&'-' im X CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library Z43 .S84 Spencerian key to Practical penmanship / olin 3 1924 029 485 467 Date Due OCI^s^ssTm p aej)\ ¥i^ m-^> oEe— ^ -«t:yirrtri*ffi^ "TIEI ms4tf ^ m^^77 MR X^- \ '79 3E T'B>- PRINTED IN U. S. A NO. Z3233 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029485467 SPEICERIAN KEY IFlAlEf KBAL l>iii&iSI!ir, PKEPAEED FOB THE "8PENCEEIAN AUTHORS" BY ' One ink-drop on a solitary thought Hath moved the mind of millions." PLATT E. SPENCER, ORIGINATOR AND AUTHOR OF THB 8PEN0ERIAN STYLE AND SYSTEM OP PENMANSBIP. SUCCESSORS AND ASSOCIATE SPEBTCERIAKf AUTHORS, Ji. V. SPENCER, B. a SPENCEB, L. P. SPENCEB, P. B. SPENOEB, Jr., H. A. SPENOEB, M. D. L. HAYES. NEW YOEK: IVISON, PHINNEY, BLAKEMAN & CO., 48 & 50 WALKER ST. CHICA.GO: S. 0. GRIGGS & CO. PHILADELPHIA: J, B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. z :^ 1 4- Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by; IVISON, PHINNET, BLAKBMAN & Co., In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New Tork, Smith ^ McDohqal, Electrotypers, 82 & 84 Beekman St., N. T. PEEF ACE. Paeents, teachers, and lovers of the art of writmg, we submit this little volume to you and to the public generally, asking indulgence for its errors, and a gen- erous consideration of its merits. CONTENTS. PAGE INTEOD0CTION 9 CHAPTER I. THEOBY OF PENMANSHIP 13 CHAPTER n. MATERIAL AND IMPLEMENTS 17 CHAPTER m. POSITION 24 CHAPTER IV. MOVEMENTS 35 CHAPTER V. CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS AND FIGTTBES 37 CHAPTER VI. FORMS OF LETTERS 39 § 1. FoKM3 OF Shall Letters ; containing Definitions 40 Measurement of Letters 4-1 Ovals 42 Description of Principles of Small Letters 43 Description, Formation, Analysis, and Faults of Letters 44 § 2. FosMS OF Capital Lettekb; containing Description of Capital Principles 60 Description and Analysis of Capital Letters. 62 yi CONTENTS. CHAPTER Vn. PAGE 79 PIGTJEES CHAPTEE vrn. QQ SPACJDIG °. m CHAPTER IX. «HAi>ma • °" CHAPTER X. BUSINESS WEITING 89 CHAPTER XI. IiADIBS' HAND 94 CHAPTER Xn. VAEIETY OF STTLE 97 CHAPTER Xm. BLAOK-BOAED WEITING 103 CHAPTER XIV. WEITING IN PEIMABY SCHOOLS 107 CHAPTER XV. TEACHING IN COMMON SCHOOLS AND SEMINAEIES 112 Signals for Commencing an Exercise 116 Signals for Closing an Exercise 116 Another Method 116 Special Lesaone 119 Slanting Straight Line or First Principle 119 Examination of Copies 124 Small Letter i 126 Small Letter h '. 126 Capital O 126 Capital A 127 Merit Rolls 129 CONTENTS. Vii CHAPTEE XVI. PAGE cotrariNa and dictation 131 CHAPTEE XVn. SPECIMEN BOOKS 13^ CHAPTER XVm. TEACHING IN COMMEECIAL COLLEGES 136 " IndiTidual Instruction j^gg Class Instruction jgi. Exercises in Movements ]^38 Copies 138 Copy Books and Loose Paper 189 Commercial Correspondence 139 Order. 141 CHAPTER XIX. CHIEYTHMOGEAPHY 143 CHAPTER XX. PENMANSHIP AS A PROFESSION '. .' 146 CHAPTER XXI. DBAWING EXPLAININa MAEGIN OF CHAETS 151 APPENDIX. LECTTJKB ON THE ORIGIN AND PEOGBBSS OF THE AET OF WEIIING 158 ILLUSTRATIOISrS PAGE Engeaved Likeness of P. E. Spencee Frmdispkce. Engeaved Note in Ladies' Hand To face 9 Left Position at Desk Page 25 Eight Position at Desk " 29 Feont Position at Desk " 33 Movement Exeecisbs To face 35 Plate of Spbnoeeian Medium Hand " 39 Plate op Spenoeeian Ladies' Hand .*..... " 94 Variety of Spenoeeian Capitals " 102 Spenoeeian Whole Aem Capitals " 106 INTRODUCTION. THE LATE PLATT E. SPENCEE. Neaelt fifty years ago, in the wilds of the Great West, " a youth to fortune and to fame unknown," but who was conscious of his powers, made the sublime resolution to rescue from its undeserved obscurity the practical Art of "Writing. He seems to have been expressly created for the high commission which he was called upon to execute ; for his organization was almost fem- ininely fine and subtle, his temperament was strongly poetic, his love for the beautiful, whether in Nature or Art, amounted to an ecstatic passion, and his whole nature was emotional and sympathetic. There existed in the magnetic brain of this unassuming but enthusiastic youth, an idea of graceful lines, and curves, and characters, which, combined with a proper regard to symmetry, utility, and general beauty, would ^.t once embody his darling idea, and glorify the art which he so devoutly desired to serve. And so he wrought, patiently and persistently, until at length, the representations of his hand were as pure- and chaste and beautiful as the peerless conceptions of his mind. Not one of aU the multitudes who were astonished at his earlier triumphs, knew that what they so admired were, in their most attractive fea- tures, the faithful type of his sweet and gentle spirit whose master hand had wrought them out ; nor could the most sanguine of them have formed any adequate conception of his future fame among the thousands and tens of thousands who have since been charmed by the pictures of his pen. The young man whose early history is thus briefiy told was Piatt E. Spencer, the originator and author of the Spencerian 9 10 INTRODUCTION. System of Practical Penmanship — a system whose superiority is ixniversally recognized, and whose benefits are universally sought. Within the last year, Mr. Spencer has been called to his rest, " Mourned by more hearts than when a monarch dies." We now present his invaluable " System" to the public, en- riched by all the various improvements suggested by himself,- previous to his death. The following tribute to the memory of Mr. Spencer was written by J. W. Eddy, one of Ms old pupUs : But one star has set, its night is all past, And its glory has paled in the morning at last I Its ray was the full, serene splendor of light, And the morning stars wept when it fled from the night. A tribute of justice demands that my song Should linger in cadences loving and long. To tell of the deeds a high genius has done ; To honor the conquest a hero has won; To name o'er the actions that cluster and shine, A sacred Shekinah o'er memory's shrine. With loftiest endeavor and purposes high. With soul full of courage, he dared to defy The scorn of the servile, the slight of the proud, Contented to read, like a cross on the cloud. The sign that is set In the heavens for those Who valiantly, fearlessly, grapple their foes, When Ignorance, Error, and Folly oppose. When Merit, at last, shall to utterance be driven, And honors befitting his deeds shall be given. The people shall fill up the nation's great censer. And burn a sweet incense to the memory of Spencer. We cannot forbear mentioning here, another warm-hearted friend of education — The Honorable Victor M. Rice, Superin- tendent of Public Instruction of the State of New York, who was associated with Mr. Spencer in the maiden publication of the Spencerian System, in the year 1848. It is with a feeling of reverence and affection for both that we thus unite their honored names. INTRODUCTION. H Nor should we omit to recognize, in this connection, the late James W. Lusk, the faithful friend of Mr. Spencer, and hie ener- getic and devoted co-worker. In the later years of the " System," Mr. Lusk materially aided in its revision and publication. Both author and pupil lived sufficiently long to receive a just but flat- tering reward for their labors in a well-nigh universal recognition of the value of their services. The success of the " System" furnishes the true criterion of its merits ; yet the circumstances in which we present it to the pub- lic render it proper that we should briefly allude to some of the features which mark it as peculiarly " Spencerian." These are : FiEST. — In its Movements. The teachers of the system have always inculcated a free motion of the hand and arm, as the only sure method of acquiring ease, legibility, and rapidity of exe- cution. Second. — In the Small Number and in the Arrangement of its Principles. These are limited to eight, forming, in various combinations, all written letters. Third. — In the Slant. This is at an angle of fifty-two degrees. Long experience and observation have proven, that this slant is the best adapted to rapid and elegant penmanship. FoTiBTH. — In the Curves of the Small Letters. These are gentle and flowing, forming the most easy and legible combina- tions in letters and words. Fifth. — In the Ovals of the Capitals. These are bold, free, and beautiful, giving to the letters firmness and symmetry. Sixth. — In the great variety of practical and leautiful capi- tal letters. This has ever been deemed one of the most attractive features in the Spencerian System. The diverse tastes existing in different minds here find abund- ant material from which to select that which they approve. Thus, from this variety is derived a style, which, though essentially the Spencerian, is stamped with the individuality of the writer. Seventh. — In the shadvng. The natural as well as artistic distribution of L'ght and shade upon the letters in the Spencerian writing is, indeed, one of its most prominent claims to originality. 12 INTRODUCTION. The classification of letters, rules for spacing, scales for pro- portionate length, and various other points, also belong to our general plan, and wiU receive a due share of attention' in their appropriate places. The system marked by these characteristic features is not only highly practical in its workings, but it also furnishes material for an almost inexhaustible variety of beautiful forms and combina-. tions, rendering its study attractive to both young and old, and inspiring a love for its practice which results in accomplished chirography. CHAPTER I. THEORY OF PENMANSHIP. The theory wMch explains and limits the practice of Pen- manship, and at the same time serves as a suitable measure of attainment in the art, is exceedingly simple. Its primary feature is that with the penman, as with the painter and the sculptor, there must ever be as the indispensable condition of any eminent success, a clear and vivid perception of those forms and combi- nations which he undertakes to reproduce in the exercise of his art. In other words, he must have a definite ideal. This, indeed, is what takes Penmanship quite out of the circle of arts merely mechanical. This gives it dignity as an intellec- tual pursuit. This imparts to its prosecution something of that generous impulse that inspires the votaries of the other arts. It matters not, indeed, for all ordinary purposes, whether the pen- man's ideal or model be an original conception or something generated in the brain of another. Whatever its origin, how-' ever, it must be as clear to his own mind as if a creature of his own imagination. This is an essential preliminary ; for every defect of conception will show a corresponding defect of execu- tion. Penmanship, thus regarded, immediately takes rank among the finest of educational agencies. It puts into full requisition all the higher powers of the mind. Under this impulse the fac- ulty of perception is called into vigorous exercise, memory is made more tenacious of its treasures, judgment is at work in de- termining relations, proportions, and distance ; while taste, ever alive to the forms of beauty, whether in nature or in art, is busy with all those nicer discriminations of shade, color, outline, and finish which awaken so powerfully the sense of pleasure. No education, therefore, we venture to affirm, can be consid- 13 14 THEORY OF PENMANSHIP. ered complete wMcli does not include a knowledge of this art, both theoretical and practical. Theoretical, we say, as well as practical ; for any course or system of instruction in the art that barely furnishes copies for imitation, without revealing the prin- ciples that enter into their composition, fails utterly to meet the mental requirements of more than about five in a hundred of those for whose use or benefit it is professedly intended. How could this be otherwise ? The vast majority of persons, it is well known, are naturally so deficient in the power of imi- tation, that any attempt to make them skillfdl penmen without resort to minute description and close analysis, must, from the nature of the case, terminate in failure. This fact is instructive. It suggests the kind of teaching which alone promises success. Accordingly, the theory which we are here considering recog- nizes these original differences of mental constitution. It pro- ceeds upon the assumption that in teaching this art analysis is necessary as well as synthesis. The methods indicated by these two words, though precisely opposite in process, both presuppose in the things to which they are applied some particular law or principle of combination in the parts of which it is composed. It is, therefore, not any breaking up or separation of a thing into its parts or constituent elements, that constitutes what we call its analysis. The separation must proceed upon some prin- ciple, or, at least, in such way as to reveal in the process the na- ture of the several constituents engaged in the combination. Analysis so conducted is a luminous teacher. It takes things apart, not out of mere childish curiosity, but in order to show how they are held together. It is, indeed, the very key -to syn- thesis. This is the process which takes away from complexity all its forbidding aspect, and invites even the most timid aspi- rant in art to the free and fearless exercise of his powers. If in Penmanship, as in other arts that engage the understand- ing and appeal to the decision of taste, the student is desirous to go beyond the models furnished to his hand, and seek the origin of those -forms and combinations which he is called upon to ana- lyze and reproduce in his practice, he will be led immediately to the study of Nature. There they may be seen in infinite diver- THEORY OF PENMANSHIP. 15 sity of combination. There all the elements of all the letters, in ways without number, enter into the composition of countless objects fitted to delight the eyes of the beholder. The broad and beautiful landscape, that loveliest picture in the gallery of na- ture, is full of them. Kock, valley, hill, lake, mountain, and river, waving fields and majestic woods, with all the endless intermingled variety of life and motion that serve so vividly to awaken the sense of beauty, and throw over the spirit the spell of enchantment, all and each abound in originals to him that has the eye to discern them. "Would you copy these originals ? It is not enough for that purpose merely to take synthetic vie^vs — to regard objects or any grouping of objects as a whole. They must be dealt with analytically. Their several features must be examined in detail. The lines that bound them, eui-ved or straight, their points of contact and intersection, with all their close and mutual relations, must engage your attention and fix themselves fijmly in the mind. But there is another feature in the theory here under view which is essential to complete success in the practice of the art. The muscles of the arm, hand, and fingers, that is, those muscles which are chiefly concerned in the production of written forms, are well known to be under the direction of the will. They are capable, therefore, of being trained. They may be made, through the medium of the nerves, those mysterious channels of motion and sensation, to work, in such a matter as penman- ship, with the utmost precision. How to train the muscles, there- fore, and make them habitually efficient in the business of writing, i^ manifestly among the things indispensable to all worthy proficiency in the art. The fair inference from the observations which we have sub- mitted on the theory of Penmanship, and the only one, in fact, which deserves attention, is that no system of writing which ig- nores the scientific basis of the art, and therefore fails, in teach- ing it, to supply the means of study and practice which alone are suitable to the dignity of an intellectual pursuit, is worthy of the slightest consideration. Assuming this to be the correct view of the subject, we offer in the following pages a course of instruction founded distinctly 16 THEORY OF PENMANSHIP. upon it. We offer it, however, as no mere experiment, but as a thing already experienced. If the student, whatever his capa- city, whatever the original bent of his mind — for we admit that " With wise intent The hand of Nature on peculiar minds Imprints a different bias" — if the student will but be careful to secure suitable models for imitation, subject them rigidly to the test of analysis, and make them his own by careful reconstruction, training the muscles chiefly engaged in the work to the ready and accurate perform- ance of their office, and doing all under the inspiration or impulse that belongs to a liberal art, he can not fail of the highest meas- ure of attaiimient of which his natural powers are capable. CHAPTER II. MATERIALS AND IMPLEMENTS. Befoke entering upon any pursuit, one must proTide him- self witli suitable materials and implements ; since the success of a work often depends as much upon the instruments employed m its execution, as upon the skill of the workman that uses them. So true is this, indeed, that it has come to be a maxim, that the workman is known by his tools. And, if the practiced workman is so largely indebted for the success of his practice to the character of the means he employs, how much more neces- sary is it that he who is a mere beginner, should be supplied with appropriate materials. The best materials are always the cheapest. The actual outlay may be greater at first; but since good materials are always more durable, they will always be found less expensive in the end. Nor is this all. Poor materials waste time, exhaust patience, and hinder progress. It is often said, that this or that is good enough for &' child ; and yet it is expected of the child to do as well as if furnished with the same materials as the older and more experienced. Thus, instead of encouraging the youthful pupil, obstacles are thrown in his way at the very outset, fi:om which older persons would immediately shrink. Were it not for the native enterprise and sanguine spirit which children, unacquainted with failure, usually possess, they would never attempt such seeming impossibilities. With these remarks, we proceed at once to a description of the materials and implements necessary to good penmanship. 