535. 
 Australasia: New South Wales, 543, 548, ,555, 561. 
 
 Mountain roads .57 
 
 Lithology of Amoy 520 
 
 Refuse of London streets and houses, removal of 286-290 
 
 Roads and road making in Ceylon 510-514 
 
 France 63,68 
 
 practical hints 56 
 
 reserving th(i landscape 41 
 
592 INDEX. 
 
 Page, 
 
 EoUers, use of 61,396,410,429 
 
 Roman roads in — 
 
 Spain, 195-204; Switzerlaud, 222,235,237; England, 389; Scotland 408; how 
 built, 437. 
 Sewers, construction, repair, etc., 151, 345,365,551. 
 Telford, Thomas (1819), on English roads, 257 ; on road construction, 433. 
 
 Toll gates in England 253 
 
 Tolland safeguard in Saxony 18 
 
 Topography of Amoy 520 
 
 Trees and transplanting along Saxon highways 132-137,164 
 
 o