18 MATERIALS AND IMPLEMENTS. Paper. — ^Whether it be in the form of writing-books or not, the paper should be decidedly good. ' It is difficult for the most skillful penman to execute creditably upon poor paper. How, then, can the child, or beginner, produce any thing satisfactory, either to himseK or his teacher, upon that which a proficient in the art finds it impossible to use with advantage ? The essential qualities of good paper are weight and firmness. It should be clearly ruled and slightly glazed, and of such firm- ness of texture that the writing on one side wiU not be visible on the other. Thickness is not always a certain criterion ; for some very thick paper is of poor quality. Heavy glazing is sometimes put on paper for the purpose of covering defects. Pure white, also, is preferable to colors. In accordance with the above suggestions, the publishers of the Spencerian copy-books have made them of paper of the very best quality. Blank books, which are sometimes used in schools, are made of an inferior and much cheaper paper. This accounts for many failures in writing. Blotting Paper — This is used not so much for absorbing ink as for keeping the book neat. The hand, in passing over the surface of the paper, is very likely to soil it. The blotting paper should be of sufficient size to admit of both hands being placed upon it. If shaped as rep- resented in the accompanying diagram, this point is easily gained. The same side should always be placed next to the paper. Booh Covers. — For the purpose of keeping the books neat and protecting them from being torn or folded, it is desirable that they should be covered. That all may be covered uniformly, it is advised that a suffi- cient quantity of suitable paper be procured, by contribution or otherwise, and that some of the older scholars be appointed to cut and fit the covers to all the books, the teacher furnishing a model. The names of the pupils should be written upon both covers in a neat plain hand, to prevent the books from being lost. heft Tumi. Copy .... Right hand. MATERIALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 19 Ruled Lines. — To aid the youtMal pupil in securing the right slant, it is well that he should be provided with ruled Hnes, very black, and on the proper angle, which, being placed under the paper on which he is to write, serve the important purpose of guiding him till he is folly established in the habit of making the right slant or inclination. This being done, the ruled lines should be dispensed with. Pens. — Of all the instruments or implements of his art, that which claims the greatest attention of the penman is, doubtless, the pen. What kind of pen we shall use, therefore, in learning how to write, is a question of no small importance. Steel pens, from their cheapness and abundance, have long since superseded, in great measure, that time-honored article — the quUl. " In days of yore, the poet's pen Prom wing of bird was plunder'd ; Perhaps of goose, but now and then, Prom Jove's own eagle sunder'd. But now metallic pens disclose Alone the poet's numbers ; In iron inspiration glows, Or with the poet slumbers." The quill, however, as before intimated, has not entirely gone out of use. It is still employed in some kinds of ornamental penmanship. But the best pen for learners is a steel one. The irregular flow of ink, and its frequent thickening upon gold pens, is a serious objection to their use by those who are just commencing to write ; but for business purposes, the gold pen, on account of its great durability and smoothness of point, is preferable to any other. Steel pens produce the most perfect lines. In the selection of a steel pen, the shape, point, flexibility, and quality of metal are to be considered. It should be of the finest metal, well finished, of medium size, with smooth and moderately fine points, and of a good degree of flexibility. Those pens having the left point a trifle shorter than the other are the most durable, and the best adapted to ordinary writing. 20 MATERIALS AND IMPLEMENTS. Penholders. — The best penholders are plain wooden ones, having a simple clasp for securing the pen. AU ornamental penholders should be discarded. They are unwieldy, easily broken, and generally inconvenient. Ink. — Good ink is one of the things essential to good pen- manship. We do not here intend to recommend any particular manufac- ture, but to point out the properties and characteristics of good ink, together with the means for its preservation. Black ink is the best for use in the school-room. The properties that should distinguish ink are : first, that it should flow easily ; second, that it should penetrate the surface of the paper ; third, that it should not be glossy ; fourth, that it should not corrode the paper or pen more than water ; fifth, that it should become a deep black, and not change to a brown, or fade out altogether. Ink, although made to possess these qualities, will thicken upon exposure to the air, on account of the evaporation of the water contained ia it. Wben this happens, it may be diluted with a weak decoction of tea or coffee. Water makes the ink pale, nor does it mix well, except when raised to a boiliug temperature. It is commonly supposed that mold is injurious to ink ; but this is an erroneous impression. Mold is generated only when the temperature of the room or place in which it is kept rises above 70° Fahrenheit, and wieh the ink is kept unused. The formation of mold can be prevented by adding a few drops ot cologne, or tincture of myrrh to a quart of ink. This, also, im- proves the fluidity. A greater quantity is apt to precipitate the gum, which holds the coloring matter in solution. The dark color which comes by exposure to the air is owing to the oxydization of the iron contained in the ink. The same dark color is obtained in the manufacture of ink, by peroxyd- izing the iron salt ; but this makes an ink which is easily effaced, as it is unable to form a combination with the paper. Glossy ink cannot be used in letters or books, as it has so much body that it does not penetrate the paper. In damp weather it is apt to smear, and, if rubbed, the words written with it are easily rendered indistinct or illegible. This ink is MATERIALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 21 of great utility in draughts and ornamental penmansliip. Tlie common copying ink is a good sample of this kind. Most of the green, or bluish-green writing fluids used at the present time, have a proportion of sulphate of indigo ia them, and, when used without this substance being neutralized, are very corrosive. Wherever this ink is used, it will eat into the paper, and cause the writing to look rough or ragged; and, in time, the paper will be altogether destroyed, and the writing obliterated. If ink becomes faded, on account of excess of iron, it may be restored by going over it with a light infusion of nutgalls, or some similar preparation. The best ink for general purposes with which we are ac- quainted, is composed of nutgalls, salt of iron, suiBcient gum to hold the color in solution, and a little logwood to improve the hue, when first used. Other ingredients are sometimes used in the manufacture of ink, for the pui-pose of modifying the shade and lessening the expense ; but as such ink generally -contains but little or no gallic acid, it is of a much inferior quality, and is commonly transitory. There is a vile dye, made of bichromate of potash and log- wood, which is used quite extensively throughout our schools, that is not indeed an ink proper. ITo one who writes with it can make a manuscript look well, since it assumes many shades, from a pale blue to a deep black, is full of specks, and gives a rough appearance to the writing. The only reason why it meets with any favor, is the small expense of manufacture. The con- sumer only, loses by it ; since it is sold at the same price' as the best writing fluids. Of fancy inks there are great numbers. The one easiest to write with, and most durable, is the Eoyal Tyrian Purple. This ink is made without an alkali, flows easily, while age only gives it a richer hue. There is, also, a great variety of red inks in use ; though the only one suitable for the purpose is carmine. Eed ink is em- ployed mostly in ruling. India ink is an imported article, and generally comes in cakes or roUs. It is much used by artists, and in pen-drawing. It is 22 MATERIALS AND IMPLEMENTS,. prepared by pouring a very little soft water upon a plate, and then rubbing the end of the cake or roll on the plate in the water, until the desired shade is produced. Sometimes a few drops of ammonia are added, and the plate heated, in order to cause the ammonia to combine more thoroughly with the int. Very good ink is sometimes made by mixing different kinds containing opposite qualities. The green writing fluids, mixed with Japan ink in the proportion of two parts of Japan to one of fluid, form a very excellent compound. Professional penmen often add a few drops of ammonia and a small piece of gum arable to a quart of black ink. This increases the shade, and gives brilliancy to the color, but is not durable. Penwipers. — The best thing for this purpose is a piece of chamois skin ; but very pretty and serviceable penwipers may be made by taking a piece of black woolen cloth, cutting it into round pieces of different sizes, and stitching them together. No school is prepared to enter upon lessons in penmanship without these articles. They should be distributed as other writing materials. There is no objection, however, to a pupil having an extra one for his private use. Tajbles, or Desks and Chaies. — These should be of hight suitable for the persons occupying them. The following graduated scale may be useful to teachers in seating their pupils : Chairs, in liight, 16 in. Hight of desk side next to scholar 27J in. Age, 14 to IT 15 " " " " 26 " 12 to 14 14 ■' " " ■' m " 10 to 12 13 " " " 23 " 8 to 10 12 " " " " 22 " 6 to 8 11 " " " " 2H " 4 to 6 As a general rule, that hight of table or desk is best, at which a person, when 'sitting or standing in the proper position for writing, while resting the elbow upon the desk, finds that the shoulder is neither elevated nor depressed. All school desks should be furnished with permanent inkstands, capable of being easily removed, for the purpose of filling or cleaning. They should be made of glass, and protected by a metallic case. The MATERIALS AND IMPLEMENTS, 23 covers should be sufficiently close to keep out the dust, and pre- vent the ink from deterioriating, by molding or evaporation. Blackboakd. — This is an indispensable article in teaching. It should be of ample proportions, and made of slate, or be slate-finished. A portion of it should be ruled with painted or scratched lines, for the purpose of regulating the relative length of letters in writiiig. The accompanying model will, perhaps, give the best representation of it. Chakts. — Upon these are exhibited magnified models of letters, showing the analysis, proportion, and varieties of style. These should be hung up or distributed in prominent places about the room. The Spencerian Charts of Writing and Drawing are particularly adapted to these purposes. .Although the above remarks may seem to apply especially to the case of public sohools; yet, with the exception of a few specialities, they are equally well adapted to the use of private schools and individuals. CHAPTER III. POSITION. Position gives power. Good penmanship requires an easy, convenient, and healtKful position. Many persons, however, disregard this fact, and, in many schools, a position is allowed which is detrimental, not only to gOod penmanship, but, if long continued, to good health also. Such a position, generally con- sists in crossing the legs and folding them up, in bending the back, neck, and head until they are as crooked as the famous " stick that couldn't lie stUl," in bringing the chin in as close proidmity to the hands, as the hands are to the paper, in crooking the fingers and pinching the pen with a vice-like, grasp, and, finally, in opening the mouth and making the jaws and tongue keep time to the movements of the pen and hand. Before entering upon a description of the proper positions that may be assumed in writing, it wiU be in place to remark that the greatest difficulty will be found in teaching the pupil to remain long in any position. He that is unused to the business of writing, finds at first that his arm, his hand, and his whole body soon become weary. From this he naturally seeks relief by assuming any position, however careless or improper. The teacher should, therefore, devote a few short preliminary lessons to the matter of position alone. While doing this, no particular regard need be had to the formation of the letters, nor to the character of the paper employed — ^mere scraps will an- swer ; since the aim of the exercise is simply to secure or to fix habitual correctness of position. This, if rightly done, will make the proper position, both for sitting at the desk and for holding the pen, a thing easy for the pupil before he actually enters upon the more difficult task of considering the structura of letters. 24 25 POSITION. 27 " One thing at atime, and that well done, " is a rule which applies with especial force in penmanship. There are fonr positions which may be properly assumed, and each is correct according to circumstances. They are : The Left. The Eight. The Eight Oblique. The Front. There are some general directions which apply to all these positions. The body, for example, must always be in a position nearly erect, — ^near to, but never leaning upon or touching the desk. The feet must have a direction corresponding to the slant of the letters. The hands must always be at right angles to one another. T?ie Left Position is that of the left side to the desk. The left forearm is advanced from four to six inches upon the desk, and is parallel with its edge. In order to give smoothness and precision to the execution, the body and head must' be slightly inclined to the left, and the left arm and hand leaned upon lightly. This is done for the purpose of holding the paper and giving steadiness to the body. The right arm is thus left free for all motion.. It rests upon the muscles just below the elbow. In this position, the paper or book must be parallel with the . edge of the desk, and the elbow of the right arm two or three inches from the side, and about the same distance from the edge of the desk. Persons who have been accustomed to throwing the whole weight of the body upon the table, and bringing the eyes in close proximity to the paper, as if very near-sighted, will find this a difficult position at first ; but experience will soon teach them the ease and comfort with which they may labor while oc- cupying it. This position is illustrated in the accompanying drawing, which represents a man standing at a desk writing. The same position of hand, arm, and body is observed in the sitting posture. The Sight Position. This position requires the right side to be placed near to the desk, but not in contact with it ; the body to be erect, and the left foot advanced until the heel is opposite 28 POSITION. the hollow of the right foot, and distant from it two or three inches. The right arm should be parallel to the edge of the desk, and rest upon the muscles just below the elbow. The hand should rest upon the nails of the third and fourth fingers. The left hand must be at right angles to the right, and rest upon the paper or book, which should be kept parallel with the edge of the desk. Great uniformity may be attained in training pupils to maintain this position. In the case of double desks, the book on the left should have its front edge parallel with the edge of the desk, while the upper side of the book should be even with the end of the deskT The book on the right must have its upper side on a line with the middle of the desk. "When the book is open and the right page is to be written on, let the cover hang down over the edge of the desk ; but when the left page is to be written on, move the book to the right till the edge is even with the edge of the desk, keep- ing the same straight line with the middle of the desk. In this position, never let the left hand drop down, but use it constantly in holding the book and assisting to steady the body. • This position is illustrated in the drawing of a boy seated at a desk. The Right Oblique. Here the right side is nearer to the desk, but does not touch it. The right arm is placed obliquely upon the desk, resting upon the muscles below the elbow. The left hand must be at right angles to the right, the body leaning slightly forward. In this position, care must be taken not to support the body upon the right arm, as this would interfere with its action. The paper or book must be placed obliquely upon the desk, and the right arm kept parallel to it. In teaching this position at two-seated desks, when the ink- stand is in the middle, the pupil on the right should be directed to point his right arm and hand toward the inkstand, and the pupil on the left, towards the upper corner of the desk. The Front Position. This consists in sitting directly in front of the desk, keeping both sides equally distant from it. Tho book or paper should be at an angle of twenty degrees to the edge of the desk. The hands must be at right angles to one an- 29 POSITION. 31 Other. This position is illustrated in the drawing of the lady who is seated at a desk writing. Penholding. This is one of the most important and difficult things to learn. Yet by a little care and patience the correct manner may soon be acquired, and, if once fixed, there is little danger of departure from it. Many skillful penmea differ, in one or two points, as to the manner of holding the pen ; yet as regards the general princi- ples, most of them agree. We present the following method of holding the pen, it being, as we think, the easiest and the best adapted to long-continued or business writing. Take the pen between the thumb and first and second fingers, and let the holder cross the first finger' just forward of the knuckle-joint. The end of the second finger should drop below the first, so that the pen may cross it at the root of the nail, and the end of the thumb should press upon the holder opposite the first joint of the first finger. The first and second fingers should touch each other as far as the first joint of the first finger ; the third and fourth must be slightly curved and separate from the others at the middle joint, and rest upon the paper at the tips of the nails. The hand will then glide easily over the paper, and not stick, as it would be apt to do, if the fleshy part of the fin- gers touched it. The wrist must always be elevated a htlle above the table. Another method of holding the pen differs from this only in keeping the second finger at the side of the penholder just where the pen is inserted. The advantage of dropping the second finger below the first, and allowing the pen to cross it at the root of the naU, is this : the pen is thereby held more securely and with less effort than when those fingers are together in their whole length. By drop- ping the end of the second finger below the first, a rest is afforded for the pen, and the fingers are made to act as if they were equal in length. This is the most natural method ; for if the hand is allowed to hang easily by the side of the body, the fin- gers will asstmie this position. If one attempt to pick up a pencil or pen from the table or the floor the same result is no- 32 POSITION, ticed; so also in placing it over the ears or removing it from them. Both of these positions are employed by good writers, but we deem it necessary to manifest onr preference for the one which long experience and mnch observation has proved to be the best adapted to business writing." Reporters and those com- pelled to write with extreme rapidity sometimes hold a pencil between the first and second fingers ; Ibnt this position is not adapted to an elegant style of penmanship. 33 CHAPTER IV. MOVEMENT S. "Let the pen gKde like gently rolling stream, Restless, but yet unwearied and serene, Forming, and blending forms, with graceful ease, Thus letter, word, and line are bom to please." — SpeTuxr. All written forms correspond, in every particular, with the movements whicli produce them. In music the melody is full and rich, or faint and indistinct in proportion as the touch is fin- ished and powerful, or feeble and uncertain. In penmanship, if the movements are free and graceful, the lines formed will be symmetrical and beautiful; if the movements are slow and labored, the writing will be heavy and inelegant, or, if the move- ments ai^ cramped, nervous, and irregular, the lines will be rough and uneven. To produce melodious sounds upon an instrument of music, the pupil must submit to long hours of practice daily, before the muscles of the arm and hand learn to obey the will, and no less discipline will be required in learning to produce beautiftd forms with the pen. While giving lessons on position, thorough instruction should be given in the various movements used in writing, and the pupil should practice them on waste paper. On the Spen- cerian Exercise Chart, in the Exercise Series of Copy Books, and on the page of exercises accompanying this chapter, will be found a great variety of exercises designed for movement drill. In regular writing, we recommend only two movements, namely, the Combined movement, and the Whole- Arm Move- ment. The Comhined Mcmement consists in the combined and simul- 35 36 MOVEMENTS. taneous action of the fore-arm, hand, and fingers, the hand mov- ing easily over the paper, upon the nails of the third and fourth fingers. The three minor movements of the fore-arm, hand, and fingers may be drilled upon separalely, before combining them. Eminent professional and business men use them in combination, in preference to other movements, because power, and fi-eedom of sweep of the fore-arm can thus be united with the more deli- cate touch and shaping power of the fingers, enabling the writer to execute smoothly, rapidly, and elegantly, for hours, without wearying the hand. Long and varied experience, and extended observation, demon- strate this to be the true movement for those who desire to became accomplished business penmen. The Whole-Arm Movement consists in the independent action of the entire arm from the shoulder, the fore- arm and elbow being slightly raised from the paper, and the hand moving upon the nails of the third and fourth fingers, as in the combined movement. The Whole-Arm Movement is adapted to the formation of large capital letters, to flourishing, and to writing upon the black- board. Since it calls into exercise all the muscles of the arm, it is indispensable as a medium of training for those who wish to become masters of the art of penmanship. There is also a lateral movement, which is not a continuous motion, but consists in changing the place of rest. It is almost impossible, in writing across a page of ordinary width, to keep the resting-place of the fore-arm, which is upon the muscles just below the elbow, in any one place. Either the paper must be re-adjusted at every long word, or after every two or three short words, or else the ann itself must change its base. We con- sider the change of base, or the rest of the arm, the least objec- tionable, as it is the most convenient and expeditious. However, as the top or bottom of the page is approached, the paper must- be moved up or down to suit convenience. The diagrams on the preceding page farnish illustrations of these movements. ^ CHAPTER V. CLASSIFICATION OP LETTERS AND FIGURES. ( Jiw iUustration, see accompanying plate.) Lettees in -writing, as also the Arabic numerals, are classified in groups according to similarity of forms. We begin with those which are the product of the fewest and simplest lines, curved and straight. Curves are of two kinds, — right and left. Small Lettees. — The^s^ group consists of the letters i, u, and w. . It will be noticed that these letters are formed entirely of straight lines and right curves. The second group consists of the letters n, m, x, and v. Here the left curve is introduced in connection with the right and the straight line. In these letters the curves and straight lines are produced by a continuous motion of the pen, except in the case of the letter x, where the crossing line is made upwards and on a slant somewhat different from the regular downward line. This is the only instance in the alphabet where a straight line is made upwards. The third group comprises the letters o, a, e, and o. These have the same curves and straight lines as the preceding letters, but they are differently combined. Some of the curves are slightly modified, as the form of the letter requires. Thefourth group consists of the letters r and s. The princi- pal characteristic of these is the slight additional hight to which the first curve rises. YhR fifth group is that of the letters t, d,p, and q. These, on account of their length, are often called short-extended. The sixth group consists of the letters in which the prominent feature is the loop, and which are, therefore, designated as the loop letters. The curves and straight Hnes are much more ex- 37 38 CLASSIFICATION. OF LETTERS AND FIGURES, tended in these letters than in any others. They are A, h, I, i Capital Lettees. — The same rule of classification apphes t capital letters as to small ones. There are four forms or principles which enter into the coi Btruction of these letters, beside the four that are found in tli small letters. They are the full 0, the contracted 0, tt capital loop, and capital stem. The first group of the capital letters is this : 0, E, and B. It will be observed, that while the E and D have a geners oval form, they also include \hefull 0. The second group consists of the letters C and H. These ai placed together on account of the similarity in regard to tl upper loop and the contracted 0. The third group is composed of the letters X, Z, Q, and H AH these letters commence with the capital loop, terminatin with a line curved towards the left. The fov/rih group is composed of the letters F", Z7, and 1 "We place these together, because the first part of each is alike, e: cept in the case of Y, where there is a slight change in the lengtl The capital loop in these letters terminates in a curve to the righ The fifth group consists of A, JV, and M. The similarity i the forms of these is sufficiently obvious. The sixth group is made up of the letters T and E Tl only difference between these is the finish of the E In the seventh group we place the / and J. These are ahke except in the termination. The eighth group is composed of the letters S, Z, G, and J The particular characteristic of these is the upward line ar compound curve. The ninth group consists of P, B, and Ji. These are plac( together on account of their general oval appeara/nce. FiGtTEEs. — The first group consists of the figures 1, 4, Y. will be seen that these are composed of lines which are straigl or nearly so. The second group is composed of 0, 9, 6. In these figures tl single oval is most prominent. The third group is composed of the figures 5, 2, 3, 8. ScaZ& of Slcvrvb. ^ 30 J i/ u J /7 ''^' ' ' '"^^ s ' ' rr/:, ■ 'iy .-^y ^ / ^ y yi ^ y ' u ' . i J Short Zelters. ^ 3 ^ a 12 X 1 s J 3 a 1 3 12 X a 2 ■! 1 2 J 1 JiJ 2 s 3 22a J 22a J322 3 y 1 2 a J i a sua 2e ^^y^^y^^y^^/^/^-x^^/^/y. y^^.yy/j ^yy y. yyy/y. 3 J 1 Sefni - e^ten^eZed betters. J }. T~ ■>/■ / ' J ' ■! / yyWyyA:y^ry \>. / ■^'' J / /- lytended Zetlers. ' .3 /' y') /) / /, y /< 1 ^ . yyyyyfjy /yy-^y/Myyy^ "'.- - "/ --^^ i'J L /u ! J . / Sta^n^^a^ci dzpit^i^I Zpfiers. CHAPTER VI. SECTION I. FORMS OF SMALL LETTERS. In this chapter we shall give an account of the principles, or elements, which enter into the construction of letters; also a description and analysis of the letters themselves. We shall likewise point out some of the more prominent faults of execu- tion, adding, at the same titne, some suggestions as to the best means of correcting them. It is here presumed that the pupil, before entering upon the particular study of forms, has made himself familiar with the position and movements best adapted to the construction of letters. Before a letter can be correctly formed, some idea of its pro- portions, and the mode of combining its several parts, mu^t exist in the mind. Hence the necessity of presenting true forms to the observation of those learning to write. Then, with proper and sufficient training of the muscles of the arm and hand, a cor- rect letter may be produced. As has been aptly expressed by one long skilled in the art of Penmanship, " Make the mind master of the subject, and every servant of the house it lives in becomes obedient to the will." While we are studying Penmanship as an art, as indicated in a previous chapter, it is pleasant to look into Nature, and see whence we derive the forms which are used in the construction of letters. We know that the rays of light emanating from lumi- nous bodies, proceed to the earth without apparent change of direction. These, then, furnish us with the straight line. The undulating wave upon the surface of the ocean, and clouds floating in the atmosphere, present to us curves full of grace and beauty. 39 1 n 40 FORMS OP SMALL LETTERS. The oval is seen in leaf, bud and flower, in the wave-wasl pebble, and in shells that lie scattered upon the shore, and coi the bottom of the sea. When we consider Penmanship as associated with these thin, it is no longer merely mechanical labor, devoid of interest a pleasure, but it is a noble and refining art, having charms whi appeal to the finest susceptibilities of the heart. The floating clouds, the sun's bright beam, The ocean wave, bud, leaf, and sky. The opening flower, the rolling stream. Are letters to the enraptured eye. Study, then, the fair page of Nature, that the mind may filled with forms of beauty, if you would learn to write wi elegance and grace. DEPINITIOlirS. Before proceeding to a description of principles and lette: we deem it necessary to define some terms that will often employed. Principles are the constituent parts of letters. Of these the are eight, as follows : Only the first four enter"into the composition of small letter while the last four are prominent as the characteristic features the capitals, the others being combined with them. A stradght line is one which is without chan of direction between any two given points, or o which does not hend in any of its parts. Pa/rallel lines are those which run in t same direction, and are equally distant frc each other throughout their entire length FORMS OF SMALL LETTERS. 41 A curved line is one that has a continuous change of direction, or one that bends in all of its parts. Similar curves are those which follow the same general direction, but are not necessarily ' y?/^ parallel. In forming letters, lines are combined angularly^ by upper and '^wer turns, and by loops. /^ ^ An cmgular joining is the meeting of two lines ^--^''— in a point. Tipper and lower turns. — In the analysis of the small letters, it will be observed that short jurves frequently occur as the connecting links between the prin- ciples. These curves we call turns. . When one appears at the top of a letter, it is called an upper turn, when at the base of a letter, it is called a lower turn. When accurately measured, these turns are found to occupy one-sixth of the hight of a short letter, which, in magnified forms, may be readily perceived, but in writing of ordinary size, they are too minute for measure- ment with the eye. Hence, they are not entitled to be classed among the principles, any more than the dots which occur in writing. There is a great tendency on the part of pupils to make these turns too broad, and by attempting to make them according to a given measure, the error is especially augmented. To avoid this, and to produce correct turns, the* pupil should be instructed to aim at making them as short as is possible with a continuous motiooi of the pen. A loop consists of two opposite curves, a right and a left, uniting at one end in a y^ turn, and afterward crossing each other. MEASUREMENT OF LETTERS. In the description of letters, we shall often make use of the terms one space, one-half space, two spaces, &c. One space is the standard of measurement. 42 FORMS OF SMALL LETTEES. The small letter i, without the dot, is taken for th V y standard in hight, both for small letters and capitale One space in hight is, therefore, equivalent to the high of the small letter *', which, in a medium hand, is one-ninth of ai inch. The engravings accompanying the descriptions in thii volume, though in the same proportions, are made on a large; scale, to facilitate a more perfect analysis. By one space in width, we mean a distance equa y^y^y to that between the two slanting straight lines in th( small letter u. In- compact writing, the Jetter u ii narrower than in the ordinary open hand, but it is still the stan dard of measurenJ^t for the width of small letters. The space between the similar curves in the different capita principles is the standard for the measurement of the width o: capital letters. (See Capital JPrinciples.) OYALS. A direct oval is one which commences with i downward movement on its left side. A reversed oval begins with a downward move- ment on its right side. An inverted oval commences with an upward move- ment on its left side. FORMS OF SMALL LETTERS. 43 DESCRIPTION OF PRINCIPLES OF SMALL LETTERS. The First Principle is simply a straight line, slanting to the right of the perpendicular, forming an angle of 52° (fifty-two degrees), with the horizontal line. This is the regular slant for all written letters. ; The Second Prineiplacis the right curve-, / U J BO called because it appears in the right ~T ^~/~ V side of an oval figure. T The Third Principle is the left curve, so called because it appears in the left side of an oval figure. ^ /J The Second and Third Principles, when united in —'-<:-— ^^~ a lower turn, form a direct pointed oval, and when united in an upper turn, form an inverted pointed oval, both being on an angle of 34° (thirty-four degrees.) These principles are subject to modifications in slant and curve, as the peculiarities of form in different letters may require. The Fourth Principle is the extended loop. It is three spaces in hight and one-half space in width. In its formation, the right and left curves and the slanting straight line are combined in the following manner: The right curve extends upward from the ruled line three spaces, forming the right side of the loop. It is here united in a turn to the left curve, which extends downward two spaces, forming the left side of the loop. At this point it crosses the right curve, merging into a straight line, which extends down- ward, on the regular slant, to the ruled line. The distance be- tween the right curve and the straight line, at the base, is one space. The loop should be so proportioned, that a line drawn from its top to the ruled line, on the regular slant, will pass 44 FORMS OP SMALL LETTERS. through the crossing of the curves, leaving one-third of the lo( on the left side of the line, and two-thirds on the right. The analysis and proportions of this loop are exhibited, on magnified scale, on Chart No. 2. DESCRIPTION, FORMATION, ANALYSIS AND FAULTS OP LETTERS With SuggesiioTis as to the Means of Correcting Errors. Letters will be treated of in the order of their classification, i given in a previous chapter. y The mnall letter i is one space in liight, without tl -.Zu— dot, and, as before stated, is the standard of measur ment for the hight of aU letters. It begins on the ruled line wil a right curve extending upward one space, where it is joint angularly to a slanting straight line, which descends to the rule line, uniting in a turn with a second right curve. This curve similar to the first, and, ascending one space above the ruled lin completes the letter. The dot is made by placing the pen at tl hight of one space above the straight portion of the letter, and o a line with it, pressing gently upon the point, as if to begin downward line, and then removing it quickly. y / / Analysis. — Principles : — Second, First, Second /'^C-'^yC-^ -^-^^ /y^O ginning with left curv instead of right ; blend ing the first curve with the straight line ; making the straigb line and curve on wrong slant ; making the turns too broad o too angular ; irregularity of curve ; dot too heavy, too close t^ the body of the letter, or too far to the right or to the left of th letter ; first principle curved. Suggestions. — Faults of this character are often corrected easil; by writing the letter in a magnified form. Practice for a timi making the i three times its usual hight. Be careful to maki the downward line straight, and the turn at base as short as pes sible without raising the pen. • FOEMS OF SMALL LETTERS. 45 The Letter u is the same as tlie double * witli tlie yfy/y dots omitted. It is one space in width, and is the standard of measurement for the width of small letters. The same rules for connecting lines at top, and making turns at base, are to be observed as in the i. • The curves are similar, and equidistant; straight lines are parallel. y/ y/ / Analysis. — Principles : — Second, First, Sec- ^<-^^-^ ond. First, Second. ^v/^/ ^ ^ / ^ y ^ y / Probable Faults. — This ^.^^U^^^ ^^M^--^^^^>(y letter is often made too wide or too narrow, the curves irregular, the straight lines not parallel. Same faults of connection at top, and turns at base, as in i. SuggestioThs. — These errors may be corrected by writing the letter in a magnified form, as indicated for the i, paying par- ticular attention to spacing, and the hight of parts. o Another method of correction is to write the letter the usual size, making long curves in beginning and ending, as in the annexed diagram. The Letter w is one space in hight. The first four lines are formed and combined the same as in u. A third right curve is then drawn one-half space nearer the straight line than in u; then making a slight downward pres- sure to form a dot, the letter. terminates with a right curve in a horizontal position, one-half space in length. Analysis. — Principles': — Second, First, Second, First, Second, Second. y/y/y^ y^y/A^ Pw5a5fe Faults. — The errors men- -^'^^^ ^^^ tioned in the u are also liable to occur in this letter. Further, the third curve is often carried too far from the straight line, and a loop is made instead of a dot; un- equal hight of parts. ^.^ 46 FORMS OF SMALL LETTBES. ^ Suggestions. — The corrections are tlie same as those given fc the u. Special attention should be given to the finish. The Letter n is one space in hight, and one i ^Z^;^/" width. It is composed of five lines, which are con bined in the following manner, Commencing at th ruled line with a left curve, it is joined to a slanting straight lin by an upper turn. The straight line is imited angularly at th base with a second left curve, which is also joined to a slantiu] straight line by an upper turn. This second straight line is join© to a right curve by a lower turn at its base. The two lefl curve are similar, the two straight lines parallel, and the three turns uniform. /^/^/_^ Analysis. — Principles : — Third, First, Third First, Second. /^ /^y/ Xyyy Prohable Faults. — The same errors o ^ '^ // 6/ /^d/ construction in regard to width, spac ing and turns may occur in this letter as ia the u. One part i sometimes made higher than the other ; the second curve oilei retraces the first straight line, separating from it near the top instead of at the base ; right curves are frequently made insteac of left, thus giving the letter the appearance of the u. ^^ y / Suggestions. — ^Practice writing the combinatioi -■ ^ ^ L^c^ ni large enough to fill the space between the ruled lines. When the slant, spacing, and turns are correct, this combination will appear the same, though inverted, The Letter m is one space in hight, and two ii _/^£j^:!J^ width. A left curve commences at the ruled line rises one space, and is joined to a descending slant- ing straight line by an upper turn. The straight line is joined angularly at the ruled line to a second left curve, which is alsc joined by an upper turn to a second straight line. This straighl line is also joined angularly at the base to a third left curve which is joined by an upper turn to a third straight line. This straight hne is joined by a lower turn to a right curve, whici rises one space and completes the letter. The three left curvet are similar and equidistant, the three straight lines are parallel and equidistant, and the four turns are uniform. •FORMS OF SMALL. LETTERS. 47 \ y y-> ^' / Analysis. — ^Principles : — Third, First, Third, Z1//L/^/^ First, Third, First, Second. Prohahh Faults. — The same errors may occur in writing this letter as in the n, viz. : irregularity of curves ; inequality in hight of parts ; straight lines not parallel ; turns too broad or too an- gular ; right curves in place of left ; spaces unequal. yn^^ yf ^ y Suggestion. — Practice upon the combination _^£-ii-/^c^C^ mu until it has the same appearance inverted as when direct. Ths Letter x is one space in hight, and one-half / ^Py^ space in width. The last three lines in. the letter n or m, the left curve, slanting straight line and right curve, combined by the upper and lower turns, form the maiu portions of this letter. It is finished with a straight line, beginning on the ruled line, half way between the left curve and the lower turn, extending upward, crossing the. first straight line midway between the upper and lower turns, and ending midway between the upper turn and right curve. This is the only instance in which a straight line is made up- ward, the object in this case being to secure a light Hne. Thi^ form of the x is easily taught to beginners, but another form, which is made without raising the pen ifrom the paper, is pre- sented in the higher numbers of the Spencerian Copy Books. y^y / y Analysis. — Principles : — Third, First, Second, '=^-— ^^-^ First. Probable Faults. — The top and base /2/^ ^P^/^ Q^ ^^® sometimes made too rounding, or -^ ^ too angular; the crossing line is often made downward, which has a tendency to make it too heavy and too long. Oftentimes the letter is executed with a continuous motion of the pen, making a large loop. Stiggesdon. — Practice upon the letter n, crossing the last part to form the x. 48 FOEMS OF SMALL LETTERS. The Letter v is one space in MgM, and one-half _^/;^/' space in width, from upper turn to dot. The left curve^ upper turn, slanting straight line, lower turn and right curve on an angle of 45°, finishing with a dot on a level with the upper turn, and a right curve in a horizontal position, as in the w, form this letter. /^/(_^ Analysis. — Principles : — Third, First, Second, Second. ^nJ Probable FauUs. — Space too wide; 't/ xc^ ^c/^ unequal hight of parts ; curvature of the downward line ; a loop instead of a dot. Suggestions. — ^Practice writrag the letter three spaces in hight, being particular to make short turns and a straight downward line. Make a distinct movement in producing the dot, and form the last curve carefully. The Letter o is one space ia hight and one-half space /fy, in width. A left curve, commencing at the ruled line, proceeds upward one space on an angle of 34°, joins angularly at the top with a second left curve, which returns to the ruled line on the regular slant, where it is joined to a right curve. This curve proceeds upward, uniting at the top with the two left curves. The letter is finished with a right curve made horizontally. _/_cJ Analysis. — Principles : — Third, Third, Second, Second. . Probable Faults. — Too broad ; too nar- y^X^yV'-iyytU^ rojv; loop at the top ; open at the top, ap- pearing like a or v. Suggestions. — Write a succession of small, o's, uniting them with a horizontal line slightly curved. To remedy roundness, endeavor to make the second line nearly straight, turning at the base as short as possible with a 'continuous motion of the pen. Give special attention to the closing of the letter at the top. ^^y The Letter a has generally been considered the most -^'--^^^ difficult of all the small letters to construct, but its FORMS OF SMALL LETTERS. 49 formation is comparatively easy, if the principles heretofore ex- plained are thoroughly understood. It is one space in hight, and one in width. A left curve, be- ginning at the ruled line, extends upward on an angle of 27°, and rises to the hight of one space, where it unites with a second left curve, which retraces the first one-half its length. At this point, which is three-fourths of a space from the ruled line, it separates from the first left curve, and continues to the ruled line, the entire second left curve being on a slant of 34°. It is joined in a lower turn at the base to a right curve, which proceeds up- ward, meeting the two left curves, and joining angularly with a straight line. This straight line descends on the regular slant, uniting in a turn at the base with a right cui-ve, which proceeds upward one space, and completes the letter. ^yy / ^waZysis.— Principles : — Third, Third, Second, ZL-yjL^^L- First, Second. y^/^l /-J / j^, ^. ^^/ ^/ Probable Faults. — Oval ^Oy i^ a^^^^^a^A^O too wide ; too nearly up- right ; open at top ; a loop at left of oval ; retracing right side of oval with straight line ; making finishing turn too broad. Suggestions. — Carry the first curve well over to the right, mak- ing it about twice as long as for beginning m or n. Turn very short at base of downward curve, then endeavor to make the right side of the oval nearly straight. Pay particular attention to the slant of each line, and make the straight Hne and finishing curve with a careful movement. The Letter e is one space in hight, and one-third o? a J^ space in width. A right curve begins at the ruled line, and continues upward one space, uniting in a short turn to a left curve, which forms the left side of the loop, and con- tinues downward, crossing the right curve one-third of a space from the ruled line. This left curve joins at the base to a right curve which is continued upward one space, and finishes the letter. Analysis. — Principles : — Second, Third, Second. 50 FORMS OF SMALL LETTERS. / Probable Faults. — Too wid^a loop, and ^c/ ^^^Cy .^<-^ turns too broad ; crossing of loop'too near ruled line; terminating curve on wrong slant j last curve not carried to proper hight. The Letter c is one space in bight, and one-half space ^22^ iu width. It begins at the ruled line with a right curve, like that of the letter e, which extends upward nearly one space, uniting with a short straight line made downward on the regular slant. Turning to the right, a right curve is made,, uniting with a left at the top. This left curve descending, crosses the first curve one-third of a space above the mled line. It con- tinues to the ruled line, where it unites with a right curve, which is similar to the first, and completes the letter. The curves right and left of the short straight line near the top, should be equi- distant from it, and this portion of the letter should be one-third y Probable Faults. — ^First curve on wrong slant ; '1/ ^^^^ loop at the top instead of a dot ; shoulder car- FORMS OP SMALL LETTERS. 51 ried out tooifar to the right ; straight line on wrong slant, making the base of the letter too wide, or too narrow. Suggestions. — Study the form of the r carefully ; pay particular attention to the construction of the inclined shoulder, and prac- tice writing the letter in a magnified form. Be careful to make distinct movements in forming the dot and shoulder. Do not make them as if a part of the upward or downward line. The Letter s is one and one-fourth spaces in hight, ^^/ and one-half space in width. The first curve, like that in the r, commences at the ruled line, and rises on an angle of 39° to the hight of the letter. At this point a compound curve unites with it angularly, the first portion being a left, and the second la right curvej This compound curve, which resem- bles the Capital Stem, or Eighth Principle, diverges gradually from the first right curve, for a distance of two-thirds the length of the letter, then turning towards it, and still descending, touches the ruled line, and rises from this point one-fourth of a space, terminating with a dot on the first curve. From the dot a right curve retraces the last curve to the turn at the base of the letter, and is thence carried up one space, on a slant of 34°, com- pleting the letter. / I / -Analysis. — Principles : — Second, Compound of Z--J..y-- rj,^^^ ^^^ Second, Second. /P /) / Probable Faults. — Pirst curve on wrong c^^ " ^^(_U^ slant ; loop at top ; open at base, or too wide. Suggestions. — Pay special attention to slant, formation of com- pound curve, and dot on first curve. The Letter t is two spaces in hight. It commences "ZiL' on the ruled line with a right curve, rising two spaces. yfy A slanting straight line retraces the first curve for one space, then separates from it, and continues down- ward on the regular slant, uniting at the ruled line by a lower turn to a right curve, which extends upward one space. The letter is finished with a light horizontal line, one space in length, drawn across the slanting straight line, one-third the length of the letter from its top. One-third of this line should be on the- left of the slanting straight line, and two-thirds on the right. 52 FORMS OF SMALL LETTEES. — Analysis. — Principles : — Second, First, Second, First. y£. Prdbahle Faults. — First curve and straight X L^ line slanting too mucli to the right. If the first curve slants too much, a loop is likely to be formed ; if the straight line approaches the perpendicular too nearly, it will separate from the curved line at top. y/^y' Suggestions. — ^Practice writing the combination fo'. The Letter d is two spaces in hight and one in width. / All the lines which compose it are of the same kind, ^-V^ and upon the same slant, as in the letter a, the only ■ ^^^ difference being that the right curve is continued up- ward two spaces from the ruled Hne, and the descending straight line blends with it one-half the length of the letter, as in t. ^naZysis.— Principles : — Third, Third, Second, /f^//^ First, Second. / . Proboible Faults. — The d has all the faults /fyL^/fC'/.' of ti^s *) ^"^^ ill addition to these, the straight line is often made nearly, or quite perpendic- ular, which causes a separation of this line from the curve at the top ; the downward line is made uneven, and. the third curve too fuU ; a loop is formed. Suggestions. — ^Practice thoroughly upon the a; then pay special attention to the points of difference. The Letter p is three and one-half spaces in hight and one space in width. A right curve commences at the ruled line, extends upward two spaces, and joins angularly at the top with a slanting straight ' ' ■ Hne, which descends three and one-half spaces, crossing the ruled line. This line is retraced to the crossing and a left curve, slanting straight line, and right curve are added ' FORMS OP SMALL LETTERS. 53 of the same form and dimensions as those which compose the second portion of the letter n. The two straight lines are parallel, and on the regular slant. The turns are short and uniform. Analysis. — ^Principles : — Second, First, Third, First, Second. Probable Faults. — In- , , creasing the slant of the '^ first line ; separating from the straight line at the base of the letter, instead of retracing it to the ruled line ; mak- ing the left curve on wrong slant ; carrying the second part of the letter too far from the main portion of it, and making second straight line on wrong slant. Sugijestions. — ^Practice upon the first curve and straight line, then upoli the left curve, straight line, and right curve, writing these two portions of the letter separately in groups of four each. The Letter q is two and a half spaces in length and _y^^^/_ one space in width. The pointed oval which forms // the first portion of this letter is in all respects like the oval in the letter a. Commencing at the top of this oval, a straight line is drawn on the regular slant, extending one and a half spaces below the ruled line. A turn is then made to the right, and the letter is finished with a compound curve, rising to its fiiU hight. The distance from the top of the oval to the termination of the curved line is one space. Analysis. — Principles: — Third, Third, Second, First, Second, Third. Probable Faults. — Oval open at top ; down-, ward straight line made on wrong slant ; turn at the base too full or too angular ; the up- ward line carried too far from the body of the letter. Suggestions. — Practice upon the oval and the second portion of the letter separately, in groups of four each. 54 rOBMS OP SMALL LETTERS. The Letter h is three spaces in tight and one in width. Commencing at the ruled line, a loop, or right curve, left curve, and straight line, form the first part of the letter. The second portion is pre- cisely like that of the n, consisting of a left curve, straight line, and right curve, each one space in hight. It is united angularly to the base of the first straight line. The two straight lines should be parallel, and the two right curves similar. Analysis. — Principles : — Fourth, Third, First, , ^ Second. Prohahle Faults. — The first curve inclined ^/y yC^ y yf^y^ y yZ^ yf^f^^ too much to the right; making the loop on wrong slant ; first curve approaching too near the perpendicular, causing the crossing to come too low ; left side of loop too much curved, making loop too wide ; second left curve too much in- clined to the right, making the lower part of the letter too wide ; second straight line not parallel to first. Suggestions. — .Practice upon the loop and the second portion of the letter separately, and then combine them, paying special attention to the joining. To correct too low crossing in loop, aim to cross in the middle of the curve. The Letter k is three spaces in hight and one in width. Beginning with a loop of the same form and dimensions as in the letter A, the straight line is re- traced one-half space, and a left curve is carried up- ward and to the right to a point one space from the crossing of the loop, and one and one-fourth spaces from the ruled line.. This line is united to a descending right curve one-half space in length, inclining toward the straight line. This short right curve is united angularly with a slanting straight line, which joins at the ruled line by a lower turn to a right curve, continued upward one space and completing the letter. The two straight lines should be parallel, and one-half space apart. FORMS OF SMALL LETTERS. 55 Analysis. — Principles : — Fourth, Third, Second, First, Second. Probable Faults. — The same faults are liable to occur in the first part of this letter as in the first part of the h; a large loop in the second part of the letter ; the second straight line on wrong slant, making the base of the letter either too wide or too narrow. Suggestions.— The difficulties in the second part of this letter can only be overcome by a careful observance of its form, and persevering practice. Pay special attention to the left and right curves in the upper portion. The Letter I is three spaces in hight and one-half space in width. It is formed by joining to the loop, or fourth principle, by a lower turn, a right curve, as in the termination of the i. By cutting ofif the loop, we have remaining all of the * except the dot. Analysis. — Principles : — Fourth, Second. Probahle Faults. — Same in this letter as in the first part of the h ; namely, wrong slant, too low cross- ing, too wide loop, and further, letter too short, resembling e; turn at base too large and broad. Suggestions. — ^For too full curve on the left, aim at producing a straight downward line ; for too low crossing, aim at crossing the right curve half way between its base and top ; make short turn at base. The Letter b is three spaces in hight and one-half space in width. It is simply the letter I with a ter- mination like the v. The distance between the cross- ing of the loop and the dot is equal to the width of the loop. 56 F0EM8 OP SMALL LETTERS. Analysis. — Principles : — Fourth, Second, Second. Probahle Faults. — The same in Fourth Principle as in previous letters contain- ing loop; distance too great between crossing and termination; loop instead of dot. Suggestions. — Same as in previous letter for the loop. To correct errors in termination, practice upon h and v alternately. The Letter J is three spaces in length, and one-half <^ space in width. One space is above the ruled line and two below it. It begins on the ruled line with a right curve, extending upward one space. This connects angularly at the top with the main portion of the letter, which is an inverted extended loop. When in this position, the crossing of the loop is on the ruled line. The finish is a small dot, one space above the straight line, as in i. Analysis. — Principles : — Second, Fourth. Pfobahle Faults. — Third Principle in beginning instead of Second ; loop turned too far to the left, and made too large ; second curve of the loop too short, and crossing first curve below the ruled line; errors in dot same as in i. Suggestions. — Practice upon the Second Principle: aim at making a straight downward line on first part of loop. As a remedy for too heavy dots, make five rows of them, ten in each row, equally distant from each other, and no heavier than the beginning of a light straight line. The Letter y is three spaces in length and one in width. It is simply the letter h inverted. The first part is precisely like the second portion of the w, and is joined to the do-wnward line of the loop angularly, at the top, which is one space above the ruled line. The two turns are uniform, and the two straight lines parallel. FORMS OF SMALL LETTERS. 57 ^ /y^/^ Analysis. — Principles : — Third, First, Second, Fourth. y/JJ" Probahle Faults. — Commencing with right curve, instead of left ; in- clining the second curve too much to the right, making top of letter too wide ; unequal hight of parts ; and too low crossing, same as mj- Suggestions. — Practice upon the small n, adding to it a down- ward loop. For corrections in loop, make A's and y's alternately. Each will be the other inverted : aim to make downward lines straight. ^^^' The Letter g is three spaces in length and one in yf^ width. It begins with a pointed oval, as in the a, // «f, and q. To this is added an inverted loop, joined to it angularly one space above the ruled line. /fy /^ Analysis. — ^Principles : — Third, Third, Second, yV Fourth. Probahle Faults. — Same in the oval as in a ov d ; oval too large, and loop too small, crossing too low ; loop turned to the left, the latter sometimes caused by grasping the pen too tightly. Suggestions. — Pay special attention to curving, slanting, and pointing the oval ; .write oval and loop separately, ia groups of four each. The long s, when used, is always followed by the short s. It is five spaces in length, and one-half space in width. Three spaces are above the ruled line and two below it. It is formed of a direct and an inverted loop. The distance between the cross- ings is one space, and the straight line, which forms the lower part of the direct loop, is identical with the straight line which forms the upper portion of the inverted loop. 58 FOEMSOF SMALL LETTEKS. Analysis.— Piinciples :— Fourtli direct, Fourtli in- verted. Probable Faults.^— Curving the down- ward line too much ; making a curve in- stead of a straight line between the two crossings; making the loops of unequal length and width. Suggestions. — Practice upon this letter in combination with the small n. The Letter z is three spaces in length, and one- half space in width. The iirst curve and straight line are like those in the first part of the «., and one space in hight. A short upper turn is joined angu- larly to the base of the straight line, and is connected at the ruled line with a modification of the inverted loop. This modification consists in giving a little more than the ordinary curve to the line which forms the right side of the Tipper section of the loop. /y Analysis. — Principles : — Third, First, Fourth. Probable Faults. — Turn attoptoofuU; curve instead of straight line ; too wide a turn in con- necting straight line with loop. Suggestions. Practice writing the letter in combinations of four, paying special attention to the turns and straight line. The Letter/ is five spaces in length and one-half space in width. Three spaces are above the ruled line and two below. It is formed by combining a direct loop with a reversed inverted loop. The direct loop is pi-ecisely like the one in the letter h. The curve forming the right side of the lower loop crosses the straight line one-half space above the FORMS OF SMALL LETTERS. 59 ruled line, and joins angularly with a right curve, whicli also crosses the straight line, and terminates one space above the ruled line, and one space to the right of the straight line. Analysis.— ^Principles : — Fourth, Fourth, Second. Probable Faults. — Loops too wide ; downward line too much curved; the last curve of the lower loop failing to cross the straight line, leaving the lower part of the letter open and incomplete. Suggestions. — Aim to make the downward line, from the top of the direct loop to the bottom of the inverted one, straight. Pay special attention to the finish. CHAPTEE YI. FORMS OP CAPITAL LETTERS. y SECTION II." DESCRIPTION OP PKINCIPLBS. The foiir principles which form the distinctive features of the capital letters are the Full or Capital O, the Contracted Capital O, the Capital Loop and Capital Stem. The first four principles, which are used in combination with these to form the capital letters, have been already described. The Fifth Peinoiple, ok CAPnAL O, is made on the regular slant, and is compoged entirely of curved lines. Care should be taken in its formation to avoid the slight- " — est appearance of angularity. It is three spaces in bight. Its width, without shade, is one-half its slanting hight. '' Commencing three spaces above the ruled line, a full left curve is produced, extending to the ruled line, where it unites with a full right curve. This line is drawn upward very nearly ! to the hight of the first curve, joining a second left curve simi- lar to the first, which proceeds downward, and terminates one half space from the ruled line. The right and inner left curves bend equally. The distance between the outer and inner left curves, measured at one-half the hight of the letter, is one-fifth its entire width. Probable Faults. — Drawing the lower section of the first curve to the left, instead of to the right, ; thus marring the oval; making" space between second and third curves too wide. Terminatingjll with a straight line. 'A Suggestion. — Practice upon the oval exercise here . given with a steady motion of the pen. 60 FORMS OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 61 The Sixth Principle is the Contracted Capital 0. — It is made on the regular slant, and is three spaces in hight. Beginning at the top, a left curve is drawn extending to the raled line, the upper two-thirds being but slightly curved, the lower third increasing in fullness as it turns toward the right. At the base, it unites with a right curve, which is continued upward to one-half .the hight of the principle, where it joins a left curve, which extends down- ward, bends equally with the second curve, and completes the principle. The distance between the two left curves, measured at one- half the hight of the oval, is one-fourth the width of the principle. The Seventh Principle is the Capital Loop. It is three spaces in hight. A left curve begins one space above the ruled line, and extending upward two spaces, unites with a returning right curve. This line descends two spaces, then joins a second left curve, which extends upward, on the left side of the second curve, nearly to the hight of the principle. Crossing the right curve, it joins a second right curve, which descends to the ruled line, curving but slightly as it approaches the base. The loop, and last right curve, will form the Sixth Principle inverted. The spaces between the two right and the two left curves, should be equal to each other, and each equal to one-half the width of the loop. The terminating curve is frequently modified in combining it with other principles, as the forms of letters may require. The Eighth FrinAyiple is the Capital Stem. It is three spaces in hight. Beginning at the top, a slight left curve extends downward one-half the length of the principle, where it is joined to a right curve, which forms the right side of a reversed oval, made on a slant of 25°. The curve which forms the left side of the oval terminates near the first curve, at one-half the hight of the letter. The right and left curves of the oval bend equally. Its width, without shade, is one-half its length. 62 FORMS OF CAPITAL. LETTERS. DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OP CAPITAL LETTERS, ALSO FAULTS AND SUGGESTIONS. All Capital Letters extend tliree spaces above the ruled line, and J and Z extend two spaces below. Nearly all tlie lines in capital letters are curves. ;.. Tlie Capital Letter E commences with a left curve,' j extending downward one-fourth the length of the letter ; then turning to the right, it unites with a right curve, extending upward, and crossing the first' curve near its beginning. At the top of the letter, this right curve joins a second left curve, which is continued downward one-thirJo the length of the letter ; then combines with a third left curve, by a small loop, made at right angles with the regular slant of the letter. The remaining portion of the letter, which is two- . thirds its entire length, is the direct Capital 0. The two spaces between the curves at the top of the letter are equal. The space between the two left curves in the lower part of the letter, equals one-fourth the width of the oval. A straight line, drawn on the regular slant through the middle of the letter, will pass through the middle of the first left curve, and divide the oval into two equal sections. This letter is composed entirely of curves. Cafe should be taken to avoid the least appearance of angularity. n c *• Analysis. — Principles: — Third, Second,'' Third, Fifth. Probable Faults. — Upper portion of /^ //'; u letter on wrong slant, the result of drawing"'' (_^ iLy (/y the first curve in wrong direction ; the sec- ond left curve too far to the right, throw- ing the loop on wrong slant, and flattening the left curve in the oval below ; disproportion between the upper and lower sectionsi' J Suggestion. — Practice writing the letter within an oval, as in the annexed diagram. FORMS OF. CAPITAL LETTERS. 63 The Capital Letter D commences two spaces above the ruled line, witli a compound curve extending downward, and uniting by a short turn at the base, with a left curve, wliich is drawn to the right, cross- ing the first curve very near the ruled line. A narrow loop is thus formed, resembling the loop in the small letter e, made horizontally. After the crossing, the left curve unites at the ruled hne with a right curve, extending upward on the right of the stem, and crossing it near its top. This right curve is continued to the top of the letter, where it joins the first curve of a capital O which extends downward to within one-half space of the ruled line, and completes the letter. The space between the two curves on the right of the letter is one-sixth its entire width. The crossing of the loop is midway between the two points where the letter touches the ruled line. A straight line drawn on the regular slant through the middle of the letter, will divide the loop into two equal parts. Analysis. — Principles : — Third, Second, Third, Second, Fifth. Probable FomUs. — Stem too long and too much curved; too wide space between the stem and curve on the right ; too smaU oval on the left ; angular turning at top, marring the oval. Suggestion.— ^VvBiC^ce forming the letter within six equal spaces, as in the annexed diagram, re- membering that all its lines are curves, and that the general form of the letter is an oval. The Capital Letter C begins at the ruled line with a right curve, which extends upward three spaces, and then turning to the left, unites with a Con- tracted Capital O. This crosses the right curve two spaces from the top, forming a loop similar to that in small I. The space between the two left curves in the oval is equal to one-fourth its width. 64 FORMS OP CAPITAL LETTERS. Analysis. — Principles : — Second, Sixth. Probable FoaiUs. — Too great slant of first curve and loop; too low crossing of loop; straight line ^n left sid^ of oval ; terminating curve too far from- second curve, or made too nearly straight, and extended below the ruled line. Sv^ggesUons. — ^Practice upon the right curve and Contracted Capital O, separately, until correct forms are secured ; then prac- tice upon them in combination. The Coital Letter H commences one space above the ruled line, with a left curve, which ex- tends upward to four-fifths the hight of the letter, then joins a right curve, extending downward to one-half the hight of the letter. This line unites with an ascending left curve, which crosses the right curve very near its top, forming a loop. At this point it unites with a descending right curve, which is continued to the ruled line, where it connects with a compound curve, which is drawn upward and to the right, cross- ing the descending curve, and extending to the hight of the letter. Here it unites with a Contracted Capital 0, which crosses the compound curve in descending, and completes the letter. The lower left and the right loop are of equal length and width, and the two sections of the letter are upon the same slant. The spaces on each side of the first loop are each equal to the width of the loop, and also equal to the space between the two main portions of the letter. A horizontal line drawn through the letter at one-half its hight, touches the lower portion of the first loop, and the upper portion of the oval. This letter is also composed entirely of curves. . Analysis. — Principles : — Third, Secondj Third, Second, Third, Second, Sixth. FORMS OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 65 Probable Faults. — Beginning with "too slight curve, carried too far to the right, producing an angular joining; carrying second left curve above the first ; giving too much slant to the compound curve which unites the two sections, and causing a disproportion between the parts of the letter. Suggestion. — Write the letter within four equal spaces, as in annexed diagram. The Capital Letter X is a combination ^of the Capital Loop and the Contracted Capital O, meet- ing at one-half their hight. Their original slant and proportions are preserved. Analysis. — Principles : — Seventh, Sixth. Probable Faults. — Making the ovals, turns, and curves angular, produced by a cramped position, or a quick, nervous motion of the hand ; beginning second section too far from first, and failing to unite them. Suggestions.— Pvaatice thoroughly upon the inverted and direct ovals, as in diagram, en- deavoring to secure ease of position, and free and uniform motion of the hand, arm, and fingers. This will enable the writer to form ovals properly in all' capital letters. The Capital Letter Z is five spaces in length- three spaces being above the ruled line and two below it. It begins with a Capital Loop, which ex- tends to the ruled line, where it is joined to a left curve, rising one-half space and crossing the last curve of the Capital Loop, forming a small loop. The left curve is then united to a modification of the extended inverted loop, as in the small letter z. 66 FORMS OF CAPITAL LETTERS. Analysis. — Principles : — Seventli, Ttird, Fourth. ,;» Probable Faults. — Mating curves angular, particularly in first part; drawing third curve above first ; drawing lower loop too far to the left; failing to carry last curve to proper hight. Suggestions. — Draw three straight lines as in dia- gram, taking care to make the two first left curves, both left of short straight Hne, and in forming lower loop, to be governed by slant of long straight line. The Capital Letter Q commences with the Capital Loop, which is slightly modified by drawing its ter- minating curve toward the left, to a point directly under the oval. A horizontal loop is then formed, similar to the one in the base of the Capital D, and the letter is finished with a compound curve, rising to the hight of one space to the right of the main portion of the letter. This letter touches the ruled line at the middle of the horizontal loop, and also at a point in the finishing curve. The crossing of the lower loop is midway between these two points. A line drawn on the regular slant through the middle of the Capital Loop, will divide the horizontal loop into two equal parts. Analysis. — Principles : — Seventh, Third, Second. Probable Faults. — In upper portion, same as in X and Z ; in lower part, faihng to draw last curve in Capital Loop suffi- ciently to the left, making lower loop slant- ing instead of horizontal ; forming an extra oval in finishingi which destroys the proportions of the letter, and prevents its union with the following 'letter. FORMS OF CAPITA'L LETTERS. 67 SuggesUons. — Practice faithfully upon the Seventh Principle, taking care to make the second upward curve cross below the top of the oval ; also practice upon the compound curve in a horizontal position. The Capital Letter TF commences with the Capi- tal Loop. A right curve is joined angularly to its base, and is continued upward three spaces, then joins angularly with a slight left curve, descending to the ruled line on a slant of 60°. At its base, it is united to a left curve, which rises two spaces, and turning a little to the right, terminates in a dot, made on the regular slant. Measured at one-half the hight of the letter, the three spaces on the right of the Capital Loop are equal. Analysis. — Principles : — Seventh, Second, Third. Third. Probable Faults. — In Capital Loop, same as in former letters containing this principle ; and further, giving the loop too little slant ; right curve leading from the base of Capital Loop, carried too far to the right, throw- ing the descending left curve out of proper slant, and making the letter too wide at top and too naiTOw at base. Suggestions. — ^Practice upon the Capital Loop, aiming to give if more than its usual slant ; then upon the other portion of the letter, aiming to make it upright.- The Capital Letter Y commences with a Capi- tal Loop, which is slightly modified at the base by a turn to the right, connecting it with a com- pound curve extending upward two spaces, and terminating with a dot as in W. Measured upon a straight line, drawn at right angles with the regular slant through the middle of the loop, the letter may be divided into five equal spaces. 68 FORMS or CAPITAL LETTERS. Anah/sis. — Principles :— Seventli, Second, Third.-. Probable Fcmlts. — Downward lines too close to eacli other ; second down- ward line made a full componnd curve ; turn at base too wide, or made angularly. Suggestions. — Practice exercise in diagram, giving special attention to slants, and turn at base. The Capital Letter TT begins with a modified Capital Loop, as in F. It unites in a turn at the base with a right curve, extending upwa.rd two- thirds the hight of the letter. A slanting straight line retraces the right curve one-half the length of the letter, and continuing to the ruled line, unites by a lower turn with a right curve, drawn upward one space. The last two right curves are similar. The width of the letter may be divided into six equal spaces, as per diagram. Analysis.- Second. -Principles : — Seventh, Second, First, Probable Faults. — Same in first part as in F; straight line slanting too much, and retracnlg curved line too near to its base. * Suggestion. — Practice upon the parts separately, as in the analysis. The Capital Letter T' commences with a Capital Loop, its last line extending downward to a point three-fourths of the length of the letter from its topF where it unites in a turn- with a right curve, which is continued upward to two-thirds the hight of the letter. It here FORMS OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 69 « joins angularly with a capital stem, -which extends to the ruled line, and terminates in a dot one-sixth the hight of the letter from its base. A straight line, drawn on the regular slant through the last line of the Capital Loop, wiU touch the right side of the dot. The width of the letter may be measured as in the U. Analysis. — Principles : — Seventh, Second, Eighth. /o,. ^ Probable Faults. — "Wrong slant, and short- /yy ^/y ^^^^ ^^ -^^^^ ^°® ^^ Capital Loop ; Capital ^j/ y Stem made without compound curve, and on wrong slant ; dot of Capital Stem made upon, or below ruled line, instead of above it. Suggestion. — Practice upon the parts of the letter separately, as represented in the analysis. One form of the Coital Letter JTis made in the following manner ; — ^It begins with a Capital Loop, the lower half of the last line made straight. A left curve retraces this line, separating from it one space above the ruled line, and continuing to two-thirds the hight of the letter, where it unites, by an upper turn, with a straight line, which, descending on the regular slant, joins by a lower turn at its base with a right curve. This rises one space, and completes the letter. The entire width of the letter is equal to eight times the dis- tance between its first two curves. One form of the Capital Letter M is made as follows : — The first two sections are like the first two in Capital JST, the straight line being con- tinued to the ruled line. This is retraced one- half space by a left curve, rising to one-half the hight of the letter, and uniting by an upper turn with another straight line. This line unites by a lower turn, at the base, with a right curve, rising one space,- and completing the letter. The entire width of the letter is equal to ten times the dis- tance between its first two curves. 70 FORMS or CAPITAL LETTERS • * The Capital Letter A commences -with a Capi- tal Stem, wliicli joins angularly at top with a slight left curve, terminating on tlie ruled line. A Bhort left curve commences on tlie line last formed, one space above the ruled line, and descending toward the left one-half space, unites with the short right curve, which crosses the main left curve, and terminates to the right of it, one space above the ruled line. Analysis. — Principles : — Eighth, Third, Third, Second. Prdhahl-e Fandts. — Capital Stem too much curved in upper and lower sections ; beginning with an upward movement, forming an extra curve at top ; main portion of the first line straight, in- stead of curved ; angular turning at lower end of the oval ; mak- ing oval upright ; finishing Capital Stem with a vertical line crossing the base of the oval, and the ruled line ; faHiug to con- nect the two main portions of the letter at top. Suggestions. — As the Capital Stem forms a prominent feature in thirteen of the capital letters, the faults occurring in its for- mation should receive special attention. The form and proportions of this principle must be clearly im.'' pressed upon the mind by careful study, and the hand should be trained to execute it by thorough and persevering practice. We recommend the following plan : Using the whole arm movement, make the principle twice the hight of Capital Letters; after- ward, with the combined movement, make it the usual size. "Writing a few groups only will not serve the purpose. Time will not be wasted if the efibrt be a thousam.d times repeated,ihe writer striving to render each form more nearly perfect than the last. They should be of uniform size, and at equal distances from, each other. FORMS OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 71 The 8tanda/rd Capital Letter N begins with a Capital Stem, united at top witli a downward left curve, as in A. This portion of the letter is joined by a turn at base, to a left curve, rising two spaces, and terminating in a dot, as in Y. Measured at the middle hight of the letter, the space between the two left curves is equal to the space between Capital Stem and first left curve. Analysis. — ^Principles : — Eighth, Third, Third. Probable Fanilts. — This letter has the faults common to the Capital Stem, and in addition- to these, the following : The base of the descending left curve brought too near to the Capital Stem ; ascending left curve carried too far to the right ; turn at the union of the left curves too wide. Siiggestion. — ^Practice thoroughly upon the principles as given in the analysis. In the Standard Capital Letter M the Capi- tal Stem and descending left curve are united, as in iV^. The left curve is joined in a short turn at base to an ascending left curve, which rises to the hight of the letter,' the upper portion being on the same slant as the first curve in the Capital Stem, and similar to it. It unites angularly at the top with the Contracted Capital 0, which completes the letter. The ovals right and left of the downward lines are of equal hight, and the three spaces between the four curves at the mid- dle hight of the letter, are equal. Analysis. — Principles: — Eighth, Third, Third, Sixth. Probable Faults. — Same as in iV^/ and further, second left curve retracing first; spaces too narrow or too wide between Capital Stem and Contracted Capital O ; Last section of the letter too short, or on wrong slant. 72 FORMS OF CAPITAL LBTXEES. Suggestion. — Practice upon the parts separately as represented in the analysis. ^j_^^ TJie Capital Letter T commences two spaces /^ above the ruled Une with a left curve, rising one /^^ / space, and uniting by a turn with a slantiBg ■^ ^— straight line, which descends one-fourth the dis- tance to the ruled line, then joins angularly to a compound curve,! made horizontally. This curve unites with a Capital Stem, -with the upper curve slightly increased. It crosses the compound curve, forming a small loop, then descending to the ruled line completes the letter. The short straight line; if continued to the ruled line, would pass through the middle of the oval in the Capital Stem. ^naZysis. ^Principles : Second, Eighth. Third, First, Third, Probable Faults. — The compotmd curve in the top too long; the faults' of straightening the downward line in the Capital stem, making it too nearly perpen- dicular, and contracting the oval, are especially liable to occur in this letter. Suggestion. — Practice upon the parts of the letter separately, observing the proportionate length and position of lines. The Capital JLetter F is the same as the 7, with the addition of a left curve one-half space in length, made on the regular slant, on the right side of the stem, opposite the termination of the oval. i^ Analysis. — Principles : Second, Eighth, Third. -Third, First, Third, Probable Faults. — The same mistakes are liable to occur in forming this letter as in the T., and the finish is often made too long, too far from the stem, and on the wrong slant. Suggestions. — Same as in T. Aim to make the finish neat and well defined. FORMS OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 73 The Capital Letter Zcommences one space above tlie ruled line with a left curve, rising one space, then joining a right curve, which descends one space. This curve here unites with a second ascending left curve, which divides the oval into two equal sec- tions, and crosses it at its top, rising one space above it. It here unites with a Capital Stem, which, in descending, passes through the middle of the loop in the oval. Analysis. — ^Principles : — Third, Second, Third, Eighth. Probable Faults. — Beginning with too ^^^^ y-^f/ slight a curve, carried too far to the ^^-p/^ ^y i^ght, producing angular turning in loop ; Capital Stem retracing second left curve, producing angular top; majdng loop at top, instead of turn; stem made on the right of loop. The letter is also liable to the faults peculiar to the stem. Suggestions. — Practice upon the parts of the letter separately. Also practice writing it twice its usual size with the arm move- ment. The Capital Letter J is five spaces in length, three spaces being above the ruled line, and two below it. The upper portion of the letter is like that of the /. The lower portion of the letter is a modification of the inverted loop, extending two spaces below the ruled line. Its left curve crosses the main line of the letter one- half space above the ruled line. Analysis. — Principles : — Third, Second, Third, Third, Fourth. Probable Faults. — The faults of the / are also liable to occur in this letter; and further, the downward line too much curved ; the loop finished below the ruled line. 74 FORMS OP CAPITAL LETTERS. Suggestions. — Take special care to make first curve full, turn at top short, and main line through middle of small loop. To correct too much curve in downward line, endeavor to make it straight, and to correct too low crossing, cross one space above ruled line. The Capital Letter S begins upon the ruled line with a right curve, extending upward three spaces. It then miites in a turn with a Capital Stem, which crosses the right curve midway between the top of the letter and the ruled line. The upper and lower sections of the compound curve are very much increased in fullness. This con- stitutes a distinctive feature of the Capital S. The right and left sides of the oval are equally curved, and the oval is divided into two equal sections by the right curve. Analysis. — Principles : — Second, Eighth. Probable Faults. — Downward line made nearly straight, producing angular turning at base, marring the oval, and dividing it unequally upon left and right of first curve; making loop too short, or too long. Suggestions. — Give special attention to fullness of compound curve in Capital Stem, guarding against straightness of line, pai- ticiilarly at the crossing. The Capital Letter L is like the S, from its he- ginning to its return to the ruled line. From this point, a returning compound curve crosses the stem, forming a loop, and again touching the ruled line, terminates one space above it. The last curve resembles that in the Capital Letter Q. The first curve divides the horizontal loop into two equal sections. Analysis. — Principles : — Second, Eighth, Third, Second. FORMS OP CAPITAL LETTERS. 75 Probable FavMs. — All those peculiar to the Capital Stem ; finishing curve crossing stem too far above ruled line, and render- ing it difficult to combine this with a fol- lowing letter ; horizontal loop made to the right of first curve ; oval finish on right of stem. Suggestions. — After completing the upper loop take special care in producing the curve to the ruled line, bending it gradu- ally to the right, and then returning towards the left, until it passes across the first curve of the letter. This will give the lower loop its proper position. The Capital Letter G begins at the ruled line with a right curve, extending upward three spaces, and joining in a turn with a left curve, which de- scends two-thirds the length of the letter, where it crosses the first curve, forming a loop. The last line is then joined in a broad turn to a right curve, extending upward to half the hight of the letter. This curve joins angularly to a Capital Stem, with its upper portion omitted. The distance from the right side of the loop to the top of the Capital Stem, is equal to one and a half times the width of the loop. A little more than half of the oval in the Capital Stem is on the right of the first curve. Analysis. ■ — Principles : — Second, Third, Second, Eighth. Prdbahle Faults. — Loop too short ; stem too long ; oval too large ; left side of loop nearly straight, and followed by angular turn at base. Suggestions. — ^Practice upon first portion and Capital Stem separately, observing curves, turns, proportions and slant ; then combine the parts, and practice the letter in a magnified form with the arm movement. The Capital Letter K begins with a right curve, extending upward three spaces, and connecting angularly with a Capital Stem at its top. The second section begins at the full hight of the let- 76 FORMS OP CAPITAL LETTKRS. ter with a compound curve, which is drawn towards the Capital Stem, touching it at its middle hight, and connecting at this point with another compound curve, by a small loop, made across the Capital Stem on a slant of 52° to the left of the perpendicular. , This compound curve extends to the ruled line, uniting at the base with a compound curve, extending upward one space, and com- pleting the letter. Analysis. — Principles : — Second, Eighth, Third, Second, Second, Third, Second, Third. ProboMe Faults. — Curv- ing Capital Stem too much to the right of first curve ; upper compound curve in second section too full ; loop too long, on wrong slant, or not at middle hight of letter ; last downward curve nearly perpendicu- lar ; right section of letter not connected with Capital Stem. Suggestions. — Practice upon the two sections separately, ob- serving closely the proportions of each; then combine them, taking care to preserve proper slant of parts. The Capital Letter P commences two and a half spaces above the ruled line with a Capital Stem, which connects at its base with a full left curve, continued to the hight of the letter, and similar to , the left side of an inverted Capital O. At the top, it unites with a right curve, which crosses the Capital Stem, and extend- ing downward to half the hight of the letter, recrosses the Capital Stem, and unites with a short left curve, which termi- nates with a dot upon the stem. The distance between the stem and the curve on the right is one-fifth the width of the letter. Analysis. — Principles : Second, Third. Eighth, TMrd, FORMS OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 77 ^v^ ^^ Probable Faults. — Drawing Capital //^ /a^^^ Stem too far to the left, producing angular X/ // turning at base, and making letter on wrong slant ; too slight curve on the left ; letter too narrow on the. left side of the stem, and too wide on the right in upper portion ; angular turning at top. Suggestions. — To correct faults in Capital Stem and turns, take special care to make stem on regular . slant, and turns rounding and full, as in a well-proportioned oval. Practice writing the letter in a magnified form with the whole arm movement. This exercise is admirably adapted to secure full- ness of curves. The Capital Letter B has the form and propor- tions of the Capital P to the point where the right curve touches the Capital Stem. A small loop is ^ — there formed across the stem, on an angle of 52° to the left of the perpendicular, and the letter is completed with a reversed oval on the regular slant, the base extending a little below the ruled line, and its last curve terminating opposite the small loop. Measured upon a line drawn at right angles with the regular slant, at one-half the hight of the oval, the space between the Capital Stem, and right side of oval, is one-third the width of the oval, and one-fifth the width of the letter. Analysis. — Principles : — Eighth, Third, Second, Second, Third. Probable Faults. — It is liable to all those enume- rated in Capital P ; loop too large and broad, and on wrong slant, causing the downward line to curve too far from the Capital Stem. Suggestions. — ^Notice suggestions for faults in Capital P; give careful attention to form and position of loop, and practice writ- ing the letter with the whole arm movement. ~> The Capital Letter B is precisely like the Capi- tal B, as far as the upper end of the loop. The C/l remainder is like the last portion of the Capital K. 78 FORMS OP CAPITAL LETTERS. X Analysis. — Principles: — ^Eightli, Third, Second, /y Second, Third, Second, Third. Probable Faults. — Same in stem, oval and loop, as in P and B ; large oval in finishing resting upon ruled line, destroying the balance of the letter, and preventing its combination with the following letter at proper distance ; either or both sections of the descending compound curve in the last portion of the letter too full. Suggestions. — Same as for P and B. For faults in termina- tion, aim at producing nearly a straight line from loop to base. CHAPTER VII. FIGURES. In every variety of writing, and especially in that required in business, the frequent recurrence of figures demands that par- ticular attention be given to their structure. The importance of exhibiting clearly correct results in all busi- ness transactions, renders it necessary that the characters which represent these results, should be made perfectly legible. It may be that " figures are facts," and " do not lie ;" but, as they are frequently formed, they certainly tell some very dubious truths. The distinctive features of each figure should be so preserved, that no libability of mistaking one for another need ever occur. They should be made neatly, and when shaded, care should be taken to make the shades imiform. The use of shades depends mainly upon the kind of pen em- ployed in making the figures. If it has a point producing a fine Kne, smooth and uniform shading adds to the beauty and char- acter of the figures ; but if a pen having a heavy and coarse' point is used, shading may be omitted altogether. Careful attention to proper slant, and equal spacing, will tend to secure neatness of appearance, and the convenience of the accountant in reading and adding long columns, will depend very much upon both these points. The 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 and are each one space in hight. The 7, 9 and 6 may be extended, at the pleasure of the writer. The Figure 1 is taken as a standard for the measurement / of hight or length. It consists simply of a straight line, on the regular slant, one space in hight. Analysis. — ^Principle : — First. / (yf Probable Faults. — "Wrong slant ; commencing with a curved line on the left, causing it to look like 9 or 7. ^ 80 P I GJJ R E S . The Figure 2 commences nearly one space above tlie ruled line, with a right curve extending downward to half the hight of the figure, and joining a left curve, which is drawn upward one half space. Passing over the first right ctu-ve, it joins a second right curve, which descends to the ruled line,, where it unites with a returning compound curve, which crosses the right curve, forming a small loop. The figure terminates in a short right curve* It has the general appearance of the Capi- tal Letter Q, with the first curve omitted. Analysis. — Principles : — Second, .Third, Second, Third, Second. PrdbaMe Faults. — ^Commencing with an upward move- ment, forming left curve, instead of right ; making oval angular ; second right curve on wrong slant ; loop too large. The Fiyv/re 3 ; the first three curves are diminished forms (^ of the first three in figure 2 ; the second right curve uniting with a small left curve, and forming a small loop, at two- thirds the hight of the letter. The lower section is a reversed oval, made on the regular slant, and extending to the ruled fine. This figure resembles a reversed Capital Letter E, with the last curve omitted. This figure is composed entirely of curved lines. Analysis. — Principles : — Second, Third, Second, Second, Third. PrdbaMe Faults. — Beginning with an upward move- ^ J ment ; angular turnings at top and base ; bend, instead of loop ; disproportion of parts. The Figure 4 begins three-fourths of a space from the // ruled line, with a slight right curve, made on the regular slant, one-half space in length. This joins angularly with a slight left curve, one-half space in length, made horizontally. The figure is finished with a line drawn on the regular slant, from the top of the figure to its base, through the middle of the . left curve. From the top to the crossing, this line is a very slight left curve ; the remainder is straight. Analysis.— Prmd^les, :— Second, Third, Third, First. (, Probable Faiilts. — Too upright; last line carried below ruled line ; loop uniting last two lines. PIGUEES. 81 The Figure 5 begins one space above the ruled line with (rf a slight right curve, one-third of a space in length, which unites with a small left curve, forming a small loop. The lower part of the figure is an oval, like that in figure 3. It . is finished with a straight horizontal hne, one-fourth of a space in length, drawn from the top of the figure towards the right. Analysis. — ^Principles : — Second, Second, Third, First. ^/ Probable Faults. — Disproportion of parts. J cJ J This figure is often formed of a compound curve angularly turned ; top an upward curve, discon- nected with the main portion of the figure ; oval imperfect. , The Figure 6 begins one and a half spaces above the £? ruled line, with a slight left curve, extending to its base, where it unites with a right curve, drawn upward to one- half the hight of the figure. It here unites with a second left curve, drawn to the right of the first, and terminating near the ruled line. The space between the first and second left curves is equal to one-third the width of the oval. This figure resembles the Contracted Capital 0, the oval being somewhat narrower. Analysis. — Principles : — Third, Second, Third. Probable Faults. — Figure too much curved ; wrong y^ ^^ slant ; last curve crossing first, and brought below ruled line. ^^ The Figure 7 is one and a half spaces in length. It / commences one space above the ruled hne, with a straight downward line, one-fourth of a space in length. This is united angularly with a compound cuj-ve, made horizontally one- half space in length. Joining a smaU left curve, a loop is formed, and the figure is completed with a straight line, continued one- half space below the ruled line. The first third of this line may be slightly curved, if preferred. The upper portion of the figure resembles the top of the Capital T. ^nfflZysis.— Principles :— First, Third, Second, Third, First. Probable Faults.— Tci^ too wide ; loop too large ; '-~~f '^ figure on wrong slant, or too upright ; right hori- -/ ' zontal curve, instead of compound curve, making figure resemble 9. 82 FIGURES. The Figure 8 begins two-thirds of a space from the O ruled line, witli a right curve, extending upward one-third of a space, and joining a compound curve, which descends to the ruled line. This curve unites, at the base of the figure, with a left curve, which crosses the compound curve at a little more than half its hight, and also crosses the first right curve, terminating at the hight of the figure. Analysis. — Principles : — Second, Third, Second; Third. . Probahle Faults. — ^Beginning with a downward line ; f crossing too low, making lower loop too small ; drawing last curve too far to the right, leaving figure open at side. The Figure 9 is one and a half spaces in length. It he- Y gins with a pointed oval as in the small letter a, extending downward three-fourths of a space. From the top of this a straight line on a regular slant is drawn, extending one-half space below the ruled Hne. Many excellent writers and accountants prefer to make the 6, Y, and 9 of the same length as the other figures. When this is done, care should be taken to preserve the proportions in oval, straight line, and curve. Analysis. — ^Principles: — Third, Second, First. /^ Probahle Faults. — Ton otip.ti ! on wronc filant,: too CHAPTER VIII. SPACING. In combining letters so as to form words, it can not be expe& ted that a rapid business penman "will stop to calculate all the nice variations of lines and spaces between letters and words. Many leading business writers are guided by one simple rule, namely : to make the space between the letters equal to the dis- tance between the straight lines in the n or u, and between words twice this distance. But there are several specific direc- tions which may, we think, be followed, with manifest improve- ment, in the matter of spacing, without aflfecting freedom and rapidity of execution. Letters are combined with either simple or compound curves. When the simple curve is employed, and in all cases where let- ters are joined from top to top, by either the right or the left curve, the space between them is equal to the distance between the straight lines in n or ii,, as ou, nu, 7ni. When the compound curve occurs, the space is one-third greater, as in un, avi, hy. Exception. When the first letter has a loop below the ruled line, the space is the same as if the connecting curve were sim- ple, as in gh, ye. When an oval is joined to a straight line, the space should be measured from the middle of the oval, as in ou ; and when two ovals are united, the space should be calculated from the mid- dle of the first to the left side of the second oval. The distance between a capital and the first small letter in the same word, is one space. The distance between capitals used as initials, is one space, which is to be measured between the .points that approach near- 83 84 SPACING. est to each other in the different letters. Where there is a com- bination, and running together of initial letters, as in many sig- natures, no direction for spacing is applicable, since the character of the design depends entirely upon the taste of the writer. The distance between words, when the first terminates, and the second begins, with like curves, is two spaces, measured between the straight lines. However, if the distance between the curves be measured, it will be only one space. When a word terminating with a curve, is followed by a word beginning with a different curve, the distance between the straight lines is two and one-third spaces, and between the curves one and one-third spaces, as in the words in vie. When the last letter of one word, and the first of the next are ovals, or when only one of the letters is an oval, the space between them should be measured according to the directions previously given for uniting ovals. The distance between sentences, in the same paragraph, is three spaces. The distance between figures is usually one-third of a space. CHAPTER IX. i SHADING. "When a knowledge of forms, and the power to execute them, are fully acquired, it is proper to enter upon the study of the rules pertaining to shade. When, therefore, anything which is useful, is at the same time made attractive, the mind is then ready to accept it, and apply it to practice. The power of appreciating what is beautiful seems inherent in every mind, although tastes, within certain limitations, may differ in their requirements. If we would have Penmanship both attractive and useful, and its study pleasing, we cannot depend entirely upon correctness of form for imparting to it these qualities. Light letters, when properly formed, are in themselves beauti- ful ; yet, when combined, as on the written page, they produce a monotonous effect. To break up this monotony, and produce something which will please the eye, and gratify the taste, light and dark lines should be mingled, so as to present an agreeable contrast. Shade, however, not being essential to form^ may be used, or omitted, at the option of the writer. Many accountants and book-keepers prefer to write without shade, in order that they may more easily preserve the neat general appearance of their work, and, also, that they may more readily erase errors in words, letters, or figures. Were all writing executed with heavy downward lines, as in the old-fashioned round hand, it would possess no more beauty than if the lines- were uniformly light, since excess of shade as effectually destroys the contrast, as its entire omission. It is the graceful blending of light and shade which gives life and beauty to the productions of the artist, and renders paintings fountains of delight, from which the eye of the beholder may 85 86 SHADING. drini, and never weary. And wliat ia writing but the picture- work of thought. The principles involved in the subject of shading are few, and their application depends mainly upon a right exercise of judg- ment and taste. For the sake of convenience, we have arranged and numbered the shades according to their appearance upon a straight line or curve. The first shade on a straight line is made heavy at the top, but gradually diminishes, until it reaches the ruled line. The second is the reverse of this, being light at the top, and increasing gradually to its base. The third is upon a straight line, where there is a turn at base. This shade increases gradually two- thirds of its length, then tapers to the turn. The fourth is upon a straight line, where there is a turn both at top and base. This shade must taper equally toward the turns. Yh& fifth shade, which occurs only upon curved lines, in every ease increases and diminishes gradually, the heaviest part being found in the middle of the curve. The shade upon different letters in the same line, or upon the same page, should generally be of uniform strength ; though, as a matter of taste, a half shade is often made. The principles of shading above given are applicable to the various styles of letters ; but we will here specify where they occur in the standard letters, which we present on the plate of Medium Hand. Page, 39. Small Letters. — The short letters are usually left unshaded, though the small letter a, in certain combinations, sometimes receives a shade. SHADING. 87 The shade upon t and d is heaviest at top, tapering gradually to the lower turn. The shade of the small letter^ is the reverse of t, commencing on the ruled line, and continuing to the base of the letter. "When two p's, d's or fs come together, the first is shaded, while the second receives a half shade only. These letters have the preference in shading, hence, small loop letters, immediately connected with them, are not shaded ; for example : th, dl. In the g and q, the shade is made on the left side of the pointed oval ; in h and ^, upon the short straight line which occurs in the finish of these letters ; in y and s, upon the first short straight line at their top. The shade of the letters I and h begins at the middle point of the downward line in each, and extends to the lower turn. "When two Vs or Vs are united, the first only is shaded. The shade of the f begins at the middle point of the down- ward line, and continues to the turn at the base. The j and the long s are never shaded. If they were, the shade would be out of place, when compared with the other small letters. Capital Letters are usually shaded only upon one curve ; but when large capitals are made, in which bold curves are used, the two downward curves in the ovals are sometimes shaded. This, however, is not generally admissible in business writing. The is shaded upon the first curve, the E upon the third, and the D upon the curve on the left of the oval. The O has its shade upon the first downward curve. Its deep- est shade is a little below the middle of the curve. The H is shaded upon the first and third downward curves. The following letters, X, Z, Q, W, V, d, Y, are all shaded upon the second downward curve, though some other shades may be introduced without detracting from the beauty of the letters. If other shades are used, care must be taken to preserve uniformity and proportion. The following letters, A, iT, M, T, F, I, J, S, Z, G, E, P, 5, and R, are all shaded upon the Capital Stem. — {See Plate of Medium Hand.) The shade begins at one-half the bight of the stem, increases 88 SHADING. gradually half way to the ruled line, then gradually diminishea till it reaches the base of the letter. A shght additional shade is made upon the short straight line in the beginmng of T and F. In the J, shade begins at the base of the upper loop, and is made heaviest at the middle point of the lower loop. Probable Faults in Shading. — Beginning or terminating too abruptly ; shading every downward line, causing the writing to look heavy, and impeding rapidity of execution. The tendency in shading is toward a straight line ; hence, care must be taken in forming ovals, not to make them too narrow, or the shaded curve less than its opposite. The advantage of giving beginners light forms for models thus becomes apparent. CHAPTER X. BUSINESS WRITING. Soon the untaught hand that feebly guides the pen Shall sweep the oarve in busier haunts of men ; Where each day's doings on hfe's active stage, Arrayed in light, shall crown the well-writ page. — p. a 8. Of all the manifold uses of the pen, that in which it is made subservient to the wants of every day life should unquestionably hold the highest rank. While beautiful and elegant penmanship gives evidence of taste and skill, business writing may be said to sway the world ! Easy and graceful in its proportions, it is as attractive as it is useful. Plain to the eye, conveying thought with electric speed to the reader's mind, its perusal gives genuine satisfaction to all to whom it is addressed. Men in the world of commerce, who transact business daily with those who are known to them only through the medium of letters, involuntarily form opinions based upon the character of the writing of their correspondents. If it is firm, free and legi- ble, it inspires a well-grounded confidence in the general ability of the writer, and gives an assurance that he will do well what- ever his hand finds to do. ■It would seem that an accomplishment so desirable, placed within the reach of all, would be almost universally acquired; but it must be acknowledged, that while all admit its practical utility, and long to share in the benefits it confers, it is really" attained by comparatively few. The great majority of those who buy and sell, who indite briefs, and send manuscripts to the press, whose writing forms the niost essential feature in their pursuits, and whose letters are sent over land and sea, often fail to attain even legibihty in their penmanship. 89 90 BUSINESS WRITING. Masses of documents now lying in the dead letter office, would long since have reached their destinations, if the hieroglypliics upon their covers could have been deciphered. Publishing houses could also give testimony in regard to many of their correspondents, whose remittances were the only intelli- gible things their letters contained. The cause of this unfortunate deficiency in an art so fraught with interest to all, may well be a subject of inquiry; The school boy patiently submits to the various tasks imposed upon him, drawing letters year after year, by a slow, laborioua process, and acquiring at last what is often termed a " school-boy hand," which is wholly unsuited to business, and which may soon merge into irregular, untidy, illegible scrawls. The instruction has ceased ; and, with all the pains it cost, it leaves him where he should have begun. He possesses no independence, because he has for years been constrained to servile imitation ; and when the ruled lines and copies are withdrawn, he is without chart or compass, and wonders that he should have so easily forgotten what was acquired with so much difficulty. In truth he has never really learned to write ; he has merely been taught to imitate. How to acquire a good business hand-wrifing, is a question the importance of which can not easily be over-estimated, Numerous answers have been given, and many systems have been devised, which must be judged by their fruits. It is a mat- ter of regret that many who furdish systems for the use of others themselves present unfortunate illustrations of the effects of their own erroneous ideas. By presenting the learner with only mathematically exact copies, made according to arbitrary rules, and . requiring him from the beginning to the termination of his school career, to work after them, until he can produce a fine looking copy bookj he may, indeed, according to this standard, become a fair writer; but certain it is that such a method destroys every germ of originality, and renders independent action, and consequently a good business style of writing, impossible. We can not omit the notice here, of experiments in a limited series of books with drawn copies, having a display of imperfect BUSINESS WRITING. 91 forms over each copy, designed to warn the ptipil against the faults portrayed, but really, too often, on account of their promi- nence, tempting him to their imitation, to the neglect of the regular copy, which, from its extremely complicated character, should certainly receive his undivided attention. Still another theory is presented to the public, which teaches a purely " muscndar movement,^^ and is defined to be the action of the fore-arm alone ; it being assumed that the easy and natu- ral action of the wrist and fingers in connection with the fore- arm would prevent good writing. That such a movement is unnatural, diflScult to acquire, and ill-adapted to the construction of all classes of letters, the reasonable will admit when it is fairly tested. Thus it would seem that theories are not wanting ; but we look in vain among those who originate or practice them, for the rep- resentative business penmen of our land. It is not claiming too much for the Spencerian, to say that to this system the majority of the best business writers throughout' the country are indebted for their attainments in penmanship. Guided by its models and teachings, thousands in public schools and commercial colleges are preparing to take an honorable position in the business world. The true Spencerian differs from other systems, in being a natural growth produced by the necessities of business, and, therefore, especially adapted to its wants. It gives to the learner, not an idea of a fixed, unvarying engraver^s form, but the pro- duet of skillful living hands ; a representation of the every-day work which he must ere long perform. After an easy position has been acquired, and a free and well regulated action of the arm, hand, and fingers has been secured through appropriate exercises, then thorough training and instruc- tion in systematic writing should be given, the models for which may be suiSciently accurate and uniform to bear the test of the glass and dividers. This preliminary instruction establishes only the ground work of a business hand. The accurate models must be followed by free, flowing copies, loose with proportion, graceful and easy, inspiring the pupil to 92 BUSINESS WRITING. execute in a " carelessly careful " manner, which produces an elegance of form and finish, while it permits the greatest expe- dition. In accordance with this plan, the Spencerian Copy Books are divided into four distinct series ; namely : the Exercise, the Com- mon School, the Business, and the Ladies' Series. These are accompanied by a set of beautifully lithographed charts, six in number. The Exereise Series, in connection with the Exercise Chart is designed to be used in the important work of securing proper movements. The Common School Series presents writing in a purely sys- tematic form ; the copies being prepared with great 'accuracy and consistency, and corresponding "exactly with the letters found upon Charts 1, 2, 3, 4. These books and charts are designed for full and explicit teaching, enabling the learner to acquire that conception and exe- cution of form which constitute the basis of all good writing. The Business and Ladies' Series contain copies which are engraved fac-simUes from free handwriting, the hfe, spirit, and variety of which conduct the learners into a wider field of form, where they may find scope for individual tastes and pref- erences. Many persons, having a knowledge of the rules given to guide the learner in commencing to write, are apt, upon examining a beautiful piece of business writing, to pronounce it meritorious in the proportion in which it conforms to such rules ; while, in fact, many of the most attractive features in the work may con- sist in wide variations from such a standard. "When writing is pleasing to the eye of cultivated taste, no other standard need be consulted. It will be observed that among the best business writers, there is a manifest preference for the most simple forms of capitals; and that they usually commence the initial curves of words well below the ruled line, and extend terminating curves above the hight of short letters, this being more in accordance with the natural motions of the hand. It will also be noticed that a's, p's, and other small letters are frequently modified, d's are looped, BUSINESS WRITING. 93 and i/s and g''s at the end of words are terminated without loops by a simple downward line, or an easy curve leftward. These are not faults, but features which adapt writing more fully to business use. Swiftly must the pen glide in these days of steam and electricity; for, however rapidly the agents of . modern progress move, the pen must ever pave the way. Busy Pen, proud Commeroe flings Her wealth abroad on countless wings, And Science opes her thousand springs, Guided by work of thine. — P. R. S. CHAPTER XI. LADIES' HAND. Distance may spread between us, friendj But our hearts unchanged will be; And our tongues will be the faithful pen, Heard even beyond the sea.^p. B. s. A FINE perception of beauty, grace, and harmony, not only gives to the feminine mind an intense appreciation of the softly tinted landscape, the glowing imagery of the poet, and the thrill- ing sounds of music, but also renders her capable of achievii^- excellence in any department of the fine arts. The rich additions made to literature, to galleries of paintingSj- and even to statuary, by cultivated women, prove,- not so much that some are peculiarly gifted, as that proper culture has devel- oped in these, powers too often permitted to lie dormant in the many. The useful and beautiful art of penmanship presents a wide field for the exercise of woman's refined taste and skill, and merits far more attention than it is wont to receive. There is no other accomplishment more frequently called into requisition, or capable of contributing in greater measure to the sum of human happiness than writing, and it would seem that the man- ner in which it is performed should be a subject worthy of seri- ous consideration ; yet, there are thousands of fair ones who indite precious missives without number, in a hand scarcely legible, even to the writers. If it were possible we would give a faint idea of the impression produced upon a truly refined mind by the crude appearance of some letters written by ladies of high intellectual acquirements and noble qualities of heart. 94 ladies' HAND. 95 " Blessed be letters !" forever, and blessed be the dear hands that pen them, but, in the name of grace, of beauty, in the sacred name of friendship, and of all that the writers love, we would entreat that their letters may be better written. It is not only the ungraceful and illegible scrawl that we deprecate, but the great tendency on the part of young ladies to produce micro- scopic, infinitesimal forms, which appear as if especially designed not to be read, and which must forever remain, wholly or in part, a mystery to their recipients. There is, however, a gradual change taking place in this respect which must be regarded as a decided improvement. The essential qualities in Ladies' Hand are legibility, neatness, grace, and beauty. In presenting a style for their use, we commend, first, a thorough practice upon the medium hand described upon the preceding pages, since this will give a fi'ecedom of motion which wiU render comparatively easy the production of more delicate forms. Many ladies, from choice, cultivate a business style of writing ; others find it convenient, and it may be, necessary, to do so. There can be no objection to this, since it rather facilitates than hinders the acquirement of a lighter style. The Ladies' Hand here presented is a modification of the medium liand, explained in the chapter on Forms of Letters, which is the basis of all other styles. It will be seen, by comparing the scales representing the pro- portionate hights of letters in the two styles, that while the i in the medium hand is one-ninth of an inch in hight, and the scale is composed of five equal spaces, in the Ladies' Hand the i is only one-fifteenth of an inch in hight, and the scale is com- posed of seven spaces. In diminishing the hight of small letters, they are made nar- rower in proportion. The capitals and loop letters extend four spaces above the ruled line, and the inverted loop letters three spaces below. The t and d extend two and one-half spaces above the ruled line, the^ and q two and one-half spaces below. While in Ladies' Hand the same style is used in regard to form and shading of capitals as in medium hand, they may also draw 96 LADIES HAND. from the great variety of letters represented in the system. They will find forms with shades upon the inner curves of the ovals especially adapted to their use, since these give a lighter appearance to the letters. (See Plates in chapter on Variety of Style.) The following plate represents the scale employed in Ladies' Hand, and the proportionate hight and width of letters. Sprj/r^rimi £adi<^'Mand, ; ^jy^^,^z7'^ S ::x: .^--^- '-Z^ y-- --/Ss^^ ^;2E2zZ22rZZZ :z^- ,-^^ / ^V'-/ 'M':M2^^^-^^'-9f #^-^^ ^^ v^:- /,'■//. /' /' 'L- - -/■-/,